Pure Ketchup: A History of America's National Condiment With Recipes

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Pure Ketchup : A History of America's National Condiment With Recipes Smith, Andrew F. University of South Carolina Press 1570031398 9781570031397 9780585337340 English Cookery (Ketchup) , Ketchup. 1996 TX819.K48S63 1996eb 641/.814 Cookery (Ketchup) , Ketchup.

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Pure Ketchup A History of America's National Condiment with Recipes Andrew F. Smith

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Copyright © 1996 University of South Carolina Published in Columbia, South Carolina, by the University of South Carolina Press Manufactured in the United States of America 00 99 98 97 96 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Smith, Andrew F., 1946Pure ketchup : a history of America's national condiment, with recipes / Andrew F. Smith. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-57003-139-8 (cloth) 1. Cookery (Ketchup) 2. Ketchup. I. Title. TX819.K48S63 1996 641'.814dc20 96-25916 The material contained in this book is being published solely because of its historical interest and is not intended as a source of recipes for the modern reader or of medical information or advice. Neither author nor publisher assumes any responsibility for the reader's application of the material contained herein.

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This book is dedicated to Michael Joseph Beiser, a friend and colleague, whose support and assistance encouraged me to finish this work, and to all others living with AIDS.

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Contents

Preface

xi

Part I: History Chapter 1: Introducing Ketchup and Its Polyglot Parentage

Origins

Catchup, Catsup, or Ketchup?

The British Chapter 2: The Rise and Demise of Homemade Ketchup

Mushroom, Fish and Seafood, and Walnut Ketchups

Pickles, Sauces, and Ketchups

Ketchup in Eighteenth-Century America

The Rise of Tomato Ketchup

Ketchup in Nineteenth-Century Britain and America

Reasons for Ketchup's Initial Success

Ketchup Commonalities

Homemade Ketchup's High-water Mark

The Fall of Homemade Ketchup Chapter 3: The Commercialization of Ketchup

Early Tomato Ketchup Manufacturing

The Rapid Expansion of Commercial Ketchup

3 4

6

6

12 14

16

17

18

19

23

25

26

27

33 34

36

45

Manufacturing Ketchup at the Turn of the Century

47

Commercial Nontomato Ketchups

50

America's National Condiment Chapter 4: The Quest for Pure Ketchup

59 60

Ketchup's Afflictions

67

Passage of the National Pure Food and Drugs Act

69

Ketchup Standards and Enforcement Efforts

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Chapter 5: The Benzoate War

Wiley Opposes Benzoates

Ketchup Experiments

The Antibenzoite Lobby

Probenzoite Forces Strike

Heinz Strikes Back

The Referee Board Decides

Antibenzoite Forces Strike Back

The Denver Convention

The Fight against Benzoates in Indiana

Victors and Vanquished Chapter 6: Ketchup Revolutions

Consolidation in the Ketchup Industry

The Agricultural Revolution

Ketchup Races

Ketchup Manufacturing in the Twentieth Century

The Content Revolution

Bottling and Packaging Revolutions Chapter 7: Ketchup Today and Tomorrow

What Is a Good Ketchup?

77 78

80

83

90

95

97

98

105

108

109

119 121

122

123

126

129

131

135 136

138

Why Is Ketchup So Popular?

139

Ketchup as a Vegetable

140

The Return of Homemade Ketchup

141

Designer Ketchups

142

The Salsa Challenge

143

A Business of Global Significance Part II: Historical Ketchup Recipes A Note on the Recipes

149 151

1. Anchovy Ketchup

152

2. Apple Ketchup

152

3. Apricot Ketchup

153

4. Barberry Ketchup

153

5. Blackberry Ketchup

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6. Camp Ketchup

7. Catsup Cream Dressing

8. Cherry Ketchup

9. Cockle Ketchup

10. Cold Ketchup

11. Compound or Cook's Ketchup

12. Cranberry Ketchup

13. Creole Ketchup

14. Cucumber Ketchup

15. Currant Ketchup

16. Damson Ketchup

17. Elderberry Ketchup

18. English Ketchup

19. Gooseberry Ketchup

20. Grape Ketchup

21. Herring Ketchup

22. Ketchup for Mutton

23. Ketchup to Keep Seven Years

24. Ketchup to Keep Twenty Years

153

154

154

155

155

156

156

156

157

158

159

159

160

161

162

163

163

163

164

164

25. Kidney Bean Ketchup

165

26. Lemon Ketchup

165

27. Liver Ketchup

167

28. Lobster Ketchup

168

29. Mum (or Old Beer) Ketchup

168

30. Mushroom Ketchup

175

31. Mussel Ketchup

175

32. Oyster Ketchup

177

33. Peach Ketchup

178

34. Pepper Ketchup

179

35. Pimento Ketchup

179

36. Plum Ketchup

181

37. Pudding Ketchup

180

38. Raspberry Ketchup

181

39. Rum Ketchup

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40. Sea Ketchup

41. Southern Ketchup

42. Squash Ketchup

43. Sugar Ketchup

44. Tomato Ketchup

45. Tomato Ketchup, Green

46. Tomato Soy

47. Walnut Ketchup

48. White Ketchup

49. Whortleberry Ketchup

50. Wine Ketchup

181

182

182

182

183

190

191

192

195

195

196

Part III: List of Ketchups Commercial Tomato Ketchups

Historical Tomato Ketchups

Recent Tomato Ketchups Nontomato Ketchups

Historical Nontomato Ketchups

Recent Nontomato Ketchups

199 199

219

221 221

222

Non-american Ketchups

222

Select Bibliography and Resources

225

General Works

225

Works on Canning and Preserving

226

Works on Ketchup

228

Reprinted British and American Cookery Books and Manuscripts

230

Index

233

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PREFACE My interest in the story of ketchup's march from obscurity to the pinnacle of culinary popularity originated with an unusual assortment of recipes that I uncovered while collecting material for The Tomato in America: Early History, Culture and Cookery. Some ketchup recipes were commonplace, and others were outlandish, but all were intriguing. Eventually I accumulated thousands of recipes, as well as hundreds of other citations and references, for ketchupmaking. This assemblage, while seemingly large, is but a small sample of the total assortment of ketchup recipes published in America and Britain. Some material about ketchup was incorporated previously into an article, "The History of Home-made AngloAmerican Tomato Ketchup," published in Petits Propos Culinaires (1991), and into The Tomato in America (1994). However, most ketchup recipes were not tomato-based and did not fit appropriately into either the article or the book. The bulky file resulting from research for The Tomato in America lured me into preparing the first book devoted entirely to the history of ketchup. As I commenced research, I found ketchup's history contained the elements of a good story: exotic and mysterious beginnings, unusual and colorful characters, evil adulterators and contaminators, strong-willed commercial competitors and captains of industry, well-intentioned and high-minded governmental regulators, and, finally, the relentless quest for global stardom and its final triumph. Elements of this story have not escaped the notice of other writers and culinary historians. With few exceptions, most accounts about ketchup's history are littered with oftrepeated but erroneous factual errors and nicely told myths. As a reaction against these past deficiencies, I carefully researched most aspects of ketchup's history and offer copious documentation in endnotes as a baseline for future work on ketchup's history and cookery. This book could not have been completed without the assistance of many others. Of particular assistance has been Karen Hess, culinary historian, New York, who reviewed and commented on the entire book. In many ways her commentaries on ketchup in Martha Washington's Booke of Cookery and The Virginia House-wife were the starting points for this book. Others who were

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helpful include: Dr. J. Estes Worth, medical historian at Boston University's Medical College, who reviewed chapter 4; Joseph Carlin, nutritionist, Boston, Massachusetts; Joseph and Honey Freedman, ketchup bottle collector, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Frank J. Kurtik, curator, Heinz Family Office, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania; Ed Lehew, Heinz historian and archivist, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Tony Montagno, manager, Heinz Factory, Fremont, Ohio; Jeff W. Huebner, freelance writer, Chicago, Illinois; Alan Davidson, culinary historian and editor, Petits Propos Culinaires; Suzy Taraba, public services librarian, Department of Special Collections, The University of Chicago Library, Chicago, Illinois; Melanie Wisner, The Houghton Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Randy Gerstmeyer, president, CTI Publications, Baltimore, Maryland; Dolf Riks, proprietor, Dolf Riks Restaurant, Pattaya City, Thailand; Ralph Finch, Detroit News, Detroit, Michigan; and Judy DeMoisey, Collinsville, Illinois. I appreciate the assistance I have received from libraries and corporate communications offices at the following institutions and corporations: American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Massachusetts; Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona; Boston Public Library, Boston, Massachusetts; British Library, London, United Kingdom; Brooklyn Public Library, Brooklyn, New York; Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, Illinois; Connecticut Historical Society, Hartford, Connecticut; Cornell University, Ithaca, New York; Del Monte Corporation, San Francisco, California; Detroit Public Library, Detroit, Michigan; H. J. Heinz Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Hunt-Wesson Company, Fullerton, California; Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana; Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; Maine State Archives, Augusta, Maine; Missouri Historical Society, Saint Louis, Missouri; National Agricultural Library, Beltsville, Maryland; National Archives, Washington, D.C., and College Park, Maryland; New York Academy of Medicine, New York; New York Botanic Garden, New York; New-York Historical Society, New York; New York Public Library, New York; New York State Historical Association, Cooperstown, New York; Ohio Historical Society, Columbus, Ohio; Peabody Essex Museum Library, Salem, Massachusetts; Pennsylvania Historical Society, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada; Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey; State Historical Society of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; University of California, Los Angeles, California; University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois; University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware; University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; University of Hawaii, Manoa, Hawaii; University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana, Illinois; University of

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Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts; University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan; University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina; Vigo County Public Library, Terre Haute, Indiana; and the Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, Ohio. Finally, I would also like to thank all those on the Internet who kindly responded to my strange requests. For those who surf the electronic network, ketchup does have its own Newsgroup (alt.ketchup), and those who have responded to my pedantic and mundane questions over the past few years have been helpful. I would particularly like to thank Lars Lackmann, Universitàt Passau, Germany, and Jon Kristian in Norway. While all suggestions and critical comments were greatly appreciated, this work reflects only my opinions, and I am solely accountable for all interpretations and mistakes that may appear.

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PART I HISTORY

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1 Introducing Ketchup and Its Polyglot Parentage Just south of downtown Collinsville on Illinois Route 159, a seventy-foot steel ketchup bottle stands atop a one hundred-foot tower. Painted on the bottle is the ketchup label ''Brooks Tomato Catsup." With a holding capacity of one hundred thousand gallons, it is the largest ketchup bottle in the world. Despite its shape and the inscription on its side, the bottle has never held any ketchup. Ketchup-making requires immense quantities of water, and when Brooks Food decided to build a water tower, they chose to build it in the shape of a ketchup bottle. Brooks Food, which was launched in 1907, was an important midwestern ketchup manufacturer. It was Collinsville's major employer, and the town was proud of the ketchup that the factory produced. From the time of its construction in 1949, the Brooks Food ketchup-bottle water tower became Collinsville's symbol. Brooks Food was sold in 1959, and the ketchup factory was closed down a few years later. Collinsville languished. By the early 1990s the ketchup bottle still stood, but it had begun to rust. The property was resold, and the tower was headed for destruction. Some Collinsville citizens were alarmed at this prospect, since the bottle had been the symbol for the town and they considered it a historical landmark, so they banded together to save the gigantic tower. An engineering firm examined the structure and estimated that it would cost over $77,400 to refurbish it. Collinsville resident Judy DeMoisey formed a Catsup Bottle Preservation Group to raise the money for renovating the tower. Letters soliciting funds were mailed. Curtis-Burns, the parent of Brooks Food, promptly committed $10,000 to help launch the drive. Rallies were held to gain public support. Every Saturday Collinsville citizens stood beneath the rusty bottle selling T-shirts and sweatshirts embossed with the motto "Well Preserved." Baseball caps, baby rompers, and doggie scarves were soon produced. Over six thousand garments were eventually sold. Others made

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small contributions to the cause or gave time and services: paint was donated; some citizens played in a golf tournament, the proceeds from which were given to the group. Thousands of hours of time were contributed to save the ketchup bottle. By April 1995 enough money had been raised to launch the cleanup. Within a month the workall done by hand without scaffoldingwas completed. The group had raised all of the money needed for refurbishing the ketchup-bottle water tower, plus an additional sum to help support future renovation. On June 3 the town held a Homecoming Catsup Bottle Parade in celebration of their newly restored landmark. Floats and bands paraded down Main Street celebrating the revitalized symbol of the town. Even "Elvis" appeared appropriately driving a 1963 Corvette. The story of how the small group successfully saved a piece of Collinsville's heritage was subsequently retold in numerous newspapers and magazines and on television and radio shows. What was saved was not just a town's heritage but a little bit of old-fashioned Americana.1 After all, what could be more American than ketchup? Popular stereotypes to the contrary, ketchup was not an American creation. In the beginning ketchup was not thick, sweet, or tomato-based. Early recipes published in Great Britain in the eighteenth century fashioned ketchup from kidney beans, mushrooms, anchovies, and walnuts. British colonists in North America adopted and adapted these early recipes. On both sides of the Atlantic nontomato ketchup consumption expanded and reached its zenith during the latter part of the nineteenth century. Origins The etymological origin of the word ketchup is a matter of confusion. For almost two centuries speculation has raged regarding the origin of the word and what it signifies. A pseudonymous British author, Lancelot Sturgeon, maintained that the legendary Frenchman Vatel was its real inventor in the late seventeenth century. Unfortunately, Sturgeon cited no support for his statement. Vatel did not publish a cookbook, and no others have connected him with ketchup; nor does the term appear in early French cookery books. French food books hold the British accountable for ketchup, which they identify as a "Condiment of English origin, widely used in both England and the U.S.A."2 The eminent writer on food and cookery Elizabeth David suggests in her Spice, Salt and Aromatics in the English Kitchen that the word "derived from caveach, a form of spiced-vinegar pickle in which cooked fish was preserved." She announced that the word in different forms manifested itself throughout

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European cookery and even turned up in Mexico and Japan. Citing David as his source, American anthropologist E. N. Anderson believed that ketchup was cognate with the French escaveche, "meaning food in sauce." Similarly, others have speculated that ketchup was related to the Spanish and Portuguese words escabeche or escaveach, meaning "a marinade or sauce for pickling." As the American culinary historian Karen Hess reports, escabeche derived from the Arabic word iskebêy and specifically referred to pickling with vinegar. The term was Anglicized to caveach, and it appeared in print almost simultaneously with ketchup in English cookery books.3 Still others have claimed that the word ketchup originated in East Asia. In 1877 Eneas Dallas speculated that the true Japanese word was kitjap. Others have subsequently concurred.4 However, if anything is clear in this etymological confusion, it is that the word kitjap is not of Japanese origin. Concurring in this opinion, the editors of the Oxford English Dictionary suggested that "Japanese" cited by many was possibly an error for "Javanese." This speculation was based on the presumption that some observers believed that ketchup derived from the Malay language. A. W. Bitting reported in 1909 that the word kitjap was of "East Indian or Malayan origin." Culinary historian Alan Davidson and cookbook author Sri Owen, for instance, believed that the term specifically derived from the Indonesian word kecap. Owen presumed that retired British colonial servants brought the word back home with them from Malaya.5 However, ketchup was entrenched in Britain well before the British possessed a colony in Malaya. Despite these attributions to the Malayan origins of the word ketchup, etymologists have pointed out the unlikelihood that it originated in the Malay language. Indeed, Malay dictionaries claim that ketchup is of Chinese origin. Columnist and food writer Craig Claiborne reported in his New York Times Food Encyclopedia that ketchup originated in China. Around Canton, reports Claiborne, it was called fan-kei cheop, which translates as "tomato juice." Unfortunately for Claiborne's theory, though repeated by others, it fails to hold up. As E. N. Anderson points out, tomato sauce is a recent addition to Chinese cuisine, and none of the early ketchup recipes had anything to do with the tomato.6 The editors of the Oxford English Dictionary, citing Douglas's Chinese Dictionary, presented a different Chineseorigins theory, reporting that ketchup really derived from kê-tsiap, a word from the Amoy dialect of Chinese meaning "the brine of pickled fish." However, ethnologist Terrien de Lacouperie concluded that, while the word may have been used in the Chinese language, it had not originated in mainland China. He speculated that the word perhaps originated in the Chinese community in northern

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Vietnam, or what was then called Tonkin. He further believed that the British first came into contact with it in what is today Indonesia.7 Catchup, Catsup, or Ketchup? Perhaps due to this etymological imbroglio, ketchup is among the few commonly eaten products with no agreed upon spelling. Ketchup, catchup, or catsup continue to be used today, but other similar spellings have been employed over the years. As the Domestic Chemist pointed out in 1831, these words "indicate a sauce, of which the name can be pronounced by every body, but spelled by nobody."8 Over the past two centuries food commentators have presented cases for particular "correct" spellings of the word. Lancelot Sturgeon believed that catsup was the proper spelling, but he humorously protested against it, wondering why a "sup" for an epicure should "be termed a sup for a cat." Sturgeon postulated that catch-up, meaning ''to snapup" or "to swallow eagerly," was more "consistent with orthoëpy and probable derivation." William Kitchiner, a British physician and prominent cookbook writer, concurred that the correct spelling was catsup and called a highly concentrated version of it "Double Cat-sup or Dog-sup."9 In America, Isaac Riley, editor of the 1818 edition of The Universal Receipt Book, believed that ketchup was the correct spelling. According to Riley, catchup was a vulgarization, and catsup was simply an affectation. In the twentieth century American chemist and physician Arvil W. Bitting, husband of the chemist and culinary bibliographer Katherine Golden Bitting, also believed that the correct spelling was ketchup. According to Bitting, catchup was based on the erroneous idea that ketch was a colloquial form of catch. Bitting maintained that there was no warrant for the catsup spelling, although he admitted that catsup was the term used by the majority of manufacturers.10 Until a few decades ago, catsup was the preferred spelling in many dictionaries. Today ketchup clearly is in the ascendancy, and is the clear choice of lexicographers and manufacturers. The British Whatever the origin or the spelling of the word ketchup, early British recipes produced products comparable to those developed in many different cultures separated by wide geographical distances. For thousands of years humankind has attempted to preserve foods with salt, which retards the growth of harmful bacteria. In a commonly used process called brining, food products were immersed in a solution of salt and water. Under the right conditions the brine encourages the growth and predominance of several

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species of bacteria that produce lactic acid, which kills harmful bacteria and lowers the pH. This changes the environment to one more suitable for yeast growth, thus promoting fermentation. These changes also contribute to the flavor of the food product.11 Several writers have theorized that the early ketchups were akin to a relative of garuma popular, fermented fish sauce consumed in ancient Greece and Rome. As the builders of ancient civilizations lacked effective means of refrigeration, they could not easily transport large quantities of fresh fish and meats long distances. The Romans solved this problem by erecting salting installations whose principal yield was salsamentumanimal products, particularly fish, preserved by various methods of salting. As manufacturers did not waste any part of the fish, the tail, fins, neck, head, viscera, and any other parts normally considered refuse were converted into fish sauces.12 The Romans lavishly applied fish sauces to enhance flavor and to disguise the odors and tastes of foods that quickly spoiled in the warm Mediterranean climate. Apicius's Artis Magiricae Libre X was the only cookery manuscript written in Roman times that survived. Apicius was a first-century A.D.epicure who wrote a general cookery manuscript and one devoted to sauces. In his manuscript he employed fish sauces on many dishes. Garum, probably a clear liquid, was the primary product. Allec, the sediment created in making garum, was a mushy pastelike substance containing fish bones and other undissolved fish material.13 Diverse descriptions for fixing fish sauces have survived in several ancient manuscripts. The most complete depictions appeared in the Geoponica, a tenth-century A.D. Greek agricultural manual, which recounted two methods for devising garum. Both were made with salted fish intestines, gills, and blood. The first placed these ingredients in an earthenware vessel, shook it frequently, and fermented it in the sun for two or three months. Alternately, the quick method for those who did not want to wait boiled down the mixture and potted the result. Sometimes old wine was added as a preservative and flavor enhancer.14 The process of pickling immersed fruits, vegetables, fungi, and other foods in a diluted solution of vinegar. Vinegar is an acidic solution of fermented wine, apple cider, or other alcoholic substance. The acetic acid in the vinegar, like lactic acid in the brining solution, destroyed unwanted bacteria. The process was often augmented by the addition of salt. The right combination of vinegar and salt controlled harmful bacteria, infused particular flavors, and permitted fermentation. During the late Middle Ages many foods were pickled. However, usually the pickled food (whole or in chunks)

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was the end product of this process. The brine or pickled juice was a by-product and was usually (but not always) discarded. Sauces were employed in Europe at least from the early Greek times and were commonly used during the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance. Some were thick and highly spiced. "Made sauces" were essentially flavored vinegary mixtures. The use of sauces blossomed in Britain before and during the Elizabethan period. Some were simple constructions; others were complex, rich, and strange. Sauces were often made separately and served in "saucers," hence their name. Most sauces relied upon the mortar and pestle for their manufacture. The liquid base was most often vinegar, but ale, wine, and milk were occasionally used. In general, particular sauces were associated with specific dishes. Robert May, author of The Accomplished Cook (1685), had thirteen categories of sauces, each of which were associated with a particular meat, fowl, or fish. Under each category he recorded multiple recipes. Hence under sauces for mutton May listed twelve recipes.15 According to the British culinary historian C. Anne Wilson, the seventeenth century saw "the proliferation of thinner sauces comprising gravy, wine, verjuice or orange or lemon juice, or some combination of those liquids with caper, herbs, dried or garden fruits and spices." During the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, the number of sauces listed in cookery books declined. Fresh uncooked sauces became comparatively rare and were replaced by pickles, which were eaten with cold meats. Vegetables, herbs, mushrooms, walnuts, and flowers were pickled. The pickle of mushrooms made a "piquant seasoning, since it contained such spices as cloves, mace, ginger, nutmegs and pepper, and furthermore the juice from the mushrooms amalgamated itself with the vinegar or brine, giving it a rich, dark colour. In due course the pickling liquor came to be regarded as a condiment in its own right; and in some recipes the mushrooms were actually removed before the sauce was bottled up."16 Pickling, of course, was not a unique European creation. Salting and fermenting were commonly employed throughout the ancient world. In Southeast Asia, for instance, fermented fish sauces, such as nam pla in Thailand, nuoc mam in Vietnam, tuk trey in Cambodia, ngan-pye-ye in Burma, and nam pak in Laos, were (and continue to be) very popular. There was (and is) no single way to make these acclaimed sauces, and they vary from thin liquids to thick pastes with chunks of fermented fish or fish products.17 Soybeans, another product frequently fermented in a variety of ways, was mentioned by the Chinese botanist Shen Nan in his Materia Medica as early as 2838 B.C. Soybeans were domesticated in China, and their cookery spread

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quickly throughout East and Southeast Asia. Soy sauce production is also believed to have started in China, and only later did Japan become a major producer.18 Europeans encountered soy sauces during their voyages of discovery and conquest in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. British sailors, traders, and colonial administrators were introduced to soy sauce late in the seventeenth century. Perhaps because soy was similar to the fish sauces they knew, they were favorably impressed with it. John Ovington during the late seventeenth century judged it the "choicest of all sawces." Swashbuckling buccaneer William Dampier, while circumnavigating the world in the late 1680s, reported that soy sauce tasted as if it were made from a "fishy composition," but he was informed that "it was made only with Wheat, and a sort of Beans mixt with Water and Salt."19 If Dampier was confused as to the contents of this sauce, this was understandable. Many factors influenced the flavor and consistency of pickled foods. If fish was the pickled product, the length of time elapsing between catch and initiation of the processing strongly influenced the taste and keeping quality since fish tissue deteriorates rapidly following death. If vegetable matter was pickled, the acidic content and other added ingredients were important. The purity and quantity of salt, the salinity of the brine, the length of time given to salting, and the temperature of the pickled mass were all factors that influenced the growth of bacterial populations, potentially producing off-flavors and putrefaction. The use of additives, such as sugar, sped up the process, inculcated a particular taste, or created a particular appearance.20 Due to these factors, fermented foods had great variations. From this culinary crucible of salted, pickled, and fermented foods from ancient Europe and exotic Southeast Asia, British ketchup materialized during the late eighteenth century. Notes 1. St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 3 January 1995; Quincy Herald, 22 January 1995; Collinsville Journal, 8 February 1995; Southern Illinoisan, 4 April 1995; Centralia Sentinel, 4 April 1995; Belleville News-Democrat, 24 May 1995, 25 May 1995, 28 May 1995, 4 June 1995, 6 June 1995; Collinsville Herald, 8 June 1995; Collinsville Journal, 1 March 1995, 9 April 1995, 19 April 1995, 14 May 1995. 2. Prosper Montagné, The New Larousse Gastronomique (New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1977), 195. 3. Elizabeth David, Spice, Salt and Aromatics in the English Kitchen (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin Books Ltd., 1971), 11; E. N. Anderson, The Food of China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), 160; Elizabeth Rozin, "Ketchup and the

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Collective Unconsciousness," Journal of Gastronomy 4 (Summer 1988): 45; Karen Hess, ed., Martha Washington's Booke of Cookery (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), 17778. 4. [Eneas Sweetlands Dallas], Kettner's Book of the Table: A Manual of Cookery Practical, Theoretical, Historical (London: Dulau and Co., 1877), 266; Theodore Garrett, ed., The Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery, 2 vols. (London: L. Upcott Gill, 1897), 1:795; Gourmet 8 (September 1948): 22. 5. A[rvil] W. Bitting, Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato Ketchup, Bulletin 119, Bureau of Chemistry, U.S. Department of Agriculture (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1909), 8. 6. Craig Claiborne, The New York Times Food Encyclopedia (New York: Times Books, 1985), 238; E. N. Anderson and Marja L. Anderson, "Modern China: South," in K. C. Chang, ed., Food in Chinese Culture: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 32829; Anderson, Food of China, 160. 7. [Terrien de Lacouperie], "Ketchup, Catchup, Catsup," Babylonian and Oriental Record 3 (November 1889): 28485; [Terrien de Lacouperie], "The Etymology of Ketchup," Babylonian and Oriental Record 4 (February 1890): 7172; Sri Owen, Indonesian Food and Cookery (London: Prospect Books, 1980), 4243. Based on de Lacouperie's findings, historian Reay Tannahill conjectured that ketchup found its way through the "colonies of Chinese expatriates in southeast Asia to India, and thence to England." Unfortunately for Tannahill's speculation, there is no evidence indicating that the word ketchup was used in India prior to the British conquest. It is more likely that British colonial officials introduced ketchup to India, rather than the reverse. See Reay Tannahill, Food in History (New York: Stein and Day, 1973), 312. 8. Domestic Chemist (London: Bumpus & Griffin, 1831), 162. 9. Lancelot Sturgeon, pseud., Essays, Moral, Philosophical, and Stomachical (London: G. and W. B. Whittaker, 1822), 19697; [William Kitchiner], Apicius Redivivus; or, the Cook's Oracle (London: Samuel Bagster, 1818), #439. 10. Priscilla Homespun [pseudonym for Richard Alsop], The Universal Receipt Book: being a Compendious Repository of Practical Information, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Isaac Riley, 1818), 162. As Richard Alsop died in 1815, Isaac Riley probably edited the second edition of this work. Bitting, Experiments, 8. 11. Geoffrey Campbell-Platt, ed., Fermented Foods of the World, A Dictionary and Guide (London: Butterworths, 1987), x; Harold McGee reports that brining a "salinity of about 2.25% is the goal. At the right temperatures, between 65° and 70°F (18° and 21°C), a bacterium called Leuconostoc mesenteroides grows and produces lactic acid and other minor compounds that contribute to sauerkraut's flavor. When the acid level reaches about 1%, this bacterium declines, and is replaced as a major population by Lactobacillus plantarum, which jacks up the acid content to as much as 2%, although a final level of 1.7%, reached after two or three weeks of fermentation, is considered ideal. Notice that no bacteria need to be inoculated into the initial

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brine; they are ready and waiting in the atmosphere around us." See Harold McGee, On Food and Cooking (New York: Scribner's Sons, 1984), 17272. 12. Mary Randolph, The Virginia House-wife, facsimile, with historical notes and commentaries by Karen Hess (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1984), 263; Thomas Corcoran, "Roman Fish Sauces," Classical Journal 58 (1963): 20410. 13. See Barbara Flower and Elisabeth Rosenbaum, trans., Apicius: The Roman Cookery Book (London & New York: Peter Nevill, Ltd., 1958); Joseph Dommers Vehling, ed. and trans., Apicius: Cookery and Dining in Imperial Rome (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1977); John Edwards, trans., The Roman Cookery of Apicius: A Treasury of Gourmet Recipes & Herbal Cookery (Point Roberts, Wash.: Hartly & Marks, 1984). Liquamen was also frequently mentioned in Greek and Roman manuscripts. It may have originally designated a sauce distinct from garum but acquired an almost generic value for any fish sauce. See Robert I. Curtis, Garum and Salsamenta: Production and Commerce in Materia Medica (New York: E. J. Brill, 1991), 78. 14. Geoponica 20.46.16, as in Curtis, Garum and Salsamenta, 1213. 15. C. Anne Wilson, Food and Drink in Britain: From the Stone Age to the 19th Century (Chicago: Academy Chicago Publishers, 1991), 7374, 85, 109, 122, 13132, 208; Robert May, The Accomplished Cook (London: Obadiah Blagrave, 1685); facsimile (London: Prospect Books, 1994), 13940. 16. Ibid., 22122. 17. Ibid., 294. 18. Phia Sing [Phouangphet Vannithone and Boon Song Klausner, trans., Alan and Jennifer Davidson, eds.], Traditional Recipes of Laos (London: Prospect Books, 1981), 23; Campbell-Platt, ed., Fermented Foods, 68. 19. Shen Nan, Materia Medica, as cited in K. S. Lo, "Pioneering Soymilk in Southeast Asia," Soybean Digest 24 (1964): 1820; Campbell-Platt, ed., Fermented Foods, xix. 20. John Ovington, Voyage to Suratt in 1689 (London: J. Tonson, 1697), 397; William Dampier, Voyages around the World; a Voyage to New Holland, 2 vols. (London: James Knapton, 1729), 2:28. 21. Curtis, Garum and Salsamenta, 1617.

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2 The Rise and Demise of Homemade Ketchup Whatever the origins of ketchup, British explorers first encountered it in Southeast Asia. The earliest known publication of the word catchup in the English language, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, was in A New Dictionary of the Terms Ancient and Modern of the Canting Crew, which was compiled at the end of the seventeenth century. Catchup was defined as a "high East-India Sauce." At the time "East-India" meant what is today South Asia and Southeast Asia. Indonesia was particularly referred to as the "East Indies."1 The second reference to ketchup appeared in Charles Lockyer's Account of the Trade in India (1711). Lockyer visited Sumatra, Canton, and India during the early eighteenth century. He reported that "Soy comes in Tubbs from Jappan, and the best ketchup comes from Tonquin, yet good of both sorts are made and sold very cheap in China." Both soy sauce and ketchup were important enough to be traded throughout Southeast Asia, and Canton levied small custom duties on their importation.2 The first known English-language ketchup recipe was published in the 1727 edition of E. Smith's Compleat Housewife; or, Accomplished Gentlewoman's Companion. Her recipe, "To make English Katchop," contained twelve to fourteen anchovies, ten to twelve shallots, white wine vinegar, two types of white wine, and spices galore (mace, ginger, cloves, whole peppers, a whole nutmeg, lemon peel, and horseradish). As an afterthought, Smith mentioned that this mixture could be added to "the clear liquid that comes from the Mushrooms." This recipe was popular with cookbook writers, who frequently reprinted it throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.3 Despite the word katchop in the title, Smith's recipe was similar to existing English fish sauces. Vinegar and wine, for instance, were European products. While several spices in Smith's recipe originated in Southeast Asia, they were all commonly used ingredients in England well before ketchup's

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advent. Alternately, few of the ingredients in Smith's recipe are known to have been used in Southeast Asian fish or soy sauces. These commonalities with previously published English recipes may be the reason she identified it as "English Katchop." The title of Smith's recipe implies that there were other "non-English" ketchups around at the time. Only one ketchup recipe known to have originated in Southeast Asia has survived. It was published by Richard Bradley in the 1732 edition of his Country Gentleman and Farmer's Monthly Director. Although his career as a professor at Cambridge University was riddled with scandal, Bradley was an acute observer, an astute horticulturist, and a prolific writer. He announced in the extended title of his Country Gentleman that the book possessed the "best Method of making Ketchup, and many other curious and durable Sauces." The main ingredient in Bradley's "Ketchup in Paste" was kidney beans, a food from the New World, which had become the rage in England during the latter years of the seventeenth century. Kidney beans were a creative substitute for soybeans, which were not cultivated in Europe at the time. This recipe was more spiced than the first one, with a medley of powdered "Nutmeg, Cloves, Mace, and Pepper, Garlick, and Orange-Juice, or some Mango Pickle." This recipe resulted in a paste with the consistency of butter. When needed, the paste was combined with a liquid. As it contained no salt, sugar, or other preservative, it could not have survived for any length of time.4 Perhaps due to the lack of longevity of the resulting product or the difficulty of finding the newly arrived kidney beans, this recipe appears to have had no influence upon subsequent cookery writers. The historical significance of this recipe was its identification of "Bencoulin in the East Indies" as its place of origin.5 Bencoulin (alternatively spelled Bencoelen, Benkulen, Benkoelen) was a British settlement on Sumatra established in 1684. It served as the center of the British pepper and spice trade during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. At the time of its founding, Bencoulin was the only British settlement in Southeast Asia. It was ceded later to the Netherlands in exchange for the Dutch colony of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. The provenance for this recipe establishes that the British were introduced to some ketchups in what is today Indonesia. The ketchup that the British found was not a single, well-defined product. In today's Indonesia kecap (formerly spelled ketjap) simply means sauce and usually refers to fermented black soybeans with a roasted cassava flour. There are many other fermented kecap products: kecap asin (salty soy sauce); kecap manis (sweetened soy sauce); kecap ikan (a brown salty liquid produced by the degradation of fish material by enzymes); and kecap putih (a

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white soy sauce).6 In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries this diversity was even greater as there were no standardizing mechanisms for food products. Producers had their own particular way of manufacturing it. Since soybeans were not cultivated in Europe, British cooks creatively substituted other products, such as mushrooms and kidney beans. Indeed, mushroom pickles, employed in British cookery before ketchup's sudden appearance, were not that dissimilar. As few British sailors or colonial servants had actually traveled to Southeast Asia or sampled real ketchup, little need or inclination arose to duplicate the genuine ketchup, whatever that may have been. These factors created conditions that permitted cooks and cookery writers to experiment with new types of ketchups that were unlike previous English or Southeast Asian recipes. The proliferation of so many diverse ketchup recipes can be attributed to the inventiveness, resourcefulness, and British culinary ingenuity during the eighteenth century. Mushroom, Fish and Seafood, and Walnut Ketchups In England ketchup's popularity spread quickly. In 1743 Sarah Harrison from Devonshire professed that "Kitchup" and "Mushroom Kitchup" were staples, and she advised the readers of her House-Keeper's Pocket-Book to lay in a store of them. Presumably, due to the general availability of commercial ketchups, she did not even bother to offer recipes but recommended purchasing them from a reputable grocer, such as the "Chandler's Shop."7 If ketchups were commonly available in shops by 1743, it suggests that the printed references to ketchup lagged far behind that of common usage. Three general types of ketchup emerged by the mid-eighteenth century: mushroom, fish, and walnut. Mushroom ketchup was a particularly successful condiment. The first known mushroom ketchup recipe was published by Richard Bradley in 1728. Bradley's recipe, "To make Mushroom Ketchup," produced a thin sauce similar in appearance and consistency with the soy sauces that British sailors encountered in Southeast Asia. Bradley reported that he had "had a Bottle of this sort of Ketchup, that has been open'd and set by for above a Year, that has not received the least Damage." An acquaintance had kept ketchup much longer "in Quart-Bottles to use as occasion required." Bradley reported that, as the mushroom ketchup was very rich and concentrated, only a small amount was necessary to flavor any sauce.8 This recipe demonstrated the experience of a knowledgeable ketchup cook. For instance, it advised against cooking the ketchup in a copper pan, advocating instead the use of an earthenware vessel or a bell-metal skillet.

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Experienced cooks wisely feared the mingling of acids and salt, often found in ketchups, with copper cookery vessels as the interaction produced verdigris, a poisonous compound. This admonition was oft repeated well into the nineteenth century, although, as will later be evidenced, the advice was not always heeded. Likewise, the recipe urged the use of small bottles for conserving the ketchup, as the liquid tended to mold shortly after opening. This affliction continually haunted ketchup-makers and remained effectively unresolved until the early twentieth century. Bradley's mushroom ketchup recipe possessed many of the hallmarks characteristic of subsequent ketchup. The liquor from the mushrooms was strained, rendering the resultant residue quite thin. The liquid was then reduced by boiling. The spices, such as cloves and mace, were added. Port wine, which was replete with acid, accelerated fermentation. This ketchup served as an additive to gravies and was poured upon meats and fish. The author suggested the possibility that the mixture could be combined with salt and anchoviesingredients which were also prominent in later ketchups. Mushroom ketchup was quickly adopted in England. The Complete Family-Piece (1736) and The Family Magazine (1741) printed similar recipes. Hannah Glasse, author of the most successful cookbook published in England during the second half of the eighteenth century, featured several ketchup recipes in the first edition of her Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy (1747). Her two mushroom ketchup recipes diverged from Bradley's in significant ways. Glasse's first recipe required salt. As previously discussed, salt encouraged fermentation. She also reported that if "mum" (beer) were added to the recipe it would then taste like "foreign" ketchup. Her second mushroom recipe, "Another Way to make Ketchup," used stale beer, horseradish, bay leaves, onions, nutmeg, allspice, and white and black pepper. Some cooks replaced the stale beer with garlic and red wine, but Glasse believed that these additives ruined the ketchup.9 A second type of ketchup emerging in the middle of the eighteenth century was fish-based. Smith's previously mentioned recipe, "To make English Katchop," included anchovies. In 1742 A Curious Collection of Receipts in Cookery, Pickling, Family Physic contained two ketchup recipes. The first, "To make a Katch-up," was similar to Smith's recipe. The second, "To Make Katch-up that will keep Twenty Years," mixed a gallon of stale beer with a pound of anchovies and spiced the mixture with ginger, shallots, mushrooms, and pepper. The staler and stronger the beer, the better was the resulting ketchup. The author believed that this ketchup exceeded what was "brought from India, and must be allow'd to be most agreeable Relish that can be given to Fish Sauce." Only one spoonful was sufficient to ''give both

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Taste and Colour beyond any other Ingredients." This recipe was lifted by Hannah Glasse and was subsequently reprinted in other cookbooks.10 Subsequently, many other ketchups were made with fish and seafood products. Recipes for making ketchup from cockles, mussels, and oysters were also common. Cockle ketchup was simply cooked cockles, strained and combined with "savoury spices." If the cockle ketchup were to be used for making white sauce, "sherry, lemon-juice and peel, mace, nutmeg, and white pepper" were added; if the recipe were for brown sauce, "Port, anchovies, and garlick" were mixed in.11 Mussel and oyster ketchups were made similarly. Walnut ketchup, the third category prevalent in the mid-eighteenth century, was made in several different ways. Elizabeth Raffald, author of the popular Experienced English Housewife (1771), offered two characteristic recipes. The first ground down green walnuts and squeezed out the juice. To every pound of juice she added a pound of anchovies, spices, and horseradish. Her second recipe instructed the reader to put walnuts into a jar and fill the jar with alegar for twelve months. The walnuts were extracted from the liquor and were pickled separately. The liquor from the walnuts was converted into ketchup by the addition of garlic, anchovies, red wine, and spices. It was good for use in "fish sauce or stewed beef." According to Raffald, this ketchup survived for at least five years, and it improved with age. Succeeding cookery writers ditched the anchovies and declared that it would last twenty years.12 By the mid-eighteenth century many British cookbooks included one or more ketchup recipes. So did many cookery manuscripts. Rebecca Price, who began keeping her cookery manuscript in 1681, included one mushroom recipe similar to those previously cited, except that she included rosemary as one of the spices. Elizabeth Raper Grant, who maintained her cookery manuscript from 1756 to 1770, included a recipe for "Walnut Catchup." This recipe was similar to published ones, except that she included "the rind of 2 seville oranges." E. Trasker's cookery manuscript, thought to have been written in Yorkshire during the mid-eighteenth century, included a mushroom ketchup and one with anchovies and oyster pickle. The latter recipe had a spicy flavor and a red brown color due to the addition of claret.13 Pickles, Sauces, and Ketchups Mushroom, fish, and walnut ketchups were not highly differentiated. Raffald's walnut recipes included mushrooms and anchovies, for instance. The recipe to make ketchup for twenty years in A Curious Collection of Receipts in Cookery and Hannah Glasse's recipe for "English Catchup" included both anchovies and mushrooms. Nor were ketchups easily distinguished from

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sauces or pickles. Given a collection of untitled recipes, it would be difficult to categorize them according to the author's title. To make matters more confusing, the terms "essences" and "vinegars" were introduced, as were proprietary sauces that were similar to ketchup or included ketchup as an ingredient. For instance, the base ingredient in "Harvey Sauce" was mushroom ketchup. "Quin Sauce" included mushroom ketchup. ''Worcestershire Sauce" included both walnut and mushroom ketchups, and some receipts employed "Canton" soy as an ingredient.14 From this compound confusion, ketchup tended toward an extract of a single product with spices added. Sauces combined two or more major ingredients, often including ketchups. Pickles tended to consist of whole or chunked fruits, fungi, and other products immersed in brine or vinegar. Many exceptions, however, challenged these general rules, and to this day lack of clarity continues concerning the proper distinction among these terms. Ketchup in Eighteenth-Century America Not surprising, British cookery dominated food preparation in the English-speaking colonies in North America. As part of the inherited mother-cookery, the British bequeathed ketchup to America. From their initial appearance, British cookbooks published in North America contained ketchup recipes. E. Smith's Compleat Housewife, first published in America in 1742, was taken from the fifth London edition of her work. It included the previously mentioned English ketchup recipe. British tavern owner Richard Briggs's cookbook, The English Art of Cookery, published twice in America, included recipes for both mushroom and walnut ketchup.15 Although Hannah Glasse's Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy and Elizabeth Raffald's Experienced English Housewife were not published in America until the nineteenth century, they were imported directly from Britain and were among the most popular cookbooks in colonial and postindependence America. Recipes in cookbooks written in Britain did not necessarily reflect the emerging cookery of colonists in the New World, but based upon all available evidence ketchup was just as popular in British North America as it was in Britain. As an indicator of this success, ketchup recipes found their way into eighteenth-century cookery manuscripts. In a Charleston, South Carolina, cookery manuscript dating to 1770, Harriott Pinckney Horry recorded a mushroom ketchup which was clarified with the whites of two eggs. Horry also included one walnut ketchup recipe in her cookery manuscript. In Massachusetts, Mrs. Gardiner, who began her cookery manuscript in 1763, copied eleven ketchup recipes from published British

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sources, including all Raffald's and Glasse's ketchup recipes. She did add personal notations to these recipes. On her "Walnut Catsup" recipe she mentioned that "The New England Butter Nut, or Oyl Nut answers as well, or better than the European Walnut."16 Despite the American Revolution, the newly independent United States remained faithful to British culinary traditions. British cookbooks continued to be published in America. American cookbook writers borrowed heavily from British works. The first cookbook written by an American was the 1796 edition of Amelia Simmons's American Cookery. It was highly influenced by British cookery styles. Surprisingly, it contained no ketchup recipe, although it did have several pickle recipes. Several postindependence cookery manuscripts did contain ketchup recipes. Two unrelated New York manuscripts, both dating from 1795, contained several ketchup recipes, including ones for walnut, mushroom, and "Pontach Ketchup." Both manuscripts have recipes for tomato ketchup that probably date a decade or two later. These recipes were similar to previously published nontomato recipes. One recipe was attributed to a Mrs. Michell. This recipe sliced "the Love Apples" and layered them with salt and "All-spice, Mace, and whole Pepper." This mixture was boiled in a large stewpan, and then the pulp was sieved. After it cooled, the seeds and skins were pounded. To every pint of pulp was added an equal amount of pounded skins and seeds.17 The second recipe appeared in the "Receipt Book" of Sally Bella and James Dunlop. The recipe probably dates from the early 1800s. The tomatoes were sliced, salted, and allowed to stand for two days. Subsequently, they were strained and reduced by two-thirds. Cloves, ginger, mace, shallots, and red pepper were then added to season the mixture. The author pointed out that spiritous liquor would prevent the onset of mold.18 The Rise of Tomato Ketchup The tomato had originated on the western coast of South America, but it was domesticated in Central America. By the time the conquistadors had arrived in the New World, tomatoes were being used in salsas in Mexico. Several different salsas composed of many different ingredients were noted by sixteenth-century observers. Texochilli, for instance, was composed of chopped tomatoes and chili peppers. The Spanish introduced the tomato into Europe, Southeast Asia, and what is today the United States.19 The two previously mentioned New York manuscript recipes were probably not the first references to tomato ketchup in America. An American who supported the British during the Revolution reportedly made tomato

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ketchup in New Jersey prior to the time he moved to Nova Scotia in 1782. Francis Vigo, a Sardinian who had immigrated to Spanish-controlled Louisiana, reportedly concocted tomato ketchup along the tributaries of the Mississippi River in the late eighteenth century. Vigo was credited with mixing tomato juice with beef gravy to create his ketchup.20 In 1804 James Mease, a prominent Philadelphia scientist, horticulturist, and physician, wrote that "Love Apples" made "a fine catsup." It was used by the French on a variety of dishes, said Mease. As there is no evidence that the French used the term ketchup, Mease likely observed French emigrantsprobably French Creole refugees from the revolution in Haitiusing tomato sauce.21 Mease published the first known tomato ketchup recipe in 1812. This recipe consisted of unstrained tomato pulp with spices. It lacked some of the hallmarks of previously published nontomato ketchups. For instance, it was not sieved and was therefore quite thick. It included few spices. Neither did it have any vinegar, although the brandy called for would have performed a similar function. Mease's recipe more resembled tomato sauce, which had been previously published in Italy. The first Anglo-American recipe for tomato sauce had been published in Great Britain in 1804 by Alexander Hunter. Hunter's recipe was purloined by Maria Eliza Rundell and included in many of her variously titled cookbooks published both in Britain and in America.22 At first the terms tomato sauce and tomato ketchup were not highly differentiated. Tomato sauce was usually intended to be served within a short interval after it was made and therefore contained fewer ingredients thought to be preservatives. Ketchup was intended to be a "store sauce." It was preserved for later use and therefore needed more preservatives. Tomato ketchup also was usually partially fermented and almost always included vinegara fermented product. When it was uncorked, small quantities of ketchup flavored and colored other sauces and dishes. Whatever reason for the initial application of the term tomato ketchup, it was widely and swiftly adopted throughout America early in the nineteenth century.23 Today tomato ketchup is sweeter, tangier, and spicier than tomato sauce. Ketchup's tang is produced by the addition of large amounts of vinegar. Ketchup also has more tomato solids than does sauce. Ketchup in Nineteenth-Century Britain and America During the early nineteenth century ketchup became the rage of the English-speaking world on both sides of the Atlantic. Alexander Hunter, a

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Scottish physician, published no ketchup recipes in the 1805 edition of his Culina Famulatrix Medicinae, but he did include walnut and mushroom ketchup as ingredients in a wide variety of recipes, such as "Fish Sauce," "To stew Beef Steaks," ''A Salad Sauce," "A Danelm of Chicken," "To Stew Carp or Trench," "Sauce for Boiled Carp," and "Oyster Sauce."24 His lack of a recipe probably means that by this time ketchup recipes were either so well known as to be needless to record or that it was easily obtainable in local stores. Maria Eliza Rundell's New System of Domestic Cookery Formed upon Principles of Economy, first published in 1806, was one of the most popular cookbooks printed in Britain or America. It went through at least seventy-one editions, and various versions continued to be published almost to the end of the century. The 1816 edition incorporated five ketchup recipes, including one for "Walnut Ketchup of the finest sort" and an early recipe for "Cockle Ketchup."25 Three American ketchup recipes appeared in the 1814 edition of The Universal Receipt Book, attributed to Richard Alsop. Alsop was a wealthy poet and satirist whose brother-in-law, Isaac Riley, was a book publisher. Alsop's recipe for "Excellent Catsup" included green walnuts and six pickled herrings. It was spiced with mace, cloves, and allspice. After heating, the mixture was strained. Then shallots and vinegar were added, and the whole mixture was boiled. When cooled, it was strained again and was then siphoned into bottles. His recipe for "Capital Oyster Catsup" called for one hundred bruised oysters, three pints of white wine, and sliced lemon peels. These were boiled, strained, and spiced with nutmeg, cloves, and mace. After the entire mixture boiled again, shallots were then added. Another of Alsop's ketchup recipes was intended to survive twenty years.26 Alsop died before the publisher Riley reprinted the second edition of the cookbook four years later under the pseudonym of "Priscilla Homespun." As the second edition was revised and enlarged, presumably Alsop made these changes. The original recipe for oyster ketchup was removed and replaced by another. It also included a standard recipe for mushroom ketchup.27 Although the recipes in both editions were creative and well thought out, the work appears to have had little influence upon subsequent American cookery. Dr. William Kitchiner, a nonpracticing Scottish physician, was highly critical of commercial ketchup. In his Apicius Redivivus; or, the Cook's Oracle (1817) he reported that what was sold for mushroom ketchup was "generally an injudicious composition of so many different tastes." The flavor of the mushrooms was "overpowered, by a farrago of garlic, anchovy, mustard, shallot, beer, wine, spices, &c." His ketchup recipes, or so he claimed, added

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no more spices than were "absolutely necessary to feed the catsup, and keep it from fermenting." According to Kitchiner, the less the natural flavor of the mushrooms was overpowered the better. He did add brandy as a preservative, believing that it altered the ketchup's taste "so little, it can hardly be perceived by the finest palate."28 The first and second editions of Kitchiner's work contained eleven ketchup recipes, including two for mushrooms, two for walnuts, two for tomatoes, and one each for cucumbers, oysters, and cockles and mussels. He also published recipes for pudding ketchup and white ketchup. He used ketchup as an ingredient in many other made dishes, including "Camp Vinegar," "Wild Fowl Sauce," "Mrs. Philip's Irish Stew," "Mushroom Sauce,'' "Browning," "Wow Wow Sauce," "Grill Sauce," "Sauce Piquante," and hashes of all kinds. Kitchiner's first recipe for "Tomata Catsup" contained anchovies and strained tomato pulp.29 The second tomato ketchup recipe excluded anchovies but included malt vinegar. Kitchiner's mixture was sieved twice, producing a thin, highly concentrated, juicelike extract. Kitchiner's cookbook went through eight editions prior to 1840 and was reprinted in Britain and America almost every year during this time. His ketchup recipes were frequently lifted and were often cited by other cookbook writers throughout the nineteenth century. Even more frequently published on both sides of the Atlantic was Colin Mackenzie's Five Thousand Receipts in All the Useful and Domestic Arts, later upgraded to Ten Thousand Recipes. Mackenzie, editor of The British Perfumer, has the dubious distinction of publishing one of the simplest recipes for making any ketchup: strain tomato pulp and "aromatize" it.30 Perhaps due to its simplicity, it was frequently reprinted by others. As culinary historian Karen Hess has pointed out, Mary Randolph's Virginia House-wife made a break from British cookery practices. Based upon Randolph's experiences managing a boardinghouse, her cookbook featured many original recipes. She included recipes for mushroom, walnut, and tomato ketchup. She also included ketchup as an ingredient in other dishes, such as a white sauce. Unlike Alsop's earlier work, Randolph's greatly influenced subsequent cookery. Similar recipes were published by other cookbook writers in the United States.31 Tomato ketchup quickly became a significant product in America. In 1829 New Englander Lydia Child reported that the best sort of ketchup was made from tomatoes. She incorporated a cup of ketchup into beef soup; she added a spoonful each into recipes for "Fricasseed Chicken" and "To Curry Fowl." She also used tomato ketchup in making fish chowder. As this is the

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first known reference to chowder with tomatoes, it is surprising that it came from a New Englander. Traditionally, New Englanders have decried the use of tomatoes in chowder, such as occurs in Manhattan clam chowder. Although Child did not bother to include recipes for mushroom or walnut ketchup, she did mention in passing that the liquor left over from pickling walnuts was "an excellent catsup to be eaten on fish."32 This points out the close relationship between pickling juices and ketchups. As frugal housewives rarely threw anything out, the juices left over from pickling were frequently used in cooking. Despite the tomato's remarkable appearance upon the ketchup scene, it was by no means the only new type of ketchup to make a splash. Its growth in popularity occurred simultaneously with a rapid increase in the publication of other ketchup recipes. To be sure, mushroom, walnut, and fish ketchups continued to be the predominant ketchups in the United States until the mid-nineteenth century and in Britain well into the twentieth century. But experimentation was under way in Britain and America. Beginning in the 1820s a host of new ketchups emerged. Christina Johnstone, writing under the pen name of Margaret Dods, published nine ketchup recipes, some of which featured as prime components lemons, cucumbers, sugar, tomatoes, oysters, cockles, and mussels. A Scottish cookbook writer, Mrs. Dalgairns, printed nine ketchup recipes, including the first known recipes for lobster ketchup and "Prince of Wales" ketchup constructed from elderberries and anchovies.33 By the third decade of the nineteenth century almost all general cookbooks published in Britain and America included multiple ketchup recipes. Three successful cookbooks during this time were N. K. M. Lee's The Cook's Own Book and Housekeeper's Register, Emma Roberts's revised and updated version of Maria Eliza Rundell's A New System of Domestic Cookery, and Eliza Acton's Modern Cookery, in All its Branches. Lee published twelve ketchup recipes. She believed that mushroom ketchup approached the "nature and flavor of meat gravy, more than any vegetable juice" and was a "superlative substitute for it: in meagre soups and extempore gravies, the chemistry of the kitchen has yet contrived to agreeably awaken the palate, and encourage the appetite." It was "a delicious relish for made-dishes, ragouts, soups, sauces, or hashes."34 Roberts incorporated fourteen recipes for different varieties of ketchup, including "Wine Ketchup," "Camp Ketchup," and "Pontac Ketchup for Fish." She infused ketchup into many recipes, such as "Stewed Mackerel,'' "Stewed Haddock," "Cropped Heads," "To Stew Carp," "Stewed Beef-

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Steak," "Davenport Fowl," "Deviled Duck,'' "Salad Mixture," "Gravy for Fowl," "Browning to Colour and Flavour Made Dishes," "Fish Sauce," "Fowl Sauce," "Hashed Calf's-head," "Sweetbreads Fricasseed Brown," "Beefsteak a la Magicienne," "Wet Devil," "Carachi," "Quin's Pickle," and "Aid-de-Camp's Sauce."35 Acton featured eleven ketchup recipes. She believed that mushroom ketchup provided "an agreeable flavour to any soup or sauce with which it is mingled, and at the same time heightens the colour without imparting the 'bitter sweetness' which the burnt sugar used as 'browning' in clumsy cookery so often does." Leaving nothing to waste while preparing ketchup, Acton recommended that the sediment left over from making mushroom ketchup be mixed "with common thickened sauces, hashes, and stews."36 Ketchup's rise was not lost on the literary world. In his 1817 poem "Beppo," George Gordon, Lord Byron, reported that during Lent the Italians bid farewell to carnal dishes, "solid meat and high spiced ragouts, / To live for forty days on ill-dress'd fishes." He urged those traveling to Italy during Lent to bring an abundant array of fish sauces, "Ketchup, Soy, Chili-vinegar, and Harvey, / Or by the Lord! a Lent will nigh starve ye." Over two decades later, in Charles Rudge, Charles Dickens's character John Willet demanded "plenty of ketchup" to be added to breaded lamb chops. Presumably both of these literary citations referred to walnut or mushroom ketchup. Jane Austin reported that her family made walnut ketchup using two quarts of vinegar, plenty of spices, and green walnuts.37 Reasons for Ketchup's Initial Success Ketchup's early success can be attributed to many factors. Surely the similarity of ketchup recipes with existent English fish sauces contributed to their early success. In the eighteenth century British cookbook authors expropriated the name ketchup and cashed in on its exotic Asian origin. It should come as no surprise that this borrowing, and ketchup's sudden rise in popularity, roughly corresponded to the rapid expansion of the British Empire in Asia. Ketchup's major claim to fame was its purported ability to survive for long periods of time, and claims for longevity escalated. Mushroom ketchup, if properly made and preserved, would likely survive up to a year. Likewise, anchovy ketchup lasted about a year. Elizabeth Raffald claimed that her recipe for walnut ketchup could survive for five years, and she reported that it was better aged than when it was first made. One of Hannah Glasse's recipes for ketchup and many that followed were purportedly good for

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twenty years or more. Likewise, Maria Eliza Rundell's walnut ketchup would last twenty years. Lettice Bryan claimed that her "Fish Catchup" was "good for any length of time."38 In addition to using natural preservatives, such as salt, vinegar, wine, or brandy, ketchup-making employed a variety of techniques that were intended to enhance the product's longevity. Almost all early ketchup recipes required heating, thereby killing or reducing harmful bacteria and mold. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries air was universally believed to cause putrefaction. Hence, the basic method behind many preservation techniques was to exclude air from the bottle or jar and form an airtight seal over the top.39 This was accomplished with corks dipped in rosin tightly covered by leather or bladders. Some cooks recommended covering the surface of the ketchup with oil or butter before sealing. Others recommended storing the bottle in dark conditions. Airborne bacteria does causes some types of putrefaction, so excluding air did help preserve the products, but not all bacteria was necessarily excluded by this method. If mold or other bacteria did appear, several recipes recommended removing the impurity, then reheating and rebottling the ketchup. Nothing was thrown out unless it was completely unsalvageable. Longevity was the single most important factor contributing to ketchup's long-term success. Ketchups were made when the fresh food product was in abundance; ketchups were employed when fresh products were otherwise unobtainable. As ketchups were integral components in more complicated sauces, sophisticated cookery was not limited by the availability of fruits, vegetables, or other food products during a particular season. Most ketchups were significantly reduced through boiling. This had some significant consequences. As they were a highly concentrated form or "essence" of the particular product, recipes called for the addition of only a few tablespoons of ketchup. Tangentially, concentrated ketchup was more compact and could be more easily stored. It was also easier to transport. As Richard Bradley pointed out, a little ketchup "is very rich in any Sauce, and especially when Gravey is wanting: Therefore it may be of service to Travellers, who too frequently meet with good Fish, and other Meats, in Britain, as well as in several other parts of Europe, that are spoiled in the dressing."40 Many ketchups were fermented. As in other fermented foods, this was controlled by the addition of salt or through the addition of an acid, such as vinegar or wine. The quantity of salt or acid employed was critical. If too little were added, putrefaction resulted or mold and yeast destroyed the ketchup. However, too much salt or acid stopped the fermentation process and

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destroyed the flavor of the ketchup. Fermented ketchups were sour tasting. Some recipes moderated this by boiling the ketchup before the fermentation process was completed. This gave a slightly tart taste to the ketchup. Others boiled ketchup at regular intervals, thus preventing fermentation, controlling mold, and eliminating or reducing the bacteria that caused putrefaction. Ketchup Commonalities Despite their diverse textures, colors, and smells, ketchups performed similar culinary functions: to add zest, color, and flavor to other foods; and to camouflage the taste of unsatisfactory, unfamiliar, or monotonous foods. It was frequently used as a condiment on various fish and meats. Elizabeth Moxon had a recipe in her English Housewifery that called for ketchup on haddock and cod. Hannah Glasse believed that ketchup added "the best Flavour of the Mushrooms to any Sauce." According to John Farley, author of The London Art of Cookery, first published in 1783, ketchup could be combined with butter to make fish sauces or served as a substitute for gravy.41 Ketchups also served as components in other sauces, such as white and brown sauces. They were added to soups, stews, ragouts, hashes, and many other "made dishes." Although diverse, early ketchup recipes employed many common ingredients, including cloves, pepper, ginger, and mace. Also featured were highly flavored seasonings, such as garlic, onions, shallots, mustard, horse-radish, cayenne, and occasionally chili peppers. The multitude of spices enhanced taste and masked the stench of putrefaction. Later ketchup recipe writers reduced the number and quantity of spices to avoid overpowering the natural flavor of the main products.42 Initially sugar was not a commonly used ketchup component. Few nontomato recipes listed it as an ingredient. The first tomato ketchup recipe with sugar did not appear until the mid-nineteenth century. It was not a common ingredient until after the American Civil War. At first only small quantities were added. Some believed that sugar reduced or removed the tomato's acidic taste. The addition of a little sugar, however, encouraged fermentation, which in turn resulted in a sour product. Consequently, more sugar was added. Then more vinegar needed to be added to counteract the sugar, but larger quantities of vinegar chemically created "invert" sugar, which sweetened the ketchup even further. To retain the sweet and sour balance of the ketchup, more vinegar was needed. As the decades passed, the amount of sugar and vinegar increased substantially in some tomato ketchups to the point where many believed that the taste of the tomato had been lost. The addition of sugar into tomato ketchup was a reflection of a trend

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favoring sweetness in American cookery. As sugar prices rapidly declined due to the manifold increase in importations from the Caribbean, its use expanded in many dishes. Not everyone was pleased with the addition of sugar in ketchup. Most British tomato ketchup recipes did not include it. Even in America as late as 1944 Kenneth Roberts reported that in Maine a sweetened ketchup among some families was "regarded as an offense against God and man, against nature and good taste."43 Despite such pockets of resistance, highly sweetened tomato ketchup was a major factor in its eventual conquests. Homemade Ketchup's High-Water Mark Ketchup's popularity continued unabated in both Britain and America. The most popular mid-nineteenth-century cookbook, Isabella Beeton's Book of Household Management, offered recipes for oyster, walnut, and mushroom ketchups. Of the mushroom ketchup Beeton stated that "This flavouring ingredient, if genuine and well prepared, is one of the most useful store sauces to the experiences cook, and no trouble should be spared in its preparation." According to Beeton, "Double ketchup" was made by reducing the liquor to half the usual quantity. This went "farther than ordinary ketchup, as so little is required to flavour a good quantity of gravy. The sediment may also be bottle for immediate use, and will be found to answer for flavouring thick soups or gravies.''44 In Britain and America ketchup recipes ran wild. Marion Cabell Tyree, the editor of Housekeeping in Old Virginia, published sixteen ketchup recipes. These included four each for walnut, cucumber, and tomato ketchup and three for mushroom ketchup. She published one of the more unusual recipes for walnut ketchup made from walnut leaves.45 During the remainder of the nineteenth century a vast increase in experimentation with regard to new ketchups is evident. New recipes proliferated in many cookery books. Cassell's Dictionary of Cookery featured twenty recipes for ketchup, including three for tomatoes. Its recipe for mussel ketchup instructed the cook to pound the mussel in a mortar, cook the mixture, add wine or cider, and then strain the juice. Cassell's recipe for anchovy ketchup was similar to those of Leslie and Bryan. It called for two tablespoonsful of mushroom ketchup.46 William Archdeacon, author of The Kitchen Cabinet, printed eleven ketchup recipes, including ones for currants and ketchup stock. He featured recipes for tomatoes, including ones for domestic tomato ketchup, commercial tomato ketchup, and "Cheap Tomato Ketchup." He also featured recipes for "Marine Ketchup," "Squash Ketchup," "Mushroom Ketchup," and

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"Commercial Mushroom Ketchup." Theodore Garrett, editor of the two-volume Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery, published thirty-six ketchup recipes, including one for barberries and two for elderberries. Garrett featured nine recipes for tomatoes. In Livingston and the Tomato seedsman A. W. Livingston offered fourteen tomato ketchup recipes, including eleven for regular red tomato ketchup, one for green tomato ketchup, one for tomato soy, and one for tomato mustard.47 The Fall of Homemade Ketchup Despite the rising popularity of tomato ketchup, some of the more important cookbooks published at the time contained few or no recipes. For instance, Isabella Beeton offered none for tomato ketchup. Mary Lincoln's Boston Cooking School Kitchen Textbook featured but one. In Fannie Farmer's Boston Cooking-school Cook Book, first published in 1896, there were no ketchup recipes at all, nor did she feature any in her New Book of Cookery printed in 1912.48 These omissions were harbingers of homemade ketchup's future. A few decades after it had reached its greatest success, homemade ketchup had almost disappeared. Results of a survey conducted in 1904 showed that only onesixth of the respondents consumed homemade ketchup.49 Reflecting this trend, cookbooks incorporated a declining number of ketchup recipes, and only a smattering of recipes appeared in other sources. To be sure, some cookbooks continued to publish ketchup recipes. In her Every Woman Her Own Cook, for instance, Marion Harland published ten ketchup recipes that utilized red or green tomatoes, walnuts, oysters, mushrooms, or grapes. Harper's Cook Book Encyclopedia published fifteen ketchup recipes featuring cucumbers, currants, walnuts, red peppers, grapes, or tomatoes and with titles such as "Creole Catsup," "Creole Tomato Catsup," "Mixed Catsup," "Southern Catsup,'' and "Tomato Soy Catsup." The trade edition of The Original Buckeye Cook Book presented thirteen recipes, including an intriguing one for "Liver Catsup."50 Sidney Morse's Household Discoveries; An Encyclopedia of Practical Recipes and Processes contained sixteen recipes, including one using red bell peppers, while Isabel Gordon Curtis used tomato ketchup as a base for a "Catsup Cream Dressing" and for "Quahog Cocktail." Raspberries, plums, peaches, green peppers, grapes, elderberries, damsons, cranberries, currants, apricots, and apples were the main ingredients for the seventeen ketchup recipes in Marion Harris Neil's Canning, Preserving and Pickling.51 However, these recipes were exceptions. Most cookbooks included few ketchup recipes. By 1940 few cookbooks contained even one ketchup recipe.

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There were several reasons for this abrupt fall. The most obvious was the availability of commercial ketchup. Making ketchup at home was not an easy task, and some people were happy to see its demise. In 1901 a writer in Heinz's in-house magazine Pickles remembered making homemade ketchup as a "positively unpleasant" experience. He grumbled: "He little knows how fortunate he is to have been born a generation or so late, and to have escaped the miseries of scouring . . . kettles to brassy brightness, the primitive manner of fruit-picking, the boiling of jellies and the parboiling of his face and hands as he stirred, stirred and constantly stirred the catsup to keep it from burning."52 It was less expensive, less time-consuming, and more convenient to buy ketchup in a store than it was to make it from scratch in one's own home. The American public's criteria for what made a good ketchup changed. Commercial tomato ketchup tasted different than those made from homemade recipes. Commercial ketchup had a thicker base with plenty of sugar, vinegar, and salt. Homemade ketchup was lumpier and did not have a bright red color. For those who frequently consumed commercial ketchup, homemade ketchup just did not taste right. This has been a continuing problem for homemade ketchup. In the 1970s The Wall Street Journal published an article, appropriately titled "Americans Have No Taste," reporting on one manufacturer's attempt to create a tomato ketchup similar to the original homemade versions. The public refused to purchase it because it did not taste like the commercial ketchup they knew and loved.53 Notes 1. E. B., A New Dictionary of the Terms Ancient and Modern of the Canting Crew (London: W. Hawes, P. Gilbourne and W. Davis, 1690?); reprint (London: Smith Kay and Co., 1899), n.p. 2. Charles Lockyer, Account of the Trade in India (London: By the Author, 1711), 12829. 3. E. S[mith], The Compleat Housewife; or, Accomplished Gentlewoman's Companion (London: J. Pemberton, 1727), 7071; The Complete Family-Piece: and Gentleman, and Farmer's Best Guide (London: T. Longman, 1736), 9798; Hannah Glasse, The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy, 5th ed. (London: Printed for the author, 1755), as in facsimile (London: Prospect Books, 1983), 169; William Gelleroy, The London Cook or the Whole Art of Cookery made Easy and Familiar (Dublin: T. and J. Whitehouse, 1762), 207; Richard Dolby, The Cook's Dictionary and Housekeepers Directory (London: Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley, 1830), 298; The Whole Duty of a Woman, or an Infallible Guide to the Fair Sex (London: T. Read, 1837), 561.

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4. Richard Bradley, The Country Gentleman's and Farmer's Monthly Director, 3rd ed., 2 parts (London: Woodman and Lyon, 1732), 2:150. In 1890 H. I. Blits made imitation soy by using kidney beans. See H. I. Blits, Patented and Improved Methods of Canning Fruits with New Edition and Supplement (Brooklyn, N.Y.: H. I. Blits, 1890), 36. 5. Bradley, Monthly Director, 2:150. 6. Geoffrey Campbell-Platt, ed., Fermented Foods of the World, A Dictionary and Guide (London: Butterworths, 1987), 68, 197; letter from Dolf Riks to author, dated 11 October 1995. 7. Sarah Harrison, The House-Keeper's Pocket-Book; and Compleat Family Cook, 3rd ed. (London: R. Warf, 1743), 2. 8. Bradley, Monthly Director, 1:14243. 9. Complete Family-Piece, 96; Arabella Atkyns, pseud., The Family Magazine (London, 1741), 114; Hannah Glasse, Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy (London: By the Author, 1747), 156. 10. A Curious Collection of Receipts in Cookery, Pickling, Family Physic (London: Printed for R. Montagu, 1742), 2223; Glasse, Art of Cookery, 12122; John Farley, The London Art of Cookery (London: Printed for John Fielding; J. Scatcherd and J. Whitaker, 1783); reprint, Ann Haly, ed. (Lewes, East Sussex, U.K.: Southover Press, 1988), 390; Priscilla Homespun [pseudonym for Richard Alsop], The Universal Receipt Book; being a Compendious Repository of Practical Information, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Isaac Riley, 1818), 151. 11. [Maria Eliza Rundell], A New System of Domestic Cookery Formed upon Principles of Economy (London: John Murray, 1816), 184. 12. Elizabeth Raffald, The Experienced English Housewife, 2nd ed. (London: Printed for the author and sold by R. Baldwin, 1771), 293; [Rundell], Domestic Cookery, 184. 13. Rebecca Price [Madeleine Masson, comp.], The Compleat Cook (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974), 11516; Elizabeth Raper Grant [Bartle Grant, ed.], The Receipt Book of Elizabeth Raper written 17561770 (Soho: The Nonesuch Press, 1924), 67; E. Trasker's manuscript notebook at the West Riding School Museum Service collection, P38, as in P. C. D. Bears, The Gentlewoman's Kitchen; Great Food in Yorkshire (16501750) (Wakefield: Wakefield Historical Publications, 1984), 13132, 145. 14. Glasse, Art of Cookery, 5th ed., 169; [Eneas Sweetlands Dallas], Kettner's Book of the Table: A Manual of Cookery Practical, Theoretical, Historical (London: Dulau and Co., 1877), 266; [Richard Alsop], The Universal Receipt Book or Complete Family Directory by a Society of Gentlemen in New York (New York: I. Riley, 1814), 193; Jonathan Periam, The Home and Farm Manual; a Pictorial Encyclopedia of Farm, Garden, Household, Architectural, Legal Medical and Social Information (Saint Louis, Mo.: N. D. Thompson Publishing Co., 1884); facsimile (New York: Greenwich House, 1984), 851.

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15. Richard Briggs, The English Art of Cookery, 3rd ed. (London: G. G. and J. Robinson, 1794), 510. 16. Harriott Pinckney Horry Papers, Receipt Book, South Carolina Historical Society #39-19, as in Richard J. Hooker, ed., A Colonial Plantation Cookbook: The Receipt Book of Harriott Pinckney Horry, 1770 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1984), 84, 85; Mrs. Gardiner's Receipts from 1763 (Hallowell, Maine: White Horne Company, 1936); as edited and annotated by Gail Weesner (Boston: Rowan Tree Press, 1984), 4849. It is likely that this manuscript was written after 1763. It is likely in part a copy of an earlier manuscript which presumably dated from 1763. The published versions of this manuscript contain several likely errors. 17. Approved Recipes, 1795, 77, cookery manuscript at the New York State Historical Association, Cooperstown, New York. 18. Receipt Book of Sally Bella Dunlop and James Dunlop, 1795, cookery manuscripts at the New York State Historical Association, Cooperstown, New York. 19. Alonso de Molina, Vocabulario en Lengua Castellana y Mexicana (Mexico: En Casa de Centonio de Spinosa., 1571), 159b. For more information about the early history of the tomato, see Andrew F. Smith, The Tomato in America: Early History, Culture and Cookery (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994). 20. Country Gentleman 19 (15 May 1862): 318; Western Reserve Magazine of Agriculture and Horticulture 1 (July 1845): 100; Vincennes Weekly Western Sun, 18 June 1864; Western Sun, 17 April 1874. 21. James Mease, ed., The Domestic Encyclopedia, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: William Young Birch, and Abraham Small, 1804), 3:506. 22. James Mease, ed., Archives of Useful Knowledge, 2 vols. (Philadelphia: David Hogan, 1812), 2:306; Alexander Hunter, Culina Famulatrix Medicinae; or, Receipts on Modern Cookery (York: T. Wilson and R. Spence, 1804), 128. Maria Rundell lifted Hunter's tomato sauce recipe and published it in 1807. See [Maria Eliza Rundell], A New System of Domestic Cookery formed upon Principles of Economy and Adapted to the Use of Private Families, 2nd ed. (London: John Murray, 1807), 116. French recipes for tomato sauce were published beginning in 1806. See [Alexandre Viard], Le Cuisinier Impérial (Paris: Chez Barba, 1806), 5657. It is interesting to note that these recipes were attributed to the Spanish and the Italians. The first tomato sauce recipe published by an American was in [Alsop], Universal Receipt Book, 45. 23. Diary of Mrs. Gaines, as cited in the Mobile Daily Register, 6 July 1879. 24. Alexander Hunter, Culina Famulatrix Medicinae; or, Receipts on Modern Cookery, 2nd ed. (York: T. Wilson and R. Spence, 1805), 36, 6263, 73, 7980, 88, 9596, 137, 19394, 241. 25. [Rundell], Domestic Cookery, 18384. 26. [Alsop], Universal Receipt Book, 45, 162, 249. 27. Homespun [Alsop], Universal Receipt Book, 24, 151, 16263, 16364. 28. [William Kitchiner], Apicius Redivivus; or, the Cook's Oracle (London: Samuel Bagster, 1817), #439.

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29. Ibid., #443. 30. Colin Mackenzie, Five Thousand Receipts in All the Useful and Domestic Arts, 2nd ed. (London: G. and W. B. Whittaker, 1823), 260. 31. [Mary Randolph], The Virginia House-wife (Washington: Printed by Davis and Force, 1824), 114, 2023; Eliza Leslie, Directions for Cookery; being a System of the Art, in its Various Branches (Philadelphia: E. L. Carey & A. Hart, 1837), 175; Lettice Bryan, The Kentucky Housewife (Cincinnati: Stereotyped by Shepard & Stearns, 1841), 170. 32. Mrs. [Lydia Maria] Child, The Frugal Housewife (Boston: March & Capen and Carter & Hendee, 1829), 3132; Mrs. [Lydia Maria] Child, The American Frugal Housewife, 9th ed. (Boston: Carter & Hendee, 1832), 35, 48, 54, 55, 59, 84. 33. Margaret Dods [pseudonym for Christina J. Johnstone], The Cook and Housewives Manual, 3rd ed. (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1828); reprint (London: Rosters Ltd., 1988), 25962; Mrs. Dalgairns, The Practice of Cookery, 3rd ed. (Edinburgh: Robert Cadell, 1830), 189, 203, 41113. 34. [N. K. M. Lee], The Cook's Own Book and Housekeeper's Register (Boston: Munroe & Francis, 1832), 11718, 22223. 35. [Maria Eliza] Rundell, A New System of Domestic Cookery Formed upon Principles of Economy, additions by Emma Roberts, 71st ed. (London: John Murray, 1847), 51, 58, 60, 65, 106, 117, 12425, 153, 161, 167, 285, 310, 313, 320, 36771. 36. Eliza Acton, Modern Cookery for Private Families with an Introduction by Elizabeth Ray (Lewes, East Sussex, U.K.: Southover Press, 1993), 139; Eliza Acton, Modern Cookery for Private Families (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1845), 117. 37. Horace Gregory, Poems of George Gordon Lord Byron (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1969), 6262; Charles Dickens, Charles Rudge (London: Chapman and Hall, 1841); reprint (London: Penguin Books, 1986), 210; Joanna Pruess, "Ketchups Worth Keeping," Washington Post, 29 September 1993, Food Section, pp. E1 & E14. 38. [Rundell], Domestic Cookery, 184; Bryan, Kentucky Housewife, 172; Leslie, Directions for Cookery, 178; Elizabeth Raffald, Experienced Housewife, 293; Glasse, Art of Cookery, 12122, 156; Farley, Art of Cookery, 390; Bryan, Kentucky Housewife, 173. 39. Sir John Sinclair, Code of Health and Longevity, 3 vols. (Edinburgh: Printed for Arch. Constable & Co., 1807), 1:43037. 40. Bradley, Monthly Director, 1:143. 41. Elizabeth Moxon, English Housewifery (Leedes: James Lister, 1749), 97; Glasse, Art of Cookery; facsimile (London: Prospect Books, 1983), 156; Farley, Art of Cookery; reprint, Ann Haly, ed. (Lewes, East Sussex, U.K.: Southover Press, 1988), 390. 42. [Kitchiner], Apicius Redivivus, footnote to #439. 43. Southern Planter 4 (September 1844): 204; Kenneth Roberts, Trending Into Maine (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc., 1944), 14749. Karen Hess has pointed out that Mary Randolph's 1824 recipe for "Tomata Sweet Marmalade" is actually a sweet tomato ketchup. The recipe is seasoned with pepper, salt, pounded cloves, garlic, and loaf sugar. The whole is then cooked to a jell. See

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Mary Randolph, The Virginia House-Wife, facsimile of the 1st. ed, with historical notes and commentaries by Karen Hess (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1984), 202. 44. Isabella Beeton, Book of Household Management (London: S. O. Beeton, 1861). 45. Marion Cabell Tyree, ed., Housekeeping in Old Virginia (Richmond: J. W. Randolph & English, 1878), 23637. 46. Cassell's Dictionary of Cookery (London: Cassell Petter & Galpin, circa 1870), 12, 43637. 47. William Archdeacon, The Kitchen Cabinet: a Book of Receipts (Chicago: Published for the Author, 1876), 6368; Theodore Garrett, Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery, 2 vols. (London: L. Upcott Gill, 1897), 2:6029; A. W. Livingston, Livingston and the Tomato (Columbus: A. W. Livingston's Sons, 1893), 15254. 48. Beeton, Household Management; Mary Johnson Lincoln, Boston Cooking School Kitchen TextbookLessons in Cooking for the Use of Classes in Public and Industrial Schools (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1887 [1896]), 404; Fannie Merritt Farmer, Boston Cooking-school Cook Book, facsimile (New York: Weathervane Books, 1896 [1986]); Fannie Merritt Farmer, The New Book of Cookery (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1912). 49. Ralph Tilton, "Successful Food Advertising; Catsup and Sauces," What to Eat 19 (December 1905): 22425. 50. The Original Buckeye Cook Book and Practical Housekeeping, trade ed. (Saint Paul, Minn.: Webb Publishing Co., 1905), 10911, 473. 51. Marion Harland [pseud. for Mary Virginia Terhune], Every Woman Her Own Cook (New York: Rhode and Haskins, 1900), 23032; Harper's Cook Book Encyclopedia (New York & London: Harper & Brothers Publishers, [1902]), 24950; Sidney Morse, Household Discoveries: An Encyclopedia of Practical Recipes and Processes (Petersburg, N.Y.: Success Co., 1907), 58286; Isabel Gordon Curtis, Mrs. Curtis's Cook Book (Petersburg, N.Y.: Success Co., 1909), 95, 168; Marion Harris Neil, Canning, Preserving and Pickling (Philadelphia: David McKay, 1914), 21434, 237, 24044. 52. Pickles, 1901, as cited in Jeff W. Huebner, "A Sauce with a Glorious Past; Ketchup Distills Spices, Exotic Flavors of Empires," Pittsburgh Press, 17 August 1986, p. E2. 53. "Americans Have No Taste," Wall Street Journal, 30 April 1974, p. 1.

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3 The Commercialization of Ketchup The beginning of the commercial preserving industry is usually traced to Nicholas Appert's bottling experiments in France at the turn of the nineteenth century. One of his experiments involved stewing and straining tomatoes. The resulting tomato pulp, without salt, sugar, spices, or other preservatives, was then sealed in bottles and boiled in a water bath. His book explaining these techniques was translated and published in Great Britain in 1810 and in the United States two years later.1 Well before Appert's book appeared, mushroom and walnut ketchups had been manufactured in Britain. By 1817 William Kitchiner, author of Apicius Redivivus; or, the Cook's Oracle, reported that "Excellent mushroom catsup may be had at Butler's herb and seed shop, opposite Henrietta St, Covent Gardens." In 1820 mushroom ketchup was so cheap, according to the German-born chemist Frederick Accum, that it was "much resorted to by people in the lower walks of life."2 During the 1820s American commercial bottling operations were launched almost simultaneously in Boston, Baltimore, and New York. The earliest bottling of ketchup trailed behind these efforts by a decade. In 1830 an advertisement in the New England Farmer promoted the sale of "Tomato Ketchup" for fifty cents or thirty-three cents, depending on bottle size. Bottled tomato ketchup was marketed in New York by Bunker and Company by 1834 and was sold in Hartford four years later. William Underwood manufactured a type of ketchup that he sold for $3.25 for a two-pound bottle. Each bottle contained the substance of about two dozen tomatoes and could be kept "any length of time." It was prepared following Appert's directions by "straining the seeds and skins from the tomatoes and evaporating the watery particles by slow heat." By 1839 Underwood's ketchup was being shipped to Mobile, Pensacola, New Orleans, and throughout the Mississippi River system.3

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Others soon concluded that they too could manufacture tomato ketchup. In 1844 T. B. Robertson became the first ketchup bottler in Saint Louis. John Bucklin, who had been connected with the North American Phalanx in Red Bank, New Jersey, produced a large quantity of ketchup by 1855. Within five years commercially bottled tomato ketchup was sold in most major cites in the United States.4 During the American Civil War Northern armies took advantage of the canning industry to feed their far-flung forces. Southern armies took delight in liberating the Union's commissary supplies at every opportunity. The result was that many soldiers, both Northern and Southern, were exposed to canned and bottled foods for the first time, and they liked what they consumed. After the war demand for packaged goods soared, and hundreds of preserving and pickling companies popped up, particularly in Northern and the border states. The rapid postwar expansion of the canning and bottling industry was abetted by two national publications, The American Grocer and The Trade. The American Grocer, launched in New York in 1869, served as the national trade journal for fast-growing grocery store businesses. This journal served as a vehicle for promoting canned and bottled products, including ketchup, which was advertised almost from The American Grocer's inception. While other trade magazines and periodicals subsequently were launched, none ever seriously challenged the national preeminence of these two publications. The Trade was founded in Baltimore in 1878 by a former Confederate soldier, Edward S. Judge. It served as the unofficial publication for canners across America. As such, it offered timely intelligence regarding the canning trade and improved methods of manufacturing canned goods. It also served as a vehicle to advertise products related to canning, such as food processing machinery and preservatives.5 Early Tomato Ketchup Manufacturing Early commercial ketchup was a by-product of tomato canning factories. The tomato was inexpensive to raise, highly prolific, and easily grown. Growers made their high profits during the early season when few fresh tomatoes were available. As the season wore on, tomatoes flooded the market, and prices dropped to such a point that it did not pay the growers to pick them. At this point commercial canners purchased tomatoes by the ton. From early September until mid-October the factories were deluged with wagon loads of produce. During the high season many factories worked twenty-four hours a day, six days a week.

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Tomato canneries discarded small, irregularly shaped, green, or rotten fruit. Ripe, red tomatoes were skinned, pared, and cored. Rotten and diseased sections, worm and insect holes, and green and unripe hard parts were cut out. These rejected pieces and fruitsotherwise referred to as trimmings, refuse, waste, or slopwere tossed onto the floor of the cannery. Trenches collected the trimmings and juice that gushed from the tomatoes as they were prepared for canning. These trenches were scraped out, and the refuse was swept off the floor. Both were dumped into barrels.6 As the juice and trimmings settled to the bottom of the barrels, the water on top was poured off and the barrel was refilled with waste. When full, the barrels were sealed and the mixture was allowed to "work," a colloquial term meaning "to ferment." Fermentation performed some preservative function. It also loosened the skin, making the pulp more readily separated through the use of a steam rubber or by hand. The skins were then sold to farmers as fertilizer. Packers proudly reported that this process was very efficient, as nothing was wasted, and they made "a profit on everything by doing so."7 When the canner was ready to make ketchup, the contents of the barrels were poured into a kettle and slowly brought to a boil. The scum that rose to the top was skimmed off. When the mixture had cooked down to one-half its original volume, sugar, cloves, allspice, and other spices were added to the pulp. From a third to half as much vinegar as there was juice was poured in. If the batch was too thin, starch or foreign pulp was added to give it more body or density. If it was too thick, the hot ketchup was thinned with additional vinegar.8 Early ketchup formulas were based on homemade recipes. But ketchup-making was not a mechanical process of blindly following a specific set of instructions. Homemade ketchup recipes were diverse and contained different quantities of sugar, vinegar, and spices. Each manufacturer carefully guarded its secret formula and process of making ketchup. In the case of one factory, only the owner and the superintendent knew the actual formula. An observer pointed out that "If both of them should die suddenly, the world would miss a distinctive product of the culinary art."9 Whatever the specific proprietary formula, commercial ketchup-making was largely based on the inclinations of the cook. As the quality of the raw ingredients deviated, each batch had to be examined and perhaps processed differently than the preceding one. As wood was used to heat the kettles, the cooking temperature was not always easy to control, and scorching frequently resulted. Even when the heating source was constant and uniform, the cooking time depended upon the quality of the raw

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materials. As most participants pointed out, one learned to deal with these vagaries only through experience. A good cook was a highly prized artisan, and owners made every effort to prevent good cooks from leaving their factories and accepting employment elsewhereor worse, starting their own canneries. The resulting product fashioned by these cooks was not at all like the tomato ketchup we know and love. As natural preservatives were not added until the cooking process began, fermentation and spoilage began as soon as the tomatoes were processed. Fermentation produced lactic acid, resulting in a ketchup with a smooth texture but a sour taste. Most ketchups were highly seasoned, sometimes with large quantities of conflicting spices, in order to camouflage putrefaction.10 Early commercial ketchup was ruddy, dark brown in appearance. As manufacturers could not can green and yellow tomatoes, they were used with red tomatoes to make ketchup, producing a brown color. The coloring was also affected by overcooking or scorching. Likewise, spices, particularly black pepper and allspice, exuded a dark color. If the manufacturer failed to remove the spices before bottling, they imparted an even darker color. In addition, as early bottles were not airtight, the oxygen reacted with the iron and natural tannins in the ketchup to form black ferric compounds. This problem continues to exist today after bottles are opened and oxygen comes into contact with the ketchup. This oxidation forms "blackneck," which is more intense at the surface but sometimes spreads throughout the whole bottle.11 Finally, early commercial ketchups were low-bodied and much less dense than those made today. Some were about as thick as cream; others were more liquidy. Most contained from about 5 percent to 15 percent pulp as compared to the 25 percent to 35 percent pulp in today's ketchup. As these ketchups were thin, bottles with narrow necks became the industry standard. The Rapid Expansion of Commercial Ketchup Along with the rapid expansion of the tomato canning industry after the Civil War came a concomitant increase in ketchup manufacturing. While it was manufactured in most states, the industry was broadly bounded by Maine in the northeast, Maryland in the southeast, Missouri in the southwest, and Minnesota in the northwest. During the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, the core of the ketchup-making area was concentrated in a band bounded in the north by New York City, Rochester, Detroit, and Chicago and in the south by Camden, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, and Saint Louis. A secondary ketchup-making area later developed in northern and central California.

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In New Jersey, Abraham Anderson, a tinsmith, opened a canning factory in Camden in 1862. Seven years later he formed a partnership with Joseph Campbell, a fruit and vegetable wholesaler in Philadelphia. In 1874 the firm of Anderson & Campbell trademarked the term ''Beefsteak" tomatoes with the "figure of a gigantic tomato, borne on the shoulders of two men." One product line was "Beefsteak Tomato Catsup." Anderson and Campbell disagreed about the future of the firm, and the partnership dissolved. Both Anderson and Campbell went out on their own. In 1877 Anderson trade-marked "Boston Market" and "the pictorial representation of a four wheeled timber wagon, with double team and driver conveying a very large tomato suspended between the wheels." The Anderson Preserve Company was incorporated in 1885. Its "Boston Market Catsup" was sold throughout the eastern United States. In 1890 it was advertised as "the most Pleasing, Piquant and Pungent Condiment in the World. EVERY BOTTLE HATH ITS OWN REWARD. A SOURCE OF CONTINUAL DELIGHT."12 While Anderson was launching his firm, Campbell formed a partnership with Arthur Dorrance operating under the name Joseph Campbell and Company. In 1892 the firm's name was changed to the Joseph Campbell Preserve Company. They retained the name "Beefsteak Tomato Ketchup," which they advertised as "A Revelation to Lovers of this Popular Condiment." It was "made from the whole fruit of this famous brand of tomato, thereby imparting the exceptionally delicious and natural flavor alone found in this incomparable Ketchup."13 In the early twentieth century "Campbell's Tabasco Ketchup" was advertised for those who liked the "piquancy of Tabasco Sauce in milder form." In addition they manufactured private labels for other ketchups, such as David Morris & Son's "Conqueror Brand Pure Tomato Ketchup" in Philadelphia; Mitchell, Fletcher & Company's "Park Farm Tomato Catsup" in Philadelphia; and Greil Brothers' "Eagle Tomato Ketchup" in Montgomery, Alabama.14 Although Campbell's produced ketchup well into the mid-twentieth century, it was not one of the company's major products. Soup was. In 1922 the firm again changed its name, this time to the Campbell Soup Company. Dozens of other tomato canners developed ketchup sidelines in New Jersey. In Swedesboro, Edgar H. Hurff manufactured "Hurff Brand Catsup," which was made, according to its advertisements, with pineapple vinegar. In Woodstown, B. S. Ayers and Sons produced "Bridgeton Brand Catsup." By 1909 it was producing one million bottles of ketchup annually. In Red Bank, Naider and Baird made tomato puree. One of its salesmen, Edward Pritchard, began experimenting with making ketchup from puree in about 1878.

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When Naider and Baird failed, Pritchard opened a factory in New York, selling "Pride of the Farm" and "Eddy's Brand Catsup." In 1913 Pritchard purchased B. S. Ayers and Sons and moved to Bridgeton, New Jersey.15 In Moorestown, New Jersey, Jones Yerkes launched a canning factory in 1868, annually producing thirty thousand gallons of tomato ketchup. A writer from The Practical Farmer saw three vats containing about two thousand gallons of tomato ketchup, which was subsequently put up in pint and quart bottles. This ketchup was sold by Warrington, Bennett & Company in Philadelphia and by the Thurber Company in New York. Perhaps due to this success, the Moorestown Canning Factory was purchased by the H. K. & F. B. Thurber and Company in New York.16 Horace K. Thurber had begun a grocery business in 1862 in New York. Beginning in 1870 Thurber's "Baldwin Tomato Catsup" was advertised in The American Grocer. It was the first nationally advertised ketchup brand name and was among the most successful ketchups sold in the 1870s and early 1880s. "Baldwin Tomato Catsup" was sold in decanter-style bottles, pints for $1.75 and quarts for $2.50. In 1876 Horace Thurber went into partnership with Francis B. Thurber and launched the new firm of H. K. & F. B. Thurber and Company. After they purchased the Moorestown Canning Factory, they began producing "Baldwin" brand ketchup at that location. In addition, they also marketed other tomato ketchups with the brand names of ''Connoisseur" and "Griswold Favorite."17 Many ketchup manufacturers were located in New York. In Rochester, Simeon Curtice and his brother Edgar, who had owned a small grocery store, launched a canning factory in 1868 because they did not want to lose the surplus vegetables and fruits they purchased for their store. Curtice Brothers was incorporated in 1887, and it expanded quickly. New plants were opened in Woodstown, New Jersey, and in Vernon and later Bergen, New York. Their "Blue Label Tomato Ketchup" and "Imperial Tomato Ketchup" were the most frequently advertised ketchups during the late nineteenth century. Their advertisements in The American Grocer dwarfed all other manufacturers' combined, and Curtice Brothers was the first ketchup manufacturer to produce full-page color advertisements.18 Ephraim Lipe, a farmer near Canajoharie, New York, was famous for his delicious smoked hams. His son Raymond and a friend, John D. Zieley, decided to form a company to sell Lipe's ham to a wider market. John's father was willing to stake them provided Bartlett Arkell, the son of a local manufacturer, were made president of the company. They assented, and in 1891 the Imperial Packing Company was launched. The Lipes and the Zieleys left the company, and Arkell incorporated it in 1899 under the name

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Beech-Nut Packing Company. Under Arkell's direction the company expanded its line of products and began producing "Beech-Nut Brand Tomato Catsup," which was first retailed in 1908.19 As early as the late 1860s many firms in New York City were manufacturing ketchup. Gordon and Dilworth's "Tomato Catsup" was sold from New York to Chicago. Alart & McGuire produced "Extra Spiced Home Made O. K. Catsup," "Oyster Bay Tomato Ketchup," "Hottentot Catsup," and "Paramount'' ketchup. Charles Gulden, who began manufacturing mustard about 1875, branched out a few years later and produced many other products, including "Strictly Pure Catsup." One of Gulden's customers was Edgar C. Hazard. Hazard had established a store that sold fancy groceries and wines in 1849. Hazard built two canning factories in New Jersey, the first in Riverside in 1874 and another in Shrewsbury nine years later. At this second plant the first known commercial preservative-free ketchup was manufactured.20 The Great American Tea Company, a small store selling tea and other fancy food products and launched by George Hartford and George Gilman in 1859, also produced ketchup. By 1865 they claimed to be operating the largest tea store in the world, along with five branch stores. After the transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, they changed the name to The Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company. It continued to grow and ultimately became the world's largest grocery store chain, more commonly known as A & p.21 John B. Wells established a pickling concern in New York City during 1837. He formed a partnership with Ebenezer Miller in 1841, and three years later they combined with Stephen H. Provost. Miller soon dropped out of the partnership, and Wells & Provost, relocated in Yonkers, New York, became one of the most successful bottlers of the era. Among their many products was ketchup. In one year they produced 144,000 bottles of tomato ketchup, 48,000 bottles of walnut ketchup, and 12,000 bottles of mushroom ketchup.22 In 1854 Stephen Provost sent his brother Dan R. Provost to California to establish an outlet for the goods produced in the East. Wells and Provost also produced goods in California and probably sold ketchup. P. D. Code became the managing director of the office in 1856. In 1867 Code established P. D. Code & Company and began bottling tomato ketchup. In 1868 Provost retired from the company, which later changed its name to the H. B. Prince Co. Boston-born Francis Cutting purchased a half interest in a small vinegar works in Gold Rush City in 1858, but his major problem was supplying his factory with glass bottles, which at the time had to be imported from the East Coast. He established a glass works in San Francisco and with

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a few hired hands began packing a line of pickles, cider, vinegar, and ketchup. In 1898 the Cutting Fruit Packing Company joined eighteen other packers representing about half of the other canners in the state to form the California Fruit Canners Association. This association subsequently changed its name to California Packers Association (CalPack) and marketed Del Monte Brand products, which included ketchup. In 1928 CalPack acquired the H. G. Prince Co., and hence CalPack can trace its roots to both of California's first canners.23 Other California manufacturers, such as the Maas Packing Company and the Paupe Vinegar Works, also produced ketchup, as did the Hunt Brothers' Fruit Packing Company in Santa Rosa, founded by Joseph and William Hunt in 1890. In 1896 they moved their operation to Hayward. The Hunt Brothers produced many tomato products, but when they began producing ketchup is unknown. The Hunt Brothers did not join the California Fruit Canners Association. By the early twentieth century California ketchup was selling throughout the nation and in Canada.24 In Illinois some ketchup was produced downstate, such as at the Brooks Tomato Products Company in Collinsville, but most ketchup firms centered around Chicago. Among the more important ketchups manufactured were Franklin MacVeagh & Company's "Club House," "Lyndon," "Newberry,'' and "Telmo"; Reid, Murdock & Company's "Kenwood," "Monarch," and "White Horse" ketchups; Sprague, Warner & Company's "Frendell," "Richelieu," and "Wichert" ketchups; and Libby, McNeill & Libby's "Libby's Tomato Catsup."25 Many ketchup firms operated out of Cincinnati, Ohio. The Tip Top Ketchup Company, for instance, produced a wide array of ketchup brands, such as "Tip Top," "Sunny Side," "Butler," "Newport," "Manhattan Club," "Puritan," and "Wade's Home Made" ketchups. The J. Weller Company produced "Belle Meade Tomato Catsup," "Hoffman House Ketchup," "Pure Gold Brand Tomato Catsup," "Fort Pitt Tomato Catsup," as well as "Weller's Tomato Catsup."26 T. A. Snider started a canning business together with Robert T. Skinner in Cincinnati during 1879. They made their specialties tomato catsup and other relishes. Snider's ketchup recipe was based on a formula developed by his wife, who had kept a boarding house and became "famous for the excellence of her preserved food." Snider claimed that this was the original commercial ketchup. Previously all ketchups had been made from tomatoes that had been allowed to ferment. Later Snider and Skinner dissolved their business, and Snider organized the T. A. Snider Preserve Company. "Snider's Home-made Catsup" was sold throughout the United States and Canada.

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Factories were established at Hamilton, Ohio; Marion, Fairmont, and Tipton, Indiana; Mt. Vernon, Illinois; and Bergin, Kentucky. Offices were opened in Boston, Chicago, Omaha, New York, Philadelphia, and San Francisco, as well as in Montreal and Toronto, Canada. The T. A. Snider Preserve Company was reported to have been among the largest ketchup makers in the nation around the turn of the century, by 1908 expending $178,000 in advertising alone.27 Charles F. Loudon engaged in the ketchup business in 1873. He began making unfermented ketchup in 1885. In 1889 he began selling his ketchup to the Pullman Company. His ketchup was also sold to the Wisconsin Central, C. B. & Q., Great Northern, Union Pacific, and Chicago and Northwestern railroads and therefore was shipped all over the United States, Canada, and Mexico. In 1891 Loudon went into business with Robert Skinner. The partnership was dissolved after a few years, and Loudon established the Loudon Packing Company. In 1904 Loudon opened a factory in Terre Haute, Indiana, that produced "Climax Catsup" and "Loudon's Catsup." By the early twentieth century Loudon's factories were manufacturing over 1,400,000 bottles and 25,000 gallon cans of ketchup. To prevent contamination, the cookers were glass-lined and the pipes were porcelain-lined.28 Indiana became the hub of other ketchup producers. In 1861 Gilbert C. Van Camp started packing fruits and vegetables, including beans and tomato sauce, in the back of his Indianapolis Fruit House Grocery. In 1864 Gilbert's son suggested that they combine beans with tomato sauce. This product was an immediate hit with consumers, except in New England, where nevertheless the Van Camps continued to market their baked beans. Their business thrived, and in 1882 it was incorporated as G. C. Van Camp & Son. Another product, Van Camp's "Pure Ketchup," was sold throughout the United States and Canada. William P. Hapgood learned the canning trade while an employee at Franklin MacVeagh Company in Chicago during the 1890s. In 1903 he purchased a canning factory in Indianapolis, renaming it the Columbia Conserve Company, which bottled "Columbia Tomato Catsup" from its inception.29 In Saint Louis, John Dodson launched the Dodson-Hills Manufacturing Company in 1882. Within ten years the company was producing tomato ketchup and selling it throughout the United States. In 1897 Adolph Braun, a druggist and chemist, helped modernize the operation, and the firm was incorporated as the Dodson-Braun Manufacturing Company. It continued to produce tomato ketchup and also sold "Faust Cocktail Catsup," which was

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a thick tomato-based product infused with chili peppers for extra spice.30 In Detroit, Michigan, Henry Williams packed pickles during the 1870s. In cooperation with his brothers William and Walter, Henry formed Williams Brothers. It was initially a meat market, grocery store, and pickle factory, but it manufactured ketchup by 1880 and was incorporated in 1901. Williams Brothers produced several types of ketchup, including "Mrs. Jones Tomato Catsup," "Waldorf Tomato Catsup," "Dragon Catsup," and ''Wilco Catsup." Ketchup was 70 percent of the company's total business, and Williams Brothers quickly became one of the nation's major ketchup manufacturers. By 1906 the company was manufacturing annually three to four million bottles of ketchup, and an additional quantity was put up in barrels.31 In Pennsylvania numerous canning factories produced ketchup. In Philadelphia, Philip J. Ritter opened a confectionery business in 1854. He sold his wife's fruit preserves and named his firm the P. J. Ritter Company. Among the products the company made were "Ritter Tomato Catsup," "Standard Brand Tomato Catsup," and "Ritter's Whole Tomato Catsup with Tabasco." The P. J. Ritter Company expanded quickly, establishing a factory in Bridgeton, New Jersey. In western Pennsylvania the Lutz and Schramm Company produced "L & S Tomato Catsup" in Allegheny and Pittsburgh during the early twentieth century.32 In Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania, Heinz & Noble was launched by L. C. Noble and Henry J. Heinz in 1869. Their first factory was a six-by-eight-foot room surrounded by a three-quarter-acre garden patch. Their workforce consisted of two women, Mrs. Schultheis and Mrs. Bingham, who knew how to preserve fruits and vegetables. E. J. Noble joined the firm in 1872, and the name was changed to the Heinz, Noble & Company. Their Anchor Brand product line included both tomato and walnut ketchups. Their tomato ketchup sold from twenty-four cents per gallon from whiskey barrels to a dollar per gallon in buckets or pails. Pint and quart bottles sold from $1.15 to $1.75 apiece. Their "Extra Fine Catsup" sold for considerably more.33 Due in part to their rapid expansion and also to a major national downturn in business, Heinz, Noble & Company went into bankruptcy in December 1875. Two months later the F. and J. Heinz Company emerged from the ashes. Bankruptcy requirements prevented Henry from owning another business until he had paid off his creditors. His brother John and his cousin Frank were technically the owners of the new firm. Henry served as a salaried employee but remained the real power behind the scenes. Under his direction the business thrived. By 1888 he had paid off his debts incurred during the bankruptcy eleven years previously. He bought out his brother

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and cousin and renamed the firm the H. J. Heinz Company. It rapidly expanded manufacturing operations and distribution facilities throughout the United States and other countries. By 1896 the H.J. Heinz Company had established agencies in London, Antwerp, Sydney, and Bermuda. By 1899 new agencies had been established in Mexico City, Liverpool, Toronto, and Montreal.34 Ketchup was initially not among the more important Heinz product lines. This changed during the 1880s. Heinz began patenting ketchup bottles in 1882. By 1890 the company had hit upon the now world famous combination of the keystone label, the neck band, the screw cap, and the octagonal-shaped ketchup bottle, although Heinz continued to explore other shapes and labels.35 Over the years the Heinz Company produced several different brands of tomato ketchup. These included the top-ofthe-line "Keystone or Octagon Ketchup," the second-class "Standard Brand," the third-class "Duquesne Brand Tomato Catsup,'' and the bottom-of-the-line "Home Made Catsup." Some "Home Made Catsup" bottles did not even have the Heinz name on the label. In addition, "Howard Ketchup," named after Henry Heinz's eldest son, was produced for a short time. These brands were sold in assorted sizes from half pint bottles to forty-five-gallon barrels. Prices on the different classes varied greatly. In bulk quantity the "Keystone Ketchup" sold for about sixty cents per gallon, while the third-class "Duquesne Brand Tomato Catsup" sold for twenty-five cents per gallon.36 Unlike those of most other ketchup manufacturers, Heinz's ketchup recipes did survive. Dating from 1883, Heinz's four "Tomato Catsup" recipes were similar to those published in cookery books at the time. Heinz's first recipe included cloves, cayenne pepper, mace, cinnamon, and allspice. His second recipe was more spicy, containing black and white pepper, ginger, mustard seed, horseradish, celery seed, and brown sugar. Vinegar and salt were added as the cook preferred. Heinz's third recipe included ten pounds of salt, two and one-half gallons of vinegar, plus one pound of "Slippery Elm mix." (Slippery elm was an American tree with a fragrant, sticky inner bark that was used as a demulcent.) The recipe also included garlic, cloves, and granulated sugar.37 Shortly after the turn of the century, Heinz became the largest tomato ketchup producer. It had constructed the largest canning factory in the world and annually consumed five hundred thousand bushels of tomatoes. By 1905 it produced over five million bottles of ketchup. This increased to over twelve million bottles during 1906 and 1907.38 By 1908 Heinz's ketchup sales reached $2.5 million, a phenomenal amount by the standards of the day.

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Heinz opened ketchup factories in Salem, New Jersey; Grand Rapids and Holland, Michigan; and Muscatine, Iowa. Almost from the company's inception Henry Heinz advocated extending and expanding sales in other countries. His products were regularly displayed at international food exhibitions, and he traveled extensively throughout the world promoting the company. Before the end of the nineteenth century, ketchup was sold extensively in Canada and in the United Kingdom. In 1900 a sign on a Heinz float in a Pittsburgh parade announced that "The World Is Our Field." By 1907 Heinz was shipping 250,000 gallons of ketchup in five-gallon cans and forty-six-gallon wooden casks to England. Likewise, ketchup was shipped to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, South America, Europe, Japan, and China. According to Sebastian Mueller, Heinz ketchup was sold in every place where there were "civilized people."39 Heinz built a factory in Leamington, Ontario, in 1909. Heinz's factory in Leamington produced its first bottle of ketchup in 1910, but it was not the first Canadian ketchup producer. Canadians, like their cousins south of the border, went wild, beginning in the 1880s, over the red condiment. The province of Ontario had the most ketchup manufacturers, including the Aylmer Canning Company (later a Del Monte subsidiary), the Delhi Fruit & Vegetable Company, the Meaford Canning Company, the Garden City Canning Company in Saint Catherines, the Tillbury Canning Company, and the Gorman, Eckert & Company in London. In Toronto "Canada Brand" ketchup was manufactured by the T. A. Lytle Company, and "Club Tomato Catsup" and ''Pure Gold Catsup" were made by the Pure Gold Manufacturing Company. Other provinces also produced ketchup. In Quebec manufacturers included J. A. Perrault & Cie, J. B. Renaud & Cie, N. Rioux & Cie, N. Turcotte & Cie, H. Bourque & Fils, and the Quebec Preserving Company. In Winnipeg, Blackwood Ltd. manufactured "Blackwood Catsup" and "Chutney Ketchup," and the Dyson Company manufactured "Dyson Red Cross Brand." "Bar Harbor Tomato Ketchup" was manufactured by Deerborn & Company in Saint John, New Brunswick.40 Tomato ketchup was commercially manufactured in other Englishspeaking countries as well. In Britain fancy tomato ketchup was bottled by Crosse & Blackwell. Crosse & Blackwell had been founded in 1706, but it is unlikely that they manufactured tomato ketchup before the late nineteenth century, and even then it does not appear to have been a particularly significant product. Crosse & Blackwell later produced tomato ketchup in the United States and Canada. In Australia tomato sauce, which appears to have been made exactly the same way as tomato ketchup, was also bottled.

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In Melbourne the Australian Jam Company, also known as the Etna Preserving Company, exported "Tomato Sauce" to the United States around the turn of the twentieth century.41 Manufacturing Ketchup at the Turn of the Century By the turn of the century, ketchup manufacturing had changed considerably. As consumers began to discriminate among the diverse brand names, ketchup-makers catered to their demands. According to the editor of the Gardener's Monthly, there was "a wonderful difference among the various articles called Tomato Catsup, from the rich sauce, so thick it will hardly pour, to the thin, watery stuff that would not keep but for the vinegar and salt it contains."42 As ketchup was sold in bottles, consumers could see the contents, and appearance became crucial. Consumers preferred a ketchup with a deep red color, as opposed to the ruddy, brown tinge of the early concoctions. Some manufacturers met this demand by using only ripe red tomatoes. They carefully monitored the heating process to prevent overcooking. They placed spices in bags, which were removed before imparting a dark coloring. Most manufacturers, however, continued to make ketchup from trimmings and simply added food colorings, which produced a brilliant redbrighter even than the natural red color of ripe tomatoes. Consumers also preferred a sweet-tasting ketchup, and manufacturers added increasing amounts of sugar to their ketchups. Sugar had been incorporated into few homemade tomato ketchup recipes before the Civil War. It was added by commercial producers at first to mask the bad taste and smell of decomposing and putrefying pulp. Some commercial ketchups contained as much as one-third sugar and were facetiously referred to as "tomato syrup."43 But adding a little sugar to unpreserved products simply encourages fermentation, which converts sugar into sourtasting lactic acid. Manufacturers began adding preservatives to arrest fermentation, prevent spoilage, and retard decomposition. By the early twentieth century, fermented ketchups were almost a thing of the past. In 1908 Read Gordon, president of the Gordon and Dilworth Company, commenting about fermented ketchup, reported that "No one would eat it to-day."44 As canning with tin and bottling with glass were two very different processes requiring different machinery and raw materials, specialization developed. Most manufacturers engaged in canning and as a side line pulped tomatoes. This pulp was shipped in the barrels to factories specializing in

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ketchup-making. One such factory was E. C. Hazard's factory in Shrewsbury, New Jersey. Hazard's original ketchup recipe came "from an old woman in the country," but the product had been "so changed and improved by experiment that the old woman herself would be forced to admit that she had not attained the highest rank in her art." The factory was "neat and aromatic," reported a correspondent, who continued: ''A whiff of the air there after dinner is almost as good as a dash of tomato ketchup." The superintendent of the factory reported that they made their ketchup "without the use of chemicals or coloring matter."45 Two thousand tons of tomatoes daily supplied Hazard's factory during the high season. These were furnished by a farm connected with the factory and by surrounding gardeners. Only red and ripe fruit was reserved for ketchupmaking. The tomatoes were placed in a "scalding machine" where they were subjected to two separate cold washings and a hot plunge bath. The tomatoes were then placed into a "cyclone" machine, which whirled the tomatoes around. Centrifugal force propelled the liquid and pulp through a sieve. Seeds, skins, cores, and unripe portions were forced to the opposite end. Brushes on the inside prevented the machine from clogging up. Big porcelain-lined pumps took the pulp to a "sifter," where the coarser fibers were removed "and nothing but the blood red fluid" percolated through, to make ketchup. Some pulp was placed in large hermetically sealed cans, where it was cooked without any kind of preservative. These cans were taken down throughout the year as needed, and the real process of making ketchup commenced. The pulp was pumped to a sifting or finishing machine, which was like the cyclone machine except it had a smaller sieve to catch finer impurities. The pulp came out as smooth as cream and was boiled and seasoned in large tin-lined kettles. Country girls with "fresh Jersey complexions" reportedly stirred the ketchup, and the spices were added. The ketchup was then bottled, bucketed, or barreled. At Shrewsbury the factory manager proudly declared that ketchup was made by the barrel and shipped by the ton.46 Eight years later Charles Shinkle offered four different recipes for making commercial ketchup. In his first recipe Shinkle recommended washing the tomatoes in hot water, chopping them, and then running them through the pulping machine. To one hundred gallons of tomato pulp, Shinkle's recipe added 8 oz. cinnamon, 8 oz. allspice, 8 oz. cloves, 4 oz. mace, 2oz. cayenne pepper, and 8 oz. finely chopped garlic and 1 1/2 lbs. shallots or 2 lbs. onions. This mixture was placed in a kettle and heated. After it started to boil, 4 oz. olive oil was added to prevent the ketchup from boiling over.

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Shinkle reported that cooking ketchup required a high temperature and that it was necessary to reduce the mass by 50 percent to make it thick. When this mixture was half boiled, ten pounds of salt and forty pounds of sugar were added. When the ketchup became "fairly heavy," fifteen gallons of vinegar were added. Shinkle reported that the manufacturer had to use his own judgment based upon experience as to when it was finished cooking. When done, the ketchup was run through a sieving machine while still hot. In filling the bottles, the ketchup was cooled down to 150 degrees to prevent shrinkage.47 Shinkle's second recipe called for ten ounces of preservatives and four ounces of coloring. His third recipe, made with fifty gallons of canning waste, added one pound of preservatives, thirty pounds of glucose, and six ounces of coloring. His final recipe was made with one hundred gallons of canning waste, forty pounds of glucose, and six gallons of vinegar. For the lower grades of ketchup, as Shinkle pointed out, the entire flavor was determined by the spices.48 Commercial Nontomato Ketchups Nontomato ketchups were manufactured and sold in England, the United States, and Canada. Beginning in 1830 George Watkins manufactured "Mushroom Ketchup" and "Walnut Ketchup" in England. In the United States "Mushroom Catsup" was sold by H. K. Thurber in New York and by the H. J. Heinz Company in Pittsburgh. During the 1870s the British companies Batty & Company, Morton, and Crosse & Blackwell exported their ketchups into the United States. Batty & Company and Morton appear to have soon ceased their exports, but Crosse & Blackwell continued to export walnut, mushroom, and fancy tomato ketchup to the United States and Canada well into the twentieth century. According to their advertisement, their "Mushroom Catsup" was ''For Steaks, Chops, Game, Hashes, Made Dishes &c., it also imparts a zest to Roast Fowls, Fricasseed Rabbits, and Fish of all kinds."49 Several methods of manufacturing commercial mushroom ketchup have survived. Shinkle made it by combining one barrel of mushrooms along with forty-five pounds of salt and water. After standing at least two months, thirty gallons of vinegar were added, along with six ounces of ground white pepper, six ounces of cloves, two ounces of ground celery seed, two ounces of ground cinnamon, eight pounds of sugar, and five gallons of low-grade tomato ketchup. This mixture was cooked in a kettle for twenty minutes and then run through pulping machines. It was then ready for use and could either be bottled or barreled.50

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The Trade offered another method. This formula packed one hundred pounds of mushrooms in a barrel along with five pounds of salt, which was poured in alternate layers with the mushrooms. After twenty-four hours in a warm place, the mushrooms were crushed and juice was expressed. The juice was placed in a kettle and simmered for fifteen minutes. For every five gallons of juice, one and a quarter pounds of crushed black pepper, a quarter pound of crushed allspice, half a pound of sliced green ginger root, half an ounce of whole mace, and two ounces of whole cloves were added. It was cooked fifteen minutes longer, strained, and bottled while hot.51 William Brannt, a German-born editor of the Philadelphia-based Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar, printed several commercial ketchup recipes, including ones for making cucumber and horseradish ketchups. Brannt's "Cucumber catchup" recipe peeled and grated cucumbers, permitting the juice to run off. The pulp was then pressed through a coarse hair sieve to remove the seeds and poured into small, wide-mouthed bottles, which were filled three-fourths full. The remaining space was filled up with good wine vinegar. Before it was served at the table, it was seasoned with salt and pepper. His recipe for "Horseradish catchup" was similar, but the horseradish was not forced through the sieve as it had no seeds. According to Brannt, during the 1880s both cucumber and horseradish ketchups were "prepared on a large scale in the United States and in England, and have become an article of export." They were packed in small, wide-mouthed bottles, sealed, and provided with brightly colored labels. Some English factories used small, cream-colored earthenware pots, sealed with corks over which was tied strong paper. Unfortunately, the corks were not sealed properly, and spoilage frequently resulted.52 A few years later The Trade offered an improved recipe for manufacturing cucumber ketchup. Its formula started with peeling cucumbers and running them through a pulper. It added forty gallons of cucumber pulp to ten gallons of vinegar, ten pounds of salt, and one and one-fourth pounds of ground cayenne pepper. All ingredients were cooked to a thick sauce. As soon as the heat was turned off, twenty pounds of horseradish and ten ounces of preservative were added. It was bottled while hot.53 In America walnut ketchup appears to have been more successful as a commercial product than was ketchup made from mushrooms. William Underwood and Company produced it during the 1870s. British manufacturers, such as Batty & Company, Morton, and Crosse & Blackwell, produced and exported it during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. One observer was not particularly impressed with Crosse & Blackwell's "Walnut Catsup." He reported that the ketchup had "No distinct flavor" and was of

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"mediocre quality."54 Henry J. Heinz listed walnut ketchup for sale in 1875 and again mentioned it in his diary in the 1880s. His two recipes for "Walnut Catsup" were similar but with different proportions. They started with 130 gallons of walnut juice and added vinegar, soy, and the same spices as were added to tomato ketchup. In addition, the recipes called for tragacanth, a tasteless, odorless, reddish, gummy juice obtained from shrubs.55 Oyster ketchup was popular during the early twentieth century. While some commercial oyster ketchups was made from oysters, others were tomato-based, intending to be used on oysters. Examples included "Oyster Cocktail Catsup," manufactured by A. Booth & Company in Baltimore; the "Catsup Creole Oyster Sauce," produced by Charles E. Erath in New Orleans; "Hirsch's Goodies Ketchup for Oyster Cocktail," made by the Hirsch Brothers Company in Louisville, Kentucky; and "Oyster Cocktail Ketchup," made by the Van Camp Packing Company in Indianapolis. The Loudon Packing Company first made "Rockaway Catsup for Oysters'' in Cincinnati and later in Terre Haute, Indiana.56 The Trade's recipe for making commercial "Oyster Cocktail Catsup" called for heating ten pounds of chopped peppers and six pounds of chopped onions, one pound of garlic, and three pounds of red peppers and pulp. When cooking was half done, ten pounds of sugar and three gallons of vinegar were added. Five minutes before the ketchup was finished, two ounces of cinnamon were added. When the heat was turned off, forty gallons of oyster pulp and artificial coloring were added. It was then finished in a rotary machine.57 There were a number of other assorted ketchups commercially produced in America. For instance, "Celery Catsup" was made by the Celery Ketchup Company in New York; "Grape Ketchup" was produced by Hammondsport Preserving Company in New York; and "Keuk-A Grape Catsup" was made by the Keuka Grape and Fruit Company in Rochester, New York. The H.J. Heinz Company experimented with a variety of other short-lived ketchups, including "Grape Ketchup," "Tomato Mustard Ketchup," and "Curry Ketchup." "Virginia Cucumber Catsup" was introduced as a novelty in 1891 by George K. McMechen & Son of Wheeling, West Virginia. It was considered to be of "excellent quality and favor and put up in neat and attractive style." A boy who tried it exclaimed: "Golly! it's hot, but it's awfully good."58 Brannt's recipe for commercial currant ketchup was to heat four pounds of ripe currants together with one and a half pounds of sugar. Cinnamon, salt, cloves, and pepper and one quart of vinegar were then added. The mixture was boiled for an hour and was then treated in the same manner as tomato ketchup. His recipe for gooseberry ketchup was quite different. It called for

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removing the stems from six quarts of gooseberries and then placing them into a kettle with water and five pounds of sugar. This was boiled, and four more pounds of sugar were added along with a tablespoon each of allspice, cloves, and cinnamon. After boiling another fifteen minutes the mixture was placed into wide-mouthed bottles or pots, which were immediately corked and sealed. Brannt recommended laying "a closely-fitting piece of salicylated paper upon the surface of the catchup." Gooseberry ketchup was "an excellent condiment with roast fowl."59 America's National Condiment While other ketchups were manufactured, tomato ketchup was the most important commercial product. During the decades following the Civil War, its significance continued to rise. While touring America in the early 1870s, Englishman John Lewis observed that "Tomatoes always have been a favorite here. Large quantities of 'ketchup' are made from them, that being indeed the national 'Sass.'" Ketchup production continued to climb. By 1884 a single canning factory, operated by J. H. Butterfoss in Hunterdon County, New Jersey, produced 43,000 gallons. William Brannt reported that "Everywhere where Anglo-Saxons reside" ketchup was "found, though it has also been introduced on the continent of Europe and in the tropics.'' Specifically, he reported that "immense quantities" of ketchup were "manufactured in the American canning establishments."60 What was obvious to an English visitor and a German-born immigrant was not as yet apparent to most Americans. It was not until the 1890s that a writer for the Merchants' Review referred to ketchup as the "incomparable condiment" and the "sauce of sauces." In 1896 the New York Tribune reported that tomato ketchup was the national condiment of the United States and was available "on every table in the land." A correspondent for the Scientific American Supplement concurred in this judgment. Two years later the H. J. Heinz Company, which had made its reputation on pickles and horseradish, announced that there was no condiment more universally popular than ketchup.61 Commercial ketchups proliferated. In 1897 a study found forty-six different brands of tomato ketchup being sold in Connecticut alone. In 1901 a study found ninety-four brands sold in Connecticut. The authors reported that ketchup was the "most popular bottled table sauce" in America. It was "found on the tables of nearly every hotel and restaurant" and was "consumed in large quantities in families." By 1907 agricultural expert Will Tracy estimated that between 200,000 and 250,000 barrels of ketchup stock were put up annually, requiring the harvest of over twenty thousand acres of tomatoes. A national study in 1915 found 138 brands, mainly from the

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eastern United States. These studies missed many ketchups known to have been produced. The names of over eight hundred ketchups have been located that were manufactured prior to 1915, and this is probably a fraction of the total number actually bottled in America by that year.62 A similar taste for tomato ketchup was seen in Canada, but not in the United Kingdom. Well into the twentieth century in Britain the term ketchup continued to refer first to mushroom, then to walnut, and finally to tomato. Moreover, British tomato ketchup was thinner than American. British recipes for tomato chutney were unstrained tomato pulp with added spices. As late as 1937 Americans wanting to sell tomato ketchup in Britain were advised to rename it tomato chutney to avoid confusion.63 There were several reasons for the success of commercial tomato ketchup in the United States and Canada. The adoption of tomato ketchup was part of a broader trend toward increased consumption of tomatoes in the American diet. The tomato had become the queen of the vegetable market by the 1850s, and consumption of fresh tomatoes had dramatically increased from the end of the Civil War. By the late nineteenth century the tomato was among the top vegetables consumed in America. Millions of tomatoes were eaten fresh during the summer, and many more were canned in the autumn for consumption during the winter. Because tomato ketchup was so easily and extensively manufactured, its retail price dropped dramatically during the three decades before 1900. In 1870 a pint of Baldwin ketchup sold for $1.75 and a quart for $2.50. Thirty years later ketchup prices had dropped to ten cents for quart bottles. Bulk prices averaged from about twenty cents to sixty cents per gallon depending upon quality. Severe competition encouraged extensive promotional activities on behalf of particular brands of tomato ketchup. Increased advertisement and decreased prices translated into upward spiraling consumption of tomato ketchup. By comparison, nontomato ketchups in the United States were advertised less frequently and were priced much higher. Imported mushroom and walnut ketchups sold for three times the price of tomato ketchup.64 Part of the high price for imported ketchup was due to tariffs. In 1897 Congress passed a law charging duties on imported sauces. When a custom's official declared that ketchup was a sauce and charged tariff fees, an importer challenged the ruling. Judge Waite of the Board of General Appraisers ruled that ketchup was "dutiable at the rate of 40 per cent. ad valorem as a 'sauce' under paragraph 241 of the Tariff act of 1897."65 While mushroom and walnut ketchups continued to be made commercially, less advertising and higher prices led to declining sales.

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Finally, tomato ketchup was more versatile and performed a variety of culinary functions. It was used for coloring and flavoring in many prepared dishes; it was employed in soups, gravies, sauces, and salad dressings and as a condiment on steak, chops, roasts, cutlets, fish, oysters, eggs, and many other foods.66 Initially, tomato ketchup's success was not due to its use on french fries, hot dogs, and hamburgers, since these were not then mainstays of the American diet. Notes 1. Nicholas Appert, The Art of Preserving (New York: D. Longworth, 1812), 52. 2. Mr. Lewis, Literary Chronicle, as in Frederick Accum, A Treatise on Adulterations of Food (Philadelphia: Ab'm Small, 1820), 22730; [William Kitchiner], Apicius Redivivus; or, the Cook's Oracle (London: Samuel Bagster, 1817), #439. 3. New England Farmer 8 (12 February 1830): 240; Northern Courier, 1 February 1838; Northern Courier, 6 December 1838; advertisement for Bunker and Co. New York, dated 13 May 1834, at the New-York Historical Society; The Second Century (Watertown, Mass.: William Underwood, 1927); canning label, as in Mary B. Sim, Commercial Canning in New Jersey: History and Early Development (Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, 1951), 14; Arkansas State Gazette, 13 November 1839; Pensacola Gazette, 14 April 1838; Quincy Whig, 18 May 1839; Illinoisan, 20 July 1839; Sangamo Journal, 3 November 1838. 4. Daily Missouri Republican, 17 January 1843; Daily Missouri Republican, 13 September 1844; Annual Report of the American Institute, n.v. (1855): 323; J. W. Doane & Co., Green & Dry Fruits (Chicago: Wm. H. Rand, 1858), 6. 5. Unfortunately, few issues prior to 1900 have survived. The early issues were mainly destroyed in the Baltimore fire of 1906. The journal survives today. 6. The Trade 24 (31 October 1902): n.p.; Food Law Bulletin 7 (17 July 1912): 23022. 7. Gardeners' Chronicle, n.v. (31 May 1879): 687; Food Law Bulletin 7 (17 July 1912): 23022; A[rvil] W. Bitting, Ketchup: Methods of Manufacturer(Lafayette, Ind.: Murphy-Bivins, 1915), 4; William T. Brannt, A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar, and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit Wines (Philadelphia: Henry Carey Baird & Co., 1890), 38586; The American Grocer 68 (30 July 1902): 7. 8. Gardeners' Chronicle, n.v. (31 May 1879): 687; Brannt, Practical Treatise, 38586; Bitting, Ketchup, 4. 9. Scientific American Supplement 42 (26 November 1896): 17435. 10. A[rvil] W. Bitting, Appertizing or the Art of Canning; Its History and Development (San Francisco: Trade Pressroom, 1937), 670. 11. Raymond Binsted, James D. Cevey, and John C. Daikin, Pickle & Sauce Making (London: Food Trade Press LTD, 1962), 148. 12. Trademark #1,661, 26 February 1874; Trademark #1,662, 26 February 1874; Trademark #4,885, 25 June 1877; The American Grocer 44 (24 December 1890): 20.

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13. The American Grocer 56 (1 July 1896): 28; 56 (7 October 1896): 15; Douglas Collins, America's Favorite Food; The Story of Campbell Soup Company (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1994), 24. 14. Campbell's company bulletin, 1911, as in Betty Zumwalt, Ketchup, Pickles, Sauces; 19th Century Food in Glass (Fulton, Cal.: Mark West Publishers, 1980), 63; Douglas Collins, America's Favorite Food; The Story of Campbell Soup Company (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1994), 23. 15. Mary B. Sim, Commercial Canning in New Jersey, History and Early Development (Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, 1951), 263, 46977; William Braznell, California's Finest: The History of the Del Monte Corporation and the Del Monte Brand (San Francisco: Del Monte Corporation, 1982), 93; Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report for 1904 (New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1905), 18187; Edward Wiley Duckwall, Canning and Preserving of Food Products with Bacteriological Technique (Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh Printing Company, 1905), advertising section at the end of the book; Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Thirty-fifth Annual Report for 19078 (Hartford: Published by the State, 1908), 12934; The American Grocer 77 (30 January 1907): 28; Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Fortieth Annual Report for 1916 (New Haven: Published by the State, 1917), 29596; Sim, Commercial Canning, 73, 19596, 284, 314, 32225, 422, 425; Bridgeton Evening News, 11 December 1936. 16. The Practical Farmer 9 (February 1872): 224; Mary Sims, History of Commercial Canning in New Jersey (Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, 1951), 126; Zumwalt, Ketchup, Pickles, Sauces, 443. 17. The American Grocer 4 (31 December 1870): 662; The American Grocer 16 (1 July 1876): 28; The American Grocer 27 (5 January 1882): 27, 55; Zumwalt, Ketchup, Pickles, Sauces, 400, 443. 18. Jane Stokes Lange, A History for the 30th Anniversary Board of Directors Meeting, Curtice Burns Foods, Inc., 5 November 1991; Sprague, Warner & Co., [Grocery price list] (Chicago, 1885?), 41; C. Jevne & Co., General Price Current (Chicago, 1892), 3; Corbin, May & Co., Price List, n.v. (1 January 1895): 10; The American Grocer 55 (1 January 1896): 33; The Modern Grocer 4 (6 January 1900): 22; The American Grocer 72 (23 November 1904): 8; The American Grocer 73 (8 February 1905): 1215. 19. Beech-Nut began producing ketchup in 1908; see "Beech-Nut Packing Company Products," a typewritten list of products produced by the company at the Canajoharie Library & Art Gallery, Canajoharie, New York; Annual Report for 1910 (New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1911), 52149; Fortune 60 (November 1956): 8593, 206, 208, 210. 20. Lawrence A. Johnson, Over the Counter and on the ShelfCountry Storekeeping in America, 16201920 (New York: Bonanz Books, 1961), 91; Sprague, Warner & Co., [Grocery price list] (Chicago, 1885?), 3233; A. L. Winton, "Tomato Catsup," in Annual Report for 1897 (New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1898), 35, 37; A. L. Winton and A. W. Ogden, "Tomato Catsup, Chili Sauce and Other Sauces," in Annual Report for 1901 (New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural

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Experiment Station, 1902); The Trade 33 (28 October 1910): 24; The American Grocer 27 (5 January 1882): 44; Winton and Ogden, "Tomato Catsup, Chili Sauce," 137; Zumwalt, Ketchup, Pickles, Sauces, 188; The American Grocer 73 (15 February 1905): 39. 21. Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report for 1904 (New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1905), 18187; John Street et al., "Ketchup," in Annual Report for 1910 (New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1911), 52149; Charles H. Lawall and Leroy Forman, Tomato Ketchup, Bulletin 272 (Harrisburg, Pa.: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Agriculture, Dairy and Food, 1915); State Board of Health of New Hampshire, "Tomato Ketchup," Quarterly Bulletin 4 (April 1915): 2434; William I. Walsh, The Rise and Decline of the Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company (Secaucus, N.J.: Lyle Stuart Inc., 1986), 1525. 22. Zumwalt, Ketchup, Pickles, Sauces, 42632. 23. United States Department of Agriculture, Notice of Judgement No. 1235, 6 December 1911; Isidor Jacobs, "The Rise and Progress of the Canning Industry in California," in Arthur I. Judge, ed., A History of the Canning Industry; Souvenir of the Seventh Annual Convention of the National Canners' Association and Allied Associations (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1914), 31; A. McGill, Tomato Ketchup, Bulletin 368 (Ottawa, Canada: Laboratory of the Inland Revenue Department, 31 March 1917), 1617; Zumwalt, Ketchup, Pickles, Sauces, 86; William Braznell, California's Finest: The History of the Del Monte Corporation and the Del Monte Brand (San Francisco: Del Monte Corporation, 1982), 1516, 2930. 24. The Trade 24 (7 June 1901): n.p.; A. McGill, Lime Juice and Catsup, Bulletin 83 (Ottawa, Canada: Laboratory of the Inland Revenue Department, 24 November 1902), 1819; A. McGill, Tomato Ketchup, Bulletin 368 (Ottawa, Canada: Laboratory of the Inland Revenue Department, 31 March 1917), 1617. 25. South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Fourth Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1904), 1517; South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Fifth Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1905), 20; North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Seventeenth Annual Report; Part 2. Report of Food Commissioner (Bismarck, N.D.: Tribune, State Printers and Binders, 1906), 7879; South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Seventh Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1907), 85; Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Thirty-fifth Annual Report for 19078 (Hartford: Published by the State, 1908), 12934; State of Minnesota Dairy and Food Department, Report of the Chemist (Saint Paul, Minn., 1909), 23; Annual Report for 1910 (New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1911), 52149; Lawall and Forman, Tomato Ketchup; State Board of Health of New Hampshire, "Tomato Ketchup," Quarterly Bulletin 4 (April 1915): 24-4. 26. Winton and Ogden, "Tomato Catsup, Chili Sauce"; McGill, Lime Juice; South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Fourth Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D: State Printer, 1904), 1517; North Dakota Government Agricultural Experiment Station, Twenty-second Annual Report; Part II, Report of Food Commissioner (Bismarck,

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N.D.: Tribune, State Printers and Binderts, 1905), 99103; South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Sixth Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1906), 20; The Trade 33 (28 October 1910): 26; Street et al., "Ketchup," 5219; Lawall and Forman, Tomato Ketchup; State Board of Health of New Hampshire, "Tomato Ketchup," Quarterly Bulletin 4 (April 1915): 2434. 27. J. W. Leonard, The Centennial Review of Cincinnati (Cincinnati: J. M. Elstner & Co., 1888), 108; Food Law Bulletin 4 (7 July 1909): 475; The American Food Journal 3 (15 June 1909): 17; Saturday Evening Review 182 (5 February 1910): 30; William Moore, "A Brief History of the Canning Business in the Central West," in Arthur I. Judge, ed., A History of the Canning Industry; Souvenir of the Seventh Annual Convention of the National Canners' Association and Allied Associations (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1914), 19; Zumwalt, Ketchup, Pickles, Sauces, 388. 28. Journal of the Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Convention of the National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments, held in Portland, Oregon, 1902, 90; Deposition of Charles Loudon, as in The American Food Journal 4 (15 January 1909): 22; Terre Haute Tribune, 17 September 1911, p. 9; "Loudon's Asset to Terre Haute," as in Scrapbook No. 62, p. 27, in the Vigo County Public Library, Terre Haute, Indiana; Testimony of Charles Loudon, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2290302, 231519, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 29. Johnson, Over the Counter, 93; Winton and Ogden, "Tomato Catsup, Chili Sauce," 137; McGill, Lime Juice and Catsup; Lawall and Forman, Tomato Ketchup; Moore, "History of the Canning Business," 19; Testimony of William P. Hapgood, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2584608, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago; David J. Bodenhamer and Robert G. Barrows, Encyclopedia of Indianapolis (Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1994), 460. 30. The American Grocer 46 (1 July 1891): n.p.; Winton and Ogden, "Tomato Catsup, Chili Sauce"; What to Eat 17 (July 1904): 31; What to Eat 19 (December 1905): 22425; E. J. Lehmann, The Fair of Groceries [Price List] (Chicago, 1909), 22. 31. The American Grocer 56 (1 April 1896): 19; The American Grocer 78 (13 September 1907): 1415; Testimony of Walter H. Williams, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2050, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago; Street et al., "Ketchup," 52149; Lawall and Forman, Tomato Ketchup; from the ketchup bottle collection of Joseph Freedman; The American Grocer 78 (13 September 1907): 1415; Testimony of Walter H. Williams before the Pure Food Hearing of the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, held 1327 February 1906, pp. 1724. 32. Winton and Ogden, "Tomato Catsup, Chili Sauce"; Lawall and Forman, Tomato Ketchup; Harvey W. Wiley and Anne Lewis Pierce, 1001 Tests of Foods, Beverages and Toilet Accessories, Good and Otherwise (New York: Hearst's International Library, 1916), 1034; Sim, Commercial Canning, 43336; Winton and Ogden, "Tomato Catsup, Chili Sauce"; Lawall and Forman, Tomato Ketchup; State Board of

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Health of New Hampshire, "Tomato Ketchup," Quarterly Bulletin 4 (April 1915): 2434. 33. Victor Ayer, "A Splendid Banquet Surprise," National Food Magazine 28 (February 1910): 11518; Charles Robson, ed., The Manufactories and Manufacturers of Pennsylvania of the Nineteenth Century (Philadelphia: Galaxy Publishing Company, 1875), 38587; "H. J. Heinz of Heinz Noble & Co.," 167 & 169 Second Ave Pittsburgh, "Book of 1875 & 1876," n.p.; "H. J. Heinz with F. & J. Heinz, 1 July [18]76," n.p.both are manuscripts in the Heinz Family, Pittsburgh. 34. McGill, Lime Juice; McGill, Tomato Catsup. 35. "H. J. Heinz with F. & J. Heinz, 1 July [18]76," n.p manuscripts in the Heinz Family, Pittsburgh; United States Patent No. 12,803, dated 14 March 1882; United States Patent No. 19,911, dated 17 June 1890; United States Patent Office No. 22,312, dated 28 March 1893; United States Patent No. 34,712, dated 10 April 1901. 36. H. J. Heinz Co., Catalogue Price List (Pittsburgh: H. J. Heinz Co., 1892), 13, 22; H. J. Heinz Co., Catalogue Price List (Pittsburgh, 1896), 1, 14, 22. 37. "Recipe Book of H. J. Heinz," before 24 January [18]83, 6768, 13435, manuscript in the Heinz Family. 38. There are very few statistics regarding ketchup production in the late nineteenth or early twentieth centuries. My statement is based on responses of 3,516 readers in three magazines in 1904. Readers were asked: "What brand or make of catsup do you use or buy?" The largest number of readers (716) responded with Heinz. This survey is discussed in greater depth on page 124. See Ralph Tilton, "Successful Food Advertising; Catsup and Sauces," What to Eat 19 (December 1905): 22425. In 1906 Edwin Johnson, secretary of the Association of Manufacturers and Distributors of Foods Products, reported that Heinz was "probably the largest manufacturer of catsup in the country." See Food Law Bulletin 2 (24 June 1907): 120; Clarence Pullen, "The Evolution of the Packing Can," Pickles 5 (1901 Exposition edition): 20; The American Grocer 80 (19 August 1908): 19. 39. Pickles 4 (November 1900): n.p.; The American Food Journal 4 (15 January 1909): 22; Testimony of Sebastian Mueller, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2995, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago; Testimony of G. F. Mason, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:294547, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago; Eleanor Foa Dienstag, In Good Company: 125 Years at the Heinz Table (18691994) (New York: Warner Books, Inc., 1994), 157; Grocer's Monthly 4 (November 1900): n.p.; Testimony of Sebastian Mueller, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2995, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 40. McGill, Lime Juice and Catsup; McGill, Tomato Catsup. 41. From the ketchup bottle collection of Joseph Freedman; Zumwalt, Ketchup, Pickles, Sauces, 35, 96, 139. 42. Gardener's Monthly 24 (November 1882): 337.

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43. R. O. Brooks, Vinegars and Catsup: Interpretations of Standards, Analyses, Etc. (New York: Spice Mill Publishing Co., 1912), 64. 44. The American Grocer 80 (28 October 1908): 810. 45. Scientific American Supplement 42 (26 November 1896): 17435. 46. Ibid.; Testimony of Orvill [sic] Wayne Bitting, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2614-15, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 47. Cha[rles] A. Shinkle, American Commercial Methods of Manufacturing Pickles, Preserves, Canned Goods, etc. (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1902), 24. 48. Ibid., 2425. 49. "H. J. Heinz of Heinz Noble & Co.," 167 & 169 Second Ave Pittsburgh, [Price List] "Book of 1875 & 1876"; The American Grocer 27 (5 January 1882): 27; photograph of Heinz Walnut Ketchup bottle in the archives of the H. J. Heinz Co., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; The Grocer 3 (1 July 1876): 18; from the ketchup bottle collection of Joseph Freedman; McGill, Lime Juice and Catsup, 1819. 50. Shinkle, American Commercial Manufacturing, 23. 51. A Complete Course in Canning (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1906), 151. 52. William T. Brannt, A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar, and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit Wines (Philadelphia: Henry Carey Baird & Co., 1890), 38788. 53. A Complete Course in Canning (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1906), 15051. 54. The American Grocer 17 (29 April 1877): 1173; Robert C. Alberts, The Good Provider: H. J. Heinz and His 57 Varieties (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1973), 55; from the ketchup bottle collection of Joseph Freedman; The American Grocer 27 (5 January 1882): 27; The American Grocer 81 (5 May 1909): 17; Shinkle, American Commercial Manufacturing, 2223; Wiley and Pierce, 1001 Tests, 254. 55. "Recipe Book of H. J. Heinz, before Jan. 24, [18]83," 67, & 136, manuscript in the Heinz Family. 56. Winton and Ogden, "Tomato Catsup, Chili Sauce"; Testimony of Charles Loudon, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2290302, 231519, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago; Lawall and Forman, Tomato Ketchup. 57. A Complete Course in Canning (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1906), 153. 58. Johnson, Over the Counter, 91; The American Grocer 48 (7 December 1892): 8. 59. William T. Brannt, A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar, and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit Wines (Philadelphia: Henry Carey Baird & Co., 1890), 388. 60. John Lewis, as cited in Jeff W. Huebner, "A Sauce with a Glorious Past; Ketchup Distills Spices, Exotic Flavors of Empires," Pittsburgh Press, 17 August 1986, pp. E1E2; Report of the Hunterdon County Agricultural Society, as cited in the Country Gentleman 49 (21 August 1884): 696; Brannt, Practical Treatise, 385. 61. Merchants' Review 24 (14 August 1891): 78; Scientific American Supplement 42 (26 November 1896): 17435; "Ketchup and Ketchup Making," Pickles 2 (25 October 1898): 1.

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62. Winton, "Tomato Catsup"; Winton and Ogden, "Tomato Catsup, Chili Sauce," 135; Will W. Tracy, The Tomato Culture (New York: Orange Judd Co., 1907), 18; Lawall and Forman, Tomato Ketchup. See the appendix on the "Historical Commercial Tomato Ketchups," p. 199223. 63. Mary Woodman, Jams and Preserves Bottles Fruits and Vegetables Chutneys & Pickles (London: W. Foulsham & Co., Ltd. [1928]), 13437; Binsted et al., Pickle & Sauce, 154; Bitting, Appertizing. 670. 64. The Grocer 3 (1 July 1876): 18. 65. The American Grocer 81 (5 May 1909): 17. 66. Ladies' Home Journal 27 (June 1910): 34; Ladies' Home Journal 33 (January 1916): inside cover.

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4 The Quest for Pure Ketchup Despite the spectacular success and rapid expansion of the bottling and canning industry, all was not well in the food-packaging world. Since the industry's inception, contamination and adulteration had been alarming problems. These afflictions became more menacing and more visible as the industry expanded. As there was no national pure food law in the United States in the nineteenth century, the problems of food contamination and adulteration festered. Many states became increasingly concerned about the packaged food industry, and some passed pure food laws. The first general food law was passed in Illinois in 1874. Other states soon followed with laws of their own. At first these laws lacked effective enforcement provisions, but this changed as chemists were appointed to analyze foods sold in their states and report regularly their findings. These reports set up a drumbeat of alarm that encouraged more effective legislation and improved enforcement procedures. By 1895 more than half of the states had enacted pure food laws, and many had established food and dairy commissions charged with the task of ensuring the purity of food manufactured or sold within their states. One successful chemist was Harvey Wiley. He had been raised in rural Indiana in a home rife with evangelical religious ardor. He served in the Civil War and subsequently studied medicine. He received an M.D. but never practiced medicine. Instead, he taught Latin and Greek. In 1874 he accepted an appointment as the first professor of chemistry at the newly founded Purdue University in Lafayette, Indiana. He was subsequently appointed to the position of Indiana state chemist, and in this capacity he conducted studies of adulterations for the State Board of Health.1 In 1883 Wiley was appointed to the position of chief of the Division (later Bureau) of Chemistry in the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The position had originally been created by Congress in 1862 along with the department and was responsible in general for chemistry in agriculture. Wiley's predecessors had mainly engaged in conducting chemical tests on the request of other federal departments.

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With characteristic thoroughness, Wiley concentrated on the wholesomeness of the nation's food. From this national position he conducted studies of food adulteration and contamination. His pioneering work in agricultural chemistry encouraged the passage of pure food legislation in several states. He patiently built a national coalition committed to pure food efforts. From his work with a network of chemists Wiley was instrumental in forming the National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments in 1898. This association, composed of members of state food commissions and departments, discussed matters of common concern and developed guidelines on specific issues, such as those connected with food adulteration and contamination. It also convened annual conventions, the first of which was held in Detroit at the invitation of Michigan's food and dairy commissioner, E. O. Grosvenor.2 Harvey Wiley, state chemists, and state commissioners were concerned with many issues related to food, but among the more controversial were those connected with ketchup-making. Ketchup's Afflictions Problems of adulteration and contamination had plagued the commercial ketchup industry almost from its inception. During the early nineteenth century Mr. Lewis, a London tavern keeper, reported that mushroom ketchup was ''often nothing less than the residue left behind after the process employed for obtaining distilled vinegar, subsequently diluted with a decoction of the outer green husk of the walnut, seasoned with al-spice, Cayenne pepper, pimento, onions, and common salt." It was "impregnated with copper" because manufacturers boiled the ketchup in copper vessels. When the acid in the ketchup came in contact with copper, a poisonous substance, verdigris, resulted. When Lewis informed a manufacturer of this well-known fact, the producer stated that most ketchup makers used copper vessels and that he had done so for almost twenty years. By the 1830s copper contamination of commercial ketchups was a decreasing problem, as chemists had perfected tests that could detect its presence even in small proportions.3 In 1817 William Kitchiner, author of Apicius Redivivus; or, the Cook's Oracle, asserted that most of what was sold for mushroom ketchup was "little better than a decoction of spice and water, with the grosser parts of the mushroom all beaten to a pulp." Three years later chemist Frederick Accum reported in his Treatise on Adulterations of Food, and Culinary Poisons that the mushrooms employed in ketchup-making were generally in a putrefactive state because they had not found a ready sale while fresh. He believed that no vegetable substance was "liable to so rapid a spontaneous decomposition

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as mushrooms." He reported that "a few days after the fungus has been removed from the dung-bed on which it grows, it becomes the habitation of myriads of insects; and, if even the saleable mushroom be attentively examined, it will frequently be found to swarm with life."4 Although Accum left England under a cloud of scandal generated by those who were upset with his onslaught against adulteration, his book generated excitement throughout Europe. It was promptly reprinted in America in 1820 and was cited regularly during the following decades in books dealing with adulteration of foods. Charles Albert Browne, a prominent twentieth-century chemist, later identified Accum's book as "the origin of the modern pure food movement." Accum's work intensified the atmosphere of resentment and contributed to the eventual passage of the Adulteration Act through Parliament in 1860 in the United Kingdom. Although the initial legislation proved inadequate, subsequent amendments and revisions set in motion a process in which these problems could be resolved. Likewise, Canada passed pure food legislation in 1884, a law that was subsequently strictly enforced. If a manufacturer was convicted, fines were levied; if the manufacturer sinned a second time, he was liable to a jail sentence.5 During the early nineteenth century most people concocted their own ketchup at home or dealt with reputable dealers. As the century progressed, consumers increasingly purchased commercial packaged goods. As the ketchup industry expanded to meet increased demand, from both sides of the Atlantic accounts of adulteration soared. American cookbook author Pierre Blot, who promoted himself as a professor of gastronomy and founder of the New York Cooking Academy, warned consumers against what was sold under the name of ketchup, because "many cases of debility and consumption" came from "eating such stuff." Another American writer reported that the "catsups sold in stores'' were generally "poor stuff, made of dubious ingredients, and the fruitful source of indigestion and other disorders of the stomach." A British cookbook author reported that nine-tenths of the ketchup "sold by groceroilmen" was a "vile compound of liver and the roe of fish, seasoned with pepper and condiments." Aware of these problems, the British editors of Cassell's Dictionary of Cookery concluded that, though excellent preparations were "no doubt sold by respectable dealers," the superiority of homemade ketchup was undisputed.6 During the latter part of the nineteenth century demand for tomato ketchup skyrocketed in America. Some ketchupmakers who ran out of tomatoes, or perhaps never had any to begin with, creatively developed solutions to the lack of supply. Tomato grower James Gregory of Marblehead,

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Massachusetts, described an interaction with a Boston dealer who had made a ton of "tomato" ketchup using only dried apples: What a humbug this honest looking man is, was my instantaneous thought. But Chemistry here interposed, and said, "Not so fast, not so fast! What's in a name? Is not the characteristic acid of the tomato and the apple the same? viz: malic acid; and in dried or preserved fruits is not the flavor dependent almost wholly on the characteristic acid, most of the more delicate flavors of the fresh fruit being too subtle to be retained by such processes? Now the quantity of malic acid in ripe tomato exceeds that in the ripe apple; but when the apple is dried, and particularly when it becomes very dry by age, and the acid thus greatly concentrated, may not the proportionate difference be lessened, and thus in all essential characteristics your apple ketchup will become tomato ketchup?"7 By the 1870s most commercial ketchups embodied significant amounts of foreign ingredients. Tomato ketchups were adulterated with pumpkin or apple pulp. In addition, vast quantities of starch were added to ketchup until well after the turn of the twentieth century. In 1876 William Archdeacon's recipe for "Cheap Tomato Ketchup" consisted of tomato pulp combined with an equal mass of squash pulp. If this appears surprising, his recipe for "Commercial Mushroom Ketchup" was fashioned from beef livers and contained no mushrooms at all.8 Another response to spiraling demand was for packers to make ketchup increasingly from tomato trimmings. Skins and refuse were stored in vats until the tomato canning season was over. This mass was then cooked up with "a liberal supply of oils and condiments to impose it on an unsuspecting public as 'fresh tomato catchup.'" Dishonest labeling was not the only problem. Ketchup made from trimmings and unripe tomatoes produced both an unsanitary product and one that was unappetizing in appearance. Canners were not particularly worried about unsanitary conditions existing in factories, but they were concerned about the appearance of the ketchup. To resolve this problem, manufacturers added food colorings, including cochineal, carmine, eosine, acid magenta, and various aniline coal-tar dyes.9 In 1856 William Perkins, a British chemist, converted coal tar into dyes for use in the textile industry. They were increasingly used in the food industry. By the 1890s coal-tar dyes were frequently used in ketchup-making because of their brilliant red color thought necessary to catch the eye

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of the consuming public. Coal-tar dyes also had greater permanency, superior tinctorial strength, and lower cost than other food colorings.10 Even manufacturers who did not make ketchup from trimmings wanted to use food colorings. Charles Loudon, who used only ripe tomatoes in his ketchup factory in Terre Haute, Indiana, employed dyes "to restore the color lost in the process of manufacture and to make the goods appear attractive to the eye." Severe cooking, necessary to reduce pulp to make ketchup, killed the bright red color of the ripe tomatoes. Subsequent exposure to light further affected the color. Loudon and most other manufacturers believed that coloring matter was "required to make the goods attractive in appearance and to meet the demand of the public, who call for a red catsup in preference to those without artificial coloring."11 Making ketchup from trimmings and using artificial food coloring were recognized as unsafe as early as 1882. The editor of the Gardener's Monthly encouraged every family to make their own ketchup at home, "not only as a matter of economy, but of safety. If one must buy, avoid the bright red, attractive looking compounds, as they are artificially colored. The cheap stuff sold to restaurants is made from peelings and other refuse of the canning factories. Good catsup can only be made when the fruit is perfection; towards the end of the season, when the nights get cool, and growth is slow, the fruit is watery and will not yield the rich pulp of the best fruit."12 Another problem confronting ketchup-makers was related to storing pulp and bottling ketchup. Manufacturers stored the trimmings and pulp in whiskey barrels made of oak. Regardless of how well they were constructed, the barrels were not airtight. As the trimmings fermented and putrefied, some barrels exploded. A similar problem confronted ketchup in bottles. In canning with tin, tomatoes were usually packed cold, and the cans were then heated, killing all the bacteria inside the can. However, ketchup was packed in glass. Due to the state of glass making in the late nineteenth century, heating filled bottles to temperatures above two hundred degrees resulted in enormous breakage. But if the ketchup were not heated above this temperature, it was not sterilized. Ketchup had to be heated first and then poured into the bottles and corked. As the ketchup cooled, the corks were unable to maintain the vacuum. Air was sucked through and around the cork, and spoilage commenced. Spoilage was retarded in early commercial ketchup due to fermentation. As the sour tasting ketchup became unpopular, fermentation was arrested through the use of chemical antiseptics, such as boric acid, which was commonly used after discoveries of vast deposits of borax in dried-up

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California lake beds. Boric acid and other preservatives permitted manufacturers to barrel pulp and bottle ketchup with low rates of spoilage. Preservatives also resolved health problems caused by unsanitary conditions in the factories, or so manufacturers believed. Unfortunately, small amounts of preservatives were not always sufficient to accomplish these ends. According to Edward Duckwall, a canner and early researcher, large quantities of preservatives were needed to prevent fermentation and spoilage.13 Warnings about the injurious effects of boric acid appeared. Germany banned importation of American foodstuffs that contained borax. In 1902 Congress granted Harvey Wiley a five-thousand-dollar supplemental appropriation to study the effects of preservatives. Healthy, young men, dubbed by the press the "poison squad," were recruited mainly from the Department of Agriculture. These voluntary human guinea pigs agreed to eat their meals in the Bureau of Chemistry and provide Wiley with all of their body secretions. After ingesting increasing amounts of borax and boric acid, the poison squad's appetites declined and discomfort ensued, followed by stomach cramps and headaches. As dosages increased, members of the poison squad eventually were unable to perform work of any kind. Wiley related these results in 1904 as the first part of Bulletin 84, Influence of Food Preservatives and Artificial Colors on Digestion and Health. He concluded that borax and boric acid should be banned from food. Years before Wiley published his conclusions about borax, food packers had begun exploring other possible germicides, such as salicylic acid. While its existence and properties had been known for decades, not until 1874 did the German organic chemist Hermann Kolbe discover a method to synthesize it from phenol and carbon dioxide. Kolbe's process lowered the cost of manufacturing, making its commercial use feasible. To determine the potential injurious effects of salicylic acid, he ingested it for an extended period of time and declared it safe to use as a food preservative. Other scientists concurred, pronouncing it harmless to the human system. Chemists soon brought the good news before food processors and urged them to make use of this new miracle preservative, and a new era in the food-preserving industry was born. By the late 1880s many tomato ketchups contained salicylic acid, often in combination with other preservatives.14 Unfortunately, subsequent reports claimed that salicylic acid was injurious to health, and several deaths were attributed to it. Likewise health warnings about food colorings began to circulate as early as 1894.15 These concerns about food colorings and preservatives persuaded state chemists to examine the contents of ketchup. What they found disturbed them. In 1896 a study of fifty-five preserves and ketchups in California found

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that forty-eight contained injurious ingredients. The Maas Packing Company in California, for instance, made ketchup from substandard pulp, preserved it with boric and salicylic acid, and colored it with coal-tar dyes. The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station examined forty-one samples of different brands of tomato ketchup. Twenty-seven contained salicylic acid. In another Connecticut study of ninety-four samples practically all used "coal tar to color to give the bright red appearance." Only eight samples were free from both preservatives and artificial coloring matter. In Nebraska the state chemist found only one brand of ketchup that was not artificially colored with coal-tar dyes. Pumpkin, not tomato, was found to form the basis of many ketchups. In Pennsylvania the food and dairy commissioner reported that about one-half of the ketchups analyzed in the state contained artificial coloring matter and starch.16 Robert Allen of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station investigated fifty-three samples of tomato sauce and ketchup. Fifty samples were adulterated: forty-three were artificially colored with aniline dye, and forty-seven contained antiseptics. Allen believed that the artificial coloring suggested that the samples were made "from tomato cores and skins, the by-products of the various tomato canning factories." Allen continued: The lower grades of catsup are generally put up in barrels or tanks and shipped to the wholesaler, who puts the article into bottles bearing his own label. A large quantity of some antiseptic is necessarily needed to preserve the goods through the first careless exposure in barrels and to keep it until the dealer puts it into bottles. The dealer sometimes adds more antiseptic in order to further stop fermentation during the long time, sometimes several years, that his goods may await a sale on the grocer's shelf. A Louisville grocer stated that a quantity of catsup, from which a sample was purchased, had been on his shelf for eight years.17 Not every manufacturer used chemical preservatives and food coloring. The E. C. Hazard Company of Shrewsbury, New Jersey, advertised its "Tomatoketchup" as "Guaranteed free from artificial coloring or chemical preservatives," and it was "Warranted to keep in any climate.''18 The superintendent of Hazard's factory in Shrewsbury reported that salicylic acid was the standard chemical employed to prevent fermentation, but he was opposed to its use, reporting that: "If you can get the right amount of that, perhaps it is not harmful; but the trouble is you have to use just a little to make sure that fermentation will not set in; and that surplus amount of salicylic acid hinders the natural fermentation of food in the stomach."19

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The Shrewsbury manager was also opposed to the use of coloring in ketchup. Highly colored ketchups were so bright that they had lost the natural color of the tomato. Colored ketchups were not so healthful, "for they contain carmine. Any one who knows what carmine is made of doesn't care to eat it."20 Almost every other ketchup manufacturer disagreed with this assessment, mainly because it was cheaper and easier to make ketchup with the use of preservatives and food colorings. State lawmakers and regulators did not believe that what was cheaper and easier for the manufacturers was necessarily better for the consuming public. Several statessuch as South and North Dakotaoutlawed coloring matter and injurious preservatives in ketchup. After the passage of the regulation in South Dakota, the state food and dairy commissioner doubted if there was a single brand of ketchup on the market that was "absolutely legal." Of twentyeight samples of ketchup examined in South Dakota, he condemned twenty-one. In North Dakota, Edwin F. Ladd, the food commissioner for the state of North Dakota (and later U.S. senator), found only one brand of tomato ketchup free of chemical preservatives and coal-tar coloring matter. In one year he declared as adulterated 57 percent of the ketchups examined.21 Ladd reported that manufacturers used "the waste products from canning which have been chemically embalmed for month[s], add to this some other vegetable matter like pumpkin or turnip and season it with the usual condiments, including saccharine." But the product was unpresentable, so they painted "the whole mass red in order that it may stand upon the shelves in competition with the product produced from the pure ripe tomatoes under the most sanitary conditions and with the greatest skill that manufacturers and chemists have been able to develop in order to produce a superior product. As they stand upon the shelf the casual observer does not recognize the difference."22 There were limitations to state pure food laws and regulations. Not all states passed them. Products condemned in one state were often simply reshipped to another state. Alternately, manufacturers who tried to comply with state laws and regulations were confronted with a bewildering array of ever-changing rules and regulations. In an attempt to standardize state rules, the National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments passed resolutions and issued guidelines; however, these decrees were voluntary and contained no enforcement provisions. The states' food commissioners and some food processors concluded that only the federal government could create and enforce a uniform set of standards for pure food throughout the United States.

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Passage of the National Pure Food and Drugs Act In 1860 most Americans lived on farms and ate what they produced. In urban areas foods were generally sold in their raw state and were produced locally. Delivery of foodstuffs into cities was accomplished through direct sales of products by farmers to consumers, or indirectly through small shops and grocers. After the Civil War the nation underwent a series of interconnected revolutions in urbanization, industrialization, transportation, and agriculture. These revolutions affected the nation's food processing, packaging, and delivery systems. Factories began to massprocess vast quantities of meats, fish, fruits, and vegetables. This mass production led to larger factories, more sophisticated marketing techniques, and improved delivery systems. The transportation of food over long distances and its sale often months later required improved methods of preservation. Refrigeration in railroad cars and cold storage was one invention that contributed to the ability to preserve food, but this invention could only go so far to maintain the quality of food.23 In 1879 European countries began restricting the importation of American food products on the grounds that they were diseased. It was no coincidence that pure food legislation was first introduced into Congress in the same year. Legislation continued to be introduced into every session thereafter. It passed the House of Representatives on two occasions, but the Senate failed to vote on the bills. Opposition to federal legislation came from agricultural interests fearful of losing markets, food processors opposed to federal control, and political conservatives opposed to governmental interference in the marketplace and infringing upon the powers belonging to the states. In addition, there was no general public support for the legislation. Harvey Wiley, a persuasive writer and speaker, believed that part of his responsibility was to educate the American public about his findings. His evangelical zeal led him to speak at many meetings. He inspired Alice Lakey, of the Consumers' League, to support the national food law. Likewise, he formed coalitions with other groups, including the General Federation of Women's Clubs and the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, which established a committee on food standards chaired by Wiley in 1897. In 1899 the Senate held the first hearing on pure food legislation. While the Senate again failed to pass the legislation, the hearing did contribute to a growing surge of agitation for the nascent pure food movement. In 1902 Congress made the Association of Agricultural Chemists official advisers to the secretary of agriculture in setting food standards.24 While the Louisiana Purchase World's Fair was under way in Saint Louis

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in 1904, a Pure Food Congress was held simultaneously with the annual meeting of the National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments. At these two meetings food reformers from around the country and some international representatives coalesced. Adjoining the exhibit prepared by manufacturers of preserved foods at the World's Fair, a booth was set up to gain visibility for the pure food movement. It displayed over two thousand adulterated products manufactured in the United States, along with a chemist's seal attesting to its contents. Each state sent adulterated products. Minnesota and South Dakota sent bottles of ketchup with a list of adulterants that they contained.25 Food manufacturers considered getting an injunction against the display but decided legal action would only give it more visibility. The display had been the brainchild of Robert Allen, the food and drug administrator in Kentucky. Allen had met Wiley in 1902, and the two had become fast friends. The following year Allen was elected secretary of the National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments, a position he held for the next seven years. Under Allen's influence the association endorsed the national pure food legislation that had been proposed by Wiley. In February 1905 a committee of six supporters headed by Allen and favoring pure food legislation met with President Teddy Roosevelt to solicit his endorsement. Roosevelt listened to what the delegation had to say and asked them to return in the fall. When they returned, Roosevelt told them that he would ask Congress for pure food legislation. In his annual message to Congress he recommended that a "law be enacted to regulate interstate commerce in misbranded and adulterated foods, drinks, and drugs."26 The agitation for state and national pure food legislation disturbed food manufacturers across America. Those business leaders who were worried about the potential elimination of preservatives in food formed the Boston-based Association of Manufacturers and Distributors of Food Products. The association asserted that it stood for honest labeling of all food products and that members guaranteed that their products were "wholesome and free from deleterious, objectionable or unhealthy ingredients." By 1903 thirty-five manufacturers were members, including Joseph Campbell Preserve Company, Curtice Brothers, P. J. Ritter Conserve Company, Williams Brothers, J. Weller Company, Dodson-Braun Manufacturing Company, Alart & McGuire, and E. Pritchard Company. Despite its public statements, the association was opposed to the elimination of many preservatives, especially benzoic acid and benzoate of soda.27 Walter H. Williams, president of the Williams Brothers in Detroit, was

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a leader of the opposition to food laws because he presumed that Wiley would administer the law and Wiley was opposed to all chemical preservatives in the preparation of foods. Seventy percent of their business was ketchup, and Williams believed that a preservative was necessary. In 1901 Williams Brothers hired E. O. Grosvenor, who had been the food commissioner for Michigan, to lobby against pure food legislation and otherwise protect the interests of ketchup manufacturers.28 Initially Harvey Wiley and other pure food advocates wanted manufacturers only to label preservatives and colorings in their products. In November 1904 Wiley concluded his speech to the Household Economic Association by asking for foods to be honestly labeled: "Then if people want to eat dyes and poisons, they alone are responsible." Again, at the Retail Grocers' Association meeting in Philadelphia in February 1905, Wiley stated that adulterations need not be abolished, only "honestly labeled."29 Labeling laws were passed in many states. Under these laws the commissioners could declare that products were misbranded if chemical analysis could prove that preservatives were used in the product but not listed on the label. As it became increasingly clear that a national food law would pass Congress, Wiley and others set their sights higher. In February 1906 Wiley told a Congressional committee that, given the opportunity, he would condemn all artificial preservatives. Alarmed by Wiley's position, Walter Williams and E. O. Grosvenor organized ketchup manufacturers to testify at these congressional hearings in opposition to the passage of the national food law.30 Support for the national pure food bill increased dramatically due to the publication of Upton Sinclair's The Jungle and similar muckraking exposes published in McClure's, The Ladies' Home Journal, Collier's, and other publications. When the Pure Food and Drugs Bill was debated in Congress, Wiley developed a display of adulterated goods in the lobby of the House of Representatives, as had been done at the Saint Louis World's Fair two years before. This display incorporated several hundred food samples purchased at grocery stores throughout the nation. Attached to each was an analysis of the adulterants contained in the product.31 With the general support of the American people, the bill finally passed Congress in June 1906. It provided for the end of adulterants in foods and required truthful labeling of foods sold across state lines. Ketchup Standards and Enforcement Efforts The passage of the law was just the beginning of the process to ensure the purity of the nation's food. Standards needed to be agreed upon, tests to

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determine whether or not these standards had been met needed to be developed, and enforcement procedures needed to be established. The effort to create standards began almost immediately with the passage of the act. Within three months the Committee on Standards of Food Purity had recommended guidelines for many food products. It defined ketchup as "the clean, sound product made from the properly prepared pulp of fresh, ripe tomatoes, with spices with or without sugar and vinegar." Mushroom, walnut, and other ketchups were made from the commodity described and conformed "in name to the product used in their preparation." The Committee on Standards of Food Purity evolved into the Committee on Standards of the American Association of Official Chemists, which continued regularly to examine the definition of ketchup and make changes over the years. Early on the committee prohibited the production of fermented ketchup. They concluded that fermentation was a sign that the manufacturer had improperly stored the tomato pulp and was therefore an adulteration. Condemned also was the use of fillers and starch paste as well as decomposed or rotten material. Much to the surprise of many state commissions, the committee did not at first condemn the practice of making ketchup from trimmings. The National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments made a provision for "Compound Catsup," which was "composed of skins, factory waste, tomato refuse, in sound condition." However, the words Compound Catsup had to be printed on the label followed by a statement naming the character of its ingredients.32 Some states promptly passed laws outlawing compound ketchup. The Maryland State Food and Drug Commission, for instance, required that ketchup be made from pulp of whole tomatoes. According to the commission, ketchup made from skins and cores was "mere offal or refuse" possessing little or no food value. They claimed that citizens were deceived and imposed upon. Not everyone was happy with this decision. The editor of The Trade, the trade journal of America's canners, predicted that the price of canned tomatoes would go up because canners could not make profit on selling skins and cores.33 Based upon these standards, the Food and Drug Administration chemists commenced examining the contents of many commercial ketchups. Needless to say, not all manufacturers immediately adopted these standards in their bottling operations. Most members of the Association of Manufacturers and Distributors of Food Products were convicted of violating pure food laws. Six hundred and fifty cases of "Navy Brand" ketchup made by the J. S. Van Lill Company of Baltimore were destroyed because they contained

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"filthy, decomposed and putrid vegetable substances" made from "screenings and waste." "Bordeaux Brand Catsup," made by the Van Camp Packing Company in Indianapolis, was condemned because of misbranding. It had twice as much as benzoate of soda as was allowable by law and as was noted on their labels. Alart & McGuire of New York shipped 124 cases of their "Hottentot Catsup" and fifteen barrels of "Extra Spiced O. K. Catsup'' to Louisiana. They were found to be misbranded and adulterated, as they consisted in part of decomposed and putrid vegetable substances. The J. Weller Company of Cincinnati shipped 100 cases of ten-ounce bottles labeled "Pure Gold Brand Tomato Catsup." After testing it was determined that this product was anything but pure. It contained decomposed and putrid vegetable substance.34 Some prosecutions provoked humor. In a federal court case in Providence, Rhode Island, a reporter stated that "The United States Court tried a quantity of tomato catsup this morning. Notwithstanding the nature of the defendant, the proceedings were not spicy. The tomato catsup was put on trial for its life on the charge of being other than what it pretended to be." The reporter continued: "The catsup was noticeably red in the face when it was admitted in its behalf that it might not be all that it was labeled, nevertheless the Government's contention that it was 'offal,' it was argued, ought not to be construed as charging that it was 'awful.' In behalf of the Government, it is said to have been retorted that the charge was brought under the 'pure food' and not the 'poor food' law."35 Of the early federal prosecutions tomato products consumed a very high percentage of violations. For each successful prosecution the secretary of agriculture issued a "Notice of Judgement." Of the first twenty-five hundred Notices of Judgement, more than 10 percent were connected with tomato paste, pulp, canned tomatoes, and ketchup. Over four-fifths of these Notices of Judgement related to the condemnation of ketchup or pulp.36 In addition to federal prosecutions, ketchup producers were charged with violating state pure food laws. In South Dakota hundreds of dollars' worth of bad ketchup was condemned and shipped out of the state, and many thousands of dollars' worth was prevented from being shipped into the state. Grocers and wholesalers who were found selling illegal ketchup were prosecuted, as were the manufacturers. In just ten states over four hundred violations were uncovered and ninety were successfully prosecuted. The states with the largest number of prosecutions were New York, Pennsylvania, and Minnesota. Many violations were related to misbranding or mislabeling. Other ketchups were condemned because their contents were declared to be "filthy, decomposed and putrid."37

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For those convicted, the products were confiscated and destroyed, and small fines, usually fifteen to twenty-five dollars, were levied. Sometimes the offending party was required to pay court costs. While these fines were minor slaps on the wrist by today's standards, convictions were often published in local newspapers and national magazines and periodicals. Bad press was one of the pure food movement's greatest allies. Some manufacturers turned to less scrupulous means of evading bad publicity. Some regularly changed the names of their ketchups. The Tip Top Ketchup Company, for instance, produced at least seven ketchups under different names. Other manufacturers changed the names of their companies. Other ketchup producers had even more creative solutions. One created a fictitious company: the "Reliable Catchup Company of Hamilton, Ohio" did not produce ketchup there, nor were the manufacturers known to anyone in Hamilton. This was a case of false labeling; the sellers of this product were liable for prosecution, but they were never located.38 In 1911 A. N. Cook, pure food commissioner in South Dakota, issued a bulletin on ketchup reporting that investigations showed that most ketchups on sale in the state were made from partly rotted tomatoes. Others had "been prepared from skins, cuttings containing rotten spots, and refuse of all kinds from the canning tables, which the best manufacturers allow to run into the sewer." This obviously unfit material was allowed partially to rot through negligence. Most manufacturers were indifferent about what kinds of materials were used in making ketchup, as long as the bad taste and odor were disguised by large amounts of spices and vinegar. Of forty different brands on sale in the state, only eight were found that were fit for human consumption.39 Eventually manufacturers found it cheaper to maintain sanitary conditions and sterilize their products than to confront prosecution. Adulteration declined. In 1915 the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture examined 138 samples of tomato ketchup and found that less than 2 percent were illegal in any respect.40 Not all of those convicted of violating pure food laws may have been guilty. There were problems in developing methods of detecting decomposed substances in tomato ketchup. The method generally employed was known as the Howard Method, which was based on a microscopic examination of the product in which microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, spores, and molds were counted in a minute sample of the product.41 If the count in a given amount of the product exceeded certain defined limits, it was assumed that the product was adulterated. The Howard Method was regarded as infallible and was accepted as evidence in court in the hundreds

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of prosecutions brought against ketchup-makers. The method, however, was challenged: There were so many factors involved both in the technique of the examination and in the process of manufacturing of tomato products which influenced the results of the counts to such an extent that doubt was easily cast on the method itself. For example, the cooking process frequently broke apart the tissue of the plant so thoroughly that it was largely guesswork to differentiate between bacteria, spores, molds and plant cells. However, products cooked only a short time had low counts because the microorganisms adhered closely to the plant tissue and were not readily recognized. Tomatoes not carefully washed before processing might have high microorganism counts from surface bacteria yet the fruit itself was not decomposed.42 After 1915 there was debate within the Department of Agriculture over the use of the Howard Method. Concordant results were not obtained from some of the best microscopists in the country even though they followed the printed directions and, at times, the personal instructions of B. J. Howard. The New York Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva undertook an investigation into the Howard test in 1920.43 While the investigation was under way, Howard visited the Experiment Station and explained the method to the researchers, but there were continuing problems. In 1921 Robert S. Breed, experiment station bacteriologist, pointed out that there were "no known methods by which bacteria killed during processing could be stained so as to reveal the true number present before the heating took place, and such staining with aniline dyes was necessary for the microscopic examination." Breed also noted "that mold hyphae and spores could be observed and counted but that tomato decay was frequently caused by bacteria rather than molds and hence the Howard method did not give an accurate picture of the condition of the product." Breed suggested that only field or cannery inspection could adequately insure that the tomatoes were not decomposed.44 Breed's conclusions were sound, but the Pure Food and Drugs Act could be applied only when the product entered interstate commerce. It "was virtually impossible to establish the chain of evidence against any particular lot of objectional raw stock observed by the inspector in the factory through the various steps of manufacture, storage and shipment until it finally crossed the state line." Despite the difficulties in observing and counting bacteria, the Howard Method continued to be used for mold counts.45

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Notes 1. Mark Sullivan, Our Times in the United States 19001925, 3 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1929), 2:518; C[ornelius] C. Regier, The Era of the Muckrakers (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1932), 180; James Harvey Young, "The Science and Morals of Metabolism: Catsup and Benzoate," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 33 (1968): 88. 2. Sullivan, Our Times, 2:518; Regier, Era of the Muckrakers, 180; Young, "Science of Metabolism," 88. This association operated under several similar names, including National Association of State Dairy and Food Commissioners, and National Association of State and Federal Dairy and Food Departments. To avoid confusion, only one name has been used in the text, although the correct name has been used in the endnotes. 3. Mr. Lewis, Literary Chronicle, as in Frederick Accum, A Treatise on Adulterations of Food (Philadelphia: Ab'm Small, 1820), 22730; Domestic Chemist (London: Bumpus & Griffin, 1831), 2, 162. 4. [William Kitchiner], Apicius Redivivus; or, the Cook's Oracle (London: Samuel Bagster, 1817), #439; Frederick Accum, A Treatise on Adulterations of Food, and Culinary Poisons (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown, 1820), 250. 5. Charles Albert Browne, "The Life and Chemical Services of Frederick Accum," Journal of Chemical Education 2 (November 1925): 100834; James Harvey Young, Pure Food: Securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989), 4142; Stephen Wilson, Food and Drug Regulation (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Public Affairs, 1942), 9; Food Law Bulletin 7 (5 June 1912): 187. 6. Pierre Blot, What to Eat, and How to Cook It (New York: D. Appleton, 1866), 25; Todd S. Goodholme, A Domestic Cyclopedia of Practical Information (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1877), 8889; John Timbs, Hints from the Table (London: George Routledge and Sons, 1866), 80; Cassell's Dictionary of Cookery (London: Cassell Petter & Galpin, circa 1870), 12. 7. New England Farmer 12 (March 1860): 146. 8. William Archdeacon, The Kitchen Cabinet: a Book of Receipts (Chicago: Published for the Author, 1876), 6368; Andrew L. Winton, The Microscopy of Vegetable Foods (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1916), 41213; South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Second Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1902), 89; What to Eat 17 (December 1904): 255; The Trade 26 (17 February 1905): n.p.; The American Grocer 79 (29 January 1908): 11; State of Michigan, Eighteenth Annual Report of the Dairy and Food Commissioner for the Year Ending June 30, 1911 (Lansing, Mich.: Wynkop Hallenbeck Crawford, 1911), 28. 9. William T. Brannt, A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar, and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit Wines (Philadelphia: Henry Carey Baird & Co., 1890), 385; Prof. Weber of the Ohio Dairy and Food Commission, as cited in A. L. Winton,

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"Tomato Catsup," in Annual Report for 1897 (New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1898), 33. 10. South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Fourth Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1904), 57; Sheldon Harry Hocheiser, "Synthetic Food Colors in the United States: A History under Regulation," Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1982, p. 3. 11. South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Fourth Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1904), 57. 12. Gardener's Monthly 24 (November 1882): 337. 13. Edward W. Duckwall, Bacteriology. Applied to Canning and Preserving of Food Products (Baltimore: The Trade, 1899), 9597. 14. The Trade 27 (30 September 1904): n.p. 15. Duckwall, Bacteriology, 96; E. G. Kohnstamm, Colors for Food, speech at the convention of the Flavoring Extract Manufacturers' Association, as in Food Law Bulletin 6 (8 February 1911): 44. 16. The American Grocer 57 (12 May 1897): 6; Winton, "Tomato Catsup"; A. L. Winton and A. W. Ogden, "Tomato Catsup, Chili Sauce and Other Sauces," in Annual Report for 1901 (New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902), 135; What to Eat 16 (March 1904): 102; The American Grocer 79 (29 January 1908): 11. 17. The Trade 24 (25 July 1902): n.p.; (1 August 1902): n.p. 18. Grocers' Monthly Review 28 (1 January 1896): 26, 30; A[rvil] W. Bitting, Appertizing or the Art of Canning (San Francisco: Trade Pressroom, 1937), 670. 19. Scientific American Supplement 42 (26 November 1896): 17435. 20. Ibid. 21. The American Grocer 72 (21 December 1904): 14; South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Second Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1902), 89; South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Fourth Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1904), 1517; South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Fifth Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1905), 10; The Fargo Forum, 10 June 1904; The Trade 28 (18 June 1906): 10. 22. What to Eat 17 (December 1904): 255; The Trade 26 (17 February 1905): n.p. 23. Sullivan, Our Times, 2:5045. 24. Wilson, Food Regulation, 12; Young, "Science of Metabolism," 87; Young, Pure Food, 180. 25. What to Eat 17 (September 1904): 131. 26. Young, Pure Food, 17980; Robert C. Alberts, The Good Provider: H. J. Heinz and His 57 Varieties (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1973), 17677. 27. H. B. Meyer, ed. and comp., Journal of Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Convention of the National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments, held in Saint Paul, Minnesota, 1903, 6. 28. Testimony of E. O. Grosvenor, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the

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United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 5:3987, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 29. Baltimore Sun, 27 November 1904, p. 16; Philadelphia Record, 15 February 1905. 30. House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Pure Food Hearings, 1327 February 1906, pp. 367. 31. Sullivan, Our Times, 2:507. 32. North Dakota Government Agricultural Experiment Station, Twenty-second Annual Report; Part II, Report of Food Commissioner (Fargo, N.D.: Knight Printing Company, 1911), 70. 33. The Trade 33 (16 September 1910): 2021. 34. The Trade 31 (13 August 1909): 22; Food Law Bulletin 5 (16 March 1910): 771; The Trade 32 (26 November 1909): 8; 33 (28 October 1910): 24, 26. 35. The Trade 31 (29 January 1909): 19. 36. United States Department of Agriculture, Notices of Judgement 12,500. 37. Food Law Bulletin 6 (23 August 1911): 267; American Food Journal (15 February 1912): 3; Charles H. Lawall and Leroy Forman, Tomato Ketchup, Bulletin 272 (Harrisburg: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Agriculture, Dairy and Food, 1915), 11. 38. North Dakota Government Agricultural Experiment Station, Twenty-second Annual Report; Part II, Report of Food Commissioner (Bismarck, N.D.: Tribune, State Printers and Binderts, 1905), 9. 39. Food Law Bulletin 6 (23 August 1911): 267. 40. Lawall and Forman, Tomato Ketchup. 41. Burton J. Howard and W. D. Bigelow, Some Forms of Food Adulteration and Simple Methods for their Detection, U.S.D.A. Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 100 (1906); Burton J. Howard and Charles H. Stephenson, Microscopical Studies on Tomato Products, U.S.D.A. Bulletin 581 (1917). 42. Bitting, Appertizing, 68289; Edward F. Keuchel Jr., "The Development of the Canning Industry in New York State to 1960," Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1970, pp. 24243. 43. A[rvil] W. Bitting, Appertizing, 68289; Annual Report of the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, 1921 (Geneva, 1922), 23. 44. Robert S. Breed to W. G. Campbell, 19 October 1921, Breed Papers, Box 1, as noted in Keuchel Jr., "Canning Industry," 24445. 45. W. G. Campbell to Robert S. Breed, 8 November 1921, Breed Papers, Box 1, as in Keuchel Jr., "Canning Industry," 24546; Examination of Tomato Products, U.S.D.A. Service and Regulatory Announcement 184 (1922).

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5 The Benzoate War Commercial benzoic acid was originally derived from the benzoin tree. It was a white, tasteless, and odorless preservative and antiseptic that was naturally present in some fruits, such as cranberries. Used in small quantities, its effects were mild by comparison to the then commonly used salicylic and boric acids. Scientists had been aware of benzoic acid, as they were of salicylic acid, for decades before it was used in food. During the late nineteenth century German chemists discovered how to make it from toluene, which could, in turn, be made inexpensively from coal tars. Around the turn of the century most ketchup manufacturers switched from using salicylic and boric acids to benzoic acid and its saltbenzoate of soda or sodium benzoate. By 1910 the estimated annual value of food products produced in America containing benzoate of soda was about $60 million.1 However, as early as 1901 physicians, chemists, and other scientists began to ponder potential injurious effects of the benzoates. Food manufacturers claimed that as benzoates were used only in small quantities, they were not injurious to health. Advocates for pure food contended that benzoates were probably unhealthful and that they were usually used in large quantities to hide the fact that the ketchup was made from inferior raw tomatoes. In addition, as preservatives were used in many other foods, the average person ingested as many as forty doses of chemical preservatives and artificial colorings every day by eating processed foods. The cumulative effect of all of these preservatives and additives used in small doses was dangerous, or so said the antibenzoites.2 Almost from its inception, the National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments debated preservatives in packaged food, with benzoates in ketchup receiving prominent attention. At the association's 1902 convention in Portland, Oregon, ketchup-maker Charles Loudon submitted a paper focusing on the necessity of using some preservative in the manufacturing of tomato ketchup. Loudon had tried to make preservative-free ketchup but had received numerous complaints from grocers and consumers regarding

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fermentation and so had discontinued the practice. He believed that without preservatives it was impossible to make ketchup that would not spoil shortly after opening. Loudon hoped that the association would adopt a uniform guideline for all states permitting the use of harmless preservatives. The consensus of opinion was that one-twelfth of 1 percent should be permitted, and manufacturers agreed that was satisfactory.3 The following year the association's convention was held in Saint Paul, Minnesota. Loudon again supported the use of benzoates. So did the representatives of H. J. Heinz Company, Richard J. Evans, Glenn Mason, Loren S. Dow, and Edward Duckwall. Evans, who had been Heinz's manager of sales since 1892, announced that Heinz had discontinued the use of salicylic acid and replaced it with benzoates. Ever since, reported Evans, Heinz had been experimenting on ways to eliminate all preservatives in its food products. Subsequently Heinz had reduced its use of benzoates by half. Like Loudon, Heinz had experimented with making ketchup without any preservative, but "without exception every bottle fermented."4 Despite the public probenzoite position at the meeting, Evans conversed with W. D. Bigelow, a chemist from the USDA's Bureau of Chemistry, regarding the possibility of successfully manufacturing a preservative-free ketchup. Bigelow convinced Evans that it was possible to make preservative-free ketchup. Because of the increasing support for the pure food movement, Evans concluded that it was in Heinz's enlightened self-interest to continue experimentation.5 After extensive discussion, many commissioners concluded that a preservative in ketchup was necessary and that benzoate of soda, one of the least harmful of the preserving agents, should be allowed "in proportions not exceeding one part to twelve hundred." There were those at the meeting who disagreed with this decision. Food and dairy commissioners of four statesNorth Dakota, South Dakota, Indiana, and Vermontsubsequently condemned the use of benzoate and forbade products containing it to be sold in their states.6 Wiley Opposes Benzoates State food commissioners were likely encouraged to condemn benzoates by Harvey Wiley, who believed that they were unnecessary and a danger to the health of the consumer. Wiley had conducted experiments on benzoic acid and sodium benzoate in April and May 1904. A dozen members of Wiley's poison squad were exposed to a ten-day nonpreservative period followed by a month in which half the group was administered benzoic acid and the other half sodium benzoate in increasing daily dosages from 0.9

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grams to 2.5 grams. Finally, the preservatives were stopped, and clinical observations continued. Only three members of the poison squad persevered to the end of the clinical trials. The others were so ill that they had to discontinue ingesting both preservatives. All but one of the squad suffered from inflamed throats and esophagi, pains in their stomachs, dizziness, and material losses in weight. At the time Wiley's tests were criticized because the capsules contained far greater amounts of benzoate than was present in commercial ketchup. Although the results of these experiments were not published until 1908, Wiley believed that these investigations proved that benzoic acid and sodium benzoate were injurious to health. Wiley also believed that manufacturers added them to ketchup to hide inferior or spoiled content. From this point on, Wiley argued vociferously against their use as food preservatives. Ketchup manufacturers argued just as strongly in favor of benzoate. In Congressional hearings before the passage of the pure food law ketchup manufacturers predicted that if benzoates were condemned ketchup-makers would be run out of business. All that they needed was one-tenth of 1 percent of benzoate in each bottle, or so they claimed.8 Edwin C. Johnson, secretary of the Association of Manufacturers and Distributors of Food Products, campaigned fervently against Wiley's efforts to ban benzoates, reporting that without their use ketchup manufacturers could not survive. Wiley wrote to Johnson reporting that he had heard this argument before the committees of Congress for twenty years. Wiley believed that this argument was absurd, as some ketchup-makers did get along without the use of preservatives. An article in the Food Law Bulletin challenged Wiley's statement. The article claimed that there were few manufacturers who put up ketchup without preservatives. In fact, most manufacturers did not believe the claims of those purporting to produce ketchup without the use of preservatives. They believed that these manufacturers added a secret antiferment of some kind. The unidentified author concluded that "Dr. Wiley should prove his case or inform the manufacturers how to put up catsup before making a ruling against its use."9 In February 1907 the major regional canners associationsthe Atlantic States Packers, the Western Packers' Canned Goods and Dried Fruit Brokers' Association, and the Pacific Coast Canners' Leaguemet in Buffalo, New York. The most important result was the creation of the National Canners' Association. The association would promote the interests of the food packers through publishing research reports, establishing a laboratory to conduct research into canning, holding annual conventions, and lobbying federal officials in Washington, D.C.

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Wiley was a featured speaker at the convention. With regard to the use of preservatives, he stated that packers had never proven that benzoates were harmless. Conversely, he believed that his poison squad experiments demonstrated that they were injurious to health.10 One convention delegate specifically asked Wiley about the use of benzoate in ketchup. Wiley responded that he had not taken up the subject, but he was particularly opposed to its use in ketchup: if "we did so we would soon open the door all along the line, and then we would have the same condition of affairs, only worse, as we had before the law was passed, because before the law was passed a good many people did not use preservatives, and if the law says that it is lawful, and they can be used, it certainly will be cheaper and more convenient to use them than do without." He believed that it was possible to make ketchup without benzoates, but if not, then "it would be a product that we ought to do without." Wiley also reported that part of the Bureau of Chemistry's function was to assist packers. He believed that the bureau's best work was "done right in the factory, where food is made, right with the man who makes it." Charles Loudon, who was present at the meeting, invited Wiley to send one of his "young men" down to his packing factory to show him how to make ketchup without preservatives. Most manufacturers were not amused by Wiley's offer of assistance. When the convention adjourned, F. R. Meyer of the Dodson-Braun Company in Saint Louis called together the ketchup and tomato pulp producers. Meyer told the assembled group that the restrictions under the new pure food law were a hardship. He wanted to put preservatives into pulp rather than be compelled to produce ketchup in small-sized bottles. While Wiley was a bitter foe of all added preservatives, he had promised to work on discovering a method for making ketchup without them. Pending such a discovery, manufacturers would be allowed to continue using benzoate as a preservative.11 Ketchup Experiments Wiley charged two researchers with the task of finding out how to make preservative-free ketchup. One was Arvil Bitting, graduate of Purdue University in Lafayette, Indiana. Bitting had served as veterinarian to the Agricultural Experiment Station in Florida for three years. He received a doctorate in veterinary medicine from Iowa State College in 1895. After graduation he began teaching veterinary medicine at Purdue University while studying medicine at the Indiana Medical College. He received his M.D. in 1900, but, like his mentor Harvey Wiley, Arvil Bitting never practiced medicine.

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One of Bitting's colleagues at Purdue was Canadian-born Katherine Golden. Her family had immigrated to the United States when she was young. She had received her B.S. from the State Normal School in Salem, Massachusetts, studied bacteriology at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and received an M.S. degree from Purdue University. While completing her master's thesis she worked at the Purdue Agricultural Extension Station. In 1893 she became an assistant professor, teaching biology, structural botany, and bacteriology. The subsequent marriage of Arvil Bitting and Katherine Golden launched a successful personal and professional partnership that lasted four decades.12 In 1906 Arvil Bitting became a special agent for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, stationed at Lafayette, Indiana. The following year he became an inspector for the Bureau of Chemistry. In September 1907 Katherine Bitting was appointed to the position of microbotanist in the bureau and was assigned to work with her husband. Their first joint project was to determine how to make ketchup without the use of added preservatives. For several years Loudon had unsuccessfully tried to do this. As soon as his bottles were opened and exposed to air, they fermented and spoiled. As ketchup was intended to survive long periods of time after opening, Loudon concluded that benzoate, or some other preservative, was necessary. However, he proclaimed sincerely that if he could find a way to produce benzoate-free ketchup that would keep sound and sweet under ordinary conditions of usage, he would gladly employ it.13 During the 1907 ketchup season, the Bittings visited Loudon's plant in Terre Haute, where they conducted some of their experiments. The factory was one of the most modern of the day. The tomatoes used at the plant were brought to the factory by local farmers in wagons, loaded with forty-five-gallon crates. The tomatoes were placed on an ''endless" belt, and young women stood on either side picking out tomatoes that were unsuitable, such as those spoiled, specked, moldy, or rotten. These were tossed out. Unripe tomatoes were placed in slatted boxes and allowed to ripen. Ripe tomatoes were then taken to the washer, which consisted of a tank in which there was a large stream of water with a force of sixty-five pounds turning them over and over. When the tomatoes left the tank, four sprays of water further cleaned the tomatoes. The clean tomatoes were carried up an incline into casks with steam, where they were heated until the skin loosened and the pulp softened. They were then dropped into the cyclone machine, which removed the seeds, skins, cores, and other woody parts of the tomatoes. The pulp was pumped through enamel-lined pipes into enamel-lined holding tanks. From the tanks the pulp was poured into the vats or kettles, and

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cooking immediately commenced. While the pulp was being placed into the kettles, the spices, sugar, salt, and vinegar were weighed and measured, and the spices were added at the beginning. The sugar, salt, and vinegar were added toward the end of the cooking. As soon as the ketchup was cooked, it was drawn off into an enamel-lined tank and run through a finishing machine. The ketchup was then bottled or barreled. Following the Bittings' instructions, Loudon produced three thousand cases of unbenzoated ketchup during the 1907 season. This ketchup contained more vinegar and sugar, but otherwise it was made from the same recipe Loudon had previously used. Loudon was not particularly confident about the results of this experiment. When he filled his orders with the nonbenzoate ketchup, he attached a note stating that it had been produced without preservatives and that if retailers found any spoiled bottles, they could returned them and receive a full refund. Loudon sold all of the nonbenzoate ketchup. Much to his surprise, he received fewer complaints than when he was "putting out goods with preservatives."14 From the 1907 batch of Loudon's nonpreservative ketchup, the Bittings extracted an experimental lot of 135 bottles. These were stored various lengths of time under a variety of temperatures. After opening, the experimental lot survived from four days to twenty-seven days. Unfortunately, based upon this evidence, only small bottles could be used, as they contained only enough ketchup to be used within a few days of opening. Of course, if the ketchup were refrigerated after opening, it would survive a reasonable period of time. "Good ketchup," said Arvil Bitting, called "for reasonable care on the part of the consumer as well as maker." After the Bittings gained experience at Loudon's ketchup factory, they established a laboratory in their home in Lafayette. Their model ketchup factory consisted of a small copper kettle jacketed at the bottom so that steam could be used as a heat source, a boiler with one hundred pounds of pressure, and a small retort for sterilizing bottles after they were washed. In their home laboratory the Bittings made ketchup using a variety of techniques and examined ketchup made commercially by others. In all they analyzed over sixteen hundred bottles of ketchup. In addition they visited over forty factories that made tomato pulp and twenty ketchup factories.15 As homemade ketchup survived for a much longer period after opening than did their experimental ketchup, the Bittings began collecting ketchup recipes from magazines, journals, cookbooks, and other sources and testing them in their laboratory. They found that homemade ketchup had a heavier body and contained more vinegar, sugar, and spices. They were particularly surprised with the amount of vinegar employed in homemade ketchup. It

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should have produced a very sour tasting ketchup. However, they discovered that the vinegar was added early in the process, and much of it boiled out. Using techniques learned from homemade recipes, the Bittings were able to boost the time preservative-free ketchup could be kept after opening. With regard to storing and shipping pulp and ketchup, the Bittings concluded that unpreserved tomato pulp and ketchup could not be saved or transported in wooden barrels or casks. The pulp was pumped hot into the barrels, and the barrels were sealed. As the hot ketchup cooled, it contracted. As the wooden casks were not hermetically sealed, air rushed in. The solution to this problem was simply to discontinue using wooden barrels. The Bittings recommended storing preservative-free pulp and ketchup in large sterilized tin cans. The cans of pulp were opened when needed and converted into ketchup. Cans of ketchup were opened when needed and bottled. Large lacquered cans had been used extensively in the canning industry previous to this time, but most ketchup manufacturers still used wooden casks or barrels. An exception was the Heinz Company, which had used lacquercoated cans for strong tomato pulp and ketchup since 1905. The lacquer was placed in a solution with alcohol and applied to tin sheets. The sheets were then baked in an oven at a high temperature. The lacquer coat prevented interaction between the acidic tomato and the metal. It also avoided permeating the contents with a metallic taste. This shift also made sense financially, as the expenses of canning had declined appreciably, while the cost of barrel making had increased. By 1910 the cost differential between the barrel and the lacquered tin was but three cents.16 The Bittings concluded that the process for making this preservative-free ketchup was simple: carefully select ripe tomatoes, handle them in a sanitary manner, increase the amount of vinegar, increase the body of the ketchup, and sterilize the finished product. Arvil Bitting published their initial findings, "Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato Ketchup," in January 1909 as the Bureau of Chemistry's Bulletin 119. Six years later the Bittings published two monographs bound together: Arvil Bitting's "Ketchup: Methods of Manufacturer" and Katherine Bitting's ''Microscopic Examination."17 The end result of their numerous experiments was a preservative-free ketchup that would keep almost indefinitely after opening under normal household conditions. The Antibenzoite Lobby Even before the Bittings' experiments had proven publicly that ketchup could be produced without preservatives, several ketchup manufacturers had already done so. As previously mentioned, Shrewsbury "Tomatoketchup,"

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made by E. C. Hazard, never had any preservatives. Whatever other manufacturers may have believed, Shrewsbury ketchup was frequently tested, and no evidence ever emerged indicating the presence of any chemical preservative or food coloring.18 The Columbia Conserve Company in Indianapolis halted using artificial coloring in ketchup in 1903. At that time the company also decided to discontinue the use of chemical preservatives as soon as possible. William Hapgood, the company's innovative president, believed that if a housewife could make ketchup that did not spoil, manufacturers could as well. In 1906 they packed about 240,000 half-pint bottles without benzoate of soda or other preservatives, and during the following two seasons they packed over three million bottles of preservative-free ketchup. In addition, the Columbia Conserve Company put up 21,000 five-gallon cans of ketchup. Much to their surprise, their total loss from fermentation was about one-fifth of 1 percenta much smaller proportion than when the company packed ketchup with preservatives. Their loss would have been even less, but they had acquired bottles that were difficult to seal. Hapgood declared that their experience "clearly demonstrated that tomato catsup can be packed and put up by the use of salt, sugar, vinegar and spices by sterilizing the completed product, so that it can be packed, shipped and consumed without any appreciable amount of fermentation or deterioration." In addition, it could be profitable. They sold more nonpreservative ketchup than they had previously sold ketchup with benzoate.19 Another manufacturer that began to produce preservative-free goods was the H. J. Heinz Company in Pittsburgh. Prior to 1903 Heinz's ketchups were medium bodied with average acidity. Like most other manufacturers, Heinz at different times had added coal-tar coloring, as well as benzoic and salicylic acid, to their ketchups. Like most of their competitors, Heinz also used nontomato ingredients in their ketchup. "Keystone Brand" tomato ketchup, for instance, used 25 percent boiled dried apples. Likewise, Heinz's recipe for "Howard Brand" tomato ketchup, named after Henry Heinz's son, contained as much as 50 percent apple pulp. It should be noted that in Heinz's case apples were added for reasons of taste. Their "Keystone Brand" was Heinz's top-of-the-line ketchup, and it was more costly than other ketchups.20 In 1904 the food commissioners of North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota sent out letters to ketchup manufacturers stating that all new ketchup imported into their states could not have preservatives other than benzoate of soda, which could only be employed in quantities less than one-twelfth of 1 percent. To meet these new state laws, the Heinz Company

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produced an experimental "New Process" ketchup, which was test-marketed in South Dakota. Although Heinz's "New Process" ketchup did not include preservatives, it was condemned by the South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission because it contained coal-tar dyes for coloring.21 When the leaders of the pure food movement came together at a Pure Food Congress in September 1904 in Saint Louis, Heinz executive Sebastian Mueller stated that the use of artificial preservatives in food products was "recognized and permitted in all civilized countries" and that preservatives were "used only to prevent the action of certain bacteria which cause mould and fermentation in the finished product." Mueller said that it may be possible to put up food products without the addition of an artificial preservative but that it was a question of practicality. The least objectionable preservative, according to Mueller, was benzoate of soda, as it was nonpoisonous and did not accumulate in the human system. Moreover, he reported, it was "present naturally, in marked quantities in some fruits, and particularly in our cranberry."22 Mueller joined the resolutions committee of the National Congress. When the committee opposed the use of any artificial preservative, Mueller offered a minority report stating that "all antiseptics be restricted to extraordinary conditions necessitating their use, and whenever used the amount and name of antiseptic be made known to the consumer." However, Mueller became convinced at this meeting that Heinz needed to discontinue using all preservatives. If it were possible to make preservative-free foods, Mueller speculated, "it would revolutionize the present methods of manufacture."23 At the same meeting G. F. Mason, the manager of Heinz's research laboratory, reported that "Every possible means of preserving with none but natural agents were used, but without satisfactory results." Mason had pulped tomatoes in the laboratory, thoroughly sterilized the bottles, and filled, corked, and sealed them. He tried different combinations and amounts of sugar, vinegar, and spices. These specimens kept for about sixty hours, and then one after the other the cork blew out and rapid fermentation set in. Mason then tried putting the tomato pulp in cold storage, but in "a comparatively short time this lot also fermented." Due to these experiments, Mason believed that a preservative was a necessity in the case of tomato ketchup. After reviewing the literature about preservatives, Mason recommended benzoate of soda, which could be used "without injurious effects and therefore could not be called a poison." He knew of "no case on record where death or even serious illness was caused by Benzoate of Soda'' and saw "no reason why it should not be preferable to any other chemical preservative."

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And if a preservative-free ketchup could be made, no one would buy it "in preference to the nice, clean looking preserves, absolutely free from fermentation, containing only a very small amount of Benzoate of Soda." And if consumers did buy the preservative-free ketchup, the "consumer would be eating various moulds and introducing bacteria into his system by the millions."24 Despite these public statements, Mason was on the verge of success. Beginning in the fall of 1904, about one-fourth of Heinz's ketchup production was made without preservatives. During 1905 one-half of Heinz's ketchup1,800,000 bottleswas put up without preservatives. The company planned to double production of unadulterated ketchup during the following year. However, when the Pure Food and Drugs Act passed in June 1906, Heinz made the decision to produce all ketchup without preservatives. More than five million bottles of preservative-free ketchup were manufactured during the 1906 season. Heinz produced over twelve million bottles during the following two years, which equaled about $3 million in value. Heinz proudly printed on the neck label of the ketchup bottle that the contents were free of benzoate of soda.25 The H. J. Heinz Company guaranteed the product against spoilage, but only one-fourth of 1 percent was returnedless than the percentage returned previously with Heinz's benzoated ketchup. Contrary to rumors circulated by other manufacturers, Heinz's ketchup did not contain any "secret chemical agent." Heinz did not just produce preservativefree ketchup in small bottles but in the full range of merchandise. The secret of this success was simple. To make preservative-free ketchup, Mueller said, all manufacturers had to do was use suitable materials, maintain sanitary conditions, make proper and sufficient use of natural preservatives, prepare it with precision, and apply reasonable skill in the preserving art.26 Heinz changed the ketchup recipe a few years later. A Pennsylvania woman had sent Heinz a dozen bottles of her homemade nonpreservative ketchup. Her ketchup was better looking and superior tasting, so Heinz acquired the recipe and after experiments began using it as a basis for their commercial recipe. The only difference, claimed Mueller, was that she left the spices in the ketchup and Heinz sieved them out. After opening, this new Heinz ketchup kept up to four weeks before spoiling.27 Based on studies conducted after 1906, Heinz's new ketchup possessed several characteristics that distinguished it from other commercial ketchups. It contained more salt and almost twice as much sugar and vinegar (from one-half of 1 percent to 1 percent). It had more solids and had a greater body or a higher density than did other ketchups then manufactured. Body is

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determined in part by the amount of pectin in the tomatoes. Pectin is a group of complex carbohydrates used as jelling agents. As tomatoes ripen, the insoluble protopectin is converted by enzymes into pectin. Up to a point, the riper the tomato the more the pectin. However, in overripe tomatoes pectin becomes pectic acid. Alternately, factory waste and green tomatoes contained few pectins. Hence, the pectin content of the fruit was important for the purposes of creating body in the ketchup. As pectins could be greatly diminished by overcooking, proper procedures for preparing ketchup also needed to be observed. Another difference was that Heinz's ketchup was priced higher than competitors'. When other nationally produced benzoated ketchups retailed for ten to twelve cents, Heinz's ketchup retailed at twenty-five to thirty cents. Obviously, Heinz paid more for fresh, ripe tomatoes. Heinz paid about ten dollars per ton for high quality tomatoes, but the cost did not exceed 15 percent of the total retail price. The other costsadditional raw materials (spices, sugar, vinegar), labor, packaging (glass bottles, labels, wrapping paper, bags, and packing material), overhead and freightwere presumably similar to those of other manufacturers. Heinz's major new expense was the need to convince consumers to purchase higher costing preservative-free ketchup as opposed to the less expensive benzoated ketchup.28 Previously Heinz had expended almost no money on advertising ketchup. After the passage of the national pure food law, Heinz's ketchup advertisements in magazines and newspapers exceeded all other manufacturers' combined. During the early years of the twentieth century, the pure food movement was growing rapidly. Numerous groups and organizations lobbied for state and national pure food legislation. Henry J. Heinz, the founder and president of the company, supported the pure food movement. The public was losing confidence in the preserving industry. Muckraking books inflamed the public. Magazines, such as Collier's and Saturday Evening Review, regularly published exposés of malpractice within the food and drug industries. Heinz believed that the food packaging industry's toleration of preservatives would only contribute to the growing lack of confidence.29 In the words of Heinz's biographer Robert C. Alberts, Heinz's "stand on pure food legislation was idealism and noble purpose compounded with self-interest. It was 'good business' for the manufacturer of unadulterated quality foods to curb those operators who were giving the whole industry a bad nameand undercutting his priceswith their dangerous and dishonest practices."30 Heinz appointed a triumvirate composed of Loren S. Dow, Howard Heinz, and Sebastian Mueller to lead the company's campaign for pure food.

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Dow was a mid-level Heinz executive who mainly engaged in lobbying efforts in Washington, D.C. He consulted regularly with Wiley and established a press bureau in Washington to fight against preservatives. Howard Heinz, Henry Heinz's son and future president of the company, was then serving as the company's first vice president. During a meeting at the White House prior to the passage of the Pure Food Act, President Roosevelt asked Howard Heinz why a food manufacturer supported the passage of a law designed to restrict food manufacturers. Heinz told the president that he hoped to see passed a law that required "the use of sound, wholesome raw materials, put up in clean factories by sanitary methods, under proper government regulation." This would "inspire a confidence in commercially prepared foods," and the H. J. Heinz Company "would get its full share of the larger business; in helping the industry we should be helping ourselves."31 Mueller, born in Kallstadt, Germany, was Henry Heinz's cousin. He had worked in a bank and served in the Bavarian and German armies before immigrating to the United States. He began working at the Heinz Company in November 1884 and four years later married Heinz's sister (and his own cousin), Elizabeth Catherine Heinz. After 1906 Mueller spoke at many conferences, spouting the antibenzoate line. In July 1907 he addressed the eleventh annual meeting of the National Association of State Diary and Food Departments convened at the Jamestown TerCentennial Exposition, reporting that use of all preservatives, particularly benzoate of soda, was injurious to the health of the consumer. He now claimed that manufacturers used them only because they lowered the cost of ketchup-making.32 In November 1907 Mueller attended a hearing of the Board of Food and Drug Inspection in Washington, D.C. A spokesman for the National Pickle Packers' Association argued that no one had ever been hurt by consuming benzoate and that not all experts agreed with Wiley that it was injurious. Small quantities of ketchup, "consumed shortly after opening, might be put up without preservative, but not larger containers. Spoilage was a far greater danger to health than the chemicals used to prevent it." Should benzoate be banned, it was charged, the entire trade would be thrown into the hands of two or three manufacturers that managed to get along without it. Mueller responded by describing the experience of the H. J. Heinz Company and insisted that no preservative was needed as long as the best raw materials, sound methods, and proper sanitation were employed in bottling ketchup.33 At the twelfth annual meeting of the National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments held in early August 1908 on Mackinac Island in Michigan, Mueller reported that the users of benzoates claimed that the cost

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of ketchup would be much greater without the use of preservatives. Mueller agreed that making ketchup from canners' waste products was less expensive than making ketchup from sound, ripe tomatoes. However, he believed that the quality of the finished product was "far superior in color and flavor when put up from canned pulp than when made from barreled pulpnot to mention the important advantage that canned pulp does not require an artificial preservative." Moreover, he denied that it was possible to make ketchup the old way using only one-tenth of 1 percent of benzoate. Low-bodied ketchup required more. Studies had demonstrated that at least three times the legal amount were present in most benzoated ketchups.34 At the same conference William P. Hapgood, president of the Columbia Conserve Company, reported that their experience with preservative-free ketchup demonstrated that there was no longer any difficulty about packing ketchup without preservatives and having it remain in sound condition before it was opened. If the ketchup were properly sterilized in the bottles, which was a perfectly simple thing to do, so that the ketchup was sweet when opened, it would keep from a week to a month. According to Hapgood, the real reasons why other reputable manufacturers did not want to make ketchup without benzoate were related to cost. Nonbenzoated ketchup cost more to make. Other manufacturers did not want to raise their prices or lower their profits. Additionally, it took more care to handle food products properly than improperly, and they did not want to be forced to exercise this care.35 Two strong proponents of benzoates changed sides in 1908. The first to do so was Charles Loudon. The Bittings' experiments at his factory had convinced him that the packing of tomato ketchup without the use of benzoate of soda or other chemical preservatives was possible. During 1907 and 1908 the Pullman Company used from thirty thousand to fifty thousand bottles of Loudon's benzoate-free ketchup on their buffet cars in the United States and Mexico. No complaint ever reached Loudon in reference to its fermentation or deterioration. The demand for Loudon's nonbenzoate ketchup skyrocketed. He produced fifty thousand cases in 1908, seventy-five thousand in 1909, and one hundred thousand in 1910.36 The second manufacturer to shift sides was the T. A. Snider Preserve Company of Cincinnati. After three years of experimentation, they too had succeeded in producing a preservative-free ketchup. The company had processed several thousand cases of nonpreservative ketchup during 1907, and they had no problems. J. T. Austin, the company's New York representative, stated that experiments proved that preservative-free ketchup kept better than ketchup with preservatives. They planned to produce only

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preservative-free ketchup, which they guaranteed against fermentation. In the summer of 1908 the company wrote to all grocers encouraging them to "make a special effort to dispose of all ketchup that contains a preservative."37 During 1909 the T. A. Snider Preserve Company began a major advertising campaign on behalf of its preservativefree ketchup. These promotions identified the "Snider-Process" of ketchup-making. It required "perfectly ripe tomatoes, sound and red to the core, grown under constant, personal supervision in vast gardens surrounding the factory; picked in the early part of the day, hauled in spring wagons to prevent bruisingthey arrive still wet with the morning dew and within 2 hours are converted into Snider Tomato Catsup." Tomatoes were "subjected to a final inspection to prevent the possibility of an unsound or unripe tomato being used."38 Meanwhile, among those who continued to use benzoate, reports of abuses proliferated. James Foust, the food and dairy commissioner of Pennsylvania, reported that "in Eastern Pennsylvania, out of thirty different brands of catsup collected by the agents of the Dairy and Food Division and analyzed by one of the most eminent chemists in the State, twenty were found to contain twice the quantity of benzoate of soda allowed by the rules and regulations." Harry Bishop, Indiana state chemist, analyzed one hundred ketchup samples and found that seventy-five contained more benzoate than their labels claimed. A comprehensive examination of seventy-three samples of ketchup, undertaken by the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, found that forty-eight contained excessive amounts of the preservative. A New Hampshire State Board of Health report on fifty-three samples of tomato ketchup found that forty-five samples exceeded the legal amount of benzoate. A study in Maine of twenty-five samples "of the leading brands of catchup on sale" found seventeen to have an excess over the quantity permissible by law. Some contained "three to four times the quantity deemed as usable without prejudice to the health of one in normal physical condition." After reporting on these findings the editor of The American Grocer asked, "If 7 out of 25 can make catsup free from a chemical preservative, why can't 25 make it?''39 Probenzoite Forces Strike Despite all of the antibenzoate activities, most ketchup manufacturers maintained that ingesting small quantities of benzoates at irregular intervals was not injurious to health and that benzoates were necessary to prevent fermentation and spoilage.40 These manufacturers admitted that ketchup-makers sometimes abused benzoates. James Beresford, a twenty-year veteran of food manufacturing in England and the United States, reported that he

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was surprised to observe a ketchup cook weighing out one and a half pounds of benzoate of soda when eight ounces would have been sufficient. On telling him it was entirely too much, the cook exclaimed: "Don't you know what that is used for?" Beresford responded, "Certainly, that it was used to prevent spoilage." ''Well," said the cook, "why take any chances?" Despite some abuse, Beresford believed that a preservative was needed. He had experimented with making ketchup without preservatives but had given it up. While he admitted that it might be possible to make preservative-free ketchup, it would cost so much that the manufacturer could quickly go into bankruptcy.41 Even after it became clear that ketchup can be made without benzoates, manufacturers maintained that this could be done only by boosting the quantity of vinegar and sugar, which meant destroying the tomato taste. The Williams Brothers in Detroit began using benzoate in 1892 "to retain the full and natural flavor of the tomato." Likewise, Curtice Brothers in Rochester maintained that their "Blue Label Ketchup" contained less vinegar, was lighter bodied, and was cooked less to retain the real tomato flavor. Therefore, they needed benzoate to prevent fermentation and the growth of molds.42 A committee of probenzoite manufacturers was formed to lobby officials in Washington, D.C., in the effort to secure a method for preserving ketchup that was harmonious with the pure food law. Walter H. Williams, president of Williams Brothers Company in Detroit, was selected as chairman of the committee. Other members included Edwin C. Johnson, secretary of the Association of Manufacturers and Distributors of Food Products; and L. M. Frailey, who was employed by the Joseph Campbell Preserve Company in Camden, New Jersey.43 The zeal that had served Wiley well in the long struggle to pass the pure food legislation brought him in conflict with his superior, Secretary of Agriculture James Wilson. Wilson decided that he could no longer exclusively rely on Wiley's scientific judgment. The attacks by food processors led Wilson in April 1907 to appoint a three-man Board of Food and Drug Inspection charged with holding hearings and making recommendations. Wiley chaired the board, but he could be outvoted by George McCabe, the USDA's solicitor, and a chemist, Frederick Dunlap. On 13 July 1907 the Board of Food and Drug Inspection approved Food Inspection Decision 76 permitting the use of benzoates for one year only provided that the amount used was no greater than one-tenth of 1 percent and that their presence was noted on the label.44 Ketchup manufacturers believed that Wiley still intended to eliminate

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the use of benzoates. In the fall of 1907 representatives of ketchup manufacturers held a meeting with the secretary of agriculture. At this meeting they reported that they had expended over $10,000 in experiments trying to make preservative-free ketchup. They had been unsuccessful in this effort and did not believe that it was possible, in spite of the successful experiences of several other manufacturers. Despite their pleading, Wilson supported Wiley.45 Ketchup manufacturers decided to go over Wilson and appeal directly to President Roosevelt. Representatives of Curtice Brothers and Williams Brothers met with Roosevelt on 8 January 1908. Roosevelt was impressed with their comments and requested that they stay over and meet with Wilson and Wiley. According to Wiley, the ketchup manufacturers claimed that if the ban against benzoic acid went into effect, the ketchup industry would "be utterly destroyed" and hundreds of thousands of dollars of capital invested in the industry would be lost. They portrayed Wiley as a "radical, impervious to reason and determined to destroy legitimate business." Roosevelt asked Wilson his opinion about enforcing a ruling against benzoates. Wilson replied, ''The law demands that substances which are added to foods for any purpose which are deleterious to health shall be forbidden. Dr. Wiley made extensive investigations in feeding benzoated goods to healthy young men and in every instance he found that their health was undermined."46 Wiley discussed the findings of the poison squad, and Roosevelt supported the proposed ban on benzoate. Wiley was then asked his opinion on the use of saccharin, and Wiley condemned it. Roosevelt retorted that his own physician gave him saccharin every day and concluded that "Anybody who says saccharin is injurious to health is an idiot." The following day Roosevelt established a Referee Board of Consulting Scientific Experts, which was chaired by Ira Remsen, president of Johns Hopkins, and included as members Russell H. Chittenden of Yale University, John H. Long of Northwestern University, Christian A. Herter of Columbia University, and Alonzo E. Taylor of the University of California. It was charged with passing judgment on several controversial chemical additives. Wilson charged the Referee Board with the task of determining whether or not benzoate of soda was injurious to health, and whether or not the quality or strength of the foods to which benzoate was added was thereby "reduced, lowered, or injuriously affected."47 Pending the decision by the Referee Board, Food Inspection Decision 89 permitted the use of benzoates in quantities not exceeding one-tenth of 1 percent, provided it was listed on the label. Even this capitulation was not enough for ketchup manufacturers. Edwin Johnson wrote to Wilson reporting that manufacturers were afraid that the Referee Board would decide

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against them and then they would be unable to use benzoates during the current year. Wilson assured Johnson that no decision was expected soon and that even if the decision went against benzoates he guaranteed that the decision would not interfere with manufacturing during 1908.48 With all the rhetorical fervor that he could muster, Wiley launched a crusade against benzoates. Crisscrossing the nation, he attacked benzoates at every possible opportunity. Before the University Club in Washington, D.C., Wiley averred that "when manufacturers say that they must use benzoate of soda in their ketchups and similar products, they are just as honest in their belief as were the packers in advocating the use of borax, but benzoate of soda can and will be discontinued, and manufacturing will go on just the same. No one will drop out of business." In another speech Wiley asked, "Why should the poor man pay approximately the same price for a bottle of catsup made from the sweepings of a tomato factory when he could get a great deal more catsup for the same price in a pure state?"49 Before the Referee Board had concluded its work, and against the expressed desires of Secretary Wilson, the findings of the poison squad's experiments conducted in 1904 were published on 20 July 1908 as part 4 of the Bureau of Chemistry's Bulletin 84: "Influence of Food Preservatives and Artificial Colors on Digestion and Health: Benzoic Acid and Benzoates." According to the bulletin, ingesting benzoates caused "discomfort, malaise, headache, nausea, increase of hunger, vomiting, and attendant loss of weight." According to the report, benzoates had no quality that entitled them to any place as a food product. The report concluded that both benzoic acid and benzoate of soda were injurious to health. It recommended excluding these chemicals from food products.50 The publication of this bulletin was evidently an honest error made by the printer, but it gave the false impression that the government had banned benzoates. In fact, as previously noted, the USDA permitted the use of small quantities of benzoate until the Referee Board made its determination. On 23 October 1908 the great "Preservative Debate" was held at a symposium arranged by the New York Section of the Society of Chemical industry and held at the Chemists Club in New York. Wiley opposed the use of all preservatives; Read Gordon, president of the Gordon and Dilworth Company, supported their use. Ernest E. Smith, professor of physiology and biological and organic chemistry at Fordham University's School of Medicine, sat on the fence but attacked the methodology of Wiley's poison squad experiment. Read Gordon had received a degree in chemistry from the City University of New York and was initially opposed to the use of benzoate. After

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extensive study he changed his mind and strongly supported its use as a safe means of packing foods that were superior in appearance, taste, and nutrition to those processed by sterilization alone. Gordon reported that preservatives were not used to conceal inferiority. Fresh goods required more antiseptic to preserve than did fermented ones. Ketchup made from cannery refuse was undergoing fermentation and was more easily preserved than ketchup made from fresh fruit. Manufacturers who advertised that their goods contained no preservatives were menacing the consumer by putting out goods that would not keep after the stopper was withdrawn. Preservative-free ketchups increased the proportion of spices, which postponed the day of spoilage but did not prevent it. Gordon charged that "Wiley's feeding experiments" were so "illogical, unconclusive, unfair and very misleading" that they should be ignored.51 Wiley held that while ingesting benzoate in small quantities might not cause severe toxic symptoms, "in time they necessarily must become injurious to health." It was reported that "the plea of necessity no longer could be advanced. Transportation facilities were better, and refrigeration, desiccation, and sterilization were practical alternatives. It was fraudulent to use preservatives. They permitted the packing of inferior materials and resulted in finished goods of lower food value." Even proper labeling, Wiley argued, was no longer sufficient to protect the consumer.52 Shortly after the debate the probenzoites launched a campaign to discredit Wiley and attempted to have him fired. According to the editor of the American Food Journal, Wiley purportedly entered a Washington hotel and in the course of his lunch ordered ketchup. A brand was brought him that had been preserved with benzoate. Wiley reportedly told the waiter, "Take it away. Don't you know that that contains poison. I'm astonished that you should serve such stuff at this hotel." The head waiter came to the table, and Wiley repeated his statements. The hotel manager sent word out to their jobbing house and countermanded an order for one hundred cases of the ketchup. Whether or not the incident was true, the manufacturer "took it up with the President, demanding that Dr. Wiley be dismissed because of his attack on a legitimate manufacturer. But the President refused to 'fire' the Doctor, on the ground that the story was not sufficiently definite."53 Strong support for the probenzoite lobby came from the National Canners' Association and the Association of Manufacturers and Distributors of Food Products. Closely allied with these organizations were two newly created journals: the American Food Journal, edited by Herbert B. Meyers; and the Food Law Bulletin, edited by several chemists and manufacturers. Both were published in Chicago and were so closely allied on their positions and on editorial opinion that they eventually merged.

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Both journals regularly published statements of those who supported the use of benzoates and attacked those who were against them. The greatest target of the probenzoate forces after Harvey Wiley was the H. J. Heinz Company, which was regularly attacked for its support of the antibenzoate forces. Edwin Johnson, for instance, claimed that Heinz's antibenzoate stand was a "pitiable exhibition of narrow-mindedness and bigotry, this hypocritical desire to forward their own selfish interests, regardless of those of other manufacturers." Some manufacturers stated that Heinz really added a "secret chemical agent."54 Other manufacturers claimed that producing preservative-free ketchup was dangerous. Horror stories about nonpreservative ketchup were circulated by manufacturers to generate support for their use of preservatives in ketchup. In Kansas City, reported the Food Law Bulletin, clerks and customers were startled now and then by explosions that were caused by "nothing but a bottle of catsup which has fermented or busted." Another circulated the story that a priest in Washington, Pennsylvania, "was hauled across the room and struck his head against the door" because of an explosion caused by the lack of preservatives. Still other manufacturers claimed that preservative-free ketchup caused ptomaine poisoning. The USDA's chemist W. D. Bigelow stated that a great deal of the ptomaine poisoning talk came from men who were interested in using preservatives.55 There was no evidence for these charges, and leaders of the H. J. Heinz Company, the most visible producer of preservative-free food, concluded that these charges were intended to harm the sale of their products. Heinz Strikes Back During the fall of 1908 Heinz responded in kind by launching a major antipreservative campaign in magazines throughout the nation. The campaign targeted two major audiences. The first was the grocers who purchased Heinz's products. These advertisements were concentrated in The American Grocer. Their first advertisement was titled "The Truth about Chemical Preservatives." The promotion advised grocers to "Look at all ketchup labels." This advertisement was praised by the editor of The American Grocer, who believed that consumers should make up their own minds. Heinz's position supported the truth in labeling provisions of the pure food laws, giving consumers a chance to make their own decisions.56 On 14 October Heinz announced that "The Case Against Preservatives is Settled." This statement was based on the release of the USDA's Bulletin 84. The promotion reported that government researchers found them harmful, and it was "only a question of time before their sale will be

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prohibited." On 20 October Heinz advised grocers that they should "Take no chances with the Food Law." Grocers should clear their shelves of all goods containing preservatives "before they cause you loss."57 In November the campaign expanded. Heinz published a brochure, titled "The 57," which included antibenzoite articles encouraging consumers to examine the label of food products to make sure that they did not contain preservatives. On 4 November Heinz stated that grocers should "get rid of any chemically preserved foods" before they were confiscated by the government. Heinz products were the only safe ones to buy.58 In December the campaign heated up. On 9 December Heinz urged grocers to "Avoid Trouble with the Food Inspector" that might cause "a heavy financial loss." On 16 December Heinz announced that state and federal food authorities had demanded that food products be free of preservatives. A week later a Heinz advertisement stated that "Preservatives Must Go." According to the ad, "The signs of the times indicate that it will not be long before the sale of food products artificially preserved will be strictly prohibited." On 30 December Heinz urged grocers to "Prepare for the Food Inspector'' who will soon prohibit foods with preservatives in the near future.59 The second major target of Heinz's advertising campaign was the general public. On 17 October Heinz published a two-page advertisement in the Saturday Evening Post titled "THE TRUTH ABOUT BENZOATE OF SODA IN FOODS! It is proven by U.S. Gov't Authorities to be injurious to health." On 14 November Heinz published a twopage advertisement in Collier's, giving "The Unvarnished Truth About Benzoate of Soda in Foods" and quoting Wiley. In early 1909 a two-page advertisement in Ladies' Home Journal and the Woman's Home Companion was titled "What Every Woman Should Know About Benzoate of Soda in Foods!" It based much of its antibenzoite line on the USDA's Bulletin 84.60 Heinz's ad in the Saturday Evening Post was even more vitriolic. A two-page spread proclaimed in big bloc letters: WARNING! The U. S. Gov't. Says Benzoate of Soda in Foods Produces Injury to Digestion and Health61

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As 1909 began, Heinz resumed his media blitz in The American Grocer. His 6 January advertisement reported that "Dr. Wiley Condemns Preservatives," then asked grocers, "When the order prohibiting their sale comes, how will you be prepared for it?" The following week Heinz again announced that "The Case Against Preservatives is Settled." On 13 January Heinz stated that ''Artificially preserved foods are dangerous to your business as they are to health." Finally, on 27 January Heinz's promotion urged grocers to "Take no chances with the food law."62 Heinz's campaign was among the first major efforts of its kinda commercial manufacturer promoting what he believed was the public good through extensive advertising. Of course, the campaign also promoted Heinz's own products. Heinz had positioned his ketchup in such a way that the public good and sales of his product were synonymous. As the Referee Board had not made its determination on the injurious effects of benzoates, this was a risky venture. What if the board found in favor of their use? The Referee Board Decides On 24 January 1909 the Referee Board overruled Wiley and supported the use of benzoates. Experiments had been conducted at Northwestern, Columbia, and Yale Universities. The conclusion was that benzoate of soda "mixed with food in small quantities (under .5 gram per day) was not deleterious, poisonous, or injurious to health," nor did it "injuriously affect or impair the quality or nutritive value of food."63 Canners were pleased with the decision. Edwin Johnson was "exceedingly gratified at the result." The position of the Association of Manufacturers and Distributors of Food Products was that benzoate was not only harmless, as evidenced by the practical business experience of manufacturers, "but was necessary to prevent ptomaine poisoning resulting from unpreserved foods." He decried those who said that benzoate must be given up without showing how to do it. Read Gordon, who had debated Wiley in New York a few months before, was not at all surprised by the decision. "Only arrogant official scientists the world over," reported Gordon, "have stood in opposition to the latest and more advanced methods in pure food movements."64 As to be expected, the preservative industry was also satisfied. H. L. Harris, an employee of the Pacific Coast Borax Company, reported that preservatives were healthful and were necessary to prevent deterioration in food. Without preservatives food became "impregnated with poisonous substances that destroy health and life."65 Some grocers, too, were happy with this decision. Thomas Martindale,

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a prominent Philadelphia grocer, was enthusiastic. He hoped that the ruling would enable ketchup manufacturers to use benzoates without printing the quantity on the labels, because it was not a good advertisement to have the fact printed on the bottle. The removal of that labeling restriction would, "therefore, help trade considerably."66 Another Philadelphia grocer reported that Wiley, "like many other radical reformers with good intentions," made rulings which "were prejudicial instead of beneficial to the public health." Wiley's condemnation of benzoates was one of these decisions. The decision of the Referee Board discredited ''Dr. Wiley's opposition to the use of benzoate of soda and will no doubt be accepted by all who are free from prejudice and who wish to know the truth."67 Some manufacturers who had abandoned the use of benzoate took it up again after the Referee Board's decision. Several ketchup manufacturers who had stopped advertising their products while the benzoate issue was questionable began again to advertise. The Williams Brothers launched their promotional campaign in March 1909, although they made no mention that their products contained benzoate.68 So did Curtice Brothers in Rochester. Their advertisements stated that their "Blue Label" ketchup was pure and unadulterated and contained only those ingredients "Recognized and Endorsed by the U. S. Government." In their business experience of over forty years, their aim was always "QUALITY" and their product was "recognized as the BEST and PUREST of its kind." They used "only perfectly matured Red-Ripe Tomatoes fresh from the fields in perfect condition . . .never left-overs from market stalls(skins, seeds and cores being removed) cooked ever so light that the natural flavor may be retained." Curtice Brothers believed that this process produced the "True Tempting Tomato Taste." In addition they advertised that their ketchup kept after opening.69 Probenzoite manufacturers formed an Association for the Promotion of Public Health. In the words of Indiana's food commissioner Harry Barnard, this organization was "formed more for the purpose of combatting the growing sentiment against the use of preservatives than of improving health conditions." This association sponsored probenzoite advertisements in magazines and "made much capital of the investigations made by Prof. J. H. Long of the Remsen Board."70 The Antibenzoite Forces Strike Back Far from settling the issue, the Referee Board's decision galvanized the opposition to the use of benzoates. Wiley remained totally opposed to it, as were most others in the pure food movement. Wiley believed that the board

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had missed the spirit of the national food law. The law not only banned additives that were clearly injurious to health but also those that might be so. When the results of the Referee Board experiments were published as Food Inspection Decision 104 in March 1909, Wiley refused to sign it. Manufacturers considered his refusal to be "insubordination" and renewed their demand for Wiley's resignation.71 Wiley refused to quit and publicly continued to attack the use of benzoates. Many groups, such as the New York Wholesale Grocers' Association, immediately supported Wiley.72 Within one day of the announcement of the Referee Board's decision, those opposed to the use of preservatives met at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York and formed the American Association for the Promotion of Purity in Food Products. A resolution passed by the organization reported that "Certain reactionary interests opposed originally to the National pure food law are now in opposition to its enforcement and antagonistic to the regularly constituted authorities charged with its administration." The secretary and treasurer of the new association was Paul Pierce, editor of the magazine What to Eat, which had recently been renamed the National Food Magazine. He had strongly supported the pure food movement from its inception. Several other manufacturers who were supportive of the antibenzoate efforts joined the association, including the Lutz and Schramm Company in Pittsburgh and Bartlett Arkell, president of the Beech-Nut Packing Company in New York.73 The Executive Committee was chaired by Heinz executive Loren Dow. William Hapgood, president of the Columbia Conserve Company, joined the Executive Committee. The association promptly adopted a resolution stating that scientists in Europe and America were divided with regard to the use of prepared foods. However, they believed that manufacturers only used them to hide inferior products or unsanitary processes. Preservatives were completely unnecessary, and they were opposed to any ruling which violated the letter and the spirit of the National Pure Food and Drugs Act. Roosevelt was telegraphed a copy of the resolution.74 Most newspapers opposed the Referee Board's decision. The editors of the New York Times concurred with Wiley's judgment: there was not a single article of food preserved with benzoate that could not be made without it provided that manufacturers gave greater care in selecting and processing quality raw products. The editors were at least pleased that the law required the label to acknowledge the presence of benzoate. Consumers were on notice, said the Times, that these preservatives "can conceal a state of putrefaction in the raw material used." Other journals and newspapers,

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including the Medical Times, the New York Evening Post, and many others across America, strongly supported Wiley.75 The Indianapolis News offered these lines of doggerel to the debate about benzoate: Abou Ben-Zoate Abou Ben-Zoate (may his tribe decrease) Awoke one night amid the graft and grease, And saw within the factory's deep gloom A demon writing in the book of doom. Exceeding nerve Ben-Zoate now possest And thus the sooty visitor addresst: "What writest thou?" The demon raised his head, Saying with shrewd look from his thievish eyes, "The name of them who love the Prince of Lies." "And is mine there?" quoth Abou. ''Nay," he said, "But I shall write whate'er thou wilt instead." And Abou sweetly said: "I am content; Write me, I pray, 'One-tenth of One per cent.'" The demon wrote and went, but the next night He came again, and by a flickering light He showed their names that met the devil's test; And, lo, Ben-Zoate's name led all the rest.76 Not to be outdone, Pierce's National Food Magazine reprinted another poem composed by Gertrude M. Haines of Angelica, New York: NO MORE "BENZO" ATE. The benzoate of soda May be a harmless thing; Some able chemists claim it. And proofs they freely bring. But when brave Dr. Wiley Had shown its harmful trait I cut it from the menu And no more "benzo ate."77 Pierce reported that the Referee Board's decision was a victory for some business interests at the expense of the health of the nation. He referred to benzoates as embalming chemicals used to hide inferior cannery waste consisting of skins and cores as well as worm-eaten and decayed portions cut

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from the fruit. Adulterators knew that if preservatives were "forbidden their businesses could not be maintained for twenty-four hours." He predicted that the question would not be settled finally until it was settled by the people.78 Pierce published numerous articles opposed to the use of benzoates. In his April issue he published a speech by the "eminent physician W. W. Keene," whose message was for consumers to refuse to eat chemical foods: "If the public will refuse to purchase goods containing benzoate of soda, the manufacturers will very quickly stop using it." In the same issue was published Dr. J. J. Leppa's paper on "The Use and Effects of Chemical Antiseptics in the Preparation and Preservation of Foods," delivered at a regional medical convention in Niagara Falls. Lappa stated that benzoate was "a powerful antiseptic and irritant to the alimentary mucous membrane.'' It formed "a deadly poison known as hippuric acid, supposed to be formed in the kidneys, and which is eliminated by them. Even small amounts of hippuric acid injected into the blood produce violent poisoning." In August the magazine published advice on how to guard against ingesting benzoates. Pierce used the label from Curtice Brothers' "Blue Label Ketchup" as his example to demonstrate that while manufacturers were required by law to state the presence and amount of benzoate in their products, they usually did so in very small print.79 In the November issue Pierce published an editorial, titled "Politics and Catchup," in which he claimed that the agitation supporting the continued use of benzoate of soda in condimental foods was due to the way in which ketchup was made. According to Pierce, in the process of canning tomatoes, a great amount of wasteskins, cores, and rotaccumulated. During the rush of the canning season, there was no time or inclination to care for the sour, germ-infected mess that fell underfoot. This waste was not fed to swine or hens, "because neither would eat it, but it was "fed to human beings with the help of benzoate of soda as a preservative against putridity." The waste was "scooped up in shovels from reeking floors, pulped and sold at about an average of $1.00 per barrel, to be made into tomato catsup, soup, baked bean sauce, etc." It was "eventually labeled as made from fresh, ripe tomatoes 'prepared with 110 of 1 per cent benzoate of soda.'" Pierce believed that the crux of the matter was that these goods were "extremely profitable, being sold to the trade at only a trifle less than goods made of the best raw materials." Through the use of benzoate of soda commercial cupidity was "further aided by the elimination of all need for factory sanitation and care in cooking, and as much water may be left in, to further cheapen a product, as suits the convenience of its maker. Bottles and containers need not be

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washed and sterilization becomes a useless expense." It was no wonder that many commercial interests struggled "unremittingly for the continued use of benzoate of soda."80 Heinz executive Loren Dow persuaded Lawrence Abbot, editor of the influential New York magazine Outlook, to tell Roosevelt that benzoate was used "to process inferior produce under unsanitary conditions." Abbot's letter included a statement opposed to the use of preservatives, which had been drafted by Dow and signed by Howard Heinz, William Hapgood, and Ballard Arklee. A few days after the Referee Board made its decision, Abbot published an editorial in Outlook supporting Wiley and the pure food movement.81 Roosevelt referred Abbot's letter to Ira Remsen, who asserted that the Referee Board had only considered the question of whether or not benzoate was harmful. Remsen thought that the matters raised in Abbot's letter could be dealt with entirely apart from the benzoate question. Roosevelt passed on Abbot's letter to James Wilson, who responded perfunctorily. On Roosevelt's last full day in office, Food Inspection Decision 104 was issued announcing that no objection would be raised to the use of benzoate of soda provided that the amount did not exceed one-tenth of 1 percent and that food packages were labeled to indicate its presence.82 Within days of the Referee Board's decision, Heinz initiated a major national advertising campaign against the use of benzoate of soda. Heinz published a full-page advertisement in the Literary Digest titled "A Health Warning to You," stating that benzoate was highly objectionable and produced "a very serious disturbance of the metabolic functions attended with injury to digestion and health."83 In February, Heinz expanded this to a two-page advertisement in Collier's magazine titled "A Health Warning to You, What Benzoate of Soda Is!" According to the ad, benzoate of soda was "A powerful chemical antifermenttasteless, odorless, imperceptible." The following week Heinz published in Collier's and Saturday Evening Post a second advertisement, titled "A Public Statement: The People's Health or the Food Manufacturer's Profit." This statement declared that experts disagreed about the danger of benzoate of soda in prepared foods. While some maintained that it was a harmless substance in small quantities, many other leading authorities in both Europe and America pronounced it a dangerous drug. As benzoate of soda was not used to improve any good article of food, the only reason why manufacturers used it was to cheapen "the cost of a product through a reduction of food value, employment of loose methods and too often of unfit raw material." According to the advertisement, "reputable manufacturers,

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who use only fresh fruit and vegetables and who employ only sanitary methods in their preparation (and there are many), do not find it necessary to use any chemical preservative." It continued: "Regardless of any controversy between scientists, or what any other manufacturers may desire or do, H. J. Heinz Company does not and will not use benzoate of soda, or any other chemical preservative." According to the advertisement, manufacturers used benzoate of soda "simply because it permits a cheapening of the cost of a product through the reduction of food value, employment of loose methods and too often of unfit raw materials."84 Heinz did not let up. In March the company began a major promotion campaign in Pierce's National Food Magazine. The first advertisement reported that Heinz's products were made without preservatives and kept properly whether or not they were opened. In April an advertisement announced "A Health Problem That Confronts the Nation." In May, Heinz's advertisement asked, "Where Health is Concerned Why Take Any Chances?" The ad stated that benzoate embalmed the food supply of the country and was "unnatural, unnecessary and unjustifiable." In October, Heinz's advertisement summarized many of the complaints previously stated. In December an advertisement wondered if readers had ever stopped to consider why their mothers never needed Benzoate of Soda to make ketchup. Heinz asked: "Why should you use a product that has to be doctored with drugs to make it keep, when you can get food that is really pure?"85 Heinz also continued to target grocers. In May advertisements in The American Grocer titled "Both Sides of the Benzoate of Soda Question" asserted that those who sold goods "doped" with benzoates were not telling the full truth, for "A. W. Bitting" had proved "that ketchup put up with Benzoate of Soda did not keep so well and was lower in quality tha[n] that prepared without the drug." Second, it professed that ketchup "doctored'' with benzoate of soda contained "one-third less food value and one-third more water." Third, it claimed that "the leading manufacturers of the most widely sold food products do not use and will not use Benzoate of Soda; and . . . others who use it are giving it up because of public sentiment." Finally, the advertisement stated that grocers in every part of the country proclaimed that customers were refusing to purchase goods that contained benzoate of soda and that even in public eating places people were "refusing to eat food containing this drug." In the Saturday Evening Post and the Woman's Home Companion, advertisements announced that "Good Ketchup Needs No Drugs."86 In the fall of 1909 Heinz continued to hammer at grocers. This campaign extended well into the following year. An advertisement asked

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grocers, "Has it occurred to you, that after all, the consumers are the ones who must decide the Benzoate of Soda question?" Another asked if the grocers' customers preferred foods containing questionable coal-tar drugs as opposed to preservative-free foods. Yet another urged grocers, "Let Your Customers Decide the Pure Food Question for You." And another asked, "Why should any merchant sell goods with Benzoate of Soda?" Another queried, ''Do you believe the peopleyour customersprefer drugged foods or pure foods ?"87 Even before the advertising blitz, Heinz's stand on the benzoate issue had gained the antipathy of other ketchup manufacturers, but after the decision of the Referee Board, companies began publicly attacking Heinz. According to Edwin Johnson, Heinz was opposed to giving assistance to those manufacturers who were unable to put up their products without benzoates. He believed that this was a "pitiable exhibition of narrow-mindedness and bigotry" and a "hypocritical desire to forward their own selfish interests." In January 1909 the probenzoite American Food Journal alleged that "Heinz & Co." was spending "fortunes" in advertising to save Wiley's position.88 The probenzoite National Food Manufacturers' Association gleefully asserted in a full-page advertisement dripping with sarcasm that the preservative question was indeed absolutely settled: benzoate was harmless. Despite the decision by the Referee Board, however, there were manufacturers who published "untruthful" advertisements condemning benzoate of soda. The association urged grocers to shun advertisers who falsely claimed that benzoated goods were harmful and to "discountenance such guerrilla warfare."89 On 9 June 1909, during the annual convention of the American Medical Association (AMA), the House of Delegates passed a resolution urging Congress to amend the pure food law "to prohibit, absolutely and unqualified, the use of benzoate of soda and similar preservatives in the preparation and preservation of food."90 Thirty physicians went to Washington, D.C., and presented the resolution to President Taft. The H. J. Heinz Company immediately developed an advertisement announcing this action of the AMA to the general public as well as trade journals. The editors of the Food Law Bulletin condemned Heinz's campaign as "questionable advertising methods." According to them, Heinz's motives were simply financial gain: he isn't doing it because he loves the great common people, but because he sees the opportunity for clever advertising. He has used these preservatives himself and if there is anything poisonous about the proposition he is a little more guilty than anybody

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else in the business because he has poisoned more by reason of larger sales. Does the Heinz company show repentance and a penitent spirit? Are they on the mourners bench asking forgiveness of the customers they have poisoned lo, these many years? No, they are the leaders, in the front rank, shouting, fussing and condemning as if they had never done this awful thing.91 The Food Law Bulletin concluded that there was an "invisible chain between Dr. Wiley, H. J. Heinz Co. and Paul Pierce." Their methods "in influencing public opinion can hardly be said to be straightforward or legitimate."92 Heinz's support for the antibenzoite forces led Clifford Greve to claim that they were engaged in conspiracy with Wiley. Greve believed that Wiley had dictated Heinz's "business policy ever since the beginning of the pure food controversy." Without the support of Heinz, Wiley's position would have been untenable. In return Heinz was "able to sell their products upon the open market to the consumer for more money per package than can competing firms who do not advertise and whose goods are not blessed with the same labeling accorded by law." By this conspiracy Heinz was able to drive his competition from the field. By ''driving those articles that do contain benzoate of soda from the market and making use of an executive department of the Government to do so, the cost of living to the consumer for the very necessities of life has been generously and directly increased, without probably the least benefit, if not in fact an actual injury, accruing to the population at large of this country."93 No such conspiracy existed, but Wiley was grateful for Henry Heinz's support. Years later Wiley wrote to Howard Heinz, stating, "I appreciate the loyalty with which your father and all of the staff stood by me in the darkest hours of my fight for pure food. I feel that I should have lost the fight if I had not had that assistance."94 The Denver Convention In April 1909 J. Q. Emery, president of the Association of State Dairy and Food Departments, announced that the association's next conference, scheduled for Denver, would take up the benzoate issue.95 Almost immediately after the announcement the two opposing camps began sparring. The unlikely senior combatants were James Wilson, secretary of the Department of Agriculture, and Harvey Wiley, the Department of Agriculture's chief of the Bureau of Chemistry. After the Referee Board had made its decision regarding benzoate, Wilson had concluded that it was his duty and responsibility to support its

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findings. When it became clear that the Referee Board's decision was to be debated at the Denver meeting of the Association of State Dairy and Food Departments scheduled for August 1909, Wilson decided to attend as the head of an antibenzoate USDA delegation. Wilson encouraged the attendance of the members of the Referee Board and paid their expenses. Wilson approved Wiley's attendance at the meeting, but Wiley was not part of the USDA's delegation. Wilson was supported by Walter Williams, president of Williams Brothers, and his employee, E. O. Grosvenor. Prior to the meeting both sides maneuvered for position. The probenzoite members of the USDA's delegation contacted state delegates urging them to back the Referee Board's findings. Wiley assisted a committee of the antibenzoate food commissioners with a report on benzoate of soda and worked on doubtful state delegations. Wiley asked Loren S. Dow to assist in acquiring a prominent physician to undercut the conclusions of the Referee Board. Wiley agreed to furnish the data, and Dow succeeded in enlisting Charles A. L. Reed, an antibenzoite gynecologist from Cincinnati who had served as the president of the American Medical Association and later chaired the AMA's Committee on Medical Legislation. As the meeting convened, the air was charged with tension. Charles Reed led off the debate by attacking the methods of the Referee Board and the way its members had interpreted their evidence. Ira Remsen defended the Referee Board's approach, while John H. Long discredited the charge that benzoate was used to conceal inferior raw materials. In an attempt to intimidate undecided state delegations, the Department of Agriculture delegation insisted that each state should ballot openly. By a narrow margin the association endorsed the Referee Board report. In an even closer vote, the association chose for president a candidate supported by Wilson over one backed by Wiley. The proceedings at Denver attracted much attention in the nation's newspapers and magazines. But it is doubtful that the appearance of the heavy-handed proceedings made the conclusions of the Referee Board any more palatable to the country at large. Paul Pierce concluded that the Denver decision was simply politics. Ketchup-making was "one of the vast commercial enterprises of this country." Wherever there was "a convention or legislative body that may take action affecting the tomato product 'interests' there will be found those who look very much like lobbyists and politicians."96 Not all that occurred at the Denver meeting was bad for the antibenzoite forces. Charles Loudon, well aware that his new position in favor of nonpreservative goods was inconsistent with the views he previously ex-

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pressed, insisted that there was "no longer any room for argument as to the success of nonpreservative goods." He found "by careful and exhaustive inquiry among jobbers, retailers, and consumers that the non-preservative goods" were satisfactory as to keeping qualities after opening." He believed that the only reason manufacturers continued to use preservatives was the desire for commercial gain that came "through trafficking in low grade materials which may be labeled and sold as equal to the best in quality.'' As there was no longer any reason to use preservatives in ketchup, those in favor of benzoate were engaged in "unwarranted accusations against the makers of foods of strict purity or their product." Loudon admitted that it was "profitable to sell an article consisting chiefly of water, if the public can be deluded into buying it at the price of first class goods."97 In another presentation Julius Hortvet, chemist of the Minnesota Food and Dairy Commission, announced that he had tested eighty samples of ketchup that reported on their labels that they contained only one-tenth of 1 percent of benzoate. In his tests sixty-five brands contained more than what was legal: thirty-one brands contained between onetenth to two-tenths of 1 percent of benzoate; twenty-seven brands between two-tenths to three-tenths of a percent; and seven with more than three-tenths of a percent. One sample contained more than six times the quantity of benzoate allowed by law.98 The battle was also waged by others. Despite the decisions favoring benzoate, support was growing for preservativefree foods. The antipreservative American Association for the Promotion of Pure Food was incorporated in 1910. Its growing membership included E. C. Hazard Company from New Jersey, William Underwood Company from Massachusetts, Beech-Nut Packing Company from New York, Hunt Brothers from California, Atmore and Son from Philadelphia, and Charles Gulden Company from New Yorkall of which produced ketchup at one time or another. From its inception the association was particularly antibenzoate and conducted a promotional campaign against benzoate of soda.99 A few weeks after the Denver convention, Harry E. Barnard, food commissioner of Indiana, and Loren S. Dow wrote Wiley of their conviction that despite the votes against him, he had won in the court of public opinion. Wiley believed that the benzoate users had won and deemed that the decision to allow benzoates was the beginning of the end for the pure food legislation. Four years after the convention Wiley wrote, "It will be some time before I forget Denver." According to historian Oscar Anderson, this "was an understatement. He never forgot."100 Wiley continued to oppose the use of benzoates. In 1910 he affirmed that "the developments during the last year have accentuated my opinion as to the

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harmful character of benzoate of soda as a food preservative. I expect to see the view sustained by the Federal courts."101 However, at the Department of Agriculture, he never really recovered from these decisions in favor of benzoates. He survived in his position as chief of the Bureau of Chemistry for another two years, and then he resigned. He had served in the position for twenty-nine eventful years. He then served as the director for the bureau of food, sanitation, and health for Good Housekeeping magazine and wrote several books, including his biography. The Bittings left the Bureau of Chemistry as well. Both worked with the National Canners' Association: Arvil as a food technologist, Katherine as a microanalyst. Katherine Bitting later worked as a biologist with the Glass Container Association. She continued to collect cookbooks, which effort she had started while experimenting with ketchup. In 1939 she published a 628-page bibliography of her collection. It was one of the largest collections in America. When she died, the collection was donated to the Library of Congress. The Fight Against Benzoates in Indiana The decisions of the Referee Board and of the National Association of Dairy and Food Departments was not the end of the controversy. On 30 September 1909 the Medical Society of Pennsylvania condemned "the use as good preservatives of Benzoic, Boric, Salicylic acids and their compounds and all similar chemicals." They believed that benzoates were "unnecessary, and are detrimental to the public health" and appealed to Congress for immediate amendment of the Pure Food and Drugs Act. Twenty-one days later the Kentucky State Medical Association petitioned Congress ''to prohibit use of Benzoate of Soda in any quantity as a food preservative and to declare all goods so prepared as deleterious and fraudulent." Indiana physicians were also fully opposed to the use of benzoates.102 The battle was also fought at the state level. The Indiana pure food law, which passed in 1907, required preservatives to be authorized by the State Board of Health before sale. On 10 November 1908 the board prohibited the use of benzoate of soda and outlawed its presence in products sold in the state. A month later Williams Brothers, led by Walter Williams and E. O. Grosvenor, and Curtice Brothers brought suit in the Federal District Court of Indiana "challenging the Indiana law on the grounds that it deprived them of property without due process of law and, according to the Fourteenth Amendment, was unconstitutional. Indiana attorney general James Bingham replied that it was a proper discharge of the police power of the state to protect its citizens from harmful substances. A temporary restraining order was denied and Judge Albert B. Anderson of the United States District Court for

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the District of Indiana referred the issues to a master in chancery. Both sides gathered information and collected affidavits on the effects of benzoate of soda to present in court. On June 21, 1912, Judge Anderson denied the complainants' charges and upheld the Indiana law of 1907."103 Curtice Brothers and Williams Brothers appealed the case to the United States Circuit Court of Appeals and attacked the findings of the master. In 1913 the Indiana law of 1907 was upheld. Judge Christian C. Kohlsaat found that whether or not benzoate of soda was harmful as a food preservative was open to scientific question, and therefore it was "within the power of the Indiana legislature to prohibit the use of benzoate of soda in the preparation of food."104 At this point Williams Brothers withdrew from the suit, but Curtice Brothers appealed it to the United States Supreme Court in 1914. The case was scheduled for hearing during the October 1915 term, but before the issue was decided, "both parties agreed to a dismissal without costs to either party." After the dismissal the Indiana Board of Health agreed to allow benzoate of soda in the amounts as authorized by the Referee Board's decision of January 1909.105 Victors and Vanquished At first glance, the probenzoite forces were the victors in the benzoate war. They won most of the battles and ended the war with the victory that they soughtthe legal right to use benzoate of soda as a preservative. While the probenzoites lost initial court cases in Indiana, eventually all states removed their prohibitions against benzoates. Federal regulations permitted their use in quantities of up to one-tenth of 1 percent. No evidence was subsequently uncovered indicating any injurious effects of benzoates when used as a food preservative in small quantities. The regulation permitting benzoate is still in effect today. Wiley and many other observers in the pure food movement believed that the probenzoite decisions were major triumphs for the preservative industry. Many believed that these decisions were the beginning of the end of effective pure food laws in America. However, these beliefs were mistaken. By the time the legal matters were settled in 1915, most major ketchup manufacturers had already given up using benzoates.106 Thanks to the work of the Bittings and many others, the procedures to make preservative-free ketchup were well understood. Walter Williams acknowledged that Williams Brothers had withdrawn from the lawsuit because they had become convinced that benzoate "was entirely unnecessary in such food products as ketchup." The advances in scientific methods of

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manufacture persuaded the makers of most of the better grades of ketchup that benzoates were "entirely unnecessary and superfluous, if reasonably good stock and proper methods are utilized."107 Another reason for the decline in usage of benzoate was the improvement in food testing procedures and subsequent enforcement activities. Many manufacturers had indeed used preservatives to hide the use of inferior raw products and unsanitary practices at their factories. As the testing methods improved, it became extremely difficult legally to manufacture ketchup from trimmings or to do so under unsanitary conditions. The restriction on the use of benzoate to one-tenth of 1 percent required ketchup-makers to produce a more full-bodied ketchup anyway. This could only be achieved through the use of ripe, red, sound tomatoes. If manufacturers had to use good raw materials to make ketchup, it was just as easy to do so without preservatives. Despite the trend away from benzoates, the Curtice Brothers persisted in using them. One observer concluded that their insistence was dictated "more from considerations of obstinacy in admitting the error of their position as formerly taken, rather than on account of any considerable advantage accruing from such use in the grade such as they prepare." The observer predicted that so long as Curtice Brothers insisted upon continuing the practice, their ketchup would not "enjoy the full degree of prestige it might were it not inevitably associated in some measure in the present enlightened public mind with those brands which, being manufactured from the questionable material, or by sloppy, unscientific methods, really do require the addition of an antiseptic to make them 'keep.'"108 Curtice Brothers was the clear loser in the benzoate war. At the turn of the century their "Blue Label Tomato Ketchup" was among the most respected and well-liked condiments in America. By 1915 its prestige and popularity had fallen. W. Stanley Macklem, later the president of Curtice Brothers, disclosed that they had "received a great deal of unfavorable publicity from the benzoate issue," and he believed that "this could have been one of the factors in explaining the decline of the company's product in the catsup market.'' If Curtice Brothers' "Blue Label Tomato Ketchup" was the loser in the war, then Heinz's ketchup, which proclaimed that it used no benzoate of soda, was the winner. It moved ahead and gained dominance in the ketchup market. By 1911 benzoated ketchups "had been driven from the field" even though they cost less than did Heinz's.110 From then on, Heinz's more expensive product dominated the ketchup field, often controlling more than half of the total market share.

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In a broader sense, the real winner and loser was the consuming public. On the positive side, the sanitary conditions of ketchup factories improved dramatically. The use and abuse of preservatives in ketchup declined: harmful salicylic and boric acids were effectively eliminated, as were coal-tar dyes. Due to changes such as these, public confidence was restored in the packaged food industry. While benzoates were often used in excess, by 1915 this had changed.111 On the negative side was the loss of diversity and variety in commercial ketchups. Gone were the thin, low-bodied ketchups. Gone were the fermented and sour ketchups. Gone was ketchup's tomato taste. Some did not believe that the average ketchup on the market in 1915 was "as good in flavor as the same brands used to be when benzoate of soda was employed as a preservative." Ketchup with preservatives did "not have to be boiled down to such a heavy consistency, because it contained only from 18 per cent to 23 per cent solids. Such catsup, of course, had no very large amount of sugar or vinegar, and while it was cheaper to make, it certainly had a better flavor than anything on the market today." While manufacturers were advertising the fact that their new ketchup had more "food value," others believed that preservative-free ketchup had the consistency of mud and was equally as appetizing and that nonbenzoated ketchups were "overdosed with sugar and vinegar."112 The public disagreed with this assessment: ketchup sales skyrocketed. Thick ketchup was more appropriate for hot dogs and french fries, which were increasingly becoming a part of America's diet. Notes 1. The American Food Journal 4 (15 January 1909): 22; Testimony of Walter H. Williams, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 3:2055, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 2. James H. Shepard, State Analyst of South Dakota, The Use of Coloring Matter and Antiseptics in Food Products, paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments, Saint Paul, Minnesota, 1903. 3. Journal of the Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Convention of the National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments, held in Portland, Oregon, 1902, 41217; H. B. Meyer, ed. and comp., Journal of Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Convention of the National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments, held in Saint Paul, Minnesota, 1903, 545; Testimony of E. O. Grosvenor, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 5:3983, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 4. The American Grocer 53 (17 April 1895): 6; 70 (1 July 1903): 15. 5. Letter from the H.J. Heinz Company to D. W. Bigelow, Acting Chief, Bureau of Chemistry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, as published in the House Commit-

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tee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Pure Food Hearings, 1327 February 1906, p. 374. 6. South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Fourth Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1904), 57; House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Pure Food Hearings, 402. 7. The American Grocer 81 (3 February 1909): 18; The American Food Journal 4 (15 January 1909): 23; Edward F. Keuchel Jr., "The Development of the Canning Industry in New York State to 1960," Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1970, p. 231. 8. House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Pure Food Hearings, 367. 9. Food Law Bulletin 2 (24 June 1907): 120; American Food Journal 2 (15 November 1907): 56. 10. New York Journal of Commerce, 1214 February 1907; The American Food Journal 2 (15 March 1907): 13; The Trade 29 (22 February 1907): 3739. 11. New York Journal of Commerce, February 1214, 1907; The American Food Journal 2 (15 March 1907): 13; The Trade 29 (22 February 1907): 3739; The American Grocer 77 (20 February 1907): 41. 12. "Notes on Arvil W. Bitting," and Katherine Golden Bitting's file, Special Collections, Purdue University Library, Lafayette, Indiana; Testimony of Orvill [sic] Wayne Bitting, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2608611, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago; Testimony of Katherine G. Bitting, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:267172, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 13. The American Food Journal 2 (15 November 1907): 56. 14. The American Food Journal 4 (15 January 1909): 23; A[rvil] W. Bitting, Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato Ketchup, Bulletin 119, Bureau of Chemistry, U.S. Department of Agriculture (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1909); Harvey Wiley, An Autobiography (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1930), 23436. 15. Testimony of Orvill [sic] Wayne Bitting, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:261012, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago; Testimony of Charles Loudon, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2290302, 231519, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 16. Testimony of G. F. Mason, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2968; Testimony of Walter Williams, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 3:2072, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 17. Harvey Wiley, Chief, Annual Report on Food, Bureau of Chemistry, USDA (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1908), 1718; A[rvil] W. Bitting, Experiments; Harvey Wiley, Chief, Annual Report on Food, Bureau of Chemistry (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1910), 12; Testimony of Orvill [sic] Wayne Bitting, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the

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United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:262021, in the National Archives-Great Lakes Region, Chicago; A [rvil] W. Bitting, Ketchup: Methods of Manufacturer (Lafayette, Ind.: Murphy-Bivins, 1915); K[atherine] G [olden] Bitting, Microscopic Examination (Lafayette, Ind.: Murphy-Bivins, 1915). 18. Grocers' Monthly Review 28 (1 January 1896): 26, 30; A[rvil] W. Bitting, Appertizing or the Art of Canning (San Francisco: Trade Pressroom, 1937), 670. 19. The American Grocer 80 (19 August 1908): 19; American Food Journal 4 (15 January 1909): 22; Testimony of William P. Hapgood, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2584608, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 20. "Recipe Book of H. J. Heinz Jan. 24, [18]83," 13435, courtesy of the Heinz Family; Cleveland Leader, as in The American Grocer 53 (17 April 1895): 6; A. L. Winton, "Tomato Catsup," in Annual Report for 1897 (New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1898), 37; A. L. Winton and A. W. Ogden, "Tomato Catsup, Chili Sauce and Other Sauces," in Annual Report for 1901 (New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902), 142; A. McGill, Lime Juice and Catsup, Bulletin 83 (Ottawa, Canada: Laboratory of the Inland Revenue Department, 24 November 1902), 19; South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Second Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1902), 11; South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Third Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1903), 8; Testimony by Frank Kedzie at the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Pure Food Hearings, 1327 February 1906, pp. 5762; North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Seventeenth Annual Report; Part 2, Report of Food Commissioner (Bismarck, N.D.: Tribune, State Printers and Binders, 1906), 79; Affidavit of Sebastian Mueller, as in American Food Journal 4 (15 January 1909): 23; American Food Journal 4 (15 July 1909): 29; "Recipes, J. C. Heinz, Sharpsburg Pa., Feb 11th [18]85," 51, manuscript in the Heinz Family; H. J. Heinz Co., Catalogue Price List (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1896), 14. 21. South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Fourth Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1904), 57; South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Second Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.: State Printer, 1902), 11. 22. Sebastian Mueller, "Use of Coloring Matter and Preservatives in Fruit and Vegetable Products," What to Eat 17 (October 1904): 255; Sebastian Mueller, "The Preparation of Fruits and Vegetables with and without Preservatives," What to Eat 23 (September 1907): 92. 23. Mueller, "The Preparation," 92; Testimony of Sebastian Mueller, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:3011, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 24. Journal of the Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Convention of the National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments and International Pure Food Congress held at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 26 September to 1 October 1904, 12324; Testimony of G. F. Mason, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2959, in the National Archives-Great Lakes Region, Chicago.

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25. Letter from the Heinz Company to W. D. Bigelow, Acting Chief, United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Washington, D.C., dated 19 February 1906, as published in the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Pure Food Hearings, 1327 February 1906, p. 374; Testimony of Sebastian Mueller, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:29873023, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 26. The American Grocer 80 (19 August 1908): 19. 27. Testimony of Sebastian Mueller, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2989995; Testimony of G. F. Mason, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2966, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 28. R. O. Brooks, Vinegars and Catsup, Interpretations of Standards, Analyses, Etc. (New York: Spice Mill, 1912), 67; E. J. Lehmann, The Fair of Groceries [Price List] (Chicago, 1909), 22; John Street et al. "Ketchup," in Annual Report for 1910 (New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1911), 531; Testimony of Sebastian Mueller, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:2990, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 29. What to Eat 23 (September 1907): 9093. 30. Robert C. Alberts, The Good Provider: H. J. Heinz and His 57 Varieties (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1973), 172. 31. Oscar Anderson, The Health of a Nation (Chicago: Published by the University of Chicago Press for the University of Cincinnati, 1958), 22021; Alberts, Good Provider, 172; Howard C. Heinz, "The Industry of Food," as in Samuel Crowther, ed., A Basis for Stability (Boston: Little, Brown, 1932), 19192. 32. Alberts, Good Provider, 86, 9899, 172; Testimony of Sebastian Mueller, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 4:29873023, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago; The Trade 29 (26 July 1907): 23. 33. Anderson, Health, 209. 34. The American Grocer 80 (19 August 1908): 9; The Trade 31 (18 September 1908): 1516. 35. The American Grocer 80 (19 August 1908): 1920. 36. The American Food Journal 4 (15 January 1909): 2224; A[rvil] W. Bitting, Experiments; Harvey Wiley, An Autobiography (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1930), 23436. 37. The American Grocer 80 (29 July 1908): 14. 38. Saturday Evening Post 182 (27 November 1909): 25; Saturday Evening Review 182 (5 February 1910): 30. 39. The American Grocer 79 (29 January 1908): 11; Food Law Bulletin 5 (8 June 1910): 858; Annual Report for 1910 34 (New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural

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Experiment Station, 1911), 52149; State Board of Health of New Hampshire, "Tomato Ketchup," Quarterly Bulletin 4 (April 1915): 2434; The American Grocer 82 (10 November 1909): 10; The Trade 32 (12 November 1909): 26; The American Grocer 94 (18 August 1915): 6. 40. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Agriculture, Hearings, Washington, D.C., 24 April 191122 August 1911, p. 331. 41. The Trade 30 (3 April 1908): 14. 42. W. Stanley Macklem, Oral History Memoirs, pp. 1112, as cited in Keuchel Jr., "Canning Industry," 23738; Testimony of Walter Williams, Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 3:2075, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 43. The New York Journal of Commerce, 15 February 1907; The American Grocer 77 (20 February 1907): 41. 44. James Harvey Young, "The Science and Morals of Metabolism: Catsup and Benzoate," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 33 (1968): 9495. 45. The American Grocer 80 (19 August 1908): 19. 46. The American Food Journal 3 (15 January 1908): 9; Harvey W. Wiley, The History of a Crime against the Food Law (Washington, D.C.: Harvey W. Wiley, 1929), 16163. 47. Wiley, History of Crime, 16163; Address of Dr. Ira Remsen at the Thirteenth Annual Convention of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, as in the Food Law Bulletin 4 (8 September 1909): 552. 48. Food Inspection Decision 89; Edwin Johnson to James Wilson, 18 March 1908, James Wilson to Edwin Johnson, 21 March 1908, as in the Food Law Bulletin 3 (6 April 1908): 2. 49. The American Grocer 79 (29 April 1908): 9; Outlook 91 (30 January 1909): 2526. 50. Harvey Wiley, Influence of Food Preservatives and Artificial Colors on Digestion and Health: Benzoic Acid and Benzoates, Bulletin 84, part 4 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, 1908), 1294. 51. Journal of Commerce, 24 October 1908, pp. 1, 14; The American Grocer 80 (28 October 1908): 810; The American Grocer 86 (23 August 1911): 8. 52. Food Law Bulletin 3 (4 November 1908): 255, 25963; (11 November 1908): 263, 26870; (18 November 1908): 27476; (25 November 1908): 28386; (2 December 1908): 29294. 53. The Trade 31 (1 January 1909): 16. 54. The American Food Journal 3 (15 January 1908): 78; The American Grocer 80 (19 August 1908): 19. 55. Food Law Bulletin 2 (24 June 1907): 120; General Correspondence of Harvey W. Wiley, unidentified newspaper clipping in a letter from Foote & Jacobs to Wiley, dated 4 December 1909, in the Library of Congress, Manuscripts Division; U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Expenditures in the Department of

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Agriculture, Hearings, Washington, D.C., 24 April 191122 August 1911, p. 332; Food Law Bulletin 1 (25 March 1907): 5. 56. The American Grocer 80 (7 October 1908): 9. 57. The American Grocer 80 (14 October 1908): 16. 58. The American Grocer 80 (4 November 1908): 16; (18 November 1908): 16. 59. The American Grocer, 80 (2 December 1908): 6; (9 December 1908): 6; (16 December 1908): 6; (23 December 1908): 6; (30 December 1908): 6. 60. Saturday Evening Post 181 (17 October 1908): 2425; Collier's 42 (14 November 1908): 2627; Ladies' Home Journal 26 (January 1909): 4445; Woman's Home Companion 34 (February 1909): 4243. 61. Saturday Evening Post 181 (9 January 1909): 1617. 62. The American Grocer 81 (6 January 1909): 6; (13 January 1909): 6; (13 January 1909): 17; (27 January 1909): 17. 63. Journal of Commerce and Commercial Bulletin, 25 January 1909, p. 1. 64. Journal of Commerce and Commercial Bulletin, 26 January 1909, p. 9. 65. H. L. Harris, "Dr. Wiley and Benzoate of Soda," Journal of Commerce and Commercial Bulletin (29 January 1909): 4. 66. The American Grocer 81 (3 February 1909): 18. 67. Ibid. 68. The American Grocer 81 (24 March 1909): 20; (31 March 1909): 23. 69. Collier's 42 (27 February 1909): 24; Ladies' Home Journal 28 (April 1911): 33; (January 1911): 48. 70. H. E. Barnard, Indianapolis Star, as in Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 3:211213, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago. 71. Anderson, Health, 217; Keuchel Jr., "Canning Industry," 23132; Leslie's Illustrated Weekly 108 (4 February 1909): 99; Leslie's Illustrated Weekly 108 (25 February 1909), 171; Independent 64 (28 January 1909): 21011. 72. Literary Digest 38 (6 February 1909): 197. 73. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Agriculture, Hearings, Washington, D.C., 24 April 191122 August 1911, p. 331. 74. New York Times, 26 January 1909, p. 6; National Food Magazine 26 (March 1909): 135; Journal of Commerce and Commercial Bulletin, 6 February 1909, p. 6. 75. New York Times, 26 January 1909, p. 8; Literary Digest 38 (6 February 1909): 198. 76. Indianapolis News, as in The American Grocer 81 (3 February 1909): 12. 77. National Food Magazine 26 (March 1909): n.p. 78. Journal of Commerce and the Commercial Bulletin, 6 February 1909, p. 6. 79. National Food Magazine 26 (April 1909): 18788; 27 (August 1909): 81.

80. National Food Magazine 27 (November 1909): 29394. 81. Lawrence Abbot to Roosevelt, 1 February 1909, as in the U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Agriculture,

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Hearings, Washington, D.C., 24 April 191122 August 1911, pp. 33133; Outlook 91 (30 January 1909): 2526. 82. Lawrence Abbot to James Wilson, 10 February 1909, and Ira Remsen to Theodore Roosevelt, 5 February 1909, as in the U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Agriculture, Hearings, Washington, D.C., 24 April 191122 August 1911, pp. 33031; L. S. Dow to Harvey Wiley, 2 February 1909; Harvey Wiley to F. N. Barrett, 24 March 1909, in the Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress; Food Inspection Decision 104. 83. Literary Digest 38 (30 January 1909): 183. 84. Collier's 42 (20 February 1909): 2223; (27 February 1909): 27; Saturday Evening Post 181 (27 February 1909): 2021. 85. National Food Magazine 26 (March 1909): 180; (April 1909): 251; (May 1909): inside cover; 27 (October 1909): 289; (December 1909): 425. 86. The American Grocer 81 (5 May 1909): 13; Woman's Home Companion 34 (July 1909): 29; Saturday Evening Post 182 (31 July 1909): 27. 87. The American Grocer 82 (13 October 1909): 5; (24 November 1909): 5; (20 October 1909): 5; (27 October 1909): 5; 83 (5 January 1910): 5; (19 January 1910): 5. 88. The American Food Journal 3 (15 January 1908): 79, 1718. 89. The American Grocer 81 (31 March 1909): 21. 90. Journal of the American Medical Association 52 (19 June 1909): 2076. 91. Food Law Bulletin 4 (21 July 1909): 490. 92. Food Law Bulletin 4 (28 July 1909): 501. 93. American Food Journal 6 (15 September 1911): 4748. 94. Alberts, Good Provider, 166. 95. Food Law Bulletin 4 (14 April 1909): 375. 96. L. S. Dow to Harvey Wiley, 6 August 1909; L. S. Dow to Harvey Wiley, 9 August 1909; W. W. Grant to Harvey Wiley, 21 August 1909; Wiley to R. M. Allen, 27 July 1909; Wiley to Dow, 27 July 1909, as cited in Anderson, Health, 23031; Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Convention of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, as in the Food Law Bulletin 4 (8 September 1909): 55155; National Food Magazine 27 (November 1909): 29394. 97. Address of Charles Loudon at the Thirteenth Annual Convention of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, as in the Food Law Bulletin 4 (22 September 1909): 56869. 98. The American Grocer 82 (1 September 1909): 12, 14. 99. Journal of Commerce, 7 November 1910, p. 8; The American Grocer 85 (25 January 1911): 910. 100. H. E. Barnard to Wiley, 1 September 1909; Dow to Wiley, 4 September 1909, as cited in Anderson, Health, 23031. 101. Washington Post, 13 July 1910. 102. Curtice Brothers v. Harry E. Barnard et al., in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, 1:8086, in the National ArchivesGreat Lakes Region, Chicago.

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103. Keuchel Jr., "Canning Industry," 23234. 104. The Food Law Bulletin 8 (15 November 1913): 330. 105. Keuchel Jr., "Canning Industry," 234. 106. Charles H. Lawall and Leroy Forman, Tomato Ketchup, Bulletin 272 (Harrisburg: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Agriculture, Dairy and Food, 1915), 18, 26. 107. Walter H. Williams to Harvey W. Wiley, 31 May 1927, as in Wiley, History of Crime, 24647; The American Grocer 94 (18 August 1915): 6. 108. State Board of Health of New Hampshire, "Tomato Ketchup," Quarterly Bulletin 4 (April 1915): 2434. 109. W. Stanley Macklem, Oral History Memoirs, pp. 1112, as cited in Keuchel Jr., "Canning Industry," 23738; Jane Stokes Lange, A History for the 30th Anniversary Board of Directors Meeting, Curtice Burns Foods, Inc., 5 November 1991. 110. Clifford Greve, "The Newspapers and Dr. Wiley," American Food Journal 6 (15 September 1911): 4748. 111. The American Grocer 94 (18 August 1915): 6. 112. Address of Charles Loudon at the Thirteenth Annual Convention of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, as in the Food Law Bulletin 4 (22 September 1909): 56869; American Food Journal 10 (December 1915): 643.

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6 Ketchup Revolutions While commercial ketchup's taste has remained essentially constant since 1906, its process of production changed dramatically. Today's ketchup-making has little in common with the previous manufacturing process. Change has occurred in the industry from the field to the factory, and from packaging to marketing. The first major change was geographic. During the first half of the twentieth century, the major growing area for processing tomatoes was the region from Maryland in the southeast to New York in the northeast to Saint Louis in the southwest to Saint Paul in the northwest. The ketchup industry was centered on Indiana, which manufactured almost 25 percent of the tomato ketchup made in America.1 There were many problems with growing large quantities of tomatoes along the East Coast and in the Midwest. As Wayland Hier, T. A. Snider's chief chemist, reported in 1919, Obtaining a good quality of tomatoes at a price which is not prohibitive is a problem which in many localities is becoming more difficult to canners and catsup makers each year. Every experienced manufacturer knows that regardless of the expertness with which he may work up his tomatoes into the finished product, he cannot expect to get good quality unless he has good stock to begin with. It is true that by using intelligence and extreme care in the manufacturing processes one manufacturer will make better pulp or catsup from tomatoes of fair quality than another man can get from the best quality of stock. This same care and intelligence applied, however, in working up high quality tomatoes will probably show a greater difference in the finished products than was apparent in the tomatoes from which these products were made; in other words, the goodness of good tomatoes becomes accentuated by the manufacturing process.2

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This quest for better tomatoes at lower cost led many ketchup manufacturers to seek other locations outside of the East and Midwest. A geographic shift to California began early in this century. California's central valley was an excellent tomato-growing area. The tomato season was longer than in the East and Midwest. Farmland was less expensive, and cheap labor was accessible. Two of today's major ketchup producers, Del Monte and Hunt Brothers, began in California. Other ketchup producers soon joined them. For instance, Chicago-based Libby, McNeill & Libby opened a ketchup factory in Sacramento.3 Likewise, the Pittsburgh-based H. J. Heinz Company established the world's largest ketchup factory in Tracy. The trend toward growing processing tomatoes in California expanded during the last thirty years. In 1960 California harvested 130,000 acres of processing tomatoes. By 1990 this figure increased to 320,000 acres. Simultaneously, the yield per acre increased from 17.3 to 30 tons. These shifts enlarged California's total production from 2.2 million tons in 1960 to 9.3 million tons in 1990. Today 90 percent of all tomatoes grown for canning and bottling are grown in California.4 Technology played a major role in the recent sensational increase in the growth of processing tomatoes in California. The invention of the mechanical tomato harvester eliminated the need for labor-intensive handpicking.5 Mechanical harvesters scoop up the plants and shake tomatoes off the vines. Electric eyes disgorge green tomatoes, and the ripe tomatoes are put into an accompanying truck. Harvesters greatly reduced the cost of ketchup's main ingredient and immensely improved productivity. Improvements in the nation's transportation system made it possible to manufacture ketchup in California and sell it throughout the rest of the United States. Railroad building, beginning with the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869, had continued at a rapid pace. Increased railroads reduced the cost of transporting goods from California farms and factories to eastern markets. The expansion of the nation's transportation network improved the food distribution network, making commercial ketchup available to almost every town in America. Transportation improvements also affected the production of ketchup. Up to the turn of the twentieth century wagons were the major source of conveyance for the tomatoes. Starting in 1908 trucks increasingly were used to transport tomatoes from the fields to the factories. Trucks made it possible to haul greater amounts of tomatoes over greater distances in shorter periods of time, thus reducing spoilage and encouraging concentration in production. Small factories gave way to large factories, which proved to be more economically efficient.

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Consolidation in the Ketchup Industry Connected with the geographic and technological changes was a major shift toward consolidation in the ketchup industry. In the early twentieth century literally hundreds of ketchups were commercially produced. The vast majority of manufacturers who produced these ketchups during this period went out of business or merged with other corporations. After consolidation, many manufacturers discontinued making ketchup. In 1933 Stokely Foods, headquartered in Nashville, Tennessee, bought the Van Camp Packing Company in Indianapolis, and Van Camp stopped producing ketchup during the 1930s. The Beech-Nut Packing Company discontinued manufacturing ketchup in 1939, when they started to concentrate on other product lines such as coffee, baby food, and chewing gum.6 During the 1950s many privately held food processing companies operated small, inefficient, and antiquated facilities in central and western New York. Representatives of Curtice Brothers, Burns-Alton, and Haxton Foods began discussing ways of increasing their companies' effectiveness and improving their competitive position. In the midst of their discussions they consulted the Cooperative Grange League Federation in Ithaca, New York. The Grange League Federation, later renamed Agway, decided to consolidate food processors into a new operating company whose facilities would be cooperatively owned and controlled by the farmers. In 1960 the Pro-Fac Cooperative was formally organized, and a year later Pro-Fac acquired ownership of Curtice Brothers and BurnsAlton. One year later Pro-Fac purchased Haxton Foods. The food processing part of the operation was renamed Curtice Burns.7 During the 1960s Curtice-Burns acquired other companies, including the P. J. Ritter Company and Brooks Foods, headquartered in Collinsville, Illinois. As both Ritter and Brooks produced ketchup, Curtice-Burns discontinued making their ''Blue Label" ketchup. In 1994 Agway sold its shares in Curtice Burns Foods and Pro-Fac. Curtice Burns Foods, now a wholly owned subsidiary of Pro-Fac, continues to make "Brooks Rich & Tangy Ketchup" at its Mount Summit plant in Indiana.8 Some ketchup manufacturers went out of business during the early twentieth century, but other firms began production. The Del Monte Corporation in San Francisco began manufacturing ketchup in 1916. After Del Monte acquired the Edgar H. Hurff Company of Swedesboro, New Jersey, its national ketchup production took off.9 Precisely when the Hunt Brothers Packing Company began producing ketchup is unknown. It may have been when they were located in Sonoma or in Hayward, California. Hunt Brothers was sold to Norton Simon in 1934, and he merged it with Val-Vita in 1943, creating Hunt Foods. In 1960 it

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merged with the Wesson Oil & Snowdrift Company. Today Hunt-Wesson is a division of ConAgra, based in Saint Louis. Almost simultaneously with the Del Monte Corporation, ketchup production by Hunt Foods dramatically increased after its acquisition of the E. Pritchard Company in Bridgeton, New Jersey, which had manufactured "Pride of the Farm" ketchup, and Snider Catsup, previously sold to General Foods. Hunt Foods was extremely aggressive in their ketchup marketing during the 1950s.10 Many small ketchup manufacturers suffered the same fate as the Edgar H. Hurff and E. Prichard Companies. The Loudon Packing Company in Terre Haute was first sold to Standard Brands in Indianapolis in 1943, and five years later the Campbell Soup Company purchased it. The Columbia Conserve Company in Indianapolis was sold to the John Sexton Company in Chicago in 1953.11 The Agricultural Revolution Simultaneously with the other changes that affected ketchup production, there was also an agricultural revolution. This included the development of tomato varieties that were better suited for ketchup-making. At first large-fruited varieties were used, such as Giant Tomato and Large Red Tomato. But large tomatoes were often full of water and possessed little pulp. Smaller, fig-shaped varieties were employed because of their greater pulp content and greater productivity. Others were selected because of their deep red coloring.12 Beginning in the early twentieth century, ketchup manufacturers began experimenting with new varieties of tomatoes that met their specific needs. They were interested in acquiring tomatoes that were disease resistant, did not crack when ripe, and possessed firmer fruit, thicker skin, and a better red color. As early as 1926 the H. J. Heinz Company selected specific seeds and raised plants in their greenhouses. Growers under contract received the plants, and Heinz employees supervised the cultivation of ketchup tomatoes.13 Ketchup tomatoes needed greater viscosity, with higher pectin and more solids. After the widespread diffusion of the mechanical harvester the industry needed to develop varieties of tomatoes with fruit that matured simultaneously, thus ensuring proper sugar content and color. Abundant yields were also necessary. Today new varieties employed in ketchup-making are generally hybrids. As hybrids require that each flower on the tomato plant be fertilized by hand, seeds for ketchup plants are produced in countries with relatively low labor costs. In the case of the H. J. Heinz Company, hybrid seeds are produced in India, Chile, Thailand, China, and Taiwan. It takes ten

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thousand workers three to four weeks to hand-pollinate the tomato seed crop. In 1995 Heinz marketed 56,000 pounds of tomato seeds, including its new ketchup tomato H9382. As an ounce contains about 10,000 seeds, this amounts to an incredible number of tomato plants.14 While tomato yields have rapidly increased during the past thirty years, it is likely that yields soon will increase even more. Heinz's scientists at Bowling Green, Ohio, filed for a patent application in June 1994 for a DNA-markerassisted selection for higher tomato yields. Bio-engineering of tomatoes will likely increase yields to far greater levels in the near future.15 In addition to the development of new varieties, improved techniques of cultivating processing tomatoes were developed. These new techniques were launched through Agricultural Experiment Stations, which evaluated new varieties, conducted research into proper amounts of fertilizer, developed disease-resistant tomato varieties, and assisted growers with the cultivation of their tomato crops. Ketchup Races Another revolution occurred in advertising and promoting ketchup. Prior to the 1870s ketchup promotions were few in number and were mainly small advertisements inserted into newspapers or periodicals. The sale of ketchup was mainly done through salesmen traveling from one grocery store to another. Point-of-sale advertisements, signs, and displays in the grocery stores were the major ways consumers were encouraged to purchase particular brand-name products. During the early 1870s small advertisements began to appear in The American Grocer highlighting a particular brand of ketchup. By the 1880s advertisements had become larger. One of the first full-page advertisements promoted "Baldwin Catsup." It depicted cats in a tree, which was a twist on the phrase "cats-up a tree." The first fullpage color advertisementfor Curtis Brothers "Blue Label Tomato Ketchup"appeared in 1892.16 Around the turn of the century advertisements began to appear in women's magazines. The H.J. Heinz Company printed small cards advertising their products as early as 1888. Heinz also displayed their products, including ketchup, in booths at many fairs around the country. In 1899 Heinz built an Ocean Pier in Atlantic City, New Jersey, featuring cooking demonstrations, free samples, and lectures. In 1900 New York's first large electric signsix stories highwent up on the corner of Twenty-third Street and Fifth Avenue advertising "Tomato Ketchup." Unfortunately for Heinz, the building was torn down shortly thereafter to make way for the Flat Iron building, America's first

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skyscraper. Heinz placed advertisements on streetcars and billboards and soon became one of the largest outdoor advertisers in the country. Heinz also advertised in other countries. By 1900 the company had a huge sign (thirtyeight feet high and sixty-nine feet long) on the Rhine River in Germany.17 This and similar signs may have contributed to the incorrect assumption by Europeans that Heinz was a German corporation. Unlike other ketchup manufacturers, Heinz did little advertising in magazines or newspapers during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. According to Henry Heinz's private secretary, E. D. McCafferty, the idea of advertising in print sources was that of Howard Heinz, Henry's son. When Howard first proposed an advertising campaign in magazines, Henry Heinz asked his son how much this would cost. Howard answered $25,000, and Henry gave him $10,000. When the campaign proved successful, Henry asked his son how much he wanted for the next campaign. Howard requested $100,000 but received only $25,000. According to McCafferty, "After that, when the test had satisfied him, he was ready to go into that form of advertising in the same big way."18 Even before Heinz began to advertise in magazines and newspapers, its ketchup sold very well. In 1904 Ralph Tilton, the manager of advertising for the Butterick Trio (The Delineator, The Designer, and the New Idea Woman's Magazine), conducted a poll of the combined 1.5 million readers on a variety of topics. One question asked was "What brand of Catsup do you use or buy?" The 3,516 responses to this question were revealing. Only three ketchups were named extensively: Heinz (716), Curtice Brothers "Blue Label" (348), and T. A. Snider (460). Seven other ketchups were identified by fewer than 46 respondents, and 513 respondents named ketchups that were identified by fewer than four people. Of the remaining respondents, 615 reported that they made their own ketchup, and 39 reported that they used Lea and Perrin's or Worcestershire sauce, neither of which was considered ketchup at the time.19 Since only the three manufacturers who advertised extensively had any general name recognition, the message was clear: those who advertised sold ketchup. However, the public was still confused regarding just what ketchup was, as reflected by their inclusion of Tabasco, Lea and Perrin's, and Worcestershire sauces in their lists of ketchups. Tilton also found that a large number of respondents did not identify with any particular brand. He concluded that there was a big field of advertising for ketchup manufacturers because there was more room for taste in the matter of sauces. According to Tilton, a taste for ketchup was like a taste for whiskey or cigars. The manufacturers who were wise enough to advertise their products cultivated

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a public taste for their products and were successful, but no advertising was "as strong, convincing and educating as it should be." Advertising, concluded Tilton, should stress the part that ketchup played in a meal, its various uses, and how it was made: "If it does this, there will develop a bigger market made up, first, of people who are weaned away from other sauces and second, of people who never knew they wanted a sauce until they read the appetizing advertising about it."20 Heinz advertised extensively during the period following the passage of the pure food law. After the benzoate war Heinz continued to advertise productsparticularly ketchupin magazines. These advertisements had three major themes. The first was the professional and thorough approach that Heinz took in preparing its ketchup. For instance, a 1926 advertisement in the Saturday Evening Post titled "The Heinz Way" reported that "Every step in the making of Heinz Tomato Ketchup is a Heinz step." In the same year an advertisement in the Ladies' Home Journal answered the question, "What's Back of Heinz Ketchup"21 A second theme recurring throughout Heinz advertising in the twentieth century made a virtue out of its greatest liabilitythe slowness with which its ketchup came out of the bottle. An advertisement in Priscilla magazine in 1923 reported that Heinz ketchup contained "More tomato less water." In another Saturday Evening Post advertisement it was announced that Heinz ketchup was all ketchup. "When you open a bottle of Heinz Tomato Ketchup and pour it on your food, notice how slowly it comes out of the bottle."22 The final theme was the popularity of Heinz ketchup. An advertisement in Liberty magazine in 1927 announced that it was "The Largest Selling Ketchup." In 1929 Heinz announced that its ketchup outsold all others. By 1932 Heinz reported in an advertisement in Women's Home Companion, that it was "The Largest Selling Ketchup in the World." By 1935 the company announced that it was not only the largest-selling ketchup, but it was "The Favorite Ketchup of 110 nations!"23 Heinz also advertised through the radio. Josephine Gibson, director of Heinz's home economics department, broadcast from Heinz's model kitchen in front of a live audience of visitors on Tuesday and Friday mornings over KDKA, WJZ, and other NBC stations. Heinz's home economics department also supplied recipes for the use of Heinz ketchup for advertisements and cookery pamphlets.24 During the late 1940s and the 1950s Heinz advertised extensively through outdoor billboards, pushing the theme "red magic." In addition, in the mid 1950s Heinz conducted a $25,000 "Cook with Ketchup Contest."

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The result of this contest was the first all-ketchup recipe book. Among its "57" recipes were dressings, barbecue sauces, and toppings for meat, fish, and chicken. Some of the more creative recipes included such titles as "Liver Loaf Highland Pot Roast," "Almond Chick-up," "Brazilian Cheese Dreams,'' "Party Pizzas," "Harlequin Spinach," "Rosy Apple Crumble," "Tropicana Sundae," "Crimson Fruit Cake," "Spicy Pear Compote," and "Ketchup Meringue Topping for Meat Pies."25 If nothing else, these recipes demonstrated a wide culinary use of ketchup. Other ketchup manufacturers also engaged extensively in print advertising. Campbell's Soup Company regularly advertised its ketchup in magazines, but its famous "Campbell's Kids" did not appear on their ketchup label until 1950. Del Monte began a national advertising campaign in 1948. One Del Monte advertisement in Collier's asked, "Catsup? Now Try it Del Monte Style!" Later Del Monte ketchup advertisements highlighted the use of pineapple vinegar, which was said to give Del Monte Catsup a distinctive zippy flavor.26 Due to advertising campaigns by Hunt Foods and Del Monte, Heinz's market share began to decline. By the early 1960s ketchup's magic had faded, and Heinz U.S.A. profits were at an all-time low. As an article in Forbes reported: "Heinz's failure to match its competitors in advertising has proved costly even in catsup."27 Heinz executives agreed with this assessment and greatly increased their advertising budget. Billboards, prevalent during the preceding decades, were abandoned. Thirty-second color television commercials became the company's primary advertising vehicle. One of the most innovative commercials depicted the world's first ketchup race, highlighting the phrase "thick and rich," with the narrator commenting, "Heinz loses, Heinz always loses." Another innovative commercial showed "the plate test," in which nothing ran out of the Heinz bottle because its ketchup was thicker and richer. In 1966 Heinz became memorable as "the slowest ketchup in the West." These commercials worked. Heinz went from selling five million cases of ketchup per year in the mid-1960s to over eleven million cases by 1969. Within two years Heinz's market share rebounded to 34 percent.28 It has continued to increase ever since, and for the past few years Heinz's market share has exceeded 50 percent. Ketchup Manufacturing in the Twentieth Century As advertising has changed, so has processing. Clyde H. Campbell, an influential leader in canning and preserving during the 1920s and 1930s,

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had studied chemistry at the University of Pittsburgh and became an employee of the H. J. Heinz Company. For twenty years he worked in food plants and laboratories and later was the food chemist for the Pennsylvania State Department of Agriculture. In 1929 he published the first edition of The Campbell's Book: A Textbook on Canning, Preserving and Pickling. He revised this work in 1937. In these two editions of his work he gave extensive instruction as to how to make ketchup.29 When tomatoes arrived at the cannery, they were sorted by size and shape. Good quality tomatoes were usually canned. Tomatoes that were oversized or too small and tomatoes with excessive cracking, green butts, or irregular contours were used for making pulp and ketchup. Sorting was done by hand. Tomatoes were trimmed of cracking and rotting sections. After the sorting the tomatoes were placed on conveyer belts and sprayed with water. From the washer the tomatoes were carried either to large tanks where they were steamed until soft, which took from fifteen to thirty minutes, or they were carried to a continuous scalder which loosened the skin. Next, the tomatoes were conveyed to a combination crusher and pulper, which separated the pulp from the skins, seeds, and cores. The pulp was then boiled in jacketed kettles, tanks with coils, or vacuum pans.30 After the pulp had been reduced through evaporation the raw pulp could either be sent directly to be made into ketchup or it could be cooked, stored in tanks, and later converted into ketchup. While it was legal to make ketchup from pulp, A. W. Bitting recommended against it. He recommended making ketchup directly from fresh tomatoes because it admitted "of better control of flavor and color and a more pleasing consistence than when the work is done in two stages as when the manufacture is from canned pulp. It effects an economy in heat, labor, and material." However, he admitted that ketchup made from fresh stock varied more in composition than ketchup made from pulp. Bitting also believed that the cook should "be a chef in his line [rather] than a robot in compounding." Ketchups differed due to spicing. Some were spiced mildly "to retain the tomato base flavor, to accentuate it rather than completely mask it." Others were "spiced with such a liberal hand that the base might as well be any thickener to carry spices and the result be the same.'' As sugar and vinegar were increased to improve the keeping quality of ketchup, the amounts of spices used were also increased to overcome the sugar and vinegar. These changes promoted greater uniformity and improved the average ketchup, but many believed that milder ketchups were more pleasing.31 The spices used in ketchup-making included cinnamon, cassia, cloves, allspice, mace, black pepper, cayenne, paprika, chili pepper, bay leaves,

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caraway, celery seed, ginger, and mustard. The spices could be used whole, ground, or in the form of acetic or oil extracts. Unfortunately, acetic extracts produced a peculiar harshness to the ketchup. The best flavor was obtained by using broken whole spice, which was the most expensive form since only a partial extraction of the flavoring material was made in the short time in which the cooking was done. Some resolved this problem by soaking whole spices in the vinegar for two or three weeks before use. Spices were placed in cloth bags or wire cages and cooked along with the pulp. Unfortunately, black pepper, allspice, and cloves released dark-colored matter, and hence some manufacturers began using oil extracts rather than the whole spice. Paprika was used primarily for coloring. Cayenne was sometimes used in place of black pepper, but often manufacturers had a tendency to overuse the cayenne, making the resulting batch too hot. Ground spice was rarely used because it left small specks in the finished product. The grade of spices used made a difference. Cheaper grades contained less flavoring and released more coloring matter. Onions and garlic were added in small quantities. These were usually chopped up and added to the bag of spices. The amount of garlic and onion used and the amount of time cooked greatly affected the flavor of the ketchup. Vinegar was added toward the end of the cooking process. Sugar was added for flavoring and to neutralize the sharp taste of the vinegar. Sugar averaged 12 percent of the completed batch. Finishing machines removed or broke down hard pieces of tomato, bits of spice, or other material which may have been added, and this gave a smoothness of body to the finished product.32 In 1930 The Canner offered a tour through a "High Efficiency" ketchup factory in Hayward, California. Tomatoes were handpicked in the fields around the plant. The crates were loaded into trucks that came directly to the plant. The trucks unloaded the crates onto a conveyor belt. When the tomatoes reached the sorting belt, the crates were emptied, but the boxes continued on the conveyor belt to the loading shed. After a truck delivered a load of tomatoes it moved ahead a few hundred feet and was reloaded with the empty boxes. On the sorting belt unfit tomatoes were removed by hand. The tomatoes were then washed, scalded, and inspected. Operators were stationed along these belts to do any necessary trimming. The refuse was dumped into chutes that went into sewers emptying into San Francisco Bay. The surviving tomatoes were pulped and drained into tanks in the basement, where the crushed tomatoes were agitated and preheated before being pumped to the holding tanks on the third floor. Spices and other ingredients were then added, and large jacketed kettles cooked the ketchup. After cooking, the

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ketchup flowed into a battery of finishers and then into storage tanks that supplied the automatic filling machines.33 Ketchup-making was not an easy task. Ogdon Perry, overseer of four Heinz factories, recalled the process of cooking ketchup. The cooks "had to be men of steel, because they were cooking in banks of open 350-gallon kettles. It was hard to breathe in those kitchens because of the vinegar vapor and general steam level. Basically, it was a hellish job, and the ketchup cooks were a revered bunch of people."34 Today's state-of-the art ketchup-making has little in common with the way it was produced in the past. Ketchup tomatoes are mechanically planted and harvested. Bulk trucks swiftly haul the tomatoes to a grading station where inspection takes placeoften by the USDAand then to the processing plant. At the factory tomatoes are unloaded from trucks by water flumes. Via escalators the tomatoes are conveyed to sorting tables where they are again inspected. The tomatoes are then sent to the chopper and to enclosed batch cookers. In the cookers the spices and other ingredients are added. The cooked ketchup is pumped through finishers which remove seeds and skins. A deaerator removes air from the ketchup, which is then pumped into storage tanks or directly to the bottle filler and capper. Filled bottles are labeled by machine and are automatically placed into cases and pallets. Pallets are loaded into trucks and shipped to warehouses for distribution. Quality-control personnel using computers monitor every step of the production process. If a particular batch does not meet set standards, other ingredients are added so that it has the proper color, consistency, and taste. The Heinz factory in Tracy, California, produced 220,300 gallons of tomato paste in a twenty-four-hour period in July 1994. The 450,000-square-foot Heinz factory in Fremont, Ohio, can produce the equivalent of eight million fourteen-ounce ketchup bottles in a single day. During the tomato season (August 15 to September 30) the factory runs twenty-four hours a day. Within two hours of their arrival, the tomatoes can be processed, cooked, packaged, and packed into a truck.35 From their planting to their packaging, neither the tomatoes nor the ketchup are touched by human hands. The Content Revolution Until the 1950s most ketchup was made directly from fresh tomatoes, combined with vinegar, sugar, and seasonings. Subsequently, most ketchup manufacturers have replaced the sugar with regular corn syrup and high-fructose corn syrup. Some manufacturers have replaced vinegar with acetic acid. Ketchup, which once was seasoned with fresh onions, is now made with

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onion powder. Many ketchup manufacturers now add "natural flavorings" to make up for any deficiency in the other ingredients. These substitutes have lowered the costs of making ketchup, and most consumers are unable to detect any difference in taste. During the tomato season ketchup factories produced ketchup from fresh tomatoes. During the off-season ketchup plants were either idle or were required to produce other products. When consumer demand outstripped the ability of these factories to produce ketchup from fresh tomatoes, new methods of manufacturing began to be explored. This exploration led to the most significant content changethe replacement of fresh tomatoes with tomato concentrate, which began in the 1950s. Concentrate was easily produced during the high tomato season. It simply required that water be evaporated from the tomatoes. Concentrate was then pumped into aseptic storage tanks. It could later be converted into ketchup. Prior to the 1950s most producers removed water by boiling. Evaporators used in the dairy industry rapidly extracted water, and with some adaptation, these evaporators were soon used in ketchup-making. At first, tomato concentrate was stored in sterilized tin cans. But a bumper crop meant storing millions of cans of tomato concentrate. An employee in Heinz Canada's Leamington plant came up with the idea of using bulk storage tanks of concentrate through an aseptic process, which prevented outside air from coming in contact with the concentrate. Experimentation went on with increasingly larger tanks. Other aseptic processing technologies were developed, including mechanisms for transferring the concentrate and sterilizing huge storage tanks. When the concentrate was needed it was then pumped into the plant for processing. Concentrate was also pumped into railway cars and shipped to other ketchup plants, which were often situated in other regions of the nation. By the 1970s tomato concentrate was also stored in sterile bags fitted with nozzles and supported by plywood boxes. These bags of concentrate were shipped by truck or rail to other ketchup manufacturing facilities. When the paste was pumped out of the bag, the box was folded up and shipped back to the point of origin.36 The shift to concentrate required that a new formula be devised, which, according to Paul Townsend (a 1960s marketing director of the H. J. Heinz Company), was "every bit as good as fresh ketchup, so good that no one could, and still can't, tell the difference." Making ketchup from paste gradually improved the economics of the business, as seasonal factories could produce ketchup from stored paste year round. By 1968, 50 percent of Heinz's ketchup was being processed out of concentrate. Today almost all ketchup is made from concentrate.37

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Bottling and Packaging Revolutions One problem faced by early ketchup manufacturers related to the bottling and capping. Early bottles were sealed with corks handdipped in wax to make the bottles airtight. The wax-covered corks were often covered with foil, and paper strips were banded around the necks of the bottles to cover the uneven bottoms of the cork coverings. As careful as manufacturers were, these steps rarely guaranteed that the ketchup would not be exposed to the air. In the early part of the twentieth century researchers concluded that vacuum-sealed bottles were absolutely essential. Hence, corks were covered with metal caps that effectively sealed the bottles from contact with outside air. As capping technology improved, screw caps replaced corks. These screw caps made the neck bands unnecessary; however, many producers retained them as trademarks. Thin ketchups made before 1906 were easy to pour out of the small holes at the top of the ketchup bottles. The narrow opening reduced the amount of contact with air, which darkened the ketchup and made it unappealing to consumers. After 1906 thick ketchup became standard. Thick ketchups were difficult to pour through the narrow spouts. If the size of the hole were increased, then more air was let in after opening by the consumer. Ketchup exposed to air oxidizes and turns a dark color. In addition, consumers were familiar with the narrow-nosed bottles, and commercial manufacturers had invested time, effort, and funds creating this image for their bottles. This created a ridiculous situation: the narrow nose made it extremely difficult to pour the ketchup from the bottle. When the ketchup did come out, it would do so in one great swish and splat ketchup all over the place. Beginning in the 1960s ketchup-making went through a packaging revolution. As packaging accounted for 60 percent of ketchup's total cost, reducing storage, transportation, and production expenses could increase profits. Packaging changes since the 1970s have greatly increased ketchup usage. In the early 1970s the H. J. Heinz Company introduced the Vol-Pak, a plastic bag filled aseptically with ketchup. Designed for food-service operators, restaurant employees placed the bags on racks and refilled plastic bottles. Vol-Paks soon replaced cans in foodservice operations. Heinz introduced two other packaging changes. The first was the single-serve ketchup pouch. Sales of single-serve pouches went from half a million cases to five million cases in just ten years due to the fast-food boom. In 1983 Heinz pioneered a squeezable plastic ketchup bottle, which was easier to use and almost unbreakable. Heinz came out first with a twenty-eight-ounce version, then added twenty-, forty-four-, and sixty-four-ounce sizes.38 These changes in packaging were welcomed by consumers. Syndicated

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columnist Lewis Grizzard observed in 1985: "Something wonderful has happened. . . . Somebody finally had the good sense to put ketchup in a plastic squeeze bottle where it belonged all the time." Others agreed with Grizzard's assessment. By the 1990s, 60 percent of all U.S. ketchup was sold in plastic, and projections are for this to increase in the future.39 Notes 1. South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, Fourth Annual Report (Aberdeen, S.D.:State Printer, 1904), 1517; deposition of Charles Loudon, as in The American Food Journal 4 (15 January 1909): 22; A[rvil] W. Bitting, Appertizing or the Art of Canning (San Francisco: Trade Pressroom, 1937), 669. 2. W[ayland] G[ladstone] Hier, The Manufacture of Tomato Products (Denver, Colo.: W. G. Hier, 1919), 1. 3. C. W. Geiger, "Libby, McNeill & Libby's Sacramento Cannery," Canning Age 1 (January 1921): 919. 4. Charles Plummer, U.S. Tomato Statistics 196090, Statistical Bulletin 841 (Washington, D.C.: Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, August 1992), 2, 14. 5. A. I. Dichmont, Interviews with Persons Involved in the Development of the Mechanical Tomato Harvester (Davis: Regents of the University of California, 1978); Walter Olson, "Changing Patterns of Tomato Production in California," The California Geographer 10 (1969): 1526. 6. Mary B. Sim, Commercial Canning in New Jersey, History and Early Development (Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, 1951), 486; William Moore, "A Brief History of the Canning Business in the Central West," in Arthur I. Judge, ed., A History of the Canning Industry; Souvenir of the Seventh Annual Convention of the National Canners' Association and Allied Associations (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1914), 19; Food Law Bulletin 4 (7 July 1909): 475; "Beech-Nut Packing Company Products," a typewritten list of products produced by the company at the Canajoharie Library & Art Gallery, Canajoharie, New York. 7. Jane Stokes Lange, A History for the 30th Anniversary Board of Directors Meeting, Curtice Burns Foods, Inc., 5 November 1991. 8. "Brooks Food History," 11 September 1979, five-page summary received from the Curtice Burns Foods; Collinsville Herald, 8 June 1995. 9. Inside the Catsup Factor; A True Story about Catsup, pamphlet (San Francisco: Del Monte, n.d.); William Braznell, California's Finest: The History of the Del Monte Corporation and the Del Monte Brand (San Francisco: Del Monte Corporation, 1982), 93. 10. Sim, Commercial Canning, 32226; Interview with Edward Steele by Edward F. Keuchel, 12 November 1964, 2425, transcript 1214 at the Kroch Library, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

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11. Terre Haute Tribune, 29 March 1948, p. 1; David J. Bodenhamer and Robert G. Barrows, Encyclopedia of Indianapolis (Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1994), 460. 12. Fearing Burr, The Field and Garden Vegetables of America (Boston: Crosby and Nichols, 1863), 645, 649; Peter Henderson, Gardening for Profit; A Grade to the Successful Cultivation of the Market and Family Garden (New York: Orange Judd & Company, 1867), 218; Liberty Hyde Bailey, Notes on Tomatoes, Agricultural College of Michigan Bulletin 31 (Lansing: Thorp & Godfrey State Printers and Binders, 1887), 1314; A. W. Livingston, Livingston and the Tomato (Columbus, Ohio: A. W. Livingston's Sons, 1893), 38. 13. Saturday Evening Post 198 (7 February 1926): 101. 14. HeinzLine, January 1995, 10. 15. HeinzLine, Heinz U.S.A., May 1995, 67. The bio-engineering field is confronted with many problems, including those related to ethics, health, and taste. I do share concerns expressed by many observers with some activities currently under way in the field; however, these issues are too complex to deal with properly here. 16. The American Grocer 48 (12 October 1892): 48. 17. Robert C. Alberts, The Good Provider: H. J. Heinz and His 57 Varieties (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1973), 129; Pickles 4 (October 1900): n.p. 18. E. D. McCafferty, Henry J. Heinz. A Biography (New York: Bartlett Orr Press, 1923), 14445. 19. Butterick Trio advertisement in What to Eat 19 (December 1905): n.p.; Ralph Tilton, "Successful Food Advertising; Catsup and Sauces," What to Eat 19 (December 1905): 22425. 20. Tilton, "Successful Food," 22425. 21. Saturday Evening Post 198 (7 February 1926): 101; Ladies' Home Journal 43 (April 1926): 144. 22. Priscilla magazine, 1923; Saturday Evening Post 198 (9 January 1926): 101. 23. Liberty Magazine 4 (13 August 1927): 64; Saturday Evening Post 201 (12 January 1929): 67; Women's Home Companion 59 (October 1932): 82; advertisements in Ed Lehew's collection, copyrighted 1935. 24. Good Housekeeping 90 (April 1930): 227. 25. Eleanor Foa Dienstag, In Good Company: 125 Years at the Heinz Table (18691994) (New York: Warner Books, Inc., 1994), 182; H. J. Heinz Co., 57 Prize-Winning Recipes from the Cook with Ketchup Contest (Pittsburgh: Home Economics Department, H. J. Heinz Co., 1957) 26. Douglas Collins, America's Favorite Food: The Story of Campbell Soup Company (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1994), 163; Collier's 121 (26 June 1948): 63; Braznell, California's Finest, 93. 27. Forbes 93 (1 April 1964): 3032. 28. Forbes 107 (1 March 1971): 2425, 28, 31; AdWeek's Marketing Week (26 August 1991): 18.

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29. Clyde H. Campbell, The Campbell's Book: A Textbook on Canning, Preserving and Pickling (New York: Canning Age, 1929); Clyde H. Campbell, Campbell's Book: Canning, Preserving and Pickling, 2nd ed. (New York: Vance Publishing Corporation, 1937); Clyde H. Campbell, revised by Rohland Isker and Walter MacLinn, Campbell's Book: Canning, Preseving and Pickling, 3rd ed. (Chicago: Vance Publishing Corporation, 1950). 30. A[rvil] W. Bitting, Appertizing, 657 61. 31. Ibid., 67071. 32. Ibid., 67172. 33. The Canner 71 (21 June 1930): 2930. 34. Eleanor Foa Dienstag, In Good Company: 125 Years at the Heinz Table (18691994) (New York: Warner Books, Inc., 1994), 158. 35. HeinzLine, January 1995, p. 10; Tony Montagno, manager, Heinz Factory, Fremont, Ohio. 36. Dienstag, In Good Company, 16970. 37. Ibid., 162. 38. Special Issue, Heinz U.S.A. Newsbeat 7 (May/June 1978): 2; Dienstag, In Good Company, 17172, 177. 39. Lewis Gizzard, as cited in Jeff W. Huebner, "A Sauce with a Glorious Past; Ketchup Distills Spices, Exotic Flavors of Empires," Pittsburgh Press, 17 August 1986, p. E2.

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7 Ketchup Today and Tomorrow For the past century, tomato ketchup has reigned supreme as America's national condiment. Ketchup bottles are found in 97 percent of all households. Four out of five restaurants and cafés in the United States have easily accessible bottles arrayed vertically along food-counter skylines overshadowing the sugar containers and salt and pepper shakers. The white cap of each bottle contrasts with the luscious deep red contents, enlivening almost any environment. Ketchup's sweet and tangy flavor tickles our taste buds and adds gustatory pleasure to otherwise commonplace foods.Ketchup is a unique product offering something to everyone. American military personnel during and after World War II were frequently observed garnishing unfamiliar foreign foods and unappetizing military rations with it. American tourists in Europe scandalized chefs by dousing their creations with ketchup. President Richard Nixon loved it on his cottage cheese, while Russian gymnast Olga Korbut poured ketchup on all foods, including her pancakes. Even French and Italian chefs use ketchup in cooking, although they usually fail to mention this ingredient when offering recipes.1 Ketchup and ketchup bottles have become culinary icons and cultural images. Writers have used ketchup in works of fiction. In You Can't Go Home Again novelist Thomas Wolfe describes truck drivers in downtown Manhattan who "poured great gobs and gluts of thick tomato ketchup on their hamburgers." Movie producers employed it in titles of films, such as Luck, Trust and Ketchup. Actors frequently use ketchup to simulate blood in theater productions. Painter Paul McCarthy ladled ketchup on his paintings to produce multimedia artworks. Gary Larson, creator of "The Far Side," and other cartoonists employ ketchup and ketchup bottles as means of social commentary. The ketchup container, as well as its contents, has found a place in our lives. Magicians use Nielsen's Vanishing Ketchup Bottle to astound audiences. Others collect ketchup bottles. Ralph Finch, a writer for the Detroit News, has collected over 150 different bottles, while Joe and Honey

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Freedman from the Philadelphia area have close to 300 ketchup bottles at last count.2 Despite a multitude of unusual uses of ketchup, it is most commonly applied to a limited number of host foods. In America the host foods are mainly hamburgers, hot dogs, french fries, and eggs. Ketchup's popularity has expanded along with the ever growing fast-food chains, such as McDonald's, Burger King, Wendy's, Roy Rogers', and Jack-inthe-Box, where it is dispensed in single-serve pouches or in large plastic reservoirs with push pumps. From plastic squeeze bottles, teenagers and adults squirt gobs of gluey scarlet ketchup on a vast assortment of foods. Overall, Americans alone purchase ten billion ounces per year, averaging out to about three bottles per person. Worldwide over 840 million fourteen-ounce bottles alone are sold annually. What is a Good Ketchup? Ketchup's success has brought competition. There are about one hundred commercial ketchups available nationally and many more regional products. A simple taste test demonstrates that not all ketchups are alike. In 1983 Consumer Reports examined fifteen brands of ketchup. Expert "sensory consultants" concluded that an outstanding ketchup is "properly thick and smooth, with well-blended sweet, sour, and salty tastes." A good ketchup should dissolve "quickly in the mouth, leaving an appropriate coating and no inappropriate aftertaste." Thinner ketchups lacked flavor since they left slightly less coating on the mouth and did not ''stay in the mouth long enough to be fully tasted." Tasters for Consumer Reports used Heinz ketchup as the standard by which other ketchups were judged. They did find two less expensive ketchups that they believed were similar in taste to Heinz. Other ketchups fell short after being judged on their saltiness, sweetness, bitterness, vinegaryness, astringency, aftertaste, thinness/thickness, lumpiness, tomato flavor, and coloring.3 Jenifer Harvey Lang established tasting panels composed of prestigious chefs, food writers, cookbook publishers, and food-industry dignitaries. She asked them to rate a series of commonly eaten foods, including ketchup. She believed that the proper color for ketchup was a brilliant red, as darker colors indicate poor quality and pale ketchups "can be an indication of wateriness or poor-quality tomatoes." As to the taste, she believed that ketchup should be a sweet-and-sour condiment and therefore should be "sharp and lively." According to Lang, the "taste of fresh, ripe tomatoes" was not as "important as the balance of sweet and sour flavors." Neither should one be "able to identify distinctly the sugar, vinegar or cayenne." The consistency should be

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thick, smooth, and without lumps. Ketchups in which "water runs off in a pink stream all over the plate" were unpleasant and considered defective. Ketchups that were too thick were "almost cloying." Finally, the aftertaste should not leave a "sharp, vinegary, astringent sensation."4 Her expert panels tasted twenty-two ketchups served in shallow glass bowls with unsalted crackers provided to cleanse the palate. Club soda was "sipped between tastes to clear the mouths of the tasters." Her panel found only six "acceptable" ketchups, three of which are no longer manufactured. The other three were produced by Hunt, Del Monte, and Heinz, although, contrary to the Consumer Reports findings, her panel found regular Heinz ketchup to be "nondescript, boring, uninteresting, flat." Heinz's ''Hot Ketchup," on the other hand, was a "big hit, causing such favorable comments as 'peppery,' 'sharp,' and 'nice bite.' " The panel preferred Del Monte ketchup because it seemed "to embody all that a ketchup should be: sweet and pungent at the same time, without being too sour; a hint of tomato flavor, not too salty." Its texture was "just right, thick enough to mound nicely next to a pile of French fries for dipping, with no watery run-off."5 Jeffery Steingarten, the food writer for Vogue, examined thirty-three store-bought ketchups in 1992. Unlike Lang, Steingarten concluded that one did not consume ketchup directly from spoons or on dry unsalted crackers as tasting mediums. The only way to test ketchup was on french fries, hot dogs, or hamburgers and then washed down with cola. As he was not interested in eating thirty or more hot dogs or hamburgers, he decided to eat McDonald's french fries and quaffed Coca-Cola to cleanse his palate. Over a period of weeks he and his wife compared ketchups and ended up with four general categories: "Worse than Heinz," "Heinz," "Better than Heinz," and "Not Really Ketchup." His conclusions about Heinz ketchup included: "Bright color, thick but a bit sticky, quite sweet; less taste than homemade but with a good, fruity acidity, some tomato taste; unassertive and uninteresting spices. With french fries, a marriage made in heaven." With regard to Del Monte Ketchup, Steingarten concluded that it was "Sometimes Better than Heinz, sometimes not; less sticky, less tendency to coat the teeth. But slightly overcooked, caramelized taste." Of Hunt's Tomato Ketchup, he wrote, "Occasionally seemed Better Than Heinz. Thick and spicey, but excessive flavor of onion powder or garlic powder. Too salty."6 Gretchen Lang, a writer for the Whole Foods Market, Inc., in 1994 examined seventeen commercial ketchups. She judged these ketchups on three criteria, using a 15 rating scale (with 1 being the lowest and 5 the highest). The criteria were taste (a balance of sweet, tart, spicy, and salty flavors), texture (chunky and smooth were fine, but not watery, sticky,

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gloppy, or gummy), and color (clear, bright red). Her ten tasters, two of whom were children and one a teenager, ranged from "demanding, sophisticated eaters to mainstream hamburger lovers." They judged Heinz ketchup the best (tangy, balanced, bright orangey-red, smooth, silky, unobtrusive, not too thick), but very close seconds were Hunt's (balanced sweet and salt, smooth, bright cardinal red) and Del Monte (very sweet, slightly soupy, pleasant, deep scarlet). The other ketchups varied greatly in taste (soupy, too sweet, nasty, bland, flat), in texture (chutneylike, chewy, gooey, gummy, uneven), and in color (muddy dull or rusty red).7 Why is Ketchup so Popular? In the past one reason for ketchup's success was its ability to be preserved for extended periods of time without spoiling. However, today, with refrigeration and many other ways to preserve food easily, this explanation is not likely to continue to attract buyers. One could argue that Americans became familiar with ketchup during earlier times before the advent of refrigeration and then continued to use it after this reason no longer was central. However, this would not explain ketchup's new rapid expansion in cultures that have never been exposed to it before. Obviously, there are other reasons why ketchup is increasing in popularity throughout the world, although it is unclear precisely what these explanations may be. Several brave souls have ventured explanations for ketchup's popularity. Dale Huffman, professor emeritus at Auburn University, stated that "From a scientific standpoint, ketchup is tart and slightly acidic, so it counteracts the fatty buildup in the mouth from meat and fried potatoes." According to Ernest Dichter, the father of motivational research, ketchup is a symbol of virility: "It is a modern-day version of eating raw meat. A true test of the hunter. Pouring ketchup on cooked meat makes it look raw."8 Elizabeth Rozin, culinary historian, pointed out that for Americans ketchup "provides the pleasure and reassurance of a familiar and well loved taste on anything it anoints." It is "a uniquely American product and must ultimately be understood as a profound expression of American-ness." For Americans and others, "Visually, it provides an unparalleled version of the blood red saucebut in this case it serves not only as a culturally transformed blood substitute to eat on vegetable foods, but also as a blood enhancer to eat on meat. And at the very same time it satisfies the built-in, universal human taste for sweet."9 As interesting as the preceding theories may be, perhaps the simplest explanation for ketchup's success appeared in a 1926 Heinz advertisement titled "Why You Like It." It proclaimed that "The first and main reason why

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you like Heinz Ketchup so much is that it tastes good. The taste is the test."10 The sweet-and-sour, salty, and tangy flavors embodied in tomato ketchup are common culinary combinations throughout the world. Ketchup as a Vegetable Perhaps because of its success, ketchup has continued to be engaged in controversies of one sort or another. In 1981 the Reagan administration wanted to classify ketchup as a vegetable in hopes of saving money on the federal schoollunch program, which provides free or low-cost breakfasts and lunches to the nation's poorest schoolchildren. The classic food-service beef patty with ketchup would then be defined as meat and a vegetable. The idea that ketchup belonged to a basic food group upset many groups nationally, and the Reagan administration conveniently "forgot" the proposal. In 1995 the Republican-controlled congress "remembered" it, proposing to shave a billion dollars from the school lunch program. A reduced total amount of funds would then be turned over to the states, making them responsible to set nutrition standards. As an editorial in the Boston Globe pointed out, "a child in Illinois might get a tomato at lunch, and a child in Missouri might get ketchup."11 This debate raised the issue of ketchup's contents and its healthful qualities. The Code of Federal Regulations, set by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), defines ketchup as prepared from one or any combination of the following ingredients: 1) tomato concentration with lemon juice added to adjust the pH; 2) the liquid derived from mature red tomatoes; 3) the liquid obtained from the residue from preparing tomatoes for canning, consisting of peelings and cores; and 4) the liquid obtained from the residue from partial extraction of juice from such tomatoes. Skins, seeds, and other coarse or hard substances need to be excluded. Hydrochloric acid may be added prior to straining to obtain an appropriate pH level. The final composition may be adjusted by the addition of water. The ingredients, according to the FDA, that are suitable for ketchup production include vinegars, nutritive carbohydrates sweeteners (including sugar, dextrose, corn syrup, and dried corn syrup), and spices and flavorings, such as onions or garlic. Its consistency is determined by the rate of flow as measured by the Bostwick Consistometer. Ketchup cannot flow faster than fourteen centimeters in thirty seconds at twenty degrees centigrade.12 Many people believe that ketchup is unhealthful. When asked about the way that Jerry Garciamember of the rock group the Grateful Deaddied, Dennis McNally, spokesman of Grateful Dead Productions, stated that Garcia "never got clean of the hot dog and ketchup and cigarette diet."

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Ketchup enhances the gustatory pleasure of eating certain foods. It has little caloric significance in the diet, as it is generally consumed in small amounts. A tablespoon contains about fifteen calories, 190 milligrams of sodium, and about four grams of sugar. In 1975 the United States Department of Agriculture issued a compilation of the nutritive values of many commonly eaten foods in America. According to the author, Catherine F. Adams, when used normally ketchup has little nutritional impact. A cup of ketchup contains 273 calories, 5.5 grams of protein, 60 milligrams of calcium, 137 milligrams of iron, 69.3 grams of carbohydrates, 2,845 milligrams of sodium, 991 milligrams of potassium, 3,820 international units of vitamin A, and 41 milligrams of ascorbic acid. Ketchup is composed of 68 percent water.13 Ketchup may not be as healthful as eating a fresh tomato, but it does have some nutritional value. The Return of Homemade Ketchup By the mid-twentieth century, making homemade ketchup had become an almost forgotten art. After World War II this began to change. A few specialty cookbooks kept homemade ketchup alive. For instance, Ann Seranne's Complete Book of Home Preserving included ketchup recipes for apples, cranberries, cucumbers, elderberries, grapes, mushrooms, plums, and two for tomatoes. Rosemary Hume and Muriel Downes's Jams Preserves and Pickles included recipes for mushroom and gooseberry ketchups. Commercial recipes for mushroom ketchup continue to be published. Likewise, food magazines, such as Gourmet, printed slightly revised variations of past ketchup themes, including recipes for mushroom, walnut, and tomato ketchup, as well as "Green Tomato Ketchup," "Grape Ketchup," "Cranberry Ketchup," and ''Currant Ketchup" recipes. Gourmet has also published new additions to the ketchup world, including "Cherry Watermelon-Rind Catsup," "Apple Ketchup," and "Bertrand Fruit" ketchup.14 Beginning in 1968 homemade ketchup began a resurgence. Don Bevona's Love Apple Cookbook published two recipes: "Sister's Ketchup" and "Mother's Ketchup." Catherine Foster's recipe for tomato ketchup employed honey as a sweetener. Her recipe for "Tomato-Apple Catsup" contained kelp as an ingredient. Helen Newbury Burke offered another interesting recipe, "Dutch Apple Catsup," purportedly used by our "founding fathers." Florence Fabricant, today a food editor for the New York Times, published recipes for "Old-fashioned Tomato Ketchup," "Blueberry, Plum, or Grape Ketchup," and "Spicy Tomato Ketchup." Recipes for grape and cucumber ketchups for use on cold meats have been published by Melissa Ruffner Weiner. Raymond Sokolov published versions of historical ketchup recipes from Isabel Beeton

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and Mary Randolph and an intriguingly titled one called "Buffalo Berry Ketchup." Jay Solomon produced recipes for "Sun-Dried Tomato Catsup," for use as an accompaniment for roast beef, T-bone steaks, and prime rib; "Rhubarb-Plum Catsup," for use with extremely spicy dishes, grilled or roasted chicken, pork, fried plantains, and sweet potatoes; ''Apricot-Peach Catsup," for use with chicken, turkey, pork, and ham; and "Cranberry Catsup," for use with hamburgers, steaks, grilled chicken, and roast turkey. In 1993 Joanna Pruess in The Washington Post published recipes for "Pasquale Ingenito's Yellow Tomato-Saffron Ketchup" and "My Pear-Plum Ketchup." The following year John Willoughby and Chris Schlesinger responded in The New York Times with recipes for "Peach Ketchup," MangoChipotle Pepper Ketchup," "Chunky Papaya Ketchup," and "Smoky Shiitake Mushroom Ketchup."15 Recently published tomato cookbooks have printed a variety of tomato ketchup recipes. Sharon Nimtz and Ruth Cousineau's cookbook contains a recipe for tomato ketchup calling for red wine vinegar and port wine. Jesse ZiffCool's cookbook includes one for "Fresh Tomato Catsup." Michele Anna Jordan's recipe for ketchup calls for plum tomatoes along with such unusual ketchup ingredients as hot mustard flour, vanilla beans, cardamom seeds, juniper berries, fennel seeds, chervil, and kosher salt; pineapple vinegar is optional. Roy Guste's recipe for ketchup lists brown sugar as an ingredient.16 It is anticipated that these recipes are harbingers of further experimentation. Designer Ketchups Along with the renaissance of homemade ketchups, there has been a concomitant diversification in commercial ketchups. Extensive experimentation is under way in the ketchup-making world. Fancy ketchups are produced by dozens of small manufacturers. These often possess creative names, such as "Ass Kickin' Ketchup," "New England Chunky Ketchup," "Cowboy Catsup," "Featherweight Catsup," "Jardine's Jalapeño Texas Ketchup," "McIlhenny Farms Spicy Ketchup," "Nervous Nellie's Jams & Jellies Hot Tomato Sweet Sauce," and "The Wizard's Catch Up." In addition there are many generic ketchups. Over the past decade or so these have included "Ann Page," "Cost Cutter," "No Frills," "Skaggs Alpha Beta," and "Town House."17 Other ketchups are now produced to meet specialty markets. Some claim to be "natural" or "organic," such as "Millna's Finest Organic Tomato Ketchup" and "Westbrae Natural Un-Ketchup." Some are made without salt. Some substitute honey and sweet fruit juice for refined sugar. Organic ketchups require ingredients that have been produced in healthful ways.

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Others, such as Heinz's "Weight Watchers" or "Light Harvest" ketchups, contain one-third fewer calories and half the sodium. Still others have no salt added. These ketchups differ dramatically from the regular ketchup produced by Heinz, Hunt, and Del Monte. If you dip a french fry into an unsweetened or unsalted ketchup, you will be able to taste the difference. Likewise ketchups sweetened with honey or fruit juice taste different than those sweetened with sugar or fructose. For those whose taste buds are more refined, it is possible to determine the different spices and flavorings contained in various brands. Fancy and specialty ketchups also differ in texture, color, and longevity. Some are thick, others thin. Some are chunky; others are smooth. Some are watery; others are sticky and gummy. Some are bright red, others reddish brown. Heinz's and Hunt's ketchups keep on the shelf at room temperature about four months after opening. While they will not spoil, they begin to lose flavor, and the color darkens due to oxidation. Most fancy and specialty ketchups need to be refrigerated immediately after opening. Price is another variable. While retail price varies depending on the type and size of the container, the Whole Foods Market has estimated that prices per ounce are four cents for Hunt, five cents for Del Monte, six cents for Heinz, thirty-two cents for Whole Earth, up to fifty-five cents for "Busha Browne's Spicy Love Apple Sauce," an import from Jamaica.18 In addition, nontomato ketchups have not been forgotten by commercial manufacturers. Those recently produced commercially include "American Traditions Cranberry Ketchup," "Bear Meadow Farm Apple Catsup," "Bear Meadow Farm Cranberry Catsup,'' and "Nantucket Island Cranberry Catsup."19 George Watkins's "Mushroom Ketchup" and "Walnut Ketchup," created in 1830, continue to be produced by Keddie LTD in the United Kingdom, with limited sales in the United States. "Banana Ketchup," a takeoff on Jufran and Mafran traditional Philippine hot and spicy banana sauces, is produced for Del Monte Philippines, Inc., but is not for sale in the United States. The Salsa Challenge Since 1992 reports have reverberated throughout the business pages of newspapers and magazines that sales of Mexican salsas have outsold tomato ketchup. In 1993 ketchup sales decreased 1.7 percent ($413 million) over 1992, while salsa sales soared 10.5 percent ($634 million). Some observers announced that another traditional American product had been dethroned by a foreign commodity. These reports, as shocking as they may be for ketchup manufacturers, did not tell the full story. As the price for salsa is

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much higher, tomato ketchup sells much more in quantity. Annually, Americans consume ten billion ounces of ketchup, while they consume only four billion ounces of salsa. The National Pantry Survey, conducted by an independent group of researchers of Park Ridge, Illinois, found ketchup in 97 percent of all homes, while salsa was found in only half of America's kitchens.20 Yet a 51 percent market penetration of salsa based on sales was incredible, particularly when this was up from a 10 percent market share ten years before. Ketchup manufacturers took note. Heinz's "Hot Ketchup," which had been manufactured since 1958, was simply not competitive with the new salsas. To counter the inroads of salsa's success, Heinz released a "Salsa Ketchup" in 1993, but it was discontinued two years later after lackluster sales. Heinz has recently teamed up with the McIlhenny Company to produce a really "Hot Ketchup," which combines Tabasco sauce with Heinz's traditional ketchup. It remains to be seen if salsa's diverse chunky and spicy concoctions will really dethrone ketchup from its hundred-year reign as America's national condiment. A Business of Global Significance Whatever the fate of tomato ketchup in America, during the past one hundred years this condiment has spread far beyond the English-speaking peoples: its image is known the world over. Its usage has increased rapidly throughout Latin America, Europe, Australia, and east and southeast Asia. The largest ketchup manufacturer, the H. J. Heinz Company headquartered in Pittsburgh, alone produced four hundred million bottles of ketchup last year. It manufacturers ketchup in Caracas (Venezuela), Hayes (United Kingdom), Brussels (Belgium), Madrid (Spain), Benavente (Portugal), Kecskemet (Hungary), Doveton (Australia), Tokyo (Japan), Chegutu (Zimbabwe), Seoul (Republic of Korea), and Samutrakarn (Thailand). In addition Heinz and Kuwait Foods Company have formed Cairo Foods Industries SAE to produce ketchup and other tomato products for sale in the Middle East.21 The Heinz operation in Venezuela expanded business throughout South America and became the largest ketchup producer on the continent. Several other local manufacturers have begun to compete with Heinz. In the United Kingdom, Heinz's Euro-factory is a high-speed, high-volume operation. This is directly in contrast to Heinz's operation in the Netherlands, which has one hundred different label sets for the same Heinz product.22 There are, of course, many other international ketchup manufacturers. Unilever, a multinational Anglo-Dutch conglomerate, is a major ketchup producer in Europe and elsewhere. Unilever has recently acquired Kissan

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Products, India's ketchup leader. The largest producer of ketchup in France is the Paris-based BSN S. A., which produces Amora ketchup. In Japan, Kagome is the largest manufacturer, with about 60 percent of the market, followed by the soy sauce maker Kikkoman, with about 20 percent. Heinz ketchup is in fourth place with about 5 percent.23 Ketchup is used in diverse ways in different countries. Its international success has been based on respect for cultural differences and adaptation of products to local palates. In Great Britain and Venezuela ketchup is sweeter. In central Europe, the Netherlands, and Belgium ketchup is spicier. Elst, Heinz's affiliate in the Netherlands, produces hot ketchup, Mexican ketchup, and curry ketchup. Kraft Foods International, a subsidiary of Philip Morris, produces paprika and curry ketchups in Europe but not in America.24 The Japanese use ketchup on spaghetti and cabbage rolls, as well as on hot dogs and omelettes. In Holland and Venezuela ketchup is used as a sauce on pasta. In Greece, Heinz advertisements show ketchup on pasta, eggs, and meat. In Sweden ketchup accompanies meatballs and fishballs. During the 1968 "Prague Spring" in Czechoslovakia, an outdoor Heinz ketchup bottle appeared in Wenceslas Square. The Czechs regarded it as their window to the West. Since the fall of communism in eastern and central Europe, ketchup remains associated with the "outside" Western world. In the developing world ketchup is strongly associated with the Western world and with modernity.25 Few other sauces or condiments have transcended local and national culinary traditions as has tomato ketchup. With the global growth of fast-food chains, ketchup's consumption is likely to escalate. Some denounce it as an American culinary atrocity, and others condemn it as a promoter of global homogenization. However, complain as gourmetdom may, ketchup is one of the greatest success stories the sauce world has ever known. According to Elizabeth Rozin, ketchup may well be "the only true culinary expression of the melting pot, and . . . its special and unprecedented ability to provide something for everyone makes it the Esperanto of cuisine."26 Notes 1. Jenifer Harvey Lang, Tastings; The Best from Ketchup to Caviar (New York: Crown Publishers, 1986), 68; Jeffrey Steingarten, "Simply Red," Vogue 182 (August 1992): 244. 2. Elizabeth Rozin, "Ketchup and the Collective Unconsciousness," Journal of Gastronomy 4 (Summer 1988): 5354; Thomas Wolfe, You Can't Go Home Again; Bernard Giquel, Ketchup (Paris, 1969); Richard Cork, "Ketchup on Canvas," Times (London), 7 September 1991, Entertainment Weekend, p. 2; Goeff Brown, "White

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and Black and Funny All Over," Times (London), 9 June 1994, p. 37; Independent, 10 June 1994, p. 26; Roberta Smith, "Paul McCarthyMuseum of Modern Art," New York Times, 7 July 1995, p. C24; Gary Larson, "The Far Side," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 16 July 1994; Andrew Smith, "Playing Ketchup," Collector Magazine & Price Guide (July 1995): 21. 3. "Tomato Ketchups," Consumer Reports 48 (October 1983): 55255. 4. Jenifer Harvey Lang, Tastings, 70. 5. Ibid., 7072. 6. Steingarten, "Simply Red," 298300. 7. Gretchen Lang, The Buyer's Guide to Ketchup (North Carolina: Whole Foods Market, Inc., [1994]), 14. 8. Kerry Hannon, "The King of Ketchup," Forbes 121 (21 March 1988): 5862. 9. Rozin, "Ketchup," 4556; Elizabeth Rozin, "The Great Ketchup-Salsa Debate," Icarus 9 (Winter 1993) 2127; Elizabeth Rozin, The Primal Cheeseburger: A Generous Helping of Food History Served Up on a Bun (New York: Penguin Books, 1994), 85110. 10. Frances E. Norton, "Heinz Ketchup," p. 7 (unpublished paper in the Heinz archives). 11. "The Return of Ketchup," New York Times, 2 February 1995, p. A28; "Out to Lunch in the House," Boston Globe, 24 February 1995, p. 24. 12. Code of Federal Regulations: Food and Drugs, 21:100169 (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Federal Register, 1 April 1995), 46971. 13. Steve Morse, "Grateful Dead's Jerry Garcia Dies," Boston Globe, 10 August 1995, p. A1; Catherine F. Adams, "Nutritive Value of American Foods in Common Units," Agricultural Handbook No. 456 (Washington, D.C.: Agricultural Research Service, November 1975), 165. 14. Ann Seranne, The Complete Book of Home Preserving (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1955), 23844; Rosemary Hume and Muriel Downes, Jams Preserves and Pickles25 (London: Chatto and Windus, 1960), 6667; Raymond Binsted, James D. Cevey, and John C. Daikin, Pickle & Sauce Making (London: Food Trade Press LTD, 1962), 1068; Gourmet 8 (September 1948): 22, 4445; 16 (December 1956): 39; 17 (November 1957): 100; 19 (November 1959): 35; (July 1959): 32; 27 (March 1967): 49; (October 1967): 2; 29 (November 1969): 128. 15. Don Bevona, The Love Apple Cookbook (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1968), 142; Catherine Foster, Terrific Tomatoes (Emmaus, Pa.: Rodale, 1975), 25051; Helen Newbury Burke, Foods from the Founding Fathers (Hicksville, N.Y.: Exposition Press, 1978), 196; Florence Fabricant, "Red & Zesty for Variety, America's Most Popular Condiment Can Be Homemade, Too," Americana 5 (July/August 1980): 4345, 8889; Melissa Ruffner Weiner, with Budge Ruffner, Arizona Territorial Cookbook; The Food and Lifestyles of a Frontier (Norfolk, Va.: Donning Company, 1982), 128; Natural History 93 (May 1984): 9094; Jay Solomon, Chutneys, Relishes & Table Sauces (Freedom, Cal.: Crossing Press, 1990), 7075; Joanna Pruess, "Ketchups Worth Keeping," Washington Post, 29 September 1993, Food Section,

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pp. E1 & E14; John Willoughby and Chris Schlesinger, "Ketchup: It's Not Just for Tomatoes Anymore," New York Times, 21 September 1994, p. C4. 16. Sharon Nimtz and Ruth Cousineau, Tomato Imperative! (New York: Little, Brown, 1994), 152; Jesse Ziff Cool, Tomatoes: A Country Garden Cookbook (San Francisco: Collins Publishers San Francisco, 1994), 42; Michele Anna Jordan, The Good Cook's Book of Tomatoes, with More than 200 Recipes (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1995), 272; Roy F. Guste Jr., The Tomato Cookbook (Gretna, La.: Pelican Publishing Company, 1995), 169. 17. "Tomato Ketchups," Consumer Reports 48 (October 1983): 55255; Steingarten, "Simply Red," 244, 298300. 18. Gretchen Lang, Buyers Guide, publication of the Whole Foods Market, Inc., North Carolina, n.d. n.p. 19. Steingarten, "Simply Red," 298300. 20. Fortune 124 (7 October 1991): 14; Business Week (9 May 1991): 8; Business Week (9 May 1994): 8; Michael Haddigan, "Ketchup Battling Salsa in War of the Sauces," Tribune-Review, 9 August 1994; HeinzLine, January 1995, p. 7. 21. Food Institute Report, 29 February 1992 News in a Minute, p. 526. 22. Eleanor Foa Dienstag, In Good Company: 125 Years at the Heinz Table (18691994) (New York: Warner Books, Inc., 1994), 175, 178. 23. Gabrielle Stern, "Heinz Aims to Export Taste for Ketchup," Wall Street Journal, 20 November 1992, pp. B1, B10; Shekhar Hattangadi, "Unilever's Rough Passage to India is Paying Off," Business Week, International Edition, 4 July 1994; Robert Thomson, "Ketchup War Leaves Blotches on the Japanese Table," Financial Times (London), 21 February 1990, p. 8. 24. "Heinz Shakes Up Condiments Fixture," U.K. press release, January 1993; Dienstag, In Good Company, 168; Stern, "Heinz Aims," B1, B10; Food Ingredients and Analysis International (October/November 1994): 23. 25. Letter from Mass Ogawa, dated 30 June 1995; Stern, "Heinz Aims," B1, B10; Dienstag, In Good Company, 184; Robert C. Alberts, The Good Provider: H. J. Heinz and His 57 Varieties (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1973), 130. 26. Rozin, "Ketchup," 4556; Rozin, "Ketchup-Salsa Debate," 2127; Rozin, Primal Cheeseburger, 85110.

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PART II HISTORICAL KETCHUP RECIPES

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A Note on the Recipes Thousands of recipes for making ketchup have been published in the United Kingdom and the United States. In addition, many recipes were published that included ketchup as ingredients. These recipes appeared in cookbooks, agricultural and horticultural journals, newspapers, almanacs, seed catalogs, medical works, magazines, and a host of other sources. In this section there is a representative sample of those recipes. Some were selected because they were typical, others because they were unusual. As a collection they reflect the diversity of ketchup recipes and demonstrate the variety of sources in which recipes appeared. Many of these recipes differ markedly from those that appear in modern cookbooks. Specific cooking times were not always given. Because of the state of cooking technology in the early nineteenth century, cooks were unable to control temperatures easily, and thus it was difficult to specify exact cooking times. Quantities often depended on what was available. As tomatoes were not uniform, quantities depended, too, on their size, shape, consistency, and such other factors as their acid content and their taste and color. When quantities were listed, they were often large. Proportionally scaling back the quantities in these recipes will often result in finished products that taste similar to the originals. Extensive experience was needed to perform even basic cooking functions prior to the twentieth century. Most cookbook authors assumed that readers already possessed this experience and that there was therefore little need to spell everything out. The cook was expected to do what made sense rather than blindly follow the directions of a cookbook author who had no idea of specific cooking conditions, equipment, or the availability of ingredients in the case of any given cook. While nineteenth-century recipes are not difficult to locate, experience is required in finetuning them. After some experience with existing recipes, don't hesitate to experiment and take up the creative art of ketchup-making. Spelling, grammar, and directions in these recipes have been left in their original forms.

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1 Anchovy Ketchup CatchupHow to Make It in the Best Manner Put a pint of the best white wine vinegar to a wide-mouth bottle; then peel some cloves of shalot, and put them into the vinegar, with a quarter of a pint of red wine; when it has boiled ten minutes, put in twelve anchovies, washed clean, with the bones taken out, and add a glass of white wine. When they are cold cork them up close in a bottle for a week. Before you cork them up a second time, put to it another glass of wine, a little pepper, some sliced ginger, with a few cloves and a little mace, some lemon-peel, and a little grated nutmeg, and when they have all boiled half an hour over a slow fire in vinegar, put to it some horse radish, and mix it with what you prepared before, then put the whole into an earthen dish, corked up and tied down close, to prevent the air from getting in, and your catchup may be used at the expiration of fourteen or fifteen days. Source: The Farmer's Wife or Country Housewife (London: Printed for Alex. Hogg, [1780?]), 68. Anchovy Catchup Bone two dozen anchovies, and then chop them. Put to them ten shalots, or very small onions, cut fine, and a handful of scraped horseradish, with a quarter of an ounce of mace. Add a lemon, cut into slices, twelve cloves, and twelve pepper-corns. Then mix together a pint of red wine, a quart of white wine, a pint of water, and half a pint of anchovy liquor. Put the other ingredients into the liquid, and boil it slowly till reduced to a quart. Then strain it, and when cold put it into small bottles, securing the corks with leather. Source: Eliza Leslie, Directions for Cookery; being a System of the Art, in its Various Branches (Philadelphia: E. L. Carey & A. Hart, 1837), 17475. Anchovy Ketchup Put half a gallon of mild ale into a saucepan with two dozen pickled anchovies, three blades of mace, one teaspoonful of sifted sugar, a little whole ginger, six small onions, a couple of cloves, and twenty black peppercorns. Let all boil up once, then draw them from the fire, and allow them to simmer slowly for three-quarters of an hour. Strain through a fine hair sieve, and stir into the strained liquid two table-spoonfuls of mushroom ketchup. When it is quite cold, bottle it, and cork it securely. Probable cost, 1s. 6d. per quart. Sufficient for two quart bottles. Source: Cassell's Dictionary of Cookery (London: Cassell, Petter & Galpin, circa 1870), 12.

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2 Apple Ketchup Apple Catsup Peel and quarter a dozen sound, tart apples; stew them until soft, in as little water as possible, then pass them through a sieve. To a quart of the sifted apple, add a teacupful of sugar, one teaspoonful of pepper, one of cloves, one of mustard, two of cinnamon, and two medium-sized onions, chopped very fine. Stir all together, adding a tablespoonful of salt and a pint of vinegar. Place over the fire and boil one hour, and bottle while hot; seal very tight. It should be about as thick as tomato catsup, so that it will just run from the bottle. Source: Adelaide Hollingsworth, The Columbia Cook Book (Chicago: Columbia Publishing Co., [1893]), 47980. 3 Apricot Ketchup Apricot Catchup 2 gallons ripe apricots 3 tablespoonfuls powdered cloves 1 gallon cider vinegar 2 lbs. (4 cups) brown sugar 3 tablespoonfuls of powdered mace 1/2 pint (1 cup) grated horseradish 3 tablespoonfuls powdered allspice 1 teaspoonful salt 3 tablespoonfuls powdered cinnamon 3 tablespoonfuls powdered ginger Wash and wipe the apricots, put them into a clean saucepan, add a little cold water and cook them for one hour. Drain and rub them through a colander or press through a fruit press to remove the stones and the skins. Add the vinegar, sugar, salt, grated horseradish, powdered cinnamon, powdered cloves, powdered mace, powdered allspice and powdered ginger, return to the pan and cook slowly for three hours, stirring occasionally, then pour into sterilized bottles and seal. Keep in a cool dark place. Source: Marion Harris Neil, Canning, Preserving and Pickling (Philadelphia: David McKay, 1914), 21718.

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4 Barberry Ketchup Barberry Ketchup Three quarts of barberries, stewed and strained; four quarts of cranberries, one cupful of raisins, a large quince, and four small onions, all stewed with a quart of water, and strained. Mix these ingredients with the barberries, and add half a cupful of vinegar, three-fourths of a cupful of salt, two cupfuls of sugar, one dessert-spoonful of ground clove and one of ground allspice, two table-spoonfuls of black pepper, two of celery seed, and one of ground mustard, one teaspoonful of cayenne, one of cinnamon, and one of ginger, and a nutmeg. Let the whole boil one minute. If too thick, add vinegar or water. With the quantities given, about three quarts can be made. Source: Maria Parloa, Miss Parloa's New Cook Book, a Guide to Marketing and Cooking (Boston: Estes and Lauriat, 1880), 346. 5 Blackberry Ketchup Blackberry Catsup Cover the fruit with boiling water; press out the liquor, add whole pepper, mace, cinnamon, white mustard, each one teaspoonful for every two quarts; reduce by boiling one quarter; strain and boil until very thick, and reduce with vinegar of the best quality. Bottle and seal immediately. Source: E. F. Haskell, The Housekeeper's Encyclopedia (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1861), 287. 6 Camp Ketchup Camp KetchupE. R. Take two quarts of old strong beer, and one of white wine, add a quarter of a pound of anchovies, three ounces of shalots peeled, half an ounce of mace, the same of nutmeg, three large races of ginger cut in slices; put all together over a moderate fire till one third is wasted. The next day bottle it with the spice and the shalots. It will keep for many years. Source: [Maria Eliza] Rundell, A New System of Domestic Cookery Formed upon Principles of Economy, additions by Emma Roberts, 71st ed. (London: John Murray, 1847), 370.

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Camp Ketchup A pint of claret, the same quantity of ketchup, four ounces of anchovies, one ounce of fresh lemon-peel pared thin, two cloves of garlic minced fine, half an ounce of allspice, the same of black and of red pepper, one drachm of celery-seed bruised, and half a pint of pickle-liquor. Put these ingredients into a wide-mouthed bottle; stop it close, shake it every day for a fortnight, and then strain it off. Source: [Elizabeth] Ellet, The Practical Housekeeper: an Cyclopedia of Domestic Economy (New York: Stringer and Townsend, 1857), 404. 7 Catsup Cream Dressing Catsup Cream Dressing 1 cupful cream 2 cupful tomato catsup 3 tablespoonfuls olive oil 3 tablespoonfuls vinegar 1 tablespoonful sugar 1 teaspoonful salt Mix the dry ingredients, oil, salt, and vinegar together, then add the catsup and cream, beating it in gradually. Source: Isabel Gordon Curtis, Mrs. Curtis's Cook Book (Petersburg, N.Y.: Success Co., 1909), 168. 8 Cherry Ketchup Cherry Catsup To every pound of the fruit allow one pound of coffee sugar; boil the fruit and sugar together, drain off the syrup, and to every quart add a teaspoon of pepper, one of mace, two of cinnamon, one of ginger, and half a teaspoon of cloves; boil until the syrup is highly flavored; pass the fruit through a sieve, strain the syrup, add it to the pulp; boil all together until of the consistency of very thick molasses; thin with ten per cent. vinegar until it is only of the consistency of common catsup. Bottle while hot and seal immediately. Source: E. F. Haskell, The Housekeeper's Encyclopedia (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1861), 288.

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9 Cockle Ketchup Cockle Ketchup Open the cockles, scald them in their own liquor; add a little water when the liquor settles, if you have not enough; strain through a cloth, then season with every savoury spice; and if for brown sauce, add Port, anchovies, and Garlick; if for white, omit these, and put a glass of sherry, lemon-juice and peel, mace, nutmeg, and white pepper. If for brown, burn a bit of sugar for colouring. It is better to have cockles enough than to add water; and they are cheap. Source: [Maria Eliza Rundell], A New System of Domestic Cookery formed upon Principles of Economy, By a Lady (London: John Murray, 1816), 184. 10 Cold Ketchup Tomato Catsup, Uncooked To 1 peck tomatoes skin, seed, and draw the juice out, add 1 doz. red peppers, seeded and chopped separate; 2 tablespoonful each, white mustard-seed, ground allspice, cloves and salt. Boil one-half gallon cider vinegar, pour over while hot, and when cold, bottle up; tomatoes and peppers must be chopped very fine. Source: M. E. Peterson, Preserving, Pickling and Canning Fruit (Philadelphia: G. Peterson and Co., 1869), 53. Cold Catsup Peel and chop fine half a peck of ripe sound tomatoes. Grate two roots of horse-radish, and chop fine one cup of onions. Mix all well, and add one cup of salt. Bruise half a cup each, of black and white mustard seed in a mortar, and mix with them two teaspoonfuls of black and one of red pepper, one tablespoonful each, of mace and cinnamon, and two teaspoonfuls of cloves, one cup of sugar, and one quart of vinegar. Mix all these ingredients very thoroughly, and put it into jars. Source: Alexander W. Livingston, Livingston and the Tomato (Columbus, Ohio: A. W. Livingston's Sons, 1893), 152.

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11 Compound or Cook's Ketchup Compound, or Cook's Catsup Take a pint and a half of mushroom catsup when it is first made, and ready boiled (the double is best for the purpose), simmer in it for five minutes an ounce of small eschalots nicely peeled; add to these half a pint of walnut catsup, and a wineglassful of cayenne vinegar, or of chili vinegar; give the whole one boil, pour it out, and when cold, bottle it with the eschalots. Mushroom catsup, 1 1/2 pint; eschalots, 1 oz.; walnut catsup or pickle, 1/2 pint; cayenne or Chili vinegar, 1 wineglassful. Source: Eliza Acton, Modern Cookery for Private Families, 10th ed. (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1850), 134. 12 Cranberry Ketchup Cranberry Ketchup 5 pounds of cranberries 1 pint of vinegar 2 pounds of brown sugar 1/2 tablespoonful of paprika 3 tablespoonfuls of cinnamon 1/2 tablespoonful of ground cloves 1/2 tablespoonful of salt Cook the cranberries and vinegar until the berries burst, press through a sieve, add other ingredients, and simmer until thick, process 15 minutes at 180° Fahrenheit (simmering), cork, and seal. Source: Ola Powell, Lippincott's Home Manuals: Successful Canning and Preserving (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1917), 212. 13 Creole Ketchup Catsup, Creole Take a dozen green cucumbers, peel and cut up, sprinkle with salt, and let stand six hours; pour the water from them and scald in vinegar. Prepare half a gallon of cabbage in the same way. Chop a dozen onions, cover with boiling water, and let stand for half an hour. Chop one quart of tender, green tomatoes, one pint of green beans and one dozen pods of green pepper. Put in a preserve-kettle with a dozen very small young ears of corn. Scald and drain. Mix two table-spoonfuls of grated horseradish, one teacupful of white

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mustard-seed, three table-spoonfuls of tumeric, three of celery seed, one of cinnamon, one of cayenne, two of olive oil, and 1 lb. of sugar. Put in a jar with the prepared vegetables, cover with boiling vinegar, and set in a cool, dry place. Source: Harper's Cook Book Encyclopedia (New York & London: Harper & Brothers Publishers, [1902]), 249. Catsup, Creole Tomato Boil sufficient ripe tomatoes to yield two gallons of juice. Put into a kettle with a table-spoonful of ground ginger, two of ground cloves, one of allspice, cinnamon, and black pepper each, two of grated horseradish, two of salt, a teaspoonful of cayenne, and a quart of wine vinegar; let boil until thick; add 4 lbs. of brown sugar. Take from the fire. When cold, bottle and seal. Source: Harper's Cook Book Encyclopedia (New York & London: Harper & Brothers Publishers, [1902]), 249. 14 Cucumber Ketchup Cucumber Catsup Take large old cucumbers and pare them; cut them in slices and break them to a mash, which must be sprinkled with salt and covered with a cloth. Keep in all the seeds. Next day, set the vessel aslant to drain off the juice, and do this till no more can be obtained. Strain the juice, and boil it up with a seasoning of white pepper, sliced ginger, black pepper, sliced eschalot, and a little horseradish. When cold, pick out the eschalot and horseradish and bottle the catsup, which is an excellent preparation for flavouring sauces for boiled fowls, dishes of veal, rabbits, or the more insipid meats. Source: Margaret Dods [pseud. for Christina J. Johnstone], The Cook and Housewife's Manual, 4th ed. (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1829), 261. Cucumber KetchupE. R. Take an equal quantity of large cucumbers and large onions, pare, and slice them; throw over them a handful of salt, and let them stand all night in a sieve placed over a pan. Take the liquor and boil it up, with a quarter of a pound of anchovies to every dozen of cucumbers, a pint of white wine, a nutmeg, a quarter of an ounce of mace, and half an ounce of whole pepper, strain it, and when cold bottle it; tie it down with bladder: it will keep for two years. Source: [Maria Eliza] Rundell, A New System of Domestic Cookery formed upon Principles of Economy, additions by Emma Roberts, 71st ed. (London: John Murray, 1847), 369.

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Cucumber Catsup Take 3 dozen full-grown cucumbers and 8 white onions. Peel and chop them both as fine as possible; sprinkle onehalf pint of fine salt over them, and let drain on a sieve 12 hours; then add one-quarter pound of mustard-seed, and 2 ounces of black pepper, and mix all well together. Put in stone jars with strong vinegar; close up tight, and in 3 days it is fit for use. It will keep for years. Source: M. E. Peterson, Preserving, Pickling and Canning Fruit (Philadelphia: G. Peterson and Co., 1869), 61. Cucumber Catsup (Commercial Recipe) Forty gallons cucumber pulp, 10 gallons vinegar, 10 pounds salt, 20 pounds ground horse radish, 1 1/4 pounds ground cayenne pepper, 10 ounces preservative. Select ripe cucumbers, peel and run through pulper. Put all ingredients, except horse radish and preservative, inn kettle, cook to a thick sauce, turn off steam and add the horse radish and preservative. Bottle while hot. Source: A Complete Course in Canning (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1906), 15051. 15 Currant Ketchup Currant Ketchup Take 4 pints of currant juice, 2 pints sugar, 1 pint of vinegar, 1 teaspoonful of ground black pepper, 1 tablespoonful of salt, 2 tablespoonsful of cloves, and 2 tablespoonful each of allspice and cinnamon. All the spices ground. Boil to half the quantity and skim thoroughly; put the fruit in a jar and cover it with red raspberry vinegar; stir 3 times daily for 3 days; then allow it to stand 4 days, covered close, stirring it once each day, then add to the liquor, for each pint, a pound of loaf sugar. After which, simmer it over a slow fire; skim it often until it is quite clear, then bottle. Two or three spoonsful of this in a tumbler of cool water, makes a delicious summer drink. Source: William Archdeacon, The Kitchen Cabinet: A Book of Receipts (Chicago: Published for the Author, 1876), 65. Currant Catsup Pick over and wash five pounds of currants; put them in a porcelain-lined kettle, add three pounds of sugar, one pint of good vinegar, one tablespoonful

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each of cinnamon, mace and black pepper, then add one teaspoonful of salt. Boil all together until the fruit is well cooked; then bottle tightly. Source: H. I. Blits, Patented and Improved Methods of Canning Fruits with new Edition and Supplement (Brooklyn, N.Y.: H. I. Blits, 1890), 56. 16 Damson Ketchup Damson Catchup 2 quarts damsons 1/2 teaspoonful salt 4 ozs. (1/2 cup) sugar 1/4 teaspoonful powdered mace 1 teaspoonful powdered cinnamon 1 teaspoonful powdered allspice Pinch red pepper 1/2 teaspoonful powdered cloves 1 pint (2 cups) water Wash the damsons, put them into a porcelain-lined saucepan with the water. Simmer until they are perfectly tender, then press them through a sieve or fruit press, rubbing through as much of the skin as possible. Return this to the pan, add the sugar, salt and spices, and simmer until thick. Bottle and seal. Source: Marion Harris Neil, Canning, Preserving and Pickling (Philadelphia: David McKay, 1914), 22223. 17 Elderberry Ketchup Pontach Ketchup Take a quantity of Elderberries pick them and put them into an Earthen pan cover[;] them with vinegar[;] bake them five or six hours[;] strain them off . . . boil up the liquor with cloves, mace, long pepper and shallots. Source: Approved Recipes, circa 1795, 11, cookery manuscript at the New York State Historical Association, Cooperstown, New York. Prince of Wales's Catsup Strip and fill a jar with ripe elder-berries; add as much vinegar as the jar will contain, put it into a cool oven, and let it stand all night. Run the liquor through a jelly-bag, and to every pint put two ounces of anchovies, one of

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shalots; of cloves, mace, nutmeg, and ginger, a drachm or tea-spoonful each; boil it till the anchovies are dissolved. When cold, strain and bottle it. Source: Mrs. Dalgairns, The Practice of Cookery, 3rd ed. (Edinburgh: Robert Cadell, 1830), 413. Elderberry Ketchup (1) Put 6 pints of ripe berries without stalks into a jar, and add 3 pints of vinegar, 4oz. of ginger, twelve anchovies, four blades of mace, 1oz. of whole pepper. Set the jar in a slightly-warmed oven and let it remain for ten or twelve hours. Strain off the juice into an enamelled saucepan, add the ginger, mace, anchovies, and a little pepper and salt, and boil until the anchovies are quite dissolved. Strain again, and when cold put into bottles and cork down until wanted. (2) Select ripe berries, pick 1 pint of them from their stalks, put them into a deep basin or jar, add 1 pint of boiling vinegar, and leave them in it for about twelve hours or so. Pour the liquor through a sieve into a saucepan, and press the berries with the bowl of a wooden spoon to extract the juice; add a little whole ginger, a blade of mace, 1oz. of shallots, and 1 teaspoonful each of peppercorns and cloves. Put the pan on the fire and boil for seven or eight minutes. When it is cool, put it into bottles with the spices, and cork down securely. Source: Theodore Garrett, ed., The Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery, 2 vols. (London: L. Upcott Gill, 1897), 1:571. 18 English Ketchup To Make English Katchop Take a wide-mouthed bottle, put therein a pint of the best White-wine Vinegar; then put in ten or twelve Cloves of Eschalot, peeled and just bruised; then take a quarter of a pint of the best Langoon White-wine; boil it a little, and put to it twelve or fourteen Anchovies wash'd and shred, and dissolve them in the Wine, and when cold, put them in the Bottle; then take a quarter of a pint more of White-wine, and put in it Mace, Ginger sliced, a few Cloves, a spoonful of whole Pepper just bruised; let them all boil a little, when near cold, slice in almost a whole Nutmeg, and some Lemon-peele, and likewise put in two or three spoonfuls of Horse-radish; then stop it close, and for a week shake it once or twice a day; then use it; 'tis is good to put into Fish Sauce, or any savoury Dish of Meat; you may add to it the clear liquor that comes from Mushrooms. Source: E. S[mith], The Compleat Housewife; or, Accomplished Gentlewoman's Companion (London: J. Pemberton, 1727), 7071.

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Ketchup, English Peel ten cloves of garlic, bruise them, and put them into a quart of white wine vinegar; take a quart of white Port, put it on the fire, and when it boils, put in twelve or fourteen anchovies, washed and cut in pieces; let them simmer in the wine till they are dissolved when cold, put them to the vinegar; then take half a pint of white wine, and put into it some mace, some ginger sliced, a few cloves, a spoonful of whole pepper bruised; let them boil a little; when almost cold, slice in a whole nutmeg, and some lemon-peel, with two or three spoonfuls of horse-radish; add it to the rest, stop it close, and stir it once or twice a day. Keep it close stopped up. Source: [N. K. M. Lee], The Cook's Own Book (Boston: Munroe and Francis, 1832), 105. 19 Gooseberry Ketchup Gooseberry Catsup Pick clean ripe gooseberries, allow a pint of water for two quarts of fruit; boil it until the fruit is quite tender; then add a teaspoon of ground cinnamon, one of mace, half as much pepper, and the same of cloves; stir the spices in the fruit; let it simmer a few moments, and press out all the juice; add to each quart one pound of sugar; reduce until the syrup is near to becoming a jelly, and then thin with the best vinegar until of the consistency of molasses. Bottle and cork tightly. Source: E. F. Haskell, The Housekeeper's Encyclopedia (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1861), 287. Gooseberry Catchup This product also comes into commerce under the name of ''spiced gooseberries;" it is an excellent condiment with roast fowl. Take 6 quarts of gooseberries, ripe or unripe as may be desired, and carefully remove the stems and unripe as may be desired, and carefully remove the stems and pistils. Then bring them into a kettle, and after pouring some water and scattering 5 lbs. of pulverized sugar over them, boil for 11/2 hour. After boiling for 11/4 hour add 4 lbs. more of sugar and 1 tablespoonful each of allspice, cloves, and cinnamon. The catchup is not strained, but brought at once and while warm into wide-mouthed bottles or pots, which are immediately corked and sealed. It is advisable, before closing the bottles, to lay a closely-fitting piece of salicylated paper upon the surface of the catchup. The bottles should be kept in a cool place. Source: William T. Brannt, A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar, and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit Wines (Philadelphia: Henry Carey Baird & Co., 1890), 388.

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20 Grape Ketchup Grape Catsup Boil grapes over water; to each quart allow a teaspoon of broken cinnamon, one of mace, one half-teaspoon of cloves; simmer over water one hour; strain, and add to every quart one pound of sugar; reduce nearly to jelly, and add wine or vinegar to thin it to the proper consistency. Source: E. F. Haskell, The Housekeeper's Encyclopedia (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1861), 287. Grape Catsup Take five pint of grapes; simmer until soft, then put through a colander; add to them two pints of brown sugar, one pint of vinegar, two tablespoonfuls of allspice, two tablespoonfuls of cinnamon, two tablespoonfuls of cloves, one and one-half teaspoonfuls of red pepper. Boil till thick; then bottle and seal tightly. Source: Marion Harland, Every Woman Her Own Cook (New York: Rohde and Haskins, 1900), 231. Grape Ketchup 4 pounds of grapes 2 tablespoonfuls of cinnamon 1 tablespoon each of cloves and allspices 1/4 teaspoonful of cayenne pepper, if desired 1 cupful of vinegar 1 teaspoonful of salt 1 1/2 pounds of sugar Wash and stem the grapes, and steam them over water until soft. Put through a colander, discarding only the skins and seeds. To the portion which passes through the sieve add the spices, sugar, salt and vinegar and let simmer for fifteen minutes. Bottle and seal. Use whole spices tied in a cloth while cooking and remove before bottling. This will give a better color than when ground spices are used. For ketchup making the acid juicy varieties are preferred to very sweet ones. Source: Ola Powell, Lippincott's Home Manuals: Successful Canning and Preserving (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1917), 21011.

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21 Herring Ketchup Excellent Catsup Take walnuts while green, beat them well in a mortar and strain the juice. Let it stand for twelve hours, then to a quart of the fine juice put six herrings with a little of the pickle, having cut the herrings very fine. Put the mixture in a stewpan, adding to it a little mace, about twenty cloves, and half an ounce of alspice. Boil the whole over a slow fire for half an hour, then strain it through a fine cloth, put it again into the pan, adding to it twenty or thirty eschalots and half a pint of vinegar. Let it boil till the eschalots are tender, then put it into a basin to cool, when cool run it through a fine cloth and bottle it for use. Source: [Richard Alsop], The Universal Receipt Book or Complete Family Directory by a Society of Gentlemen in New York (New York: I. Riley, 1814), 249. 22 Ketchup for Mutton Catsup for Mutton Chops Three teaspoons of black pepper, three of mustard, one of allspice, three of salt, mix the spices with two quarts of grated horseradish, half an onion or not, as desired; beat the ingredients together quickly; strain the liquor from the radish, add one-quarter as much ten per cent. vinegar as there is liquid; bottle in half-pint bottles, and cork immediately. Source: E. F. Haskell, The Housekeeper's Encyclopedia (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1861), 287. 23 Ketchup to Keep Seven Years To Make a Catchup to Keep Seven Years TAKE two quarts of the oldest strong beer you can get, put to it one quart of red wine, three quarters of a pound of anchovies, three ounces of shallots peeled, half an ounce of mace, the same of nutmegs; a quarter of an ounce of cloves, three large races of ginger cut in slices, boil all together over a moderate fire, till one third is wasted, the next clay bottle it for use; it will carry to the East-Indies. Source: Elizabeth Raffald, The Experienced English Housewife, 2nd ed. (London: Printed for the author and sold by R. Baldwin, 1771), 294.

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24 Ketchup to Keep Twenty Years To Make Katch-up That Will Keep Twenty Years Take a Gallon of strong stale Beer, one Pound of Anchovies wash'd and clean'd from the Guts, half an Ounce of Pepper, three large Races of Ginger, one Pound of Eschallots, and one Quart of flap Mushrooms well rubb'd and pick'd; boil all these over a slow Fire till it is half washed, and strain it thro' a Flannel Bag; let it stand till it is quite cold, then bottle and stop it very close. This is thought to exceed what is brought from India, and must be allow'd to be most agreeable Relish that can be given to Fish Sauce. One Spoonful to a Pint of melted Butter is sufficient to give both Taste and Colour beyond any other Ingredients. Note. The stronger and staler the Beer is, the better the Katch-up will be. Source: A Curious Collection of Receipts in Cookery, Pickling, Family Physic (London: Printed for R. Montagu, 1742), 2223. An Excellent Catsup Which Will Keep Good More than Twenty Years Take two gallons of stale strong beer, or ale, the stronger and staler the better; one pound of anchovies, cleansed from the intestines and washed, half an ounce each of cloves and mace, one quarter do. of pepper, six large roots of ginger, one pound of eschalots, and two quarts, or more of flap mushroom, well rubbed and picked. Boil these ingredients over a slow fire for one hour; then strain the liquor through a flannel bag, and let it stand till quite cold, when it must be bottled and stopped very close with cork and bladder, or leather. One spoonful of this catsup to a pint of melted butter, gives an admirable taste and colour as a fish sauce, and is by many preferred to the best Indian soy. Source: [Richard Alsop], The Universal Receipt Book or Complete Family Directory by a Society of Gentlemen in New York (New York: I. Riley, 1814), 45. 25 Kidney Bean Ketchup Ketchup, in Paste. From Bencoulin in the East Indies There is a Kidney-Bean, we have here, which has a fine relish in it, as the Indians say, but in fact there is none but what they give it by Art. This Bean, when it is full ripe, is taken out of the shellds, and boiled to a Pulp, and that Pulp strain'd till it becomes like Butter; then they put some of all the Spices into it, in Powder, as, Nutmeg, Cloves, Mace, and Pepper, Garlick, and

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Orange-Juice, or some Mango Pickle. This being well mix'd together, makes an agreeable Sauce, when it is put in any warm Liquor. Source: Richard Bradley, The Country Gentleman and Farmer's Monthly Director, 3rd ed., 2 parts (London: Woodman and Lyon, 1728), 2:150. 26 Lemon Ketchup Lemon Catsup or Pickle Choose six large, fresh lemons; pare them thinly; rub them well with plenty of salt till they are saturated with it. Make an opening in the end of each, and put in salt. Bed them in a handful of salt and horseradish, and six bruised cloves of garlic for a week; then dry them in the oven till quite crisp; boil them in three bottles of vinegar with a halfounce of cayenne. Add a cupful of the best mustard seed. Source: Margaret Dods [pseud. for Christina J. Johnstone], The Cook and Housewife's Manual, 4th ed. (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1829), 260. Lemon Catchup Cut nine large lemons into thin slices, and take out the seeds. Prepare, by pounding them in a mortar, two ounces of mustard seed, half an ounce of black pepper, half an ounce of nutmeg, a quarter of an ounce of mace, and a quarter of an ounce of cloves. Slice thin two ounces of horseradish. Put all these ingredients together. Strew over them three ounces of fine salt. Add a quart of the best vinegar. Boil the whole twenty minutes. Then put it warm into a jar, and let it stand three weeks closely covered. Stir it up daily. Then strain it through a sieve, and put it up in small bottles to flavour fish and other sauces. This is sometimes called a lemon pickle. Source: Eliza Leslie, Directions for Cookery; being a System of the Art, in its Various Branches (Philadelphia: E. L. Carey & A. Hart, 1837), 177. 27 Liver Ketchup Mustapha Ketchup Procure from the butcher a fresh, sound ox-liver; rub it with salt that has been rolled until fine, that the liver may not get bruised. Lay it into an earthenware tongue-pan, with salt under and over, and rub and turn the liver each day for a week or ten days. Take it from the pickle, wipe dry, and mince it small. Boil in four quarts of water until reduced to about three quarts, then

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strain through a sieve, and let it get cold. Pour it next day into a saucepan, keeping back the sediment; add two ounces of whole black pepper, and an ounce each of allspice and ginger, and boil very gently, until further reduced to about half the quantity. Allow about a pound and a half of salt. Source: Cassell's Dictionary of Cookery (London: Cassell, Petter & Galpin, circa 1870), 437. Ketchup Stock Select fifty beef livers, wash them clean and wipe them dry. Salt them in barrels with perforations in the bottom head to allow the brine to flow out, or lay them on an inclined table, that it may drain off. Use 1/2 bushel of fine salt to each barrel. Rub the salt thoroughly over each liver, as for dry-salting hams; turn them every day for a month, rubbing more salt each time. Care must be taken that they do not become tainted. When they are well cured, wash and them clean, cut them in about two inch squares and boil, or simmer, 8 hours in a tightly covered kettle, to prevent the escape of the aroma, then set aside several hours to settle. Next carefully dip out the clear liquor and strain the sediment through a fine wire sieve, and through a finer one, until all the sediment has been rubbed through into a straining apparatus, which may be cheaply made by taking a 40 gallon barrel, with a wooden faucet inserted 8 inches from the bottom. Over this, on the inside fit and fasten a box 18 inches long and half as wide, and thickly perforated with inch holes; cover this box with a coarse sacking strainer. The top of the barrel also, is to be covered loosely with a strainer of the same material; this will retain much of the coarser sediment that passes through the sieve. After about 20 days, or until it is perfectly clear and limpid, strain out through the faucet all the clear liquor. If every part of the foregoing process is carefully performed, the resulting sauce will possess nearly all the flavor and aroma of the mushroom, and can hardly be distinguished from it, and this is the basis for our commercial mushroom ketchup. The following formula will be sufficient to complete the operation. Source: William Archdeacon, The Kitchen Cabinet: A Book of Receipts (Chicago: Published for the Author, 1876), 6667. Liver Catsup Rub a very fresh beef liver thoroughly with rolled salt and place it in a vessel that will not crush it; turn and rub thoroughly for ten days, then mince into small dice and boil in a gallon of water closely covered until reduced to

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three quarts; strain through a sieve and let settle till next day; add one ounce each ginger and allspice and two ounces whole black pepper, and boil slowly until reduced to three pints. When cold bottle and keep well corked. Source: The Original Buckeye Cook Book and Practical Housekeeping, trade ed. (St. Paul, Minn.: Webb Publishing Co., 1905), 110. 28 Lobster Ketchup Lobster Catsup Choose a lobster that is full of spawn, and weighing as nearly as possible three pounds; pick out all the meat, and pound the red part or coral in a marble mortar; when completely bruised, add the meat, pound and moisten it with a little sherry wine, mix with it a tea-spoonful of cayenne, add the rest of the bottle of sherry, and mix it thoroughly; put it into two wide-mouthed bottles, and on the top put a small table-spoonful of whole black pepper, cork the bottles tightly, and tie them over with leather. It will keep good a twelvemonth, and exactly resembles fresh lobster sauce. Four table-spoonfuls heated in melted butter are sufficient for a large sauce-tureen. Source: Mrs. Dalgairns, The Practice of Cookery, 3rd ed. (Edinburgh: Robert Cadell, 1830), 189. Lobster Catchup This catchup, warmed in melted butter, is an excellent substitute for fresh lobster sauce at seasons when the fish cannot be procured, as, if properly made, it will keep a year. Take a fine lobster that weighs about three pounds. Put it into boiling water, and cook it thoroughly. When it is cold break it up, and extract all the flesh from the shell. pound the red part or coral in a marble mortar, and when it is well bruised, add the white meat by degrees, and pound that also; seasoning it with a teaspoonful of cayenne, and moistening it gradually with sherry wine. When it is beaten to a smooth paste, mix it well with the remainder of the bottle of sherry. Put it into wide-mouthed bottles, and on the top of each lay a dessert-spoonful of whole pepper. Dip the corks in melted rosin, and secure them well by tying leather over them. In using this catchup allow four table-spoonfuls to a common-sized sauce-boat of melted butter. Put in the catchup at last, and hold it over the fire just long enough to be thoroughly heated. Source: Eliza Leslie, Directions for Cookery; being a System of the Art, in its Various Branches (Philadelphia: E. L. Carey & A. Hart, 1837), 174.

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29 Mum (or Old Beer) Ketchup To Make Mum Catchup To a quart of old mum put four ounces of anchovies, of mace, and nutmegs sliced, one ounce of cloves, and black pepper, half an ounce, boil it till it is reduced one third; when cold bottle it for use. Source: Elizabeth Raffald, The Experienced English Housewife, 2nd ed. (London: Printed for the author and sold by R. Baldwin, 1771), 29394. 30 Mushroom Ketchup To Make Mushroom Ketchup Take the Gills of large Mushrooms, such as are spread quite open, put them into a Skellet of Bell-Metal, or a Vessel of Earthen-Ware glazed, and set them over a gentle Fire till they begin to change into Water; and then frequently stirring them till there is as much Liquor come out of them as can be expected, pressing them often with a Spoon against the side of the Vessel; then strain off the Liquor, and put to every Quart of it about eighty Cloves, if they are fresh and good, or half as many more, if they are dry, or have been kept a long time, and about a Drachm of Mace: add to this about a Pint of strong red Port Wine that has not been adulterated, and boil them all together till you judge that every Quart has lost about a fourth Part or half a Pint; then pass it thro' a Sieve, and let it stand to cool, and when it is quite cold, bottle it up in dry Bottles of Pints or Half-Pints, and cork them close, for it is the surest way to keep these kind of Liquors in such small quantities as may be used quickly, when they come to be exposed to the Air, for fear of growing mouldy: but I have had a Bottle of this sort of Ketchup, that has been open'd and set by for above a Year, that has not received the least Damage; and some Acquaintance of mine have made of the same sort, and have kept it in Quart-Bottles to use as occasion required, and have kept it good much longer than I have done. A little of it is very rich in any Sauce, and especially when Gravey is wanting: Therefore it may be of service to Travellers, who too frequently meet with good Fish, and other Meats, in Britain, as well as in several other parts of Europe, that are spoiled in the dressing; but it must be consider'd, that there is no Salt in this, so that whenever it is used, Salt, Anchovies, or other such like relishing things, may be used with it, if they are agreeable to the Palate, and so likewise with the Mushroom Gravey in the following Receipt. Source: Richard Bradley, The Country Gentleman and Farmer's Monthly Director, 5th ed. (London: Woodman and Lyon, 1728), 1:14243.

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To Make Mushroom Catchup Pick and clean the mushrooms well, but do not wash them; put them in an earthen pipkin; throw a little salt over them, and cover the pot close with coarse paste: they must be in the oven six or seven hours; then press them a little, and pour off the liquor, which must be put over fresh mushrooms, and bak'd as long as the first; afterwards pour off that liquor without pressing them, and boil it very well with salt sufficient for keeping: it must be boil'd above half away, and till it feels clammy when you put your fingers to it: when 'tis cold, bottle it up, and keep it in a moderate place as to cold or heat: thus it will continue good for years. Source: Arabella Atkyns, pseud., The Family Magazine (London, 1741), 114. To Make Ketchup Take the large Flaps of Mushrooms, pick nothing but the Straws and Dirt from it, then lay them in a broad earthen Pan, strow a good deal of Salt over them, and them lie till next morning; then with your Hand break them, put them into a Stew-pan, and let them boil a Minute or two, then strain them thro' a coarse Cloth; and wring it hard. To take out all the Juice, let it stand to settle, then pour it off clear, and run it thro' a thick Flannel Bag, (some filter it thro' brown Paper, but that is a very tedious Way) then boil it, to a Quart of the Liquor put a quarter of an Ounce of whole Ginger, and half a quarter of an Ounce of whole Pepper, boil it briskly a quarter of an Hour, then strain it, and when it is cold, put it into Pint Bottles; in each Bottle put four or five Blades of Mace, and six Cloves, cork it tight, and it will keep two Years. This gives the best Flavour of the Mushrooms to any Sauce, if you put to a Pint of this Ketchup to a pint of Mum, it will taste like foreign Ketchup. Source: Hannah Glasse, Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy (London: By the Author, 1747), 156. Mushroom Catchup and Powder Gather your Mushrooms early in the Morning, wipe them very clean with a Woolen cloth, then mash them with the hand, strew on them a handful of salt, let them lie all night, then put them on the fire ten minutes, keeping them constantly stirring, then squeeze them through a Canvas, and let them settle. Pour it off from the sediment then put it on the fire and clarify it with the whites of 2 Eggs. Then put in it whole Pepper, Cloves, Mace, Ginger, Allspice and Salt. It must be high season'd. Boil one part of it away, when cold bottle it putting in the Spices.

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Take 4 lb. Mushrooms that have been squeez'd; and dry them with a little spice in the Sun or Oven, and Powder them for Made Dishes. Source: Harriott Pinckney Horry Papers, Receipt Book, South Carolina Historical Society #39-19, as in Richard J. Hooker, ed., A Colonial Plantation Cookbook: The Receipt Book of Harriott Pinckney Horry, 1770 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1984), 84. To Make Mushroom Catchup TAKE the full grown flaps of Mushrooms, crush them with your hands, throw a handful of salt into every peck of mushrooms, and let them stand all night, then put them into stew pans, and set them in a quick oven for twelve hours, and strain them through a hair sieve; to every gallon of liquor, put of cloves, Jamaica, black pepper and ginger, one ounce each, and half a pound of common salt, set it on a slow fire, and let it boil till all the liquor is wasted away; then put it in a clean pot, when cold bottle it for use. Source: Elizabeth Raffald, The Experienced English Housewife, 2nd ed. (London: Printed for the author and sold by R. Baldwin, 1771), 294. Mushroom Ketchup, Another Way Take a stew-pan full of large-flap mushrooms, that are not worm-eaten, and the skins and fringe of those you have pickled; throw a handful of salt among them, and set them by a slow fire; they will produce a great deal of liquor, which you must strain; and put to it four ounces of shallots, two cloves of garlick, a good deal of pepper, ginger, mace, cloves, and a few bay leaves; boil and skim very well. When cold, cork close. In two months boil it up again with a little fresh spice, and a stick of horse-radish, and it will then keep the year, which mushroom ketchup rarely does, if not boiled a second time. Source: [Maria Eliza Rundell], A New System of Domestic Cookery formed upon Principles of Economy, By a Lady (London: John Murray, 1816), 184. Mushroom Catchup If you love good catchup, gentle reader, make it yourself, after the following directions, and you will have a delicious relish for made-dishes, ragoûts, soups, sauces, or hashes. Mushroom gravy approaches the nature and flavour of meat gravy, more than any vegetable juice, and is the superlative substitute for it: in meagre soups and extempore gravies, the chemistry of the kitchen has yet contrived to agreeably awaken the palate, and encourage the appetite. A couple of quarts of double catchup, made according to the following receipt, will save some score pounds of meat, besides a vast deal of time and

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trouble; as it will furnish, in a few minutes, as good sauce as can be made for either fish, flesh or fowl. I believe the following is the best way of extracting and preparing the essence of mushrooms, so as to procure and preserve their flavour for a considerable length of time. Look out for mushrooms from the beginning of September. Take care they are the right sort, and fresh gathered. Full-grown flaps are to be preferred: put a layer of these at the bottom of the deep earthen pan, and sprinkle them with salt; then another layer of mushrooms, and some more salt on them; and so alternately, salt and mushrooms: let them remain two or three hours, by which time the salt will have penetrated the mushrooms, and rendered them easy to break; then pound them in a mortar, or mash them well with your hands, and let them remain for a couple of days, not longer, stirring them up and mashing them well each day; then pour them into a stone jar, and to each quart add an ounce and a half of whole black pepper, and half an ounce of allspice; stop the jar very close, and set it in a stew-pan of boiling water, and keep it boiling for two hours at least. Take out the jar, and pour the juice clear from the settings through a hair-sieve (without squeezing the mushrooms) into a clean stew-pan; let it boil very gently for half an hour; those who are for superlative catchup, will continue the boiling till the mushroom-juice is reduced to half the quantity; it may then be called double cat-sup or dog-sup. There are several advantages attending this concentration; it will keep much better, and only half the quantity be required; so you can flavour sauce, &c. without thinning it: neither is this an extravagant way of making it, for merely the aqueous part is evaporated; skim it well, and pour it into a clean dry jar, or jug; cover it close, and let it stand in a cool place till next day; then pour it off as gently as possible (so as not to disturb the settlings at the bottom of the jug,) through a tamis, or thick flannel bag, till it is perfectly clear; add a table-spoonful of good brandy to each pint of catchup, and let it stand as before; a fresh sediment will be deposited, from which the catchup is to be quietly poured off and bottled in pints or half pints (which have been washed with brandy or spirit): it is best to keep it in such quantities as are soon used. Take especial care that it is closely corked, and sealed down, or dipped in bottle cement. If kept in a cool, dry place, it may be preserved for a long time; but if it be badly corked, and kept in a damp place, it will soon spoil. Examine it from time to time, by placing a strong light behind the neck of the bottle, and if any pellicle appears about it, boil it up again with a few pepper corns.

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We have ordered no more spice, &c. than is absolutely necessary to feed the catchup, and keep it from fermenting, &c. The compound, commonly called catchup, is generally an injudicious combination of so many different tastes, that the flavour of the mushroom is overpowered by a farrago of garlic, eschalot, anchovy, mustard, horseradish, lemonpeel, beer, wine, spice, &c. Obs. A table-spoonful of double catchup will impregnate half a pint of sauce with the full flavour of mushroom, in much greater perfection than either pickled or powder of mushrooms. This delicate relish is made by sprinkling a little salt over either flap or button mushrooms; three hours after, mash them next day, strain off the liquor that will flow from them; put it into a stew-pan, and boil it till it is reduced to half. It will not keep long, but is preferable to any of the catchups, which, in order to preserve them, must have spice, &c., which overpowers the flavour of the mushrooms. Source: William Kitchiner, The Cook's Oracle (Boston: J. & J. Harper, 1830), 28385. Mushroom Catsup Cut the ends of the stalks from two gallons of freshly-gathered mushrooms (the large flaps are best for this purpose, but they should not be worm-eaten); break them into a deep earthen pan, and strew amongst them three quarters ora pound of salt, reserving the larger portion of it for the top. Let them stand for three, or even four days, and stir them gently once every [h]our and twenty hours; then drain off the liquor without the mushrooms; strain and measure it; put it into a very clean stewpan, and boil it quickly until it is reduced nearly half. For every quart, allow half an ounce of black pepper and a drachm of mace; or, instead of the pepper, a quarter-teaspoonful (ten grains) of good cayenne; pour the catsup into a clean jug or jar, lay a folded cloth over it, and keep it in a cool place until the following day; pour it gently from the sediment, put into small bottle, cork them well, and resin them down. A teaspoonful of salad oil may be poured into each bottle before it is corked, the better to exclude the air from the catsup: it must be kept in a dry cool place. Mushrooms, 2 gallons; salt, 3/4 lb.; to macerate three or four days. To each quart of liquor, 1/2 oz. black pepper, or quarter-teaspoonful cayenne; and 1 drachm mace: to be reduced half. Obs. 1.Catsup made thus will not be too salt, nor will the flavour of the mushrooms be overpowered by that of the spices; of which a larger quantity, and a greater variety, can be used at will.

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Obs. 2.After the mushrooms are crushed, or mashed, as some authors direct, the liquor will necessarily be very thick; it is better to proceed as above, and then to boil the liquor which may afterwards be extracted from the mushrooms by pressure, with the sediment of the catsup, and sufficient cloves, pepper, allspice, and ginger, to flavour it highly; this second catsup will be found very useful to mix with common thickened sauces, hashes, and stews. In some seasons it is necessary to boil the catsup with the spice a second time after it has been kept for three or four months: this, by the way of precaution, can always be done, but it had better then be put into large bottles in the first instance, and stored in the small ones afterwards. Source: Eliza Acton, Modern Cookery for Private Families, 10th ed. (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1850), 13233. Mushroom Catsup Break a peck of large mushrooms into a deep earthen-pan; strew three quarters of a pound of salt amongst them, and set them into a very cool oven for one night, with a fold of cloth or paper over them. The following day strain off the liquor, measure, and boil it for fifteen minutes; then, for each quart, add an ounce of black pepper, a quarter of an ounce of allspice, half an ounce of ginger, and two large blades of mace, and let it boil fast for twenty minutes longer. When thoroughly cold, put it into bottles, cork them well, and dip the necks into melted rosin. Mushrooms, 1 peck; salt, 3/4 lb. Liquor to boil, 15 minutes. To each quart, 1/2 oz. black pepper; 1/4 oz. allspice; 1/2 oz. ginger; 2 blades mace: 20 minutes. Source: Eliza Acton, Modern Cookery for Private Families, 10th ed. (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1850), 13234. Double Mushroom Catsup On a gallon of fresh mushrooms strew three ounces of salt, and pour to them a quart of ready-made catsup (that which is a year old will do if it be perfectly good); keep these stirred occasionally for four days, then drain the liquor very dry from the mushrooms, and boil it for fifteen minutes with an ounce of whole black pepper, a drachm of mace, an ounce of ginger, and three or four grains only of cayenne. Mushrooms, 1 gallon; salt, 3 ozs.; mushroom catsup, 1 quart; peppercorns, 1 oz.; mace, 1 1/2 drachm; ginger, 1 oz.; cayenne, 3 to 4 grains: 15 minutes. Source: Eliza Acton, Modern Cookery for Private Families, 10th ed. (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1850), 13435.

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Mushroom Ketchup 472. Ingredients.To each peck of mushrooms 1/2 lb. of salt; to each quart of mushroom-liquor 1/4 oz. of cayenne, 1/2 oz. of allspice, 1/2, oz. of ginger, 2 blades of pounded mace. Mode.Choose full-grown mushroom-flaps, and take care they are perfectly fresh-gathered when the weather is tolerably dry; for, if they are picked during very heavy rain, the ketchup from which they are made is liable to get musty, and will not keep long. Put a layer of them in a deep pan, sprinkle salt over them, and then another layer of mushrooms, and so on alternately. Let them remain for a few hours, when break them up with the hand; put them in a nice cool place for 3 days, occasionally stirring and mashing them well, to extract from them as much juice as possible. Now measure the quantity of liquor without straining, and to each quart allow the above proportion of spices, &c. Put all into a stone jar, cover it up very closely, put it in a saucepan of boiling water, set it over the fire, and let it boil for 3 hours. Have ready a nice clean stewpan; turn into it the contents of the jar, and let the whole simmer very gently for 1/2 hour; pour it into a jug, where it should stand in a cool place till the next day; then pour it off into another jug, and strain it into very dry clean bottles, and do not squeeze the mushrooms. To each pint of ketchup add a few drops of brandy. Be careful not to shake the contents, but leave all the sediment behind in the jug; cork well, and either seal or rosin the cork, so as perfectly to exclude the air. When a very clear bright ketchup is wanted, the liquor must be strained through a very fine hair-sieve, or flannel bag, after it has been very gently poured off; if the operation is not successful, it must be repeated until you have quite a clear liquor. It should be examined occasionally, and if it is spoiling, should be reboiled with a few peppercorns. Seasonable from the beginning of September to the middle of October, when the ketchup should be made. Source: Isabella Beeton, Book of Household Management (London: S. O. Beeton, 1861), 22627. Commercial Mushroom Ketchup To 20 gallons of ketchup stock, add 2 lbs. of black pepper; 1 lb. each of mace and cloves, and 5 lbs. of garlic; add the spices whole and simmer for half an hour. Transfer it to a keg. Try the flavor when it is cold. If it is all right, strain and bottle cold. Source: William Archdeacon, The Kitchen Cabinet: a Book of Receipts (Chicago: Published for the Author, 1876), 67.

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Mushroom Catsup (Commercial) Pack 100 pounds mushrooms in a barrel, with alternate layers of salt, using 5 pounds of salt to the 100 pounds. Stand on a very warm place for 24 hours, then crush mushrooms and express the juice; place the juice in a kettle and simmer for 15 minutes, then for each 5 gallons of the liquid add: 1 1/1 pounds crushed black pepper, 1/4 pound crushed allspice, 1/2 pound sliced green ginger root, 1/2 ounce whole mace, 2 ounces of whole cloves. Cook 15 minutes longer, strain and bottle while hot. Source: A Complete Course in Canning (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1906), 151. 31 Mussel Ketchup Mussel The mussel is a small shellfish which we have in great abundance over here, but I am not quite sure whether you have it in America; if not, clams may be substituted and will answer the purpose admirably. Wash the shells thoroughly, brushing briskly and using plenty of water; rinse them well and put them into a large iron sauce pan with only the water that clings about the shells. As soon as this is accomplished, turn the mussels out into a bowl, remove the shells and any objectionable parts, and put the fish into a mortar. Supposing there is a pint and a half of the mussels, pound them well, then put in them into a clean saucepan with a pint of light wine or cider, a pint of the juice that flowed from the fish while heating, a drachm of cayenne and two drachms of pounded mace. Simmer or boil very gently for half an hour, skimming occasionally, then strain the liquor, and when quite cold bottle in the usual way. The flavor of this catsup is very delicious, indeed. London, Eng. Aunt Chole. Source: Country Gentleman, 52 (20 October 1887): 8067. 32 Oyster Ketchup Capital Oyster Catsup Take a hundred bruised oysters, with their liquor, a pound of anchovies, three pints of white wine, and a sliced lemon, with half the peel. Boil them together, gently, for an hour; then, straining them through muslin, put in half an ounce each of cloves and mace, with a sliced nutmeg, and boil the whole a quarter of an hour longer; after which, add twelve eschalots; and when cold, bottle it for use. Source: [Richard Alsop], The Universal Receipt Book or Complete Family Directory by a Society of Gentlemen in New York (New York: I. Riley, 1814), 162.

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Oyster Catsup Get fine fresh oysters, wash them in their own liquor, put them in a marble mortar with salt, pounded mace, and cayenne pepper, in the proportions of one ounce salt, two drachms mace, and one of cayenne to each pint of oysters, pounded them together, and add a pint of white wine to each pint; boil it some minutes, and rub it through a sieve; boil it again, skim it, and when cold, bottle, cork and seal it. This composition gives a fine flavour to white sauces, and if a glass of brandy be added, it will keep good for a considerable time. Source: [Mary Randolph], The Virginia House-wife (Washington: Printed by Davis and Force, 1824), 114. Oyster Catsup Boil one hundred oysters with their liquor, till the strength be extracted from them; strain them well, and add to the liquor an equal quantity of wine, one half port and the other sherry, also a quarter of an ounce of mace, the same of white pepper and of allspice, a drachm or tea-spoonful of ginger, and six anchovies; boil all together about fifteen minutes. Put into a jar twelve shalots, the peel of a lemon, and a piece of horse-radish cut small; pour upon them the boiling liquor, and when cold, bottle it, together with the spices. Source: Mrs. Dalgairns, The Practice of Cookery, 3rd ed. (Edinburgh: Robert Cadell, 1830), 413. Oyster Catchup Take fine fresh Milton oysters; wash them in their own liquor; skim it; pound them in a marble mortar; to a pint of oysters add a pint of sherry; boil them up, and add an ounce of salt, two drachms of pounded mace, and one of Cayenne; let it just boil up again; skim it, and rub it through a sieve, and when cold, bottle it well, and seal it down. Obs.See also No. 280, and Obs. to No. 278. N. B. It is the best way to pound the salt and spices, &c. with the oysters. ObsThis composition very agreeably heightens the flavour of white sauces, and white made-dishes; and if you add a glass of brandy to it, it will keep good for a considerable time longer than oysters are out of season in England. Source: William Kitchiner, The Cook's Oracle (Boston: J. & J. Harper, 1830), 285. Oyster Ketchup INGREDIENTS.Sufficient oysters to fill a pint measure, 1 pint of sherry, 3 oz. of salt, 1 drachm of cayenne, 2 drachms of pounded mace.

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Mode.Procure the oysters very fresh, and open sufficient to fill a pint measure; save the liquor, and scald the oysters in it with the sherry; strain the oysters, and put them in a mortar with the salt, cayenne, and mace; pound the whole until reduced to a pulp, then add it to the liquor in which they were scalded; boil it again five minutes, and skim well; rub the whole through a sieve, and, when cold, bottle and cork closely. The corks should be sealed. Seasonable from September to April. Note: Cider may be substituted for the sherry. Source: Isabella Beeton, Book of Household Management (London: S. O. Beeton, 1861), 235. Celery Catsup Mix an ounce of celery seed ground, with a teaspoon of ground white pepper; bruise half a dozen oysters with a teaspoon of salt; mix and pass the whole through a sieve; pour over the mixture one quart of the best white vinegar; bottle and seal tight. Source: E. F. Haskell, The Housekeeper's Encyclopedia (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1861), 287. Oyster Cocktail Catsup [Commercial] Forty gallons pulp (canned stock), 3 gallons 60-grain vinegar, 2 pints Worcestershire sauce, 10 pounds salted, ripe bull-nose peppers, 10 pounds sugar, 6 pounds salt, 6 pounds onions, 1 pound garlic, 3 pounds West India peppers, 2 ounces ground Saigon cinnamon. Freshen and chop fine the peppers and place in kettle with the chopped onions, garlic, West India peppers and pulp; cook rapidly, and when cook is half done, add sugar and vinegar; when within five minutes of the finish, add the cinnamon; when completed, turn off the steam and add the sauce and color; then finish in a rotary machine. Source: A Complete Course in Canning (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1906), 153. 33 Peach Ketchup Peach Catsup Boil ripe peaches over steam with the pits; press out all the juice; to every quart allow a pound of loaf-sugar; boil without the sugar until it is reduced one-third; add to each quart of juice before boiling a teaspoon of broken, not ground, mace, two of cinnamon, half a teaspoon of cloves, and one of peppercorns; boil until quite thick, and reduce to a convenient consistency for bottling with strong vinegar. Source: E. F. Haskell, The Housekeeper's Encyclopedia (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1861), 287.

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Peach Catchup 1 peck firm, ripe peaches 1 teaspoonful ground ginger 1 pint (2 cups) water 1/2 teaspoonful ground cloves 1/2 pint (1 cup) vinegar 1/2 teaspoonful ground mace 1 gill (1/2 cup) lemon juice 1/2 teaspoonful ground allspice 4 ozs. (1/2 cup) sugar 1/4 teaspoonful white pepper 1 teaspoonful ground cinnamon Pare and quarter the peaches. Ad the water and twelve sliced kernels to the peelings, let simmer thirty minutes, then strain. Add the peaches to the liquid, and simmer for thirty minutes longer, then add the vinegar, lemon juice, sugar and spices. Boil very slowly until as thick as desired. Pour into bottles and seal while hot. Source: Marion Harris Nell, Canning, Preserving and Pickling (Philadelphia: David McKay, 1914), 23334. 34 Pepper Ketchup Red Pepper Catsup To four dozen fine ripe bell-peppers add two quarts good vinegar, one quart water, three spoonfuls grated horseradish, five onions chopped fine. Boil till soft, and rub through a sieve. Then season to your taste with salt, spice, black and white mustard well beaten; after which boil ten minutes. Add celery-seed if liked, and a pod or more strong pepper, a little sugar. All should be cut up and the seed boiled with it. Bottle and cork tightly.Mrs. G. N. Source: Marion Cabell Tyree, ed., Housekeeping in Old Virginia (Richmond: J. W. Randolph & English, 1878), 240. Green Pepper Catchup 5 lbs. green peppers 1 teaspoonful powdered cloves 1/2 bunch celery 1 root horseradish 1 teaspoonful powdered mace Vinegar 1 teaspoonful powdered cinnamon

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1 teaspoonful powdered allspice 1 teaspoonful powdered ginger Remove the seeds from the peppers, then cut in pieces and put them into a porcelain-lined kettle, add the horseradish grated, the celery cut fine, and the spices. Cover with sold vinegar and cook until soft, then rub through a sieve with a wooden spoon. Bottle and seal. Store in a cool place. Source: Marion Harris Neil, Canning, Preserving and Pickling (Philadelphia: David McKay, 1914), 229. 35 Pimento Ketchup Pimento Ketchup 6 pounds of ripe, roasted, peeled pimientos 2 tablespoonfuls of salt 2 pounds of sugar 2 tablespoonfuls of powdered ginger 2 tablespoonfuls of powdered cinnamon 1 quart of vinegar Roast and peel the pimientos as for canning. Remove stem and seeds, weigh, and pass through a food chopper. Rub spices together, add sugar, and mix well with the pepper pulp. Heat thoroughly and add the vinegar slowly. Cook all together until smooth and of the proper consistency. Pack hot into hot bottles, cork or cap, and seal. If the bottles of ketchup are to be shipped, process them 30 minutes at 180° Fahrenheit, cork, and seal. Source: Ola Powell, Lippincott's Home Manuals: Successful Canning and Preserving (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1917), 211. 36 Plum Ketchup Plum Catsup Boil whole plums over steam; press out the juice; pass the pulp through the sieve; boil in a quart of the juice teaspoon of broken cinnamon, one of mace, and half as much of cloves and pepper until reduced half; add this to the pulp, with two pounds of loaf-sugar, and heat it, stirring constantly; when the sugar is dissolved, reduce the catsup with one quart often per cent. vinegar. Source: E. F. Haskell, The Housekeeper's Encyclopedia (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1861), 28788.

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Plum Catchup 1 gallon ripe plums 1 teaspoonful powdered cloves 4 lbs. (8 cups) sugar 1 pint (2 cups) vinegar 1 teaspoonful powdered mace 1 teaspoonful powdered cinnamon 1/2 teaspoonful powdered ginger Boil the plums until soft, then rub through a sieve or press through a fruit press, add the sugar, vinegar and spices and boil for fifteen minutes. Seal in jars. Source: Marion Harris Neil, Canning, Preserving and Pickling (Philadelphia: David McKay, 1914), 237. 37 Pudding Ketchup Pudding Catsup Half a pint of brandy, a pint of sherry., An ounce of mace, And half an ounce of cloves. Let them steep them for fourteen days, then strain it, and add a half of a pint of capillaire. This will keep for years, and added to melted butter, is a most delicious relish to puddings, and sweet dishes. Source: [William Kitchiner], Apicius Redivivus; or, the Cook's Oracle (London: Samuel Bagster, 1817), recipe no. 446. 38 Raspberry Ketchup Raspberry Catsup Boil one gallon of the fruit in one quart of vinegar; strain, and add mace, cinnamon, mustard, and ginger, each half a teaspoonful without grinding; boil half an hour slowly; strain, and measure the liquor; to every quart add one pound of sugar; boil until of proper consistency; if not sufficiently acid, add citric acid dissolved in very little vinegar. Source: E. F. Haskell, The Housekeeper's Encyclopedia (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1861), 287. Raspberry Catchup 4 quarts ripe raspberries 2 inches broken cinnamon stick

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1 quart cider vinegar 1/2 teaspoonful mustard seed 1 small piece ginger root 1 lb. (2 cups) sugar Pick the raspberries and simmer them in the vinegar for three-fourths of an hour, then strain and add the mustard, cinnamon and ginger. Boil slowly for thirty minutes, then strain and measure, and to each quart add one pound of sugar. Boil slowly until thick, then bottle and seal. Source: Marion Harris Neil, Canning, Preserving and Pickling (Philadelphia: David McKay, 1914), 238. 39 Rum Ketchup Rum Catchup Chop fine a small handful of thyme, parsley, sweet basil, sweet marjoram, the peel of two fresh oranges, and one lemon, half an ounce of mace, half an ounce of black pepper, a quarter of an ounce of cayenne pepper, and a quarter of an ounce of cloves. Put them all in a pan with a quart of good vinegar, cover it, and boil a few minutes till the flavor of the spices, &c. is extracted. Then strain it, throw in a handful of salt, and set it by till it gets cold; after which stir into it half a pint of madeira wine and half a pint of rum. Put it up in small bottles, filling them quite full, and securing the corks with leather. This, like other catchups, is deigned to flavor sauces and gravies; they are sometimes sent to table in castors, and sometimes sent in the small bottles in which they are put up. Source: Lettice Bryan, The Kentucky Housewife (Cincinnati: Stereotyped by Shepard & Stearns, 1841), 171. 40 Sea Ketchup Sea Catchup Take a gallon of stale strong beer, a pound of anchovies washed from the pickle, a pound of peeled shalots or small onions, half an ounce of mace, half an ounce of cloves, a quarter of an ounce of whole pepper, three or four large pieces of ginger, and two quarts of large mushroom-flaps rubbed to pieces. Put the whole into a kettle closely covered, and let it simmer slowly till reduced to one half. Then strain it through a flannel bag, and let it stand till quite cold before you bottle it. Have small bottles and fill then quite full of catchup. Dip the corks in melted rosin.

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This catchup keeps well at sea, and may be carried into any part of the world. A spoonful of it mixed in melted butter will make a fine fish sauce. It may also be used to flavour gravy. Source: Eliza Leslie, Directions for Cookery; being a System of the Art, in its Various Branches (Philadelphia: E. L. Carey & A. Hart, 1837), 178. 41 Southern Ketchup Catsup, Southern Peel and cut up green, crisp cucumbers to fill a half-gallon measure; sprinkle with salt, and let stand six hours; press the water from them, and scald in vinegar. Prepare half a gallon of cabbage in the same way. Chop one dozen small onions, cover with boiling water, and let stand half an hour. Cut in slices one quart of green tomatoes, one pint of green beans, one dozen small ears of tender corn, with one dozen green peppers; scald and drain them. Mix two table-spoonfuls of grated horseradish, one teacupful of ground mustard, two cupfuls of white mustard-seed, three table-spoonfuls of tumeric, one of mace, three of celery seed, one of cinnamon, one of cayenne, two of olive oil, 1 lb. of sugar. Put in a jar with the prepared vegetables, and cover with boiling vinegar. Source: Harper's Cook Book Encyclopedia (New York & London: Harper & Brothers Publishers, [1902]), 250. 42 Squash Ketchup Squash Ketchup Take ripe Hubbard squashes, dress and boil them until they are soft, and the shell may be removed; pass them through a sieve to obtain the pulp smooth and of proper consistence. To 40 gallons, add 4 ozs. of fine ground red pepper, and color with cochineal. If you do not wish to preserve the bright, red color, other spices may be added to taste. This ketchup will keep well. Source: William Archdeacon, The Kitchen Cabinet: a Book of Receipts (Chicago: Published for the Author, 1876), 65. 43 Sugar Ketchup Browning, or Sugar Catsup Pound, very finely, six ounces of the best refined sugar, (Hamburgh or exportation loaves,) and put the powder into a small and very clean fryingpan, with an ounce and a half of fresh butter. As it dissolves mix well with a spatula or wooden spoon, and withdraw the pan from the fire when the fluid

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begins to boil violently; keep it thus till it has acquired the rich, dark-brown colour wanted. It may either be seasoned with pepper, salt, cloves, catsup, &c. or not, and is perhaps as generally useful plain. When cold, skim the browning, and bottle it in vials for use.Obs. It is very difficult, nay impossible, to prepare browning free of an empyreumatic flavour, which is necessarily communicated to the dish that is coloured with it. Where sauces can be coloured with the catsup, browned flour, and wine, which may be employed in making the dish, it is better to avoid making browning; and soup may generally be made of a sufficiently rich colour by previously browning the meat and onions, and by using toasted bread; for there is scarcely any brown soup into which one or other of these things does not enter. Many cooks boil onion-skins, which contain a yellow dye, to colour their soups; and it is a common, but slovenly practice, where browning is wanted in a hurry, to melt a knob of sugar between the hot bowls of tongs, and drop it into a little soup to colour the rest. This, on an emergency, may be useful, but the necessity ought to be avoided. The refuse of mushroom or walnut catsup boiled in brine, with a bit of Spanish juice, onion-skins, and burnt toasts, makes a well-coloured but very coarse browning. Source: Margaret Dods [pseud. for Christina J. Johnstone], The Cook and Housewife's Manual, 4th ed. (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1829), 26162. 44 Tomato Ketchup Love-Apple Ketchup/Mrs Michell Slice the Love Apples, and put them in Layers, a layer of salt and a Layer of Apples with some All-spice, Mace, and whole Pepper, in a large Stewpan, boil them till tender, then pulp them through a sieve, let it stand to be cold, then add a quarter of a pint of Ketchup to each quart of TomatumPound the rinds & seeds, and put them in the bottle Source: Approved Recipes. by Mrs. Michel, started in 1795, Cookery manuscript at the New York State Historical Association, Cooperstown, New York, 77. Tomattoes Ketchup Take your Tomatoes cut them and salt themlet them stand 48 hours, then strain them & boil away the liquor two thirds in a brass kettle. then to every gal-put 1 oz cloves, 1 oz mace 1/4 oz race ginger all to be made fine and boiled ten minutes in the liquor and when cold to every bottle add one pod of red pepper and escalots [and?] add some spirits to prevent mould[.] Source: Receipt Book of Sally Bella Dunlop, 1795, and James Dunlop, 1806. Cookery manuscript at the New York State Historical Association, Cooperstown, New York, n.p.

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Tomato, or Love-apple Catsup SLICE the apples thin, and over every layer sprinkle a little salt; cover them, and let them lie twenty-four hours; then beat them well, and simmer them half an hour in a bell-metal kettle; add mace and allspice. When cold, add two cloves of raw shallots cut small, and half a gill of brandy to each bottle, which must be corked tight, and kept in a cool place. Source: James Mease, ed., Archives of Useful Knowledge, 2 vols. (Philadelphia: David Hogan, 1812), 2:306. Tomata Catsup Gather a gallon of fine, red, and full ripe tomatas; mash them with one pound of salt; let them rest for three days, press off the juice, and to each quart add a quarter of a pound of anchovies, two ounces of shallots, and an ounce of ground black pepper; boil up together for half an hour, strain through a sieve, and put to it the following spices; a quarter of an ounce of mace, the same of allspice and ginger, half an ounce of nutmeg, a drachm of coriander seed, and half a drachm of cochineal; pound all together; let them simmer gently for twenty minutes, and strain through a bag: when cold, bottle it, adding to each bottle a wineglass of brandy. It will keep for seven years. Source: [William Kitchiner], Apicius Redivivus; or, the Cook's Oracle (London: Samuel Bagster, 1817), recipe no. 443. Another Catsup of the Tomata, or Love-Apple Take any quantity of Tomatas, and put them into a deep earthen pan, after having picked out their stalks. Tie a cover of brown paper over the pan, and bake them slowly in a slack oven. Rub the pulp through the back of a hairsieve, and thus separate the seeds and skins. To every pound, by weight, of this juicy pulp, put a pint and quarter of the best malt-vinegar, half an ounce of the little pods of Bird pepper (not the Capsicum); to be had at Butler's Herb-shop in Covent Garden, with a drachm each of mace, ginger, clover, allspice; and one ounce each of white pepper, and peeled shalot. Simmer them for half an hour, or until the garlick and shallots are very soft; then pass the more liquid parts through the sieve a second time, to keep the solid dregs out. Bottle it. N.B. This catsup is greatly improved by the addition of an eighth of Lisbon wine, after the liquor is cold. Source: [William Kitchiner], Apicius Redivivus; or, the Cook's Oracle (London: Samuel Bagster, 1818), recipe no. 443.

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Tomato Catsup Take of Tomatoes sliced and laid in a Pan, each layer having been sprinkled over with fine salt and the whole set aside for 24 hoursPut them into an iron Kettle and boil over a gentle fire for one hour. Strain through a Sieve or Strainer which will keep back the skins and seeds. Pour this liquor back into the Kettle and add of Black Pepper zii2 Pimento3 zii Cloves zii Mace zii Ginger zii Cayenne zi to every gallon of Liquor[.] Put the whole over a gentle fire for a few minutes that the spices may be scalt and the strength imparted. Then add 2 pints Red Wine to the above quantity say 1 gallon juice. If Iron is used the Catsup will be very dark if a preserving Kettle is used the Catsup will be light coloured, bottle for use, 2 onions if desired may be added at the commencement and 1/2 pint brandy to each gallon of catsup if desirable. Source: Dr. Benjamin F. Heyward, from Worcester, Massachusetts, Recipe Book, purportedly written in 1820. Handwritten manuscript in the Old Sturbridge Village Library, 15. Tomata Catsup Mash a gallon of ripe tomatas; add to it one pound of salt, press out the juice, and to each quart add a quarter of a pound of anchovies, two ounces of eshallots, and an ounce of ground black pepper; simmer the mixture for a quarter of an hour; then strain it through a sieve, and put to it a quarter of an ounce of pounded mace, the same quantity of allspice, ginger, and nutmeg, and half a drachm of cochineal; let the whole simmer for twenty minutes, and strain it through a bag: when cold, bottle it[.] Source: Frederick Accum, Culinary Chemistry (London: R. Ackerman, 1821), 24647. Recipes. For Tomato KetchupHalf a Gallon As this is the season for making the best condiment for fish or steak that ever pantry was furnished with, I send the following recipe to the American Farmer: Take

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a gallon of skinned tomatoes; 4 table spoonsful of salt; 4 do. black pepper; half a spoonful alspice; 8 pods red pepper; 3 table spoonsful of mustard; articles ground fine and simmered slowly in sharp vinegar, in a pewter basin, three or four hours, and then strained through a wire sieve and bottled close. It may be used in two weeks, but improves much by age. Those who like the article may add, after the simmering is over and the ingredients somewhat cooled, two table spoonsful of the juice of garlic. So much vinegar is to be used as to have half a gallon of liquor when the process is over. To my taste this is superior to any West India ketchup that I have ever met with, and is withal an excellent remedy for dyspepsia. Cousin Tabitha. Source: American Farmer, 9 (August 1827): 191. Tomato Catsup, (Ketchup.) Take a peck of ripe Tomatoes, (or any other quantity, only observe the proportions,) mash them together, and simmer over a slow fire until they are dissolved, strain through a fine sieve; after straining, (which requires some pains by mashing and forcing the pulp through the sieve with the hand,) add to this liquid or pulpy mass, half an ounce of cloves, and the same quantity of black pepper grains, one root of garlic, three ounces of horse-radish, and a sufficient quantity of salt to make it palatable: boil all these ingredients together over a gradual fire until you reduce the bulk one half; then to each quart add two table-spoonsful of vinegar. When it is cool, cork it up in bottles, and in a little time it will be fit for use. It should be placed in a cool cellar, and suffered to remain for some time, as it improves by age. The addition of some English walnut liquor to this Catsup, will greatly improve its flavor. Source: Botanico-Medical Recorder, 4 (10 October 1835): 1314. Tomato Catsup Select the ripest tomatoes; scald and peel them; to one gallon tomatoes, add one quart of sharp vinegar; also, the following ingredients ground fine, viz: two table-spoonfuls of salt, one of black pepper, one of allspice, three of mustard, eight or ten pods of red pepper, one or two cloves of garlic (sliced). The whole is then put into a tin or copper kettle; simmer it over the fire three or four hours, stirring occasionally. It should then be rubbed through a sieve,

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fine enough to catch the seeds. Bottle it. If the simmering has not been sufficient, it will be known in a few days by the appearance of a white scum in the neck of the bottles, which can be corrected by simmering it an hour or two more, adding as much vinegar as will supply the previous loss by evaporation. The bottles should be sealed. Source: [Sarah Rutledge], The Carolina Housewife (Charleston, S.C.: W. R. Babcock & Co., 1847), 186. Tomato Catsup To a half-bushel of skinned tomatoes, add one quart of good vinegar, one pound of salt, a quarter of a pound of black pepper, two ounces of African cayenne, a quarter of a pound of allspice, six onions, one ounce of cloves, and two pounds of brown sugar. Boil this mass for three hours, constantly stirring it to keep it from burning. When cool, strain it through a fine sieve or coarse cloth, and bottle it for use. Many persons omit the vinegar in this preparation. Source: Gardener's Monthly and Horticultural Advertiser, 2 (1 September 1860): 286. Pure Tomato KetchupCommercial For pure tomato ketchup, take fully ripe tomatoes having a fine red color; no green or partly green ones should be used. Wash them in a steam kettle until soft; cool, and strain through a fine sieve, to separate the seeds and skins. To 40 gallons of pulp, add 3 ounces of red pepper; salt to taste. Boil and bottle hot. Source: William Archdeacon, The Kitchen Cabinet: a Book of Receipts (Chicago: Published for the Author, 1876), 64. Cheap Tomato Ketchup To make this ketchup, take the skins, pulp, and juice of tomatoes, left when canning tomatoes; boil and strain as tomatoes; add to this an equal quantity of squash ketchup pulp, and spice as usual. This is sometimes passed for pure tomato ketchup, and can scarcely be distinguished from it, and if properly made will be perfectly wholesome. Source: William Archdeacon, The Kitchen Cabinet: a Book of Receipts (Chicago: Published for the Author, 1876), 64. Tomato Catsup (Catsup de Tomates) Boil one quart of vinegar in a saucepan, adding a quarter of an ounce of capsicum peppers, one ounce of garlic, half an ounce of shallot, all nicely peeled, and half an ounce of white ground pepper, also a coffeespoonful of red pepper, and let boil for ten minutes, then strain through a sieve. Mix in with

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this vinegar, one and a half pounds of tomatoes, reduce all together and then add the juice of three lemons, and salt to taste. Should this sauce be too thick, add more vinegar or some water; fill up the bottles, let stand till cold, then put them in a very cool place to use when needed. This sauce is excellent as a relish for cold meats fish, oysters, etc. Source: Charles Ranhofer, The Epicurean (New York: R. Ranhofer, 1894), 329. No. 8. Half bushel tomatoes, four ounces salt, three ounces green peppers, one ounce cinnamon, one half ounce ground cloves, one drachm cayenne pepper, one gallon vinegar. Slice the tomatoes and stew in their own liquor until soft, and rub through a sieve fine enough to retain seeds and boil the pulp down to the consistency of apple butter very thick, stirring steadily all the time to prevent burning; then add the vinegar and a small teacup of sugar and the spices, boil up twice, remove from the stove and let cool to bottle. Those who like onions, may add a half dozen medium sized ones peeled and sliced about fifteen minutes before the vinegar and spices are put in. Source: Alexander W. Livingston, Livingston and the Tomato (Columbus, Ohio: A. W. Livingston's Sons, 1893), 15354. Fancy Grade Sweet Catsup Fifty gallons pulp from machine, 3 gallons 60-grain vinegar, 15 pounds sugar, 5 pounds salt, 5 pounds onions, 1/2 pound garlic, 1/4 pound ground cayenne pepper, 1/2 ounce bay leaves, 1 ounce powdered Saigon cinnamon. Place the pulp from machine (or its equivalent in boiled-down canned stock) in kettle with the finely chopped onions and garlic; bring to a boil. When the cook is about half completed, add the salt, sugar and cayenne pepper; when within 10 minutes of the finish, add the cinnamon; then when completed, turn off steam, and run through finishing machine. While the spicing and cooking as above is simple, it is quite easy to entirely change the character of the finished goods by varying the time for which the spices are cooked and by slightly changing the spicing. The onions are directed to be cooked from the first; by putting them in when the cook is half completed, an entirely different flavor is secured; and if cooked for only two minutes, still another flavor. The long cook gives a much better flavor to the catsup than the shorter cook, while the last cook of two minutes gives a better odor. By using double the quantity directed, and cooking one-half from the first, and giving the balance a two-minute cook, both results are obtained and the catsup improved thereby. The similar treatment of bay

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leaves also produces considerable difference, though not so decided as with the onions; allow a cook of thirty minutes instead of ten; more than thirty will give a woody flavor and is not desirable. The cinnamon may be doubled in quantity and a cook of two minutes given instead of five, and a still more delicate flavor will result. The Saigon cinnamon may be replaced with double the quantity of Ceylon cinnamon in the quill; this may be given a cook not to exceed four minutes and removed immediately on expiration of the time, or a barky flavor will result. Bay leaves may be replaced with half their quantity of ground mace or crushed nutmegs, which again may be replaced with double its quantity of West India peppers. Varying the amount of sugar and vinegar will make a considerable change on the same principle that one lemon and plenty of sugar will make a better lemonade than a half lemon and a small quantity of sugar. The vinegar used must be the best obtainable, a full, fine-flavored cider vinegar from sound apples, if procurable. Source: A Complete Course in Canning (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1906), 15253. Home-Made Style Catsup Forty gallons pulp from machine, 5 gallons vinegar, 10 pounds onions chopped very fine, 5 pounds salt, 5 pounds sugar, 1 pound ground black pepper, 1 pound ground allspice, 11/2 pounds ground yellow mustard, 3/4 pound ground ginger, 1/2 pound ground cloves, 2 ounces cayenne pepper, 1 gallon alcohol. Place all the ingredients except the vinegar and alcohol in kettle or tank with copper coil; cook very slowly until reduced; turn off steam and add the alcohol. If it is not a good brown color, add sufficient caramel to produce the desired shade. Place in bottles and sterilize. Do not pass this catsup through a finishing machine; the onions must be very finely chopped or grated. Source: A Complete Course in Canning (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1906), 15354. High-Grade Sweet Catsup Forty-five gallons pulp, 3 gallons 60-grain vinegar, 15 pounds sugar, 5 pounds onions, 1 pound garlic, 5 pounds salt, 1/4 pound cayenne pepper ground; 1/2 pound white pepper ground, 2 ounces Saigon cinnamon ground, 1/2 ounce mace. Use canned steam-separated pulp from entire tomatoes, or boiled-down pulp; cook same as Fancy Sweet Catsup, adding the white pepper and vinegar together; add the mace and cinnamon five minutes before the finish of cook. Source: A Complete Course in Canning (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1906), 154.

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Medium-Grade Sweet Catsup One hundred gallons pulp from machine, 3 gallons vinegar, 15 pounds sugar, 10 pounds salt, 5 pounds onions, 6 ounces ground cayenne pepper, 4 ounces ground white pepper, 4 ounces cloves, 2 ounces allspice, 2 ounces Saigon cinnamon, 1 ounce nutmegs. Place the pulp, salt and sugar in kettle; when within fifteen minutes of the finish, add the vinegar and spices, which have been previously mixed; add the finely chopped onions two minutes before the finish. Source: A Complete Course in Canning (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1906), 154. Second-Grade Sweet Catsup Two hundred gallons barrel pulp, 4 gallons vinegar, 5 pounds salt, 20 pounds sugar, 12 pounds ground cayenne pepper, 10 ounces coriander seed, 10 ounces ginger, 6 ounces allspice, 6 ounces cloves, 3 ounces Saigon cinnamon. Cook same as medium grade. Source: A Complete Course in Canning (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 190), 154. Catsup Spices (Powdered) Four pounds white pepper, 1/2 pound cayenne pepper, 1/4 pound nutmegs, 1/4 pound cloves, 1/4 pound Saigon cinnamon, 1/2 pound nutmegs, 1/4 pound cloves, 1/4 pound Saigon cinnamon, 1/2 pound coriander seed, 1/2 pound thyme, 1/4 pound sweet marjoram, 1/4 pound bay leaves. Mix. Source: A Complete Course in Canning (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1906), 154. Catsup Spice (Powdered) Two pounds white pepper, 2 pounds allspice, 1/2 pound cloves, 1 pound yellow mustard, 1/2 pound peach leaves, 1/2 pound cayenne pepper. Source: A Complete Course in Canning (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1906), 154. Catsup Spices (Powdered) Three pounds white pepper, 1/2 pound cayenne pepper, 1/2 pound allspice, 1/2 pound cloves, 1 pound celery seed. Mix. Source: A Complete Course in Canning (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1906), 154. 45 Tomato Ketchup, Green No. 7. Green Tomato Catsup One peck green tomatoes, one dozen large onions, one-half pint salt; slice tomatoes and onions. To layer of these add layer, of salt; let stand twenty-four

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hours, then drain. Add one-fourth pound mustard seed, three desertspoons sweet oil, one ounce allspice, one ounce cloves, one ounce ground mustard, one ounce ground vinegar, two tablespoonfuls black pepper, two teaspoonfuls celery seed, one-fourth pound brown sugar. Put all in serving pan, cover with vinegar and boil two hours. Source: Alexander W. Livingston, Livingston and the Tomato (Columbus, Ohio: A. W. Livingston's Sons, 1893), 153. Green Tomato Catsup One peck of green tomatoes, one dozen large onions, one-half pint of salt; slice the tomatoes and onions. To a layer of these add a layer of salt; let stand twenty-four hours, then drain. Add one-quarter pound of mustard-seed, three desertspoonfuls of sweet oil, one ounce of allspice, one ounce of cloves, one ounce of ground mustard, one ounce of ground ginger, two tablespoonfuls of black pepper, two teaspoonfuls of celery-seed, one-quarter pound of brown sugar. Put all into a preserving-pan, cover with vinegar, and boil two hours. Source: Marion Harland, Every Woman Her Own Cook (New York: Rohde and Haskins, 1900), 23031. 46 Tomato Soy Tomata Soy Take a bushel of full ripe tomatas, cut them in slices without skinningsprinkle the bottom of a large tub with salt, stew in the tomatas, and over each layer of about two inches thick, sprinkle half a pint of salt, and three onions sliced without taking off the skins. When the bushel of tomatas is thus prepared, let them remain for three days, then put them into a large iron pot, in which they must boil from early in the morning 'till night, constantly stirring to prevent their sticking and mashing them. The next morning, pass the mixture through a sieve, pressing it to obtain all the liquor you can; and add to it one ounce of cloves, quarter of a pound of allspice, quarter of a pound of whole black pepper, and a small wine glass of Cayenne; let it boil slowly and constantly during the whole of the dayin the evening, put it into a suitable vessel to cool, and the day after bottle and cork it well: place it in a cool situation during warm weather, and it will keep for many years, provided it has been boiled very slowly and sufficiently in the preparation. Should it ferment, it must be boiled a second time. Source: [Mary Randolph], The Virginia House-wife, 2nd ed. (Washington: Printed by Way & Gideon, 1825), 230.

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Tomato Soy To one peck of green tomatoes, sliced thin, add one pint of salt; stand twenty-four hours, strain, and put on the fire with twelve raw onions, an ounce of black pepper, one ounce of allspice, quarter of a pound of ground mustard, half a pound of white mustard seed, and a little Cayenne pepper. Cover with vinegar and boil till as thick as a jam, stirring occasionally with a wooden spoon, to prevent burning. Source: Sarah Frost, ed., Godey's Lady's Book. Godey's Lady's Book, Recipes and Household Hints (Philadelphia: Evans, Stoddart & Co., 1870), 70. 47 Walnut Ketchup Walnut Catchup Take 50 Walnuts and bruise them well in a stone Mortar, put in three Pints of the best Vinegar, and stir them every Day for 9 or 10 Day's together, then strain them through a Muslin, and boil them a quarter Hour with Mace, whole Pepper and Nutmeg. Source: Harriott Pinckney Horry Papers, Receipt Book,South Carolina Historical Society #39-19, as in Richard J. Hooker, ed., A Colonial Plantation Cookbook: The Receipt Book of Harriott Pinckney Horry, 1770 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1984), 85. To Make Walnut Catchup Take green Walnuts before the Shell is formed, and grind them in a crab mill, or pound them in a marble mortar, squeeze out the juice through a coarse cloth, put to every gallon of this juice put one pound of anchovies, one pound of bay salt, four ounces of Jamaica pepper, two of long and two of black pepper, of mace, cloves, and ginger, each one ounce, and a stick of horseradish; boil all together till reduced to half the quantity, put into the pot, and when cold, bottle it; it will require three months. Source: Elizabeth Raffald, The Experienced English Housewife, 2nd ed. (London: Printed for the author and sold by R. Baldwin, 1771), 29293. To Make Walnut Catchup Another Way Put your walnuts into jars; cover them with cold, strong allegar, tie them close for twelve months; then take the walnuts out from the allegar, and put to every gallon of the liquor two heads of Garlick, half a pound of anchovies, one quart of red wine, one ounce of mace, one of cloves, one of long, one of black, and one of Jamaica pepper, with one of ginger, boil them in your liquor till it is reduced to one half the quantity, the next day bottle it for use;

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it is good in fish sauce or stewed beef. In my opinion it is an excellent catchup, for the longer it is kept, the better it is; I have kept it five years, and it was much better than when first made. N.B. You may find how to pickle the walnuts you have taken out, amongst the other pickles. Source: Elizabeth Raffald, The Experienced English Housewife, 2nd ed. (London: Printed for the author and sold by R. Baldwin, 1771), 293. Walnut Catsup Take 28 lbs. of unripe walnuts when quite tender, reduce them to a pulp in a marble mortar; add to the mass two gallons of vinegar; let it stand three or four days; to each gallon of liquor, put a quarter of a pound of minced eshallots, half an ounce of bruised cloves, the same of mace and black pepper, one tea-spoonful of Cayenne pepper, and a quarter of a pound of salt: give it a boil up, and strain it through a flannel. Source: Frederick Accum, Culinary Chemistry (London: R. Ackerman, 1821), 247. Walnut Catsup The vinegar in which walnuts have been pickled, when they have remained in it a year, will generally answer all the purposes for which this catsup is required, particularly if it be drained from them and boiled for a few minutes, with a little additional spice, and a few eschalots; but where the vinegar is objected to, it may be made either by boiling the expressed juice of young walnuts for an hour, with six ounces of fine anchovies, four ounces of eschalots, half an ounce of black pepper, a quarter of an ounce of cloves, and a drachm of mace, to every quart; or as follows: Pound in a mortar a hundred young walnuts, strewing amongst them as they are done until they have become quite black, keeping them stirred three or four times a day; next add a quart of strong old beer, and boil the whole together for ten minutes; strain it, and let it remain until the next day; then pour it off clear from the sediment, add to it half a pound of anchovies, one large head of garlic bruised, half an ounce of nutmegs bruised, the same quantity of cloves and black pepper, and two drachms of mace: boil these together for half an hour, and the following day bottle and cork the catsup well. It will keep for a dozen years. Many persons add to it, before it is boiled, a bottle of port wine; and others recommend a large bunch of sweet herbs to be put in with spice. 1st Recipe. Express juice of walnuts, 1 quart; anchovies, 6 oz.; eschalots, 4 ozs.; black pepper, 1/2 oz.; cloves, 1/4 oz.; mace, 1 drachm: 1 hour. 2nd Recipe. Walnuts, 100; salt, 1/2 lb.; vinegar, 1 quart: to stand till

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black. Strong beer, 1 quart; anchovies, 1/2 lb.; 1 head garlic; nutmegs, 1/2 oz.; cloves, 1/2 oz.; black pepper, 1/2 oz.; mace, 2 drachms: 1/2 hour. Source: Eliza Acton, Modern Cookery for Private Families, 10th ed. (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1850), 13435. Irish Walnut Ketchup Extract the inner white part of some green walnuts, and, after pounding them thoroughly, strain off the juice to make it clear, let it stand for twelve hours, and strain again. Add to each pint of juice a large onion, two ounces of horseradish, sliced, half an ounce of shallots, a clove of garlic, half a pint of vinegar, and half a pound of anchovies. These ingredients being well mixed, boil for two hours. When cold, strain the liquor until quite clear, then add to each pint of the ketchup half an ounce of spice (mace, cloves, nutmeg, and whole black pepper in equal quantities), two wine-glassfuls of port, and a quarter of a glass of soy. Boil again for three-quarters of an hour, but do not strain the liquor, as the spices must be distributed in the several bottles in which it is placed. The saucepan must always be kept closely evaporate. Pour the ketchup into a jar, and cover till cold, when it can be poured into bottles, but the greatest attention must be paid to their being clean and dry. Seal the corks. Probable cost, 1s. per pint. Source: Cassell's Dictionary of Cookery (London: Cassell, Petter & Galpin, circa 1870), 331. To Make Walnut Catsup from the Leaves Provide a jar that will hold about three gallons. Mix the following ingredients: common salt one pound, one-half ounce powdered cloves, four ounces powdered ginger, one handful garlic sliced, six pods bruised red pepper, three handfuls horseradish root, sliced. Gather the young leaves from the walnutcut them small. Put a layer at the bottom of the jar; then sprinkle on some of the ingredients, and so on with alternate layers, until the jar is packed full. Let the whole remain in this state one night. Then fill with boiling vinegar, tie it closely, and let it set in the sun for a fortnight. Then press out the liquor, strain and bottle. Mrs. E. W. Source: Marion Cabell Tyree, ed., Housekeeping in Old Virginia (Richmond: J. W. Randolph & English, 1878), 23637. Walnut Catsup Gather the walnuts while they are very young, before the nut inside the shell gets hard; cut or pound the walnuts up fine, then spread them out on floor twenty-four hours. This will cause the walnuts to turn black; then fill

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into barrels, adding 50 pounds salt to each barrel; head up and fill with water. The walnuts should stand two months before using, and, if they are a year old, they are all the better, and if the barrels are examined every few months and kept full of brine the walnuts will keep for years. If young walnuts are not to be had, use the hulls; gather them late in the fall, about time the nut begins to fall off the tree; salt the same as young walnuts. Process of making the Catsup.To each barrel of walnuts, including the brine, add 40 gallons of 70-grain vinegar; put all in a kettle and cook very slowly one hour; put in barrel and let all stand 5 days, then drain through sieve or, better, through a coarse hemp sack. Put the catsup in barrels and use as wanted. Source: Chas. A. Shinkle, American Commercial Methods of Manufacturing Pickles, Preserves, Canned Goods, etc. (Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1902), 23. 48 White Ketchup White Catsup To a pint of white wine vinegar put a dozen anchovies; let them simmer on a trivet by the side of the fire till they are dissolved, then strain them; when they are cold, add a pint of sherry wine, the peel of a large lemon pared very thin, half a dozen bay leaves, an ounce of scraped horseradish, two drachms of grated nutmeg, one of bruised cloves, the same of white pepper and ginger, and a dozen eschallots cut in quarters; stop your jar very close; keep it in a warm situation for ten days, shaking it up every day, and then decant it for use. Source: [William Kitchiner], Apicius Redivivus; or, the Cook's Oracle (London: Samuel Bagster, 1817), recipe no. 444. 49 Whortleberry Ketchup Whortleberry Catsup Add to every gallon of fruit two quarts of boiling water; let it stand all night; in the morning draw off the juice; pass the pulp through a sieve; add to each gallon of the liquor a teaspoonful of each of the following spices: mace, cinnamon, white mustard, ginger, pepper; boil one hour gently; strain off the liquor; add to every quart half a pound of sugar; stir in the pulp, and boil it in the spiced juice; dissolve a teaspoon of the citric acid in a little of the juice reserved for the purpose; add it to the catsup, and if too thick thin with vinegar or wine. Source: E. F. Haskell, The Housekeeper's Encyclopedia (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1861), 288.

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50 Wine Ketchup Wine Ketchup.E. R. Take twenty-four anchovies, chop them, bones and all, ten shalots cut small, a handful of scraped horseradish, and a quarter of an ounce of mace, add a quart of white wine, a pint of anchovy liquor, a pint of red wine, twelve cloves, and twelve peppercorns. Boil them together slowly till reduced to a quart, strain it, and keep it in a dry place. Source: [Maria Eliza] Rundell, A New System of Domestic Cookery formed upon Principles of Economy, additions by Emma Roberts, 71st ed. (London: John Murray, 1847), 368.

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PART III LIST OF KETCHUPS

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Commercial Tomato Ketchups Hundreds, if not thousands, of tomato ketchups were manufactured in the United States, Great Britain, and Canada during the latter part of the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth century. Those listed below have been located in government reports, books, and advertisements. Despite the length of the list, it probably represents a small portion of tomato ketchup manufacturers. In many cases only incomplete information about some of these ketchups was located. In general, the brand name is listed first, followed by the company that manufactured the ketchup, if known. In cases where the company but not the brand name was known, the ketchups is listed under the company with [ketchup] in brackets. Historical Tomato Ketchups A. & P. Tomato Ketchup, Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company, Jersey City, New Jersey, or New York A B C Tomato Catsup, Lee Chataway Jacob & Company, Carnegie, Pennsylvania A. C. Brand Tomato Catsup, Park, Grant & Morris, Fargo, North Dakota Aaronson, Harvey & Company [ketchup], Columbus, New Jersey Acme [ketchup], A. C. Blenner & Company, New Haven, Connecticut Acme Brand Catsup, J. Weller Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Adelphia Brand Catsup, Adelphia Products Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Alice Brand Tomato Catsup, Dyer Packing Company, Vincennes, Indiana Alymer Tomato Catsup (Del Monte), Ontario, Canada American Brand, The Pyle & Tomlinson Company, Bridgeport, Connecticut American Brand Ketchup, American Pickling Company, Providence, Rhode Island Amoskeag Brand Tomato Ketchup, Daniels-Cornell Company, Manchester, New Hampshire Anchor [ketchup], Anchor Packing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Anderson's Boston Market Catsup, Camden, New Jersey Ann Page, Tomato Ketchup, The Quaker Maid? Company, New York Apollo Tomato Ketchup, Halpen, Green & Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Apsco Jersey Ripe Tomato [ketchup], A.P. Sichel & Company, New York Argood Brand Tomato Ketchup, Fred P.Bell, West Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Arthur Leslie Sauce Company, Norfolk, Virginia ASCO Brand Tomato Catsup Astoria [ketchup], W. D. Huffman Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Astoria Tomato Catsup, S. B. Van VillCompany, Baltimore, Maryland

Aylmer Canning Company [ketchup], Aylmer, Ontario, Canada. B. C. Home, Vancouver Pickling Company, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Badger Tomato Catsup, Williams Brothers Company, Detroit, Michigan Baldwin Tomato Catsup, H. K. Thurber Company, New York Ballcrest Tomato Catsup, Hawaiian Pineapple Company LTD, Honolulu, Hawaii, and San Jose, California Banquet Brand Catsup, Johnson & Murray, Utica, Watertown, and Ogdensburg, New York

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Bar Harbor Tomato Ketchup, Deerborn & Company, Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada Batavia [ketchup], Batavia Preserving Company Bay Ridge Tomato Catsup, J. D. Stone & Company Bay State Brand Tomato Ketchup, Bay State Grocery Company, Boston, Massachusetts Bayle's [ketchup], Geo. A. Bayle Beech-Nut Brand Tomato Catsup, BeechNut Packing Company, Canajorharie and Rochester, New York Beefsteak Tomato Ketchup, Joseph Campbell Preserve Company, Camden, New Jersey Behr Brand Tomato Catsup, H. F. Behrhorst & Son, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Belle Meade Tomato Catsup, J. Weller & Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Bergen's Brunswick Brand [ketchup], New York Bergen's Excelsior Tomato Catsup, New York Bergen's Home Made Quaker [ketchup], Garret Bergen Company, Brooklyn, New York Berkshire Brand Tomato Catsup, Reading Wholesale Grocery Company, Reading, Pennsylvania Berkshire Tomato [ketchup], Standard Packing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Best Catsup, M. A. Gedney Pickling Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Best Pure Tomato Catsup, Ringroso Pickling Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota Best Value Tomato Catsup, Weidman Company, Cleveland, Ohio Best Yet Brand Catsup, The Humphrey Cornell Company, New London, Connecticut Birden's Favorite Gilt Edge Tomato Catsup, Capitol City Pickle Factory, Hartford, Connecticut Bishop's California Catsup, Bishop & Company, Los Angeles and San Francisco, California, and New York Blackwood Catsup, Blackwood Ltd., Winnipeg, Canada Blossom [ketchup], McNeil, Higgins Company, Chicago, Illinois Blue Bell [ketchup], Blue Bell Preserve Company, New Haven, Connecticut Blue Bell [ketchup], The John T. Doyle Company, New Haven, Connecticut Blue Grass Belle Catsup, The Castleman, Blakemore Company, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky Blue Label Tomato Ketchup, by Curtice Brothers, Rochester, New York Blue Ribbon Tomato Catsup, Charles Rabb, Williamstown, New Jersey Blue Rose Catsup Blue Seal [ketchup], Blue Seal Packing Company, Red Bank, New Jersey

Blue Star Tomato Catsup, Granger & Company, Buffalo, New York Bon Ton CatsupCompound of Tomato Pulp, R. C. Chance's Sons, Mount Holly, New Jersey Bon Ton Tomato Catsup, Ransom N. Fitzgerald Company, Hartford, Connecticut Bonny Best Tomato Catsup, R. Vincent Crine Packing & Seed Company, Morganville, New Jersey Booth's Pure Tomato Catsup, The Booth Packing Company, Baltimore, Maryland Bordeaux, 1903, Tomato [ketchup], Standard Package Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Bordeaux [ketchup], Standard Packing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Bordeaux Brand Tomato Catsup, The Van Camp Packing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Bowe Brand Tomato Catsup, P. F. Bowe, Waterbury, Connecticut Brandywine Hills Tomato Catsup, B. S. Janney, Jr. & Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

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Breezy Point Brand Tomato Catsup, Woodworth & Company, Concord, New Hampshire Bridgeton Brand Catsup, B. S. Ayers and Son, Bridgeton, New Jersey Bridgeton Brand Highest Grade Catsup, Bridgeton Preserving Company, Bridgeton, New Jersey Brocton Pure Fancy Catsup Brooks Old Original Catsup, Brooks Tomato Products Company, Collinsville, Illinois Brooks Tangy Catsup, Brooks Tomato Products Company, Collinsville, Illinois Brunswick Brand Tomato Catsup, Eldridge-Baker Company, Manchester, New Hampshire Buckeye [ketchup], The Wm. Boardman & Son's Company, Hartford, Connecticut Buckeye [ketchup], Edward Bo. Hosier, New York Budget Tomato Catsup, Quaker City, Pennsylvania Bug Catsup, The Robert Bentel Company, W. Bay City, Michigan Bull Brand Tomato Ketchup, Eagle Extract Company, E. C. Ward, Boston, Massachusetts Bull Head Brand Tomato Catsup, Gibbs Preserving Company, Baltimore, Maryland Bunkerhill Brand Ketchup, Harbauer-Marleau Company, Toledo, Ohio Bunny Brand Catsup, McMechen Preserving Company, Wheeling, West Virginia Burbank's Tomato Ketchup, J. S. Burbank & Company, South Hooksett, New Hampshire Burlington Brand [ketchup], Burlington Canning Company, Burlington, Canada Burro Brand Tomato Catsup, The Frazier Packing Company, Ellwood, Indiana Burt Olney's Ketchup, The Burt Olney Canning Company, Oneida, New York Butler's Tomato Ketchup, The Tip Top, Ketchup Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Butterfly Tomato Catsup, Arbuckle and Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Cadette [ketchup], J. C. Perry & Company Calumet Catsup, Hornby, Nichols & Parker Company, Pipestone, Minnesota Camp Fire Catsup, J. H. Allen & Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Campbell's Tabasco Ketchup, Joseph Campbell & Company, Camden, New Jersey Campbell's Tomato Ketchup, Joseph Campbell Preserve Company, Camden, New Jersey Canada Brand [ketchup], T. A. Lytle Company, Toronto, Canada Canada First [ketchup], Gilmour & Company, Brockville, Canada Canada First Brand Ketchup, Aylmer Canning Company, Aylmer, Ontario

Canada's Pride [ketchup], Napanee Canning Company, Ltd., Napanee, Canada Capital Brand Tomato Ketchup, Quebec Preserving Company, Quebec, Canada Carol Tomato Catsup, George R. Newell Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota Casino Catsup, Franklin-MacVeagh Company, Chicago, Illinois Catsup, American Pickle & Canning Company, Wiggins, Mississippi [catsup], Arthur Leslie Company, Norfolk, Virginia Catsup, Finch Smith & Company, Crookston, Minnesota Catsup, J. F. Brower-Archer, Minneapolis,Minnesota Catsup, John Hancock Sons, Dubuque, Iowa [catsup], Leroux Cider & Vinegar Company, Ohio Catsup, M. Wolff Sons, Chicago, Illinois [catsup], Schwabacher Bros. & Company, Seattle, Washington Catsup, Warner, Friday Company, Sioux City, Iowa Catsup, Winecke, Doeer Company, Dubuque, Iowa

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Cayuga Lake Tomato Catsup, Wm. H. Wakeley, Levanna, Cayuga Lake, New York Cedar Valley [ketchup], Wooster Preserving Company, Wooster, Ohio Celebrated Bar Harbor Tomato Ketchup Celebrated White Label Tomato Catsup, M. Schoenberg & Company, New York Celebrated White Label Catsup, Fred C. Orrell, Stamford, Connecticut Champion Catsup, The Champion Preserving Company, Wheeling, West Virginia Champion Tomato Catsup, Imperial Spice Company, Hamilton, Canada Chicago Trophy Catsup, Chicago Preserving Company, Chicago, Illinois Chutney Ketchup, Blackwood Brothers, Winnipeg, Canada Classen's White Label Tomato Ketchup, W. R. Sayer & Company, New York Climax [ketchup], Climax Packing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Climax Brand Tomato Catsup, Loudon Packing Company, Terre Haute, Indiana Climax Brand [ketchup], Charles E. Brown & Company, Springfield, Massachusetts Climax Catsup, C. F. Loudon, Cincinnati, Ohio Clipper [ketchup], Randolph Manufacturung Company Clover Farm Tomato Catsup Club House [ketchup], Rafferty & Company, New York Club House Brand Catsup, Rafferty & Hosier, New York Club House Brand Ketchup, Gorman, Eckert Company, London, Ontario Club House Tomato Catsup, Franklin MacVeagh & Company, Chicago, Illinois Club Tomato Catsup, Pure Gold Manufacturing Company, Toronto, Canada Cochrane Tomato Catsup, Cochrane Brothers, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Colonial Tomato Catsup, Griggs, Cooper & Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Colored South Shore Compound Catsup, William Henning Company, Chicago, Illinois Columbia Highest Grade Catsup, Columbia Preserve Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Columbia Tomato Catsup, Columbia Conserve Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Comet Tomato Catsup, McNeill & Higgins Company, Chicago, Illinois Commodore Tomato Catsup, Weideman Company, Cleveland, Ohio Community Ketchup

Compound Catsup, Huss-Edler Company, Chicago, Illinois Concentrated Tomato Catsup, Rex Brand, Cudahy Packing Company, Omaha, Nebraska Congress Brand Tomato Catsup, Kansas City Preserving Company, Kansas City, Missouri Connecticut Brand Catsup, Bryan, Miner & Read, New Haven, Connecticut Connoisseur Ketchup, Anderson Preserving Company, Camden, New Jersey Conqueror Brand Pure Tomato Ketchup, David Morns & Son, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Cornell Catsup, Cornell Packing Company, Ithaca, New York Country Club Brand Tomato Catsup, Ziegler Canning & Preserving Company, Muscatine, Iowa Country Club Tomato Catsup, John T. Doyle Company, New Haven, Connecticut Country Gardens Tomato Catsup, Country Gardens, Inc., Milwaukee, Wisconsin Crescent Brand Catsup, Charles L. Hirsh & Company, New York Crescent Tomato Ketchup Crescent Tomato Catsup, Ringrose Pickling Company, Saint Paul and Minneapolis, Minnesota Crest Brand [ketchup], Canada Spice & Grocery Company, London, Canada

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Crosse & Blackwell's Fancy Tomato Ketchup, London, United Kingdom Crown Catsup, J. H. Allen & Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Crown of Quality Tomato Catsup, Pincus & Crown, Chester, Pennsylvania Crown Prince [ketchup], Erie Preserving Company, Buffalo, New York Crown Tomato Catsup, John A. Tolman Company, Chicago, Illinois Crubro Tomato Ketchup, Cruikshank Brothers Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Cruickshank Preserving Company, Tomato Ketchup, Allegheny, Pennsylvania Cruickshank's Tomato Ketchup, Cruickshank Brothers, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Crystal Brand Tomato Ketchup, Burt Olney Canning Company, Oneida, New York Custer Catsup, Menk Manufacturing Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota. Dailey's [ketchup], E. G. Dailey Davies Tomato Catsup, Wm. Davies & Company, Toronto, Canada Defiance Brand [ketchup], Jno. Sloan & Company, Toronto, Canada Delhi Fruit & Vegetable Company [ketchup], Delhi, Ontario, Canada Dells [ketchup], Minnesota Mer. Company, Stillwater, Minnesota Delmonico's [ketchup], W. D. Huffman Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Derby Tomato Catsup, Letts-Spencer-Smith Company, Mason City Diadem Catsup, Schnull and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Diamond Brand Tomato Catsup, Pierce Packing Company, Pierce City, Missouri Dinnerparty Brand Tomato Catsup, Orchard Park Canning Company, Orchard Park, New York Dixie Brand Tomato Catsup, Atlas Preserving Company, Baltimore, Maryland Dodson-Braun Tomato Catsup, DodsonBraun Manufacturing Company, Saint Louis, Missouri Dold Quality Tomato Catsup, Jacob Dold Packing Company, Wichita, Kansas Donalco Brand Tomato Catsup, A. McDonald Company, Winnipeg, Canada Doris [ketchup], Seroco Manufacturing Company, Chicago, Illinois Doyle's Country Club Tomato Catsup, The John T. Doyle Company, New Haven, Connecticut Dragon Tomato Catsup, Williams Brothers, Detroit, Michigan Duchess Brand Tomato Ketchup, Alfred Lowry & Brother, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Duquesne Catsup, H. J. Heinz, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Dyson Red Cross Brand [ketchup], TheDyson Company, Winnipeg, Canada. E. & S. High Grade Red Star Tomato Ketchup, Kansas City Conserve Company, Kansas City, Missouri E. T. Cowdrey Ketchup, Boston, Massachusetts Eagle [ketchup], Charles F. Loomis Eagle Brand Catsup, P. F. Bowe, Waterbury, Connecticut Eagle Brand Tomato Ketchup, Kuner Pickle Company, Denver, Colorado Eagle Tomato Ketchup, Greil Bros. Company, Montgomery, Alabama East Hamburg Canning Company [ketchup], Orchard Park, New York East Rock Blend [ketchup], Brown & Company, New Haven, Connecticut East Rock Brand Catsup, The John Doyle Company, New Haven, Connecticut Eastern Star Brand Tomato Catsup, E. D. Pettingill Sons Company, Portland, Maine Eastern Star Brand Tomato Ketchup, Eastern Importing & Manufacturing Company, Boston, Massachusetts

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Ecar Tomato Catsup, packed for Wm. H. Race by R. V. Crine Company, Morganville, New Jersey Eclipse Brand [ketchup], M. J. & H. J. Meyer & Company, New York Eclipse Brand Gigantic Ketchup, M. J. Meyer, New York Eddy's Tomato Catsup, Eddy & Eddy, Saint Lores, Missouri Eddy's Tomato Catsup, E. Pritchard, New York and Bridgeton, New Jersey Edgewood Brand [ketchup], W. A. Castle, Springfield, Massachusetts Edwards' Tomato Catsup, William Edwards Company, Cleveland, Ohio Elite Pure Food Tomato Catsup, ClarkChapin & Bushnell, New York Elk's Pride Brand Tomato Catsup, The Harbauer-Marleau Company, Toledo, Ohio Empress Brand [ketchup], Canada Empire [ketchup], Unknown, Saint Louis, Missouri Empire Brand Tomato Catsup, John S. Sills & Sons, New York Empire Tomato Ketchup, The Horto-Cato Mfg., Detroit, Michigan English Spiced [ketchup], Belleville Canning Company, Canada Epicure Brand Catsup, Delhi Canning Company, Delhi, Ontario, Canada Erie [ketchup], Erie Preserving Company, Buffalo, New York Eureka Tomato Catsup, Eureka Brand Tomato Ketchup, John Maier, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Eureka Tomato Catsup Company, Saint Louis, Missouri Everyday Catsup, Northern Manufacturing Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota Excelsior Tomato Catsup, Wm. Lauteryung, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Extra Diamond Tomato Catsup, Lutz & Schramm, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Extra Fine Catsup, E. F. Griswold Packing Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota Extra Fine Quality Catsup, Geo. C. Ovens & Company Extra Spiced Home Made Catsup, O. K. Alart & McGuire, New York Extra Tomato Catsup, Yerxa Brothers, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Faithful Brand Tomato Catsup, R. V. Crine Company, Morganville, New Jersey Farm House (or Farmhouse) [ketchup], Kenwood Preserving Company, Chicago, Illinois Fat-Mop Tomato Ketchup, The Union Foods Products Company, Ohio Faultless Brand [ketchup], S. S. Adams, New Haven, Connecticut

Fayette Brand Tomato Ketchup, Uniontown Grocery Company Fearless Brand Tomato Ketchup, Chas. E. Moody & Company, Boston, Massachusetts Ferndell, 1903, Tomato [ketchup], Ontario Preserving Company Fifth Avenue Brand Catsup, H. S. Mill Canning Company, Springtown, Pennsylvania Finney & Benedict's [ketchup], Norwalk,Connecticut First American Tomato Catsup First Prize Tomato Catsup, Toleraton & Stetson Company, Sioux City, Iowa Flaccus Brothers Catsup, Wheeling, West Virginia Flag Brand Ketchup, Delano, Potter & Company, Boston, Massachusetts Flickertail [ketchup], Fargo Mercantile Company, Fargo, North Dakota Forest City Brand Home-made Catsup, Gorman, Eckert & Company, London, Ontario, Canada Fort Cumberland Catsup, J. G. Orrick & Son, Cumberland, Maryland Fort Dearborn [ketchup], W. M. Hoyt Company, Chicago, Illinois Fort Nelson Brand Tomato Catsup, McMechen Preserving Company, Wheeling, West Virginia Fort Pitt Tomato Catsup, J. Weller Company, Cincinnati, Ohio

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Fort Snelling Catsup, Foley Bros., & Kelly, Saint Paul, Minnesota Fountain Brand Tomato Catsup Fox Brand Tomato-Catsup, McKnight-Keaton Grocery Company, Cairo, Illinois Franklin Tomato Catsup, Franklin Packing Company, New York Frazier's Non-Preservative Catsup, Frazier Packing Company, Elwood, Indiana Frendell Brand Tomato Catsup, Sprague, Warner & Company, Chicago, Illinois Full Value Catsup, Hoyt & Company, Chicago, Illinois Fulton Brand Tomato Catsup, Fulton Relish Company, Indianapolis, Indiana. Garden Brand Tomato Ketchup, John Price & Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Garden City Brand Ketchup, The Garden City Canning Company, Saint Catherines, Canada Garden State Canning Company [ketchup], Bridgeton, Rio Grande, Cape May, and Heightstown, New Jersey Garret Bergen Company Tomato Ketchup, New York and New Jersey Gem [ketchup], Mrs. Bradley Genesee County [ketchup], Sprague, Warner & Company, Chicago, Illinois Gilt Edge Tomato Catsup, Isaac Schull, Newark, New Jersey Gilt Edge Tomato Catsup, Fort Dodge Grocery Company, Fort Dodge, Iowa Glendora Tomato Catsup, Smith & Horton, Ltd., Warren, Pennsylvania Glendora Tomato Catsup, Glendora Products Company, Warren, Pennsylvania Gold Leaf Tomato Ketchup, The Standard Company, Hartford, Connecticut Gold Leaf Tomato Catsup, J. S. Birden & Company, Hartford, Connecticut Gold Medal Catsup, American Relish Company, Indianapolis, Indiana; Gold Medal Ketchup, Paupe Vinegar Works, California Gold Medal [ketchup], Wellaur Hoffman Company, Milwaukee, Wisconsin Gold Medal Tomato Ketchup, New York Gold Medal Tomato Ketchup, Boston Branch, Massachusetts Gold Seal, Hills & Company, Hartford, Connecticut Gold Seal High Grade Catsup, Alart & McGuire, New York Goldberg Tomato Catsup, Robert Bentel Company, West Bay City, Michigan Golden Crown Tomato Catsup, Charles Rabb, Williamstown, New Jersey

Golden Leaf Catsup, Van Camp Packing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Golden Rod Catsup, Milliken-Tomlinson Company, Portland, Maine Golden Tree Tomato Ketchup, New England Maple Syrup Company, Boston, Massachusetts Golden West, Green & De Laittre Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota Gopher [ketchup], Foley Bros., & Kelly, Saint Paul, Minnesota Grafton Johnson's Tomato Catsup, Whiteland, Indiana Graham's Lily Brand [ketchup], Canada Preserving Company, Ltd., Hamilton, Canada Grant's Brand Tomato Catsup, Indiana Tomato Seed Company, Nabb, Indiana Grantham Canning Company [ketchup], Saint Catherine, Canada Great Lakes Brand Tomato Catsup, Michigan Refining and Preserving Company, Menominee, Michigan Green Label [ketchup], The Little Silver Sauce Company, New Jersey Green Leaf Brand Vegetable Catsup, Otto Kuehe Preserving Company, Topeka, Kansas Griffith Catsup Company [ketchup], Dunnville, Canada Griswold Favorite [ketchup] Guilford [ketchup], The John T. Doyle Company Gulden's Strictly Pure Catsup, Charles Gulden, New York.

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H. Bourque & Fils [ketchup], Montreal, Canada H. M. Tower's [ketchup] H. N. Bates & Sons [ketchup], Ottawa, Canada Hall Luhrs ''Our Taste" Tomato Catsup, Sacramento, California Haller's Blue Star Tomato Catsup, Jacob Haller, Erie, Pennsylvania Hannah Cobb's Home-Made Tomato Catsup Harbauer's Tomato Catsup, Harbauer Company, Toledo, Ohio Harry May and Company [ketchup], New Jersey Hatchet Brand Tomato Catsup, Twitchell-Champlin Company, Portland, Maine Hawkeye Brand Tomato Catsup, Hawkeye Vinegar & Pickles Company, Burlington, Iowa Hawthorne [ketchup], W. J. Quan & Company Hazard's Shrewsbury Tomato Ketchup, E. C. Hazard & Company, Shrewsbury, New Jersey Health Brand Catsup Health Tomato Catsup, Western Grocery Company, Albert Lea Heinz Ketchup, H. J. Heinz Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Heinz Tomato Catsup, H. J. Heinz Company, Leamington, Canada Helmbold Tomato Ketchup Hero Tomato Catsup Hiawatha Catsup, Stone, Ordean, Wells Company, Duluth, Minnesota High Grade [ketchup], D. M. Welch & Sons High Grade [ketchup], Eddy & Eddy Manufacturing Company, Saint Louis, Missouri High Grade Brand Catsup, Stoddard, Gilbert & Company, New Haven, Connecticut High Grade Tomato Catsup, Stoddard, Kimberly & Company, New Haven, Connecticut Highland Club Tomato Ketchup, Ocean Mills Company, Boston, Massachusetts Hillcrest Brand [ketchup], Canada Hillside Catsup, Hillside Preserving Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Hirsh's Long Island [ketchup], Chas. L. Hirsh & Company, New York Hoffman House Ketchup, J. Weller Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Hoffman House Ketchup, Acme Pickle & Preserve Company, Cincinnati, Ohio

Hoffman House Tomato Catsup, J. Weller Company, Oak Harbor, Ohio Holly [ketchup], Walsh Lange Company Holly Brand [ketchup], Jones and Ireland, Mount Holly, New Jersey Holsum Brand Tomato Ketchup, Sauker & Williams Company, Scranton, Pennsylvania Home Brand [ketchup], Home Packing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Home Brand [ketchup], Skinner & Loudon, Cincinnati, Ohio Home Brand Tomato Catsup, Griggs, Cooper & Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Home Brand Tomato Catsup, R. C. Chance's Sons, Mount Holly, New Jersey Home Brand Tomato Catsup, R. C. Chance's Sons, Mount Holly, New Jersey Home Brand Tomato Ketchup, R. C. Chance's Sons, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Home Catsup, Jersey Packing Company, Camden, New Jersey Home Comfort Tomato Catsup, Brant Canning Company, Brant, New York Home Jersey Pure [ketchup], The Jersey Packing Company, Hamilton, Ohio Home Made [ketchup], C. F. Clausen & Sons, Chicago, Illinois Home Made [ketchup], Kenwood Preserving Company, Chicago, Illinois Home Made [ketchup], T. A. Snyder Preserve Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Home Made [ketchup], The Tip Top Ketchup Company, Cincinnati, Ohio

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Home Made [ketchup], Treanor Brothers, New York Home Made Catsup, Otto Kuehe Preserving Company, Topeka, Kansas Home Made Long Island Tomato Catsup, Andresen & Company Home Made Tomato Catsup, Standard Packing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Home Made Tomato Ketchup, Cruikshank Brothers Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Home-made Brand Catsup, R. V. Crine Company, Morganville, New Jersey Home-made Choice Tomato Catsup, The North Land Manufacturing Company, Toronto, Canada Home Prepared, E. G. Dailey & Company, Chicago, Illinois Homemade Catsup, Theopold Mercantile Company, Faribault, Minnesota Homemade Tomato Catsup, C. F. Clausen & Sons, Chicago, Illinois Honey Dew Catsup, Erie Preserve Company, Buffalo, New York Honey Dew Catsup, Jewett Bros. & Jewett, Sioux Falls, Iowa Hottentot Catsup, Alart & McGuire, New York Howard's Brand Tomato Catsup, F. & J. Heinz Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Hummer [ketchup], Schull & Company Hurff Brand Tomato Catsup, Edgar F. Hurff, Swedesboro, New Jersey Hyman's Brand Oyster Hot Tomato Catsup, Hyman Pickle Company, Louisville, Kentucky. Ice Castle Catsup, J. W. Windsor, Montreal and Saint Eustache, Canada Imperial Catsup, Orchard City Packing Company, Burlington, Iowa Imperial Home Made Tomato Catsup, John S. Sills & Sons, New York Imperial [ketchup], Swan & Babcock, New Haven, Connecticut Imperial Tomato Ketchup, Curtice Brothers, Rochester, New York Index [ketchup], Elliott Grocery Company Iron King Catsup, Vosbank Brothers Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania J. A. Perrault & Cie [ketchup], Montreal, Canada J. B. Renaud & Cie [ketchup], Quebec, Canada J. H. Boeckle's Ketchup, Star Pickling Works, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Jack Dalton, Jr. Catsup, L. A. Gallup Company, Norwich, Connecticut Jastrow's Special Brand [ketchup], Richard Jastrow, New Haven, Connecticut

Jersey Star Tomato Catsup, Bridgeton Preserving Company, Bridgeton, New Jersey Jewell [ketchup], The Union Supply Company Jewett's Catsup, Jewett Bros. & Jewett, Sioux Falls, South Dakota Jewett's High Grade Catsup, Jewett Brothers, & Jewett, Sioux Falls, South Dakota Jewett's Tomato Catsup, Jewett Brothers, Company, Aberdeen, South Dakota Johnson's Catsup, C. Johnson, Saint Paul, Minnesota Jumbo Tomato Catsup, New Blue Grass Canning Company, Owensboro, Kentucky Juneau [ketchup], Wellauer & Hoffman, Milwaukee, Wisconsin Just Right [ketchup], Empire Bottling Works. Kennedy's Tomato Catsup, Kennedy Products, Gloversdale, New York Kentucky Bell Catsup, Kentucky Canning Company, Owensboro, Kentucky Kentucky Belle Catsup, Blue Grass Canning Company, Owensboro, Kentucky Kenwood, 1903, Tomato [ketchup], Reid, Murdock & Company, Chicago, Illinois

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Ketchup, W. H. Neal & Son, Bethlehem, Maryland Keystone Brand Extra Fancy Catsup, Heinz Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Keystone Brand Tomato Catsup, Atmore & Son, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Kiltie Tomato Catsup King Brand Catsup, Sherwood & Son, Canada Kinzie Catsup, Huss & Edler Preserving Company, Chicago, Illinois Knighthood Tomato Catsup, Reese and Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Ko-we-ba Tomato Catsup, Kolb, Wells, Bauer Company, Indianapolis, Indiana. L. & S. Tomato Catsup, Lutz & Schramm Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Ladies' Favorite Tomato Catsup, Heller & Perrin, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Lancaster Vinegar Company, Bunkerhill Brand Tomato Ketchup, Lancaster, Pennsylvania Larkin Tomato Catsup, Larkin Company, Buffalo, New York Lawson Pink Brand [ketchup], Roger I. Sherman, Boston, Massachusetts Leading Star [ketchup], A. S. Livermore, Chicago, Illinois Leghorn Jug Catsup, T. A. Snyder Preserve Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Lehigh Packing Company, Catsup, Allentown, Pennsylvania Lehman's High Grade Tomato Ketchup, A. G. Lehman Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Lenox [ketchup], Lenox Catsup Company Leroy Extra Quality Tomato Catsup, Jas. J. Longhery & Company, Boston, Massachusetts Libby's Pure Tomato Catsup, Libby, McNeil & Libby, Chicago, Illinois Libby's Tomato Catsup, Libby, McNeill & Libby, Chicago, Illinois Liberty [ketchup], W. A. Leggett & Company, New York Lily of the Valley Brand Ketchup, Rochester, New York Lion Brand Ketchup, Austin, Nichols & Company, New York Lion [ketchup], Hudson Preserving Company, New York Little Nemo Tomato Catsup, The Fame Canning Company, Chicago, Illinois Long Island Brand Ketchup, A. C. Soper & Company, Farmingdale, New York Long Island Delight Brand, M. Schoenberg & Company, New York Long Island [ketchup], Brown &Company, New Haven, Connecticut

Loudon's Tomato Catsup, Charles F. Loudon, Cincinnati, Ohio Louis Brand Catsup, Williamson-HalsellFrasier Company, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Love Apple [ketchup], J. F. Polk Company, Greenwood, Indiana Love-Apple Ketchup, McSherry & Alvey, Frederick, Maryland Lucky Boy Catsup, Reinhart Grocery Company, Saint Louis, Missouri Lutz & Schramm Company Tomato Catsup, Allegheny, Pennsylvania Lutz & Schramm Tomato Catsup, Lutz & Schramm Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Luxury Brand Tomato Catsup, Clark Brothers, Scranton, Pennsylvania Luzerne Tomato Ketchup, The Garrahan Canning Company, Luzerne, Pennsylvania Lyndon [ketchup], Franklin MacVeagh, Chicago, Illinois. M. P. Brand Ketchup, Bell Fruit Farms, Ltd., Grimsby, Canada Magnes [ketchup], The F. C. Bushnell Company, New Haven and Waterbury, Connecticut Magnolia Tomato Catsup, The Wm. Edwards Company, Cleveland, Ohio Manchester Tomato Catsup, Henry W. Parker, Manchester, New Hampshire Manhattan Club Tomato Catsup, Tip Top Catsup Company, Cincinnati, Ohio

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Manhattan Club Tomato Ketchup, The Jersey Packing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Maple Leaf Brand Tomato Catsup, Delhi Fruit and Vegetable Company, Delhi, Ontario Marleau's Tomato Catsup, Marleau Packing Company, Toledo, Ohio Marquette Brand Tomato Catsup, Park,N Grant & Morris, Fargo, North Dakota Mars' Tomato Katsup, A. L. Mars & Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Mascot Brand Tomato Catsup, The R. N. Fitzgerald Company, New Haven, Connecticut May Day Catsup, Greenwood Packing Company, Greenwood, Indiana Mayflower Brand [ketchup], Rivkin Brothers, Hartford, Connecticut Mayflower Brand Tomato Catsup, R. C. Chance's Sons, Mount Holly, New Jersey Mayflower Brand Tomato Catsup, the McMechen Preserving Company, Wheeling, West Virginia McMechen's Old Virginia Ketchup, Wheeling, West Virginia McMurray's Pure Catsup, Wm. McMurray Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Meco Tomato Catsup, Miller Eberhard Company, Cleveland, Ohio Melrose Catsup, Githens, Rexsamer & Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Melrose [ketchup], Melrose Packing Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Mendelion Brand Catsup, M. Eiseman & Sons, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Menu Tomato Catsup, The Harbauer Company, Toledo, Ohio Merit Brand Tomato Ketchup, Bain Brothers Company, Boston, Massachusetts Merrimack Brand Tomato Catsup, F. M. Moody & Company, Boston and Lowell, Massachusetts Midland Catsup, Warfield-Pratt-Howell Company, Des Moines, Iowa Millionaire's Club Catsup, Gowan-Peyton-Twohy Company, Duluth, Minnesota Minnehaha Tomato Catsup, M. A. Gedney Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Minnesota Favorite Catsup, Menk Bros., Saint Paul, Minnesota Minnesota Favorite Ketchup, Gedney Pickling Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Mischief [ketchup], Theopold, Reid & Company, Faribault, Minnesota Mistletoe Ketchup, National Packing Company, Chicago, Illinois Mohican Brand Tomato Catsup, The Mohican Company, New York Monadnock Brand Tomato Catsup, Holbrook Grocery Company, Nashua, New Hampshire Monarch Brand [ketchup], A. F. Beckmann & Company, New York

Monarch Tomato Catsup, Belleville Canning Company, Canada Monarch Tomato Catsup, Reid, Murdock & Company, Chicago, Illinois Monmouth Brand Tomato Ketchup, R. Vincent Crine Packing and Seed Company, Morganville, New Jersey Monogram Brand Tomato Catsup, E. A. Saunders' Sons Company, Richmond, Virginia Monogram Brand Tomato Catsup, W. H. Mansfield & Company, Putnam, Connecticut Monogram Brand Tomato Ketchup, Smith Perkins & Company, Rochester, New York Monogram [ketchup], R. C. Williams & Company, New York Moore's Finest Flavored Tomato Catsup, Moore's Brothers Canning Company Morris Best Tomato Catsup, Lansdale Pure Food Company, Lansdale and Perkasie, Pennsylvania Morse Brand Catsup, J. P. & D. Plummer Company, Boston, Massachusetts Mother Cook Brand Tomato Catsup, Colonial Conserve Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

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Mother Sharp's Brand Tomato Catsup, S. W. Haney Preserving Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Mother's Kind Tomato Catsup, Grantham Preserving & Pickling Company, Grantham, Pennsylvania Mt. Kineo Catsup, Shaw, Hammond & Carney, Portland, Maine Mountain City Catsup, Lippincott & Company, Philadelphia and Altoona, Pennsylvania Mrs. Dolby's Tomato Catsup, The Home Preserving & Pickling Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Mrs. Jones' Home Made [ketchup], Williams Brothers Company, Detroit, Michigan Mrs. Jones' Home-Made Uncolored Tomato Catsup, Williams Brothers & Charboneau, Detroit, Michigan Mrs. Richardson's Home-Made Tomato Catsup Mrs. Rodes' Home Made Tomato Catsup, A. Rode & Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Mrs. Wells Tomato Catsup Mrs. Williams' Brand Tomato Catsup, Quaker City Pure Fruit & Sugar Preserve Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania My Fancy Catsup My Own [ketchup], Geo. A. Spraul Packing Company Myrtle Tomato Catsup, Van Camp Packing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana. N. Rioux & Cie [ketchup], Quebec, Canada N. Turcotte & Cie [ketchup], Quebec, Canada Naboth Tomato Catsup, Naboth Vineyards, Brocton, New York Nagoh Catsup, J. J. Hogan, La Crosse, Wisconsin Nail City Brand Catsup, McMechen Preserving Company, Wheeling, West Virginia Nail City Catsup, Chas. Morrill-Sons, Rochester, New York Nail City Catsup, West Virginia Preserving Company, Wheeling, West Virginia Nantucket Brand Tomato Catsup, Diamond Manufacturing Company, Kansas City, Missouri National [ketchup], Falkner Webb Company National Brand [ketchup], Green & Company, Toronto, Canada National Pure Food Company [ketchup], Boston, Massachusetts Navy Brand Catsup, J. S. Van Lill Preserving Company, Baltimore, Maryland Nemisella Brand Tomato Catsup (High Grade), Canton Canning Company, Canton, Ohio Neosho Brand Catsup, Neosho Canning Company, Neosho, Missouri New England Brand Tomato Catsup, R. C. Williams Company, New York New England Catsup, J. E. Thompson, New York

New England Home Made [ketchup], The Berwick Preserving Company, New York New Port [ketchup], Tip Top Ketchup Company, Cincinnati, Ohio New Process [ketchup], H. J. Heinz Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania New Process [ketchup], J. E. Thompson New Process Tomato Catsup, California Fruit Canners Association/Cutting Packing Company, San Francisco, California Newberry [ketchup], Franklin MacVeagh, Chicago, Illinois Newell's Extra [ketchup], Geo. R. Newell & Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota Newer Extract of Tomato, A. Bauer Company, Chicago, Illinois Newport Compound Tomato Ketchup, Jersey Packing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Newport Tomato Ketchup, Jersey Packing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio

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No Vary Brand Tomato Catsup, No Vary Products Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota No. 1 [ketchup], Erie Preserving Company, Buffalo, New York No. 1 [ketchup], Griggs, Cooper & Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota No. 2 [ketchup], Erie Preserving Company, Buffalo, New York No. 2 [ketchup], Griggs, Cooper & Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota No. 4. Spiced Compound Catsup, the American Preserve Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania No. 4 Special Compound Catsup, Philadelphia Pickling Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania No. 16 [ketchup], Foley Bros. & Kelly, Saint Paul, Minnesota No. 17 [ketchup], Foley Bros. & Kelly, Saint Paul, Minnesota None Such [ketchup], McNeil Higgins & Company None Such Tomato Ketchup, Bryan, Miner & Read, New Haven, Connecticut Normand Brand Catsup, Northern Manufacturing Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota North Branch [ketchup], Blue Ridge Packing Company, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania Now We Have It [ketchup], Eagle Preserving Company New York. O. K. [ketchup] Alart and McGuire, New York Oakdale Brand Tomato Ketchup, Samuel Howell, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Octagon Style Heinz's Keystone Ketchup, H. J. Heinz Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Ohio Valley Brand Ketchup, E. C. Flaccus Company, Wheeling, West Virginia Old Fashioned Home Made Catsup, Philadelphia Pickling Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Old Homestead Tomato Catsup, Home Pickling Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Old Inn Tomato Catsup, The Castleman, Blackmore Company, Louisville, Kentucky Old Virginia Catsup, McMechen Preserving Company, Wheeling, West Virginia Old Virginia Tomato Catsup, McMechen Preserving Company, Wheeling, West Virginia Omar Catsup, C. Shenkberg Company, Sioux City, Iowa Omega Brand Tomato Catsup, The Pressing & Orr Company, Norwalk, Ohio Onward [ketchup], John H. Fitch Company Oriole Brand Catsup, American Preserve Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Our Choice Tomato Catsup, Wm. King & Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Our Diploma [ketchup]

Our Favorite [ketchup], Farnham Packing Company, New York Our Favorite Catsup, Erie Preserving Company, Buffalo, New York Our Judge Tomato Catsup, Johnson, Earl, Myers Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Our Own [ketchup], Brownell & Field Company, Providence, Rhode Island Our Own Ketchup, David Trubee Company, Bridgeport, Connecticut Our Own Tomato Catsup, Mueller-Kuemn Company, Racine and Kenosha, Wisconsin Our Pet Tomato Catsup, Harbauer Company, Toledo, Ohio Oval Brand [ketchup], Canada Own Favorite [ketchup], Farnam Canning Company, Farnam, New York Oyster Bay Brand Tomato Ketchup, Gildehaus-Wulfing & Company, Saint Louis, Missouri Oyster Bay Tomato Ketchup, Alart & McGuire, New York Oyster Shell Tomato [ketchup], Booth & Company, Baltimore, Maryland Ozark Brand Tomato Catsup, Rodgers Canning Company, Rogers, Arkansas

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Ozo Company, Ltd. [ketchup], Montreal, Canada. P. J. Ritter Catsup, Bridgeton, New Jersey Paramount [ketchup], Alart & McGuire, New York Park Farm Tomato Catsup, Mitchell, Fletcher & Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Parker House Brand Catsup, Miner, Read & Garrette, New Haven, Connecticut Parker House Brand Catsup, McMechen Preserving Company, Wheeling, West Virginia Paxton's Tomato [ketchup], Paxton & Gallagher Company, Omaha, Nebraska Peerless Tomato Ketchup, A. F. Foss & Company, Newburyport, Massachusetts Pennycook Brand Ketchup, Dickerman & Company, Concord, New Hampshire Perfect [ketchup], A. H. Perfect Perfection Brand Tomato Catsup, Wm. M. Flanders Company, Boston, Massachusetts Perfection Ketchup, Thurston & Kingsbury, Bangor, Maine Perfection Tomato Catsup, P. F. Bowe, Waterbury, Connecticut Perfection Tomato Catsup, H. N. Weller & Company, Toledo, Ohio Phillipin-O Catsup, M. Wolf & Sons, Chicago, Illinois Pilgrim Brand Catsup, A. C. Soper & Company, New York Pilgrim's [ketchup], C. B. Brandt Manufacturing Company, Milwaukee, Wisconsin Pilot Brand Table Catsup, Hass Lieber Grocery Company, Saint Louis, Missouri Pioneer Brand Tomato Catsup, August Nasse & Sons, Saint Louis, Missouri Pioneer Catsup, Van Camp Packing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Polo [ketchup], Stoddard, Gilbert & Company Ponce Dressing [ketchup], Caterer's Speciality Company, New York Power Catsup, The Francis Cooper Company, Chicago, Illinois Premium [ketchup], National Pickling & Canning Company Prestige Brand Tomato Catsup, Westmoreland Grocery Company, Greenburg, Pennsylvania Pride of Connecticut Tomato Ketchup, Waterbury Pickling Company, Waterbury, Connecticut Pride of England Catsup, L. Patterson Mercantile Company, Mankato, Minnesota Pride of Long Island Catsup, The Longfield Bergen Company, New York Pride of Long Island [ketchup], The Garret Bergen Company, Brooklyn, New York

Pride of the Farm Tomato Catsup, E. Pritchard, Inc., New York and Bridgeton, New Jersey Princess Brand Tomato Catsup, Koenig and Schuster New York Princess Catsup, Green, DeLaittre Company, Chicago, Illinois Priscilla Tomato [ketchup], Franklin McVeagh & Company, Chicago, Illinois Private Stock [ketchup], P. F. Bowe, Waterbury, Connecticut Pure Brand Tomato Catsup, A. C. Blenner & Company, New Haven, Connecticut Pure Catsup, Van Camp Packing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Pure Food Brand Catsup, Geo. Wienhusen, New Haven, Connecticut Pure Food [ketchup], Erie Preserving Company, Buffalo, New York Pure Food Tomato [ketchup], Pure Food Preserving Company, Buffalo, New York Pure Gold Brand Tomato Catsup, J. Weller Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Pure Gold [ketchup], Pure Gold Manufacturing Company, Toronto, Canada Pure Gold Tomato Catsup, Acme Pickle & Preserve Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Pure Tomato Catsup, Moffett & Skinner, Flint, Michigan Pure Tomato [ketchup], Haarman Brothers, Omaha, Nebraska

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Pure Unexcelled [ketchup] Puritan Brand [ketchup], Canada Puritan Catsup, Tip Top Ketchup Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Puritan [ketchup], Bryant & Sisson Company, Lacrosse, Wisconsin Purity Catsup, Thurston & Kingsbury, Bangor, Maine Purity [ketchup], Theopold Reid & Company, Faribault, Minnesota. Quaker City Preserve Company's Tomato Ketchup Quaker [ketchup], Joannes Bros. Company, Green Bay, Wisconsin Quebec Preserving Company [ketchup], Quebec, Canada Queen City Catsup, Finch Smith & Company, Crookston, Minnesota Queen Tomato Catsup, Belleville Canning Company, Canada. R. V. C. Brand Tomato Catsup, R. V. Crine Seed Company, Morganville, New Jersey Rainbow [ketchup], Pressing Orr Preserving Company, Circleville, Ohio Reception Catsup, Model City Preserving Company, Model City, New York Reckhow Preserving Company, Tomato Catsup Red & White Tomato Catsup, Red & White Corporation, Buffalo, New York Red Berry Tomato Catsup, Leroy Packing Company, Boston, Massachusetts Red Bird [ketchup], Green & Delaittree Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota Red Cross Brand Tomato Katsup [sic], Port Hope P. & C. Company, Port Hope, Canada Red Jacket Catsup, Lewis De Groff & Son, New York Red Jay Tomato Catsup Red Lily Tomato Ketchup, Martin L. Hall & Company, Boston, Massachusetts Red Rose Catsup, Lewis Packing Company, San Francisco, California Red Rose Tomato Catsup, C. A. Kurtze, Erie, Pennsylvania Red Seal Tomato Ketchup, Dominion Canning Ltd., Canada Red Turkey Brand Tomato Catsup, J. B. Maltby, Inc, Corning, New York Reliable Brand Tomato Catsup, Eldridge-Baker Company, Manchester, New Hampshire Reliable Catchup, Reliable Ketchup Company, Hamilton, Ohio Republic [ketchup], C. Andersen & Company, New York

Rex Brand Tomato Catsup, A. G. Lehman Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Rex Brand Tomato Catsup, Gorman Eckert & Company, London, Canada Rex Tomato Ketchup, The Cudahy Packing Company, Chicago, Illinois Ribbon Brand Catsup, New Castle Grocery Company, New Castle, Pennsylvania Richelieu Brand Tomato Catsup, Sprague, Warner & Company, Chicago, Illinois Ringrose Catsup, Ringrose Pickling Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Rio Grande Brand Tomato Catsup, Stohrer's Keystone Pickle Works Rio Grande Tomato Catsup, Keystone Pickle Works, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Ritter Tomato Catsup, P. J. Ritter Conserve Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Ritter's Whole Tomato Catsup with Tabasco, P. J. Ritter Conserve Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Rival Tomato Catsup, Durand & Kasper Company, Chicago, Illinois Rival Tomato Catsup, Haskell Adams Company, Boston, Massachusetts Riverside Tomato Catsup, Francis H. Leggett & Company, New York Robin Catsup, J. H. Allen & Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Robin Hood Tomato Catsup, R. C. Williams & Company, New York Rose Brand Tomato Ketchup, Fretz Ltd., Hamilton, Canada Rosebud Catsup, Letts, Spencer, Smith Company, Mason City, Iowa

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Rosedale Ketchup, Schwenk & Caldwell, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Royal Blue Pure Tomato Catsup, Baer Grocery Company, Wheeling, West Virginia Royal Brand Ketchup, J. W. Windsor, Montreal, Canada Royal Brand Tomato Catsup, Warfield Pratt Howell Company, Sioux City, Iowa Royal Gem Brand Tomato Catsup Royal [ketchup], The John T. Doyle Company, New Haven, Connecticut Royal Red Catsup, Haarman Brothers, Omaha, Nebraska Royal Red Tomato Catsup, Frazier Packing Company, Elwood, Indiana Royal Scotch [ketchup], Hallock-Denton Company, Newark Royal Star Brand Tomato Catsup, McMahan & Lieb Company, Anderson, Indiana Royal Tomato Catsup, Horton Cato Manufacturing Company, Detroit, Michigan Royal Tomato Catsup, The John T. Doyle Company, New Haven, Connecticut. Sailor Boy Ketchup, Perkins, Ince & Company, Toronto, Canada Saint Lawrence Catsup, Puhl-Webb & Company, Chicago, Illinois Saratoga County Tomato Catsup, C. & Company Satisfaction Brand Tomato Catsup, Haworth & Dewhurst, Limited, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Satisfaction Catsup, R. H. Clark Company, Chicago, Illinois Savoy [ketchup], Reliance Ketchup Company, New York Savoy [ketchup], Savoy Ketchup Company, New York Savoy [ketchup], Stelle, Wedeles Company, Chicago, Illinois Schramm's Whole Tomato Catsup, Franklinville Pickling Works, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Scottish Chief [ketchup], Austin, Nichols & Company Seaside Catsup, David Trubee Company, Bridgeport, Connecticut Shadyside Catsup, Shadyside Catsup Company, Shadyside, New Jersey Shaker Ketchup, E. D. Pettengill & Company, Portland, Maine Shawnee Tomato Catsup, The Garrahan Packing Company, Luzerne, Pennsylvania Shiloh Tomato Ketchup, H. B. Cornell Company, Providence, Rhode Island Shrewsbury Tomato Ketchup, E. C. Hazard & Company, Shrewsbury, New Jersey Signal Brand [ketchup], Canada

Silver Boy Brand Tomato Catsup, Silver Boy Packing Company, New York Silver Leaf Brand Tomato Catsup, Otto Kuehne Preserving Company, Topeka, Kansas Silver Seal Catsup, Walsh-Boyle & Company, Chicago, Illinois Simon Pure Tomato Catsup, Lewiston Canning Company, Lewiston, New York Snider's Home-made Tomato Catsup, T. A. Snider Preserve Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Social Brand [ketchup], Edward D. Depew & Company, New York Sogood Brand Tomato Catsup, R. C. Chance's Sons, Mount Holly, New Jersey Solar Brand Catsup, Frazier Packing Company, Elwood, Indiana Southshore [ketchup], Southsore Catsup Company Sovereign Tomato Catsup, Union Pacific Tea Company, New York Special Brand [ketchup], Richard Zastrow, New Haven, Connecticut Special Catsup 10c., Eddy & Eddy, Saint Louis, Missouri Spiced Catsup Compound of Tomato Pulp and Spices, R. C. Chance, Mount Holly, New Jersey

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Spiced Tomato Catsup Spindle City Ketchup, Mansfield, Witham & Company, Lowell, Massachusetts Squire Tomato Catsup, Squire Dingee Company, Chicago, Illinois Squirrel Brand Catsup, R. V. Crine Seed Company, Morganville, New Jersey Stafford's [tomato ketchup] Standard Brand [ketchup], P. J. Ritter Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Standard Catsup, H. J. Heinz Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Standard Ketchup, American Pickling Company, Providence, Rhode Island Standard [ketchup], Exley Watkins & Company, Wheeling, West Virginia Standard [ketchup], John C. Johnson Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota Standard [ketchup], Standard Manufacturing Company, Wheeling, West Virginia Standard Tomato [ketchup], American Preserve Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Star Brand [ketchup], D. M. Welch & Son, Ansonia, Connecticut Star Brand [ketchup], The Wm. Boardman & Sons Company, Hartford, Connecticut Star Brand Tomato Catsup, Warwick Pickling Company, Arctic, Rhode Island State [ketchup], Minnesota Mer. Company, Stillwater, Minnesota Steer's Head Catsup, Flaccus Brothers, Wheeling, West Virginia Sterling Brand Tomato Ketchup, T. A. Lytle & Company, Ltd., Toronto Stockton Tomato Catsup, Flotill Products, Inc. Stoher's Tomato Catsup, Keystone Pickle Works, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Stokely Foods, Inc. [ketchup], Newport, Tennessee Strictly Pure Catsup, H. Wichert, Chicago, Illinois Sugar Loaf [ketchup], Latsch & Son, Winona, Minnesota Sugars and Canners Ltd. [ketchup], Montreal, Canada Sunbeam Brand [ketchup], J. T. Pillman & Company, Ayer, Massachusetts Sunbeam Tomato Catsup, Austin Nicholls & Company, New York Sunblend Tomato catsup, Windsor Products Company, Bridgeton, New Jersey Sunflower [ketchup], Bay State Preserving Company, Boston, Massachusetts Sunlight [ketchup], Royal Packing Company, Chicago, Illinois

Sunny Hills Tomato Catsup, R. E. Cotter Company, San Francisco, California Sunny Side Tomato Catsup, Tip Top Ketchup Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Sunny Side Tomato Ketchup, The Jersey Packing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Sunnyside Ketchup, Seabury & Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Sunrise Brand Ketchup Sunrise [ketchup], Leroux Cider and Vinegar Company, Toledo, Ohio Sunrise Ketchup, Philadelphia Pickling Company, Pennsylvania Sunset Catsup, Royal Packing Company, Chicago, Illinois Sunset [ketchup], Van Lill Preserving Company, Baltimore, Maryland Superb Brand Tomato Catsup, S. B. Charters' Grocery Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Superior Brand Tomato Catsup, L. M. Park Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Superior Brand Tomato Catsup, Triumph Catsup & Pickle Company, Collinsville, Illinois Superior [ketchup], The Pyle & Tomlinson Company, Bridgeport, Connecticut Superior [ketchup], Tip Top Catsup Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Superior [ketchup], Treanor Brothers, New York Superior Tomato Catsup, E. S. Kibbe Company, Hartford, Connecticut Superior Tomato Catsup, E. W. Byrne, New Britain, Connecticut

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Superior Tomato Catsup, G. S. Brown & Company, Boston, Massachusetts Superior Tomato Catsup, H. Stohrer, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Superior Tomato Catsup, Westchester Pickle Works, New York Superior Tomato Catsup for Family Use Superior Tomato [ketchup], Eagle Vinegar & Pickle Works, Saint Louis, Missouri Supreme Brand [ketchup], Burton & Davis, New York Surprise [ketchup], Crescent Preserving Company, Camden, New Jersey Surprise Ketchup, J. H. Allen & Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Sussex Brand [ketchup], Canada Sweet Home Brand Tomato Catsup, B. S. Ayers & Son, New Jersey. Table Talk Brand Catsup, R. C. Chance III, Burlington, Delanco, Mount Holly, New Jersey Table Talk Tomato Ketchup, R. C. Chance's Sons, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Telmo Catsup, Franklin MacVeigh, Chicago, Illinois Thistle Catsup, Stone, Ordean Wells Company, Duluth, Minnesota Thistle Catsup, Western Pickling Works, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada Thomson's New Process [ketchup], J. E. Thomson Three Star [ketchup], C. Shenkberg Company, Sioux City, Iowa Tiger Brand Ketchup, Grantham Canning Company, Saint Catherines, Canada Tiger [ketchup], Platte & Company, Baltimore, Maryland Tillbury Canning Company [ketchup], Tillbury, Ontario, Canada Time O' Day Tomato Catsup, Jordan Stevens Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota Tip Top Ketchup, Tip Top Ketchup Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Tobley's Home Made Ketchup Tomato Catsup, Anderson Canning Company, Keokuk, Iowa Tomato Catsup, Burlington Vinegar & Pickle Company, Burlington, Iowa Tomato Catsup, C. D. Brooks, Boston, Massachusetts Tomato Catsup, Century Pickle & Company Tomato Catsup, Columbia Conserve Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Tomato Catsup, Dow & Draper, Duluth, Minnesota

Tomato Catsup, Downs & Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota Tomato Catsup, Dueweke Grocery Company, Detroit, Michigan Tomato Catsup, E. G. Daily, Detroit, Michigan Tomato Catsup, E. J. Dossin, Detroit, Michigan Tomato Catsup, Eddy & Eddy, Saint Louis, Missouri Tomato Catsup, Empire Manufacturing Company, Detroit, Michigan Tomato Catsup, Engel Cider Refining Company, Jackson, Michigan Tomato Catsup, Erie Preserving Company, Buffalo, New York Tomato Catsup, F. Mothersill, Detroit, Michigan Tomato Catsup, Foley Brothers & Kelly, Saint Paul, Minnesota Tomato Catsup, Frank P. Zimmer, Detroit, Michigan Tomato Catsup, G. W. Cooper Tomato Catsup, Garden City Canning Company, Saint Catherines, Ontario, Canada Tomato Catsup, Gordon & Dilworth, New York Tomato Catsup, Grant, Beall & Company, Chicago, Illinois Tomato Catsup, H. Wichart, Chicago, Illinois Tomato Catsup, H. G. Bates, Blanchester, Ohio Tomato Catsup, Hornby, NicholsParker Pipestone Tomato Catsup, Horton-Cato Company, Detroit, Michigan

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Tomato Catsup, Indiana Tomato Seed Company, Nabb, Indiana Tomato Catsup, Irwin Packing and Canning Company, Sulphur Springs, Texas Tomato Catsup, J. E. Wallace, Detroit, Michigan Tomato Catsup, J. T. Polk & Company Tomato Catsup, John L. Getz & Son, York, Pennsylvania Tomato Catsup, Leroux Cider & Vinegar Company, Toledo, Ohio Tomato Catsup, Maas Packing Company, California Tomato Catsup, Martin Wagner Company, Baltimore, Maryland Tomato Catsup, Menning & Slater, Des Moines, Iowa Tomato Catsup, National Pure Food Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Tomato [Catsup], New Jersey Packing Company Tomato Catsup, Northern Manufacturing Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota Tomato Catsup, Price & Lucas Cider & Vinegar Company, Louisville, Kentucky Tomato Catsup, Price & Lucas Cider and Vinegar Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Tomato Catsup, R. Bruech & Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Tomato Catsup, Ringroso Pickling Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota Tomato Catsup, Schorndorfer & Ebehard Company, Cleveland, Ohio Tomato Catsup, Standard Company, Hartford, Connecticut Tomato Catsup, Symons Brothers, Saginaw, Michigan Tomato Catsup, T. H. Johnson, Detroit, Michigan Tomato Catsup, Thomas S. Beaudoin, Detroit, Michigan Tomato Catsup, W. H. Davis & Company, Boston, Massachusetts Tomato Ketchup, A. Boeckmann, Brooklyn Tomato Ketchup, Acme Preserve Company, Adrian, Michigan Tomato Ketchup, Anderson Preserving Company, Camden, New Jersey Tomato Ketchup, Belleville Canning Company, Canada Tomato Ketchup, Dodson-Hills Mfg Company, Saint Louis, Missouri Tomato Ketchup, The Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company Tomato Ketchup, Ohio Valley Preservative Company, Wheeling, West Virginia

Tomato [ketchup], Ringrose Pickling Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Tomato Ketchup, Shakers Tomato [ketchup], Wm. McMurray & Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Top Notch Brand Ketchup, Holbrook Marshall Company, Nashua, New Hampshire Trophy Brand Catsup, Delano Potter & Company, Boston, Massachusetts True Blue Tomato Catsup, Wm. C. Young, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Tryme Brand Tomato Ketchup, Canada Preserving Company, Hamilton, Canada Tube City Tomato Catsup, Potter McCune Company, McKeesport, Pennsylvania Turner Brand [ketchup], The Turner Company, Ltd., Toronto, Canada Tweed's Tomato Ketchup, Tweed & Botsford, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 20th Century Tomato Catsup, Jas. G. Powers & Company, New York Twin City Catsup, Northern Mfg. Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Ulikem Brand Tomato Catsup, Griggs Cooper & Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota Uncle Sam [ketchup], Brown & Company, New Haven, Connecticut Union [ketchup], Fred C. Elder Union Brand Catsup, J. S. Le Blanc, Nashua, New Hampshire Union Brand Compound Catsup, Union Catsup Company, Chicago, Illinois

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Union County Brand Tomato Catsup, Joseph Freedman & Company Unity Brand Tomato Ketchup, Frankford Grocery Company, Frankford, Pennsylvania Upton's Finest Quality Tomato Ketchup, The T. Upton Company, Ltd., Hamilton, Canada. Valley Brand Catsup, John L. Getz & Son, York, Pennsylvania Van Camp Concentrated [ketchup], Van Camp Packing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Van Camp's Pure Catsup, Van Camp Packing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Van Camp's Tomato Catsup, Van Camp Packing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Van Camp's Tomato Ketchup, Van Camp Packing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Vaughan's Home Like Catsup, Wm. W. Vaughan, Detroit, Michigan Veribest Tomato Ketchup, Armour Company, Chicago, Illinois Vernon Brand [ketchup], The Meaford Canning Company, Meaford, Ontario, Canada Vesper [ketchup], Pressing Orr Preserving Company, Norwalk, Connecticut Vesper Tomato Ketchup, Vesper Preserve Company Ayer, Massachusetts Veteran Brand Tomato Catsup, Brewster, Gordon & Company, Rochester, New York Victor Catsup Victoria Brand Catsup, Canada Village Store [ketchup], Village Store Company Violet Brand Catsup, J. V. Sharp Canning Company, Williamstown, New Jersey Violet Catsup, J. V. Sharp Canning Company, Williamstown, New Jersey Virginia Catsup, Virginia Pure Food Company, Baltimore, Maryland. W. Lorain [ketchup], Bord à Plouffe, P. Q., Canada W. K. Lewis & Brother's Tomato Ketchup, Boston, Massachusetts W. W. Turner [ketchup], Quaker Hill, Connecticut W. W. Walker Company, Hartford, Connecticut Wade [ketchup], Jersey Pickling Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Wade's Home Made [ketchup], Tip Top Ketchup Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Wagner's Catsup, Martin Wagner Company, Baltimore, Maryland Wagner's Dogshead, Martin Wagner Company, Baltimore, Maryland Waldorf Tomato Catsup, The Williams Brothers Company, Detroit, Michigan

Wayside Tomato Catsup, John S. Sills & Sons, New York Weidman Brothers Tomato Catsup, Weidman Company, Cleveland, Ohio Welcome Fancy Tomato Ketchup, The Eureka Chemical Company, New Haven, Connecticut Weller's Tomato Catsup, J. Weller Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Wellington [ketchup], Wellington Mfg. Company, Chicago, Illinois White Flower Brand Ketchup, Holbrook Grocery Company, Nashua, New Hampshire White Horse Tomato Catsup, Reid, Murdoch Company, Chicago, Illinois White House [ketchup], Jersey Packing Company, Hamittor, Ohio White Label & Jersey Brand [ketchup], Farmingdale Packing Company, and A. C. Soper and Company, Farmingdale, New Jersey White Label [ketchup], M. Schoenberg & Company, New York Wichert's [ketchup] Chicago, Illinois Wilca Brand Catsup, Carl Wilde, Importer, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Wilco Brand Tomato Catsup, Williams

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Brothers Company, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania Wild Rose Catsup, Twohy & Elmon Mercantile Company, Superior, Minnesota Wild Rose [ketchup], Ohio Valley Preserving Company, Wheeling, West Virginia Willard Brand Tomato Catsup, J. W. Huston Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania William Penn Tomato Catsup, Wm. Lauteryung, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Williams' Tomato Catsup, Williams Brothers, Detroit, Michigan Wilton Brand Catsup, The Pressing & Orr Company, Norwalk, Ohio Windsor Brand Tomato Catsup, Francis H. Leggett & Company, New York Windsor Canning Company [ketchup] Windsor [ketchup], Windsor Packing Company, New York Wingold Catsup, Dilworth Brothers Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Winner Brand Pure Tomato Ketchup, Vesper Preserve Company, Ayer, Massachusetts Winner Brand Tomato Catsup, E. S. Kibbe Company, Hartford, Connecticut Winner [ketchup], The E. S. Kibbe Company, Hartford, Connecticut Winorr [ketchup], Pressing & OrrCompany, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Winorr Tomato Catsup, The Pressing & Orr Company, Norwalk, Ohio Wisco Brand Tomato Catsup, Witman, Schwartz Company, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Wonder [ketchup], Smith, Thorndyke & Brown, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. XXXX Catsup, John Sexton & Company, Chicago, Illinois. Yacht Club Tomato Catsup, Tildesley Company, Chicago, Illinois Yale Club [ketchup], The John T. Doyle Company Yankee Doodle Tomato Catsup, American Relish Company, Indianapolis, Indiana Yankee Homemade Catsup, Puhl-Webb Company, Chicago, Illinois Yellow Label Tomato Ketchup Yours Truly Tomato Catsup, Yours Truly Company, Chicago, Illinois. Recent Tomato Ketchups Today there are only three major manufacturers of tomato ketchup in the United States: Del Monte, Heinz, and Hunt. Each of these companies has, from time to time, developed new lines. Of the three, Heinz has been the largest producer of tomato ketchup since 1900. Heinz has produced over 50 percent of the American market for most of the past two decades. However, many other ketchups have been produced over the past decade or so. A & P Tomato Ketchup

America's Choice Tomato Ketchup, Compass Food Inc., Montvale, New Jersey Ann Page Tomato Ketchup (A & P) Ass Kickin' Ketchup, Southwest Speciality Food Company, Glendale, Arizona. Basics (Grand Union) Bauman's Ketchup, The Bauman Family, Sassamansville, Pennsylvania Best Yet Tomato Ketchup, Scrivner, Inc., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Beyond Catsup, Jasmine & Bread Blanchard & Blanchard New England Chunky Ketchup (Extra Spicy) Brooks Rich & Tangy Ketchup, Curtice

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Burns Foods, Mount Summit, Indiana Bubba Brand Peppa Ketchup, Atlantis Costal Foods, Charleston, South Carolina Busha Browne's Spicy Love Apple Sauce. Casa Peña Blanca Texas Ketchup, El Paso, Texas Catsup, Rykoff Sexton, Inc., Los Angeles, California Condal Tomato Catsup, Condal Distributors, Inc., Bronx, New York Cost Cutter (Kroger) Cowboy Catsup, The El Paso Chile Company, El Paso, Texas. Del Monte No Salt Added Del Monte Tomato Ketchup, Del Monte, San Francisco Dominick's Generic (low sodium) Dublin Generics. Econo Buy Tomato Ketchup (Alpha Beta) Enrico's 100% All Natural Ketchup, Ventre Packing Company, Syracuse, New York Enrico's 100% All Natural Ketchup, No Salt, Ventre Packing Company, Syracuse, New York. Farm Product Featherweight Catsup Reduced Calorie Featherweight Imitation (no salt added) Foodtown Catsup. Gathering Winds All Natural Ketchup, Ithaca, New York Gold's Ketchup, Gold Pure Food Products Company, Inc., Hempstead Village, New York. Ham Natural Catsup Hain Natural Imitation Hain Natural Imitation (no salt added) Health Valley No Salt Added Healthy Choice, ConAgra, Saint Louis, Missouri Heinz Hot Ketchup, H. J. Heinz Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Heinz Hot Ketchup, H. J. Heinz Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in cooperation with the McIlhenny Co. Heinz Lite Ketchup, H. J. Heinz Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Heinz Salsa Ketchup, H. J. Heinz Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Heritage Hoosier Sweets Rich and Tangy Ketchup, Curtice Burns Foods, Mount Summit, Indiana Hunt's (no salt added) Hunt's Tomato Ketchup, Hunt-Wesson, Inc., Fullerton, California. Jardine's Jalapeño Texas Ketchup Jewel Jewel No Salt Added Johnson's. Kraft Fancy Ketchup [one ounce pouch] Krasdale Fancy Tomato Catsup Krasdale Fancy Tomato Ketchup, Krasdale Foods, Inc., White Plains, New York Kroger. Lady Lee (Gemco, Lucky) Larry Forgione's Smoky Tomato Catsup, American Spoons, Inc., Petoskey, Michigan Lifespice Tomato Velvet, New York. McIlhenny Farms Spicy Ketchup Millina's Finest Organic Picante Tomato Ketchup, Organic Food Products, Inc., Freedom, California Millina's Finest Organic Tomato Ketchup, Organic Food Products, Inc., Freedom, California. Napa Valley Mustard Company County Catsup Natural Catchup, Hain Pure Foods, Inc., Saint Louis, Missouri Natures Purest, Unsweetened

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Nervous Nellie's Jams & Jellies Hot Tomato Sweet Sauce New Canaan Jalapeno Catsup, New Canaan Farms, Dripping Springs, Texas No Frills (Pathmark). Old San Antonio's Jalapeño Catsup. Pure and Simple. Raggedy Ann Tomato Ketchup Ranger Luke's Kick'm-Up Jalapeño Ketchup, Three Texas Amigos, Buda, Texas Red Gold Red Wing Robbie's [ketchup] Robbie's Natural Products, Altadena, California. Scotch Buy (Safeway) Season Skaggs Alpha Beta Smith's Tomato Ketchup (Catsup), Smith's Food and Drug Distributors, Salt Lake City, Utah Smucker's Family Recipe [ketchup] Smucker's [ketchup] Snider's Springfield Tomato Ketchup, Grocer Distributors, Ltd., Los Angeles, California Stokely Sunburst Farms Unsweetened Sunny Square Tomato Ketchup, Commander Foods, Inc., Syracuse, New York. Tassa Scotch Bonnet Catsup Tony Packo's Spoonable Ketchup, Toledo, Ohio Town House (Safeway) Tree of Life Tomato Ketchup, Tree of Life, Inc., Saint Augustine, Florida. Uncle Dave's Ketchup, Uncle Dave's Kitchen, Bondville, Vermont. Walnut Acres [tomato] Ketchup Weight Watchers Tomato Ketchup Westbrae Natural Catsup, Fruit-sweetened

Westbrae Natural Catsup, Fruit- sweetened, no salt added Westbrae Natural Fruit-Sweetened Catsup, Westbrae Natural Foods, Carson, California Westbrae Natural Hot and Spicy Westbrae Natural Thick Honey Westbrae Natural Un-Ketchup, Unsweetened Whiterose Tomato Ketchup Wine Country Zinfandel Catsup Wizard's Catch Up, Edward & Sons Trading Company, Union, New Jersey.

Nontomato Ketchups Historical Nontomato Ketchups Compared with tomato ketchups, there were very few nontomato ketchups manufactured in the United States and Canada at any time. Most were manufactured in the United Kingdom. Mushroom Ketchup Crosse & Blackwell's Mushroom Catsup, London, England George Watkins's Mushroom Ketchup, Keddie, Ltd., London, England Morton's Mushroom Catsup, London Mushroom Catsup, Batty & Company, London Mushroom Catsup, Michaud Bros., Saint Paul, Minnesota. Walnut Ketchup Crosse & Blackwell's Walnut Catsup Heinz Walnut Ketchup Morton's Walnut Catsup, London

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Walnut Catsup, Batty & Company, London Walnut Ketchup, William Underwood and Company. Oyster Ketchup Catsup Creole Oyster Sauce, Charles E. Erath, New Orleans, Louisiana D. & B Oyster Cocktail Catsup Faust Oyster Cocktail Catsup, Dodson-Braun Company, Saint Louis, Missouri Hirsch's Goodies Ketchup for Oyster Cocktail, Hirsch Brothers Company, Louisville, Kentucky Oyster Catsup, Dodson Braun Manufacturing Company, Saint Louis, Missouri Oyster Cocktail Catsup, A. Booth & Company, Baltimore, Maryland Rockaway Catsup for Oysters, Loudon Packing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Rockaway Oyster Catsup for Oysters, Loudon Packing Company, Terre Haute, Indiana Shriver's Oyster Ketchup, Baltimore, Maryland Van Camp's Oyster Cocktail Ketchup, Indianapolis, Indiana. Miscellaneous Ketchups Celery Catsup, Celery Ketchup Company, New York Grape Ketchup, Hammondsport Preserving Company, New York Heinz Curry Ketchup Heinz Grape Ketchup Heinz Tomato Mustard Ketchup Keuk-A Grape Catsup, Keuka Grape and Fruit Company, Rochester, New York Mustard Catsup, Geo. A. Bagle, Saint Louis, Missouri Tabasco Catsup, The Horton Cato Manufacturing Company, Detroit, Michigan Virginia Cucumber Catsup, George K. McMechen & Son, Wheeling, West Virginia. Recent Nontomato Ketchups American Traditions Cranberry Ketchup Bear Meadow Farm Apple Catsup Bear Meadow Farm Cranberry Catsup Cranberry Catsup, Cozette's Gourmet Foods, Inc., Coos Bay, Oregon Nantucket Island Cranberry Catsup, The Complete Kitchen, Nantucket, Massachusetts.

Non-American Ketchups Austria: Felix. Australia: Chunky Tomato & Onion Ketchup, H. J. Heinz Company Australia Ltd.; Tomato Ketchup Original Recipe, H. J. Heinz Company Australia Ltd. France: Amora, Paris-based BSN, S. A.; Heinz; Tomato Pure [ketchup], H. Desegaulx and Cie., Bordeaux. Germany: Curryketchup, Develey; Gewürsketchup, Develey; Gewürsketchup Curry (with Mango Chutney), Homann; Gewürsketchup Curry extra scharf, Kraft; Gewürsketchup Schaschlik, Homann; Gewürsketchup Tomate, Homann; Tomatenketchup, Develey; Tomatenketchup, Gutruf; Tomatenketchup, Kraft; Tomatenketchup, Thorny; Tomatenketchup Curry, Kraft; Tomatenketchup Tomate, Kraft. Japan: Heinz; Kagome; Kikkoman. Norway: Idun Chili Ketchup. Philippines: Banana Ketchup, produced for Del Monte Philippines, Inc., by Sysu International, Quezon City; Del Monte. Slovenia: See Yugoslavia (former).

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Thailand: Maggi; Roza. United Kingdom: Geo. Watkins's Mushroom Ketchup, Keddie Ltd., London; Geo. Watkins's Walnut Ketchup, Keddie Ltd., London; Goodall's Tomato Ketchup; Hammonds, Evedale Foods, Ltd., Littleborough; Heinz; Kraft Tomato Ketchup, Kraft Foods; Mr. Blobby Ketchup, Hazelwood Foods; Whole Earth Tomato Catsup, Whole Earth Foods, Ltd., London. Venezuela: Del Monte; Heinz Salsa de Tomate Ketchup; Pamper Yugoslavia (former): Argo-Droga, Portoroz, Slovenia.

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SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES

General Works Extensive references from various works have been cited in the endnotes. For reasons of space, they are not repeated here. The works listed below focus on general references used in preparation for this book. Alberts, Robert C. The Good Provider: H. J. Heinz and His 57 Varieties. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1973. Braznell, William. California's Finest: The History of the Del Monte Corporation and the Del Monte Brand. San Francisco: Del Monte Corporation, 1982. Cummings, Richard Osborn. The American and His Food: A History of Food Habits in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1940. Curtis, Robert I. Garum and Salsamenta: Production and Commerce in Materia Medica. New York: E. J. Brill, 1991. Dienstag, Eleanor Foa. In Good Company: 125 Years at the Heinz Table (1869-1994). New York: Warner Books, Inc., 1994. 153-86. Drummond, J. C., and Anne Wilbraham. The Englishman's Food. London: Jonathan Cape, 1939. Furnas, C. C., and S. M. Furnas. The Story of Man and His Food. New York: New Home Library, 1941. Gould, Wilbur. Tomato Production, Processing and Technology. 3rd ed. Baltimore, Md.: CTI Publications, 1992. Hale, William Harlan. The Horizon Cookbook and Illustrated History of Eating and Drinking through the Ages. 2 vols. New York: American Heritage, 1968. Hess, John, and Karen Hess. The Taste of America. New York: Grossman, 1977. Hooker, Richard J. A History of Food and Drink in America. Indianapolis & New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1981. Johnson, Lawrence A. Over the Counter and on the ShelfCountry Storekeeping in America, 16201920. New York: Bonanza Books, 1961. Jones, Evan. American Food: The Gastronomic Story. 2d ed. New York: Vintage Books, 1981. Kreidberg, Marjorie. Food on the Frontier: Minnesota Cooking from 1850 to 1900 with Selected Recipes. Saint Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1975. Livingston, Alexander W. Livingston and the Tomato. Columbus, Ohio: A. W. Livingston's Sons, 1893.

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Mariani, John F. The Dictionary of American Food and Drink. New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1983. McCafferty, E. D. Henry J. Heinz, a Biography. Pittsburgh: Privately printed, 1923. McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking. New York: Scribner's Sons, 1984. Potter, Stephen. The Magic Number: The Story of ''57." London: Max Reinhardt, 1959. Root, Waverly. Food: An Authoritative and Visual History and Dictionary of the Foods of the World. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1980. Root, Waverly, and Richard de Rochemont. Eating in America; A History. New York: Echo, 1981. Shannon, Fred A. The Farmer's Last Frontier, Agriculture, 18601897. Vol. 5 of The Economic History of the United States. New York: Rinehart & Company, Inc., 1959. Sokolov, Raymond. Why We Eat What We Eat: How Columbus Changed the Way the World Eats. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. Sullivan, Mark. Our Times: The United States, 19001925. Vol. 2 of America Finding Herself. New York: Scribners, 1929. Tannahill, Reay. Food in History. Rev. ed. New York: Crown, 1988. Wiley, Harvey W., and Anne Lewis Pierce. 1001 Tests of Foods, Beverages and Toilet Accessories, Good and Otherwise. New York: Hearst's International Library, 1916. Wilson, C. Anne. Food and Drink in Britain: From the Stone Age to the 19th Century. Chicago: Academy Chicago Publishers, 1991.

Works on Canning and Preserving There are many works on canning and preserving food, but few of them mention ketchup. The more important works used in preparation of this book are listed below. Amateur, Anne. Home Made Pickles and Preserves. Covent Garden, U.K.: Country Life, 1918. American Can Company. Canned Food Reference Manual. New York: CANCO, 1939. Appert, [Nicholas]. The Art of Preserving. New York: D. Longworth, 1812. The Art and Mystery of Curing, Preserving, and Potting all Kinds of Meats, Game and Fish; Also the Art of Pickling and Presentation of Fruits and Vegetables. London: Chapman and Hall, 1864. 170. Banks, Vincent, and Georgiana Banks. Fruit and Vegetable Bottling, Pulping, Drying and Canning. London: Smith & Ebbs, Ltd., 1913 [1922]. Bitting, A[rvil] W[ayne]. Appertizing or the Art of Canning. San Fracisco: Trade Pressroom, 1937. , and K[atherine] G[olden] Bitting. Canning and How to Use Canned Goods. Washington, D.C.: National Canners Association, 1916. Blits, H. Patented and Improved Methods of Canning Fruits with New Edition and Supplement. Brooklyn, N.Y.: H. I. Blits, 1890.

Bradley, Edith, and Mary Crooke. The Book of Fruit Bottling. London: John Lane, Bodley Head/New York: John Lane Company, 1907. Campbell, Clyde H. The Campbell's Book: A Textbook on Canning, Preserving and Pickling. New York: Canning Age, 1929. Revised as Campbell's Book: Canning, Preserving and Pickling. New York: Vance Publishing Corp., 1937. Revised by Rohland Isker and Walter MacLinn. Chicago: Vance Publishing Corporation, 1950.

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Carrell, Theodora. A Manual of Canning and Preserving. New York: E. P. Dutton & Company, 1919. Collins, Douglas. America's Favorite Food; The Story of Campbell Soup Company. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1994. Collins, James H. The Story of Canned Foods. New York: E. P. Dutton & Company, 1924. A Complete Course in Canning. 1st ed.-12th ed. Baltimore: Canning Trade, 19061987. Cowan, John. What to Eat and How to Cook It with Rules for Preserving, Canning and Drying Fruits and Vegetables. New York: Cowan & Company, 1870. Harland, Marion [pseud. of Mary Terhune]. The Story of Canning and Recipes. New York: National Canning Association, 1910. Hill, Janet M. Canning, Preserving and Jelly Making. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1917. Judge, Arthur I., ed. A History of the Canning Industry; Souvenir of the Seventh Annual Convention of the National Canners' Association and Allied Associations. Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1914. Keuchel, Edward F. "The Development of the Canning Industry in New York State to 1960." Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1970. "Master of the Art of Canning: Baltimore, 18601900," Maryland Historical Magazine 67 (Winter 1972): 35162. Lee, Burton R. Canneries of the Eastern Shore. Centreville, Md.: Tidewater Publishers, 1986. May, Earl Chapin. The Canning Clan: A Pageant of Pioneering Americans. New York: Macmillan Company, 1937. National Gardening Association. Tomatoes: Growing, Cooking, Preserving. New York: Villard Books, 1987. Parola, Maria. Canned Fruit, Preserves, and Jellies: Household Methods of Preparation (Corrected 25 March 1905). Washington, D,C.: Government Printing Office, 1905. Peterson, M. E. Preserving, Pickling and Canning Fruit. Philadelphia: G. Peterson and Company, 1869. Powell, Ola. Lippincott's Home Manuals: Successful Canning and Preserving. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1917. Robinson, James. The Whole Art of Curing, Pickling, and Smoking Meat and Fish. London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1847. Rowley, Salmon. Treatise on the Art of Preservation. Philadelphia: By Salmon Rowley, 1870. Schwaab, Ernest. The Secrets of Canning: A Complete Exposition of the Theory and Art of the Canning Industry. Baltimore: John Murphy Company, 1890. Shinkle, Chas. A. American Commercial Methods of Manufacturing Pickles, Preserves, Canned Goods, etc. Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1902. Sim, Mary B. Commercial Canning in New Jersey, History and Early Development. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, 1951. Stare, Fred A. The Story of Wisconsin's Great Canning Industry. Madison: Wisconsin Canners Association, 1949. Swank, Edith Elliott. The Story of Food Preservation. Pittsburgh: H. J. Heinz Company, 1942. Ward, Artemes. The Grocer's Hand-Book and Directory for 1886. Philadelphia: Grocer Publishing Company, 1886. Williams, Henry. The Art of Canning. New York: Hurst & Company, circa 1882.

Wilson, Thomas. Notes on Canned Goods, Prepared Under Direction of the Commissary General of Subsistence, U. S. Army. Washington, D.C., 1870.

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Works on Ketchup Compared with works on other food products, relatively few have been published about ketchup. Those articles and works that do provide useful information on ketchup are listed below. Bacon, Raymond F., and P. B. Dunbar. Spoilage in Tomato Products. Circular No. 78. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Chemistry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1911. Bitting, A[rvil] W[ayne]. Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato Ketchup. Bulletin 119, Bureau of Chemistry, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1909. . Ketchup: Methods of Manufacturer. Lafayette, In.: Murphy-Bivins, 1915. Bitting, K[atherine] G[olden]. Microscopic Examination. Lafayette, In.: Murphy-Bivins, 1915. Brooks, R. O. Vinegars and Catsup: Interpretations of Standards, Analyses. Etc. New York: Spice Mill Publishing Company, 1912. 6267. Carlin, Joseph. "From Ketchup to Salsa: Influences of Multiculturalism on American Culinary Practices." Presentation prepared for the Library of Congress Cooking Club, 12 October 1994. "Catchup, Catsup or Ketchup," Spice Mill 68 (April 1945): 46. Del Monte Corp. Favorite Tomato Catsup Recipes from Del Monte Kitchens. Pamphlet. San Francisco: Del Monte, 1981. . Inside the Catsup Factory: A True Story about Catsup, Pamphlet. San Francisco: Del Monte, n.d. Fabricant, Florence. "Red & Zesty for Variety, America's Most Popular Condiment Can Be Homemade, Too," Americana 5 (July/August 1980): 4345, 8889. Fitzgerald, F[red] F[inley]. "Factory Control of the Composition of Tomato Ketchup." In A Complete Course in Canning, 4th ed., 196200. Baltimore: Canning Trade, 1919. H.J. Heinz Company. All about Heinz Ketchup. Pamphlet. Pittsburgh: H. J. Heinz Company, 1991. . 57 Prize-Winning Recipes from the Cook with Ketchup Contest. Pamphlet. Pittsburgh: Home Economics Department, H. J. Heinz Company, 1957. . Red Magic Recipes. Pamphlet. Pittsburgh: H. J. Heinz Company, 1962. . Tomato Ketchup Recipe Collection. Pamphlet. Pittsburgh: H. J. Heinz Company, 1988. Haddigan, Michael. "Ketchup Bathing Salsa in War of the Sauces," Tribune-Review. 9 August 1994. Hannon, Kerry. "The King of Ketchup," Forbes 121 (21 March 1988): 5862. Hier, W[ayland] G[ladstone]. The Manufacture of Tomato Products. Denver, Colo.: W. G. Hier, 1919. Howard, Burton James. Tomato Ketchup under the Microscope. Chemistry Circular #68. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Chemistry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1911. Huebner, Jeff W. "A Sauce with a Glorious Past; Ketchup Distills Spices, Exotic Flavors of Empires," Pittsburgh Press, 17 August 1986, p. E2.

"Ketchup and Ketchup Making," Pickles 2 (25 October 1898): 12. L[acouperie], T[errien] de. "The Etymology of Ketchup," Babylonian and Oriental Record 4 (February 1890): 7172. . "Ketchup, Catchup, Catsup," Babylonian and Oriental Record 3 (November 1889). 28485.

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Lang, Gretchen. The Buyer's Guide to Ketchup. North Carolina, Whole Foods Market, Inc., [1994]. Lang, Jenifer Harvey. Tastings; The Best from Ketchup to Caviar. New York: Crown Publishers, 1986. 6874. Lawall, Charles H., and Leroy Forman. Tomato Ketchup. Bulletin #272. Harrisburg: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Agriculture, Dairy and Food, 1915. McGill, A. Lime Juice and Catsup. Bulletin #83. Ottawa, Canada: Laboratory of the Inland Revenue Department, 1902. . Tomato Catsup. Bulletin #129. Ottawa, Canada: Laboratory of the Inland Revenue Department, 1906. . Tomato Catsup. Bulletin #224 Ottawa, Canada: Laboratory of the Inland Revenue Department, 1911. . Tomato Ketchup. Bulletin #275. Ottawa, Canada: Laboratory of the Inland Revenue Department, 1914. . Tomato Ketchup. Bulletin #368. Ottawa, Canada: Laboratory of the Inland Revenue Department, 1917. Norton, Frances E. "Heinz Ketchup." 11pp. Unpublished paper in the Heinz archives. Pederson, Carl S., and Robert S. Breed. The Preservative Action in Catsup of Salt, Sugar, Benzoate, and Acid. Bulletin #538. Geneva, N.Y.: New York Experiment Station, 1926. Pierson, Stephanie. "Everybody Loves Ketchup. It's Sweet, It's TangyIt's even on the Internet," Saveur (JanuaryFebruary 1995): 36, 3839. Pruess, Joanna. "Ketchups Worth Keeping," Washington Post, 29 September 1993, Food Section, pp. E1 & E14. Rice, William. "Which Catsup Is No. 1? Tasters Rate the Brands," Chicago Tribune, 5 Feruary 1987, sec. 7, p. 1. Riks, Dolf. "Home Made Tomato Ketchup," Bangkok World, 19 July 1986. . "Tomato KetchupThe Great Cover up," Pattaya Mail 3 (3 May 1995): 15. "The Roots of Ketchup," California Tomato Grower 27 (October 1984): 6. Rozin, Elizabeth. "The Great Ketchup Salsa Debate," Icarus 9 (Winter 1993): 2127. . "The Ketchup." Chap. 4 of The Primal Cheeseburger: A Generous Helping of Food History Served Up on a Bun, 85110. New York: Penguin Books, 1994. . "Ketchup and the Collective Unconsciousness," Journal of Gastronomy 4 (Summer 1988): 4556. Schloss, Andrew. "Ketchup: Beyond the Burger and the Fry," Condiments (15 February 1984): l. Smith, Andrew F. "The History of Home made Anglo American Tomato Ketchup," Petits Propos Culinaires 39 (December 1991): 3545. State Board of Health of New Hampshire, "Tomato Ketchup," Quarterly Bulletin 4 (April 1915): 2434. Steingarten, Jeffery. "Simply Red," Vogue 182 (August 1992): 244, 298300. Stern, Gabriella. "Heinz Aims to Export Taste for Ketchup," Wall Street Journal, 20 November 1992, pp. B1 & B10. Street, John, et al. "Ketchup." In Annual Report for 1910, 52149. New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1911. "Tomato Ketchups," Consumer Reports 48 (October 1983): 55255.

Van Gelder, Lawrence. "The Ketchup Connection," New York Times, 9 February 1997, p. C3. "We're Top Ketchup Producer; Special Recipe Makes Ketchup Most Popular," special issue Newsbeat (Heinz U.S.A.) 7 (May/June 1978): 111.

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Willoughby, John, and Chris Schlesinger. "Ketchup: It's Not Just for Tomatoes Anymore," New York Times, 21 September 1994, p. C4. Winton, A. L. "Tomato Catsup." In Annual Report for 1897. New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1898. . "Tomato Catsup, Chili Sauce and Other Sauces." In Annual Report for 1904, 18187. New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1905. Winton, A. L., and A. W. Ogden. "Tomato Catsup, Chili Sauce and Other Sauces." In Annual Report for 1901, 13544. New Haven: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902. Zamula, Evelyn. "Tale of the Tomato: From 'Poison' to Pizza," FDA Consumer 18 (JulyAugust 1984): 249. Zumwalt, Betty. Ketchup, Pickles, Sauces; 19th Century Food in Glass. Fulton, Cal.: Mark West Publishers, 1980.

Reprinted British and American Cookery and Manuscripts As original cookbooks and manuscripts are often difficult to locate, a number of recent reprints that may be availbable in libraries are listted below. Only reprints that are related to the historical period covered in this book or that are mentioned in the text have been included here. Acton, Eliza. Modern Cookery for Private Families with an Introduction by Elizabeth Ray. Lewes, East Sussex: Southover Press, 1993. Appert, Nicholas. The Art of Preserving. Reprint. N.p.: Mallinckrodt Collection of Food Classics, n.d. Bryan, Lettice. The Kentucky Housewife. Reprint. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991. Buckeye Cookery and Practical Housekeeping. Minneapolis, Minn., 1877. Reprint. Saint Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1988. [There are several other reprints of this cookbook.] Chadwick, J. Home Cookery. Reprint. Birmingham, Ala.: Oxmoor House, 1984. Child, Lydia Maria. The American Frugal Housewife. Boston: Carter, Hendee, and Company, 1833. Facsimile of the 12th ed. Worthington, Ohio: Worthington Historical Society, 1965. [There are many other reprints of this cookbook.] Cobbett, Anne. The English Housekeeper. 6th ed. London: A. Cobbett, 1851. Facsimile. East Ardsly, Wakefield: E. P. Publishing, Ltd., 1973. Confederate Receipt Book; A Compilation of over One Hundred Receipts, Adapted to the Times. Reprint. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1960. Cushing, C. H., and B. Gray, comps. The Kansas Home Cook-Book. 5th ed. Leavenworth, Kans.: Crew & Bro., 1886. Reprint. Introduction and Suggested Recipes by Louis Szathmáry. New York: Arno Press, 1973. Dallas, E. S. Ketner's Book of the Table. 1877. Facsimile. Preface by Derek Hudson. London: Centaur Press, Ltd., 1968. Dods, Margaret [pseud. for Christina J. Johnstone]. The Cook and Housewife's Manual. 4th ed. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1829. Reprint. London: Rosters Ltd., 1988.

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The Everyday Cookbook and Practical Cyclopedia. Reprint. New York: Lord & Taylor, 1976. Farley, John. The London Art of Cookery. Reprint. Introduction by Stephen Medcalf; Ann Haly, ed. Lewes, East Sussex: Southover Press, 1988. Farmer, Fannie Merritt. Boston Cooking-school Cook Book. Reprint. New York: Weathervane Books, 1986. [There are many other reprints of this cookbook.] Gardiner, Anne Gibbons. Mrs. Gardiner's Family Receipts from 1763. Boston: Rowan Tree Press, 1984. Glasse, Hannah. Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy. London: By the Author in London, 1747. Facsimile. London: Prospect Books, 1983. Gowan, Judy, and Hugh Gowan. Blue and Grey Cookery: Authentic Recipes from The Civil War Years. Reprint. New Market, Md.: Daisy Publications, n.d. Haskell, E. F. Civil War Cooking: The Housekeeper's Encyclopedia. Reprint. Mendocino, Cal.: R. L. Shep, 1992. Hearn, Lafcadio. La Cuisine Creole; A Collection of Culinary Recipes from Leading Chefs and Noted Creole Housewives, Who Have Made New Orleans Famous for its Cuisine. New York: Will H. Coleman, 1885. Reprint. Baton Rouge, La.: Pelican Publishing Company Inc., by Thomas J. Moran & Company, 1967. Hess, Karen, ed. Martha Washington's Booke of Cookery. New York: Columbia University Press, 1981. Hooker, Richard J., ed. A Colonial Plantation Cookbook: The Receipt Book of Harriott Pinckney Horry, 1770. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1984. The Housekeeper's Book. Reprint. Somersworth, N.H.: New Hampshire Publishing Company, 1972. Josephson, Bertha E., ed. "Ohio Recipe Book of the 1820s," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 36 (June 1949): 97-107. Josselyn, John. New-England Rarities Discovered. Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1972. Lee, N. K. M. The Cook's Own Book. Reprint. New York: Arno Press, 1972. [There are many other reprints of this cookbook.] Leslie, Eliza. Directions for Cookery. Reprint. New York: Arno Press, 1973. -. Seventy-Five Receipts. Boston: Munroe and Francis, 1828. Facsimile. San Francisco: Journal of Gastronomy, 1986. Marquart, John. Six Hundred Receipts. Philadelphia: John E. Potter and Company, 1867. Reprint. Louisville, Ky.: Favorite Recipes Press, Inc., n.d. May, Robert. The Accomplished Cook. London: Obadiah Blagrave, 1685. Facsimile. London: Prospect Books, 1994. McDougall, Francis Harriet. The Housekeeper's Book. Philadelphia: William Marshall and Company, 1837. Reprint. Somersworth, N.H.: New Hampshire Publishing Company, 1972. Presbyterian Cook Book, Compiled by the Ladies of the First Presbyterian Church. Dayton, Ohio: John H. Thomas & Company, 1875. Reprinted as the Midwestern Home Cookery. Introduction and Suggested Recipes by Louis Szathmáry. New York: Arno Press, 1973. Randolph, Mary. The Virginia House-wife. Facsimile edition with historical notes and commentaries by Karen Hess. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1984.

Ranhofer, Charles. The Epicurean. New York: R. Ranhofer, 1893. Reprint. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1971. Rundell, Maria Eliza. A New System of Domestic Cookery formed upon Principles of Economy. By a

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Lady. London:John Murray, 1816. Facsimile. Edited by Monroe G. McCallister and Helen McCallister. New York: Vantage Press, 1977. Rutledge, Sarah. The Carolina Housewife or House and Home. Facsimile. Edited, with introduction and preliminary checklist of South Carolina cookbooks published before 1935, by Anna Wells Rutledge. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1979. Simmons, Amelia. American Cookery. Reprint. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William R. Erdmans, 1965. [There are many other reprints of this cookbook.] Thornton, Phineas. The Southern Gardener and Receipt Book. Reprint. Birmingham, Ala.: Oxmoor House, 1984. Tyree, Marion Cabell, ed. Housekeeping in Old Virginia. Louisville, Ky.: John P. Morton and Company, 1879. Reprint. Louisville, Ky.: Favorite Recipes Press, Inc., 1965. Ude, Louis Eustache. The French Cook. Philadelphia, 1828. Reprint. New York: Arco Publishing Company, 1978. Warren, Jane. "Sweet Home" Cook Book. Buffalo: J. L. Larkin and Company, 1888. Reprint. Paducah, Ky.: Troll Publishing, n.d. Weaver, William Woys, ed. A Quaker Woman's Cookbook; The Domestic Cookery of Elizabeth Ellicott Lea. Reprint. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982. , ed. Sauerkraut Yankees: Pennsylvania German Food and Foodways. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983. Translation of Gustav Sigismund Peters, Die geschickte Hausfrau. Harrisburg, Penn.: Lutz and Scheffer, circa 1848. Webster, A. L. The Improved Housewife, or Book of Receipts. Reprint. New York: Arno Press, 1973. Wilson, Henry Lumpkin, comp. Tested Recipe Cook Book. Atlanta: Foote & Davis Company, 1895. Reprinted as The Atlanta Exposition Cookbook. Athens: Brown Thrasher Books/ University of Georgia Press, 1984.

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PHOTO SECTION

Today's Heinz Tomato Ketchup bottle (far right), arguably the most famous bottle in the world, is but one of many different Heinz ketchup containers. In this photograph are six other ketchup containers used by Heinz, including a one-gallon porcelain crock (courtesy of the H. J. Heinz Company).

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Beginning in the early 1870s tomato ketchup was extensively advertised. By the 1880s advertisements had become larger. This first-known color advertisement for Curtis Brothers "Blue Label Tomato Ketchup" appeared in the American Grocer on October 12, 1892. Photograph by Lisa Kohane

There were hundreds of different ketchup manufacturers during the early twentieth century. The above photograph includes bottles from four early manufacturers. Crosse & Blackwell (far right) was a British firm that produced mushroom and walnut ketchup. It produced "fancy" tomato ketchup for a short time in the United States during the early twentieth century. Photograph by Lisa Kohane

By the 1920s ketchup advertising had become much more sophisticated. The above advertisement for "Monarch Tomato Catsup" is typical of the advertisements during the 1920s. Photograph by Lisa Kohane

In the upper left is an illustration of the first building used by Henry Heinz and his partner L. C. Noble in 1869 in Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania. Heinz and Noble moved to Pittsburgh in 1872. The illustration below shows how the H. J. Heinz Company appeared shortly after the turn of the twentieth century. Heinz remains on this site today, although some of the buildings have been replaced by more modern facilities (courtesy of the H. J. Heinz Company).

By the turn of the twentieth century, the H. J. Heinz Company was the largest single producer of tomato ketchup in the world. By 1906 Heinz was producing over 5 million bottles of ketchup annually. This photograph, taken before 1906, shows tens of thousands of stored ketchup bottles (courtesy of the H. J. Heinz Company).

During the early twentieth century bottles were filled and capped one bottle at a time. In this photograph empty bottles enter on a conveyor belt. The female worker (middle right) straightens out the bottles and feeds them to the filler. A second female worker (middle center) fills one bottle at a time. When the bottles are filled, the male worker (left) caps the bottles. The female worker (center, foreground) removes the capped bottles and places them on conveyor belt. Most workers at Heinz (and at most other canneries) were female (courtesy of the H. J. Heinz Company).

All ketchup manufacturers were careful in producing ketchup. In this photograph bottles in the Beech-Nut factory located in Rochester, New York, are cleaned and sterilized before use (courtesy of the Canajoharie Library & Art Gallery, Canajoharie, New York).

The Beech-Nut Packing Company began producing ketchup in 1908. The above photograph illustrates the numerous products manufactured by the Beech-Nut company during the 1930s. In 1939 they discontinued making ketchup and concentrated on other product lines such as coffee, baby food, and chewing gum (courtesy of the Canajoharie Library & Art Gallery, Canajoharie, New York).

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INDEX A Abbot, Lawrence, 102 Accum, Frederick, 33, 60, 61 Acton, Eliza, 22, 23 Adams, Catherine F., 140 Adulteration, 59-61, 70, 72 Agway, 121 Alabama, 33 Alberts, Robert C., 87 Allen, Robert, 65, 68 Alsop, Richard, 20, 21 American Cookery, by Amelia Simmons,18 American Food Journal, 94, 104 American Grocer, 34, 38, 90, 95, 97,103, 123 American Medical Association (AMA), 104, 106 Anderson, Abraham, 107-9 Anderson, E. N., 5, 37 Apicius, 7 Apicius, Redivivus, by William Kitchiner, 20, 33, 60 Appert, Nicholas, 33 Archdeacon, William, 26, 62 Arkell, Bartlett, 38-39, 99 Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy, by Hannah Glasse, 15, 17 Aseptic processing of ketchup, 130 Association for the Promotion of Public Health, 98 Association of Manufacturers and Distributors of Food Products, 68, 70, 79, 91, 94, 97 Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 67

Auburn University, 138 Austin, J. T., 89 Austin, Jane, 23 Australia, 44-45, 143 Australian Jam Company, 45 Ayers, B. S., 37, 38 Aylmer Canning Company, 44 B Baltimore, 33, 34, 49, 70 Banana Sauce, 142 Barnard, Harry, 98, 107 Beech-Nut Packing Company, 39, 99, 107, 121 Beeton, Isabella, 26, 27, 140 Belgium, 143, 144; Antwerp, 43; Brussels, 143 Bencoulin, British colony in Indonesia, 13 Benzoate of soda (benzoic acid), 68, 71, 77-79, 84-86, 88-93, 96-98, 100-111 Beresford, James, 90-91 Bermuda, 43 Bevona, Don, 140 Bigelow, W. D., 78, 95 Bingham, James, 108 Bingham, Mrs., 42, Bishop, Harry, 90 Bitting, Arvil and Katherine, 5, 6, 80-83, 89, 103, 108, 109, 127 Blot, Pierre, 61

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Board of Food and Drug Inspection, 88, 91 Book of Household Management, by Isabella Beeton, 26 Borax (boric acid), 63, 64, 93, 97 Boston, 27, 33, 37, 39, 41, 62, 68, 139 Boston Cooking-School Cook Book, by Fannie Farmer, 27 Boston Cooking School Kitchen Textbook, by Mary Lincoln, 27 Boston Globe, 139 Bostwick Consistometer, 139 Bradley, Richard, 13-15, 24 Brannt, William, 48-50 Braun, Adolph, 41 Breed, Robert S., 73 Bridgeton, New Jersey, 37, 38, 42, 122 Briggs, Richard, 17 Browne, Charles Albert, 61 Bryan, Lettice, 24, 26 Bucklin, John, 34 Bureau of Chemistry, USDA, 64, 78, 80, 81, 83, 93, 105, 108 Burns-Alton, Inc., 121 Butterfoss, J. H., 50 Byron, Lord, 23 C Cairo Foods Industries SAE, 143 California, 36, 39-40, 64, 65, 92, 107, 120, 129; Hayward, 40, 128; Sacramento, 120; Santa Rosa, 40. See also San Francisco and Tracy. CalPack, 40

Camden, New Jersey, 36, 37, 91 Campbell, Clyde, 126-27 Campbell, Joseph, 37 Campbell Soup Company, 37, 68, 91, 122. See also Joseph Campbell Preserve Company. Campbell's Book: A Textbook on Canning, Preserving and Pickling, by Clyde Campbell, 127 Canada, 40, 47, 51, 61; Leamington, 44, 130; London, 44; Montreal, 41, 43; Saint John, 44. See also Toronto. Canner (The) 128 Canneries, tomato, 35-36 Canning, Preserving and Pickling, by Marion Harris Neil, 27 Caracas, Venezuela, 143 Cassell's Dictionary of Cookery, 26, 61 Chicago, Illinois, 36, 39-41, 94, 120, 122 Child, Lydia, 21-22 Chile, 122 China, 5, 8, 9, 12, 17, 44, 122 Chutney, 44, 51 Cincinnati, Ohio, 36, 40, 49, 71, 89, 106 Civil War, 25, 34, 36, 45, 50, 51, 59, 67 Claiborne, Craig, 5 Coal tar, 62, 63, 65, 66, 84, 85, 104, 111 Code, P. D., 39 Code of Federal Regulations, 139 Collier's, 69, 87, 96, 102, 126 Collinsville, Illinois, 3-4, 40, 121 Colorado (Denver), 105-7 Columbia Conserve Company, 41, 84, 89, 99, 122

Committee on Standards of Food Purity, 70 Compleat Housewife, by E. Smith, 12, 17 Complete Book of Home Preserving, by Ann Seranne, 140 Complete Family-Piece, 15 ConAgra, 122 Concentrate (tomato paste), 121, 130 Connecticut, 50, 65, 90; Hartford, 33 Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 65, 90 Consumer Reports, 136, 137 Cook, A. N., 72 Cook's Own Book (The), by N. K. M. Lee, 22 Cool, Jesse Ziff 141

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Country Gentleman and Farmer's Monthly Director, by Richard Bradley, 13 Crosse & Blackwell, 44, 47, 48 Curtice, Simeon and Edgar, 38 Curtice Brothers, 38, 68, 91, 92, 98, 101, 108-10, 121, 124 Curtis-Burns, 3 Cutting, Francis, 39-40 Cutting Fruit Packing Company, 40 D Dalgairns, Mrs., 22 Dallas, Eneas, 5 Dampier, William, 9 David, Elizabeth, 4-5 Davidson, Alan, 5 Del Monte, 40, 44, 120-22, 126, 137, 138, 142 Demoisey, Judy, 3 Detroit, Michigan, 36, 42, 60, 68, 91 Detroit News, 135 Dichter, Ernest, 138 Dickens, Charles, 23 Dodson, John, 41 Dodson-Braun Manufacturing Company, 41, 68, 80 Dorrance, Arthur, 37 Dow, Loren, 78, 87, 88, 99, 102, 106, 107 Downes, Muriel, 140 Duckwall, Edward, 64, 78 Dunlap, Frederick, 91 Dunlop, James and Sally, 18 E Elst, 144

Emery, J. Q., 105 Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery, by Theodore Garrett, 27 English Art of Cookery, by Richard Briggs, 17 English Housewifery, by Elizabeth Moxon, 25 Evans, Richard J., 78 Every Woman Her Own Cook, by Marion Harland (Virginia Terhune), 27 Experienced English Housewife, by Elizabeth Raffald, 16, 17 F Fabricant, Florence, 140 Family Magazine, 15 Farley, John, 25 Farmer, Fannie 27 Fermentation, 7, 15, 24, 25, 35, 36, 40, 45, 63-65, 70, 78, 84-86, 89-91, 94, 102 Finch, Ralph, 135 Five Thousand Receipts, by Colin Mackenzie, 21 Florida, 80 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 70, 139 Food Inspection Decisions (FDA), 91, 92, 99, 102 Food Law Bulletin, 79, 94, 95, 104, 105 Forbes, 126 France, 4, 5, 19, 33, 52, 135-37, 142, 144 Freedman, Joe and Honey, 136 G Garcia, Jerry, 139 Gardener's Monthly, 45, 63 Gardiner, Mrs., 17 Garrett, Theodore, 27 Garum (Roman sauce), 7 General Federation of Women, 67 Geoponica, 7

Germany, 33, 48, 50, 64, 77, 88, 124 Gibson, Josephine, 125 Gilman, George, 39 Glasse, Hannah, 15-18, 23, 25 Gold Rush City, California, 39 Gordon, Read, 23, 27, 39, 45, 93, 94, 97 Gordon and Dilworth, 39, 45, 93 Gourmet, 140 Grant, Elizabeth Raper, 16 Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company (A & P), 39

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Great Britain. See United Kingdom Greece, ancient, 7; modern, 144 Gregory, James, 61 Greve, Clifford, 105 Grizzard, Lewis, 132 Grosvenor, E. O., 60, 69, 106, 108 Gulden, Charles, 39, 107 Guste, Roy, 141 H Haiti, 19 Hammondsport Preserving Company, 49 Hapgood, William P., 41, 84, 89, 99, 102 Harland, Marion (Virginia Terhune), 27 Harper's Cook Book Encyclopedia, 27 Harrison, Sarah, 14 Hartford, George, 39 Harvey Sauce, 17 Haxton Foods, 121 Hayward, California, 40, 121, 128 Hazard, Edgar C., 39, 46, 65, 84, 107 Heinz, Henry, 42-44 Heinz, Howard, 84, 87-88, 102, 105, 124 Heinz & Noble, 42 Heinz, H. J., company: advertising, 87, 95-97, 123-27 attacked, 95 early years, 42-44, 47 factory in Fremont, Ohio, 129

factory in Leamington, Canada, 44, 130 factory in Tracy, California, 120 global connections, 143-44 Heinz strikes back, 95-97, 102-5 hybrid tomatoes, 122 other ketchups, 50 and preservatives, 78, 84-88 production of ketchup, 129-30 packaging, 131 and salsa, 143 taste of ketchup, 138-39 tomato ketchup, 43-44, 84-88 walnut ketchup, 49 Hess, Karen, 5, 21 Hier, Wayland, 119 Holland, Michigan, 44 Horry, Harriott Pinckney, 17 Hortvet, Julius, 107 House of Representatives (U.S.), 67, 69 Household Discoveries, by Sidney Morse, 27 Household Economic Association, 69 Housekeeping in Old Virginia, by Marion Cabell Tyree, 26 Howard, B. J., 73 Howard Method, 72-73 Huffman, Dale, 138 Hume, Rosemary, 140 Hungary, 143 Hunt, Joseph and William, 40 Hunt Brothers: ketchup, 120-22, 126, 137, 138, 142; mergers, 107;

origin, 40 Hunt-Wesson, 122 Hunter, Alexander, 19 Hurff, Edgar H., 37, 121, 122 I Illinois, 3, 40, 59, 121, 139, 143; Mt. Vernon, 41; Park Ridge, 143. See also Chicago and Collinsville. India, 12, 15, 122, 144, 145 Indiana, 49, 63, 78, 80-82, 90, 98, 107-9, 119; Fairmont, 41; Marion, 41; Mt. Summit, 121; Tipton, 41. See also Lafayette and Terre Haute. Indiana Board of Health, 109 Indianapolis News, 100 Indonesia, 6, 12, 13 Iowa, 44, 80 Italy, 19, 23 J Japan, 5, 9, 44, 144; Tokyo, 143

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John Sexton Company, 122 Johnson, Edwin C., 79, 91-93, 95, 97, 104 Johnstone, Christina, 22 Jordan, 141 Joseph Campbell Preserve Company, 37, 68. See also Campbell Soup Company. Judge, Edward S., 34 K Kagome, 144 Keene, W. W., 101 Kentucky, 68, 108; Bergin, 41; Louisville, Kentucky, 49, 65 Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, 65 Ketchup (general): adulteration in, 59-73 commercialization of, 33-52 commonalities of, 25-26 origins, 4-9 popularity of, 138-39 reasons for initial success, 23-25 Ketchup (historical): list of tomato ketchups, 199-219 nontomato ketchups, 221-22 Ketchup (homemade): return of, 140 rise and demise of, 12-28 Ketchup (ingredients): anchovies, 4, 12, 15, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26 allspice, 15, 20, 35, 36, 43, 46, 48, 50, 127, 128

apples, 7, 18, 19, 27, 62, 84, 126, 140, 142 apricots, 27, 141 bay leaves, 15, 127 beer, 15, 20 brown sugar, 43, 141 butter, 13, 18, 24, 25 caraway, 128 cardamom, 141 cassia, 127 cayenne, 25, 43, 46, 48, 60, 127, 128, 136 celery seed, 43, 47, 128 cherry, 140 chervil, 141 chili peppers, 18, 25, 42, 127 cinnamon, 43, 46, 47, 49, 50, 127 cloves, 8, 12, 13, 15, 18, 20, 25, 35, 43, 46-50, 127, 128 cockles, 16, 20-21 cranberry, 27, 77, 85, 140-42 cucumber, 26, 48, 49, 140 currants, 26, 27, 49, 140 damsons, 27 elderberries, 22, 27, 140 fennel, 141 fish, 4, 5, 7-9, 12-16, 20-25, 47, 52, 61, 67, 126 garlic, 13, 15, 16, 20, 25, 43, 46, 49, 128, 137, 139 ginger, 8, 12, 15, 18, 25, 43, 48, 128 gooseberry, 49, 50, 140 grapes, 27, 49, 140 horseradish, 12, 15, 16, 25, 43, 48, 50 juniper berries, 141 lemon, 8, 12, 16, 20, 139

liver, 27, 61, 126 lobster, 22 mace, 8, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 25, 43, 46, 48, 127 mango, 13, 141 milk, 8 mum, 15 mushrooms, 14-18, 20-23, 26, 27, 33, 39, 47, 51, 60-62, 70, 140-42 mussels, 16, 21, 22, 26 mustard, 20, 25, 27, 39, 43, 49, 128, 141 olive oil, 46

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Ketchup (ingredients) continued oranges, 8, 13 oysters, 16, 20-22, 27, 39, 49, 52 peachs, 27, 141 pepper, 8, 13, 15, 16, 36, 43, 46-49, 60, 61, 128, 135, 141 pickles, 8, 14, 16, 17, 40, 42, 50, 140 pimento, 60 pineapple vinegar, 37, 126, 141 plum, 27, 140, 141 port wine, 15, 16, 141 pumpkin, 62, 65, 66 raspberries, 27 salt, 4, 6, 7, 9, 13, 15, 18, 24, 28, 33, 43, 45, 47-49, 60, 77, 82, 84, 86, 135, 138, 141, 142 shallots, 12, 15, 18, 20, 25, 46 squash, 26, 62 sugar, 9, 13, 22, 23, 25, 26, 28, 33, 35, 45, 47, 49, 50, 70, 82, 84-87, 91, 111, 122, 127-29, 135, 136, 139-42, 146 vanilla, 141 vinegar, 4, 5, 7, 8, 12, 17, 19-21, 23-25, 28, 35, 39, 40, 43, 45, 47-49, 60, 70, 72, 82-87, 91, 111, 127-29, 136, 154 walnuts, 14, 16-18, 20-24, 26, 33, 39, 42, 47-49, 51, 60, 70, 140, 142 wine, 7, 8, 12, 20, 22, 24, 26, 48 Ketchup (recipes): anchovy, 151 apple, 152 apricot, 153 barberry, 153 blackberry, 153 camp, 153-54 catsup cream dressing, 154

cherry, 154 cockle, 155 cold, 155 compound or cook's, 156 cranberry, 156 creole, 156-57 cucumber, 157-58 currant, 158-59 damson, 159 elderberry, 159-60 English, 160-61 green tomato, 190-91 gooseberry, 161 grape, 162 herring, 163 to keep seven years, 163 to keep twenty years, 164 kidney bean, 164-65 lemon, 165 liver, 165-67 lobster, 167 mum (or old beer), 168 mushroom, 168-75 mussel, 175 for mutton, 163 oyster, 175-77 peach, 177-78 pepper, 178-79 pimento, 179 plum, 179-80 pudding, 180

raspberry, 180-81 rum, 181 sea, 181-82 southern, 182 squash, 182 sugar, 182-83 tomato, 183-90 tomato soy, 191-92 walnut, 192-95 white, 195 whortleberry, 195 wine, 196 Ketchup (tomato): commercialization, 33-52

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Ketchup (tomato) continued green tomato, 190-91 ketchup as a vegetable, 139 origins, 18-19 tomato ketchup, 183-90 soy, 191-92 Ketchup: Methods of Manufacturer, by Arvil Bitting, 83 Kikkoman, 144 Kitchen Cabinet, by William Archdeacon, 26 Kitchiner, William, 6, 20, 21, 33, 60 Korbut, Olga, 135 Korea, 143 Kraft Foods International, 144 Kuwait Foods Company, 143 L Ladd, Edwin F., 66 Ladies' Home Journal, 69, 96, 125 Lafayette, Indiana, 59, 80-82 Lakey, Alice, 67 Lang, Gretchen 137 Lang, Jenifer Harvey, 136 Lee, N. K. M., 22 Leppa, J. J., 101 Leslie, Eliza, 26 Lewis, John, 5 Lewis, Mr., 60 Libby, McNeill & Libby, 40, 120 Liberty, 125 Library of Congress, 108

Lincoln, Mary, 27 Lipe, Ephraim, 38 Literary Digest, 102 Livingston, Alexander, 27 Lockyer, Charles, 12 London, U.K., 17, 25, 43, 60 London Art of Cookery, by John Farley, 25 Long, John H., 92 Loudon, Charles, 41, 49, 63, 77, 78, 80-82, 89, 106, 107, 122 Loudon Packing Company, 41, 49, 122 Louisiana, 19, 67, 71; New Orleans, 33, 49 Love Apple Cookbook, by Don Bevona, 140 Luck, Trust and Ketchup (movie), 135 Lutz and Schramm Company, 42, 99 M Maas Packing Company, 40, 65 Mackenzie, Colin, 21 Macklem, W. Stanley, 110 MacVeagh, Franklin, 40-41 Maine, 26, 36, 90 Malaya (Malaysia), 5 Martindale, Thomas, 97 Maryland, 36, 70, 119. See also Baltimore. Maryland State Food and Drug Commission, 70 Mason, Glenn F., 78, 85, 86 Massachusetts, 17, 62, 81, 107; Marblehead, 61. See also Boston. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 81 May, Robert, 8

McCabe, George, 91 McCafferty, E. D., 124 McCarthy, Paul, 135 McClure's, 69 McIlhenny Company, 143 Mease, James, 19 Medical Times, 100 Merchants' Review, 50 Mexico, 5, 18, 41, 43, 89 Meyer, F. R., 80 Meyers, Herbert, 94 Michell, Mrs., 18 Michigan, 42, 44, 60, 69, 88; Grand Rapids, 44; Mackinac Island, 88. See also Detroit. Microscopic Examination, by Katherine Bitting, 83 Miller, Ebenezer, 39 Minnesota, 36, 68, 71, 78, 84, 107; Saint Paul, 78, 119 Minnesota Food and Dairy Commission, 107

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Missouri, 36, 139; Kansas City, 95. See also Saint Louis. Modern Cookery, in All its Branches, by Eliza Acton, 22 Morse, Sidney, 27 Moxon, Elizabeth, 25 Mueller, Sebastian, 44, 85-89 N National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments, 60, 66, 68, 70, 77, 88 National Canners' Association, 79, 94, 108 National Food Magazine, 99, 100, 103 National Food Manufacturers, 104 National Pantry Survey, 143 Nebraska, 65; Omaha, 41 Neil, Marion Harris, 27 Netherlands, 13, 140, 143-44 New Book of Cookery, by Fannie Farmer, 27 New Brunswick, Canada, 44 New England Farmer, 33 New Hampshire State Board of Health, 90 New Jersey, 19, 42, 44, 46, 50, 65, 91, 107, 121-23; Atlantic City, 123; Red Bank, 34, 37; Riverside, 39; Moorestown, 38; Salem, 44, 81; Swedesboro, 37, 121; Woodstown, 37-38.

See also Shrewsbury. New System of Domestic Cookery, by Maria Eliza Rundell, 20, 22 New York (city), 33, 34, 36, 38, 39, 41, 47, 49, 50, 61, 71, 89, 93, 97, 100, 119, 123 New York (state), 18, 36, 38-39, 73, 79, 99 102, 107, 121; Bergen, 38; Buffalo, 79; Canajoharie, 38; Ithaca, 121; Niagara Falls, 101; Vernon, 38; Yonkers, 39. See also Rochester. New York Agricultural Experiment Station, 73 New York Evening Post, 100 New York Times, 5, 99, 140, 141 New York Tribune, 50 New York Wholesale Grocers, 99 New Zealand, 44 Nixon, Richard, 135 Noble, L. C., 42 North Dakota, 66, 78, 84 North American Phalanx, 34 O Ohio, 40, 41, 72, 123, 129; Bowling Green, 123; Fremont, 129; Hamilton, 41, 72. See also Cincinnati. Oregon, 77 Original Buckeye Cook Book, 27 Outlook, 102

Ovington, John, 9 Owen, Sri, 5 P Paupe Vinegar Works, 40 Pectin, 87, 122 Pennsylvania, 42, 65, 71, 72, 86, 90, 95, 108, 111, 127; Allegheny, 42; Sharpsburg, 42. See also Philadelphia. Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, 72, 127 Perkins, William, 62 Perry, Ogden, 129 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19, 36- 38, 41, 42, 48, 69, 98, 107, 136 Philip Morris, 144 Pickles, 28 Pierce, Paul 99-101, 103, 105, 106 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 42, 44, 47, 84, 99, 120, 127, 143 Portugal, 5, 143 Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar, by William Brannt, 48

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Practical Farmer, 38 Prince, H. B., Co., 39-40 Priscilla, 20, 125 Pritchard, E., 37, 38 Pritchard, E., Company, 68, 122 Pruess, Joanna, 141 Pullman Company, 41, 89 Purdue Agricultural Extension Station, 81 Purdue University, 59, 80, 81 Pure Food and Drugs Bill/Act, 67-69, 73, 86, 99, 108 Pure Food Congress, 1904, 68, 85 Q Quin Sauce, 17 R Raffald, Elizabeth, 16-18, 23 Randolph, Mary, 21, 141 Reagan, Ronald, 139 Reed, Charles, 106 Referee Board, 92, 93, 97-100, 102, 104-6, 108, 109 Remsen, Ira, 92, 98, 102, 106 Retail Grocers' Association, 69 Rhode Island, 71 Riley, Isaac, 6, 20 Ritter, P. J., 42, 68, 121 Roberts, Emma, 22, 26 Robertson, T. B., 34 Rochester, New York, 36, 38, 49, 91, 98 Rome, ancient, 7 Roosevelt, Theodore, 68, 88, 92, 99, 102

Rozin, Elizabeth, 138, 144 Rundell, Maria Eliza 19, 20, 22, 24 S Saccharine, 66 Saint Louis, Missouri, 34, 36, 41, 67, 69, 80, 85, 119, 122 Salicylic acid, 64, 65, 77, 78, 84, 108, 111 Salsas, 18, 142-43 San Francisco, California, 39, 41, 121, 128 Saturday Evening Post, 96, 102, 103, 125 Saturday Evening Review, 87 Scientific American Supplement, 50 Senate (U.S.), 67 Seranne, Ann, 140 Shinkle, Charles, 46-47 Shrewsbury, New Jersey, 39, 46, 65, 66, 83, 84 Simmons, Amelia, 18 Simon, Norton, 121 Sinclair, Upton, 69 Skinner, R. T., 40, 41 Smith, E., 12, 13, 15, 17 Smith, Ernest, 93 Snider, T. A., 40, 41, 89-90, 119, 124 Snider, T. A., Preserve Company, 40, 41, 89-90, 122 Sokolov, Raymond, 140 South Africa, 44 South Carolina, 17 South Dakota, 66, 68, 71, 72, 78, 84, 85 South Dakota Food and Dairy Commission, 85 Southeast Asia, 8, 9, 12-14, 18, 143 Soybeans, 8, 13, 14 Spain, 5, 18, 19;

Madrid, 143 Standard Brands, 122 Steingarten, Jeffery, 137 Stokely Foods, 121 Sturgeon, Lancelot, 4, 6 Supreme Court (U.S.), 109 T Taft, William, 104 Taiwan, 122 Tariff Act of 1897, 51 Taylor, Alonzo, 92 Ten Thousand Recipes, by Colin Mackenzie, 21

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Tennessee, 121 Terre Haute, Indiana, 41, 49, 63, 81, 122 Thailand, 8, 122, 143 Thurber, J. K. and F. B., 38, 47 Tilton, Ralph, 124, 125 Tip Top Ketchup Company, 40, 72 Tomato: origin and introduction of, 18-19; soy, 27. See also Ketchup (tomato). Toronto, Canada, 41, 43, 44 Tracy, California, 50, 120, 129 Trade (The), 12, 27, 34, 48, 49, 70, 101, 145 Trasker, E., 16 Treatise on Adulterations of Food, 60 Tyree, Marion Cabell, 26 U Underwood, William, 33, 48, 107 Unilever, 143 United Kingdom: British ketchup compared with American, 51 early manufacturing of ketchup, 33, 44 early sauces in, 4-6, 8-9 Hayes, 143 introduction of ketchup, 12-26 ketchup today, 143,144 Liverpool, 43 nontomato ketchups, 47, 48, 50 pure food laws, 61-62.

See also London. United States: America's national condiment, 50-52 benzoate war, 77-111 commercialization of ketchup, 23-44 early expansion of ketchup, 19-23 introduction of ketchup, 17-18 quest for pure ketchup, 59-73 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 59, 64, 73, 78, 81, 91, 93, 95, 96, 105, 106, 108, 129, 140 Universal Receipt Book, by Richard Alsop, 6, 20 V Val-Vita, 121 Van Camp, Gilbert C., 41 Van Camp Packing Company, 49, 71, 121 Venezuela, 143, 144 Vermont, 78 Vietnam, 6, 8 Vigo, Francis, 19 Vogue, 137 Vol-Pak, 131 W Wall Street Journal, 28 Washington Post, 141 Watkins, George, 47, 142 Weiner, Melissa Ruffner, 140 Wells & Provost, 39 West Virginia, 49 What to Eat, 99 Whole Foods Market, Inc., 137 Wiley, Harvey, 59, 60, 64, 67-69, 78-80, 88, 91-100, 102, 104-7, 109

Williams Brothers, 42, 68, 69, 91, 92, 98, 106, 108, 109 Wilson, C. Anne, 8 Wilson, James, 91-93, 102, 105, 106 Wisconsin, 41 Wolfe, Thomas, 135 Woman's Home Companion, 96, 103 World War II, 135, 140 Y Yerkes, Jones, 38 You Can't Go Home Again, by Thomas Wolfe, 135 Z Zieley, John D., 38 Zimbabwe, 143

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