AU
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Rud olf E, Rado
hology of of musi ,
ami ot h r lnsses P i rtin m t to m us í
und musi th 'ra p al th e
.d u ation
niv ' rsily of Kansas
fo r ~ !l 'ar s; h ' tau gh : music fo r five ea rs in M ichi ran c le m -ntar a nd secondary s ho o ls. In addition lo thr prior editi on ' of thi text, he is ihe o-autho r of Mra urement and
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C OLOGICAL FOU DAT O S O USICAL BEHAVIO
Enaluation o[Musical Experienccs. A Iormer edi-
By
to r 01" rh e fou rual o/Rescare/¡ in Musíc Education a m i co mr ibutor lo vario us p ro fcssion a l j o urna ls, I r. Rad ' ho ld ' de ur fro rn th ' Ohio , tare .niv ersit , th e niversity of 'lichi!ffiI1, • nrl th Pen ns -lvanla late niversitv, ,
RUDOLF E. RADOCY ¡'roJes.or Emeritu: of 'fu. ic Edutation and 1u ic Thrrall l Tite Uniuer. ily (Jf Kansas Laiorence. f((/IWI.l'
d n o Ir .. u m- Ilu II.S.I'.. Irom the
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BOYLE
¡Irof es ar Emeritus ofMusic Education and Mu ir Therap Tite Uniuet. ily of 1iami Coral Cables, Florida
lilll lli w lu -re IIc' s rvcd as J) .p nrt rn 'n i ( 'IHlillll all n I' M usi Ed il atio n ami Mu sic
as lit ' Sc ho o l o l' Musi ''s l h-uu Io.. :radu ale Stud i -s. Il !t," l'uhl iculiuu in lud /11 ttuctional JlI' «tu I /11 Mu 1 (Ed ito r, M E ,1 !J7I). 11111 IlI l l ' "
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with R, E, Rudoc • Schirmc r I!lH7), l 'rr/lfIl'illg Graduat« I'o/Ier,l' in
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I'REFAC E '1'0 TII E FOURTII EDITIO N
e l [A Il l. L S e '1'1 11 Hvl AS • I' U III.I S11 ER, U D.
:ll;Oi l SOlllll l"il.\ 1 S l n '\'l SI', i ll~l"' l l l , 1IIill oi.\ ¡i:l7!I H Wi!i
'I' hl' 1.0 1110. i, l' ,oh'(ll"11 h}' ('lI l'y r i~hl. No I'.u t uf 1\ [Ilay 1)(' " 'p, od u• •,11 111 ;I1l Y 1II;1l1ll'" willlOul writu-n Ill'lll1¡"¡' JIl I H II1I 11 1l' puhli ..lu-r.
, :luel:\ hy ( '11.\ llI.ES ( , T I H )M.\S • I' lJIU .ISI I EIl . 1:1'1).
Is n N u ,I'IMU7,IK IK (I.;u d) ISII N o :I~ IK U7.IK.". Ii (pa pt' r)
11 .,11 I 11 11M \S 111 11 II\ S IIIIrJuf tlflrnlifm ís givrn Jo alJ dna ils 01manul arturing " ",/,/,UII./I 11" /11, H.h/" II,, ', 11"", lo proml bookJ IhaJ su j(lli5larJory as lo th"r 1"" " " 1/ ,/I",/m.. ,11I.1 mllll" IHll I ,bi/WfJ sml appmpriatr Jor tht ir particular Wt. 1 111 l ~ ' ,\ S Ill l( II\ S /Ir,1f hr IHU lo Ihol( lauis 01 qua"ty that IllSU U a good namr
and gO(Jr/ wi lf.
l'rmud in lht Umtrd Slalt5 01Amtrira MM-R·]
Llbrnry of Co n¡.,'1'c ss Cata togt ng in Publicalion Data Il ,,,I. K'Y, Il lI.lulf E. , I" y.'h. ,Io~ ira l Immd al io lls of Illllsk al lK4¡a vior I by Rudo lf L, Rad(K)' '1II11.J. I ),Ivill Uo yl" "" llh ('el. I'.on. Illd nd.'s b ih li••~n' l'h iGI I u 'f.'ro 'IJ("" mili im l,' x. IS n N O-;I!IK n7.IK-I K (h ,m l) ·· IS HN n-:WK·07:IK!i-1l (phk.) l. M II ~ Í\: ·· l'sy rh" I <1~i nd ;1S1"'ds. l. ll oy.,I,,!. I)¡lvid . 11. T itlt,. fl,t1 ~UUo .IW i :l0l1:! 'nII',11 d r:l l
he fo urth cdltion 0 1' 1"s)'CholoJ!,ical Foundetions oI MuJical Brhooior ap pears a l a tim e 01' stress ami tm mo il in the world . The ca rly twcnty-firsr r cn 1m)' is marked by acts of te rrorism an d wa r, cases 0 1' starv uríon und p esli Il 'IU'(', Bnancta l ch aos , unccrtaín ry regarding cümactic changos. and t'o nrr -ru OV1'r 110W lo can' for an c vcr-ex pun ding po pulation wit h lim itr-d I'i ' SOllI T t' ~ . ~ 1;¡ II Y problems regardin g polines. religt on , econ omics, an d natural IJlu' uumcna d el'y so lu tio n. "1'11<' twenty-Ilrst ccntu ry also is a lime 01' positivo developnu-nts. It ap id iun-ruutiou ul com rmmicatlon en ub les almost instanta n eo us utu- ntion to a llY 1''' 1'1 (11' rhe wo rld. Evolving undcrstanding 0 1' the hu m an g l'nOllle p l'O lII i ~t,,~ 1'01111'01 ;11111 allcvlaüon 01' genetlc mis for tuncs. Discascs am i physical chalIl' llgt.'s tha t once wcrc a lmost a dca th scntenc c UpOIl d iagno sis are becunung auu-nablc lo various pharmacological , su rgicnl, and thcrapcu t¡c in terven tious. As in carlier times (JI' worldwide lurmoi l and o p pcrtuui ty, human s ma)'
T
I ' XII H'SS,
challenge, cn ha nce . and/or negare surroundín g cond itio ns rhrougb
rlu- urga niz atíon u f sound an d silence: music M usica l stylcs ch a ngc ; ruusic's aes thc t¡c cxperh-ure, a
[um tlun s
syrubulízaüon of a nutíonallstic or rell gious id ea l, a persona l jo urm-y tluuugh tiu u-, a sales tocl - ull are ro les wh ich m usic m ay fulfill. '\"l' h an' lcarncd a lot ubout hu man m usical bchuvíor. \\'1' lmv r- sonuu nck-rsumd ing o f how rnus¡c can m ec t di verse hum an need s. M an y iudivid uuls - psych ologi sts, ed ucuto rs, thcru p ist s, m usic theorlsts, ('Om pOSI' I'S, l"'! 11lI11l('rs. uud ot hers -Ji avc contributcd to a vast a rra y o f knowledgr-, Ino s!"l y lllj..\a n i:t,e'c1 in to a p sych o logy of m usi c, 0 1', pcrh aps m o re ucrurau-l y, a I' sy 1 Ill,I('h,)' 111' Illusical bclwvior. T he kn owledgc c mbodicd in th ar IIS)Tl lllh lj..\y (1 1 mu sical ht'!la vior may h elp cn hann' individu als' musica l a bi lilit,s. st' ll.s ilivi l i¡'s. ¡11U1 t'njoy menl. Th llS, iI ( 'o lll p n' h e Il S iv ( ~ I'x am ina lio l1 a m i rec xam in ati oll 01' l he pSYI:ho lo lo\y llf lllll-s ica l he ha vior S('t'Ill,S pa rtic u lad y ap p ro p riale al l!lis lim e , U n d e'r· sllllllling IlHl 'iic cilHn ilio ll, rl'll1'l'Sl'n ta 1io n (JI' 1ll1lSic;ll sl1'll cl ur cs, alHll lH' Ira cIit illila I ,m'as n I'psye hoacollsl i<:s, lllLl Sk h'arni llg , cu ltura l o rg a n izatinn nI' 11l usic.d palll'l'lls. nwasurl' llu'n l ,1Ild pn'dü'lioll u f mu sica l ab ilily . Ihe a ITl'(:livl' !l'SPOIIS(' lo lll11si(", a lllllll llsit'a l p IPfl'I( 'n('l' a ll llwril rt' lll'Wl·d altl' ntioll . ~ 1 1 l(' h I'l' lua in s 111 1>1 ' Il'a l ll'·cl " In lllt hl llllall 1l111.sic¡,l lll'ha vil lr. \ \"h ilt, Ihi t¡ (,d itio n d nr ws o n publisllI'd lilld llllo\S ;ll' p.'¡¡ ti n/ol siTH"!' Ihl' thir cl "d itio ll ( I ! J ~ J7)
"
l ~ydfll/lI¡.:ifll ll·i"lI/dfl l ifj tu
o/Mu.lim /
/l d /l I/! /1I1
('illll'rpn' ls .\ OIlU' o ldl'l" find illgs, il is fur from a ny Oll al "uuth" n -gurd 1" ·(II)lt· en-a te, 1)I" H ' ivI', urgnnize, a nd e mplo y 11111 \ il'al souuds. ¡¡¡¡ !lly, IH ' W I"l'st'a n :h will ap IlC'a r, nndncw q uestio ns will ari.sl'. G tveurh c i I IW
~ lIl pH ra l"r t l' l ~ del. lC,y In publ.icize resc urch results with onl y purtlal undcr1m¡.;:, som c individuals will ma ke premature co nclu sion s rcgurding t·'s mlt 's in pcoplc's llvcs an d how peop le proce ss music . Furthe r ITh am i wn ting will he nccessary lo mlügatc tho se co uclusion s. with ¡III origin al tc xtbooks and revisions thereof constraints of time. 1' , am I l"l 'sU\JRt'S nccc ssarlly límlted thís revis ion's scope an d breadth. !lI Ullulrs havr - cxerctsed the ir professional judgmcn ts. based 0 11 teaching 'M'S nru! cundurtiug research and oth er schola rly ínquiry, regarding conNnt urnlly, sonn - urburary d ccisíou s were neccssary, and the book ( ts lllt' aut bors' sd Hlla rl y b iases . .('('1'111 )'l'a n. have sr-r-n thc ap pearance of vuriou s texts add rcssing spe¡ 1'c1 un-ns with¡n m uste psychology, especíally cogni tíve pcrspccüvcs. ll 'I'"·WIlt.s un incrcusing di verslficari on wi th in the field . The authors . l'll't It'e1 lo r-ontuuu- a "onc-volume" eoverage of a br oad array of top' llidl·tI hy 1111' 111I 1·t' "cruerlon c's": Thc text should be comprehensioe in its ' I . ' W · 0 1 di \'I'lst' ¡Il I ' ¡U rom prising m uste psychology , ccmprehmsible u» (he 1'1 who l ~ l iln ;l ll' iu Ellg lish (ur thc langu uge in to w hi c h the text ls trans1) a m i P II SSl · SSt · S xome- backgr ound in mus¡c and psychology, and contem1)' 111 th iIU luaiou of lnforma ücn gath ere d in reccnt )'ears. ¡,tll ill, wllih' lllt' world is eve n :han ging, and music's uses chan ge with it, fI,nrlll,ol IIHl sk is llllehanging. Th e authors alTer their latest rev iew of ts 111 hll lllall IllllSkal bc havior with profollnd recogn ition of mu sic's
ACKNOW LED G M ENTS anr, indi~ i ~lllal s ~on trib u ted to th e successful co r nplet íon uf th¡s fourth edítion. 1hesc mclude numcrous stude nts ovcr the years in the muho rs' classes at T hc Uníve rsíty of Kan sas, T hc Pen nsylvania State lJ~ i vers i l)'~ and The Unívcrsity of Miami, as wel l as studc nts clsewhe re usíng pnor Englísh, J apanese, and Korean edítíons. T he a uthors are indcbted to professíona l colleagues. especially Dr. Willlam Hípp, Dean of the School of Music al The Universlty of Miamí. Particular asslstance from Dr. Alberl Lelilanc regarding mu sical prefer encc and Dr. \"'anda Lathom-Radocy rcgarding musíc therapy is acknowledged. \\'h ile the autho rs havc relicd on knuwledge an d contacts m ade du ring m any yea rs of th eir unive rsíty ca ree rs, thcy also have gained sorne persp ective as they pursue thcir new careers, occa níc environme ntal obscrv ation (R E R) and nevcian friction al propulsión (J D B). Finall y, the authors are gratcful to their loving wivcs. Dr. Wan da B. Larhom-Radocy, and Dr. Arlene Boyle, for theír continued loving suppo rl und enco uregem ent .
M
I\.E.I\ .
"l
.1- 1>.11.
l lll' i l1 ~ v
R.E.R.
j.D.B.
\' JI
CONT ENTS H/p,r
"' rJiu(' /11 l/U F(Jurtlt tidition
v
(:Iml'la 1.
INTI\OIl U C rJ O N l'u rp osc
_. __. _ _
:1 :'
_
A 1 7
Scope l'n-vi c w
Rcfcr c nces ~.
~ I U S I C,
A I'I1 ENOM E NO N OF I' EOI'LE, SOC I ETY, AN Il CU I:rU I\E
\Vhy MIISic? C ultural An th ro pological Funcüo ns S ocíologi cnl FUIl Cti OIlS . . . . . . • • . . . . I'sychologi cal Functions Anoth er l'erspective _.. _ \\'h;ll Mak es Su m e Sou nds Music? OrigillS (Ir Mnsic Musíc, Unlvcrsals. Soc icty, and Culture
;1.
. . . .• . . • . .
_. . _
H !) 10 • • . . . . • . . 1-1 17 I!)
_
:¿ I
:¿!i ,
, .:t:¿
Suu unary HI'ft' l'I' llf( 'S
:11 :11 .
I'lI NCT IO NAL Al' l' I.ICilT IO NS O F M US IC IN C ONT EM I' O I\A I\ Y I.I I' E
10
S lilll llla l ivt' a m i St'da tivI' M usi c S tuuuluüvc Muslo " St'tla l ivt, M lIsic
I)¡ff('n 'n lia l
H ( ' .~ p o ns (' s
"
11 ·11
·I:¿
,. ,
to Sfimulattvc and Scda üv c
Mus ic . , , J\l ll ~k in C en-moulr-s ., .. ,.,
Couuu ercia l M u slr .. ...• , . , . . , B a t 'k ~ ro lll \( 1 t\1m it' " . , ' ,. ,
·l :¿
, ,
,.j.1 , , , ,.l!l ". A !I
, -,) '",."..",,, ,, , " . "",,, ,, ,, . ,, ..' ';1 . " " ." " " "".,, '
l' "
I>a l l gt ' l.~
In II I'uil ll¡J, , ' I'imlm- I'hl' IHJl IH'l lll .,., .. , . . , Wavefonu 'I'Imbu- 1l1'1'lliollS hip l uflucu ces wit h¡n \VH\lt·form 'l im e Sourcc Rocoguhion M casurcmcnt ofTimbrc
M lI'/.' lk ' s I>t'VI'ln p lI H' lI l • . . ... , . . , ., ." .. " .,., ., .. • 1D Music in Iltt' \ VOI kpl ' lt l ' .. ,., , SI Ml l.~i c in Il w Mur kr-rpl:u-c , ,.,., S~
M uslo in
A dver li.~ i llg
SS
, .. , .. , , .. , . , . ,
.( i:-~
Mus¡c as En tcrt uinmcn r
M w;il" fOl" Ellha ndllg Nanution Tht 'l'a lll'lllk lJSl~ S of Mus¡c M usk- lo l'ucilitatc Nonmusical Lcuming
,
.I¡5 G!) 74
Suuuuury
. .H:~
l{t,li·l'I'll t'e.s
. .85
I'SYCI IO AC O UST ICA L FO UNIlA nO NS l'roductlon nI' M uslcul Souuds Tmusn usslon 01" M uxicu l Sonn ds I{t't'l' p lioll 0 1" Musical SlH llIds
. .!):l
s.
,
1:27
,
1:,10
.1:-10
1:11 1 :~ :2
,
J:t-I
Sum mary
r t·1
Rcfcrc uccs
1:1/;
IU IYT II M IC FOUNDATION S
11:1
Fu n ctio ns ofRhy thm in Music
93 95
96
FIOIII Ai r lo 11IIu'l' Ea ]' ., .. ,
9G 98 99 101 102
1"1mu 11lIH'1 Ear In Hruin
I'ill h 1'lt r'1 10llll'IW Ft C'(llll 'I ICY I'ild l Rchuioo slup Pill h l'lo n 's.s in", ol"Sitlg lt· l'ure ' Iones P¡ltlt I " o n ' s "~ i n ¡.\ ofCombl ncd l'urc To nes Pi!t lt I'l t lC't '.s.s ing ulComplcx 'Iones C Olll lJill atio l1 ' Iinu-s
1O:~
104 109 110 110 112 113 11,1 115 116
l urcrvuls , .. ,.,., .. , Con souuncc-Disson uucc Appan-nt l' Itch Appuren r Sizc
lh-nüng A h so lulc l't tch .,
l'iu-h Mcus urcmcn t I.Olltl lll·SS l'l n-nomcna IIlh'lI sity. Lou dn css Rclaüonshíp Vll llllllt', Dcnsiry, Auuoyan ce, a m i Noisin cs s M easurcmeru 01' Loud ncss
Süruulus Mensures Respon se M ensures T lu~ POWt' r La ,. ,, M usktug
"
,.,",
Loudncss Suuuu.uion ,
. . 117 118 118 lID
,
,
119
,
121
,., ,.".,",.,. , ,
, .. ,
I ~ :·~
1:2 4 1:2 S
1·1 ·1
Rh ythnu c Stru cture in M usíc Movc rneut a nd Rhythm Pcrccpüon and Performan ce , Coguíüve Pc rspcc tiv es on Rhythmic Be havior Early Noncogniti vc Theo r les Hcat/T empo l'crcepüon Mete r l'crccpu on Rhyt hm Grou ps Exprcssiv c Timing D cvelopment 01' Rhythm¡c Behaviors D c vcloprncntal Rescarch Experimen ta l Rcscarch
Tcachln g Practlces for Rhyt hm ic Developmen t Evaluatio n 01' Rhythmic Be ha vío rs Sum mary Refcrcncc s
ti.
1·I.'i , , .. Ifi I 1.'i7 1.'iH , . , , lI iO l/il ¡ 170
, .. 17X
IX1 IX:2 , . . , 18S 18 X WO , . , , .. , . I!I:I 1!I.j
ME LO Il IC AN Il HAltMON IC FO UN DAT ION S
~ ,,;,
Exte nded Dcf l niüons Mclod y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~ Ol ¡
~ () I ¡
.
Structuru l C hu racrerísücs of Mclody l'crccptua l Organlzatiou 0 1' M elod y Harm ony , Srructurn l C haracrcrisüc s 01' H urrnon y l'crceptua l Orguuizaüuu 0 1" llnrmony "lonallty ,, , Sculcs uud Modos ,,.,,,,.,,., l-uncrtons 01' Sc.i1t'S ,. I ' f lllll .lll g ,SY S l l' l l l ~ " ' •• " • . • • • .• .• .-,C
~ ()X
:2 10 ~ I:· 1
~ I:' I
:2 15 :2 1!J , .. :22:2
, ,
~ 2 '¡ 'l
. . •• . •• . •• . . • . ,:,,:, , )
I '.\y(1, lIlo/!. ;mI i'iJII I/II(JI ; /11/\ (llAt/1,\;("(1 I lIr1u/II;(Jr Major a m i Minor M OI lt·s
~: Ul
O tb cr Mudes
~l] J
-I)' p('s (lf Pitch O rgau ¡ au iou l'sychologi cal Proc csscs Hk-rarchi cal l'c rccptua l Struc turcs Empi ricul Studics uf I'c rccp tíon ami Me mory E X I}('dalion .~ ami In form atio n Theory H.( '.~ l·a l"(" h U Il Mu sica l Expectan cy l' üch -Rclated lk-haviors Receptivo Bchavio rs Prod uctíon Beh avío rs I )('v ('lopnll'1I1 of M clodi c and Harm onie Bebavíors
_
,
A 'I'h corcüca l Persp e ctivo
,
Com pos ttlonul Approuchcs o f Selecrcd Composcrs
1{ l' f( ' n ' Il( 't' S
,."
•. •. . •. . . . . . . . . • "
:1 1 ~
:l :t~
Emot io n ...•.. , . , , . , .. , ,
:l:1()
Aesthetic
3 15
~.H ()
O thcr Dcflnitlons
:U:1 ~46
249 :l50
273 274 27G 2HO 2H!. 2 HS _..2 M7 2 M!) 2!H :.W3 2()'! 2 95
29!J
Com posilion Th eory ...... .. . ...... .. ..•....... . . . 3 0 1 Composi tion il S a 'Ieurhing 'J()()I 303 •S11Illltl .a l.Y
: II ~
MTE<: n VE IIEII AVI ' IIIS A N Il M U St C Ex u -nd cd 1)t -finitillll AITt'ct . , , , . , , , . , , . ,
:112 :1 1·1
25 1 25:l R ( ' SI '; lr(' h B¡¡wd Find ing s :lS2 Mus¡c ' Ii.·ad ll' rs· V il'WS . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • • . . • . . . . 257 EV lll11 alill ~ M .·I.u lit·s uud l Iarm onícs 2511 Wha l h " ( ;oud" l\1to Iocly '! 2SH \\'h al I ~ "A. e.·l'l a h l J lurm un y ? .2GO I'.vulu'l l iull 111 M .'\ud it' und Hannonic Behav io rs 260 . . . . . . . .. ........ .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263 , 11111111.11)' , " . ,."." 265 H I 1"1 " 111 ..,
" Composruon
H.
:.!:n
( )1 ber
l ' IU N 111111 ' )NS ') 1" PE RFORM A NC E, 1 ~ 1I ' 1l ' IVI SAT IO N, A N Il C O M PO SIT IO N l 'I'l le't tll,lllC l' , l's ychomotor Bcha vior 1'. '. 101 1l1,1I1 n ' E X I lC' rt i .~1' , 1" ' d Oll ll,llln ' A uxk-ry . .no n In quovrsa l l isto nca l Pc-rsp..ctive l'sycb ologica l l'c rspccuv c J au hu pro visation Evaht;lling l m p ro visa üou lmprovisation a s a 'Ieachi ng Tool
x iii
0 11I (( 11 (.\
• • . . . .. " . , . . . . . . . . .~ )~ .
, , ••• , ••• , • • • • . . . . . .• , •••••• . . . . . . . :'1 07
:IW :l:.:! 1 :1:l:¿ :'1 17 :n 1
l 'sychologí ca l Aestheti es M can ing in M usic
:t JH :1.17
Va riables Contrtbut lng Sum mary Rofercn ces !).
10.
:HH
'!Yllt'S of Affecüv c Response A pproa ches tu Studying Allectíve Respon ses lo Music Physiologica l Mcasures Adjectlve Dc seripto rs I'hilosop hi eaJ lnquiry ,
lo
Mu sica l M ean ing
,
:J!í l :-15:1 :-I!í!i .:J (¡~
M USI C AL PREFEREN C ES W h at Is "G ood " M usie ? Existing M usical Preferences Surveys and C lassica l M usíc Preferen ces Popu lar M usic Sum ma ry uf Exislin g Prc ferences lufl ucn ces en M usica l Prefercnccs Altcring M usical l'referen ces S uu uuary
:{(i:1 :1(jfi :1fifi :1li!) "., .:\70
:17 1
:mi :\7!J
Rcfc rcu ces
:\H(1
M US ICAL ABl Ll TY A N Il LEARN IN G
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E XII'Il
Sch-cted Influcnccs nn Musica l Abi lity A ud ito ry Acuít y ( h-n eücs , Musical H OIl I(' , . " , I'hysica l Fcutu n-s . , , . , C rcuüvity "., .. , , .•. , In ll'lI ig t'n l'C ' " " ,. ,', .• , ( ;I'lId t'!" a m i Hat l ' , • , , , , , •• • • • • •• Sunu ua ry 0 1' In lll "' l\I , . ~ 1111 f\lll'lcln d A h ilil)'
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Behaviora l-Assnd atio n b t Tln-ortcs ,. , " ,:I!J7 Cognuívc-O rgunlzatlon al Th co rícs ..l O(~ Musical Develo pm ent Acro ss Agc-Bascd Stagcs -tul> Musical Abno n n aliücs _.411 Mens urcmcn t und Prc d lctío n of M usical Abílity and ,... .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . ... . .. ...41 ,~ 1,can ll"ng , Sorn e App roaches .-114 Valld lty .4 16 huportunce uf Nonmusical Variables A IS Wluu Sho uld \Ve Mensure ? 4 1H 1'r:H' tiGII Suggestio ns Regardi ng M usíc Educatíon .419 Sunuua ry ..1 22 R I 'fl' lt'l U 'P S . • • . . . . . •. . • • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . 42 4
11.
I IITI JI\ E I\ESI'; i\I\C II DII\ECT IONS . " " " H " I"I I' lI H ' 'i
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PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF MUSICAL BEHAVIOR
Cha p ler 1 INTRODucnON Purposc r I-' lIí.. hook rc vlcws hu m a n m usical bc havior co m p re he nsivel y, fro m u " sy" . (-hu lo¡.:ka l perspectivo. Music has lx-e n a vital co m po neru uf h uman ru l t llH' Si lll T lx-Ion- rcc o rdcd hislory. H uman o rga mza tio n u f so un d 1'0 1 lum Illlrla l am i m-stln-fic pmpo S(\s mi ses m an y Iasc inating, ulthongb o lTils inrlil lly uu.utx wernbh-, qucsüons. Dcscrip üou, prcdicüon, a nd ex planauou of l lll l." ¡ I i¡ l l 'll ll l p ll...ilion , performan ce, and llstc ning bcha vio rs are continuons chu l 1.'11""1' s. 111 n-rt-n t ycars, claim s rcg urding ru usic's pu rp o rtcd t lH' rapt' ll lÍt' , CO III uu-uIal, ¡"H I cdurnüonal bcneflts havc increased, thanks in part \ 0 hasry Illll'l p lt ·talio llS of lncomplctc data. This boo k foc uscs q uestion s and gt'lU' ra l II,t i 'l i ' sl 111 1 dcscr ibin g, predictin g, an d cx p lainíng hu man m usical bch uvíor .lIId ~ l' p ks lo promol e a hea lthy ske p uc lsm regard ing premaluTe co n clusions /l ltout m usic's influcn ccs. Psychol ogi sts, r nusicians, educators. therupists, 1II I'Im'ss Ill'op le. am i anyo ne with a serious in tcrest in music' s p o w!'r m ay IlIu\ it la-ur-fk-inl. 1Jndr-rstunding h uman mu sical be havior is uscful fOT tbe perfo nuing musí r tuu, whr-rlu-r in t111' stud ¡o. un stagc. in the class room, DI' in a rennun-n-ia l "'III IIJ,. \Vh )' do Ill'opll' prcfe r ce rta in so u n ds o v er o thers ? Huw r eh- v um i s 1'1" \ 1'1 ' piuh d iscrimi n ution ? \\'h at psychoa co ustica l p rocesses uud r-rlu11I 1I ,ua l 1'I' I'U'plin n ? \\'h al cogn inve pmcesses tum a strca m 0 1' 1ll'1'('t' ivI'd ~ ll ll il «v ems in t« m usi c ? Are su m e ind ividua ls natur a lly " m usica l" 0 1" "um uu ' lo " I" ! \Vll y i\ a devuuion Irorn stc re otypcd p erforman ce p racücc a "s llOkl' I II 111'aliv l ' KI' Il IIlS" w hen d one by a wcll- knowu co nd uc tor b ut " f a lhu l ' l o lllld l'l .' Lllltl!l 1t' styh-" wh cn d O!l l' hy un um arcur ? Doc s the mast er 1'1' l fOlIIH'r d dkl 111 ,' 1111 11 ' fuudumen tnl way from tlu- srmgghng studcut . 0 1' i,s H j usI :1 11101 111 '1 Ol llHJll' p roll:lin "! Knowh-dge 01' human m usical bcha vior in di vl' LSI ' m.m¡ l .. ~ l a l i l l lls uml situaüons is t ' S.~ I ' lIli¡¡ 1 fur addrcssin g 11 H'.s l ' am i utlu-r 1 1 1 11 1 ll' 1 ' 1l 1 ~ qur-sti on s. 1111 ' ] " ' r SOIl who wislu-s l o scflp rodu rts U I' sr-rvircs 0 1' c n h ance ent crtui n ItlO'lIt I ll'l'd \ to n lll s id ¡" v a ri ll lls II M'S 0 1' lll llSit:, C a n busin ess employ m usir in 111. ,,\, 1111 In ;uk l'lill,l.; slra ll',I.;i¡'s? (,'an il1l l' uh ivl' sboppcrs lit' l'III'olll'ag('( 1 lo hl1J(l'I 1011,10\1 '1 a llll sllt' lld unm- a \ a h u,. uou 01' musica l background ? Is 1111'
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un l lll f\l l d¡ ll ~ ntu r;¡ livI' :' M ll.~ic ' .~ rhcrupcut¡« 1'1I 11t 'líl lllS un- we-Í] docum cnu-d. but tllt'l'llI' Y is uo r a lun-. In w ha t scuings ts mu sk- uscfu l as a hc alín g agcn t? A n' lht,['( , iust an ce s ~ 1 H' r(' mus¡c may h e hanuful" Aru thcrc physiological changos uudcrlyi ng :Ilt' lu-huviora l chan gos noted with musical expericnce? Th e grow th o f th e ~ IlI.Sil' therupy profession owes m uch to cv olvlng understa ndíng of h uman :llll.s ic d bchavío r, an d resea rch ers investigatmg m usical phenumena o we mu-h to mns ¡c th ernp ists' d o cum entation of their expcriences. Con tcmporury cd ucat ors , struggllng to balance conflicüng phil osophi es nul socict al demanda, m ay fi nd utili ty in developing u nderstand ing of and :a lll ilia rity wit h human music al behavior. Does m uste really m o tív ate an d/or it'd ah' slllc! ('n ts? W h y are child re n more re cep ríve to "dífferent" music in th e »u uary g rad es than in Iatcr yenrs? Does m usical ab ility re late to in tcllcctua l )1' mnuual ah ilities'! Again , although this bouk can not pro misc definhíve Ill ~Wt' I'S , l ht~ iuformannn provlded may foc us relevant inquiry.
Il "lSl lllila ling , OI'g'll lizin¡J., 1 I ' l l ll' l l l l ll ' ri ll~, am i l"l'('a llill¡'; Infunuut iou [nr "tlnnk l ll ~ " ) , Illay IH\ ;I covt'!'1 l u-huviur, lnu Illt, oll ly way lo snul y co vl'l'l llt'ha vio r wlrh n-lutivc- o !Jjl'l'tivily is lo stud y irs o vcrt mautfcsuukm s. I h rr!,/lrm is il IIIt In 'ss of sou xíug 11w cuvin umu-nt ; obviousl y, it is esxeu t ia l for mu ch lx-h u V· hu, 1'1'ITt'plioll Illa y h e studi cd only th rough ev ldcncc uf its res ults . Mu sica l l wha vinr lncludcs pcrfounaucc, lisrcning, a n d creat ivo uctivity lnvolvcd in t «mposition and lmprovi sa üou . 'I'hc sr udy of m usical bch avlor ncces sarlly llu h l( k~ u-laú-d cogn iüve and pcrc cptua l p ro cesses. Thnt which pcoplc do wlth nur s¡c is musical bcluunor. So, ton, is th at w h ich m usi c does lo pcoph-. i\.~ (:a slon ( I!i/¡H, p. 7) indicat cs, mus ical bchavior is st udlcd Ih roll gh p sy· Il lllll l¡¡'Y, authropology , and sociology. T be book prima rily reflecta a p syr ho IIlJ.l,in d npprouch : l'sychology ís tbe stu dy 01' h um an beh avior. N( 'V t' r l ]¡l' II ' :-¡_~ , tlll' uuthors have loo kcd beyond th e ge neral bod y o fp sych o log ica l lill'nl llllt ' . SI It itllll¡';Y, uuthropology. philosoph y, music hístory. acousücs, an d h tl.~ i ll t' S ~ 1111' ~ l' l lll a l lt ' ureas Irom which thc a u th ors have druwn m ateria l.
Scope
Prcview
I\'l ll ~ k p syehul ll¡';Y's lra d ilio nal dornains indud e ps ychoacoustics, m eas11' 1111'111 ' Iud Jll't 'd id io ll o r musical a b ility, fun ctional music, cu ltural organill lioll 01 Il1Il sin L! p;llh'rn s, m llsic leaming, and lhe affective resp o n se to ~ 11l ~ ¡I , 1\11l Slt- t"O¡J. llilio n, broa d ly d ellned, h as been a d om in an t d om ain for 11 ' pll ~l Cj ll'Iltl' 1 n l' ;1 ('('lltllry 01' so. Music's catalytic uses in business, educa10 1111 1, a tlt lll ll'r' lfwlllic .sd tings, w h ile dearly with in th e tradilional domain o f Iltll lio lllll lllllSic, arg llahly eom p rise emerging conte m p oralY d ornai ns. T he 11;1)11 1'1 llt 'J.~a lli za l io ll l'ecogn izes lh e trad itio naI and more con temporary i(J ll laÍl I.\ , wilh sp{'dod e m p bases o n psychoacoustics, musical p refere nce, ~ , . lt' ll Íl l ¡'; , alH l lhl' psy('h o logi ca l fo undation s of rh ythm, melody, and harmo,y. T Il(' d l'l pl l'" 011 m llsic as a pheno m enon of peop le, so cie ty, and cu ltu re l'l1 l'rt.S t'IHlh' mpof;lry in leresl in music 's various roles as a catalyst for so cial ,t'lun' im a nd its d iverse soci oc ult ur a l fun ctions. \-Vhile m us ic p sychology Ill l' ~'; I V t ' less alit' ntioll lo p e rfo rm ance and creative acti v ity th an lo listenl ~ ó1 11l 1 a.ssocia tt'd be hav iors, pe rform ance, co m position, and im p ro visatio n IIW lt 'l'l' ivt, .s¡lt'd a l atlelltio ll. ,1/1/ Iim/ llt'lla villl" is hut o ne asp ect o f human b ehavio r. Cons equen tly, m u siid IlI'llav ior IIHl st he sllbj ect lo w h al ever gen etic an d cnviron men lal fa cto rs llhwlll 'l' atl hum an h eh av ior. Th rough oll t, the b o ok exp resses a co n cero fo r '1i;11 Ill'o pl l' do wi lh lllu sica l stirn llli a mI w ha t m llsica l slim uli do lo th em , in nl l11'ól lll S wt' ll as la boralo ry sl'Uing s. IId ulllioT, as IIM'tI lH'rein , m eans Ihe ob se rva b le .u:liv itie s o f liv ing d y n amIllll llall llt' illgS. SlH: h acl iv itiL's are nI' illtl'l"esl d lh t,l' ill Iht'm .sd ves 0 1' as ~ l l' l'II a l t'vi dt'lICl' of .Slllllt' in lt'rna l Slollt'. (;0l!.lIi1 io /l, lllt' i11 1t 'l'tla l p ron's.st!s o f
As w ilh lil e threc p rio r cd iüon s, thc uuthors havc co nsidcrcd thc d yn uru It (11 1 Iht, St'IlSt' o f movi llg a nd eve rch<m g ing) aspect s nf mu sic p el"fo n m u l('t' llllfl lish' lIing as we l1 as impo rt ant in llu en ees 0 1' p ri o r ex periences o n p resl'nt lwltll vinl'.S. No bu m an 1ll1lSi C¡ll aclivily result s solel y fro m willfn l inl t\ra ct ion wllh 11Il I.s ic, C llllm al inll uellces, learning, a n d b iol og ica l co ns trainls a rt \ as 1Itll la l 'IS lll oliva lioll , reward , a mI a ny "in he ren t" p roperti es 01' th e lll llsic al ~ l l l l ll d ll _\. (;aslOll' s (1!J!í7, p. l oS ) stlltelll en t, from nVl'r Iwo sco re ye a rs agu, 1t 'lIluíllS sig-n ilk an t: hl I':lt h IlIlISi ral l'xp l'rielJ(:t' is broll gh t lhe sum uf an inJi vidu al\ ;¡ llillllll'S, 11l'llI'fs, 1'f1 'jlldires, rondil iullillgs ill ll'nm of linll' llnJ p l a n~ in whirh lll' livl'd , 1111'lI t 11 n 's]ltlllSI', ¡¡ Iso, lit" hr ings his own ph ysiologicalll l'l'ds, 1I11 iq lll' lII 'lll"ll 1, '11.11 111 /11111 l'lllitlr rilll)11'gieal SYSll'lllS Wil l] tlll'ir dislilld ivl' i1 11 Iillllll'S. 111' I lI j l l ~ S , in all ofl his, his lola l t'n!ily as a un iqllt' ind ivid ual. 1 I '[¡' lJ lIi' r '2 t'xami tll's d i v e r.~ l' vi('ws 0 1' w hy ¡)('op ll' llave m usic a m i t'l lllsid " 1" 1I 1 1 1 ~ k ' s 1'1l1l t"t io llS ro r ind ivid lla ls, its so d al va lllc s, ami ils illlp Ol'l alH" t' as 01 11l 111l r.d p ht'1I0 11lt' tlOtl. \Vh ile t lit, rUell S is Iargdy 0 11 \ Vesl el"ll IIlllsic, ("('rtai ll 1'I IIlIldl)¡.;il·i1 1 lI'sl'art'h sllggt's ls tha l COlll lllOlli.ditie s 01' l11 usic a l fll1lrl io ll l'x isl 1 I I I O~ :-¡ d ilfl"lt'1I1 Cll lllll"t'S. I 11010 I ~ " di,," 1'l"ot.. n i IIllltni1l1Wl'illl'1I ,,1¡l ti",,' . . . 1"'11 )\'·1\,' ri.· li S" ,,11ll;'M 'uli,1<' h 'n lls 111 n,f,'1 ",,, ., l. , 111"1"" 11 1".111H l i~' i . llIa l " I,r 1IIIII1IHlltr in 11. "llli l"tr . . . 11.' '·I"I" ll1arr. 111th"ir l'liginll l wrili'IK, 110, ' 1" "."111 '"01 11 "1" hllv,' avoid,'d ,' x, III,iv,' 1,.j'·" ·'1I " t" OIl"III'nd"r 1'.'11<'11 tlH'r di,n l"" IIllSl"'dli"d 111011110111,,1 \ "1 hllt1lanil )' illll" II.'ml.
/ ~\ yillll fllJ:1m t I'I1/llIdllf 111111' OJ At ustra t / lt'/ lfl/ll'"
f\.11l dl 1 If Iht , wt il Id'!I lllll , k l'xÍ'lb prim aril y to furtln-r M 11111 ' 111 U 1I1111 , it"'1 1 o r munusk-a l pUrpU'iI', 'illl h in 'il' lIing sonu-r hing , sedañ ng 01 .'i t i ll lll l.l l i ll ~ Pl'(}111" t'nhalll'i ng a slUl'Y throngh film or tclcvísion, or fucili nuíug ami eurichIlj.l; rercm onlcs .u1<1 ritunls. Chupu-r ;,1 d lscusses such "fun cüona l music." It .I so providcs a ba síc d iscussion 01' music as a th cra peut¡c to ol. j l\1IlsÍf: wo u ld nor exist if pcople wcre unable to perceive and p ro cess certaín ''i)'l hoan mstical phcnomcna, su ch as pitch , lcudness, and timbre. AccordtlF,Iy, Clm p ter ,. d iscu sses basic d cscriprions and rel ationsh íp s invol v íng p sy,honcoustlcul pheuornen a and gives considerable at tention lo perceptíon, lldWllt'n l, ami measuremen t, as we ll as physícal and psychophysical even ts. 1 l\.l usk Is a rime-based art form; sorne organization 0 1' the durations 01' lIulIl b a m i silc nres is necessary in aH music. Ch ap terS discusses rh yth m ic k-huvlo rs und wha t is lnvolved in producing a nd respond íng to rhythm s. P ll' alllhOl's b d ieve thut rhythm ic res po nse is learned ; n o person " h as ' Iylh lll" 0 11 an ubsolutc in herent o asi s, 1).. fillilioll 'l und opíníons rcga rding rnclody a nd harmony dlffe r; whc ther IJI'\!' I" Olll'llil '_' ex lst in all musíc is debatable. Neverthcless, they are vital 11 11 , ¡¡h·I.lli llll'l (Ir 1I IIIdl \ \'('slern m usic, and musician s and nonmusicians u se 1<' !O 'lIm h l·I·ly, ll"sl'ardl in w ¡,rn itive psych ology suggcsts that Ihe m en lal 1 ~ 'll d / ll l l l ll l 0 1" 1I11t!'lk d C'pt']ui s, in p ar t, on stru ctu ra l asp ects in vol ving ll' 1" d ~' HlId hal lllo llY. C haplt'f fi considers horizontal an d ve rti ca l p ilch 1f(lll d , ,¡IIOll, 10Ilalil)'. s('a lt's, and value j udgme nts, as we ll as rcl ated pedaIJ}411 ,11 I' SIII" , ( 'ha" I" 1 7 I'"a lllilH's hasic aspt'Cls 01' m usica l perform ance, improvisation, lid 1lIl 1l l'ClSilinll. It ("(Hlsidel's charac lerislics 01' the expert p e rfonner, p ertl ll lllllJIl"l ' all xil'l y, ("l't'ali vl' ami nt"reative aspects o f m akin g o e\.... music, an d ,I' lall',1 Ilh il(I'i1lllh i"al alltl p('dagobrica l isslles. l'1);I p lt' r H is n Jlln'rn ed wilh 111(' "chills up lh e sp in e" effec t and other in d i'a lio lls 0 1' :111 :dTt'(·livt· res ponsc to m usic. Ph ysio logica l changes m ay oc cu r in :x pl'llt' ll('ing Illll.'iic, h ui whal is liH.·ir nalmc ? A re these a ffectiV(' ? \ Vh at js the tll1 ltt'll('1' 0 1' lra illi tlg
III' \T II IIIIIIl'IlI. Iht, a ll l l li l l ~ 11111'1 ' 111I ll' pmcuru l suggt'SlilllU ku 11II ui c- I'tlt lt'a uuu . 111 1I1t' uuditlon u f p rim t't1ilillllS, C haptcr 11 spcculnt cs f('K,mlillg tuturc 1l " H ' lIlt -h di n ,(·tio lls. Tlu- "uI11l 1l 'i waru aguinst a gro wing pro bleru in under. l¡lllllill¡': musi c's roh's in sock-ry: 111(' overzealous husty intcrpn-tuüou 0 1' lim 111 '11 11·" ,:trdt. Tb cy a lso o II(·r su m l' speculation regarding thc e uu-rging 11IJlll llla ure- ( ) f the n e urobiology 0 1' music p ro cessíng . ,\ 11 , h al'ters n -tlect the uuthors' bia s tha t music is a h uman ph enomcnon. Illd lv ld lla b h l'ing' tlu-ir p rio r cxperícnces to rhe performance a nd li.s k n in¡.; . 11 11 11 110 11'1. wlu-n- such cxpcricn ces íute ra ct with all th c dynum ¡c nspcct s 0 1' 11 11111,111 inrr-rcoursc. Much remalns lo be lca m cd regardíng mu sical beh avior . 11 t .uuplexlties m a)' et tinu-s o verwhclm th e stud cn t, tcech cr, und 1" ' .lIt IU'I , luu sce mlngly far-fetchc d a nd d istantly related id eas may Ill'¡.;ill lo "PI" '.1I with surprlsi ng fn-que ncy. In thc lasl unalysls, musica l lx-huvio r ¡..¡ luu 11111 ' Ililll1 ']I_'iillll llf hu m an behavior, albe it a very im p ort un t (1IJ( ' i'tlr 11101 11)' 1" '111'1.. ji IS uomore, un d n o lcss. As Gas ten (J!)(iH. p. :2: 1) suid, "Musir is lIul IIln HI ,1I 1I0l' SUIH'rn ¡¡lur al-il is only m ystcrious." Rcfercncc s I ;n ~ I" II . E. T, (l!J.17). Fat'1ol's wutribuling lo respollSes in lllusic In E, T, (-;¡¡ ~ lo lI (1 ~ I , ), M'llir l/uTaI')' 1957 (pp. :2: :~ -:m) . Lawre nce. KS: Allt'n Press. 1,,"1011 , l.. T.. ( PIliX). Mau alld Illllsic. In E_ T Gaston (Ed .), "'IIJir ;'1 I"rral?' (pp, 7 :.1 '1), N,'w York: ~la f mil1 a u .
¡HU..,I,
Chapter 2
MUSIC, A PHENOMENON OF PEOPLE, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE
S ~'hoJ¡lI~
ha ~l' c~amitH."d m usica l behavior from Olany perspcctíves, Illd udlllg histo rícal, psycho logical, philosophícal, socí ological, and cull~" a l ;1II ~ IJropol {)h'-¡ca l pcrspcctives, as wc ll as the more specíahzed perspec,Il Vl ' 'l
01
1 ' lhll0 Il1 11 ~icn lf)hry, so c io m usico logy , an d so cíology o f rnu síc. '
,Ik cl ' llll ~" suuu- l1l1J skolo.g-i1l ls huvc ex pressed a rc ncwed ínterest in cxplorH¡': 1I1m ll " ~ uu u x uva socia l ami cultural phenom enon (\ Vallin, 1991; " 'allio, 1" 1~" 'I , &: lhowu, 1( 00 ). Such interest ha s stim ulated the development of 1/II /II lI lfffl /flA.')·, ,111 "I I ll' f Rin g Ilcld (Ir study. 1I1111111l'il lllo¡.:y, " "'" m illl'S m usic 's orígm s and its socio cultural applicatíons. 1111 1'" ' 1 I I d ll' ld~ Illt ltldl' t'1!f1I/11imw ry musicelogy, the cxplo ratíon o f m usic's '\ III II' IIIIIHI)' 1'li,l.t i lJ ~ ; //I'lIrom ll ,lim/(Jgy, the study of ne ur al a n d cogni üve 111111' _\' " llllcll'dyill Jo:; 1II11 'iind pruductlon a n d perceptíon; and comparatioe IIII11If1/uA,'t, 1/11' " xalllillal ioll of music's fun críons a nd uses in all h uman cul11 .. •.. (11111 " 11, 1\1"l kl'l, & \\'a llin , :,WOO, p, 5), Th¡s chapter díscusses a spects d .lll·d lo (1lltll'a r,llivl' nnd cvulunona ry mlls ic ol o gy , lI ul¡.; rl'a vl·s lI11 d No rlh ( I !J~ )! )) ma inta in th a l lh e socia l co n le x t in \....h ich llll"k,d /wh.. villl o( nu-s s hu uld bl' an inl e gral par l o f m usic psycholoó>ists' II!I!" Cla ( Ill' s lO.slud)'ing Illllsicallwha vio r, In th e b elief that emphases 0 0 e o gm l " 'l' (hlllt' mloll s. uf IIl1l ska l pl'rce ption a nd prod uetion dUring lh e la tt e r 1';¡ 1I u f lhl' IW('lI lll' lh n 'nl llry 11·«1 lo ne g lec t o f musica l beh a vi o r 's so cia l di llll 'II.-' io IlS, I la rgn 'a ve s am I N ort h (1997) argl lc that a ny aspc ct of m usical 1II' I," IVIIII" un tll 'f s llHly lIl usl c o nsid e r " Ihe so cia l a n d in le rpe rs ona l eonlext in Wllll, h Illll skal .llH'aning is c o ns ll1lcte d " (p . 1). Socia l function s in flllen ci ng f1 IU'iIl'a l Ilt'ha vIOf p urported ly in volve le vel s of Ihe indiv id ual, sma ll a nd !.IIW' ,\ o d a l }.:l"Oll pS, a m I soe ie ty a nd c ult ure a s a w hole (H a rgre a ve s & Nort h J! I! ' ~J . I"
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I"lr 11~uHlt llli.'I . l' I¡¡:l. p. JO] ), S... i"IlIIl,'iml"I!Y\ illlt'n',b ,11111 ("(lI lIt'rtls aH' u him al,'Jy mU,I ; ' uf. ,'i< .. I"]"I!Y ".1mu, ;", ,llI> w' ·" t'r, "1' l1".t " houl mU "j , - b ur ,....i"l y ~ Ill a, il"a, 1I];.' i, & 1),,0''-, ]!llH, 1" ). N,'v" 1tl...l,." . t',u h 1"'ld 01' 11U 1r ,,1t" 1N iusiglol ' iul" S' " i" ly'~ l' tJlI musi'Il IIIO'h"..¡, ,ro
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111 ...11 a l IlI'hólvi ol' S 01 illlli viti ll.t1 .. wnh¡n v nrtous sod ..1 a mi cu luu ul ~ lCI U JlS IlIld \ Uh,l.tl Oll p S, Sd lOl;lI'" rtu u-ut intr-rest in music's ro lt· in lIudl't)' a mi rul. 11111' Illakl',\ ox uu u muion t ll mu sir.. 1 ln-havior Irum Ilw SI' 11I 'I'Sp, 'c tive s an uup.utunt 1'0('\lS rO l' a n y rompn-hcuslve cxumi nurion 01' tlu- psyrhulogt cal 1"lI tll llllillt l'- u f n mslcal lu-h a vior. Neul (:lOOO, p. ,HiX) Hu le s lllill ",,11 su d l' lies havo vocal muste [and] virru,,11\, 1.11 1\.1 VI' ln stnnucnt s of su me sort." Mcmam ( llU¡'I, p, 2 1H) indícntes th at 111t ' _111'1'1' uuuuuu of muste p l'esenl in th c wo rld and its ce n tra l role in ma n y 1111111'111 "I tivi lil 's nurkr- muste a stg niflcun t force in thc shaping ami roufm l 01' IUII. h lnuunn ln-h a vior, \ Vh ile Mcrrlum spcaks 1'1'0 111
Why M u sic? 1\" I .IIl" ·I II'Op t.· e n'a le music , the y p re sllmably c re a te it fo r SOllW p lll JlO!olI·.
1" , 11lI 1\¡t Sf'IVI'S SOlll l' [ unelion with in lhe so c ie ly in whir h it is l'IC 'Ol II't1 , l "'I ItHp" 111111" ¡[{'('ll ról!, 'ly, Ilw m u sic al exjJerience ralhe l' th an Ih e Il m slt- 1'1'1 .\ 1' 1_ IUII I tllllla l. A s I'ortn o y ( llJl¡] , p, 11:1) suggesls, 1TI1Isie's va llll~ lit''- n ot ill t1 w .1111 11 .11 '-11 lit IIII1" bUI in ils (' ITeel on people ,J ThllS, fro m t hi s Pl·l'spt·(·li"I '. 11 11 1 l' lh .lt U (11 110 U Sl~ lo pl'C1ple 01' h as no c frect on pc o pl l' mi ght hl' va ll11' -
Ir _'11 11 '1' 1'1" lllisl' tlr th ,' pr ese nl di se llssion is tha t mil sic is creat('d b y a mI 1'0 1 1" '11111 " , 1\ " (; ,. \l tlll ( 1 ~ J( i H, ¡J, 1.1) sta te s, "IllIlSic is Ihe ess e n(:l' 111' bllm alll H'ss," 1It11 Il llh 111'1 ;UI!oll' p l'ople e r e a le il, h UI bl'Glll sl'lhe y (,H'a le t1H'ir rd a lio ll!oh ip s ItI II ( ;,1 to n ma in( ain s (h al 111(' hUlll a n !>ra in , w hi ch d islillb'1lishl's Iw oplt· , ,1>' '' ,'11 ' ,01 ,1'1 " h~" lu li sl lJ r r" rlIHlh' l ,, 1.. ,..1 lIt '''',ltWli.-s 01' 1...01'1•• wh., I...I"'H· IIMI ~I!Ol .. IM u,n 1, l. 1'",,,11,,,, ,n,N<' ,d' its ' 1" 1' 111 11 ' llIi",hl t li~"", I>' " wilh I'OI'IIl" Y\ ' '' ¡.:;¡.;,'slioll, A" , t1w li" "'h",,ls " 111,,,1111111 "1101 l"" ".¡' ,r ,'"Uin¡.:; mll. i, ~1I, ,, ,, t" " 1 ...,01"'111 1,· ,11 " ildd l>,,,,'d iu l 'h"I'I"l'. H .. nd !l,
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fm lll othe r nnimu ls hy Illilkl lllo: 1'1I'I'Ii"ll' sl' t't'c h a n d a h'lll m l Ihill kill'¡:'. al so i «nubles "s ignifica m non vl'd ml ron un unicauon in IIIt' lonn 111 m us¡c." S lo l)IJd ;1 ( 1!' X5. p, :l/iN) und Dowling ami Harwo od (l 9Nli, pp . :l:Ui- :l:I7) alsc It'('o g lliz(' th at biologi ca l d cvclopnu-n t h as b ccn essent ial to music lx-comlng sud l a vita l pa rt o f socic ty and cu lture , a nd se vc ral essays in rhe reccn t \\'.1I Iil1 . Mcrker, a nd Brown (2000) vo lu me cc ncemi ng cv olu tío uary musit'Ology prevido nddítio nu l sup p o rt fo r this view (c.g., Hrown, 2000; Falk,
2000; Freeman , 2000 ; Me rker, 20( 0). No twithsta ndmg so rne te nuo us a rgu m e n ts th a t b ird so ngs . gibbon so ngs. und whalc su ngs reflect m us ical characteríst ícs (Geissm a n n , 2000; Payn c, 2000; Wh aling, 20( 0 ), most scho la rs agree that m usical be havior is uni que to 1)('0,,11', hui th crc m a y b e Iess co nsen sus regardíng why music exists. \ Vhile ,1.llO.SI philosop lucal ínquiry regardin g the qu esüon e xamin es musie as an art ,/m m wit h ur-sthcüc valué, anthro pologists and ethnomuslcologi sts sugg es t I/lal 1IlII,'¡ I' r-xb ts 11t'(~a ll se !JI' its e nc ul turatio na l functíons [j o hnson, 1985 , p . . 1; NI 'II I. I!IK'i, p , II!)). Mus¡c a lso is re cognized as serving additional fu ne1111\ ~"\ 1 ' 1 1I 1 WIIil' IS
(l-,Io:', Adorno. W7fi; Dowlíng & H a rw o od , 198 6 ; Frith, Iql iX; (: n'gory, W!17; H argreaves & No rth, 19m , 19 99 ; " 1'111 11 , 11 MI'l dOl lll , 1!1(j.j; Nl'It l, 1985 ; Slo b o da . 19 85) p rese n t views · W.. d l ll ~ 11 HI 'Ii. '" hlll lliol1,s, a m I tl1is sl'ction co n sidc rs vi ews from three p e r1,... lh 'I'_: 1 11 111 11 ;1 1 11l111Ilo po lo¡.:;ica l, s(I(: io log ieal, and psyehological. As will .1' "\'1111 '111. 11 11' Im ll tio m il!¡'lItillt' d w ilhin eae h p e rspeeti ve a re n either di s, di' 111 " ,·, 11il11 liv,·.
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" U'VI 'I h , ti 111I111, und virtually a n y co neeivable e mo tiona l feeling. . .. 1\ 111 \ 11 liS oesthetíc rt!ioymm l, w h ieh is examined 1lI0,rc full y 1Il C h a p ll',l X, 1'\/' lllllIlIy in vol ves «onu-m pluüng musir in tcrms 01, its b~~'H1I Y, 1l 1l 'illl 1l 1 ~, '1I ldlo l pmw r lo cvoke a feelingful experícnce. whllc p lu lo so p llt'l's ha:/' 1'lIlld"Il 't1l hl' exa cr na mre o f musíc's acst bcüc fu n clio n th rough out 111 1' 1 1I ~ 1.,1\ ,,1 \\'('!!o h'm cívillzaüo n, ami pcople co ntinually w ill deb ate thc aesl tH'lt~ ' IUIIIIIOII's " 1( ';11" rncuning, a n aesthet ie exp enen ce esscntia ll~' [nvolves SI' I:IIIU lv I u lIII'm p lating ami rcsponding feelingfu lly to su me objcct (Ir cvcn t III \1 11 1;.01 ils 11I'allly, Illeaning , and/or po wer to e vo ke a feelin gflll c xperi elln' . \\'11 1'1111'1 1111' II.'di n¡.;-ruln css or tb e
n ~ ( ' 10 ;1I'sll1 d lC It',d ill,l.lS 1I11d m i l1lu sk may vurenulu, t1 u, IIU ,I¡ Itll"ll h 01' popular und a rt m usn- al'l'.1I 1'1I11)' n-mniu 111l' sun u.•. to da y. ( 'I'lla illiy. musi c lo vn n-n uiu is ;1 m ujer ind ustry in i!!'ot'lf. ami whe n comuu-uíu l vnhu-s [e.g. , pl;ulI.H'd o h:m ll'sn'IKI' so tluu new mu s¡c and re co rdíngs mar bt' sold, thc ca n-tu l "puckagi ng" 01' perf umers. market ing tce shirts an d lunch boxc s wit h Pt'rl~ ll~lllt'rS' l i ~t'n l'sses) ov crr ide arti stíc valu es, o nc lllay quesüon such llllL,m : s potcntta l to serve an ucsthet¡c function. Howevcr, ene ca n not deny Ihal highly commcrcialízed and fina ncially suc cess ful underta klngs suc h as Andrew 1.I() ·d \\"cb be r's musicals J~us Cñrist Superstar, Eoita, Cats, and H e ¡'¡/fU/10m of Ihe Opa o resul ted in ae sth eüc experi enc es for millicns 01' people . ( Ir wen- thcy jusi bc ing e nte rtai ne d ? H argn-av es uud No rth (W 99, p . 74) also recogníz c that the aesthe tic enjoy1111'111 uud on tertuinmcnt functions are interl inked and sugge st that an indivldual's I'I 'SI)( I,I1S.I' lo a g ive n piece 01' m usic d cp ends o n th e interaction among 11" , I-hara('It'l'IsIICS (J I' the penon, the music, and the situation in which it is "l ll 11 llllh' II't1 , Furt her, Ilwy note thar most research regar d íng suc h respo nse h ,l ~ 11Il U'l·t1 011 ('haral"lt' ristics uf the perso n and the mu slc wh ile tend ing to lloil u II l' 1111' h11111 11 l otll( 't ' uf siluatio n cha rac leris tics. T he y arb'Ue tha t red ressing IlI h H ' M ' 1I 11 h i111h"Llll t't' is a n im po rtant task for invcstigators. 1\ 1" 111,1111 ' llAA"s t.' thal llI11sic's functio n as communication perhaps is th e 1" ,1 1 I IIUtl 'I ~ll ",( llll lli'l ¡ll 1l1ajor fun cl ions. Adama nllhat music is no " uni\ l 1~,d J'lll~Il 'IW " " r>. II'niam co nlends that music is sha p<-'d by the cultu re 01' \\ hit 11 II h II 1';1 11. <. " lISS (:2 00 1) no tes that efTorts to develo p a c ross-cultu ra l IIl'I ~ I w l tl\'I' 0 11 1l1llSlt- IpVt'a l Ihal mu sic in vo lves a "m ultip licity 01' referenc e 11lid 111l 'lI ldll,l.l" {p, !l!I}, 1':Vt" 1wilhill a culture, that which m usic co mm un ica lc s 11' llillly i'l illlllll 'I'i'lt', !ts n mlllltlnica tivc meaning partic ularly d epcnds on th e " .\ 11'111 ItI wilit h illdividllals within the cu lture have shared cx pe rie nc es I t'¡":;lld i ll~ 1111' ll111 sin ll i¡(ioms ;lIld whal they co nvey. Eve n the n. it is unlikeIr lha l iU,dividll als. wilh shar~'d ex periences \\i ll derive the sa m e mea ning flll lll .a glVl'1l lll11 sl('u l ex pe nence . As sugg estt'd p reviou sly, an y moo d 01' t'Ill0 tlol l ('o llvt'Yl'd by m usic ,liso dcp c nds o n several va riables ex tern al to 1I111.'1ir itsl'lf: A lisll'llI'r's pe rso !la lity and other attrib utes tha t contribute to his ' JI h ~ 'r ulli(llU".lt'SSas an individ ual, the mood he o r she holds jusi prior to lhe 111 lslnd (·.x pI' rlt':lCt" ~ ny word meanings co nveyed by the m usic (if any ex ist). llld 1111' h.' II'lIe r s attlludes lo war d m usic in ge ne ra l and th e particu lar m usic w alt l '.111 a!Tt'I'1 an l' llIuod o r e mo tio n rcsu lling fro m the m usica l ex perie nce. 111 vlItlla lJy l'very CIllt ur e, nlllsic mal' fun ction as a syrnbolic representation 01' 11hl'l' IldJlgs, id l'a s, ami ue haviors. In sel"ving ¡his fu nction, w ha te ve r music )"I llho lií'-t's ur rl'prl'st' nts mu st be nI' a no nmu sical nat ure . T hcse things. d,'a s, alld bt'haviors ma y inelu de cultural va lue s, o ther group or ind ivid ual 'a l ~lt,s, abslracl id pa ls. or occasions tha l hold pa rti cu lar alTecti\'c m ea ning. A a llO llal ¡¡nllu.'m mal' sym bnli7.e a Ilal ion's va lues a nd Irad iliollS, Pro te st
1I11 1 1~~ oft" " s)'llIho liJ:t, Slll lul
iu I'" litin d move-nu-uts, und st.lioo l ~O tl¡.¡.s a mi, 1I11 '11 U' so llgs (1 1' o lht'l' OIWllliJ:;l liulI'I huvc sym bohc vuhu- 101' . lll t'llI l ~t' rs 01 1 "1I~" OI¡.l;;lniJ:alio lls, Theu u- !'>Illl~!'> for indi vidual pe rfonm-rs, jU,r .ratl l.~J a nd 1o'1" \"I \íOIl pm hrr;ull !'>. and ev r-n [ur prod uct s prometed in ad verüsing J lIIgl~'s ,11 n havt' ;l rc-rtuin sym(¡o lic vahn-, ahhough it is doubrful rhat the sym bolic ll'I'Il "I 'IlI.tliOll in tlu-sc ínsran ccs rcfk-c ts thc profundit y 01' cu ltura l sym bol I ~ II I 1I1il1 Merriam snggests. " 1 11~it" gives rlse lo p!lysical response, and a ll socle ties use musíc intcgrully " llh tt l1l( '1' an d ot hc r rb ythmic activities. l\l usic elíc its. excites, and ch unm-ls 'l lIwtllwha vin r. althoug h th e cu lture shape s the nature a nd ex tc nt 1.11', 1111' lu'lln\'lll l', Ch atllcy (l!J{i.t. P: ( 2) suggcsts th at an im portant part 01' n '!lHI.llll'O 11111 ,11 in prhuiti vc socíctics wa s to d raw thc worshlpcr "o ut 01' him sc-lf 11 1 , 1\ 111 ,' lIim uud , ' , to pu t him in a sta te 01' ecs tasy." Chuillcy ulso SH,L\,I.l, '<¡ I'l 11l.l t 1 l 'li~iolls ritua l that uses m usic solely fo r creating tranqui lily .'tl u l. ('UII lo 'lIlplal ivl' mcdi tat io n is agai nst human nature.' Pe rhaps thc IllUSIC o t t'tlll tI'llll'01ar), C hrislia n rock and gospe l grou ps. whlc h by its v~~ llatu ~'I' I ~'l,l ds lo " tit íl more physical respo nse Ihan trad itio na l ch ur ch m uslc. IS ca pll;¡Il7.l llg lO lI l1l 11 sk ',<¡ basic nmve me nl funclion , Al t"O ld illg lo Mc rr iam, enf orcing COllj iJrmity to social norrns is o ne 01' llI11 sic's II t 'l i " 1 IlllU'lions, particularl y in prim itive cultures . So ngs 0 1' socia l (:u nt.ro l \,1,1 )' all im pnrtant part in ma ny cultures by providin~ ei t.hc r direc~ wa rlll~g t'l "11 illf: lllt'm!x'rs of the society o r by indirectl y indlcatmg w~at. IS consl~ "tI'd pro llt'r behavio r. Protesl songs often ind ica te the ,i mpro~nehes. uf sOC!1'1}' as wt'll ilS Ihe proprieti es. Many so ngs fo r young chlld ren, IIlclud mg !luth llll dilio l\¡¡ ] fo lk so ngs and ce rtain so ngs speci ficaHy dcvise d fo r prcschoo l am i " 'llly ('lt'Illt'Jlta '}' child rcn. se rve to rcinfo rce the vatue s and ideals that pa r"111\, sd mo ls, a nd society wish to instill in you ng child ren . ( 'lo sl'ly rt'latl·d to the preced ing func tion is ~usic's use to valid~/ ,\minl IIl1tltllliOlIJ a"d religiolls rituols. So ngs that e m p haslze the proper antl nll¡ 1l 0 p 1'1 ill sod l'I)' a mi sOllb'"S that lell people what to do and ho w to d o iI SI'I"\'(' Ihi\ 1!lI ll lillll. So ngs (J I' frate rn a l o rganizalions, chllrch yo uth grou ps, alld 111 i1 11 Y " ilU'1 Ol'ga llizalions tha t wish to establish an d prese rve their trad itio llS " lid hll',lb alslI sl' rve Ihis functio ll. I'l'lha ps a ll of lhe fOH'go ing f\lndions re late to M l'rriam's ni nth fUll rt ioll . Ilw flJ1/trilmlioll lo 1/" conlinuit)' fl"d slabilit)' of culture. As Me rriam (W()·I. p .
'.!'.! ,/i) "Iall's : 1111IIISlt: allo ws t'llICllilllla ll'xp re ssiIHI. Kivl' s al'slhl'tic p ll'as url', ellte rla ins. como llllllllt-ah's. elil'ils phy!>ical rcspOllSt', 1'1lforCI'S u llIformil)' lo social norms, ami
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.11 t, vIlr fm t rI!' I'X IJl I '~Slnll 0 1 vnhn-s , ;¡ uu-ans whe re by tht- IlI'a ll u f llll' !,S)' I ~ 1l ~l o8Y o! a r-ultnn- IS l' xl' 0 Nt'd wuhont m allY of th e prcn-cuve 1II('(-!Ia u isllIs .... 1I1( h su rro un d o lh('1 cuhu ral afli vilies.
.M l'lTi;u.1l gOl:S .011 to slIgges l that rnusíc's vel)' ex iste n ce provides a norma l ,mil solid .KIIVlly ' wor Id 1' 5 con un , ,. . .Ihut ussu res a socíc ty's membe that rh elr t1 11l¡'; 11I 1I1L' rig ht dlrectíon. M usic contin ues to serve thi s functio n today S' Iill' WSCh . Am erican ad o Jescen t su bc ulture has had vanious , f' lO~e ' 1 h¡ . . " ro rrns o m uslc WlI 1 W iich lo ldcnüfy, m usic that tecnagers fee l is "th . " . F Ik f 1 " . err mu ste. 'o sOllgs 10m 1 H' old cour urv '' may p ro vid e im m lnra n r an d th ir d 'h , ' 1 . '/ O' '"" crr escen d an ts wn , 1 (11 rur a l link lo th e past. In addítion lo th eír 1" d ' . .' . . h re IglOus a n en ter tai n mcn t 11lI1llIUllS, trndifion a ] C h ristmas and Hannukah so n id ' '1' gs provr e a certam staI l! lIy ; HTO ~ ~ g vn vra üons . PI'lh " aps . musl c's .rnost im . po rtan¡ function from M erriam's • " perspee ti!Ve IS ,us /llII l r /flul /(1f/ l" o JIu mteeration or socias lf no th ing 1 ic d ra ws pe o p 1e b ' 'J 0p e se, m usle ,:,w ,tlll' r: 11 llI V" I~'S, (' lI~:ourages, and in sa me instan ces almost req uires indi\ ¡I I Il IlJ ~ tI),Jlarll('J p'llt' 1Il g ro up activ ity. People who m ighl o lh erwise never 1IIh'1 '1,1 1 wllI work log cl h('r in making music, Farrell's (1 972) stud), of the 11 11'.11I11I'" 0 1 111(' dwra l expc ri(' nce for ad ult a mateur singers a nd Hit ' (./ ' IMO) .s tlld y. 01' hig h sellOlll choca l gnmps both rcvealed tha t so cial i~te~~c~ tlOll W IIS, a lugh/ y lI11'allingflll asp ect o f the cho ra l experi enee. M iIIs's (1988) \ Im ly 01 1111' Illt'allin~ o f Ihe high school band cxperience yi clded sim ilar Ipsu l.h . 111 ShOl'l, III IlSIC ma kin g brings people fro m d ifTering so ciocultural 1l 'lrg.I ~ : lI S.' ll(TlJ Jl:llillll
SlUllJllI¡:iral Hm rtions
Ma l l' l~i;d foc lh is st,ct io /l is d rawll prim a rily li'Olll lh n 't' SOllrc es : Frilh ( J!IN7), " , lCS t1lC . , -Kaplan . (I!J!)()) , a lld Il arg!T('aves am i No n h ( 1'1'/'1) ' " , I.',.-·tl l l (1t'SCrl SIII'lil lu nclIo ns (lf popu la r mu sit:, wh ilt· Il arg l('a v,'s alld No n h (' xamine
IIIll 'lic ' s sud aJ fU IUlioll " in tl.,· 10nll' '''1 uf thetr i rup.ut 0 11 un indi vidll a l's " ",pl yclay lih-, Kaplun , hllll l .1 .~ o d fl l o}\ h l a m i a m usk-iun , wr in-s in 1l'l IllS of 1111' soclu l fum-t ton s 0 1' IJI!' 11I /1. h uI IIU' Iunct lon s Ill' id l'lllifit,.s ser-m partlculud y c1t ·...crlpnvc of m uxic's fum-tion s. Fr uh ( I!JM7, pp. (.lO-IH ) idenufíes fou r fu ne tio ns ofpopular muste : (a) lo 1 I< 'alt' .. IYIU' o f sclf-d c fl ni tton. a purtu-u lur place in soclcty; (1)) lo provid c a w.¡y »f man uging rhc rclnt iouship bct ween OIW ' S pri va te a m i publ¡ c (' 111011011a l livt·s; (e) to shape popu lar Illelllo ry, org ani zc on c's scnse o f tirne , uud lllll'll\ il'y a g tve n cx pe n cncc; a nd (d) lo p r óvido a se nse o f IllUSiGl1 ownrrJ/II/,. Kuplun 's ( I!I!JO) funcuon s ínclud c a rt [read 11I/lJüf as (a) a form o f kn m v [. "d,l4" ; (h) colk-cüvc po ssessio n : (c) personal ex pcrien ce ; (d) therupy ; (1') a UlIll,d un d sy m bo lic force ; (1) an inciden tal cormuodit y; (g) a sy mbolic ind¡ 111101 of rh unge ; a nd (h) a link a mo ng t he pu st, p rese n t, am i sO'lIa d os o f tlu' 1111l1l l ' ,
"11
mi afm" ofknowltdgr is a n uesthcti c knowledge b uscd on tll(' "l'SSplll'p ..1 ru i¡.: ina lily in p ulling togcth er things, o bjccts. íd cals , so unds, for m s, ami ' IM( l' alHl time rel atio nships in ways th at have nol bee n do ne befnr e, h lll HU 1111' plill d ple (11' heaul y" (Kap la n, p . :lO). Such kn owledgc a\so illvo lVl's su!>' l" ll ivity, lhl'esse ncc o f whic h is undefinablc . Th is subj eclivily, Ka planlllai ll' 1,1Ill\, }\iv('s mI its slre ngt h a nd rcaso n fo r being, l lll' ar ls lIlay lit, lht, collective jJosJt'.uion o f a sla le, fra lt' rnal orga nizal ioll , 1'1l1i tit"al g ro llJl, or ol her socia l g ro llp ami m ay be lIScflll in so llle ritua l Ul' lo loll lllll'lUOrale su m e spe eial ('ve nts. \"hcn arts are lIsed in this way, tllt' y " 'IVP ho lh to " id t'n tify lh e persons who wa leh 0 1' lisIe n wilh Ihe in it'nd('d ~ l lI ll p illlen 'sls am i va luc s" (Ka plan, p . :~ ()) and to fulfill so llle pan icular , , " 101 1. polilic¡ll, o r p ropaganda c nd, h ith 1I 0t t'S Ihal yo u ng peo plc, in parti cular, cOllsid cr popular lUusi(' aS ;1 I',, \\p\ sio n aml lha l they a lso f('c l they po sse ss "the so ng ilsd f, tht, parl il'ul'll I" 'il lIlllI'll U't" a m i its pe rfonn er" ( WH7, p, I·n ), Frilh as \....d l as lI a rgTl 'a v l' ~ 111 11 1 NOIlh ( 1!I!I!J) a lso a~;T('(' th at Illusic p lays a n im po rl¡m l mil' in ól d olp \ • "l lh ' idp nlil1t'a lio n a nd d elimilalion of lh l'ir sm:ial b'TOllpS, Adoh'sn 'nl oS mI' '11lf'11 llIll.\i(:" as a me;¡ns fo r illd udiflg othc rs in fo tllt' ir socia l g ro llp.\ ;1111\ ntllldillJ!. slill olht'rs; i.t" , if YOll like our mll sic, yo u an~ o lle 01' 11.' ; if yo ll do IllIt , ) ' 1 111 a n ° IHlt. I lit' .uts ' loS /¡rw wal t'xjJeritnct m ay p Hl v i d (~ a means b y wllidl ¡m ind ivid · 1I .d f a ll It'Il\OVt· himsd f 0 1' hcrsd f fl"llll\ a g ro llp, Ihc rl'h y Wt'ake lling pl'rso n, ,11l<· lIa nt'l' 1111 Ihl' g ro llp (Kaplan, p. :Ul), l\l llSic an d arl.\ fro m o l ht' r ('ra s may U JlII \\' ¡¡ I l'llain t'scapl' frnm 111(' "n'SI'JlI ólnd an opportlluily lo l'xln'rit"l('( ' Iht, 1,,1, 1 vil'a l'io m ly, Ka plan m ain ta in s Iha l arl as p t'rson al t' xp t' ri(' ll('" a lso ma)' l'I, ,\'idl' Ih" "o p po rlllllily f O l" n ·la 1C :llillll, llIl'm ory, fra¡.!;nlt'll tary 01" sll.s la ilwd • 111 (1)'1111 '111. ('o nll' m p la tillll, 111 ól lI)' Iltll!'1 slIllj('('livl' IlHI(u l lll' n('('d " (p. :11). I t.U KIf 'ó1 \'('S a m i No rlh ( 1 ! )~ I ! t) I U ll \utl'l lllmi , \ 10 1" as a 10 01fo r lllanag ing .tll
illd ivid ll.¡j's II HHlcJ l o IIl' 0 11" 0 1 IIII1 Sk 's thn-r- n m¡n ,~ lJd a l JlIIlll lOllS l'o r Ilnind ividua l. T he art s, um l parürukul y muxic-, ;I.~ Ihaoj)y ha ve cv olv r-d nvcr Iht' l' a.'i 1 hall' n 'lllmy iuto n 'cogll iZt'd n'.~ pt'r l a 1J I (' p rofcssío ns. Ka p lan no les 111 .11 in the VC'I)' process 01' si n/;,ril1g o r pl ay ing 'In ínstru men t, "so mething huppon s." T hat whi ch ha ppen s oñ cn is d ilTic u lt to exp la in, b ut Kapla n sugges ls that a hnnd ica plJt'cI Indivlduul's m ere participation in gro up music-makin g ex pc rie nce involves a typc 01' com m u n ica tio n, so m e thing which ofte n is no t possible fo r such individ uals thro ugh norm a l verbal d iscou rs e . Kap lan suggests that in a pcriod 0 1' g rowing anx ie tles in sociery, the medical profession m ay show an illcTt'as in g in1L"rt'st in such sy m bolic com munica ríon as rhe arts o lTer. ' )' 11t' ans' values as moral and symholic flrces m ay artic ul at e concepts that a re "r-xn-ma l lo thc a rts bUI im portan l Lo society: G o d , freedorn. love, b ravery, )'HlIIII, jo)" or SiI(I!WSS" {Kaplan, p . 32). N o ting tha t the arts m ay teach "p rop1'1 "'''pon sc's ur atntude s lowards values a nd instit utions 01' the society" (p . :I;¿) , l\ul' lan admowledges that one can not dí sríngui sh clearly the arts as _n lll. u lil undmora l fcrccs from collatite possession, a n d ci tes m usic's lo ng his1"1 \' IU JI 11I 1II'a~:lnda tool , Howeve r, he goes on lo note a more general scnse in \\'h.. h ,li t is u sym bo lic fmee in all societies: as plaJ. H e m ainta ins that sayUlK \\1 ' " p l,t)""' musie nI' are " p la y ing" an inslrumenl is m ore lh an a figure 01' -1" " '1 11 1'.ll lil'ipa lillll in m usic a lld Ihe other arts p urportedly "transcends !he 11111110"111,11" 111 '1,, 1 (11' !ifl' am i im p a rts m eaning to th e a etion " (p . 33). 1\' ,1 ~Ol iuJo¡.:i sl, Kaplan is illl e resled p a rticu la rly in lh e arts as incitltntal '1IIIIf1/I/(" 'Y· 11" 1I0ll's app lic' llions 0 1' the a m in r a d io a n d lel ev isi()n fo r w h ich " 1"l il i\ il plilll a r}" lIlo live. lIe views musician s a n d o lher anis ls who work in I hl'~I' III I,cl i;¡ .\ im p ly as t'llI p loyees e ngaged fo r a sp ee ific ta sk . Ka p lan's eom Pl l'h"II.\i v,' lIIoch' l rOl" t lH~ arls in socie ly sees th e roles 01' c rea lors a nd d is. Ir ilJlltllls of a r l 01 '\ in lt'r1w in ed :lnd in vo lved d ireetly w ilh th e a rts as a co m IlIIIC IiI)', W llill' th is par licu larly is Ihe case foc m usic in t he various p opu la r a m i t' 1lit'rl.lilllllC'nl id io ll1s, it a lso is eviden l {oc s()me a rt m us ic, In sho rl, IlIllsie is hol h a p rcKe ss und p rodlU:t throug h w h ic h many indi vidu a ls in lod a y's SI/cid }" a rt' ab ll' to rca lize commcrcial gain, Ka p Jan also vit'wS th e arts as indicators and Jorerunners oJsodal change and Ilo l, 's Ih al Ih is flln dio n "is so obviollS th a t it ri sks b eing ignore d " (p, :i,t). t\. 1 1 1.~k "ol h sh a pcs a nd is s ba p c d by socic ty, and stud en ts o f mus ic h isto ry 111 t' l'o¡,(lIizlInl 01' l1l 11 sk as a rcl1e c t io n o I" the life a n d socia l conditions of thc Vól lÍ ll lI .~ hislllrical t'n lS, C o n lc m p o ra ry yo uth m us ic provi d es a nota b le exa m 1,1t' óI ¡,( I'l Hlp's socia l va llles being hn lh r e llcc te d in and prom ulgat ed by t1H' ¡,(1'll ll)'S Illll.'iit: ,
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1'l'Il lU p S Ilw m usl im p orta n l fl.l n ct ioll o f th e a r ls fo r K apta n is their role as óI lill~ {¡rlwrm l/ir jlflJl, /)Te,mlt, (]1/(IJretlflrioJ ({t/ie jillure. COlltnJs tíng Ihe crea livi ly 01' a rlis ls wilh th e (Tea live cJTorls 0 1' Ih e scielllisl, Ka p la n nol es thal
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t1" . 11 llli",., hl 1u, Il'sll 'd or r-vuluan-d I.. lIlljl 'l'l1vl'ly 1 rul, llt'l ,, ' 111'111 "I III'l l it'" lly 11>' thclr l'cIlll'a¡.r,lIt'S .uu i f hc- IHI,bli e. 111' S l l¡.:~t, .~ IS , . 1l 1W: ~ I I, ' 111 ,11 11 I ~ IJIl' "sll1Jjl'Clivl' 1101111 11' 01' tln- urt s. uud 1 l.\ .'~("('lI ll1l1 [;' ~ IV t ' 1 1 ,~tlll. ~ : 'S, .1 1 .1 "\JI' I Y r-ulmn-, t ba l g iV " S il 1111' uniquc stability lo w l ll ~'h lIu I'~ ( lt 1l 1 'IS,~ 1"" \ ,111I 11 liH bis OWII St' IISI' 01. stuhillty illt v lIII hi us o biccti J lC ( IVIC' , ('xl)('l"l . . nH'nl . il WOI_( ltl 'l , " 1 , ti 111 ' lo heur ~H'a l , 11), l it, u mintuin s thut fulu n ' ge llt'ratlo ns \ : 1 (C m 11 I • , . . , l¡ k I li t I _, as lk -cthovcn's N ínth Sym/l/uJ1/Y. whi ch su ve, as :1 _ 11,,· Il"I sI rhrouuh the 1>I"('I.(' n l, ami in lo the futuro. Such a n n1l1'0I 1·1111 ' t, 111" , . ' o . .. I icf [ k wlcdgc um iI IUl tI 11011, Kuplun a rb'lll"s, mukcs m usir a Ja SIC orm o no
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11I111"1' ulnuu l valuc" (p. ;17).
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l surmn nrizc m uste s SO C Ia . unIcuon1s 111 1IIII KIl' ,IVI 'S ,.IIlC 'N0 111 1 (lC) , ,ll)) ' , 1\ d U \I 1111' 1'01 tb c índíoiduol. notm g that they a re m anifeslL'd, "' ,IUet ' 1.1 '\ 11,
1 t . t'ntfTpfTS01W. re al101/I 1 11' 1111'1111\1' "th c m an ag cn u-ru ()r sr'}1"-I detl') 1 .1101 11I I l' uons s UlII1 )1 ' " ' "1, 7" ) , Th ~e sclf-ldvumy and Intcrpersona I re Iati ano ns u ne ., h- ¡ ll • . e lraptcr ' H Wl 11 ad dress muste s III l' 11I ,mlll \ Id.'ul h ,II .Ill tb c forcgoing di, scussion. .n 'Uol jJ,in¡.; mood . 11
" ' t tl",blg;ral Funrtions In ( :..!<.Lo ll's (J!UiH, pp. 7-~! )) dassic essa y on ..man a~ d In lisie ' " h" e ideuti '. , 11. " I" h L fiumlamental coruiderations nI' peop le in rc1atlo~ tc~ Ill USIC.. Sdl,ll~1 . '1 on m ll SIC . ,s contnbu llons , tn1 111 ti" tv tt , • • tOIl,.,' ~ t"Cmsideration s fOCllS pnman)' • , . 11 c()n sl< ('rs 1( ' 1 Iml wl·lI-hei ng ra lhe r Ih a n lo c ulture o.r sOCI~ly. ? ne USlla y , . " I fU I" al'~I lly¡/wloj!,icalf unctions, Th e e ig hl eunsld crallo ns ,"elude (a ) lhe nt H . ' 11 . " . ', (b) Ihe innlle n ce. nI' Ihe c u ltu ra l_' m 1111'111. I'Xp reSSlo n a n d cxpc ncncc ..aln1x _011 .1'
1111' lIIo cll' n I' c xpre ssion, (e) Ihe i1l1c/;,'Tal rc1~tiollsh lp bel'."~e~allli~U.S I(na :::II :~I' :.\ io n (el) mu sic as commlln icatio n, (e) muslC as slruc lu rc( r e K · _sll ip lo llle Le Jl(' e r e m o l'IC)n s, l\ti...) music as a so ure e 01' grallllc.;) IIO II, .. u d 1,'I'lliuu (l.) 1Il1l .~ i("'s potcm:y in a /;,'T o u p, . . ., ', 1 (: 01_,11111 vit'w e d Ih e nud f or aeJt/ulic exjlTesJion an~ ~x~'eTlet/(r as ('S~I 111",1, 1' : 11 .., t1t'vl' lo p m t' lll nI' hll m anncss, a nd conside rs s.el~sl lIv.I ly. lo a l ~lcl< 1.1.11 , I~ I,', I ~ ~I.I F> , Itl I H"UILy to JI.' o nc• (,1' IUlln ,'lIlkind 's m ust (i1stm glllshmg e ,h ll, .H It l IiS 11 !'l. ( ' 1'10'11 '01' 5 so far as to s lIggest th a t ind ivid u a ls who a re. in~e m;]tl VI' lo u 'a l] 1; ' wlH'17ll' r in IllIlSic 01' nol ach ieving th Clr lu ll lull1l 'lll pol t'lI '
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.. l ' 'l \ VI '1' t ' 1 fllllClioll pe !" se , Ih e vie w lhut t be cultural l/llItnx 111 IV, IU, i (11/ 11 t' 110 , , ..•. f l' ' nta l ,to (;
t lnl ,IIU [ eVt' n !llay lit' han d lCupp ed .
gt llt l.1 Y IIWI1 ('1I 1111 re, .I,e " 'I H.'y "( .'1m 1111' 1t11l sir llf II1 (' I!" llw . n CUltll lC .IlH ' 1 .. ," " in Il' rlll s u f liJe w a )' IIlt'il' p all it"lllolr sOCll't y reacls tu 11. It ,H (1 1 ' 1('n l m . VII ' .1' TIH' inlrj!,ml rrlfl liomlllll ({ m,w'r (/li d ,rI'.I.. .: /{III .IS ('VI( 1I a Ily " VI' I")" n i .
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h l'lit'vl's Ihe' lJlillllll Y n-nso n for tlu s is lhal l!'l i/o\iom scrvices un d musicul pr-rformauo -s hu ve- SllllJ(' ('OIl UI1011 pllq)().~('S. 1111' g n 'a lc's t 0 1' whic h is thei r vulcncc Ior drawi ng am i lxmding índivid uals in lo a gl'ClII Jl. Music and n-lígiou go togcthcr lo dcfend nn indi vidua l agai nst fear a nd lo neli ness. Mu s¡c a lso see ms lo be par tículurly app ropriate for helpín g an in d ivid ual couununicute with the sup e m aturul, a co nce m o f many re ligi ous rites. Fllr Gaston . th e importance of musteas communicatíon is in its utility as nonverba l corumu nication, w hic h provídes m usic with its potency and value. G aston m a intain s that p eople would not need musie if they could com m uníc-a n- vcrbally t hal w hic h is casi ly com m unica ted musically. Even the best verh;L! d escnpüous of fechn gs expre ssed by m usie fail to commu nicate the feeliUF;s i1dt'flllatl'ly, l'crh ap s it is becausc m usi c' s m ean ing is wordless th at philosOJlh in¡[ cx pl.uuuion s o f musíc ' s meani ngs, verbose th ough they m ay b e, are Sllll\l' lll mi iu adequu u-. 'l'lliI l 1II/II;r is ,1(rJJ( (um l ((ahty s ho uld be evid ent to any srudc nt of rnus ic 11I1'lllp\', '1'111' fat 1 tlnu music is a time-based auditor), p h en omenon d oes not "l ol~" lt ,Iny ll''ls 'll' llso rily l¡lIl/:,rihle than objccts w hic h p eoplc ton ch. se e, hl ~" , ni _11 11' 11 t :;l'ilo ll lIlai nlain s that music th e refore is a p articularJy va lu111,1.., 11 1l'1l11"·IIII. 1l1l'c1iulIl lllll lllgh w h ich individuals w ho h ave \\ithdrawn ll lltll _' 11 11'1 \' 11l ,1\' 11'l'sla h li\ h COllI¡l("t wi th a str uctured real ity. T h at m tlsic 1'" 1\ 1. 1. _ 11 _t l ll' II1 Il' 1" 1 " Iln IlIrag ing w ithd rawn in di vidll als to in te ra ct with 11111 . 1 I tI..· I' tl 'Il1 h ., lllull'li)'illg Gaslon' s fundamental princ ipies o f mll sic 1111 1011" 1;'1 tOII ' _ .1Il1ll'IIIIOll IlIal IlIllSil' is drrivrdfiom Jhe tender emotiolls is reflect• d 11" '11 h In II1 ml POl'lIl ,ll lIIusi c, a ~ well as in most religious m u sic, fol k _111 1/0\", 011 1 "1I11H", ul1 d l'a lrl nl il' lIlu sir. Musl SUd 1 m llsic re fiects a concern for 111111'1 illl ltvidu ,c1 " a tu l Ih.. PII'lill lllina nl IhenH' is lo ve in one o f its various 1lI,lld ll,\t ,lllom 10 \'1' u f 0111 ' illlol l1l'l'. u f n Jlllllry. o fG od. etc. Such music also lila)' 11l ' lvil1.. .111 illlli villlla 1wil h a f('l'!ing o f bel ongin g, thus p rovid ing a se nse uf I IO\l '11I'ss lo 111111'1".\ alld allt 'v ia ling loncl incss. III •)111 (,l lhun', ¡¡ \ wd l as in ulhers, music ;s litar/ya/waysun ex/Jression 01 good will, tI rrtU/,;IIK 11111 111 IIthn.l, ami is so inli'r prl'lcd. Music, the n, is a powerful expres·
siC/u 01' lhe inlenll'l'elldencl' 01' ma llkind, alld fra m the lullab y lo Ihe funera l dir/o\l', ;tll ('xI'H'ssioll uf 111(' leuder l' mo lions . (G aston. 1!)6l'l. p" 25) Th(' I('('og n itiu ll o f 1Illls ic QJ a soll ra vIgratificativll is pal1icula rly apparen t in dli ldll'l\
1I 11 1' ~ slall'
u f wcl1 l )1'~Il/o\ ". ' . . t i /1 1roll/! sho llld IlI' sl,II' !'vidl'n\. M usir I'ila l 1/" /lIJltlIcy (1 mll,l/ r 11 ~¡((~/r:1 ,11/ '~ J.:("ou r:a' es >a rtiei lalion . Music proIJ 11 !Io u d al l' ht' l\o nWllllll tha l s 'lIul t1~ . 1 g'd " a' ls wh!) othcrwisc mi ght , . . ' 11 ' 1 lu'in g lugl'l lU'I JIU IV \' 111., ,, WlIllp aehvltle s ra 1 G' "","',1",1 eXllcric ll(:e Ill'n vitll's '11 "1 0011('1' 10 Ut> ., ,. 11111 tUl1lt' in con tacr WI 1 IIIH .' '. . t¡ ' te yct ordcrvd and soci ally 1"'o P\¡' wi th opportunitil's tu mt (' r;¡ct 111 III rm a
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11" "11 u1l11' wa ys . . . I ' . contrlbutcc . I lo 11le we-ll-bcíng 01' individu als throu gh. -
111 s1iort, m usu: U .S h (1<)1)C) 7!í-77) m aintai n that nlll 'lK ..111 h h lory. nnd Hargrea vcs a"nd ~~d nl Is , l' . • PPra,1 levels u f cvcryda)' Hfe: (
(d) Ilu' id(/dogicallevcl . reílccting mu ste s ro e m ' \ ' 1, l' his 0 1' her culture . I 1,·.1111 1111' l( e,l s o " d ' , [ el "I,n" [,'0 01 Ih n 'e b roologneal SOCIO 0Slca • a o1I1"' l tivl's (l~ U 1tu ra an rOl .' . Ihe [unctio ns encoll1pa ssed " n alil lcS eXlst amo n g . 01.vÍlllIS Ihal ma ny comlllO r . Abo Ihe va n"o ns [1,ne l,' I)Ils. a rc 110 t d iscrt't l' ;
wlth iu 11lL' three p erspec !Ves. • " 1 [funclioos for mosl Iw o pl e , I . • ' S m ay scrve " vane y o ~I \ I'U I1IUSI("a cxpen cncc d ' \ \' h '!e "ome cu ltu res p articul a rly . 11 It Ire an sOClcty. . 1 " ' . 111 vl1111a y eVl'ry cu 1 1 ,', ' 1 ae stllt' tic fun dioll, aH [ U ll C, . . I • grreater e mp laSIS on al . \\. '\ll'l"n ont'S, m ay p ae.l . . . d ividuuls. suci cty. a nd CUitUll', Il nl l ~ l'lJIIlr ib ute to mUSIC s Importance to 1Il . lIw (hf'r JIt.'Tspu tive . _ " , ' . •d >lTe r un sVo'ers lO " \\~h )' mu sid " in 1I '11ll!lo ' " , , ,,] cu h n n 's sl'v l' ral WII"'''' W hi\t ' llU' pt.·r spt'("llVCS (hscus~c 1 , , '\ " I . Hliv ld ua1s suele Il'S, a l , .• . 0 11l1l lS1I' s l'llllt n )I\llllll S 011 • [ ," _"lll l}l)l'ta n('(' lo hlll lliln lo lll\ , 1 I1 ' t ti • de ve!opmenl o mUSlC s 1 II ,IV I' p UlIlIt·( o ut la 11: \ ('100 \ 1> !l!í) uoll ' ~ . "1111' . 1 1 )hen Ollle oo n . J s ross .. . ' h Illlill' Ihan a SOCIOCU Iura I \ 1 " 1 , \,,"1 1II'ca ll e h as !)ro lll p ll,d a n I" Yc lO ogy ovel le . · ~ .. " , 1'llll'l/o\I' IH'l' o f t'VO111 lO 11ury 'd 1 it is t1n l h uma ll.'l haVl' , 1 f researcht.'rs to co nsl er w 1Y ' . , 11 11 1 1 ' ;l sll1 ~ IHIIl1 ) 1'1' () •. l ' , 'p "" liv P sugg'('sts th ¡¡t 11\IISI(' ~ " ' 1" '11 11s evo utumury p crs '111111" lo 1)(' m uslr.\ . . '" ' '-rall re1atl' t! to b iological (\t'vl'!opnwlll ami hll 11l 11Iillll'l' lo h u mankllld IS IIlh g y l ' I ' " I', nl l ,:nltura lt'vo luli o lll ha l . 1 ' h' " bd wl'(' U lIO oglra , . rt ' 11 a"I,,'e' uf hllTn;lIl bcha vim (1'.)0\" Ih,t! il i ~ Ihl' mll'IT(' alu ms II\>S , \ . S\l(' 1 an Impn al ". IH " (1' C " ~ .. tlO1 · Il (l wli n ~ &. 11·.1 lo III11 S1C Il'('OI1Ung " ' \V. \I· 1 00 0 pp, - .. . 10.,.. . . . , . IIll1WlI, l\k rkl'.I. & , , ;'. ~~{7 ' !\1o lÍllo ~1l()O p p , Ilin- ltiH). Ih'OWIl . l\h 'l'h l', 11.11 wood , 1!IHh , pp . :.!.\ 1- , • • " ' t /,'(1/1 is SOIl1l'w h ;al ill1\higuoll s ' 11' I - ," " ti 'at 1111' lI'nn IIIIH I( (11(1 11 . ,11 11 1 \\ i1 11\ (l IS( 1\ ( lo , • 1 1 l' f '\ h uman ("lIp al"i l)' ami ("\11 101'I'l1ll \l ' iI le!'t'rS IJOlh lo Inolo¡.\1I'a .'vo ll HJlI o •
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Ima l l'vo llllio ll uf Ihal cap,u i l y '~ »urput. Molino CiUllio m Ihal IUlllll a ll'vo lulion ill vol vl~s Il WH ' thnu jU!II Ihe' I)'pt' of bio logica ll'v o lul illll 1I.' !'ro od alt'd with Dnrwinism . ' Ii.(' huo·s (:l()( )()) examination of h uman pred ispos itio ns for processing 1Il1lSIC slIp pn rts tb e no üon of a bí ological basls for severa ! asp ccts of rnu síc pron'ssing. As evidc nce, sbe no tes substantial infan t-adul t similarities in 1I1l 1.~ic perceptlon . Her ex cellc nt review of he r and ot he rs' research indíc ates rlnu both in fant s : lIId ad ults te nd lo focus on relational cues (e.g., p ltch and 1t'1l1!lOral p~Uerll1ng) rath er th an absolute pitches an d d urations whe n pro ("(' SSIllP; a\l{ht~H'y p~t1erns. O n the basis of her findi ngs . Tre h u b pro poses Ihn'I' I.) w.ccssmg universals: "t he p riority of eo ntour o ver ínterval p rocessing; tln- pnomy of tem po ral patterning over specí fic timing eues ; and the rele~lIl1n: nf g.esl.ah !s.icl principles of gro uping" (p . 431). Trehub suggests that the .\ In klll/o; slIllllan lles bctween infaru Iísten ers with m inima l exposure lo m usic alld ,,1111111 hsrcnc rs with extensíve e xposure to m usíc m ak c a co m pelling case 101 lIIill'll'lIl pvrccptuu l biases in relatíon to muste" (p . 4:i6). Sh e goes on lo .UJ.; lll' thal lhl's(' information processing co nstraínts may bave ím plíc ations 1111 11 11 ' ,II'Vl'h lIIIIH'1l1 ofmusica l systems across cu ltur e s and that "one ce nsellll" II' l' ' 11' 11 III sica I ('uliures bUilding o n pereeplua l processing p redisposilion s l lh,11 1')( l'm lllt.' am i train ing o rten lead to progressive im proveme nt in th e \ k l ll~ lha l .11 " .la vo l'l'd by nalure " (p . -l:·Hi). In short, Tr ehub suggests thal 11111\11' ,. r O( I · !'ro s lll~ h' lHh'ncil's and restraints m ay have influenced th e strucIIU ,d u,lllIIl' 0 1'1111' IlHlsics cOllla ined within tb c world 's va rious cultures. . Iu, r'l i ~iuK lil(' { 1 1~cst~o~l " Does man nud music?' Slo bo da (W85. pp. :.t1.IO. :.th H) .1I0 11'S Ihal 1I.1 d lvldu a ls can go \\'i lhoul m usic fo r very lon g per iods o , tlllll' WlI lI o ll t s!low lllg an y nOliceab lc ilI e fTec ts. H e suggests that cultures ~'H l h l' l' l.han illd ivid ua ls !leed m usic and th at th e "need" mig ht be m ore d ircct 11I Jlo uhtl'wle cuh urcs Iha n in today' s comp lex co ntem po rary so cietics. In his words (p. ::!()7), I'rimilivt, cultun's have fe\\' artifacts, and thl' organizatiou of the sociel)" must 1,,· t' xpn's~l'd lo a grealer exlenl Iheough transie nt an ions and Ihe way people lIlh'rOln \\'llh cadl other..\ Iusie, perhaps, provides a unique framework with whll h hUlllans ~¡III t'xpress, by Ihe lemporal organization of sound and geslure. r1 w .~ l l,lI l"1 l1 l'l' 01 lhcir knowledge and social relalions. Sollgs and rhythm ically ~ I r~ ;¡ ll lt': l ' d pm'ms and sayings fonn Ihe major repositor), of human knowlcdge 111 II l1l1 Jilt-rale n dlllre s. :-i lo llClda ~Ilggt'sls Ihat h um an ment al pro cesscs, w hich he views as a pro d ucI 111 ,'vH.lllllo n, hav(' I{od lo a natu ral pro pl'nsity In bc have in ada pl ivl' way s.
IIIdll lflllg a p ropl'llsity lo lISl' lan b'11age a lld mu sic. lit, ma inla ills Iha t l'volulion sllpplied a molivalion fOl" 11m sic, making it " nOl lura l" am i l'njoY'lble for Ilt'Oplt' to inliulKl' in il.
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Advocut tng a simil.u Illl!'ro il Ion. I )l lwl ill~ ami l lurwo. Id ( I~ IHII, 1111. :¿:Ui-::!:17) SIIAAl'sl thut W{' sho ultl l llll\ ic ll'l l'velllllillll in tcrms Ilr 1111' ~rtlf IlIml (JI""m1/¡,\ rutber tha n in term s lit' ItIl/lIJúhwl "' /"Plllti01lJ. Thcy agn'l' that n ue,ic is vuluuble lo h uman b'Tunps und 11011' that as h uma ns c volved ovr-r hundreds uf Iho llsa nc\s u f p 'a rs in small gruu ps, singing and pla ying mu sic scrvcd as a "n llU's io n-facilila ling gn m p uctlvity- un exp resslon uf soci al solidariry" (p . :¿:lIi). They rew gnize IlIU Sir ns n po wcrfu l sym bol of cultura l idcn üty, espe -. da ny .~ i'K C mu sical srylc tends, likc languagc, to n-Iluct a h igbl y stable sct 01 euluuully tra nsmitted sh urcd b ehav lors. Th ey ma inl ain th nt mu slc's v al uc lo hu man soci cties retlccts m usic's bíological adapave ualne: Furth crmore, thc y nunntain that evc n with cha nges in social stru ctures and other developm ents Ihal have co me with ind ustrialized societies. including so rne di visión of labor la-t ween " m usícla n s" and "co nsum c rs," m usíc' s sociocultura l va lúes and the undcrl ying distribution of mu sical abi lities are essenü ally the same as in llllll'l' pn nutive socíeties. Hnully, Bro wn ('2000. pp. 'l9{)-'2!)7). as an outgrowth o f his "m usilan¡,l,llage" modcl of mu slc's origi ns, discusscd latcr in this chap ter, observes th at "1I111sic ma king has aU th e hallma rks of a group ada platio n au d functions as 11 dt 'vi ("(~ for prom o ling g rou p ide ntily, coo rd inalio n, action. cOhrnitio n. and "lIloliona l ex pression.... Music making is done fo r the gro u p. and the co n· ll'xls of musical perfo rm ance. the co nlexts of m usical works, a nd the pertnrlllance e nsem bles of m usical ge nres overwhel mi ngly rell cct a role in )/,IOllp funct ion." T IIl' a nswer lo "" ny m usic?" co ntinues to be in le rm s of Ihe m any im po r· lun! flllll"lio ns lhal music serves in society a nd cultur e. Perhaps incr eased 1I 11t!n stand ing of Ihe role 0 1" biologica l cvo lutio ll, ind ud ing information-pro 1" ~ ,~ i ll g Icn dencies and co nstraints, in the deve!op ment o f human adaptivc IU'!l,lviors will provide al least a parlia l a nsWl~ r as lo "how" music b ecame so lI11po l'l;1Il1 to h uman soc iel}' an d cultur e.
Wh at Mak es Sorn e Sounds Mu sic? S llld il's of Ihe d cvdopmenl of musica l behavior suggesl Ihal d ifTerential 11'\1'"Il SI' to Illusica l suund an d ot he r sound beco lllc s ev idl'1l1 d ur illg in fancy (I lo wling, WH·l ; Moog, 1!)7(); Tre hub, UJ9:1. '20(0). Virlua ll)' ('ver)' child a mi Ud llll "kllo ws" what m usic is-al !l'ast Ihe 1ll ll Sic 0 1' his n I" lH'r sUHullnd ing clIl· 1111 1'. T h( ~ 1'IJ(:ult lll'atioll process aSS lIrt ' S Ihal ca d y in life. ch ild l'ell d eve!op II l O UI "pl 0 1' Illllsic, albe il vag lll', ill ddll ll'd , a mI largel y 1II1VI', hal ized . T hal lw il\'id uals ' t'llllccpls ren {'el ('lIltllra l h ia s is re¡uli ly a pparenl, althoug h mosl ilu ll\'iduals will fel'ogni zl' allull...1 ( 1111 11 11' \ nmsic as mlHir, e\'e n thollg h it 111.1)' "lllIH l • slra ng('.• \" hale'vt'!' 111(' 1"1 11111Jl', Illll\l l 1II \' II I \' t ' ~ a ll urga nizal iu n uf sUlluds ami
• ~ i l l' l H' l ·s . t'lH~tl Ill P;¡ s:li i ll lo4 vmi , "l'\
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Uf roursc, al! souu ds uro tempo ral, und all sounds have a ccrtai n loudness lev e l un d sou nd quality or timbre. O nc ca n a rgue th at aH sou nd s, e ve n o b v iOl IS uoises. have a ccrtain rela üve pítch level. even when the pitch is rather indcfinite and/or continually changmg. Wh ile one cannot match pitch vocal1)' with dlt' so uu d 0 1' a foo d bl ender o r a tru ck rumbli ng by 0 11 a hi gh way , th e
Irur-k usually souu ds lower in pitch th an the b iende r. De spíte the traditional rk-linit iun 01' music as organ ized so u nd an d silence, o ne m ay h ear di scernible ur~;lIl i 1.;¡ l i() n
in so und s ge nerally co nsidered nonmusica l, e .g., speech, certain mnchím-ry soun ds. and m any n atu ral sounds, esp ecia lly if th ey h ave a repe titi vr- quuliry, So rne co n le rnp o ra ry music- musique concrele--in co rp o ra tes ~O ll l ll ls nf u.uure un d othcr cnvironm cnral sounds in to a recognlzed m us ica l sly le', So, wh y un ' p,'up lt, more Iikely lo o rga nize so rne so u n ds io lo an d h ear IlwllIlI ' IlImit, Ihan otiH'rs? R1acking (Wi 3, p . 10) argues that rnmie co u ld n o l ,,'m l il l'l 'oplt, had nol devcloped a capacity for stm ctu ral lislen ing, i.e ., the ¡lb ilily In 1u'l n 'ivt, .\fIuic order. H e goes nn to argu e th at u nderstanding rnu sic I t l\' o l"' l ' ~ !10th so ulId (Ihe obj t'el ) a nd p ersa n (the subj ec I); fo r Blaek ing , the l..,\ lo ulId ..lsta llll ing m llsic is in su bjcct-o rde r re lationships, lh e aeli va ting p ll lll 11'1,' 01ol jota ni1.alioll (p. 2 fi), " 11I 1Il (:.lOOO, p , :.l7) no les Ihal a ll human music in vo lves so rne so rl o f for1Il,d p lll! I'\ S am I h as an in d ivid ual tim e fram e , Most human musie is mcasIIwd , I.t'" il Ls sllhj\'d to a ll " isot:hrono us tem pora l pulse" o r u nderl yin g b e at Ihal a llo ws I'OCIl"dinalt'd b'TOUp activilics. Ind eed , wHh o u l th e u n derl y ing puht" whit' h " wm (ollsie!ers a "q uasi-un iversal," dance an d other group lU usi(' an i\'i1 il"S wUlIld be virtua lly impo ssib le . M e rk e r (20 ()(), p p _ 3 15-320) llIainlai ns lhal an Iln dt' rJying regula rly sp ac ed beat or p u lse is a p rimary 1l l'jotan izill¡J; dl'vin ' ro r nHlsl m usics. H e n otes lhat m o sl lem p o ch ange s cither an ' vt'r Yg rad ua l or eonrorm lo wh o le in lcger ra lio s o f a givc n temp o . H e also n 't'ogn izt,s Ihal lhe even pace is sllbjecl lo rn anipulation for e xp ressivc purI' " \t ' ~ . hut Ihe exp ress ive ncss is in rel at ion to lhe u n d e rlying b ea t. 5 { 'c '.-ta illly, \'a ~ 1 d iffef('nces ex isl in hu m an m usica l cu ltu res , b ut lhe b asic 111 11 11 ,111 ab ilily lo llrganize sOllnd s amI silen ces into m usic m ay b e b ased in II U III ;1I1 ilio logy. C a rle n ' lIc and Kcnd a ll (1999) d isCllSS cross-cu ltural o rgan izalio lla l p rincip ies, roo lt"Ci in hu ma n perct'p lion and cognitio n, that enablc peop lc' lo m akt, musica l pattem s fm m a ud itory stinlll li, In Ihcir n ecd to o rga n ize ;lllll nl;lkt, ~l' ns{' or con lin llolls input s ur so u nd , p eoplt, Illusl b'-ro llp a nd re d uce
l c mitivr- l"Illal"ilit'" ( h it' 1I1U'li sCllllUls tu ñr into b lll ll ll ll 1ll'l ll'l' tIl;\1 unr tOlo; ''!"."?". ·1. . IiIY ti " -,, ,','oc tave wher e 101ll'S 01 Ol smn ar ljll,l 1 , 11)1¡t · o r !lI 1t"1\ n ·(1II I tl • • , ::: ; i:~lllna sha n- il t'c'I I.IIU nlllllllOlHllity am i thcreb y fa(' i li lal~' I Il.tl.l~t:l.I ~~~ ~l tIll lling . 1\n ntlu-r cx amplc is Ilit" le(\m:lioll of fre<¡llelley ,nl llgt'S 1ll1~ 1. t1~ sL~ et cl " 1, . '1 ' IlIS l'eoplc n-d uce und o rgan izl' souuds 1Il lo P;llh rus. am "l ,1 c sys t d- K 1_11 (1) i XI) bclicvc tha t two basic pn nciplcs t'lIa b le pa l( '¡lll l'I't'lkan ('nta . 1 d -IT , . , " . , . di '1 P le observe a m i cmp o y rucrcn ccs. 1"11l t"rl'ation : omtrast :.1Il1 peno lCt y, , t,()P . I - 1·. . h díffcrences -s in Visual and aura snm u l. suc 1 I l.ound a nes, 1tr mts, anc e la~g( . , . , d n -d un dancies in , 1, -on uast l'eopl c n ouce und produce rccurrcncc an : :: ::~'.:I:l ; spacc·; ;h csc cSlab lish p cri odieity..JUSI wh a,t va ri ables ,pc:Jp1 ~ CC ~I,l tr..st
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'llItl how thcy m ukc tb crn periodic d istinguis~ ~a~ltCl.l lar n~I~~C;:a~\lc::~I' llrS 'ft';¡ C art cr c ue ami Ken d all sugges t tha t m ussca u.m ve r~ s, b¡ I
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i ll ~ slillld ard o r t he particu lar frequel\Cles eomp n sm g a sc.de. t H Y \loh I
' KII): _ _ () d .structu red musical idea , {b) e1t' mt'lllary SlIIllC I)OSSlbll>ullIversals are a a eep , c - ., -1 (di ,I,t, divi. , . () h . of a slablc relt' f('nce 1'1 e 1, he use of ¡mlst:s, 11;1', i.l\di' ~-;ltiOI\ of rhylhmic pallcrns by an aSYllun etrical sllbd lVISIOIl ur 111m IlIl SI S.
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_1 r rthe , p u ssible acultural musical com monalities. H..iclllu;lIl ' ( .o nsll c n ng u . di ' I f .. ' 000 )) 3(l:i-:~()5) sllggesl'> tbal music, in aH its va ne e ll .I~lra c.lnns: I,S (~ . 1 1' , di · . I r relJetilion (o r rl'pl't lllllll wllh V.1I 1 l lllilt am i o rga mzed aroun t le pnne~p e o ' . . . '" ' lv in ' hUln ;1 1l Illun ) Conc eiving n\ll sie as an o ngomg . d yn am lc plOt ~ SS I,U VO . ¡.l,¡ r _\1 1 ' lh ce redundancy r/eVlu5 I lal jotl"l'al y .11 " . 11oI11it:il)alio n , R'chr m adn rcc~b:lIZtC S ,-'n music m usic' s SIf\ ll'lllf a\ rr/¡"i /f¡m , lh l' " ' n itio n o a n partlClpa Io n . . , ~;II t hr~;~,I;1 o f ! ormuloiom .t, an d the h igh se n sc of rxpec/allCJ ¡t.s ~t'III'I.I It\'I 'I Il " ~ t ~H'ratt's. Fo rm ulaicne ss refe rs to th e "store h ous,c o r pH't~X I, S~ III~ lc,II I:IIl\'IS, H . "_ _ d 1 yt hm s lh at pcol>1c bnn g In nHlslt 1I1 ,lklll¡.l, (a llll IIlls IIH'mt's, m ol l s, a n r \ ' 1 k _ , d ' h)" ( '-\04) For Ri chman, lh at wh ll' 1 1II;1 t'S .'1111ll vnl}' am i p lay aroll n wl1 1" 1' : 1 lh ' sou n ds' slm clllf t" il illvul vt,S "l ll1 l1l ls m usie involves m o re t lan JUs t . • _,1 ., r - - - ' '' "- h th o se so un ds Ih e d l'velo pmcnt n i a SIUl t UHI\t ti \l·pt ';IIt't 1 CXp t'f1 t'net's • ' l' I ' ,1I .. '·" " n,ls • a ne! musical cxp cc talio lls rcgan IIIS W lal I1IlF. I .. . o r '1IOst, l11t' mOllCS ,> (ll ll lt' llt' xl in Ihc musical c x pe ric nct~ , , .. . ' · . , ,1, " "w ha l m ·lkes sOln t· sOHnd s mll Slt: tlllt'Sllo ll I.~ · ' . '. , N\1 (l llt~ an swer o ... , 11.,h le to ('ve 0 11(' but so llle so u ne!s ob vio usly art.' t'i!slcr lo org.llIl....t ¡It 1 cI ' . f)' I ' 1_ O , 1 .lsic dilTt'rence bc..·tw t'e n m osl nillllf ;t1 ly , , '. l · l ' Illto IlI11 S11: th an n I w r SOIlIll s. nt l. , lit ('111'1"111 ' sOlln ds and must so un c!s Ik lih t'nllt'ly crcatt'~t fo l" ,m us u IS I ~.II. ~ It n¡ll lira lIyS ot Tll rr ing SOlllld s a 1'l ' " t·o l l ~t a \l l l y t'h.lllg"ing trtlm tllslanl lo I1I sl,Il11
in 11 ](' I'rt'q IJ I'lIdl " ~ "1I ' M ' 1I1 uud Iu 111<' ¡¡ lll pJi l lldl "~ (J I 1111' In-qucuch-s" (Bl'a n u'nl, 1 ~)77, p. 7). 1I" UIIII'1I1 lI ull'~ t hu t mnsic p rilll;lriJy illvol \'I's sounds wit h susiuim-d l~oml;¡ 1I1 h l'lllll'lJ('il's (heu rd as Iixed pildll's) wit hout whi ch nn-lodic und ha rm o nic music cunk l no l occur. H e m aintains that fixed pít chI'S "a re vin ually a n (Irtrfiut [sic] o[ man." Th e use of fíxcd pít ch cs in m us¡c is vi rtua lIy universal , and psycbophysíologi cu l ex planaüo ns of mu sic proc essing support th e need Ior such use. IlIWl!I'I"l'r (1!J!J5, p. 17H) mai ntai ns that Iixed pítches are ess entíal for per(·t'ivillg m usic . A to ne rnust las t a mí ni m um amoun t of tim e in orde r fo r the brain lo procese it as a to ne. So unds of co ntin ua lIy changi ng frequencíes d o no l allow sufllcient processíng time. In cveryda y term s, it is easier to idcn típirchcs 01' soun ds Ihat have a certaín minimal dura üon th an pítches of .~olJ ll ds thut pass by ra pidly, Roc dercr also suggesls that mo st cultures r-m ploy n'curring puucrus of a relatlvely sma ll n umber of fixed pitches per Ot'la\'l ' Ix-cuuse the brai n can more casily identify. procese. and sto re a 1l 1l 'lod y ('olllprising a se t of related d iscre te pi tch va luc s se quenced across Imu' I¡M II a rilpid ly cha ngi ng pitch -tim e pa tle rn Ibat swce ps co nlin uo usly "VI' I 1111' "1l1in ' fn'q lll'IlC)' rangl'. \\'I ltll' IIIm l 1II11 sics indeed appcar to use flXed pitches, one should no le liI.11 Ilu' 1;1ll~1' uf lIIusica l so unds has add itional attributcs fo r which "rl'aso ns 101 I,,·in¡.;" lUI' inat!equ all'. T he universa ls lhat Cartere tte and Kendall ( 1 9~J9) I'l ul " I ~( ', d lt'd ¡ll.wve, art' based in bio loí,'), ; Slob oda (1985, p p . 253-259) recU¡'; l lill·.~ silllilar lllllsicu l llnive rsals. H e no tes that virtu ally a ll lllusic is orga nI,.l·c! HlIIllIH I fixe d rrfirm a pitches, suc h as a drone or lonal center. H e a lso lIull'S llt;ll l h (~ ()daVl~ is a "privilege d" inlerva l, freq ue ntly wiCd in nearl y a H Illll'. k , a mI Iha l sea les in virtuall)' a ll cu ltures are une qu al d ivisions of th e ud aVt·. A fOlll"th un ive rsal invo lves the use of pulse or me te r to provide time rrj,m/('r Illlinls. S lo boda a rgues tha l bo lh pitch and time re fl're nce po in ts a re ('ssl'n lial for pt'ople lo cno rd ina te the ir behavio rs in suc h a wa)' as to make lll11 sic a ~ I rll{~ l ll rl'd soci al phl'nomen o n. ' I;J ulII slilute m us ic, snunds must be SlnJctured in such a way that peopl e ('illl lIlak(· St'nse u f Ihem . !\Iusic is a h uma n pe rcep tual phen o ml'n o n, and the iludl llllt'S of fixe d pi lch es. a to na l cen le r. octa ve equiva ll' nce, sca les w ith 11l1l '1I 11 ally sizl'd illlervals, a nd lim e re fere nee po in ts, co mmo n lo 111051 1l 1l lSk s, g ll' atly faci lila le perception . They provide Ihe necessa ry repelilio n (lll .\I 1Ud llra ! ret! lInda ncy). Beyond the structure, however. m usic makers ¡¡ li d lislt'llt,l".S bring a lifelime of ex pe rien ce wHh mm ie 01' lheir culture (jOrIII II /f¡jn /l'JJ nI' cult ura l rl'd llnd ancy) tha l a Jlow them lo de velo p ex pe elat io ns abllU I wha l co mes nl'xl in the m usic they a re mak ing Ul" lo whic h they are Iislt·lling." Fina lly. a nd pcrha ps most im porla n! 01' 01 11 cr Hel"ia fo r hllman music,
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,1 'J.7) 1'1'0,)11' n t'a h' mus te' [ni ,1pt1l pm..-. W!l UI' ' , ' l" I " ' Vh \\'1' lila m-ver n-a rh ('UlI\l'lIS11 'l ll'¡.(a ltl illg answt-rs lo ,," hy 1ll1l SI l' ti . . y , m y uste , w hil ¡ , ~" 'Iny un sw c r lII11 sl 1'11('111111 101.\ .'1 mC l. Ih" 11 l' 1hut in 1'1 1111 . " .llt'lh . I,lIl .IllY . ,,1) "1I¡VI' ~ lHlt'ri ng of souuds. A nswers m ust n'(~ogllizl' II ~a.1 IlIU SIC IS ~I .1l~~1l '.1. 1l I uurt with ccrta in ) svd lUl'h ysinll. pcrceptuul. cogruuvc. und lu h.l\ 101 a l "11 1\ . '1I1S\\'('rs. _ mll ~1 1 . lti'lIs, fur m n-ructingI wilh sound con struc ts. F¡' ma. 11 )', ti11:. ::'.: :1~n;"I.~' tha t musical soun ds vary frOl~1 cultur e lo cult ure. )'1--'1 shnrc SIIIlCuu .rl run suuiu ts a mi man y sim ilar fun ctions. "" . . . , . . <. " J " \\'hal makes SOIllI' so unds rnusrc . IIIl1 M sl 1>1,' ..mI 1I1! ' (·vI·nlll'l uuswcr 1" lll1" (lf Iho se sou nds' [una inn within a givc n cultura l cou rcx t. _ ' lIS,l C.,1, , 1111111<111 ' bcin '- g , lb) n '(·IW1 n 1ll.t·C , ,IS . -. {u} crca ted or ( 0 111hiJl lll'{1 b Y ,1 ~OIl1l lC S . lI t , a f , hi 1 " " , 'I , ,.t ,'l ' 1" 1 I ) ., . . romo uncüon w uc 1 111 , " tllU 'Ik hy sum e g'ro llp 01 pt'OP l .• •1lH e serve s . .: ,, 1 , 1.. socia 1111111' 1ti S",,'V"- 1'" ,' •" oetve n . . l gro lll) o r cult ure. Uhlnuuc. ly, 1I 1ll .~H . L suutu nll' 1110-'1' SlHlIHIs thu tpcople a rtowilling lo uccept a s muste. I~
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Origi ns o f Mu sic (lbviollsl 111(' study of m usic's o rigin s is fraug ht witb m~ n )' d illklllt il'!oi, IllIt 11ll' 1" asT;)f which is mu sic's lemporal na tur e, whic h 11 I ~ l \ ami a rd lal'o logisls with ft' w a rlifacts for .d~l l' n~ l.n mg t ~l' . n ~ lt.l f(' ~ J . , ~d ' 1I'0"lt,'s m usics, and stilJ fl'Wl'r c1ues to m llSlC s ongl.ns. 5 11Ch .1\- Old. ha s 1\" ~I\ iSl' IU co nsiderable myth, lt'gl'nd , speeula tio n, co nJectllre: ando~IH O~Y: N ' . .. , 1,1o wn m yth s amI lcgcn ds thro ug h m unyf CUitlll 1"'111',,. l1.I\'l' I"'SSll . l'S, . Jlc . rI 1111 1\ lio1l1 1ll't' hislol"i c times, bu ! ecrla inly 1'1"0111 ~ h(' clIllu l"l's (.l. a n l ,I~ I I .I I Y .Im piillliliv(' cullures stut\il'd by a nlhropo loglsls .am l tllILSI.( ... , '. l. 11 ' 1111' lall' nillel t'('lllh ami ca rly twcntielh ec nlllflcs, sC~lO l. ll s, ( 1 1lI1 1ll,S~ I:l ,01 Illl illli'll'!oil in s('a rchillg fo r m llsic's o rigi ns. ~{cvcsz ( I.!):d , p. :2 .IH) ~ ~I¡';¡';I sl.~ . . . "s IIH7.1) Ihl'OI")' o fevo lullo n pro vl(ll'd tlU'. llllIUIU'll 11111 1" '1 11
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1{I'vPS/. (I!J!i,l) , Slol ll ll la ( I!IH,ri). Cll Wll l l'l.~d ll'k ( ¡¡'W:-V I ~ '7(l) , Bl'n wll" ~1 t' l'k ~'r., '1I1 ~ 1 \\~ólI H lI (:WOO, p. ;1) not e thnt e voJllliollóUY approachI'S lo lllUSIC s on l.p ll ,~ It'JI 11110 ohst:m ity uud cven d isrcpurc afh-r IJI(' I!H Os, I:l'rha ps duo to twu Iacrors : n'ject ion of ruclst n otions prcscn t in m u ch 1'·1I1"01Jt'a 1l sch olars h tp bl'fim ' \Vorld \Val' IJ and th e rise of the cultura la ll l h rop~ )logiC¡~ 1 uppronch lo Illllsicn logy in the United States during the postwnr pcriod. Wh atcver thc cause, interest in m usíc's ori gins wa ncd th roug h most u f thc rema ining twenticth century. A resurgence of íntcrest ca rne with \\'a llill's (W!H) co ining of Ihe term hiomusicology, whích includ cd the th re e .I},nlllches of evolutionary ~lUsicology, neuromusicology, an d comparat íoe musicology. l'lu- ~'x{'d len l volume Tñe Origins ofMusic (w alltn, Merker, & Brow n, 20(0) ccrtalnly has br~)Ug~1 Iocus to evolutio nary m usicology as a fleld of stu dy and ~lIldOllhl.t'dly will stim ulate rnuch thou gh t, res earch, and speculatio n regard U1,L: 1l1llSlC a ~ an l.-'voJlI li~nary proc ess. Much of th is sec üon d ra ws heavily on ~O Il W theones ,o lTen 'd In that volurne. Prior to examining th ose theones, IllIW1 '\'I'r, wr- will e xamine sorne of th e rnytho logy about how rnu sic ca rne to
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( ',h;li lll'Y (Wt¡.¡ , pp. 1-1 1) and Wallaschek (1&93/ 1970, pp. 259-2(j2) su m 1II¡1I1 /1 ,d "lIllll' of lhl.-' myth s a nd legends, mos t of which suggest tha t so rne IIp''I II 'llural hl'ing gavl' mu sic to peo ple_ One H indu myth holds th at 1l1 .1I1I1I,I , lhl' Sllprelllt' spiril of the universe in H indu theology, invented 1I111\1t 01 \ 1111 ' ,L::O(I~It.~s of Spl'l.-' ch, Sa raswati. A Chinese legend dating fro m Ihe Illllcl (I OUl llI) n,c.L. says Ihal Ihe C hinese musical scale carn e from six to nes ~Il ll~ hr. Jo'u ng !l oang. a mah"'¡ cal hird . However, Durant (1963, p. 27:1), ofTerIll~ .1 dJlIl'lI'UI. lIoll.wian account of the origin of C hinese rnusic. asc ribes 1IlIlsi(''s 1,lri¡.:i n tn Illl' Il'ge ndal}" e mpe ro r. Fu H si. J apan ese tradition holds Ihal IIIII SI C l'a llle frol1l thl.-' gods lhemsel ves, perhap s devised lo Jure lhe sun goddt'sS fro m a cuve lo which she had ret realed . Th ~' Sllllll'ria lls ha d lhe goddess N ina as the patro ness of music, while the Assyna lls ca ll1.-'d their god dess of la ve, Ishlar, "'the hannonious and sweel100Wd lllllt," (C ha illey, p, fi), G rec k mythology re cognized several gods a nd l-\0ddl'.~ .~t'S asso d a tl'd wilh Inusic: EUlerpe, a m use of song; Alhe na, c rea lor o r du 'llult·; 1111' gOl l Pa n, who crea!t'd th e pipes or reeds; and Herm es, who creóI (.·iI Illl' shl'flhc rd pipc for himsclf an d the Jr.re for Apollo, the go d o r m usic (POI'~tl ClY. W/¡:-I, I ~' 211), Perh aps lhe mo st far-reaching Greek my th ahout l ~lIl ~ l t ' was lhat 01 llil' "harm ony of th e spheres," which origin ated witil the I y ll ~aW Il"t'a lls a nd SlliJS('qUClllly hccamc lhe hasis of {'Ja lo's philn soph y of
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~ E" ~" 1I1 i"Jl~'. h,' uwJIl Y uf Illl' ' IJII<'I"" r('I, 'l's lo dl «nll'll'l'isl ir l11 usir uf h.'a v,olJ ly h"di.,s. a 1"' 1'1 uf ltl\' d lvllll' ly ,' Jl daIlJ('¡j ~' ''¡''sl i¡l r' m m i• • wilh ""hi. h 1"'''1'1., rni¡¡lll illlO'l':u t lhm u¡¡h 111:llh,o'lIi'lin . Fo r ml'll rllillllJIJ [f'¡¡i1l'dm¡¡ thi , vi.,,,,,, "',' Witlk" 1 ( J ~ I! IO),
'I'h{' l h-b n -ws W l'1I' j111101 1~ 1111' h-w pt'op lt, 0 1' a lll iqlll l ~' ,wllo ,n lll¡;ldl'IPl! 1ll1lSic's origi u lo [ lI' h i ~lll1 h 111 1;1 1111'1 thnu slll"' rn alm a l. I lu' 111.1111: ~· lt'd lb music's ín vcn tiou lo [ulml, a M'V l'lIlh gl'lH'ralioll desccudaut 01 ClIllI, tl1l' 1'ldl'!" son of Adaru .1I;d EVt" " 111' was íln- unces tor 01' all tlmst' who play 1111' Iylt. nnd p ip e" (Ge llesis ,1:11 (Mt,t'ks ( WH!J)) ,~ . . lIl illl Y o f w hi • high dl'gn 't'• 01slll'cContcm po ra ry tl\('orll's. uc 11 Sil·11·lIl V O lve v~ . 1 " • " ) o IILIl 10ll, huvc seve ra! ad vun tugc s ovcr th e e urly thcones. NI.~rly.1II additk u .d ('('Illllry of m ultid isdplinary study and research , iu cl ud íng trcnu-n d ous udva nccs in knowledge o f hum an neurobiologi ca l dl'velopl~lenl a mi n -seurrh 11 \ cultura l ant hropology. sociology, psychol ogy , erhnomusícology, ,illUI n -ln t ,,11 inll'n lisd p linary consíderaüons, pro vidc co nlem porary, t.hl'or.l s~s 1l ~I ~d l \\u lIlgl'r ba ses a nd pe rspecüves for p o stu latin g about muste s ongm s. 1,111' Il,I la lll'l' uf thi s se ctíon prese nts ovcrviews of scveral con te mporary 1111'( 11 ~l''': (n) Hrn wu's I1lllJilanguagr theory; (b) M lllcr 's UI~ated account l ~f ,~ Ilt: ~,(',\ II,(:f ,,/((tilm Ih(oT)'; (e) Mcrker's synchrollous di orusing theo? ; ~d). Il I SS.tl1:~ ) 'l kl ," IIwtltrr-infant intaaa íon tht ory. which in many respects IS Slllula r, tu ("lst~)1l S ( I'IliX) f,1[!,inllings of family throry; and (e) a Ihcury implied in p l"l'V ~O U¡; St'(·lIOl.lS "I thi s chapter, the music aJ an adaptivl social f orct thtory. Readers IIlh'll·"It:t!1lI 1"l'loring theories rclated to m usic as imilation uf bird ami nl~er a l1l,l~lal "\ UII,L::S" should con sult Section 11 of Wallin. M erke r, a nd Brown (:lOOO). I ht, pll''>I'1l1 alllhn (S questio n lhe plau sibility of such theories and cUll sl'<JlIl'nl ly 1hust' no t lo review therno , Ih own's (2000) mUJifanguag( lheory or modtl is a soph islicated l~~ll' I1SIIlIl uf aage d eve lopmenl a nd nHISIC til'velop . w h ·le h hcld tha. lanm 1',11 Ill'r tIleones O' 1111'111 Wl'l'l~ otllgrowth s o f an early evolutio nary co m m unicalion SI")1,I' Ih.~t \\" U,\ lll'ilhe r c1ea rly la nguage nor music (eo g., Nade!, 19:-m ; Nl:"I, 1!I!i h:, 1'/ \ .1) 'I·hc mll silanguage mode! focu ses un th e slnl Clur alI ll'alllll'l's III . ' l ' " Vt·S.,. . , . tlU' twu syslems, a nd lhcrcfore is considercd a slnlCIUra l ral~ll'r I lan " 1I1H' 1I0nal mo de !. Brown 's carefull)Oeo m:eivcd and high ly detal lcd I1H )( II'~ "II~ .. , h Iha l langu age and m usic evolV(,d fro m a "c ommon anc: slral ~I aw ' lha\ ~.It'll'l lt'd tlH'i r evoiulio n inln di stinct systc ms wil,h diff~re:lll'~I~:(.I It'~II.ll.Il'S ~I:' , 'lH), T his (:l lllllllOn a ncestra l stage was the rnusl lant,'1lage SI.lgC, .... 1 1I~ .h h,1 1 1\\' 0 .' ll b.~ l ages and rclll'cted thre e csse ntial fcatures: sllhst age oll(~-fe~lf (ll tOll r lllll l sllb:->lage Iwo- combi7lal(Jri(l1f omwliofl ofJ ma!l j:hrases a l~ d. fXp,re,\:I·'.lIf /'h.ra_,': 1111/, pr/lll'i/III'.\', 'I'he firsl snbslagc invo lvl'd \1St' 01 (hs~rcte p llt h i~ ~ t,l~ \: )..( ~ Hl \ ' 1')' hlOlHI sl'lllanlic meillling; tllt' sl'n llld sllbst¡¡l:-I~ lIl~o l ved ~h,t ... ¡.!;lI lt :.l l l,O ~~ Id 1'1I1 ,,,t's hy 1111.-' com binalo ria l ilrra llgt'lll<' nl ni lI111 la r: , I ~ X I~:.L1 -I ~ ) I1 ,d, 1,11 IIl<'lll s" (p, :27!I). SlIdl p hra st's n lllld !l," \'l' IW,tl It'vels,nI' lllc.l,nlllg " 1~J( ~"..... 1: H ~~ ~ l l lI l'Jy illvo lves Ilw Slllll 01' 1111' ll H' ¡II 11Il I-\S o l lhl' ll'x lca l-loll.d lllllts, ,1Ild ~/(/l - /I, II ,' , n,' II" " In.n , I:lli' "1' l1 iUlJl ' ,ldkl""1 i, ..t,u" " ,,' I. ..," I " I" \, 11' I',' r ,' lO . ,,,,, ," tur ,·
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wh irh .'; uAAP.'; !.'; IJI O,ld l'l p llt 'I_I' 11' \ I·J It U'Ultlll~~. '1'11( ' cx pn-sslve pl nuscpl'i lldples in vol ved "m I' 01 hit 111 ,m il ~ I II "II J moduJalory dcviccs lo add (·xp n·s.'; ivt· (' rnp h" .'; i.'; alld I'/ II< JII\'I' IIlI 'UII II I¡.t lo ~ i lll l' ll' phruses'" (p . ~7!'). Bm wn (,( lIlsid ers IIU' '·XPll·.\ \ iVI' I'III H\i"~ PIIIH 'il'll'\ a rruk-a l co m p o nenl o f thc lIIodt'! , n Oling thut IJH'Y a l/nw 10/ 1(/11/( 1/I/1tlulfllúm. (JI' cha nges in th e inlt'nsity of em o tio nal cx p n -ssíon , whi r /¡ 11(· n lll\ id l'(S bo th cross-m odaJ (ulIlsic, sIx 'ech , a nd ges ture] a nd cm ss·('llhura J. In t'S.\ (' IlCl\ 1Ill' musiJangu age 1Il0cll'l hj'po th eslzes thal both m usíc und languag e evo lved from a co m m o n lona l sys te m .
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Bro wll rc cognízes that th e co mple te m lls ilan guage m odel n ee essa rily lIt'l't'IWt'I'n aclor s and IIl0se aCled upon ; music's blending syn tax is IMw !! fin pild l bll'nding and pitch pall eming Icading lo complex soundl'molion fl'latiollShips. This establishes iangu agc's symbolic cap acity ror repre\1'1l1¡llioll 'lIld cOlllmullication an d mu sic's aco ustic mode (wilh its sound -emo _ lion "ysh'/lI alld broad S{'malllícsJ. .SlIlIlllla rize, Bro wn H'eognizes a referenlial emotive voca/izalion 5y.rlem as p rlT ltl'SOf lo his 1!lIlJi/all/!,/la/!,e .ftage, wh ic h incl udes th e commoll a nces tral fe¡¡Iltn 's o f ¡lOlh lan gu age and music . Divergence iuto lanb'llag e and musie system s 11 I' Ilo wil1g- ¡h e mU.I'i/flll/!,litlgt' ,rlage oceurs as so m e sou n d s takc o n refe ren tial 11ll'ólU illg- (Ia llb"uag e) a nd o lh crs lak e o n e motive mean ing (m usie's acoustie 1I/(I" r iu Bro wn 's le nns). Finally , Bro wn n "eogn izcs an il1leracfivr .~lage, wh ich iu vu lv('s ,1 rebi nding of m usie and lang1.la~;t' iu lo whal h e h'nns musie's vthi. d r II/otl,. which involv('s cOll1b ina lion s o f langll ag l' alll l m us Í<:, Th is in lt' rae'rj l
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I k · Ihl 'l' sbn uluuu-uusly wlrh 111 1' d ivl'l'g" lll'l' st..W·, he ('(11I11'IU s'l (',l .' S I. ' " 1"()'I1 so ngs icon¡c n-pu-wn rution. nnd 111 011'\ "1 and I('..ds to SIl( ' 1 1 III1 ~ S .IS ve -rn: , 11\'1 '
uUI \i¡·:ll n a rra lío n . ' .. 11 1 , . IIw sexual srkaien th, fJ'Y bolds th at l'u-v io usly calh-d t he m aung (,1 I u ol") ~ 1'"''''1 form . I . . I rsu. ncts ' lIH 1 11", '1 11, .... '"',, , " 1lI11 \i t··s urigin is roon-d 111 1II1ll¡1II sr-xua 11 .. ' 1', [D arwi n IH7.' 1 . (j5~) . ' l' -xtcnsiou of a manng ca •• 1 01 IIIII SII" W,IS a rorm or lCX e n I I"J - l' " 1'1< I 1' 1' :tH -117; J Il)r.: f n l ')' vevesz • •J ' , • Allhllllg h m a ny (Ne u l, . .) 1, pp. " ~ . ' :' 1 urly theorv whic h m ay ( r: :lf,) :ltiti) highly cn ncrze I le eur .J ' .'i lo hlltla. I.JH.I, p p . l. th e mating calls u f so m l' . , .' f ' I ~ . . and fall e p ropon e n Is e-itc l 1' 111 ir YIS IOIlS o urzan r .' lf . rounds u r so ngs Il\ l'd in " , ( .. 1 , rs th at serv e a scxua uu cnon- so u . utllllla"l.s anr n« S('a.sem ; te so ng ' f es n ote th al (a ) b¡Ir d ss ". smg,." o utsidc of T ' , .. . d (el if th e rboor y we-n_1,11'1tlllg a m a e, rr I (11) musíc-ltkc m atin,g ca!ls .a: e abs,e'nt. ~.m~n~I;;I~e:'I)~:~ponderant ly Jo V(' \ 01 110: \ I t m-, mu s¡c 0 1'todn y s prtnuüve cu turcs s Ol
ll1atill~
e
d a1l'd lo wck ing a mate. h rch 1 ha vo d iSlllis.\l'c1 t11f' ) 'Ei ~) h e vcr a rgues 1 al se o ars ( Mrlh-r p . •..." o W . .' d anim a l m ating ca lla, o r "a n lll\lil' 111m 11011 01 1 nnalogs b etween human a ", t temptuously a mi with loo 1 , " . . h - I 'nns th em "too read 1 )', 00 con , Illm ls IIp as e e '., h , " ~fller suggests Ihat an "d"/,I(I' hlllt · ap p n 'ciatio n of sex~al sele~hon ~ ~o~~xuai sel ec tio n th eor)' of music's 1/tIIJilt tl/,/,Tooch is a usefu exle ns lo n o e I to be a " Ieg it im alc, HIIJ{Í ns. Ile co nsid e rs huma.n ~usic. j usi as ic:n~~g:; les lh al,
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nt
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11l,L\ nlllSICs OllglllS p " , . , ¡ , _\ t' 11 , Ir)' Mi llt'r n '¡'lll;n izl'.s Iha! I)" Slli!c hi s advocacy of tlw sex u.l .se ce IOn H,' "'e l,' "" """ 1" so m t'wh al 01' . I . I I r g ro ups w 1 p L.' · ,' , 1IIII dl m usi(' Ilwk ing IS (e llle 1ll al H¡ o . . 'Iy I e lle fits in t!ivldu¡¡l\ ra tl!('r u Ijua nd ar y fOl' cOllltsh ip tlH'OIY 1 ~attl ~1'le::~;;:~I) b:IH'fits m ay n .jnfo rn ' illtl iI . . 11 · o b se rves llOWt'Vel. l.I ~ . Ihal IJa :_ "('xp ('ri('IJ('(' (.' f prodm'ing i,n a
:.:;;::,flc:~.I I I¡~jlls ~)r ~nllsi.e I¡¡rgl~ ~mllp 11I1 ' f('t'f 'oot! sim p ly foc 11.I0ocl ('¡¡Iih ra llo ll IlIIrp u se s (1'. 353):. . IVl'd '~h" kl'~ (~()(H») also rt'(·o~ni/.I's IhOlI lIIusi¡''!; ('\'Oluli o lla ry o ngm s III VO
AI/u;r, A J'j¡(/ /!III/(lI" " '1-1'(/1/,1" Sori(ly, mili (,'ullllrr SI'UlI p
ucuvny, butln-
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tluu ,1.f'uJmJtl/lu.{ cñorusíng may ha ve plnyed the
iu rporta nt role , 11 1' 11011'.\ llllll mn sl m usirs employ an undc rlying pu lse th at is " a cnrd luu l device fo r ( I II U lllnaling th c bchavío r of scveral individuals in a [oint , co bercnt. syuch roulzr-d performance" (p. 316) a nd suggesls that o ur curlicst homi n id a ucestors' abihties to mtrain th emselvcs to m ov e or respond lo such a p ulse allowcd thcm to engage in syn ch ronou s vocal singíng for m ate uuract lo n . Suc h synchrono us call ing; he contends, "would maximize the summed a rnplitude of the multivoic e displa y to ex tend its geographic rcach bcyond territorial boun daries" (p . :118). lIe co ns iders this to b e true rooperat ivc synch ro no us ca lling that a group u f males mig ht find useful in aurucríug groups of migrating females who were from beyond tb eir territoria l boundarics. He argues that this an cestral adaptation for entrainmcnt o f a n-pr-ritivc b eat sup plíes "an ancient bíological found aüon fo r rhe musical p lllsl' !lo hu m a n culture h as failed te feature among íts musical m eans of l' '' pn'ssion '' a mi , ultimatel y, "an irreducible biologi ca l root of human m usic" 11" :1I! t), 1\1'·1kn gm's on lo suggest tha t suc h syn chronous chorus ing involved \" ll ul ll'OIIn ing which wo u ld requ ire in crea sed auditory reception and vocal Illlld llt lion dt 'vt'lo pmen l, and lhus facilitate exp ans io n o f cortical devclopuWIII 1'" l iliSt,s tllt' )lussibility that langu age for referential purposes might 11,1\ " 1"" '1 1 11 fai,ly lI'cenl develop men l an d th at we m ay h ave been singing ¡. Ilfl 11 ,11 11 illJo!. ho m illids hcfore we be came talking h umans (p . 323). I 11111'1 \\' litl ' l ~ ,t1so ha ve o ffered soc iob iologically· b ased views o f music' s llli f.i im , 111,11 killf.i (1!I7:1) a rb'1leS pcrsuasively th al "we shall leam more about n 'I . ~it ,llId hUl1l an lllllsk ali ty if we look for rules of musical behavio r which ,tl l' ¡' illlll¡.: indly , as \\,( ,11 as culturall)', co nd itio ned an d species -specific" (p . 100), t ;a 'llon ( 1 ~ l l j H . pp. 7- 17) and Slob oda (1985, p p . 2 4 1-2(8) concUf. Such " Vil'\\' Sll¡':Jo!.I'sls a n'rt.lin ('vo lut ionary basis for music's origin s, hUI in a m u ch d ifl"l l'n t ~ " lIS t ' Ihan Ihe m atin g ca ll notion. (:¡¡., tu n a l'g Ut'S Ihal Ihl' beginni ngs of hu m an socicty go h an d in hand w ilh h llma n h iolog ical dcvc lo pmcnt, and str esscs th at b iologi cal an d culhlral cvoIlllio lls Wl'J"(' parl o f Ihe sa m e process. H e notes that with the d eve lopment of Ihl' h rain ' s (:o rtl'X, prim itive p eople co uId sup p ress rage and h ostilit y, a prelt'qll isitl' fo l" so d l't)"s d evcl opment. C ortical development freed the p rimilive fl'mall ' ji·um b lind illslinctive behav ior th at would cause h er to accep t just a n)' m aJ¡, a l (',l{" h Iw rio d o f cst m s. Th e cortical b ccamc d omin ant o ver th e l'IUltll'rill(' fact or, T1I1',SI' Iwo asp ('('(s o f b iological d l'vel upnlt'llt, sup p ress io n of rage a nd sl'l" 1"I in m aling, fosll'l"l'd th, lJt'gi"lIing~ of family• ..... ith its n 'slllting tiivision of laho r, mlltl ifil'd llla ll'·fl'lllal l' a¡.w,H·ssion, ¡nu l inn t'a sl'd ('Olll llllllliratioll , "AII t his Il'atls lo a lllliqll t'lU'SS in hu ma ns, ,ullo ng: aH a n im a ls. u f 11U' 1II011U'r-dJi ld l l'tl l illn shi p , will10111 wh it- h Iht'H' wlluld lit' 110 t"ll ittl ll · ; I ~ WI ' kllo w it"
:11
• 1111l .1 1l iu f.m ls' almo st rot al de¡ U'lItil'IH'I' 011 üu-ir 1,I10111t'I"s r~H· (t ,a slon, p . 11).11 . , 1 1, te muc h lil1 1t' lo infuut ca rc. . 1ft' , - '<¡m ll, tl m ol u-r s lo (I VIl I ,. long p I'n O( o I,ml I .~ iílvt- [nutt er- ratb crer soc u-ücs Jll'Ovid{'d food une .· itivc rn or hc r so ug ht lo sllu lhe wh ih' 11H' fathc rs 111 1'1111\111 b_ l IH II11I 1 " -nla tes tln l as urc . 1 1'11lh'clion . u-thal W I' rnn ' r· t '_ ot mal e compe uuou Ol ac . llllllhe rs une1 m a n s n . d 'ens itiv ities th at gavt· nw lu , he oruri f the compctencres an s . t\¡,( ·ov('r t IC o n gms o , . 11 t· a mothtT-infant illt,mrlrmllllff' · , " ( '~ H I)) t ssenlla y su gg es mg J' 1 hu ma n I1Hl SIC p" ' . 1 ' ti in volved 111l1ch m O H ' I 1;111 t nd s that suc 1 interne io us ' l', I li ss,llleyon<1p l1ysiCll • [)nltectioll Thu log an SOCIOCl . . t ,' n potenlially musical d I'suc h IIlteracllOn s con a ,11 11 1 sugg ests t h al man Y d f . lh e sc" is m elo d ic and in chule s ' p ie lh e p ro so )' o m o er 1 IIlI 'n ls. \ 'o r cxa m , d · , ., t'" ,n lellll>o changl' s, ,OH · 1 r" ely yn am lC V.ln,\ , . Illylh l1l ic reb'11 la n ty aJ} ( va 1 '1 h th ' n1"y ,,' e wo rd s lh e inl an ts " 1 . l Whi e t e m o e rs . .~ ., ¡.h,·f¡ttlllllS u f voca tlm )fe . . . f d . .'t h particular fca lmes ami ,· lhe com b m allOn s o so un s "". 1 1'1I 'SIlIIIa b ly h e ar .l . .' .. 1 ( '{ I),t) ni Ssil naY likt ~;t so , ' I. ay COllSl( el muslca p . " , . ,. H'la llllll Sll1ps llal u ne l~l d .w hal less ohvioll S sin n la n ltt'S tl"'!Tihes M'veral o lher Important a n s~ m c l ll'l\\'I'I·n 1T1Ilsic am i m othcr-infant in lcractlon : >
" , ." .. t ruclural fealUres that rcl)' on cXIll't'laILoll lu n '.' ;lI" 111l'u use of st: qm ntlI' I'il'nn' t ' \·t . t \U'ITI'I\ ·t' sllt 1Sllp r<1 < < 1 tlW)' m ay '!'S!.S Ihat . ' h av!' t w a .1I I,1> tItl ;1 111 t 111'111011 ,11M 0 l'"l''', ,'' ,II)' " Sh t, SIlI" l"l" . I'~ llIIt'U.s¡ly. r Ol\IO lll , 1 lY I ~II , _ . 1 1. ' 11 ," o ri"illS alll l Ihal tilt,)' n ' ll1alll 11.lIsie ;l\UI IIlO\'('IlIt'n l W('l t' 111 '1 ' 11,11'1 , ' Ill l' 11 l"
, '· ' , .1
I \ VI /" '¡0l!,lI a// 'illl lll lll / ;ol/.\ (lj'AfIlJiCflt IIduJllim
inh'Hra lly n -inn-d in IIlm k ul hdlav ior lllda y. And, shc noh 's thu t lxuh moth er-in fam inh'rac tiolls und ruus k- making in prem odern sOelc,tic's a re sha red cndcn vors whcrein conjoiu rucn t, coordinatíon, and un iflca tion are integral aSI" '('IS nI' th c ex pe ru-nr -e [pp. :i9.'-:i 9 H). Flnall y, Dlssunuyak i- sugg csts that the mo th er-Infam in te ractio ns w ith tlH'ir p,altl'rns of.mu ltimodally p rese nted temporal scq uences 01' emoti~nally evoca uve bc haviors, provide th e beginni ngs for human respo nse to th e tern1'01':1 1urts o f dance , m ime, ch an t, and so ngoAs she states, tlll'. hi(ll (JgiGI~ly cndowed sensitivities and co mpe tencíes of mothcr-infant inter-
¡ ~ r l l () I,1 were j(Jund.by cvolvin g human groups to be emotionally affecting and
lllllt'tH Jllally effec tive when used and when fur th er shaped and elaborated in culturnlly crcated ~ereI1lon ial rituals wh ere they serve a similar purpose--ro aHlllll' 01' syuc hro mze , cm o uo na l ly conjoin, and e nculturate rhe panícípants. (p. 'II II)
1t"1,:allllc'ss nf ho.w co nv incing any of the aboye theo ries may be, music ,l" ,nl )' \\"; 1.' iI vc' ry nnportant part 01' early human soc lety and culture. The ,\' ~ ,,~w~ 111 ~llll lHda ( 19K'i, pp. 265-268), Do wling and Harwood (1986, p p. :.t. l. I ;¿, IH) , all d ymwn (2()(.)(), pp. 296-297), di scussed aboye, make a slro ng ¡ 11\1' 1 ~I '1 1 11 111 '11 ' .was a n IIlvaluable 1001 in facilitating gro up ada ptat ion, IIIl lll d l rl~ IIlOlllo tlllg g ro u p identification, !,'TOUP co he sion , and so cial bondIIlH ' Irllplid l, il' 11 01 Sla lc'd directly, in cach thco ry is thc notio o th at mllSic is ji pu wl'l!u l 1 111 c.t' in ¡;lci litat ing positive int crpersonal in teractions, \\'hether lu'IWI" '1 1 l' llt..nllal mal es, Illnthe r and infa nt, 0 1' \vithin grOllpS in a broad er ~Of ¡al tll ~ lI hll ra l s('lling. As H argreav es and No rt h (1999, p. 75) nole, virtu01./1)' ;d l 01 ~ f,I 'ITi;u n'~ rllllclion s a re really social in nature. Kaplan also co nslll,'1s IIlIlSI<: s mosl Im po rta nl func lio ns to be so cial functions and most o r (;;¡ :l, ~n '.'i rUIICliullS rur tia' individual have to do with facilitati~g an individlI: tI s 1II.11'1JJl"I,-Suna l skills-a lso soc ial runclion s. A l! this suggesls tha l any con. .\ld,' ra,llo lI I~' m usic's o ri!,'; ns Illust recogni ze al least in part ils value as an (~dtlll/UJr ,I"IIOtl / jO rC(, whic h in itself may ha ve provided sufficient raisan d';JT( 10 1 1II11sk 's ori b'; ns.
Music, Universals, Socicty, and Culture
\Vh al t'v,'r 1llllSi c's n rig ins, m usic is hu man bchavior Ihat ()(:cur s within a n dt llra l ("( mlc'XI. Throllg h a n e ncuIttlrali o n pl"ocess, each socia l urdel" de ve!. OJl S ils in:->lillllio ns a nd a rlif¡¡c ls for pl'rp e.'lualion (lf ilSd r, ¡¡ nd m usic's ex isle 'n t'l' is 0 111' (JI' the fe w th ings co m mon to all nl!lllrt's (Nelll, W7!i, p. 71). M"I't, It·n 'nlly, Ne.' u l (2000, p. -HiH) slllllllla ri1.c'd "..hal 111' nlll side rs four uniY~'lsa~ II\I'S IIf, 11I11s i~ : , 1t i_~ ml 'd (a) in ritlla ls uf 01 11 kllOWIl SlIl'it'lit's, (b) lo pro\"ulc' SO Ill I ' kllu lnf flllldan ll'lIlal d'al1gc~ in ,11I illdi \'idllal'll IIl U'I'iollsIWSS 01'
AlU,I/r,
A 1'/m w llt r IltJII o/ I'l'o/JII', SOrlrly,
(111ft
(.'1I/11I1r
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in th c umbiancc of a WIIII" I mg." (l·) lo mark thc Imporrancc of an evcn t. a m i (d) virtua lly universally in aS., m-ialion with dance, uh hougb dance docs not ;t(TOmpany all music, ami nrusic d ocs not accompa ny al l dance. In much of European a nd American socí cty, a curi ou s p aradox exl sts : Mu s¡c is readily available, ye l that ve r)' availability ma y make many pcophtakc music for grantcd. Music is a type of co mm odity, for use al the pk-as unnI' thc co nsumero Perhaps th is resu lta from a dichormtizatíon of soch-ty inlo a rcla tive ly small group of music makers and a re latl vel y large gro llp 01' musi c listcncrs, many of whom listen pa ssively rather than a ctívcly. Despit c m uslc's ímportance to pc ople. m an y pcople may not readily rec ognize it.~ lmpo rlan ce. Musíc se rves so rne co m mo n fun cti ons in rnost so cie tics, cvcn tho ug h musical sryles and fo rms va ry amo ng cultures. T hroug h its functionality, music is an integral cultural co m pone nt, serving as both a co besive and per~ pctua ting force . Muste also re ílects cu ltural values and rcmperaments. \\'eber's (1958 , p . xxvi) analysis 01' musíc's ratio na l and soc ia l foundations eveu suggests that the differen ce berween \\restern music and that of o the r [purtic ula rly Eastern} cultures is rooted in ' ''esle m peoplc's lemperament und the ir drives to rationalize a nd understand e nvi ro nmenla l ph cnomena. Nt't11 (1975, p. 93) agrees tha l a society's cha racte r and qualily o r lire greatly inl1ucn ce its music, but he notes tha t othe r fa cto rs, e.g., te chno logical level, lypes of raw matcrials avaHable fo r instrument co ns lmction , amount or co nlad with o lher cultures, and a ltitudes toward cultural changc 01' co ntinuity, a l.~o influe nce the developmenl of a culture's mllsic. Recogn ilion or cross -cultur al "univcrsa ls," no ted in lhe a boye cit ations 0 1' Aro m (2000), Carterette and Kendall (l9!}!l), Richman (2( 00), Ro cderer (l!mS). aod Sloboda (I995), docs not negat e the fact tha t soci oc ultural conl..nl influences musical behavior. While m usic o bviously m ust exist \\ithin I'h ysica l and physiological parameters, a nd has so rne struclural sim ilarities ami se rves similar fundions in d ifferent cultures, ind ividual m usica l behaviors val')' greatly fram culture lo cultu re. Explaining inle rcu ltural va ria tions is dilli cu lt; Sloboda (1985, pp. 244-2 48) makes a stro ng case for the use or lIulat io n as an ex pl anatory va riab le, especiall y rcgarding diffe re nces bet ween ma l ¡¡lid lite rate cultures. In an ora l culture, lcarni ng is bound inextrica bly to IlII lC lamcntLl I hu man inte nu:tioll s; ind ivid uals gain know lt'dge throug h cus lulIl and ritual. In Iitcrate sod d ic's, know ledge is nollim iled to l1ll' mo rics o r ' Iral di scclllfS C' and first-han (1 c' xllt'ril'IKe ; sym bo l systcms, sur ll as IIt)latio n, al10w slo ragc' o f ku owletige'. Tll al slo rag l' allow s f('uca lio n of prior knowl..dW' wilh aid ur sym bo ls, hll l il "1,,, plll.' a Cf'rta in psyc hologira l disla lln ' hl'tWC'I'n an individua l alll l tilO' a, 1 UlHul;¡h'd know!edgc 0 1' Ihl' (·1I1I1II"e thal lu'ah'd 11ll' sym bo l sySh'lI\, hlll lwllIIUll \ indi vidlla ls mar IJI' sc·It,rt ivc' lt'KiU'din g a"¡lt'c'ts of know ll·dW·lIl1d 11 101" Ollj"I'li vc' in cx a m ining Ihal knowl -
:¡ ¡ l' t1¡.!,t ·
AlII,l iI', A l 'hfll Olll ' lIIl/I ,{ I hlt/Ir. Sol'il'ly, (/Jl/I (:111'11I , '·1' lv 's I' xp!m atillll 1l1 11l11 Sk 's urrcs. und ( V/'¡" , i llllfU,Y m ll .llt' " f/lJ.,.'Y, w Ilit 1 IIl VU 1 ,
thun i nd iv id llUh UIll't .lI ill/ollln nu urnl cul ture uudit iun. wlu-re h-arui ng
and k llo wll'dg(~ M i ' 1II00t ' 01 ;lll illlq ,; n d pa r l uf O Il C's se lf. SlollUd a no tes thut diflt' /t'Ilt"(·!¡ Il('lwI'('1I di rectIy recal lcd and sy m bolized knowll'd l;(' may affec t musi ca l traditlons and bchaviors in th e two types of cuh un-s. In oral cultures, ITlIIsk. Iike verbal knowlcdge, mu tares ayer lime:
Rchul vcly cx act knowledge of part icular pleccs of mus¡c that peoplc might gaín throug h repeated examination of scores and Iistening lo recordíngs (a way of prescrvíng sound, consídered an extensi ón of notation] is virtu ally imJHlssihl c . Sloboda suggests several implications o f oral/Iitcratc differences for mu sical bchavio r: (a) m cmory processing strategies a nd structures of in d ividuul s in th c two cu ltu re s will díffer, (b) the "a rchítectural" comp lexi ty of an o ra l culturc's m usic n ec essa ríly will be Iimi Led, (c) the n ature o f a litera to cul tu res mu sical contera m ay be cxam l ned sep arately fro m mu sical cantea, a nd (11) nota t iou leads to stlectingsom c aspects o f so un ds fcr p re se rvau o n a nd dísn trl li ll ~ uth crs . l :11 1[11 1'1 ' clcarly affects musical beh avi or. C on versely, music m ay in fluence 1111' rultun-, Loma x (WG8, P: I:n ) summ arízed mu sic's cu ltu ra l ro le by sug;.r.l ',' I Íl l ~ [Ilal uursl c is a human vc hlcle for cxpre sslng w h at is m ost basíc in hlll ' l ~udal n 'lalionships. Lo m ax 's cxaminatio n o f m usk in differe n l cultu ral "1'll illHS lI'vt'al('d lhat a cu lturc's favo rilt· m usic "re flecLs a nd rc inforces the Idlld 'l 01' IIl'ha vior csse ntia l to its m ain su bsisten cc etTo rts a nd to its ce n tral .ml! t o llllOlIinl; instituti o n" (p . 133). HI ',, 'aHh a ll(l wrilings conducted over several d eca d cs (Bind as, 19 92; BI,u killiJ" I!I7:i ; e ross, 2001; Frith , W88 ; H amm, Ne ttl, & Byrnside , 1975; I I.u iJ,I I'aVt's & North, l!J97, 199H; Kaplan, 1990; Lomax, IH6 8 ; J\.lerriam , 1!lIi 1; Nl'lIl, W5 fi, I!J75 ; Wallin, Merker, & Brown, 2 000) continually sup port 111( ' h),I'0IIH'sis tha l mu sic is an int egral part of cu lture. Two once "c1assic" pSydIUICl!."y uf I1lllsic texts (Fa m swo rth, 1969; Lund in, 19(7) were p re m ised 011 Illl' v i(" '" th al mu sic is a cu ltu ra l and so cial phen omeno n. H argreaves a n d Nm th's (!!J!)7) (('ccnt vo lum e, The Social Psychology o/ Music. reinforces m usic's I'usitio ll as a sociocu ltu ral ph en o m enon , Th(' gTowl h u f rnllsic socio lol,'Y, psychom usicolo,!,'Y. e th nomusico logy, ólIllh l'OJlo! ogy Hf I1l llsic, and, e specia lly, th e re cen t emergcnc e o f evoIulion al y 11lmklllogy as a d iscrete fieId of stud y furth er atte sl lo m usical beh avio r li S 01 11 itlh 'gral co m p o nen t of h uman society and cult u re . Sluden ls 0 1' m usical 1l('IHl Vio l', [1H'l'efor l', m ust b e cogn iza nt 0 1' th e co n tex l in which suc h bebav¡Ol IItTlIl'S, S u m ma ry
I'Vt tl" till lla ry Ild g illS, 11 k' id creun-r )y ,I . 1 plll'IIOl I11'lHtII o 1 ium un 11 •
'2 . M uste is
I ¡"
Ol
1,,'o¡,l e , ami
ls pr'-~ sen~ in ull cI~I,uresi . I funcnons 01' music ínclud e (a} em o lio na l Mern aru s 10 a nt IOpO ogrca () , rt inmen t (d) co n un u n ica . 'o)'rnen t e eu e a ,,- , b) he ti ex p re ssio n, ( .aesl re ne e nJ . (í) • h sical resp on se, (g) e n fo rcing co n-
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(t~) sp n b(.llrc rcprese(~)llol~d
ti Pn ~)f so cial In stít u üons a nd rcl ib,;olls
t~: ~o~tli~ Uitl' a nd sta b ility o f culture, an d U) Ion , he f of socrcty l'lllllrib utio ns Lo t e mtegra.Io n . • .' I ad musi~ as (a) a form uf l . Kuplun's so cio logi ca l ~unchons l~c:,d~,a~~r:~llal experience ; (d) the ruklltlwledge ; (b) collcCIlVC. posses~I(í) i ncidental corn m odity; (g) sy m lu llir JlY; (e) m o ra l ami sy m b o,h(c If~.rc~, long thc p ast prese nt, and sccua rios ind icut o r of ch ungc; am 11 111 a n , y I'o rm it (") sOCla.lb"',)·m lss' ,o rituuls,
I
co ntn
ti
í
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uf tlu- flltl1l'e, . . , 1' " '(a) to cr eate a type of sclfFrlth lrh-ntific s 10m IUllchons ofpop,u al' mll ,slc, h lat n sbi p b ctwccn id . 0 1 m anugm g 1 e re ano , rk-finiti ou ; (b) lo p ro vl e a w~y ' , .. ) sha e o ular m cm ory, Ol U" S prív ate and p ublic emotíona l IIvc,s , (e ~o p P' P . und (di 10 a gwcn ex pe n cnce , . ll liJ, i1 n il. l~ o lle's sCllse o ¡' lIme, an d intcnslfy .
41
SCllst~
o f musical OWntTS/ll/J, ., . ' f ctio ns in cveryday th su rnm aril.e m uslc s sOCia un 1 N Il aI'g reilvcs alH or . ' fested in th ree basic wa ys, Iirl' for Ihe illdividual. noti ng tha~ th elf Y. ~c ~ty~llI;nttTptTsonal rtlations, ami radlital ing tlw m anagcment o se I ro I ,
p. u vid c a
"'(/fui. . ' . for Ihe individ ual in clud t· (a) tlU' 1 ( ;,I..lo n \ d ght cu ns ld era ll.o ns of mUSlC . . (b) th e influell cc o f Iht, n ll
n and expcnc ncc, . . 11·u r ..u' st. IH '·t'IC c'X¡lrCSSlo · . ( ) th integral re la tltlllSh lp mode o f ex p resslu n, c e . ti (' lllla ¡ Illa tnx un 1 , . ati on (e) musk a\ IlI'lwI'('1I m usir a m i rcl ib';o.n, (d) m~lslc ha.s comt~U~I~der ~mOl i ltlls, (K) I "' h' (1) muslc's relatu )Ils lp to e e Il lltl lln '( 11 .1 I ) , . . • d (' ) ,h potency 01' m llsic in a g W ll p . .. \lITt' o f grrahficahon, an 1 c 1IU1 "1t a s a so f " 1 d a soci al d imension o
I ll'l 'l
~~es °lmusIC I~~ Uin~portance in so cid )' am i .. g recob'1llllon 11a l IllUSICs . 011 hu man b iol ogical evo.l.utio n Ih al
H Vil lllally a ll rlllll"tio ns an d
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111l' 'Id a ltiVI' Ill'h avio rs sllch as lallg uage and mll SIC, , . . lilr h es ~1 'i ' lllf 'dl n dtmes invu lve s organi zin g sOllnds wlt h va~Ylll~g I 10, 11 '1 1 , I im bn l l lIa!i[it's wilh in a rhy tllllllC l'illl U'W01 1 '"HI IH',~ s k ve ls, a ll< t ' . 1 1" , 1 "It th al fad lilatl~s pc rn 'p lion lll ¡'¡',lIIi'l,nl
'k
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1. T h is dla pl l'r's conten t relates c1osd)' lo two fi\' ld s 0 1' slllll)'. w m!mrativ( 1111IJ;rol o/:y, wh k h ('xam illt's Illllsk's flllH'li" " s a"d II SI ' " in all IIIII11all cu l.
:'111(
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is v irtlla lly II lliVl'rsa l, ¡¡m i most Illusic"l s(·" II's 11 '11 ' o I ( . ( 11 fi ' 1 '('ve n Jll'r • 0 111,1111 a l'elat iVt'ly slll all 1l1l1ll1ll'1 ul" pildlt' s usua y IVt, u S ' In l siZt'd i llll'l va l'! . ) l' 1" t ,. \' 1' tl UlII q " . . 1,' , . 1.'tI 0 1 n llll b i lw d b y a hlllllóllllll'lIliJ,:, ' '1 1111 11 1'1 óllt' lIlllSIl" WIWll l It ) , 111 1 1 1 ,1 11'
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1l'~;c'llcl ~ H'g ard ing Illllsic's o rigi ns s uggest that so rne s.u pc.·rn a tura '.!X'lIlg g a ve Illu sk lo people, 1-1. So rne.' la te mnelce n lh - a nd eu rly Iwenti cth-centurv th eo r¡ d. mus¡ " . . . 1 J -¡ es rega r mg 1<. s ongms lile li t e the (a) lI arwinian theory (b ) thcory 01' h th ( ) work so ng Ih (d) h f ' r y m, e ~ory. t c o ry o imi ta tlo n , (e) th eo ry o f exp rc ssío n, (O Ihel:l,
or\~ mel~)(:hc speech, (g) com m unication lheory, and (h) theory of an ,II,m I erentlated meth od of primítive com m un ication . ISo.' h~ ~ll1crg~llce 0 1' evolutíonary m usico logy has given risc lo reví sio ns .111( ex punsro ns D I' so rne carly th eo r-ies as we ll as to the de ve lopmcm of so rne m-w theoríes. lti . C o nlem porarv rheorí f . , . . •J o nes o muste s o n gms in clude (al Bro vv-n's musilanR~(fK~ 111,ro'1; (b) Mil ler' s update d accour u uf the sexual selea ion theory (e) " ' ' I" ~ s .ryuc!Iro1/0Us chorusing Iheory; (d) D issanayake's mO lher-in'iml i~/erII(/UJI/ 111f O' ] w hich in . . . 'J ~ _ ' m an )' respects IS simi lar lo Gasto n's ( 196M) begín11I:'J.:J offiw uly Iheory; and (e) a theory of music as an adaptive social force III 17. \\I 'II1:' I' :l n t ~ral or a litc ra te culture, a cu lture's charac te ristícs affcct ¡he t 11 111 1( ' S ll11l SI C.
IH.
MIl',j( ' Id l t 'Cb
a c u ltu re's va lucs , a ui tudes, and t emperam ent. R e ferences
AII':lllll, '~: \ \'. (1!l7Ii). Introduction lo i" t sociology o/ musu (E. B. Ashton T: -) K ' 111k: ,"';t';¡ilury I'n' ss. ' rans .. ew
(:l.~ IOOJ . ~ 'rolegomena
lo a biom usicology. In K l.. Wallin, B. Merker , & S. ( I.d.~.), n/(, OTlf!,IIIS ofml1sir (pp. 27 -29). C ambridge MA- MIT P . _ IlI'ilIlH'IlI) , (1~~77). "J'he hiolol,,), of m usic. PsydlO/otrl.. o'Musir:' 5 (1)· 3- 1" ress. M OIII , S. Il IO W ll
II l11 d;l ~
K ) (Ed ) ()tiC}" ) A
. •. .... ') • , • o. mmca s mUSIcal pulu Westport cr· G reen w O O d IT lIIar klllS:.1. (J!na). lloro musical is man ?Seattle, WA: Vniv~rsiIY'o;W 'h ;:,SS. Il l'll W Il S (:lOOO) '1'1 " '1 .. as mgt on n es.'>. J\lc'l"ke;' ' " . le. lll~~.'il . an~'1Jage . ~ode~ of m usic evolulioll. In N. l.. WaIHn, B. " • & S. BlOwn (Lds.J, He oTlgms oJ music (pp. :m-3 ( 0). CaJ b 'd ' '1 A . ~ I 11 " n 'ss. n n ge, 1\ • _'
'.
'
.
., L
.
111<1""". S., Mt'rk er, n., & Wallin N L (2000) A .
od . . n ,1",,)·. In N I W 11 · B ;' ·k " n mtr llctlOn lo evol uhonary m usj· a A 111, • ,Vle r er & S Brown (Ed·) 7' .. o>{ musir (pp. n ( '. , ... '1 ",,) .1 M '. , . s. , !l e oTlgms , ' " . ...,lI11 ll t(gl', : M l l l'ress. ( al(l·lt ·lh., E C & K , d ' IJ R A (ICI C) , 1 ·1) ·'0 U I ,l . . . .U J . Co mp ar:llivl' m usic perc t'I)lion and COI' ,. nt 11111 . n t'ulsch (Ed ) 7n ' 1 o· j) - , CA " . . ., e PSYCflOogy of music ('1nd ed .) (pp. 7'2.5-791 J. San 11 X", . Acadellllc ITes.'>. l :lIaiIJ I'Y'.J· (1%- 1). 4U.()()()Y(tJ rJ llf muJic?(R ~1yers ' Ih ns) N , . \ ' k· '· S & ( liro1t x. ' " • ' . . t \\ or . 'arrar, . Iraus <'1O.~ \: 1. (:lOOI). ,\ l usic, mind, ilml evolul ioll. 1....'r" oll1"'· (I¡'''!lnir 29 '1"_1')" 1) ,IfW lIl e ( IM7.1) l' d . 'J IV 'J " . . L. , . . lit r.lunt ofm an (n '\'. I'd.). Chi t'ilXO : Hitlul ~ kNall)' & Cn .
1'¡' " /lm,,,/II1/
flJ I'fllplt , Socitly, 01111 Cuttnrr
:17
11,1.\ iIVil. E, Hlusi, A., ,'1,[ IJ, · , ' ~ , 11. ( I!IM·I). 71lt .má olflKJ of JlIII.lIr. NlIll'l' Dunu-, IN : University of Notn- Il alllt' I'n 'ss. 1)i\"'lllayak e, E. (2000). A lllen'd l'nls of rhe tem poral ar ts in ca rly mother.infan¡ uueracuon. In N. L w alí¡n, U. Merker. & S . Brown (Ed s.], 171t origins ufmusir (PJl. :tM!)- 4 1O). Camb ridge , )ol A: M IT Press. [ lllwling, \V.J (198 4). Devel opment of musical sch emata in children's spo nlant'Ol ls singing. In W. R. Crozier & A. J. C hap man (Eds.), Cogniüve praasses in the jlrue/, · tion ef art [pp. 145-1 63}. Ams rerdam : North-H olland. l towltng, w, J., & Harwood, D. L. (1986). Musir cogniuon: Orlando , FL: Acudcruic l'n- ss. l rurunt, \Y, (1%3). Ol/r oriental heriloge (Vol.l , The stor)' of civili{{1lioTl). New York : Simo n an d Schuste r, l'ulk , D. (2 000 ). H ominid brain e volution and the origins of muste. In N . I ~ Wallin, H. Merker, & S. 8rOVvTI (Ed s.), Tñe orígins ofmusic (pp. 197-:¿I()}. Ca mb ridge, MA:
M IT Press. l'umsw or th, P. R (19 fi9). TI/(' social pS)'chology of muste (:lnd ed.l. Am es, lA: lowa Stare Unive rsiry Press. 1-ur re ll, P. (19 72). T1u meaníng ofUIt rearation expm enrt in musir d i it Ú (ltfitlrJ by urban adults who determ ined typal singer profi/ts t" rol/gh o.:ttehnique. Unpu blishcd doctora l disse rtaric n, Th e Pennsylvauía State Unívc rsny. Fu-e-rnau, W. (2000). A n eu robio logica l role of m usic in so cial bonding. In N. L. \\'allin , B. 1\ler ke r, & S. Brown (Ed s.), The origins of musir (pp. 411 -4'14). Ca mbridge, ).' (pp. 7 -:¿ ~ 1) . Ne w York : Macmillan . ( ;" i""'imann, T. (2000). G ibb on son gs and human m usic from all t'VOIUlionary persped ive. In :\. L Wallin. n. r...l erker, & S. Brown (Ed s.), Thr ori¡{ins of music (pp. 1O:~ - 1 '14 ) . Cam bridl,re, M A: ~II T Press. C; ll'/{ory, A. H . (1!J97). T he ro le of m usic in sociely: T be ellmo lllllsiro loglc:d persl'ed ive. In n .]. H arl,rrea ves & A. C . Nort h (Ed s.), T"e soá(l/ II~ydwloj!J' I{muúc(pp. I:¿:i-I ·IO}. O xford , U K: O xford Universily Prcss. Il alllm, C ., !'\ettl, B.. & 8 yrnside, R. (F.ds.) ( 1975). Conltmporory music atld ,,,,¡Jir culfilm. Eng lewoo d C liffs, {\J: I'rt'llliu >·H all. I largn 'aves, n.J , & Nor th, A. C . (F.ds.) (l!l!17). T7u Jocial /J.ryclw/oKY ofmilI/e. \'rlalioll, T h(' l'l'lln sylv:lllia Slalc' Ullivt'rsilY· .J"hnsoll, C . T. ( I ~ J X5). L¡'¡(f llltll( 11 1' 111 11111 \ (' 111 /lr(allli1l~ hllllla1l thmlJX/! 1//lIür {PI"
nu
1 \)' , II IIIII~ I I II I I '¡¡ 'l l/IllI l io l/l r{Afu,\'iCfl! l ld/(/ /li lJl !i:~ - l i H) . Restou, VA: " 111 ~ ¡' Ed w uh'lll Nalion al Conf('I'l'IKt' . Kaplan, M . ( I!J!IO). l1u lul, ,' A I/IIÚI! /l m/lrdltlr. Rut h erford, N I: Fairl l'igh Dtckm son Uniwrsily I'n' ~s. .
Lomnx, A. (I!JliH). Fulk su,,~ JI)1r al/(I mllllTr. Washi nh'1o n , DC : A m eric an Association Icr Ih.' Advan cemcn t of Sdelln.'. Lnndin, H. W ( l!Jfi7). An obj«livr /JJ).,/wlogy of mssic (2n d ed .). Ne w York: Ro n aId l'n-ss.
MuJiI'. A
1'//I'I /fIm r ll ll/l
o/ n·/Jplr'. SlJdriy,
;\!J
11111/ (,'/1 I unr
<;. ( l!J.'i,I). h l l Tllfltll fl ulI fui/u ",\t¡flfl/¡I~' (I/ mllIir « ;. 1. C . I k CUll lt')' , ·1¡-¡lUS.). Norma n, OK : U l1 i Vt'l ~ it )' td ( lkl,lhollla l'n-ss. . lt ulunan, B. (20()O). l low muvic Ilxl'd "lIl1nSel\~'" iuto sib'1¡jIlC:II I~ lorlll uia.(S¡. ~);I I hyth m. rep('lilioll . a llll llll';ll\illf,. In K I ~ Walli n , n . l\..I~'lhr. & S. Hrown 'A s. • Thr origins ofmusir [pp. :iO l -:~ I "). Cambridge. MA : ~ 1 1 J l 're~.. . .. IltIt 'dl 'rl.'f. ,J. G . ( 19!J5). 17u phyúa and psyrhophysiCJ ofmusíc: An íntroductíon [Srd ed.].
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I .Ullti'l llisl, B. L. (19M2). Sociologv: A sta tus repon. Colkge MUJU: Symp()Jlum, 22 (1), 104- 111.
~ltI"tKl a •.J. A. (19H5). 171t musical mínd: Thrcognitivt psyrhology of musIc. O xford , U K.
Ml·(·ks. W. A. (Ed.) (1989). t larper CoYi/U sludy bible. Lo ndon: Harper Collins Pu b lishe rs. ~ 11'l k(' r, B. (:l()(IO). Sync hronous chorusing an d h um an orígíns. In re. L. walün , B. M,'rkcr, & S. Bro wn (Ed s.), 11/t orígins cf music (p p. 315-32H). C ambridge. ~iA:
lu-huh, S. E. (l9~J:i). Tbc rnusic listening skills of infnnts and yo ung chl.ld n'lI . In 1.
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Mtlk-r. <: . (:lOOO). Evolutio n of h u man m uste th ro ugh sexual selec tion. In N. L. Wulllll, B. Me rker, & S. Hro wn (Eds .), TIte origins of muste [pp. 329- 3( 0). ( 'ulllh dd H'" MA : M IT I'rcss. :\ l i IL~ , 1). 1,: ( I,!JHH). H e meaning /Jf lile high sdiool óand experíence and ILr rdationstnp to 1"llIllllItWlftrJ. Un publís hed d octo ral dísse rta no n, University o f Miamí. 1\1011,110, ,1. (:.1000), 'loward an evolut ionary theory of m uste an d langu age . In t\. L \\ 11 11111 , 11 . Mcrkcr . & S. Bro wn (Eds.) , 17u ongins uf muste (pp. 16 5- 176). ( ',lllll lli tl,.;t'. MA: i\lI T Press. """'/01, 11 . ( 1 ~ 17I ¡). Tll t· d e velopment of m usical experien ce in ch ildren of preschool ¡tK" . 1\ .Yfhllh'rJ uf Mus/e, 4 (2), 3H-H. " 1l1f'11 1·r,,I. 11. ( Wli:J). A socioloh'Ícal approach to m u sical b eh a\·ior. EJlwomusicoloCJ 7(:1), :.! llI-:l:.!U. • Mu....ullll ,Ill•.J. A. ( !!J74). 71u uses o/musit. Englewood Cliffs.l"\J : Pren tice .H all . "",uh 'I, S. (1!I]()). T he o rigi ns of m usic. Musical Quarl" 'y. 16, 53 1- 5 46. NI'III, H. (19.Sli). Music in pt/milive rultum. Cam b ridge , MA: H a lVard Universitr I'n ·MIi.
Nt'u l. 11. (I!J75). l\.l usic in prim ilive cu ltures: Ir an , a recen tly d eveloped l1alio n . In C. I lallllll, 11: Nt'l II, & R. Byr nsid e (Ed s.). Contempora1)' music and music rullum (p p. 71- 111( 1). '·.lIg lt'WtIOd C liffs. 1"\1: Pre n tice-I l all. NI'IIJ. 1.\..(I!JH!i). Monlana a nd Ira n: Lc arning an d teach ing in th e concep tio n of 1l 1l1SI(' 111 two clJI ~t ra~t ing cu ltures. In lJecoming human lhroup,ll muJic (pp . (i9 -76) . HI'SI IJlI, VA: M m lC Ld ucal ors Na lio ll
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(Ed s.), Psyehology and music: t i« u,.dmt~,.dlllg mrllHly ' 1111I/ rhylhm {pp. 16 1- 176). Htlísdale. N]: La wrenc.e. Erlba um Ass~~lal('s: .• ,. , Tn-hub, S. E. (2000). H uman processing pred ispositions and musl~al u lll\t' rs'l ls. 111 N. 1.. Wa\lin. B. Merker, & S. Brown (Ed s.), 17u oTiginJ of "' USIC (pp. ·1:l7- H H),
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_'
\ \fl1lkt'l'. Il. (l!J!JO). Musío ühe/irfs: l':.ychoaCIJus/ic, my lhi(IJl, and eduouienat pm/ir(/ Wrl. New York: 'Ie achcrs Colleg e Press. . . WlI llasdlt'k, R. (1970). Pr imitioc music: Nc w Yo rk: D a C ap o l'ress. (O ngllla l \VO l\;.
pub lishcd IH!J:1). . . . ' • Wllllin , N. L. (W9 1) . Biomus ícology: Neuro/Jhyswloglcal, lleuro/i.rydwl?glCol and (lJlJf¡~/WII o')' /Ii n/Jrctlves on t ñe orígins and PUTPOU S of music. Stu)'vt'sa nt.. N'I : I'cl~dr~goll 1.1I'ss. Wllllin. K L.. M erker. B.• & Bro wn , S. (Ed s.} (2000). 17u orígins of ,lIIl.IIe. Call1 b l lll¡J,l'. . ' MA : M IT Press. Wl.llt' r. ~f. (19.'iH). The rotionaland socialfOllnda/iO/u of mllsic (l>. ~farl llldale,.J . Il l('(It'I, & G. I\c uw irlh. Tr an s. & Ed s.). In.p.l: Sou llH'nl IIlin ois Universily l 'r('~'i . . . Whali llg, C . (2(X)()). Wh al' s b eh ind a song? T Iw ne ur al basis of song 1('arlll.nK 111 hirds. In N. L Wallin. B. M erk er, & S. Brown (Ed s.). 17u OTIg itU of mllHr {pp. ji.'i- 7fi}. Cambridge, MA : ~f lT Press.
N lluolirl/lfl l AN ,{/lI/I/1I/1\ II/ AlII,I'ir ill C'oult'lII/l/Im ry I .(j l'
1I
, on fonut ry a m i ln n-ract iun . h I a, 't'CllIlpallY duncc, ¡¡lid gl 'lH'lllII }' tn t"Oll lri h ll .I ~'
t..wnrd cult ura l con tinult y
Chapter 3
FUNCTIONAL APPUCATIONS OF MUSI C IN CONTEMPORARY UFE ·~ uon-d in Chaptc r ~, rnusíc h as sc rved an d still se rves m an y basic fun e-
A tluus in socícty, Music is an impc rtant human endeavor th at is in tegral lo all cult ures . Besid es aesthctic and expressíve fun ctíons, mu sic serves many muuuuska l fun ctions. 11 1111'1,11 ums t m uste is performed for the express pu rpose of achieving a ims where111 1/'" iU'..tlu-tir; is nol the primary goal. The furu:Jiona/ muste ls Iar ol de r an d more ,.¡' m.uLIIIl lhal~ music pl~yed DT composed for aesrhetíc purposes. AlI prim itiva 11111 '11 ., Iunctional rnusrc ... [and ] a majorí ty of Ihe reasons gíven for scho ol 111 11 \11 lI\t n l >l' lo it s functional goals. {G aste n. 1951152, p. 60)
"'lIdt: { ·h.. ph'~· ;. (.l isC ll~scd rnu sic's ge ne ra l functíons, tb c p rcsent chapter 1' :O¡; l lI lII ll'~ 1I11L~I C s fuu ctiona l applicaüo ns in eo nt em porary life. Hargreaves uml Nll llh (I!J! )!J) mai ntn¡n thut examínuüon of th e fun ctlo ns of m usic in l'Vl 'l )'d ll)' lift, sho llle! be a n integral part of music psyc hology. 1I1lI lW's a.n.e1 Il aa t:k (1996. p. 497) note that rn usic to ucb es p eople in eo n 1l'1II1'0mry lile., a lo llg Ihree con tinua : (a) from bi rth to d eath, (b) fro m lo wcst lu l ~ iKllI~sl ll'vcI~ o f cubrni tive fun crion ing. a nd (e) as ind ividu als throug h large ~un a l g WlIps. 1·lIrlh cn ll o rc. they po int out th at people ex pcrience rn usic in . 1 widt, fa ngt· of st'tti ngs beyon d th e co ncert hal l: in the h orn e, at sehool, in tl.u' nllll m.u n ily, in Iht· m arketp lae e, in re ligious sen-i ces. as part of m any spen a l O('('iI SIO II S. in polilics. in Ihe milir a ry , in h ea lth ea re systc ms. in associalion . wi.l h wid cly varying physiea l ae livities. in eo rn rne rcia l m edia. thro ug h 1'1O~t'ss lolla l and so cial o rgani zations. as an oecupatio n, a s pa rt o f pu b lic l' n vllUlIlIu' nt s. as "vd l as in m an)' oth er soc ial an d co m m ercial co ntex ts (p p . WH-nOl ), IIl'llwn, ~ erker, a nd \Valli n (~ OOO, p. 12) clllp hasize tha t contem po ra ry lI ~" S 0 1 tl lll S IC need no l b('a r o ne-lo -onc eo rres po ndenc !' lo its funetio ns a n d Il -'l' S fmlll t'a rlier times ami n ol e Ihal IIlllsie's lllll llifull cl iona l nat llre reflects lltt' .u"lio lls of m any scl(,t~tioll p reSSllrt's. Su me o f Ihe d isnl sSt'd IIses a re tra C Ii.l io~lal ; Le., .tI~~y a ~t' S i l~l i l;l r lo mu sic's IISt'S I h rull~ l1HlI l IIltlc'h o f 111(' hi sto ry o f \\ c'sh 'rn nV lltz:'ll lon : 1lI ldi ~io us rilt·s an d C't' II'II\UII1I"", Iu p nll llolt. soc ia l ·to
" llIbo I'l'o p l(' lo ng: bave recognized that d ilTerent ty pes of musie st' rv~' d iff(' r.t'1l1 1'111p tlS l'S ami that m an y factors se rve to iníl uc ncc ea ch I~l'r~()n s 1.l1l1slnll ln-havior. Ncvcrthe less. thc p tlrpo se o f much fun ctional m uste IS lo srim ula n111 \ UIIPI"l'sS acüv ity, a n d a bncf di sc u ssíon o f sorne u f m usíc's sl rtl c~lI. ra l cbur 1I 11 ('ri slics tha t cnable it to stim u latc o r su p prcss seems warranrcd . I IU' rcud "1 .. hould n-cognize tha t an índividual's prcvíous experien ces with pa rticul ar ruuxk-ul structurcs also tn fluen cc b is or her resp o nses lo those sirucuuu I chu rlI C terlsucs. Wlthi n a give n cu ltura l co n rex t, peoplc lcam to re a ct in ccrtaln wa ys lo ccrta ¡n t)' pes of m usic. \Vhile the exact n ature of th e in t erac~io n 11O'I W('('n lca rntng and rhe structura l charactcn sücs is not clccr, o bserva tions ,,1 n-actions lo the two basíc types of m usi c suggest th at d lffere n ü a l re spo nse 1IoIIII'I"IIS a re real. rega rdless of th e d egrce of in fluen ce com ing from leaming , It h om th e stru ctu rul charactcrtsücs th em selves.
Stimulativ c a nd Seda tíve Music Al! m usic cx ists on a co n ün uum betw een h igh ly sümulating , invigoratíng 11I11\ k 'lIHI soothing, scd atíng mu sic {G as te n, 196Mb. p. 18). M clvlullen's (1982) Il w l )l Plica l rnodcl of th e dímcnsion s un derlying muslc mcani ng suggests th at "lit/A')' a lld structure in music a re cxpcricnccd as forms o f aaioauon or arousal) I 'H! M(:M ulle ll (1!J!J6. p p . :191- ;{!);{). acti vatio n m ay in vo lve a "he ightcn ed . 1.lll· ,,1" am usal . ('ilher psycho logiea l. p hysiolob-rjca l. or beha vio ra l." Musk th(' rapists and o thers using mll sic to infl uen ee behav io r esscn tiall)' ~ '" t'o nn' rn t'd with a ro us ing or sup p ress ing activity. a nd th e type o f musie ,.1,., lt'd I"ur inflllcncing th e d esired behav io rs gene rally re flecls d ilTerent lI'U lma l dmracte ristics. particu larly re garding (·nerS)'.
S"'"lIIlaUz/#' Musir t\111Sil' Iha' slim ulates 0 1" a ro llses listene rs ha s a slro ng e ne l"b-rjzing COll1pO1I"I It. " Fo i" m m t peoplc it is rh ythm tha l p ro vid cs Ih e cncrgy o f Illllsic. be il 1'11'11 1 or ,m wll" (G astoll. 1!){;Xb. p . 17). Lu nrlin (Wii7 , p. 172) am i Fm nsworl h ( l l l j l ~ l, 11. X:\) IUllh slIgges t that It' lll IH) is 0 1" p rima ry im porla m:c in in tlucll c· It'K IlI o o d am i ¡¡ d ivily respo m t' lo Illllsk . 1 t"oN "'/ I",¡m¡",1uf Illm i( is a u 'rlHill t' " " " 1" 1.1 ll" ll\'"'''' ( 1~ 17 1) - " " l't'rinw Illal ;u·slh'·l i. s: " nd ;\ll 1",, 1, , 1"''''11 I" "mi'" is lh,u mu sir ' , .tl lUlut.•1 ,1",1 ... l.·t'.l'. N, ' '''1'" (( I;nl)' Ull lll' l""lh' ;11,, 1 " 'IIlIMI, lul1.., III r (>(11" , n·sl'lln ....s In mu ." (N. " . I, 11< It 'llltl'·"""' . 1'1'17, 1'_:l7.'i). Arm'.... I I'(>h ·llh;11 ,IS I';nl uf 11, , 1.. ,,,,'o ,·o lM'IUl,,' n,..l óll·'lh.· u" ",h..". , ,1 In t h '1 ''''1M
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slve. stacc uto. and acccnu-d th c ruusic, thc greater the apparcnt ph ysical u 'sponsl' lo it. \Vh en evc-' r thl-' un d crly tng Lea l is d ea rly d efined , even a casual lisu-m-r is likely to respon d with so rne ovc rt ph ysícal respon se. Wh ile rhyt hrn. and particularly lem po, appears to be the dominant ener~i l. i llg
facto r, dy na m ic Ievel a lso may stim ulate. Loude r music gen eral ly stím -
ulan-s gn ,ater physical response than softer mu sic. O tber mu sical attríbutcs, S il eh as pitch levcl, melod y, harrnony, tcxtu re, an d ti m b re, also m ay help l'1ll'rbrize mu sic, but the extcnt to w h ieh the se variab les contríbute toward 1II11sic's driving . en ergiz mg force ís less c1earl y understo od th an for rhyth m a mi dynumics.
St'dalivt' Music f\l lIsit' that soothes, calm s, or tra nquilizes bch avior app ca rs to re ly on llllll lwlTWiSivl' aml legato so un ds. l is m elodic passages u sually a re su stain ed ,lIu l Il'galo, and ge n era lly h ave minimal rh yt hmic acti vit y. Scda tive music' s II1 m l im p or ta nt rhy th m ie attribul e is an underlying bea l, wh ieh usu all y is 1I lUII OlUllOllsly rCh'1l lar bu t su b d ued. Lullabies are a prime examp le of func tllllla l sl'd ative musie. They con tai n sustained leg atu m el od ies, wHh a qu iet huI sh' ad y IInd l' rlyi ng b eat. Lullabies usu all y are quite so ft, much slowe r th an slilllu liltiVt' 1I111sie, am I q uite Iim itcd in frequency ra nge.
lIijJi'rnllial Rt'.fpomes lo Stimulative an d Seda tive Music IlUlivid lla ls co nc e rn ed with using m usie fm functio n a ! p urposes lo ng h ave l('Wglli ZI'd th e d ilTerential response to Ihe twu types o f m usie, but they h ave no l gOI1l' to b'Teat Il'ngths to co rrob orate the cffects th ro ug h re searrh .t C('rla in ly, lllusic tlsed by th e m ilitaT)' throughout histu ry to in cite troops in to hattll' l('llects th e characte risties o f stim ula tive music. as does mtl sic of loday's sd loo l p I'" an d mareh ing ban ds . O n th e o ther h a nd , mclodies used lo sllo lht· iufanls re neet eh araelc risties o f sed alive m usie. M areh m usic lI'Ih '('ls d iffe n 'n t cha raele risties th an rom anti e music. Responses to adjeetive t ¡' l't-klisls, takcn as in d ica lo rs uf m ood or character re sponse to m usic, rev ea l IIlI ih ' diffl'lT'ut lists o f a djcctiv es fm stim ula tive a nd sed ative music. Applau se al l"O lll'CI"Is ¡.;e llera lly is m uch b'TCa ler for slim l1 lative Iha n fo r scd ative mu sie. 1\1Iu:h o f lhe limited resl' areh p artieu larl y foeu sed 0 11 ctl m pa ring respons('s to Ihl' IWI) I)'p es o f musie was fOlldu eled in tlH' 1 ~1 , lOs and W5 0s al T h e ~ A ll 1' '' '
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1 'l ' l llts. 1... IWI'I'1\ t.1( 1 () l ' . Vserious v igora us/ q u ict, I1WJI'SlId lO \ 111'\sh-ahn , jo yo llslg1oomy , w lIms.lea d/ d ' ' (Eaeh 'ldJ·I'(·li'l'l' p" il ream) . lid' ' (j , 1 an d exh llarate 1 1 Iollulh ill¡.!;. p ay \1 Iglll ICI , l' 1 I1 'r AdJ'eeti ve Cirde a pllt' ar ltl¡'; in ' , sitc dustl' rs () lle cv ne 1l1'Ilt'UIS LII oppo . " . ' s f th twa typ c s 01' lII11sk 1111 " K ) T I ' lllean dilTerence III ra llllg ur e I ( l'IJI!t'I . le . 11 .' . r. t 0(1 ) Snch d ata s\lp p m t 1 \,. f ' IJ 'I'Ctivcs was lu g 1 y slgnlllean . . " • , 11 I I pan o ,H . -. .• • . . \ ' t 'd lo the acti valiol1 am i 1' 111' 1' III1'0 L)' th al a lf('l'hve resp onse to . m;IS1~ 15 \e a ~1 d rl'sponse wh ich Sl'('11lS l/LlIJl, ( ha l'óll'lt' ristíes u f the m,\1Sle: sh m u u~ . . O'~tertwilll'd ;on ll' ho \\' wil h I. ¡ 1I ' Il1'lI iI "d ispos itio ll to aet mn: appa~ent y I~, ~ I , ... 'l " 1<1 tvI uzak.likt. , \. . , ' d , ' lall ve nlUSIC, MUSle Ill lapls S .II 11 '1 Il lll~ " to SllllHI .ltIVI, ,1II Sl'l . l 't '·c's 'lCtivatio n ch arOleI ltq ull ,\lio IlS undollbl l'llly will c (ln~lIl ue to ex » 01 m USI •
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11 \lk s 11 1 in lhll' IJ{'1' huma n b l'ha vlor. N' T l, Aka i ¡lIId Nakaj imil 11 , ,\ It'l I'nl stutly o f a d ilfeu' nt natU I"l~, 111011 0 . SIl{ .1, d " 1 ., st'i f- )"1 ( ' ( '<1 l (/ 11110) l('POI'h'd th at f o llt'g ' 1II1ti l'rgr ailuiltl' studl' I.\ ~~t·ng~g:· \ I:n ')V'id t,J 'wilh k f ' 'el tlll' t'\sk 11l\L('h m Of(' qlllt y W 11 I It,t,ll lj.l, la s ' pt'lllI lll l , .' . 1 I . v id t'd wílh ha('kgwlIIu l 1, 11 kj.l,l o lllu l IIIUsic wilh ~asl k lll!,l t la ll ,....k·. I:. ~l ~Ht : r .s d isl'm M'tl 1)I'lo w, , ,tlh slo\\"('1' \t·mlll. NUlIIt' I' III S m .11 ll lllg s 1I{ \( . , .t UI t1 . 1 " . . ' It ' I ill n lsln lllt' IS \lIIlV" \ 1,'ld ,'d SiLl liloll' rt's ults: Fas!t' r b al kJl,l llll; l. L ~\I\~1l1 \t s.u ~:J;1I1 d l(i SIUWI'1" h¡l('k. lu 1111 '\1' (tuit-k l)' thn lllf,h" t (' IIlIlI"lt \, 1 .·,1.1 l i S IlIlt 11 t
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grouud m usic. i ll(· Ol\.~ i.~1l' ll l H'.'1Ih.~ 1'1tJ1II ph ysíologi cal rcsc urcli, strong c vífrom vanous pl 'rsl )t'('liv('s sllp l' orls t111~ corne n ti on that pcopl e respond differen tly lo snmulative am l st'daliv(' m usic. Th e eví d ence includes exam pk-s o f rnus¡c thro ug ho ut lu story . musical exam ples in eo n temporary d ail y life, uud II lim ilcd numbc r and va rict y 0 1' rcsearch stu di es. Discusslon of v ariOlls upplications o f thls knowl edge and the subtlety with which it is app lied for particu lar uses compríses much 01' th e b alan ce of thi s ch ap te r, Some a pplica tio ns ca pita lizo on music's abili ty lo stimulate; others capital ize on its ah ility lo soorhe. Thcse ap plicatlons are dt scusscd as they perta in lo music in rcn-monics : background m u sic ; co m mcrcial, industrial, and th erapcuü c u ses (11' m usic ; music to fa cil ítate nonmusica l leam tng ; a n d music as a reward for cb ungmg bch avior.
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Music in Ceremonies l 'on-monia l music reflecta o ne o f musíc's earliest func tional u ses, a use that h a'l ( nut iuur-d throughou t hi sto ry an d re main s an im p o rta n t part of m o st cc rI' Il1lJll i( ' ,~ to day, C o m m em o ra tive cere m o nies n ot on l)' re m ind o ne of p ast l' \'l' llh Ol h( ' li t ,[~ ; Ihey re p resen l an experience 0 1' a mylh lo p eople who did !Io1 11 \'1' 1111" origi nal cx perience (Conn e rto n , 1989, p , 43), M us ic is viewed as U lI IIlh'¡.tra l pa rl u f n ·n.·lllo n y an d does much to en hance th e formality 0 1'such 0 1 1 il'llo llS, Virllla lly a ll typcs al' ce rem o ny , b e Ihey religi ou s, m ilitary , sta te, .tl h ll'lk. 0 1 n lllullercia l. incorporal e m usic in so rne way, t\. l u!'> !'> uIIlMIl ( U)7,1. p , 129) n otes that music h as fu nctioned m ore co nsis11'1111), a m i pusilivel y in re ligio us ritual th an in any other area o f life in \\"'!'o !l' m d vil iza tio ll. L've n lo Ihe ex ten t th at religiou s m usic eomprises one o f \\h tl'l"Il Illusic's lun gest a nd rich est traditions, Su llivan (1997) re lales th al U V1'1' tlH' {'{'n tur il's, p ('o pl e n ave att em p ted lo h oId music fundamen ta l to t he (T('a lioll u f Ilu.' lIni V erSl~ and h u m anity' s pl ace with in iL MlISic's sp eeifie fu n ctio n in cerem o n ial worsh ip tend s to vary with its p lan ' in 11ll' lT rL'1l10 ny, \Vith in Christian ity, p articu la r music is d esign aled 1'0 1' 1I1t· form a l ~t'c t i o ns u f th e Roman C at ho lic m ass and th e main Anglican se rvin '!'> , as wl'11 as formal Lu th e ra n serviccs . t\l uch J ewish worsh ip practice lIla k(,s exk llsiVl' \lse orI iturb'Y' In both Christian an d Jewish p ractice, liturgi. ('
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urt o f th e!'> e servkes ;t!'> WI' I\ as m un y «nci n u ' 111 t111110 1 1un 1 p. , l\ \'UIKt' , 11ym n smg ,... . , ' l' . ,' '1 _,tu in \'o lvl' IllI' t'U Il ~n' ¡;a tlU I\ ll¡.!,lit:a1l aiHl l .1I1IH'ran M'IVttl'!'> . 1'1 a t 1Il( 1 w.) in 11 H' serv ice , , ' if t, lbe tt co n tro vers ia l a nd vur yiug in T IH' USt' u f rnusic in lslum 15 SI~'l~1 ~a~ I~ th chant-likt" m usi ca l so uu d in ll al ticc umong Isla m ic cu ltu re s, lec , n~caN'!~ 1~ )')7 1) :l:.W' O ur csi . 1!l!)7, p , I , .ti , is not " muste ( asr, -, , . ,x 1 h l111111c n -1Igl0l1S pnlC tcc u . , ' 1 1 rds h as Importa ncc b cyon c 'J I; 1), While th c so und 01' the Qur an s 10 y Wt~ Sh d _h ( P N r;) notes Ihal , ' 11' · ' t íntended to b e m USIC, l oa -,, , 11", nlt' amng use , u IS n o .1 , l. itlv a nd legal and th eolob'l t'a l p 111l' Q u r'a n d oes not mennon m~slc ehx ~Cl ~:nissible, As with ol lll' r rc li. . 1 . d i .. greed regardmg w at IS a , 1l" lho nt ws lave isa ' . ' thro ugb scusuou s sOlln<\s IS co n . 1" 1 adtng wo rahi p pers astray , ~ l n ll S Inu tuons, ea . '15 11" thc p rimary cunceru . IS ' rt m u sic where mUSIC I e IS , Ik ¡d l'u 'tI ( Iangero us; a , uv and world ly r o nc e ra s. 1'0 ' . b 1b ' 1 d isp lays human vamty an , ' 1'\ \,t'I'lillly ac ec ause I d h their meanmg 1'1 1101 , " . . 11 ' h oly word s an en an ces " lI ll1 S I(' rb at SUPPOl lS, le , ib l Shl lo : h ( l (jq r; P :~7) ind ica lt·s Ihal . d I1 ' e fore is p crrmsst e , 1 oa ' -" , 1. 111. 1'11 (' Ill'r se, an ter , " id rh ylhmic regl.l larit y ' Il H 1'1 JT • I 1 mi e wor sblp " m uste avoi s 1111' IlItl!'ot et tec nve s a \\' h .1 th soun ds may featun ' V'lf iOlI'l th I low o f th c tex t. ' 1 e e · 1I1I IIo n l m at e te e th rnu st Ilo w [rom rh c co n h' nl u I b nd stríctly sp oken te xt, ey 1 11 "llIlwl 1'1 Ull ent s eyo " 1 l . . .ystem 01' regu\aling em JI ' '1·1 r ce nI' la(b wld ev o ve ( as a s I lit lh.. \t ' Xt. le prac 1 "J h r d 'cti oll and re nd iliun ()f Ill' I 111111'111'1 in accordaoee wit h proper pone ICS, 1 , >
I dd·' · nal fun ctin ns, At times, it "'11 11,11 wn rd s, ' ces SL'rves severa a 1 10 , , t>. 111 sk in n ' 1IgaOUS se rvl ' l' lo res!)()lld in a ccltain \vay; , I I ·tim ulate lh e cOIlb rrega Ion , 1 ~ I' I VI' ,S as a sIgna o s I. 1 d " re used lo hclp ('stabll !'o 1 a , . ,t o rgan 0 1' cho ra mter u es a ' ,11 011lt' r IUlles qm c ,' \ \' h. 1 gregation al sing ing serVt'S lo ' 0 1' tranqm ltty I e co n 1 I r 1 tIl lO"l o reverence ' , . . n -ho ·" anth em s m ay 11' ;1( I H' tive p artlclp at lo , e . . , b l· r ld va lul's 'lI1 tl im p lical io m¡ 1m dlll W pl'opl(' to gel 1lCr III ae " i n th e rchgoon s e le s a l ' • wIII!'o lli¡wl"s lo re nec o , 1 . . ¡mo ies sp l'cial rt'llgio ll'l t't'n ' ' r 'd uals Specla m uste acco m 11 "'I1I!'> t' 1ves as I.n( IVI . , I d s l.cia l rcl igious hu lid ays .111' , " . t n l)' wed dmgs fuo era s, an P " '1 1111111 11''1, '-A.'r al ' . d . 'd I o han ce th e on~a sil)lI !'> M ~ 1Il 1 , !fui b ) ' m US\( eSlgne o e 111' " !lo \110 ft ' llleun m ¡;. . ' , h owever a re m U l! ' "p l'l , f lisie in re hg ]( IlIS cel em ony , • l· 1 ,1111 1' , S O Il W U S{~ S o nl , ,, ,' f 1 " lo music' s im po rla lll'p Iu 1'\ ' 1 "cere m o lllal, a lte sllllg u rt lel ~ 1I , 1'" \' 1' •
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,Hi l'e rris' jux íuposltion u l l ll ll l l 'pl ~ hum fuur m ajor world rdi~i (Jll s ":Iu d a i sm, Christíunl ty, ISI:lII1, a II1I I f 1I lIIIIisIII ~ n-veuk-d that , even th oug h SIII11t' obvious diffcreuces cx tst in thc way l ht' fou r n-lig iou s use m uste, six underlyí ng faetors requirc con sidenu lou wlu-n llsin g muste in relígi o us servíce: (a) thc wonls must be co m p rehensi hlc lo the co ngregatíon; (b) trad itional melo dy und perform ance practico sho uld be o bserved ; (e) th e use of any m us ical instrumcnts must be moralIy and socially accep ta blc; {d} m usic m ust b e used for proper p Ulposes and a t p roper pla ces in the worship ce rc m ony; (e) music in a wo rship eeremony sh o u ld not b e misused , i.c ., det ra er fro m th e cer emony's purpose ; and (1) co mpose rs' artistic g oal s sh ou ld not ove rr íd e th eological co ncems. Perr is notes that thi s final ccns idcratío n is a particu lar conr-ern of westc m religi ous music. Rchued to artisüc-theo lcgica l co nflicts is th e way im p orta n t musical work s wirh ort giu s in rcligious fun ctlons h avc b ecome p art of th e con cert repe rtuin -, es pecially in Westem cla ssica l music. The Bloch Sacred Seroice is bascd Inh-wi sh l üurgy , The m asses o f Ve rd i, Moza rt, an d Bee thoven, o ratorios such 11 ' Il ancli'!'s Mr.u iah and H ayd n ' s CTtalion, an d the wealth o f 8ach cantalas 11111 1 1hlll a l('s ("(1I11e fm m C h ristian se tt ings . M ore questionab ly, p eople m a)' 1 1l1l1 1l 1 ' ~ IJ¡l'li { : p Jeasll re in listcning lO rhyth mic chanting intended for nat ive ¡\ 11I" IÍC'UII 1('Ii",io llS ccremon ies o r in the so u n d of th e 'ahm calling Ihe hl ,llllil 1,lHhhd In p ra yer. Bo h lman (1997) n o les th a t music w hich o riginate d liolll 101'al praetice may ac q uire an in tematio n al audien ce. b ecomc enter1.IIIlII WIlI , a nd Illl'n bdong to m u sical con su mers m ore so th an lo th e re HKitl u\ p liLl'l il iollt'rs frolll Wh 0 111 the music evolved , W h ilt, tllll ~i c in rdigious cerem ony m ay se rve more Ihan "cerem o n ia l" fllll
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. ... I hr 1 an -on e else. Such so ngs pr ovide 1111' IIIt' soldte r needs -sumng songs ess t tcal Y 1 t i wa r bul the soldíer . , " . I ,.. Ious oude r Ior ph ysíc lI1VO vemen In , (l VI II
IIIl' starker realities of rhe co n lC[t h · h ter e ·Ielhal Wea!)OIlS, wlu-rc !lis b d of mouth- or e as mor IIIt' ouemy.. y wor ....... In . . 1.. .e-belhcose and br earhtng firl' - llw)' tne liItera 1 sense "songs are war 5Ono_ . L. • d ti expr ess tha n lo the circlIlllslall(·I'S uf nwe thcir appeal less lo me al' our ley rlu-ir cOlu pos ilion, (p. '2 77)
in m usic• particu la rlya rl mmi(', ) traces t h e d ep 'lc u' ono oofr war w A rno Id (1-I)In ". f h ' \ Var-rel atcd cO I1l ¡I()~i · diff in the charactcr o t e muslC. lIud noles 1 eren ces I . lo th e twentielh (('nlll ry, , _ 1, 'r I ' d picting b attles, were co m mon p nor IlnUS, .lIge) e [ d d 'T"wentie th -ccnlu rv Cl llll pOSl'rS seld (lIll - , ., r·1y are p er orme lo ay, l .; 11Il1 I KSl. la " \ ' t " Y W.ll" as Wl'll as lo , ' ,'\ . 1 G re e ks u se{ m u slC o pOi ra <" " war. le anClen lu alSl,d d . . 1 auacks· th l-' Romall ~ , ' ' I "~ ' rd er arouse the lroops, ao signa , mallltam 011 11....,1')d o h G, ' l limes, ' "...'h ,' I,', a rt tell{lt·d k D ring me d ¡('va - lo lila )' have copie t e ree s, u d 'd 1 Iry lo portra y b alt ll'S , h l 'pecls of war. co m posers I no , \III'SS In llm p a n as d' d I Ihe Rcnaissance w l1{"n armi t's 0 111'1\ , 1 , '1" .• lIy as later eo m p o sers 1 . n II'il1IS H,\ , ,' rt, ayin g war stress("d rh ylhlll rol! 1I' r m ers com posll\on s p o , I'III\, 10YI'l I d n lln , , as well as 1i1('r al uH' and pallll· ' . D ·ng lhe Ba roque era, 111USIC, , Ihan !l.uOl ony, un h .. lories" o fwar. Th e 1ate elg ' hlee' lth a nd ('·Irly 111 111 '· , In¡.l" lcnded lo stress t e g [ l' l d m,'I',tary sOllgs in to ,tll " h, · tr d ction o n a lOn a an . 1""lIl h n "ntu fl es sa", t e m o u . . . 1 ' xa lllp le I ·Ih' r in 1111' ', . , " I . ' Wellinglon :~ VlctOry IS a prnm men e ' ... 1I1l1SH , Bt e llOV(,n s . I " l'k ' l to d ep ict co n lc lll pora ry wa l.~ , ., lury mu stC was ess 1 e y 1 1I 111('tI't'll t' 1 (.( tl ' h "h d ll ''111<1 11111 I n t o [ m o re rap 'ld con l,n" ""'··lliu < l lltl'n 'slingl y, wlt ,t 1-" ,evefo~~~ ficld ca mage emerged, t1ll'H'h y m akill K IUKlaph)', tnll-"r plCtu rc s o a e . d " [ball'e . It d glo nous ep lchons n ' nmlil'II('("S more c)' OIca owar , I . . si !"Ita l lo drilw ' \ " 'I' l'ry . n d sla le ce remnny IS lIsl-'d no l on y as a g l ~ lISIl: 111 mil I ' " 11' '1 t 11 IJ H' .II II'lllio ll lo a pa rticu lar p art of th e ce rc mon y, sl1l:h as p,aY lll~ ,~I I 111 '15 , \ f lh e ¡','csi
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vu-ws ma)' be so m c whal ra dical. m uste certain l h . ~ e ua 1 s aspcc t uf totalita ria n societies. y as beco an Im porta nt
Mauy occ asio ns o ther tha n rcli ' O U5 and .. . mu s¡c. Sportlng events are . gJ rnilitary in clu dc ce remonial . o ..... a prime cxample. The . d i' unuues uf the Su mmer and '1" 01 . openmg an e osmg ceremter ym plc Games lw . 1 mns¡c, ami thc medal cere , . 1d a ways mvo ve spec ial .......montes me u e playín th ' I IIIt' gold med al recí píe nts ' . H' g e nanona a nthems of countrtes. igh sc hool co ll d n ro f sports cv ents o pe n wíth e ' 1 . ' ege, un p ro fessíonal eremoma musrc ofte . 1 d¡ h unt lu-m and teu m o r school so n ' '''1 ' f ' ~ me u mg t e natlon al gs. I~ lISIC o marchín u a nd pe b d s h il 110 1 a 1ways ccrcmomal pe r S"" ft . 1::> P r-an s, W 1 e e , 0 1 1 e n serves a n im portant t; P V C ' II I.~ , • tu n e t Ion te r spo rting Nl'a rIy an y (jllec n (a l' kíng) crowníne cerem on
. a high school S b 'n ' . ' Ivcl se,or traw erry 1'1'~ ! l vll l ) llC'iluly Il'ltre'",' 'l::> ' I C OI porat es music Th' " 111 11'1'11 111 kilI" 'IS he 'HI of sta' f , . ' e coronatlOn o f a "real" 1'1 " , e ca IIres muslc Fol k~ · t" I h 'j ' lIsua 11y rely ' on ro es lva IllII I l'l1'lJHlllY in 11 ll.' ritualis' ,' c s cnsc, " s, w 1. C perhap , s Iilll l' II ~ wp l! as Ill'ilrhlen ing ,h bl USIC as a n mlegrati ve . o c memo ra cness of lhe o . h ll lll lhi"l ('ursory review, it is a a rent that , . cC~lon, 1110 .. 1 ll' I¡'lIlflllic's \\' h,'I" hPPh mUSlC IS an Important part of ... rescarc as no t ex am me ' d . ,, cere mo nia l mu sic's dl l'c h I I O Ill a "sl'i(' ntific" pecs p-c,' th f th , ... Ive, e act at mus'c h b d 1111111' ." lu In' a IJart of m ., ' attests to 'tsI f as ' ee n1 an co nos ceremomes l'lI!1alldng Iht, importance and bl 1 unch ona va lue in memora eness of many DCcasions .
h,l l llll, '(' lll11 in~' event c r a Mi ss. \,1'orId (0 b . y, wh eth cr 1' A m en ea or Uni ' "
Com mercial M usic "Co lllllll'rd al" uses of mu sk re fer t ' l1lonl'y fm m Illllsic d in'ct ly or to e h o ubsm~ musie in so rne way to make ' f ' n a nee usmess th ro up"h th 'If") o e use o m usle. o rl Il a nd I la wrea vcs (1997 N " . 1::> •• , p, ¿, Jo suggest tha t eo mm ' ' 1 ' f ' l'llll...lIll1 lt' u m' Ihe I)ri ' I ereJa lIses o muslC ' . ' nClpa sources of o ur ex . posur e to muslc 10 the \.\ c '.~ !I' l'll wo rld ." Thc next ~ew secl10ns ex am ine eomm . I f 1l 1 11 1l ,~ l' VI'l"al 11I.'l"sIJectiv"'... s ,' h'ae'kgl 'Ol llld OlllSIC ' mu s . ' ' crCla uses o m usie 1 " l'llll' l'l ;dnll ll'llt, amI m usÍ(" for 1" '"'" ' ' '. lC lO a( ver tlsmg, musie as . " ti Io n cs pec JaJl)' as a ' f I ' ~ I llry loll! in ,mo tile!' mcdium, ' way o e n 1ancmg a
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llf ,1 plun ucd a ud io 1'lIviJclllllwnl lll as tlu' n-snlt 01' hap l)('lIstaIH'I'. Th c rcnn oftcn con non-s !'l1l 1l H' IY I'I' 01' " l11ood muste." "easy Iísu-ning," 0 1" "Iwauliflll m nsi c," alt h oll~h uhnost a ny type of m usíc ma y Sl'I"Ve as a b uck ,lo;rnllnd fo r somcthing clse. h111ssIIIman (W7·I , p , !J:{) notes that background 1II11sic is " lnte nded lo be boa rd but n OI activcly o r purposel y listeu ed to ." Slrid l)' speaking, m usic th at captures a perso n's auen tio n ls Iaili ng to fun cdon as trul y "background" m uste. Models and th eori e s mco rp o ratin g deli b t-ra te anennon as essential to an aesthetíc expericnce wi th music or to dctcrnuning m usical prefe rence [see Ch apters 8 and 9) theoreücally do not app ly lo ba ckground rnusic. An unr eso lved q uestion regarding backgro und music co ncem s lo udncss k-vi-l . The lnten t of background music is to be unobtru sive yet sufflcien üy 1011<1 to ha ve so rne d esírcd cffect 0 0 the "lístcner." T hat an Hsten e rs will n o l r]..síre thc sa me lo ndncss leve! is a given. but wben it becomes snffick-ntly lond that it becorn cs obtrusive, it may no lo nge r be co nsidercd buckgrouud music . Studying the c ffccts of loudness lcv el on 144 co llege students' rcla xalio n responses, Staum a nd Brotons (2000) found an ovem'h elming Jll'dt'f ' i'lu:e for so n mu sic, T he authors suspe ct th at most p eople prefcr soft ba(·k· ¡:,rollnd music, alt hough what is co nsider ed "soft" will vary gr ea lly am o ng íllllivid uals. The tenn "ne\\' age" oc casio na lly is applied to so rne backgroun d l1msic. U'oIlally, new age m usic is in strumental, often featuring solo pian o or h'l lila r, l)uusi-cham be r e nse mbles, synthesizers, o r a m ix of electronic aud an lllslic ill ..lmmenls_ Describing th e slyle. r arel es (l 9 H7, p, 3C ) iodicat cs lha t "alI1\O'o I illvariably Ihe te mpos are sIo,..'. th e hannonies sim ple, the tim bres I kh, and 111(' reco rd ing quality flln~bodied an d noiseless" b eca use "it ¡'Iimina!l's 1111' lIluSt co m ple x, tirne-co nsuming. menta Jly draining part of th¡' ll11lSi('all' >'11l' 1i('nee: paying attentio n," Time m ay resol ve the q uestio n of wh('t1H'1 III'W a ""l ' 1lI11sic is re any a style o r an a lte mative label fo r background 1Il1l~k ; l'l' lla in Iy, il lends itsel f we ll to backgrou nd func tia ns.) TO Ano the r ge neric label fo r backgro und m usie is " l\l uza k .... W hill' t\1111.;lk, 1I11t ler its ya riOllS corporate owners. is ind ecd the be st k nawn pwvidl'l 01 ha('kg ro und mu sic in the workplaee , lh e Mi n neso ta t\.l in ing a lld l\'1anufad ur ing C llm pany a nd Audio Env ironments lil e , haye provide d si¡.;:· nilk tlnt sc rYiccs; olh(~ r regional anci loca l vendors cxist. Yet, tlw Mu zak labt 'l HIÚ'lI is attad H'd In any fo rm of relativel)' ullo utl"Usive music, jusI a.~ a f,1l'ial tissue often is ca ll(~d a " Klcen exH,\" rcgard less 01' iL'i ac lual manufadurer, M UI'.i\ K' S D EVEl.lll' MEK L T he hislory of Ihe Muzak C o rpo ratio n ami its "llI'illml nUl,i,' fuu"¡¡on,
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111,. U ~ \ Gl-'nera l I lt u hlp.• for "win' d" '" 11 ' 1111\ ' N II I" ( " " 1" dlll ing \Vorld \\'a r 1 dcvcl.u n , ,' ' \ " . 11I 111 whkh r. 1" . , • t , I' 1 It l( ' powcr ¡i tl!'.' tll t h", " , I . l( 10 signa s would truvel ' 1" 1'111 1 111111'" I ¡·j¡ ·('ll'om ti di 11111 11 1' 1' u-re and 1Jl')'lllld (,, \ I I " 1 ) ugnc le Isturbanccs in 1 11111'. which he sold ¡JI JII:.! " , ' ,'," " 'NI 1'11 io . ( :t' l lt'l"il l Squicr acquired a • 11 ' 1' 1.11 11 1\ 111 ' P . ' 1111'"11)' thut had CJ"(" ' " l ' . , 1''1'I('¡rlIl», vompany. a holding .11 1 1 1(' e " ' 111' 1 r] ,, / hll 111. ¡,d 11u.' America n "', ', 1 , ' " 11(' .......o rpora tion and once • " 1'11 '111' 111 lll l d 1 TI 1, 111 " 1, Nor th Ame rica n a(,(,uIII'¡j ,\ , " I I 1': \;1 " ,101' , romas Edi.son. ShOrlly , .. I u 1,Irge rnusic library , , " 1 It II ' " 1\ 11 ,sn: 1'11I) l'IS'/u-rs, 1nc. as a so urce , \1 l le 1 t 11' l tlllll' " 1/ ' Il ~ I"Kk!,'Tound mu ste suh"id ióll v '1'1 ' 1 llIl ) I 11ti ( reco rd a nd distrfbut e via I,m illess"- h was rl' 11111 11' I\III/.ak thus was nor a . a cc rporun - 1'111"11 '1 1 " " . ga rage w nruu r u' }('gm níng. IllitialIy called Wired R 1- ' . 11 lO, 111 1111 ' / I U k 1 ¡.{'lII ized as The !vfuz.k e , , , " , ,¡.;roull( mu sic serv ice was reo', I .• OI pO lutl llll 111 1'1'1 -1 TI 11 • tomes in Clcvclamí 0 1' ' " " " , Il' Irsl Irans missions wcru lo , . ' , 1I O ,~ ,ólli. l'wnnd SI' t't i Ol bur M zak con cen tr an- on a typc of "1' . l" 1, 11 uz· soon bega n lo h , 1I1UlulIIa /IIl1sk I ole s an d rcstauran p, A . I ' - , sen over lelephone fines lo o.ne pa~er, .Willia m H~'nl(JI,);,II¡':~:":I~:::!}tl~::I;(c;~:~sed ~uzak in .193R; by m ,H, he. Umverslty of C hicagu wilh óI hack . ' p~o~nelor.. ~ Vlee presidenl of slgnlficant inlI uenc e on tlH' lij'v " ' glO," M '1d III adVertlsmg, Ben ton had a 'f he S econd \Vürld \V ' ' t OJlll1ent (J uzak i n "o ItS mo d ern for m PT th ' '1 ' ' al S,IWr ontllllled . O ' ow In I\o' uza k as its record ing slud lOS provided materials for Ih A ind ustry. I mportant to .I\Iuza k's futC m encan armed f¡or ces an d t h C defen se h providing background Olusic for w:'~ t e.war also saw a growing bc lief !hal (:ial to morale and boosted rodl t' ers m o ffiees and industry was ben efiported to document stlch bCI~ 'f ts IC Ion, MllCh in-hollSe Iiterature that pUl'el acerued. B . Jl}lo ) , ' o, a charactctislic fonual of 1:'- . olher providers of background , ,) minute segm ents was in p laee. Unlike ~·(·pt extensively. O ver a 15_min~~SIC. ~1uzak uses ~he stimu/uspTogr(jjion conmCfcase in a .~timu/us va/uf. wh ' h ' PC b nod, SUCcesslve short m usical cx ce']'l.s j , ' ' , Ir l S ased un the e . ' I 1 11S , lIlslrn m entation and te' TI xce lpt s lempo, aCCen t pa l. , x I1fe. le degTee of . /loratlOlI pu']'ortedly ca h ' progr esslOn varíes' Ihe eorf: ' n male stimulus p ' ' all!,'1Il" ("lUVes: During !he ti f I'k rogresslon curves with worker f I ''m es o 1 ely worker t: t' h ,0 a s 11 1, I.he m usical stimulalion is hi h ' d ' ,a 19u e, .suc as the m iddl e d f g " unng times uf hkely low fatigue as .11 lile hl'b'1:nning 01' near Ih '1'/ I ~ . e e n o a shlfl !he stim 1 , " • 1( ' ,H IlJrl Ule mus ical "'<'''gm en ,s' a l' emate ' '11 . uI a IOn IS relativel)· low' MlIzak pa sst'd th rOl .h , W1 1 pe no( s of silellce , Ig severa OWners and d d ('01 11 '(I pro~;Tamming It d ' . ' a op te ever more sop hisli' , . Ola e Increasmg use of · d " 1111' ( / le'l p ro fcssionals _I '. 10 uslna psychologisls and , , as co nsll lants. loda)' M k' '1 ( Hlllpa ll)' s recorc!c'd "'1''''' .as we11 ' IS b ' d' ' liza IS a val ahl e Ihrollgh lhe ' • "", I1,1('k~T"II I](1 tllllsic taHo,-,' " " , " } I/'('U salellilc broadcasL \Vhi/e 1 ' ( " tt spt'n llr W 'k, ' , III.SI IH'S,S, l\111zak " Iso pro vidl 'S ' I -, ~ ll sltuatloll,S H'lJlaillS ¡he con' .. , 1 Ylw o 100 t',!o:To llnd " IlllJ ,k, dc'/iIIt'I"aI<,ly I I I 1111 n l/ln-,. in
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progrnnu ne d lo ca pllll l' II It' ¡¡ III 'nl il111 uf pot c nüa l cus tonu-rs (Hmuc r. I!UU). M ust e 1;'11 TlI!': \\'t IItK l'IAt '1" In cx um inlng M uzuk' s op crauons, II 1ISd l cunclud es tha t flve gem-rahzuriuus. bascd on carl y rusearch , provide a nuiou uk- for irs selecüon ami II S(' in thc work place: (a) M usic gen erall y is a SIH :(l 'ssflll \\la)' to combat bon-dom. (b) m usic in thc workplace will mercase product ivity, (e) m ilsic will help improve e mploy ees' morale. (el) popular rhythmil' rnusic Iikely ,,,; 11 be more effective than other types of IUlISic, a nd (e) pro pe !' schedulíng is írn po rtan t for m aximi zing music's cffecrívcncss. Using ruusíc in th c workp laee to raisc m ora le, coordínate cfforts, Uf stlm ulate wo rke rs has a lon g history. Duri ng past years, div erse laborers. such as tu-Id hands, railroad track laye rs, sailor s, and others, sang a nd cha nted . TIa' possibili ty e xists for work songs wherever people \ v ork in gcou ps ami ca n [n-ar each orhe r. Yel, Muzak is a very dilTerent ph enomen on, as H usch cal'!' Iully describes. A majo r diffcrence between M uzak and ea rlier use of wo rk so ngs is íhnt 1111' wo rke rs do not c reat e Muzak wh ile the y work. M uza k impost's pn" \l' II'clcd mu sic. usuall )' as a resuh of a management decision . Rh yth rn!i a m i wor ds do nol ari se fro m the pa rticular lask al ha nd , as the y ge ne ra lly did iu "ad ier work so ngs, Muzak's rhy thms a nd im plied wO fds (M uzak uSllally ha s 110 audi ble words) ha ve no nccessary conncction w¡th Ihe work al ha nd ; wor ke rs' job-rclated physical actions are nol a consideration in the music M'lt'c tio n process. t\1uzak Ihus has become another standard of operation in the man ufaclur· i l1g 0 1' serviee concern, sim ila r to operations involved in word pro<:essing, i"Tonnting, 0 1' clea ning. It do es no t add ress any set of specific procedllres ()I' wOIking co nd itions, a nd it is unrelatcd lo a ny parlicula r job site. Mu za k has a ft'b'1l1arity and predictabilily along with its mood va riations. Ralh cr than a ru n lS on Ihe immed iale task, Muzak ma y e ncom age fanl asy and f('minis· 1 t'IKe; ma ny of the ab sent Iyrics fro m Muzak song segm cnts add ress 10vI' 1Il1t1 frit'nd ship.· Husch goes so [al' as to suggesl that M uzak is a form 01' a udi lo..)' social contro l, \\lhieh resuhs in a control of sym bolie action thro llg h ul!('ra lion o f time and spaee withoul human intcraction. Whil e Mu zak is cn '.11('11 s('pa rately from Ihe people who musl wor k in ils presen ce, it afTl'cts a n ilulivillllal' s stalc u f mind as he 0 1' she works. \VIlt'ther Mu zak a l' another sourct' provid es the ba(:kgrolllld tllllsic, alld wll('th('r il tm l}' ís a fOfm of social olll lro l 01' Illcrel y a p leasa nt dí v<'rsio ll, a l o~ i nll question arises: Does it wm k? M uzak n 'rtainly has its sun 'l'SS slor il's Il',¡,: arding incrl'ased prod\l(·tivil}' am i e nha nceme nt o f Ihe work p l an ~ . It ;IY" 1l IIU' ,'a ri i,' r d" linitioll of I,;u k~HHll u t IIIII' j, IIml 1111' I M,,,-~ i h ihl r lha l ;lth'lltion lo llu' 1Il."il UIU Y U,'¡¡;al l' i l s I!IIll'0 S" , IOU" m¡ lo( h t lll'~II< ' Ih .1I II t l u' ""l'i, ;Ilu'ls fan la ,¡ ..s ;tIl d 1il1'IIIor¡" N, ¡tma r 11" 1""10(1'1 Ilul r IH' h.u k¡¡;ro ulld 1l11l'i,', I ntl.,,'d , Ilu \ ""1\' " ' 10(141"1 " rt' lá l ' ll l iali " n" in il"'l lll'lit s ;",d illt
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Accord ing lo Kt'JT ( I ~ I - I.)) . "I.'\T I •• I "'llrld War 11 era sllItli.'s indicutc rhut mu s¡c n-nded lo ¡uITt'as!' tlu' .uuou nt of produced m aterial Ill(·(·tin g quaiíty
contro l s tan d a rd s. Musir {'spt "('ia lly sccru ed to enhan ce producti vit y in highIy rcpctiüvc work. A I!J7·1 ln -housc M uza k b roc h ure, with no au thor o f record . claimed increused product ivít y and improved e mp loyee atti tude in com pa n les manufacturing electrícal appliances and watc hcs. an electrical
utilit y, und a medic a! cla im pro ce ssing o ffí cc. Wokoun (l!J79) found that I\11l1.a k ap pare n tly re d uced fat igue amo ng au to m o b ile workers, particu larly duríng the añemoon. M usic may no! a lways be the impo rtan! variable in studíes showi ng effects o f backgrou nd music in work seui ngs . M an y variab les ínfluence producti on und m or ulc, bcth o f wh ieh n ced c1ear in díc ation o f ho w the y will b e reeogn izcd in particular experim en tal settings ("operation al" defíniüons). In re laüvely sh o rt-term studíes, the H awth om e effect. where incrccscd perso na l atn-nt lon H'sU ItS in a posítive change in at titu de or productíon, m ay be a faeli l l', Tlu- ty pc of work alsc is a consid era üon: Music aetu ally m ay di stract pea 1'1" l'n¡.:a¡':l'd in rela tivcl y intelle<:tual and nonrepeti tive wo rk . Rea listieall )'. M lll lt' WOIkl'rs m ay n ot welcom e backgr oun d music. e specially if other peopIe ~ I' I " t 1 tlll' llIu sic a nd d elenn in e lhe co nditions un der which it is h card , B.l( k¡.:l'tIllIld mll sic usua lly is co neeived as a gro up experien ce, but mod "llI Ilt'l.\onal headsl' ls ena b le ind ividual worke rs to selecl lh e ir own profl,1.llIllll ill¡'; f n ll ll ava ilab le broadcasts 01' record ed m usic. \Vhile so rne su per" ¡'ll l~ IIM Y o hjt 'ct lo the "\ Valkm an nl in the workp lace "s phenomenon h" t'um ,' il lIlay rl'l1love people fro ro the work e nv ironment ex cessive ly 0 1' illll'll"II' wilh Ilt·t'cssa ry OIH he -job com rnu nicalio n. m any "'orkers eng agi ng ill 11'1lt'lilivl' wm k c njoy Ihem (Pm\'ell. 19!J.t). \ ViII "a l 'k~ ro tJlld fIl usie en h anee produetivily. improve morale. and gen ('ra ll )' Illak e a workp lac e m ore p leasant ? T h e a nswer is a "d e fin ile m aybe." Nu lllle relia bl y can gua ra n lee thal a ll workers will p rofit from background lIlusic, Imt Ilnless th e rnu sie is di stracting or a nnoying. it is n ol hann ful, an d if Iwo p l(' lh ink that ji is ben eficial. fo r th em, it probably is. t\ ll /s l c I N 'l"IIE M AHKETI'I..ACE. Whil e the workp lace is on e major setting flll ha t'kground music. it also a ppears cxtc nsive ly in th e marketpÚlce. l is purpOS(' t'swntia lly is to e n hance eu stomers' experience so that they will spen d Ilio n ' moll t')'. In a restaurant, the rnusjc is int ended to p ro mote a p leasa nt t1 i llill ~ allllosphe re. In a sta re. bac kground music p rcsumab ly makes shoppinK a ll111rC cnjo yable expericnce. In a telev ision cornmcrd al, m usie preslllllab ly m akes Ih e advertised product o r se rv ice more desirable. In aH ease s. thl' l)lI silll'ss's clIslo m ers rather than its e m p loyecs are th e t.ugt't ed "au d i~~ \\I;l l k m¡m ~
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"11 ("('" fo r backgr oum llll ll'li' -, 1" ~_ ..." ,I IUIlll' tinu- (allt l llltllll'Y) . Iln¡';I' \lt'OP t' 0 " 1"illlpro priate IlUl SIC !lla)' l' llt 11 ' . '1 " ht ..,1,110 ·1 h vura bl t, umbi . . - , l ' " t I 11' mll SIC llu g u ., in a particular storc 01 II s .ltll .U~ . I _ .r.. 11 -muslc m it'-htlllask objt'd ion o 1 ic ht likc t1H' ¡l'lr tll:ll a l mu ste, le I l • _ h . l . une r, vo rnbl e j'ud¡!lIw nl lo I 11' ¡'lIn'. }Jl'OpIe nus nuS t stgn a se o 1, '1 .•h lt, b¡¡ckb'TOllll( I SOUIl( S. or I th at sti lativc m usic miuht eliclt a [aster pat"{' . ce su uuests i at stun u a t o , I'llSl01l lt'rs. 1'..xpen en . - = . . rap',u l)' ur Cllcou ra¡' e t1WI1\ to I th rough a store more 1:> am i thc reb y move peop e . " . ht I w the ¡laCe throuuh a storc ami . F' , I sedaríve m UStC nu g s {) 1:> " al lastcr . ......mversc y. h th .h"' Hlise and it ruígh t C llCO l ln l¡.!,1' br slnu throug e merc " , . ,'u t'Ollras c rn ore I O W 1:> d dri k Pr viders of backgrround I1111Sltr over food an nn s. o , 1 d im-rs to 1mgc r o nge , did 1 rcccivc the mu ste n cgutivclythat cuslo mers I no 1 "'" \ll<11la ve to e~lsllre f .. lativ sedu ttvc , an d no m us!c uu s " '!" 'ICI te st the diffcren t cffects o stim~ au ~. rrnarket Mílhrn un ( UIH'.l) • "" 1 s and customcr reacuons m a su pe . k I lt'n~ pacc . sa e • ". (MM < 7'1 mea n tcmpo = HO). fasl luu . ullt'rn aled slow backgrou n d muste ::::. I{)H) and no backg ro u nd 1l111'lk 94 m ean te mpo • I ' (M M > ¡.l;1ounc1 nlUSIC _.. Its i di 1 U thn t slow rnusic in dccd slo wt,t . k íod Re su ts 1I1 tea e u "V I' " a nm e-wee . 1 ' U ürn es fo r Ilassagt' lw lwl't'll • _pen , R 'p' eetive Olean o rscrve I !Iu' sho p pcrs pace " es . 1" 7 <'J li t) 86 am i IOH.!U st'wllt ls; , 1 d fast muStC ",erc .. .; J, . , . , . I" m ls for s ow. n o . an " d ' ·" 11 Gro ss sales \'V ('re luglH'sl I ·" t' s dl ffeH' Stgn lltca n y. IIIt' slO\\I and fast mUStC Ime -h ' 1 .1 n d el" fasllJlUsic rono ex ln'nu'S was sla ·rr " 1 under co n lti ons o 1111' d i erc n ce 111 sa es I d .·¡,-n ,· (ic an l d ilTt'n ' IK cs a m ollg . . c: I I ' rv icws revca e no Sló" f th . conditions. regard lcss of I h t~ t¡'l ka11y slgn u lcallt. 11 e h opl lt'r s regardiog aw arencsS u e mUste k d m usic or lack thereof. I "l lu" 11la c "grulln "11' ( I'¡U(') ' llcl'oated slo w aod fasl instrn nlt' lIla " '1,a l' s·1u dy• M I Imao . 0 ) a . "'('(' k"( ' 111ls.· 111 ,1' Slllll .. . ht sllct'eSsIVt' ." "up "scalc" restaurant lo r e lg 11,11 k ~r oun U mustC 10 an f u i ' b " ckgr o u nd nlll sit: aut! 11,,· F " 1" nigh ls eature s o'" u I k 1 )n fOllr wce eo( s. n ( ay U f b . k llInd m llsic. T IIt' aht' rn alt ' , S d ' ·gh ts feature ast ac grl , ¡.. I\o wmg ¡Hui spl-'n t Slgtllllca n y ' . ·gn ifiea ntl)' hi glH'r u n slo w "1 ' t' gross recetp ts were St lli¡.l;hIS. I te resla u ra n s h b . f cuslo mers io sing p atit·l l< ·t ~ alld , ' 1 Se, ' . , time and t e num e l o 1 11l11 'lK IUg Hs. rv lt:t' d d' 1 , u"ffer silTlü fica n tly u et wI't'lI t H ' , l ' '1 " co u ld b e sca tc t( n o I 0 , ' f": 1" uvlI1¡'; Il' lore le ) - , r ' U cllased d id nol d iITt'r stgtUlI' , u' " 1 h e amon n t 1) ' 0 0 pu r , . ' , nI.' on slo w Illusic n ighls was Iwtl IlIll SIC co n Itlo ns_ h e resta uran l s gn 'alt' l lIl Ct ll , .11111y: ap pare n lly . k lo .1111' 111 lU'o p le Iin gc' ring lo n ge r ovt' r l1lon~ dnn s. . , 1 wilh 1" 111 10 ;l \lt'ry ], ;" il' l1\ll~ i n,1 \I"nal,\,' , im ol 11,,' , "'1111,,11.111" n'~laurall1 slml)' ",as ",,,1< '- 'Illi !,,',,,1 1111' m,,~i\-al NI)' I,' n'm l'l" n"-"I~ r..II,,-, - " -Inl. m"" "'" ""t . I~ ' · s-t '" ""lO" 1'0' .. \ Mrtxw ullJ nlll S'c. , 1 " mil'" llli,h l 1M' il1" l' l' lUpr iitl'· III
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I n uddnion to n 'gllblill)o\ 1 1I ~1 (l 1I H' I S ' pan 's uud tlu-n-by r-nbauciug thc likeIih oo d thur rhey nuglu .~ , w n d 11 1011', n msi c lll a )' en hunc c t hl~ m urk erpla ce by bui ld ing a more pu Si livl' alt itud l' tuwurd cooperativo aspccts of mutual scllill ~ am i buyíng. Music thcrupists recognizc tbat "pleasa nt'' music ma)' ma ke a n cnvironmcnt more auructive a nd cllcntele more receptive towar d th erapcutic 1I.'..es of music and other thc rapies. Similarly, music ma y give people a ruun- posiüve attitudc toward euo perating with others. Fricd and Berkowítz ( l!I7!I) dividcd RO unive rslt y sruden ts (.10 rnen. 40 wo m en) into four groups. Threc gro ups lístcned to music fo r ap proxímately sev en mi nutes; the n-m ami ng b'TUUP "sal srill" and heard no rnusic. O ne listening group hca rd stimu lutive music, "O ne O'Clock jump." An o ther listened to sed ative musir {wluch Fned an d Bcrk owitz labelled as "soothlng" music), two uf M endclssohn's "So ngs \Vitho ut \ Vords_" Coltrane's "Mcditario ns" was played fo r the H'lIla illing h'TOllp as "a vc rslve" music. Al the eo nclusio n of th eir group's u·spl·(·nve ucüvi ties, su bj ects we re asked to vo lunteer to help with another ..11",.,; ,,11 «x pcnm cnt a s a m ensure of help fuln ess. The sedative and stimulative Illmil ' t'l'1'att'd positive m oods; the av ersive musie tended lo aro llse negalive I, ·. ' llll ~s . SlIbj t'(-ls who pre vio llsly heard sedative musie we re lhe mosl "helplul." ""ith sigllifir anlly great er helpfulness lhao !he avers ive music or no 11I11 ~ \1 ~ lI h t , · (' ls.
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f'tl 'ljlll'lllly cite d (and often criticized ) experimenlal study, C o ro I',dn 'tl olhe nv isc similar be ige and blue pens with Iiked m usic (fro m 1111' 111" 11 popular musica l co med y Crease) and disl iked musie (Ind iao classi•. 11 1lI11 ~ k ) . B" )'olHl lIJe .0 01 leve l of statiSlical sign ifiea nee, subjects lended lo 1'1,,11'1 Illl' 11(' 11 , l"eg
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: :'I:':":,~, ';',::E::~':::;:~;~;:~::'~~~~I~~::i¡: :~i;i:;;;:~~~;:~:~:~'~,~: i~:~: ;~':;~:¡~';:: ; \\ l1 linV. Mll:h music_\\' n tmg jlng/ts, the mu l ' . IIlhe tim e" (Slwa " 111'1Utlll' "" hil!io l)-dollar -a-ycar industr )' t la l s b'TowlIlg a
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0 pt'ra lilllo': n-h-viviou sl'l 0111' 11 will illlt'rrupt thclr p lay in lt 'slllIIISt' Iu the chang t' sig n ulcd h r 1111' onwl u l a runuucrci ul), o r it sim ply ma r prevido the uudk-nce wü h un 0l'I'OI'l llllilr lu k-ave th c room, read th e ne wspapcr, o r otht·rw iso ig nore the b ro adcast. Music may uffcct a pcrs o n's mom], wh ich is a relat ivc ly tem porary sta te or Iraruc uf míud that ind¡viduals ca n rc cogn lze in themse lves and d escri be verhil!lr [Eagle, 1971, p. 19).l nd ivid uals may be in a happy, sad, deprcssed, penvive, opü mi st¡c, or p essími stíc mood. o r in ot her moods. Presu m a bly a perso n in an up p rop ria te mood sta re, w hcthe r d ue lo m usic or lo so m eth ing e lse, lIIay he m o re reccpt¡ve towa rd a eomm erc ia l and w hat it ad vcn ise s th an a 11l' r.~0 1l in un lnapprop riare rno od state , wh atever th ose states m ay be. T he ussocíation (Jf happi ness with a p rod u ct o r se rv ice, su ch as a d etergen t, sha m IH IO, ClI" lawn maíru enance servíce, th at is inten de d to make lífe easler o r 11I011' ploa surable ce rtai nly m ight ín crc ase ín terest in that product or se rviee . A p t' usivI' 01" refiee live mood migh! be espedally d esira bl e in a potential eu sIllllll' l fUI' ¡¡f(, in sura nel' o r n cw tires. Ga rd ner (19 8':» notes lh al m o od states ,4I' Ill' IIl1Jy h ias eVa lU¡ltion judgmen ls in di rections that logi call y re late to the 11111011. ()lIt· m ay rt'ea ll a favo rable pri or service ene o u nler, such as a pleasIIt ll lrl p Iu u ha rb l' r sho p 0 1' bcau ty salo n, in lenns o f so rne overa l1 posili ve III1 PII'\ sio ll ral ht'r Iha n in d etails o f what h appened lo the hair. l n teraelions \\'1111 ji sa ll" slafT a nd lh e resulting m ood m ay in fluen ce the eu slomer's eval~ I hllioll 0 1 h iN0 1' her pu rchase , a nd a te levisio n progra m 's co n len! may in flut'll< r' p l'l' SOIl S wa lr l1 illg the p ro gram o ~ l l1'¡j 1' lIlay he a fonn o f no nverbal eommu n icalion, which d ca rly is illlpo lla n l in ad vl' rtising, regard less o f a n advertisem e nt's ve rbal conlent. S "' W;1l1 m ld IIt'eh r ( 1988) inc1ud e as nonve rb al aspects the way so m eth ing i\ sai d, rad al l'x p n'ssio ll, bo dy movements an d sp ad ng, geslore, eye m o ve1lI1' 1It.s, IOlld l, piel ures, a nd sym bo lic a rtifacts (e .g., a judge's ga vcl in a eom . lIlt'rd a l fo l' Il'ga l se rv ices). The re1ativ c im p ortan ce as com pared with ve rbal illfi ' ll ll;llio Jl will va ry, and eon tcx l is es p ecially im p ortant for understand ing 1Il l'an ing uf lIu nverbal info lTIlation . Stewa rt a nd H ecke r exemplif)r eon lext hy d t's<Tibing a wornan slowly o p en ing he r Iips lo an approaehing man oAft er ól llril -f Sl' lISlIlIllS bllil d llp , Ihe "e ntiecment " is revealed , n ot as part 01' a sex y III1 V I ' I, hlll as parl of a eo m mercial for a dental p ractiee . '1'1 11' illl llll rlan ee of no n ve rb al in fo rm atio n is su p p orted furthe r b y Il o lh lOo k am [ Ba fra (I!JX7), w ho id e ntified six d escr ip live factors fro m ad uIt Wlllllt'Il'S j 1ll1b'lllcn lS of 7'2 Iclevisio n eo m merd a ls: e m o lion al, Ih reale ning, 1II111111 allt', Sl.'xy, cCfI., b ral, a nd p erso na l re le....a ncc . They a lso ielen tified pleas11I1', ar ousal , ¡¡nd d ominalion as Ihfl.'l.· dirnensions n f l' m o tio na l rl"SpOnSe lo l: ' 11111111' I'd a Is. Alp" rt am i A lp('1'1 ( I!IX!J) d('scri!Jl' t1lt' lelevisioll :llldit 'lll"t· as likto ly lo Ul ll:lI ill vil'wI'rs wh" an' 1;1r 1lI0 l( ' in vo lvl'd in 1111' plO~ ra ll1 \ lhall in Ihe t:Olll'
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· ., ' , _ ," Ih'lIliall ' IIlliu vo lvcd noud r-cision muk ing ('(m· 1III' I'(·la ls. As sm h. llu) .tI , l'' } 1 • ." ( .IX7) AIIvc rus crs lu " '1 ' \ ' .11 uv r- p l"01>ll"111 so V(fS p. , oum-rs r uth cr t tan ( oglll IVI ) . . . 1 , ' Ivcrt íscd products a m i scrv ma y h 0l'l' lo lin k fuvorubh- assun almll s l~l I le .I ' rn usic l"o lo rs light ing, 0 1' . 11 " 'il w prcsc'utanons o f . -, , , jt'I'S vla r -moüo na y . l l tl ll S r - o ' h ' . . '11' ulu en ce víewcrs , . " T I . ma hop e t at mu ste w t 11 - lItlH'1" non vcrbal aspuJs. It YI I lo lncreased a Ueu tio!l to co m Ol o n muod s favora b ly and thereb y ea Yf -hat is bCing advc rtised. . lIIt' rdals b ut also lo a favorable eva ~a~lOn o W bv progr am content th an b y Vlcwe rs' m oods m ay b e in~uenee al' Amureta! "folk wisdom" regarding b I om mercial eo n lent. cer m 1 l 1IO II ....c r la nr ve r a C ·. d .. . th at a dverti veruscrs sh 0 0 Id avoi d spousoríng ovc rly n-h-vision a verusmg IS gat ívely on tbc . . b ' use th c sa d nes.s. W l'1\ 1ím pact ne 1::> t11 'p n 'sslllg p ro gram s _eea ha tto ad hva (19!H) srudie d effects 01' ndvertlsed products. ~.falh u~ and p .) Yly [udged through viewcr .. -ithi n pro grams p revlDus d »mlx-dding a ve rt tsm g \\1 b ' m es tri al s th at fo l. ( fi1 b : d on th e N urem cr g wa r en . \" 1 D ' " las sic" film) Com mcrc ials I,tlmgs lo be sad a I m ase . W JI) d h ppy (a a t "oey e _ . . an a d d f [ife ,' nsu ranee fro m !v1u lua l 01 \lIwt·d \\'orld -ar . . M 1) Id ,T'" foo d p ro lIets an or I Wl' rt' 10 1' e ona s . h ' l he h ,'II' PY Di sn ey p ro gram v k (r.. 1Ü N YTl.t) T he v lcwers w o saw N l'w 101 j\ • . . h h ly th an Ihe viewe rs w ho < Ih " dvc rtIsmg more t o roug _t" 'llll'd lo process e a . "ha v" viewers sho wed gr call' r ~,I W lh e sad N u re m berg programo fhe PP.
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t'd to cmumcn-ials wilh 1I11 d wilho1l1 mus ¡c, thrce factor s 1'llll' rJ,:I ·t!: acr ivity, pleusan tn ess. a m i pO!t'Il<)'. lu 1111' thlrd study, w hlch pa in 'd commcrcial s n-spccuvcly wit h.'1sup po rtin g ums k- ex ccrpr, resuhs showed tha t supportíng ~ "H-kgrmllld m usrc "routinel y inll' nsi fi('d the dimcns lo n posiüvc ly cha rac te rIZ('tI by a commercial " (W inllc, W7H/ I!)i!), p. .511.5A). Conceiva bly, music's e ffects in adverti sing may resuh from classical co ndili oll ing, wh ere so mething link ed tu a favorable re spo nse from a prior associu tion (e.g.• "Nice musíc"- "] like it"] bcco mes a sign a l Ior a similar res ponse [e.g., "l h~' ndvcrused product"- "Nice rnu sic"-"] líke it").KGorn 's (1982) peo study, discussed aboye , presurnab ly ex ploíted the idea of gene ralizing a fuvorubk- 1"('spu nse tu m usíc to a pa rticu lar pro duct, i.e., the blu e o r the beige "pn. North nnd Hurgr caves (1997, pp. 2()9-27:~) agree that the c1assieal condilio llill,l( purudlgr n may be a Iikely ex plana uo n for m ustc's effectlveness in ~O ll ll ' ;¡dVl'rl i .~i n g but q ues tíon íts poten tial for ex plaining m usic's cffecüv elll' ~ ~ ~ I l .dl. C(.JlIlIIw rcials. They not e that classical conditionin g scc ms to l''' pllllll l 'fl l '("II Vl' I H~SS when the Iístcn cr/víewcr has low invalvemeni with the I'llld lll l, l.u., ha s Hule m oti vation , abil ity, o r u p portunity to co nsidc r th e llllalil}' III 111 ility uf tlw product. In such cases it is sim ply a matter al' the co mIIU'II lal /II 'I ~ l l a< l i l lg the Iislen er/ vie we r to flreftr an ad ve rtised product over its 1"Ill lw l ilo l ~ , In o lhe r insla nce s, where the liste ner/vicwer has high involvemenJ wilfl 1111 ' I'lUd un . Lt." , has the moti vatio n, ability, 0 1' op portu nity to co nsider 11..· I'IC~dllt 1\ t¡ua lil}' or utility. the c1assica l co nd itio ning parad igm seems lll'llllll 1."IIt.. Nu rlh a~ld Ha rgreaves suggest that a Iisten er/ viewer engaged in pll ll l" SUlJ,: 1l.lfo~m atlCm a bo ut a produc1's quality or uti lity is employing the ~/illl/lrtll/(1II IIA,blumd model, whi ch they bclieve better explains how music 1lI11111'1 l(·t'~ dll ' Ji '>tt'ner/viewer \\-'hen such interest is invo lved . T hey maintain, ~1(lWl '\'I'r, Ih'll llIusic for co mm erci a ls a llo wing hig h leve l Iiste ner/viewer llIVOIVI'I1H'nl lIlust " fif ' the co mm e rcia l's na ture and the Iiste ne r/vie we r's sllbjt'('liVt' Ilt'rn ' plio lls of Ihe m usic's apprupria leness to Ihe co mme rcial's ~·t'lI l r;¡ 1 nwssage. 'Ih "fit" a co m mercia l, the m usic m ight increase aUent io n to 11 (hl' p/¡I),ed IOll
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¡'il1ldi /J/lII l ANlllltl/ lrlll' I{ MI/.\/r /" (;/Jl/lrm/mrmy ' -!ti' IIH' srudi es revicwcd lu-low dl'u l dl h" l dm-ctly nr indin-ctly with tlH' a pp lU' prlun-ness of thc nms ic's -m" with 1111' ("(l m llll'l"ci ~l l ; a lsu, lIllll'l' i ll ~'l ll'lII a l i oll is 111 ' lV ided rcgardin g prri/JI/rml a mi ((II lral processmg t~f ('olll meH 'mls: \\'hile ed uc ation a l n-k-vlsion prot,'Tams are not strict ly rom mcrciuls, S UCo I .."..fuI programs must huid thc auention oí the in tended audiem:t.',.oftclI ch i.l11It-u, [ ust as a succcss ful comrnercial mu st attract and h~ld a lte lltlul1: Music lII il ) ' aurac t att ention, but it a lso mar be d istracting. \\'akshlag. H.cIlZ, a mi ZilIma n {1!JX2) co nd uc ted two experiments regurdtng rnusíc's e ffcc ts un !lo lu "l a nd seco nd grad ers watchíng educatiunal televisión. In ott e expe rlmc nt. 1111' childrcn wat cb ed , singly, Iü-minute prese ntaüo ns on matbematlcs, lI S(" uf Ilw dtctionary, earth /sun relauo nshi ps, and graviry. The earth/ sun film h ud lun kground m uste; the gravity film did o ut. The mathernatics a m i dlctionary hhus , which re pres ented th e ex perimen tal variab le of conte nt, w~re sho wn lu fas t background music (M M = lOO- 17ü), slo w background m USK (M M :11 ,- 1;0), an d no background musíc co ndítio ns. No adult was p rcsent III llit, vh-wing roo m ; cha nne l sclec tlon monitorlng equípme nt reco ~ded. W l.l¡~t cach l hile! watchc d. For both co ntent area s, fast m uslo resulted In signl ficauüy mure vicwí ng tim e than slow 01' no m usic; thcre were n u effects for prog ra lll p,lIl, gendc r, ur gra de. . . In Ihe scco nd \Vakshlag et al. experim enl. ch ild ren wa tche d , 1II p'lIfs. a 111 ogram on a Lapp shepherd and a program 0 0 su bmarines ; the i.l1 v~ sti ga ' IOIS o bserved the m via a hidden camera. Again, there were no slg mfir ulIl W' lIti(,T or grade difTerences, and this time there were nu difTerefl{~es reguI.·d . ~ I I~ th e mllsic co nd itiun. H uwever, there was a sign ifica nt interactioll .Wlth luog r.l1n time segmc nt. The children's att ention dec,line? acros.s the 7-nu llule I lI u~ram s. an d the decline was greatest for fast muslc. No muslc show('d less .Il'tline and slo w musi c sh uwed hule d eclin e; slow musi r ap part.·ntly W;lS lll U ll ' l:fTt.-ctive in maintaining attention . A mcas ure uf what the c hild n'lI 1"
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t" lk. " I'o llll rhin ks. caudy, 1 1Ildd i ll~. I llllm l1 ~, lu-nuty '!l.b , lauudry dcn-rgen t. ancl ;¡ fa sl food reSI¡lllr.ll.1 1. Tlu-n- " "" . 1I ,c1 ilfl' Il'nl luund s, with two lo 11 ('Olll l1ll' l'da l ~ pt'r brand . Forty romnn-rcíals lm-ludr-d l1I11 ~ic T IU' respondeuts unswen-d opcn-cnded q ue stious ami respondl'd lo ~J~ ev al ua tive state m ents. Of the ."J:t sla leme nl variables, on ly fivc show ed llIl Y sib'11ificant differencc s: Responden ts were more positiv: n'~rding ~(,t.' l Itl ¡J, as ir tb ey lea rncd so m ething, feelin g not "tal ked down lo, feeh~g lIntlrc'~1 111 t fu- eo m mc rcia l, and not feeli ng as if th ey heard th e same thing 1'1'.1)('11II IIIIS I)' for th e corn me rcials with no muste. But they said that tb e y were Im~rt' 11"1'l y le l huy prodncts that had be en prescnted ui ít ñ musíc. There. w~re no s.lgutíwunt differences in b ra nd recall. Th e eommcrcials with muste III a mejor 111 mtxed mod e gc ne rally we re evaluated more favo rabl y th a n rnusic in " uuuor mode. Co m me rcials featuring m usic a t fa ster tempi ge ncra lly W N . ' Illl·I'I 'nl'd lo those fcatur ing slo wer tcmpi. , ' Alpcn an d A lpert (W90) eo ns idered particu lar musical charac tensücs as I lI l 'Y uwesügated mu síc's cffects 0 11 mood a nd intention to .rllrch ¡.l.~ p , 0 0 ~ 1 1t' "I I ~ ¡ ~ of prior rat ings, the investigators select{~d three frlC odshl," g rl'{'I.lIlj.!; l 1I 11 1 ~-a happy, a sud, and a neutra l card o Using the stereotYl IH~a l, llHl.l 0rhUl'Py/ m inor-sad d ichotomy, the in vestigato rs con traste d th e ,maj.or .'1IIe! lIIillor prdudc s fro m Buok 1 of J. S. Bach 's Well-1(ml'ered ClaVf~r: S,lllJj('('ts nllll'r Iha n lhe experimental subjects rat ed the prcludes ,fo r fan uha.f1t r a nd I'tt .fl'u'n ces, a nd the inve stigalors seleeted "Pre lude ni l1l C4t MaJOf ami "1'¡I' lllde XXII in nb f!. l inor'" as h-vo relati vely o bseu re b ut stro ngly prd (' IH 'd , I.lllrasting piec es. Forty-eighl marketing studcnts, o rganized iol o thH 'e I.¡so ll'llin g gro u ps, S3 W brightness-eo ntrollt'd slides nf the Ihree car~ t)'pt~S, ~-vI.l h Ihl' Ill USÍ( conditiun-happy, sad, 01' no musie- varying systema llcally. \\ 1111(' \'lI"wing and Iistening, the studenls drew a co nlinuo us !ine acn~ss (:Oltl~Il11 'i Ill itfad erizcd b ), a five-point Likert sca le (the in vestigators ca ll. t1us ~c~(' hnlt l lll ' 1111" " mo od monitor") to show cha nge s in Ihe ir moods across 11I11t', II \('y aho d" \l'rilwd l'ae h ca rd wit h 10 se mantic dilTcre nt ial scales, inchuling a "lIa pl' )' ••,,1" se~a le lo assess pe rceived mood and a "wo uld buy il-wo uld llo t 1m )' il" II! ull' lo assess p llrehase in tention. A m ultiplc ana lysis of variall~~.e show t'd llO l'llt,( ts dile 10 su bj ect gro uping, but the re we re significa nl c llt'(·.ls 0 11 I'~ 'r ' 1 "í vc 'd mood due to r ard and music. In o r<\('r of perce ived ba pllIlll'ss, wllh Ihl' happi est co m b inalio n first, th e ca rd-m usic co m b inatio ns W (' l"t' (I) hal' PY 1 1111 ~i cl h a ppy card, (2) no m usic/happy ca rd, (~I) ha ppy .1ll 1l S ic/ll l'l ~ t r.d ca rdo ( l) happy mll.~i c/sad r a rd, (5) sad lllllsic/ happy ca rd, (6) sad llmSlcl ll,('lIlra l l .11 d. (7) no lll11 sicln ellt ral (~aHI, (H) no lllllsic/ sad ca rd , ami {!I} sad Illllslc/sad l UId . FurtlH'r a nalysis ~h owed that wlH'n Ihe m usÍ( n mdit ioll W
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llloM lu lcast likely lo 1'"1t 11.1\1' wr-te (1 ) sal! mu sic/ ncunul r-ard, (2) sud umsl c/ happy curd. (:J) no lIlmidh app)' cardo (4) sad m uslc/ sad ca n i, (5) no m usic/sud ca rd, (n) h;IPPY ruus ic/huppy curd. (7 and X, a tie) no m usic/ neuI ral ('a n l. happy music/ucut rut card. and (!J) happy music/sad cardo Sad m usic was more effecüve rega rdi ng purchasc ínte nt, perhaps becau se of the n-ason s why th e subjects m ig ht purcbase a card. Obvíousl y, variatio n in musica l stru cture ís im portant in determining e lTects ; the in ves ügato rs ca utinu tha t gencralia ing from a lab oratory-based stu dy such as theirs to a " real" busine ss situa üon is diffícult. Logtcall y, ene sho uld asee rtain that the type of m usie fits the co rnm ercla l' s o vcr ull theme . G arfield (1988) dlscussed th e necessíty for unity berween ima ge a nd so und an d th e im portan ee of not ove ru sing m usic. l lung's (2000) sludy of th e cffects o f congrue nt (matched) and inco ngrur-ut (mlsnuu chcd] mus¡c in T V advertís cments 011 134 MBA stud ents' Il ' S PO ll ,' W 'i lo e lgbt co ndl üo ns of musi c a nd videos unde rlines the im porlance uf ln conuuercials. '1"'0 musical scores, two videos. and four co ffee com IlI t 'I l'i ;t1 S W I"I' I' presen ted in matehed and m ism atch cd fo rm at s. Muste th at l''' lli..I '11diffen-nt mcanings than the o ther ínform atlo n of th e ads afTccted subjl'l h ' ]lI'll 'l. ·pl ions of lhe eom mer cial and th e advertised brands . Music in I 111'¡.t1 1I1'llt óu l.s n 'dll ced " no ise" by rein forcing th e connecling cu ltura l contcxt 1' 1 t Illlllllllllit"4l!l' Ill<'an ing. t )1'1'11 (I! J~ Il¡) t~ xa m i n cd th e effect s of intennittent background music \\'111'1" Xill' IH ' I' imllledia Lely preceded Ihe prese ntation of cm cia l informat io n t ll l 1,1 1 ll11dl'rgrac!u ales' response to radi o eo mmercials, Ad s con taining ~ i l l ' Jl( l' ¡ ll ,S I prio r lo nucial information increa sed subjects' re tentio n of ad illllll llhllillll more su than e ilher ads co ntaining background m usic thro ugh o ul 1lI 1\0 b;lckgrou nd music throughout. No di rrere nec s in rctention II (Tl lI T I., d bl'tWt'CIl lhe co ntin uous m usie and no music cond itio ns. A l' ólrlin llar n nn plicatio n in fitting m usic wit h ad ve rtising re lat es to viewI ' I S' inht'H'lIl inll' res t in and value fo r whal is ad ve rtised. Pett y, Cacio pp o, ;Illd Sd lllm
ni
'''In I IH ~ n m lt'xl , (m(ral and /,"iP""all' run,,;s ing f<,fn lo 11... intt'mi l)' " f u 'gn iliw' involn ·ml' nl. 1hi. tl i rr, · t~ M' l1It'wh;lt fm m Ihl' II'rms' abo",' u,,' by 1\or lh all( l l b ¡~n ';I \I " ~ lo lO 'f" r to Ih.. d ir" d ' n.'. s " f lll,' " "' SS
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~ll¡"h lx-rween lhrnAI!I.I:' ('lIl~II 111 I ~ 1.1," , . íin com l1lt'lü a ls, wh ich ap pl'a l I n il p resumably rat lOllal llItllVulll,II, nnd Jfe g , I'urk am i Young (I!UHi)
, , ' rin l)S Ihro ll¡.;h d rama U f IllUSIC. , , ' lo elllo lJo ns, pe, ' "" , lvern cnt thau of backgr o und must e 1Il a lllllllll lllo re c ffccts 0 1 cogtuüve mvo va tch ed .ha m poo commcrciuls that dilh f ad uh wo m en wa tc e s ' suuly w e re gro ups o Lmusl ·tl díffcrent scts o f instru ctions r ab se nce o m uste, W l I . kll'l I III p rcse nce o " fi I rn ent with sha m poo and bcau t11'signed to arousc diffe rent degrces o IO V O ve
1I1l111'
liful hair. . . PI( . ib ably will be sub jcct lo co n, h .e a d vcrusmg TIIl' use 01' m uste to en anc " r f ' I music Whcth cr thc h '11 ost appltcatums o uncu ona . un uing rc scarc , as W I m . d ces a m ood 01' sim ply . tt tion rei nforcc s a mcssage, 10 u • IIIl ISIC attracts a e n . . ki p roduct 0 1' s e rvícc ruun ibiliti f muste m a mg a • I'lltt'fta ins, th e pOSSI I IU~S, ~r , lvemen t in huma n culture. '1111"'aling urise fro m m usrc s cep mvo MIIJi c as Enl erl ainmenl , ' toda is intertwined lne xtricably with tluMusic's ente rta lOment Iunc tion . .. ~ .. di vert M an y forms uf . . d T u te rtam IS to amuse o. . popula r muste m ustry. o en , " d tr y often ea lled thc - m usic . . d th c po pular muste 111 us u , l' llll'llainment extst, an h" sincss," is one maj a r form, ' lb a r.' m usic bu sin ess is a fasd... d f r on 01 e contem p o r .¡ . I he hlslory an un e I . h I multimed ia prcse ntat ulOs, . f usic record mg tee no ogy, naling po tpo um o m • d d . es ' ega rd ing w hat wiU be po p , ht I ' and e ucat e guess • lllarkt·ting. co pyng a~ . , r h . business is bc yo nd thl' s e o !,t' l· A d '1 d d lSCllSSIOn o t e muslc 1I1¡1l w lle n. clal e d h ·11 ,n ·lnating d escri l}ti v l~ WOl'k s o . h " d' is re ferrc tu t e I u nI IllIS text; t e tea el' , Ir (1" 0(·) d Fink ( I!J!Jl i) as wel l as (11)'),1) Delll so ::10 ) , an ' , b 1\ 1ahe c an d 1\ ra ee ." ) I d ' e xa mina tio n of tl1l' ¡m ISil ' I\ la silov sk}" an d Shemel' s {2000 e ncyc ope IC >
hll,i llt'ss. , b ' co nsidered "" rtists," h UI lIIu ..1 .k· . o pular m us lC may e Pt'l's o ns W Ol mg 111 p ' \ . 'alher th an a rti sti(~ va 1111's, A " t ro l' co mmercJa g all1 • 1 1oP, th elr lll' pt'ar lo (eve al' u, 11" . ' h. lak c s prio rily o ve r artislic va hH'~,I ' · 1 \ d lm agemust se , IS " 1 1ll1lsKa SI)' e an ' ) el· ts and co ml>osers u l J'Opll a l 971 141 -142 notes, a IS A.. MlIssul man (1. ', pp. , 1 . sulting in mll sic: tha l t-an d . ornmcrCla enterp nse, re , 1II1ls k are engage 10 a e l . 1 b " t·me pcri od ",h ile a rt m m J(" , " refor areauve y so 1 • lI11 I-VI\,t' I1lltnsrvt exposu, ' . t S've e xposu re . T he use (lf m ar· " 1, --' " \, , . ) ceq mre s and surVIVCS ex en; [ " ," , ( I ,IS" 1C,1 mll St C .' t·. \ r e 1'''llular 11111511:<11 S\ll l l.SS, · k·11 ' , y d !)ack'lg;mg \\ esscn la () I l..l'll ll g S ' 1 s, un .lge, an ' 1 ,. .tl ( 1 )0 ° ) descr ibe s in so ml' modt, s . I I ' , t· )ugh '1111 as ' 1'1 1 1• 00 , ~ h l" l{'¡l ta e nl ls no c m " f' . Iy une pa rt of a mu ch largt'f 0 1 lIlusir a l sue cess. th e actual pt'r o n nólnn: IS o n . ., Ih " ir 1,,·rl••rnMn" · lll 1 , ' lh,,_ 1"'II"llll"IW 11l;1)' n' '' '(t 1O t.l 1 • •r I't JI ' tllll'" nm ny I't' l'rurnw t ~ wtnllll, , u, I I ' " ,t-lhl n' 1111'" m a,' 1" , mo n- r.-" " 1" , , , ' 1" " o U' " I u ' r 111\'1 ' ~"1 , - " _ ' IJllb lil- l..sl'· in onlo-r to W Ul ,lO , U IO \l U" , I I I "lil"l ll, ir iI Il" r!" n lll' ¡ l...n >l1 \1 'N ( 1m , - -, 11,,'h, 'lo Mil 1" " O' I,'lH "', " , , " " ~ I"' l m"' n l I'.' ilh lh e.r o w n m nSll,1 , h im nt Ii.'r o f "~,' l li n!l: " ul 1"'l'ul,ll , lIllll'r l H" rI-"n"" r~ 01" , ,, h J¡~ . , 1101"1"'" "' ,'\ ,'" "..
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cn u-rprisc. C om tu crcia l i tl h' I't ' ~ I ,~ 01 11' 1111 ' Ilvl'llillill,L\" in flucncc in Ih e s c-h-rt io n and pro ruotion 01' popula r mll "~i ( ', wln-r lu-r rhc gou l is to a uract pcople lo a ttcnd live performa nccs. lisie n lo musir U I\ thc radío, vlew musíc videos, bu y C Ds and othcr rccordíngs , or subscribe lo speciñc liste ning formats n o w avai lable in hon u-s am i nutomobíles via sarcllitc am i othcr telecom munication systems. Rcuhenbuhlcr a nd MeCourt (I!)!>:2, pp . 104-1(6) strongly asse rt, and Nort h a mi Hargn-avcs ( I!W7, P: 27!)) reiterare, tha t the primal)"conce rn in sc lectlng music for rad io alrpla y is to attract listcn ers to thc advcrtisem ent breaks. Sch wic h tc n bc rg ( 199 2, pp . 117-1 22) m a kes a strong case th at Ih c prima ry huu-t ion of music videos is to in crcase sales 01' the musícíans' re cordi ngs and inrreuse uue nda nce at theír concerts . Nort h and Hargreaves (1997, p. 279) urguc that anotber goal 01' mu sie videos is similar to th at uf com m ercial rad io: lo a uract spccífic a ndiences a n d k cc p thc sc vicwcrs watching unül the nvxt udvcnising break. Il ot!,.;('s au d Haack (1996, pp . 519-520) note that in fluences ot he r th an 1Illl1l111'ITial are a pa rt uf at least on e scgment 01' the popular m usie indu stry: hl'ó1 v)' IIl l'lal Illusic. Refcrring to (hese influenees as a typ e o f mUJirol mal· /l//u lilt', II1 I'Ycite Stuessey's (1990) conce rns about th e eonte nt and th emes oC 1II ':lv)" lI\1't..l: exlreme rebe llion, extre me \
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u f m il sic ma y C011lS(' Cl IIII'~ ' I'o '1 : • ) '"\ 'o,v"'''' 'Og'tto fS could \'slab lish l"imsality, , \'\'\' lt 1o I •S'1'1 ) I ~ 1 ',v l' lI 1 1 L.' • . 11' 111<1111 ( 1 l C\l • " . ' '". -ues s thl'Ollgh a wídc varlct y
f 1" ' 1I11ISII" lIs llt.'I"Vas,vt " " ~ Ilw sheer pow('r o popu , 11 , rli ". . " , amoug Y(HIIlg Ilt'opll' un
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l' \ ,alitics words, at:lions, ll l' 103 ) argue , , I -, " t 'nhance t h e emo lOna ql , . , 111 \\('stN n en tUl e IS o (' O " ht "nsist th al this \lSl' ol lllllSl<: ' e) d tclevi sio n dramas. 0 1.' mlg 1 '1 1I1l;I¡:'I'S III 11 m an " 1 b ll ' rl)(luctiol\ of teievi siol\ ~lI1d h 11\
r..lll ssulma n ( l!l74, p.
.. "" ' .. th' n COlnmerCla , lit l e p art l511C a l " " , ,'rd al entl' rprise . Cumpming. pl'rI I h s uccom e a lIlge ( om 111 11 ' 11" e ea r y a ", " usic is '\ lllllltilllillion -dullar bllSillt'ss, 1 " llIl i ll~,. am i scotl ng slll h t1l . , . \' \ " I o'o\,-nc(,5 Any Illllsk I'v('nt " ", , 1 'c n u (' n u ' o Sllllll( S ,II U " • M tl~u: IS an orgalll1.et s ") " ",' A II"lrrativc is" n'p " . " . "". r Ihlir 1'\'1 .'111 01' ;t, 1ll0\('I1lt' " · " I1 ,,'qut' lItml, Just as IS " IIl b'l . S' In' llIusic is orgallil"ed m io " . ", ' 11("1' uf ¡'Vt' I\I \ , ,1 ~I O I) , , 11 . " 11" I'IlIaIIOU, .1 Sl ,qtlt' ,'" . , ;L V " 11' 11 " " 1,o ut I' Vl' ll , ~ - ,' "o.' ,' n'lIr llt'- in a d l' s ' ~n ;Lt" · , • • _ l'q' H' ll l la l l~ v c nls, IllIl S lL Hl 1 I 1 ," Ill'otlllt'l'r IIlay adjusl llHl "'I( ' , \" A " na rralo r" s lI ( h ;\~ :I \l ,n "1 11' 1' \I '11ll 11 ' , ' 1 d Oll 1 1. I 1, t , " I that ('lIl1lp nM' ~ ¡lit M o r} , \11 tlu..... along wilh tht, Sl' t l' lI' lI 11,l U I I ' I o 1 \ 1 " S
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Nnrruüon thmugh mus¡c is l' H.Ssiblt, in p art becau se music is able lo fu nca langu age lcss spcciflc than any verbal la ngu age. I'orlllo y (19G:{. pp. 1J!J-1(0) s ugg es ts tha t m uste is a la ngu age th al ca n exp ress di ffl' rl'HI ideas sim ulta n eo usly. Farnsworlh (1969, pp. !H-95) belíeves that mus¡c Is a Ianguagu in thc sense that it has a gr am mar a nd synta x that mu slciaus tlSt' jo communicate, but h e feels th at rnusic does not eo nvcy detaile d lIu's.sagt's. Bro wn ( W81) ind icates that Ianguage, unlike mus¡c, is not speclfic lo rnu- sr-use mo dality. H e find s m ore sim ila rity between muslc and sign lan¡{nagt' tban bctween rnusíc and spoken langu age, because signs rep rese nt or SIJAAt'SI thcir meanings while words usually are connccted wi th m eaníngs IIlC1ft' .u h ilrarily. Furthe rm ore, signs can not exist withou t so rne configura lio H. lm'¡llio n, o rie nta tio n , and m ovemen r. just as to nes ca n n ot ex ist with out .\ 0 11 11 ' pitch , londncss, timb re, a nd d ura tlon . As th c auth ors discu ss in la ter t'ha p ll'r'l, ¡'o¡{lli livc psycholobrisls and music tb eorÍsls try to sh o w an o rgani:t:lI tio lla l ~ i 1ll i l ¡¡ ri t y h etween music and languag c d ue to th e cxistence o f an Illlttl,tl yi II ~ "tll't'P" slructu re.
non as lunguage. ulbcu
NUl lalilll1 lhl"l lll¡{h music also is faci lita ted by cu ltura l ste reotypes th at ¡llloHh pa ll icu lar llH'a nings lo m usical efTects. wh ich are p erpetu ate d lh ro ugh 11 " '. Sllt 1I .\ It'n 'llly pl'd expeclancies do n o t require m usica l lraining for d cvel"1'"11'111 ," u l may bl' lh e essence of m u sic as narrdtive. ·' o llill pll' llH'n ls {p iICh , lo udness. tim b re } Icnd th em sclves to stereotyp ica l l\i\1 1aliVl' Illlrlw ya ls. For example, ce rta in narrative sym b o liza tions o r repre,\ I ' l l l a t i o r l_~ lIlay Ill' ..p p ro p tiale for a certain p itch range, in ac cordance wilh l'x lll' lil ' lll"l' .md tradition . Depiction of th e p ixi e-ish character in Richard Sllil ll'l.~ \ lo llt' po cm Eulen.r/Jiegels lustighe Streiche u ses a high p itch leve!. Sll llm ls sllgg l'sling so m e pond erous gi an l o r impen d ing d oom will be lo \\'; .\ ll lllll ls Sugg:l's ting so m e th ing spritely Uf d elicate will b e hig h. Changes in lo udnt'ss ('asily s ugges t so methi ng ap p roach ing or leaving . A particul ar t¡m im' ur fOIl(' n )lo r may signify a p articu lar character or set a particular m ood. Bassoo ll Imll' sib'll ifies th e brooms lick in Dukas ' Soru rt r's Apprtntict; in I' ro kOJil'V's Peta 1l1ld t/u Wo(f, th e c1arinet represenls th e ca t. Low frequen cy tilll!Jn ·s. sl1 ch as Ihose o f lh e bass c1annet, m ay suggcs t a ce rlain sense of lI1 ystl 'ry a m i for dmd ing ; e1ectron ie sou n ds may suggcst "een e" cffccts. S II' I'I'O!YPt'S urisc fmm p crceivcd Uf iOlagi nc d ch aracteristics of lh at whi ch is p OI t rap'd in rl'l alio n lo so nie. qua lities--o nc hardly wou ld d epiet b ird s in lli,L:h l wil h a lu h a o r a lion sla lking ils p rey w iL h a flute. SN lut' n tia ! mu sica l aspecls (m elo dy. rhy lh m , fon n ) aIT¡'I·' music's cha ra c. kl ami h a w' consiclt'rable ro les in m usical narril lill n. A famil ia r melody m ay alO uw pa rticular 1tlt'1Il0ril'S ilm l all l idpatioll ~. ;n l' xl'lllplilil·¡J hy lh t· IIst' of n al ionali slil' Illu sk. sud l ;IS " '';1 I\larsl'i lla is¡'" iU t Olll p.IlI),IIIH 1' IIlli ll g s("('nl'S
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. . ' ¡ 1111' cla ssic Amc ncu n fil m (,'(1Jnhltm ca. ¡jllll a dramnüc t:lmfl lllll.ltulll 1I . ia rtic u lar churacrcrs. as 'l'ln-mes (in ("()In p le le I1U '\IIIIII'\) .111,a )' la tTOII1~~~n~li~ 01X'ras ami the use of if d 1- • \ V ' 's 11\1 ' 0 1 I ll' ntmo ~ In . A I'xt' m p h le U) agnl' r . ' . ., . io n situ aü o n com ed ies. -h ar uc tc r s 1Il te evrs f IIn'II11'S lo accom pan y ( . h w ha t h ackn e yed ste re o type o be ! tant: t e so rne nu-lod y' s m ode m ay e IITlI'0r . ' . [ th st he avil y u sed stcreotyp es.u . - , d m inor = sud ISOlle o e mo . '1.. Illa.!or - la p p y an . elo dic lln es h av e o bvíous n arraüv e u u tty. I\.sn ' nd ing a nd descending m i ., nmpllcity. Consonant har.. " . y sugg'e st comp CX I y or SI • I lurmoníc íntrtcacy ma . Le n..t hile di ssona nt harm ont es t t or re solutto n o co n le , w I . h uumie s m ay sugges res h A p o lyphonic textu re, whic lila)' suggest ac tívity, re stlessn ess, or c ~~s' l" s m ay sugges l a con tin u ing mvo lves two re latívcly ín dcpend cnt me lo l e m e , d i\nmrsc o r conm ct. . . 1 . is an obvio us narratíve tool. Tem po It hyth m , which must ex rst m ~I md.us~c, ti b erwecn slim ulative an d se daltica l . b l . ., ís th e mam rstmc Ion ... h a crt nca vana e, 1 I . . la tive íast-p aced act!vlh es . . ,1 , may p ortray su m u a rivt- m usie, whic h re sp ective ) . 11 wben th cy occu r at laxi . itie Strong accen ts, especia y . UI1t 1 slo w re ax m g acnvi ICS. . , . ri can create tensi ón an d eXCltcIlllrl n ally unaccen ted p laces as ID ~~n.copa 10~l, lo gical inten sity. A n inecssa nt llw nl. Rep ct itive rhyth m s ca n b~IJ 111 ~sy c o " loudness as in R av e!' s • · d ' tb con tm uolIs m crease 111 b ~ l. f d r¡ve d elcrmi nal ion, or Ih ythm co m me Wl a /lu/n o. ca n p ro du ce particul arly strong ce mgs o , 11 U'vita b ility. h ~ , not be obvious. Unity am i "ti music has fo on. a lthough t .c. orm[ m,a,},c , m usica l m ateria l m ay sug f ~ rm' rep etlllo n o ea vadety are th e b ase s o o , . r ' ' p robabl}' d iffe rs b etwl'ell l · In narratton lonn s ro e ~l'St il sen se of co m p eh o n. ..' , d. where lo n ge r for m s afe . th e p n nclp a nl e lu m . l1 analion th rou g h muslc as . I ' d b y Illu sic wlll'1't-' . . h t u ·h ano th cr medlUm en lance , H'lllllrt'd , and narratlOn t r) g . l' (l ()f'{ P 1 ~1O) in d ica tcs t hat " d d Cunollsly, ortnoy , 1" . ~ Ilo tl t'r segmen ts ar e n l e e . h ,h ,., wo rk am i d lcs Ilu x ll'Y . I ~ nns lo en ance el II1 lv(,lisls m ay use m uslca o I [ r ( ng p lols in a n¡¡lo gy wilh 1111' ( 1 ~ ':l H , p p. ~,m :{ -29 4) as a n exam p e o com p lca I lIlóln )' vo ices of a f~gue. ,th in of a na rrative naturc is in hcH'nl in ( )Ile may qllestton ".·hether an} gd d b l words. Do lh e so u n<1s . '1 h lh re are n o un e rstan a e l. 1lI11 sic, es pl'cla y w e n e . [ ' s or is learn illg in volv('¡ ? . ,' 1 'rtam seq uenccs o even , 1 ¡Illlo m allca y SllggCS ce ' l. ' n c , s' h asic 'lgH'I'mcllls [t'ga n · h ' t Icreo ty pes a n< IS e • . \ Ill' alltho rs ' >e l lev e t .. s i l . . ,·,." ·" ,,,s M lIsic lo dCIIll"\ a .' . , f om l' a r n t~ < .ISSOC . . . hilo{ wh a! tlw y urc h ean ng .trc r 1 M- .' . , I 'I>id ., b utt lc ·:' It ap id Il' ll1 pl ; . ,., 1 ·lc!wd S D tl n ( s. lI SIt. o < l' . , I . 1 111 ~I ' a1il llla . . .OW In . . . ,. I , . ·". Ilt'd sou n d s ami rh yl lll ll<' . . I ' . By d 1an g'lllg l lg 1l'1 III . lu ll u rdlt'slralton w1l1 ra p l( . ,.. [ . . , ',nd id t'as l'xisl n 'g anl . -' . m o n t1l lhtlt's o l' XP('rlt'llt 1 • In wt'!" su u llds. Ccrta1l1 co m. . j. . . It . , th t'Sl' t ra n sla tt' inlo a('("('p l· 11110{ uhjt'CIS o r l'vents; w¡th m a parlll·u ,11 (11 H it . '
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.. bh- and appl'OjJdah' 1Il1l ~ h l .,." " I,t , I~ u 10 1..1 ' .110 om- indoctrln at ed in to thc cult ures portruyed by ll1 O ~ t ¡\ I III' I j , , 11' Jil tm uudn-h- vlsion wo uld cla lm th at a Iast, lour], atonal ('\" ( ll u n h 11l 11l 1'1l ~l lllI ll d l'l'i ('ls u Ilo wc r gard en o n a bahu y sp ring day. A mu sicul 1101 11 ••11"" in which somcon e triumphs ovcr advcrshy can 110 1 av old IO\llI .'mUlllb . 'l'Iu- n n-lody aud har m ony a p p ro p r la te for a le ve scen e prob ably would 110 1 .'IIlAAl' SI IlIl SI 'I'Il but scns ed extra terres-
trial beings. A trio u f Ilutcs hardl y can slgn a l a shark approaching a lifeboat. Basica lly, thc rcaso n that m usic m ay n arrare, by ítse lf o r in the co ntcxt uf unorhc r nurrativc medíum, is that people can associate acoustica l events wlth n-a l or imagíned events in oth er se nsory modes. 'Iclcvision a nd films are theaters of illusion . Viewers are not actually in the loving couplc's living room, on board the shlp on the raging sea, or in the police car as it ehases the crim inals. T hey a re watehing and listening to a twodimensiona l rep rese ntatí on. v often in a ra thcr confined area. The m edia lnu-nd lo stlmulate [he vicw lo perceive or im agin e a sense of realíty, often w ith thc 'lid of mu sie. Mussulman (1974, pp. 103-106) sum m arizes m usic's m l's in tbcatcrs of illusion as (a) f illingsilence, (b) imitating or suggesting nato lIIal " hc' nomena, (e) m asking unwan ted sounds, and (d) encou ragi ng em palh )' 1'0 1' IIIt' figU H~S on lhe screen. In dcscTibing one use o f music to build sus· IWI " I' hy a rllllsing the imagination, M ussu1man (197.1, p. lOó) refleets: hllf ld ng over Ihe shoulder oCa cowboy who is scanning the distant horiSlldd.·llly a 10ne horseman appears there, silhouetted agaiost me rising llIu tl ll . h 1\1' fril"lld or C oe? The eowboy canno! lell us Cor sure, but a sudden 1I Hld ( '1l1r~III/tf¡¡} di!i..'io nallee warns us thal danger is irnminent. \ \'(' Hl. '
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( WH9) deta ils e ight funetions o f music in mu ltimedia presen tali ons; slw CIOUlllII'llts all in supporting research . One is ma5king, which indudes IllVl'll llg l'xtralll'OllS sounds as well as non musical sounds inciden tal to the llól rralivl', su di as n owd nnises, Another is continuity, wh ere mll sic's sequential a '~ Ill'f:lS l'nha nee the no w of narration, especially across changing sce nes. /)i f((till,l!, tllt/'utiOll is a third fun ction; mu sic may direct attent ion lo speeific as¡lt'rts 0 1' a viSllal scene, as when mu sic signaIHng arTiva1 o f a train or plan e inn easc's in ioud ness as the conveyancc approache s. Mood induction is sim ila l' lu Ihc' IIS(' o f background mu sic in sto res; the music is a 1001 for eliciting a pa llkula r Illood or feeling a mo ng viewe rs. Music may communicate ftel ing alHl lt' solve c(l m m t m i e a t iv{~ ambigu ities; C ohe n (p. SR) cites a n ea rHer study (l'4lhl'n, I!I!J:{) in whieh background music inf1 uenced whether viewe rs inll'r pn' ted vigoruus group ioter..lclion as fighting or playing . f\.lusic may be ( 'H Ilt'll
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¡\ ~~c hd ~ 1 9X5, p . 11) notes tha r toda 's ther : " . . WO I kJllg wuh patien n with sp if b hav¡ a p lst IS no longe r re strieted to I CCI re e a Vloral e , 1 J' 1,1 1 ISOH vrs: rath er rod ' lb '. , m o t¡lo naI, phy sical or m _ , / , a y s eraprsr IS view 'd , en musun l(Ju is thnt m ay be ada 1 d e as a genera lis t with special f . p e to mect th e p f , 1I el Va nO ll ,~ patlcnts. Th o thera ist's ' r o eS~ lO na y assesse d nceds P " ' IIl'1"h : (a) Ih(· busic powe r o fth ~U SIC~J tool s ín cludo tw o p a rti cula r '1 " 1(1 ) e m usIca l shm ulus t 1 ) , IIH J IUusic's trad itional fu ti 1 o a rous o or soothe activ, 1 r nc lona valucs as a ' 1" , 1 ~)" 1I 1 lO 0 1' vt 'h iele for eXI) , .' " SOCia lz mg agen ! and as ,. . '11 rCsslllg p a lnotlsm u' " , ps 01' llIus ic in hoop'la! d ' re IglOn, u r frat ernity, , .> I san outpaf t t \".11 11"1)" 01' ' p t·(·ia liz.. tions fo r t' . le n r eatmen t se ttings in el ud e a d " p a Ic nts wl th p a rt O l· 't I! f11l 11l,a.: 1I1,a.: al 'live ra ther Iha n ' b h . ICU a r n e e s. A s a therap y p asSIV(' E' a VIO r . h JI,I'1 "111 lo ' ·ll¡.;a",: t' in "d oin " . h ' . ' mUSIC t e ra p y re q ui res lhe " g m Uslc t rough sm rri , l' . . 1 llllll,a.:, l' .1)'11 1,11; lIIMrun w nls o r mov ' 'f h o: ng, Iste nm g, dlscussing, c reI l ' • mg. e m USICth . Wt .. " IJlfll , ' ,~ s ioll all t'am of, .. h d d b e ra plst usually is a m em" n ea e y a ps J ', . . . l ' l ' , \ \ /1, 1 o tlllllll's lh t, IJarticu la r t' ' h ,ye l l,!trI st Of c lIm ca l direc tor p a len t s t e r ap e r . , ,' 1, ', 1 lIUI\¡¡' Illt' mpy' as tht. part O I d' u IC program. T h e te am may l ' 1" ICU af me lUm o r f If IIt, '¡ lit fil dlilal ing beha v ' ' / h as u ne o seve ra l th e rap e u_ 1" lOra c a nges A ,'1 IIJIII 0 1 111l 'ral >Y is Iha l il r'" , . par lCU a r valll e 01' a n activ ... 1 . " q Ulres a n tn te']>e '1 I ' ' I 11" ';11'1\1 .111<1 lile I>a lienl as . 1I l ' ~ona re ati onship between lhe l' ' , " e as re a honsh . h' 1'/0 ,- lo st arting a music lh ' 'p s \Vlt III a group . crap y p rogTam 'lh . , llI USlt' Ilu'I"a l'i ,SI should asscss \ 'h lh . W] any particular cli ent the 1 , I ' \ e e r mUSIC th e ra ' , • . . p y IS polentlaJly beneficia l ') o 'M'IVlllg alld evaluating beh ' , " 1 ' ( aVlors In SIX ca t . ,11 ,H 1'lIl1e o r COh'll itive ) m I ' eg o nes-com m un ica tio n ' 1I '( ) ,) . , o o r, e motlOnal o . . , , (l ,'A ¡~ '. oS , rh e CAM EO S . ' . , rgalllzallOnal a n d so ci a l " . " catego nes 111 tu m b • ' .\ 1 11 1111; IlI'ra p l'U!ie goals (Ea g Je 1982 2 }' 1 ccome appropria le arcas for I I~ d l'lt'rmin ing the sp e ci fic ' m us ic' ~~tiv? . ..alh om.- R~d~y, 2002, p . :1). llJll"' /: 11 1t·n lpi .s l cOllsidl' rs lll any f 't , '¡tles for mdlvldual p a tients the II . 11 · . ae urs lile ud ing lb ' 11. ll' la pt'II IIC It·am. !he palie nt's d ' e re commendations u f O"JI'('livt's fo r Ih e thera l>y a ud lh Isa. I '~I es and behavioral d isorders fh e " 1' \\'1 '1 , e pa t/{'nt s fllUS' · I iJ k ' 1 S s, - - II (' Ih t, th e ra ¡Jisl uny est',b /" . lea ae 'gr o lllld a nd inter. . " IS 1 fllll.';lt'a l l''O'II · ti 11 11 ' 1),' ,¡¡IVlo ra l a lld S()Ci-l¡ 1 b . - 1">' S. H'S(' are st'cn nd a ry to . - . goa s esta 'l sl1('d iJ ' I , IlU nJ e IIll' rapisl m llst 1>1'lt'('1 a('l ivili , . J . .. ,) I.H· I lt'rapt' lll ic lt' alll . T he t S t MI ( .." JlaIIZI· 0/1 lIl11 sic \ .Slill1 l1 la tiv('
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«nd .\ oe ia lizil1g s t rc n ~ t hs lo a l tlvel y iuvolvc Ih e patk-ut whih- ~ i ll \1l h a ll l ' o tl ..ly I.If ilil al in g th e d esin-d lx-bavkuu l r-bungcs. Thl' app roach descrilx-d ;IIJOvt· sc mcumcs is considcn-d 1I1II.I;r 11/ l/¡rml'Y. wlu-n-in Ih e mus ic itself is adjlllH"t lo and complcm cuts urlu-r luu-rvcuüons; 1I l' I' lOa d les in w h ich m us te is the maln treatmcr u 1'01' lmprovlng a clicnt's , ' Iu,li lil lll are c o nsid c re d music as iheral'} (Bu lit. 19!'¡, p . 25 M), Obviously, th e lnu- lu-t wecn mu sic in thc rap y a nd music as the rapy is nol dcnmrcat cd as I l-ml y as Bunt suggests, but rccogniticn o f th e two upproach cs so m eüm es is uv-ful. Unkcfer's (1990) taxonomy u f musi c therapy progra m s ami n-ehu¡q llt·s for udults wit h m e n ta l di so rders, w hi ch class ifies activi ties and imcrv-uüun s into s ix m aj or ca tcgo ries, essen tlall y re flects th c rnusic aJ thcrupy ,1!' ¡llo ad 11'111' lirst ca tegory is musíc perftrming; p crforming acüvities may foc us 0 11 1'1 11"'1" product o r p rocess and may in volve elther gro u p or indi vidua l inn-r\ " lllio n s. Group act ívíües emp hasize group cooperatíon a nd res ponsi bility, ~ ' I ' lid in teruc üon. a mI mastery 01' musical m a teria l. Te chniques wilh in d ivid lIu l ~ m a y fo e us on improving a c1ie n t's musical skills (p rod uc t) ur fo stt'ring ;1 ,h"lIl 's scl f-e x p ressiu n an d abUity to in le rae l m us ica lly a nd sud a lly with IIIt' ti "' 1 , l p i .~ 1 or olhers in th e gmllp (p rocess). I Jn kt·fe r' s se cond c a tego ry , music P~)'dlOt/¡ erajJy . in eludes SUp ptJIt iVl' , illlt'r'11 11V1', a lld catalytic Ih erapy processes fo r grnups a n d /or in divi d ua ls , '-up purlive m usic t hc r a py a etivi ties foste r ve rbal int e racli n n , soci a l p art ici l"llion , a m i Ihe p ra c tice 01' h calthy bchaviur pattcrns. ¡ntc racti ve ael ivitie s _,.,,1. lo help c1ients be come a w a re 01' consc io us co n ni ct s ami un hea lthy d, 'If'JI.\t' Illt'chanisms a n d to ga in in sig hts in to b e ha viu r patlerns. C a la lylie 11 ' Ilvi li¡'s st'l'k to c rca le an a wareness 01' s ubc o nscio tis con l1 icts ami enr ollr· ,I!\,' I hilng e by relivi ng a o d rcso lvi ng deep connicts and fc a rs. 111 lJ nkc fe r' s thi rd c a tegory, ther a py using musi, amI movrmtnl may 1H'lp , 1II'IIIs hen llll e aware 01' their bo d y mechanics, in ere ase socia l intt'radioll , 'IU"W t'xprl' ssio ll 01' feelings a nd cmolio o s, an d ¡linease c xcrcisc . 111 ('alt ·,II;0 t ~ t, IlIr, mllsiecomhinrtl willl other txprtJJivr arlJ suc h as drawin g, drama , sr llJp t. lilK, n I' w riti ng prosc ami poetry ol'fer indiv id u a ls in creascd o p pn rt llllilil' s for Ilwl .II" ·lIlit: t' xp n~s si()n 01' fee lings and e m otio n s. Rrcrrali01wl mUJir, Ca lt'Wil"y I I ~ " , I,·al llft ·s .. foc ns on co o perativl' gn m p participat ion . SIl(Tt'SS-IJI"i " llll' ll 1IIIt Ilkal pxpt'rit' IH:t'S. a n d lh e devd opm ent 01' Ic isure-time lll11sit'¡L! skilis , 1.. l/l/Hit" (/1/(1 rr!llxatioll. U nkefer' s six lh catt'go ry . fou r n'('(Jb'lliz¡'t1 !t'(·h · tllo fl ll''' t' m ploy music lo fostt' r rclaxali oll : (a) mus ic IIs('(1 in l:lJllj u llt:tio ll w ill! III I lKJ l ' ~ s i v t ' II1IISt:11' re la xalioll Ira in in g ; (1,) IllIISit: ftJr ..u r fa(:c n' la xal ilm a lUI lo' lIIpOlóll"y resp ile fro l1l an x it·ty/ sllt·..s l"fllld ilions ; (e) lll llSk illl a);t'l"y lo I p lOI l' ami fo slt' r inCft' asl'
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Documcn ün g lII lI"l, 1 IIl' IU p ~" ~ 1-11" 1h vlu cun-fully con trollcd rc scarch is undcrsta nda bl y diflk ull. "llu - , Iiult a l " I'II1 O:l('h necc ssa ry in maoy m usic thcrupy ac üvitics 1(,lItis ¡'SI,1r 1110 11' lu n iM' stud y re se urch than lo cx perimen tul research. Furth cr , siu cc IIlllsic rhempy is uscd in co nj uncü on wit h o tile !" tlu-mpk- s an d med lcatl o ns. it is difficu lr lo attríb ute un y effccts so lely tu
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I '11111' t'xerd st' .. _ 1 -u uf uue u tlo n un e11or l u s 11\1 \1" 11' n",rti/J tI: lo SI' !"V" as ,1 111 . r Iluidity) (u-ro po, rel lt'til in n, du ra non orccvor .
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~ltl s i e Lislening and Ancsthesia, A na lge sia, a nd / o r Suggt'stion M u.I';r hl1ld ;IJfl: To se rve as an audioanalgesic, a n xio ly tic, or se da tive .
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Ndwiqllc: tvl l1sic Listening/ Participat ion a nd Exercise
I"ES 1"I 'I " St'll ls ,h.' propurt io o of a sl.alld ard dt"\'ía' ioo (a llllil of \'ari ah ility) tha l q uant iri."s tllt" .. ff(·l'ls u f nmlra slinl; cll nd itio os . In Ihis case , 11w Il lt'am of IIH' ~ro ll ]JS n'n' ivi ll~ m usí· ( ,,111'('11111"' 111 Wl"rl' ('u o lrasll'd w ilh lhe grou ps Ihal d id oot . A n E.'i... I.O(l w(luld íml ical.' lhal , a uos.s ,tlll lll' Sllld lt's in lh." I1wla·an alysís, llw ('x p' 'f inll' nla l h'TUUP (nm siu ll ln 'alll"''' I) Mo rt'd 011" sta ndar d .I<' \'I,llí, Jtl b,'u ,' r Iha n IIIt' nml ml g ro ll p (n u IImsi,'al In "llrn,'n l). "J'lw ES SI¡lli.,líe i, I" 'l"m ll ing 1Il0r.' ' tJnmltJll in ' iOKI., slud ll'S as " ,,11 ,IS In rn.'I;I-allillp ..'s Lt'UlllM' il ,II l\'l" MOllU ' mil" " liun u f lh .' " " I'al ·. 11, ,,1" si,l( nitin ,," "I' u f a .....' ull. ClasSitlll sIalislinl! si¡.; nilk lllU " m .lV 111 n u,' 1'''1 1'1';IlI il"ally Irivi"l 1O"ull" l" I',·"¡" t1 )· Wilh I«r,l(l' silm l' l,·• . I"·H ... nmnb" r uf VIII iah l,·, au"h'/O ',I w". ,1(1"; 01" 1 11¡¡,n :W 1,,·, II UM ' ~ " !I '" slll' Ir... U1I lud,·,1 n" 11', · lha n ' ''''o, k l" 'm lt'u I \'¡u'i.lhl,'. "~ Ill' I' i l1 "' '' I,, 1
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music: also, thc ind ivídual thcra plst's pcrs oualíty is an importan! variab le. A revlcw of the re sea rch Iiterat ure o n particular applica lio ns o f music in lherap y is wcll beyond th e scope of the p resenr d lscusslon. bUI Standley's ( WXti) meta -analysis of em pi rical stu dies using music in actual m edical/den ta l trcut ments warrants dl scusslo n. S he íd en üfled 8 1 stud ies fo r possible inclnsion in th e rneta-an alys is, bu t only in cluded 30 be cause the othe rs h ad (a) failcd to re port cm pi n cal d ata ; (b) used sim ulated d iagn osis, trca tm ent, or pniu slim uli; (e) uscd aud ito ry stírn uli oth er than m u slo; o r (d) rep o n ed n-sults in forrnats not amcnab le to replíca ted data anaJysis. Sta nd ley t' lIlplop 'd lh t, estímated effict size (ES) statístíc as an indi cation o f the exte n t lo whirh lh t, m usíc eo nd itio n made a di ffc rence .v Fo r 5 4 of the 55 va riab les ullldytt'd ,I" Stnnd lcy fou nd (p. 7H) "muste cond itio ns enhan eed m edical n hl"¡ liVl's whet hcr m easured b y physio logical (E S = .!J7), psychologi cal/ se lf" '111 111 (ES - ,H!» , o r behavío ra l o bsc rvaríon {.ES = U O}." hom tllt' romprc hcn sive data contained in the 30 studí es subject to metaHIlU lp ' Í\, Sraudley (p p . 8 1-!J7) id entified seven types of music the rapy appliI utl nll' ,m d Iechn iqucs for use in m cdícal sc tríngs. Foll owing is a Iist o f the In 11Il111'1I'S und the fun ctio n tbe m usic is in te nd ed to serve fOf e ach teehlIiqlll', 1 ~ l' a tlt 'rs intert'stcd in the therapeutie o bjeeti ves, po p ulati o ns fOf \\'hOI Il 11" , h'dllliqu es a fe in tend ed , and lh e p roeed u res invo lved in applica11011 ul llll' lI'dlll iqu es should eo ns ult S tandley's artid e, a maj o r eo n trib ulio n lu 11... li t' ld .
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o n an~ .. III '1' rclatio n1 Utl", ique: t-.l usie Lislt'n itlg/ l'arllClpallIheraplst! \)allCIl urm y 'Io initiate aud en h unce . \/ " ' 11 ¡:,,,,rt úm:
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tt ' 014) note the d eve lo pment uf tw o .n.t~W ficld~ II Old¡:,t's and I laack l lJJ h. p".S .. d perf orming arts medicine- M,a l( .. L.I,.d lo l1lusic !he rapy: "'~SIC "'edl.Clne an" n terms o f p hysica l he a\th Iba n . Ive usm g nUISle more I Itllll1 ll" ' llPIlt'ars tn IIlVO . h t foeus as mueh ur more 01\ __ 1 .' . lh erap y wlue see ms o . . 1 1"' 11 h \l ;ulltlOna rnllSlC ~ . L"l een m usie nw t!u:lIW ~IIH nHl S H _ 11 " lth A mainr dlfl er cnec ve w . . ' l' l"a u a . :.r . • . h as '1 1,hYSIU<'1ll IIr IU lr!> I , 110 1,, " liol ll¡';l ner _ 1 1 "\th ca re practltlO , sue · ". ' l" .,,l li, l .lPY IS Ilal a lca . .' ther.ll)ist l l l odges ~" ,1,1( , . . .' . Tledielll e no t a m\l sle . 1 III,.I h · ill lll ll lllstt' rs tn U S1C I '. . , _ ' 1_-' PI)e'lr sim ilar l o n lll M I" I Il' I .jc nw c!lell\e s goa s . • . , " , . f 1'1'111 p . 5 1-1 ). r..\ an y o mus ' . 1 'blnud p n ·sslIn '.I U'¡lll lolh , , ' jc In n lllt ro \ p am , fe{ lICC ()I 1' " 11 \ u ll~.I ~ , t'.g., IIsm g ln llS ' " tl,e e ",lon illl' sySlt' lll. )VltlllS ) , " 1 1' d n ngc s lO ' ,111 ' '''' ' l it' lt'n sion ; anc promo c '. ' . 1 '. , .. \dmin istr atio ll o f m usi{' or _ 1. " l · d le rnlona ISS\l CS . 1 . I -11" '1 1' .nt' plulo sop 1Ie.l an l' l afd .n ' rlifit't! I\HI S\(" ( U' I.l· l ti ' invn lvt' l1lt' nt o a )0 l 1 11 ll'1 ¡ll ll' lIl il" t'IH 1s w I1 10 II l e . 1 .. . '1 _ I'l\in isl t'rin g o1l'(li c a ll n 'a lll lt'1\ Il\ll Sl e 1 1I'1.1})\S . 1\ ¡, 1 'k 1)1' II t ' a ) .' U 1 LI l' d lv 1\1II(' h p ro (' SSlo m l 1,' 1 ( f\ n ~ H C . mayvUlll " f . l,h ysKta n . !l C o nu J ' , .• hH h ll ll l lill' IIw ul ni ( l .1 . 1) l' " ,.' OH m llsl t/(TUr for Il Il ISU I I . lro ft'ssltUl a t IS< IISSl I l {,u II I IlI'd lilp S sn n H' t' s s-I l. 1Il-1 ... ,. . ' ll',,(.t iVl'\Y in wOIking; lo Wa l'l 1 u ' l ' IO ' l hd l lt ' ami m usir IIll'rap y lo II\lt f.H 1 1 1,,'.\ ¡n\t'H'sl o f d icn ls. {.. ,
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curpul tunm- l sy n cl l l ll l ll'. /11 '1 \ '" " lll lil lllllt'IlI, und v oculmuluk-s'' (1lodg es & H aa rk. p. 5 ,~ . 1 ) . I 't ' r fc l n l l i l l ~ .ut s IIU', lk i ll l' is sc mc wha t uktn to spt't'{"h t hcrapy and s ports m edlchu- in Ihal lb,' primar)' p urposc is lo tr cat a nd al leviate ph ysicaJ factors that p a ' Vl'lI 1 a perfcrmer from achíeving his or her full potcntial. . As \~'ith mostodcveloping ñelds, many issues requirc consideration, especiall y sm ce musrc thera py itsclf is still a n expa ndíng ñe ld. For example, how will IIU' emerging Iields interface with airead)' es ta blishe d music therapy
gonls uud a pproachcs? \Vho has th c expert ise lo use music for lm provin g ph ysical and psychologicaI hcalth ca re ? \Vhat typc of professíonal certification sho,uld be, rcq ufred for th ose using music fur heahh care p urposes? \ Vhat typcs 01 workí ng relatío nsh íp s need lo be establís hcd be tween music theraptsts ami other hcahh care profcssio nals? H o vv do es u ne ed ucate thc pu blic that simply using music as a dl version or entertainment is not music thc ra-
IIY? , , 'h ill' mu sic therapy still ís a relativel y new ap plícatlon o f m usíc within Ilu' Ill'illlh care co mm unity, il appea rs lo have a much stronger research base thnu 1IIIII'r funcü onal applícatíons of music, inelud ing m usic m edicin e and 1wt!olllling art~ rnl,d icine. Stand ley and Prickett's (199,1) co m pilatio n of key 11 1111 Il 's a llll('anng ove r a 3 D-yea r perlud in theJournal QfMusic Therapy o rrers ,1 l IIllll'll·IH'IlSivc dcscriptio n uf mu ch o f that base, H ealth care p ro fessiunals I l ' l ll~ n i /,l ' ils va ltlc as a therapy e m bodying a ctive invo lvem en t, and H ' ~ I ,. 1It h. Inlin ing, an d other slanda rd s for the p rofcssion are hig h, thus .' I I I ' lI ~ l J¡ t · l li llg ¡hc pro fcssio n's posilion within Ihe m ed ica l and paramed ical nlt1 l11 ll ltli ~ y, In CO.IlC.lllsion, there is HUle doubt that the id eal s and p rincipIes ~ lIl1ll' r wlllch muslc IS used in therapy make m usic th erapy o ne 01' th e m ost. If Jlul l/u most, va lua ble func tiona l a pplicati o ns o f music.
Mu sic to Facilitate Nonmus ical Learning l\la ny daims have been m ad e reb'l' ut 11,.. " '''',01' h • u m m unity.
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II'St'aITIU'rs, (Con sld ern hly 1 11l111 ' 1 ~ \illll l u'!fIW ubou t th c "MtIZa l'l l'IfI·I· t,") w htle thc " M ozart 1·111 '1 t" hU !lI 1I 'I I'i vl·t1l lw most unenüon durtng tlu- pa . II'Vl'aled statistica lly signifi cant d ifTerence s in favor of the Iwn gTllllJlS n·(·l ·I V . ¡lIg mu sic, A subs eque nt study , in which lhe co~tingenC)' .fo r fir!>1 b'Tad l'ls malh cmalical achie ve ment was viewing tel c vlse d m uste Il'SSOIlS, alMI lI'v('a led b'Tcate r achievement fo r the grOllp viewing the m m ie I('sso ns l ha l,l In 1" a co ntro l group rece ivin g no rcward (M ad sen , Doro ..... . ["1001'1', &: Wlll1lb le, 197G), . , . M,lIlse n and Ge ringer's (197fi) stlldy of Ihe cffe cts nf choices o l n :llltOl"n·. IIlI'nt intli cated lha t televiscd m usic Icsso llS wc rc just as elTedi vt.~ u ~ 11't.,t.· p lay ill inCfl'asing child ren's acadl'mit~ skills. M"dsl-'n's (¡!l8t) la w r sllldy c.OI~ l pa r' in~ Ihl-' d f('cls of lelev isl·tI mll sit: Il'ssons ami rl'cl' iving books as n ' lI1 lo l'l'I '1IU'1l1 allt'rnalivcs for mal lU'lIIali('lll adl il'vl'Ill(' nl a lso revea ll'd Ihal bolh wI'n' dTt'divl' in promoting inn t'aw tl 11I.lllwlIl
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studcnts' read ing
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Tlu - al)O'o'(' studles"
Iun ctk ., . . I . . IIlH nomuusl c ul tasks 1" I II . ' J I} ,I S .1 n-wun lo r uc hiev• . , 1 11' (' xit'n l l o whicb th , 1 I nnd ••pplicd (o ot he r leumi n e,. ' " b ¡ ese resu ts ca n JI' ge nc ralíz ed . g SI uuuo ns IS su uect t . ~1 l'orsythe (11)75 P "J I) ' k I . J o CO IlJ c ctU fC . iv ad sen an d . " . . ac n ow cdgc that -( d ¡ f th í problcm s. induding "Hawthcme" and "hsa;~ .. Iy,pe have severa! l'JT('('ls presumed lo operatee ¡In se h 0 0 l se ui ects as se tungs 18 H . . hw e ll as. a ll of the ("¡lh' thal mu sic as a rewar d . 1I rr ." owever, t e studies do indi15 equa y en ectíve as o th . d I run tmgencies and perha h h ddi er ccntrtve e assroom . Ieaming in ps as t e a itional effe e t o I f ac r'1"Ilatmg IIl U Sir . ,
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Reseurch o n m usic as a re ward for nonm " . n -reut yt'a rs. W hethe r th i . b h usical learning has wa nc d in IS IS cea use t e researche rs y" . 110 lun gcr requires research h th te w u as a gIye n that . or w e er research and hil hi 1 !J Y P S hnv« sim ply ehanged is uncl 'a \\'h p 1 oso p lea pe rsp ec. il¡ c r. ate ver ap proach es . ;11' 1 Ila ll' uou m usical learn¡ h k ' - 's usmg musr c to l \ ' ' l mg ave te en otber d irect ions \ 0111 ( 1.J7H) and Ha nshumaker ( WHO 198C) h .. slv¡' u-vir-ws ofmuch of this " h 11 ' h l av e províd cd com prehenrescare ans umaker' . 1 " .~_I I U Ji , ',S n '¡.:'a rd ing· thc e IT'ects. o f 01hcr ' . s revlCWS a so m cluded er arts bcsldes m ' .. b In IllilU I W/WlI co nsider,"n h " ¡. . liSIC, o ne ll1ust ear th is g IS ge nera lza tlo ns. (Jl IIH' o lher a pproaehes involving Il1IlSíc to facili . IWl bilps Illt' mOSI basic is th t f . . tat e non m uslCal learning, a o ex am mmg the e ffec ts f . 1 " , I I U I lpill lllng o n aeh ic vem'"nt " lh . o m uslea ex p en ence ... m o e r arcas \ \'o lfT 1 b l h ' J.: (I/o lll lt(m dllg lransf" in which "'th d ' . a e s t IS a p pro ach as pliw ' whit-h (~X I)t.'d ites the le . el "u y of ~usle serves as men ta l discia mmg o ot h er su bJccts" (\ \' 1[[ 197H ') ah o 1I0ll's lha t Ihe no tíon 01 1ram . "tng ¡acn , ltles ' of the . od "1 d , p. 3 . She h di \! Il'd ilt-d hy Ihe lime ofTh d "k ( . mm a rea y ad been . oro I e ea d y m the twe ntíeth 'tu ) O th :o.ltll , U ' S 1m ve in vestigated sProifiIC 1tarmng . of certa' la k ee n ry. er ¡unl o lllt'r su!lit.'Cls An ex I f h In S S common to musie .J ' ampeo suc astud )' is th b M d alld l\1idlt'1 (W7.5) in wh ",eh t i ' at y ~ a se n, .M a dsen, , o na eUes we re used t ~ -]' IJ IliM·rilllina lion. Tra nsf¡ f . I . o acI lla te ve rba l audito. er o m llSlea ex pe n enc b th h III I1SI(' a m i lo Ilonmusical las'- ". I .c, o to 0 1 crs a reas of . K.S, IS a co m p ex tOplC in ,h' h M
;11'1I ~Hl'nl lv' "- l't'u rs b t'{'¡¡u - ,se , . " , ,., 1 [1 ' , . " 1" ól Il m.• in t'vólluóllions __ :. o\'> ,"' >11 1" !!,'lH'raJ 11111'1 "'''''11 1",1.10., llót. uf lh,' 1:H'T"Im("¡
1(1" 111' IM'IH ' iv,'_ ' ¡ls,.1ra.s n'u'i vir." '1'..' .. , " rt'¡¡ h lwn l ' I h, . _ " ,lI l'll11( I,olll dll " v;l hMllJr'~ ¡"lul" IR\' Iu ' 11 . _ '
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Ililit:an t cffecrs. Two ot he r studics, hOWt'Vt'l , S II AA l'S I tha l mn s¡c ca n he elfecti ve in lacilinui ng acad em ic achie v(' Illt'1l1. Buule und Ra msey ( l!J!)()) found that p res('n tution o f so cial studíes fucts to m ner city sixlh-grade students via a rhyt h m ¡c MlI1g {rap] was mo re effecuve tha n a traditíona l prese ntation of social studíe s furt s. Tanner (199 1) observed tha t an approach to reading that ineo rpo mled ITA (l nitial Tea chi ng A lphab et) techniques in both reading a nd rnu sic inslr uct ion helped sccond-, thi rd -, and fourt h-gradc stud ents im pro vc thei r skílls in lette r-word Iden uficat ion. passage co mpre hension, and wo rd a ua ck . Tak ing a díffc rc nt approaeh to the p ro bl em. Manthe í and Smi th (W!t;{) nsscsse d the effects of music participati on o n high school smdcrns' matlu-mutical achíevern cnt via regression an alysis. Afte r studying data from a xam I'l l~ of 1,192 subjects drawn from a poo l of 12,000 students p articipaüng in th v l!JHO H igh Scho ol an d Beyond survey, thc researchc rs ra ported no slalisli ra lly sign ificant dírect cffect of m usic partícípation 00 rnathemarlcul achl vvvIlIt'lIt. HO\vev er, ba sed on analysis uf the nu mbcr of musie p arlid pa nt.s wllo a bo were particip ants in m athematies co u rses, the y d id repa rt an i1ldim' / pos, ltivt., effeet 01' m usic participation on m athematical ac hievc tlleu t (p. HI). I'ar simoniously, m usic d id no t p rom ote greate r mathe malical achi e Vl.lllt.nl . (¡lit pe rhaps the students who tended lo e nroll in m usic d asses we rc Ihe tH lt'S lIlore like ly lo ae hieve we ll in m athematics. Perhaps the most c1aims rega rd ing lh e e fTecls o f m usie o n no nlllllsical \t'arn ing ha ye been wilh respeet to lan guage lea m ing (e.g., S nyde r. 1 ! )~ I , I : \\'nlyerton, 199 1), b UI even bere the Iite raturc rega rd ing s\lch dfl'rts is diverse and in eonclusive. Readers a re enco uraged to e xamine \ \'o llT's l' xn'l !C'n l revi ew and sta tus report on the to pie. She aIso reviews stlld ics thall' x¡¡1tl illt' Ihe efTecls of m usic experienee o n scIr-co nc ept. personalily f'Ktors. alld ¡ l'I1ain physical activities. Il anshumak er's 19HO review exami ne s stud ies re latcd lo la nb" lagt' dt'vI·1 u¡lIne nl and read ing readiness, read ing an d m athematics, lea rn ing Ilt'haviol .llId att illlde . crealiyity, socializatio n, a nd in te llcetua l d t.' vt.'I()!nIlel lt a lu l udlieve ment. (H is WH6 revie w ess entia lly is an u pdat e 01' lh t., I!IHO n 'vil'w.) 1 :" lll'rally, H an sh urn aker eond udes that mu sie has positive c1Tecls 0 11 lan · ¡':llage deve loprnenl, rea di ng readin ess, am I sludent ve rb alizat iun . lit, also lIo les that dail y IIlllsic instructio n has a si¡,rn ilicant, po sitive erfert 0\1 lIIa lllt'Illa tics sco res aIHl lha t creativily and perct.'ptlla lmo tor skills a re a llech'd positivcly. A co nsl'rva tive but pa rliCIIlar1y im po rtant roncl usio n for Illllsi<: t'd ll ~ ,'alors is th at "'schoo l lime S¡ lt'1l1 011 tllllSit: a ll d o tlwr mts ad ivilics ha s Ilo lIq !," ¡¡ live effl'ct o n aCildt.'lllir adli¡'vt' lI\t'lll" (1Ia m hllllla kl' r, WHti, p. 11 ). O vera ll. ,,'o lff is mo l"l' ('a ulioll'! jll 111'1 l'IlIldll:o. io llS, altho llg h :o.lw il ¡.;-n'( ' S ,h at nlt'asllrahlt' ('ITer l'! IIf Ill ll ,i l im ltu lli llll H U d('vt'1opnwlll uf <'o);nilivt,
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skills a mi lIIltlt 'n talld ill/ot 111>1 )' .. :o.: h l. SIH' ¡H"knowlt'i1w 's thal I1Iml u f th c n-sean-h sllt' rt' vi¡ ' w l 'c1 11'1'1II11'd 11l1"lt iv(' resuhs, b ut she mainnuns that the coucluslons druwn gt'lw ra ll)' u-m nin uu convi nci ng, prim a rily d uc lo "o bvious iuad cquacic s in thc cxpcmucnra l d esigns a nd a1so to the inco m plete and
cquívocnl dcscr iptlon s o f tlu..' ex perimenta thcmsel vcs" (p . 2 1). S he co nc ludes t ha l "defini tivo evidence of thc no nmusical ou tcomes u f musíc cd u eatio n is )'l'l lo be provlded" (p. 21). A m o re re cent review o f th e extra-musical ad va ntage s of music ín stru cü o n a mi pa rüci patío n (C utie lta, H amann, & \ Valkcr, 1995) also ref1ects co nsíder011111· cnutlo n in its clai ms reg ard ing m usic's effec ts 0 11 nonmusica l learning. A n uutcorne of the Future of Musíc Educa ü on Proj ect sp o n so red by U nitcd Musical Instrume nts. U.S.A.. a coalitio n of six m ajor man ufac tu re rs of muslGil instrume nts- A rm strc ng; Artley , Ben ge, Co nn, Kin g; and Sh cry l & Roth, 1111' revicw reponed results of 8 1 studies of th e effccts of m usíc instructio n or purncipuüon o n achievcment in language arts. reading , m ath e m at lcs, o th er nrndr-nucs, and several o the r depen den t measures (crea tivity, d ropo ut rutes, "lllC ll" ul St'l f-l'5h'cm. slud ent social skills, and sllldent perceptual motor skill d" VI 'lopllH'IlI). Wh ile Ihe projeet rev iewed 81 stud ies, o nIy 34 aClua lly co n, I'IU ", 1il('adl'mic ac hievemenl, and ove r ha lf 0 1' Ihese o nly pro vided correlaHlIUlll c1'lla . No l surp risingly, C utietta el al. we re q uite ca uliou s in genera l. I/Ull' IU , Iq "\i1rdillg the e ffects 01' m usic instru cti on on achi evcment. O f th e 34 ..tlldw 'l lt"II'Va nl lo academic achicve menl. o nly six rc ported resul15 th al il1l plil'd n ltlsal dfects from music instru ct ion or parti cipation o n aeadem ic al hil' Vl'lIU' lll. Olhcrs either provide d o nly corrclatio nal dala or yie lded stali..lk ally lIll11 significan l results, In cssence, slud ies revicwe d by C utielta e l al. du\ no l plOvidl' cOllvinci ng data showing posi live effeets of seho o l m usie illS lm l'lio ll o r partici patioo 0 0 academic ach ieve m eot. l\lost co nc1usioos Wl'lt· in ({'l'lIlS 01' po sitive rclalio nsh ips betwee n music pa rticip ation and Ihe va ri' llls IYI)('S llf academie achieveme nl. perhaps llsefu l as po lilical info rmaliol\ bUl nol cllllvin(j ng lo resea rche rs. 1'('l h..ps Ihe Liggest ball yhoo rcgarding th c effe cts of rnllsic o n no nmusiea l ll'amilll-:" has Leen lhal associated w ilh lhe purported "M 01.arl e lfect. " BI"t':Il1 SC il iIlllslralcs taking minimal in formatio n and making it illto so rne· lhill l-:" w.. 11 beyond whal il rcprcsent s. the autho rs have cl eetcd to devote con, illl'm illl' d isclIssio n lo the Mo1.arl elfec l and Ihe atten tion it aroused. m In a 1"I!I' r lo IIU' l'd ilor of Na lUTe, Rau scher . Shaw, a nd Ky (1993) re po rtcd a eo m· I lOl ri SO Il 111' IhH'l' b'TO UPS (lf co llege sludents . o ne of whic h Jistc ned lo !\ fozart's I) majo!' so nala (K t HH). another of which Iistcll ed lo a n ullspecificd reIax · a lio li t ¡I Pl~. ..ud Ihl' o lher 0 1' which sa l in sile nce ror 10 m inu tes prio r lo lak ·
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, I I l "~l 'I 01 I'S WI'f(" ron vertcd lo thv (.¡¡uiva ' lug It"sls 0 1' spatial fl'aSllll ll1 }3,: 11" ', ' " " 11 ' lslruclio ns for IIIl' S{(lujimi" JI' ,. It·S 1Il lit lull ,Illll Wl 111 I II·tK l' n i mil' Igelln" S ( (1 " , & S' ul r ¡tIHIi) Thc gru up th at U;l1r1 jm[e o[lnuUi{!,(1J(( t "hUIIU hk~", 1.1,01);(' 11, '\ '1 ' t:l hc~ ~c:)res 'than ItU' othc rs. . I t M ' ar t showvd . .S1Jo!;1I11rrau y 110 ' I hud 1Islelle ( o oz lu ti le"lr results we re lem po rar y a nt TIH' il1vesligators ea refully GI\llto lw d 1 l.l~ I " . rasks Thl'y callcd for db d th e particllhr spaua re aso nmg . , I llid uot exte n eyon, 11" " I .t 1 . an d not ed th at m usicians uug 1\ lurth cr rcsearch rega rd mg ac ( I~H.lIl.1 slY es opular rned ia , inclm ling hff I tb: nonmUSICJaIlS, j owcver, p h I t"ad (1 erenl y an N · 1 Confercne e ignored t e . . ns f th Mu ele Edncato rs ano na • pllhhcallo O e das tha t m usic co uld m ako a 1)(' 1'' ti s an d promulgal e a sto ry I u-searc Iicrs eau 10 11 " [h"M el e ffect" p henOml' 1l01l. >lI1 "H th begmmng o 1 e oza ..o u -sm art er, cn ce , e f b . d what Rausch er and hcr co l1111' mcd ia blítz m al íollowc d we nt ar c)on
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h-aguc s sugg estcd h h M rt effect m uy be a real plH" , '015 su anest I at t e u oza Subsequcnt axpenme ~ . 1 xpe rime nt (Ra uschvr. Sh.p,..·• . f lIy límitcd sItual10ns, n o ne e . \ 1I0lllenllll 10 care u . "[ I their ubili ry lo íruag uu' I u' n o) h lIege students wcre tes er on · l· & Ky, Hl:-J;J , w ere co . d tti perations the students who IS. f paper fold mg an eu ung o • 1 l· u 'su I15 (1 [ a sen es o " d sludents who t.'it H'r l!'> ' . [ f lhe M ozart sonata ()utsco re ll'llec! to 1It rnmu es o , .\ . l· '1 e lO-mi null' preparali()1l t' m uli o r sat 10 SI e nc e or 1 h'l\('d lo ot h er aura 1 S I th 'm ent {Ra usd 1l"r Sha w, '00 o f five days In ano er expen • \ limes ()\'cr a pen . ' b 1,)n- ) lh ee- and fou r-year-old chil( rl'n . ~I I , r I I ' · hl, n nlllS & Ne weo m I A'vin. \1'ng c . f .' d o·,ce expe rirne nts in p res(~ 100 . ht Ihs o plano an v who undcrwenl e lg m O,n \ . [ h ildren who had nol had t1H' " m bhnJ7 p uzz e pleces o e . w\'I"e sllpe n o r 10 asse o h b \. tha' [Ile)' had show ll ho w l1l\l sK . ' 1' h escare crs e leve ' . . lIH1slcal ex penence, er 'al 1 d elopme nl Evident ly. slllu lat' itive spatl ·tem pora ev ' gno . migh t en hance e [ ·cal proc essin« and spatia l pro· , Ived 10 th e typcs o m usl o . ('o rlicill areas are IO VO . ' N A 'n the investigal ors callt·lI lo.. ' d ' 1 th elr expcn mcnts. s al, . ' 1 n'5smg reqUlre \1 h I phic rccordi ngs 01 t:or IH'¡1 A tudy of eleetroeneep a ogra 1 h !llore rescarc, s ' St ' Rappels1x'rger 1'1' 1" ( 11", . f . , n ad ults (Sam the m. von cm . " . lI'~H )l\ S ro ro sc'" c \ d ec" e[[cel 01' cortica l ¡¡d l\'ll)' ligalo nl dn'.... un d"rl)'llIg 11":u. W " 1 (1'1' 111) Tlw n' ''tk ll'artly invul n 's I"' n "t " t ' " '' 1"11' '11SIII' I" )l1 a p III'
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r-inns gol íut o IIH' ael. 1\ 1lit 1.·'1 III 1/ 11 ' A/i(Jlll i Heml d uud USA Jiu/a)' n-poned thu r {;t'orgia 's I ht'lq~UVl' I IlOl / ,('11 t\li lll'r pruposed Ihal P;Ilt 'IlIS o f all newhom infants in G l'orgia 1Il' gi vr-n a o r ca ssette o f Ik'l,th o vl'n 's Ud! toj o)' lo hcl p stun ula te tln-ir infun ts' m illds. A rtides nored tha t having rhe infant bear sou lhing mu sic l l hclps t11t' trillio ns of brain connections develop, espe . d a lly tbe unes dealing with spa lia l-te m pora l reasoning; wh ich we re reported lo truuslat c into bet ter mathema ñcal, e nt,r:in eeri ng, a nd chess skills. O the r nonn'sea rchers soo n were to ca pítallze on the Rallsch e r e t al. research . O f Ilit' cffo rts lo capita líze o n "Mozart efTect" research, perhaps the most blutaru cffort, certainly the one with the most chut::pah, was Don Cam p bell's ( Ulm a) 1J0ok The Mozart 1:.'jficf M 21 an d h is acc om pa nyínp (HW7b) C ü s, l1te AfIJZtlrl lij]i'rt: MusicJor Children. The C D s ínclu de m u sic from various Mozart works thnt purp o rts to "stre ngthen th e m ind " a n d provid e "m usíc for lntclli H" IW(' nud Il'a rn ing" (co ve r brochure).
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Ca m p lll' /1 ( W!)7a , p p . Vi- J7) ci tes th e work o f Rausche r a nd he r col1t '.I¡.(lll''l amI lTl'd ilS t1ll'm wilh bringing the M ozart effect to !h e publ ic 's atten II UII , l'a lll phell "in te rprels" the 1993 Rausc her e t al. study as demonstrating Ib.11 Il\ll 'ni ll¡';;: l o ¡\I u za rt "'c a n improve yo ur co n ce n tratio n, e nhance your a b Uil )' IU IlI'lk, · inlui tiv e lea ps, a nd, not incid e n ta ll}", sh ave a fe w s tr o kes off your ,IololI ",. IlI U·" (p. Hi)! C a m p bell notes that the p resc hoolers ' in c reased inte lliW'IH" lil \h '" a l least o lle full d a y, which was o ne h undred tim es lo ng e r th a n tl ll' illl l " U\ I' fo r <~()/Iege slu d e n ts. Regard less of lh e Rau sch e r e l al. research, ( 'J11 llp lll'll n l'di ts Ihe "ho lis tic" physici an A lfred Tom atis w ith coi ning th e 11 'I JlI "M oz a rl d Tect." 111' sta les (p . 17) "il is und oubtedly lhe research of A/JIPd 'Iilllla lis, M .D., th at h as established the h ealing a nd c rea tive powers lI f \1I11 lld ;¡n
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sounds of his futlu-r's villlin I'I. . yl ll ~ , whk h ulmost n' r l ai ll l ~ 1'II!l a llll ·.1 I ~ l ~ n,t ':: rologtcal dcv clopuu-ur ami O\ Wllkl ·, Wd ,lit· cosmic rh yt hms IIl UII· IU . (PI'. :.!K-:.!. )
l 'am pbcl l suggcsts th al Ruusch er und her cclleagues "inl uiti~'d y gras!~'df ;h.l: runncction bcrween M ozart's carly up bringíng a n d IIIt' c rcauve p O W t 1 n li S · • ( " H) Th us more fue! for the M ozart e ffect! m uslc p. .L . . \I' h . . . e w o ne the e, b 'J1's text ce, rtaín ly auracted attenno n. e n It W.IS n , .un p e . , ~ a state music ed uca tiou p ublicat io n (Radocy, .uu hors w rotc a h<evdl.e w ~r o·, Cam pbell' s rnetamorp hosis o f th c pmutivc I' JlI7) ·10 close l e ISCUSSlon . . 1C . r1tyt lu 1'O.~11l tuns. I .copo Id M oza r t aw akcned in fet al Wolfie, w c quotc a su m o 111;lI Y paru grapb from that rcvícw: , 's me ra nh -sical mixture of researe h a nd specul ation uudoubrcdly Cum pb cl l mella r. ) . audien wiII find ans ent rusrasuc te r ce among tru e beheve rs in spiritua l hcahug. a'.mi , of the rner el cunous. As long as the reader recogull.t s · . 11 lila)' Illler~s: i~:~ a member the m uste the rapy profession, a highl)' d is. .1. . f l preper eu on aud adhe re nce lo sran tha t Campbel . l·ipline<J professlon Utat reqUlres care u . . ' a calal 'Iic a ('ut iu ~ ro ba bl)y i~ r~];ll i\'e . da rds of professioual praelice, a nd .lh.a l whtle musI~1. h siv healing process, 11 IS no l a cure, Ule ex p a1 com .. I n fa,'m ..., "ss on e abo m usí Tellll'mb t'r .llU' 1 pre l ,e n nd emay be enle rlammg. ylower 1a ml ess a h . d 'f >erson has a dee p bl'lief and failh iu a parllCllof Ihe uma n m m -1 a I d ' . J , ,1 1 '''e r of m usic 'h r po wer w helher ,h ep.o . . , a healiug me lho d, me . Ile.l ! tte mo1Io ' . ' . tha t erson ma ex pcrience suhstanl ial be neflts. ()~t'vI'r. lt ·, /{) . a Id el,t)'l ' h P dQ.'ires a • examinat iull or, 1Mozares Ill11Sle as
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alyst for learn ing pro babl)" will be dlsappo llltcd. (p. ,1 1 ' w h at e ver reaso ' n , M ozar!'s music w as d ce m ed lo h a,.ve a .po siti v('~ 1l'lú '('¡ I·or . . '"1 · 1 1· d rd less of lud ic rous d a im s th at Isll' n lllg to l\- OZ.II ll U m le Ige nce. a n rega ,. 1 , " 1' I d · ·u lt ·ng exped ie nl e n l repreneurs IIp , t 11 'l lll S 11 11 lllake.s be demonstra led b y o tlle rs in th e n 'M'a l r h lt·lllams: . t e r::arcehers havc so ught to replicatc ils (,fTe<:ts; il.1 alid ¡ I lllllllm n lt) . Many .. ' 1 10t,rist s Ill11 SI(: ('dll 110 11 , m uch di scussi o n h as occu rred a mo og muslC PS) ~ 10 , t al o l"S, a nd othe r ed uc a to rs, as wel! as in p opul ar ~ edla~ , .. , ,. , ' (19 l)8) provoca tive arllde Can f\1U.\ K R( .III} · l O , Ps; clwlogy o/ Music e lici led s ix th o llg h t-p ro vok in g Jlo ve 11l11 IIC h ·19 (J8· Lamont WD8 ; M ilis, W!18 ; Rausdlt' l", Ul!JX; 1< '~ pOll ~es f U n, " " l ,' ,, 1 ' X ! l( ' .. ·1· , " IC)(JH · \ Va te rs ID!)H). M o st resp onde nls eo ncur t HI~_ lllll SIL,1 L , "li,·m·e I'yt 11gCl , . ' " k . 1·1" . " ' IJt'I"SI . p ro ve Ih e, " m .m t I. " ~ :t ·d . )('C .ca n Im " tbllllg h Ihe y la e q Ul le ( 1 l U'
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tivr-s. Rauscher's It'SIUlll ~ l ' 111 h,lo" ily (li.sU ISS('S possib l(' lIt'll lCIJlhysil llog'ica l t'hanHcs in t he bra¡u a S ;1 u-s ult 0 1' music c xpcríc ncc , but s he ulso dclves int o lh e pollt lcul uspccts of muvic (,1111(',1110 11 . Spych ige r o ffc rs a qu alifí cd "yes," noting th a t musíc sho uld not h e vicwed as so m e thing outsidc o th e r as p cc ts
o f üu- mind ; she r oncludes with a discussíon o f the importance o f good n-nching. Larno nt's revíew of stud les leads her lo co nclude that we do not havr - s ufflcien t e vid e nce lo co nd uele that m usic ímpro ves the m in d . Mills gl'lll'ra lly agn'cs that music expertence can improve the m índ , bu t she que sliom wbet her it does; she cond ueles by noting that music' s m aín purpo se in srh ools should b e m usical excc llen ce . w etc rs, an experi mental p syc hologist, mi ses seve ra! rne thodologícal q ue stio ns, in dud ing : \Vhat are diífc rcncc s in ucun- (e ne d use] and chro nic (m u ltiple dosel effccts? W hat are dífference s in (' I1(,(,ts o f music pc rception an d m usic prod ucti o n ? How are mu sic's cffects o n ('oH:ll iliv(' p erformance related to m usic's cffec rs on m ood and a rousal? l lr- muiuruins that "th eo re ü cal m odels of music' s enhan cement effe ce need lu 1", d t'a d y ¡nlicu la k d " (p . 2( 8). G ruh n strcsses th e n eed fm stu d ics focu sin ~ 0 11 IIlUSÍ(' p l'Occssing , I lu k. ,'·" (:.WlIlI) rc view of re seareh Iiterature o n th e topic perhaps is the 11111\1 ' lllllp lt' IU'llsive. He sugges ts th at th e po p ular p rc ss an d so rn e m usic " , hll ,IIIIIS 1Ia v(' lo sl sigh t o f what mllsic educalion is abollt. H e notes th at 1 " " ' 11 11 h Ihal fails to m eet strin gen t sta nd ards of sys tem a tic inquiry, incIud 11l ~ ,, 'plicah ility, sta tislical sign ifican ce. and effect size, is no t a cred ib le b asis 1111 11l a k. ill ~ a d aim b y sim p ly sayi ng "research has Sh OV 'lIl ." Careful docul1 l1'llliLliOIl is ('SSl.'lItial. Briefiy p ul, Duke a rgues th at the "M ozart Effect . . . ha
(:¿) T!t,' Iilllilt'd evide fl ce for effects of music listening and music inslructio n is ro llfilled lo a ver)' narro.....· and ver)' specific type of cogn ilive task (even some !l's!.s u f spalial re¡¡soning f¡¡il lo record an y evidenee of a .\fozart Effect). (:-1) TIIt' magllilmle of the purporte d ~ 1 07.art EtTect, ewn when found lo be sla· lislir ally significanl, is wry small, (,1) TIIt' ehange s in scores on lesls of spalial ft'asoning following nlllsic listening ma)' be auributabll' lo lU'ighlCIlt'd aUI'miOI\ ur aro llsal, pffl'('ls Ihal lIlay bl' prodUCNi by slilllUli ol!ter lha n Jl1usic. (5) T ilt, so-n lllt·d ;,\l o'l.a rl Etft'('I. wlwlI obst'rvl,d. is uol liulllt'd lo Iht, lllusic uf
11l \" '''~ I~III'~: uhlailll't1 similar result" wilh IllIlSil: per ,
fO I' IIII'O ¡)y Y,aum' (1111' " Yllll111 1,.11,'11 j, _1 " , in 'lllY aS¡Jed o " maatlu' It · ' 1' ' illl l t"ISt'S pl'l ormancc ' I sl l'nl ll ~ ' (' ,', r hi I h ave bcr-n 1Ill'Illioned in our (Ii) Chtim s that mUSir ' ¡.,lcI'IUft" a u W uc 1 , mctícs, chess p ay, ur at e , - H) lileralll re ) are as yt'll'lllin 'ly uuproven- (pp , U di (e Bridgett & C uevas, 2000~ Exa Olinatio n o f severa l recent ~tu Ig ·g Ú lIm p h rey Sh annon, Kírby, ( ' ltall ris, Steele, Bella, Pereta , D un op, (--,~we" It)<)l)' M ~Cutchcon, 2 000 ; 199q· Costa-ulo0l 1, , ." & t tlm stcad, & R aUSC h el', •. , & k 1<}1)<) ' Steele Bru wn , ~ n b 1999' Ste ele Bass, ' roo , . . . , ' I th M ' TI Ifect h as not revealcd ( ala Nuntals & Seh e en crg. " . . . Sllll'eker, 19m}) seckmg to rephe~te t eSe ~~ayc:rs a lter th e Mozurt ('[[('d' s [) ke's conclusion s- ve h ' thu t \VOl!Id re rutc u . . 1 h t a m ín sisted t at m usa', l) p art o f íh e o nglOa researc e , , , ) Ilt-Imt, S h a'\' (2 ()()( , b e m atl (b t n o lla nguage-an alytlc aSpl'( tl> , ul rp ects o f m at ematlcs u " ", ' , 1 spiltta -tcrnp o ra as b . , abllit y to rccogruve SY Ill Il U: 11 1l s, li k through the rain s a 1 I ami cbess are m e id ' 1 ti a l arcas . Shaw a so no h' l> ti ernploy I c ntlea COI' ic hir;hcr level braio runc 10n s '. d to in complele kn ow\('d g" , . n s f th • Mozart e ffec t eXIst u e . 11¡¡¡1 111iscon cep lio o e . 1 ' \' Yel h e beli('ve s lhat I11lls1f > n ot j'ustl fy cgIs allon, , u'l ' d h oes ;1 11( \ lh at resc arc . 11 for improviog learn in g a Ilty. • h l ' an d o f l15e as we as . f \ "lm in iog as va ue In , h ' toncal eu n o sity o r a use 11 T le will tcll if Ih e Moza rt elTeet becom~s a IS 11l l' t' n s of learn mg theory. pm ccd me in narrow app Ica 10
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Sum m ary This ch ap te r's m ajar points are : . h a strong (' nergi zing com 1, Mu sic that stim u lates 01' arollse s h steoers as ponent. , , "componen l is rhy lh m , p arlicu latl y 'l , For m ost p eople, m usle s energIzmg its attri b u te o f lempo . . d leg ato charact('riJ.(' mHsic Ihal Snun d s that are nonpercu sslve an, :1. soo th es, ea Im s, 01' t ra. nquilizcs b ch avlOr. I ' h fT 15 o f stim ulativ(' in
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in tlll' wor kplace, thc rn ur kc tpla cc, and adv ertísíng. Il . ln vcsüga to rs have s tu díed music in in dustry p ri marily in terms o f its efk-cts (In employee p rodu ctivity and m orale. 1:1. Muste SC IV CS Iwo baslc fun cüon s in thc marketplace: arousa l and plcasII n -,
1·1. Musi c in ad verü sing should fit viewers' and listen ers' inherent interests in ami va luc for w hat ls advcrtised. 1.1, W ht'l lll'r muste au racts aucntíon, re info rces a m essage, in duces a m ood ,
or sim p ly entertains, the po ssibilities for mus te m aking a p rodu ct a l' servil'l' num- appcaling uris c fro m m usíc 's decp in vol vement in h uman culrure. 11J , f\ 11 1.~k
ent ertainmen t is in tertwin ed in ex tricabl y with the p op ul a r Illll'lk industry, 17, A ltllU u¡:,h causality is difficult to estab lish, inte ra ctio ns exi st b etc...cen a d o11',1 " 111.\' lislt'n ing habits and so rne o f their so cially u n d esirabl e b ehavtUI' . H. f\ l u'lit· lIlal' se rve as n arration because people have Ic arned lo as so ciate IH o ll' lin d l'vcnls \\ith rea l o r im agined evcnls in other se nsory modes. 11, Fllllllallu 'lItal p rincip ies of m usi e th erap y are lh at th erap euLic ex peri"1111 ' S .,hulI ld (a) e nhance the es tablis hm ent 0 1' rcestabli sh mcn l o f inter11C' 1.' lOllal lt 'lillio nships b t,twe en a patie n t and othe rs and (b) h elp foster 1111' pali(' nt' s scl f·cslecm . ~ O . ' I\v o Imsk too!... o f music th era pi sls are music's (a) p ow cr to stim u late 0 1' so o llU' "I("tivill' and (b) values as a socializing agen t an d as a s)' m b o l al' vt'h id t, fOl" expression. 1. lJ nkl' ll.or's taxollo my o f music th erap y programs and teehniques for u se whl' u wmking wit h p eople with m en tal di sord ers inelu d e s six major eatq ,;o ric s: (a) m usic pcrforming, (b) m usic p s)'ehoth erapy, (e) m tlsic an d IIHIVI'll wnl, (d) m llsic com b incd with o lhc r cxp re ssivc arts, (el rccreal io lla l lll 11sic, aud (0 m usic a nd relaxalion. t, S I'<'IIlII\(·)"s seven musie Ih erapy fun etio ns indud e Ihe use o f m usic to (a) ~ ( ' I'V t' a S ;lll a lld ioanalgcsic. anxiolytic . o r sed at ive, (b) se rve as a foc u s o f ;lllt' lltiUI1 and/or tu stru eture cxere ise , (e) in iliale a nd e n ha n ce dIe ra pi sl/ p atien t/ family rcla tiollsh ip s, (d) rcin ronx' or stl"llct un' learn ing , (e) stim lll"lll· au d ilo rily a ud in cre
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1\I11sil' thcrupy. .. . .: .. 1 learuing ha s H'cc ivc d greatly :l,I. Thc use u f m usic lo furi litatc nOllllllISI(.a t.. , Iurt 1 ~ lhe pa st deca dc . inncasc d aucn nou ( 11m g . . . . .. hi hl y st nlclured m stru:l/j Duc lo (~ommonalit ics of cortica l p loc.: e ssmg, g ("m ay"- n o l "will") ,. . · ·1 1 m usic of Mozart may rrn-utal m\lSl~ smu a r. () 'k'U' . r üe d situ alions; this ls the - Mozart t'n hance sp ah al-rcasom n g s 1. s m 1m1
I'lTcct ."
and othcr individuals wlth lit ici ans e ntrepren eurs, , IT t h. e p ro vid ed a classic cxamdi g of the Mo zart e ec av lim ite d un d erstan m . lai . th at Mo zart' s music raises r co! n b e yon d the d ata m e aimmg pie o gomg we . . b th in politlcal aud rcs ear eh ar eIntelhgence; co n trovers)' will eo ntm u e o
,.
~ l i. l'opu Ial' m ee la, po
nas. R e fc rence s 1)) Back ound m usic as an ín flueac e in co usuuwr AI¡lt'rl•.J. l ., & Alpert, ~1. 1. (198 . . TgrK 0 _ 11 [Ed.] AdvoRCtJ in cottsumn restarch 11' ·· 19 responses In . .ccruu tcc-i, I d d milod an a ve rsn · 1' A . t¡ n for Consumer Rescarc 1. . ( 8 '" Hll) Prevo U . SSO Cla 10 ' (vol. Ih) pp. -\ ,)-.,-,. , '. . n mood and purchase ,tnten . 1 1 & Al pcrt, r-.l. l. (19 90). M usic tnncences on " ' PHI,. .., . ( -B3 üon. J'syehology & Marketmg, 7. 10,) " h. d i .c mation guid~. New York: G arl and ·1) \fusic a/ld war: A restare all mJor l \ I n o Id , II. (199 . , . , J'ublishing. ,. / ,r music (C. B. :\la s.'' lnu i, trans.). A . )' J (1985) Noist: l1u pobll ca tconomy o) 11 .1 1, ' ' .' . U . . of ~tinn esota Press. ,, . :-"1111111'apohs, M N . mversl~ f t f the im a6>ination. In S. ¡'nth (Ld .), (1!188). Top 40 radIO: A ragOleo o 11,II 'IU ,s. K. . ,Vi k P theoo Boo ks. Ff/dllg lh t muslC (pp. S- SO). Nc .... Dr . an , ,..,' and sound stimuli. In Il. A. .) Ph . I . al responses .o mi ~ ... , I\llllll'lt, n . 1.. (19 96 . ySIO ogtc . h lo (2 d d ) (pp 3 43 -:{H6). San Anlolll tl , lI ou gcs (Ed.), lIandbook of muSlC psye o gy n e . .
TX : IMR Prcss. ' ·d · le.'r ning runct'lJ\llal rarts in D S (llJ90) Muslc as an al III .. 1I,IUll', J. B., & Ramsey, . . . . . . '/ F..ducation, 2. 'l'l 1- '1.37, . . ' . , ttr1l ourna "J ' • Ihl' soCial studles Ics-<;ün. South((Jj } h b' I New York : App1t'tnll -C~'l lll1 ry · 1I"II )'n t', D. E. (W71). Aesthet¡cs alld psye o 10 o[?;j,
."',sic
Crofb . dEl Lt' U b ana ll · L ni vcrsity of lIIinois I'r t'ss. I\"llrand, M. T. (2000). Raer, rack. an d' 'th • ~t ~o~;' swing IHusid ans. In K J . I (1992) ltace dass un e mel y " . ( 1\1l1l1;IS, K. . . . '. , ' . ' /' ls . Po/miar mllsir in tw(lltirth·unlury SOO ( I)' pp. lIindas (1'A:I.). AmtTICQ s m/ls¡ca pll t. , e l·' Gn 'enwood l' res.'; . 1 l· n ~ H:l). \ \ eslport, . . d 11 r 'ons' Whosc t>arlh ? In ..... , V (1')'17) \\'orld IllU SI CS an wor ( re 19¡ .• . , 110 ) 1I,)hllnall. l . . . . , ' . . \1 . '11 JIu w"rM:~ rcfi~i()1IJ (pp. h - . . e.-~II 11·Ivan ( I".Al. ~) , f ' llChtlllJIIIto" /JOWrTJ.. i IJH( 1 , vard Univl'I"slly I n' ss. I I 1 ." , . _, 'srri llions of slim lllati"t' and sel allVt' C;lInbril1¡;C, ''l A: ar n"yk .,I. D. (l!JH'l.). COlh'gt') Slll~It'l\t/s , \ t l~::"hl ~ I,t l(\'t}nh \')lIII/ItJJiul/l (!/lllu /'iydwltlgy tllld . I l' 1,' .... k (Ed . • .,1("'" 1II¡':1 '~ , . r K'.UlS.\S .. .. 11I11Slc. n . •. •-,1Il . KS'' . T lw Un i\'l'rsll}· O ¡jawd irJ ¡{ "'/lúe 1982 (pp. IlI rl 117), 1~ I W " ' 1I 1 1' , •.
""
! 'iYOtfll fli fll l ¡"l/lIIdaliflll.l fJI AI IIJ/m/ llr/lfllJilll
'l ~ ( III!J I). M Il l/f, I/IIJt1('~. (I/ UI Jll«('(J,J, l':t .W \~Il k : Schill llt'f Books. IIridg l·ll. 1>. J . & CUI' Va\, .1 (:.WOII). EII,·" I.~ (JI' JiSIt' lIing lo Mozan aud B'lCh 0 11 (he
¡';w rlirl/lfll ll/I/I//rIU/II 1/\ !~/ " "' '' I , '" ,
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P( 'I {Of lll all r e 0 1' u 1l10l1 1ll 'lll a lil ul rl' SI.
1171-1175.
l'rr((1'llIlll & Al%
.\'I,-il/J, 90 (3, PI. 2), r
( I ! J ~ II¡ ) . !lIsidr tlt r 11I /1 \/1 /I/lII,, (,y: ( .muu.uv . ' )'ty. / mla ..H ,
I//II!
IlIui"r.u (:.! ncl l'd.). NI'I\"
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II UIII , l.. ( 19m ). C ltr ucal an d thcr apeut¡c uses al' m usir; In D..J. H argrea ves & A. C.
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l\'ort h (Ec.Js.), Thr social Ullivt'rsil)' Pr ess.
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UK: Ox{o rd
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:"IKI.·, C. ·1:• .Ir. MUJ;c Ih"oP}' jor h01/dicafIPrd ifldividualr: An oll1wlalrd ond úulr.lrr! IJihliugmjill)'. Washingl On , D e : Nalio nal A\ sod ali o ll rOl' ,\ f ll.\ ic T herapy. :llIIl\ Wurrh, 1'. It (1% !J). 71/( J()("ial ¡IJ)' fhology a[ ",tllie I'd .). " "11'S, 'A : ' o l\"a Slale () l liv('r.~ i l y l're".\ ,
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M, .. .• 1 o llw l" ar ls illstruclio ll 0 11 1"t',H l il1H ( llJH() TIH' e1 .fet"ls (1 ,. III l1S1C an< .. . I (~) ll allshu m akcr,J . . . l . lIt ,me! . , •. 1 \ (" hoo l ! Jt' r {o fl n¡III Cl' . {I/'IM/ f.. . , an d ma lh adlll:'Velllt' 0 11 W IU r,l 1(1 11 - . I larKI"t'i1ves. 1)' .1 ,. &. NOrlh, A. ( '. (1" " "l. "1"1 11' fU l1 rll,o lls o r I ,.11.,'" ," 1 t'Vl'P,•:t!,I}' li{e:
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I lolh ruok. M. H.. & Hatra R. (1')87) A . ' . . • . . ssessmg the rol f COIlSl lIll el" H'Sllo nses to ad ' . e o emonons as me dí aro -e 0 1 verlls lIlg }ournal .r G I llJl hl'Ook, M. B., & Schindlf'r R. M . (i 9H9) S o) onsumer Rrsrarcn, 14,404- 420 . UPlllt'lll uf m usical las tes .fovm a í of ome exp loralory findin!.'1; on Ihe develII II IIK. K. (¿ OOO). Narrauve ." 'j onsumer Reu arrk, 16. 119- 124. ve m USIC In congruem an d . .¡,fIItrlWlll1 AdverliJing, 29 (1), 25-34. mcongru ent TV advertising, ,l llIllll'r, /l . ( 1 ! 1H:~) , ft's .\1 uza k throu h o I I IISI II, / A, (N H,I) ' ] , '1 h g Y ur eyes. American Way. 16{1I) 14H-I \ 7 . .l' USICO t e workplace ' A 1 d . " . 1 d0 lorill dissl'rhtiOl' " , • s. u h) of M uzak cultur e " Unpublished ' • , TI .e 1onwersny of M I assac usetts. 1111 ,,' .,), A (JlJ2H) /' ' , " ' . 111111 counter /wint New Yo k H \ 1 ' I L ll i ~ , J I & e A I ( . or x: arper & Row. , " ., ox, . l . 198!J). Th e effccrs of b 'k .. A 1I'J1S"t'.sSIIIl' Ill . Journal ol C R ac ground mUSIC m ad vcrtising ' '1'1 1\, S N (N 'n) , \ . .ollSumn maren, 16, 113- 118. . , ' . ,· , . 1 cu mpan son of llle effecIs of b ke . 11'llIl'I,'llt'lIsioJl 01' univ ersitv un d d ac grou nd m uste OH the reading , . ergru unte m us¡ , ,\ ml fllm l/" " loumot of AI.,,' Ed ' lS , ' 'j e ucatum 5 W' (17 IC maJor s and nOllmusic maiors ' , ' , v-. . "11 \\ A ( /lJ I ~1 Ex . ,' . . .. pmmrnls on Inr rffiClJ o[ musí ji. " ,"il.llll' Jl d I 'llivt'rsily " ress. c on aclo'1 prodllcllOn. Stanford, CA: I II SII" v~ ky, M. \ V., & 'she mel, S. (2000). lñiJ bu . . 11/1' /1111111" 11/(¡'Hlry (Htli ed.). New York' B' smeJS o[ musu: The dtjinitíve guide lo 1111011 1 t\ (1'1111'1) 1\ ' . Jllboard Boo ks. .. , . ' . . esponse lo Kal ie Ove 's Itli lld :,M 1~,yd/()loKY o[ Music, 26, 2() 1 -2(~ pape r, Can m usic reaH)' 'improve' •1I 1l10111 H¡¡ c!ut,}, W /1 (2(J()2) / ' d " ' ". lh" apy. Springfield, JI.: Charles C ., .1l 1J 1II ;1 ~ . . e lOlTu m' IIS IC
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. lII ocll'l of ('ort ex Al ' /) , g ofmuslcal stILlClure s and , . WdC rrcr"twn 8 49- 62 ' u II II III, H. \\ : (1% 7) ' . r ' " . I'II'SS. . An oÓjrctU'f psyeholo/J)' 01 musÍf (2nd ed .). !\'el\' York : Ronald 111l! 11
ladlil l, ,\ 1. C. (I 9HH). Th e relationshi betwee ,' . ' . . n '.spOII Sl'S: AII l'xlll'riJ',,' nl" / ,'n v uP , 1 n m uslC m ad verhsmg and chil drcll" . • es gal lOn. n S H k . '. NfIt/l'rrlllll mmmunicalíon in adver/uín ( , ~ ; ce el' ~ D. \ \ . Slewar l (Ed s.), lIuoh . 'g pp. Zb-243). Lexmgton, .\ fA: Lexington ¡UISl' ll (" K ( JtJHI) M ' ' ~. . . . lISlC Icsson s an d books as ' f :u'ac!I'IIlK lask. ./III/Tnal o/'Researeh ' lf . ~cm orCCIlH'n t aherna tives for an lldwlI, C. K , Doruw 1 G ~I "' , usu lIetJtton,29, lO:i - 11O. , I ' h ., . oo re, R. S & Wom bl / U (1')- ') \'la h' ('\'jsioll as fj'inforce me nl ! " e,. . . . /t, . Effeel of mu sic , '/ mat' . or COffl'cl 1Il"lt/lt' '. / 111'11 1/1111, 24, S l -S ~) . ' , l i "S . •¡,Oltrl/(¡ " o} RrJra rclt in A-fusic
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.UISt'II, C . K., & Fo rs)"l ill',.J. Ih (197.'». Tll e ('ff(,c .' . (' S III 1Il.llht'JIl¡dica / rt' SIH lIl SI'S. In e K ¡\f " , 1 of ((Jll I 1l~,L;t'1l 1 /IM"lIillg on increas. . . a ( ,SI n, H. D, ( '!t ' I ' 1 ' ,~ l'... JI, l·' 1 I l al sell r. l
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UeI((lTCl¡ in musir IUnaN'" (I'p, ',l.r¡ :1I). New 'tur k: '!i"lt'llt'rs Co llt'gt' l'n-ss. i\--t :ldsl'n. C. K., & (;l'fill,l;l'r. ,J. t\l. (1!17li), C ho ln' 01" telcviwd musir lesson s Vl'rSlIS fn ·t' play in n-lario uslup lo i1t';ld"IIlÍ<' tmprovcm cut. four nul 01AltlJie n u rapy, 13, 1.'1 ,1 -((,2. i\b dst'n, C . K.. C reer. R. D., & Madscu , C . 11., .11'. (Eds.) (1975). Rm aTln in muste bd/lwior. New Yor k: 'Ieache rs Collcge Pn-ss. M¡¡dsen, C . K., M ad sen, C. H .,J r., & Michel, D. E. (197.'». T he use of m usíc stim ul¡ Inleilchilll;:langu age discrimin ation. In C. K. Madse n, R. D. G reer. & M adsen. C . 11.,.1 1'. (Ed s.), Resea rcn in musíc behaoicr (pp. 182- 190). New York : 'Icachers Collegc l'n-ss. M¡I(Ist'Il, C . K., & Prícken, C. A. (Eds.) (1987). Applicauons vi ra carcñ in musíc educanon. Tusculoosu, A L: T he U niversiry of Alabama Press. Mamhci, M ., & Smí th, T. M. (W!J3 ). Th e effects of instrum ental mu sic participation 011 marhematical achíevemem. Soutluastem f cumai of Music Eduouion, 5, 77-1'1.'>. ~ la l h u r, .\1., & C hanopadhyay, A. (J!J9l). The imp act of mood s ge nera red by te le· vision pro h'Tams 011 respo nses lo advenístng. PsycllOlogy & Markeung. 8,59-77. :-'lrCulcheon, L E. (2000). An oth cr failure to generalíze thc Mo zart effec t. Pry(hological Reports. 87,325 - 330. :-'l cMullen, P. T. (191'12). Connotativo respo nses lO m usical sn muli: A rheoretical -xplanaüo n. Council for Rescarcñ in Music Education, 71, 45-57. ~ 1t:.\ l u lI en, P. T. (1996). The m usical experíencc and affective/ aesthe tic respollSl'S: A theorerícal fram ew ork for em pir ical resear ch. In D. A. H odges [Ed.], JlamlbulIJ,' of muJÍe psycnolog)' (2nd ed.) (pp. 387- 400). San Amonio, T X : I ~I R I'ress. ~ l i d U' l, n. F.. (1985). Music Inerapy: AII introduction, including m usÍf;'1 Jpecial rdurafiol/ (:lnd ed .). Springfield, 1L: Ch arle s C T hom as. ~ liIl illl a n, R. E. (191'1 2). Using backgrou nd ffillSic to affeel lhe beh avior of supt'nnar· kt'l sho ppers. j oumal ofMa rketing, 46 (3), 86-91. MilJima n, R. E. (19H6). T he illl1uence of backh'TOllnd ffillSic on Ihe bdlavior uf reslauran t patrons. j ournal ofCvmumerRtsrarch, 13,2H6-2H 9. :-.t ills,.f. (199H). Respo nse to Katic Overy's pa per, "C an m usic really ' im proVl" II\(' lIIind?" I'syenoloffj uf MuJic, 26, 2(H -20S. ,\ I" lInlcaslle, V. B. (1978). An orbranizing princip ie for cere b ral fUllclion : T hl' unil IIICHlult,' a nd the distriblltcd s)'Slem. In G . ~L Ed elm an & V. B. 110uIlleaslle (Eds.), I br mi1U!fi" brain: Corlical organiJ:.atüm alld Int grollp-seleclivt tnrory o[ nignrr ImJÍn jilllt'lÚJII (pp. 7- 50). Cambridge, 1\11\: ~I IT Prcss. ~ ILl sslll ma ll, .J. A. ( 1!174). l1u uses of mwic: Au inlrudllction lo mu,Sie;1/ C11lIlelll/J(Jrury AIII"icult lift. Engle\\'ood Cliffs,l'\"J : Prenti ce· Ha ll. ~ l ll ""a k Cor poration. (197,1), Significan! sludies uf Ihe effict¡ o[ Mu::.ak IIn rm/J!o)'u / )17" j i"mal/cr. Ne\\' Yor k: :\-1uzak Corporation . ~ 11I . . ak Cu rpo ralion. (n.d.). Ha \\' (,Ilviconment ca n ('ffeel the Icarn ing pron 'ss. 111 hrod m rc, Mu:;:,ak tJnd J(nul/ls. New York : Mu.. . i1k Corpo riltio n. N,1Il1ais, K. ~'L , & Schelll'lllll'rg, E. (j . ( W ~ I ! I). 1\11 a rtifacl of prt'r('rt'(J{'e. J'syrhol o¡!,im l SáOlU, 1O, 37(J- ;-JZt Na"I', S. JI. (I!J!17). Islam ¡tll(! lIlmi.. : '1lit' 1",I(¡ll i1 lJ(l llu' spiritual dill1t'nsions. In L E. SullivaTl (Ec:I .), l~lId/{1Il 1 i n¡!, / mll 'm : ,\tUl/{ lit lltr !V/,rltl:f rtli¡!,illIlJ (pp. :ll!l-:l:i.'i).
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mu síc nn recail nnd a uribute . } nce o S I erice and background ()w ry K ( Il JCJH) ¡m p.?rta nce . ournalof AdveTtising, 24 (4), 29 -44. , . . . . Iscusslon note: C an m uste reallv ... , .. lb . olMuJir, 26, 97- 99. yvimp r ove e rnind ? Ps)'rhology
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l'a n-h-s v.rI (I9R7 ")t, Co , nsumers a re I iti . . . , O ece m b er o . . way. 1'hr Miami Nrws, p. :i C . egJ lInIZmg new-age m ust e III a big
w, & Young' S .~t. .(19R6) . . censum er re sponse lo televisio n e .1 unpact of involvernent and b ac ..,.gr o un d muste . on b d . d omf m ercra s: ./fIllTtlal 01M(Jrkrling Raeanñ 18 11- 2 ' Tan aurtu e ormatio n.
I'a rk, " '1 C.. JI'
I'n lis, A. ( I!IRS). MuJir as pr;pag~nda '~' I I lUUÚ (:II'I'lIwmKi l'ress. . r o pus • art lo control: wesrport. Cf: l 'I · II " , S , (I ~ J H H ) . Ai n 't ll o mou ntaj¡ hi h
h musíc (pp. 5 1_H;)1I~ e~~ugk': ~elbPolitics oC crossov er. In S. Frith . ew or. an eon Books. v, . .... óIClOPPO, J. T.. & Schu mann. D. (1983). Ce ntr . n ~I and pe nphe)ral ro utes , lIdVI 'llisillg effecuvencss:. T Ile m odera era nng ro le of involv I (.lIIlIIIt"fr Rtuarch, to. 13,,-14 6. ement. ouma 01
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l'Olllltl)',.J, (1%: '1). Musie in tht 11ft 01maR. New Y k. 1',, \\ 1,11, ( ', ( I ! I~) 'I luly 11) ,,'h 1. ~r . Ho lr:. Rineha n., and Winston . '. . en wor..e rs wcar \\'alkma th · b / UU'/I('¡, pp. UI-U2. oson eJo . T/u WallSlrttl
It '. 11 . (JI)I)7) · Ihe wo rd : .M usic in the Jife oCIsI . . . e. .->tuln d mg . lb l.). 1·.'lflultlllTlg powm ' Musie in lht /J' 1_ _ ( a m oIn L E. Sulhvan ~ I A : lI a rv¡ml Ullivt'rsit~. 1'''' wur s Ti 'glfmS pp. 263-297). Cam bridge, 1 ¡ Iess. {¡ulo¡,y, R. E. ( W!17). Do n Cam be ll "11 lvl . Mtl~H1 IJJútr"l . KflIuas Musie ~tvit~. 6~e( ~ ) 0;;~3;ffectno (Rc"i e w of Ihe boo k Tht ) Il l,.' ~ i '
Hil:~ ~dll'r,
F. 11. (1!19R). Respo nse lo Kati; O ve "' s ' " . tllt' llIimP " ¡....'choloV'll .r ' [ ' 26 I) paper, Ca n m usle re ally . . ' 4./ N 0./ l ' UJl e, , 197- 199 . . . 1",lllw hl'r, 1,. 11., SlIaw, G I & K ' K N ( « • ¡lIIt'\'. Na/uri, 365, (jI 1. , •. , j , . . l.U 3). .M US1C and spa tiallas k pc rfo rm IIllpro Vt "
Ila llsth . to ~ oz art h , 1 l'r, ¡.: 11., Sha w, G. I.., & Kv . ' K. N. (1"" . . :J-). Li stenmg tia t¡'m lloral l"easoni ng: 'Ibwards a n h , .' . '. en ance s spaIH5, H - .1 7. . ellra p ) slOlogJcal bam . NeuroscienCt f.etla s,
l{ illIsr!ler F• 11• •" SI~ aw, ('' . •., I 1.ev io, 1., \ Vright, E., De nnis \V '1 ' ' ' ,. (J.J.17). ;\1I1 sl(' traltl ing causes long-lt'rm cn h' f ' ., & Ne""co m b, R r It i · ,mc cmeot o pres cho ol child ' ' la ('lI1 ]Jora .r l:'a~ollillg, Neurologiral Research, 19, 2-H. 11:'11 S spa t lllll1'lllm hll'r , 1'. , \\ ., & McCour t T ( IlJlJ2) Ca . . . l'rllt't's"I'S a lHl filclo rs uf illllllell'Ct'" In' " I ;¡1I ~nm c\C1al raello '.lIld popu lar m usle: (:.llld t'd ) (1'1) 101 11r.) N b ." (Lel.), l o/miar I!IIIJ/e amI ClIIlIlII /l lIIáJlilm " " . .J . I' W ur y I',lrk, CA : ,sage , ' ;(1'lll/11 ' IlI. J., vOllSll'i n , A Hap pt'lsh ' " . l' l' . / <:, J.. ( Jill)7) " , . ' " " , . ' trgt'.I, " . (' t..r 11', 11., Hól llSd ll'l', Jo'. 11., & Shaw • • I ' ''lslt lit 1l,l1 h' IIlS u f IJTlll ll i¡dlvity'• AII 1'1' , , ( '' 1' I I11' 11' 11( '( ' .. tm ly of I/ll''
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107- llfi. St'hwichten be rg, C. ( I!I!):.l), j\.1 11 ~;1 vltl,' o : T III' pllpu!ar pll'asllfl's of music video. In.J. I nll (Ed .), POflular musir (l/lit 1/1,1I/1/IU1lm/illll ('L m l ed.] (pp . 116-1 33 ). Newbury l'ark , CA: Sage. xhaw, G . L. (2000 ). KUjll'"g MI!J:.tn t 11/ mind. San Diego, CA: Academ ic Press. Slu-a, G. (19 HR, J anua ry). Rock'u'rol l i.. he re to sell. Conti1/tntal, pp. 42- 43, .1-9 - 50,
5:.l,.í7. Sluloa h, A. (19 95). Musie in the wor/J oflslam: A sociocultural study. Detroit, M I: w a ync State U nive rsiry Pre ss. Snyder, S. (199 4). La nguage. rnovc men t, a nd musíc-process connecüo ns. Gm o al s íusic Today, 7 (3), 4- 9. Spychíger. M. (19 98). Response to Kaüe Overy's paper, "Can music realIy 'í mprove' rhe mind ?" Psychology o/Music, 26, 19 9- 201. Stac k. S., & G a nd la ch .} . (199 2). T he effec t of co untry mu síc on suicide. Sorial Form , 71, 2 11- 2 18. Sla ndley. J . M . (1986). Music reseer ch in med icalJdent al tr eatmen t: Meraaualysis and clinieal ap plicat ions.}ournal o/Music Thn ajJy, 23•.';6-122. Srandl ey.] . 1 1.. & Pri ckett, C _ A. (Ed s.). (199 4). Rtstarch in music Úlaapy : A tradit íon o/ excdl ena. Sílver Spring. ~I D : Natio nal Associatio n for Mus¡c Ther apy. Slilum , M.J., & Broto ns, M . (2000) . lOe efTect ofmusic amp litude 00 the relaxatiull respon se. } ournal ol Music l7ItTapy. 37. 2 2-39. Sted e. K. S I., Bass, K E., & C rook, l\f. D . (199!»). T he m)'Ste ry of m e ~Iozart e ffer t: Failure to repli ca le. Psychological Sdtnu, 10. 366- 369 . Slt,t'le. K. ~t., Brown,J. D., & Stoecker. j. A. (I9 99). Failure to co nfirm the Rauscht'r ilnd Shaw desc ript io n of reco ve ry of the M ozar t effect. Pt ru plual & Motor SAilli, 88 (3, PI. 1), 84 3-848, SIl'wart, D. \V., & H ecker , S. (1988). T he furure of research o n o on ve rbal conulluni[ ation in ad ve rtising. In S. Hccker & D. \V. Stcwa rt (EOs.), Nonvnhal cormmw im· tior¡ in advertú ing (pp . 2SG-:.l6.J). Lcxington. ;"'1A : D. C. Healh . Slo llt. P. A. , & Lec ken by. j. D. (I98H). Let thc m usic play: M usic as a nonvt'l'hal t'!t' lIlent of television com m ercials. In S. Ilccke r & D. W. Stewarl (Ed s.). NlI1wtr!1II1 """' llIunicalioll in advertising (p p. 207-2 23 ). Le xingtoo , M A : 1) . C . Ilealll . ~t llt'ssy, C . (I!J90). Rod. a,¡d mil: ILThistory alld sf)'listic develoflllleu L Englewolld C li lh,
f\J: l'ren lice-Hall. SlIllivan, G . L. (199 0). M usic formal cffeels in ra dio advertising .
l~ydwlllKJ & AlarAeting, 7, ~)7 - IOH, SlIllivan, L. E. (1!J!J7). En ch a nting powers: An iolroduct ioll . In 1.. E. SI1 11 lv;ln (Ed.), I';whallling jJllwers: Music ill Ih e world :¡ religiolls (pp. 1-1 4). C am hri dg t" MI\ : I larvar d U niversit y I'ress. 'Iillllll'r, D , R. (19!J1) . ¡nilia! It'at'l1 ing a lpl1 alH't, language ex pt"riellcc alld 1111lsil:, .\',mlllflHleru'/oll rml! of MII,"/c IMlIm tioll, .1, 1-10. Thornd ike , R . L., 11 agt'lI, E. 1'., & Sa ll1,,1',.1 . ~1. (I!lHfi), U/c Stmtjiml-Húlfl smlr of illlrl-
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Chapter 4 PSYCHOACOUSTICAL FOUNDATIONS sychoacoUSlicS is a branch of psychoph ysics. th e study of sensor)' respo nses to physícal stim uli. To study audi tory sen satíons is to stu dy psychoacoustics. Q ue stions regarding pít ch and loudness compa risons, nssígn lng pitch an d timbre sensations lo to nal clusters a nd othcr complcx sou nds, a nd , ind eed , pcrcep üo ns of al] tonal propertíes essentially are psychoacou stical questions. M usíc, o f course, is far more than a scq uence o f indi vidual se nsa tio ns. For 25 years or more, musíc p sychol ogy has had mo re huercst in "h olístic" prucesses of music cogn irion (e.g.. mel odic rec ognt tion. wnsitivity to m usical forms, rh ythm ic or gan ization) tha n in more "a tcm lstic" perceptual p ro eesses (e.g., indi vid ual pitch assignmcnt, th e time nen 'ssa ry fur a vibration to be come a ton al scnsaüo n, the inten sity cha nge necessa ry fo r o ne Lo just notice a ch ange in lo ud ncss). Yet, psychoaco ustica l phcnomc na a re esscn tia l building blocks for the more complex struc turcs in tim e and uud ltory space from whlch peopl c crca te music. ' '''ithou t psychoacollstieal I'henomc na that tra nslate ph ysical p he nom en a inlo consciolls sc nsations, music as we kno w it could not ex isl. Th e a uth or s believe that detailed stud)' 01' individu al tona l pcrception s and associ ated proeesses is valuablc as part of lllldcrstan d ing musical behavior. After prese nting brief overviews of the p roduetion a nd transmission of mu sical suunds and basic parts of the hearing apparatu s, tbis chap ler mld rl'ss· I ' S lhe re<:eption of mu sical sounds as psychoacoustical phcnu lllen a. Til (' OIga nization is in aecordancc with three basic p s)'chological tu nal properti('s: pilch. loudness, timbre. Duration , anolber ba sic tonal pro pcrty, is ( ' ll fO lll " pa.w ·d within rhy thm . the canle nt of C hapte r 5 . C hap ler ti ad dr csscs lill' ilion' global propcrties of m elod), and harmony, which build on ps)'cho a· "llIlstica! ph enolllen a.
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. 1 1 " ' o ll¡.;t·r) 11('Oll )(' Iik I i 1" / 1" ' " are 1 '1' Y lo pcrccl v e lhe ¡ • • . " , . "" lI ll1 JI' 1II 1 wüh a d cfi . • . .1 . . I H 'mll~S irregular vih r'.lit" " I . I . . , mue p ite l. Mus.c also 1Il<:or· 11 ',11 ( a .~ nl/ISC I Jradít¡ J "b . IIIUSln .d sounds inciut!,. sI r' . ' .' , , / ' . 1 lon a VI rall OIl sOll r ces for .111 «() um ns metal plat • . . d M lIc I1 mvch-rn 11l1lsic ('JlI I'/"IIlgs, Y' .1 .. l " a es,
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Ih'lI h,:ks I r. - , n ", .' , ,'.,111111' I"kh, ro, . impl}" d ~ lIn"'¡ml,'d "'" nd In ) s"x,'m,,, y ~"'ól n h'. I· 111 11 ' 1< III "' >II lll'I ... hi, h an' ~ no i.s.. ~
Tr n usmls sto n nf Musical Sounds 'Iransnu ss lo n , as nscd IH'I"I ', lt'ft,l's lo lhe /mJ/wgation or sp n-ad u f a dl sturhant'(' through thc uir hu m a soun d sou rce tu a líste ncr, ' Ve a re nu t considn ill/-: cl cctrica l or electronic tran sm ission or so und's truvel through media otlu-r tha n ulr. ,JlIst as a pc nd ulum helps e ne visua lize víbration propert ies, a row 01' uprig ht do rninoes helps one visualize tra nsmissio n. Ir they are spaced at a rrit icu l di stancc from each other, a person can produce an am using ripple -Ilcct by pushin g the first domino ínto its neigh bor , which then wiII Iall int o lis neighbor, which the n will fall ínto its neíghbor, etc. The ripple sprea ds HVl' 1" the chaln of do m inoes as eac h one col lapses. This ríp plc sp read is « unewhat analogous to wha t happens when a d isturban ce spread s through thc air fram a soundíng mu sical instru ment or voíc e to a lístener. The víbra tillg- bo d y d ísrurbs uir particles around lt. Those pa rtlclcs bump other partí1 les, which in tum bump ot hers. Un like the doro inoes, each particle ca n 11l0 V(' baek and fort h, as a miniature pe ndulum, as long as the disturha nee's \uurcc continues to vib rate . HQ\vever, just as the first domin o does not tra v~ pi to the encl of lhe row, no one air particle travels from the musical s otl rC t~ 10 the liste ner. The dúturbance travels. A disturba nce spread ing through the air is a longitudinal di stu rb ance, i,c., Il1t' overall di sturban ce travels in the sa rne direction as the slight movemcnts (disp laceme nts) of each partid e. (In transvase dislurban ees, which ca n nol UIT ur in air , the overall distu rbanee travels in a direction perpendicul ar to tlll' slight movement of each partide.) A travclling d isturbanec or a l"hain 01' ~ u('ct.'ss i ve travelling disturbanees often is called a wave. A sUlI nd wave is a M'ries 0 1' dislur ba nees travelling through a med ium .~ Waves ma y travel directl y from a so und source to a Iistener. ,(,hey lIIay " lIl'ounter a surface which represen ts a sudden change in p rope rt ies of tllt' llIt'd illl11; Ul en , lhe wave re}lects, altho ug h sorne of its en er!.')' is absoriwti hy Iht' fefleetin g surface. Reflection is a sudden cha nge in the d irectio ll uf wa v(' lra vd ; a b'Tadual cha nge in direction is rifraction, a progr essivc "bt'nd ing " uf Ilit' wave resulting from a gradual ehange in medium p roperties, such as k'll l ~ Iwralu rc o r density_ People may scnse sou nds fro ro sour t cs no t d iret:lly ¡¡ l i~ll e d with their ears ur obscured fro m view beca use of diJfr(Jction. a wave's 'I" ility to "go aro und corn ers " or pass through a sma ll ope ning, A travelling wave in air comprises cha nging locat ions o f air pa rtic!<-'s as IIll'Y l/lIdergo bnmping and lhe I'esuhing d ispla ceme nls_C ha ngt·s in ¡¡ ir (l n 's\ 111<-' accompa ny the co ntinual cha llgt's in pa rt icle loca tioH. \Vht' u p¡¡ rl id t's alt ' ("u lllpress<-'d more dost'iy logl'!IH'1" ¡han lhcy an° in an untl isturllt'd sla((', JI llllik,' li.llh l In
radiu W i IV " S, ""d ,,111<'1 " 1,,, lit '1Il;l .lltlI'lU : d¡.lurl"m...·•. " mml wa \",·~ IllIl M ,' xi sl I' hys u·al su l,,[ ~ r" " , I ~ .II I , [ ' '''' [1,,,,,'I IIII"
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I'Clll sicll'rably lar).:I'1 Ih all 11 u- llu l IUI t1t'h'('ling cha ngos in a sin).:le pn re to ne I)r vary lug Irequcucy (Il t lt' l lpl PI. I! ' ~I .'i ) , 11 tswever, musicia ns ran-ly deal with 11Ilrt' lun e s ,
¡Ji/eh t'rocessing o/ COlllplex 'limes ¡\
complcx tone conrain s more thau on e frequ ency, It differs from a co m-
b ination of pure ton es in that th e w aveform from ont sound so u rce is com-
pk-x. ¡\ bowcd víolin string, a p lueked gu itar string, a blown tru mpct, an d a human volee al! output a com plex wavefo rm which is a mix ture of in d ivíduul In-quc ncy com ponents, aH of which a rise from the source's eo mp lex vibrat ion patl cm and interact to d eterm ínc th e eomplex wavcform, Eve n though thc complex tone contaíns mu ltip le individua l frequc ncies, the lisIl'l\t'r usually percelvcs the ton e as havíng un e distinet pitch sensation . TII N t, nn- excep tio ns lo thc o nc-se nsatio n nonn. Sorne wind in strument pla)'l'n. can prod uce multiphonics, i.e., ton es which a re a mi xture of sim ulta1I1'IltlS individual sounds where no one pítch is domi nant. (\-\-'h ile so rne lIo vit (' l1u lt" da rinct. and saxop hone p layers produce mu ltiphonics quite 111 t i.ll'lllally. Ihe delibe rate use of multiphonics is a ea refully aequired skill!) 1111' hiph on i<: or "throat" singing style ofTibet and other Ce ntra l Asian localill l ' ~ ls u ¡'an 'ful1y dc veloped musical use of eomp lcx tones where there is II lnll' lllllll OIH' pitch sensation. Known as Xüom ij, Khoonei, or Xoomi, the ~ 1 \ 1 ,' II'alllll'.S a high me lad}' piteh an d a sim ultaneous Iow drone piteh . T he hlRh ¡-ild l a ppan 'ntly is due to rcsoo ance in the rea r of th e vocal tract; th is t''IplanaliOl I (·lllTl'ntly is favored over ao)' doub lc sOllnd SOllrce theory, the rehy Illailllailli ng the idea that therc is one eomp lcx tone, without o ne domiHalll pitd l sl'nsation (Adachi & Yam ada, 1999). TIII' ('o lllplcx tnn c's individu al frequen cy eom poncnts ind ud e a fiLnda flirt/la! fH'l( uency (gc ne rally thc lowcst frequcncy) a nd h igh cr frequencies, whit" h ma)' hl' in a harmon ie or an inhannonic rela tionship. In a hannonic H'1'llions hip. a ll highcr frequency eompone nts are in an integral m ultiple ll 'laliollshil' \....ith lhe fundamental; Le" no ndecima l who le num bers multiplit'd hy t111' fllndarnenlal rrcquen cy will give the frequencies of the high er l'lI111 I'0 llcnts Uf Ila rmolli{S. ~ In an inharmonic relation ship, the higher eo mpom'n ls a rc relatcd in a non inlegral m ultip le mannec. Musical eom ple x ton es '·t lnlllIUllIlllt-Jr, ,1,.. l"bdJing of tona l COlllpont'llls is inco nsisit' nt : partía!, harmonic, and ov ertom' jUl· u,, 't1 inh' n hangt-'a bJ}'. albeit crTnn oously. A /J4 rlial i.~ any eom pont'nt o f a co m p lt,,, to nt', regardI. ' ~. im~' m 'llh' ·m 'llif al relation shil' Of hlck the rt'Or. A harm(mic is any fn ·qut·nC}· (no t nt'<"t"51Klfi1r j( " Jllll'''lwnl uf a Imrtin ll"f ton e) in an ínwgral m ullipl,' rd,llio ll,hi l' with 11 1(' rund atTlt·ntal. ("fhe Illlul.on ll'nla l ilst'lr ís lht, Ji rsl h¡¡rmonir ; f" J = r.) An Qurlrm( í.\ Imy !t;m1HHlít· "lila II/lm th t, fun da" lI,,"ulliI .... hidl i~ in a I,,¡rt icu lin t'Ulllpll'" tmll'. Any ru m l'0 m' nt Uf'l t om l'l<·x lont' í~;l I,,¡rtí;ll; il may 111 m il\' nol h., a h;lml" nic. A ny ín"·Kfal lllu hiplt· of tht· fmulMIU'n l"l i~ jJ tM,m""i. '; it nl;I Y "r ma y nu l 1M· " 1';u'li;,1 or;l n uV" rto n,' (11;" kll ~, J ~ I77) .
"r
, . _ •• _ -
, 1'h ' IUOl"(' llI'ad y ha rmoni c thl' Idashow vurying dl'grl'l's uf 1I alll'1II 111 llY, ,,' 1, <" "~'lt illn altho ugh tlu- aud itobvi ' IV u ' I I11' pi I .> . . , . 1 ' " t;oll ship, tlu - more IJ IV1II IIS i u r 1 " I 'finitt' llitch scu sauon dc spne " ir , I' tl lltl.~t III dl'lt'('tmg .1 nc " , " k' , ' Y systclll roa 11 y tS qlll e .' ln : 1\',' 'o hurmomcu)'- ana c tune, f¡ 1 l\1l'1ty u ur ( I Ion ) d ;¡ ce rtai u {h'gree () III larlllO ' , ucross time (e nvelope • an , [ i id 1 W'IVC ("I Jlnpo ne n s . h IIJ(' sbupe of the m e IVI ua ', . f be m plex tone's appare nt pi te vib ral ll rat c inl1uen ce th c dcllluty o 11C eo
W?8.
lSt.thares. p. 26). articular freque ncy com pone nte vary . b ' d with the aid of spec tru m T hc relative stre ngths of the P ' t nal speetra, o lame . 1 1)iagra ms of com ple x ton~s o. t ho w within Iimíts, the partIeU al' analyzers nr otber analyt!C eq~IP.m en ' . s. 1 ' 1, C uriously, the fundam en d ' . d th eir mtcn slt} eve . t"lllnpo nent írequencrcs an t (rnost tnt ense] componcnt- eS~l tc ges tal frcq uene)' is not alwa~s th e str: n Iex tone almost always is the pirch rhc Iact that th e pitch ascn bed to t e cc mp l'liciled by th e fund am ental. ti ulate the basila r mern b rau e nt y s 01 complex mixture of frequ c ncics ma d th e crítícal band widt h. A h . 1 tío ns o ft en e xcee . t'ight ormore locarions; t e ~tlm h n ' d' ith one d istinet piteh . \\'hy? The basiVd a comp 1ex to ne usu . 11)' IS e ar WI d . formation p asser rror comp Ie-x , s an a naly:t.er an m lar membran e serves a hi h ' the audito n.· pa th waynl oeeurs Ig er m ., • bT · lonc s-the piteh assIgnme . b d on th e auditory s),stem s a 1 1, r pl e x to nes \S ase . . , I'itch percepl10n o com r ,'mulati on - placew1se, tlm e' d' ~ th e pattem o S I ¡ f 'Y10 use informatio n re gar IIlg h' h pcople are ab le to assigll a ( e lo w lle ' The wavC patt erns rceur re'g" wisc or bo t h . "¡'h e eu m plex sounds . , . . dl C 01' near y so. . I r inite piteh sens~hon. are per~.o 'e sound continues_6 The simplest .k ll\ ( Il , IIlarly as th e vlbr~tJon causlll~ ,th from a sOllnd soure e vib raling at ~I\st Il IH ll'riodie wavc (a sme wave) anses . 1:' re .1.2. (\ Vave (hag r:lllls I d ·aOTam appears l1l 19u ' . l' ' . frcqueney (a pure toneJ, a I 0 - , h Id be eo nee ived as p artllu .11 " } . 'Uose oplc traces, s ou ,. such as this, Slml ar to OSCI . . n c ) A compIcx pe riodie wave appI'¡¡ rs III dis¡llaeement pa tterns fro zen l1l ~Il ' . . g' pattern , Soo ncr or la ter , ti,.. .. 3 1 h case thc re IS a leeurnn 1'lh'1Jfe 4· . n eae , . d' " , erorm ",in repeal itself; it has peno ¡a y. d lh e rall' al whkh il W.IV f th . eeuning pattern an ,T he part icular stro cture o e r . 1I 1 th eir eXlensive discUSSllIl1 01 , e, ,Iv important m US¡ca . " '1"t ., 1lid n' lleals are extrem 1 y.,' n1 "onivcrsals " C·",lIle!1 , b ss-cultura mu stca ' .' \\Iln t they b e heve to e cro . . . les that enablc calegOrlZatlllll c,p pri ncipIe is e nvi ronull' nta l Kt.:\dall (19 99 , p . 78 1) identify 1'0.. 0 basI~ pnnO , . nd p ereeptlOn s. ne . ' f lhe world s sensatIons a h ' vide vital lIlrorm atlo n . 11 . b ¡aries and c ange s pro 1 {'ontrast: Dilferen ces, oun ( . . , l " h for rcc urring patte rns a lll , d' " by whlch pcop e sca re I 1 Tite other is peno ICI y. . 'b atio n pattcnls an{ rc( u n · . . 1 'dund ancit's. H. l'l~ u rnn g VI l' . tl'IUporal and spa tla n 1 \ . ,.. f l' ('IIIUI)lcx tone p iteh de tee ll nn . '. ",'1""1 Ihem are t le IolSIS 11 I IanCles "'
• .. ,.....,,'1('"''
' ·"" mIl1l1111/1 tI) 111II.f1r n l IIf1UU'l fIr 1" y' '' ''" .. ... .... .. . • • _,._ _ . •
Fib'Uf(' -1-2, Di splac f'IlIt'Df parterr
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r.
I anslIIg rrom pure ton e.
Fi¡..'Urt' .I
lSp ace mem pallt'Tn ari sing fro m com plcxt lo n c o
F~ olll ' ''I-'iil:lr Illcmbra ne uctívn (he . Iw/ udo ll llillioll (wbere and 'o hat d a udí tory system glea ns place or specw a t egree thc ti I . •1111I 1""'lmml infofmatiun [th . p ar len al' stlmulations occur] la r¡ , , e rate et which se In.ltlull J ~ a vailah le OV{'f ' he ti dl rmu a uo m rec ur). Place ln foren rrc a u uorv J¡ m ·.1I l.t!IIt' unly lo abunt 5000 H d . ¡ range. emporaJ informatio n is j" l 1I1w.k ul pilfh bl'calls~ m . Z ,an , ;ould seern to be especially impo rtant ,.I NNI I h:; ~'C/u c'lIces of reall~sl~; ::~negeneral.ly is l o st for pure to nes aboye (1\ /111111'. HJX!J. p. 19 1). g s are dtfli cult to o rga nize as meJody A, eo~ "~}le'x tone's usua lly obvious uch s . 1I 1llr vIIIIJ al COIll¡J(lIlcn ts and b ' hP , ~ns~tlon (so rne p eople ca n hear . 0;, IlIC'lll iOlll'd a boye ' d f Ip muc SlIlmn d . l' I1011I1', . . O' g an mslru rnen tal mu lti" l ' , e y ulllta rv pltch s ' . ) . pi ( l' llt'l"Iodieity ¡Jitch virIl 1 " h -,1 e nsa llon IS kno wn as Jo w , ,1 ' ' la p i e reSid ual 'teh d . . pm bahly is th e lerm which ' ' pi , a n SubJechve p ilCh. Low Ir IIIl1 p arrl.CIl Ial' theod es O" olh IS hmosl free of sem an o'c d'ffi I Iculties arising ' cr p e no men Lo ' UII( I('rslood Iho ro ughl)" two b d 1 a. w pllch pe rception is nol ///111 . all ( I Irml}()f{J! mo dc1s. , roa casscsof m d 1 h o e s a re l e pallern recogn;. In p¡¡ltt'rn (L'('ob'11ition mod 'l h . 1 l ' e s, t e a udIIO""SYSlC d ' I I' tlra sll;I1¡lls whicJl eo rrespo d, th . -¡ m enves ow pi tch fro m .IIIIlS. 1{eso lUlioll of Ihe sep n, ' o e pnm a ry baSI'1ar membrane slim ula, . ara e co rnpo ne nts f lb I llll;¡llllll flf Ila rlic" la r "l'eg ' o e tona spectrum (Ihe co m :J. Ji llencles and thei l ' , .1111'1"1I I"l'Cog nition models have d'ffi I . l' re atlVe strengt hs) is crucial IICuty m ' . ' . . , 10 11 111 sl!II:1110 ns whe"e h . . acco untmg for lo w pitch del ech' , armOiUC rela ll !"t'el" t'llc)' eo mponen ts a re I h ' h ons IpS an' espcd a lly cn mp lex a nd liX-J il ), 00 Ig lo bl' reso/v('d (Mo o re 1'1"'1 . • . 0, . pp. Sh
fll'm
qucncícs. e ve n noi scs, cu n W'Ill'I,Il!' nr-rual vu-mpla tcs" whic h. unrclenmcd. providc a bus is Ior co m p'lI i'mll uud nnduory dcc ision muking. '11.v0 stugvs rom prisc thcir modcl. In a n lt'hll" ll filu-ring smge, input lo thc a ud ttory m-rve is an a lyzed an d t'nha nl't'd lo u-semhlc a synchro nized respo nse u f ce lls in the coc hlear nuclel. In u ruiucidcnce dctection stage, respo nses from cha ructeristic n c u ral firin g frequcn cies are co m p ar cd ac ross the in put cha n ne ls. U vc r time, coíncidcnces ac cumulate, thereby forming harmonic remplates to which inco mi ng frcquency co mbinations may b e co m pa red. Essen tíally. the Sha mm a and Kle in mode l appea rs to involve learnin g robust harmonic upproxlmaüo ns wh ich hcl p ident ify and assign pítch to a wíde range of co m plex to ne s. In temporal models, low p itch is elicítcd by the time interv al b ctw cen rccurring aspects of the o veral l pa ttem, such as the time bervv'een wavefonn peaks. T hrough a ncura l process calle d fu ndamental tracking. a wave's rcp etitíon fref1l1en cy can yie ld the ovcrall Iow 01' periodícuy pitch scnsat íon. (Fo r ex ample. a compl cx to ne wi th co mpone nts of 50, 100, 150. 200, and 250 Hz will make a wav e wit h an overall repetitíon frequ en cy of 50 Hz, as ,...i lJ a cornplex tomwirh co mpone nts of 450. 500. and 550 H z. In each case, thc fundament a l tracking mcchanism yiclds the pitch sensation corresponding to 50 Hz.) Temporal mod els can not account for sítnatío ns whc rc to nal com poue uts do not intcract in eithcr cal'. Sucb nonintcraction is ilIustrat ed by thc cla ssíc Il nutsm a and Goldstcín (J!l72) study whe re, using ea rp ho nes , thc investiga lors pr esentcd ra ndomly chosen paired upper harm oni cs, without the funda men tal roonotonically {both harmo nics to one ear) and dich otically (em e harmonic to eac h car) to three experienced musicians. T he mu sidans co uld n 'c' ognize melodies forroed by the "m issing" fundamentals in bolh cOlld ilions, I'ven lhough the hannonics could not combine in cither ea r in Ihe dicho lic I:ondilion . fun damental tr acking is a central (in Ihe neural nel wor k) ratlw r Ihan a ptriphtral (in lhe eochlea) pro cess. Given pa Uern recogn ition models' d ifficulties in aecou nl ing for ha rlTlull k ("(¡m plex itie s and lemporal m od els' di fficulties in acco unting fO f fundall wll ' lal lrackin g of d icholic signals, as we H as Ihe fact tha l ad herents of bo tlt st..hnols of Ihollght can describe silualio ns whe re lhe ir respectiv<' Illoclels apply, one logically m ight seek a mode l Ihal inco rporales aspt'cts (lf holh mude l d asses. O lle suc h model is Moore 's (I9R!), pp. HU- IR7) fiw -stagl' I"C lIllpr e he ns ive model; the autho rs bcl ieve that it remains une of Ihe mus l I"Clln pr c he ns ive and logical m odcls of eo mple x to ne pitch ue ll'd ioll . r.. . l oorc's firsl stage is a na logoll s lo a se ries o f o ve rlap ping filtc rs wh ich pass Ihrough alld/or mod ify ('ertain asp<'ü<; o f slim ullls informa lioll. Filtl'rs Il'spondi ng to lo \\' freq m'llcy l'tllllpOIll'nts resolve individu al co m pn nl' nts a lld o ut!' " 1 sim plL' wllvl'fo rlll s. Filtl'l's n ' ~ llOlldi ll g to high freq llcn cy co m po · Ill'lll s Olllp llt co mp lt'x wa\' I'¡/ll ll1\. whil h MI ' hasl'd u n thl' inll'ra<:tiol1 of SI'V'
• -,} " m ll /X" '" " 111", 1111/ 1/111\
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•
M lI .I'lf lll I I f'fU/FI1" r
eral n ll IS uud l"· "'./ I l'I,, ' t l t lOlll"( ' . l'0 Ill' sunm T n unng waIlvofonn _ .1 t S correspomhng o ru 111(> ,-.. mp 1ex
l
(~nergy co n vcrslun]. Nc uro ns fire n-mpora l str uc turc. l 'art icuh e 1lI011011S l o rcpresent th c wa veform'
c~)mponcnls
r~ven
In-qucn cics at whic h the n neuron a charac teristic frequ cn cie " '1'1 ... eurons are m 1lík l ... 5 0 1" w th ird stage anal vzes the ti os 1 e y lo firc . fourr_11 slag e com p ares 'all th s ose e tunes , firi ti .betwcen mnb'S of eaeh neuron. T h en th [11 Moore's fina l stagc a dee"sm" es an , d searc hc s for co m m on time '111' array o f int c rvals yielded " on s age on e ti . ' . ' ime mtcrval is selected f · l ... b Y ear l.rer sta Th rorn ~ IlI 11Jl ex tone th en is the pítch elícíted b ges. . e per ceív cd pitch of the inu-rvul. (Frequc ncyl ' the... num b e r o f vibY the ti reciprocal of th e selected ... eu titme a1ll . Iwrio d . the time required fo l . ra Ion cy~les in a d esignated Lime I " "'I " " ...,lIy, c.g., a frequ en cy of vib ra tion cyclc, are rclated I lIt... I.. 01 euch othc r.] 7. an a p erio d of 11100 sec ar e re c íp-
intel~alse
~~~~e~m~lele
1\100II"s modcl predi cts th a ti ower - frequen 1I I 1 1I a...." I,Io:llnWnl I)rocess' Inl . cy eompone nts dom inat... lb 1 ' • onnatlOn for th I ' e 1UlIl II,Io:llnll" !han fm Ihe highe e ower eomponents is les 1ll1l1 1' to ha ve distinct the lower coOlponent s ar; wavelonns ' d ance wilh the Illlldl'l .., 1',_, 1 'i slagc. Rescarch (Plom ( . . . ' ,' n a ccor ¡': l'''!\ 01 l/Ifl'lral tlominanu , in wh ich Ih~ U b7b , RitsOla, 1970), howcvcr, su 1 " " '1'1o-x '"ue's pitch vary ,v;th h f eumponents mai nly de ,ennining ,}! 1""" ., ,1,,' fm., dan",n'al, ,he frequ ene),. In general, 'h: ( .lll ll p O.IH' lI I.S. Ih t.t! eb>Tcc of an com e co~pon~nt number s of important '~;" "f ' 1", ...,mp" nen"s stre;'gth i~o;~n~ s dum ma? ee may vary as a fune .1 ~1I1'l'. <:I•.,sb" rg, & Pelers, 1985 ). e a on to nel ghboring components
~ikt'l )'
i~~~~Juoanlen~s si~cc
4
hig~e: t~ndamental
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_ Ilu' l .dt't.uls of cu mpl-... x ,o nc p. .llch Of' f . Illma r _recp · . , lIlv"slig"llion . Th e d etectlOn proce . .Ion are . mtricate and un d er con · 'ilRllIhn llll alllollllts of inhann . . ss IS qUlle robust: Even Iones wi,h l' . onlClt)' and ' · WII . h re1atively few fr"quY ( OlllpOllt'lltS ma y e1 icit a el . to nes ' '"' f l ca rsensa',nu f mi u' r fUl1l plicatiolls. Selhares (1998 3(°) (lile p ilch . Musical settings ad d (' I U .t'S low pi ld r th e a¡,d 't '" p.. ) slresses Ihat ton al contex" fl _1. • , ory system"h " h '" u~'ll 1111 lhe part icular sOllnd environ m t cars .w at ma kes the most sense ,1 1lll'loeiy. lIlay lIlakc p art icular ind o ~~ . ~ logtca~ sequence of pitche s, as in :l\I l'1'. ollH' l"s. IVI ua ton e pltch assign m-...n,s prc Ierred I )¡.scllssioll of com plex tone itch . \ 1" " mu s;e;am and many stul nts oi:;:eepuo n ma y' ap pear rathe r arcane: . u llt 'c' rnl'd wilh Ihe p rocess b ' . llslcal beh.a vlUr are nol part icularl . WhlCh low p ll<"h assignmenl oceurs) \/c'vt.rthe lt'ss. they should n'e" ( . . gmze ami "PI , ... I . IHl W It ('ould nllt cxisl witho llt Ih " .. .. ' In U.llt' 1 l al IOllal ll1 11 sic as we )It, wOllld be lim ih'd te ., t. mtll c
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Combinal ion 10nes A complcx ton c's pild l \lsllally h a 'iingh' pitt"ll sensatioll Ior olle ton e, [rorn one « nm d source. T lw (fIlllh¡I/(/ tiol/ tllll' is a third or "extra" tone sensa(ion arising in th e 01" two diJ}ámt sillluitaneo us ton es, which may be purc or complex o l-or examplc , onc ma y expcdencc comb ination Iones onie) whil e Iistening to a well-tun ed violin dUllble stop. a sim llltaneous (harm orga n interval, or two sopranos singing a wel1-tuned interval. In addition to the lWO deliberatd y prodllced exte mally sounding primary tone s, an ob server hears th e "extra" sens atio n. Usually, comb inatio n tones with a freqllency cqua l to thc dí ffer encc b etween thc two prima ry tone fundamental rderírcquencíes (f _ f • "'d ifference" tones) are th e easiest to hear. H igher-o comb i' l such as 2f - f and 3f - 2f1 also may be aud ible. Thcoreticalty. nation1 tones l l 1 man y orher cambination s resulting from muiüplee nf th e lower tone (f,) and
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th e upper tone (e) are p ossible . A tru c ca mb ina tion tone is not present in the ex terna! sound sü rn ulusalthough lbe listener pereeives i' as if il were p,-esent (Rasch & Plomp, l!lH1). A cornb ina tio tone differs frorn the ve ry strong "'extra" sound which one n ma y obtain by feedin g tWO outpu ts frorn a synth esizcr, eleclronic organ , or two osdllators into on e speaker. In tho se cases, the "'extra" frcqu en cy (\'\lhich orten is cquivalent in H7. to a differenc e tone) is an clectroni c artifa ct result · ing from heterodyning, in ", hieh two signals m ix and fluetuate in ampHlUdl' (Strange, 197'1). The d,stortinn produet produeed by heterod yning is ph ysicaHy prescnt in th e external sound stimulus, unlike a comb ination tu ne . A trlle combination tone results [rorn nonJinear eochlear distortion . Le., " tendeney for thc basilar m embrane to move m ore than can he accOl1l1h'd fUI" by th e auditory stim ulus. T he pri mary stim ul us tou es m ust be al " " ,ffu il'lll n intcnsity level (Plomp , 1965). and audibility of combinatio tones wiH v..ry ns gready wilb people and particul ar freq ueney camb inatio (1'IOIn" . 1!li h), Research with guinea pigs and rnonkcys d carly show s th at typt' uf di.. tortion necessary to produce camb ination tone s by in effcct c.ausing an " xll a hair ceHstimulation at different place s is p ossible (Dallos & Swcctlll , I !lh!l ; Rh od e & Robles. 1974). Ra sch and Plomp (l!l82) rder to cnchlca !" dislm!ioll
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as "no nlincar transmission ." Go ldstcin (Im O) demonstrated th at a "'canceUatio n to ne" of iden tical h't" 'lueney, adj",wd for "mpliu,de and relative phase, eould cancel a eOlnb n ina· tion tOIlC due to de struetivc intcrfercnce .' ln pri ncipIe, th e cancellatio tolll' is sim ilar to noise qu eUing devices whe re a person wcars ' l hcadsd thal 0 111· J\nt..rf"r\'IICt' IS Ih,- u 's....lt uf add in" ....a'l\·furn l' . U Ih,' co m bin\-d ....a'll'focm has p;rt,,,lt'r .11111'11111\ 1,' Ih..n tlll' individu,,1 ("l >ln l>l lll<'n t1l, 11", IU" ' I"'I"U' " IS Unl s(n lt (i' ·c . If Ihe cornh illt..1 wa 'lt'i nrfll 11;111 It·' s ¡un plilluk In,II1 11ll' illdi'l¡t!lI,,1 11 ... 1l1l'·,¡ ....' · \l<\· is \ I/an 's uf id' ·'llIU.1 (. ,..
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in 0 l'l'm ll.' I'b ll'u' wI lh h. ·IIIU'lId cs in dl'lI i¡.:nalt,¡J nl ll¡':CS. (0 1' coursc, tbc uu de sirabk- uui" " all ' r-nvbon mcntal sou uds, 110 1 com binatlon Combi naüon 1001('S an- sllt'd al mu sical phen omeuu. Hmitcd to situations wlu-n- II \(· primary tOIlCS 'In' sufflclr-n tly loud and in tun e. Since they ca n lnteract wilh physlcally presem pa rts of the sou nd lo íncreasc to nal complcxi ty. thcy lllay a lte r th e wa y in which a Iisle ne r ex p eriences a tonal st imulus. T hcy Illay huve sorne m usical utilíty in "c nric hing" a sound.
lntemals An huc rval is a sim ultaneous or successiv e soundíng 01' two tone s. Muslcians ofh-n call a sim ultaneous inlerva l ha rmonic a nd a succ essíve in terval m clodic. Isol a ted inte rv al phenomena 01' in te rest to the psycho logy 01' 1lI 11 sk iu clude co nsona nce, apparen l pitch . a nd ln terval size. Len gthi er lIl'IIIll'IH'I'S 01' intervals fonn mu sica l phrases a nd m elod ícs. C! lN,"i1 lNAN CE - D ISSONANC .E. Hi stortcall y, vary ing uses 01' the tenns as well 11 ' di ll'l'1l'1I1 views 01' what determines an interval 's classificaticn have con IUM'd 1111 ' stud y 0 1' co nsona nce and dísson an cc. A simp le co nsonance = plcas111 11 UI 1l,..lful, d isso nancc = unp leasa nl or strident labelling sche me is inade1I",IIi ' , E111lill ing ccrtain tunings wHh consona nce , Pe ter son and Smith (1930) ll, k.'d .,, " hjl'd s lo evaluate misluned intervals and report "u nna tural'" ones. Il I1AA ( I ~ n: ~) n oported that subjects we rc confu sed when asked to classify 11l ll'lvuls on the basis a l' fusion, smo othness, blending , and purity (aH al' whit h ha\'(' llonaudi tory connotations) as if lhe cha rac teristics wc re synonylI 11111." , I h ' fe h Ihal consonance is not necc ssaril y a pleasantn ess-unp leasant 111' .';.'; dillH'llSion ; affective reactions to inte rva ls somehow should be rem oved fm lll a("l llal COflso na nce j udgments. Over 40 yea rs later, l crh ard t (1974a) IlivIIITt'tl /J~ydllla eo uJtie cunso nance (lhe abse nce DI' "ro ughness") from musiGil iull'rva l sensa lions: Psychoacou stic consonance is a malter 01' frequency disl¡lllCt', whe reils musica l inle rvals are ratio phenum ena. D jffi cu lties with (·on...o nilnce Iheories and judgmen ts are related to psychologists' and musid a ns' inabililies to agree regarding a single working dcfinition . I'ed lilps il sing le definition is impossible du e to the complexit ies 01' musín d ("lmlext. 'Ic nney (1988) recogn izes five va rieties al' consonance and disso n;lllt'e. In me/odie eOflJonanet, the melod ic con lext of successive (melod ic) illh'lva ls detl' nnines Ihe jnterv al's c1assification. Polyphonie eOflJonance is lhe pll'asallli l('ss-unp leasantness, re stful-strídent aspect 01' símultaneous intervals. III ("CltI lll(' rpoínt, where sim ultaneolls hori zonta l movemenls u f m usica l lines lIIay override vert ical sound stmctures, Ihe vo ice lead ings influen ce a eonlra (m tlltll eu".w mm ce. H m cliotlol con.mtlo"ct is how a n individ ual 100Il' rda les lo a 011(' wilhin a chord. usua Uy Ihe "tonic" 0 1" "holllt, t O Ut ' '' : A malh'r 01' O1ov('-
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.. [ ltlSiC'11 l"Onll'xt, musi cinn s I'ffi ' \ti 's und a,")lt'( t s o u . -. . Ilespilc scma unc ( 1 u-u t . , . . ' ,l, r .1 restful a mi p assivc uudlrosíca ! cOIIUltWI/rr as .1 1(' a \ V ( y " ce nera11y regar d muo . , l. . -l . 'Ia tt'd and
consider mi stuned consonances. d dissonan ce as addinoual .. , Iy use consonance an ,, Musicían s may m ere . t:" ..It's a minor second , so 11 s ''! ' . íxth so It'S consonan , ' 1 labc ls. e.g., t s a mejor SI , eh ay p refer nonmuslclans as su ). V. o de Gcer Levclt, nnd disson ant." p sychoacoustica l rcsear ers dm . '., , }. b Illng len encr es. a , . m UslCtanS a e . . Iuat d (ra ther than namcd] tntc rJ'ccts because of f th t no nmuslclan s eva ua e . d. " eup honious-d iscupholl l(Hl S, Plomp (1962 ) oun d a . . l' onso nance- ISSonance , , ' . vals on d~menslo~s o c d Le veh (19( 5) used nonmusical subJeds III P,roand beautlful-ugl) . Plomp an . be a m alter of how partla ls . ancc-dlssonancc m ay . , . t val aliml along the haslhll dudng evidence t h at co nSOn . .. slm ultan eous m e r o· from the ton es co mp ns mg a . l . th 1 are id enlical or are sl'llilra l' ·1 brane sbrnu atlons a . membrane: Basl ar m ero . noniden tical stil1\ulatllllls .. d '" dth romote consonance, . ed by a cn llcal ban \\1 P d· e M.ore rc(~cn tl y , I'll' rn ' .. 1 b d " dth promote Isso nanc , within a cnltca a n \' 1 r · l' ous·,olervals ance o Slm u ane . dl' l)cnd s oll. lht' h sugges ts that t e cooso n , t·· l , In a c1assic stud y tll 1'1I1 11)91)) ( , , . l' th individual tones par la S. . e 'h d 'CI" ' ng stim ulus obj ects aH' ('atl' degrce al' sep aratlon o · . h h cnom en on w ere lIlen .. , , tgoncal ptrct/Jltan, t e p , 'lh·'ll certa in bOllnd s, Slt'f,t' ,ll ll • . . I1 1 g as the\.' rc mam WI 1 .. e intervals ver\.' an'lIra l" y / . g orized Idenbca y as on.' - Icmhn / g to catego n z Siegel (1977) fou n d m USIClans . . 1 ...,. w·'lhin interval ciltq,;or it,s: · ' r In mlerva SIL , bul to m ake few d ¡stmc lon s 1 1 r " 'oc lhe six lIlusida n.. · 1 'a s werc oU-O-u , Although 77 percent o r t h e 111 en' 37 pcrccnt as sueh . In 1 ualificatio ns may sugg('st n 'lc· J·udged unIy . . r ·ngs and con Lex a q . r The dlverslty o meam ). r d eSlgn . aled arca na • solllet hmg nr ' to a 1 St o ce b d I'arn s\....ort h (l 9WJ, p , 01 .1) long g ating cnnsonance-d,Issonan hen the y a re ore . I researchers to exa m l ~ e w . Id b ' lhe b etter were thi s co nccpt co n·d "'l V1USlca . 1 selence ISlcl wou . e ago sal, ," F 'worth's ¡"{'COl1l l1WIH l·.1 ' from Ihe scholarly hlera tur e , ams sona nce I d ro ppe d
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non is extreme-, gi"I'1l 11.. , P"l sl\h'lll. ¡illll'il inrousis íe nt 1I.\t' uf 1111' n-nns. Lc ss rudirull y. Bharuchu ( I ~ HU) U,lll lt'S (lIlISHllalH:e-d ísso llalln' to ru us tcal contcx t b y suggesnn g tha t esruh lishun-ut of tun alit y at the beginni ng 01' a m usical work generales cx pcc tancies reg arding sta blc a nd un stable tones in a m elodk cuntext . Un stable ton es rcn d to rcsolve 01' be assimilated int o stable tones 01" unchors; co nsonance or di ssonance the n ma y have m eaning in accnrt\aTl ('t· with m elodi c structure. Th is ma)' be far more salient than labelling or evnluuü ng isclated in tervals. Scth ures ( 1 9~)H) sugges ts tha t rat her than being ínte rval phc no mena, co nsouanct- ami dlssonance depcn d on th e tona) speetrum. Sincc timbre (the appa renl qu ality 01' a sound, dísc ussed below) vanes with the mix 0 1' frequc ucie s und theír re lativo amplitudes and phases wh ich compri sc a specuurn, eo nsona nee and di ssonan ce result from timbre. Se thares describes a dissonancc curve, the heíg ht 0 1'which de pends on the frequ e ncy relatío nship and 1111' n-lat lvc a mplitudes 01' the interval compone nts. l ntervals occur with in il $('¡Ih' w lllext., and spcctra and sca les are rclated if th e heigh ts 0 1'th e disMlllaIUI' nl rve s are at minimal po silion s 1'01' scale degrees in relatio n to a IlInk ,J usl what is dissonan l will vary \\/ith the spectru m; th e classically dis\IHlanl Ol U¡':llll'IlII'd fourth is no l di ssonanl wilh certain sp ectra. T he details DI' tlll' Sl'Ih an's ap proac h are compl ex; readers a re referred to his text 1'01' details 01 h¡.. hllu-liunal dissona nce curve equa tions. The main point is that ye t oI¡';'I;ll. l'omo nance-dissonance are pe rhaps bctter eonceived as m usica l con· t" "' ll\al plll'lloll1ena ra ther than isolated int crvalic p henomena. Regardl ess 01' Ill lH " plillll Uf labclling. the phenome na will not go awa y; they a re inextri· I'ahly hOll lld up with the a ud itory system's processing DI' m ultiple sounds (1'll'I( I" I!J!I!J), A I' I'¡\H I:Nl I'ITCII , An inte rval comprises two tones. NonnalIy. each tone n 'tains 'In indi vidua l pitch iden tity with in th e simultaneous intervaI; th e intl'!"val is nol a unitary sound (unless it is a un ison). Yct., a certain am oun t 0 1' tOllal jitsioTl ma)' occur; fusion ma y suggcst an inte rvalic p itch . Farn sworth ( 1!)38. 1969) invest igated Slumprs principIe, \...hich said tha t Illt' lowl'r IOIll' dominates the pi tch 01' any sim ultaneous interval. Con tra rily, Fa rnsworth fOll nd that lhe upper lone dom inat es, ex cf'pt 1'0 1' mu sica lly 1II11l'ilill t' d intlividua ls and some basses. Sinee harmony, an ex tension 0 1' inlt'rvals, is 1101 a unitary p itch sensation. the who le concepL 0 1'a single p ilch rlJl an inll'rval s('e ms amo rp hous, altho llgh therc m ay be sorne value in stlltlying do m inan ce 01' one part 01' a hannonic section ove!" a no the r. ( hit' slíll un answercd qllestion is wh )' two sim ultaneously sound ing solllTt'S. like Iwo violin strings, llsua ll)' produ ce what peor1 e Ill' ar as an int erva l, uut a single sOllnd so mce, such as a com plex to nt· 0 1' ( ' \'( 'n a lIoiS(' that is mon' com plicaled ill'oll s!iC
'' "' ,ir ·!'> (lt m'¡\e rt'I", 1 ~ )!I5 , pp . 5Kl i'):), • t · ,, 'I" 11l 1 I 1lIl111 O 'o ,. ... (ion am i n-au- nen W.\ I I I I It , ¡,',ol\t.t.rill,' ¡lsyr hn;ll"C ItIS l( ran , " ) I ti 1 I l ' 111 111 1.,.1 Ilt' Ulsch ( l!Ut !, p . 100 nlll ' ~ 1.1 1, 'IS O1\e to one l}('GlUsl' ,,11 o I t IH' Sl ll ll U s .· suggeslcl1 ,I n 1"00" .'1 t l"• ' I ,'\ t'Oll lllit'X 111111' ,11 r Oll1po nen ts start a m i stop I tl~t'IIlt't.1 " 1I re sTll'd flcd by rhc ir uPIII'r , '1 ' al 1ll lt' I' V iI s usna y a ¡- . A I'I' i\ I{ Ef','" S Ii'.E. i ' US)C.l .' .) . lation lo thclr lower to nes, fo ur th sixth. et c. In re li . h i I lolles' seale dcgrees (t uru, . . I [mi major a ugmc nlt'd. ouum dif ' h y accidenta s IUmor. . , . . snblcct to rno I tcauo n ' . 1 rau O ' each íntcr val In us suu J ' . ciíy th e intervar re-'v 1 ishcd). Another way IS to spe . . . f • e)' relationshil' lwtwt'ell I U' h ractcn suc requen . , plcst üust) forro h as a ca , ner Irequ cncy ís related l o ItS . ' '{ ' ~ An y perfect octav e s " PI' " 1'1)1.'1' and Iowe r tone. upper frcq uellcy IS III ¡¡ , . 2. 1 An y p er f ect filth' 1 s . O h ha racteri slic ranos a re tI): IS ío r a lower frequ ency as IS to . rat io with its Iowcr frcque~cy- t d. 6~' _ Icr a minor third, 5:-1 1'01' a majO! ') 8 For a major sec , .0:> ugm en ted fourth. f):~\ for a 11111101 ' , minor secon d ,.: __ on f f rth ";' or an a . rhl rd 4:3 for a p er fect 0 \1 • • • . th an d 15:8 for a r najor St'\' , . ' th 9' 5 1'0 1' a rru nor scv en , . sixth , 8:5 fo r a mejor stx ' , -' . d . ble dcviation from thc simpl e n llltlS r-nth. In performance pracucc, const lera c. d by dívldlng the od avt' íulo n tem pered sca e. d enve occ urs. In t h e equa y . terv al except Ihe oc tave h as' 1IIt' l'(jually sizcd scm itones (h all' steps)" ~ol m 'ptio n Iiste ner s cao n' cogOI /,t· , . 'h . (Due to catego flea .pcr ee l~haracte ristic rabo. t th e "lme" ralios.) 1 e mos l and d assify interv al s th at .onl~· app~o, x~ma. e' n ce nt s (one ce nl = I / I~Otl of ' d' te physlcal mterva slze I S 1 cxact way to lO Ka , ._ he intervalic ce nts fonnula IS an oc ta ve). T n ~ :>98G,3 1Itog(V f,)j,
u in the art icular inl erval, fJ IS Ihe fn 'qll t'IH")' whe re n is the number 0 1' een s P l'th e lowe r tone (H¡u'ku'i, 1!l77, pp. uf th e up per tone, and fl is the frequen cy o :1·19- :150). 1 h e a e rcep lnal sim ilarity, n'~ardll '-" 'i o t ' 11y llame d'III tc rva s s ar 'h' P I AIl idenlica h ' d ~ in idt'n tiftcatioll all( lIl\l\ '1 oncnts \\ IC al .. . I Iheír parti cular frt.'qucn cy coro P ' t', the cents form ula, "11)' Iwo lll h ' r Vil s .. A an demonstrate W1 1 ( ti , ~ ' I cal tlhhty. s one e . . hvsicall . ide ntical io cc nls l·.g., It , _ shad og th e sam e ratlos \...~ 1I be Pd "'1~ O() ~z are bolh I ~()O ce nts). Il o..... t·\"(·I. octaves 60 ancl30 H z and 3000 an Oh th 1 simp ly categori'l.t'tl, its ..ppón·. ' . l . . evalua te d rat el' al . .... . . ir a SUCCCSSlve IIltCI' a IS Ev',d ence is conOictlllg: J< 111\t . h l' llen cy fange. • I t'nl si1.e m ay vary WlI req V, lk nn & New ma n, W:17) S\l~gl'sls l .lal rcse¡uch (Stevens, 1975; Steve~ls. o n~a • are nt si1.e wíth incrt'
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in a ppan-nt sil C' with im Il'll\ill"" 11I'qlll'1l(:Y ra ngc'. Rudocy (I!I7N) found thut IJI'I'Ct'lvl'd lnu-rvul si/.c ' is ,1J¡i""h ly id iosYlllTatic func tlon of lun-rucrlou among 11U' pa rticular in u-rvul. inu-r val clin'c'liun, subjec ts' musical ex pcric nce, and Irequency ra nge, Il/'ating
l-irst urdir beating; a pe rce ptible r íse an d fall in loudness, is experie nced wilh lhe simultaneous soun ding oftwo slightly differen t frequ en cícs. It rcsults frum thc pcr iod ic chang es in the superp osed wa vefo rm . Tb e bcat frequ en cy fur a mistuncd unison is equi valen! to the differen cc betw cen the two freqm-n ck-s ; thc grcatcr thc frcqucn cy separation, the [aster the beating. With sufficicu t Ircquency separation, the beat ing becom es roughness. Once the Irequency svparation is great enough that the d ifTercn cc bcrwcen the ba silar nn-mbrane stim ulations equals the critíca l band width, th e Iisten er expen t'm 'c 's ,1 clcur scnsatíon o f two sim ultaneo us tones. Beating p rovide s a ve ry t1hvinm cluct ha t two inslru me nls or voices ar e "out of tune" with eac h ather. l b IWI 'VC 'l", tun ing by e1i mi nating the beats berween a refcrence tone and a tU llt' lo 1)(' llllwd may be ambiguous (to th e tuner) beeause of unee rtainties Iq,; lH ilill,L\ tlH' di rection o f devia tion _ After investigalio n, Corso (1954) lon g 11,140 "IIAAt'..It'd Ihilt unison tuning ma y depend more on piteh matching lhan . 111 IU'ut ¡'lim inal ion. n":llilllo: u f a misluned interva l other tha n a m istuned un ison, parti eularl y lI U o. la"'t', fom lh, or fifth, is Jecond order healing (Roederer, 1995, pp..10- ,13), whk h may n 'sult from Ihe periph er al interferen ee of com bina tion Iones, or, l'SI"-t'ially al 1()Wl'r frcque ncies, from cen tral neu ral proccssing (Plomp, 197fi). I\ I..tl kllllWII (llllf{)lt unately) as the beating of mistune d conso na nces, seca nd lllIro ngly sllggests central processing of second order beats (plom p, W¡ i7a), If a c1 iffe.'n'nt s{)llnd is presenl ed to each ear in sueh a manner th al the tH IIltls c',m nol possibly m ix unli l they reach lhe neural path ways, hinaura/ Iffl l ;l/~ lllay or cur, Perrolt and Ne lson (l9(9) fou nd tha l Iikelih ood of such Il'al c1c'h'e.' lio ll va ried with freqllency, with deteetion mo st likely around 500 11., T he' I){'als lIlay appear as a rap id flutter, or, espc'dally with small freU l' lU) ' c1 iITC'l"c nces, ¡¡ fusee! sensation may appenr to Iravc'l ¡¡ m une! illside the Mt'IlI'r's hc'ad . \ Vh ile bin aural beals lIlay ap lwar lo ha...(' rd ativcly lillle lllsical signifi("ann ', IIH' expa nd ing Ilx h nolob'Y t'lIl'olllpassill,L\ e...C'l" more
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11' n lllll'0St'rs, arrun gvrs. St,phistk 'ltl'd lH'a dsclS :\lu l v \l l llllllll;:I't¡III;::I::.I.'llrc~I~ ;·:~:':'~ : " und variolls entrc'prl'I U'IIr!\ tu ,-xl' n I ' . '.'11 .' nuf icaut- l'i ano tUlH'U ma y . IJI,"llll1 "I"l ;11" rnu..IC .1 y. slg f d cstgu utcd "uuvrvn lss. Firsl ami seconc1 0 1<. Iel 'lu- lt'llIlll'l't,tl uuung o count bcat s 10 o b unn I II 1 I . • in tun e on ce first ordcr bcuts . 1 . rull'nl 1 wl I u.' y are . . InslOlmentah sts maj re (1m ' \ 1 . ampliflcd 10 10 times ItS o\ltplll ," 11 . t une Fren e I 10 1 n .' l.
.. ame a tone ,,,i th ou t reference lo any eXI~'r Absolllte p itch, the ab ility to n ,1 d o, ¡lOSSess it. I'eopl l' wllh nal standard, may ast oun d p cople ''' 10. o dni ary aud an ucea siona i 1I1l1· , th ei "gift" as qutte or In I ubsolute pi tch m ay V1CW el~. . m e a tone in rclatin n to an cxu-run sance. Relatíve p itch, th c ability to na . . .. t label a as "C" bccatl Sl' it . . . amcng mu stcmns, o k F only re quire s knowmg iutcr standard, is qUlte commo n . f h I 'er than a no\-.;'l1 ,, .. h \ e is heard with no rcfen'lHc.. IS sonuds a perfect ourt 0\.. . . . N . g the C w ellony valie rclatlOllShlpS- am m ·rr , nd mueh lcss eammo n, .. ' I (1 q ualitatively d1 eren a - sted thal ab so lu' epl'Ieh results from sensltlv1ly \ . . lls from delibera le.' 1'.1\·l\l llg 1nvestigators b ave sugge lonal eh roma lO (Bachcm, 1954), th a,' It rled'sll ,. 1I fro m leam ing am i inter1 9 ~ 6) d Ihat 1t cou rcsU f (Corso , 1957; Meyer , , :» , an \9( 8) Cuddy noted Ihat jUdgllH'IlI S o nalizing a reference tone (C~ddy, . ). perience. l ntern alil ing a par. l i t d pec lficaUy lo p lan o ex I 1 ab soluil' p\lr 1, III Iliano tones were re a e. srl ' ould enabl e une ' (1 displ ay ' I ticular reference seem lOg) w h d.« t performance mcd ia sIIAA.'sl I lal f cy wit meren I I dilTering degrees o aceura " . h b . using aud itor y cuc s 01 lI'l t Mil , may 1earn a "pse udoabsolute pltC ) u lle , ,. . . t' mbre cha racten s l C S. • 11 ,. 1)' lo frequenc)', e.g., I .. . d h en a ch ild is eSpc.'C111 y 11' ,H . The conce pt of a cntleal age peno '.." '.. d f O¡' IJOfllll1 it)'" c.'xist' 101 iI . .k·\\' ests tha t a "'111 (l W «.) , . l!eve\op particular s I s, sugg . I ti lcd th e ctllKC'pl, P,lItl( 11 11 , ( 1 l)9 ~}) reee nt y qu es 01 . ', . fl'''' )'ears. Alth oug h rue . b ¡·ldren une IIH>lIl1 IWIlI VII '" " r ' for veryl young e " . hrIy as a "now or nevcr tme ' ton al iden til1catioll \O ¡¡ 1:1111' , . hd 1 ent relates car nmg . d· . 1 I 0 1' ab solute pltc eve opro 'hen pitche s o f III IVI( 11 01 h1 f ur 10 se....cn years, ..... I ' Gil period , roug Y ages . o ' b ti m usic and sp cc'ch, th an lh ey { ti III sounds have a greate r ,sahen ce, mlh a~ ~ m a'ority of surveyc'd ad uhs ptlssesslater life, Scrgeant (lHh9) s.h o wed .' 1 ~ ini ng during dw crit ieal age.' ing absolute pitch expc ne nce d mu slca ra
e
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pe-riod.'! ni' ( ;ai lll"l . (1'.I\l17tl) uu,d1Il'¡.li'd" ..tll ' r ¡'~o Ia ll' ( I ('1'11 11 uren . hu i as tlH')' .llllll
,1.
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sO ll llds
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1".',.",,,;, more salien r than iudi:::I':~:; ';'ith;":~ . .;tlffietm,\ a ud to na l rc latíons (I IV(' l. ctnils, but it also can Pl'HTi vl' Sln~(lCS . . le a uditor-y syst cm can p ermon- lIl~pOr1anl than 111(' detnils \\,'1 i '1 f I~rc. In musíc, structur e becomes lnck-cd . III a m usica l contcxt itcl , <' 1. ostcr ubsol ute pit ch dev elopmcn t than the ac tual puches th : PI e l rclationsbip s usual ly are more impon . 1 o e m sc ve s T h .. I ant t 1('01)'. an alogous to thc matern a l co n e cr~tlCa p eriod ínvolves a n imprinting thc first moving object it cncoun . . necüon a hatched d ucklíng m ak es with ;"~I ~'eri"d," label is híghly associ~~;e(~.Il~"Y ma ma du ek). During thc critia )d-sc l1::ltum assocíatíons , if form ed ~t . a tonal sens auon , and the co rr ect ' ee ome ubsolute p ítch luvestigatio n o f abo I t . h Jo ue p ltc requl . I n - al~V(' p iteh elles . Ab ility to label t urres ~smg va ried stim uli an d avoíding lli(' hsu-ner is familiar or eo min wlthin on ~ from un inst rument with wh ieh 1':1I~1l' un- uot en ough to jllstify~abell:~ ,a m~n?r second of the corrcct letter 1~lh h. Many pcop!e probably can l g ~e hs~ener as possessing ab solute t1IlH ' , huI fi-w ca n leam to identi f :~rn to identífy certain tones sorne of the t1~"1 m s¡ol\ of abso lule pileh Wa dto nes al! of the time. In their de tailed 1'111 11 lI'latioll ship s are acqu ired ~ar~n i ~~Dms (1982) indicate th at frequenc yunl>: H Il!' Ill'rso !l has been abl t y .n 1 e and thal, despite many attem t 1' l h ll C1l1 of Ihe lexl in wh " h he 10 acqUlre ab solule piteh as an adult 1 IP s, •I . 1 ( • le t e Nard and BI 1 . n a ater 11 ,II IH l' \\ ard 1()(JI)),'nd . lb Im s claplerappearcd thel' d t ' '" leates at aUem ' p a~ u ) ' 111(' IIlI SIl ("ct'ssfll!' and lh a t possessor ' .pts absolute piteh genert lo teaeh 1 11 r: UJl,l~ " o. If ab solu le piteh is desirable s m cma. sta n? a rds m ay shift after ~~li l('h 1~H' !af¡rú a re attached to the s ' .m ~m' eo nSI?erahOn of th e mea ns b u all'"...ud, is n..eessa ry. en sallOns, pae"eul" rly in the alleged
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¡'il ch M I'a.ttlrnnen/ I'il('h ma . vanous . 1lll ll1an 1 y be measured 10 wa )·s b t r . o )server (o r an .apparalus built t ' . u any teehniqu e mus' use a
( ~gll:ll frcquen cy co llnter and lu" h. Siue.. p iteh is a, a hUlIIan .sl'ns. alion .
defin~d sr.:~~~~sensatlün, analyzer .m easure frequeney, ~o; measu rClllent leqUlres · . o sJmulate on e). The stro bosco e
an
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lIa h ta li vC j udgments in tb ' ~ rm f · nal .) loll j b'11lents and tu ' e do. o pltch m atch ing, as illuslrated b . . . ud. nmg a 1ustm e ts y mto,:,-u''''tllahve judgmen ls a re illu, trated ~ , are o ne type of piteh measure. ' :I~"'" th e p'teh sensa tion of l(X)() H z th.. mel seale, where 1000 mels t U7), A tablt, e qua ling freq uc nc in H z t le.v~ns., Volkmann, & Newman, 11 '\ l1 h" " ,I;h 1", In~ l , l ' . y o plteh 1Il lIll-'ls ¡¡ppea rs in ,slevens f )
is
)" ';"'~h "f uni vo' rsilv t.,.,.-h i. ,. . IVI{ tia " IlO! m:'1uiri n,l\ ,,[¡ , olulo ' I,n. h;ull lt'l(ull íli'trl ~ l¡;¡ l,lI h Ix'rsun Ih,u ont' orlh.' a..¡hl.n (lt l- nll'ihh "
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( 1!175 , Pl' : :1\0-:;]\). TI u"' u" ,IIuU ",wh " a' "igh" '" 100ll u..." nn-l s] ft'quirc s:l frc <JlIl'llt ')' n i :I\',lo l l/ • •ln I 10t K) l b .. Tbc Illl'\ scul c 1y predi ets psyehologha l inu - v,,1 , i,,·' ,1 ",1 lurgcr th nn p" y, h al slzcs a... 1
~l'm'ral.
'U"
larger than the jlldgllle nls uf lIMII )' li..n-ucrs, il1d udin g musician s ami non musidans (R udo cy. 1!)77). IIl1lt·t'II, tllt' psydlO1ogical octav e oftcu is Iargvr üicn the physieal o ctave, possihly ht'caust' auditory neu runs' finu g tillH' inlerva\s exceed tbe time ¡-cq uin ·d íor on c uctave's víbrariou cyd t's (MeKinney & Delgutte, W!J!J). \Vhile musicians ge nerally eo nsider the m cl scale an impracl ir al cur ;()sity [if th cy are aware of u) b ccause its predietions of apparent interva! si/.C an' ina ecurate, and thc mel scale was developcd with pure tone s, Shcpa rd pp . tns ists tha tlhe me! seale nevertheless says somethiug iml" ,, 'a ,,' about p ileh : 1t relates to th e statistieally high er numbcr of e1o,,' Inn-rvuls Iound in th e central frequeo cy range in musical wo rks, and may rclah' t o a tonal propeelY of brightness. Indeed, one is more Iikely lo fmd io"·, v,,b e smalle r than a fou rth in lhe m iddlc of th e musicany useful frequen e)' n lllg .
( 1! 1~1! 1,
15~- 153)
Lou dness Phenom e n a Not aH audi ble sounds have pitch - so me sounds are just too co m plex fnl" lhe fundamen tal traeking mechanism to ass ign a defin ite pit eh . Loudll css, howe , is an obvious property of an sound- if a sound is audible, it nHl!>t have ver loudness. Listeners, even very unsophisticatcd ones, rcad ily Illa y t'val· uate musica l perfo rman ce s as "too lou d" o r "too soft." M usie t'd ucalors dir e("\ ts considerable pe dagogieal effort toward im proving slude o ' se nsitivity n I" mllsicality by urbring thero to use more effee tive d ynamic cuntr;lsts ill 1'1'1 '
lolUhlt'~s
e . pitch is a metathe tic and a morphopho rie variable. formane \ Vh ercas I I i'l ;l pmthetie variable, a variable of apparent size or magnitude . SIi"I''''' ( !I!I!1, p. '1.5) notes th at loudness rclationsh ips have a certain auditory cOll'olallt )·, to the visual co nst an cy ex pe rience d in view ing a tn 't' aga lusl " analog olls background of fur lhe r lre es-as on e upproaehes th e foregrou nd tn'l', I'Vt'l )' thing app..ars larger, but the relative sizes o f,he foreground am i h ,u·kg""",,1 tl"ees rcmaio s !he sam e, In a musical selting, allhough lim ital ions (' xbt, Ol ll' theoretieally is ab \e to increase or lo we r the overal! d ynanü e Il've\ of .. I ll' l" fonnance whlle mainlaining the d yn amic eontrasts within th e pien'. 1'ilt"h s n mstaoey is in relation ships of apparen l lo ud oes (·ollstalll"Y is il1
10cati(Jn~
l"e1atinnships of apparenl stfl·n~h . T he di(fl'reoc bct w('1'1l pitdl ami \o udoess apparen lly atTl'd lllu sicOl cs llsag and p rior itics. Ah hol\¡¡,h huma l\ t';IfS are sl'llsilive to "b nul a tlrillioll rold cra ngt' uf s()\1 nd illtl'nsil)'
,",
pucb dislillt'liul1s, 1.0 Iltllll'" llol .lli oll b limítcd lo sym bob 1m d yn umi c levr-ls und words inil ic lllinl; a Rl a.l ua l d WTlge, whcrcas p itch uotation ha s sp e('ifir locaüou s 0 11 a m usirnl sl:df. l-unlu-rrnore, ahh o ugh slx busic d yna mic Il' vds- N /, 11, mI), m}:J;:IlHI.u:"haw ln-r-n US('d for o ver 2<X) ye ars, few inslrum c ntalists ha ve a d ynam¡c ra ng(' ca pa blc uf atta ining tho se si>: di screto lev pis. T his ge nera lly is not du c to limitation s of perform ance m edia. Restri ct ed musical dynumic ra nges a nd sol o passage s equal in loudn ess to full orchestra l passages, characteristíc of f ilms an d televisión, as wc ll as popular m us ic with basi cally two d yn am ie levels, lo ud and eve u lou der, may be partly res po us ible, but the general artistie demand for a wíde range and va riat ion in loudness seems restrieted (Patterso n, 1974). O ur lo ud ness discussion is organized around disringuish ing lou d ness fro m utlu-r propcrt tes. measurement of loud ness an d syste malie relaüo ns the rehum, mnskín g. lou d ness sum m au o n, and dangers lo hearing. 1" lt'tu ity· Lo udn ess Relalionship Illll'llsity and loud ne ss are not intcrchan gca ble tcrms. Intensity is an o bj ec1i \'l" ly 1ll1'i1 SIII't·d p hysica l property, a n am ou nt of po wer_It often is cx pressed III Ililwl'r unils per unit arca., as in watts per squa re m ete r (w/m 1) . LoudntsJ is u ~ ll ll t l't"l iv l' sl'flsa lio n of a sound's magnitu de 01' stre ngt h. h s pereep tion H'IIIdll'S .111 animalc pereeiver (or a m ach ine built to sim ulate on e), So und 11' \'1,1 ll\('ll' rs a lld specl m m analyzers d o no t measure lo ud ness, '1'111' a llllllllll of a so und's inlen sity is the majo r d eterminan t of its loudness, hUI Illl' illlt'llsily-Io ud ne ss relatio nship is not sim ple . A minimal per eeptio n Iillll" ViIIying fm m 10 to 500 msee and beyo nd, is ne ee ssa ry for a sound to hllild lo ils maxima l pe rceived lo udn ess (Seha rf, lD7R, pp , ~ 0 5 -2 06) , and JUlll lllt ,sS lIIay var y furthcr with the time required for a so und lo reaeh its ma xillll llll inlc nsilY (Cj aevenes & Ri mstad, 1972), Pro longed stcady sounds may dimi nish in lo ud ness du e to a ud itury faligu e, w he re the brain ess e ntia lIy d illlinishe s atle nlio n lo a p rol on ged sound be cause of irr elevanee, o r to ba h illliltioll , a l't 'du elio n in stim ulate d neural aetivity (Roederer, WD5, p, 96). Fn'lllll' ncy co nfo unds the inte nsity-Io ud ness rclationshi p ; as diseusscd bel o\..·• 1111' 111ud lll' sS a particular in tensit)' elieits varies \\;th frequene),. The ear's varialio ll in sens itivity \\i lh freq uency is especially im portant fo r music; in W' lll' r:d, lo w('r sounds may be p laye d "louder" than hig her sounds b efore IIlt'y are jud g('d as bci ng too lo ud .
V"lrmtt'. lJen.JUy, Annoyance, and Noisiness ( )the r so und propl' rlics lan ge nliall y I'ela ll'd lo 1011 d lll'SS inc1llde vo lu l1le, dl' llsily, a nllo yulICl', :IIHI IlOi'iiIlCSS, Vo/ulfl r is lllt' ap p:Il't'1I1 Si/,l' tlr l'Xlcllsity of a slIlInll, iIIl1s1ralt·d, fOl I'X:l1l1pll', hy a luha 1IS1l:t1 I)' MllII lllillR " Iarg('r" than a
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,. ' ..nlllu b more focn scd or pin)'oi l,II,I'11 piccolo- l lowl'v('r, thl ' pll I 010 1l \ \ 1lI 11 ) m-t u' ss ()1' íocus is t¡nuity, 'lit' r 1IIIIi'1I1 1IIIIIp,II I ' l' 1 11 ' 1 rhan th c u rbu: a Mlllllt !l al' , . l' llrll b 197!)) be H'Vl'( tu • , '. S S Sli'\' I'lI\ [1"" ",. ,1, .' , l' eslt'COled ps)'ch oph YSlC lsl , , , ' , ' . , [ 1Ildi ons 0 1' freq llen cy ,IlH jntc-ul ll L! ,tS I ' 1 th wer e basic to na I a 1 llI 1 , . V'Il)' ' 1 , ' .. l\y are psy(:IIO:LCO\l .S"',,, ).0 bi üons 'Iodu" y vnllllllt' alld d l'n Slly sasica suy co m tna •. .' " . IJ , . sities with hule OlllSIGII rt'h'V.lll~(. " d ts of tones elll!>echlt'd III cnn o ~) di 1 sub icc ts JU gmen , . r ance the al' llart'nl irnla H ellm an (19H2, 1mb su r' {1rec1 ' .Jpc.rlies o annoy , lmckground no ise and id~~lll ice I:H\ rit '01' a sound. Aga in, lh ese :11 1' 1l~1 1 tio n of a sound, an d nOlsme~, th c c:h y ggest that peo pl l' who f(l l1\pla lll importanl b aste tonal propertles, but ey ~u t something other mn n excvsabout excessivcly loud music may b e reaetmg o
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STI~tCLLJS Mf.ASURES, Fo r so rne peo p ,e, 1 d ess Inlc nsity ls dl'fllll,d as , b h ' t m easunng ou n ' 1) sufficient. even th ou g t al 15. no and wa tts pe r sq uarc meler (w/ m alt' a rca, I d ,' ntensitics an' ralhcl' sm al\ an amouot of power pe r umt "Y J\. ost so un ' d '
enm m o n units for SO UIl mle nsl : , . ' md th al appro;¡ch t's tlw l1 pp ~1 values. Just o ne w/m) i~ a rath~r ~n~~~s~~:~hold uf r ain , Al 1000 ,' 1'1. 1111' \imit 01' he aring, .s0rr.aetlmcs ca e )()(~}OOOOl w/ml, o ne -tri!lio llth ,0 1 a w:~t ~ , thrcshold 01'heanng l S around _000< f • p rcss such \in )' dl'flln,,1 h ,1< tive po\\-'ers o ten to ex \ Vriters oflen use nega " l S 1O- 1~ w/ m~ "l on~ ' the ab oye threshold of h canng d , ,,1: ',,' le nsilY !f uI'! rat1 11'1 litan " .. 11 " 'se \O le tmS . ' 1 Sound in tensity usua y IS expres, , 'so n with a hast,hlll' Vil 111' , , I . 1 e prescnts a eo m pan , 1' pure inten sity. Inle nslty e\'e r , h fourth floor in t:(nllpanson lO . \ ~I building's fo urth flu.0 r IS : e .. t" tn b ascliJl(' "' 01 111(' 11 ¡III' la\II I ¡' ust as a ~" mp arisons uf p articular IIllen SI les , ' , " , ' , groun d ' \..A co m parisons uSlllg deCllJe~~' dH ' measure s 0 1' po wer ra llOS. 1hi Y,lli Ded bels, 01't en abbrevJat~d as 1: ~e d elcetrie l:ur rcnl a\so ~lIa)' 111' not Iimited to sound: RatlOS 01' Ibg t ~n fi d b y the cmn p uting lmmll\a ,' n decibel s D edbel s are est e toe c xpresse d . FoI' sound intensity level ,
ll" = IOllog(l/ l"lI. •
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1111' hase-lim- value. T Ill' inh'Il\U )" Il t 111(' thrcs hold o f hearing is ofte n used ; hl'lIt"t· 1() IJ w/ m - is a ( 'U IIl IllOll ha \l'l illl',u Three n lllseq" l'lJ('es of a
llHln ' ruuun on s l i ll ll tl l1S n ll ' ;LSlltl · ,. .. Ily lo th c <' m u ·t' !,! 0 1 . ' l' 1111 1 it 11' Iall' S loul o g:u,1 Y, • • SI'L nsunlly IS eusu-r to uu .1\111 , ' ' . SI'l dl'd bl'1s are n Jlu pllll'd . . , 1, t" 1" lo SOllllll sl·ll"lallO Il S . • • pressure van unon s 1( ' ,1 11 " . . . '1" • . \tI ough the ratio cUlllpans o n dilTercntly. in rclaiion to a (hlll'u'lI t IM"t .ll~t.• ,1 1 . 1e is pn. ncrp l thc ' sume . A co nnn on fonnulu IS t'·¡!"S Wlllll d I m '.H lI rt
Irvd (. I, .l ,
11"1 111111 '
11
D s1'1. = 10\log:(p/ Po)l, · b cr of d ecibels, P is the particular pressure v~I\It., of whe re DSI'L. 15 the num A on b aseline is .00(X):l uc wp .. h baselin e p ressure . eomrn , 11\ . d IS t e !) With SPL decib cls, a d ífferen cc o f 20 ( n p' con ccm , an l a hundredfold diffcrcnn~, d e. tons pcr square mct~r (n / m-). d" . ' 'II encc: ,H) 1] represen s . SI' L values . Ideally, invt'sll¡';:'lrescnts a ten Io1e1 d I er . , .¡ d. . -ar ch rcports ar e M os t dB va lúe s ou n m rese , 1, cif the b aseline ami rhc Jl l'Op' tors woul d ex p ress dR values that ~ear ? s~:ll/assllmes SP L. with u .OO()()'2 ert y," O ften they do not, so th e rea er gene (1
n/ m2 b aselinc. . he sound pressure level al a par lif ular Sound level m eter s can d escnbe l . . d i t lTTating sound Il'vel rneters · d I I ' ~l o re sophlso cale m eo · ~ 1 . locati on qUite a ('qua e ). al h ' h are extension s uf )a s l(~ f ' t est,vueswle can provide other v allles o 10 er . d level (1 ) is thl' sal1lC 'h . I 'nt eontmuOUs soun ---....q • 1 . SP l ver a dcsign atcd tinll' pen o( ; SP L read ings. 1 e eqmva e ~ o r l as a varymg amount of energy conten h . f -' O dB SP L )'ields an 1""1 or ) dB SPL plus sevcn ours () c.g. one hOllr o I 101 . h 1 1 (1 ) ,s also SPL sprea d O Vl' r a . ' , I 'JI dB The day-mg t eve ' l'S, rec orde d; e.g.. L 1" = '. ing a design ated pc nod th e S \ ~~ m ay infer p sychol ogical ('Ul\SI" lhese arc physical measures. , 1 e one res . 1 esponse measll. . r lo"dncss rncasu H'lllt'1l1 S¡¡ys. q uen ees, l h ey are no r. . A . nscrvalrvc vlew o R E.Spo :"ls E IvIEASUKEs. co . e ,' 1 A m ore liber al vil'W sa)'s 'b 1 d ess but not m easur . , . d t bu t sealing 10l1dnl'ss is illll' 0SSI· Ihat on e can dc sen e ~Il n Ihal onc can m ake eqU1valen~y JIl¡ b'ffid~n. SI' tlcl' Ihan or surte" Ihan anolhI . d IS as {)u as o u , ble: \Ve can say Ih al a sonn . I'Ú " b . ; ny lJartieu\a r amo \llll. A ll Hll"l' nl{ ' cr so nod , bll t we can no t say It (1 ( rs ) , 1 .1 l 'II. ,,'1s aft' n' ,..'[('(I m "hem atica l1" h" l'all'" 11...II ill!<'IIS1 111 ü
,
\.'Inle nsilv Ir'vd alld sOImd pr<'ssun' ,'\" 1\ ; . " ,:" m ,' 'Im l' lill,J l' rat io (Al/J. Symhullt'¡, )". ( 1)" ratio iÍ l" is l'(Illiva l.'n l tu th,' " I ",~I" '1'1 ~ IA' lI ~." \) irk.... Ah1slro m , amI Mor ¡t;au (20tlll, p. 10 11ug (1/1,Jl lO' 10 Ilug {A l/AzP I _ :ltl ,,~ I 1 l
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in "llllillg view llnils. is lh al IOllcllll'\' nll
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IIm's 1101 req ulre
(·llI' vI·.~ . .~ a lllpll'
I-;(Iua l IOllcllless a 01' whir h appears in Figlln..' .1-.1. co n nec¡ JiI·(lllt·llcy.inlt'lIsily cUlullinalill/ls, Usua l'y fur pu re to nes, whicJ¡ judges deem lu 11111' 1'r¡ lIiva lelll in lo ud llt •ss . Any twn poín ts 011 an eqlla l lotldness Curve are 1'11 '1 11)' 101l d, al Ieast as :lVeragt'd ac ross a se t of judges. Th e ge nera l shape is snch thar Ihe Curves "'g o down " as allditory sens itivhv increases wi th fre1j1l(,Il CY lo al'Olll1d 2000 Hz; beyo nd a bour 3000 Hz, sensitivity decrcases an d 1/11' cu rves "'g o up. " Even wi tho llt tueas uremenr as pecls . the Cu rves are hll purlanl ut'cau se they sho w d earJ)' that the ear is not eq ualiy se nsitive at ull frt·q llt'ncit·s in the bearing ra nge: The CUrves indecd are curved bccuuse fn ·tlul·IlCY co nfo unds the intensity-lolld ncss rela tíonshlp. \ Vithout such COng '¡ llIlH liu , r.c. if a particular íntenslry elích cd a COns tant lo ud ncss across aJl f11 'flllI'II Cil'S. Ihe "curves" would be straig ht hncs. Fle tch e - and Munso n ( I!':I:I) "",,1,· sorm- of 'he fi rst equal loud ness curves by having eleven judg. s lllakl ' :¿ D7 Oh \l'l"\'a tio lls of comparative Ío ud ncsses: in thcir ho no r, eq ua l JI Illl llll'~.\ l'lmlo llrs often are ca lled "Fletche r-M unso n curves."
()f v¡¡ d o tls alt('lllpts lo dev e lop a m easuremcnl sea le o n Ihe basis of how Illlu'h lou e!t'r o ne sOllnd is than an other (Beck & Shaw , 1967; Stevens, 19i.5; \Va l'l'l'll, /9 70). Ihe .mur sea le probably is best kllown. OriginaJly, o ne so ne wa,~ t'llll:" lo ,10 phull s. A la tl' r defin ition (S tevens, W72. 1975) is Iha t o ne l Ul l(' is Iht, 10lldnt.'ss o f a Ihir d-of-an -oclav c band (freq uen cy sp rcad) of noise, ; \'ll!I'l'l'd llI l :-ll SO Hz. a l an SPL of 32 d U. So nes are based un h um an subt'll jlldglll ts of .!icnsa tio n Tatios. On pap er, the)' havl' a systc ma tk relaillllsh ip lo c!('ci bel s; a growl h in S PI. uf!) dB e1icils a dOllulin g of So ne va lue. r1!J7!i. pp. a /:¿ -:i li / prese nts a tab le uf sOIl('·d l'd bel n 'lali on ships.) 1'11/ ' .\ OI le m Ol )' ll O! lit' t'lllil'('ly sa Usfaclo ry, :lile! I'( 'wa rdu'rs fret.. lo ll'vt'lol' ot/ U'r S(·" /I's. ,sUdl a sea l(, n('(',',\ sari/y i" ,\ llllj l'd iVt-' ht'ca ust.. olll lru'"s. ho wI'vl'r IllI·aSlJll'c!. is a suoj (·(· tiv(' p.\ )'I holo/otÍl'al 'II"0P('rly. An y
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TI ..· curves are 1101 cxact: in addition lo inteIF o latio n of data poin u , the I U t \! l '~ HlI' i/lJIt lt'nn'd by Ihe sta nda rd frcquen cy to which judgmem, are 11 ·1.11 1'. ' (J\lnlino. 1!)7:i) and whethcr o ne listens in a free fíeld o r throllgh ' '' '1111,,1101 '' '\ (St:ha rl; 1978). Con troversy co ntin ua, rega rd ing the a ccuracy of llil ' 1 1I1 VI '.\ ó1 111 / bia.\ (·s inh ercn t with¡n them (Plack & Carlyon, 19 95). ¡\ llr hm lhl'o l'{'licaHy equal poln ts on an eq ual lo lld ness curve are cqua l u ¡dwf/ \'lIll1l ', I'bon s are eq uiva le nt te deci bels al 1000 H z; e.g., a 1000 Hz Inlll ' uf !iO
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H, " (' lI SI' IV leve! ec t In-quency-¡n I ._~ 4-4 Sam ple equal lou dness curv es. The ~u.r\o·~s l~~I)nHz stan d ard ora given inn-n. rlh'Ure " -l n ch are judged to be cqually lou as a co rnb ination s \\. I n suy level.
. d gment ca n not mensur e a l " )" measure Of so und which is. not base d on nd JU chological sc nsatío n rc sulüng from sou .
The POWeT Low . . a 'a wful ,e1al;onsh;1' exi s's 1""","':" "" Tbe P o we r law essentmlly says that h f PTowt h in SOI1 I(' il s~on ..1l'd
. I l , nd 1 e ra le o O ' inereasing p hysical stlm u ~s va tlC ~ i is ex resscd by a d l'(:imal I' X~ )O ps)'chologic al response. 1 hal rel~llOn~h ~. o f: respunse rali ct ;'IS a flllH'IIOIl a "power function ," expressmg t . e -' ua l sensa tio ll U l1l h' r
~nl
::f a ; Iimufus catio. Equal , timulus
Sl~~'t
ratitJ~.
ca"~~I~.oc~':~ns' (197.1) 'ex' . 1","l bl","
man)' condition s, lh e I~w se,ems ,.to ce rovid es m an y delilils. t\1aglllh~dl , >oslh umously with his wldow s asslsla n , ph 'q ue Iha l is oa sl'd on llJa\dJl ll~
~"timation. a h;ghly ,,,.fu \ meas~'~m::~:;~h~:t collnting "'';1' . ;, hnl''''taot
o ne slim ulus d imt' nsion lo ann ( Uf .r '(' 's.
l :.i '¡
1'.Iytl/tl¡'I~ 1/ 1I 1 hlllll d llll/llI"\ /~ /I1I1.1t("(l( U /'IUl1Il fIr
Ipp" I:.! H- I:.!!l) call 1llilHniltltl! ' 1 ' ~ l i lll il l io n
" srruightforwnrd" a pl' lOild l lo Ih1.· 1H'('I·....sa nly sllbj('("liVt' a SM ' S~ II U' 1l 1 o f loudness, but IIll'Y n llllioll th at instruc lio m . size of di ffercnres hcl wt·t·n stlm ul us soun ds, am i indi vidu al biases may [nfhu-ncc listen crs' judgm cnts. \\'h en loud ncss ls m casu red in so nes and th e slim ulus is a n arro w band of Ilobl' ccntered on :{ISO Hz a nd mcasured in SP L dB. the theoretlcal power [uur-tinu ls .67. In actual practicc, oth er power functions may occur. Thc l'uwI'r funcüon will vary with tb e stímulus frequ cncy rango. Loudn ess gen erull y g l'OWS more rupíd ly at lowc r freq ue nc ies, and ln dívídu als var)' in th eir fI,j 'lIsalilllls und thcir abilities to ma tch their sensations with numbc rs. Despítc tln- iucon sistencics in power law relatíonship s, one should rccognize that (a) luudness may grnw systematícally as a fun ction of na tural perceptual pron 'SSI'S, und (b) individuals are capable of making more subtlc loudness judgIIII·nl.\ I h ¡1II trad itional mu sical dyn am ic markings suggest. :1
1 IhvlulIsJy, tuu: souud , normally perfcctly audible by ítsclf ma y becom c II Hlllllhlt· ln tlll' pn'sl'Il Ce of a louder sound ; this is símulumeous masking. Th e 1;I \ kl'd UI I"lIVI·l't·d soun d is the masked ton e {or noíse}; the sound tha t do cs 11 ' 1ll,ISkill):, is 11 ll' maske r. O rchestral woodwind p layers som elimes will dis( · ~ .IIt1 n 'llaill tedlll ica!ly demanding passages because the y are not "" 1111\1'11." Th,')" fl'('l that sincc other instrumenls \\ill mask th e "unex poscd " J1. I \ \ . I ~I · 'l ill fllll or ch1.·stral performance. there is no need to give special aUen¡n ll lo tlll' passages in practice sessions. Cla.'lsil:al sllld it·s of sim ultaneous masking generan), show that a ma sker 's lIlm l l'lll,("tivl' lllaskillg is ror sounds near its frequc ncy ll; (although som e cv idl'IKl' sugg{'sts thal lh e masker may be m ore distant from lh e m aske d sound (I ·~' p¡ llll l.a Va ras & \Valsan. 198!). p. 89 )), thal lhe freq ue ncy area ove r wh ich m
no ise lo m nsk llI ull'siral ,ll' ~1 'lI ll c l~ . , I Y I·, r,. 1'",w"11'I 1 ami b ackk¡ 1 1lI I'Vt'r)'1 a · • Sim ul tarn'o u s llI a s · m¡.i; 1\ 1 111\11 11111 . " ' 1 , for w ard and burk wnrd . are I'0SSI 11 . 1-1 nl lllYsltuallonS. ward rnasking l l ' 111 .1 10 , . 1 I r 11 • - the m nskvd . I -. - . -üvely l)fece( es nr o uws .. br b! "" nauer of masking the maskíu g Slllllll It Spl ( , " f ti • . 'od For ward m askíng pro a y IS a I sound by a ve r)" bri c h~I~1' .pt n " 1 red neural stim ulation frorn Iluy result from lístcncrs' co nreduced aud ttory se nslllvlly. or pro :mg~. , Back d asking" IS m ystenous; I m a . . ma sker. ac war m tonal ith the foUowing strongcr ma skm g srgfusíon of the weaker masked signa WI na l (Moore , J9H9, pp . 1W- 122).
Loudn ess Summation bi ed loudness but thc su n u n a Individ ual loudnesses sum tro rdod~ comS.n'ene sounds su:Omatc díffcr ently . . . 1 prncess o a Ilion. 1 • 1 non IS not a sun p e . has importance for m usrru un der different conditions, loudness su.m matlOo . sition an d arrangmg. I performa nce, com p o • . FI tche r (1946) demonstrated that lit' Usíng an early lo"ne synth"eslzde:. e I x to~es sound cd loudcr th an tlu. fr ncies contame m comp e . mrxturcs o re q.ue " . " S -ven s (19.1G) not ed th at sop ara te nOlst) single Ireq uencíes of pu rt.' «o sof f le les] are uot sim p ly addítive. Evt'n b an ds (and, by analogy, gr~ups o h::~u:::~aU inhib itive cffecl. widely sep ara ted frcquencle~ can Flotto and ~tcvens (HJS7) showNl Iha l In an oft-dted .sludy , ZWlcker, s de ~ds on frequency separation in I"t·h,· loudoess summ ahon for pure tone pe " (/lJ . bt"twt'('J1 .. b d ",i dth Wh e n lhe frequ en cy spaclllg 'JI !ion to the cn tlcal an . .. . t (Af a ro ximutcly I'qual lo sim ultaneous tones "incrca..es t~oal~~;t~:1 f~;: 1000 J~ standard , tu ;\SO 111. 100 Hz for a 500 H;t'. standard, d ,. ·" ereases A simila r lotl(hll'\ \ . , ) H . d' d) the lou ness sensa Ion 1 . ior a 200( z stan ar , " r .. b ' d \\las incrcast'd IJt' YOl lc1 l1 t d hen the wld th o a nOlse an in cre ase was no e W . . \t 1 SPI s Wlt• JI \'.. 1.d e l·req" . " ey 'pac ing • no sllllllllalillll certalll pOllll. i 0 \\1 ~ •. . I t t the loudest individual 11lI 1l' . oceurs; the total lou dn ess IS eqUlva e " 1 0 • a l a loudn ess levd uf so lu . ea rs greatcst rOT ones Lolldness summatlon app ts produces gre¡¡It·.. lotlll 60 ph oo s; unifonn sp acing .of frequen c)" compon en
ness than nonunifonn spaemg~ . TI f 10udn ess summ a tiull id('ntifit'd hy ?ne ma y rel~le l~ e ~:t~;al c:~sd ~"idth (Roedere r, 1!)!)5. pp . !J:L- !J:\). Z\...·1Cker el al. o e "" .. lb d ".dth sum malc so Ihat Ihc lotal • mp on ents wllhm a cnhca an ..... 1 .. Fre quenC) eo . ' " . I 1 ' h ' . m of the o rigina l intl'lIsltu's. loudness is the loudne"s ~ " elhlc~ll'll '.lltl' (~\;Il~lot greatl)" so) slIllllllale so lond a r n tll a Mil( \VI( 1 Co mp on eo t.s bl"l ~J I . l' . 1 . I I udn esscs d icited b y {' ,n "I" th e tolal loudn ess is Iht· S\l m u f I le 1Il{ IVIl l1a ()
,h,,'
. ,' 1. 1" 11",1,,111\" 1" I,.. ;¡r a ..u u nd th;11 ("-, urn" ! ,'ar 'iN in I¡nl\" Vln thi.. n llll,·xl. ba¡,k.."an ! rm"kl llK" t ~. '" . , ,.f" r lo i" <.: nll1I'n·II,·nslbl l' nr lllil ud , . Il ' "I' -'l kwól n l.",,,km K '" ' .."\.." 1." '''K \ ,r Itlsnoll '· Ust· " ~ 1I k I bh: nw"-....~.·~ l,.. clInlin!l" ,-l,'ar .. 1\1'11 d t"I'" '" 1,1' 1'" ,", ,"""re s"
... "
" " ' "''' '',11:'' ''' .f ''' '' '''11' ' 11''1'
int eusity. Symbolk-ully, m ili I I summa tion, 1, th roua h I 111 '~", II" uutn ,111' 1 ~'1¡1I loudnes s. ¿ lo in
~
,ti
o
L, = EI}:II , + 1, + , . , + 1") 1, Thc seco n d case (b e y c nd t h e ehw but not grcatly so) is
L, = ¿ IEII,) + EIIJ + , . . + E(I.lI· Thc1third case , where thce co mpo nents a re IJ beyon d the cbw, is whe re llll' l ~lta Ioudncss is cquívalent to th 1 d we tirm." e ou cst co m p onent ·, there 15 . no su mmu 111 wri tin g a nd a rra ngi ng . l lU' diffcrcm cases uf loudn:s~s~~~:m~osers an d o rchestrato rs m ay exploh chun l usuully so unds lo udcr th an " 1auon. A fully scored "o pe n spacing" fir- , I
I x-r (lf instru menrs 1 ddi a e ose spací ng" eh or d ,even wíth an iden .tll)' sOUII l! lo uder th an uni.s:na ~tlOn t~ d iffering in timbre, octaves lI S U ' " Xll'lIS.iVt'ly, two \....ell-spaccd fr; ' uc::~ra y: un less the frequen cies di IT(" ' 11I." 1II'H'S q llile near each o ther. q les wI11 sou nd loude r lhan two fn" .1 1111111
("[¡tka l freque ncy diffcre nce lor r 1oudnes olI 111 Ilt11'I1011{" . pn'sentation s vam.s h es un d er co nd'' l''Oll_~, . rI'or car d 'Ifference b
110 "s('v(-'ral tho usa nd" H z, Scharf (1969) s etwee d n th e separa te fre q u e ne .ll'S l' 1'IIIla y loud . Dichotic sum mati . nole thal d ichotic pa irs re ma ill 1I was u f 1\,,' 0 sl'parate loca lized 1: : occurr~d even when the tona l sensatio l1 lou d uess summ es, onef In eachh ear. This is lomea l, O' mv " 11 ,stllllH's I I re lating or dinary , O' Ica lalld width. Dichotic prese ntot" a Ion lo l e basilar membran e's crit· a IOn prevents ph en om ena th at de pe ne1 (JI! IJ](' ("hw. 11
Ill lJl1 t' ure, of hisbased lasl pub!' a l pron'd on I'asbh e d w orks'bSteve ns (1972) ou tlined a co mp utat' . . _ .. ora lory o servaf . C" II l1l ' o , 1 1I00S(~ (Ilvuled into th ' d lo ns, lor the peree ived lo d , l. I " -octave band s B l ' u ness II~('S o (~()Illplex Iones. T he coced . y ana ogy, It may appl y lo m ixthlld p d on me3150 uses H a standard reference ni a o n." 1 -(Jc{ave ba nd ol no,'s e ce nlere t H' 1I00....(.r law for loudncss equ a l I d z, the sone as defined ea rl icr lllal ioll rule ' ou ness co nt ours for noise , a" d tile SUIll-' S, ~ S,. +FIL S - S m)' 10'11" . al! a_~" ' m'_"I U"(-h;¡l\~i ll H'I'lIin' . -. U111' "'I...q..'.....In ',""'<1 mll'nsll)", "od Ihl' n'suhlll' ,,'" ",·.,,,,, I ,M S, 11"1<-I.11,,1 ltal ' ' 'lilude uf 1/11' ll.a"" llI 11 n'lll" , II I\slIlIlmal<'d ) 10lllln,·\\ "101 \' 1> ' . ••• l, . ' I 1,' ;<11 ' ;U1)MI as lII1l'rfl'n'm..• in 1"<1..... 0 111' . uf j ls ( uml" >'
" ~Iwt' i all.'
lollllnt'~s.
111 11111 111 IJ/ I l rJ III 1IW r
~S
wbvrv S, is ti\(' to tal S ol' i\ tllt' IOlltlilt'sS of IIH' IUll d l'\1 \ o llod, is lit.. SIII1l (in so nes) o f tlw IOlU!l u'ss uf ,,11 bnuds, ;:u III F is a tabli·t1 vuhu' whit h
Illt'asUlill~ allltlll~
" lll ies as a functi(l ll (11' lhe lo u(h'sl bund . Zwick('r "nd Fustl (I!t!IO. pp. '2: 1:\-'2:1·1) PI"OPOS(·(\ lolllhll'sS vi" a "llll\(\ness uwrcr" whit:h nmlel lllt'asUI"C spt.'cific 1001(11lt'SM'S Ihl' vuri 011S cruica l b an d s l'lln lln passing the hca rillg ra ng l • . Hask all y. tlu- - rm-u-r" would be c;.\Hbrate d in th ird-oct,lve freqlll'ilCY banda. with adjll stlllclllS Ior Iuw t< '2130 llz) frequen cies. lt woul d makc readily a p p ..reut lhoSl' parta 01' a 10lllplex sound that conlrib ute most lo overall lm uhwss. A Iistener o íten experienccs mu sic in a conf ined space, which rnay intcr¡Ht with the m usical stim ulus to add furthe r complexity to Ioudncss summ uliun , and th e basic IO\J(lness sensalion itself. The physical sound Ievcl varies wilh diflcrcut localions, ye l thc lou dness sensalion may vary Icss. H a rrisoll II IU I T ho mpso n-Allc n ('2 000) deillonstrated that the impr ession of lou dn vss ,n\lstancy of pipe org an sOllnds at d ifTer en l points in a chu rch was gn~ater thau the variab ility of SPL rcadi ngs aro und the ch urch wo ul d sugge st. TII l' n sounds. lndeed. a I unslanC}' c(Tect wa s greater for reed than for di apaso Ilasic:aUy sim ple sen sation can beeo me quite co mplex-
IJnngers lo llearing Expo sur e lo exccssive1y \oud soun ds c lldang ers he¡¡ rin g. EXlcllsive doclIlIll'nlatiun from over a a O-year pe riod !eaves no qlleslion lh a! 10ll d SOlllltlS, s of Iheir souree, may induce senso rineural deafnc s . Acco rding l o Shulman. Lambert. and GoodhiU (2 000 , p . 773), ahmtl Olle-third uf hearin~· 1I11I'airt.'(1 Ameri cans have a hcaring loss attrib uta ble lo nuisc exposun'pXI'0 SUH' Ihal a\m ost always co uld h ave been pn·vent ed . ¡:..a r dam agt' IIl" Y loss lw in th e form of acule ac oustica\ trau ma 0 1' noise-indu('(·d (N 11 1L); Ihe outer h air ceUs are especia lly vulne ra ble, altho ugh damaw' ('all pL llgr ('ss to lhe inne r cells. Acute aco ustical tr auma (lCCu rs wilh ex pOSllrt' tu Illlllllds ahove 1'20 lo 130 dH SPL; eve n b rief expos urc is at sllt'h Iev..!>' N IH L co me' Irom more long·,enn ex!""ure 'o ".und, ahov,' !III 111\ SI' L (Hrookhouser. 2000; Sh ulman, Lambert, & Goodhilt. '20()O). e FOI" a while, \isleners m ay enconnte r \ou d sounds and ex periem: only lo" · IlUrtl ry tlm:J!wúi shifl [rrS), a sho¡1-le rm impairmen t: 'Ic mpor a rily, <1 gH'ah"r '1111011111 of intensity is ne ce ssary in onit'r for tlw listen er \0 just pt" ITeivl' ,1 ' Ib n po rary th reshold shifts ma y dt'pl' lHI on Ihe am O\lIlt of SI' I. in IIH' 1 1 ¡Ik al hands aro uud Ihe " fft't'h·d r... ·llllt·n d l'S as W(' l1 as tl1l' eX¡JOsll1't· tillU' (Y,oua molo .' la kagi, Shoji, & YOI...ad a, 1!171l) . \Vilh I'wloog..d eXI" ''' o", '" io wlIlkillg rCJ:,"ular ly in a no is)' ('I\VI IIl1ll1ll"1I1 u r Iistt'n ing 101ll1lSic: at loud · IH' SS 1t'\Tls n ight " fter nigh l, tlll' lh .. ·,,1I1I11I "hit"- v('r y wdl11lay 1>('('011\1' lter-
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hcarin~
hi~h
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(; ivt'll 1111' lo lld 1U' 1I m ,IH' _1\ 11 ' .. 1 " 11 11 h un-k m us¡c. iuvestigators ha vr studk-d ln-artng dl'I"I I'I' '' 'lll'' rn 11111, '1l'llllllIwrs und lisn-m-rs. .Jerger am i .Jt'ISI'r (W70) uu-nsun-d lbl' 1i1,.1l1 1l1Jr, ~ " II, ll iv i l)' ,,1' nine nx-k performc rs jusI befo re a performance ¡1I 111 will\ln UUI ' hUlIl uf Ihl' performa uce' s conclusion. Eighl m usicians showed a lh ll ' ,~ h o l tl ~ h i ll ll l' al !t'asl 15 d B for at lcast ene InIjlll'nl.:)' in thc ~ ()()-H()OO l it. runge;" MiIl ll' lossc's were as high as 50 dB . Rinwlmann, Lind bcrg, und Smitlcy (197'2) cxposcd 20 wome n with no rma l lu-arlng to rccorded rock m usic al 100 d B S PL under two conditions: OIW as f;O minutes of con ünuous mu ele, the ot hc r as three-rninu te music segmenta ulu-ruatmg with ene -m inute segments of " background" (HO dB) disco noisr-. Tbc T rS was less for th e inter m ittent music co ndítlon, although Tecover)' [n-tur u lo normal hearing threshold) was about thc same fOT bo th con dníons. Tlu- invesríga tors noted that 50 percent of the womc n in th e interm itte nt co ndítion ami Sü pcrcent in the continuo us m usic cond ition were "cndangere d" in arnlrdance with published standards rcstricting daiI)' exposure to high s01l1U1 Ic'vd s. 1', 'opll" s willingncss lo exp ose themsdves to mus ic at high sound levels d" ~ p ilt , dangp rs to hearing exem plifies tiskin g future hann in the interest of 11l1ll wtlialt' plt'asure, as io sm oking, exeessive eating or drinking, and vario us I l l l l l l ~ Ilr ad dictilln . Yel, in the case of pulsaling, in eessantl y pounding roek III mk (w;ll'k·a-ZO O M, waek·a -ZO O M, wa ck-a-ZOOM . .), lhere ma y be ~ll ll ll' l h i n g mure ope rating. Dibblc (1995) identified a "rock an d roll thrcsh· old ," a po int al which the musir is loud enough lo obtain vestibular respon sl'S ill a d tlitillll to slrictly aud itory respo nses. T he inne r car iociu d es th e sem i· c- ill'lJ!'1I l"illlals, the orgao th at ma intains balance and a sensation of location in SP ¡ HT hy n 'spo nding to movement. The vestibu lc kn own as lhe osseO/lJ IlIhyr;1///' l"t lllltllllnicates mo tions to lhe sem icircular cana ls, and the labyrinlh n " ~llOJl( l s lo high so und levels. Dibb le found from e1ectromyographi e reco rd illgs Ihat a Sllllllci in the lOO- 300 Hz range al a 90 d R SP L or high er co uld e'vokl' a vl'slilmlar respo nse. Five uf ten subjects responded at 105 d B; nine l'I'spollcil'd al ¡;lO d B. The resulting scnse 01' self-motio n ma y en han ce Ihe t'njoY l1lenl u f lou
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their wearcrs a F;all\sl daIl\K·~g)" thc d csin .d Sll ll lU h \lla)' 11111 "1 11 llt .\ 1 I •.. In 1') . 1 • •1It( 1 I 1 n y t ' xt"t' l '( 1~lIystt'r. lu-rgcr, & I carsoo, ,', (~O(}O p. !)m~) . thc S tl ll l H I ' ~~ . l,1 • ' . k" T , Ac(ording to Hrookh Ollsl' r , 0111 W ll sil te 1"lJ\ , ' S by 11M Ill g In)!,. ¡I\ SI' I (Al al th c ear, und ltstcncrs lll~Y e l ) . ,k As \Iall uf tht'ir cduIon ( • ' 1 . 'r l"lslllg l reir ns . . I JI tl\l' so uu d c ve n sln mg cr , lh~rl' )Y th~' m'cd lo liste n safely, ulong a, d
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I', , 0 -e I,,'cessary in ch i\drco's growt 1 une n children should be a crl(' ,"Ilio , , " . W \ IC 1 .\1 .. , \ thc r safcty conctt ns 111 1 le u oC" '1'1 . ' H -ospoosio e c1I'Vl'\op me nt. ' t tcaeh stude nts to \ Isten 1 . , Muslc ed ueators are ob hg ate' ,t~) , \ «tors th em sclves nury be at risk d~l: , rl safe ways. Unforlunatcly, m uste el uc 1, in rehcarsal and pe rfoTlnan n ,. uu to strong souuc s d i . rns of ltH . 1 (11)1) 1) co mpared th e au logra . . 1 lo prolonge d ex posure , " . Klich Royse, and Raíubo t ,. . , I . \r hours alter any mu stca . Cutll Ha, ' ' d at le ust th ree and one- la . , , leru'n t 01 1IlllSie tea chers, ob talO C f N I H I and presbyetlSls. FoUrll cn I ¡ ' I ' .' ·tl typieal patleros o ' h " 'I"rentage wa s ug 1 l1\ a{'\I Vlty, WI 1 h we d some dC"'l'e 1)• L ' o ' of hearing loss; t dISpe der (, ,"' 1 \1() It, 11)'l . ' 11It' s\lujccls S ~ ulation of similar age ao ~~n . , s\lb' ('(~ts with n nu p<'lrison Wllh a pop . 1 N I H I p ·IHern . '\-Ithlll l h (' j i ' Ninelt'eo perccot showed a td~piCa _ ho: cd the most adverse l'ffect~ ;,1 le¡I' . ~ loss ba od Iree10rs s . ( 1 'ellsis) eV Il ('nt y " typl~ of h ean og d' l' , io heariog sensilivllY p res l ) " , (lqH!I) , \ ' . Il 11 1 11' h tll I I . 1 \. 1'('1' l!'> , t ' \ Vheth er the assall ti k l' 1" matters I\ol- I w 1.lIlS . ' IIIt 1\ S . .' ' 11,' file " nI 101 S Hl S \tIl kl'ts bursting l1l ' lI f, TI
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J'}ll"Jilrm-Timhre Relatiomhip I>sy ch I " , o ogJca p roperty W (¡ . aVe onu, the p aUem of di s ¡ n I . ' n wave is (imb ' I p ac e d re s C Oses! q uasiparalJe1 physi, IJH,lpt·rt y. A cumplex wavefonn d ' q l1 t'IIt"l('S, tl1(' lIum be r o f com on ' e~en s o n I~le p articular component fre1I1' lI ts , a lld th e re lati h p ents. the relutIve slrengths o f lb f ve p ases among th e com p o\~avt' Ol"ln i.~ a r/yn amic, ch an i n ' e eo mpon en ts (Backus, 197i) A ImH' ' llld OV('rall dvnami c / g ,gBt.'vent; co m pone nt reJationsh ip s v" h . I /' J eVe ( ud er 1C)(l2) \ '"1..' al)' WJt ~ O tl ll l ( tff(, I"t.'ll lly ( " ' ' . ;, . VIIIle rnll sic ¡ " . o a arge ex tent d , d "f a Illstrurn ents II'p n 'St'n la lio ll 0 1' wavefollTl ti C to I feren<:es in wa veform n o ta~ioll.~. accOUllls sllfficien t/y fo r resu lti ti" b' " s tic . ng m le ,<;ensa . _b '('1I sla lic port rayaJs o f waveli " _ IJ ~ tl"~ ' A lllho rilies o nce believed t~ llTIS~eq Ulre recogn ilion 0 1' ph ase relati on "' Ilh O h m 'SaCO!lSlica l la' "" S lat t e ear is "p has e d eaf " in a d . , . n . up posedJy d ' CCOr ance t;~~ III fr"l'q lll'llcy ¡¡nd a mp litude but di;~un s ~on ta in ing eo mp o nents idenI t'I'('n l 1II wav('form b UI so und ide ' c~ent, 111 I"t'lalivt, ph ase wo u ld look hal wh ile phase se nsiliv ily is ,",,/,, ", ¡n llcal 111 hmbn·. Hest' a rc h lale r sho w" d '11 l' I ' '-. ~1Il ) 1'(' , pa rlicuJarly w llt'1I chal)ve _y we",k • ,1("."" (IVt' p Ilaw ha s sllh tle e /Tecls flllllll llo llsly SOllllciill" I (1' h'lI1g phaS( ' n "alillmhi ll<¡ (l(Tllr "'1" 1"> 0 111 ' allt'I"SO Il PITI' PI . WI 1In a , , " omp li.. :"i'I'I' IIt'/.;t·11 • 1'/, ("l.'1", T illl tlll ' is
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Influences toit ñin WaVl!unn \ Vilhin th c d ynamic wa vcfonn. the onset portio n and othe r trunstent charo ac tc rlstics are es pe ciall y im portau t 1'01' thc timbre sc nsa tion . Th e on set , 'liso ca Iled th e auack, initia l frequcn cy smear, rise ti me, and initial trausien t, is thc opcning po rtie n 01' a tone . w here thc energy supplled excccds rhc e nerb')' exp e nd ed. In tones prod uced by a co ntínuous excitanon 01' th e vibrating so u rce, suc h as with a b owe d strí ng, a bl own re ed or m ou t hpicce, or v ibru ting vocal folds, the o ns et is followed b y a stead y sta te sec ticn , where t' Il('rb,), supplied a n d expen d ed are rough ly in balan ce . Tones p rodnced b y impulsive excita tio n o f the vi bra tíng so urce, such as pi ano , m arimba, a nd pluck ed stríng tones, h ave n o steady state. The offiet o r decay, whcre e nergy ex pended exceeds a ny supplíed, co nclude s a tone. Thc envr!fJjJr, the ove ra ll "sh¡lJ)(''' 0 1' the soun d obtain ed by co nne ctíng the extremes o f amplitudc in thc va rio ous tonal secüons ac ross time, is an imp orta nt interactive uspect 01' th c over'111 tim bre, Within th e cnvelo p c, th e rela tivc amounts 01' time spe n t in OIlSt·t and o ffsel are im p ortan t m usical expre ssive d evices, p arti cu larl y reg arding staccato-Iegato co n trasls a od phrasing . The stra ng e so u nds ex perie nC('t1 when a tape is p layed b ackwa rd s result in p arl from lh e in le n d ed oflse l hmclion ing as an onse t, a nd vice versa. A vib rating sy slem can n ot attai n a rea sonab ly stcad y v ib r('rfornlt' r idio syn n asies a m i th e ae:u ll!>li n d t' llv iro lllllt'Il L \Vin ckel's dassic wm k d t'a r· Iy sho ws that attl'm pts to nnnpall' "WII ltl" ¡¡n d "b ad " so u n d s via
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I"ss than k ilf a st'l'/JII d . Yl ' l , ph ysically removed. a s in lhe imporl:IIl("(' (J I" sud r ¡. h !'id 'j illl lO1(, 1' lile tim bre sc nsa u o n. Ellio!l (l!J75). for exam p le, delllullslrah'd that (·x p l.'I'je lll'c d mu sicians m ay ha Vl' n lllsid erab le d ifficu lty in idcntily ing l'OllllJl on o rche...tral ins tm mcnts wln-n 1I1t'i l' IOlles' onset porñons are mi ssing .
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bre n'cogn hío n is necessa ry, In a study eompari ng co llege stude nts' a biJilics match system a tica lly altered d igita lly sam p led instOlm e n t so un ds wit h mod cls, Kcndall (I9H6) foun d th a t sludents were significa ntly more accuranin rl'cognizing timbre in the contcxt o f re al istic musica l phra se s rha n in that 01" iso laled to ne s" Ve to con tcxt alone was not enoug h- wh en transien ! char ac, tvrtstlcs were repl aced in the sy nt hesized sti m u li by steady-sta le sections, ("(lIIh'x llIal enes were n o! adequato. N o r wer e th ey ad eq uare when rcasonah l)' sll'ady -sla le arcas we re replaced by tra ns ients. KendalI co nd u ded Ihal huw l he ('ntire specln lIn va ries across lim e is important in ca tego nza tio n o f jillJ l lrt'. lo
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I ir-h ruui utai ns l'! · I;¡ II"Vl' I .O ll ~ I11 11l ¡V H·¡.(,lI t1 1_1 ' ~ ~ w l . " , , _ ' a u i n sl nll lll' lIl 'N l 'll tl l l ll la t h UI 1II IIlt , wav oform chu nges !1 m' '" ( h .I,IlS (IS II ~) " , "'111 III h 'l1Slty evc . .,. 11-11111'11101 1 frequen cy 01 UVt l . d . k: (" ill I'oll\l 'xt ") Im w SOlll1 I ' I r.~) I'( 'U SSCS YII,lIn " . . HUI'den'!" (I!W5, p , . J rus .. " " resultuur lrom IIt'III'11 puu r-ssf " bre I)l'rn 'p 10 11 , 0> ,., 1 I u-r uu uition as a m a n c r () t n n " 1 ,.y wit h a It,¡tlllt 'tl 1011,[" nm o f ti storugc III m cn o iue of wuv c fo rm in o nna Ion , . A • ith no rm a l hcuriug lil a )' (' ''Pt'' ,., . . lnfo rmation nyOlll.' w I 1 , I ruupurlso n with p nnr In 11 " ' ) •. ' l' IIOSl'
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" , A o u lt thcr c is n ot and can 1101 )l ' .1 ' I'lm b re is multídlrnc n sio nal . s a .ol f : it I Ol thc SOIlI' 101 1011dlU'SS, " 1 , us to the m e Ol pi C 1 I uu-u surcmcn r Ul1It una ogo inti o r o f a tte m p ls to n - ah' " .11 _ ' h ' f ve rbal d cscrip mns, , " ' Vd tlu-re IS no s o rtag e o " " le ualitaüve or q u nu nt a uv r W,IY~ linda r timb re s to othcrs 10 so n d¡ q u ves such as "rirb." " II W I! OW . ploy mallY 1 " rh (InlwstratlOl1 le xts cm 1 " a ~l'C " (\,I . n ,lificalio ll ma y o n :l1r 11I0l1/{ , "'" o ""co m ical," "n ob e, etc. x ua "I!lm, m zzy, se t 01' d imensionso lu("atin g a particu lar to ne a lo ng a . . . I"ty mode rn atll'mpts lo 111('asf · b "e's m u lh dl menslona 1 , r It' li 111 l't'(:()gn itio ll () tlln I 1 th puwerfu1 m a. t1l em • a' tica l tl'chniq m' 11 11111 I( 1111' timbre usually app y e I I ' ' d imellsio ns a long w h id l 011(' 111" >, 1tU'llsiona! scaling to un co ver u ne er >'1Il¡S o" "1 ' ritv u f d iVl'rSl' stin lllli, Vot l l' ' . f th l' ton a SIIllI a 1 u l/{;'lIIize subjects ral mg s o . . , sim ila rit ratings n f a mi xhlrl' () 10111 ' '1, U¡\ lIlarl:k (1!)7'l a,b) ana lyzed su bJects " Yn d fOlllld fo m fadOl' s Ih al d I I \'owel segmen s a I lIu isl's, ami slea y-s a e o ' in ratin s. Sha rplll'ss, as in OIH' 1'0 l ' " ' I,lailll'd 91 percent 0 1' the van ab¡J lt~ ' . I h~tor. G n 'y ( I!J77) fo ttlld ']¡\I 'I' l ". n , was lile p rIllClp,¡ 01 a du ll-sh a rp ( oImenslo h ' h , ' biecIs' ralings n r la V¡lnt' ., }. o f ' I a cea longw IC sU :J . l' '1 etn catosI' ltl dlll lt'lISions . ) in " gl'o , mt:'ntal nes cou Id b e' organizt'd : spel:t,.a l t'lll'r!, , 'Y ( ' y" ll1 t'Sll.t'{ IIlstnllll . . o h t an d spect ra l lluclua lllllls, d h · h r nu cnCles In t e onse , 1 ,1 lul 111111 low an 19 re -l o ). t that multid il11l'll siOllOl 111(' I O ( . ) d l'l p (19 H2)m (I Ca e " l' Whd(, Ra sc 1 a n um . I Cm b res 0 11 a ny 11111( 11I1('11 ' . h 's no wa y lo o n er 1 ,) . . "KY i~ l'ssl'n lla l bl'l:al~se t er(~)\lIard 1!)!J9; Po lla rd & Jansso ll, W~:l 11 : • 11 11I11 ~h lllal sl"a le, (lile proc cd u re t . • " 's of sp l'ctra l po rlions 0 1 Ihl' slL n lll . ' he lo ud n ess 1Il so"ne ' 1, ..111 d Itp 'l limhH' b y IISlllg 1 °n ing lh e seco n(), t l11ft ' ) ta l Ihe po rtlon co n al I 1m slI ("h as the lUU ( a mcn , " ' I ,' 1,1)('1" ¡Jarti a ls. Th is IlI'CH't't 111( ', . I I "( ( 11 ( "Olltallll ll g l l'l r 1 Illtll th parl ials, alll t le pOi 1 ) "' [, . lllt'lhod a risl's, in pa n , rUII1 1 11 1J " l' (OaJl '1 trHt",1/I 1\ whit h I'oll ;lr
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C bapn-r ! pn'S('llb t l' lI'.i el"I ••I.I,' h lll'l lllóll il ' ll relnted lo music's psychoa cou sucn l foundutious. Tbr- lIlah' 1iul i ~ lnlu-n-u üy n uu pk-x; sim pl lflcaüo n h difficuh . Thc following lisl ¡km !/,I'" 1111 ' . baJlll'r's iuuin poin ts in un aphoris mic m atte r.
1. Musica l sounds depen d u n rnpid unuospheric pressure Iluc tu a üon s resuhing from ph ysical vibration , usually rcgu lurly recurring 01' period¡c. '2 , l'rcssure Ilu c tua üons cause m echan lcal vibrations in the inne r cal', which I'roccsses the sign als and converts them lo electroc bemícal signaIs di rcct vd to th e brain . :1, Tilllt's hnve p hysical charactcrísucs (frequency, íntenslty, wavcfo nn, lime), which wou ld e xist indep endentIy of any human obscrver, and psychological cha raeteristics (pnch. loudness. timbre, d uration), whic b n-quire a human observer. .1, l'itrh , a tonc 's apparenl locatio n on a high -low contí nuum. depende u n üic ph ysical p rop erty of freque ncy, but the pitch -frequency relationship is uot pcrfcct.
S, 1nu ddítion lo i15 híghn ess-lowness dimen sión, pirch includ es d ímcn sio ns uf tlt'l1 nily (ho\'o' obviou s the pitch sensation is), a nd sim ila rity, circulari1)'. or inlimac)' (how a particular p itch re lates lo other pitches). 11 , !'lIdl assign ment for a pu re tone depends on th e area of basilar m emIllalll' slimulation. 7, A sil1l ullulleo\ls t omb ination of purc ton es clicits a sensalion of un ison, Ill'aliu g. fO ughness. 0 1' two Ione s, in acco rd an ce with the tones' frequen l')' st'paralion. H, Th t, a mo unl b)' which a frequen cy must change in order to elidt a pi tch t1i1f{'H'nn' va ries with the ind ividu al. occasio n, and frequen cy rangl'. ~ ' , ¡\ cOlJl plex ton e's piteh de pend s on the low pitch resulting froro til(' wavt'forlll's spatial pattern and repetition frequency, detecled th rough tlw ('t'ut ral neur al process of fun dam en tal tra cking. 10. COIu bination Iones result (m m coc hlear di stortion ; lh ey are d isl inb"llislll'd fram low pitc h in that th ey require more than m ini mal int ensi ty Il'vd rOl' pe rception and are pe riphera l rath e r Ihan cent ra l efTecls. 11. M usidan s usua lly conside r consona nte a nd disson ance as a nolhe r la be! for variolls intervals, wh ile nonmusicians evalua te intervaIs in acco rd¡lllH' wilh fl~ac l i o n to inte rvalic quality. J:¿, Co nsu nallce and dissona nce judgm ents depe nd hl'
. rav vary with uuclcur. , ..,1 illter val (lf n lllslanl rallO 11 , J H . The ap p.lft·ut sin ' of .1 ll\~I SI': ;nditions in a n idiosyn n a1ic Ilnl nm'r: . , . \ [an in lond ness 01 a mlstuned Ireqocnc)' rango and nllll l e , I 'IIT ut u se a tu; 1r. Firsl o rdc r beallllg, au ,l\, lo , . ,J, II 1l1S0 n , ls a p el1ph eral l'tTt'clo , " waxlllg and waning 01' Iluu en ng of a L " tln g uu "' I'palen , 'Ir,c' I(l. Sccond 011 1e r vt a ,• t rva l IS a ce ntra \ pitch ploccssmg e e . ter m istuned nonunison m e , wlthout rcfere nce lo any ex Ab solnlc pltch . the abi liry lo namc ~ t~:e to leaming label.sensallOn con17. nal p ilCh sland~r~, appears lo be re a e .
neclÍoll S at a critica! ag~. , ' I from frequen c)' via the rnel scale IX Atlempts lo m casure pi tch as, dl~lmcb t th e m el scale has its advoelltcs. , have bccu sumcwh at d isappumllng, u tud e uf a sound, dep ende lurgcgth 01' rnagm 1 f I!l. Loudness, the apparenl slr~ _. rensiry relationship ís not per ect . 1)' on intcnsll)'. but the lou ness -ol (a rrme' s apparent size 01' cxlt'n'2:0. Lo ud ne ss ts distinguish~d frOl::r;~tl~:~paclness), but recogntüvu of vol sil)') and densíty (a tone s app e rties is inconsislenlo umc an d den sity as sepa~~te ton,al ):~~I and sound pressurc ¡evd (phys'2: 1. Decibcls are m easures o l mtenslty , cy-inlensilY combinat ions whlc h ícal p roperti es). nol loudness. f con neel reque n '2'2. Equal lo udness curves . ' hons. . loudness levels eqUlva\ent m P nfollnds Ihe intl'nslty· prod u ce h h w freqllenc)' ro 1 ' l'~ Fn ual 10udness curves s ~w ~ " level docs not clidl un t'q ua .lo, . ' '1 . h' " mven mten sl y loudn css rdatulIlS Ip , a 0, . ' louclness sen satio n aeross a1l frcquen el~s. tech niqucs' lhe SO l H' sn ill', . I dness via va n ollS l ' ( VI' • :¿.I O ne ma )' m easu re ou a ' be Ihe be sl ku own S il ljt'!" 1 , derived from estimations of loudness, m } loudness scale .
ows in a lawful m
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tHl1l 10 gro\ con{1I', I' o n s, k '1 er' simuha neous o,askl-'Ig' is \larlit'llhlll y 'Y mas ' an o 1 , d '2:/1. O ne SOuo m Ol . , s. importanl in musical settlllg h rticu1ar componenl frl'q Ut'Uncs, '2:7. Loudness sum mation dependsdon\t ~ paphase as well as individu"l loml '-r degrce of separation, an re attvl' lh ti I l' ' ro cess 1 ncsses~ lh en' is no sim p.' e a.( ( Itl~~ PI ' 'c1s . po ssibly sollghl fOl" V('stit ~1\ ;If . . t ¡llgh itllen sllY n · , .' , t'!nlll'S '2:X Expo sure lo mu sle a . , I ce heari ng sensltlVilY. SO lll . . , as wd l as audi tor), plc asnres. llIay H ( 11 I . ,f rnt ' IS wdl as I \ " \ [ 'II'IIlI'S inl1uenclIlg \ " .¡ VI o • l H'nn a nc nl y. d \ li t' l' IY SlI .1 • d '2! 1. Timbre eren S Ol . 1 ' V I' I'I II ' 11 11I;lfrl', ' " " ( IJ,'ni'li llg Inn onst'l an( \ (lIhe r tnn . 111' 1I1lpn ll.1Il1 111" t'> • l ' 'f{T I''\0 M usical u llllexl lll.IY \ \ " 11Iill1! as wd l as IJlll 111' 1" . , ' .lll' ( III '\ WIII ' 1111 1,' t'> :11 . Tom' SOllltT !'e cog 11111
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& K . e ¡rmer ' ''., endall. R A (199(1) ' ''IIIJtI. 111 n. De ulsdl (E' . . " ' . Co mparative m usic ere e ti • / ) j",L;O, ? A : Aca demic l1u psycnology of music (2nd ed/ (pp. Cor .sl), •" J., (195.' ). U/I'son '. . . an tum ng of . , '\ f!cirty I!lAmerica. 26. 74ti- r o mu s.cal ins(rumen ts. } aurnal or tn A . Ccll'.';(). J E ( W.l7) Ab _ .."l . '1 e COlntleol \' _. . . so /me JUd,!,'Tn en ts f ' • • II(tr~v oj AlIIt'Tira, 29. U N- l.'" o IllUslcal ¡onaJity. } oumal or'n A . ( udll;', l.. 1 (I,¡r o) /L . . 'J e coustlCal •• , 0 0 ra ellce ffi ACllullim l \, , ' e e els on ¡he absolute· d . ( . ,• ()('U'ty ofAmerico. 43 1069-J()7/' JU gme n( of pdeh .}ournul ortne " .l lI'lI' l , R A , KJich, R.j.. Ro N~ . ' l. '1 IIlIllln 'd ht·aring loss amollgy~, ~ . , & Rha mbo JI, Il . (199.1). The ineidence f . ,12, .'1IM- "T ' " . liSIe lcae ers. journal,rR _L, o n OINe · o; esear", In Afusi Ed . C Ullt'lla . R A. \f 'I" 1 ( uralton. , _ ' • I 111. •• , & Ro yse O (19 ( ) " , N, ho o r balld di n '(" (Of N. ( 'Oll/"'"' ,, / . ,H~) . l\ OI.~t'· lIl dll l'l'd iwarin l' 1,,« Jh" ' l' 1' escare/¡ In " ' /" o .'" among , , 0', ., .I/olle '1 ., ' urca-ni,jOr,. D. " , ••l , \\' • A -. lUir• :.t U((I/Ílm '" , '11- 'J'! .. •Hul ,llItt'!" /1:111' n 'lJs: FU llf tion al ~li lTt';el1l:~g,\~: ) ., &: I{¡? 'lllll . S. (W7'2). Cochlear s. . nr1ll r. 177, ,1.'1 ,. :lliO. ( ,ar'h'n'll ,' F C
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Davís, 11. ( I !I( ;~). Ad valln 's 111 tln- lIt ' llI'op h y ~ i o l lJb')' and 111 ' 1110;111, 11011I ) ' 0 1 the coc hle a..Iouma l u/the A((III,I/ICOI .\iK;rly (ifAmerice. 34, n 77 - I ;~HS Dl'G aillza, V. 11. (l!n O) . Au so lull' a mi rclutiv e hl'a rillg a ~ íllrl ah' ro"'l'lt'lIIt'lIli.ry fu nrtions o f man 's m usica l ea r. Cou//C11 jilT Re.u arrh in AfuIic F.dllmltllll , 22, n -Ili. Dr-ntsch , D. (l!IX:.!). G ro up ing rne rha rusms in muste . In D. DPlllS('J¡ (Ed .), nI( /)''')dlO{ogy a/ mnsíc (pp. !J!J- n 4). New York: Acadcmtc l'ress. I )ibble, K. (19!6). Hea ríng 10 '>S and mu sic.}ollT1tal ofthe Audio l~ngi/l m;"f!, Soriely, ·13 (4), ~:i I-~ (¡ ( ¡ . Ili rks, D. D., Ahlsrrom.] . 8. , & Morgan. D. E. (2000). Audit or)' sen sínvít y- Air ami bo lle co nduction. 111 R. F. Can al¡s & P. R. La m bert {Ed s.), 7M ear: Com/m hrn5Íl'r otolal{} (pp. 197- 2( 9). Philadelph ia: Líppmcou, WiUiam s & W ilkins. Huranl, J D ., & Ferra ro ,j. A. (~ OO()). Physiolog ie acoustics- jhe audi tor)' pe riphery. In R r. Canalis & P. R. Lamben (:F.ds.), The rar: Campreh"uive otology (pp. X!J- I I ~ ) . I'hiladel ph ia: Lippincou. W illiam s & Wilkins. Ega n,.J. I'., & H ake, H. W. {I950}. 00 the maskmg pane en o f a sim ple aud ítory stirn IIlus.}ournal o/l1u Acoustica i Society o/Americe, 22. 62~ - 63 0. Ellioll, C. A. (1!l75). Auacks and rc leescs as factor s in instrum enl id entífication. f ouma í afReseardi in Music Edur-ation, 23, 35-40. Esp iuo za-Varas, B., & Watson , C. S. (I 9H9). Pcrcepuo n of complex audít ory pall l'rIl s. In R. J Doo ling & S. H . Hulse (Ed s.), T1u comparauoe psychlJlogy u/ andition: l'eruiving comptex sounds {pp. (j7-!H ). Hítlsdale , NJ : l.awrenc e Erlba um Associ atr-s. Farn sworth, P. R. ( 1 9:~ H) . T he pitch of a co mb inatioll of to nes. ATlltT;call } mlr1wl I{ l 'sychology. 51, 5 :1 6-5 :~ 9 . Farn sworlh, P. R. (1969). Tlu social psychology of music{2nd ed .). Am es. lA : low.. ~ lil h ' Un iversity Press. F1e (eher, H. (1946). The pitch, IOlldness. and qu alil)' o f m usical 101les. Atllrr;ctllt .IoUr1tOIOfPh)"sia, 14. ~ 15-225 . Flt' le hc r, B., & Mu nson, W. A. (19:n). 1.0 ud nes:t.. J oumal o/ the ACIJIHliCtl I SlJárl,'1 I{ AmtTiro, 5,82-IOR (; ;l(:ek , R. R. (I!J72). N"euroan atomy of th e au d itory s)'slem. In .J. V. 'lC,b ias (1':1 1.), FoundationJ o/modern auditory (vo l. 2. pp. 241-2(2). l'\ew Yo rk : Acadt 'lllit: l'les<;. ( ;jaeve ne s. K., & lti m slad, E. R. (1972). Th e in flu enee of rise time 011 lo udll t,,,. .IollrT/al o/tlu Acoustical Society a/Amt rica. SI, 1 23 3-1 ~ 3 9 . ( ;o l
11{'lIman. R. 1'. (1! J H~ ) .
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~O:toIlC complexcs: Lou d n ess. A..J. M .• & (;o ld st;.in. , . I ~~ l~r7'~)f,I'.'::;~:~:~~\o(Uty of~mtT;ca. 77" 1497-1 .')0 ·1.
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plc x 1001t' s. J ournal o/ l/u Al /JIII ; Üt'¡ ti K' ", .r t '.m ra l o ngm of the pi tch o f con¡ .I"rg"r. I., & J ero'c r S (1" 71)) '1'" • I tr'J 0J ¡ m alla. 51, 5520- .').')29. . o • . . . " Illpo ral)' I IIT ' 1 11 híf . · .If1/trtml ofSf/{.a/¡ and IItaring Rtsm rdt , 13 2~~~~~. s li t In rock-a nd-roll m usicia ns. Kcndal ll . • l • H. . ' A . (198G) • J . T Ile role of aco usric , signa . ," . 1Ja t¡ . • Musie Perception, 4, 11:1.5- '1. 14 . r mo ns In hstener ca regorízanou
(~~ lIH~SI(:al pl~ra.ses.
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tH 1\.11 1\ ,1I11I1'Y, M. F., & Dl'h!utte " , H. (19 .;:Je>' ) . A pOSSl·bIe nellfU h . I ' 1b IHlilvt' l'n large lIle lll crfect Jo l,{" h" _ P YSIO ogtc a asis 01' th e '2 h7!1-:lli n . . urna o) 1 ( Acou.l" tIcal Society uf America, 106,
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e ,
MOl!ll' . ' 11 . e , •,. , GI· J as·b erg, 1I. I{.• & Peters , R. \V (19 H) ) .. . . h . . . . Relallve IIn porlance of indi o vullla l parlials in d elermi nin rt ti . . . o le pi te o f comnlex to n J 1 ,r h ,l IImt) ti Amf' rim, 77, IH!i:-\- IH{j (). r es. ouma (!I t e Acoustiral NI'Wl1 Lall , A. N., Slo rpl'l', 1. S., & \Vack 'lIl P , t'iX na nial ne fVe In R F el, ' 1: A. (2000). Cen tra l rcp resen tation o f the lllh ' h ' . . . ana IS & 1'. R l 'un b ' t ('n ) . . . " ... ( r I s. . 17u ear: ( ,II1/1J1u mi/Vf otolugy (p p 141- 156) PI 'I d NOl'(imark J. O (I % H) ~'1 I ' . . 11 a e lphla : Llp plllCOll, W illia ms & W¡lkins ,• . . ., ('e lillllsms o f frt''l lll'lIe)' r " " , .. AmuJtiral SfXiriy ul"Amrrica .14 1- '33 1" ) ( I.SU lI llI ll a I IO Il . j aurnal of /hf ()I l ' I 'J " :l, - . •.1( . 1, '" ~ , & I.ufti, R. A . (~ ()OO) Err · " 111. lIl11loki IlK.JtJumal ufIht Al'f,ullirai ~~~. ~; 1 ," 1.. 1' 1 h,ll ll14 IIl lfi l)' 1m illfllflni llio lla l ,
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tJ "I( iraI 1'¡'lI ndal¡11 /1.1
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MIT Press. I'laf k, c. j ., & C arlyon. R . P. (19 95). Loudness perccp tinn and in tensi ty codlng. I n It C .} M om e (Ed.), Heanng [p p. 12 3- 1( 0). Sa n Di ego , CA: Aca d erní c Press. t'lomp, R. (1965). OCleeta bi lil)' tb reshold for cOlnbination tones. j oumal af the
Acoustical Socirly of America. 37. 1110- 112 3. l'lomp, R. (19 67a). Beats o f místu ned eonsonances. journal of tlu AcoWlical Sorit? af Amrrica. 42, 462 - 474. l'lomp. R. (1967 b). Pitch of cOlllplex tones.journal of tke Acoustical Socitty of Am(Tira, 41. 1526- 1.'>3 3. I'IOIUP, R. (1970). T imbre as a mulúdillle nsional attribulc of co m plex IOIll'S. In R. l'lom p & G. Sllloorenb urg (Eds.), Frequtnq analysis and periot!id ty in hrarinf!, (pp. :197- 411). Le id en ; Sijthoff. 1'lll111p , R. ( W76). AslJtcts (lft one srn.wli on. La ndo» : Acad emi c Press. !'lmu p. R., & l.evell, W. J. M . (l !l(i!i). Ton al co nso nanee aud critica! b an d wid lh .
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Am(TiCfJ. 106. :-\f)O- 3 70. I'ollard, H . E . &Jansson, E . U . (1982). A tristim ulus method for th e spl.'cificatio n uf musical tim b re . Acusti((J, 51, 16'1.- 171. ¡{mlocy, R. E. (1977). Pitch ju d gm e nts of se leete d successive intervals: Is Iwin ' as fn ' qu enl t""lce as high ? Psycholog}' of Music, 5 (2), 23-~9. l Il ild ucy, H. E. (l!l7K) . The influence {JI' sclectcd variables on the ap pa rell si/.e o f MIt" · ('essive pi lCh illle rvals. Psydwlogy of MuJic, 6 (2), 2 1-'1.!J. Haifo rd , C . A., & Schubert, E. n. (W7l) . Rl't:o¡l;nitio ll uf ¡¡hast' r hall¡1;l's in lId a\'t' f o m p!t'xes.jmlTlwl IIf tkr AWIl.I'/iw / StJfirly 11'Amtriw, 50, .')!i9 -!i fi7. Hakowski, A. (W79). T he m agit' IIIlInl w l' IWO : Si'Vl'1l examples o f h ina r)" a pp llsitiOl l in pitch t111'o ry. l/"ma1litit.¡ All'H-itl t lll/l /{n ,jt w, J O, 'l .1-·15. HiI.sch , R. A., & I'lo m p, R. (1!IK'l). T I... 1" 'II " p tio ll uf m usi("al tOlll'S. In D. D¡'lllsr h (Ed.) , Tht ¡lsyrkolo[(J af 1II111ir (PI" I '~ I). N,'w YtU k: AnJ(It'mic I'n 's!t. Il h ud t', \ \ '. S.• & R{)hles, l ~ ( 1~17 t), 1.\ 11 "'111 " IIt 'lll tl. ltl....h;lllt'r l'x llt'r illlt'IIIS for 11011
11\ / '.\)'1 IIIItIl U/l 11I1 //1
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hl,·u Imm", 1 r{ ,h, Af"IIlIJlim/ SlK irty u/ Amrrica, 55.
.'iHH-!i!lIi.
lt uru-lmunn , W. H.., l.indlll'lJ', H. L , ,'1: SllIilll·Y. E. K. (W71). 'Iempo rary Ihreshold sh ift and re<:ovef)' p illlt 'l m hum rwo ' YIll' \ of !CId; ami roll m usic prescntaüou. } mmlal ufthr Aceustunl .\i/{'ir ty IJj"A mn im , 51, 1'2·1!1- 1'2,Ij·l . Hissl'l•.J. C; & w essel. n . L. ( 1 ~ I H~) . E}( pla lliltioll of timbre by anaíysís and syruhc. siso In D. Dcu rsch (Ed. ), Tht /¡sydw/olO' uf musir [pp. '2{i-!i8). New York : Acadcmir I'ft'ss.
Hitsmu, R.,). (1970). Pe riodicity de tection. In H. Plom p & G . Smoorenburg (Ed s.}, Frtqutnt:y analysu end poiodicity deteaion in hraring {p p. 250- 263). Lei d en: Sijthoff. 1{IJt,th·ref,j. G. (l 9US). The physics and p.ryehophyJics o[ musir: An intmductíon (3rd ed. ). New York : S pringer-Verlag. Sajiadi , B ., l'aparella, M . M., & Canalis, R. E (2000). Prcsbycusís. In R. F. Canalís & 1'. n. Lamber t (Eds.). Tñe eOT: Comprehensioe otology (p p. 545-557). Phíladelpb¡u: U pp incott . WiJliam s & Wilkins. ~ · l li l rf. ( ; . ( 1 !J() ~ I) . Dichotic summatio n of loudness.joumoJ o/ the Acoustical Society 0f Amer ira, "5, 11!J3-1 205. SI hurf G . ( 1 ~ 17H) . Loud ness. In E. D. C arterctte & M. P. Fried m an (Ed s.), Handbook 1'1f1,raptitm (vol. 4) (pp. 187- 242). New York ; Acad emí c Press. SI·IKI·;\nt. D. (1969). Experimenlal in vestiga lio n of abso lute pilch.}ournoJ 0 1 RmaT(h 11I M I/l ir J/,¡JuCfl/ÍrJ71, 17, 1:15-113. ~ ·lll;Ilt ·~ . \\'. A. (l9!lH). l iming, timbrr, spectrum, S(oü. London: Springer. Sllllll1 111ól, S., & Klein, D. (2000). T he case of lhe mi ssing pitch templates: Ha w ha r' Illlluif It'lllplates em erge in lhe ea rl)' a uditary system. ] ournol of /he Acoustical SII(/(lJ '1Amt'rica, 107.2631-264-4. SllC' panl, R. N. (Wfi 4). Circuladt)' in judgmel1ts of relative pi tch . journol of th, AWlUliral Socitty ofAmrriw, 36,2345-2353 . Slll'l' iml, R. N. (1!IH2). Stru clural represent atiol1s of m usical pitch. In D . Deutsch (Ed .). /7" IlsydlOJogy of music (pp. 344 -390). J'\ew York: Academic Pr ess. Sllt'p¡¡rd. H.. N. (1999). Pilch perceptio n and measur eme nt. In 1'. R. Cook (Ed .), MIlIir, fflf,'I¡¡'tiOlI, and computai?,d .wund: An inlroduc/ion lo pS)choacousticr (p p. 1 1 ~ ' - lI i5) . Ca m bridg e. ~I A : M IT Press. ~lll' r hl Jll •.I. \ V. (1975). T he as.w ciation of hearing acu it)'. d iplacusis, a nd discrim ina· tion with Illusica l performallce. ]o urnal ofRestorch in Mw ic Educalion, 23,2 ·H)-25 7. Shulm:m. .J. 11.• Lam berl. P. R.• & Good hill, V. (2000). AcoUSl ic and no ise-inducl'd lu·ar ing loss. In R. F. Callalis & P. R. Lambert (Eds,). l he tar: Comp rehensive otol· uKJ (plJ. n :1-7X3). Philad elphia : Lip pinco tt. William s & Wilkins. Sit·W·I,.J. A.. & Sicgel, W. (19n ). Ca le!,rorica l pe rce ptio n of lonal inle rva ls: ~f u sici a n s nUl'l lc'll .111aT11fm m l laL Percepti01i olld J's)'chophysic$, 21, 399-407. Skmill:lf. S. F. , Royster . L 11.• Berger. E. R . & Pearso n, R. G. (19X5). Do persona l rad io Ill'ad scls pfOvidc Ill'arillg prol l'ction ? SO/md amI Vlbrat i01l. 19 (5). IG-!!J. SIt'\ll'ns, S. S. ( I!J3 .J.a). 'I<JIl al dl'IlSil)'. ] uumol ofEx/ltrlmf1/ltIl I'JYChllll'l:Y. 17, SH5- 59:2. Slt's'('ns, S. S. (19:i ·l b). T he vo lume ami illlt'lIsil)" 01' ((Jl It'S. Amrrim ll }u urnal uf l 'Jyd/fl/fll!), .16: 150- 15,\. S II'H IIS, S. S. ( 1 ~ '3 S). T1w rt'la lion uf 11'lch lo inl" nsils', / ,/11 ,,1<11 o/ tlr, AfllllJ tirnl SlIri'lJ
1)0 15' ' . I IIl nw l uf me , 1 II . lumlne!'.s of co mpll'x 1101" .• ' of Amrrira. 6, l . - . - . , ,S S (111,)(i). C ;¡lr ulallOIl () \1 S t CV CI\ S , . • • .' )7 K'\:2 . } 1 . A{o~/ical Socitty uf Aml'fim, 211, H{ - . : . . b ' Mark. V lI and (lt-dl wb {I',). oumo . S (l l}7'2) pcrccivvd k Vl'1 uf nOlSC ) Stcvens. S. , "'. ' ' . .rAmaico, 51, 57,1-60L orthe ACollstlcal Socuty oJ . N vo rk' w tley. ' , . ( 9T) PntchophySlC$. ew l ' • . f itch per cep uo n Srevens, S. S. L or. ~ -r ' :\1 H (1935). The 10calizall0l1 o pi S -ns S. S., D avís, H ., & Lun e , . . · 1f'sycholu gJ, 13. ~97-:115 . . le:~l ilie basilar membrane. }uu~IlO~ o! GtI~~ (1937): A scale fo r rhe measure~enl ca Steven s. S. S., Volkm ann, j.. ~ ~e'\\:;~'Jo~rn'ol of the Acoustical Socirty o[ Amtfl , 8. f the psyeh ological magnuu e p . o I . I\ w York T im e, t nc. l H5- U O. . k ' f (1965), Sound ond hrormg. e . . s S S & \ \iarshofs )', . lA W C Bl'Own. ~teveo • Á ' lltlTl) f]rctronic music. D ub uqu e. . ~'. ' " New York: Exeebiol Srraoge, . . . h' ,r "con.lOnonu" Qnd dmonanet. 'Ionney. j. (19R8). A utory o) . ' .' pI' M 'c Publ ishing Co m pany. } oun¡al of the AcoustICOl .'i(Jllfty 'J 'lerhard t, E. (1974a). Pitch, co nsonanee, & harmo ny. . & ¡: Amrrjco, 55, 1061-\069. .. . rclation to tntenstry. lo E. ZWJ("~el. e, . " . . h d F (1974b). l'Itch of pure tOl.l es . Hs. ( 35 3-3(0). New York: Spnngt:rler ar t. dr (Ed ) Facts ond modeLs m humng pp- • Terhar t s.. . A • . . to Ioud dan ce mu ste: ." ~:rl~g.p M. & Cod F. w l2000). Veslibul~ r~~~;:::nal of !ht Acouslicol SocitlJ 10 • . . . " b ' . 'f lh e " rock and ron th res o . hysiologlea aSIS o . . ~f Amerjco, 107, 49 6- 500. R (2(0 A m askiog level d iffer ence dllc to hM .. . W. c., & Boncher. D . . . 1)' . 109, 306- 320. . I rcuml~~ty ] ournol of tht Acuustjral 80C/l1y oJ A 'I""'("I~'t ' 2) The connol;¡lion 01" l1IusiCal momc1 . I \ \' 1 :\1. & PIOInp. . ;1 ) Van de Gc er, j. P.• Leve l, ' : " " 308-319 co nson ance. Acta psychologu a• 20,. . ' New York: MeG raw·H ill. . " Ue k . G (1960). Expmmrnts In htormg. d . " facto rial investigallon 01 lb VOIl . e~Y, k . G (1974a). T imbre of steady souo s. 1 V" n n lsm ar c . . ' 30 11-6 1411 I I erbal attr ibutes. Acustica , " - .' ttribute of the tim b rc of !'. ICll( y Sll ll llt s, v. k G (1974b)- Sharpness as an a Von nl sm ar c . · 2 '1 1 lVIIlufiul1 ' Acuslica 3 0, 159- 17 . h '010 'cal neuro/Jsycholog1ca . Oltl . ' N ' L (19IH). Biomusicolugy: NtUTOJJ )'Sl ~ ' . . t NY: Pendlilgolll 'n ·!'.s. \\ aI1ln. . . .' . nd poses ofmusJc. Stu\'\esa n. .r . ' (' I m ptctivtS on tht origms a pU l' h (Éd) The psyeholugJ o) m/Hle 11< ary P (1 ) Absolul e pitch . In D . Delltsc ., CA' Acadl'm ie PresS. Ward, W. D. ( U J 9 . d ) (pp 265-298). San D iegO. . I 'teh In D . n~ulsch {Ed .). Ih, IISYe. ' . r :\-1 (l!lK2). Abso ule pI . D & Burns, L . . • A \ . • Pre!'. s 11''a H I . \\' " . .• . ( .\3 1- 452). Kew Ym k: nnl( e llllC . d'" t . [or ton es. jmlf/w/ dlOWgy of mU.I/C pp. . . ' . f hhsl' S in loml ness j U gmen s . Warrcn, R. :\1. (1!170). E lullI llitl lO,n () 111 ' \'\1'17 ~ I,H):t , 1 "i . t .r AIII, m ll, ' , .. 11'lht AcO/1I1/ca • /lrl( y 11) , h 1 I Alll ll l ll I: Amol d . 1" • VI 'tfi .Id 1. C . (1!lli7). 77" au,{/MY !Ul I UI/Y' IV (1117'2). TI\(' audibi lity of low - rt I 11 I~ . _ \1' S I&. Il nlllll' IlIl, I l . . . \ \' 1 iulc L S. Cn lIl S, •... , / 1" ,. 2 1 .1'1I- H H. . :Illt.\;cy ·sm:lHls. JUljf~W/ IIJ .\·lI/iIl d lIt;", / 11~::;,I::~'AIU:'":llY,llhYÜlllugy, mili IISydw!IJI)'Il O. , 1 1" (IIIIH) A"w,¡: nllfl th, I1//11I 1 Y Wlllolt. . . . ' . t> , \' . f 'A . S ill l," lm ' 1'1I 1 1 1 ~ 111 11( San llt' ¡I;O. ,~n . · " e
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Chapter 5
RHYTH MIC FOUNDATIO NS
Sllllllllario ll. ] Ollr1lal o[ the Acolnt - ','
T
he foundation s of mu sical behavior ex am ined in Cha pter 5 contras t so m cw h at with the foundations or p c rspcc üves of Chapters ~, S, and 4,
Chaptcr 2 strcsses musical bch avíor's social and cu ltural depcndcn ce. Cha pter 3 examines sorne function al applications o f music in daily lifc, Includíng ceremony, commerce, na rration, ther apy, and facilitation o f lcarning. Cha pter 4, cmp loyíng what Slobo da (W8S, p. 23") calls a blologtcal apprc ech to m us¡c psychology, addresses ph ysio logy and basic psychoph ysleal processes involv ed in per ceiving and responding lo ton al stimuli. Wilh du e rec ognítion of mu sical behavior's dependence o n sociocul tura l and biologícal influenc es, Cha pters .5 and ti exam ine the contributions of (~ og nitive psychology to un dersumdíng mu sical beh avior. A superficial dich otomy m ay appe ar between th e study of mu sical behauior and m u sic cognilirlll, b ut the authors, as do most educators and psycho logists, recognize that bc havior und cognítíon are íntegrally rclat ed and mutually ímerdepende m. Reason s for vurious educators, psychologísts, and othcr writcrs appeuríng to focus cíthcr o n behauíor or cognition to the appare nt neglect of the ot her o ften are dee prooted, philosophícal, complex, and perhap s írrelevant to the prescn t discussio n . Sínce research from both perspectives has mad e in valuabk- conuibulions lo und erstan ding m usical b eh avior, the au thors have d ra ..... n H U I"('st'a f('h Irom bo th . Howcver, beca use of the dramatlc surge of ín terest du ring th.' " .ut two decades (c.g., A ie llo & Sloboda, W94 ; Butlcr, WlI :l; C oo k, W! lll; l Icsu¡n & Windsor, 2000 ; Deutsch, 1982, 19!19; Dowling & Harwood, I!JXl i; Fi_,k. " 1!llIO, W !);{; H argreaves, 1!)86; Hodges, 1980, 1996; H o well, Cross. & \\1"' 1, IllX5 ; Lerdahl & J ackendofT. W8 :{ ; Seraflnc, W8 8 ; Slo bodu, l!l8ii, I!lBB; 'Iaylor, 1981), Chapters S and (i seek tu a p p ly such cont r íbution s lo the undr-r-
stand ing: of rhyt hmic, melod¡c, ami harm onic be havicrs. Thcorist s, psychologists, am i cd ucators incrcaslngl y a re d cvoüng clforts lo IllUl('rstan d ing: rhythm's ro l (~ in m lls ic 'lIld ho w peo ple int erad with J1lIlSiC' 11 Ih),thm, Obvio llSly, di versl' ap jll oadlt's lo sllldying rh yl hm ami rh ylh m k Ill'h avillr ex isl. 1\ ' rsllllS ('Ollt'('I IWd wilh llIHI('rsland ing r hy lh m ic llt' ha vior' s I' s)"cholo g i<:a l fUlln da till lls IlIHsl MIl Jlilli/,P ¡¡lid sy n lllt'sizt, .. va sl " ud y u f cliv e fst' lilt' l'illuw inl n a ("( 11111 ' 1 11 11. 11 h .IlIH'Wlllk Ihat w il! pro vidt' :1 h a sis fl)l' 11l lt1I'rsta lHlin¡.; Illt , rh)'lhlllil ' Iwh " \I ¡ l ll ~ l ll l" 'l fcll lll l' rs , listl'llt'r s, am I Sllld l' l1 ls .
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1) al r om poncnt: "To stud P h s~ vrew rhyt hm as a fundamental ..od is i"ell ' :llt study all 01 mo 'ic, s IlIml C pru n 'SSt'so" Sloboda (19 8 5 y t e elernents whieh cre ate and h11lI1'llllanl orga nizational b aSlS .- l11 ... mu p. 'O J88) agre 'd ape II ' d es that r hythm pIovtes an Oll U s l r ut" I Il I"t' ca n hclp d . SI C a n notes that "knowled I h Il 1 1 eler mm e the Ihyt h ' ge o I e o w 1,11,14 alH Ba rwo od (1986 p 179) _ fil e struc ture, and vice vena " "'Ole lundam enlal ' 'o' ' , Slate Iha' "Ihy lhm ie inlnrmation i; 'i aod Ke ndall (19!J9, p, eogn","n lh an plleh 11 ,1111l¡.1,' Illllslca l patt cm s by unevenl ~~s.t ~at us mg reference pu lses and y IVldmg the tim es b ctween lIIay lit' alllo llg a sel of c urga ross-cultu ral "unive rsals" tha t cna ble peopPluelses S. nil.l' sClund . lo .. L'0011('1' und Mcye r ( 1960,
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psyeholo~it'al
urea thing, h eart rate, or muscular ten sioo. Whelh el al; a petfolmcr or le, p,m dent, an individua!'s iutel aetion with Ihylhm in rnusic can result in aesth etie experie nee [gachs, 1!1.\3, P' 18), Rh ythm', in Cl eal;ing im porta nce al; an aeslh etie d evice is readily apparco! whcn oa e compares its prominen ce and complexit)' in tv.'cnticth ce utury m usic wi th its role in rnuch lenais"nee, ba lOque, d asslcal, an d rrnn nnrlc musiro \lespite its importance in eliciting va rio u' lype, ol ,", p ome" , hylh m's pnmary musical lunction is to give o rd er. M u sic is a temp otal a" Ihal nn ,,1 1>1' " Igan ized co mplehensibly, and mm l definitions 01 ,hylhm alinde in , ,,no' way to ,hylhm al; mm ie' s olganizational and dyn am ic loree,' Rhylh m , in ils b roa dest sense, "i" evllyl. ing p ,,'aining /O 'be temporal qua/ily (duralir"' ) of n musical sound " (Apel, 1!l44, 1" (j,I O), It is the ol gan iza tio of sound's e (,md , ilenee's) dUlation.1 atlribule s lhal ind eed allo'" sound to becom mu sie. When comprehensiblc orgaoizalion is lackin g. lhe \isten cr is oot likcly lo
'.1
Ill'rcci lh e plOvide sound as music. ve m Rhylh , mo, ic's 10lwald movement, 'h us m akiu g m usi" .. (in th e , ense 01 mo tion and eh ange), ene lgizi ng lo rce , Mu, it' with dyna mie Il lIle Ihy thmie m ovem en l elici" lessel dynamie IC'pOl" e Ih"" mu sie iu whieh Ihythmie movemenl is active , Rhylh m givcs "lile" 10 l1u tsie, .11111 .. " red " ur "sense" of rh yth m as lhe dyo ami c force withio nlUsic fa(:ililalt's a ormel am i a lespol1d" pel "l1'" inl« aetiol1S wilh mm ic, bolh "' a petf s 111. Even w¡lh gen er al agre eme nt rega rd ing rhythm's basic fun clioll in mmi <.. Ihe re is co,,,idet diversily iu th e ways people d escrib e Ihe v..,.I," " .. able ules 01 Ihylhmic ",uclm e in mu sie, The aulholS b clie ve Iha l a u m,,\o'''I
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o. ,s W "I \I I10 111 üu- I,h ysind , ' I eXI)l'ril'IlC · 1· ti tt'SC ,ou t 1I 11,IStC . . r I 'LI II o, ; II I1S wn tc rs pt-'rsUlla , lII , ' I ,1 thm and the ln'rn 'l' llolI ti I 1) 11 " -lIt:!url" uf not au-d a m i Pl'ri lllll\ t'l " Y tl CI",'k,. (l!IK7h , WK!l) aud M -, recell y, s" , . , .. \ psyd lOlog ical ph ellOll1ellOIl, oll: l . di fferenccs in rh yLhm s Slrtlt:!UI.I , ( lt)9'1) have sought tu dan fy t le 1 . I'rt'ssmg ." o ( oo.al} ropcr ues(sl"i t'nüfic) and psyeholo~lCal . mus~~ \ P,ls nf suuct ure in th c orga lli1.atiOl~ (Ir C larke (19Hi b) recogruzes severa eve o lo \ 'cst le",cl of a hit'r'a rduGl1 , ' t vrnbcls as t e 0 \'0 • 1' 111111' in mu ste. He v jew s wn t en s h orh r levels cmbody tb e relation s lIpS g " d ure "in whic h the rnost abs trae r C'l c tes that thc temporal pro llt'r", , . , " ( 212). ar kxc no .. , ' .1 1lt'lwel'll Iower level events P: () (b) th e rela uve duranona . ti includ e a tempo. hl I lil's I"l'p resenl('d by nota Ion d 0' \ ' , ' (e) grouping relatlllllSups, ,~n< lIIIIlt'rlies of ind ividu al cve nLs an ~I ebnc es, d dyn amics also help Lo ddllH' 1 , 110 a t pitch '. 11m I re, an at higbc r Ievels t1tan IIIt' (,1) met er. He points out d . . m ctnca struetu res , ") ~l lll l t. grouping b oun anes, , ' d relaxatiou ("directed lllO!IOIl ' , d l 01 tenslOIl an . , f III1Lated rneasure, an pal em s d lo lo ngc s in duration al proporuou'' o ' 1 "Ion an ot ere a ' 01 , o, thc - tdcalized durunoua 11 t. ob ,serves thato aruc u. a' duri er fonnanee c.Ulse " ' 1'1) lIolatl'd rhythmlc value s urmg all who le nu mber pr op erl y (p o'l., , 'fC 'llOrtions of a score [to lose] t etr sm. d < , ' yhstic interpretatiolls, ¡lIu l l o· I ,) h es ar e per eelve a.. \ 111 1 argues that t llese c ang . o(i e th e bcginnings of ilHhvulll a IOllc .S IhaL duralions b elwecn cve nl ons~.\; b' '~id bclow regardin g differ e!lt'.'s In ;lll! not aITected directly. More ~I e d ' " ,'" ,ns of m nsic's fonmll slr\1C,'t1h, lion and per forman ce practlce. oetween esCl1p 1\ Clarkc (1989) also secs a gap .. lo \ and cites thn'e pl"tl) t'ms f cognlllve psye o og)' o 1' , 1 c, ' (a) an ass1l1l1pllon 1 101 un 's and the app roa elo es o o , . o r the 1:\'/0 approac \ . (\ ) I ,' f"" etio n in lhe Silln e way, 1 1 lt' 'in intliscrim inatc1y mterml XlOg ' tua p rop er les o 's and (e) a lt'I\lIt'ur y lo ( cm IOnnal structure an d percep l . l esse " 1' f 'ychologlCaI p ro e He, rccotlllll elHls th al SI,1lO\, 11 S ~ .. b jOt'ctivc van ab. lty o p s '110 pere eptlla nornlSo o ' 1" , tIlS.' nlltnral norms " 1 lo' approaehes wllllt' stl1H1 ,1Il 1 · o n ben....·een t e wo lIIaintain a dear sep~ratlo be lween th cm , . ulIsly lry ing lo eSlabhsh a rapp~rt also a lpli es lo lh e pn'st'll! ¡Jlsnl " , Rc'cogn izing that the sam~ dlochot~my . me~hal traditinnal tlvt'r vit'w 01 sioll Lhe balance of this secll.o n lOdu les ~ d,or Disenssions of 1he t'ognili\'l' , ¡ th' lOleresle< red e . , I'yllun ic strueturc or , e b 'que nt see"Ion . In ..t's of rh ),thm follow m a su se o d l' rh ythm's slrulotural t'tllllJltl , ' . . f d ntto n un er les , \1 l , o \\~ 'I ,' lhe beat ofh'lI ISr a t'( T he lieat th e b aslc umt o u . , . . O , '1\ segm entso ' 11\ · 1 1II'lIls by' di viding du ralH)l1lIll u 111 ,\ ' 1' " ,'"lo bl'lwecn oc'aL ¡md pu St'. e: I ·t o,fu to ( IS IngJ o · o o f 1111' /,ubr, th e auth~)rs IIn~ 1, ~IS: " !t'n '111 ; lhe y tllTUf al lhe l)l'gllll\lng . ~ pulses are time pomts of Illhnll,c slll lo ~from it.s beginning (il.s pul se) unl ll 11 Clll I',U h h.'ilt. Eadl beal ha s dural l , ,10, 11 Vol ,) Thlls a \)t'allll
ulwnys havo ron unuu lI lt'n l ll I I H ~ ' t\1.11 M'II (I ~ ' : I7, p. WO), for exam plc, recog' nizes two uu ríbun-s 01 1Il 1l ~ i l ,d Ih ytlllll : (11) thc undcrl ying bcat and (b) tlnphrase rhythm. Coope-r ;I1lt! f\. II'YC'1 ( 1!I110, p, :t) n-cognize thrce basic m od es oftemporal organizution : (a) ¡llIlw , (1.) un-te-r, am i (e) rhyth m. Gurdon (2 000 , p. :t l), in a dcpurture [ron ¡ Iradili llllill n-nu inology, rccognízes "threc un iversal clerncnts of rhytlun ": nuur obrats. miocbeats, and rhythm pauems. For Gordon, maa obeats are esscn üally tbe sume as conven tlonal b cats and se rve lo defi ne tempo; míaobeats are subdív isions of th e eonventional bcat (into csscn tiully twos or th rees) and serve as the basis for determi n ing meter ; rñyttnn battems typically range in lengt h from on e to three mia obeats an d whcn com bined in a ser ies forrn a m clody's rh ythm (pp . 32, 40).J Cres to n (1% 01, pp. 1-014), wrítíng fro m a composer's va ntag e point and conslde ring rh ythm in tcrrns uf "th e organizatio n of du ration in order ed movemcnt," idcn tífíes four basic rhyth m¡c aspects: (a) meter, (b) pace, (e) accent, and (d) pune-m . Üreston vicws th c temu time an d temJ}o as somewhat indefinite and lnaccuratc and replaces them with meter and pace respectively. Most curre nt wlilc' rs ¡¡bo use me ter in place o f tim e, bu t substitution of pace for tempo is I c ' ~ o¡ n mltllUIl. l empo remain s the prevalen t tenn. Accent is uscd in th e tradililllla l Sl'nse (cmphasizing a beat), while jJat/ern refcr s lo any subdivision o f a plIl,t , 01' I)('ill into smaller llniLs. n"lljamin ( WH4, po 35!)), however, mainlains th al aaen t an d grouping "are Ihl' hilSic o, if noL neatly se parable, modes of partitio ning musical time an d th at 1111'11'1' io¡ a sl'(~. Hl da ry constmet, imposed on the interaction of group strueture 0111I1 'IIT C'nt, in respon se to ccrtain praetical and aes the tic needs." Gab rielsso n (Im: lb), hilst'd Ull anal ysis of data from several experiments , recognizes the I'ollowing pmperLies of rhyt hm: (a) m eter , (o) Lhe level of aeeent on th e first IlI'al, (~) Ihe Lype of "basic pattem," (d) the p ro minence o f a basic pallero, ami (l~) Lhe " ll n i fo rm i ty~va ri a ti on" or "sim plicity·eomplexity" or a rhythm . As may lw apparent, any exam ination of mllsic's rhythmic stm eture is sOllll'whal co nfou nde d by the faet lhal d iseussion s of stnt eture, p artieularly o llt'S Sild i as Lhose oy Benjam in (1984), Lerdah l and J ackendo lT (1983), Cill Jric'lsson ( l!J7:1b, 1982), Clynes and \Valker (1982), and Dowling and 11"l'wood (I!HHi), Ileeessarily re fleel perceivedstructure, alb eil in as "objeetive" ól llIallller as possiole. Tu varyi ng degrces, sueh diseussion s tre al rhythmic Slllll"l llU' hot h as a psyehol ogieal phe nome non and as an objective ph ysical (¡L('lllISlk al) ph en olllen on . Con seq ue ntl y, diseussions of strueture renect var-
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A problcm urls es in tll\III "lo ll 0 11"',11 wilh l't'spt'('I IO m et er. Ml'lt 'r signaturcs uslt'lIsih ly spt'('ify 1111 ' 11 1111 tl l lI n l ullnl l IIIlII n-ccives a beut [í.c., fills the time sp a ll Irom OIlC pu lst' lolht, m ' xl), 111 Jll ,u lín ', hc wc ver, th c unit thc rne te r signat ure dc slgnatcs as n' ( "l' i v ill ~ thl ' lil'a l i'lll ot ulwa ys the same as the bea l on e fcels in rl'sponsc lo tlu- mus¡c, as, flll' cxam plc , in a ;V I "V lcnnese" wahz o r a li /X ma rch a l a cllslo ma ry ll' m po . Mursell ( l!J:~ 7 , pp, Um -198) uses th c (;t'f llla n term 7iJkllo ind lcatc the fclt bcat. l-aruswo rth (W69, p . 233 ) refers lu it as the truc bea t, w hile still o thcrs refer lo it as the taaus, a fífteenth- and sixu-cnth-ce ntury te rm fo r be at. For th ís di scussíon, thc metríc beat is that whlch a meter slgn ature indícates. The beal felt in response to the music is tlu- true bmt: ln stan ces in which thc tru e Leal coinc ides with the metric beat, as it docs in much m us te, simply a re referre d to as bc ats. Meter ín volves the group ing of bea ts. usua lly m e tri c beats. Just as be a ts, un-te r is pcnod ic in that its fun ction is "lo mark olTthe m usica l OOW, ins ofa r
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. ·n' te rms of m etrono m e m ar mgs, " . minu te Thc indicatl'd 11 01t' ' 1n o ne ' . I a nvcn no te valué 01' unit of ,ttme recurs tri e 0 1' the true bc at. A typlCa ~ ~ue may co incide with e lth er Olh~ me tb e b cat unit, as indicatl'd hy .lht' mct ro no m e marking is M .M , = H, ,J rpe~:'aLed lnto th e m etr on olllC Illarklllg, , , nnted no te IIl CO meter slgn aturc e r a P " . " wo uld recur HU times per mmutc · t ' kes p ro mincnl or e m phasll.es a \tl.l.l . h h ·th mic asp ect 1h a ma . . n ts ' A dy'''1II11l . s e .lg hl ' Y'pes o f acce Aca nl IS te r ) r. , .'recogntze rl Ihe ree f. ere st 0 0 ' b . , by' mean s () IIl tt nM ni" sume P a m p has17.es a ca f' mm o n, ;I(Te nt, probab ly the m ost c.o ~an olh~r n carb y so unds b('(~allSl' tl II~ " " c th e accented sound IS lo uder h . . by nlCans of duratioll: A lo lH . t e m p aSlzes l ' ' y• . " illtTcasc d power. A o agogrc accen ,d' 01' fol1owing il. A 11Irlr;c af("l'II ~ las~ '. 01' dlO rd is lo nger than those prec~ mg f Inle 0 1' melric 1>I'at s a nd o tlt'll IS r ally re Occts lhe particular ~oupl1lg tOA harmonic accent cm ph asi"l.t's a l ll'~tl t' nl~ompassl'd \vilhin a d ynam1C ~cc~n ' A wtighl acce nl eXl'rcs~es l' ll lJ~ll ,l olllc hy use of di ssonance al' hann ~ ~g~ , ni d en otes em pha sb u n tl~t· I\I~II sis Ihmugh change in texture , A PIte acce ts occur o n in itial ltHlt.'S 111 n 'I,,'''.1 '. '~t n I' lowesllonc of a. grou~ . Pattt T7l acce~ h asize a b eal by lIsing Illt'lo l1l1' ¡'ti mdodic figu res, l~mbtLllShed a~~lents e t~etti . C re sto n vil'WS il(:H'nl as tlll'. 1'lI\bd lish me nts . e.g., mord ents, t~l . sh 01' ~r b ccolll es 1ll0\l O\ OIl OIl S, pan '.(0 1 .v•.,.y life of rh y'lhm," wilho ul w lI C me b 'c.,mes a nebll lou s ('\ah nr ¡¡ho ll . . d pa l1eTll e ) I . lt'm pu) ha s no sense of mohon, ; n ' \O-:~!i) and Ben ja min (l!ll{.1 a S il 111 0 i ,l'rdahl and ,1 ackcndo lT ~ !ntt , ~'P ' l' f lIldions of a(~cenls, T h('y fOf US 1lI~1I" " itlt' in-depth disCllssio llS I ~I tYI.'('S.' I.IH(.t': IIS in 1{"flllJliflg d ur alio nal eVI')lls wllh · 1111 lile ro le and fUllcliol\ (JI v antlu ~ :1(1'1 I';"y l"al't'flllly dt' lilwah· lwt w('t'll lll lhc lola l m usical sl rUt~l lI n' . 110\\1 v , • II l ill'OI b , 0111<\ ot l\l' r ty1'('S of a("lTl\ls, r ; r a l "(,l'll l s , w hich n' inflllTl' ~I I III I ' 1 1 1~\
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which furilil ale IItl"'l Io: IOlll' ill/ot ' wuhlu lIIusin d con tc xt as va n o us ot hcr m us irul a miul" lhl 'lil Iunrtion s. Kram cr ( IDHH) 1II ;l illt ; l ill ~ tllill llll'll' ; 111' rcully jus r threc types o f acce nts-. stress. rh ythmic, uud nu-tr¡c. 11,' IU' lil'Vl'S t hut add itional acccnt classífic uü o ns only ca l! attcuti on lo furtors tluu n mSl' ucceuts. \Vhat musi cían s commonly
call acce nts because they n-quin- uctiou in pe rformance are stress accents, crcutcd by a sha rp att ac k, a high loudn ess lcvel. a n embellishmcnt, etc . Stress uccents ope rare ind ep endentl y uf the metric do wnbeat. Metr ic accents, which may occ ur o n rests as well as on notes, cssentlally hclp defi ne the regnlar grouping 01' bea ts. Rhythmic accents help defin e rhy th m ic groups at sev era l lcvcls. e.g" a m o tive , phrasc, period, section, or m ovement. lleut, meter, lempo, a nd, to a dcgrc e, accent are the mo st agreed upon aspe-cts 01' rh yth m ic struc ture. Ph rase rh ythm , m clo dic rh ythm, rh yt hm patk m , ur rhythm b'TOUP a re sorne names given lo the rhythm 0 1' thc m elod y and hurmony parts that overlie and/or ar e intert win ed with bea t, meter, !l'm p o , ami accent. T hese "'overlying " asp ects 01' rh ythmic slruc ture constilull' un arca in whic h it is quite difficult to scparate d iscussion 01' physical SIIlI('llI H' from rhythm as a psych olob'-¡cal ph eno m enon . 'Vhereas beat an d Illdn ('sst'nlially provide re fere nee poin ts in mu sical time, tempo refers to 11.1' ~ l l1' l' d al whieh beats recur, a nd accent provides a me ans for emphasiz+ iulo: .. !ll'al Uf so me pa rt thereof, a liste ne r m ay group phrase or melodi c dl ),thlll patl l'rn s at various lcvels, Hecause gr ouping is a funcHon of both the 11l1lsk al slrud ure and the perceiver's experience, mo st 01' the d iscussion 1 q.~'lId ill g b'TOllp ing is within the section below on rh ylhm ic p ercept ion . Il uWl'\/ I'I', some descr iptions 01' the basic stru ctural un its 01' mclod ic rh ythm ¡li t' induded he re. J\ 1llrsl'll ( 1 ! ) : ~ 7 , pp, 176-185) a nd Coopcr and Meyer (1960, p . 6) recob'llize SU Il ll' b;ISi c rhythm ie groups caBed "un its," which in vol ve grouping un ae('l'llk d pulses a ro und an ac cented pulse as lhe ba sic stru ctural level for lIll'iod il: rh)'lh ms. Derived from an cient Greek poetic me ter, the five basie tlllils ind llric itlmh (-" l, a7lape.tt (--" l, trae/u e (" -), dact)'1(" --), aud amphibrach ("- "·h a dash ind icates an un acce nted pulse. TheoreticalIy, these uni ts Illllll'r1 i(' mu sic's mcl odie rhythm , bUl Yeston (1976, pp. :l 7-:~4) no tes severa l pl'ub lellls in atlempting lo redu ce rh yth m lo such basic units, particularl y \\'hl'lI pern -p lllal p rocesses a re eonside red. He m aintain s Ihat a tte mpts lo :I11alyzt' rhythm illlo th cse lerms a re ove rly reduct ive a nd do nol reflect realislic rhyth mic va ria nls. ( ;on loll (I!J7I, pp, fi7- 71, !DHO, pp, :il - 5H, :lOOO, p. -l O) am i C reslon (W6,1, pp , :-1 ·1- 1:1) Vil'W suhdivisions of beats as Ihl' unlh'r!ying sln u:lura l nnits l'U f lIH'lodic rhylh ms. Bolll Gor don ami C rcstoll ilgl'I'l' thal bl'a h art' subd ivided iulu haska lly Iwos Uf lhn'l's. 'Vhell tht, !leal is divil ll'll iulo two l'qually span'd ,sulJdivisio ll.S (whid l he c a ll~ ", ¡('ro/milI), ( ; o ldo l1 lalll'1s Ibis du pll'
. 1 , . t I' 100l wh it ul pk1 ' 1 l ' tu th rvv 11/,(111 1((/ .1, 1 . ¡' 'ter' wbcn th c beu t is sube ~ s:lI 1' \ 111 • f Rhythm l'all l' IW 'I Ih,,1 \/ '11 )' 1,(lI1~ uu, , '. Go rdon has dl'vist'd u laxo ll U lll } () tb ut l'ssl'ntiaH)' all' ('OI I1J1n '\I'( llll' h .,f. ih rce bcuts (hi s macrob((Jts) in Icn gthdad".d , . 'n~· nr t,It Il\~i11í0I1S tllt'n'of , tt -rus un lVISIl . TI , . , un e u 01' ~ariol\S macro/ microbt'al p a t : sin ' rcsts, t lcs, '11111 II p\Jeals. , l U ( III ugh the y al50 ¡nelude pa lterns u seo are dassiflt'd a((~ordlllg In patt crns, uf which t~cr~l a7 ~i:a~Jv¡scd' meter c1a ssil1<: atioil S: _1~S,I ~¡;1 lui w they nt in to o ne 0 1' sC\iera b~ d unusual pain -d, \Inu sual uu panvo. ' }- usual com me , duplc, usua I tnp e, I aired intact , ~ , . 1 . l i tact and un usua unp hi 1 mayobe das.'illll '( \lllusual pan'e( 111 , , .' f b ats as paUfTIIS, W te 1 1 u C festoo rerers lo subllggestt'd by met er slb'11atu:es. d po und . \ l . , t ros are constdere com h h pancru s me ()( 11 eof how oue or , üi c I h -rhm s obviously overlay ~n ~nt~17he ' rna be even. uncVt'n . use su )( r rs..t:,todiC rhy thm s m ay va ry dll\filll~cl)na'\ vaíucs :xteuding ovt'r llla1\Y . vo lve uratto ' ar)' nlt'ans Ol ..ision s of bcats, or 111 I d' hyth m th at provides a p rull . l ' ver y freedom of m e o le r 1 le , nergizin g for ce. \ . t tlw suh lll'lking mllsic a dyn am lC e ' h .1. [rce organizatio n in re allo n o " While me o IC r y'h m Wlt I s 'd' . bolh van. ety all< III lit for, \111IS1 ture of bcat aceen! , and met cr p rovI C S ddit ional c xtcllsions ol l'h ylh ' strlle ' m ay' cmploy ma ny a 1 [ I I'hy·tlu lls ("11 slruCture, composers 1 'nlen 'st T he potcnt i:l s o po y I .' , 'de even grea el' I " 1 • ., I d \yl III mic slrllctu re lO pro v1 h 'll1 ~ tetn pi and nonlllt' n ca ,'. \ O Il,t h . meters e ang g ' , l ' (OI\"e nll l\\u hillwt erS, e anglllg " 1 f l' rh ythmic varit'ly wl1 un . I 1 I'olllb inalions with lh e ~)Ot~n.~~mi~ stnl cturc a lml y dyn a m it:. illlt'¡.!,ra , " 111 lhylhmic struct urc , ma .e r ) ¡'sst-ntial pa rt uf all mUSlC. . and Performan ce t d Rhythm Pcrceptio n Movcm cn an . h 'rs' eonve ntional wisdo ltl ((.'!t (t l o C Tn dil ional defin itions an d m u SlC .teae I w inlcracts wilh and fan\tlalt'!l 'Irt lhe view tha! movemen t somoe ~o th e Y'ea rs, varinus thl'ork s ha v(' ' llPI" . d ' f lrmancC. ver . sY l'ho' Ih ylhm pt'lTcptt On an per ( , 1 _\ ' · 0 1'S and some (unICm por.t? p, .
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ami thls secnon . . . . 1'.111 uf most thcoretica l ex pía ' ( X,llll11ll' '1 Sll lll' I 1" I • n•• mu. veuu-nt's role i n r , lyllllll I 't ' I)('. n ' 11'( rur mon a pcrspectives l¡ . 1 . regar< IIIg JrJt. f ovcrv ie w 01 . I 1011 une production. It bcgtn .h SO ll ll' gr-neru l thl 'l ' .. s wn a I mental/motor in teractions a1,,1 " ,1 I Int:S that nddrcss the issues 0 1 -ct ¡ I .o n c ll( ("S wit l br¡ Id' (1 1l' u-n pcrspec tivcs o n thc " ,1, t i l ' I a rte lscussíon o f two th e _ " a rvc ro es in te . l f k sysu-ms upproac hes' while I1 Ineorl) . cma lime eepers and dy n anuc , n 1. ll llllall rh ythmic b eh . () u t mo vements play in e l' , "avtnrs. , xp allllllg 1 ,. . devoted a lífctlme to e is ' . . ~or.1,1IIlagd 1()~(Jr, who lcarníng is the basis of inteI1 ' tcmology, m amtain s that carly S{~ II 1I provldcs (he fram ework from wh iche~tual, deve~opment and suggests thal na.les und evolves (F1avell. 19fi3 p 472ni dl~n w~lch pe reeption itself ongi rbuupunzccs' ea rly sensor imotor o "" ebb s (1958, p . 116) studíes 01" pan /.t't' S whose sensorim o ,or expenene e~penences support l. _ Piaget's view. Ch¡rmt.)' were- m ueh slowe r at lea rn in . le were imited great.ly du ring in fan \'t'I(' ullowcd normal sensorim ,g slmp e .tas ks than were chírnpanzees that V' , o or expenences II ' ", S Ilal motor aeti vity aids in th- k' o IlI'ol i,'\ M' rv.'d as the . 1'. mg are not nC'v.lndeed ea rly m , ' Impetus ¡ro mInwhieh d , o 01 ,111'1 I 01 IIlHV('lllent o n thinkin evo lv d mo em views concerning t1w II,dl )' was d t'visl'd in or der to :vo -d e. The motor theory of tho ught orig) \'1' 1 10 )'I'a rs OI gO , Hebb (195R I PSo:tu ating ideation to explain thi nking. 11111 1' Ihal l I1m! or activity t}, e ' 1 ) noted th at whi le th oug·ht involve,} kI l . , oretIca con ccpt' , . . .,11 I.H l'lJlltllllling validity a d ' IOns con ce rnmg sensory fced ·, ''' ', n 'm potl ance loe undecs'a nding setial bc hav(1011' .
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, .s 1' 1I~my ll.-t'dback nsually is of two k" ' lIV" , LV('llIS ex ternal to the b d omds_ cxteroc ep tive and propriocep" rlllJllrmrrllJ ('xcile propri . ~ y exci te exteroe ep tive se nsory eelIs- b d I ' oce plIve cells Pro " • o y ar 1I.11I..ortOll1n~ in understandin rh ';h . pnoccp.tlve feed back is of part iclI\\ 1111,. proprioceplive feedb gk )1 ~Ie behavlO r_ :l . . , Illp l'l On'pllllll long ha s bee ac th o ten~ IS equat e d \VI-lb k'mesthetic feedback e 1I,'lIt rallll'" Ihan kinesth esianTh pre errcd tenn for feedback from I , 1 ' l' . e concept of k'mes' heSla ' generally ' s ass ' 1 I ( WII 1 IIIlrosllcct," 'n . ' w1¡c reas propri . OCl "W(";t1 ly oilserva b le reCl.'lltor a d . oeepllOn empha sizes neuro physio· 195'J , ji, n sensor y n' tve ac "Ion (O sll"Ood o , " , , p, 1 (_ I
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I .01 vao ;lIld Keml ' (1'1'1'1) ' o, no te that ' . ' lavI';: ('('lItml imporl allce for the d pn T n oceplIve leedb ack "is believed lIIY,t)'l1l' (p, I:t l ), Thdr re view o f I eV,e opment of .molor performanct' of IW~ la a mi IlI"CJIlfioc"I' "- "Ion, IHlwe ver e nn.molob'Y a nd ISSlI es relate d ' o k'mes· (' !aIl ,¡J lo IIst' of th" two le r T' ,POllltS ou l a IOllgsta nd ing controve rsy "1,1'." (t'( 1")\' . 111 Inlt'¡'ralt'(1 " ms. Ih-" , ' I . a 'y-11 noh' .. . .' o VII W () mllul 1I I . SII(· 1 VI('WS havc b ('('11 1ól1l11~hl Iw IIU' 1II00C ' appmprhl ,t . IIU ) ' alld "1I¡.ij.\t'"t Ihat kincstht,• I {'IIII II'( ' ; IU "I' 1I n"l v 11·f¡ '1 lo "1l O ti1 a se ns,· o
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ol l1lovt'mc n! a mi sl;tlk limll plI'litillll" (p , nI). ( :i1lespie ( 1!)!J!"I), how('vt'l", 1l11It' " that il is d illku lt to dissod alt' IIIt' ~1'IlSe 111 touch (t;\Clio n) [nun thal of IlItlvt'nwnt and body po silioll lkillestht·sia). ¡lIul n mseq uently argue s for lISl' of thc term hajJtiCJ, wh ich c ncOlupa:-¡ses bctb I)'PI'S of sensory ft'edbaek - Gill cspic p rovides an overvíew of hapti cs (19!J9a) ¡\Inl suggcsts applieations in undcrstanding and describing ft'edback and 11IIIiri patory eontrols in manipul aün g musical instruments rlurtng pcrform(1!J!)!Jh). Notwithstanding the views of Galvao and Kemp and of Gillespie, whosc 11i~rll:-¡ sions a re mo re concemed with general instrumental perfom1an ee thau lhylhm pcrronn ance, the present aulhors b elieve that proprioccjJti(JlI is the 1ll01'e apprup riate term Ior feedback from movement because it involv.~s
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11I IiollS thal gencrate feedback. Tbe cxistencc uf proprioceptive p ath ways lo the rha lamus, cere be lhllll, II ml cortex is an establishe d fact (Morgan, 1965, p . 'lSR)o Thcre are thn-u 1}'Ilt'S of neural receptor cells Ior propnocepti ve sensations (p rop rio(t'plors): (11) "spray typ e" eells at different po sitions in the joints. (b) Golgi apparatu s, ¡1I111 (e) Pacinian carpuselesoThcse eeHs actuaUy ar c in the joint5 rat her thall in Iht, mu selcs Propnoceptive stimuh m ay travcl to th e cortex via {'ither of o l WlI ('Oules. The direct ro ut e is th rou gh th e th alam us-The oth er, mor e dil1'use .ll ll \ indircct, is th rough the reticular activating sysle m. but Mo rga n (J!)G!i. p . '1) rcporlS Iha l th e var ious sensor)' inputs and outputs are not cI{'ad)' sep alilll'tI in th e reticular system . Thus. neurophysiologic al lindings supp o!"t the contentions thal sensory es 1I'I't1bad;, fmm mo vement relates to higher me ntal process . Il owl'v{'r. tlll' 1'lI'('isc ru le th e proprioceptive impulses play in higher mediating p rUlTsSI'S h nol kno wn . It ¡s. though . subjeet to specu lation( lsg(Jod (1!153, p_ 6SI) sa ys, "h may be that mot or to ne me rcl y st'rv('Sa'l a I.•d litative agcnt for mental aetivity in general." Hcbb (19SR, p .li!)) mai nl.üll" scs 111 "1 lh inki ng ca n not be accounted fO f by central proces alOIH' nr h y IllIl S ved 1 IIlar f{,t'dhack alone: Bolh mce ha nisms afe invol ,\ 1 leasl Iwo Iheor ies of pereeption have movement as one n f their 11a"" s. 1I11t 1 while the se Iheones prima rily are concemcd wilh visual ¡ll'rn'ptio ll, Ihl' 1" ¡ndples ii\volved a\so apply to pcrception s via othc r sensory Illedi " . I le\lh o ll 1I lidnlaln s tha l eye mo vements ¡lre cssential 10 visual p erccpti , As h e sl, I!H !l, p , ;·\7), oo -rh e st'n.\ol-yotollic ncld IIlt'ur y of PI'ITt'Pti llll I'0stulatcs that hoth propd I l'plÍVt' a m i eXIl'rOceplivt' l"1't'lll lil1k al! ' l'ssl'nli'll lo pern 'ptu al illlt'v;nllioll (Allp0l't, W,r¡ ,r¡. pp . IH;~-'2{)7), Th i'll lll'or )' ho\( ls thal it ca n h(~ shown t'x¡ll'ri o 1lll'lIló.1l1)' thal s{'nsory, i.I'., I'xllollll ''PI IV". alld IlIn k . i.t·.• p ropr iol·l'pti V(" fae IIII S an' l'lJlliv
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W('nlu't l] c e ntury, rh YlhOl er~ . <'11 !lry and ¡he ea rly decades of lhe 1IlII-o.'Pl·clivc ana lysi h p ep ño n was in vc stiga ted ti 11 . s was ( e accepled e . rcq ucntly liS ('('quires t'(I, Il1cll ra lIy handicapp~, :~Iscnmmah~n a bilities of p hysiea Jly · '~ ( 1111011 tlwt mov('men' 1;'a CI'I h....tes per .normal ch lldre n sup PO"" • lb e con1J~' V('IlH'lJl lim itulions du e to ph si lC~Pt'o~ , H e no ted !hut children with lI,lII lIo n nal child ren o n a n in y. ca and lCaps Sco red signjfican tly lo TitIl , r vestl,gato r"co ns tn t d we r . llIa ron and euncl uded lhat child . le e m easure of rh ythm d is11)('l' t'mly chi/d hood do not dev 1 ren \-\.l!h movemen t limita tion s ex istin· T 'X I I'~ I I. a ,~ llo rm al childfl'n. e op rhythm perceplion skills to Ihe sam~ \\ 11I1t' Cllllse llslIS rega rdin ' '1}'lllllI p('rn 'ptiulI is ev iden t gG:~ ~~,tegral rel~ tionsh ip uf m uve m en t a nd I' p aH'Il.t1y in al] ello rt to av<;jd a d~~hsson ( H)~3b. 19H2) and Frai sse (l 9H2) o tumy, sugg es t tha! it mig h' b ' Plllol m a le to spt'ak of rh " h .. ' ) ni eX!1erienc , e Olore I ,I I ~ M ' sta ll's lln l "., " e ra t lCr tha n rh y'I, ' • I IS Ill'cessa ry 1 t l" m perCeptlOll l}'IIIIIl S frorn . , , pen:eptiolls " .1Il ;t t, I.O ~ISSO(·lall' 1J1Il10r hfhnviors Iinked 11 1l1I) VI 'nH'IlL~ " (1' 17:;) J I " l.ll l!w play o f lll11 sic is ·d w'lYs b d l' lIf ' I " . ' a ('1" not es Ih'll I . . • < as(' , I I}'I un Pl'J'("( 'l'ti llrl b in dh't.t ", I , , ' ,,'.nlll,\ ( ' ni lIw U1otor co rnpo _ 1 1ln.~ I' II \ l ln ..I."
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lla tly ( I!IH5. pp. ~ :i7 - ~:lH) 1I011 ' ~ Ihal nms¡ c m aklng illvu lV(')o human ruo vv
1Ilt'1l1 und tha t the human st'm¡nl"ÍllIo lo r sys le m is integ ral lo mus¡ c ma king. 11(' giles on Lo a rgm' tha llo cuusuh-r mn sic as only a son ic product uf cog nltjuu fuils jo recognize th e importance o f thc scnso rimotor sys te m in p crcei villg and pcrforming music. In recent )'ears ps ychologists have sough t to develop theori es to ex pluin rhyüuu perce ption and performance, and a particul ar íssue is whethcr rhyth m perception and performance are unde r cognitivo co ntro l o r w he thc r mov ement is invo lved. As Sum mers (2000, p . :~) sta tcs, on rhe ene hand, propon ents of cog ntuve approaches have argu ed for the cen tral [ccgnítíve] control of tím íng in terms of temporal codes stored in molor progra ms or infernal um e-keep mg mechanisms. On the other, dyn am¡c s)'s· u-rus rheo n sts argue thar lime is nor direc tly controlled in movement, but rarher is an emergen! prope rty of self-organísmg [sic] processes in the uc uro 111 0 101'
system itself.
I )csain and ' Vindsor (2000, p. xii) note lhal rhythm perception ami pm· c!uclion are Iinked to acts of syn chro nizatio n in stud ies thal ask pl'ople lo ('lum linale movcmcnts (llsually ta pping) wilh an externa l stim ulus (usllally ól lllt'tronome-li ke pulse)_~l uch of th e research a nd th eory is based nn su bj t,cts' abi lities lo mainta in a ste ady beat afler th e ex tern al p uh e is d isco lltinu ed , While m usicians might find this research base q uite Iimiting, psycholobrisLs hól ve used Ihe proeedurc to de veiop theu des of rhythm pel"ccplion aml ¡ll'r. lú nnan ce, and the aUlhors believe they have rclevance lo th e presc nt
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iologicul pro n 'sw s lha l ¡U lOll'P "" }' il 01 ' nuuufestaüon s uf dynanuc pattcm formut ion or sclf 01l,;, ;llIilil l 1011 " (BI','k. l'c'I',' r. & Da ffc rtsh ofe r, :.WOO. p. 15). Rc ñccríng a d ynam¡ r SySll'IlI'i a p l' ll¡'¡l h lo uu dcrstandíng ruc vcm ent coo rdíuat lon , il "de rives its t'lIIp!l'lsis 011 ¡mlll'ln fonnation a nd sel í-o rgan iza üo n from syncrgc tics. tbc illlt' rc lisd p lillilry upprouch to co m plex be ha vlo r in ph ysicul, ch e mic al. a nd biolog tcu l systcms" (p. 1':» . The d yna mic sys tcms up proach tukes into accou nt thc co ut rib utiou s of be havioral, neural, a nd ne uromuscular level s of activity to rh ythmic mo vemen t. In esscnce. the d ynamic sys te ms ap pro ac h is m uch b ro ade r and yields co ns idera bly more information tha n ümekecper appro aches. Beek, l'epe r, and Daffertsh ofer [pp. 27-29) no te tha t atlempls are under way (o co m b ine the two ap proac he s, pa rticularly lo acco mmo date cognitio n in to thc d yna mic systc ms a pp ro ach . As yet, these ap proache s are still in proccss and have not been applícd to descripti on s of rh ythmic bc havíor." "Iod d, O ' Boy le, and Lce' s (W99) "sensory-m oto r the ory of rh yth m , time pcrccpüon, an d beat ind uc tio n" is an cxam ple of a dynamic systems approat:h lo modeling rhythm ic behaviors: Tllt' 1·s.Wllce oC the sensory-mOlor Iheory is ¡hal ¡he experíence of rhythm is Ill l'dialt'd by I\VO cOlnplementary representalíons: a sensory represenlation of 1111' mOliollal-rhythmical propcrlies of an exlemal souree. on [he one hand . and a tIlolur reprt'Senlation oCIhe musculoskele[al system on the other.... The sysIl'lIIN, by It'arní ng, tune into the tempo ral-motional properties oCthe physical l'l\\·irullllll'nt. whilsl the motor contr ol sys!em, alsD by leaming. tunes iuro tbe d)'llalllir prop erties oC Hs musculoskeletal system. (p. 26) 'Iildd, O ' Boy le, a nd Lee d aim the th eo ry offers a plausible aCCollnt of seve ro a l as(wds o f time psyr hoph),sics witho ut p ostulating th e ~x is lenee of an " illll' l1la l dock," for which they sa y no direct ev ide nce exists. C la rke ( I!l!)!), p. 4!}5) suggesls that th e rela tionship bchveen rhy thm and lIlOVt'lIle nt can be co nsiderc d fmm twu pe rspectives, with rh )'thm a nd rimill ~ st·t'n eithe r as the consequence 01 mo vement o r as the motiva/ionfor mo ve llU'1I 1. Issues I"cl ated to the forme r esse ntially are rho se de scribed by lleck, Pt'pt'r, alld Da fTerts hofer (2000). w ho foclls o n Ihe timekeepe r vers us d ynam k s)'sll' ms approache s to modeling rhyth mic behaviors. C iting Sha ffer (19M2, WH- I), C larke sugg ests Ihat response m ight be inOuc nc ed by sorne interna l dCKk llH'ch a nism a nd Iha t rh ythm pattems "are produced by overlea mcd molor pron'du res that spt'cify movem ent patt erns Iha l have as th eir COl1St' qll t'n n ' a dc finite timing profile. T im ing p rope rtics are thus lhe conseq ue nce o f llIo....t·ment rulher tha n u co ntrol para mel e r in tilt'i r o wn righl " (p. 49 5). "Ik adl'rll im,·rt'M,'d in fllrllw r inrormalioll r..¡:ard inll: Ih,' t1w" ... lu ,ll mu.!, ·I. "tlt " m ;II(,'d lu r('Vil''''' ~· \"I·r;1 1 ar1i, I,'s in Pan l uf Ilt·saill ;In " W UIOI."t {:l ll( ~ l) ,
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• . " IllSI'S I1\VO ' 1 W¡Ih ,.\idl acnJlnpanyin g: mol ol ICsI" ('f' I l'\pping) and the otlu-r as'oot'l:IIt·( I 1 _ '1 ' rapid pt'riodi e phelllJll\l'na (lO • (body SWi\Y nnd who lt, lot Y IIVI ) , 1 .. \.c llloVe01cnls u...., 1 - , . 1 [ess restnc!l'( pell O< I el-ke' vil'WS an:onllllOI a llll ~ 1 .. OWt'r une " {n u .W5- .W6). \ \11ethe r a l 1: s .', >l-' 'oC'l' n, IIIllVClllcnt gen erally) (PI · lb ther psychologtsls n'nlolll\S tu \ f IHllh ¡¡pproaches wiIl be acc~pte
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I'ropOl H'IIIS o f d YII 'lI l1i. M)'M I" 1I1'1 ltl'IIlOad lt'S takc issuc wit h [onnaíist approaches, notubly ltlal .)11. '1.,(1 by l a-nluhl undj ackcu do ff (I!JH:i), Eck, (;as,'il'r, a nd l'o rt (~ OOO, p p, 1,'iN IhO) , 1I~ lH ' l h ¡¡ 1 fo rmalls t upproaches are overIy depcndcut on syrnbol SYSll'lIlS (lIo l;¡!io U) am i fail to acco unt fo r co nü n uo us thuíug propcrtics uf n-a l 1)(,lfont H'd musi c. Tlu-y d ie four ways in whlch t111' temporal o rga nizal ion of pc rfonm-dmus¡c dlffors from the integcr ratio-bnscd lin \(' rclationships found in no tation : (a) IJt'Tfim no nu noise (inconsistencics in synch rn nizing tap ping o r per forming with an ex tcm al rhythmic stim ulus), (b) rxpre,u ivt' timing {purposeful deviations fro m notation}, {e} lempo itum riance (ablllty lo mak e rcliable downbeat pred ictions o ver a widc range uf templ), an d (d ) prrf rrml tempo (mak ing changes in metrical intc rp retation uf a píece to keep thc ln-at in a co mforta ble ran ge ). In short, Eck, G asser. and Port argu e that sensitlvity to real lim e is cri tica! to o ne 's abllity lo pcrceive an d perform music. Desplte such objections, Clarkc (I 9!H), p. 47R) no tes that Lerda hl ami juckeud off's (I!Hti) Generatioe Theory of Iimal Music was a particularly sign ifi('a nl n mtrilm lion to th e understanding of rh ythm peTception becau se of its d i ~ ti ll di un bcl ween grouping and meter. A 1I11lllbcr uf othe r researchers (e.g., D rake , 1998; Drakc ,jone s, & llaruch, :.! tlOO; I)mkc, Pen el, & Biga od, ~ OOO) also re cogn ize Ihe imporlance of th e hll'akdo wn uf rh ythm inlo gro u ping and m eter, allhough they re fer to them lt 'l v ¡.:mrnlation intogroups and temporal regularily ex/raction (D rake, W98, p . 1.1). TI ll' thcoo n 'tiea l framework fo r their research is Jon es's Oo nes, 1976, 198 7, 1!I!IO;,Joll('S & Bo llz, WH 9) dynamic atlending l/ltory, whic h Dr ake,Jones, a mi 1I,lIud l (:.WOO, pp. ~53 -~(3) co nven iently and succinc tly summa rize.J ones's d )'llalll k a llt'nd ing th eo ry is a type of d )"nami c syste ms ap proach in te nd ed 10 ¡{( '(-OUlIt fOl' ¡lOW pcople co nc ep tuaIly organize th eir responses to music's It'1 11lllll'ó 11 a ,~ pl'cl s . T he p resenl discussio n draws hcavily on the wo rk of Drak c ('1 ;:11., h UI, co nlra ry lo Drake el al. and Cl arke's aceounts, illreats be at/tem po pnn 'pl ion sl' parately fro m me ler perception. Ahhough lllosl rhythmic behavi or invol ves interaction with m usic as a mo n~ tll tl'SS ho listic, inteb'Tal part of musical behavior, this section examines Ihe n '!'Ol'ar f h am i rdaled wri tings a.'i they pertain to (a) bea tl lem po pc rception , (b) lIlt'h'r I>t'rcepti o n, (e) perception of rh)1hm gro ups, and (d) ex pressive timin g in llIusk . I'lior lo exam ining curr ent theory and rescarch rcga rdiog COb'llitivl' 1'1 'I!'Ol't'< 'tives o n rhythm ic bc ha vio r, we revlt'w sorne longsta nd ing, a lbe it 1111l1("( lb'llilive, theo ries propuse<:! lo acc ount for h uman inleractio n with rh)"thm,
¡':arly N tJ1wJgniti ve Theon·es E;:lrl y psye::hol ub'Y o f m usic litcralu re l't'wg lliz" <1 Ihn ',' das!'O('s of rh ytlu ll Illl'ori,'s- imt incti vt', physio lugical , and molOl. I .tlllllill ( I!Iti7, p p. Il ü-1 22) 1'1 " POS('tI a fou rlh t1lt'o ry , whk h em phasi/.('d lit.. 10]. ' 111I"al llín¡.; in Ihe d e n ')·
r l ' I St"lshou.', . . TI t' hl!'O tilll'live th eory , o W lit 1 , '..a fl OlS " 1l\111'Ilt of rhylhm lc lll,l' itVltll", 1'1 l .' ",1ere are I WIl fUlH la llll'nlal l • . ' 1 -nt lll' I t 101 l ' . . r ¡n n H) was a major ¡HOpO . ' ,. 1" 11 1'0111' 1Il lp n 'SSIOllS (IC ,. . 1 ' · . IsllIId lVl' 11'n< cucy ( o0 " ' ) TI · in thc Twrcc pllo n 01' rh yl un , "" ,11 ¡ 's with precisio n ami stress (p, I,-U~ . lIS hca ring a nd a capacit)' for doing t 11 . Icntial is inht'rill'd, nul h-arncd . A theor v rclle cts the posilion th ut rhYlh~llChP't' training can ím prove rhylh lllic ; . li 1 ver suggcs t I a 1 [e , lIl11 llber 01 stnc les, IOWC , . ") th disconfirllling thc uicory c.g. S . h "cupactty f us ) po lt'ntia\ (0 1', ior eas o re , . l()f~ \14. Níelson, l!):~(), p . 78 . f Cu fTmao, 19 -1 9 , p. ¡ .I;.u ¡nd lll, . 1/, PI, 'lh~ic respon ses rel at e to th e ratcs '' I'h ysiological th eones suggest that T) r h t th e human hcart ratc is a hasts . 1 . . 1 ocesscs Be 1le t a [) : 1" ' , lt' ('urring physio ogica P" be most prevalen!; Jaques- .1 (.\ 0 :1,[ fur m usical rhyth m and te.mpo as \ e;fthis view. More rece nd y, Parn {'lI lt pp. 79-H2) ' v·as an avid proponennd . . . th ough whic h a Ietus hcurs (11121 . • h P otal ro lt lOnmg, r , 1 p. 130) suggcsts t at ren b ' d walking movem en lS, n ug 11 (11tX7 , , ,h ti -r's b cart eat an , Iic stlllnds associated Wil, a ~o le , d l responsive nes s to such pe rlO( IU· lH' the process by wh ich lUfan~s .eve op a f heartb eat and Ioo tstcp rntes ., " ,~ He aIso obs erves a similan l)' lU1the ran gewohcre arouod O.K to 0.5 seC (7:' .•. . 1 u ses so rne ' 'Illd those of strong~y fel~ ~uslca ~ su ' o rt the heart rate lh co ry , howevt'r: IS 10 1 ~ () ueals p er mm), ~vldence 1 d o~Psignificant rel ationships u('\wel'lI. cesscs . Rl'cent resca rch o n ••f Iheir obj ectively mc asurcd , phYSlodobg>IC ,Palso ofTers liule 0 1' no su pp0l1 t' d lscu sse c (J\\ , I . I \ )(,hysiological theo nes. Wlu e te nia u , 1 . I andcyelech an ind ud ing the men struaI c)'c e n's rrceptivity to ITIUSlca stun · , .. , y influene e a perso . . '. flllness and b lOche mlstf), m a d · bl l O explain rhythnllc n'sl l<ms • h m plc x an va n a e llli lhey are loo lcn gt y, co " l. , sical sllm u l . ' r I'S lo rd alivcly shorl-term ~u h thmic beh avio rs dep end 0 11 Ihl' ad lo l,l o T he mo tor lheory holds th at r . y . r db ck as discllssed aho v(', ,lIl d propnocep tlve el' a } ., 1) . \ the vo luntary muse es, J.c ., red Schoen (19-1< , p , ¿, ' . p, ycholo gy con cur . " losl t';:lrly writers on muste , tl'e nature of rhyth llllC I'Xpt . , . ' t' s co nc er n mg , I " olt'S thal nearly aH II1vcslig a Ion .h llpporting 1110101' thco ry :Le: vo ele factor 1 us s 1 ,l ' I k n(~c s fine:! a m otor o r ~us 1 'd' (11)67 p , lOfi) both agrel' t " 11 II 162) and .uo m . , b · 11 ' 1' ' )3(·ale s. !\l ur seU ( 1. /, p . .bl' f the tradi tion al th cories, 111 !lel lt t, 1lI010r theory is lhe mos pla~l ,~ ,le:: '¡rgl lcs Ibat neuro llluselll ar 11l~ )Vt'n,lt'nl ll('('('I>ts il w¡lho llt rcservaliOll" lll se ' 1 . , I,r'li n· ral hl' r, Ill ll si c tUll eltO\l S . . 1" Il'om Ilw 111111<11 , II I 110 1' S l\ot function lO ISO a Ion .. 1 'r,'OIlS syslem. Lundin , a I lOug I . h 1 1 · ·n ·mt1 (1' 1111,1 Ilt . 1 '" 111 ronjunctiuo Wlt t le >1'.1\ , I . . hyt\l1nic bl'havior as l1l VO .. m Io; 1'~!'O{' nl ia l\y an S-R pS)'dlOll l~hl , a 'itl \'It'WS 1 .. 1 11 'In vic llal ll'slulll' .'!'O , 1 , ,· o ,r. hlllh llt'rce pluU Ull( JI , 1 , 1' I'llllllic n 'S\Hll1Se a so It ( n , IlH ' \ n ) ' \l . llunl 11 . l · l.u ndin.'s ( l9 h7, pp.. ,, 1 '" 'r tll \'1l 11.l lll , It'arn ing I hytl~ 1ll il,\V1l Vt'~, pt'.I ' lli / ,t' S Ihe nn pnr la nCl' 0 1 11 ,l\ U I! ~ , I ll ' " '1 I h )'lhlllk !'O tlln nh. :I !o \ \1 11 .I S . 1 ,{"(
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. : .. ' " ,' 1'-ll lwl lll,¡ildillll 1"111 aduhs. l-our- und six'~I';\ r-olds wit h 1 1 .1I SSI s , 1 , . -rvul 11)0 IJI "Il)' l'lght. am i . • '.. 1'1 (·10 0 lll'i lllh'r, u ll !'lo l'l ll1tu V.\ , . ' . tallped eOllsuh'ra hly 1.lsI r." " d t: r¡o rus int l'r-o!l!'lo t'l mt crvul 1 l ". u- twIW('('1l . un , J . Iü-ycar-old s t¡IPP('{ :11"." ,1 ~ , '"x- r-i ,h1-, and lO-y{'ar -old l l~vd s la!» >l:{1 ( 1'20 - 11O bpm). M USI Cl,llIS ,11 Iln , S.I , Ig I rt tapping m ies slowed signii!'Io ign iflca ntly slower than ll(Jnlllllslc".\.l\~.. l~ :~pop~d signifieantly slower than ícu ntly as age inereascd , am i lIlUSICmllS .
D ra ke. l 'cm-l. a m i Ih¡':,llld (:;0 00) ill\"'!'Ioliv;a ll'd the cfh-cts 01' sr-vera l aSpt'l·ts perfonnancr- min O'illl H ti 11 l' ( ~ l i ¡.: 1l 1 vnrint iuns in timi ng. íun-n sity, am i a rticulat iu n] on :\Ii ;Ullllt!'io' ( IH 1I111, idall s a mi IH non m u sicia ns] a bilhíes lo cx trnct o r re spond lo an 1I11 c11'llyill¡.\ lu-ur. Using six rccordcd c xcerpts uf Wl'stl'rn tona l music w ith l('m pi ra ngi llH frn m !\1.M. = 90 to ISO. they pre01'
sen u-d cach cxcerpt in three ways: "uu-chau lcul (synthesizcd fro m the sco re, whho ut mícrostruc tur e}, acce mcd [mccha nica l with intensity ac ce nts], a nd exprcssívc (pcrform ed by a co ncert pian íst with all types 01' míc rostru crure)" (p. 1). .Ioncs's dynamic attmding theory served as th e th eoretic al base for the study, w hicb sought three types 01' info rmation : (a) ea se 01' synchro niza tion l) OllCS'S altunt11unl), (b) ea eh subject's spont aneo us synehro nization rate {í.e., rrfrrt11l ltvt~ , a nd (e) range 01' a dd itional me trie le vels at which subjects cou ld n-spoud (focal aIUndin~ . Subjc cts were asked to tap in syn ehro ny with eae h pn-scn taüon. As nug ht be e xpected. subjects were be ncr able lo synchronize ta ps with llw mechnnical and ac cented versíons than with the expressive vcrsio n s; lllllsid a ns ge nerally we re more acc ura te in the synebro n izations (Le., attune1Ill' 111 wilh the beat) than nonmusieian s. \Vhen asked to tap at rates olhe r (hall Ilw rdl'(l' nt It' ve l, musicians we re more prone to tap at slower rat es (Le., ,11 hi¡.:llI'r Ilw lric "'ve ls) than nonmusicians, thu s refleeting mo re effeetivc Illl";1! alh'mling. Finally, m usicia ns tapped at high er metric ¡evels for the " xp lt', sivt' vt' rsions tha n they d id for the m eehanical and acee nted version s. t )1 par til"llla r inlerest regard ing bea t/tempo pel'c cption is lhe faet the mean ' pollla lll'ulls synchro nized lapping (refercnt leve l) was mueh slowel' fol' m usi1iall' (llll'an inlel'-onset interv al = 1042 ms, me an tempo = 58 bpm) than for lloll lll ll.~ida ll S (mea n inter-onset interval = 858 m s, mean tempo = i O bpm). 111 a suhsee¡ llcnt sllldy, Drake,Jones, and llarueh (20( 0) exam ined differ1'lIn 'S in <.I gt' and mu sical tra in ing (two respondent-re la ted variables) on flUll flr mrlll, rt! fTtnl lrvel, and fOcal alltnding. The investiga tors co mpared pe rfor lllann "Su f ,1-, (j-, 8 -, and IO-ye ar-old childl'en and adu lts, with and witbollt lllllsica llra in ing, on seve n differenl tasks. Three tasks involved sponlaneo us lapping wilh nn ex ternal rh yth mi c stimu lus (tap ping a t a "co m forta ble" ra le,
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nn nmu sicians. . -d to define the range u f motor . which were lISl . ForcL"d tap pm g ra nges, Iuncti r age and mu sical ex p en ene e , . . d dn ti \ly as a un cnon o . b u-mpi, IOcreas~ ra~a lea . .' older and musieally expenenee d su r th an younger a nd less m usically without a sigl1lfieant mt craetlon, l.e ·· , bl la mu ch Iaster a n d s owe ff d d ti mercases in the range o orce j' l' Cls wc re a. e to P bl N tin g th e rama I C 1 (' xperienced su 1eels . 1 o I ith 1. odest ehang e (deerease) in spoolth along w i oru y am . tap ping rates wtt age, .' luded that spontaneous tappmg . tes th c II1vestlga tOrs eone . . d r ttending and Iorccd tappmg rate s taneous tappmg ra es, rutes capt ure th e lirnits 0 1' rcfere~t peno, .~ ) limi f f cal aue nding {p . 269 . r capture th e tm tts o ~ . vc-d 'gnifieantly as a function o age, Tempo discriminabon also tmpro ," . t mpi Ana lysis 01' va rianee . , · . . tion tasks at s owe r e d ¡ (with b etter discriminal10nS at particularly for Iscnmll1a in effeeLS or te mpo . . 'fi t n "vealed Slgo l lCan ma , h' . Conside ring these dala m . .) d srze of tempo e ange. "\" illterm edlate t~mpl an '. d la the investiga tors eond uded th at Im otorie but inelude a p erceptuw njllnction w1th forced tappmg a , . ti ils ob servcd in tapping lask s are nol stn e y m al eompo nent as well" (p . 270). h . t'on task , (tapping to Bolao. rhyth d • types 01' S)'ne ro m1.a I h Responses tu t rce ) veal th at subiecls at al1 age an nou s sequences re J . h lllie sequen ces, an d ISOC ro h ' d t pp ', ng with Bolao and that synti ' sync romzc a ex perienee Icve 1s ac cura c )' d " 1 peri cn ce for the isoehro nous .' d with age an mu slca ex d r hro nizatlOn Improve , 'f¡cant interact ion oecurre . ces H owever, a slgm . ..ud rb yth m le see¡uen . h " dr en ge nerallv were suceessru l m syn· hdween age an d type 01' s:quence ; e l . nce s (m~ans > 700/0), but mean . . . r with Isuchronous sequc , Ihn llllzlO ?" t~ppm g h . hmk se uences wc re mu ch lower younge r q 1 , Yllehromzatlon seo res for r ) t . . 1 d velop me nta pattem. , l ' 'ficantly wilh age although no slgt hildren. reOectll1g a e cal' e 1 I ' f n ratcs s owe( slgm ' " Mean sync1lfont'l.3 10 d b' usidan s and nonOlu slClall S • 'rr 'ere observe etwcen m . ,. nitkant dI ere nces \lo d ' . lhe three t)'pes of sh ml1 1, . ' I 's gro\lpe across f\,'l l';I11 syn chrolllzahon ra e , ) ..' " . Ids lo 90!í m s ((i!; bpm) fol" rau ge d ,.ro m .5'J'J , , m' (1l 2 bl" ll rOl slx-yt .lr o
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;ul11lts. , " . ," ""."(' rl'Occtions of Ihe rrft rtlll prri. r "III's wl'n' In ., , j' SI)ontancolIs ta1'plll& " ' ·,(le".(1 rl'llediolls 01' the re; a · 11" , '¡ II ' S W( ' I I' (B .~ /Jd, while s)'nehrOIl17,(' { .IPI" l"> ' '. _ .what -' " wer Ihan sl" llll
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' n I • 1ummg. vroun g rluldu-u " ',,01"01" , )' l11' ( "• I ''''''g''' with age und m usi-. r- ut evel}, hUI old er childn-u ,'" 1 , '111 11111.,1 directly w ith the beat {rc fe r M lI S,"." t 1I ' ,I \ llI l! ) ' '1 ,1 I' " 1m e! ' . 1 rICl ,lII S ta' ppcd •"11 h¡ug 11'" " u-" k " ,,,,,1'"', " . 1 'I" ( al iigbcr ' ' nc cve rs 1101 or the lsochronou s an d I'h)'11 .. . . ' 11.1 11 non mu srcmns for Bolero bUI
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111 su m m a riz íng '1 . IIllI L SI qm'lI ee s. . terr results k-n-ut gro ups of subiects "d • Druk • e '. ,{HH'S. and Baru ch note that the d ¡ ,. m c fas hiIon " [p 2H'J) J o n .o l al' sa . lle'lr • "()• per n ".ve the sequen ce s .me tnh11cfocus i , . . Th e m ain differe
,ocnslIlg sponta neously on even I .e re nccs ~r(' re lated lo age, with ad ults "JI",rvals). Youog chi ldren loe", :s :~:~em'edoate ratos (6(X) m, ínter-o nset 1~IS nuer-onsct intervals) and a re ~ h eousl~ o~ even ts at raster rales (400 Mb it, tcmpi. "' ''ith age, we find a u~ more I~mlted in the ir ra nge of acce sr-rs .spontnnco usly foc us", an d a proporti gra ual slowíng of th e rate at whic h "IS ,e n1' w m-h Iístcn ers can tap hro ni tona mercase in the range of t ' 1, :lH"i-:,m , syne roru ze ' a nd perfo nn tem po ral tasks" empl ( at. "1)
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eonzeablO l ' ¡ ' 1Il~ 11lt' (k'.vdopme nt of rhythmic b"e havi ~¡p.ea one~tation to understand-
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IUIIUIIS as III h«,-' renlly biol . 1 '" ors an d conslder "'attentio al , '1 I l' k' o¡p.ca actlvllles a d ' n OSCI III IIIg ¡1Il a nl'ma te th'mg to th n ent ' way s Id" ( ram menlS as pn'm I', Ive ,'ullaillllwnt propert ies o f ada ti e w~r p, 284).K They note that the ~t I;¡ illh " (11l ¡¡ llend ing and Iear~inve aos~111alors "'place c('rtain biological co n1" " '''1'' '''11. , ,,eh ,,, motor pla ,g, o daeknow ledge ,ha' "fae'o" o,he r 'ha 1",01 0"'",,"'" on our ,,,,k, ' an control. may innuen ee particip ao ';:
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~ l' v l'l'a l l'esearch e rs have exa mi d ami whilt, slu:h resea reh ' ..' o metlme , ncs ctempo ll,d perception as a separa' e en ,',I )' 11 01 Of US un Ihe beat per se ,', d a e tempo modulation re searc h do ' oesexplorev' bl ti , _f . • ' l( 1('('pllOn, Kuh n (W74) observ d lh a~a es lal may influence• bee,l 1 ,""'" io 'he 'e mpn of bea,: d"n mu, ieians collld ilion' qu ickly Ihan inereases in I~ro uce by a metronome more easi! and M,,,I" 'n (I!IH,I) aod Wao g " udie, by Genog.?' a nd 1llIl,' I{:al n m(exl, yield ed i ÍS eon ' ' e1 ex ammed tempo pereep"lon lna ' resu ' 1 . '{'n"I M' S W{'re {'asier , , SIS e nt wlth Kuhn 's finding ,h , , r1 1 o per celVe tha t " a empo I~ 11, oflwt h stud ies was tha, no slgmficant , . n empo , d'~ mercases, A surp n s,'ng SI'd eIllaJors and Ilonlllllsic m aJ'or e " I erences ex isted between mil ' S< l . .. responses SIC , 'vera sludies have ex ami d th . WITt'plioll and p refer en ce. ''':~g (I(:H~~ects o.f selected variables on lempo c'rn , h'xtul"{', beal loea tio ll of tem ~ exammed ~he ~lTects of rh yth m pat ,. . p c a nge , a nd dlH'cllo n of I llls " S" ' llli" lIy is a d y _ _ tem po change ' ' ¡U1 l1(' s y M " ll1 s " - asslllll" ~ I h 'l l ' ,11· . 110. _ ¡'l\lllhil.~;1 S1ab t" .n.1 . pl' ru .a¡-11, ... h"h
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mi rhc i11ll01l of tinu- toHI'¡'¡'c' IW('t1 to pt'l n 'ivt' " 'mil" t hangv. 1l1 IM'sitll'SBolin g tha l tt'mllo d.'tll'WW ¡"I 'iI"i!'!" lo p ercci v c lhan lI ' llll lll innt'"se, she obscrv cd that signilk illltl" IlI Ul t' tinll' wus nCl·t1etl lo lJl'rn 'lve tt'lUPO ue ,'hauge Ior nn cvcn rh y,lu us tl",u ro> evc n rh ythm, ami [or uu-lod y alo than for mdody with an'ompauim"u!. ller dala also suggest '1", ' dilTer"utial th)'th mic gruupings ma y influ elll"e tempo perception Wa ng and Salzb mg (1!)H'I) exam iued the i"nneo ee of rnu sic trai"ing aod ag" 00 116 string slUd eo " abililie, 'o pe reeive tcmpo eha nge . Subjeets id enüficd whethe r or not a lempo chang e occ urred , and, if so, the dirccüon of , hang". Data reve aled a ,ta'is' ieally signi fieant curvilíneat relationship IK'tween ternpo perception an d muste train ing and b etween ternp o p ercep · üon and age, Subsequent regression analysis indicated that musical style. iniüal tcmpo , and direction of cha nge also contribuled significa ntly to tempo pe reeptio • leadl ng ' he iovesligato" tu concl ude that tempo p .-re"pliou is a n n Jln plex ph en omenon, for wh ich parameters are not yet id entified. n KiIlian (UJ85) investigaled collcge mu sic ma jors' (a) tem po performan ' a,eur aey aeru ," repea ted "iah un der dilTenng feedback coodilioo s. (h) " 'mpo pereepli uo aee uraey after pe rlonning and heanng a recordiog of lhe p,.-rorm ane an d (e) rda'i onship b etween verbal p "reeplio" and 'empo p"re, three feedback conditio ns ind ud ed performance re sults only, formance, The l", rformane plus a p rer"eorded me'ronome " aodard before the oext " ial. and control.e Data revealed no statistica lly sign ificant effects of conditio ll u n lempo perfonnance, but subjeclS receivln g feedback imp rovet! Ihdr lempO aue " and p",eep'ioU p"reeptio aeeuraey, The rdalio nsbip between perlonn n anuracy wa s analyzed by examining frequen cy of agree mc nts hct weell pt'rform ance and perception, and oyeran the re was a low perce nta gl' of ap;n'I'lIll'nt belwcen p erformance and percep tion scoreS (32,5%), ' I" 'Y O other stud ies examine d var ions in iluen ces on lhe pe rcepli uil uf 111'<11 not e chaog io modulating tempos (Gerin ger, Duke, & Ma dsen , \!I !12 ; e en . & Duke, 19!J:J!1 9!).I). The ' ;,ringer . Mad, , ' udy. e" euti ally a "'plicalio an d extemion ul'he 1992 ' lUdy . exam ined whe o ,h" \H-a ' 0 " 1,, n p"b" 01 m",ieal tempo beeame 100 f",t or too , Iow 'o be fr'" as a ",,,, i,'al \ ll'aL Data from H5 graduate and un dergraduate mu sic ma jors f{' \'{'al{'d Ihal tlll' direction of lhe change a nd lhe stiomlus timbre were signilka nt inllu ' t'lIn 'S on subj ects' indications of chang es in beal note pu lse. Tempo dt'C1t'ilS' es. T he data
19!J:J!19!)~
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v¡u'iables (1{'m IIO, Illllsir al SllUly). 11\1' l'lI", 1'1 nI' tlllt'l' ex al1\int,tl IllOdul ati nn Pl'f{·t'pt ion , Shcldo n ( l!m l) IlIllll.') u lI tl'llll HI t'xpl'r iellce, and l ¡ sl l'll in ~
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Co mpnrlng Ilu' ClIIIIII III . III " 1{ " ' I U 11¡ \ I ' Ili¡.;itill Inte-rface' respon ses of Ntl nlllsic mejors a mi Ntl ntllllllll\j, lI1 !1i "I ~ , ~ I ,.. ohsr-rvcd thut m usic majors werc
significuntly beuer al id"lI lil>'IIl¡'; 1, '111111 1 t han¡.;t's thau nonmusíc majcrs ami that "overall" subje-cts WI'1\' 1Il'I \I'l li t dl'l l't'lill,L\" le mpo ucce leratíon tha n deccl crat lon, a Ilndi ng con trury lo IlI ml ' n -poru-d a bov e. Also, subjects were k-ss clllcicnt in íde ntífying ll'mpo chauge s whou wa tchín g a co nd ucto r whi lc llsrc ning tha n when listcning ulon c or lisu-ning a nd mo ving. In a subseq ue nt study, Shcldon an d Gregory (1!)!)7) fo und that subjects wn h gr ente r ed uca tio na l ex perience we re more adept al deteeting lempo modula üon fbc th inereases and deere ases) rhan le ss experien ced subjects. Furtherrnorc, thei r re sults supp a rt ea rlie r fíndíngs that exper íen ced subjects are ublc lo recogníz e changes in lempo deeeleration more readily and accurntcly thun c hangos in tempo acceleratíon. 'ni sum m nrize. beat/tempo perception is basic to rhyth m ic processtng. Th c pc rccpuon of regularly recu rr ing beats pro vides a cogn itive framewc rk for rhyliun ic perceplion an d performance , Ho wever, perceptual accuracy clot's nol guara ntl'e performance accuracy, Tempo perception an d perfonnann ' ar!' n lllIplex p he norn cna and are influenced by, or al lea st relate d to, a lllllllllt'!' o f slimulus and perceptual va riables, Tempo per se of Iistening .'''lIl1l plt's has 'In infiuen ce on res ponde nts' abi lities to iden tify le mpo 1 h.lllp,t's. 1)eCft:'asing tempi are eas ier to de tect than inc reasing tempi. T he Ih)'llllllk d t'nsily of the prominent melody in a musical exc erp l has a pa rtic· II t ul )' sll't lllg inl1uen ce on child ren 's and no nmusicians' detec tion of tempo I hilllp,es. 'IraiJwd musician s a ppear lo have a pr opensity for tapping both sp ontalIt 'ou ~l )' a mi in synclu o ny with musical excerpts al slower rates th an child re n ¡¡ml lt,ss t'x!ll'!'ien ced m llsicians, apparentIy reflccting ab ility to pcrceive te m pmal rt'b'l.l larily e ve nts in large chunks. They also perceive perlodic rh yl hmic slilllUli inl erms ofa Iim ited range of te mpi, The wo rk of Gerillge r, Duke, and M ad st'n d tll:ulllen ts th e propensity to double o r halve ra tes of pe rlodic stim uli su that th ey faU within fiO to 120 bpm. Th is tenden cy lo group bea ts to 1:111 wilhin a pe ret'ptuall y manageablc range , ho wever, m ay be as muc h a mall t'!' of m e le r pe rct'ption as beaÚlempo pe rception . Ml'ItT l h ct'p tion
Musit:ians, ed uca lors, and psychologists gc nerally agrce th at met er pe r( l'pliOIl inv o lves g ro up ing bcats, usua lly in rc la lio n to 'lO 'lccen tt'd bea to In lra' (sud l i1S [0 '1111'0 ) liS 1110''' m"llí l" 1 111" sli11l 1l11l' (" " d I a.' Ill K"IIlK IlIII ,k),
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, ' 1, ' "'P'ltiilY lt'a tlin~ lo ti 11II'II'llIlll1l\ ' I . , I IH"lh I II O V Il t lO .1 O ' 11 u- llleaslIrt'tl groupmKs tl " , 1\ ' iamin ( I ~ HH) lII .. kcs ;111 t- r t , r . , " '11 11 1 l'I' SpU11Il SC, t IIJ that m ct ric slrlll'tIlU', t'spt" ir lllllllu slcal \)('1' (IIIll,t1HI • , ' 1 " 1 ' vit'\\'. e a rgJ "~ • . . ' ltH'nl case fo r JlIS~ t 1(' ()1~PtlSI I , 1, levd s, in la rgt'r unus. am i III g n'a h ' l 1 ially whcn co nsldc red ,lt I1lUltlp e 1 1" r o! mue in which lu rl'ia h' , ,. -dl t ' b\ ' yel SlI p p e OH Lfln g , ' ' . 1 " dl'llth, pro vul es a pre le al. . 1 (l,¡OH) notes muslClan s tille n ,1 h I ' 1 • ts As Gabnc sson . o ' , L nu-ui , o ngoing m us rca ('ven , . rnns I .tyle a nd cxpressio ll, am nu-tnc . .hins the intcrcst o rnnsrca s 1...:ll relatlolls IpS ~n k f r such altc ra tio ns. It'latio llships p rovlde a Iramewor úd -ed the fun damen tal responsl'\ O u-mWhll c re spo nse to the bc at ls co nst el e . ' . ter 0 1' gro up ing of lseats, ls . ' " pon se to m USIC s rue , .I" por,,¡ rcgu lanty 10 n~uslc . res ," ll)<)8 ' Londou, l!I!)5), Loudon ron su t I S l onsidl'f ed hierarchICal (e .g. Drake, . , sub di " 1 thc beat the I1w a sU U ' , , h 1 ls of beat su lVISIOl , ' \ 1) k co nsidcrs th c truc llt'al lo un-trie o rgani zation al t e eve lbl h ermeasure leve s. ra e 1 l' ' uu! sc ve ral pOSSl e yp " b I ' \ '0 recogmil-es bcnt su )( 1\' 1 , 1 f tri orgaulzatl oll, ti a s . . 1 111' thc basic leve () me n c 1 [) k 's le vels which allow lor ..v dble hi h cr leve s. ra e , , , I ..Ions und several pOSSI e Ig f h b t i t" largcr units {c. g . n H' a slI U 'S .Olt . Inples o t e ea 10 1 1 . ,. 1 I'Is th ut mcoq>orate mu l . ) dependent e n p sY t~ lO ogH ,1 'hl h nnctnc levcls , are m ore \I'vt'ral p OSSl e ype ' th b 'ed faclorS, I'ad o rs th an notalíon o r m uslC ~ory- as b 'd nd othe rs p sycho\ogi('all y · me muStC theory- ase a . , t Numerous theo nes, so f h 'o ple respond lo nlllS¡<: s Iln' lJased . ha ve been offer ed to acc7~:~ : e ~:'t:;:tcvicW of ull snch Ilwllries i ~ Iil' urganization at levels olher . . bul rc aders are e ncouraged lo " I '. . f the presen t dlSCUsslon, Ill'yond lhe sco pe o ) II t iew of seve ra! pro mllH'1l1 , H • !'tl ' e C larke's (19 99, pp. 482- 189 ex~~e e~ pr: : and r..ssens (I!JK5), Longllt'l1 odt's C la rke's review includes thcones O h ° l .a,' , ,\ (lqq l) Pa n KlItt (I!'!J,I), , 02) Le (19')1) Jo ",00. , ' l li l,~i ns and Le e (190 , e " ) d T dd ( P )Ilh I IJ!l-Ib), In ('(I1l' no . , d Kolen {1994 , a n 10 , .., ~ I , " ,. nl's.un (Hl!l2), Large an lb 1 " 'Ier is nol J'usl .Ul aut htol'Y a lu ti II , h'I S rC\'lew, " C larkc notes . a me dudmg rtant motor co m pone llt"( p. '1HH), 1'" po l .ra\ llhenomenon~ it abo has an Im 1 \ n le m llora \ infuu na lioll (ll''i d i fmeterbase d so eyo l' "Iso nutes that mo e s o " d d on e dimensiunal, llm l a r ~1lt' S I 10\1 'e ,ved) are hmlte an l ' l' h al aod •'ICt'I' u lua 111 111111,1, W" ""'- Ihe. o nes h e revI . 1 bot tempor tlludels of mete r need lo mco rp ora e
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" rlier work by C larke (1!IK7a), SlIAAI'sls Windsor (1993), followmg so~elea d ' t depe ndenl 011 d YII.llnic an't'lIls , ' ' catego n ca a n 1ll er .' IIml nll'ter perceptlo n IS \ > , 11 . of th ret~ eX1H'f1 lllt'.nls 111 , t ' Based on t le rcsu s 'luaitl'rn S ra ~. , 1 wh ich he varied Ihe acce nts o s ~ . '. . ttcrn s \ Vind so r ohta ml'( . . t " . lo dl'ar llonllletnc pa , , . 11 ' 11 ' ..'rus lo amlnguo us pal 1 1 ns , 1' ' 1 ' is \le rct' ivt.d catt'gnn r .1 y. 1 , e l ,k ''s n lll h' n lltl ll 1 1011 Il H t r . ' , tlala suppnrlmg al t, ' I 1 ,' . 'trin l inh~ rllrl'la lHllI an' IIU y • I . ' . , ("( I' \l l't ~l lI l 1 It 11 llll ,' . . ' I'lmd udt'" tltal (ynal1l1t ,1 l ' l'" ,\! In ' 1 llll'lfi('almlt' rp n 'I.llltlll I ' 1 in llll' 11lI1l1t'1 • , le ro • Inlt' r
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/ ·l ),' /I/I/¡I~I' .¡/ J." lIlId" IIfU" IJIA/JI ~¡(" ,I /¡"mauor ' J'
('{'p iio n in Ih ;IlI " ';II ~ lIIU IIlU'Il ' , i,u ljl l ' , ' }(',lls und ITlt'lt-'r Ih" lll~ h.It"I ~ 1' " ,'l ' d ' J)'.llll lót lu lII lll'IY not co nfom l to th.. 111" . . 11 ' ' l " vr- ru M/ ' ,1M T .. ,u y va n a l e iu dl 'I I'll ll ¡'I ¡ Il~ wlll'll " 11 : em po appea rs to be a prt('u~~onns lo a nola!t'd ¡':llIlIl' in¡.:. II I ,l I'l'J'("('/ v('d o r Ieh groupi ng of beats . )UIll'S (WN5) /Iole s lha l )l'r/ 11011 IS.'~ IH> Is in Ihe e tr 1.' . l.IJlS,1g lt'a lt'r CO Il C{' rn than lhe le / n'iv('d o r su bj ec tivc; m :J:(r~Cl~~IllS rt-'gan ling IlO W me lric pauem~~~ no ta apJlroachc s to de/',n ,'" y g.llllzed, am i his a na lys¡s of Iive th .e perg Illeler p ' id • eo nes o r n m lrad ictiollS T heo n . 10 VI es al least a partía! resol ,' I - eones exammed íncl d u Ion to so rne I l(t'o ry defin itioo and thcse offere d b u ~ wha t he rerms a trad itio na J m usic d Y Cooper and M eyer (196 0) y¡ (U 7(j), Cord ón (HJi l 1980) defiu iuon te nds lo foe' u . v an Serañne (19 75), The tra di tio na / lh ' es.to n . eo re ñca l 1 . s On gro upi ng f b »u tl~Jlt'r('1l 1 d ilTere nees frequ emly e ~ o, b cuts In tenn s of notated measures pen't'lv('d, XIS et\Vt'e n wh a r is nota' d d ' , e an whar Is C OI.,pe l" and Meye r (W80) and, . ,&.: l'O lIlllngs ma y occur ar m h "resten (1 97h) borh recogn ize lha l , ' " ,. oret anonel lCo me n e 'l/I' lIlt'CIOllic'" leveIs of n i eve oper a nd M eyer cm h ' I . le er and st h P aSlze r,tll'l'. ¡('veIs, 'I'j¡ej¡- prima ry J J . 'ggesl t at m et er usually is prescn t al :-i1 1 1 1l 11 \'i.~i()IIS of lhe P , 1 e Ve IS thal al which beals ar l ' n ma ry evel ar > 'd e co ullted I prlma ry Icvel a re eom bined to fo CO~.S I. ered Jo wer Jeve l m et er ; uni ts of _rm ,gh er leve l m eter.J o nes views lh ' Ilu UIy ;u a n el aborati on and • .' . r cx te nslOn of th d' . elr u 1I1 '.~ II '01" no t co ns ide n'n l ' e Ira Itlo nal definitio n a nd ' f I g e m po s infl > _ cnlj Il' I 11'0! Y al'p l'a rs to focus u:nce 00 the selection oflevcls Al ;l1l'I/p is, m ore on vIsua l th an On aural .' so, , perceptlUn an d \ I',~l n ll 's 1/1 l'o ry recogm ' h I Izes t at mete ' - d' wo ralt's uf rhythmic m l' h ' r IS pen o le a nd d cpen ds , / 1 1 0 1011 t atmle t i ' on a eas l 1'\"( ' .~ , h' r ll w dfiJ reP7ound rac re a llVe to each o lher -f h ' " I b " , are grou ped b h 1 ' e lastest ¡:, m'l ll(. A ny ill/e l-metliary l / Y t e s OWer motion termed ' h b k . . e Ve s are ea ll d · .U ' e oc. SY:~I ~'1II uf ana lysis al/o ws me /od a lld h e lf11uu'legrounds_ Yesto n's co mp lex 1Il 1l1ltlJ.:' which Illl'l ric leve! i, eo nY d arm o ny lo play a m ajor rol e in deler ( ' S · , . 1I SI ered d o ' J ...\( Il ¡ ~a Y '1n a na lylic loollha t o lli I~ m.a n l. . o~es views the sys lem as lu m o / lIIelt'r, ers o nly hmlted mSlg hl illto ' I " , a Ura percep ( ' O! dOll s liJt'o ry prim - ./ T' UOS il I)( Iivisio ns ca ll"d an' y em p hasizcs bd ' b su Ivisions of the trad,',,' /b • .... mICro ealJ a h o na eat 1.'.';;"'1' 'lIul rhythm , TiJe hierarch y ' w~~ lh ~ p~mary. basis for his hie rarchy (Jf 1 , 1 Y oawd, has Iwu main ca te ' . IC IS I l'o re hca lJy ra ther than em ir -o Ilu' ('alt'gorit-,s d t'p l'lld o n variou~ones, ~sua/ a.n d unusua/; d assifica tio ns ¡n t~ .sYSli'lIl ha.s va lile fi ll' lh os" " / ,gr llOllplIIgs o/ ma(To/lf fl l J and meter benl , 1'/ 1' . .... ..' lO 10 OW G . 1 ' , . -, l e I I~l alld a le willing lo disn' mrd tra . .OH, OHS p.~rlJnJlal illslmctio na / s sIIH /PI'. f\-~a tly 1l1l lsid au s, h ow(~v('r ; _,dl tl()(~.l ~ It'rnll I1l.11oJ.{y a nd (:o nc (' ltS~)f nll'h',. I'nlllari/)' in h'l'Ins uf suh(!' 1,1 .~ IUl WIUlIIg lo ¡llInk u f IIlIplt, a nd Itril>le l · IVIS/o ns uf l/Il' ha ~ i( ' 11l" 11 l' I ilUJ Bl'iuk ( /(Itrl) " , '," '. I ti ll.l' , 11' llu,tn y r. . . , . \.', Ullt'S (J ~IH!;J 1011 ' M'VI 'la l o rh" 1 1" 'n' H'('tiv('s: ils llu'. <
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on-üca l ruthcr tha n t'IllJlirka l hil ~ i .~ . i1s fuilure lo uccon uuodau- udequan-ly hlg hcr lev el s o f m ctnc grollpi ugs, " lid lts ín ccnsisten cies wi th m usica l pracli n~ , Rcaders should St'(' ( ;orll o ll (:¿()(10) for a curr ent acconn t 01' bis thcury. Se ra fine (197.1 , P: :t l ) defines met e r as essentially the equiva len ! u f 1>(':11 , upparently in an e ffort tu avoid cu ltural bias as reflected in the proclívity u f uuditiona l western music lo be gro uped in twos o r th re cs. .lon es ( 1!JN!i) algUt'S tha l such a theo ry has little value for co nc eptua lízing mctric m usic ami mai ntains that eq uating pulse wi th m eter adds unnecessary scm an t¡c coufusío n to the rcsearch literature. .I0 nes' s synthc sis of his theo re ücal analy scs is tha t "metn c gro upi ngs occur al thc leve l 01' the baslc beat, as we ll as at le vels 01' subdivisío ns a nd m ult íples uf that bea t" (p. 54). H e no tes virtua lly una nim ous agreeme nt about t1H' fn '· q lle nt inconsistcncy of m eter signat urc s wit h meter a nd rhyth m percr-püun a mi pe rform an ce a nd suggests exploring the relationship betwcen lt'l1Ipu an d meter pcrccp tion. Madsen, Duke. a nd Gcringcr (19 N6) ex am ined 100 m usicia ns' 110 lt' pl' pf~ ('ft'nces for exccrp ts of eig ht relativel y famil iar orchestral wo rks in wh k h dIJI" no les, \."hich o rd inari ly are subd ivided into th ree, were p resented a l orig" ina l tem p i a nd at tem pi 12 p er cen t faste r o r 12 percen l slo we r. Excerpts purposd y we re am biguous rega rding w hether a typical lislener like ly wou ld fel'! Ihcm in a fast three o r a slow on e. \ Vhen le m p i we re fasler, su bj ects lt' ndetl lo se lcct the doUed no te a s Ihe beat un it; when te m pi we re slower, th ey te nd· t'd to se lect lhe subd ivisio n o f the d otted note as th e beat un it. T hese results sllggest that tempo is a p rim ary va riab le in deter mini ng beat 1I11i ls ami nlt'l· rk grou pings, At faste r te m pi, listeners te nd to do more gro uping; a t slo w('r I('mp i, lhey tend to respond to smaller me tri c un its. Appare lllly thl' s'lIlH' I)I'rn 'pt ua l phe nomen on obse rved fo r tempo pc rccption operates fur llleh' r 1)1'1 (,('plio n_ Blltle r's (1992) o bservali o lls a bo u! how mu sicians tap pol p h)"l hm i,' 1'011 It'ws sllch as two·again st-t h ree, th ree-aga inst·fou r, o r two -agaill "l fi v(' againsl-sev e n, whic h in e fTect are akin to cro ss-me le r pa tle rn s, rt'I1('1"t .. ~ ¡ lIl ¡ lar pheno menon. H e nole s that when respondents an' fan~d wilh llH IlI' n nn p l (~ x pa uern s, the)" lend to ta p a long w ith Ihe slo wt-'st sln 'alll_ 111' a lso ohse rves thal respondents "are facile at shifting from o ne rhyth mic II'\'('I lo :Inother'" (Butlcr, p, If)() ) , l't'rha ps the work of D rakc alHllwr fo lleilb'1.les, discllssl'd previo llsly, hold.s tllt-, must pro m isl' for lI11 derslan ding- response lo 11I11sic's met l"ic stn u:ltlll', \ Vhilt, Ihey 1" l'(~Ob'1 liz l' lhat 111 0s1 lislPnn s spo nta nl'o w.ly li )C ll S 0 1] tl'm pora lly n 'gula r ('Vt"llts at tia' btOa l ll'vj' l O O ll " ~ 's It'l('rcnt It-' vd), t1w y dClllomtrah'd Ihal rt'spull sl' lo Ilw lrir SlllU IUII' h hil'la rd lica l. \ Vilb inn('a St'ti lIlusir a l l'x¡I('ric Il(" (' a mI so p !lb lk alio lJ, I¡' lr lll't ' h'lId l'd lo fe l('us 011 higlH'r 1('v('I... 01' lllt'lrk . .ln H"luw (JOIH'S\ IOl';t1 a ll" ltd lllK)' '1'111' ItIPo ry n lllsil!('rs n 'spollst'... lo
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IIIt' h igl lt' r Il'V(+'i 'l\ II'lIl'¡ Ull ~ 111 1111 1' Olil 'lllt'd cug n ilive p ro n'sSill¡'; .un l lt ' ~pOll Sl' S a l a k-vr-l Iu-tuw ílu- Idl 'I" 1I1 Il'vl'l (a l s ubdivisions uf the h t'a l) . l' l't'I1t'('l ing un ulyt¡c allp n tlin¡.; , A n 11111'0I1 a ll1
/(/'y" "" Groups \\'lti lp Ih e ah ilily lo group iso ch ro nou s beat s into mete r and lower k' \"I 'I, 1I1111l'lt 'r illlo higlll' r levels appears to depend p rimari ly un te m p o an d thl' I l ~ It'lIpI'S lllllsical ex perie nee, lh e abilíty to grou p noniso ch ronolls m usk al ellll II lle' ll t'vpn ls in tn rhyl hm p attems ap pears to b e a funetion o f severa l V¡IIi .I I III ' ~ . MIIIIl' (If whic h relate to m us ica l stru cture an d olhers o f which rel alt ' 11' 111 1' Ii' !t'l u ' r's e xp eriences. As Oavies (1978, p . 197) no le s, rh)'thm gro u p s ''¡III' p rOI /l'l lit·s (lf p cop le, as well as musical so un ds." While lhe musica l stilllu li lila )' l it' g nlU pt 'd o bjective ly in a givc n way, th cy nevcr rc any are grou¡lt'd 1111 lil p plt"l'i vt'<1 as such b ecau se perce ptual grou p ing uhimately is a p sycho Il lg ica 1 llllt'IHun elllm . ~ I o hoda ( I!JH5, pp. :HI-:{O) m ainl ai n s that p ereeptio ns of d urationa l pOli It'l'll al t' m/rg(}riw!; ¡.c ., cxperie n ced Iisteners tc n d to p erceive aurally pll' M'nlt'd rh yth m patt l'm s (as v,'e11as pi tch p altems, di scussed in C h aple r (i) in lo wlq':flr ir,{ w llsislcI11 wilh previou sly exp e rienced rhythm ic (a nd p itch) gro up ings, lit, draws a n a na loh'Y to lh e manner in which peopl e, appare ntl y uní v('..sa lly, tlr hran ize b asic speech so u nd c1asses ca llcd "'p hone mes" inlo pt'l n 'pl llal (~ atl'go rie s . A lth ough a given p h oneme' s so un d s may var)' sligh lly .. n'U ~ s lIlu ltip ll' hl'arings, peo p lc perceive th e h earings as the same a nd a ~ flllldio n all y eq u iva le n!. As with all cases af ca leg orical pere cplion. S O Il Il' lll'x¡b ilily in slilll lllus boun d aries allo ws p lacem ent u f slightly differcn l stim n ll \vilhi n iclentical ea tegorical boun daries, 'Ji l sup po rl t:a lego rica l pereep tio n, S lo boda ei!t's d ata lnd ica ling tha l ¡UT U m il' Pl' lTl'plio ll u f slig ht d c via lio ns fn un m usind lh ylh m is q.. i l t~ d ifficll h a ud lIolt 's Ihat pt 'rfoflllt'rs ra rdy ilre a b le lo illlil alc' a nol ht'l" s Ilt'rfonnall(,C exud ' ~'(p, :U1). S lo h o c!a d les S lprn llerg, Kn oll . ¡1Il1! í'. u ~ tl f~ ~>· (llIH:l), who sh(l\w d
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r. Ül c Irse dít cre !lee s 1 , I '. ouucs Hrst. routsc, nble in ad d itio n lo categ o l'lca »11 be partly responsr e, 1'111 t'S muong tunes ma Y . , ·l ougly sUI'110 1'1S I'VIIOIl , . al h thm perccptton s r l .lnrkc's ( I !H~7 a) study o f catego[\~a r h 'lh m gr o upS is ea tegorica l. I le '-llllh Ul la's assertioll th al the p crceplUln o I rd~ sequences in which lht~ dura, d ts with sh u rl m e o le , 11 ' 1 toncs varie d sys te¡n ¡lhC<1 Y 1111'\1'1111'<1 10 m USle 'stu t enan d an le-p e nu lhOla e . 1 U nl l ' u f the penu \ tim a e . ) da '" \ duratioll ra tio , Wlt 1 scvt'n , I (1-1 rati o an .. . '1'1 l ll'lwt't'n t'q u a\ duratn ln v a ue s . ' r 1\ 'l h er 1: 1 u r '1: 1 rallos. lG f wlllch co n or¡ne( o el 1 I 1 ¡II II 'I'v('ning v alues , nolle o . d 1 o rde re d sf.'q uenccs )(~ o ng t'( , d h th r van o us1y ran 0 01 Y l' ' , f _ull'II'('IS indlcale w e e d d " ' .m aled b el \'"It'l'n u'p lt~ a tl o n s o ,1 r las s an tScnm .' ' , -k111 11ll' '1: I or lh e 1. ra lO e h ' d l·fi .. tion 'md d isennl11lall01l 1,lS s ta fmm boll en 1 lea ' , 1 l· ·1' '. , d a real c::1Il'gU[\Cil 11>; 1111 , 1i ' l'd Sl'llllcllces. a 1" 'd thal subjects p e re e1Vl' I ' 1'1 1Ivitlt'd slro ng eVt c nce s C larke sugg ests th al "we I' I'H'pivt' t I Hit Un u IIl'IW('en lh e two rhythm ty pe . b 1 ' lo two basic das~I 's : /'11/'/1 a nd ' n no les ' 1' 1 -1 b t \11111 n ,b lioTls u p s e wee , as eon gm \ g d lh at \ lh e p o sillOl\ ti 1 Il' t.1 , ' r lrie al tlmespan .. - an 1 I" , I ,," f lln¡ {liV ISIOllS l ' ' . d e¡lCnd ent llJl O II I \l' llI l ' l it 11 " o a me I ' n th e two c asses IS t' IWll k al hOllndary 11C ~(,e , l. C la rke a rgu es th at catego rieal pl'ITt'~ 1 It',U IlI1Ilt'xt" {C larke , 19 H7a, p . 30 I 'ts 0 1' eve nls frol1l IU Il\slrtl( IUI.11 , 'senlial slOlctura UO! 1IIl1lWS o lle tn scp ara te es , 1 ' in varianls (l j ¡crccJ!fl/(J I ( () 1J IfX I , 1I .' 1 ' rs th e lorme r 10 l e , I Illlollnatl0l1. e COllSl( e , ' n formatio n. H e m ainl a lllS 11al lVl ,lIItl lh t' \aUt'r lo includc th c l x p rts S I
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..J lI ~1 a.. u n-nn ul ' 1\1.tyt Irm 1:>erou , " p s, ,' IIMY Olll'~' , .l ll' h lcra rchic al in th nt Ii .. 1•• s ubs u m e "SUfran' ,.stn •( .' tIl ( ' S "KI Ul 1)" It " . • iste ners ( t l p structures." base 1 . .1 ( I IIS till o largcr and b ,,1 durat ion ul a nu-lodlc , s inül arities between th ¡ l¡a . a ," cxtrum usical in fo rrna tíon (T h • a, we a, se ruin al wn rk of reasoníng an d C homsky's ('1957
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Iln str uct ' , l l .J , \) 0 : . " ! thec reücal system f . m e, m langu age (,, 1 a n un derlying m usical co u, conee,vmg mu sical stru cturcs as out u e" introduc tion 'o und a o, UrlrxL ) Sloboda's (1985) text is ro';lhs
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attem pts lo mod el hiíerarchical s . . \\' ' ,lllII}owcll, , t .st, a nd C ross (19" _) . p crccptual structuríng of mu si . fivr- " , . , n,'} p rovide a ¡I . USIC exíst. t gt m r.1I obsc rva tions and o n exe.c e nt revrew, and the .
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(p:e~_~ ~:~e) .i~e~fiebP ri nci~¡es dev;I::;':~:
structure fo r ove rvlev.. . of 'h elr o servatiu ns and . . p lnhc l les tll'lIl1 111slra lc n -Ievance t \\- a t su.ch mo dels are trying 'o aee pn TI . o pe reepll on an d .. omp " am i , l,t'll" rirsl obse rvation is tha l anyth . ,cob"hn ltlVe organization of music IIM . mg In t e . m usic thal can be percelVed .. Y IIl lhll'llce perceplUal gro upmgs Ne'th ~1ll.rH',~ gl."llllping and hie rarchical 'r 1,. e~ pltch ,nor rh}t hm alone de terIlIIUl lllóltlull ma y connict a d ' o gamzatlOn; dlfIere nt sorts of ' '."" .S ,,, ' 1 . . n mleraeL Second r I . m",ICal c'lll('rgl' . 11: mu sical encount er. \Vhatever ' 15 ? n ng prior cxperi0 1 Istt'ners must be . o rga mzaho nal com ,..., ,, ,,,,,lIy me.", in 1 l m leTms or " ales, id iom, rh th pone n's 1 1 ,lll
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illu11lt'cl ilóltt'ly 0 1 1 l'i'{ '( hit'I"'ll"el, . • y, A com pu '(• , dc' assl . a musie ,.n a d e tatled 11 1011 l"C'pC'ó1h'<1 lish'ning We" H " 11 s lstinclive [ea tures may .h , we . . ... uwe and C s' s e ange wit h· , " 0ll¡.:al¡lllz'blllollal slructlll"C resulti ng 'from aprot . fourth observation is that Ihe s 1011 ( l' vl'rillable in tcnns . P ym~ a model to a articula . - , or ,,,.,.I....en..es should be beh a!.o" . " n"'xI ma y innu ene e , une:::': I IClable: Finally, extram u' ieal or hi::o:' g,;,,' .e''[ly se nsible ph...' ing or wh ' . group mg, as when Iyries deman d r SI option,. en mstrumen tal ehameleri'tics re, 'ri e' ::: :
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11,,·n I" .s' sl>ccifie I" inei le is I . P :111<1 hori zlJllt¡11slm ctures hat ~nodcls mu st account [or both - ' lIls a noss lime. Scc" n ' el,cagoo uscdmU v('rtJca c'vc' 1 • co SIC n" oflen. involves a string o r eone" rre n'l 1: lI1Uat~o ll. pro xim íl)', sim ila rit . ::n l)'_ syltlmetry, and r:om m g ( " '" " h p.sy,ho loh'Y.''' co nld groul".n pd ncip les "4 ' . c3nl l>.lrl 0 1 a nUllld e . lrJolHllI lill ioll (l f slim u ' - . , . .roupmg is sug• " 1 1111" Il ll'illl lll '" , .. -'1,1 1 " ¡" nin¡¡:: 111" " ' )'. r " ti p
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hi~I",' hier areh ieallevd s. " \lo"'in" nl" eve nts wilhiu a lurge r glO" p. s" ch
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''' '.''nOS. dynam ics, m p ro"" ueno pilehe , . muy " ,I",une o,!".r eve n's " nd be "duminant," or olher evenlS rnay subsume thc r n iota a higher -ordl'r gro up , A leu b"hy seque nee of sounds may be [u st o nc glOupiug al 'he highesl Ievcl, whih' mure and m or e subgr o" piogs exisl al increasingly lower hierarc hiral It'vels. One uf the musl claborate mode1s. inspircd in part by psycholing uislícs " ud granunar, ts that of Lerdahl and Jaekendo!f (198:1). Tbey p roposc four on h¡e, arehieal eompone nOS (ra tber like conceptua l skelel , ) in ihe , ITUe,m e of " ",nsica! co mpositio . E"entially, the eomp onenls díffcr in th eir or g"u i,.a· n 'i"n al bases. ·1"'0 eomponenOS, m,'rirol , Iruelu" and grouping slrurl"". priu" , rily ar e concem ed with duratiou al stru cture . whcreas the othc r IWO """'1''' m'n iS. lime-span reduction and pTolongational Ttduction, fOCll S o n piteh ts strll(' Im es. o r rekvane 'o the p r",en ' d iscussion , grou/,ing ..lr"'tuTe sllgge s ,1"'1 e ,1... contino ", , Ire am or mu sical evenOS ;, segrnenl ed_ rrom ,h,e"- or 1"",,.venl (nol o) motive, inlo phra, es and la, ge r section, . Ce rtaiu mks 0111". e J aekendo!f tb eory, wrll-form,dnrss rul" . whieh ' pe ciry Jlu.UlM, I A.rdahl and str\letUTCS. and prtference TUleS, which designale th e probable strncturcs that likd y lo confom, 10 lhe way experieueed li, leoe" organize lhe musie, goV,.,." gronp ing ,lru eluTe' . T he prerere nee rules spe eily principi es Ih al app" "r ,,, g" v" rn Ihe ",lab li,hme nl or gro up boondarie, - They inelude principies 01 (a) p roximily and ehange; (b) paralleli, m, whieh , lales Ihal mu si",,1 seg", ur" euts ,o",tru"d a' parallel , hoold hold eqoivalent in lh e grou pin g slruel s ; a",\ ("j sym melry, whieh suggesOS pre lerred , ubd ivisions and grollping or s"g-s ,,,,.uls inlo twO parts or eqllal !ength . In e"ene e , Lerdahl and J ack" nd " n ' , " les reeogo Ibal both non du ratiooal a, p ec" 01 m usie,,1 slfllct",e. slld , '" il e "o"".k, artieulation, dyn am ics. and regis'ratio n , and more glob al coonsi,Ie, n ic ,, ¡¡o \lS, such as sym m etry an d motivie, thcmatic. rhythmie. a ndntloll h an ll p'lI ' " Ud ism, Illay ¡nfluence gro uping stm clure {Le rdahl & J ackc , l!Un , pp .
;'Ifl~
¡;{-Harela !l5). (l!Jí 9) recognizes t\uce elements uf a rh yth m ic group : upht'al U I OIn anusis. accent, and afterbcatand J ackendoff p reft' l' ¡lit' ( l ' l l\l " n"crusis over upbeal and def", e il hroa dly lo inelude Ihe "' pan I""n '1... of a gr oup lo 11". slronges' I,,·a' io a gr o" p" (p . :lO). Au ,...,·ell' . " ¡,,.u rerm a son lClllTaI ,,,·,,·u' I,,·,·,," se il n·sults rrom som e nonme"i",,1 ,-v\'ul such ed as pi' ch, dynami'·s. " r ,,·x,"n·. ,,·n.·...' Ihal rucal poi nl ,,1 a rh y,h ", lo wh ich 'he " v" nls ,,[ 11... '" '' '' " "is I'''¡o'' ¡·' ,II" wing Ihe ace" n' a' " 11... , hy,lun b".olll'·s al....rlo"a' . wh id , 1, ·,, 1.,101 ""d J "ke ud olT lu ere, 'o , all ll...
l~rdahl
be~inning
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undjnck cudo ff Is vluu.dl y 11l 11l' '''¡¡\1P II I, a lld if cogniüve tlu-or u-s uf m usical processing are Iu g aln lllld uuunt.nu cr ed ibiluy, they m us t he valid au-d empiricully, A n ()OVillll," lilllilalillll ,)1' lllt' I.erda hl and Jackcndoff theo ry is its fonua list basis, i.c., irs St '{' llI i ll ~ « vr-n-mph usis 0 11 mu sical strucm rc at thc l' xpl'nse o f co nc em for UIH I{'rsl.ul(li llH: rhc psyc ho logical proee sse s involved. A hh ough thc b ulk o f research 011 coguiuve proccssing o f m usie has bcen runcem cd wit h melodlc ra ther than rhyth mic processing, a lirn ited a mo u n t n I' rescurch concerníng perception of rhyt hm grou ps exísts. a nd studies provnlíng dala re levan t to so rne of th e va ria b les unde rlying rhyt hmi c grouping nn- ex an uncd here. Drukc' s (1998) theory, whi ch overcomes sorne of th e Iimi ta tio ns of formallst th co ries such as that o f Le rdah l and Jackendoff, focuses on the 1" Ill'eSSes in volv ed in temporal organizatio n of m uste. Resid es th e proee sse s 01' baste tem poral regularity extractio n and hiera rchical met ric orgunízatio n discusscd in th e previous sec tio n , she id entífle s 1\\iO p rocesses rel ated lo rbyt hmic g roup ing: segmenta/ion in/o groups, \\ihich she co ns id ers a basi c P IOl"t' SS, ind t'penrlenl of age 0 1' culture, and most likely uni ve rsa l, an d hierarr/lim/ ,I" gtllm /a/;on organiza/ion, which in vo lves int egration of sm all bas ic ~ lO lI p ~ illlo i ll eH~as i ngly larger units-ult imatcly who le phrase s and en tire pil'I" s, TlH' !alter process invo lve s co m plex hi gher levcl grouping Ihat 111'1ll'ól I'S lo va ry with age, m usic al ex per ienc e, and cultu re. She maintains Ihat IlO' l' aI1Iln);Kh d iffer s from th at o f Lerdahl andJackendoff "by proposing realtill ll ' pl'ln 'pllla! am i cog nitive processes th at contlibu te to the cr eatio n o f 111" \1' w lllp lex represcntatiolls'" (D rake, p. l¡). H er lh eory emp hasize s p m r r ,H r,1 illvolvl'd, no t mental rejJrcJenta/;ons o f a perceived structu re. 1hak(' J"('p0l1S btl th pe rceptu al and petfo nnance d ata to su p po rt he r Im 'akdowII bl'lwl'l'll hasic segmenta/ion a nd hierarchical segmenta/ion organiza/;flfwl lt,\'('ls. For a sim ple re producl ion ta sk, she re ports data showing tha t I1V I',}'{';¡r,o ld s, se ven-yea r-o lds, and ad ult nonm usician s and m usicians ma d e I'Ssl'ulia lly Ihe same syste m alic liming d istortio ns (len!,'1hening a time intel"val) 1)('IWI'l' lI LJasic rh ylh m groups. In a relaled perceptual task designed lo ,ho \\' Ihat Ihe limi ng di slo rtio n was percep tual rat her than motor, d at a ('Vt'all'd t1ml subjecls eo uld more easily deh.-cI lengthening uf time inl ervals \'ilhi ll hasic rh}'th m paHerns tha n bct wee n rhy th m palterns. 'li) d t'lIIu nslralt' tha l musical experience inOuences hierarchical segme n ta iOI1 o rga nil.at ion, she askerl 1:2 youog violi n ists to leam a no vel p iece over a \'{'·w ('{'k periodoUsing "relative lengthening o f eve nts" during perfonna nu ' s IIU' Ilasis for idt'nti fying pen:eptual gToup ings, a n llllparison o f th e mea n mill g p rofil es rewaled dram atic d ifferences in rh )'lhmic ¡"'To up ings betweell "('(· k om' .ml! wt'l'k five . Th e v io linists eSSt' lllia lly di \'id t'd lh e :t l- measure ¡" I't' illlo e ighl fOllr-nH'¡¡Sllrl' seb'l ne n ts in wI'!'k 0 111', hu I h )' \\'t'ek five, they t'ad)' d ivilil'd Ihe pil'l'l' into Iwo J(j'n1l'a surl' \ "~ lI \1' lI ls, \\ hil"ll J) r;l h ' cilcs as
. ' , I i a l SI ' 'lt ll' lltat io n as a n-suh Ill llltlsit";II I'XIW. ,·1 , I' YI )OI IIl'.\l' s uu: 1I t'1' (ltoti , t'v itil' llCe u f lllcn ' asl,d IlIt'1.1I 1 1 \ ". ~ 1 . 1 ' 1 "-I IU"I tes ts l ) I U . r;I'I1CC , \\'h ile shc C;¡lllw W¡ I 1.'1 1 '. , . b mt SO IlW m ies ulll kdying hier shl' maintains that her da la .~'a l s,I'. ~ II I:;~~;; I::~ i~n~ilia·r 1l11ISk . alThical stn lctures of bolh 1,lIllllhlr , 1 -u r m uy be oVl'rridden in perv"l " . -htch SO\1 1ll s oc cur uw r v . I 1 \ The tempera ore er 1Il w . ' A d"'ory d ream se1rreg(/l iufI, in whl c t .. f h ythm patt erns. u l . b L . r tllal o rga nlZatHln o r , lt -ous p atlerns u n thc ua srs (1 , . .. 'd into tw o SllllU ane ,. . auditory Input 1S orgamzl' . al order a nd rhyt luuic jUSIOIl , 111 th r th an stnet tcmponn vrvv' v . n lln mon ele ments ra e _. mclodic rhy lh m s, are inler eslllIg which alte rnating tones forro two scparate , . -hich not uoeommon In muste . ' ,. ruscs o f rhythm ..... 1 ar,e b ell (1971) presentcd a sho rt cy cle o f SIX . tI.llIes When Bregman and Camp ld th ei su biects in va riably d l\'ld t'd \ w) at a rapl rate, err J . h d (111H'e high an t ree o h b " f frequency. Th e patl ern s arut . 'treams on t e as rs o . . thc seq ucnce tn to tw o s . 1 d I mcnts in the sum e su bjet'tl\'{' íved those wh ích re ate e e \ an), per ce l\'c were . d d thc Ireque ucy d ilTere nce atu p n 's· " 1 .pli t dep cn e 00 e 1" 1 slream . 1 he pereep tua s . , . d less differ cnee bet wl'l'n \l ~ I r-nuuio n rate ; faster prese~tadtlon raltes" reeqa""~i~g erfee !. d'r to m uc e Ile s r . ,, " i1 l1ll low tones 10 or e h b " f fre q uc ncy diffcft'n ces IS nlOll f noo t e aslS O Aud ito ry stre am segre ga 10 d d" t FrequencV glides bctWl'l'll IIIt' Iscre e , 1 I " re short an h likdy whe n t e tones a , " "h' eh makes Ihe lempo r;:¡ 1 O H el . '\lit io a contlO\11 y ..... I Iones and longer tone s res nr g (ll re gm an & Dan nc nb n. ng, {'asier to follow and discourages str eam sp I 10 1!17:-l), b ' lh eir w ork in part on th e Ilwmy nI' Rose and Moore (2 00 0), as lOg h d "l ry stre.lm scgre gatio n l!m' 10 • " (1996) SUlnTeSt t at au 1 0 Heallvo is and ~le d d IS . , 00 d h " r\ap uf exeitali on patlcrns o n . ff _ t1y d ep en s o n t e U"i' e frt'q uc ncy d llle rences par h d" " '-e'.. . e en pcaks o r ¡h ose p altl 'I"Il S. d/ or t e Ista ncc u .. Ihe b asilar meffib raoe ao . b dan"es Ir the frequen c)' St'IMr;:¡ " f Y separ atlOn o un · . . 1 lh lhe fission brwntlary, th t' hSt1'1U'1 Tlt ey iden tlfy twO requenc . ,' Ve so und s 1S ess an I l;llll bctween SlleceSSI , ' . gre ter Ihan th e /("'Imm '1 ' Ir the se pa ra tloo IS a , ;tlways he ars a sm g e slrcam. 1" 1 ys hears sc para le stn'ams , \\ 111'11 , " " b d ry the Istener a wa rohrrence or fiuSlOn aun a , f 11 b lhe sm aller fission hom\( ;11)' . , d 'ff ' rences a clween . 1" su('cessl\,e frequenc} 1 e . , r m ay not e xpen elK{' ; HU l ' aul! the larger fusian bound ary, th e hsteo er m a} o lo.-y strcam segregatio n. h 1 " " " ., bv p rcsenting to nl' St'q llt' IKI'S, "0 ) 'Il t ted r vi muc IlSSl 0 1 , . ,. 9 ( Dowling 1 !Jo \ us ra I " 1 " o slr" cted so that {[('qlll' lle }' I I ' • " d w 1lI e 1 Wl'f(' ( O . al ahnlll 10 tones per seco n , . I 1,",\,- dirrerelKes b('twl'ell aiter• f 10lW S W(' I(' IlrJ!,f W . 1 fNeu ees bet wecn SUC(( .tJIV . " "' I ",.n o ng' altern ating Io ne s of t U~ 11 r-.l 'Io d y \\'as I l' I'{ e l , . . titIle Iones were sma, I , ... 11 , ...... he n observl'rs Wl'l'e (hu'd · . d f - 'lIt'\/ I·m.-t' ,'SI)( 1 1,\ } . sanlt' inlenslty an rLl¡llt 1 , ' li l . ,. 111 ''> allt l slt'l"eo p ho nic sl'pa ral1011 t'tI in thd r Iislc ning. Inlt 'u '>ll )' 1 I ' 1 1 . . ' . " . 'l " '1IlI'lll" \ I!l}llllllll h 'l \ llm . . , bt'l wc en ti\(' pa tltlll S S .II n¡.l, (IIJT I) _I.II\\'I'll ll.al Iwo fami liar lllt' lo tlw s r01' I Il ~ 't In a lat t'r sllldy, J)m 'iiIll¡.l, . ' I ," ,1 " '·" s) ",,'1' illt'lIlifit,d t'aslly . ('" 11' " " ,.\.,.\ 111' " " by altt'l'nal;lIJ; SIllTt'SSIVI· 1 1Il" ' ~ t
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11 \'1' I "11 \ \ 11' 11 lh.. lw 1 I lVIII'u " CI 1Il(' O( ¡(-'S ' fn 'IIUl',.ey , 1 I'I IIII ' U I ) ' r ru • I . rang os ( ,O ;¡ lhu ug h /iS!Cll l' rs G III I I 'ul.;, 1 '",' " 1 11 OVt·r1ap. lhe tusk is m ore di JIie,,'! kn 1/ • .1 , Il lll 1;11 1111" I if¡ . • o w H' mdody in , .dvm ll '" AII, , I¡ 111 Y I II IS Prc spectñed Le th..)' n"f g . ue- 1I1 II' S W J • ", .... (':.1 1," quarter no tes all d (Il"l rll'r n 'sh '11'] , ;;rl' ,. u-red lo a rhy th m uf alte r1~;.t·l~ J('a ved~ m~'odil's) wen<;1 r.l ~. {"(~Ill.bihncd tonal seq uenccs le orgamza tJon of aud ito ' ,_ . ' a e o elg 1 Iones pe r seco ml s(·,.)a ra ll·d fn 'q uen cies m a ' strcum s 1.'; ('( ~Il lext d{'pcn dc nt ; e.g. wid l' rIOI.~t'S, ' 1\\'0 (Jrganizationa~ pr~n';i~;:: strea~ If other st imu hn elem~n~ :r~ ~ I'/IJ,,}(~[a l p roximity, may co n Jliet. Bas~c:~I~ o ~~menl sim iJa rity a n d e ne o f 11 1 Sll( 1 a m an ne r th a t demen ls wit h í ' au rto rv stream s appea r to Iorm (!\.IeN a " y & H an deJ, 1977). rn a stre a m a re m axim ally sim ilar ¡\·1udl sIJeeulatio o and lim ', d '1'111 ' I e resea rch hay id • 1 ru s are Illore easily pcr ' d ¡ e Co nSI ered Whether rh -th IlId ivid ua l c1aims regardin eelhv~ In l.solalio~ 0 1' in a tora l m usical eo~ m /"('wa rd . , . g w ich preSen tatlo n de ¡ rex t. I , 1 vppa ren tly IS in conclusive S ' k' ( IDO e IS easrer va ry, a nd t JI ' 1'!Jt'('l uf Co nlex l yíelds no I . In s W8.':J) summ arv of researeh l'IIIlIl'Xl. I'l'tzold (N CC) . e ear-cut co od usion rega rd ing th IT' on . , ' ) 1 ,eported no sigm' fi. di e ellecls of 11 1I'~ lo perfo rm rhYlh m pau Ilea nl IfTerenees in ehild rc n's b'/ Il'xj ' I [' / ems presen ted in ' d' al s, 1111 .a lriclsso n (197'Jb) d M me o le 0 1' mOnolo o ' , I ' ao oog (urc }) b le eo nU I~ 1 101 1.lIId o d ic info nnat io n int erfered ', /' ot h re ported d ata suggest_ 111 /011110111111I . Buisen (1981) h . \'11th th e proee ssing of rhYlh ' dI . t ' f I . ' O"'ever reported ' m le I ( S o /l ll ' odie eo n text on 2 207 ' no S!a tlslicaI1y sign ifica , " '11111" / • J ' sev enlh nin th d' n ,1 JI U b'lllt' llts of rhyt h m ' " a n e even th b>raders' le 0 1/)(,,- halld, .sehellen berg and M eom p le teness o r ineomple teness 0 0 P,C' he '11I I r:7 ODre (J (85) d ' , ( ,) llonlTlusic maiors' m r ' re porte lha! 57 musie m ' , 11'1' f ' 1 em o ry lOr rh yt h m t aJors 0 1 !lalt erlls p n -'S<' nted in a m elod ' pa terns was signifiea n tly bet. ()I JVIlIll 'i I) ' data ' Id le eon texl. ,. ' ' co u val)' for man , . I~< I 0 1 ('(Hlle"'l is not sim ple. In a IT' y re as ons, bu t JI ap pea rs thal the m a tSlIlk ( IWn) . d ' o ellort lo examin ' lh ' ,1 - . ,\ 111 led lh e efTeets o f 'h th. e e ISSue syslem atiea lly I Iyl hlll d h:simiJarily J'Udgm enl f l . Y ~Ie and melodie alte ra tio os ' lit ' 1' r . s O um ve rsJty . on I .1.lflllS rnd uded l1l on o (on M - 'h m.usle sluden ts, H e r melo d ' .Iu' 1I.w d nirlt' rhy th mic ah Y s aped mclo d les, and V' shaped m 1 d ' 'e lil ' l / e ra I•.lo ns Her re suh . d ' e o les; ~ • l' Iy t 11Ili<: a ltefatio ns arreet di ss; '1 . . s 10 leat ed th at bo th m elodie lo g<J in furlll er info rm- r m I anty Jud b'll1en ts. , . , -. <J Ion reg ard iog , h yth . . 1I og llJZllig rhyt h m 's muhid i ' . m le Ju dgrnen ts Sink ( 198 4) iO/l",1 I m cnslonah ty with ,· . • ' -, • s rU('Iure, in vestig al"d Ih ' n n ' ,. . . • . e 1Il uen ' f ( ) . m USle s broad m ull,'d Imen111 110! Y pro<:essing uf monot . , e~ o a stnl elura l aspects u nderl . "11I ' , DO/e me o d ,e-rh)'lh . Ylllg 1I.\lC H l'xpe ril' llces 'J U ' . nll c paUe rn s a nd (b) , I ' 1) ' . . 0 11 , o 11I1I \/l'l'slly .. , . , se ('el lK 11II1'I1 Slon s id l'ntifi<'d po SS I'b' e o rgmus.le slud l'lHs l'hyt hm ic pnre'..... 1 " , , • _. 'l . . f · .,s 1 ~rl 1'1, t{'mpo, /llt'll',., rh}'th m ie . , .. 1.1IZI' IS " I'hYlh lllie info rma lil)f) UbJI,(·tS l'xpl' ril'lllia l varia iJll's l'x:un i IP:I ~I~ 1J ~¡ng,r , " lid llll' /od il- paUern i/lg. H 1 Il Jl ti C 1'" 1' 11\ 1'1 1111/1' l'Xpl'd t'lIel', lis-
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u-ning habits, a m i mu sk'ul pII 'II'I I'Il( l'S, Sínk's d a la sugg cs t Ihal ll' ll1/ IO , durution and pilch churu cu-rís tlcs, mclodic a m i rh y thmic p h rasc paneming, ami monolony are o rganízers o f rhythmi c pnx'essing. M aj or pc rfonning inslru men t a nd cl assi flca tio n of maj or perfunni ng instrumen t also a ffcct thc ím po rtancc c f particular dímensions sígnilica n tly, Analysis of va rianc e data revea led a slig h t c ffcct o f "generic sty ie" ruus¡c listcníng preferc n ce , m u síc coursc ex pcr ie n ces, and hours o f music lisn-ning. Sin k co ncluded th at "the im portance o f eaeh organizer for su bj ects depended in part e n the objectíve ordering of rhythmic a nd to nal ín fc r r nation , and in pan 0 0 pa sl musie e xperiences. particularly instrumenta l tr ain iug" (p. I!lO). Gabrielsson's (197:{a) earlier multíd irnensio nal a nal ysis of the d im ensio nahty o f rhyth mic paUeming a lso revealed that le m po was a p r ímary di me nsion in simila rí ty and dissir nilarlty ra ñngs. Hi s anal ysís a lso suggested tb ut pauem denstty, whie h he label cd "rapidity," was an o ther u nderly ing di mcn . sion for p roccs síng m elodic-rh y thmíc pauerns. lt esearch b y D uke (19 9 4) furth er su ppo rts tempo's im portaoec in sim ila rily a od d issim ilarity jud gmen ts. Using :l/lO thircl-, fourth -, an d firth-grad l' chil dn'n a nd HO unde rgraduate o onmusie majors as subjects, Duke asked sll1.· jects lo make sam e/ no l same judgmenls COI' paired perfo rmances 01' fo ur-beat Iwo 'p itch rhyth m pane ro s. Experim en tal test items eo m prised pa irs in whkh Ihe sa me rh yt hm paltero was p rese nte d at a d ifTerent tempo_ Conlro l ile ms includ cd pairs in whic h id enlieal pattern s were prese nled al lhe sa me tem po :Illd pairs in w hich di ffere nt patte m s were p reseoted at th e sa me tempo. Dal
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17H und D ruke ( I!J!Ix) all"1111'1 lo "11' Olll p , I ., ~ ti\\' effects of such strnrtura l a nd ex perime n ta l vuriahh-s. Iml .• )'JIlk ll hllk, «m piricn l va lidation of suc h th concs is luckin g. pc rh aps Ilt't'am... b o llllill¡.1, ti\(' d f.'rl s u f the m yriad o f variab les Ih'JI undcrhc ho w a listcncr g lOlIl'.' 1I1 )'l h lll puuems is d ifficult a nd co m plcx.
Expre.J.five Timing M usic ians long have recogn ízed that "m usica l," "exp ressi vc," o r "artistíc" performa nce involves mor e than ju st playiug thc right notes a l the right time. Sud , performance, refc rred lo sim ply as ex prc ssive perform an ce in the pre scnt d íscu sslon, necessarily involve s deviatícns fro m m etronomicall y (Ir
mcch a nically regu lar rh ythmic pe rforman ce. The wo rk of Bengtsson and Gubriclsson, usíng rheir RHyrHMSYVARD computer program. provid es ch-nr docu rncntat ton that p rofessio nal rn usicía n s systcrn atically vary th eir pcrfonnan ces from the me chanical norm (Be ngts so n & Ga brielsson, 1980. 1!IX:{; Un bnelsso n. 1973b. 198:l, W85. 1988). Their data sup port the hypoth(..sls tbut "pe rforma nce of musical rh yt hm is characterized by ce rta in syste m alie variat íons (SYVAR) relativc to sorne kínd of no rm " (Gabrielsson, lOSS. p. 70). T IH'ir work provides e mp irieal cvíde nce that mu sician s vary pero IUlmallt ·t'S hy (a) cha ngi ng the tim e ra Lios be tween notated values. (b) placill¡':' lIoll'S IJl.'fore ur a rter undcrl yin g metric beats, and (c) elongating phrase l'lIllill¡.l,S, T IH'Y a rgue tha l such variations enab le both performers a nd liste nI'IS lu t'xp c riellce musica l rh yl hm beyo nd the stnactural level; these va ria(i lltl s hu m lhe mechan kal norm contri but e to the expc rience of the motiollal 01 1111 mllJtümal d imen sion s of rh ythm. In short, the se variations con trib ute to 1lIllSir 'S (·X¡ lrt.'ssivc ness. H('st'a rch 0 11 exprcssive tim ing may be grouped into th ree braad ca tegOl' it's: (..) p lan'mt'nt. duration. and ratios o f ton es within a stru ctural framewOlk; (LJ) t'l'fect of stnacture on expressive Limi ng ; a nd (c) shaping of a rila r' d(Jndo Uf (Jmderando. Thc c1assical wor k uf Bengtsson and C ab rielsson with lile a n~tl m l la n i me nt of the "Vienne se" waltz, which usualIy is pe rfonned with ¡¡ "short firsl beat" a nd a n "ea rly a nd elong-d.ted seco nd be al," clear!y exe mp lint,s rcst·'.lI"ch in the first category. Cabrielsson maintains that the "too ca rl)' SI'('UIHI IIt'at " is not m ea nt lO upset the three-part division of the me asure; ra llH'I', it is lo "('ontribute to thc un mistaka ble m olion chara cter of a Vit'lIIlt'se wa hz" (19N5, p . i! I). Research exa min ing mu sicians' a nd nonmusida ns' pref('re nn's for ve rsio ns of lile Vien nesc waltz accompa nime nt (i.c., with variolls note placem ents and duratio ns on beats n n e an d IWO) revcaled I h a l e xpt'rit'nCl'd mllsician s d ea rly preft'r tht· vt' rsioll that a pprox imaled the 1I0lt ' placelllen ts a nd durations o f lile tra ditiona l "Vit'llIlt'.'W" wa h....u:compallilllt' nt (Bl'lIgtsoll & Gallrielsso n, l !JH:{). Ap pan'lIll)', 1Illlsician s learn II1Iollgh (~x l)(' rit' lI('t ' Ihl' sI),Iislk ully a ppropria ll' 111 "n 11 11'11" t1('vi.lliollS from
" , I1I 1111' l'l'r' . IIIt' notau'c 1 IH JlIll , , ' " I u f system atlc vnr juuonx . ,. ) sllll Ik'n gtsson a nd G ab n els ~ SlIlt.y's Piano SOIlOto it A M OJor ~K ,U I fon na nce of the th cnn- frt ~1II MIII.'lIl . I 'ti tim e va lúes . In perform allt'cs of ",1seve ral devialiolls lrolll l1u'tino tdottc ,1 L d . hll,/ s·, xlccn th / cighlh llot(·S reveu 1~-~ . -elg thc ih eme, wh ich is in G/X m~ter, l le t d first an d third notes and a short, onsistently we re performt~~1 .W lt~ ~ r~~~p:ttems lIsuall y wcre performed .11. elwtl second note, and quarte r elg t d 2' 1 ratio . Pe rforman ce prof,\('s fol '11)t Hlt a 1.7S:1 ratio rath er th an th e nota.de ab' le le ngth enin g of tones in th c , al ea led CO OS I er . 1 1 ." r rhc Moza rt ih emc so rev . thus sugg estiog that musrca p lf ,\Sl1l ¡.l, tlH'mc's foucth and eighth m easurcs,. lari ty in exprcssive m n slca ! pt'r· learly overr ide metronoml c regu ronce m ' C I fonn ance. ' iazz ídíoms deviates Irom notatetl va Tr ad itional rhyth m pe rformance '" J, '. th e dotted_eighth/ sixtt'cnth p 'lt ucs. Perhap s th e m~sl c~mm~~ d~:~~oe~;:en th e notes, b ut in praclit"t' Ilw tcrn . The notation implies a, ~ , l r a.o Rose (19H9) examincd otber aSJlt·("\ s lIt ea rs to be abollt a :l. l rah . b d that beat du rauon ch augvd unrrn app . and o serve I tbc nmmg of a jau . rh}1h m sccn on b s d that individu al onsets ac ross 1 It' .,· th the mu sical contexto He also o serve , '1 r ordcr : The drums nsuully "" . b rred in a slm t a . 1, scc tio n varied in 111~e ut occ~nall . th e b ass. Syslematic variation [rom 1 ¡(. were firsl, th en the plano, and ) t of ·azz p erforman ce style. , i10lalcd norm dearly is an acce?te~ par e u{ . ed with photoceUs measur~l~g Clarke l l9 ~2) used a Bcchslem plano q pp 1 ze th e p erfonn an ce o f Lnk comput er to a na Y' . 1 [ ¡. k d t . . l ' t . '[ h e mu sic conslstC< o lMm "...-'I,cr movement 10 (' oda I muSIC stue en s. .I I Satie's Vexations by two gra ua e. with sorne va riation in or der. Ind lvlt na lhrt>e m easures, pl ayed rcpcatedlYd .rr t tempi with th e restriction tha.1 a '' IH'titions could be perfo rmed at ! ere o'· I'·" " ¡;'xaminiog the relationslllp s ~ . , . d 'th th e repe t . ' ' 1 'sle¡Jdy tempo be maUltam c W I larke observ ed that ph rase length enmg .11\1 ht,twt>en tempo and rhythm . b d ·e' ·, ndicated struc ture am i b"'OIlP .. S,' alTeleration away [rom p hrase oun an d the music int o sma Ile1' , l 'lVI' SIOll upe ings. At slower tem pi, performer~ gr ob e mo re pronoun ced . C larkt: 1"0 11 f hrase length emog eca m . art! . d epend s 00 tempo . r. ' . , , and Iht> effcct o p . duded that rh vthmtc groupmg ~ }' h S t·,e wurk Gnossicn7lCl/O. ,J, e l,u kl . ' ,s nnan ces 01 anot el' a · 1"1 ' n " 'on ch angcs tht' lInt (' 1 YI " In aoalysls ofpeno d 1 f how exprcss t t' " . 1I!IX5) sought to crea te a m o .e . o l , 'rform ance of vanolls b('a l Suhl l\ l "t,'llc.turc of b eats. After exa m lll l1~ g t l~ p~ 1,.., ., performam'c by (a) c xp'lIu l· .• h' , ' SSlo n ca n a ~ , 1 r' 1' , ions he co ncluded t al c xprl. I . . (b) ah ering the It'ngt 1 (1 I\lt I s ., . the int ervall wtwt't'lI W.ltSor ing ur n lOtrac tlOg " 's , ' .. " , ', Jl ult . l . . 1 " , )1" l!l famous \lIalUsls pt I V·,d lla\ not es o r gro ups 01 . 11 \ ·t·lIk l ,111 ,1 YSt s , el k ' ,ns that Slllll)t)rt ' H ' 1' S l\ el'I)'s (l!I!IO) statistlt":1 Y I. 1 , l ' l 1 1' \' 1' ,111'1 1 1,.'II" , , I fUl lllilllt·CS uf a Ht'(,tho \'."1\ 11111111 1 111 111 ela la to sllpport a hypo tht 's\1.I·' \\-,tll k . Althoug,h Ht'p p's nlll'll' ,W ll 1I :, 1I1l . v!th'lIIalic altcratio ll in tlil' dm a' " 11 , ,(·tll\· 111\ ' 1 11\ 1114 , 1 ~ "1\I't'thll\'t'l1 pu 1St', :t 1":' .
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lillllS ofthn-e eVt·Il IIUlI lll·l 111 .11 ' _ '11 11 1 er- vr-tu] mlu-r lx-ar su bdivisio ns, his d al a n-vcu lcd IIU lIIul ed )'ill}o; " BI'I'IIIO\I'll pub ('" inth e I!I pianists' pc rfo n n an ces. l low cvcr, thc mosr PI'OlII iI\I' II 1 Ih)'lhlll ir dr-vin uon be o bsc rved was p hrasc k-ugthcning. pnrücula rly <11 mOll ll'lIls of hannon ¡c a mi mclodic teusíon. wblch clearly exem plifled t'xpn 'ssiVt' thuing . l lis a nalyscs agreed with Chukc' s flndin gs tha t slower pcrfonuances u-nd to emph usizc p hrasc boundunes whilc faste r perfo rrna n ccs tend lo focus more o n other exp ressive dev lutions. l'hrasc lengthc nlng is perha ps the rnost accepted method fo r expressive timin g in mu sical pe rfor man ce. In p ractíce, pcrforma nces by mu slc teachcrs und rccord lngs of p rofessional rnusicía ns provide models of exprcssive rilardandos, ruhaío, and accelemndos Cm studcnts to emulate. Wh eth e r al! m odcls le' 1m " ','"" '.' ,
1'1111 /IIJIIliOlU
l' I'XI I'1 pi lLulll in fO llr n 'nd itio l\s o all . , IllI' applOPll. . . 1 ~1l l' ( . 11 N mUSIClan s asscssme . . . .,' . tlon of mbuto III pl'rfOl llhlllt 1 IS ings disagreed substanh a y. on d oc lohll son co ncluded th ut the. use "" ~l'rc:Pp arating the finest lH.'rfonna lU'I's tan t but sub tle dlmenslon 10 s - _ all tmpo r . ry d i '''' cts of insl l"lldltlll di \ or lila . fmlll tne (11)98) investigate tnc e le " .. f ' In a sub sequen! smdy ~ohu~on rn utc r- 'enerated " pe rfonm ll1r es o .111 íll the use of onset ummgs In co P g t AH perform ance pa nUlU'\t'IS oxcc rpt fro m th e same Mozart ho rn co;~.e::~ trol1ed . Thirty sllbjl,(·tS WI' I~' IIlhN than onse t ümings w~re . com~u ~. the " must musical" pl·rfol"lu'lI11 e rhyt hmic teu den cíes ldentl le 11\ . , . bic cts lIs(~d "'sigllifln l1llly tung I1t th .uc st dcsígn , su j " 1 d th at usage more d osdy rd ect es of the l!l9ti study. In a pretest-pos mol"e mbato in the posttest..p crfo; ance an (,tllhe mudel perfonnan ce (p . ·t, ¡)prt'test-po sttcst dl' sign, .I oh nsu,~ sing a two-grou p, " \\ . , ,No I in anothe r stu dy, u . " 'h m uato II sage. OIlIl:l. ' C': d Ihat one ca n tcac . 11\Hltt'l (:lOOO) further conllfm e 1 II .. program m cd lOto a ('IlI hum Hach's Suite No. 3 for Sol~ Vio o~Ct u~:~ts prep ared a mi rc('Onhod 111'1 · 'mí! both contro l and expen mcnt a. s Ex cr imen tal subjt'cts f(,l't'ivl'(\ a ~'tJrmal1 ces with which the~ wer~lsat~sfie th e 'a~rCgale nf lfi pro fcssioll<.ll t (.¡. lIlodcl aud olher inform ali on re ectl~gh work to practice ¡lI\d innllponll~' lísts' mbato usag e in performa n(c)e ~ ~h: ex perimental grollp's po sth'st 1'('1. tl t perfonnance . n Y in\u Ih('lr po s es . ' 1 ,th the m ode!. . llll'lnanccs corre lated slglll~cant ~ \\ 1 f pressive pe rforma nce r O ll 111l11l ' S lo Expressive timing as a dlmenslo~ o ~ nners a nd resca rche rs. Sp,u'(' pll" Il'(T ive incrcasing inleres l ~ro~ bot p e o O'\\iin bo d y of rcseardl , \llIt ~ (:a( 1 ( lud l's an exhaustivc examl~atlOn ,of lh::;;a ed ~o exa m ine stud ies hy 1 01( ~( 1 c l l'rs dc siring more infor matum a;~ ,e.o 9()2~) aod revil'\\iS by C la rkP (\!I.l: , ( Il l~!i 1!lK9, W92 ) aud Repp (1.U 2a, 1. ·Ij '~2-:') IjO) a nd in I'art IV of Ik sall1 . " " l) l) b ' Gabrielsson (19\)9 , pp . " ,. ' . pp. ·I ! ) ~-·L· : : ) Rh 'lh I'erce/Jtio" alld I'r¡¡duclI0 11• 'IIHI Windsor s (:.1 000 ) 111
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Devclop m c nt o f Hhythmic n ch av io r s . - 1 . . . r'lI w lll g h u1l\ . '. . ' 1 ,tliul .!> 1('('\1"11111 ni be 1<1 V10 IS, . • ~ . . H.h)·thmic he ha vltH"S IIltltu\t '~ 1I I 1 ' " si,' hllead illg intrtr
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rcgardiu g rhyl lullk 11"\'1'1",01111 '11 1. 1u addit ion, it revic ws upproac he s to mcas uring rh yt lun ¡c lu-huviore . Rescnrch O H thc d t' \'t' ln p ll U'1I1 01' rhythmic bcbavícrs basically is developmental or cxpc rim cutul. I ) t' V( ' lllJl ll ll' ll lal rcscarch can be eíther longitudinal or cross-scc tional. Longi tudmal stud ies usually inv estiga re a give n group' s rhythmíe nbilities (or whatcver truit one wishcs lo study) over an extended period
(11' time, whereas cro ss-sec tíonal studíes compare a trait in dlffe rent grou ps al vnrious age Uf developme ntal lcvels. Alth ough longitudinal studíes are the prefem-d methodology, nearl y 0111 studíes u f rh ythmic develop ment are cross sect am al. Fe w invol ve study of a give n group for more than o ne ye ar.
l)rvf'iopmenlal Research \\'ilh Icw e xceptío ns, most developmen tal rcsearch regard ing rhythmic lu-hu viors ex ami nes th e ability ei ther to (al kecp tim e with a m usical beat or (h) rq>t'a t or perform given rh yth m pat te m s. The va riab les in the dífferent :-.llI d il's uro nu rncrous, making it difficu lt to undcrstand c1early th e status of I hytlnuic behuviors at different age or developmen t lcvels. Sorne studics also I'XlI lllillt' I'hytbm ic behaviors in conjtlllCliun with heha viors relaled to p itch ' 11~ ól n i /, a l i( lIl ,
01' infanls' rhythm ic development, ho wever, nccessaril y involve a slralck)' differenl from !he lypes j ust mentioned. 1'he investigato r I1I m1 oh,t 'r ve Ihe infant s' rh ythmic hchaviors, either freely emitled or in 11"1 tomt' lo rh ),thm ic stim uli, ~t' \' t ' l'itl "lud ies (AlIen, Walker, Syme nds, & Marcell, 1977; C ha ng & 'li l'lmb, Im 7; D{'ma ny, McKenzie, & Vurpillot. W77) indica te th at infants 1I'.' I'0 nd lo d ilTeren ces in rh ythm patt ern s, Infants apparently tend lo hahitu alt' lo a r{'{~lIrring paucrn, hut when a change oeeurs, the y respond o O ne sllllly Il st'd e ye Illove me nl as a me asure 01' response to cha nge; the oth er two llst'd Ill'arl rak, l\. loog ( I!lí fi, pp , :i 9-40) obsc lved thal infants begin re sponding to mmic .villl ov{'rt 11l0v<-'rn enls between lhe ages offo llr to six mont hs, H e notes tha t ul'anls dn not mo ve in diso rganized c1umsy ways; rather, the y use clea r 'l'I" ,tilivl' 1l11lvemenls, rcia led lo lhe rhythmic aspeels of the mu sical slim u· liS, As Iht' dlild d{'vciops, Ihe movem ents inereasingl)' are eoordinated with '01 11 lll(' m usical rhylhm a nd dyn amic s_The mo vements 01' lhe four· lo six· nO lllh-uld infmll oflen invo lve whole-bocly Illovemenls, bUI as Ihe ehild t'vt'lop s, Ihe overl rh)'lhmic resp onses ehangc. parl iclIla rly lo inciu dc mor<-' 10Vt'llle nt.s of ind ividual bod y pa rts, f\.'1 oog repurls Ihal by t1H' age of I H llllll!ls, ¡¡ bullt 10 pt'l'('{'nl 0 1' child rcn a re aul<-', rOl' sho!"t Slrt'ld lCS 0 1' lime, lo ¡atdl IlI d r ll1oW'lI1t'n ls lo t1w Illllsic's rhythm , ~ lo h lld a ( I!JHS, p, :lOO) , hOwl'Vt'r,llll t'stilllU wlwlllI 'l illlanl .. c1l1l'ing th{, ¡¡rsl ~ 1 1lt l i t ' s
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!tlt' 111 tll'1I10!l slra le OVN I p ur posl'ful lh ythmit: ,'ar 01' lile actually un- u , [11. 1 r's results ami s\lggl~s1s lha l Y ' ,. '\y' ' IUt':-.IIOIlS :-'O Il H ' o 1" oog 1 llt'haviors. l- Ie partle\l ,11 ." . ' . " I1t-d S a high degrcc of mfercnc c lY IlIIKh of1 he alleg ed rh ylhl1\1(: hl' Il:;~'l,l l ~ I.t', 1- iufant mo ve me nls as "rh)'lhm ic an udult observe r- Befof{' he W O Il vrefl ect Iearl y onc 0 1' m ore 01' tlw fol' p cct rhem lo re ec 'e e(b) Imítat ing a b';ven r11)' 11111 1 llt'haviors," he wou Id ex " , b uti g 111 time to muSIC, o " ' lowing : (a) movmg 0 1' ea III (di iui g a beat and rhen resnrmng u III '(ll'rn (e) subdivid ing a beat, 0 1' 001 )' m 1" , ,, ( 20()-~ 0l ' , nnTl'ct tune al'ter a p ause P~' , l hl ldhood childhood, and ínto ado· Studie s ofrhy1h01ie b eha vior 10 ea~ y c I th ic ~kills witlt increasing agt', h It'sr ence show a gene ra l refineme~t Ido ' Y ,mfívc-year-ol d ehildren's ahi li, .k (Hn S) exam me two- o I 1' ,1 ,'rsild and Blen stoc ', hild ' respo nse s \v erc 'loa Y/.t l , ,I - S vcnty-fo ur c I ren s , 1 th-s to beat time lo muste. • e id ( between aves two and Iívc . 01 ,tt )( , ' o sco rcs was eVI en o \' -rr-t-t aud a large merease 1 11 ' uts) the numbcr o C Ol It '( in sm a el' seg meu , 1I " d possible beats (a d mmls1cre Id 11)9, -,1', four -yeur -o 1 s, "'--1 - - three-year-c S, h{'ats for the two -year-o Id S v...as o .."l ,
1 !í!J.! I~ and five-year-~Ids,
192,R ' 1271- 12í6) studied I ive- to thir~I't'll " gGR Rosenbusch and Gard ne r (l. ) , p~[[ h thm pallerns, Compan s(nlS '1_, d uce four di crent r y , ' 1' y{'ar-olds' ab llíües te repro s (5- 7 í -9, 9- 11, Il - l:-l) showed a slgm IIr responses ac ros s rour age group , ' . 'th inerea smg age. I rs it"an1 decrease In e rro WI , d .' th de rs' abi lities to n 'pro{ un ' Ga rclner (1971) srudied first, ,thlrd, ~n ¡SIX [gr a to eil~h t laps, The Sigl1ifieh mdlldmg rom our o [ h lwen ty rh ythm palterns, ea " l' et1y tapped patterns 0 1' t l ' ('antly dilTercnl (p< ,01) re spectlvc m~a)oOs o corre aod ( l5_:1 ' l M4- 2 51), elemenlal)-sehon 11 Illfee gr oups were -J_,'J '5, 13()() " {' 1I' 1-
In an eXlensive srudy (Petzold, Lltiti'dPP' 'l [ uentl y' in seve ll clel111'nl ary lh ttems foun mos req 1 tire n rep ro duce d r h y m pa . 1') - 'J d 19 :;9 l'aUeros w{' u' a H IlII ' b \' h d betwcen , ,"l, an ',.' 1 Ilasal muste senes p u IS e (' /" l ' s Thc ehildren 'liso respolU d ' 2/4 ~ /4 01' ) o m e el' ' ,, Iwo measures long an m " " _ ¡ beats at four lempi, I hl' Il'sl ' B T ' 1" invol vmg senes o t'd lo a "l'eriodlc eat es ,. h l lh ' rcspon de nllllOV('d fr(lm a ' m slIeh away t a e ' \ hb eat t wlce H'csented ea e , _ 1 , pi ' a seeo nd Ila rl 01 1 \t' (t'sl l eesslVelv s ower cm , 1 fasl lem pO thro ug h 1h ree suc ,_ ' b l d ( [roro :n l childn 'n 011 t U' del' \ \,lth usa e a a -1' " n 'versed the lempo 0 1' , h'ld 'he "Pe riodic Heal t'sl, T " d 241 e I ren on " Rhythm ie Pattems lesl an 1 l ' 1. .-racle levcl fm bo th paltcrn 1'<-'1'1" I'dzolcl found a p latean at aho ut t l e I 1If( ¡.; , , ' t 'n a st{'ady h'm po , '11 !ition and ab lhty to mam al . ¡ I " -al develupment of d u ( n' n " , t' ,¡.t-.l !J) stud y o I le tn IlS¡(.< , " .r ' l aylor s (IJ7,i , pp , l ' .. ,"" ' 1\ rh y' lhl1lil~ rcspOllslven l ss tlI I't 'vt,',h '( Int It < 1st S I \ _ ag,'d seve n to e \Cv('n a so < , , . _, 11 ' si.' nificanl diff('rl'n ("{'s lH'lw('(')l lht' young{'r ('11I'\{1u ' n , lit, t't'¡" IIIS sl"II"III .\ I ) . l"> 1 Iwl\\'l'{'1l the llit'an S o l' 1I 11 ' Iht' youngcr gro llps' llll'all Ih )'lh lll !It( t l l'~ tlll llO two nld t'st gro llpS, \' c1 i/ l't1 rh y'lh m apl illltit' It'"ls '\ 1- ' . 11 111" U l\ " l " l lt' ~ 1¡ l l1 ( ,n . 1 Exa l\\ini n ~ ('111 I u'n s 11 . 1 I 1 ,\1 t1. 'vl'luplIll 'nl with ól ~t' , n t'n l t'y pl'ovil!t's allolhl'l pI'r Spt'II1 Vt' 011 l 1\' 111
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( Wlil¡b . p. Ill i) n ' l lI l l l ~ '1 "1,.11 1\
!<'¡U! · ¡un!''' !'> t' [ rom }'t'ar lo ye-a r" cm 11U'
rhy rhm mc'mory !,! ' l l icHI l It Ilh ,\ 1,.11 111'(' II/ Mlu ;ral Ahilitirs( Wlitia). No rma tive data for ubou t :.1,000 huy!'> ;1111 1 ~ 1I 1 ~ 'Iw'd SI'VI'll rhrough fourtecn support his statcmcn t. Tbc rc is a un-an )'1 ';11 1)' Illt l\ 'ó1M' fWIIl :t !) fo r scvcn-yca r-ol ds l o X,K fcr l -t-y e ur -olds. Nonua tlve dut u for Iht, .\',o,(/lOrr A!fQ.wrCJ ofMusical Ialents ( W;{!I. 19(0) a m i Gordon's AiIlJim / Al¡ti/ud, ProJilt (1!)(iS. 19HK) also re ílec t Sl'orc' increuses with age lcvel, ev cn thou gh both tests purport lo m ensure raelurs th at are liule ín fluenced by Ira in ing . A se ries of stud íes by Pfled ere r and Sechrcst (1968, pp. W- 36), testing I'iaget's theories uf conservation, u tend to support the po sition th at rh ythmic he haviors [me ter a nd rh ythm) are a funetion of developme nt. Foley (1975), howevc r, reports data suggesting that training ca n expedite conscrva tion. Bumb erger (W82), who p rimarily was concem cd with how children con ccprualizc d a rh ythm pattem . had chlld ren ran gin g Irom four lo ten years of agc dr aw a pictu re oí a fa miliar nursery rhy me so th at they could remember il or ano ther ehild eould clap it. T he four- and Iivc-year -old s m ed to dupli(';llt' Ihe d apping motion , resu ltíng in swirling scrtbbles. T he six- and scveop 'ar -olds ten ded to draw figural represcntalio ns of in dividualized c1aps, \\'Ilt'lt'as Lh e oldesl ehildren tended to grou p the c1aps in metric Cash ion . T he 1'I1'I'IIs of Il'¡¡ m iog were appare nt in th e oldest children's respo nses, but .ln imp or tant finding was how lhe YOllng ehild ren le nded to make lhe dra wings ,1\ IH ·arly Ii ke the c1appiog bch avior as pos siblc; the y were unab le lo deal \\'ilh 1111' paltern s as abstractions. t :ril'\h alw r's (1987) critical review of rcsear ch 0 0 childre o's rh ylhmic la?" l'in ,LI ;lIso supports the vicw that rh ythmic behaviors improve with age. 1100Vl'vl'f, she notes maoy methodolohri eal problcms, cspecially lhe inhe rent pro hlt' lIls in Ilsing c1app ing tas ks as measures of rh ythmic bchavior in yo uog d lildn 'Jl . who o rte n laek the coordination to perform aoyth ing beyond !he .~ i m p l l'st lapp ing task. 1>l'w lopm en tal research do es no! provid c dea r-cut a nswers to all qu eslio ns I'l'ganling lh e devclopme ot of rhythmic be haviors. T he issues ar e con ~ !illl lH led hy variab les in research design , the type of rh yth m ic be haviors stud¡¡·d. ¡lIl d rl'liaLility a nd validity of various m easurcs. At best, we can cond ude that rhythmic be haviors gene ra lly increa se with age, although the y tend to ll'adl a p l;¡ll'aU in old er ehildre o. Howeve r, to unquestioningly be lieve tha! ilU'l"('asl's in rh ythmic abilities are solely a function of age 0 1' de vclopmen tal h'\"('1 disrega rds both the bo dy o f researeh conccming the development of rhythm ic beh avior s through e xperime ntal lea rn ing ex pe rie nces and the I'C UlI"·1\·;ll i" n l1.' f,·rs (n (h.. in\"l,rian, ,· u f a pa rt icula r di m("nsio n " f " lIll' iril-a l O¡' ~·I·'S ('vI'n lhuugh I'h ;lIllt" ''''u ,rs in fJ(h" r d illll' nsírJlls, l'illW'1 partialJ y vi,'ws t:ullt"'pl ¡j" V"¡" l'llll'lll in h' rms (lf H lI,,,,'rfllli" Il. wh i. h i, nUlhinlt IIlI'W Ihlm sla hilil. tlio n u f a llillli ,ul" l " ,m " I" in ;o , !lIM's Ih inki ng 1'.1Il1llWrn\;l'I. 1!lil. l'l" Iti-li ). M" ...· "n I·u n_\t'rvalio ll l' PI "' ;lI~ III ( 'h.. I'Io·' l!l.
"k .. that insln U·tiI o n cau , 1 ' I'S wbo 1l0 W . -, .. .. 1 klllJwll'dgt' 01 1I11ISlI 1,"11 l' · . xanuncs n 'SI'il\Th h\l'r alUII . ., 111• IlI' xl SI'(·\IOn e • . \('t'S l'mp lrll..1 illlpro vc rh ylhlllil~ hd\;I\"I~I1 ~ . 1 ic 1 ;('I~"vi()r through leam ing l'Xpl'nl'1 . . n' gard ing d evel opnlCnt ut I \)'t 111\1
Experimental Research
. ( 1" bccanse it sccks lo r . . . "expen men a . h discusscd herclll IS . (\ e dcvc\opnll'llt (l Most rc sea rc ,. . expe nencc 0 0 1 , . , .• . the eíiects of some learnmg \ ks th e rigor ol\S con tro l 111 (<.s c xam mc 1\1 h r it ho weve r, ac e I f . -scurch rs l"h yth mic bchavio . t uc o nle 's (19( 3) traditional sta nd an s .or re.. . _ lOrnc et Cam pbell and Sta Y . retation s require caullo n . s.u ~ . the behavior al sdcnces, so tnterp arch regarding tbe dt'veloPd variety of experim ental Tesea,rc . h defmili vc rouvlu deslgtl m The scope an I ke it d ífficu l to re ae . a f h thmic behaviors a so m . . . g discriminal10n a1ll 0u V, n.\en~ ~v~le sorne studie s add ress b eh1avlOrs reql~~l:'otor beh aviors. Soun ' srons. ihcrs iovo ve co mp . g d JiI· rhyth mic sti.m uli, marry o \ t of rhythmic beh aviors m YO d"'l' . '1'1 ' en d i ' ts ora uu s. 11 d the d eveop m
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~tudi~s ciled h ere reOect th e oatuSo re an demon strated effective expen ment,l
. d ' r lhe )'ears. me , ehi ling conducte o' e Irca tme nts; olhers di d oot. . ,. . d the effeets uf praclice on y~lUll~ . " .ld d m enstoek (193a) studle . > eh ildre n , rangmg Iil ,IB<' J ersl an . with mUS1C. Fourteeo , 'mploy ' dr e n' s ab ilities to keep t1m~ ' . d ' a lO-,..'eek traioing pro gram e '. _ 2') 10 ,lA roo nths, par tlClpat.e m , . y time, ind uoing bod)' mo V C ~IOI:aried me ans to direct aue ntlOn ~o ke e u h th e 1-1 ch ildreu outscon'd Iilg ts voca\i1.ations, and hand d appm g. A. . o~ statisticall)' sib'l.lif\(~anl, and meo , the difTereoce was n a ma tehed coo~ol gr~uP~ovement aho luc.kcd si,~nificance: . vo lvin' val" lhl'Ír showed that Howcver, 1 d· rhyth m lcs. Slgn l l . l ' '1 . , 1 hy,thmic activities, inc u lOg eu h S hor e rh ),thm d iscrilllin allOIl • s , lt< r d nts' scores on t e ea.s high an d college !>tu e d·d t ·nc rease . . ,l " control subjects' scores I no I Ca on e-week role leaduup' pl O \\ l:)~ttemore (19í O) examioed the e~e;.ts ;hythm patt erns on first tlU llnp,l ~ _. oC cha ntiog and d apping me~, IC th 01 att erns. Dittem m c ohst'r:'t'( ~.I .I~: rrade rs' abilities to , ha nt mclodll,,rh:vcls f~r the twO cr iter ion exN l·ISI'S s~x } (d',fleTcn ees a mong th e grade le r (\ (" 'o simp ll'r a ill'r illll patSlb'l\ U'Ca n I 1 not 0 1" \l~ .. . s . volving morc cOlllplex patt ertl l \I .. r dcfmitive cond usions " bon l tram o II~ . . 'he stud 's n aturc nmkl' s < 1 .1\" I.I~~ . ~ll nS·fll . ( . DI' I;"dc \cvd dilTt'U'Il(·('s (hll lt \¡I.h .. . . r in silllnng S()ugs in usnal. IIl g e l e s 1:> ¡ I ,11 '(·h 11 1I ,1I l\lIlg ~ . " I1l'Y'lTmin (IB7'.:!) eUlllpan '( .1 1" I .1 , in sin ring only llsllal l1l1'lI'r Ml llgs 'Xl'ti ' and ul1usuall\wt('rs wllh "il \lll1l ~ d~ 'll\~ill ' nf llldodk rhylh lll 1' ,11' 1111. kill'(h'rgal"tl'\l a mi flrsl-v,nllk I h lld"'I~ ~ d:hullV,t n "Yan n in in sislt,d Ihal on ..., 1'Il '\I ' I\ I I ' \ I II I I \l I I ' " lerUS. No Si ~ l\ lI (·;l1l t ( 1 (
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lcarking Pr artices for Rkytkmic Development 1'r;l('liliuners' views re d i 1'\'0 1\'( , fron¡ tr ial and cr;:: l~~~ ~'a ys lo ~cvelop rhYlhm ic beh aviors oft 1I ';Il 'lu 'r l u stud cn t lo "m- ds d ruques. "Sucec ssful" appro uche' f en Mm ' gran sru ent, " an d ma s pass rom 1 ,Ippear to wo rk for thei ny now ha ve b('come rradít ¡ ¡.j o J 11) Ir propon enl s · 1th h 1 Ion , . " , lloh'cl and as Ihe a b overevlew . ' a oug, as H orn er ( 1')('5 ' . ) , PI' l " o V Il l' ',1 .\lfOng basis for methodoJo ' sugg csls" experimental evidenec l<~ 11: ,1')' 1,11 1' Illd lH,Je d hCI'e lo provide thcg¡c.~~c.olll:.a nsons is rare. Nevert he l ess lI'IlI11Il~ pr:I('lu:es for rhYlhmic d 1 rea er \o\llh an OVervÍl'w of lra d itiofl' j .I;1lbol1 (1% :'1) SIJ Jllm" d e~e o pmen !. a JI ' anZes eVIces d h ' a n lec OIques Commonly d ' I I.H 1111 1II.<; lnl clion Th e le 'h ' >'I'a l~ tlll'!", illcl ude (a) co un t~n ~ l~ues, aH of w~ich remaio in use tw~S;CO;I: 1.l ll'I~"oIlOlll(', (d) lapping or c1a~pi~~~h~) ~ppmg the uoderlying bea t, (c) th~ I 1 1:~ I'III ~ I~'( ' ~x pl'ricnee, and (g) co nductin ~ rase rhythm , (e) USe of wor ds, (O ]( 'Hh.lII lage uf cnu nmgaoudlsth l' I ' g . I , f i1ll g t'l", s!J(' nlll!t'u ds, is !har it h ' ~l lt c earl}' oudincs rhe beal bUI '1 llla u rh)'lhll1ic aspf'US, (Ab o w ' dC~P aSlzes the hea t's ma them a tkai ra lh" alOIU , W111'1f' per(úrming ) -r ' In Instrumental l.<;lS ' and singers ca n nnl • e r . lUppmg ' he u d J ' COunl "LIVl'l eOlllltlllg: . . It ' I n e l' ymg beat ha s t •d , lilVO ves mo re ex lc ' wo a va ntagel> .'llIp ha.\IZe a ri!hlllelk TJ nSlVe m uscu Jar act ion and d 11 ,. . le melronome al - r. oes nol 11/ ' ;lr M'lting a lempo and p rcvcnting ISO ocuses.on the hea t au d is valu'nCI~ (' )',('x l.('rna l ó1nd mechan ical, ils usefu~mpo ,va,~d l~tion, hUI because it is OIH lleltllg ¡¡ho heJIlS n k ness IS Imlted. I l¡ln ) r l1J d ' la e studf'IlIS <¡ ware 01' h • ' " , II ,l Ihal be~;inning band slud • t ,e underl ying bea l. KcJl ~OIJ "~1 bas/(: n md tleling teehni llc ' , c,nls who :ecclVcd 10 wee ks o f inSlrtl/ l).;nlllC'llltly gre'lh'r "'1 q as p wilu f(' h('ill"SI'(1 111 ' I rea IIlg rhythms Iha n did s!lld " nls ' '" - 11 - . (lIe Hit rect" ' J ... 1Il .IlM'm ) (' ('XPI'ril 'lIn' is anuther m{'11 , '" VIC { no CO nd lldi ng inslruc lioll )l ' llIUlpr/)'i •t J lO{ nI" llIakin ' 1 J ' Ilg l('al. 10WI' vI' r, Hf'velli (l lV t:) . ' , Jo: s U( ('nls ("onfol'ln lo ,, 1, 1 1l 1 , llll l ~III I S rll:lt 1'1 1\ "1,,1 I ) t' ex pl,"
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ru-nce has ln-r-n a s íuff fur Sltl(ll'llh lo lr-nn 111'011 , an dt ha r {lu -ir ubilit y lo rcnd suffers from rhc lack 01' Sph' lllillit' pnued urcs for an alyz lng various rbythm paucrn s. 'Iappin g or clapplng the ph rusc rhythm a nd using word s as a system of muemonics may be he lpful in lcarníng ph rasc rhythms. M uscular mo vement is basic to most of the rhythm teachi ng approaches mcnüoued aboye, That bodily mo vem en t is th e best approacb to rhyth m indeed has become a byword 01' eleme ntar-y sehool mu ste programs, a nd fcw n-fcrc nces to elemenlary school m usíc fall to support this view. J aques-Da1croze (192 1) was one 01' thc firsl to ex p lore th e possibilitics of bodily moveme nl as an a id in dcvclopin g a se nse of rh ythm. In his syste m, gcnera lly referred lo as Dalcrozc Eurh yrhmlcs, students learn speciflc movcmc nts for díffe rent rbyt hrn partem s. After lea rning the rnovements. th e studc nts "rea llzc," i.e., ex press by body m ovcrn cnts, the m usic' s rh yth m s. Much stress is pl aced upon the ability to improvise rhyt.hmic movements to m us¡c. An especially pertincnl aspect of the Jaques-Da lcroz e (1915, p, 33) metho c! is the use of sep arale bod )' Hmbs to mark the underlying beat and Ihe ph ras!' l'hylhms. Courd inated mo vements lo musie eon slÍtule th e esse nee o f the syslI 'm.
T he use of rhylhm syllab les receives co ntinu ing attenlion, perhaps heca use of the e mphas is on app lications a nd adaptalÍons 01' the Kud ál y app roaeh (Bachm an, HHi9; Le wis, W71; Richards, W67). Each of lhese ap pro ache s makes extensiv{' use of rhythm syllab les in developillg e leme n· lary age d children's rhythm reading skills. Gordon (1971, 20(0) also advoeates r hYlhm syllables in de vel op ing rhythm readiness as a prerequi sile to rhyt hm reading, but he also n'{~ ogni zt ,s tha! dcvelopme nt of rhYlhmic understan d íng requires feeling rhy lhlll POli , lerns through movement. He provides an excellent overvi('w uf sysll'ms llsing rhyt hm syllables and stresse s the importa nce of using a syst('m hasl'd on bea t fllnctions ralher than time va lues (Gor don, 2000, pp. H9- IO,I). In his final pu blica lion regard ing leach ing rhythm, Murscll (J!)f)fi, pp. 21)5-27H) summ arized three esse ntial approaehcs to de vclop inJ.; rhythlll Íl' IJl'h aviors; they re main va lid loday. He believed the first a nd musl cs.\e nlia l approaeh lo rh)'thm is by wa y n f bodily movc me nt. Second, he bl'lie v('d Ih a l rh)'thm inslrum e nls a re e xtrcmel y valuable because lhey tcnd to .<;harpt' n rhythmí e behavior by f{'CJll iri ng more pre(:ist\ more definit e, am I llIo n ' dis· n imillaling responses. Finally, lit' bdi t'VI'd tha l th e sludy uf r11)'lh m sym bu ls a llows ch ildr en a new, dt'I'IJI'r. IIltllt' ¡.:t'IH'rali1.t'd Ilnde rsta l1d ing u f rh ylhllli t: ('xperience. B is n '("lllllnH'lIllallllll 'l , hullld nol l)l' takeo Iightly. Il oO(I's ( W70) pllb lint I ion o n 1I'lII h i1 1¡': 1b)'1 hm t'ss('lllially rt'lll'l:!s whal ~tlll" sdl al!vocah'd . ~ 1 ovíll ¡': 11 1 I llll ~i ( , \ 111 11)' of rh ythm no tatiun , a nd th t, II.'t' I)frhyt hlll inslrlll1U' nls
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IU " om "'ulal ' 01 01 , 1, 1"",1" ·,, " ',ul 1" ,,,, u, " U teaehiuS , hy'h m , ead iuS. Mab"H'II', (I% H) " m uu.u y· ,,1 ' Y', 'e u" ,,,, H',uliuS ,hy'hm al ' iShl esse n tially I"" 'allel, .l ae" oo 's, "' ilh ., ,,,Ole ,,1.•1U" ."i" u., . h las uell view, Ioo r ta pp ing as I".. k to eo uulü,S. d"U'liuS. ,"'!"uus . a, u' ' ''ud uelluS. nnd ad",eale, thr"d" ",u-Up" ,"-iUcip le a.' a 01 01""" '''' " 'sa ui, ü.S .hyl hm pauem s In , elalioo lo lhe local. Anolhe, p n oeipl,. lo,· 010" ', i., tlun of Ihe "lime unít," Th e elShlh Ilul(' \J suully ls the tim e un u mainl ailll'd thro ugho ut Ihe piece being counted, TI n- " udenl m U' 1 m ark rhe bea t wírh haud m ovem enl, o, the Ioot an d cou m rhc oum he, of lime unl " in each note. Man y olhe, leache" also ad voca le f'",1 . e_s_o Horre, (19 73 . 1'_377). Kohul (1 973. pp. 19- 2 3). and PI" ., ( 1 ! J(i ~ tapplns I) .
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In ' Um maey. eommo nalille, exís amo ng p eaclitione,,' appeoache, ,h y" u" ic ' Jvvelopme nr. Mosr tea che" adv ocale m o'e than one appeoach. TI n- , e/a live meci" of the ,e'pectlve appeoache,. howeve,. have nnt all been v...iro ed uude,- contcolled coudilion , _ Pe, hap s. as Palme, (19i 6) nOle, . the lIIu.\, importanl issue is lhat teachcrs al leas! employ sorne systematic apJlIoac h lo rlly thmic dcvelopm en t ralhcr Ihan leaving it lo incidental leam -
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",iI.u ,· 'o 'yod .m ui' e tap pi ng w" h 'he beal o, lo ' epcoduee o, perfom , a pala lt'm do t·s flol 1l{'cess riJy indical e fa ilurc lo perce ive Ihe paUern, il sho uld ' ai", ' ''....' 'i,,,,,. MOl<,,' and p e''CO'ptua/ , hylh mie hehavio cs c1eacly a,l' , e/al('e1. lu " '/"Cl iug '" de"'I"piug a te,' of 'hYlhm pe' ''''p liou ' " ah il" y. lhe p ellII a r}' ('OIl("t'rn is (o .'; (' 1, ·( "( a n 'spOflSl' fIlod a /i')' Ih al 1II ',sI l!l'lll Onslra tl's w ha l HIJ('
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tlíkel y will be in volvcd.» 1 , i rh t IIl' I I spunsl' m or e s m g U IIA I SK ' I and Dcihl (1!}(i7) foun d thadt .sl've ra m usica l ubilitics. ll( 1 < 1 nd e rsta n mg Clf e 1 1111' , .., fo r rainín g a c ear 1I . . fortunatcl y ne ver lc ca ';';:,:i;s;/,;;;,,,)' ,J'Ma,,;,"l Concept measu rcs )liS.
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I',_u,,, ~ " ma1 Il st~dy suggcst,-0101 th at vocal chand t lllg IS . ~ a bl y less di fficulty cha nling subj ccts ha cort sr e, . ,01 Schk-uuhi, t1.~ee- and ~~~:;;;:~allem' through movement. 5,~~:;;~e~::le children's Ihan fe pro lo 'atio ns rOl" kindergarte n am d JiI. S la . un e clapp lng. 0 ' marchi ng. l .
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h)"thnllc resp onses, at , '1 'nfo m l auo n, , , dll'n's mu sical tapping y ie lded Sl~ll ~r .. llal m easu remenl is o f pr:l c liGI I ~l,l.\ -' '' . ,.cstio ll 01' gro up versus md lvl~ lo "'hilc ind ividu al tt'sllll~ I
I':valualiuu " f , hY"'mlc behavioes ge nemUy inv o/ve, on e of lh,ee ob,eev.,1.1.. ' '' ''''''i,,,,, (a) di,cciminaling between au'al " lm uJi. (lo) , howlng "'eough rep eoduce an au,ally p , e'U" VO 'U " 'U ' 11... ah dity lo keep time with a local "' ut"du d 'ylluu pallem. and (c) dl,ceim inatins hetween '" a" ociatlng vi, ual s d. y'l u ' ym hol "'1110 aum Uy p,e, ent ed pall em, _Th e ¡avt Calego,y indude, all mOl , k ...·ad ing behavloes. althn ugh one cou ld a'gu e that 'epcod ucins •hyl lu u palie' ", feom uolation con" lIules a fnunh beh avi"'_In addlll • ' ev' ..al , hYlluu le, ,, , equi , e beh avioes "'al al be" re/ate on/y pecipheeaUyonlo Ihe "u ,·,· 1"..,,· typ.., of behavlocs_Th i, dl, cu"ion Is ¡Im lled. howeve, . lo , ome rhyllun tesis ('mploying aspecls uf (he thrce basic be haviors. S" vera l i"ue, a'e iuvo/ved In evalualion of , hylhmk behavio,,_ ane u" "'d P''CViou, 'y "'a, wh elh e, " p cod uetion of p allem, o, steady be a" /egit" oalely i,u/i"'''e, , hythm ie pe, ceptiou. 10011 ;¡ appea" "'al m any re, ea,d..."
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o[ Rltyihmic BekolJiors
. .. . s wcl l as ils al' llluplial l'Ill" " 1o l' II It' It'hahdll~,: .l~", measuri ng di,t 1¡m illa rio l ,., tlu"( m-cm I _ ucmx
' " ('.-h in a n-st's validuy und
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u q h 01 m usoe leae ecs_ e u¡" ,a nee to bo llo ce' eace "-" an .. _ in le,m, of lime and em l . ' '' '''1' In y be de sirab lc , it 0 1't e n I S prohlblhv~ise although (('rt<J in 1",l"lo nua n{ l 1 , . l' -o m usl st'n.'e as a compro ,
u" 'a,," e, ° te . I lo ' o ""e" ed . . l ' . 1" 1.'; , iluarion, neee" an ly can no e beh avloes in i",latlon '" ",.t uU .' . 1 IVhel he' In evalua le ,hylhm« i conee m nf mu sle " sy, ' u.I," S" s: '. "o ntext has been a lon gsta nd n~l': ,uusr, . • I of speemes. .. wa .c Ihat testing s!to llltl 1lso lolll S,"" h",c's (¡!I:iR) vlew. a l leoey _ nd e, highl y co nte" II"d " 'OH 'IU"'; . ' , - "11 traits U f abiJi tics fo r u h re n('ct ('d th(' lll'Jil'f Illat 1l 1US (1!!:Ji) view. an "om... b", appeoa e a, , ub" a",. h lml ",u" .,,,
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.. I ., " " " I" I>I'r o r admini\lril . I 1 11 l U' h's 11. ,,;...,¡ .." "....,, " , ,( 1,·It.rl Hlily .,," VII " ':': 1_ in,lj\"iduals. MKh as ~'OUlll( ( I11'1 "'1" ;uMijjoll ,,, lllt' (l · .. h l , l j" m ,,,I" I',.'li,, ,,. I"1 ' 1"" ,11111,' '1' . ,dj',lhlo'd. 1'", d I" ,..f dos "" mllsl HJIl,illr-r l llO' 'W"l ur v,, .... 1111 , "1' 10..,11',,1\\ , ,,,,.11 lO' ,';ormnK 11 ·lin..:l I",r \"n. 'J' ') ,1 "'Il,llwv isllit }" lml" " I H " d"'~'( I ' ¡H l' I 'I' 'J I'I ,1' . l ,,,, ioll. 1'1,'''' '' \0'1 ' Ilo}"I,' ,111<
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huv c nri sr-u IICIlI I lP. hlll, I.'Hit 111 d--velupn u-uts, indu din g compuu-r unal ys¡s of PC·l'fOTlllllm ... " .H', ~ l ll. I. I . ·1 (1!17l 1), I'etzold ( I!Jl¡ti), lbrke (19ti9), Thackray ( J!)(jH), a lU l lI" lI ~ h.~ ot l .11 111 ( ;;¡i1 d ..I...son ( l!JXO, WX3 ). Such tech nological udvanccs huvr- grt'lI llr f,lt'ilitlltt·d precise- unulysis of rhy thmic bcha viors. but, as Gnesbabcr ()!IX7) uun-rl, such dcvelopmc nts puse their own problerns. Most computer or ot her clcct runic unuly sis prugrums lack rhe flcxibility to a llow for variab ility in performan ce. A brief ovcrvíew o f sume approache s tu assessíng rh yth mie behaviors in publlshcd standard izc d tests follows. Many tests are designed for childrcu OV('r age e ight. adolescen ts, and ad ults, a lthough two tests are designed pnmaril y for YOllng chíldrcn . Test Four of Bentl ey' s (1!l6fia) MeasureJ Musical Abilities, an au ral di scrim ination task designed for child ren aged seven ro eleven, requíre s subjects to indlcete on whic h of four bcats a sec ond rh ythm p auern differs from thc first. Althollgh nor m ative data are availa ble for Test Four, rel iab ility and validit), data are ava ilab le only for the four tests as a whole. Tln' SeasllOre MeasureJ 0 1 Musical 1i.I!ents U' {Seashore, Lewi s, & Sae tvc it, ( I ~ n !l , 1!)(iO) inelu de tW() aur a l d iserimination rh ythm Iasks. In the "'r hyth m h' ~ l , " tllC' n 'spondent indieates whether paircd tapped pa llerns are (h e sa me tll tlini·u'ul . 'I'he "tim e test" require s indicating whether the second of p aired Im...s ¡ ~ lon ger or shurter than th e firsL Although Mursell and other umnibus 1111'01)' i11lvocutes question the tests' va lidit y as indi eators af "'mllsiea l'" taIen t, tllt,)' 1lllllIIl'stilJJlably a re valid mcasures of the two diserimination Iasks, a nd I!ldr n 'liahilit ies ra nge fram ,6:1 to .72. T ht' IJmkt Musical Aptilude 'Tests (Drakc, 1957) inelud e a "'rhythm tes t" whid l reillly measures the abiIity to maintain a given tempo silently. Ava ilable in two nonequ iva lcnt fonns, reliab ilities ra nge fram .83 to ,95 fO T Fmm A ami ,69 tu .96 for Fonn B. Validity coefficients. based on co mparisom with tt'ae hers' ratings of rh}1hm aptitu de , ra nge fmm .3 1 to ,85 . Gordon's (l!J(),Ii. WX8) Musical Aptitude Profile ineludes a "'rhyt hm im agery" h'st, whir h ha s tW() subtcsts, In the te mpo test, th e respondent mu st indieat e whl't lll' r tlu,' ending o f a seco nd presentation of a m elod y has the same tempo as lht· first or whcther it changed . T he meter test asks whether a sceond sta teIlll'nl of a me lod y is Jike the first or whe ther it differs with respcct to aatntJ, whid l dl'll' nn ine the meter. Split-hal ves reliabililies fur th e subtes ts ra nge fro m ,(i( i lo ,HS; for the "'rhythm imager}''' portiun as a v.'hole, they ran ge fm m .H:.! to .9 1. Validity coc ffi cie nts based on t('a chers' eslimates of mu sical la lc '1I1 Tange.' fro m .64 to .7·l. (; on lo l1's Primnry Mrn.wrr,f o! Music Audialio" (1!J7!I), intt' ndt'd for child ren 1111'S
vi
(I'lh IIl lh¡, ", ritill¡/; (:WO'l) , tlU' S,'.lsh o lt' IMtl .'ry is "lIl o ll'rilll, .1" ' 11111' 11. ¡" UI! hisllll )' n f 11"', '111<' IMul·r)' m·vl·rt lwl, 'ss i ~ d,'" 1tI,,'d 111''''' h.'l'lIllW il "ll" lJll'hll," " 1"11 1;, u l" l "1'1'1 ."" h,
(1 11 1 .\ lIl1 1/ I 1 f rWflli/J(( ¡11 (IJlIII 'J 1 ' f'l t lt· llll!'!', anc 11 e ,It toHI i llt \lltl. ' 11 i ll kinde rgarten ~hrou~ l' I 1~I;' dliltln 'l\ in grades 0I1~' Ihrolu~ ' tltl' 'ehlld illlh ( l q ~tl) IIllelll w , l·ti 11' S-IllW a~ tl l' I n ' " AIH1lfl wn . , . 1" t· tIly th c sa1\W in 1l O 1\1 Inttcril'S • . " I Ihyth l1l portio n , es~en la t f twO short rhythm patte.·rn s IS 1' \1 ;: 110 lo .!I:l l'o r rutes whcthcr th e ser u\\( o Reh ability eoe fflcicnts rangt' 1111 • h'l-ent Irom the Ilrst pa1ttero . , \ h" H.hytlun i(' d lt)I)\) me U ( l .1 . " , . .., de leve s. lln' va nous gl ; , ts .r Music Literocy (G ur un, " ¡ "'t\udiat i() n/ Lish'llI n~, The Iowa es Oj ung thrce sub lesls . n . . . IthU y an~ " di isio n en compassl , which bca ts essc I • ern s Conce pls lVl, ,' ,tn at -s b etweeo patt III , " n-e uil"cs dcu're d mplcts- "'Audiatioo/Readlng'j·1 . ' ''Andiaticm/ tbc tesuaker dlscnrn 'd d . 10 duplets an t d pattern s, ie .,,,bd ivl e 10 I uems m atch nota e • d .ts lo m ake u uot;ll" 'hether aura pa h d ña gs ao res l ll\llll Og w , tres fílling in note ca s, 1" lnl ities ran ge 1'1'1111\ a lO1l1 "'riting" sechoo requ ally pr esented pattern . Re .la 1 ' , ,1 co ntent valid ilY, match an aur h . ratlona1 un I od panem . t ins that th e test as , h .: .htsiuging anc KO Gordon mam al parisons wtl Slo " T\ ' "d'IYcoefftcieotS. based 00 ccm -rall rh yth m divlslon , I1 .70 10 . , Concur rent va I 1 r )m .44 to .52 rol' th e uvc r~ les Iour thlOllgh tlktatioo scores. raoge n " d normative data 0 1' gra ( _. leveh and pro"l e h·~ts ha ve SIX 'd n' c',~url'S o r rhy lh m . Tl pro vl e . • ·• twelve . , ( 9C9- 1t)70) Music Ach ltVemenl, es,s , ' n" sllbtt.~t a~ks n'sI'01~ ' Co\wel1 s 1. l, , ' 1context. A "'mete r dlsenmlllat'~ 'w,'~ 0 1" tlnl'l' s, Le" IS . . a mUslea I moves 10 " 1. hehavlOrs 10 h h llsical exam p e . ' l' ," suh tl,.,l ¡I !> P;~ , d" te w et el' a ' . a1 d'sen mma 10 1 " t!t'llls to \O lea An "'a uditury-vISll 1 1 \' . rhyth m ehl!l'rs triple m eter. h tat ed nle ot \( 1 . d' le easures ''1.hc re t e no [ \ .1,ylh 111 ih'II\S is ,~Il , in dup e 01' ts 10 10 lea \' b TlV 01' t le I H'Spon d eo ' Reported rc la 1 1 , h . \ ' . .tivc'S (' 011\ 11\1111 hom th e aura l presentat'~~:d'tv beea\lse th ey reOect t e.: () lJI l ' I ' m conten l " a 1 " ] r h ' onstnlctUll1 , 'I'h l' lests c al , 'cs at the tim e o t e lr c l ' KI II
, l'IH'I'V;I"I,1ll ' ' 1 III1,I ,'" , 1" ,\" lltt· rollowin g: , IlOi n1s 0 1 11\lS l ).1 I ." , VI'S as its dyn a l111 C• Thl~ ll1>1Jor , Sllllt 11I1l' .1111 ~ 1. Rhyllun givc·s m USII fllITt'.
UI, ~," m il ¡.'¡,ul/llali flIU • • "1
1I uf \ /r rlr/IHf, t\.'\\' YUlk : \ \' i\t·y. ro .P) TII' lIrj, \ '1 /1,,"11'¡"" IJ IIIIlllr (II //f'/ ' .} ' /lf Ji¡r j¡f, ul,ftl/lf, tI,1\1I1111rl, F. 11. (1,1. ),1 . , N ( . (l' UI1). })" " ft¡Jn,," '/ ofa /tI "llq . " '\ ro (l'i :n, T III' i\ lIlln'ws . 1'. ~ .• & I>l'II:I, " ",'/ ' 1IIla/ I/.1 COlllJt'r.1. , . nditor ' slU',ll l1 M'¡':' 19 (l). & Med d is. R . (19!l6). 99 , Ik auV01S, " ' , sequenees.jouma 01 e , . alternatlng tone . rcgatlO n 10 )() 1" e\;.el'pe rs versus \1011 'l:270- 22 80, e (1 ' ke) E & I>affer tsh ofer , A. (204.. ). .11ll& 1 Will dsllr (Eds. ), l' J Peper . ..Ie ·, 'ff I P Desaln ·, I~'l'~. . " . '11' t • rs: How the approaches dI. e¡" L~ .' The Ncthe rland s: Swl'ls & Iinear oso .1 0 ' _ .J l ' (pp 1)_ :\3. rsse , h ptTetptíOlI and pr(){Juc IOn , . ' Rhyt m , . l ' b l'twl'('n rh ythm Z(' itlinger Pubhsh ers. f h long assulllcd re\ allO ll S II p , A (19R4). In search o t c. . ' 1 '~~-\-S,l. ' s Ik hredll , G, n~enL COlltributiolU lo MuSlc Edll' ''dt/~nr' 1a'l~alyzin" lw rfonnanrc of IllUSl ' all lTI o ve . A (l 'l HO). Met 10 s 01' . o 1 &. G ab nelsson • . . I 21 2 57- 26H. Iknb~s."~l\ili "1 SlandínavíatljoumaLof Psydw\o!!J.' , 'd ~ynlhcsis of Illusi c..\ 1'11 )'1!l11l . In ca r y In '& Gabrielss o n • A. (t!183), An a yslS an ( 27-{iO). Stockho hl1 : It lly..l IIt'l1b"sSOIl. .. ' d' ,r musíc p-fllrmallet pp . «1 ' , FA ) Stu ltS o) 1, Sundb erg ( .• ' Pub \, atioo No. 39. . ' roro _.l n 'Sw('d ish Aeade lllY of M US1C. le ., l mel er . MIlI ic Pt rrt/IIHlrI, , . ,-\.l.1 . ' '. ' ' E (19H4). A th eo r), of musI~~ , . ' Yo rk: O elobl'r !lO\ls,', • \1~I" l1'I'lull,n~ "(i!Jlilia). MtasurtS ofmus,iCalh"lbdl1dltS~~~"mea.wremwt, l J,l\1 d (llI : (-;( ' ( >1 10\ (' e, 1t' 1l e). , ) '/ ' 1 abiLity 111 e I U II a A (1966b . /' un ca Ht'nlk y, . . , , \ \" 'ITI'¡llio ll 01 H arr ap, . rr t f melodic eo ntcxt 01 1 s'l U de nts• .. ur.1 . R (l (lHl) 1 he e eC o . ' 29 lfi5-1 71. UOISI'11. . J . IIf Restareh in M u.fÍc Educatwn, h' h~' I IIf tx/¡rril/lmllll /nydwlogy , rhy tlull. ollrna 'J ' d p" "ptior¡ m I t IS ory 'J , • . G. (1942). SellSa twlI an ,' nlln~I¡';. ~•. ,. llclOn-Century Colllpa ny. ' 1\\0.... e1111'11IS o n llll' "1,,lIt)' h l l\ I'W Y¡;rk(il~~\ '1'111' !'lTt'elS of p H'Sffi\w d rh)'thm.lcal f Kans" s 1 ~l\;H) . /) ;,\.\rr/II /I(I/I Ilo)'lt' ,.I- ' . 1 ,: . (n 'Io ral di ssl'fla\ion. U Il1Vl'f Sl1y \) . , sighl f( 'ad 1lll\ Sl C m . ' 1(1 1rr lfll 'A h,~lraeU, 29, 2'l! IO-'l'l!ll .\, (1'l H7) . M ( (/I ' trm U III /JI III tV{/illlllilm oflll llum l tX/ " •
1, l t hy tlnu st ruc tu u - 11 1 11111 h k) m et er. a m i (el) 1I1l·h lllli
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hasit" nspccts: (a) tempo, (b) bcat.
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;·L Initia l d evelopnn-ut 0 1 1 h)'llllll il Ill'hólViors is iucxt r icably rclatcd lo
ruovern cnt. .1. Fou r basic ty pes 01' tnulilional t lll'ol'il's n-gurdi ng hum an response to rhythm are instin cüvc, php .iologka l, motor. and lcaming . 5, Cognltive pcrspectíves on rhythmic bc hevior ma y be categorized as th cy relate lo (a ) beat an d lem po pe rce ptío n. (b) meter perccpüon. (e) rhythmíe groupín g; and (d) ex prcssive timi ng. ti. Response to the beat ís considered basic and funda me ntal, where as response to m etric orga nization is co ns id ered hícrarchical : m ct ric organizntio u a l lcv els a boye the be at are co nsid ered future-orie nte d and at su b dívísions of th e bea t analytícal. 7. l'erceptíon of rh ythm pattcms is categon cal. H. .Jusi as m ctric organization , grouping of rhythm pauem s takes place a t a basic lc ve l (basíc segm en taríon] and híerarchtc a lly [híerarchíca l scgmen· tution orga nization ). !l. Mu sical cx pcriencc a nd training have hul e influence on basic metric «r gunizatlon an d basíc scgmcnta tion organization, but they have considI'rahle influen ce on highe r level metri c and segmentation organiza tion . 10. ":)(I'l'l'ssive timing is an importan t aspcct of expressivc m usica l pe rform aun '. 11. Althou gh de ve lop mental re sea l'ch is ineonclusive, rh )1hmic behaviors Io" 'III'ra lly inn ease with age for younger children but level out fO f older d lillln'll. l:.l. 'Ii aining ca n ex pe dite th e developme nt of rhythmic bch aviors. 1:1. A hh o llg h deve!opment o f rhythm rea diog skilIs is a major concern lo H'sl'a rchcrs and teachers. nc ilher re sea rch nor practicc yields consensus H'gilHlillg a "oest" way to faeilitate rhythm readi ng . 1,1 . '1'11" ,'valllatinn (lf rhylhm ic beh avio rs usu ally invo lves assessm ent of o ne llf thr e(' h¡¡sic behaviors: (a) discrim ination between aura lly presented slilllllli. (1)) demonstrating ab ility to kcep time with Ihe b('at 0 1' repro· dll l'ing a n a llra lly presenlcd patlcrn through m ovement, a nd (e) assodating visual rhylhm sym bols wilh a urally p resenl ed patlerns.
Rcrcrcnces ¡\ ¡!'Ilu, It. , & S lollod¡l, J A. (Eds.) (1994). Musical ptrrtpliolU. New York: Oxford lJ llivl'rsilY I' ress, " 111'11, '1: W" Walker , K., S)'IIH'n ds. 1.., & Maree n, 1\1 . (I9n). Inlrilsl'll sory and ¡nler· M'IlSor)' p l'ru'plioll of tl' mpo ra l se q m' n u 's dll rl llK illfa llf )'. J)(l.t/lljlllu lllal I ~)'d/ll/ll~. 1.1, :2:2!i -:2:l!I.
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• m (arrh. Chicago; Rand ~'f~l\'~1l . l • . 6 I " "", ,,lol and quas;,xpmmmtal dni ufi" E. e & K y, go • - v cc enda ll R A (1<)99) Co lIilioll. In D. Deutsch (Ed ) 'n' . . . m par ative music per eepti on and • D¡('g o, CA : Acad erm¿ Pre~s: le jJ.rycholl)gy oJ music (2nd ed.) (pp. 7'25- 791). ~~~l
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1<1, - , \ .Iu u ..ud 111 , '1" 1" A ., I ....·, /¡ IllJ 1. , ~J t!1l C(Jf(/h"l , lO, MH fU! . II'O/Y ¡ll Illt· COIllIJl (- r . 1 / J OUt's , ,\ 1. It ( ' In f) ." . l. 1 a Ulll a l'Vl' l. • J . '/lit' UUl lu \ 1 I .I!tl ·n llon• and mem o- ' /1 1 1I11('IIMoW Jilwa rd 'l n t' " I .1011l 'S, M R. (1'lH7) 1 y. ~(llIJ/flJ:Il f/1 /( r¡!trll '. 8.1. .I:.!S - :lljlj l ll'ory o f p e f Ct'pllOll, . • ) }'1l,1I1ll( ' r •, . ¡ t 'S('aflIJ , ¡ h u plion a d 'M /1' 111 MI lI( lllre III m u sir- : H J em es, M . R. (1990) , .11 Prydw/ill}JU.J, n .li:-lI_(i:H. . ece nr theory and . . ..carn lllg and ti ' 1 .1on': :,alj~~roi~ch.:t{;hfmusuo'og)" 9, IJ ~,L~~~~PIllt'llt of ex pecl ancies : A n uu eracnon '" "' o tz, .\1. (1 91'1 9) D _ . IYUlII!olwal ReVletlJ 9 6 4 '~ l} . yna mrc a lten dlOg aud .I01I1'.S, R. (JlJ8 "') A • , .:l. - ,191. resp on ses te tillU', , ,). díalectrc anal . f Ille ll'r in m USIC e YSIS o selec ted contradIcllO I\l'JJy, S N. ( }(19 '~) ~u'lCtl flr ReStaren In M uuc Educa/iOn, 83 ~s3a'5n ?ng defillltlOns uf •e . " . 11 mva/tgalion o/Jn , n;. !Juj Qrmallct of h eenero ofeonduclm , - 6. '. ~ll rVt'rsJly of Kan7a's~nmg band s/udents. Unp ublt sh c! '::::;;~~:7 ~~ !he mU,riml KllJl,lll, l. K (191'1 "') Th lsserta llofl , , '" , e efTeCI of d 'U . !,I' rn 'plio ll. COfllrihulim I erenna¡ feedba ck on rem o 1\1111111, \r. Jo' (J(Jf '·) v u lo Re.feOrd¡ in Music &lucaltOll 12 " O }P2 p erformance a nd -. . ) l . n nuln aehievr . . " ¿.¿. 9. . R" \I'i1nh As,sociales. mmt tests m musir. San Francisco ' e . " Ohlll, D, l., ( PI7'J) , . realIve Arls " . . , . m.strulJ/cntalmus· p d \ 1'11111 '1', J. D. (191'1 8) Iñ ' le f agol:J'. Engle wood era N I 1\ 11 1111 , T' l. (197.1) /' " '. Il,,!e of music. New York: Sch¡ B S, :.1 : Prentice·H all. ,. " . )Iscrmllna lion of rrm er oo ks. 1 loI lh ../IIIITfUJI 01Restarch ' , modulaled beat temp¿ b .,' I ~U "' " ,.. W P. K / m MUSlC Educolion 22 27D-2n. y professlona l m usi ' h " ~\. o en ¡. F (1'1') ' ) R " l. ( ,"/lIll/o I IIHl Sril'nce, 6,'. 177-208 " ' " ' eso nan ce an dh t e pcrcepti on of . I ~ ' t', e, S. (l 'N l) Th ' muslca lmetel'. " . e p crc eption of ni . al ¡l 1Il0d l'/. 111 ,. H etnc structure' E . .ri!1 1:2 7) 1 'J oweU, R. \Ves!, & 1. e ross (Eds ) xpenm enlal evidenc e alld J ~'Ida h l ": ; ' I¡I( un : Aeademic Press. ., resenlmg mUsical slrueture (p p. , " .:, , ackendoff, R. (198.1) A . ¡ lA. M I l "n.' s" . generatn't theo')' ">[ 1" 1 . " "na muSlC. e am b n'd gt', . ". ¡ . I ~' wi,s , A. (; . (l ~ 171) , . -lSlm loo/.; and' ~ l ~ l/I C I(J Il, J. (JlN 5) So ' , smg. n orrislow n 1\'" B . ' ". me examples f ' 'l ' I ver urdef[ IJ Hlc/l'ls of IIIetric erce ti .0 cOIllplex me ters and th eir i : . ' ~ I/I"'U t'I · II¡ggiIlS 1I Pe p on . AfUSll' Pn u ption, 13 5!1-77. m plJCallOns fuI' l' . , . . , & Le e e s (ICJ82) " . ("(/lIUIII, 11, 115-12 H ,. . . . fh e pereeption 01' ' l.ull d, _\ 1. W. (JlH lJ) A ' . mUsIcal rhy lhm. . " . n analym ofthe "Iru h " . \I'n,t liulI, Stilllford Unive rsity ( (at m music. Unp ublished d , Id. 1.lIl1d m, H. \V (1" ' ·7) A " oc o ra IS' . . I . II 00eel' eh I'n 'ss. tlJe psy ology ofmusir (2nd f"d ) 1\' , MiI[R" . - ¡ .' tI , 1111' ,'I/'·t'ls uf Sl'('l'd .,/,,,,. , . .1 " (uare" lfI 11 ' r I • .. a 1011 \ , 1111, ',1 '/111//111I, ,1-1, l/l 1_ 1lO .
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Mng ncll , E, ( I ~ II ;H). Syslt'lI1 s I'ur 1 " ; lll i l1 ~ rh )'llllllS al sigh!. n/f ¡' " ', ,,mf/l l l/!i ,/, 2.1 (:l), liH- 70. "'l<'Na lly. K. A., & Handcl, S. ( 1 ~ 177), Elrt,(·t of elementa l fnl11'J( I~lliul\ 0 11 sln' a llling: und the ordering uf repcuting SI'!JIII'llI:l's../mmlOlo / EX/J(rimnl l(t1I 'J~'1r1l(1hll!J : 1111/1/(/ /1 Ih er/J/ion and Pafonna nce. .1, .l.'i 1- ·160. "'1(Jog, 11. (1976). T he developuu-nt 01' mu sical exper ience in childrcu 01' pre.schuo! uge. l 'sydwlolJ) cf Musíc, 4 (2), ~i8-·t 7. ~ Ioog, 11. (1979). 0 0 the pe rce ptíon 01' rh yth m ic forms by ph ysically handicappcd r hi ldre n and Ihose of low Intelhgence in co mpartson wü h no u-ha ud ícapped cili!· dren. Covn ciíJor Researdi in Music Education, 59, 73 - 78. Murgan , e. T. (I 965). Physiologiral l J.rycllOlogi (Srd ed.) . New York: ~I c G ra w -lIill . Mun;ell,j. 1.. (1937). Psychology of music Ne w York : W. W. No rto n. ~ l ursel l , J. L. (i 9.16). Music education, principlrs and pTograms. M omstown c N ]: Silver Burd ell. Nu-lson, J. F. (W 30). A study a l' the Seas ho re rno to rrhythrn test. 1'ry'dlOlo{:im l
Monographs, 40, 74- 84. ( lsgood. e. E. (W 53). MeJ}¡od and theary in (xprrimm tJll psycholofJ. Ne w York : Oxfonl Uníversüy l'ress. l'ahu e r, M . (J!)76). Relatíve cffec tive ness 01' two approac hes lo rhyrhm I'e ad ing Ior founh-gr ade studenls. }ournal ofRmarch in Muste Education, 24, 15!J-HiH. l'urucun, R. (19 87). The pe rce p ñon 01' pul se in mu sical rh ythm. In A. Ga brit'ls\oll (Ed.) , Actíon and poception in rhythm in musir (p p. 127-I :i 8). Srockhobu : Ro ya l Swedish Acad em)' of l\.'l usic, Public atio n No. 55. l'ilrllClllI, R. (199 ·l). A perc eptua l ma del of pulse sa lience and nH'lrica l ac('('nl ill musical rh yth m. Music Perception, 11, 409-4 64. l't-rney, J. (1976). ~-tu s i c al tas ks re lated to th e develo pmcnt 01' llw cOllservatioll uf musica l tim e.}ouma! of Rmarch in Music Educatioll, 24, 15!)-I (iH. 1'¡'!:l.Old, R G. (W66), Auditory peTCtption 01 musical sou1/d~ by childrm in 11" }i nl ,I i.'l: grad(s. ~1 a d iso n : U nivcrsit)' of Wisco nsin. (E HIC Docullle lll R('p ro
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oSt'~ R. F: (1989). An analysis of timi~ca . oc~ny oJA merica, 108, I209- 12J.1 . Ul
R /) /J,:r rltJ/I01/ Abslrocls l ntn nalional 5 0 3scf9 A jazz rh)'th m secti on perfor mance lJS('nUUSdl M H & G d " . . • . '. -ar ner D B (19 ' ) rhytl unic paUerns b hi " ' . oH . Reprod uction of d¡ l{urklUick. C . A. Om:-J{;h~l~:~:~i~Ct!Plual ~nJ MOlor SkiliJ. 26, ~u7/~~i;;nd visua l ./fJ IJTlIftI 11 1'sychoI0g)' 24 30 ~ 3 ~9 Incsrhe sls in the pereeption of d lyrJ 'A . Huckllli(·k. C. A. (19.41) rm . mtTUon Al " Z' • ' . e narure oftherh th . S , IJ,\C'~ (rtJd~rrs N o/i onal As.Jodo/ioll 39 r )-H(! y rruc ex peri ellcc. P,oCU dillgJ 01" /h r , . 1( IS. • I'h '-J) v< " L ' , . .. ~ . ' . . l V l) "m and temn l\' , ~d tl' lI l ' lI b [' ru S & H '1'0. ew ) or/.;; \ \~ \\': Ncrton .... .. -vroore, R S. (1985) T ' shorl terrn memo": of rhyth . . . he efTecl of tonaJrh l'thmic Al ' /' / -f rmc and melod¡ f context on _ 1/1/1 ~( Uftl/ioll . 85, 207-2 17. IC sequences. Council jor Restar. . ~ IlI'lIkl'f, 11. (19:11/ 79) n . di UI .\ 1 lJlt'Itll'1 S 1 & Sch'¡ ' tT ftru so/,(, (E, O ster. lra ns 197'1) N v ". ". , euter LJ (I9HS) .• . . ew IOrk' Lon nn JI'I I'IU t'S lo c('rtain rh\'lh . ' . The relali onshi p of grad el ev l" d g a~. /( 1. ' f mle responses of . e an sex d lf· < , 1 r\((m I 11/ A!uJic Educo/ion, 33 2:i - 30 prnnary h'Tade cbil dre n. } ournal .,{" . .. 101 '11, ,\ 1. (19-10) .". " . f!J •. • I f l ( jJsyrholoVII 01' m . 1\, " .wa ,~ I I I !fI ' C F (1ln Hj /> u,rlc. H ew York: Ronald Pr J)cholo[D' 0 1"mus ' 1\, " ess. '-"" a~ IOrt" C. E,. Lewis D L & S ~ . le. I'oew York; M eGra w'HiU , / 11/I r" l~ (r t' vi.~l'dJ . "l\'ew y¡, k , aelvelt.J. G ' ) S toshort, "ltOS • t (J . ,(l'I'J9 . . . 1960. ' ."M'ri.nlll·, M. 1.. (1')75) A a r . Th c PsycholagicaJ Corpora tio um ojmuSl _ lJ I . '. mtosUrt of "lt/ n. ~_ IlJlu ) ri.~ll t'd docloral disser talion U . tT .eonservo/irm, based 0 '1 Pioge/ 's /ht '''''ranlll', M . J (19<> <» ' / . • D1Versll)' of Florida or¡. . .. . oO .'.USICQScogn 't· f\ ' .
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'. 1Il1lllg In solo and d ~. tvuw, 9, Hm- 1 2 :~ 1~'Y(h(J/oli)', 36:1. S 77-5q,~ uel p erfonnances. Quar/rrly}ourtl I " ~ .'i lll'ld oll. n. A. (l9!H) ElJi . . .l. o 0J r . eels of lem po m u" I '1",t1POlllloll ularioll pt'rn'ption ' }01trn~/ o l"~llca e~r~rience, and listening modes on • 11' ( 011 "' ' 42, 190-201 . _ ~ ) , A .• &. ("~ rl'gory. D . (W 97) 1" ~ estaTCII m Jifu.r,'c~uca/lon, o ~~{I.~~l.~n:~~tJlt'vels of edll[ational'ex~(,~:~~::I~:u~f t; 7 modul alion by listeJler~ na f!J Rt St'o reh in MUJic ú /rl(, . ~ h radt·r. D . L, (W70) /\ . . allOn. . I . Il .lur,ll app fO, lCh 10'1 I . . ("J'.' l:~ ~~ progrólDlml'(! 'I'am i ng. IItilizin r I I.Y ~ 1:lllC.slghl - f/·a~i llg. bilsed IIp OIl rin " ,: "
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li o n . } m/m al o/ RurtJreh in M ,l\If F.flulllt,,"'. .11. 11I1 -1 1·1. Siuk , P. E. (J!IX ,t ). Eff('('ls uf Ihylllllli(' allll nu-lod¡c ulu-rations and sl'1t,¡:tl'd lllusical cx pe n en ccs 011 rhyrhm¡c I' l'On,.s " ¡ Il ~. .lmanal o[ Heseardi in MI/si. Education, 32, 177- I!J1. Skornicka•.J. E. (1958). 771(funaion o[/im. and rh)'lhm in instrumentalmusic reading mm " Ilt/flll)'. Unpu b lished doctoral dis scr uuion, O regon State Collegc. Sloboda, .J. A. (1985). The musical mind. Oxford. U K: Clarendon Press. ~ l o bod a, J. A. {Ed.] (1!JX8). Generatioe processes in mus íc: The Jlsychology of perfonnana, ímproms auon. and composuion: O xford, UK Clare ndon Pr ess. Spcrry, R. W. (19M) . Ne uro logy an d th c mi nd -b ra¡n pro blem. In R. lssacson (I·A !.). ttasic rradings in nturopsydlOlogy. New York: H arpc r and Row, Sn-m be rg. S., Kn oll , R , L . & Zu kofsky, P. (19 82). Timing by skil led rnu sicians. 111 1), Deutsch [Ed .], 111( psychologj' o[ music (pp . 182-240). New York: Aca de mic l'n-ss. Sum mers.]. (2000). Inrrod uction lo Part 1: Me ntal tímekecpcrs, int er nal clocks. os ril lators an d compiex dynanucs. In P. Desa ín & L Willdsor [Ed s.], Rhythm ¡lm(lltilm and produclion (pp. 3 --8). Líss e, Th c Neth erl ands: Sw ets & Zeítlinger l'nhhs ln-rs, Sund berg] ., & Vcrillo, V. (1980). On the a nalomy ofthe rñard: A study of timillN in m usic.}o urnal of the Acousuca í Saciety o[ América, 68, 77'2- 779, 'Iaylo r. R. G. (Ed.) (W 8 1). D ocumm lory "por/ oftlu A nn Arhor Symposium. Resten, VA: Music E.du cators Na tional Confere nce. Til}"lor. S. (197.i). ~f u si c al deve10 pme nl 01' child ren aged seven l O elewll. f'syrhll!tJ¡;I o/Music, 1 (l ). 4 ,~ - 4H . Thackray, R. (196H). An inl.'tJ/igaJiQn in/o rhythmje ahiliiítJ. London : t\ovello &: Comp any Limited . Todd. N. P. (1!J85). A model of ex pressive timin g in ton al mu sic. Music Prruption, 3,
:n -S7. ·Iodd. 1'\. P. (1!l8!J). A model of express ive timing in lona l IUusíc. Conttmporary Mllú. RelJiew, 3, 6 9-H8. 'Iildd. N. P. (l9~)2 ) . Th c d}'namics of d}"na mics: A mo de l of m usical t'xprt's..io n. }ulITllal ofllle Awustiral Saciety uf America, 91,3510- 3550. ·11.dd. K P. (199,la). T he auditory "pri mal sketch"; A multi scal e mod cl of rh)·tllllli(' group ing.} aurTw/ o/ New Music Research, 23, 15- 70. ·Ií.dd, N. 1'. (I99 ·tb). Metee, grouping. a nd the uncertainl)' principie: A Uninl'd 1111'0 ry of rhythm pereepti on . ProceedingI o/ the ThirtllnlematiOllal CO l/frUI/(( fin M ll ll f Pn u p/ion and Cogni/ian (pp. 395-a96). Liége. Bclgiu m : IC !\1PC . ·Ihdd. N. 1'.. O· Bo}"le. D. F., & u-e. C. S. {19!19}, A se nsor y-motor thl'u r)' uf rhythlll, time pe rce ption and beat induction. } otlrnal o[ Nrw Musi( Rtstorch, 28. 5-:lH. Wa ng . C. C . ( l ! ) H :~). Discrilllill
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Chapter 6
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MELomc AND HARMONIC FOUN DATIONS USic's pitch stru cture has inte rested people since th e begi n ning of recorded history, a nd We b er (1958 ) m aintains that the dri ve to rat ion alize pitch structure shape d \ Vestem musical developmcnt to a la rge dcgrce. Westem rnusic' s pitch stru cru re has both horizo ntal and ve rtica l díme nsinu s. Wh ile other musics have cvolvcd with el aborare developmcn ts of th c horl zontal dirnen sion, non e has approa ch ed the sop hisrícaü o n 0 1' \ \'Cstl' Tll rnusic's vertical d imension, harmony. The horizo nt a l d ime nsion enc o mpasses pitch sequences. Th e vert ica l dimens io n invo lves símultancou s pitch structures. M us¡c theorists have codified and ex plaí ned practices rc garding these stru ctures. Systems of scalc s und harmony are o utgro wths o f thcorists' e fforts, although musica l p ra ctico often preced es m usí c th eory. M usíc is a socia l an d thcre fore con tin ually changing phenorncnon : couseq ue ntly, theorists' wo rk is neve r co mple te. Scalcs and harmon ic sys tems based o n eighteenth- and nineteenth-cenrury m elodic and harmonic practices are inadequate for ex p lain ing all twentíeth -centu ry pitch struc tu rcs: rhcy may be evcn less adeq ua te fo r twenty-first ce n rury m usic. Th eorísts tradition a lly ha ve focused on me lod ic and harmon¡c srructnn-s pe r se, but in recent yea rs they have be come in creasingly lut cn-stcd in nnder standing how people pe rceive and cogni üvel y pro cess and m gan h': l' mel odic a nd ha nno nic stru ctu res a nd large r musical Io rms. Much 01' 11 11' researc h hase for th is "cognitíve scíe ncc" a pproach lles in psych ology, lin guístics. neurophysio logy, philosophy, co mp uter science , and m usir tlWOfY (Le rdahl &Jacke ndoff. WR3. P: 332). T he co ncern for und crsta ndíng Illll.\ il' perccptio n and cogni ticn stim ulated theoretical a nd c mp irica l rescurch regarding th e naturc 01' the cog uit ivc p ro cesses o r struc turcs involved in inte ractions with musica l süm uli. This c hap tc r examin es thc nat un- 0 1' m clody and harmony in \ Vesl{'Tll musi c in term s o f bot h itx ton al strurt un- und pcoplc's ínterucüo ns wit h ami I'c spu llse to tona l stm ct un -. FOI l 'OIl Vl"ll i l ' IH'(', th c dt scussion is o rguulzcd und cr seve ra! brond h t 'a ( lill¡'; ~ : (a) dd illilio lls uf ruclody, bunnon y, und 10 11011 it)'; (h) sGlle, lllot!al. a llll ollll'l pl ll h " lI t lt IIll I' S ; (t:) c oglli t iv (~ p ron 'ssl's llIH I('f o I)'ing pitch -rel al l'd lu'ha viOl 't; (11) d l'VI ·I"llIlIl 'n t nI' nw lodic a mi h arnlll11Ít '
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"cutcgc n ca l boundarics." A ~ In ll ¡'; il 'i Ilit" bouuda rics are 1101 PXI'Pt'!lPI!. the listen er pcrcei ves a ton e as ha vin,.; tlU' pitch of that cat cgory . 'I'hc convcntíons ami uudlt lous 0 1' a pa rticular m usical culum- usunlly determ ine the part icular fixed puch es uscd in me lodics. lu mck xlics 0 1' 110 11 \\'('ste rn cultu res, thc musics 01' which o ften a re no t buscd on a n-rtiau ba rmonic framework, the oc tave is d ivided in various wa ys. Sorne cu ltures use microtonic scalcs, dívidíng the octave íntc more puches tbun thc seven \\'('ste rn di a to n ic scal e tones. O thers use fewer th an seve n puches p(~ r octa ve; the ir sca les are macrotonic scales. Most \ Vestern melodícs uülíz e ton es with iu the diatonic scale system and have an implied , if not alwa ys accompunyiug. har moni c Iramework.t Regardless o f the scale systc m uscd in selec üng me lodic pi tch cs or whether th e melody uses slid ing or fixed pit chcs, lite s('quence 01' pitch relationship s contributes lo a given melody's individualu y. As long as a tonal sequencc's rclatlve pítch positions a nd rhythru n-main co ns ta n t, the melody rernain s th c same. Le vítin (H)!)!J, p. :.1 1·1 ) no tes (·i,.;ht melodíc at tributes: pitch, rhythm, lempo, con tour, timbre, loudncss, spuña l location, and environmen tal reverbera tion . One mar tran sfonn a nu-lody in ull of th e a tt ri butes and m ai n ta in its íd c n tlry except for co n to u r. which of n mrse cbanges p itch positions, and rhythm, provided duralional rc1alioll' ships change sufficientI y. Consider lhe song "Am erica" ("God Sav(' lllt' Q uee n"). O ne eo uld pcrfonn it at a higher or lowe r pit ch level, tak e it fastt'l oc slower (withio Iim its), play il 0 0 d iITercn t inSlmm en l:S, make it loude r o r so fter, perforo l it in a difIe rent part ofthe room, and/m p erform it in a m on' oc less re verberant space, and it will remain "Ameriea ." Il ow('vl' r, ch'lIIging either the rela tive pi lch positio ns or lhe rhythm eha nges t h(' mt'lody .l"trur luralLy and m ay or may no t ehange it perceptualLy. T he melocIy lIolalt ,¡f in Figu re G- l has lhe pit eh rcl ationships or "Ameriea" ("Ga d SaVt.' the Qm'I'n"). h ui the changed rhyt hm makes it a n entirely differenl me lod y, Co mpose rs and sorne perfo rrncrs ehange melodic tones for :w slllt'tk 0 1 a rtislic purposes. The degree to which a melody's tonal or rhythmi l: sln ll'ltlll' ('(jJ1 change while still clieiting a response uf "sa meness" natur ally is sllh jl·e·t to ma ny va ria bles. Farn swo rth (W 69, p. 49) be lieves lha l on ce a per so ll !earn s a mel ody, he oc she ca n recognize it through conside ra ble r hall,.;t'll . Il owe ver, Ihe deb'Tee lo \vhkh iI can be ehanged an d still recob.-n iz('d is ól fUllclion of the Iistem'r's fa milia rily witll th(' Ille)lldy, pa rticlllarl y an y de vel · o ped ex/J(:clatiofl.J rl'ga n ling il. Dowlillg's ( 1 !l7:~ ) com parisom 01' Ii s/t'IH' r s ' responses to sim ulta llt'Olls Jl ilÍ l'S 0 1' "illtl'l'lt';¡vl'd" lIle!ot1ies supports tht, UIII ' It'nt ioll reganling ex pet."taliolls. WlwlI sllh jl'l'ts klle w whk h tUlles lo lis/t'11 for, Ihey we n ' ah l(' to l't'UI¡';lIiJI' tlll'llI, hu I wlwll Ihe'y had 110 su d I (~ x p t ' I 'la ' :rlwd v,,·tOIll·, 111" "" rioll, nw lod ,,·, ;LI" " ""t,1I ,t" "_" 1'11"" Su< h n1O' I<"I;,·" ","" nli;, tt~, ;l1 vu l" ,' 11", lw,·I".· dn' OIl " . IÜ' ",,,1,· 1,,,11" ''''l l'' ''''' ", 11" " "1' ,." 1,, 11... """t""'" l l """",~; I';, o·h ('JI": mu, l l... 1I\" ll I", ron' 1"I" '" lin~ ,L111,tlwr.
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f\h 'Jody may be defined eith ". . ce 10 tcrms o f its 1,t .oJll e 'S fl'Sponse s lo it. Mu sic . I structural charactecistics o c rlll'lo d,it's in tcrm s of struc tural charathe~n~ts tra~itiona1Jy have exarnined lIlon ' lIlh'n'sled in p ea I • ctenstlcs, whíle psycholoo-ists h b I 1 P e s respo nses ro . O' ave een .~ \" I¡¡~ ht'l'/1 exam ine d Irom a hil '" p e reeptlOns of mcl ad)'. Melad . ho ns 01 llld od y allude 'o lb . P osop h¡c¡¡J pcr spe ctiv(' and sorne d f ) e Importan f h .. ' e 101.111 {'''l'lItia / ilUribule Ior mak¡ ce o L e aesthetic mu sical whole" (¡\ ¡,-/lo, I!m.l 1) 17'1) Tb Ing a seq uence of single tone s víabl . :' . " e prcsem d ts. . e as me ody 111I1I 'l : sl ruc l Uf <.' of I d IScUSSlOn IS d ivided into two b d 1 roa sec" m eo y a nd p ' a l l l~ \\Iorl h ( I!)(;!) 1> '1") el ·fi e rcep tu a o rganiza tion a l m J d ' . o assl les d e ' ' . e o y lll n.d d l,lr;H"t('rislics as fimna /istic d ~nph~ms o f .m elody in !erm s o f struc~
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1II1"IIIS ¡lJIY slIccess io n of singf t O f M F.LO DY. l n Its bro adest sense m elod hol h ,,¡Ieh alld d llra !ion al rcJa~ioon~~ (ü rtm a n n, 19:16), a nd , as noted a bov: Ila~i ly. ',1'11(' p a rticula r p attern o~sa~~; ~~ntribute to ea ch melody 's indiv id -' IIl I s WC) lIenec of tones rovid . n IOg. and d escending p itches in a .IIII 'lo clK ('on to llr ís s!rengthen~d b :s md~dtc contour. The un iquen ess o f a 1I11l!!olróll ed in Fir>"llr e f I d ' Y lis parti cu lar rh yt hmic eon figo , . A , o' t-, a ra lCal eha . h ra Io n. s ( ." IIl~(' a '.n l'lod ic eOIl(Ollr p erce LllaJJ ng~ 1~ r ythm ic co nfigu ratía n m a wlth, '.IS UIJUI" e rhy lhmic eonfigtl~tion y. 1 ~us, a melod íc con to u r, togetll('~ .111 W IId l. : /islen er resp o nd s. A m elod ' s~f\. es as a Gestalt or h ol istic p aUern ' lll p ildl , .lIul ~ I l d ,fft'n' ' b Y m ay b e p erfo rmcd at dj .... . .. . . ev (' s, ut un/ess th l/ercnt lClll lll J !!o'IIlH'Il('SS" abolll it a nd , e tem p o cha nges radican), lb . \1 ' , p eop e le nd t ' , e re IS on' \Vdl he sa id lat e r abcJIl! varia b!, . . O ~ercel ve it as Ihe sam e m e lod '. M C I.~t d isn ls.sio lls of In el d ;, (.S ,1IflO"Cl lllg m e/od ie I"enu'n itio n ) , ' ., . () ) s slm ctu r 1 '1 .. ' . o ' l... p lh I ¡¡!trib utes, LlIlld in (I!U¡7 ) a_le la.rae tt' n!!ol ' es prima rily fOC llS 0 11 ~:IJ' 11ll '/o d ie a Urih llle s : /Jro/Ji1lQUi;) ~;1 7:.~ .¡J), 10 1' I',xalllp /(', se'I'S th n 't' partir _ , 1'!!o h 'Ul /lI('/udi('!; ¡1I (' n '/'lIi\'('ly p , . le I Hm. and j mnlilr. M O~l lolJes o f m()~l roplllq llOll..., Ih' II h, I lu w 10 " I'lh ", · A . ' .
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[unc t). Rccc ntly. Von Hippcl (~ OOO) suggcsted further qual ificauons rega rdmg pítch proxi m lty, wh ich dete rm ines p ropinq uity, Two co ns tra in ls- ttsJitura a m i fIlohilit¡makc proxíml ty a mauer o f con text as well as of succcssivc íuterval slze. Melodies have parti cul ar freq ucncy range s and overa ll lcvels {tcssiturae), Intervals lend to "rerrcat" from tcssítura ex tre m es; largcr intcrvals are mo re like ly al extre mes. Melod ¡c p eaks tend to b e ap p roache d by skips; skips are Iikely lo be fo llowed b y changes in di rcction . Mobility mean s that pileh es ten d to b e close lo the previ ous p itch. H eights o f consccut ive nu-lod ic pitchcs tcnd to corre late . Melodícs ar e rcpeürious in th at cc rtain to nes ten d lo rcpeat with m u sid cruble frcquency. Rad ocy' s exam ina tlcn o f rand omly selec ted melodícs Irom l hr Norton Scores (Kamien, 1972) and fro m 357 Songs Hlé Looe to Sing ( I!J:~ X) ~ lI p po rt s l .un dín's v iew. In th e No rto n ex am pl e, th e Iones do, mi, nn d ,1/1 uccou nted for 45 percent o f all th e ton es; adding ti a n d re increased the 1'('1rentage to ti!) . T h e correspond ing songbook percentage s were (i7 uud HI. Clcarly m o st Westero m elodi es tend to retum lo ce rta in to nes with gr cat írc'1 1lt' ncy, l .undín 's thi rd au ribute. fin a lity , refers to a tendency fo r melo die s lo cu d uccordi ng to cc rtain co n ve n t íc n s a l' cadena, wh ich co nvey a n im p rcsslon u f lIlom l'ntary or perman en t co nclusíon. Cadences in m elod ics co nst ruc ted within a \ Vestem to nal harmonic framework often have a n impl ied h armo nk acrompan iment, a lth o ug h no t n eee ssarily. Final to nes o fte n a re un es t ha t llave been repea led fre q uently o r eOlph asized in t he m elod ic Se(l ll l' l l n ~ . O rt man n (1926) believed th at a m elod y's structura l ch a rarterhlics w lIld 111" Ilnd erstoo d b cst by cxam in ing the pitch rel at io n sh ip s o f !he m cl odi¡: ("(Ir l tollr in iso latio n fram h arnlOny a nd rhythm . H is a n alys is f('veal ed s('v('ra l Iltl/i( (his te rOl) altributes o f m e lod y that are in h ere n t in all m e lo di es a m i th al klll l lo aUrael a lisle ner' s aUen tio n. They inel ud e (a) jirst and /ml IIITlf .I, (IJ) 11I~"f'J1 oml /owest tones, (e) repeated tones, (d) intava/ sizt, (e) jJiteh dirretirm. (1) I¡il//¡ IIffJximity, (g) emphasü in trme ¡;mups, (h) interoa/ re!ations/lljJ, a nd (i) dr~rrt' 1{(/IIp IIOSÜ, Tit e firs! th n '(' aUr ih lltl's a re It'r med ah.m/utt. w hi1e tlH' o lhel's an' lonsid l'red re/alive. O rtm a n n m a inl a ins Ihal 111(' relalive aUrih lltt,s a H' m on'
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lo l·.\hlbli.\h linalil)'. (¡\ 11\1110' 111 I , ' ~ ~ 1,lIulom ton al sequcncc, as un e m ight ubraín by I h m w íll ~ d,ll h II I 1lI 0111l11 ·d xtuff papt·r. is atypical uf lon al nu-lodics. ) Fmth t·r, il .\llAAl''1h 111.11 II It' I'lll p hasis a Ion e rccc ivcs wíthín a mclody dcpcuds (J I} its su nrnu ul n-huíon ship to ot hcr Ion es within th e mclody. Tbus. thc answer lo " \Vhat co nstüurcs a melody ?" is not solely a function of structural cha racte ristics; the answer also m ust be conside rcd in terms of tlu- lístencr, PEI {C¡,: nUA L O R< ;AN"IZA"lI O:-'¡ o r MELODY , Mursell's (1937. p , 104) answe r lo the que stion "What con stitutes a m elod y ?" is that "o Jequence al tones constitutes a meLody uihm it is opprehended in terms o[ a unified and singLe response." BUI unot ber im portant question ariscs: "' Vhal psychological factc rs iníluen ce an lndivldual's perceptíon and apprebe nsion uf a tunal sequence as a melody ?" A tmdiüonal (and still ge nerally acecpted) ex plan atíon u f m elodi e pcreepüon invokcs thc "laws" of Gestalt p syehology. G ne pcrceives a melod y as a (;t'slal! in accordance wHh funda me nta l or gani zational principIes ("Iaws") dl'r i\-"t'C1 from the snldy of visual pereeption. the laws u~ proximity, simiLarity, ClJ1IWlOrJ dirtC lion, and simpLicity (Bower & Hi lgard. 1981. pp_30 2-310). Sev eral wrilt'rs provide exc cllent revicws of the ap plica tions of Gcstalt perceptual laws lo mt'ind ic perce ption (e.g.• Lip scomb. 1996 , pp. 145-1 50 ; Terhard t, WH7, pp. 1!i7- 1G{j). Essentially. th e Gestalt pe rce ptua l laws as ap plied to lIwlod ic perception suggest that people are like ly to (a) pereeive tone s close h1,L\t'llll' r io lime and auditory space as a mcl od ic un it. (b) perc cive sim ilar (lt 'lwatt'd) tOlll'S as a uoi!., (e) hear a rnelu dic sequenee as moving in a com 1Il 01l di rt'ction tuward comp letion. and (d) o rgan ize the Gestalt (to nal co ntOllr or pattem ) in its simp lest form o T hl' slmc tLlral eha ractcristics discusscd aboye refleel th e Gestalt organiza. tiorHlllaws, Peopl c tend lo percei ve a tonal sequence as a me lud y m ore readiI )' if musl tones are clase in frequ ency, involve a cenain am ount of rep el ilion , ami proeeed toward a fioish in a sum ewhat direct manner. Relation s alUong 11lt' to nal eleme nts them selves define lhe Gestalt-Iike experience of lIlt'im ly (Esp inoza-Varas & Watson . 1989). Tht' aut hors. ho wever. do not intend to suggesl, as do sorne proponents of C I'sl;dt pS)Th olo!,'Y, that capacity lo perccive eonto ur or pattem in melody is illbu l'll and requires no learning. As H ebb (EH !), pp_ 17- 5 9) both argue s and ra l"l·fllll)" documen ts, th e perceplion of relative ph enomena, o f \\'hich m elo d)" is mlt'. invul vl.·s the a bility to perceive patterns an d de velo ps un l}' as a result 0 1' Jll'O lon gt·d ex pe ricnce (Iearning). whe the r forma l or informal. with the parlinda r phl'lIomcnon . 'li) rt'cub'll ize a given tonal St'<JIlt'IlCe as a nwl ody 11't¡lIil't·s ex pericnct' \\,ith lo nal seque nces of il similar slylt·. Th us. fam iliarily wilh " melod y 01' mel od íc ,~ I )' It · h " 11 importanl varia blt· ;1\ inlhu'n dng wlwl :I n indi vidua l pt'IH' ivI'S ;u ll11'l ud y. ,h ;I n ind ivid ual
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fol' mostlísn-m-rs . l 'o n ~ (,, _h H) ~ 1l ,ll.,II. l'\ h lhal lIalri ng trai nmg a nd mo nvation lo track musica l funn iu 1111 '111 .'Iu ,.1 ll' llll \ , hsn-n ers ex pcrien cc rcc urrcn ce uf musicul idea s a m i {"( l h. 'n ' llt ' 1' (_ 1 11111Sil ' ulft 11I 1I S whhout a ronscious ve rballzed expl a nu río n. Conscious Pt'lll 'l'lioll h 1101 a prcreq uisuc for musical enjoymcut. M any atte m pts to mode l híc ra rchícal pcrrcptual strucruríng exist; \\"est, Il owdl , and C ross (19HS) províd c nn cx ccllcnt review, (Mo re is said 01' h iel" a rchic a l struc tures Jater in thi s chapte r.) Examínations al' rne lod y's phonology, JYl1 l nx, and gra mmar are co mmon l o th e dev elopmen t a l' m an y m odels. Slo boda ( WH5, pp. 11- 5 2) pro vid es dear, authoritative definitions am i d es cnptlons. Essentially, p ho nology eoneems th e way in wh ieh piteh sou nd s IJI/wllemes) a re di víded into diserete sound (pereep tu al) categories . Syn tax is concerned wi th eo m b in ing so und u ni ts luto seq uene e s, and h'Tarnmar is co ncerned with the "rules" fo r using, or p rocessing; sy nta ctica l seq uenees. Man y mod cl tonal hierarchies are b uíh, ex plidtJy o r irnplicitly, upon ger¡ emt íoe gTammars, o rga nizatio nal ru le s that un derl ie m usica l structure . This ;¡pp rnac h is simila r to that exemp lified by C homsky 's work with language. Slnlw da (1!1H5, pp. :H-47) argues th at "the structurts c m bod ied in sueh gram o lIIars hayto psyeh o logical reality" (p . 3 4). He uses Sundbcrg and Lindblom's (1!17Ii) W'llt' rative granunar fm eight·bar n urscry tunes to demonstra te how a lllllskal gra mm ar re semb les the generative phonology of langu age gra mmal s. 1.t'r dahJ (WHS, p , 233) distingui shes bctwcen com/Jositiona/ grarn mars, whk h gt'lll' ratc mu sical stim uli, and /isttninggram mars, whie h ge nerate m enI ~ II n 'pr('sc ntations of so nic events. O f pa rticular im po rta nee to th e present d isclIssion is the faet that man y aceounts of meJodic pereeption and eOí,'l lilioll a re eo tlehed in termina JoS)' rcflectin g b'Tam matical strue tures as psyt:illllog"ica l rea lity, \\'ht'lhe r one sp ea ks of sehemata, ru les of ge nera tive gram mar, o r ex peclatiollS H'ga rding meJody, general ah'Teem en t ex ists tha1 the Gestalt laws of pt'rct'f>tua l urganization remain va lid . The mc lod ie expeetations, or sehe ma· l¡l , of an ind ividua l gro wing u p in a \Vestero cultu re m ost Jikelr are for tona l Gesla lts ; i.c., Ihey probably are couched in a tonal harmonic framework, uti· li/,e di alon ie seale Ion es, ge nerally have small intervals between tones, return wilh co nsidera blc frequ cn er to ce rta in ton c s, and usua lly end with sUllle inllllit'd ft lllvc nlio na l ca de nee . Wh t'lI a n indi vid ual co n fro nts a melod y in an unfam iliar style, and hen ce h'Is 110 pa rlicu lar eXpt'elatio ns, Ihe probabilit)' 0 1' respon d ing lo il as a Illclo dit' I'n lily is lesst'llt'd considerab ly (M er er, 1967 , p . 277 ). The fa iluR' uf to la l sl' ría l ll1usit" In ga in widesprea d aCt~e plance is partl y bl'c¡mse Iisten ers ha ve nol h'a nlt'c! Iht' slyle' s slru ct ura l p re mises. Mt'p 'r a lsu m;linl ains Ihal Ihc nalun' uf st'rial nw ludi t,s, \\'hi eh n'quires Ihal I'al 'h d lllllllal ir 10m: wilhin Ih(' lwla"t' ¡lllIJ{'ar Ilt'fllr\ ' :L lH ltht'r Illay lit' n 'IH'alt 'c l, Ill u ' ~ IUII allll\\' sufllcielll I'('p.
' .. -Hwm as a I1lt'lodil: whok'. Th t ' r '1" lo IIl'H t IVI 1 ' I r l\Jt' m1tllllltmcy r,or 1!01'·I,lt ,, 11 lo '¡((I/, lucks p,~ydlOloj!,i((/ ulUt~ , ,I ~ , _, 1 1lt' llld i(~ patlet'l\: \v IIIIt~ sln,II,I," I',1 : .t'S~'i that no hOlnogenc(~\IS ~ly t.~t lC ( ~l~t_ ."' lIal l¡"'tener, l'u rlhc r, Mt) t r ,sllAA , , , '. [ ruusic; th c styl isü c thvcrslty Wl,l l :'11."'1"lo sorvc as a rcfen' lK l' I'0ml fl~1 s~ r~" 'rdahl's {WHH, p . .' m5} gC I~eral ~vl' ." ' too grcat. In u-nus o .e 1" with the hstl'lUng tu 11 \1' ¡( nuu IS I crar nm ar h ....., as "lost to uc 1 if a . thc COm pOSI Ion o I'. lllllHIMrs, I ·1" .• be h th e stn lClur" t 1011 141,lIIl1 ll;lr. , ears to be a fundio n o f lt , , ,', ('t' with 111 I'SSl'IK C, a melody app . da lístcncr's previOUSexpe ile n ' , ,' , .11 'l'l b lics of a given to nal sequence an individual leam s his 01' her (' lI it U II s , I}' lh ;in tlly sim ilar tonal seq~1~7c:s. ~~dge is cxplicit and verhal~/.ahlt', h: I,' h mala guiding musicul (' X)l11 ·,·" ",d io ms. Su me m úsica no , 1111' 1ot l 'f selOUS se e 1 I I III 1Ir h is im plicit., the resu~ ~l ~~~~n p. 147). Familiarity wilh nlh l~ra 1II1~' ; ,11 r,,tlon s (C a rle re,tlc & K:n , a f~r 'de~~lnping expecta tions (o~ Ior ~n1 I11I:I~\:III~ S II illlo l1ls provídes a asl . , .ecue nce s- th us ena b hng rt s~ " ~n , , _l lll'lI\al~\) regarding llnfa~lIhar ,ton~~~..~ver, a cu ltu re's mclodic 1I!l~IIII'l ,ll l hi h e'ognizes tha t l1l1'lod ws 1II11!OI , ucnce as a mclo cllC enury. IW W !oI' 1 1 ni w le r '. ll lt' pl'lldllcl of a musica~ deve op me 1 uributes that will cnablt' Iisl!'I,,'r s I,l~ 1111 IlIv o rate som e unifY1l1g h struetu~ n: 1 sequene es lhat enabll' l>l'rt'('Pttl . m bcr 1 cm , l O , 11 s 'll'lH'al lo l·,II 11l"' l'l'ivc all d reme , h th Gestalt o rganil.al lO na aw , 1 \' tU i1lli'¡;ation in aceo rdance \.., t e st likcl . to b e percc ivt·d as Ill(' ot , I I~S , lS ¡ll ~ l'pt t'd must readí1y a nd , there:or~ ~oe whel~er a lonal seque llct' fU llrlllll lh percelver can JU g t lltil1latcly, o nIY e " 1 dy · lf it clocs, It u a me o . •' '1 a l1\eIo dy ,
d itio ll
111'
Iltm1wny
" , lh all){,oll!t' o l'¡¡' lI t 01' \ ,"estero mUSIC I b n n on y is suc h an im~or~nt asp~C f h ar mo nie ex pectati ons as llluch ~u (l ' \ )ol1 d lo isolatcd m clod,es, m termS o b oda (1!)SS, p, 5'2) flole s, "wh{'lI Il ~' I _ . f mclodic expectalto ns. As Sio , . 1\ . involves lh e ;tUI'mpl I1 1I1!t'IIll S o h ' r roeessin g of It no rma } q (1) 1 ':\71. ' l'U1'I'S hear a meJody, t el P d hythmic structure ," Apel (1. 1., \ ' ' 1 .. 'lril'Vt' implidt harmo nic ~n . r of the ei ht centh eentur)' un, tIJe )I';tI~ ~ 11l;lilllains tha l "fro m th e ~cfn~~~~ on th e e~eetive arr ange nwllt uf t\1I' h.1I ni mt' ludie hiles depende" arg } " , · g the m . 1 ' td l slru(l UH S . I l d 1111111iesun crylO . ' _'f " s lo lllllsie's ve ruea 1>1 ' , _ '7 1 111 ils broadesl sense, han,lHHl} l e ~ 1. , tlw lody. Apel ( l !)(i!I, pp , , ~ d -, \ ' o 'I'llst'd 10 its horizontal pltd~" s~nl:,~I,II~~l)in;lliolls 01' mclodic s, orgallllm"gl'n 1 ",.,riles ils devl'lo pnll'nl. 1.."ly 1 '" ,hree lllc1odie s, b ul as JIlII~ IU l 1l 1 ' ' , 1 ' t W I' t' \1 WO o II l ' l'Iall )' involn'tl paralld l\l,{~t~llI~ 11 , vals IwIWI'I'1l mdo d ics "so und t,( ,)I't ( 1 . " ,~ (\t'velolll'd Iha t n' ll,1I1\ ml t 1 ,." ,. ' \11' re sult anl SOIlIlIIs ni 1I111\t 1l1l " l ' · ' II I ~ I " W' i ' 11 1I¡lI\lIltalH.(}usiy Ihan o t lI'rs. ~ 0111 t I SllI l t' l' lI l h (1 ' 1\ 11\ '1' t1id harmo n), )1'((:1,<, pie' vo ices. Nol IIl\lil about 1 I,t· 1111 1 \l ¡\ IU' I n llt'v,o l'i'l,t'S 1111' 1'1''1 h t'tWI'I'I\ , . . . ry sll\ll'l ural ('1)\11 1'111111 11111" .1
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a seq ul'll(:l' lhr -1 m o ve m clll . (1o nun am triad s in lh 1 L • o US 1 slro ng to nic su bd om" e a le uaroque ' el 1 . • man t, an d ~' ~ ):Il;¡lltie ~eriod thal ex p loited the t~;~d~ a~slcal peri~ds, lo harmo nies o f th t, SI\ (' ,USL' 01 chromatic altecations and d i le system to ns ext remes wíth ex te n\\ hil e lhe p re pond Islam modulation s ,I. ecane e of twent¡ th . ;:::)(1)111 a {crtia n harmon ic fram ewo rk ~ ~cen lu?, m usic w as cons trucled , as lhe peri od of posüenian ha ' pe conslders !h e era bel,rinni ng in nu-nt uf ve rtical stm etu rcs that deJiTmony, pri~ arily because of the d c ve!o _ It'm , l >t'b ussy 's "p ar alle1 cho rd' " ,b~ra!~Jr vio lare the lriad ic ha rm on s ~ .\t'ria! tl'r hniques aleato rie ~, Scn~blll s quarta l ha rmo ny Schoeo bY y~· ' muste, muslque e ' erg s u u-nt s IIJ t'/e ctronic and onaete, an d rna ny o f th d I ," 1 J . av a n t-ga rde mu s' fl e eVe opll' a I il1lt'n sio n in man oe'" d .tT le re cel ctrorts to o rganiz" lb lu e ren ! fro ( " h .... e verOPUll'lItS Il lL' (we n ty m cc nlu ry will b . erlla h n armony. Wh at o ew d eVe 1ltl I lt' ,~ I ' l' ll nng lo annon ic dev I ' e opment rema in Ilj'c'i1 usc ha rm o ny " ", " • III I S va nous {onu' h I lIt "~ \\ I' SI( 'nl mu sic, an d th erefo re a fa ~ I~ suc an .inlegral eo m pone nt uf tllllNlca l lJt'iJavio r it wiJI b ' ctOl fo r co nsld eratio n in e '. ' e exarnJned in I lb xa rnm mg 1 erms o olh its slruetural d t 1'1'1 1101 l'ha rae leriSlics
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II'IIIIIIIS gl'llera lly a" l ' } H.4,RMO NY. Sim ulta ne o us p', ¡ b" (M e o ne o two b . I e 1 eo m ,_ t'!ud)" a lu nc is monophonic. i e " ~IC / ex tures, pof,phonic o r homophonic. I'o lypbo lli c !ex tme cOlnb i ~e~ " t 1 m vo ves o nly a single pitch at a tim e /Ill'lclllit's: Co nc e rn v,i th ""how 00 w,? o r m ore sim uhaneo us ly so und in' ,1111' J'j,:,... hlll g sim llha neo us pi'ch~s S~ll (d e ,e ~~sonanee-dissonance character~ tI! wlll"h lh e music was eo d n Vanes lo a larg c d egr ee with th ' Ulld pn_~Il('J"li;¡n L'ras refleCIsm¡Pose . Ge neralJy, po lyphon ic music of th..e er,l .... prt', ess COncern f¡ th h ; ),Il.~ '~ O~lIl cls Ihan po lyphon ic fll usk o f rhe t o~" ehe aracter o f the sim ultane_ 1 XIUll fe': llu rL's Olle meIod . er lan arlllo ny era . H orn o h . ;;o m icll'rs hoth fhe resuhant~~~:,o~~d bY a tc,:,ia n hamtoni e framewc!:k ~~~ iot llHl, ' n a an d vertica l d imension s ni ' h ' e m usIca l hlnsl rL'fe rl'n ccs I h " " o armo ny m m . IllIeted in 11 le nian hannotl ic frarne\: lslc aHr~ lo hon~ophon ie music co nD r k.
i
1101 fUf
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,1 1< " 1,11 n ' II Il ' I'" 1"'11 . -" " ' " u n o r 1<>11<1 111)', l h .. l" rli'"l In n u" " , 1 l' lt rIld n ha rm o n)' ,W ~, "o, 1<' I' ''' II"(' S ' " '~ W' I " llI l'lid t ,., ." ;¡""onJill" 10 11" .' ·'lO n tOllal ha l'lllOJ lli,· 11 ' t" . Sds n mg /"" I_ " , 1" '" 1" ' ". u f , ,.o I,ln " Ilólrmull)". 'UII'·...' " ,'1" 1" " ' S lo mll' jc H m .
111011 ' ounmon SenS(' refcrs lo 1111' hi¡.: hl y d ,'v,'I"IJ" '¡ 11\-'- ''' 11 1 tll I h olll ~ und 1,'I,IIIOIIS lx-twcen chords f hat dl,ua t"ll'li/I ' 111' 1' 1 \\'/' _1 "111 lllll, h , IJ,ll lkllla rly Ihul uf Ilu' baroquc, cla ssical. a ud 1001l ;l1l1 k 1" 'l illd" \\'hi l,· h,lIl1lO lIit, p racH, ..' of th r- thrce pc nods d iffcr, then - ÍN a Ctlllllllllll IIllllt nu ul haSt' , Mus lo 01' thcse pe nods. whirh ( 'u lll " l hj'~ 11 \1' Jlll'cllllllllla lll Nly lj's of "clus. k al" mus¡c pcrformed to da y. ís ('o ns lrllclt'cI ,11 1111111 1 a kt,y cen ter, also kuowu as the tu nal cente r 0 1' tonic. M usíc U lII.S!t llt"l t't! uronn d a kcy cent cr I'm S t' SSt ~S tnnality. 0 1' "loyulty lo thc tonic." (T ht, ne xr St'('IIOIl d tsc usses to nal11 \ ' 111 mo re d etai l.) Tbc tr iad a o r chords consnucted on th c first , fourth, and 1IIIh sl'¡¡le deg rces, respectively the ton ic, subd o m ina nt, and d o m in an t, se rve ji 1111~ p rimary s tr uctura l m echanism for m aín taíníng e m p hasis on th e tona l • " Illt' r. O nce thís m ech ani sm becam e firmly establishe d as the vehicle for 1,ICllsing atten üo n o n the to nal ce n ter, thu s p ro vidi ng harmo nie u nít y o r H'P l'l iliull, compo ser s could d epart fro m thc harm o nic framework a m i tl1('11 u-uuu to the to nic. H armon ic co nve n tions werc deve lop ed th rough whk-h lllllt tio lla l cho rd p rogressio ns , struetured aro u nd the to n ic, su bd o m lna nt. ,lIul d u m ina nl b ut a lso e xtending th ro llgh cho rds b uilt on o ther scale tOlWS ,1 wt'lI as Ihrollgh Olodulations into o thcr keys. seIVed as the p rimary u nifyII IIJ. 1"C II"("e . Harmonic p ra etices of Ihe romantic period ea rried th is system lo 11 . t' xtrem es. ' I\v(' ntil'lh-een lllry d evelopments 01' ways for eom bi ning p ilches siOlu!ta 11l 'o llSly have reslllted in varied lechniq ue s and sty les. T his is nol to sugg l'sl, IlllWt'Wr, Ihat tertian ha nno ny no lon g er is used as a eo m po sitio nal d e vk e . lo lh t, eo nlrary , it remains the primary struetu ral mechan ism for co m b ining l' ill·lll's sim llha neo llsJ)'. parliclllarl)' in po p ular Olllsic. I'UtCEIT I"U.\L O RGA(\¡ II'.ATION Of H AIlMO t\Y . T heorists ha vt-' stud lt'd :l il e! 'lI1 a ly:t.t'd lll11sic's harmon ic slructure since its in cep tio n. a nd harmoll }' I"l lll ItllUl'S lo be a maj ar area o f study for stu d ents prepariog fo r ea reers in lllu Nit" I Jlllit fl'Ce nlly, however, there has Leen relativel y Httle stu d y of ha rmo n y ill tl'l ms uf people 's responses lo it o r their ab ility to co m p rehe nd it. "!"r;ulitio na l att e mpls lo expla in response to harmony were malh em ali('a!; l u ' ~ ill ll in g wHh the work ofthe Greek mathematician Py th agoras. Lakr Ihl' o tI\ls, in cluding med ieva l chureh scho lars. also cxami ncd a o d e Xl' la illl'd II'NI II JIlSCS lo the pred o m ina nlly I1lClc lclic mu sic 01' the ir times in t('nn s Clr siln ", pl,' llIatlwmatical ratio s. \Vit h Ihe d t'velullln ent o f m usic CCl l1strllcl('d in ;1 IUlla l ha rrnunic framewo rk , m al lwma lical e xp lanatio ns cOlltiJltlt'd , b ul I"'nlllsl' u f Ihe l:o mpru lllist's nI' t''1l1 a l kll1pe ra m e llt ,.~ co n ven it' n t (!xp hllla lio u, iu tl' rms o f sim p ll' ma llw mal in il t' xp lanal iulls n o lo ng l' r al'p lit'd . ( 'oll st'c¡u('ntl y, a lll' lllp ts lo t' xp l,lin halllltlll )' in Il'lms o f psych o loh.;(".lI cha r'lcI..ristics m usl look bt'yollt l tllll, k ', "~ t il' lllilit'" u t" lllallw llla lica l aSIlt'l"I .
M" m/ll
_ _ _- -
-
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ttm aoior
Holh l-nmswunh ( 1% 11, 1'1' :11 11 ) IllI tl l.lI l1din (Wm , pp . HH-H!J) bclíe vc
\
t h ut f{'SpOIlSt· lo ha ll1lUIl Y i ~ H W/tllllll /l /lrtllllll fllflll. ,1l1S1 a s in dividnals' c xpcri -
('un's wit h thc ír (: lI l1 llll" ~ ll1m u l 'll ah tl' rlu-m lo dcv elop mc lodi c expectaliou s. lh e c xpc rk-nces aho tosll' l ha lll Hlll il' (·xllt' r tatinlls. l\l usic in whlch the hannuny d oes nol ronfon n in a ~l' l H' r a l wa y lo 11a' h armon ic p ra cti cc s wíth whic h a lislencr is fam iliar srum ds "stran ge" ur "chffe re nt." Even though most Ilstcncrs ca n not verbaiíze u ihat soun ds slrange or diffe re r u, the effect is dí s-
turbiug because the listencr's genera l expec taríons are un fulfilled. l larmony, just as m elod y and rhythm , is eom p rise d o f patterns an d generally ls perceíved ho listically. lndívíd uals respond to hannon y as a totality ruthc r tha n as indi vidual tones or chords. (O nly durtng formal musical tr ainlng d o most indi vidu als atte mpl to analyze harmon y into its constituent pnrts .] lndlvid uuls respond and develop expec tatio ns towa rd rhre e prtmary "h olisttc" aurtbu tes of bar monic structure: tonalil)', harmonic mooement; and fill tl lity. T he laws of perceptual organi zab on no led un der lhe discussion of 1lH'locl}' also appear basic fuI' perceiving hannon ic attri bulcs. Tona lity, o rgan ill, d 'ln Hl nd a tonal cente r 01' "hom e ton e," pro vides an und erlying reference 0 1' n 'dundancy th at helps a Iisten cr respon d to a complex sequent ial series of lllultiplc sounds bo mbard ing th e central nervOlls system via the auditory sen\Ol'}' nlt'chani sm s. As Meyer (196 7, pp. 28 8 -293) has not ed , experiencc wit h IlHl \ k w nstructcd in a tonal harm onic fram ework provide s the basis for pe r{l-iving n -dundancy. in this case tonality, which enables a listcner to "m akc .\I'1I \t'" of m llsic heard in relation to expl-ctation s, H('sptlllse to ha rmonic movemenl appcars lo OCCllr in a manne r sim ilar to Ihl' response to melodic eontour. H annoni c movement al' progressia n is a rrifllivf phe nom eno n. as is me lod y, "'e respond to hannonie movem ent in rria/ion lo IOllality. Praetice s in funetional harm an y became a standard or ll1mle! for Iisten ers' harmonic expeetations. As harmonie praeticcs eha ngc. li.\ h'Ill'rs learn the new harmonic slyles and develop ex pectat ions accord ing· 1) ',
~It·y t' r
having a
(W67, p. 292) belie ves that a primary difficu lty composers face in l argl~
number of Iisteners
rllll
~ 17
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, f lll'w01k am i , . ronal han lUJlUl: n ll . ' luc()n~l rud t'l l 11\ II,tlllOIl tol ·t , ,-" "ventions stiH p"uv,de tu 1111 lllt'lod ies .y I"H r-nc e ~. 1\ o t '. , "e' " listl'll('rs W O ll ( 11 I ninl'!t't'llth t t'IIIIl1 I ' ct·\tHlns I ,,¡.. hIN'nl t ant · I I1 ,.. • [lnu ¡tv ('xpt' . • . . -hord ev en llong \I,l\h Ior musl \\'estl'fll ('IS ' " , lvc to a to rn e ( . .,_ ,, ' I' llll inant-seventh ( lu n d III ' l-S~) 'e in hear ing ha rruony provu t S l'Xl't '( l . ~1 t Iabcl tb v e, IOn ls. F' XllCn en e . 1 tratn " ll.g , formal musaca ll1 11~ t r-ou 1( no eve n wi th out any '. 111.' h"1Sis for such .exhPec~llOlm "'e'nd)' builds mclod ic expectallo~S. "ceplion d' d harmolllC pe . n ea n ng c ¡II ~I as ex pe n enc 1 . veho logists havc not stu . re . I 1 as¡lt'cts u f Ct)\llempl:r~~~ym:::~~:~died m elo d ic ~ereed'?tedion'o~:;~::);~ese'arch "Iu l Iu IIIt' exte n . b ound 10 e tt v lIJH'J: ' , d e\odic pe rceptlo n a . . SI boda 1 9 9 ·1 ~ C l y nt~ s , . , , . , ,h . ,h ),thuuc an m ( AlenO & o " s, music pS)'ehology e.g., ' 1985) but they eontalll It . wIllmg un . I1 e s & West,. .Nevertheless. , hcr e i " m ere \ S .1 , l tJH2b 11)99 ' H owc , ros, I Icutsc l . . ". ' h j-rnorrir; pereeptlOn . , " -cd lb
~~ ~;::~Y"I~~~~t ~~~;=~~;I't~:d"¿:gnSIi~V:;':::;~~:~¿r e:~~~~~:~::~~::~i~~~;~, r.;; I lop interna ce . h' keys T beory an . ' u-m-rs ( e~c hi
nd fun etions of ehords w ít m
.
ent resl'arch cs¡«..
~2:1~~~~~~::e~~s:umpt.ions is li~it~dy' i:~~So;~~:i;~: ::~csting how ex pt'-
d t harnl0 lllC pe rce p 10 t ¡ally re Iale o " h onie informatioo . . h ' (ollu xl lit'\I.n ·d \islcnersH~::~~~' : : : CastcUan~ (1982) i~e;~~~dh~s p eri1l1en Knllnhan.sl• . les 01' hannonie or gan izatlOo •. each o ts th at when a cho rel .frflt'lIdm t pnnClp . . le 01' contextual identlty sugges 1 1)' rclatt'd lo . . h 'ard as more c ose . . , port. The pnnClp 1 1<, sur b l' h ed key eontext, lt l S e lh t l ', ~ lc n er s WI\I \'t' C . . ' an esta IS Th' , mcaos a " .:,\ ~lj.~~,~~ \"" he n it is out of ~c.ke~~o~~~~t k~~ 01' a dosely rclatcel kc y Ihall . h d m ore eastly 1Il t e cO u ¡.l,II I1".(' Ihe e 01' differl'nt d lUnb c(Jntextual dütanet, su ggcsts that tWO in th e sallle kt,y in a disla nt key.. .
:e:
,1 t~I'l~~l~~~:1~~:~;~~:iy (perceIPt~tal:~::)i~:,r~~:~~~st~:7r:::e
the diffle.n",In ;¡': h e not. The coser . . tones {ollm lit ) 11 ntalll Ih" lI wheo t eYhar C d G maior triads. \\·h¡ch eo , 1 rehtcd TIIl' C ' lpIe l e a n l 1 qu ite c ose y , . h ll t'~an . ' d G m aja r diatoni c sea cs. are 1 l ' rd ated. b ut sill('l' n dlt' e l1l aJor an . d howe ver are not so e ose } ~ ' 0 1' tln' c on llI..jo" and D lma~~:~I~I;)r sG m ajor, a\ey d osely related ~~~;~;ai(;" 011\(1 Dh l l Oml 1l10ljor is 1le h " th e rd ationship between . . h" dosel' t an sayo , . 'lalitlos Ip IS ' 1 . which th l.· . . . d' . ,l, , . lo th e oH cr 1Il 111"1°' tna.~. . ip le (fmtfx /ll tll (l,fi)'''''''t'lry, t l .Ites . ts that two snn"t'SSiVl' . 'xt ami Iht' TI\<' Ih n ( l~nnc , '" l, 11\lIsit'al l'xam ple. \1 S\l g~t' s 1 honls or en r III a p .\rh,C,u ly wlll'lI ¡lit' tl rst dwrd ISO.lIt .of ~ o'~I~ill' Sl'l :ll ll d 1 hor ds an' rd alt'd mOlC« () l ' wlll'1l ,Ill' nr~t dlO rd IS III .UH ' l'l'oml cl1 0rd is in r onlt'xl 1 hl ll . 1 ti I' ríll l"il'll'S uf tri ;ltl l llll sHlltl ill n , m 1 "I:::llk nl .... h" 1,,1k k,m...·t.·IIK.· "I·I,.•~i' :::"1 ;:,'. ~,~~" j 1::'::;' ;'II:;, ~I, ':~.,:l;\ "",h 11.1,,",nh IU '" ,,1 1I1111 1,·r. '
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o/AlIHiml /ld uw ior
cbo rd is o ut Tl lI' s l n ·ll J:.l h Ul lllll h ' \l lla l ; 1.~Y ll lll ll' l r y iS . 1 f UIl Cti O I1 uf the co ntext kcy and thc keys 01' wh h h 11H' I holl ls could be a pa rto Percept ual d istance decreases as thc St',:olltl chunl lIlHVl'Sdosl'r to th c context kcy and the first cho rd moves furt hc r from it . A~ (G-Il-D), A minor (A-C-E), D majar (DF-#-A), and E m aja r (E-G-#-B). Perceptually, the 1, IV, and V cho rds are particularly c10se in each ke)'; chu rds un ique lo G majo r ur A m inor are re lativc1y rem ate. Subjecls pe rce ived C major as lhe dominan t tonality; they ha d a strong prcfercnce 1'01' sequences eodiog 0 0 the C chord. T here was a lesst'f prcfercnce fOf sequences ending on the G chord; no regu lar patlem existI·tl for A minar. B1mrucha and Krum ha nsl (l 9H3) gathe red fu rthe r cvidcnce thaLthe plindplt·s 01' contextual idelltity. contextua l distanc e. and contex tua l asymme try ):,(J\"t' nll't1 hannon ic organization in tonal co nt exts . O n the basis of their t'xpt'rillll'lltal da ta obtained rrum mu sicaUy experienced subjccts who evaluah ·d ho\\' "well" one chord seem ed to follow an other 01' how "we ll" a cho rda l S('qUi' IKt' diffcred froro another due to one altered chord, the investigators rt'("(mfirmcd lhe '" context" principles and identified th ree ad ditional "kcy" prindples Lhat guve rn har m on ic organizatio n independently o r con lext: Key I/Ifll/h frJllip, intrakey distanci, and intrakf)' asymmetry. T he '" key" princ ipies are not surprising in vicw of the traditions of Weslern mllsir theory, b UI the inve sligators provided a resear ch base. According to lhe "1'Y nll' mbership p rincip Ie, cho rd s [rom lhe sam e ke)' ar e more relatcd th an d lOrds [rom d ifferent "eys. For example, the G majar and E mina r trialls, I ¡md VI [rom G major, are m ore rclated Lhan th e G major and Eh m aja r triads. T he intrakey distance principie says that a key's 1, rv, an d V chord s (tlll' key's "harm onic cure") are related more c10seiy than th e key's " non r o n '" dwrds. In D majar, for exam ple, the re latiollsh ips amon g Lhe D, G, l e " "' I" f ISd
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.
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tll'lll lh l' rdó\llon s 111 k '¡ SYI\ I1\l I'l I Y .. . lri'ld s un- sLt OllW' t ' .. "-#1 H aud C-fI . In lra l ')' . , , .\ ' l' t hl' ¡lI\t\ A IHajOI . -ak- ,k):,tl'I'S, L. \ , . .l,h ll'll 11\ 01'1' do~t y 1 . 0\11 Ihe rcm ahl1 ng St • . 1' frulH I hl~ sam e key are 1 ' . I\d is lhan 11ll'Y ere If ' red cholls .. odthe sl' l O . l il' II U'atlS t1t at pa l . h . "han nonic cor e a . 1 ' I'be uv rd atlllllS \ . ' l lO " dlOrd is no 1 e " l.", lhe secoOd IS no . / ' ""')·01" choul, ts 1" .• . he "core . g tu a v • I lbl' ItrsLch ord is,lO t . e b a D m i.nor chord ~oVt1l .' ru by the G·l) chu n '" . . ")H.tn p\i.fted io. e _m;~:ti~oship, exem pliftcd m e rnaj , , 10:-,1'r tha n the V n _'. - the or ganl1.al101\ " . . les sutnOlarl1.c " \ ... n ~ lllllvl'ment. t xt" and "key prmclp d KruOlhan s\' 1 \e co Tugethcr, th e "con,.e 1 acco rdin g to llharu cha a " \.slcncrs ab strad un,h'!" . inform a l UI • pe rience d I 1 «l't'St ..1' ha rmot\lc . ' les re nec t how ex . T h pri.nciples a so S U N" . 14'xt" and -key" poncl~umplcx musical stimul~. ~ rtlationJhips ;\ll\{)I\g pal ' nnd keys. Om' abo Iying sLo lctu rcs {rom ~ .nvolvcs th c perceptloO o rhnt har m onic pcrcepl1~ r'elated to chordal scqueoc~ that thc Gcstah ol"~a s IO'I1\S, particularly th o · les provide furth~r S~lppl ' ccrtainly do no1 u ·IIlII' ld arPlte that the po nci ~ usic pe rcept tOn , they , IIIH 0 , ate du nng ro , lIintionallaws ope r .nLerdc pt'ndl'lH" tl·s .• . Lhe "sLrong I ." ' 1111\ 11\1'1\\. ¡ ( ) 211) potn ls out " cho rds, and kl'YS • Knnnhaos1 (l,)l}\O, " . of Olusical sLruclure: t~nc~: .trtlcLu rcs applicabk 11 \ll'IWI'en th e thre e e¡ve 'd . s support the vie w 1 aL sh " Fnrther. she no ll's, 'rica stn te . d ne an ot el'. . - 11 1l011'S that e":,p' ke s ar e stroogly tte lo ~ data and Ihe frt·q\tl'nl· l~S ~ '. Itllll'S, chords , and y be tweeo ps)'cho\ogtca\ h , lhe "internal rt pll ondence . . rrrrests La . . ." (,. Illat lhe corr esp . al haTllloni c OlUS1C sUoo . d Lhrou gh ex pe nl'tlU . lo Iltl ' S and cho rds :~o~annonic rc\ations is acqUlrC "'I'nl
.' lI t\n• l . is reco b'1\1llU l onallty . of b oth w elody and hadrm~),'¡')., a \Olla\ h\1 , ' . 1 L\ 'Y pro V It ... • ) S1 ca ,'l ha l"oque , c aS , 1"1"111111' uf wllir h tS11011. 11 .• nt liKh" (p. 1 ~17 . l!llla\ idiol\lS, a cnnln\Orn ,SI: a n 'llll ,1\ ,1111\ II lUst 1,1,',',,\)Olrl:oh'.d to tIHW/il )" il/llllr~1 . \ . "ho l\W ). . , (. ' 1 '2 {" ) 1 1 I - \1' \ \i"h'llel' Wtt 1 a f \1 ir l 'm "p' iu/l S lI lIlIlI' \' I l,",lilY's nal l11"l' l;tS . " ' ¡ll'd al issttl' o I /.1.\ • , . 'l' " ,,1\" ... w" IO '¡:,all1l\¡.!; ;~.' ,...tl .l\lthorilatlVt· \ • " 1\1:11 ) s .\ I ' , CII II\ ~ . . ' •. (j ul/ sllggesLS lha l t H . \. 111 \Ollll hl \' 1111 V " l ll O(." '·}i}O) 1l"It.s val'iut\s tklllll 1'11\1)) , ·OIH· l·plthl l .' [l \ ¿, l o vart tlllS l }ln.U}. '1 111 111 1\ 0 11 , ' ",,, Hl n' S (Il ah \haus. , •
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tious, ill Cil ld illF, " " ") l llll l l l l ~ , " "1' 1I 1il 1. lwa n 'Ilt'Ss." "tonal cen rcr p crrep t ío n." a n d "h m'll rl' ('lill ~ " (p. IO ,~ ) . 11.· I ulI ,i d ,' IS roncr-p tu ulizution a u d d cfi nition Im t u ne o f th c iSSlIl '.\ Í1 1 ., t ll d)' ¡ lI ~ 1111\;\11' )' inductlou ; ot hc rs include va r io us dualiues ln vol ved in !ilutly illF. 1Il1l, k ,!lltl music proccssín g . e.g.. to ne ve rsus not e rc p rescntations. horizontal (1IU'lclllic) VI' l'SUS ve rtical (h anno nic) e lles,
and lon al ve rsus te mpora l C lICS . 'Ionulity ind ucüon is in its infan ey as a ñcld of study, and resea rch ers m ost Hkely will address th e issues Vo s m ises in thc years ahead. Rcga rd less of term inology and othcr issues regarding tonallty, gene ra l ngreemcn t exista that the tonlc is th e tonal center and serves as the to ne to which othcr ton es ultimatel y return . Tonality p rovi des a sensc of both plt ch leve l and mode. The tonal centcr is the basic mu sical e xpectatio n to which mos t other expectauc ns rc lative 10 m elod ic and hannon ic pe rccptions are re lated." Such relatío nships also are a n extensión of the intim acy, simil a rity, o r ci rcularity dimension of the p sychologica l tona l property of pitch, díscus scd in C hapter '1. lmpli cit in m ost d iscussio n s of to na lity in ' Vestero m usic is th e app licat ion (.11\<1 limitatioo) of thc term to mu sie construc ted in a tonal harmonic Iramework. using essenü ally ton es of ei ther a maja r Of m inar diato nic scale. As llo lt·¡j in the next se ct ion, \ "estem terti an harmony is built with the sca le and chord to nes of diato nic scales, and refere nces to tonal m usic and tonality usuull)' !'t-fcr to music conslrucled of scalc and chord tones from diatonic sca les. i\ l lIdl twc llliclh-ee ntury mu sic, however, docs no l have a tona l hannonic lta lllt'\\'o rk; sume mu sic is slru ctured specifically to be aton al. Yet Temko's ( l ~ ' 7'l , p. :n) study of pitch predom inan c€' in twen ty avan t-garde co mpos i~ lio llS lt'vt'¡¡I{'d ab'Tee ment among sllbjects conccrn ing a pred ominanl pitch in I·.u-h cOlllposition. Appare ntly eve n atona l and eleelronic m usie not design ed wilh a n (J jJriori lonality m ay evoke lislcner responses in tefms of sorne ce nlra l or fo ca l pit eh . l\:lclod ic m ovcme nt in to nal m usic includcs bolb eonjllnct a nd di sjuncI mol ion. Co nj unet motion is essentiall)' seala r, alth ough ehromatie a nd / or a lll'rt'd sca le ton es m ay be used. Disjun el mo lioo invol ves skips or leaps, usu¡IUy U Il Iones olltlining chords llnderlying Ihe implied harmonie framewor k. l\11'!llt!i('s of Ihe baroq uc and c1assical peri od s tend lo outline scale and ehor d patll'rns m Of{' c1early Iha n mu sic of Ihe ro mant ic pcriod, m uch of whieh illvol vt's dmJlnaticism and frequen l key modu lalions. Taylor ( l !l7l.i) re ports th al piteh slrue turc of mc lod ies is one d elerm inant of tOllal il),. The !llore the melodic m ove rncn l con forms to the sealc ami ( ho rd 10t rlld ll n~ 0 1' the key in whic h a m ela dy is constl"llclt'd , lhe gr<-'¡¡ Il'r Ihe lona l
m ,\ Ir/m/l' l/lid JI¡JIIMlli( FO/llll/atio 1 . \ d \Ord , 'Ihl' S(' ;¡ " .11\1 n~ ' l ' ¡ l" nnt, \lSl11l1l' , • 0 1' 1\ 11' 11\1'lol ly. r..k ti( It ' S 1od il' t"olltour a o ll C '\I I ' Il ~l h , 0 1" to n >lhl\, k . . " I" t· lt·s s lonal stre ngth , ,uu .lll.tl19 a 1llt'lody's tonal llllll''t uf thc dcflnt'( q . 10._. il\t'aIl1 1"<\('101' in detcrnl . lo b e ,1 Sl ~n I d 'Il'1o Ilot ""pe,lr b ' 'IYby asin g an i!t "p, . sof am I ~ll l' ' \ als . l ll· I I ~1 \. , be qua ntiflcd 10 te r~ \1)71 1976). lo( ¡Vlt u ' lh may e 1'1 {l . Taylur, , , si c'I'S louu ¡ strc ng I {Attneave, ..'}:J' , rlioos ()L smg . lo,lloll u f in form atiul\ t le~ll)n'lClody's tonal center ; .t he :I1':)p,~lnes a re pla«'(\ in l hcar as a h m alle sea e . I H~ ",hal tney f th e Iwe1vc e ro .I UII.\I\ ~ "ny particular tone o 1\1l'
I" uflnu\a,
T5 = 1p(log, Ii p)
w hl·ll·
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h o tamc T5 = to nal stre n gt b
P = prop
, { bser selceting any p oruon o o . vers
10"111 1"''' " I'!II<11 ;lIIJ
;It·.-.Iw l ir
artic ular
101l C.
I
di g tonal slre ngt h , une thcre is no ambiguity regar In on th c nllnlbt'r uf . thc sarne to n e , hmlt depend s , .cale \l ,,1\ stog lue j 0 00 The upper d' N"erenl ch l"t)JllallC s ' ' 'O d va ue \S . . d h san g a 111' llw qllilnll le . Ive singcrS an ca e 1,' I \¡'r '{lhc1'c were twe ' 1l \ ~I' I'S; I b ::\ -K ~ . . \d d ilni\ ar resU s. uld 11 1111' , Ihe TS wo e ,.~ ~n tonality p ereepllon YIe el s ing diah l1lic s(~alt· l :lIddy's (19K'l) res~afe d'ng on th e ton ie and ~~p ~}~ h win g sll'Ongt'r , . tra dlllons ,\S ' l' ', \ mclodI CS en 1 "llh¡"d s ra\('( d n lcrtian harm oOlC I 1 rollo'" tht· t ¡;\tol\l{ base o d'd t e ase )' \ \ . IIII II'S in pattern slod ies whose stn lelures I ~odd 's' subjcd S iluJudl'd ltltl lOIl ,,\i1)' th an ~e h on)' chord p attcrn s . e u y, . 1 traioiog~ re suhs W~' I I' stca n 11\ ah' ami t\'rtla ae; ople without formal mll lhlillt'd mll sici.ans ; ; b~~h grOllpS. ealer ton al stf('Il~o1h 1'''.ln " II III
I~ 11l1.'n'~ll·11 ¡lI¡lryilll/. ll:\t:~~'\' :ll:I::l\ \11 1l" Il" 1,,1. ',on,' ."~''';, ::~It;:~ 'l) ¡, O,:Ill\O:I. "I1ll' 1
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"I l """'J.. I~~ II I;::~ h'l nllll'l l"II,l\N ' ll h.u lll h a ( 1 ! ~ l l) m ..k,'1l an 1' 1"' 1I 1\'1ll r a'l' for ¡lllliil ily ;1' ;1 b.l'" 101 '_1"" ¡¡¡tjon"
d b y eonse ns llS,
N
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lngs u f touu l n 'llk l "Ud .l 11 11 11 1" . T IH' " cu ll l ex l" l " i Il Cil' l ,, ~ ( 1 \ l ll l1l h i1 l1 ~ I , lüuu uch a. & Castella no, I!JH2) an d thc " kcy" pnnciples (B1 loUllt h,1 & Kunubuns l. l!Ht i ) suggest that perccpti o n of harm o nic IlHJVl'Il1l'1l1 In l Cllla l ll1 lL.~ it , also is intertwined with and depcn den t up on tcrtiun ha nuouy d U1I'I1 patu-rns. \\'ilh the d cvelopmeru of functton nl hurmony in thc scven recruh ami eigtuccruh ccnturies, the basic pa tn-rus 01' harmonic m ove mcnt a nd relat ion shlps a mong cho rds were establixlu-d. Tbe consístency of hanno nic progressions in eightec nth-cen rury mu sie provides suffl cient redundancy for Iiste ners to develcp a nd maíntai n st roug fcclings for tona lity. Mu sic 01' the rnma ntic period, whích also is co nstr uct ed esse ntially within a tonal ha rmonie framewor k, extends hannon ic pructices fa r beyo nd those 01' the bar oque and classical pe riod s. The exten t lo which the "co ntext" and "l ey" principies, derived un der ea refully controllcd [pe rha ps "stereotypic al"] cond üions, apply lo romant ic period ba rmon¡c pracrices is un certain. ~1 ()sl exa minat ions 01' psyeholobrical struetures a nd proeesses related to 10n¡¡ lily pereep lion contin ue to employ \ Vestern mu sic construe ted within a lunal harmoni e framework, Howeve r, tonality, broadly spcaking, is a psyd101 0ginll stm cture based on ton es fun ctioning as if they are related lo a parIÍI'ubl' lun al {~ e nte r, established throllgh experienee, Relationships affirmi ng lon alil y may oecur among tonal relationship s in aH m usical slyles. Even "JIIOllal" musie may appear to hav e a tonal een ter wilh rcpca ted Iislening,
Scales and Modes
1h-linilions 0 1' scau and modt are m an y and varied, In a narro\\-' sensc eac h h;I .~ ¡¡ part icul ar mean ing : A scale is an array of to nes configu red fro m a pa rtin da r home lone, sueh as A ur B; a mode is a part icular paltero uf whole am i ha1f Sll'PS,l" sllch as major, hannonic m inor, or Dorian , The A m ajor s('a1e (A· n· C #-l)·E·F# -G# -A) is bascd on A, with the step sequence {whole, wholc, ha ll', whoie, whale, who le, halO charac teristic of major scales. The G hanuollic m ino r seall' (G-A -Bb-C-D-Eb-F# ·C) is based 011 G, wlth Ihe step St'(llIl'nec (whule, hall', who le, whule, half, on e and oue-half, hall) eharaeterislic 0 1' hannollic m ino r sealcs , In a b road sense, sea le and mode refe r lO th e sa mt' p lH'llolllenon: the b asic tones of a eom position a rra nged in or der of pilt"h from lowest lo highest (o r high csI to lowest), Most \Veslem music di vides the octa ve int o a b asie number of diserete fixed pitehes, which psydlO logists now reeogn ize as heing pe reeivcd as lIlembers o r fJildl d,wes or m lr,~(Jr irs, hl'IKC the increasing numbe r of refl"renn "s lo fix("d pitehes as cateM I"Slm ", 1" '0 \, 1,· p n,r" f M(" IW Uf M whul,' I""" Mrur ~w h"I,' ' ''' I'.M 'Illd ~,, ' m i lor1l' M rUf Mha U ' h'p,M In ,"w' ''''' , half slI' I' S (s" lllil' 'n," ) ;01 " ft'l 'H'S['IlIl'd by ad j.....·1l1 lu ' y ~ " 11 11 ,"Illud a rd l'i:lIl" , l'l·¡.::mll.·, s uf
."ltll. \Vh,,¡" . [t,ps (1"''''S) . kil'" k.,y, llll' ;llllho r. IN' llw h"lllS 1n1l'1' h;¡n ll, ' "hl ~' ,
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'1g tlnl oul y a HlIl ilt,¡J IlIlmh l'l uf ~u r J(tl . I I ,h t llll"I'lItitll\ sngVol'S s • 1I10llt' uur y vury. ah 1Il\ f, . I Wielav~Similarity is rclated to a p~te~pri~~: t~at recognizes ~wo d,illH : U ' ,ti, of a "twO_compo ne nt theory P 1'1' " pp . S!l-G,I»), 1-01" \\ t'stt 111 ~ Il l\\ h a (Revesz " " J, ) ' . · . t01l' heir,ht and tone e rom ' h ' d usua lly pitch nal\lt'S , l.C ' . gl'lleral l)', to lleS of in pi lch heiglh1t; to lles , ,1 '1' than at Ihe octave, d sh aring t l' S~l n1t' IIll H' S 11 le , th same piteh nam e a n ll)' havmg e lit 1'lVl' (an d IlSl! a hrom a I' . '. ,,,) are said to hav e the same to ne e ' often is repn 'St'llh'
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l U S , , " -1- ' llln logolls d istind lon bl'l.... t t 11 , 1 1 ",t'llIllt'rs o f Ihe satne plleh ( .(s~' , . ¡ , .1, n lll ~ll ¡'I,'1 I " llutO!l('S 11111dion a\ ('qll iva ('!lIs, ,11 ,', ,1 '11 1 IlIl.'t'llIt'l\t 01' IOIl ('S a ut St . I ¡" , ' c" , ' . t'o n"" {' Il '( • l , Iht, " pc t' '''II ' 111 f Ol1ltllo l\ UStlg " ,l ' I ' 11,.. P" I 11 an ang t ' ll H' 1l IS , ' ,I \\'llhitl lhe oda"e dt'h'nll llll' ~lw l' 1 l' '1 1 \ ' h ¡11I ;l IlW ' l1 w nts for \\ t'Sh'n l l ollol , T ht' tWII pi '" OIl IIlUII' 11 1 .. It, I JI tlU I{ 1t ,
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mau y co nside r thos e scale s 11Il kally they a re. Following is a dis cu ssíon u f scale funct lon s. sr a lt· tll ll i ll ).; Spi lc' IlI S, major ami minar scal es, and o ther m odal a mi scule strucr ur es . lu be pa rticu lar II I1U I I' ~ , whk h
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Funrtion of Sea/a Scales provide a sens e a l' m usica l reí c rcnce, which Shepard (1999 , p . 187) fccls is d ue to the asymmetry resulting from uneq ual dívision of thc octave. Scales also provide a mean s 0 1' reducin g the myriad a l' posslbl e puches to a manageabl e number of working pítches; Sethar es (1998, pp. 49-5 0) suggests that ca tegorica l pe rc eptio n may be res ponsíble, as m ay ease 01' wri ting a n d pcr formíng mu sic. Carte rctte and Kendall (W99, p. 780) suggcst that di visi ón 01' the octa ve into sca le steps is a possíblc cross-culrur al musica l "unive rsal." While the tendency to ha ve musical sca les may be a "universal," particu la r mu sical scales are social phe nomcna that allow p eopl c to exploí t tonal n-la tionshíps, as Mursell (1937, p. 107) no tcd lo ng ago. H e rnai ntain s tha t scules are not manifestations 01' so rne mathematical idea l. Neither. he says, un - there natural scales ; if th cre we re , al! cultu res wo uld use the samc scale. I'l'o plc crea re musical systems . As a system deve lo ps, it change s to allow fur hum an fcelings a nd p erceptions ra thcr than to fulfill an y arder of g oo dIIl' SS regardíng freq ue ncy ratios. [ vol ved scale syste ms reflect attcmpts to t udir), ami make the systems available for use by others. If m usic were no t a \Ud ot'ultura l phcnomenon, there wo uld be no need for co nsens ual sca le syskllls; cnch pcrso n co uld dcvelop a prívate scale system . ' I'hc tcm p ered di atonic sca le sys tem probab ly is the worl d's most farn ';lr hing und authoritatívc sta ndardí zatlo n 01' music for social p urposes (M ursell. p. 1(7). Mu sical instrumen ts, notation, and practices of Western cultures are b c und so in tcgrall y to thi s systc m tha t new syste ms which a re incompatible with th e diatonic sca le system ap pear unlikely te gain wid e«p n -ad acccpta nce. Even in e1ectron ic music, the co m pos itions that generalIy mect with grca tes t acceptance usually involve use of so rne traditional instnmu-n ts or timbres and m elodi es and harmonies based on the d iatonic se de, Mu sica l scalcs ulso provide a basis for es tabl is hi ng d efinite ton al relatio n slu ps. 'Ioget hcr with rhythm they pro vide th e co nsistency that peoplc necd to dca l with thc infinite ran ge of so unds Irom whic h music is co m prtsed . Sndt,s enabk- pcople lo crea re and organize [rorn suunds a nd sílcnccs a consuuct {m uste] thal has nesth etíc a nd Iun cüonul vnlnc for sign lflca nt p ropo r· üon s (Jf most cultura l gro ups. \Vithout a pn-dor uinuut sC llt' systc m, rnusic would no t likely huvc lx-com e thc po t('lll f(lITt' it i ~ loda )'.
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0 0 the system develI ythugorean scalc, derived fre u . ." IS tunmg syst em , now called th a pun ', i.c., bcatless fifth whq henhcles of al! scale tones from the interv I ef , t' " le as the " I " a o of 3':l l' "1I1t (. tV(' llppe, an d !owe r to n 1 f slmp e ratio . between the 1l )'1 lótgmean d iaton ic sealc frcq .a re q lle ndes. Th eo reticalIy lh ; lI("("l'SSI-iVC asce nd ing fiflh s, lobtaio ed by forming a scr'ies 0I 1ll I l l ' scale In ' re (1'1'1' . . praet>ee. as Baekm (I'lTuwered lo . the correet uetave to fi : ' .>, 1" 17.1) desedbe, uoe decive, th , 1, pp, 137-I:l!1) and Roed e,er e scale by tunmg a beatless asc . Illh, a ht'atll'ss dcsccndin ' f ti... ' allle, a sea le tha t hg a be atb, ascending fifth cte. Th end m (secl I"bll' n.!). as eat ess pe rfect fou rths, fifth s, an ' d octavcs e resu
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as melod'IC m uslc . .IS pe rform d ,. h (' \\ It out tra nsposing modular s .u nan s('milonc is a p ro b' l'em ;IOf Y . lagofe an sca lc works \\Iell. 'H nwc vcr m.Jtg, is ,,,t,, ,,d,,d lo i" e1"d" m ak"". Furth e" whPO the .llhót rlllOIltC lemcs, lill'H'by yil'1din {>I ~nlT~tH': tOl~l'S, 11 n '.~ tt lts in tlone(luivalt'nt I"J I . g ( 1 t r¡'nt SIZt'S f . ".,,,'d"!1 f"urth (mil" _ 1.'1) , . . . ti S('lIl tIOlWS. Also SilKC .. l ~nm;I\·, b ' · t'10· 1 liI ' l~. t", . , 1" ' ." 1111' ~ 1'\'l h lIK"r"; 1I1 ",,' a l,' . ' 11 1l.'1 ng 1:!J rom atic Io nes lhe l' tI
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.' I'ythag ,cale must b e forrned in rel. tinn tu a giveo , tarting I",iut, orean 111l'1I1ical letler nam es may ha ve díffcrent frcquencie s in differcnl kcys; e.g ., F will be sJightly differcnt in thc kcys of C , Eb , and A. C lead y, tiuscale is i.nadequate for \Vestcm tonal harmonyd rean }II," illlo lla li, n, according to Barbour (pp . 89, 105), . pparently ovolv.. ve iug the fifleenlh and , ixteenth eentu ries as th eori, t' sought tu impro u" " I''' u e I'yth ag tuniog. J u, ' iol onation ha' sorne . dva nlag ' over I'ythag 'au ,,,u ing m inean ih at it uses mo re simp le ratios between tones an d acco mm o,h.,,,s t huilding trtads Irorn , imple ratios among m ejor and m iour third' ,J us into"a ' ion ls so named beeause its ioleevals eonform to th e , atios betwe"n Ih.. rones of th e ove rtone series ;" l.e., the fifth has a ratio, the Ioun h a ·1:3, 11... mejor third a .\:4, and th e m ino' th ird a ti:.\. Table (i-2 sJiows tb c "" tios
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lltllong adjacent frcqu en cies an d in relah on te do. Allho ugh Ji. ving th e pu tative adv.ntag e of , imple ratios, wh ir h 1"",1""" tiun I...atle" thirds a' well as fom1h, and fifth" ju, t inlo o. alsu 1" " a munl ..., ,,\ disad vantages, whieh ma ke it practieally usele" in m ust Wes" 'ro ",usice: (a) th e seale h a, twn dilTerent , atiu, ror whol e too "S (!1:8 and ItI :!I), (h) ,1... nlth belween lhe ,ecund an d , ixlh seale degr ees (D-A in rde,," " " 1" ,1 ... k,'y " f C) i, not the , ame a' other fifth, ve"'" ami (e) il d",'s u" , '" ronnnnda le m odu latio n to othec keys_T he farlh er away i'ro '" ,'''' ".¡",. I' m .t' kcy and lh c more use of accidentals, lhe m ore unlcn¡¡blc thc syslt'l1\ I.......mes. .in, ' as l'yth agorean seales, just seale, have to nes ,hal " ''1'' i'" ,¡¡r. ¡,.,..nt fn'qu" neies in dilTe, en t k"ys. In sJim t, it is of Jiltle value for fix..d I'ihh Il\slrllll11'1l1 , which musl arcollu nodalc d uomatidsm alld m o<.\ula lioll o r
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p iu-h [strings, vOln " uml, lo .l ll " ", Il' III, wlnds ) ru n [an r! should] acco m moda te modulatlon dillku hi,'s 11)' ud jm lllll'lll audln-n cc p lay thirds " bctte r in tune," i.e., wi th " p u rer" 01' IlI'a l ll 'S\ In h' I Vill \ -I IH' "pure" thirds justify (no pu n intl'lldl'd) the j usi scnle. SOlllc' 1" "lpl,' inh'll'sll'd in rnc tap h ysics or nu m ero l0 b"}' fin d eomfo rt in IIH' "supe-rpartirulu r" inu-r valic rallos, where thc upper uuio sym bo l is exaetly Olll' mor e thnn thl' lowcr sym bol, as in :1:2, 4::i , 5:4, etc. Backus (Hl77. pp . IH - I ll i) brief ly d iscusscs just scale advocacy posi üon s. As efforts we re made to accornmodale harmon y and m odulation in \ Vesle rn mu síc. two other syste ms evolved: meanume and equal temperametu. Both iuvolvcd alteríng or tempering sorne scale tone s. Meanton e tem pera ment's lnitial use is unclea r, bUI Ba rbo ur (195 1, p. 25) sugges LS that it was as ca rly as tbe beginníng of th e sixtecnth century. Seve ral variations uf meanton e tu nin g cxisr, but the system's essenüal aspect is tha t it alters (flattens) so rne of the I'ytha go rean fifths, thus allo wing a llmltcd degr ce of modulatíon. lis na me was dc rived from th e fact tha t the whole ton e C-D was halfthc size uf tlu- mejor thi rd resuh ing from the alteraüons of thc flfth . Meantone tcmperumen t was uscd extensively in Euro pc througho ut the seventee nth cen11 11')" a mi wcll into thc eighteen th century un til the acc eptancc of equa l tcmpr-mn u-n t. Equu l tcmperament is so nam ed bc causc it divid es the octave into equal dlvision s. Division into Iwelve equal sem iton es is by far the most com m on, a ll ho l1 ~ h ot lH'r divisions are po ssib le. Division into n steps requires extraet· in}.; IIU' 111h ront of 2, since th e octave is a 2: 1 ratio.u T he mh ro ot in rel atia n l o I tll,'" forms th e ratio for an y pair af adjacent ehromatic scalc ton es; in the ( ' 01\ 1' uf Ihe cOllvelllional twelve-step division, Ihat ratio is 1.0 5!H6: 1. A1I II01lg h Ihe oclave is the only simp le ra tio (2:1), the ot her interval s m ain1;lin a n msistent size, regardless af key or pasition within a key. Egua l tem Ill'flllllen t nvercome s the Iim itation s on tra nsposition , m od ulation , and use of dmnnalicism th at are inhcrent with Pyth agorean, just, and m ea ntone tu nings. Th(' l'q ua l lempl'rcd semilone is divided into 100 equal pam ea lled cents, T1 H'aSllr('llw nt uni ts for ph ysical interval size. Any equa l te mpe red se m itone is IIMI n'nts, fl'ga rdless of the actua l frequencies com prising the interval. An y \\I ltol" tone is 20 0 cen ts. An eq ual tcmpered fifth is 700 ce nls (it encompass('S s('v('n sem itones); th e octav e, conraining Iwelvc sem itones. is 1200 ce nts. I )11l' lIlay co mpulc ce nls fO I" a give n intt'l"val with the formula n = 39Hf.i.:11 lI o~ (ljf,)! in whil:h n = nmnber uf ce nts, f, = Ilm'c r lone frcq uen cy. anel fl = llPI'Cl" tOlH' fn'qucllcy, I l n,, · nlh rou' (,f ;Ul)" 11 1111l1 H'1 N l11 il)' I,,' f(IIII111 by ch \' i, lin ~ 1111 ' ' (111 ' " " " , I" ~ ;,, ilh m u f N h y n a mI lind inll 11,,· i" " il"lIi ll'il h m " f ti", '1110 .li" 1I1. rnr [11<' usu al "'lu,,1 " ·1Il1,,·,,·,1 ",,1,· dni v
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. { i lervals in variO\lS runthe Sl ZC o III Cl'nts ar e a conve nie nt wa y to c¡ompa;e rnswo rth (191)9, p. 25): compa: " s , , T b le 6':'!, adapted rom a .. . . d bove. As IS app¡lllllt, 1Il¡1, systcm s- a Iour tun ing svstem s dl scusse ,a > • • 1\1' 1" thun 111(' Inlt'rva l sizes from ~h;'ftb is sligbtly (2/100 of a semltonc~c:~crcd fourth h 111\' ('qual tempere d t Fíftbs: conversely, the equal I l,t"ltless pyth agorean an JUS 1 , d iust fourtbs. , .' 1 la r el' tban the l>ytbagorean an , J dencies in contl'mpnrar)" 111 ' 1 \h~lhl~ : maJ~or di scussions regarding.tunthngdtc~o_mi and the sizc o r the .inlt'r. the m ajor t Ir " , t IS rc c lun n ances center on tun mg ( ~ d do Allhough equal lemperam cn . . ' í
val het""een the lead ing tone ti) an f l~ers insist that triads a re "~Ctll'; . 11; '. . s the standard, sorne p er ( . . . d which has a m nj or t ur ~ U¡1,lll/.cd a . ate lb tun ing of th eJusttna , " . Id I ' \)OSSI< .. 'f he appro xlrn e . third 1his wou )1 than th e a cappe a d many wind instru me nls, Some ( .1\ Y I,le for pe rform ances of . ts f keyb o ar or . 1 'rs telU 1I I \lon nd by th e constram o. 19.IQ) suggcsts th at sln ng p aYl : 1,' I n . h (G ree ne Hl37; N tckerso , " lun·, ng whc n pc rfornul\ K I. H 1l" l'illC ' . pythagorean k l' I udjllst into natio n to(aI9P7P!OX1";~~~ no tes th at musician s ten I ·yslcm' t e m s o llt ' sr a e s , . .\ ¡ t1ll' l'lwltl ' I '. r . (I'}- I) 'vww m lle I u III 'l'~~ 1l~1('It}I)l pp. 19 \ - 2( 2) ;lml O stllllg : .~. ;\~I '\e litth~ n 'se;IITh ('XhIS U , 've n ir dlOirs tlid n al )\l~ " : ' " e and d h' Iilllil"d I'I ' S( '; II C l .
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'I;; (l: ~: ltc m ¡.,'lI dl 'lI des.ill p erformann ' w~.s b ¡so"" ,J" , ',t .rf Oll ll •IIH"t' S of individu a¡ rnem bers oY r
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both i n . • do not COI, I" . . t 1I UI lit ¡' lt .s·I /lJ " } e. /1e cOllcluded that ( ) unu ( 1II1lIl lt' k l)' 1 a perann-s of me/od ies bo th ¡ ! (1 ¡¡ny tUlling system (b) p r , !( In '<; 0 f) and (' li S ' ble . • crtorm <J IU e] factors Ihar cause lb " . U1I ) e approach Pylhagorcan tuning IS pauem appea I d ' an- bOlh cn5em b! d s and presumed 1ueman . . - r o omm ex penence with e I e 1\ (Jeden.'," (1995 177) h eg ua tem p eram en to I ' p. , owever ca uü on s a . l av~ a particul ar p re fere nce fo r P gams t.cond ud ing that soJo ists stud lcs kg., "Icrha rdt & Z" k 19 Y agurean mtonat lOn. H e notes th t . 1.. . ~I C, . 75) huve sh r a OUler ur S l:l~ thc uppcr ton e of all SlIccessi ve . own pen ormen tending to p lay \\'luje rescarch rcmaina ¡ m tervals sharp. , lOS mcon dusiv di ("( lIJ ll'm porary p erformanccs and ~ r~gar mg in tonalion practices in 1Il1l ch dcvia lio ll from equal t p ractlces varr and ev o lve co ntin uo usJy "ac"("('plabJe ." O stling's (1974, p~~esr:me~t d oes ~ccur and is considercrl mmary re rnam s relevant: Hl'\('arch agTees thar good . " . , I " mlonahon IS not a b ' 1, "'1" lI S1vl'ly, Beyond that, it SCCOls " that . ~~ on.e . aSlc mning system uscd I flllal l('lIllwraOlenl should b . a baslC mlOlln um standard DEal I , '/ e CXpeeted_lh ti eas I'.rs \\'/ I dt'p art for melodie gravitatio die norm- m m which artist-perform _ sl! u ;IHo ll requires, and mal ' . b n all or hann ollic reinforcemenr a ' tJ JS a out a11 one can concIude. .., s le ,sl n ng C)U
/ 'v nuan ces
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.
J\"I'anw hile we sl,'11 b ' aVe a capp JI h ' I hu irs 'In· ' lblc lo sing ;n J'U"" I e ~ c Olr d irccto rs who ins ist that their 1" ' I n on allon Som t ' ! ( ',mrl l la t lhey m us! adjust their into ', : s nng p ayers consistentJy sln ng ~.lIa I1l·( a nd \'I/h en p laying with ( natJo~ d,fferl'ntly whcn playing in a 1lH'1I1. 1he debate IikeJy will persist. an eq ua l tem pered) piano ac eompa ni _
Major and M inor Modes ,¡IJ(ljnr
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t'he basic intcrvul parn-m nI 11 11' IIl11jol sr-uh- m m odo ls ' IT ST IT S , wln-n- T ~ t ¡lIl d s fo r a whole tOIlI' a lld S "I,tluh 1'0 1' a semuone. T lw nnno r rmuh - has thn-c va ria üo ns: natur a l, 1I11·ludi ¡', all d hannon¡c. Al! tbree forrns h uvc IIH' lowr-n-d third , thus begi uuing TS for thc intc rvals between th e first th rec rones. bul vary in th c íuu-rva ls lx-t wcen th e híghe st tb re e tones, From the lowcst to ne, the inte rval pattl'rns for the three form s, respcct ivel j-, a re natulill-TSTr S"IT, melodíc--Tb'T I'T' I'S (ascendín g) an d TSTI'STI' {desccndln gl, nnd harmonic- TSrrSAS, with A sta nd ing for an augmented sccou d. The establish ment of m aj o r an d mi no r a s th e to nal base s o f \Vestent mnsic appeared to evolve with the establishment of equal tc m perame nt and thc dcveloprnent of harmon y. In equal tem pe ram ent., majar a nd m ino r sca lt·s may be cons truc tcd on ea ch of th e tones in th e chro m atic octave, Thc inn-rval and ch ordal relatíonshíps w ithi n a seale bu ilt o n any point wit h¡u l!tl' oct ave, Le. in a gíven ke y, are fun ction all y id entica l to th o se built in ntl u-r Kt'YS. The fact that musíc built on m ajor and minor sca les (nnd tln-ir luu moníc pauern s] has do minated \ Vestero music of the past 3S0 yea rs so t"OlIl pll,tely sugg ests that major an d m ino r scales and their co nco m ita ni SYSft'llls uf lo na lity and hannony prmtid e a n int elligible tonal ha nnonic fralll l' work rOl" most listcn ers.
OIher Modes Wh ile m ajor and mi nor are the predominant scale m odes fo r \ Vcste en 1I11lsic, man y other seale paUe rn s exist, bo lh wilhin \ Vestern cu lture a nd in olher cultures. No o the r pauern, howev er, has dcveloped into a hamum ie sysle m tha t in an )" wa y appro aches that of \Vestern tonal ha rmo n y bllsed cm Iht, m ajo r a nd minor scalcs, although so rne sca lcs a re in m an )" respects ("(U ll pati b le with Weslern tona l hannony. The trad itio na l narrow se nse of the term !nade refe rs to lhe (hun A mmlr.1 dl' visl'd by medieval ehu reh schola rs. Th cy consisl 01' eig ht d iatollic sn d l' ~ m.ing the names of earlier G reek mod es but d ifTe ring in organil.alio ll a mi ~ 1 1II ('( ure, wh ich provide the tona l basis of G regmian eha nt. As A¡lt' 1 ( I!Jli!l. p, 1( 5 ) ind ieates, lh e ch ureh mades may be illustrat ed via a h ')'bo ard hy m ing Ihe white ke ys, sta rt ing o n n, E, F, oc G , and pla ying llJl thl~ o cla v t ~ , Fur eat h starting no te (final 01' jilla/iJ), two modes, differing in the ir ()('I.IVl' lange (ambitus), exi st. Fo r (lufltrn l ic llIo r/f'J, lIle amb itus goes fro lll Iht, Iitlal 10 Iht, up per oc tave, Fo r plaf!,al mor/rI. t(¡t' al1lhitllS run s fmm a fourlh odo w lhe I1na! lo
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tu re . 1 he folJow ing Iísts th . . m o e (' IS l is charaClt'ristic interv t la . sequence (T = whole t e van o us mudes, incfical es the asce nd' a l.e struo, one, S = semiton e). and . •. I Jng m terva¡ "whl te key'' fi al stan any I~~er ~:dm erange; the rca der should r;:~:~ t~~;rannamesdfor rhe
on
Mode Da rían Hypododan Phrygi an Hypop hrygian Lydian Ii ypolyd ia n Afixo lyd ian l'ypomixoJydian
Acollan I1 YP(Jueolian ¡ ,l /cr ian
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F F G G
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"White K,, " Ra ngr -J
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, )me of the chllrch d I Olo es remain in u , () le t oman Ca tho lic C hurch So se, especially in Ihe Iraditionalli tu _ ~ on l ('mporary popular music '. me also are fou nd in folk. . r III thelll in lhe larter half of th reflectl~g considera ble rej uvcna tion J~, and Mau \! o th d e twCntlcth century o mlerest 1 er mo es have b d . few have ga ined m uch acce ec n eveloped in \\estero cultures b I IH I.~ t sUccessful lt d ' . I hPtan ce. Perhaps Debussy', wh ' t ' lit o nJy a . I Vl( es t e t . Ol C- onr seal . h \Vho/e'lone seales are p . 'bl oc aVe m to six whoJe Iones an d I e IS l c A, B C# 1'h OSSI e: C, n, E, F# G # A# C ' on y (wo basic t-. purpose of the wh 1 , ' , , and C# D# F G , ' . !i lrong f('c1ing lúr th, ' . o e-tone scaJe was to b . k ' ' " 1M ) e lome whlch tr d '( 1 rea away (ram Ih e ony elicits. Shepard (J!)9g 1 7. cum me nts tha r Ihe whole-toan ~ :(m~ ,' larklll l( s III asymmc tric d ivo . ca e ac s the fed io of . ' 'l.~pt'rts of tona l hannon ,~su~~ ,of .the octave, lndccd , th r~e f mol.lon une om iUed , Ihen'by d llll" ) p u feel fOllrlh , pl:-'rreel fiflh and 1 . d ' und ,¡men ta/ Prnlo/rJllic seal ' . ' , IIlg any slro ng to nie S('lIse. ' t-'a lIlg tone--are . I . ( S 1 ;:,: ic \ ( ' ;. 1( , • 1" 1\( '\' 111 ( , I 1 II ~ . '.\ I 11' lonc's J)
gy f ti
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I ' ~. e, A, C. l'cntaton ¡c !ol'al,'" e ul«- Imill 0 11 a ny tone oft hc chrumaüc s<'alt wit hin ea ch pa tlt'rn rlu-y i11 ~1I ruu tI .\I' a ny of thc Iívc ton es as a to nk-, th u having flve differcnr modl's in u nuu uu'r similar to thc cburch modos. I pruct ice, ho weve r, o nly Iwu ruodes are used to an y exten t: the au tlu-n ti uuule, using C as the ton ¡c, and thc plagal mo dc, using G as thc toni c. T he dnomauc scale re presen ts a not her mod al system tha l has rccei ved 11'I'1.dn amoum of use in \\'eslem cu ltures. mostly in tenns of ser¡ul II l11 '>i ( ' V "cplal pa rts. Pen tatonie scales, some \\ihat app roximali ng Ihe a nlhe llli(: IlItl uf the \\·estem pen tatunk . have been used in man y a ncien l n lltm c l:hillesl:-" Pol ynesia n, Afri can, a nd Native American (A pel, I!Hi!I, p. li.'i C hincse music also uses six-to ne (se xalon ic) and sevell-tmlt' (hepla hll 'wal('s, while microtones (inte rvals sma ller tha n a s('lllilo Il C) ('lia r,Uit'1 \c al('s o f Indi a a nd the Middle Eas t. '1'11(' pIlssibilities of m oda l organi zation in mu sk a re in l1n ik , 11111 al'I"1 11 1)' only <1 fe w modal systems have g-.ü ned wides prcad acU'planl"l', l{t'a\o llS Ihis are primari ly cultural, altho ugh Ihe compatibility of a '>c<,le Strllctllll' ... I.I W S and princip ies of pern'plual organiza tioll also appea rs lo ()lO a far lm ,
()/h ,'t" 1yp es uf Pild. ()rga" izali(UI
Thal Ihe Iwelllit'lh ('I'II II11Y}<;aVl' 1i\I' to IlI'W ways of org anizillg pilr h Stl IlI rI' was nu 'nlillll('t1 t'ad il'l. I,n l t.tll' ·1 (1i \I Il '> si.JlIs sllggt-'st thal pildl cl rg, l alic lll is po s.~ih l( ' o llly wi,lIi ll I "'I,.il' 1"Il \'l'tlli(lIlal frillllt'WCl l'ks, IIU' I,n '! d isn ls.sion hd ('l1y ov( ,tv il'w ~ ~ d l· ' lt·d h\'l' lItid h (','nIIll"Y \\"'sll'ln cl,'vl':
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Thc 11.\(' o f <:h ro m a lid\ IlI11/l d 11 11' 11' \ lIhalll clissOIl¿IIH:e of (he lal e ro rnan tíc cu m p users, pa rtin tlm-Iy \ \'01,4111 '1 , II'd In a sc':ln :!l for p itch organ iza tio ll
bcyclIld tha t which lriadi l' hal'lllllu)' ('o uld provldc. C hn lluaticislll a nd mod. u /alioli had ('volve d lo llU' p Oillll hat 1I1;l1l}' con rposcrs no lu ng er end ed co m posil ions in thc o rigina l fon ic key, in accordance with baroque, classlca l, and
ea rty rom an ñ¿ praclice.
T lm·c distinct dcvelopm enls J"eg'.u ding ha nnonic praeticc evolved d ur ing rhe l:Jlt' ninet eenth a nd ea rly twent iet h centuries. Sorne cc rnpose -, co ntinued lo write with¡n rhe broad Ou tJine o f a to na l ha rmonic framework. while sim llha neo usly IIsing chords of far greater complexity than tradition aJ triads. A second group of co mposers continued to Use chords Irom ea rller harmo nic pr¡¡etices, but sequenced them in such ways th at expeeted Ptcgr csslcns aud resolution s were n o t fo rthcom ing, \VhoJe-tone mus í¿ an d polyto nality wcru two resuln of thís deve lopmem, T he third development was abandon_ ing lona lily for Schoenberg's serial techniques, which are inl ended lo disrupt
1~'l'auSt'
I'hl'l'I' ol hL'r de vclopments of twe ntieth-ec nlury piteh orga nizatio n ab o m dl'vialt' fm lhe pra etices of tenian harmony, Aleatorie or ehana music in lro tllln's Illlpredi elabilit y regard ing eith c r its compositio n oc performa nce. Suc h IIlll sk Il'¡¡VeS so rne of (he pi lch. duralion , and loudness struc(ures lo chane e. Ihu,s lIlaking ir vel)' difficult for listen ers lo d cvelop any melodi c 0 1' harmonit' ('X p('c la lions olher Ihan unccrtain ty itse lf.
111 Illll.l"ique ama ele tradHio na l so und so urces (inslm ments and voices) are 1'Il!Jalln'd 01' rcplaced by va rious o ther so unds-enviro nmental noises, SOllllds nI' nalu rc. or most any o ther eo nceiva ble sound source. Th c Co m o pm n ca n record, co m bine, and modif)' suc h sounds al \Viii, especialJ)' with 11Iodern rL'cOrd ing and s)' nthesizing lech nology, JtlU5ique concrete may t1 tilizL' /l"l 'd 0 1' cha ng ing pitche s as we ll as so unds of indefin ite pit ches to create a m lJage 0 1' SOllllds, As might bl' cx peeled, the pitch structure need havc no c'o nli ning framewo rk such as Icrtian hannony. although o ne m ay aSSllme tha! IlIm l COlllposers cl'ca ting music of th is type do so in '.Icco rda nn ' \Vith So me 1IIltll'dying nrgall izali onaJ stOlcture.J.s 1." I' ile'h , ,,1' n lllrs,' , is ')( '1 11", ,mly I,;tsi.\ 1(,,-
JlllIsi('i1l lnl\'''lli~,i1 li'lI1, Hh \'l h ", ,>;' U" ru s u,- l im llr;I/ s illJ-
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t.11I1 dl' vI'1o plnc' llt in pit ch u rga nizalioll .. . u .f with CIJlIlPllh'IS, sYIl 1 f . '" 1I WI ' l l lit'l h ·u~ntlll)' m im e- \V.I,' t , -rs ' 1 n cw vista 11 0 1 cm y 0 1" o lg, 1I 1 1" " 'IV t' C' OIlI]J U SC , 1 t i res tlu-sizcrs au d sounc sa lllp I s n' I Iiíyiug IH' W tim b re s a nc ex u rt-s. . . , 1 t' • - " lill!' ' Il H mor I . ' 1 _' 11 I/i llg puches. b ut a so 101' l i t , 1 di ca n cuera tc a nd co m bi ne puc les 1 I 'omposc rs usi ng a n elec trcn¡c m e mm th g fixed dí v íslons o f an octave th c ¡III ínfin ite va riety of ways. N~) I~nger ~l':lec~onic developme nts are st uggcr11lI., js for a ll m usic. T hc i~ph~~tl~ns 1,) t ~~t o nly bcca use of possiblc stim uluu Irom a muste perccp tton stan P Or10 , ibl c Iim itat ions in human I"C Sp OIl ' 111\o arrange me nts b ut a 1so beca use o pOSSI A fina l und perh ups
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1110 \1 1111 1" l . .: • hich ' , '1..l'!I'O IlIC ' IllU SIC., W
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.b-nts. ., I toric music, musique . conaete, a nd dt'. I 'lIevclopmen ts in serial mUSlC, a.~a f r listeners accustomed ro lH'arlll l-\ uouic music ha ve create~ ambigu~t1~:~onic framework. At prc's('nl , tluol1 ly mus¡c construc ted 1Il a to na. "classica l" music ap pears to h(' unl y IItH'pta nce 0 1" such devclopm,en~ 1Ilbc~lture of composers, thcortsts. 1lI11 '¡ ulllong a relatively small m ustca ~u enerated, modlflcd. and/or 11'1'111 ' and the r listen crs. Electronically g 1 1"'IS. an o , IJ al ] po pula r must.e today. TIH' ge _ lll'l'lI l
duced so unds are a part of vlr~a Y, rna n eo p le who pr ofes s lo hav111 1" I I 'ltio n of \Vestern cultu res, mclud mg ' YePIII'[ Oockin g to thl' ('0lH"l'11 1 < " . . howeve l, ar , illK "co nsiderable interest 10 I~uslc~f music Ihat devialcs too radi call y IrOl ~l h;¡lIs to hea r or buying rec~rd.m?s . normal slo wness to accepl Ill'W mus¡tUlla l harm ony. \\llether th ls ISJust a 'c o f these new developments lacks ¡"I styles 0 1' whe ther it is becahlls~ ~ew:l~i~teners to perceive a nd cObrn ilivdy , t' na l strueture t at a o ,1II orgamza 10 , . b' . t to co njecture , Hl'gall .lZt' the. tonal structnres IS su ~ e c
Ps chological Proc e sse s
y I ' . f 'odivid ua l pure a nd eOl11p ex Iom's, C ha l>te r 4 c xa mined Ihe processm,g 0 I . ~ rclated to p itch stl11l' IlIIl'.' h h lOglca 1 processe" 11' I
litis ., t'l:tiol1 exa mines t e psye, o h has sough t lo e1ucidat e Ihe illtt'l".na II~ 1 il1 /l/usie, M uch th eory and l'e~carc d Lrategies fo r pro ce ssing mll s.le:a l, '1111 11 l'I" Il'vd eognitive reprcsentatlo ns an s, lation lo melodic orgal1lzatlCJII 01 l d hhasbeenmk re , mu 11 1011 . , '1 si th co ry an researe h to rh ),thnuc · II l. n U . . h 'mewor as ex [e ded n I W('slem tona l mUSIC, a hho ug so ' d lo eSla blish exte nded, ( ,101 u J' , , ,. Al -o efforls ha ve been 111,1 e 1I1OIl1 C slruchllCS, s , ,',, 1 ) ' rec lio n, , , I 1' · I I'I"¡rchical mndels 01' m wm .a I ( ,P , ' . cI'g m itive sll"Uchln 's IS ,111 la {' , f ' 1 '1" 'st III m usle s Th e impet lls rOl' Ihis surg(' o III I l . , " -d foclls o n " highe r Il'vl'l, mon' ,th ofa maJ'm shift in ps)'ch o lob,} ~c)\\all 1 11nn 1> ~.m ) anel seveml ulltgrcm . 1 ,' 'Ivio r" (Krulll lallS , . " " ,' .'. I og nitive aspl'<:iS of hUI1l ,lIl Il l. K ' 11'1 11'1 1 the I)rim a ry mll lll'lll:cS W t 1I A " C 1'1111 1" III 111111 . " :'. " I 'n i wilh its insisle llce t I1¡1 1 I¡1IIr-¡ 'lI'' II'r- I' (lltlH'r de vclopl1ll' nts. u ~ t.lt.IIUl S of lill""lli.' lk sln u'llII'l's. ' II' lI11sky', ( 1!If ;S, W7!i) 11II1-\1I1Sl11 11 y, . l · I '1I1u1' 11 '1111 ' \1 '11 . , lwha vinr dl'pl'lHls 011 a Islnl1 1111 1 I . whid l ¡llIo wt,t1 t hl' c1t 'Vl' t'1I1 lol'l11 a llel c11'vl'lllpllll 'n ls in ("( JIIl III I"'1 tl'I 1111' IJ,Iot) . l'}
MrIIJ¿ Ir. /JI/(1 1/ I/rll lIw i( 1"\V' hñfn 11 ,.~ " " dl¡ till/lI ¡¡/ AJIIJ;m l Brhooinr
of m odcls und lt'l lIJl ll lI l lI ~n hu 1 hllllll u-ri....in¡.{ complex mental beh avior as wcll as g rea rly ra d li ( ul ¡ lI ~ IJlI ' 1 ¡"loll ill loll lro l1inl; rcseurch va riables a nd analyzmg dal a, Or hcr iulhu-ur l' ~. 111 ' 11 1II1h ·t1 hy Knnnhunsl. we rc tbat two secm ingly co ntr ad icto r}' a pllICliU ht'lI fuI' r-xnm lníng m usic pcrccptíon pr ov íde im po rta nt bases for reseurch o n cog niü ve prttu 'ssc s, These inel ude {al thc "red uc tio nistlc" a pp ro ach, refl cc ted in th r- ea rly wo rk 01' H elmholtz (IX63/ 1!J5.1) an d Seashore (1919, I!J:-JX), whích broke down complcx aud itor)' pcrceptual stimuli fo r examinatio n in tcrm s 01' sens or)" response lo basic stimulus units: an d (b) thc work 01' Gestal t psychologists (Kofika, 1935; Wcrth eimer, 1923/ 1955) in developing laws of perceptual organizaüo n. Other lmportant influen ces Krurnhansl recognízes co me from muslc th eo ry , which had (a) id en tifíed o rganizat ional p rincipies for tonal music, (b ] de vel opcd a terminology for characterízatio n of plt ch dcvel opm ent, and (c) iden tificd a nu mber of music-th eoretic acr o unts of thc na ture of psychological pro cesses in rnusic pcrception. Psychological processes are ex amí ned her e as they relate to (a) hierarchír a l perceptual structu res, (b) e mp irieal stud ies of p erccption and m emory, (e) Ilwlod ic and harmon ic cxpccta tiuns and information theor)', and (d) pitch1('lalt'd bchav iors,
IlitTorchical Perceptual StTudures
A Ilumbcr of hierarch ical perceptual models exist; \V"est, Ho well, a nd (I!JH5) provide ex ce llent revi e ws uf so rne of the more influen tial unes. Tll t,)' a lso remind us that m odcls a re analogues that attempt to portray th e Jls}'l~ ho lob"¡cal pro cesses of music pe rcepti on , and as such involve making inrt'n' llces a bout how subjec tive ex pericnce s uf musica l so und stim uli in o ur st'm es ami im abrina tion m ay affec t musica l ju dgm ents and other b ehavior, I'~~s en ti all y, models are descrijJtionJ o[ inftrred jJsyellOlogical tvtnts, Thcy a lso a re gl'llt'ralized, usually not aceo m modating individ ual diflere nces. Neverthe' t'ss, most uf ihem ofTer va luab le insights in to music perception, co gn itio n, am i behavior. "'est, Howell, a nd C ross's (1985) observation s and principIes rcgarding hit'ran:hic al cogn itive stru ctures in musie, noted in C hapler 5, are rei tcrated brit'l1y he fe because they provide an important p erspective regarding hie ra rr hkal Pt'f(-cplual stru ctur es. Essen tiall)', m od el developc rs sho uld reco gnizc Ihal (a) a mndel sho uld reflect and accom modate all percep tua l dimen,'iiol\S of m usical experiellee; (b) cae h listen er brings a uniquc history of pa st music ex pe rie nce lo ea ch new music cxpe rienct'; (el eVl' n so phistiea ted Iis1t'lIt' rs do not imllledi ately pe rce ive, orga ni7.e, 'lIld d ilssif)' a l! m usie in a we llordt'l"t'd hil'ra rch y; (ti) lhe t1WOf)' sho uld be vt'rifiah ll' in lt'rms o f bchav io r nf particnlar lislelH'rs; illIll (e) l'xt ralllusic;l! 0 1' hi'!OI'in d ('llllte xl ma y in l1 m'llc(' C Il I 'i 'i
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• lJ 1arllH'rli'lllll lllt' ' " . I Vl lll lo: hu g IUIlPShl"Cm ainin li lllll I/l/' C /11 111 11 1111 ' } 1 /.\,,"r~I'c1 grollp ing of th e Ilon d ialon ie eX I I e lon ie triad (c' l' e l" " " e Ut .IV('. IJ othe !" wo rds in a ton a l '1 ' , lit 11 1" ') I ' con· I s COIllpont'nts Iha l is m - " . .1/01 las pl"ITeplu al stm tla . 1 r~'l1la in ing scale Iones (gn .;,~( ,\,1,/'1 ',1OI'lr (JII,I('rsim ila rily. The sim ila; ;:Y among ' /0'" ' , , l . III e 11 1"" ') ' y am ong , omc tones (e.g " lUJ n I ' I 'J O I ISgreate r (han that a vncc with tonal conlex~ J. (~#). I.c:rec'p lual sim ila rilies arising ír mong nOl~ a mdody may e cn hca l in gu idin 11, om expen· . g e Pcrccp rual tm ckín f BUIJe r (WH9, WHOa, 1990b tak . . . g () Ihc'or)', arguing Ihat (he Ih . ) " es ISSUe with Krumhansl's to nal h¡ Iho,~ {' rd ation ships as they ~~Zld ~oe.~ no r descri be h o w listcners I:~ar~h~ ?!',a ll{l Proposes an a hemative the urmg the ~lUSie Iisten ing aet" (I~9~e'vc mes tu tecognize the t . ory as a basls for ex plaioo'n 1' , p. f O lJJe, Bulle . . g IS en ers ' aa,b ·1 o 1IIl' m osr p lausible !onic fo . ~ malOtam s tha r listeners base the ir h . urore intersals( . r a grven m usical exce e Olees nun or seconds and trito -s) . . rpl o n clear stalements of , IlIlII e sllccession lha' th nes wlthm rhe ex cerot "1'1, d ' . ese tempor' J ' . -r- . e omln a nt M" dm racl erislic to ha nn . rd arrangemen ts uf rurc intervals ('"~'ollll,len'd in atonal musi:~I~.C;). en ee s in tonal music, and ar:e~:,~:: 11 IU'/lllllse to Butler's cr.C ' ( l ~ '! " ) c1l'visl'd two slud · '. 'elsm of the lonal hie rarehy lh o / 1111' ¡1.~ n'lIding major ;;i:~·~:i:~~ d aims rea ffi rm th e Prlvilc; : X' ~~~~y l l~': stn'lI&1hening (he' lon al ~~ the ~ore of KrumhansJ's tonarhierar~ H \ ' ( "" bJl'CIs lo j ud e the ' '. lera re y theory. H er first ex . Il ll ll'.~ ¡IS ól lon ie for ~ h t sU1ta? dlty of eaeh of the tweJve ch ro p:-n ment lll~(iur ld acis, IlIth pau:m s me~odle t~st palterns: ascending and :;;:~IC ~c,ale ll' vl'ah'('lhOlt uf Ihe res ' mlnor tnads, and diminished triad en mg ' (">"
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.Hd mlir 1If1l/ lllllllllmir t-aundations tnuuework mosr likcl y wO llld lilld r-itln-r rbe tona l hicrurch y data u r the rare inu-rvnl dala convin cíug wlu-u ronsk lc red in isolatio n from the other; both povitions have an intuitiv o "corroctness" ubout thcm . Th e tona l relutlonships «l Krurn ha nsl's hicrar ch y app('a r congruent with musicía ns' ex pe ncnccs. but tlu- strong d ominan t-tc nic pull evoked by the rare intervals also is co nslste nt wuh musicians' ex p eriences. Undoubtedly, more rese arch an d díscussio n will occu r. \Vh atever subsequent rcsearch is forthcoming relaüv e tu the two posiüons, and the possíblc influence of to na l consonance, th c rcad er m ust u-nn-mb er that both theones deal wíth inferred cognitive proeesscs based on IW1H 'ption s of mu sical cve nts rather than th e m usíc' s actual acoustical struct 1111 ' ,
l c rduhl an d J ackcndofT's (W83) ela bo ra te hlerarchícal m odel of ton al euucture is ba sed mo re 0 0 IhCUTY than on rcsearch. Two of its híerarchkul lllmpo ne nts. tíme-span reduction and prolongatíon reduaíon, concem p ilrl! su uct ures. As the name im p líes, Ihe time-span reduclion hierarchy sl'c'ks to IOlllla lize lh e ,\o·ay in which listen ers pereei ve p itch events at dilTeren t Icvt·l... " I ,"lruc tur a l importance within a give n time-spa n. lt involves examinalio n of I'ih'h within varions levels of the hierarch ica l "trce" for that time-span, sec·k· illg lo dete rmine which p ilch ís most sla ble. T hat pitch is eallcd the "heo5.tibú slruc tun.'s,
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. 's es t, H owell. an d Cross (I!JH5 '-l9) , ~1,(,le a sy rn bo lie re prese n ta tio n of ~~', ' 'lb state, t~e "m od el a ttcmpts to p ro~ ( ,v('d, by a hstcn e r;" Lerdahl an d }a k ~'ed at elucida tes its st n¡ cture as per. 1 nll~sl (:a l "b'Tam m a r," which ' j e c ~ o ff sugg est thar the m odel rov íd eoglll livc " me udes mna le aspeels _ . p ies 1, o rganlzat lon, J usl as p copl e ' " an smg frum in heren l ,·lIlb'l lag e • aJth o ugh rhe p articular lan are n atura lly " predi sposed to ac ulre IIlg, p eople may be "na tu ra llj'" ~~gc th ey acq uire is a fu nction ofl~am-
ahhough lh e cogn lt¡ d ' p re Isp used to acqui re m ' .. mzc musical idi usrc cogrnn c n ('xIJ(' riellc<-' an d leam iog lT . , 1 I~ms an d fo rro s wilJ d cpend on ' 1" " e l! ..Ira II " . " ' vanatlOn lS po " bl ' It 1<-' , lH~ IlIllJts to tha ! v ' , , SSI e In langmag e and m uslc. ' b ut anatlOn
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wuh to nes n ot basíc am i !'I ll lll tllla l. Blllh l lll~ "c orree:" a rltl " wl'u rl¡( n-ductiuu s were p rese n n-d al d dl l' IC'lIt snuctnrulh-vc ls, i.e ., at jiJrfJ.," (J/l IJfI 'llld middh'),,,mw d le vcl s. S ubjccrs [ndult noumusicians] we re a blc to sek-ct lI H ~ t'o IT('<:I nvt-r the wro ng red uc tion al 11 l(' furegroun d lcvcl. bUI not a l thc nuddlcI(IlIUlId levcl. Seraflnc concluded t hat her da ta provide evide nce (If a n ini tia l h-vc l o f structuring fo r un u uín cd Iíste ncrs a nd th a t, perhaps c ve n ilion' nnportantly, th e data provide evidencc th at híerarchical struc turings a re Iq ,!;itimate cogníti ve processes rather th an ju st theore tica l constr ucrs. Dowling and Harwood (1986, pp. 130-144) su rnm arize a series ofstudics ~ II AA cs ti n g that co nto ur, in terva l sizc, an d ton a l sca lc sys tern a re im porta nt [entures in ad ults' p crc eptio n o f an d m em ory fo r m elodies and th at th esc feu turcs may have díffer ent im po rtan ee, depending on the task's dcmands. Con to ur is a p articu larly im p o rtant Iearure fo r sh o rt-term m em o ry tasks, hnt 1m long.term m em or)', whe rc m an y m clodi es m ay share sim ilar con tours, illll' rvai size pI ays a mueh m o re important ro le in helping ad u lts diffe rl'lIl iól lc' .llllo ng melud ies. Dowli ng and H arwo od ais o re eo!,'11 izc lhe im p n rt'llH'(' u f Ind ivid ual d ifferen ees in musical e xperien ec fo r music cogniLio n , parti t~lI l a r . Iy wilh respect to em p loy ing leamed melodie fea tures, such as the tona l sClllt, ~y s l t' m , fo r processing m elo d y. Id so n a n d M assaro (1978) con d ue ted a se ries of experimcnt s in volving \tn l("llIra l tra ns fo nnatio ns o f m elodies to evaluale th e efTeets n f in lcrval siw , 1 n lllOllf, tone h eig ht , and to n e eh ro m a (Jn m e lud ie reeog nition. In Iwo lra nsInrmalÍo n's, a m elody' s compo ne nt tones were replae cd b y o ctav(' intt'rv a ls, j,ltlH'r prese rv ing 0 1' vio lating th e p attern s of cha oge io p ildl di n 'cli oll (lI11' lod ic eontnu r), \\lten con to ur was vio lated, m el udic f('cogn ilio ll was di sIlIplt'( 1 se ve rely. but when co nt our was p reserved , subjt'cts id c lltifie'tI IIIt' tlilllsfon ned m elodics as aecurately as the un transfo rm ed melodi<-' s. sIlAA('slill¡': tha t co n to ur, as weJl a s in terv al size, p ro v id cs esse n lial inforllla lio ll rOl Ilu' l' Klie p erceplio n. C lld dy, Cohcn. a nd !vl iller (1!)79) p ro vid e evidence tha l di a lon ic ("( m d i I¡oll s ¡¡ Il d ea d e n tia l rel at io nships are im p o rta nl in form atio ll rol' m a illlai rlin¡.: 1IIl'ICI< Ik slm ctu res an d recognizing d eviations fro m th o se stru ctu n's. Fort yd ¡.:h l sllbjccts w ith "gen era l inte [cst in m usic" indicat ed which Ollt' of Iwo tl dmpos ition s o f sta nd ard mdod ies was correct, Each tra ns po sil ioll was "IIIH'r lo the d omin an l (<-'.g .• G in rl'iatio n lo C) nr trito ne (c ,g ., F# in rd aliu lI tu C) lo na lit}' in rel ation to Iht' l' a rt k u l¡¡r stand a rd's di ato llic cn n text. A Ih'I'C'd 1 1 1l1l ' ~ , whic h m ade pan ir llla r II H ' l lltl i ( ' ,~ "w l"O n¡.;:" in relation lo Ihe ir sla ll(la l'lis, ",I'le' " S('m ito ne 111' u r d nwll fl lllJ l WIIl'II' !lIl'}' wOllld have bcen in a tot .l1 ly 111 lma l<-' lra n sp osil ioll , S II II]l'1 I ~;' IH' I h II1Ilóllln ' dl'tt'rioratt,d wh e ll th e " ("( li t''' lJllh n '(' Ion es co ntai llin¡.: 1111' altl'l,llillll W Il" l'IIIIIl'd( I('d in .. llondi a lllll it: ( ' 0 11 tl' llt; it illlpn w('d wlH'1l a ('ad"l lIl' Wol ~ pUlvldl 'd , Th .. lIlo st a n~ llrah' n 't · o~ lI i tl lI ll U(t'III"1'('1I wh('1I (<1) 11 11'11 ' W,l 11 dl ¡lltlllil .11 11 1 (';u ll'lllial n lll!l'xl. (11) Ih c'
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!!u;n. p. ! )) . l\. 1 l' SS a ¡';I"~ I I IU)' 111 ' Ito l lll l lu l l ll n-mporu l: music, Iike dan ce. i s a timeba sed art and prtl\'idl ' ~ 1;1I ~"I)' l!'llll'" .a l llll·ssa gl 's, whcre as painting, scu lpture, am i p hotogrup hy p lOvid l' LII,fott'ly sputial lIu·s sage s . The amount of informatio n a m essag c con taius is il funct iun o f proba bility, Ir a messag c cou ld conta in only u ne symbol, co rrcc tly ide nt ifying the message's content provides ze ro ínforma tion: If the lllessagc exlsts at all, it o nly can ca ovey the une sym bo l. lf the rnc ssage could contain one of two equally likely altem alive rncssages. corrcet ldentitlcatio n providcs on e hit, 0 1" one b inary decísinn's worth of info rmation (Watson, 19i3 , p. 2 9~~ ) . The gr ea tcr thc am ount uf ínformatíon th c message conve ys, thc less the redundancy, a nd the greater the uncertainty of meaning or response. t7 In th eory, a m arhcmatical form ula ca n predíc t the pro ba bility of a response, but the complex nature of mclody and ha nnony, coupled with the hum an variab le in terms of prevíous experíence with melody and harm ony, mak es absolute accuracy of predi ction virtually impossible." T he au tho rs coneur with Me yer (l 9m, p. 20) thar our in ability lo m ca sure preci scly the amount of infor ma tion in a musical m essage do es nol wcaken or invalidate information the ory as a basis for cxamining musin d Illeaning. T he theo ry still provides a usefu l cons truct fOf cxam ining musi('al t'xllt'cta lion as well as a fra mework for studying m usica l pe reeption . Tlw a mo llnt of infl rmation an individual reeeives wh en Iistcning to melady lll' ha n non y, and hence an indi vidual's expectations regardin g them, is a func,iun uf two ba sic variables: (a) the cxten t to whic h th e structural charac terislk !'> uf melady and hannony confonn to fundamenta l laws of pe rce p tual m~¡¡lI i za ti o n and (b) the ind ividu al' s previou s e xpcri en ee with the given 1lI1'11II1 il' and harmonic style. As should be apparen! fram previous discusSiOIl, IIwlodics a nd ha nnoni es tha t confonn most c10sely to the ru les and ~r; lI n llla r of " 'e stern tonal harm on ic stm cture gene rally eonfor m to the funda uu.' ntai laws of percep tual orgnn izatiun . The tonal hannonic framcwork provides the stm ctural unity. and the Iisle ne r perceives th e m elody 01' har· ilion )' as a Gestalt or holistic pattern . T he exp ectations a n indi vidu al develops from ex perie nce with me lody and h;tmlOn y a re re lated tu their peraptual redundam:y. \\"hile infonnation Ihl'O ry pe r se holds th at a mcssagc's redundaney is cha raeteristic of the stim Ul 11S alOlll', Meyer (1967, pp. 277- 279) main tains that rcdundan cy in a mu si" n li Ilwssagl' depends both on the extent to whic h struetura l eha raete ristics n lllfnn n to the Iaws o f perceptllal organizalio n (stru clural rl'dundancy) ami 17Th i~
m" y " "{' In IJllu lin¡; if um' I h i n k.~ uf M i nfurmal io n ~ unir a.~ dil riFk alio n u r rq M'liliu ll. In in fur1l1.l1i"n 111t'fJl)'. info rm al i" " i~ Illlnn·dUlldil llt nr '1I'W. In ,1 sllllp l,' v i~lIa l "' ) lll p.~ info rm illion an d 1.'Ss unct>rta inl y than " n e is h. 'ca lls,' 11i.' ~ h .. rt · n _Irill¡{ uf ¡" U" rs h... ¡, , ~~ n 'd"lldatK ~'. I"SllI'd li, ' IUiltllifl' ;' li" t1 " f inf" rllMlioll in m,, ~it- ls al", I OIllI' I"ilt
e
. I ' 1 al bus 1" 'lIlH.'{ I , d 'gree to wh ich th v nu wu tI ,1 . ' d ' ,) pcr cel'llI
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. '
, " .. \ t le with whkh an Ill{hvu\a sh ~~~~~;ndancy is nevcr tot al. eveu m. ~~~~:~~~nSt~nal musie have some .
plet/p rediclabililY; pereeptualdmfo~m~eyer (2001, p . 348) also note~ t~\at aspects tb at complem e nt redu~ a~c) 'ouscd by mu sica l un ccrtain ty lll' ps tu the eventual dissipation of len sl,o.ns al' , if th e str ueture of a composltlOll. . ith th c individu al listen er, \'t· lat ' S un t y d hich va nes W1 ) 'Ih ¡lit" Perc cpt ua\ reclun a ncy, ": ' . ces (Iong-te rm memory W I f '1 n memory o f prevloUs expencn , sychologleal or der o ut o IW UV 1 y o id 11' tener to cr ea e P taü ons and m(' ''II i1il , ~ () 1 w 5 th e indivl ua IS sty1e an d a110 d ve1o ping expec , 'Ihe melody or harm on )" thu~ e , th e perccptual in form atio1\ I S 1110 1 lIud erstandi ng . If íedundan cy I S too ;:~elodv or harrnony- lf thc n'~ l ll ll ,'rca t ior the listcn er lo u~d~rstand d'ctab le a~ lo b ecomc qui ek\y btl,nn~" °1 ' loo high the mu sle l S so pr e 1 h 'c framework of \\ l'sll \ 11 { aoey l S ' h der lhe armo nt I As may be apparent to 1 e rea " in ' a famili ar scal l~ sysl l~11\ am .' , with its mel odies and ha rmo01esd us Igdie and hannonic movenwllt muste, hit nality an m e o f 1 l ' lo !" t d in sueh ways 1 a o d Regardl ess () t le li S • :;II}~ ~::~ ~n, give s the ~us, i eal sti7ul~~e:e~~~a~:;y~nd scales provide strn ng . ., I eriod and its styhstle pecu lan , Il
.\ ITI~~~~:~~
~:t~~:l~:c:n~miliar
lon al m llsic, whieh I'\f eye r caUs eudltural~:~ul~ its~~nal h arm onic frall\l'W,I Il-~: '. hich has struclUral redun ancy " th m Olln l of new 0 1" l'Xtr.1l11 muste , W . h' h lh lim lttng e a .. , k ' 1\11' pa etptual redundancy 15, Ig , us the individu al more readily ca n 111 1<1, .' . ,(, mation in lhe rn1151e. Hence. h Id ,' ¡ il were in a sty t· I 1011 ollS l"jOr , h he or s e CO \l I 1 . " f lhe unfamiliar m U SI C t an ¡ h ' h ile ur shc had d l~V l' (l P I '! !\t'llse 11 1 dundaney and ur W le {liti nol have struetura re 1 d n, y , g 10 ' a \\'l'sh' fII ( '11 110 cultura1 re d un a , h at everyone matunn ' • This dnes no t mean, ho\\'eve r• 1\ , 1\ tonal musie, beeauSl~ with in \\,('slt'I"~1 an( a ' n '1\ und. ,,ersl I ange 01 nn lslIme anlomatlca Y \VI 1 ' '\ ' is !H'at ~ furlh enllor e, t le l' , . ,' , t'IIlture lhe variety of IUlISllc<1 ~t' )I .' ., g\ \'"sICrn r ultllfe have also lS glt l'lll" . \ . . \ ' S \\' 1 H n • , . . hin" l .\! · n i expcricllCl'S IO ( IV I( \10' · ." . 11' ( 11' \ \(' l'x l){'rieIlces V ,'lt o' . . ¡;'lI'S suggest. 11O\\'l' VI'r. Ihal 1' 1¡':'IV~'~I vI,1 ;: sll"OlIg psyr ho logind ha~I S h )l monic Illusie, an individ ual ~ IUU ( 1,1 , " . 1 't t f inlurtllal lulI ,l illlt'rad ing wll I 1 , I I " \lm il!'> 1111' ;1I110 u n o 1 Tu n 'r apit ul<1 Il', pl'ln 'p lllal l," 1"" ,11 11 I j,l ' ¡':'1l...IC'1" ll\!' n 'lhllll\all<:Y, t Il' , . ,' " \'t'~ hutll a 1I 1 1l ~ lt ,d nl" """W" TI ' 1 'ss 1111' n ,dtllll lalll:y, h ~h' nl ' l lI { t I - . I 1,. 1. ' '' 11 11ll' 1l1l11 '11 ,,,"t)', 11 l . it's!'> Ihl' inflln natlllll 01 11.' _ ' .' _
t(
--
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tI\(' gn' ak l" tlU' illfo llll illilltl lllld 111,· 1111' I'llai nly. TI \(' gn 'alt' r th c rcdu nd an cy, IIIt' more ucc u rute tlu- I¡ 'kl\l 'l ' ~ l ' 'tI "'l uu i, fll S heruuse th er e a re fewer un ce rtain ties . I'e rceptuul n-duuduncy, '"lIl pl isl'd of stmct urul and cultural re du ndau cy, c nables a lisu -m-r IH (',"UI'ivI' nu-lod y and ha rm on y as pane ro s or Cr.l/allm eve n though he m sil(' ohviollsly may not perceive a nd rem cm ber cach cons titucn t ton e or chord of thc pnncrn . The e xpecra tions co mpl emeru thc Iones and chords actually pc rccíved lo crea re thc mu sical pancm . \Vhen a Ilstcn cr enco unters melodlcs or harrnoníes that havo Iittle str ucturnl redunda ncy an d for wh ich he or she has no l developed cultur al redundancy, thcre is incroasc d informalion . With the increascd informarton (a nd incrcascd u nce rta inty), the aecuracy of the in dívidual's expectatio ns decreases. \Vhen infonnalion is so great that the ind ividual can not dcvelcp ex pectalions regard ing thc melodic or hannonic palt crns, the mu sic holds Hule meani ng. M eyer (1967, pp. 28:{-293) sugge sts that the lack of perccptual n -dund a ncy, with lts constít uent aspects of strucrural and cultu ral red undan(:y, is mu st likc1y lhe reason serialism failed to ga in wid espread acceptance. Tl lt' autho rs submit that sorne avant-gardc e lec tro nic rnusic lhat does not provid(' slru clur al redundancy also will be unlike ly to gain \\'idespread ,IIT('pla nce, particu larly since few individuals are developi ng cultural red un dan('y ror slIch mu sic, Ill'.ft·unh
0 1t
Musical Expedanry
¡Ilh'n 'sl in how people develop musical cxpccta neies has givcn rise to !lol h lheor)' and research. .Ion es (I91:H, 19 8 2) developed an expeclan cy 1ll0l h'I sllggcsting th at music al ex pectancies resu h fro m th e inl erplay I,,'IW('('I\ idral prolol)'jJrs and ordinar)' patlrrns. Idea l prot otypes a re the sim ple Ilt'l'rl'ct symm clries that underlie a pa rticular style; they are abstraet repres" lltalio l1s o f melodic, hannonic. a nd rh )'thm paucros that prouably e xist u nly in labor atory settings as ideal slanda rds o f lhe give n slyle. Jones 's ordin'lrY paUe rn s are more com plex a nd renect inle resting deviations from the idl'al patt erns. She suggcsts tha t cxpcctancies are formul aled when ordina ry pallt'l"Il s deviate from the idealized symmetries of the ideal prototypes. The disf n 'p'lIlcies bet wcen th e two lyp es of pattems rcsu lt in an e lement of sur· pri"'l', whieh in lum facilitales pere ep tion a nd re lention of lhe m usical s('Cj m'nn '. The lheory presum es a m usical syste m wilh built-in ord er aud co n· .'o ish' llcy, s\lch as lhe ton al harm onic frame\....ork of \ \'este ro tona l rnu sic. Ca ri.'o('ll, Divenyi, a nd Taylor (W70) exam ilH'd the efTects of tWIl-tolle 1Ilt'lml i( inÍl'lv a ls (ur "conlexls"¡, which they eo nsiden,d to he exIJfcloll cy-gr f/· rralilllZ .d imllli, on music sllldenls' mdod i(: n llltilltlatiollS of the patkrns. Whilt, Iht, .'o llldy was t'ssl'llli a lly (~ X p loralory , t1H' It'sults ("('v('a l('d lhal su1.· jl't'IS' 1"('.'o POII,;('S fOl" {"t' lla in inkrvals tl'n dt'd to dll \lI'l ,mI! lhal il was possih l('
l/ll d
/llII l/wl/ ir 1'immlnf ilJllJ
. ,1'/ \ Inl" ("t' rlain int('lv als . lo dcvdop ",r!odu O:/lf f fllllfl /IFf'J 1 r ,1 " (C arisen I!IHI) sOllghl lo lllt' s' l\ Ill' h '{· uuqnc vcI I " A subsequc nl Stl H 1y \I S111¡':' , " . . ' , • 1 Th is stud y rcvca lt'( t Hit l'l I 11" v arrous tntc rvu s. 1 1\ "V e\ O P cxpec tal\CY p ro I I '~ ( • I I .~ ' -nr e xpeetan cy prnfiles, they a so 1 )' I'('nl' ra le( ( 1IIC rt' . 1 oIi lfeH' nl ín te rva Is no 1 0 11 ~ . rths Asee ndin¡r major aIH ' lCra lmg streng s. o I il'lded d ilTe rent e xpedancy-gc l . _ d the asee nd ing mi nor sixt 1, Y di g mm cr seco n , miuor seconds, th e desce n m . eveolh all gen erated stro ng . d d endin g mmc r s 1I 1ltl tbc asce ndmg an ese d th 1 subiects from dí ffere nt cultur es l o observe a J . "" pe(·land es. ear lsen a s . ' rti ng th e vlcw that mus te , , ,1 tu ge nerate different contmllah~ns, suppo I I 111 (( . e n erices "' Iwdand es d epend o n p rev rous ~xp I~ ' x'pee tand es Unyk a nd Ca rlS('1l , d ta 1islen ers me ocie C ' . b us , I Alte r gathen ng a on h 1 dies for cach subJecl. laS(( . , I of24 s a rt m e o " (I!IH7) developed a umquc se , fll The 24 melodics. used in a me h« u' , tancy stre ngth at eaeh of thrcv un enea individual's expcctanC) pro te[, . I' . d tw c leve l s o expee oIidalion task, represente Iled (b) fulfllled con tour but with vio latet mu-rk-vcls o f expectaney: (a) íulfi e , d interv al síze. Tbe result s h fulfillcd contour an v'll size and (e) b 01 un d d d' ,.,. I d' ' u m pro uce IS[', ucl palterns of rcsl}(}n~I . '. II'vealcd th at ea ch m e o le pa c . [e I o's (19I:H) stu dy. Mcl ml lt's " b pectaoetes o ar se . ,_ . Id d ' 'fi aotl)' fewe r dicta lJon ('rTtlI S which \vere sim ilar to t e ex t rs Yle e Slgn l le d ' I rval sizc than for the othcr tWll wilh stro ng expectancy ge nera o 1m melodics with fulfilled contour s lan . I.n \ h ,..'c ak cxpecta ncy ge ne rato rs, H wever for me o d les s ,' xpee tancy Icve Is. . o . ' It in si mificantly m ore dielallon en or vio\aled expectanCles dld n ot Tesu . . g Unyk and Carlsen suggesl lh al 111.11\ melodies with fulfilled e~pectanMetes. (1956 19(7) and .Iones (1!)Hl, , b l' [ ., rt t he theon es uf r eyer1, l' g cxpe Iheir rcsu lts suppo eta ncies a out u ti \{ . . . volves ormu a lO I!I K1) lhat listemng to muslc. m F \ dies with slro ng expl'cl;:m I1 I ' m usIcal p attern. or me o [ Id ,'vt'nts in the un (} mg d 'd b ' \ity tu idenlify and rc(~ a I w , ' [ 'ctaney lead tu re \l CC a I dl's, vlolatlon s o ex pc ' 1lI1\1>ica l even ts. d exa mined factors Ulld erl ying lli(' fUI" Schmuckler's (19 HS) four-pa: t stu (~) h onlc expectations, (e) eXlwt"l a ll lIlatinn of (a) mel~dic expectatl(}~s(d) ski~:; pianists' pe rform ances nI' 1l1~I1>ir I il's for a fuIl m usical context, an . [ t i ' robe lone tcchniqlll' dev¡~t'(1 , U ' ' m udifled verSlO1l o le p 11' , f "' Ilt'ctóltulOS. slllg a d stlmu ' l'1 den'ved fro m the voea • IIlt 11 d (11)71)) an lo)' Krumhan sl an d Sh epar . ' kl k d m usically tra incd subJccts lo ' h um ann . (~ r as eI l' 'h 'ch presenle(1 a ( 1'1 '[ ' " 1 ,, It ob ert Sc s'ong , Sch. muc 1 l 1l il ' tt' ll S eae 1 o W I ' l1lt1 ¡'IIt' how well eaeh oflen n llll • [ IO ..' l ' 111 the conte xt or Ihdr e xpI·('· • . b' silio n (1 a stllllU \l S, 1 ' 1 [ ..llIl' ping pmnl or pr o C po. S ,1 ,'kll'r avt'rag-ed the suhjects (ala or ' )\l l(' III'xl " , 1 111111 1 , . v('rages lalions of w h at S I\011 11 ( ( , as mt lo(" IC r:{jJI( 1"TU] . . S, _. I ' 1 1'11' 111" tll tit a Ilw van ous co ntlllU;ltloll 11 /m1ilrJ. . ,_ I ftil ..\ I'o llfirnwd llHl t sollle ("( n l ti tl ll a ' t "" llity'Sinllut'!Kt' (l1l tlH' Sd llll llt:kl('I"'s 1llt'lm ht· " )(I JI" 1,1111 " If ' I , , 1 1 , Iltl...u 111 ' 1'I"IIIIIIIt' " ' . . "1 II l\ ~ 'In ' ll UlIT t'xpt'('\I'( 11.111 ," "' 1 , S,'I" ' lIItklt,1' ( ' 0 111' 1llll ' l I 11 l' . fl \' " 111 "~" 1,1 1I1¡':'S '""" " , l tl I J l" ob t 'I )( I ~ I I I ( )lI S 1'1 '(1 11 I' S, '
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facilitan- Ill'lll 'p llflll n i 1I1'\\' 1I \l'lotlil's a nd harmonics. "'oodnl lT ( ¡!Ji O) t ' a ll ~ llU 'lll 11 fil''l n i pu -vious cxpcrlences concepts [see also C huptcr 10) a nd s tlgg t'~ b III.LI ün-y 1'1tlvid(, IIIl' hasis Io r musical bchuvio r. Rcgclsk¡ (l!)i 5, p. 11) ('iabmall'd 011 11 l(' vh-w thut co nccpts a re gene ral though t te nde ncies a nd sugg ests rh.u they n -sult Irom (a) perception a nd cognition of man)' particu la r persona l ex pericnccs with the leamíng 0 1' skill to be mastc rcd. (b) the transfer 0 1' ce rta ¡n leaming from parti cular perso nal cx pc rie nces lo ot hc r particular but so mewhat dlffe rent situa tio ns, and (e) a gradua lly e volving te nde n cy toward inc reased frequency of the particu lar m usica l beha víor. Expcctat ic ns, thcreforc, are b as¡c to conceprualiaing m u sic. Musical concepts. recognlzed as cum ulative tcn d cncies to ward response resultin g Iro m cogniiive mu sical o rga nizations, are the product of m cmorícs an d c lass ifications 01' prcvious experie nces with mu sica l stim ulí. \Vhile musical co ncepts iuvolvc covert cognítive actívity , they form thc ba sis for b ot h rcc cptive an d prod uetio n beh avíors. Rcccptive be haviors essentiall y are pcr ceptu al and thcrcfo rc covert in na ture ; produc tion beb aviors ínv olve musical production 111' rcproduc üo n. RE CEI'J'lVE B EHAVI ORS. Since rcceptive beh aviors are essc n ti al ly co v e r t, invcsríga to rs must devise so rne overt m anífcstario n to stud y as evidence of Il'n'ptio n. ,(,his m ay create add itio nal qu estions ; investiga tors do not always a ¡.t.II '1' n'gan ling whether particu lar o vert behavi ors valid l)' indicate co verl ¡ll'll'l 'pl ioll 0 1' co nc e ptio n. For example. tasks !hat in vestigators might devi se lo !Io tml)' me!odic perception might ran gc from sim ple me lo d ic reco gnition 01' di sn illlinalion to singing or no tating an am a lly presented melod y. So rne "1Il t'1 od ies" llsed in research a re limited , co ntriv ed to nal sequences that may Uf mar no t represent \\'estc m me lodics. " 'hile so rne investigato rs de fine tlll'ir Il'rms o pcralio nally and Iimit their generaJizatio ns, othcrs apply vague la Lwls lo Ihcir stud ies a nd somc times ge neralizc far beyond wh at the data juslify, lh('rt~b y leaving lhe rca der with ex cessive , seem ingly co nlrad ictory infnn na tio n. ln tcrmi xing thc o re tical co nsiderations with pre sentation s a nd d isl'Ussin llS 01' e m p irica l data m a)' com pound the co n fusion . Unfo rtu na te ly. no l\l'al a nd Iidy so lulio us to suc h problems exi st. O lle sho l1 ld ft'l:ogn izc that reccptive behaviors are essentia ll)' perceptllal a mi in vo l\'t., rrc0J,'1l ition (jf and discrimination betwu n mus ical stim u li. Both PI'O('('sses a re fundamental lo m elodic and harmonic receptio n. \Vhil e listen illJo{ lo IlllLsic, a n indi vidu al , lIsua lly witho ut a ny pa rticular aw arene ss, co nsl;¡utly sl' pa rates thc fa milia r fro m the un fami lia r aud co m pa res new pattern s with 1llt'1ll01Íl'S (J I' pH'vilJlISly ll'arncd palterns. Th e bc Ue r Ihe new melodies a mi har mo nil's ma tch tl1(' ex pl'c ta lio ns baSl'd Oll lllt'11l0ril'Sof pn'vinLls ex pcd l' m't'S, the mo n ' cOlllpn'h('IISihlc Ihey an '. Fiskt·'s ( I!I!lO, W!I:\) Ilwo ry of Illusir (~O~II ¡ l i ll ll h ll l d ~ tha l ll1usi(' Iish'lling in
111m
11",1 ,/¡U " ""' .( "'(J/l/Ul tl ti01ls
.'sst'n lially can he tt 'chnl '(1 1. 1 lt M ' I I(' S ( 11' rolllparisullS an d tlt'dsi(JIls. I\ n'o rd ing lo tlu- tlu-ory , (u).;lli liu l\, a IIniqu ely IlUl1\an ío n n u f bchave rlls iur. in vo l ex pe l1d illg tíll U' "mi (,llol't lo ide ntify pall busvd un IIlt'ir ves rona l and rh ythmic (T R) lehll io llShil's. A patlern m ay be a giVl'll pa tle rn (P), em (I'n). \Vhe o au ,o I'all em derive d fro m l' (1" ), or a dís tlnctly di lTerent pall Ind ivid ual eugegcs in pattc rn rom parison . which ls basic 10 Illusic cu gnitiu n, IU' Uf she m ust decide w hc the r thc seco nd pattern is (a) identical tu th e f irst . (lo) a deri vatio n o í thc first, or (e) d istinetl y dilTerent fro m the ¡ocst (F;ske,
IIltl~i(
I ~I~ITwo :~, p.ad 2).d ition al clesscs 01' recepüve musical behaviors are allulytiw[ a ud n s 1JI¡rr¡[-visua[ düerimillat ion. Essen tiaUy, these a re cXlen sio ll 01' reco/:,'1litio a mi
es discriminatio but e ach goes be)'ond b asic recepti ve proc ess . A na lyti('al n, Ill'haviors rcflect efforts 10 conscio\lsly catcgo ri1.e rne lodic and ha rmouic ve s p al' n-rus into th eir co nstituent parts. Aural·visual d iscrimination in vol a ssoct s, onic .oting aur al stim uli, ;ncluding mclodic au d harm pallem wlth tI...i. !l)' mb tllic (notation al) representatioos. As rnay be appare nt, receptive beh avio rs are diffieult to iso late en tire-ly h um performance behaviors~ an el emenl of "performance" ex ists in a n)' o verl manifestatio uf receptive b ehaviol's. Abo, failure to produce docs nol n tlt'l'cssarily mean faHure to perceive 01' receive. A pers oo may be \lo able lo ~illg because of a vocal p roduction problem rathcr thao a reccptiun 0 1' J't'rt ('piion I' RO\)problem. UCn ;..¡ B k: HAVIORS. ' ''' hile C hapter í examines sorne re search retaln o 1,(1to productio b eh avio rs, an overvie'''' of basic t)'pcs 01' productio ct behavn lo rs is induded h ere. They iodude singing, instrumen tal p crformilll " a nd " ",, ' ing musie, bu. must musidaus beliove that th .. ability lO m"ke "u,,;o'a\ tli..n iminatio underlies all production b ehaviors. W ithout Ihe ab ilit)' 10 d is· ns 1riminate am ong p itches and pitch p attem s, an indi vidual wo uld h(' IIl1ahl (' l o produce his 01' her musical intentions in ao )' lonal m an ner. \" hile 1111' pll ·.. · ..ni d iscu ssion concem s melodic and h arm onic production, tlw p rinriplt' h Il ll' salTI(' 1'01' aH m usical aspccts, b e they d ynamics, rhyth ms, 01" timhn's. lf d iHII Ilw ind ivid ual can not d iscriminatc amo ng the to nal attributes, prodll
at'contin~
1'!fOl"IS Eal'hare 01' hin thedered Ihr ee. types uf pro
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Alrlu(fje (l /l(I I/(/ rl/w ll ie ¡ 'i l/l/Il / lI ( ' 1I1n mclodi c COnIlIUr. Slo boda (1!lH5) Ob"I'1 " 1,11 Ihu l llU' first slriking ch ange in overt musica l be havior after th c firsr hi n hcl,ly (( uru-... al a!J( 111 1 1Mm onth s of age, whcn S[1011" tuneo us so ng bcgi ns. "Thc ruaín cb urucn-rlstlc of spontancous singing is th c use of discrete stable pilehe s {rnthcr than thc mierol onal glid es of the earlíe r 'song babbiíng']" (p. 20:¿j. S uch singi ng usual ly d oes not include words, leading Sloboda lo suggest that musical dcvelo pmen t al this age oecurs along a separale "strearn" frcm speech. Spo nlanc ous singíng at this lcvel does no! appear to reflect efforts lo Imitare par ticular songs, although the singing begins lo include short melodic patterns using intervals thar approximate thc seconds and third s of tonal mu sic. Most ace ounts of child re n's singing during the latrer half of the seco nd year sugges r a gradual changc toward use of m elod ic patterns reflecting to na l, 0 1' culturally "co rrect," structu res in spon raneo us slngi ng. They also note an "emergi ng a bility to selec t me lodic fragments from an incrcasíngly large repert oire [of standard songsl, and lo match lbe se wilh in ereasing aeeu · raey lo the eomponents of stao dard modds" (H argreaves, 19tH;, p . 72). Ap parmtly, ehildren begin to bo rro w eerta in aspects of songs they havl~ Iwanl and assim ilatc them m ore an d m ore into the ir ow n spon taneo us songs, Dllring Ihe third year, ehildren 's spoolaneo us soogs appear to beeome 1 01l ~ l'r an d ren ee! a definite tren d toward use of dia toni e sealc intervals, I);¡ vidson, r\'1cKemon, and Gard ner (1981, p. 305 ) suggest lh at ehildren "PIII'ilf tu dcvelop a set uf song-re lated expectations that in essenc e provide :t "so llg frame'" whieh strueture s the ir vo cal p crfonnanee s. As Sloboda (19M5, p, :lO,I) notes, "by two-an d-a-half, th e child secms to have assimilatcd t1w !Ioti ulI S Ihat m usic is eon strueted aro und a sm all fixed set of p itch interv als, a mi thilt repetition of in tervallic an d rhythmíc patterns is a cornerston c of mu síe.'" Hnwever, lhe ehild as yet seems to laek an)' grasp o f hierar eh ieal slruclllres gov erning gro ups of patterns that might prescri be di rection aud c1osurc. Sloboda ubse rves tha t songs of children of this age usuall)' have an "aim less" quality, with Jittlc or no sense of "fjnishing." ·Hm·ard the cnd of th e thir d year, ehildre n's singing begins to reneet Icss '~ Jl o ll t a ll eO Il S song and more im itation o f songs they hcar in thcir enviro n111t'n l. l\loog's (1!)76) ex tensive study of cbildren 's musical dcvelop mcnt l't'v('alt'd th a! children in lhe car ly p hases of th is slage are abl e to imitalt' l1wlodic eo ntour more easil)" th an they imitate exaet pitch. However, duri ng tht,th ird und fourth years, many ch ild ren's ea pacities lo imitale so ngs devd up grea ll)', to th e po int th at "must ehildren can atTUf
'1 11 11\" " "111 ol d ~ 1I \lI illl y "' , mllll'\sll'IY I I 1 ( 1' ., 1 1111'111;11 trt'lHl loward pret"lSIOn ,1 ' " h Iwlll ' l Ih ,II11n Ul , "111 ul( , a\' I" 1I . ,1,11' 10 rnarn tait t Ihe key of n son~k' nHIt ¡ ¡ ," ,,1" '\' .1I,00 111 IUII (¡'lIler Ihal .." ' 1 1 . " "\lOW t ' ( JoIiI I 'nlly rel1l'cling sume hig rcr O U I' I \ 1 ' 11 1 1 YI'I dcvv 11 \,1' ( , \ ·\S 1I " .sl Iour year o ( S ra v c no " ' \ " 11, ' 1 \ '1 11" 1 lit·, " ~ 'ta \ i l y t lt' salll1e ,, ' . tui a key nl ton.1 11 \ he' (1 17-\) T llt' abilily lo mam 01111 ' , íu"h 11',,1,1, S"I¡.l,(·;llll U;'. Y'h mclody wus taugbt un a u .i nvtlfla ll~ "',11' oltls) lo sing thr ce melodies- ~:c m le üon , e01eh ch ild's singm g of Ilu ;"11 h lev el. One we ck aftcr th e stud: s ~~'d Pan inv erse rclO1tionsh ip be IWt'("1 11tl'llItlics was rceorded. Rcsults rcv~01 ; th e m elod ic patlern . 'rhe yo ungt'sl 11. ( milCY of pitch leve] and aec~ra~¡ : level, b ut th e oldcst genllp st~ llg Il~ l : ". • at the most accurate P' c rt th e inveshgilltll'" ~ I II II \, sau g l ly T he results su ppo llu wi , r p"lch pe r se, wlll (' wlI \ lic p atlerns m ost accura e . 11 11'\lit ' ·Id t d to ocus on , " "l'0tlu'sis lhat young cr eh l ren len ni they foeus more on Ih l' altnhll~ (" lllt I('ast'd agc and concep tual dcve ':;~c suggesl tha t abso \ulc pih:h ,Skllb nI lIlt'lod ie pattcrn " Sergeanl and " d on fixed pitch lnstnlOWlllS l ur I i .uld he deve lop ed if ehildre n w~r " e lhra,'dn;en befo re high er-urd l'r (:(HIt"t'III'1 · d m mon lo a e l , lll}l, .1critieal peno , eo . ' lual iteh pcr eeption. , d lhinking tran secnds thelf preeonccp b ,P eplieale Sl'rgcant ami I~o("h e i , d R Y (1')79) soug 1 o r 1 fi )'t'·' t'. h:Donald ao amsc . ' h'ld Seve nly-six lwo Ihroug 1 IVt' , ' "' b levd s ín six : \(l - ll ll ll UI• ith Ame rican p resehool e t reo . . • 11111y W • f of invanan t pi e . , IIlds Wt'f(' luught to smg our songs >. d T heir data pa rtíally ~lIpp01 tt ( wcek p eno ' " 11 ' I¡.l,' II ,lIl1ing scssions ove r a thr eepositive rdation sll 'l)> ¡le 1Wl.( , So" l'l" 1ll1 amI Roebc's rcsults: Ther eHwas a 'bey did nol find tlw 11\\,('1 11 , l"" • f 1 d)' owever, . ' .11 11 1 l'Ollecptu alizatlon o m e (). 'b 1 1 rha ps dile 10 using a lllOfl' sil 111 ' b ge and p 'te eve, pe \ h lo'lill i(lllSlllp ctwe cn a " , 1 than did Sergeant and t oe ~" . " " ~o' nl s('u ring systcm for plÍch lc~e 19 8 3 exam ined th e efft'ets 01 age, SIl,Ir.lI~ ) h > four and lIvc.yt'ar-oltls pi 1 \ sllhsequeot stu dy (Ramse) , 1 , 1 "enel' on t rce , ' Ir ,' Iit)' and in strument a expen · . 1', al', nn l~a lllscy t'valuah't IV II 11 , . r d b y song voc a l /. ' r 10'I'IiollSof mel ody as m ( lealc " . in ' (b) melod ic rh)"thm, (e) !Helo( 11: ("(~I lit' ·\slled s· (a) ab so\lIW 1'11rs seUH'(11 ur, ' Ilt " ,,' dilll'relll·cS in t w Ilt'l 01 ' I ¡I ". l · 111'1\' 11 ~ I u v, 1 , I. , 1' '''\t1tIi(' rhythm, conhllll, ,1111 11 " lllwlnd ic rhylh lll, ("( llltour, a m Illlt 0 111 1111 low ahil il)' singt'l'S 0111'1' 11 '1(''')11" 1' ' : t11llo 'lIlal alll l no ninslflllllt'lIl,d lrl'¡¡ 1 1 , 111," '" well as lon a\ (" ('nll'l ~ , llIl " "' ,,, of Iht' Illl'lod i(" ("( l m, p1 vu1 " , " 1 1 V 1111 1( '11 l ' 1 llll'nll'WllpS tlitlno t tliU('1 !>l }l,IlI\", ''',' ,' " ,11111 01 111 i \<' (' h'vd etll'("\:'i 111I1'11 \' o 1 I 1 1 I \ ' 1" ,'"O 110 ~ l'" l'" IlI'lIls"Surp d sillr, )', 1 JI' ( a , 1 "b,olult' p itd l 0 1' 1011 01 1 , ('I,t"1
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Zimmcrma n ( I!J7 I, 1" :JH) Il Olo' ~ Ih;11 11 Iill' id d cvelop men t of mcl od ic pe rcepüon mnrks ag(~s xix In l ,jlJ,hl. I'd w ld (Ul/ifi, p, 15·1) an d so rne o ther researchers, ho wc vcr, It' pllll , k-vr-líng dTl'(:1 followin g third grade, o r aro un d age ninc. Taylor ( 1 97:~) notes markcd dcvclopm cnt of ha rm o n lc awareness a round age ui n c, but T hackray (W7:i) maintain s that rcsuits of his harmonic pe rceptiou test provide p o sttíve evídcncc that many children d ev elop a co nsiderublc dcgree of harmc nic awarcness well before age nine. Bridge s' (196,1;) study of hannonic di scrimina tion ab ility of child ren in kin derga rten th rough gra de threc also suggests a gradua l development in harmo nie discri m inalio n a bility, Moog ( 1976), however, m ain tains that his research shows un equivoca!ly that preschool-agcd child re n do not exper íencc an y so rt of ha rm on y a l a ll. Sb uter-Dyson and Gabricl's (19 8 1, pp. 147-149) review of several studies cx a m ining chil drcn 's harmonic diserimination in terms of co nso nanc e and di ssonance (esse n tíally req uiring the se lection of which versíon sounded "lx-tter" or "correct" in paired comparísons] rev ea led grea t im pro vement bctwcen ages fíve a nd 10 in se lec ríng "bener" or "correct" ve rsíon s. Sueh findi ngs lenel support to the view that basie harmonic aw areness de velops as pan uf child re n's eneultura tio n with \\'eslern m usic. Imhcrty's (19 8 1, pp . 101-115) co mpre hensive stud y of tonali ty de ve loplIU'llt rcvcals four age-rcla ted stages of tona l en eulturatíon : (a) below ag e six, a flt'riml of pereeptu al undifferentiation regarding ea de nee; (b) from six am i IIl1l ' - hal f lo seve n years, a caden/ial perspective scheme, Le" the ehild considers ;1 Illtlsintl phrase \\ithout a eadenee as unfinished, but makes no clear differ1'lIliati un among differing ea dential mo vcmcn ls; (el aro und e ight years, wlU'f(' Ih(· eh ild ea n diffe rcntiale bctween a perfe ct cade nce and ab senee of cm it' IH:C a nd responds to inte rru pted ea de nces less clearly ; this stage's pri mar}' eharaeteristie is the beginning of perctptive decentration wh ich enables Ihe slIbjed "to co nnc el what precedes the eadcntial form ula with th e formu la il'>elr (p, 113); and (d) around 10 years, charae te rized by the esta blishme nt 01' ¡¡ re/ation ol urder; th c pe reeption of lhe dom ina nt leads to anticipa tion uf 11ll' to nic; rroeTJibilily is ev ident in Ihe pe reeption of tonal funetions, a nd tht, synla(· tie e le me nts of the musical phrase enable the preeed encc of order a nd logil'al a nt icipatio n, Imberty's researeh \'I
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. " . rctleet auempt s 10 sed abo ye pn m an ) dings diseus Itl -lr encnlThe researeh-bascd fimcnngs v v - - - ' d 1 prneut a s a p art o ter . \Iud eh ild ren's melo dic and harm~lllc e;il~ren reach school age . ~usleal IllrOl~on p rocese wi th \ Vestcrn m~sl~'.~son formal instruclional expeoc llct "· llt'vcl opm cnt b ecomes more dep~n cn orne commonly uscd metho~s 1 la: di io n exam mes s , . b ·havlors. (\ Thc pres cnt IseUSSI . .1 die an d harrnornc e lo for devcloplOg me o . school levd s nursic teach ers emp Y t th e various elemental) . , . , 1" nal seque nee a d thc ca rly pom.11) f,t'IlI.·ral mstru c 10 h 1 kindergart en, an e . 1 rm hasizes rhyth m in prese 0 0 , f n in ades two through Iour , a nc ~l" a~lcs, Mcl ody receives grea ter atl~ln.~~on in~'Tades Iour through six: ~Yl' harmo n}' begi ns rcceiving gr~te r~. \ s th e general ur der in whic h ehl1( ren ami Nye t1985, p, 211) note at lS . . ' . v , melodic a nd hamlO1\lC bch a .velo musical co neepts. dt ThePmajo r musical aetivities fo r develo!Hn~ struments. Mnve ment so me' iors ind ude singing. listeninlg 'd~nd b Pblaa~:rg ~:t H is uscd primarily to (il-vd, · f e m e o lc e , si limes is used to relll ore h th m ie b eh aviors. o uts ide of school, fol" UH.I, 1'1' ~llough llluch musical develop~c~t ~ef~~:al learnin g eXI)Crienc~'s wll.h \ hild re n, schoo1music represents thelr lrs al teaehel"s lry lo devdop 111 ('.lul.. The in¡tia\ pi tch -rcl ated co ncept th h· L _ and Iower pitch . sill("(' l" l( h IIIUslC. . h m ore properlv 19m;/ cill'n is high and low pItC , or ' . , " I \ · l nV ll ltS ve is " rclati ve phen om en on . child re n sho nld de op )l . ' . , . "nr()nu rf (l ;)(1(j<j- , p . 4'2) notes that yo ung musical ad lVllll's. d h • W b'leb var"o"~ '" . ... , 1 lO mc10dic directlon an s ape , . ' h I devclop ami rl·lIlfOlll . 1( ' ,lit< . · .1 'lllllellts-m ay e p ,, , ' , <J" Iistenin1r, and playm g I\l S I • ,\own 0 1" H'peal loll es; o llt c ll " o' "ng o I r V (' np O\o ve · ·1 I , . Chih1ren lea rn that m e 0< I('S n.\O., 'l ln:n G Ul di.. .crim inate and d(·.. . en )\. \O \ ' ' I 'IW'Il"l'II <'SS, ( 11 ( . . d e 111(' ha ve d Irectlo na • • . , " " l h, tI tOIlCS, S(·qUl'IHes. ., ' 1 n;d otly 11\0ves-l.>y . . h.·ps or . . kll.I'i. It. 'IS ' 1 devl.lopmental IlI'un ·.. . s fan g," , . . . .. l, 1I 111'l U 11· ,11 ,.. ' - • ,. 11wy' " . . ",,1-' . . 1·lIldanluol.II1t IIl , ¡ - I ' \\'1,', \".. teach ers 1l·( o gnll.1" 11111111 011 . ,11 1 0 . ' il\\' from fol!owi ng sil1\plt· I\W 1111 ' . , , . \1 h I (,'lIlillg. r-.tany l1\usi(· ('( lira O~lí o l· l ' I ·, 1 WI I)' " " 1 . ·il·IIl I'S III Ilnl agn'e regar< 1Il.g 1 ~I " . I 1 ¡hllll' .'\ tlllllllJ.l,h inslnll\H'1l1U (' ~ pc I . . .' l . Ilnintain Ihal n 'ad lllK IS 111 si 1; I 1 W 11111 \ ll ll llti S am i s('\s 01 11\0\l11\1 1\ s, wiüd I llll' visual sY lIlboh. 1>1.•111 01 \ ,,1 '
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csse ntíall y t1H' sunn- 11111' 1' ''1''1, wtlh lllt' , h, tIl~,~s oc cu rrin g in a b ass line. Tlu upper volee I"t..-ma ins itll'nlit'a l ltll Imlll 111(' mode l a nd secon d version. Gordon (1m !), W H ~ } d l'VI'lo l" '" llln't' uddlt lona l tests that includ e m easm es of to na l aptuudc. 'I'h c tun ul subn-st o f tbc Pr imary Measures ol Musir Audiation is des ign ed lo asscss thc ubilltles of kindergarten through third grade children to discriminate be tween paírs of two - to fíve-tone au ral partcrns. On e tone in the seco nd of cac h pair is cha ngcd. T hc Intermediatr Measura olMusíc Audiation has a sim ilar test tha t follows the sa me form at, lml is de stgne d for eh ildre n in grades one thro ugh four . Gordon's (198 9) m ore recent Aduanad Measures ol Music Audiation a re dcslgn cd te assess ton al and rhyt hmie aptitude ofhigh sehool and college stud cn ts. Bascd on Go rd o n 's concept of "au di atio n," wh ere a p erson m entall y hears and cornp re he nds musical pa trerns with out im m ediate aural stímulntio n, the Sü-ít em me asure requires students to decide whether "answers" lo m usica l "questions" are th e same as the "ques tions," diffcr tonally, 01' diffcr rhythmically. Tonal diffe rences may ínv olve changes in individual pít ch. mode, ton al center, or combinalions th ercof Rhythm cha nges m ay ínclud e alte n ·d duration, me ter, tempo, 01' sorne co mbi nation thereof. 'j'h,l<"kray (1973, 19i fi) devised seve ra l useful m easures of tonali ty aud har1l10n ic perception . Hi s tonalily lest measures ton ality in melodics an d ha s fOll r subtests, Part 1 ineludes mo du la uons in some melodies and asks rcspon " d" II ISlo indica te whether the m elodies sound "'righí" 0 1' "'wrong." Part II uses ~ h or l ullfa mi liar melodies, so me of which are diatonic and clearl y adhere to Itlllalily while others do not. and asks rcspondents to dClennine whether ",Kh ml'lody is "'o rdinary " 01' "peculiar." Part II I re quires detennina lions of whl'lhl'f Ihe melodies so und "'finis he d" or "no t finished," and Part IV asks wllt'lher Ihe melody's conelud ing ton e is lhe sam e as the bCgin ning tone, Although the lest is not sta ndardized, it a ppears lo be potentially very useful for assessing children's to na lity percc pti ons. Thaekray's harmonic pe reep tion test, also not standa rdize d, ha s thrl-'" parts_Part I ineludes a se ries of sounds p layed o n the p iano ; sorne afe sing le tOlles and so rne a re chords_ The res pondenl ind ica tcs which a re chord s_Par l II p rt~s ('n ts pa irs of th ree- and fom-ton e hannonized melod ies; th e resp oll " dl'lIt indicates which tone (if a ny) in the second heating is hann un ized dif· fl'll'n lly, Part 1I1 presen ts a chor d followed by a pau se and th en a progr eso sio ll of Ihr l-·e. four. 0 1' fivc chords. and Ihe respon den t ind icates where lllt' give n r ho n l ap pea rs in the progr ession . Coh..'c ll's (l!J()!J- 19iO) Music Achirvemrnt lfst.'i nwasure v¡lriu us be havior s ld aled to mcl ody ami harmony, Sorne of the mea.m red be hav iors inel udl' determin ing (a) whetlH'r a pallern 0 1' phrasl-' I1U lV t ' S s(';llt'wisl-' 0 1' in leaps, (b) wlH'lllt'r dlOnls alllll'h rasl's a n ' in major nI' milltll lllodl', (c) wlH'l iwr notalI'I! lllt'lol!il 's 1lI;ltd l a m ;dly pn 'w lltl'd 1I1t'Iod i,''t, (el) ,,\'hil h alllo ll~ tlm'l' 101l l'S
, I ( .) thc slyle pl'rio ds 01' ' 1111' kcy tone, auc 1, 1 ' ." cadcn ce nr 11 ti ," 01' IS tu I1 lIwlllg. , 'llllot Hy p rl'scnled lllu sicill 'x," 'lpls, " \ 11}(Il ) mensure ihrcc as\wcts of TI", Jflwa 'lisis o[ AluJic I.Ittrtlty (( . 0 11 OH,' ," , 1 d,'scr imination. ami notn , I , ' nlol ' utilOn aura .vrsua ¡"II,I I concepts: aural {1ISCn lll '\". . . ' aatio n tests (callcd "Audi aü o n . lall ti' allral ( IS(,n nllO 1 I ' , díscri maJ'or une rnuwu ullnal skills, EssentlU y. le a te between bility to IScnmlll · . ' 1 1\ lc'n;lw " ) measu re 1h e a 1 I • T he aural-vlsual di scnnllnatton s, " ddi ' I m od al patlero \ I 1'"I:t lily and sorne a ruon a d 1- whether g'iven notal ecllllt' lit \I' S . \. (..t\udiation/ Reading") ask respon en s ti al test iterns ("t\mlialitllll I, 1 dí d the nota Ion 1I1,lh h unrally given me o les, an are nu asi-dictatio n tasks. . me!odic aura l·v isllal elis \\ 'lillIW") " -r d íscri t¡on tests measure 1 S,'vN a1 aural-visual íscrtrmna ,1 res for melody and Ih >'t 1111 t pro\', de sep arate seo " , d 'lllllination, but th cy o no Cú M 1 die performance ls a ruajor tTll" II'l lI " F'lrllum 195:~; Knuth, HI ) J), e o S ,. (\ \'atk', ns & Fannnn. 1!l rl l) , (•' ,"" , ' . Performance cale 111 sl oring th e Walkms.~arnum t melod scor e. vlde 1," 1 m-lther docs it pro ,a sepa;t r:d al th~ conclusion of th c rhylhll l 1,I'SI d h s eoncemcd wlth SI'It'I I Il I~ TIU' sa mc reconnnendatlOns o e ' ch ers an tea c el' 1I 1 ,11\lllSsion apply here. R esear -c an d harmo nic beh avior s shou I 11 "1 '11ul ,ll'vc1oping m.easures of mel:~l~: b eh avior s th e)' wish to eva lua\(' alH~ '1I1t 1 fm emost conslde r the nalure d d veloped indeed m ea sUu' Ihu'Il asures se1ecte 0 1' e h \11' I l'l"t
Su m mary , . r points indud e lbe following : m Ofe high ly Th is chapter s maJo r W '1 n mu sic is considerably I , Tl w vertical slruc lurcf o h es el" !tures k ,It,vdoped than lhal () 0 1 el' cu d "th' tonal harmonic fralllt' WIll ' 1 \ - ' nslru cte WI m a 'J. , Must \\'estern mUS1C IS co h _. . of Iones o r tlll' rh yl 1111 IJ ; \ ,I I }. tivc pite poslllons I '\ C Il'llw ing elt 1er t le re a t ' I\y although no l a wuys , ' • o h th e mcl ody slruc m a , Itlllal sequence c auges . 1 and p, ycholo gical l'lllili l's, 1"'R l'ptuaHy. d' . ' as uoth struetura ' ' 1' I . I ( hlC ean defme m e Io lIS " ' f 'rred desniptlOllS ti I 11 , f 1 >die percep llon al e m e , 1, R l'('1'1l1 accounts {} me t s (l"v"'lopcd from mdodic I'XP" IWlIll'S, ,, -'es an d'stn lC ur e · I 1 "1 ' 11 I'tWI11!tVI' proccss 1" ' 1H.:.I' e'x pliri lly 0 1" unp In l y 01I ,., o ln sl'< I ,'It h , Mude! lon al hierarc ues are " ,'"" al fules tha t undl,di l-' m llska strl ll" ¡' rOl t'IVI' o",an"nars • , tia ' or gan l'/.3 I IlIfe, ' " k I 'dge Ihe P('ITt' plllal laws 01 k 10st m"dc!s o f 11lt'lud k pl'ITt'pllllll . l ( now t.: 'v
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10. Melod¡c a mi hunuonn 1l 11l \ ' I' lI \l"ll l ,111' n-kuive ph cnomc na. 11. l'erc c pt ual orga nlzanun of luuuumy i\ conn-x t dcpende nt. 12. 'Ioua líty is an nu derlyíng 1lllilying dl'vin ' in th e pc rcepríon 0 1' \\'csh'ru ton al music. 13. Th e día toní c scale is the basic scale for \ \"CSlt'ffi musi c. 14. Scale systems are codífl catíons 01' mu sical p racüce. IS. Thc tempered diatonic seale is the mo st fa r-reac hing sta ndard ization 01 tona l or ganizatio n in th e world. 16. The diatonic scale evolved Irom the Gr eek "Greate r Perfect System." IZ Equal temp era rnent is the mo st satisfac tory tunin g system for Weslefll mu sic. lH. Major a nd minor sca les comprise the basic ton al patterns or modes rOl most Westem mu slc. I!I. Othe r mudes inclnde the ehurch rnodes, the whole-tonc scale, pentaton ic scale. chr omañc scale, quarter-tone scale, synthetie scales, and scales 01' other cultures. 20. Whil e most mu sic uses Iixcd pítches in a to nal harm onlc fram ework, sorne eonte mporary music uses sliding an d indeflníte pitchcs a nd m Ol)' have no inte nded to nality. :t I. Hlera rchical perccptual models essentíally ar e descnptions 01' in ferred psych ological events. :t:¿, Impo rta nt híerarchica l modcls regardíng the perccp tual orga niza tion nf pilch slru ctures inelude Krumhansl's ton al hierar chy for melodic pa ttem s ami Lcrda hl and J acken do ffs time-span redu ction and p ro longaliu ll fl'd llction models. ~ : l, I(,'''e," resear eh in m elodie pereeption con finm that pecception aud mt.'rn ory depend on a melod y's tonal hannonic framework . 2·1. t\lu sical mea ning is a p rod uct 01' expecta tions a Iisten er has developed . 15 . Exp ectation s are a funclion 01' the information a musical ex amp le provides. :lli. Infurmation increases as un ce rtainly incrcas es. 2Z Inform ation dccreases as redundan cy increases. 2M. l\'rn 'pl llal red undancy is a function of th e mu sic's stru cturdl chamcteris· lks (stnl elural red unda ncy) a nd a Iiste ner's prcvious experiences wilh llI11sic of Ihal slyle (cultural red undancy). 1 !J. Rl'st'a rch confirms a gene ral consistency in rnllsician s' expcc latiom rt'gard ing mclodi c continualio ns for givc n meIodi c fragrn en ts O f con· k'x ts. ;·W. Musicalexp ectancit,s are hie rar chical. ;11. Basic n 'C('pti ve hl'haviors inelude n 'cogníli llll and d b ni minalion . : ~ 1. Uasic pn ll!uclion ht'havior s incllldc s i n b'-¡ Il ~, in\lru llU' lllal pt'rform alln ', ami C1"l'a ting Illllsk ,
\ w h 'l \·\' .u , . ,,s 1 ' 1111" II.III1 1" n I' 1 \ \ L'hildl"c n devdop nlt.'lod ic h t'h;lv1I,o , ' I~I, 1 11 11' IWl lll l' ll l l' III whil h llwlm • " 1' 'es ue ueru y It (1 ' 1 MlIsic n-nchcrs pr.le II .' <:> , n' 'lIl d hannon ic bchavulrs d c vr lo\" .' '' .« I " 11'l h lo'lIl' 'Is '' In Iht' psyd~()' \. ,\ 'mdody's "go()dl1l'ss~ all.d lt:'I¡," ::::t : i¡J;lIl l'''' l' ll'VIOtlS I' x p{,rícu cc Wllh .. .. \ sellse are fun ctlO nS () • 1o g ll.1 . . sty lt's f lllelodi es an d hann ony 11\ gtVt'1I " 'lit,'l){'h avÍlll'S ill"ll lvt's U1W 0 1' " .'01:1.' 0 f l die and h annt (b) d isl'ftl nt na1u; Evaluatio n () ~e o .. (_) re fogn il.ing tOIl,,1 paUern s•. . . b .twt.'e ll ..overul beha v¡()ral typ es. a d . 1 aucrus- (e) assoc1al!ons e . 11 ' presente tona p . d (d) productHUl LlIf, betwcen aura ) . Il rcsen ted patteftl S, un reseoted and vrsua y p a ura 11y P lwha...íors.
Referen ces
, be . and renl('Jl11)l'.-iI1~ . 1 1 dic contour IU can ng 7'~ 17li) • 1I 1\ (199 ,t) . l ntr odu ctlon : ;.. e o d (Ed ) \lusical ptJuptitJru. (pp. I . , ,,1" " , . . . 1\ & J A Slobo a s, , ' di I RAle o " 11\1'10 res. n _. ' . - P . y k: O xfllltl Nt'W Yor k : Oxford U lllvers(I~ . )«(s~994) . Musu:al p eretp l i Q/u . New or s.: t & Sloboda, J. A. s. . . t\w lln , I ., e ~lA ' lk lkllal' 1Jllivt'rsit)' Press. d dict ary or musíc (2nd ed.). Ca mb n dg , . . , (19C9) Haroa r le IO n 'J I' IU'I, \\ . l. . k' H It Hineharl alld h'/J New Yor . o . 1,lI'!OS. 11 ' "d y" ,g e I un. . W (1969) J' US IC a.. ¡\l lIllof{. f. . . . . A summary of ml.¡i( \ Villston. li . if information thl!ory lo p$Jcholo~. "¡IIlI';!Vt', P. (1!l5!l? A7r;::;~:w Yo rk: H enry H al l: , 'd ) Nl'W York: W. \\'. Inllap ts. methods, mi " ¡ fioulldations of muSle (2nd e .. \ \' {l lJ77) T1t1! aco US lea lI'UkllS, J ' . . . . MI' M if hi giUI Sial" Norton . ) 11 . and u mpl!rarntnt. Last Lanslng, . ' ll 11 ' " 'IIhour. J. M. (1951 . um g . l'r 'SS " y; k Oetobt'r H US\.' . l 1 I1 i~l'rsltY(IIJ6~)~ 'MI!t1Sures of musiclll llbililil!~. l\ ew ItorA: 110 & j . A. Slo lJod a (F.d~ .) , Ik lllk ) . A. . . d xpectallon. In . le . (lll94). l bnaht)" an e f d Universil)' Pn·sS. J J IIh;ln lth a, .. ... 2 1'3-239). !'\ew York: O x or . of 11"IflnOltil~ slrul'l\\!t ' MII.IÍ((/ l pr rup /fOlIS (pp. . e 1 (l9IU). The representatlOO, ~ . 11 n - lO:.!, . J J & Krumhansl, . . . . . f ' 1 t (.ogllltIU11. . , lo I\h~ll ll~::;:¡c : ¡'1ierarch ics of stabilit)" ¡IS,~ funcU~~f¡~1! ~~:lIOe,~C' 11lllillgI. prinn 'lOlI. NJ IIl l · . 1( 8 5). 111t stTllcluT/! oJ TI!COgn 1\llH kwood. E. t · ·. ) .. . . r 'lIIalio ll I'¡iun 'ton UnivNSllY I re!>..... , , of llIelodir. and lempor,11 III ~n t , G ( 1!l~19). T lw pron'ssltlg . I!IV M,H;CRm areh, 28, h7- 7.I., " 11,,11 1,. M. d" t r unifil'd dil1lt'nsion~? !'I/ln~f,{ f1¡N , (51h t.'d.). Engkwood c h lls 1 1" l' (1ItH1). J1lttlTItIO[ t arlllng · Itll lqlt.'n t n o . (T
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in tur n fucilituu- PC01 II '1 11 1l 111 Id 1ll'1\' Ilwllltli.. ~ uud hannouics. \ Vo odru lT (1!J7U) t'a lb 1l1l'l l1111 1I 'll n i pn-vious cxpcrtcuccs cona pts (sce a b o C hup ter 10) and Sllgl{l'!>b 111,11 Iltl')' I'lII vicll' thc ba s¡s for musical behavior. lt egelskl (W75, p. 11 ) t,laIJOrU!l'tl on 111 (' vh-w tbut concepts are gene ra l thougb t tcn dcncies am i suggests tbur tlu-y n-sul r Irorn (a) percepuon a nd cogni tin n of many particu lar person al expr-rlcnccs with th c learning 01' skill lo be m aste rcd, (b) th e transfcr o f ce rtain leaming from particu lar persona l e xpcnences lo othcr particu lar but so mewhat díffe rent situatíon s, a nd (c) a g rad ually evo lvlng tendency loward increased frequenc y uf the parti cu lar m usical beh avior. Expcctatlons, there fore, are basic to conceprualizmg music. Musical co nce pts. rc cognized as cu m ula tive tendcncics to ward respo nse resulting from co gnítive musical organiz atio ns. are the product of m emc ries and clas sifica tio ns 01' previou s ex penences with mu sical stímuli. \Vh ile musical co nce pts invol vc co vert cognítíve actívt ry, they forro the bas¡s fo r both rcccptíve and product íon beh aviors. Rcceptive beh aviors essentíally are percep tua l and thercfore covcrt in natu re: produ cüon beh aviors invol ve m usical produclio n 01' l'l' productio n. HECEI' IWE ll I-:HAVIO RS. Sin ce rec eplive beh a"iors are essen tially coverl, i llV t'.'iti~¡l I OrS musl devise sume overt manifesta tion lO stud y as evi de nce of lI'n 'plioll, '!'h is m ay create add itia nal questions ; investigal o rs do not al ways alJ,l"" H'ga rd ing whe ther particu lar ov ert beh¡¡viors valid ly indicale covcrt IIl'I('('pt ioll or co nceptio n, For example. tasks !ha t investi¡:,ralo rs migh l devise lo .'i ltltly 1llt'lodic perception mighl range from sim ple melod ic recognilion 0 1' lli..ni m ination lo singing o r notating an aurally pres e nted melody. Su me "lIlt'lmlies" used in research are limiled, co ntriv ed tonal seq ue nces thal ma)' tlI' may not represent \\'estero melod ics, \ Vh ile sorne invesliga lo rs define IIlt'ir le rms u perationa lly a nd lim il lheir generalizations, others apply vague lalll'ls lo theír stud ies an d .so me tim e.s ge neralize far beyond wh at the d ata juslify. tht.' rt.' by leaving the reader w¡lh excessive, seem ingly contrad icto ry info rmat io n, In te rm ixing tht.'oretica l co nsidera tions wilh presen talions and c1 i ,~ c ll ss i(l n s 01' e mpirica l dal a may compo und lhe co nfus io n, Unfortuna te ly. 110 Ilt"a t alHl lidy so lutions to suc h problems e xist O n t~ sho uld recognize lhal receptive behaviors are essenliaJIy perceplual am i invo lve rrcognition o/ and discrimination betwem musical stim uli, Bolh I'mt'('sses art' fundamenta l lo me lodic an d harmo nic receplion, \\~h i l e lisie nil1~ In Illusic. :tn indi vidu al. m ua lly witho nt an y pa rlic ular awareness, co nsla nlly Sl'par atcs th e familia r fro m the unfamiliar alld co m pares new pa lle rn s wilh 1Ilt"lllo ries of previously lea rn ed pa ltl' rn s, T ht., hl'tter IIU' new nwl od it.,s a mi harlllollies m;¡l('h Iht., ex pl'cla lio ns bast'
S
. , 1 deci sious'Ii,'s tl f rompan sllllS ,111( " ('s.';('nlially ca n bl" n ,¡hll " II \u a ~', " 1 IIniqucly hUll\an íonn ol l lt'h,,~· ¡' ;'u ,rd ing lo thc lhl'ory, ',IIII'I1t t I tl,lllt,cl~: I ~:, idc ntify pa Ue rn s Lascd 0 11 Ih(;':)'" , , invol ves expe lltl in~ nu« : am t, t " '1\ ma be a giVt.'1l pa tlt' rn , and rh ylhmic pattern un ,\ )atle rn de rived from 1 (1 ). (Ir a (, " whicb is baste 10 nlUSIC cogn lt~ol\. ~1I1(lividuaI eugages ~n pa~Il'.r~ t:()t\n~>::~~~d pauern ls (a) identical to ,l hlt:~l,~ ~' lu- o r sbe m~sl deCid e w iet : r ~) di stinctl y dl ñcren t fro m th e first I S l " , (h) a dc rivauou 01' rhe Iírst, " '¡yluol and I H ~I :~, p . 2). 've musical behavlors are anc " 1 "\" " "dd itional classcs u f recepn 1 " , ion s 01' reco b'Ulhon aIH \\0 a " , iall th ese are ex e l ' .. 1 Esse nlta y' d b ' rccepti ve processes, An a Ytu ,1 II lI rtll~visual discrimi nat lOn, h s beyon aSIC h " - In l ' tliscr imination, but eac gOl' . '\ ea teg ori:t.e melodic and amloll\C ' " n ff rts 10 consClOUS y , , n . vo lves assot 1 Iwhaviors re ecr e o A ral-visual discrimi nabo 1Il ' 1 ' 1 .r; n-ru s into thelr co ostiluent ~alts. le d i and hanno nic patterns, wu 1 I It 11 uung aura] stirnuli, inc1udmg m.e o IC ,., ' '1yu 1b n1ic (nolational) represent~t~~~s'haviors are difficu\t to isol~le e~llll.I I}, r\.s may b e appare n\., re ceptwe e f . performance" eXlsts 111 a l\) , h ' . an ele ment o I ' lO l l. performance be avlOrs. " Al fai\ure to produet.' ( Ol'S 1 l::~:~~1 manifeslation of rec eptivc b.ehav~o:;~eiv:~'A persan may be unablc ~(,) 1\t'cessari1y mean failu re 10 perc~lve o bIero rather lhan a reception 01' p~l ' ~illg beca use of a vocal p roductlOn pro bl ' , re search rdalIl 'ption pro cm. \Vh '} C hapler 7 exammes so mc , 1 l'1U )\)U(.I 'lO~ B E.HAVIORS, ' 1 e " , fb ' sic types of prodll eli otl he l il V 1e l,tl to lTodUclion behaviors. ~n ovco • \'•.: r ~nslrumcntal performan ce. <~n t1 , ~ , I de d here. They mclude smgt g. h h bi1it)' to makt' 1ll 1lSI(~a\ lor s IS IIlC u ,',' s believe 1 at t e a ,' l' _ n t'ating m usic. b ul m ost muslCl~n. behavioTs, \ \'ilhoul thc ablltly lo ( t1i\n imina tions underl ies aH pr~ ~hO~t m s an indi vidual wo uld b e ullah ,' niminatc among pilche s and ,pIlC ,pa, ~n a~ lo na\ mauner, While tht' ptt'~ ' " d e his ur her musical mteohons 1 y. d\,ction 11lt.' !>dnd plt ' IS lo 1110 lIC d' . d harmomc pro ' '" l' ' hy th m s ur 1lln h ll,s , . . , 'o n co nc e rns m elo IC an , 1'1\1 ( ISC\lSSI , . be they dynamlCs. r ' I "" " '~r aH musical aspects, h , 1 altributcs, p ro( I U 11011 IIIt' ~,¡nl~e 'do _\ cao no t d isu im inatc among t e 10il.1 lli,' I IH LVI na '" I II ~ - d ele " d, " d (.. ' 1 an'(JI'( 1,llm ls arc hm ,' behavio rs -IS su bd IVt ' "",eh 01' the th ree typcs o f piOdllc.l~on Iroouct io n of music, SlIlglllg ;tllt\ 111 \:helhl'l' lh e behavio r is a rtpftl~hldlloll o:r~)dut'tion 01' melodit,s ami h ar· nn )' IIlVIl Vt' l · . t' 11 IIIt' llIstn lllll'1l1al per f o nnan n ' , , itn )rov isation . In im prOVisa lO • 1l101l il's nol prcvinu sly prot hUT~ I: ,1.1';' hill~ ll llll ic paltt'OlS within" giVt.'11 ,(' \ ),11< u 'nes I\l'W Ilwlo d ll , l\I I " b ' ' 1 U)' a ja'!.:t. 1l1l lStt 1.111 I ll' r fo r u lt'r co ill I 1 11 )' illlpIU\'ISlllg, ~, k II 'ptlla! fT
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Cn.·atiw be hav lors ' 1 . a so ca n 1II\'( )l n ' e ill . . J . mus ica l p aUems. A favo r,-'e _ _, " H~I prot lIellOn o r re p rod uct ion of I pas un o of music tl larmo nic dictation , requires n" ,,-,-c n d . rc ICOIY te ache rs, m elod ic and . ., S II ('Ills to r d I-\IV(' II melodic, harmoni c a nd I h epro lice III no tation a ura lly r-ver, invol ves what som~ cons~~yt I~ pa ll,e rns. Prod uction of notation, how. tiuu, er t e ultimate musical behavior, composi
Development of Me lo dic a nd H a rmonic B h I e avrors It' types of receptive and d _ _ 'I , " . . p ro ucho n behav! I... I nau (0 ( IV1510n i n to m anv subl I to rs ar c uroad enough 10 I J 0 eve s or catega n \I' L-, il)( O I H ~lllY of melodic a nd ha rmon ic b ' . ~s. ' III e a devel oprncma t I l l'~.~ ofc.u-h child's musical expert eh~vlOrs nught be feasible, the uniqu«.
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renc es IS such ilia! a ta xu nomy immcdiat I Id a ny att empt to set furth dpv,·lop rn(·lllal seq ue nce wh ~' y ':~U encounter difficulties. Each child's il ' I e st/uJec! to gene 11 f I 'N,~
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!(r.w'ardl -!la,w'd Nndings Ht'sl'ardl j"L' Ia lt'd to developme" , of 1 dt - , rn ero lc and h . b h ,III Y rs I I'vd olllncflla l i c u d f . a rrnomc e av iors Illi s U ICS 0 child ' 1-. ',- _ Iutu lIlusil'a l tasks 011 va rio d ren s ar» Itll'S 10 accom plish (:1' 1-, us age or evelop tai l / WII I this approach is the pap bet h ~en a eve s. A m aj or p roblelll - k , 0 e ween I e Va nOIiS - I k .1 .' -I'I' ' 10 perform an d tilt' im pl i __ ti d m usrca ras s child rell a n . I , IC/ic",,/- IL l JavlOrs III adciltioll to !"t'n 'I' .. o n 0 aue s 10 a ' - ' . . , . pll" 1/{·tl\'l· tasks n mfo tlnds ,h , _, d f ' ssess m ent of reCl'l>tive Jcald ,I , I I ,~ ca ulJo lled to co nsid" r ,I, _ _ ! e vt' opment, a nd Iht· n .·td .' ' , , e It'q tlJ l"t~( lask · · . . • I ll ll d li SlO ll S o lliv wilh du" ('(" ,, _/ , . S III ,my g Ive n stud y and 10 dra w I " I( efa Io n of Ih ' ' - k A1I0 tll('r dillicult v in ) .. .' . I' .IS n
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uniqueness o f eac h child's 1I111 'iind ex periences, ma ke s W ( " ' p i ll~ ~t ' 11l' I a l iw Iion s about child ren's musk-al de-velopment haza rd ou s, Nevr-rtlu-h-..... a W' JW ' ing- body of research revea ls increasing co ns ens us rt'g-a rdi uj.\ llwlodi l' und ha n nonic d evelopmen t, and so m e o f the more slg n lf lcun t sttulit·s illI' 11I Itl'll 1 1t · n· , I~'
A series of stud ies by Treh ub a nd her co lleagues (C ha ng & 'In-hub, W77; Trcbub , Bull . & Thorpe , 198 4; 'Irehub, Thorpe, & Morrong tel lo, 1!1H7) ind in iles mel od ic respo nse begins in in fan cy. C ha ng and 'Irehub mo nitored Fivemou th-old babie s' "star tle" responses to changes in six-to ne melodi c patn-rus und o bserv ed changes of hea rt ra te (accele ra tio n) w hen a pattern with a d ifk-rcnt co nto ur was pla yed after the infants had become habitu ated tu amu h1'1' pattern , Howev er. such re sponse was not evident when co ntour was mainr.uncd but tra nsposed u p or down a minor th ird. T he I!IX·I study (T reh uh, BIl II, & Thorpe) examined the e ffects of add itio na l melod ic transformat lous (transpositio ns to o the r keys. alte ring intervals while preserving con tour, altering octaves with acco mpa nying co ntour changes) o n six- to ll -ruout h " Id in fants. Using the "ope rant head turn procedure" as the !'espOllst' nu-us un-, the inves tigato rs o bserved tha t subj ects resp o nd ed to new m clodk-... Of' IUIl t' st'q ue nces as familiar if the seq uenc es had the same melodic coruour and freq ue ncy range as a previously he a rd seq ue nce, bu t they responded 10 ~ " '1 l1 e n ces with ei the r differen t contour o r range as novel. T IH' (!)H7 study (Iu-hub , Tho rpe, & M orrongiell o) tested ni ne- to I I-mo nth-o ld infan ts flll' their discr im ina tio n of changes in m elodic co nto ur in the con tex t of varia linu s in key or interval size. Results revea led that infan ts could tlt·"'I·t I lmuges in both va riabl e co nte xts, lending furth er su ppo rt 10 cou clusiou s hruu prev io us stud ies that infants catego rize so und seq uences 0 11 the ha...is 0 1 ~ 1 'I I) a l. rela tio nal properties such as melodic con to ur. The in vestigators 111)11'11 thu t the a bsence of resp ons e to differen ces of key a nd key-p lus-in terva l nm .luiou s sugg ests that infants en co de co ntour, rather than int erv a l, infonnuuuu. III a sum mative article , Trchub (19!);{) no tes tha t infa nts arc St'llsitivt' 10 I Ulllo llf and ca n d iscriminate b etween ascending and descend ing paltern s. 11II t they a re insensitive to ind ividua l pitch es and in te rv als . Nt'a rly all research o n infa nts' a nd yo ung child ren's d l-' vel opmt'll t of 1I 11'10dic d iscr iminati on revea ls an increa se in skills with an inu ea se in ;l ~( ' ; II lIwl'\-'('r, va rio us stud ies do no l ab'TI'(' rega rd ing th e eX
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uu-lodlc contour. ( It)W) • •., I I I) " .. 1\1·11 II", , I " IIt .'Sloboda . ' a rtur II" li st sin k IIlg CIla ngt' III ' o v ert mu st ,I l,lV!OI t h t ' fil sl bll ll,.I, . • YI O ll U' S ' I I II I IH • . t i l'l l I• I • 10 11 mouths o f age• w ]W' Il Slll' ll ,aueous so ng b egi n s . "' ('IIt' 111.1111 lise o f discrete stab le pi tdu. (. I • • ( ensu e of sp o n ta n eo us sillb'; n ' is II 'song ) 5'II( 11 SlII 1,1t'1 Ih.1II theIInucnuonal glides of IIl C.1;" I ". , S babb ling']" (p . 20'1 .L. g lllg d ( .11 •• I Ill].;: .. loboda to sugg es t that musrcu ' I ncv I II -I SHa y o es nolmcludc w ords", I( ' ,Il I separate "stream" from speec h S C .. ,I . ...... . p on tancop ( ment . .at this age occurs uh» • ,.. .I PP~'ar to re nee! e ffo rts to Imitate JUS sln g m g at thi s level d ocs 11 01 hl'1,'1I1S to incl ude short m elodic t pal lJc~i1ar songs, a ltho ugh the slng tu second s a nd third s of to nal mu ';ca te rm usong intervals th at approx hnarc
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Must accounts of children's ." . yt'a l suggest a gr adual cha ngesltngm g durin g th e latter half of the st·( 1I1l.! a rd to na l, or cuhurally "c o rrect," st ~se of me lodic patterns re fk-c 1111104 uuru an "e merging ability to l rue urejs III sponta neous singing . Th ey d lare , I se ect m e odic fra f ' ", gIC rq)ertOlre of standa rd songs] d gme nts rom a n increusiuulv lar y I( ) tIIIC' components of standard ' an to ma tch e WIt h in ' creasin g a. "I II "thse A pparen tly, childre n beein t b models (H argrea ves W 86 p 7") I I O' 0 arrow ce tai " ' '" n-un aud assi milare them mo re a nd er III aspects of songs they 11,1 \ 1 During the third year, children's ~ore into their ocvn spon taneous Sll ll/ot' IOIlW'I nnd re flect a de!': pontaneou s songs appear I I " note trend t d "'""'" ) , I Vlll o;O Il , ~1cKemon, a nd Gardnero~~,cRI use ~f ~iatonic scale in terval IIppl',lI 10 develop a se t 0 I so ng-re la tc d(, , p ti 30,')) sugges t that ( I11'll " expecta I " ' II II ~ollg fr:II11I'" which structure s their vo:~pectahons that in essence Plll\ Itt, p. zo l) notes. "by two-a nd -a-ha lf the a! performan ces, As Sloboda ( WM, , 1I0 11011 S tha t mu sic is cons tructed' child see ms to have as simila ted 1111 and that repet ition of lnt ervalllc arndunhd ahsm all fixed set of p itch inh'lvlI l, IIlIrsrc. i. , .. II ow ever the child ansecr yt t m ic m patte rn ss IIS a corne rsn Ic natte k ~ 11 11' II,' , as yet structures governing groups a I patternsm sth () ac' x a ny gr asl) of hi00','" , I" " ,I I ( os u n -. Sloboda observes that I at m ight prescri be di rec tion II' I ... ' I .. song s 0 child, f hi . • t's... qu ality, with little or no se nse of " finl sh b t IS age usu a lly ha ve .m loward the end of the ,h d year child tmshmg." ' " . ~1'0n l,lIlt'olls song and mC or eIf Im . ' lta h.'o n f ren s smgmg begnn s to 1....'"11I'I , I, , IIlt'lll. Moog's (1976) ex tensive study 0 f sO~fl lhey hea r in th ei r l'm 'lflll! It'vea lt'd th at children in th e earl 0 c I ( re n's mUSical de velo plll" llI ll\t'I'){~IC con lour m ore ea sily than ~h~h~c~ o f thi s stage a re able to llllll.lll the tlmd a nd four th years ma ny h 'ledY m~ltate ex~~t p ilCh , llowcver, !lUIUI, ", I' rooIrt {"' l l l y, ' (J lII e l)(lint tIl'l ' l " " e ,I Iren . . 'I I s ca p aClh C' S t 0 1I111tate songs lil" I I S c u ( re n . I,,~1Il1'I" Ir songs and nurse . rh lO me ca n al'Cura tt'ly f('p, (){ILH I' 1110' , p. :lOS). SpOllla ll~llls ~lllgSisof thll',r clllltllff.' by the ilgl' of IIvl'(Slo!l mda 0 1 I It' II ", (' )'l'a r II I( I, ,\ p l'.lIt'nll)' 'I''l 11 ' ;l ni so ng: 51) 1,' l 0 o nge t I It· 1)\t '( IOlllm , llllll!' I Ul1(T lill ' d wI(1I , II t 1Il , I I ' y of • ( im 11 ( n ' n
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tlll'lllill 'IHI to v..'ald plt'("b illll am i Illastt'ry of d et ai l. FiliI' r l''' 1 oh b u'iua lly 1fl ,11 1' ahle 10 m a inta in th e k,~)' 0 1' a so ng much better tha n four )'t'ar olds, al' l'i' th a t younger ch ildren ten d to 10CllV on pit ch per se, whil,' will, 111' 1,'ascd age and conceptual development they focu s more on th e nunbuu's 0\ lIll'lodk pattern , Sergea nt a nd Roche suggest th at abso lute pitch skills 1,111 111 he devel oped if ch ild re n were trai ned on fixed pitch in struments dn rhl~ i l critical pe rio d , co m mon to all ch ildren , before higheN )rde r c01H~eptu '1111\inking tr anscends th eir pr econceptual pitch percepti()Il. Md)onald and Ramsey (l!)79) sought to repli cate Serge ant a nd H,od ll"S rud y with America n preschool ch ildre n. Seve nty-six two th rough five yl'ar " Iii " w ere taught to sing four songs of invarian t p itch levels in six :~ O.. mi nuh' 11,lining sessions ove r a th ree-week period. T heir data parti ally sllpJlO1'\t'(1 "I K,'a nt a nd Roche' s results: There was a p ositive relation ship Ud WI'!'(\ aVot' 'Illd tOllCl' ptualization of melody. However, they d id not find Ihe illVt'l M' 1I 'l.Itiollship between age and pitch level , perhaps due to using a m OH' stli ll 11." 111 !O ("llring system for pitch level than did Sergean t a nd Roche. 1\ !o nhsl~qllent study (Ram sey, 198 3) exam ined th e effects of a~e, sill~in~ Il l.llity, and instru m ental e xperience on three, four , and five-year-o lds' pl'rI "pli ulls of m elody as indicated by song vocalization . Ramsey l'va luatetl livt' tllI'hlilit: aspe cts: (a) absolute p ilching, (b) m elodi c rh ythm, (e) melod ic n lll II 01 11 . (11) to oal ceoter, and (e) nH'lodic interval. H er data revealed (a) sign ili , ,1111
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Ziuum-nnau ( 1!)71, p, :.1 M) Illlll ' ,. Ihal a rap id development of melod ic I"'. n'plioll m a rks agt's six In 1'I,Ioi 11l . 1'('I/,old ( 1! J( ili, l': :'!fj,1) a nd sonu- o ilwi n -searchers. however, 1t'1'"11 ;( II ' v I 'li llg effect following third grad e, II I um un d age nin e, Ta ylor (W7:1) notes m a rked development o f harmon ic awareness aro und a ~c nine, bu t T hackray ( W7:'I) main tain s that results of his ha rm oni c pt.'ln 'I' tion test provid e positive ev ide nce that many child re n deve lop a n m sidt'l ubh- deg ree of harmon ic a ware ness well be fore age nine. Bridges' ( I ~ I I ','I ) study o f ha rmonic d iscrim inatio n ability of child ren in kinderga rten thn ll1 ,loi ll grade thr ee also suggests a gradual developme nt in harm onic discrim inauon abili ty. Moog (1976), ho we ver, m aintains that his resea rch shows tuu-quiv. . cully tha t preschool-aged ch ildre n do not experien ce any sort of harm on y ,II all. Shute r-Dys on and Ga bri el's (198 1, pp. 147- H9) review of several !'; llId l"_ e xa mining childre n's ha rmoni c di scrim ination in te nus of co ns o n anc e ;11 111 d isso nan ce (essentia lly requirin g the selection of which version !,; OI111 dt'd " bcu cr'' or "correct" in paired comparisons) revealed great improvcnn-ut lx-t wccu ages five and 10 in selecting " b e tte r" or "co rrect" versions, :-i ll' II findin gs lend support to the view that basic harmonic awareness d ev ('I IIJI ~ ,n pa ll of children's encuhura tion with \Veslern music. hu lx-n y's ( WRI, p p. 101- 115) co mprehensive study of tonality de vchq . 1111'111 n -veu ls four age-re la ted stag es of to na l encu lturation : (a) below agt· sh ., a pt'ri ul! of perceptual undiJJerrotiation rega rd ing ca de nce; (b) fro m six ;llld I li lt ' half to seven yea rs, a cadential perspf(Jive scheme, i.e. the child consillt'l , I musi ca l p hr ase without a ca dence as unfinished, but makes no clear dill"1 cuuut ion ilmong differing cadcntia i moveme nts; (c) around eight )'t ';.. . , where the child ca n d ifferent iate bet ween a perfect cadence and absence , ,' ('atlt'm't' a nd responds to int errupted cadences less clearly; this stage's I'll mary ch a rac teristic is the beginni ng of perceptive decentrauon which e na hlt'. lht' subje-ct "to connect what preced es the cade ntial formu la wit h the fon uu la itself" (p. In); and (d) aro u nd 10 years, characterized by th e e!'; ta blishllll'I.1 «f a relation of order; the pe rcep tion of the domina nt leads to an tici pat ion " I thl' Iollie; reversihility is evident in the perception of lon al functions, a lltl lJIt' !';ynlad ic dements uf the m usical phrase ena ble tht.· precedence of ordel and logica l anticip ation. Imberty's resea rch with o lder child re n d id no l n ·\'t".1 n ll1 (intled develop ment, le ading him to recogn ize a sort of "n' i1i n~ t'lit'l I " lhat a ppart.'n tly {~a n not be forced high l'''' ImLe rty's ceiling ciTe d fo r (ona lih OtTurS a t abolll th e samt' age level as tht, p latea us for mdod ic and rh ylhl1lh tlt'vt'lllpllle nll lhse rvc'd hy Pd zo ld ( I ! )(i( i) .~() In Mlm ma ry, ml'l odic d isnim ination skills ap pt'" r in infan cy al1 d ('OI1111l 11l ' 10 c1c'vt'iop throug h abollt agt' t'ight. wilh a nitk a l pt'ri od fur devl'lup n1l'lIl "'I..
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, . I ' ' .. illr a I pt" f·" ,,1 is~ \t,n l'l lc'cl lll,lilt' . t hilt\''' , I ' • •, five or SIX, 1' 1 ' 1 hal''' I ll!' ; t I . , I ,. tl ill 111l' t 1" 111 ,, t 111111 1l ' 10 illliialillll 01 songs It , ll . I "ll lil'!';1 ,'1111l ( .Igcs ·,1·, [nuu spontant'()US sling . ' .k·, II" dt'vcl0l) lan-t , will (, . • 1I . 1' " 'ilU lln tlO Il ~ " . I ' 11 ' 1 "I "\l vironm cnl. Harmourc ( 1St I ,. "1' around age fivu 0 1' six lUll . W I ~ ' . I Il l ll1l 0 nic awarenes s usually al~pc,ar~~r~elher the It' vt,ling in 11\1'lu~ht: s~I~ I.s m.u kt'd increase aro und ~ge -nsed I oni c aware lle~s, howt'v('\" . IS sllbJt t t ,Hound age nine is due to Increase iarrn III
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. .\ ' reflect nucrupts to di d above pn man ) . I The re search-based find ings Iscus~e d I prnent as a part of thei r en ~'H aud children 's mel od ic an d hann~n lC , e;il~ren rea ch school age, n~uslt'al Iltri.~on pro cess with \Vcster~ mUSI~~~Son fonnal instructional expent~Il(~t'.s , I"vt'lopment b e(.:omes more ep~n com monly nscd metho~s I l.I l , The present discussion examlll~s som~ die and harmonic behaViors, A . loy for developmg m e 0 . school Icvvls II l1lsic teachers emp , t the various elem entary . ' .' . I . tf uctional sequence a , d the early pru ll 'lr) ~ 1' lI e l a In s h I k nderg arten, an 1 ..' rhythm in presc 0 0 , I , . I ' two th ro ugh Iour, il l\{ ,'mpI1asrles tt iuou 11l gr a{ cs , N', . les Melody recei ves grea te r a el . ' grades four through SIX , }t ~11;::~1lt;ny begins receiving gre~t~\~~~e:t~~: ~:neral orde r in wh ich childn~n 'Illtl Nyc (1985, P' 272) note t a 'vein musical concep ts, , mel odi c aod h ar monk !leh av,I, .. P , m usical activiti es for dcveloplll~ Or Mo ve ment sonwI he m ajor . d ling mstru me n ..,. I lors includ e singing, listemnlg'd~nb Phaa~or b ut it is used pr ima rily to d ove ' f ce m e o l c e , times is used to rem or . rs outside of scholll, lor IlIllsl h thmic b eh aviors. ~I~ough much m usical develoh~e~~~cf~~mal learni ng expcrit'IK~s \vt~1 l lnldren. sch ool music represents t ~lr th ai tea chers try to develop III (', U . lIIusic. T he initial pil ch-related conc:;t higher an d lower pitch , sin(:t' 11I11 h erl . h'·gh a nd low pitch, or more p I' P Y Ilt'II 1 1S , , " S I~ a relative phenomenon. children should devel op btl,hl,V,ltll . 69 P ,t2) notes that young hi h va o·o" s musica l , • f 'om follm'\i; ng silllp \ C \ 1111 I ' " I '" ,lilw . ~l a n y Ill ll S\( : t't \1( ,11 . 11l ~ I . I ' I ' I W il Y 10 I' ,Il • 11 ,1 0 • "t n . ' S III 1I0t agree reg;'ln hng t \I It " I 'I I I , 1111l 0 11).1,h illstrll1ne ntal explfl {t . maintain that n'ading is Iwsl ';' / I :; ": 111 ,,1.11 , o llluis and Sl' tS of IlI1l Vt ' !tW ll t S, whk h Illl' visll;d sY l1lhClb st;llIl " I "
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Evaluating Melod '
\\" "' JCS an d Harmon ies , .. II ~' an exa m ina tio n of the " r .. II I !'I.~ 0 1 harmon 1. ' g oo d ness of melod r 1 " il aho is ,.eJ('vaJll~:~~ laps IS m o re approp riate in a disco I. ie ap p ro p lillh ' lu'h 'lvi('rs l 'h e Psych olOgica l foundatio r lussl.o n o fJ at'Slllt'llI ' , e present d l ns 0 me odi e h "app rop ria len ess" (rom ISCUSSlo n, h owe vcr, focu ses o n "an(, a r~~ ll llI l' a Perccpr ua ! sta nd p Oint. gO O f nes s Hll' /
What Is "Good" Melody ?
The ' . lilll d am en tal p10b le m 1O
, .... lIIl11g melod ' lies, If Ollt' ell<~::t~~e p/ac,es on its stru ctura l an d ~~ ~~~in~s~ re~ts wilh rll. POIiOll, a nd filla lity ;~l ~ Sl~ uc~ure, characte ristics Sl~h aso~cill, dla~'
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I" up l,' In-came fam iliar with th em. 100hocia ( WH5, pp. 52- 55) views a melo d y 's goodness in term s of tilt' , lt'lll 10 w h ich it co n form s to its und erlyi ng gram ma r. If tilt.' melod y W il l". III tot ally to the struc tu ral rul es of Weste rn to nal mu sic, th e m elod y is likeI I II III' d ull ; if th e melod y excessively viola tes b asic structura l ru les, il m ay I " untun-lligi ble to listen e rs. Sloboda's view p resup p oses thai listene rs an' li t II II II rated in the grammatical ru les of Wester n to nal musi c. 1I11lh a nd C ud dy (1986) e xa m ined th e effects o f repetition and ruk- rami l III u v o u th e "p leas ingn ess" of 2 0 melodic se q ue nces varying in co m ph-x lty 1,1 r ruuuu r a nd ha rmoni c stru ctu re , (T he more co m p lex tilt' nll'locl k ' 11"" IU'I" the more it v io late d the ru les of to n al harm o n ic struct ure.] '1'111'11 d It,t indica ted that th e more co m p lex the m e lo dy 's u nd e rlying harmo n ic HI lllt Ut', th e len p leasing th e su bj ects ra te d it. \ Vheth er such affectiv rII I' H I1S I ' ~ refl ect a m easure o f perc eptua l "g oo d ness " may be debatab h-il uu u " u.rlnly seems to su p port Slo boda 's co n te ntio n tha t as a m el od y deviau-.. 11 " 11 1till' basic gram m atica l stru ctures o f tona l h a rm o ny, listen e rs resp o nd to II ollll l'll'lltly, Ik lllU'r ( I!JH9, pp. 133 -1,18), while concerned with musica l gotl d lH' ~ s 1'1 1111 '1 than just melod ic goodness, cites two aspects o f go od n ess, excdlrnrr, 11 10 II has 10 d o with the sy n tac tic or structu ra l refi nement in th e m usic, und I I II/ I I/ t il , wh ich has 10 do with the level of p ro fu n d ity o f th e m usic's t ' XJl lt 'SI ,. l n nlt'lll. Reimer bases th e two a spects o n Leonard Meyer's (I!Ui7, Pl': J II ) th eori es of value a nd greatness in music, wh ich C hap ter 8 d i M'II ~ M ' ~ ' \\ luh- lht, j,'Tffl l ntss cn ten o n is mort' properly d iscussed unde r aest het ics. till' ,',rllmf't' n ite rio n has its ro ots in the m eani ngs of musica l m essagt's an illl ii 10111 ,11 recei ves wh ile listening. I Ill' uu-ani ng all individual receives wh en listening to a m el ody is a Iuuc110 111 oltlll ~ un certainty reflected in th e in fo rm a tio n p rese n t in 1111' m elody. I I" .unouu t o f in formation a n in d ivid ua l rece ives d epen ds 0 1\ both tlu1111 lod )''s structura l and cu ltur al n-dund an cy, i.e ., the exte n t to wlurh tlnIlti Ind y n-Ilcct s a particula r lllt' lllcliC' SI}'h' a nd the d egr ee 10 which tlu- ind i101 1111 1is fam ilia r with and h as dt 'VI'lolH'd ex pccunions with in th ut sly h-. 'FluI I ,111'[ lite p t' rccplu a l n 'd lllld.IIH 'y. Ihi' ( 111111Jillt,d d"l't'ct o r stl1lctllra l and nI l· 111I ,t! wdlllH hmcy, lilt' lllOH' Iikt'lv 11ll' IIlt'locly is 1ll{',lll i ll ~fn l a nd IWIlI't· ,,,ul" lo r 111t ~ in di viclual. ll h i \ ll lll lll a r y , 1lU'lodil' ),:llo d ul' \
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What Is ~ccepla!Jle" Harm . ...ony.::t "Accep lablcness" of h . ar m on v has recci d ' IIIan (,llher melody o r rn ," crve conside rably less 'I" " " , USI C as a wh I I'll I' . 1" 11 (.me c,lf two basic app roaches: stud ies o~ (") h e Im ited a ~t(.'n fjon is n 'I;II,',1 I" U)~'l1l7.a n t of harmony (e.g., Brid es 19 a _t e age at . wh.lc~ ch ild re n Ill " Ollu fOJ harmony of traditio na l t ,g , 6,')! .and (b) m dlVldua ls' prt'f"Il '11l , • W' h ona corn posnrons (1.0 19 ' illS as a sepa m ro test fo r harmo ng, . 68; Wing, J%j) selec t the "be tter " of two m usical n~. , whereas Long asks ind ivid ua h h, h'~J~}S ,o f 1Il('lody, ha rmony, o r rhyt~e~~'hons a nd te ll whe ther it is hl'lh' 1 III I hl' [a fte r ap p roa ch is art' 1 P I'sM'lllia lly seeks 10 assess in~~~,~rI}; ~elevant to OU f d iscu ssion h t'("lll'!' II ;1I' p rop.rialt' Il('SS fo r given exa m l le~a ~f ~~eferences in terms o f harlll" lIh ' lyl(', 10 lh e e xtent that a n ind o ~d I' es tern to na l m usic in "c1a,si, ,.I (';~ lIy Ira inl'd j udges agree is a I:~ u: s prefe~en~~s confonn to what 11I11 '1 a ot harm on ic style fo r \\es' pp ~ teo the m d l\'ldua l ex hibi ts knowl" tI , e m mUSiC While . h W ',lIt'lIl With the ex perts" ap p roach so~ewh one ~lg t consider the ";1'&'; "" ~IOIl illUde has m erit a nd o ffers at .s~~~blsh. the part icula r ('v"IIl,' man y po ssIbilitieS fo r exam ining vi l'w~ til ac('('p tabl e" harmo ny. U llim,J1ely, the accep tableness o f h . lIlt'lody, IS a n indiVidual malt d c annony, Just as the go Ot/III'" , ,' w II I er a n a !Unction of lndt I I I l.lrIllOIllC styles. The inti . an Itl IVI( ual' s eXI1I'III'11t t , " o rmati on theory f t IISSIOII 0 melodic frood"..ss , ra me wo rk noted in 1111 ' til , I 0'" a so may appl t h y 0 a m lOny, and the 1ll1',IIIiIIM an mr IVldual Jt'cei ves from h ,has dl'vI' II ~Ilt'd for the g Ive n ~~~:.nr IS ~elat~d to th e expecta nClt's Ill ' III ~ l ll ,~ l so IS a n JlJdividu al maHer Ll~ II P,P opnateness o f ha rmon y, thl'w l" .. Imd o" IV,.11 ' J.lIIIIOlltes " ' acceptable' ' le (elpee to wh ich oIrl O tl pS 0 r II Hhvul ' ll'.' relIc cts a cu ltural or subc ultllJal,III I', llullt , , , Evaluation of Melodic and Harmonic Behaviors Iw altJatJO llS Il l' llle iodi C' 'tn," , . ' f ', I, ll IIHJlIlC IJe h'lv' , IIIll n ' 0 .'; ('v('r,,1 h'l.~ic lll'h ol\'illralt JI'S' (. " /{.lIS g elH'ra /ly inv o /vI' till" " I IOllal p,tll('rn s, (h) iJl'h :lvit" s " ,'I YI" " 'II} helhl vlOrs reHpcting J"( 'C(ll'llil il'll ,,' . I ' ('(' /tlf' ( IS ' " ' , ' I"> MIIlt'( ltJllal pallt'lII s ( 'J I I ' 1"> ' UlIl lilldtlll llS bplweell ,1111""111)' I " f It ' l a \'I O I'.~ ; . s .~ odat i ll g ' '" I I ' ' II ' ~1( lf ' I Jl II .. " lht'''~tl' " I'' " <1 111 ,1 i111( visual Stilllllli, 111111 "" o' h " "0 1' " " ' Ill IUIo' ,ulll l " I "U III/! , "" l( . " ~, " ~ ~i \'" , Illiur"J 1"""", 1",,, I
1lll llI lllhlt"l illl\ ln-havinrs. "'lit' 111,.f'·!'l·ll(·(' !t'sts uu-ntiom-il alltl\'I' I •II I! d vul,I)' "'11 1, 1 1,1' cons idered a fifth tYIll', Abu, product ion llt'ha villlS 1111'1 \ 1111 )' 11111 1. 1 I" euhdiv idcd in to n o rar iou uud perfo rm ance beha vior s. , IIII1t' o f the sa me (:OIlI'I'IllS noted re gard ing I'Vallla li'1II III Ih)'llllllk I" Illl\' iol's ulso ap p ly to evaluat ion o f me lod ic an d hannon lr Ill'haVlo lS, T Ilt' .1+111111 ' of t he rt'sponse mode sel ected fo r measuring t1 isnim lnatloll l'o uld .11. " I the assessme nt; l,'TOUp V('CSUS ind ivid ua l mcasun-n u-n t OIls" is a n huporI .11 1 I «ns ide rauon, in te rms o f bo th accu racy a nd ecollo m y, F"i IIlH' 10 I" '''· (",III ell ws not necessa rily indicate fail ure to perce ive. Finally, uppro.uhe-s .. ,din so me tests refle ct specfia ve rsus glollfll measurement issues. T Il(' vuhuIll p p.u ticular ap p roach ultim a tely d e pe nd s on th e pu rp ose of the evaluation lid lIlt' na ture of the d a ta so ug h t. I Ill' most com monly used m easu res of melodic and harmon ic be havior Itt \ ,,1 \"1' performance, usua lly from no tatio n, Perfo rma nces of both pn-pun-d lid ~ i /o\ h l n'a d pieces arc used for evaluative purposes from p rima ry .'; I·ho o l 11.. 01110111 professional level s. M elod ic a nd harmonic dictation a lso an' nuu h II ,d lo r ev aluative p urposes, particularl y in high schoo l and college ITI m il' lit, ". )' classes. Th e eva lua tive crite ria for performance usually a re ill It'nll!'> ,I " n-acher's or adj ud icatio n panel's perce p tions of w hat is "co rrect" .11111 Mill tu" pe rformance . \\'hile the pitfall s of this are many, the syste m appilr1I1h' works to the satisfactio n o f many m usicia ns ; otherwise . there would 1Jl' t, 'IIt'I d emands fo r re finemen ts in th e syste m, , numbe r o f p ub lished music tests exist, a nd com mon to man y is a Imut! '''"'''¥n -st, of whic h there a re two basic ap p roache s, O ne p rese nts a mo d l,1 11I. lod)' or se ries of to nes. In subseq ue n t hearings, w hich Illay ra ngt' fro m 1 0 10 xix , the testee must ind icate how the mel od y was chungcd . us uall y 1' '' 111 Ill'liom such as key, rhyth m, 0 1' pitch o f so me indivi d ual to m-. T Ill' Ih l f/ ",II;mlity (G asto n, 1957) a nd the Drake Musical Aptitude Tests (Drak e, I!J!i7) II , II Ihis type of to nal memory te st. t Ilt' llll lt' l" type o f to nal memo ry te st ab o p re se n ts a model , h il I in I>u hsl' 1111' III IH'aring s the te stee must in d icat e which tone is cha nged , Th t' l lllllll ll'l' " I ~ lI h ~ t' lI t1 I' n l hearings va ries , usu ally from two to seve n, 'Ies ts lIsin,l{ this ty pl' " I ''' IwI ll1 t'n lOry test included the Seashore A-leam re.\' oj" AIl/sim I 'Iill(ull ," ~ l lll l'l ' , Ll' wi.'; , & Saetvl' it, W:-W, WhO), Standardised '/Csls 0/ MI/.li ml /If''''hf.:r /lf·( (W ing', 1!J/i I), a nd AI('(J.l'll re.\· o/MuJical Abilities (Be n tley, IUI ,/i), I :, ,, do n\ (W/iS, WHH) MI/Jiml Afi/illlrll' l"rojlle al so m l'a sllt"t's ton al I11l'1 11 () ' II , " I lillagt 'r y, a.'; the k sllal ll'ls it, IJy Ill'I'M'Il1ing a Illod elmel luly ;IIUl l h" ll I . ' , o ud II1 t'lo d y that is t'illlt' l' ;111 " llll lt'llisllt' d vt'!"sio n o r thl' m o ch'] o r all ,.1111 ,1), dl fft,l't'nt lllt'l o d y, Tlt h ;' PIIlO;lt h a p pl'ars 10 asst'SS Ill(' J('spondl'III's ~ 1' 1 1 1l )' 111 d isn im illal l' touaI1"lll "ll l II I Ihllt'l l'nl stl'l u:lllra l It'vl'ls, !'> illl l' 11..' I, 1"1' 1I 11 lst d t'h'fmi llt, \'11111'111"1 111,' ~ " , t1t1l lll 11 'lod y wO llld 1)(' lik.' tilt" 1lI llII" I 11 th, ' " l1I bl ' IJi .~ h i nJ.: 10 lu 's W" ll' 11111 1" " \ I'UI l Ilt' "harllltJll)," l' tll lio l1 illvo lvl's
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I'SSl'lli iall y tlu- sunn- \11 01 1'\ \ , wilh tlH' ('hanHl'S occurring in a b ass line. "I til IIpp l'r voice n -m ai ns irh-nthu] 101' both till' mode l am i second version . Cord o n ( 19711, !!IX:.!) c1I ' \'l' lop, 'li thn-(' udd itiunal te sts th at luclude 1lU'1I\ lin's o f to na l upritudc. TIll' tunul sulncs t o f till' Jlrimlfry Measures of M'/Il. Audiaticn is design ed 10 a s.~e s s Iln- ubiliucs of kiudcrgurtcn thro ugh lhil ol grad e child re n to discrlm luat e be tween pairs o f two - to f ive-tone uurul p«r terns. On e tone in th e seco nd o f ea ch pair is changed. T h e / TlJtrmrd JllI Measures ofMusicAudiation has a sim ilar test that fo llows the sa m e Iom uu, 1'111 is d esign ed for ch ildren in grades one through four. Gordon 's (198 9) more rec ent Advanced Measures of Music Audiatian 'II ' design ed to a sse ss to n al an d rhythmic aptitude o f high schoo l a nd wlll'~" ~ t ll den ts. Based o n Gord o n 's concept o f "a udia uon," wh ere a p erso n 11\1'111 ,1 11 hears a nd co mpre hend s m usical patterns without immediate aural ... lilllld ,1 non. the :~ O- i t e m m ea sure requires stud e n ts to d ecid e wh ether " answe-ra" III mu sica l "q uestio n s" are th e sam e as th e "q ues tio ns," di ffer tonall y, Ill' lil t II I rh yt hmi call y. ' loual d iffe rences may involve changes in in d ivi dual IIlIt II morh-, to na l r e nter, or com b in ation s thereof. Rh ythm ch ang es m ay ill( 111.1, uln -red durauou, m eter, tempo, or so m e co m b in atio n thereof. 'I'hark ray ( 1 !l 7:~ , 1976) d e vised several u seful m ea sures o f to n alily and 1i.1I mo nic perception . H is to nality test m easures to n ali ty in melodies a rul II ., [our snhu-sts. Part I includ es modu latio n s in so m e melodies a nd a... ks II ' ~I " 'I I dl ' lIh 10 in d icat e whether th e m e lodies so un d " righ t" o r "wrong ." Part II n , shOll unfumiliar m elodies, so m e of which are diatonic a nd clearly udlu-u- h i numltt y wh ile o thers do not, and asks respo n dents to d et ermin e wl1l'111I 1 1';l('h mel ody is "ord inary" or "p ecu lia r." Pa rt III requires d cte rminutiou III whether the melodies so u n d "finished" Of "n o t fini sh ed ," a nd Part IV 1 1 ~ 1 \\' h('lher Ih e melody' s con clud ing tone is th e sa me as th e b egi ll ll ill ~ tll ill Althuugh t he lest is no t sta nd a rd ized, it ap pears to be poten tia lly WI)' 11 '< Itll I(lf aSSl'ssing child ren's to n ality percep tio ns . Tha('kray' s ha rmonic pe rcep tio n test, also nol sta nd ard il.l'd, h,u till ' paris, Part I in cludes a se ries of so u nd s p layed o n th e piano ; SOillt' al l' '1 111 ,,1 tOiles and so me ar c cho rds . The respo nd e nt indicat es wh ich are eho ll l" 1\ '11 II p rl'sl' llts p a irs o f thn'e - a nd fou r-ton e ham lOni zed melodies; 1111' 11 "11"" lit'lit ind ica tes whic h to n e (if any) in t he seco n d h ea rin g is ha fIll CJl li",, 'd ,hi 1t'll 'llIly, I'art III p resen ts a chord followed b y a p ail sI.' and tlw n a plOW' sio ll of Ih n ' t" fou r, o r five dumls, an d the re sp ond e n t indi ca tes \\' 111'11' II, ,!.: ivl' n rho rd 'Ip pea rs in Iht, p ro~re s si on , Co h\'(,Il' s ( Wli!)- 1!1711) AlIHir Arhirvrmmt UJlJ llleaSllH,' vario ns I...!I,,, 1" 1 u ' late d 10 m d od y a nd ha l lllo ll}', Sllllll' of Ilw IIw asll rl'd hl'ha v im s i111 Iud 1II'tl'l"Ill ining (a) wlw ltll' l ;I 1101111 '111 Ilr ph rase Illo ves scall'wlse o r in 1" '11 "" (II wlH'tlll' 1" d Hln h allli ]lh l ' I S" ~ , ti l ' ill m aj o r o r min o r lIIodl', (1:) w lll'lllI'l 111 ,1,1 I,d 1I11' I0di l'S m a tt h ,11 11 01 11)' 1'II'M'lIt"" IIl1'lo d it's, (d) willi'll ,11110 11/0: lilli '" 1"1 11
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Sum mary , . io ts includ e th e follo wing : \\lo n ' hi g,hly Iltl I h;\pt~r s m~Jor po f " -cstern music is co ns id e rah ly I I h,' vI'rlICal su ucture 0 h t o f other cu ltures. k .1, \,,'1(1)('<1 t h an tnat d ·\1·0 a ton al h ar monic Ira ltU ' W lll . . . co nstru cte will i 1 r '1 ~ I" ,t \\'l'sh' rn m USIC IS " . f Imll' S or Illl' I tylUll II , I' itch POSltU)IlS 0 ' I I 1t ,II I)1,iltg l'ilh<-' r the re atlYe P lod 'stru cturally, altho ugh not " wa ys II '11U1 St'l llIenC(~ ch ang es th e m e Y . b th tu ral a nd p sych o\o git'al t'lItilil~S. 11111' I a ll dcfilll~ m elodies as 0 Slf~C . ferrl'd d l'snillti lllls "I tl\l' 1 d ie pcrccplto o ar e 10 . , f HI " " Il l an :ounts 0 me () d . I ,I from melodi c I'x l' ('nl' lHI'S, d t ctures c\' e ope , ' , . . Ill ultltiVl' pron 'sses an s ru I . h ' x p\id tl\! o r impl ICitl y un Joil ll " " h' " re b 'ls('{ e lt er c , 1 . ' 1",,,,1 lunal lu erar c I('S a .' . 1 I . - th ai u; ndt',lit' It Ill SH',. Sll lll · m a .. Olar s th e organt:l.atll ru ('s I HIll\'" f, I ,11ll • . tl ' ITl' p tu al laws 0 1 I "" ' 1 I· f ,,It' lod it: Ill' n·I'p tio lt al'kno wIt'{ g<-' u ' l' t I" I 1I 1H( I' S 0 1 II ' ~I ,d l p syd 101()b')" . , . . 'ly Il'rlian h a rJlloll )" 1l,lIl11" n v in \"<-' ste rn nnlSIl ' 1'1 ,lllIllll,lI l \ I,." ,, "Ill \! ll n~ tl lua lit y, It a ll tl' 11111 , I I' , " 1111 Illt" !,< ,, , ; I I..' tlll l'l' h asic .. \0 IStU· a 11101 \ ,'IIlI'n t, an d finalit y,
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10. Md od k and h 'lIll1 l1l1i1 lllO \' 1' 1lI1' 1l1 a n ' relative phenomena. I I. l'erccptuui ..rgall i/.atillll III' h , II11U In)' is conte xt depen dent. l:l. 'Io nal ity is an U111It 'd )'i ll ~ ulIil)'illg device in the pe rception o f Wesk lll to nal m usic. J:{. The diatonic scale is rhc ba sic scale for \\'eslem mu sic. J.1. Sca le syste ms are co d ifications of mu sical practice. IS. The tempered d iatoni c sca le is the most far-reaching sta nda rd izatio n lit to na l organizat ion in th e world , Hi. The di atonic sca le evo lve d from the Greek "G rea te r Perfect Syste m ." IZ Equal temperament is the most sa tisfacto ry tuning system for Weslt'l ll music. IH. Majo r and m in or sca les comprise th e b asic to na l patt e rn s or m od el; It II m os t \\~est ern m usic , \!) . O the r modes inclu de the ch urch mode s, th e wh ole-to ne scale, pe ntar ou ic scale, chro m atic sca le, quarter-tone scale, synthetic sca les, and SCIII' of ot her cultures. ~ f). Whil e most music uses fixed pit ches in a to nal ha rmo nic Iram ewcu k. sum c nmtemporary m usic use s slid ing and indefinite pitches and Illa \ haw 110 intended to na lity. ~ 1. Hn-rarchical percep tual models esse ntially arc de scriptio ns of infe l1 l'll psychological events. :J. ~ . Impo rta nt hierarchical models reg-a rd ing the perceptual organization 01 pill'll struc tures include Kru mhansl's tonal hiera rch y fo r m elodic pattern a nd Lerdahl and Jackendoffs time-span red uction a nd prolongation reduct ion models. 1 :1. Recent research in melod ic perception confirm s tha t perce ptio n a lld lIlt'lll o ry depend on a me lody's to na l harmonic framework. 1 ·1. Mu sica l meaning is a product o f expectations a listener has developed. 15. Expe cta tions a re a func tio n of the info rm ation a musical exa m p le pill vides. 11). Info rm atio n increases as un certain ty increases. :l7. Informa tio n decreases as red undanc y in creases. 1H. l'crcepnral redundancy is a function o f th e mu sic's stru ctural charactertlies (structura l red un da nc y) a nd a liste ner's previo us ex periences will i lllllSk of that style (cultura l redun dancy). 1!1. ltese,IH'h co n fimlS a ge ne ral cOllsistenc y in mu sician s' expcctatio ll' I'{'ga rd ing melodic ('ontinllatiulls fo r b>ive ll melod ic fragments or t'llil tt'xls. :UI. M usical cx pe(·t'lIlt'it,s an ' hit·mlchi ra l. :U. Basic n ·(·t'pti v,' Iwh a viors indudl' rl'cognit ioll and discrimination , : l ~, 1I",; c 1" ".1"" ;",, I",l", d " " ;,,,h,,h' , ; n ~; n ~, ;n, " " m..n,,,l p..rfmm "", ..,
, .. \ 1d on' h allllO\l;1 111'1 111\' 11.1- . '!lllth t' n dev elop Ilwlmlir l )l'h ;~vl'I(~I S .11 -ct till' SI'q lll'lIl I ' in wll tl II 11 ,..\0 11 o t'o-,.s c cuera ) rr , M U'1je n-achcrs prOle h . 0 \I . bel - vi o rs dCVIAop. .. ' I ' 11' )'( ho I. 11111 1 hannOl\lc hi I 's "' u·{'('ptahlc- n.·" III I H ' . I /\ 1l ll'ltld y's "good ness" and fl arnl~Hlr vid;l'lrs Iln 'villlls I ' XIII·t ic'lIn · W i l l I, I ' I St'I\Sl' are funct ion s 0 an lilt I • ll ~lt .1 ' . " styles. . . I' IlW lll11i1''l and harmony 1I\ give n . l c l e1nviofs illvolvl''l 0 111' 01' 1Il0l.t 0 III I ,\'uluatio ll of melodic and ha~tnOIll~:lill\ -r 'to na l paUI'rn'l, {u) di scri uu ual ' _"\' I'nll behavioral typ es: (a) I~CO~ " p~ttcrns, (c) associat io ns \WI Wt:I'1\ lll ~ bdw('en a urally pre.~ en,ltl; to::: ent cd paUt'rns, and (d) prodU(' llOl\ If('se nted and visua y P ,I I II " II) \ .. , I.'h av iors,
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1, 11,1 It ( I ~ '~ H) , . - _ 1 R Aiello & I, A, ~ 0 0 . , 11 ,..1" ,1...... n · " .' . Press 'ork: O xford N. \\' Yll\k: O xrord Ulllvefs(I~.l. ) ( H·)!).t). Musical pt rceptions. New &. SI b oda J, A. !:AlS. 1, 1111 . It . ~ • 0 ' . , • tl.l \: Ik lknap I ltll\'I·,..ity Press. " if musK (~nd cd .). C amb ridge. tv. Ill1 " I \\' (1!IIi!!). Harvard dlCllO ry 0 I ' N y, rk : }-Iolt R indlall alld I'll _\, , d " ehildrm , ew or w. , : W (1969). M USIC a ll Y UU Ilt> 11'11,,11 . I • • .r '''Iif h f • A SIl " II/lfH] 11 tl", \\lU \l oU , li ' " inrormation thtory 10 psyc 0 0!!:l' (PIS'l) AjJp leatlOlIS oJ J' I 1III" n \ I·. . . . . • ". , York:. H enry H o L, (n d cd ) t\•ew \ '()I I.• \\' \ \ ' hods and resu/ is. 1".1.".... I\, . • • •""trllfl." m r . ,ea If< ndations of muslf zn ., W ' 11(77). Tht acousll ou f
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Musical dev elopment in child ren aged Sl'VI'n 10 eleven. Psychology
II/ .lfli l/'r, 1 ( I), 44- 4-9 . Ill~ u .
I', M. (1972). T he perce ption o f pitch pred omi nance in selected musical 'Ullpll's of avant-gcrdc compos ers, 19.{S- 1961 (Doctoral disse rtatio n, Florida I 'll, ' tluivcrsuy, W71 ). Dissertatum Abstracts International. 32, 5275. d lO ll lt l , E. (WX7). Gestalt principle s and music perception. In \V. A. Yost & C. S. \\ ,ll ' lJll (I·AIs.). Auditory pT()(ts5ing of complex sounds (Pl" 157- 166). Hillsdale, J\{J: I 1\\o1l ' 1I11' Erlba um Associates. dl'lloil , E., & Zick, M. (1975). Evaluation of tempered tone scale in normal, ." 'Il lll'd. and contrac ted intonation. Acusfica, 32, 26K-27 4. II , ~ , ~ I '1\', It (1973). Tests of harmonic perception. Psychol0f!J' ofMusic, 1 (2), " 9- 57. I I,", ~ I " )" , It (I!J7!j). Measurem ent of the perception of tonality. h)'chology ofMusic, 4 I, .'1 :17, 11" '11I _" 11 , W. (I!J!I!J). 7imalil)' in music. San Marino, CA : Everett Books. ' ''I'~ I I('f IUlIe 10 sing. (1938). M inneapolis, ~1l", : Schmitt, Hall, an d :\1cCreary. 1111,, 10111 11 , II " lugand . E., & Pineau , M. (I 99l"1). Effect of global and local co ntexts on 11,. l l l ll ll l it: ex pectanc y, Music perU/ilion, 16, !J9- 117. II l l lll . , ~ , E. (1!J!J3). The music listen ing skills of infants and young child ren . In T. I 11)t1ll' & "'.,J. Dowling (Eds.), Psych% g)' and music: Tht understanding of melody .11I'/ ,Mlnm {pp. 161-li 6). Hillsdale. NJ: Lawren ce Erlbau m Associates. 11 11111., S, E., Bull, I)., & T horpe, L. (19K,I). lnfants' perception of melodies: T he role ,, ', 1'll lll ll r../lllI rn al l{ ExjJerimenlal l'sydwlogy: Human Perception and Performance. 12, 'I , lUI. II I IO , h , ~ , E., T horpe . L. A., & Morrongiellc , H. A. (1987). Organizational process• III iuf.mts' perception of aud itory pa tlerns. Child Drvr/ojJIIUltl, 58, 7·I I-X" !J. 11 11, A. M. (I ! J ~ iO) . Expectancy in music cogmu on. Psycnolnllsieology. 9, 22H-2 '1O. I A :'1- 1.• & Ca rlsen,]. C. (19X7). Th e influence of expectanc)" on melodic pt'r " I'lItllI , I\ y,homusicolog)', 7, 3-23. II I hl'l" 'I, 1'. (2000). Red efining pitch pr oxim ity: Tessilura and mobility as fOil I lu l l l l , Illl llH'lll d ic interval s. MIL,ic PerceptiOlI. 17, :-i IS- :t27. !l I I, " '1111'1", S. (I!J7.'i). T he de finition of major scales, for chromatic scall's of 1:2. I ~ I , IIltt I I d lvisiolls per octave. Psychology ofMusic, 4 ( I), 12- 23. I' I ; (:'WOO). l iHlality induction : T heoretical problems i1 nd d ilelll mas. M,lIi( 1'1I''''1'//11/1. 17, 40]- ,1 W. Ikill , I. (;.. & Farn um, S. E. (l!l5.t). 771t lVatkins-Farnum perforll/(JJI((, ,\ ((t!t . WillUlIil. I N 11"II ,t'onard :\1usic. ,I " " , ( ', S. (1!J7:J). I'sydlOph ysir s. III II, II. WUllllilll (Ed .), 1/1l/1I1/1ImJ. ofJ!,01 fm( /I,ry1."I"A.'1' (pp. 27,1-30r;). E l1 ~h ' w o lld ( 'Iills, NJ 1'l't 'lll i n ,· lJall. t" I , :'1- 1, ( I ~ I .'i H). TIlt rat;mwl alld w/ iI/I jlllllld'ltif"'~ '1'm/H ie (D. Marllmlil!l',,I. Rl·id.,I. I , N"llwrith, ('ds. amI tran\.). 11l1' J Sflll:lu'llIlllil1ois UnlV<'rsily I'u 's... 111". 11 11'1, ~ 1. ( I ~ I.') .'i). Ll W S 01 III/(lI llI/lItlllll III 11I 'ITl'p hlill for ms. 111 \ \'. I ). Ellis (101 ), A ,\ II /l r(( llfml f{ (,'rl l tl lt /"\'''lIIIUJj,I' 1 ~ ' l1 d fl l1 : I lo ll ll c ' d ~.. .'\:. K I '~ ;1I1 1';11 11. I
'I
I'IVI1/II/uI\ /I ,II NlluU/ll/lm/.{ ofAfu.f;mll/rhov;or ( )riginally "I bl ' I I · , I r I t\ 1, '( HIt " '11Il 11ll 1!1:l·i) " est, { Bow II J" e, ' " & Cross, I. ( 1 ~ 1H.'j). ~ fodl" lin ' o. '" II ': 1 owl/I. I. C ross, & It \\"('.\1 (Eds) It . / g percei ved m usical structure. III " ,. ,(.m do ll: Academic Pr e ss. .' , , II JIm structure and cognition (p p. 21- !i:l) \\ Jlklllso n • S. R . (Jl, JM flU) , z· · . tawl/:/II ' Ar t , . , " lf al !.t.'OIlard Books. . ICW (J//(J 1/) m electrollic music. ,\1i lwaukee \\' 1 \\II~g. II . D. (1961). Standardisl'd tests 0 ' . _ • "oundalion for Edu cational )' if hmuslca/ Intel/tgrnu , The .\fere L'K N ,. I \ \ (mdrulT A D ( , esearc . ' . a 1011,1 • . . 1970) How . 56 (6), 5 J_5_1. . m usic conc eprs ar e developed. Mlllic Ed I ' UUl OrlJou" "t! Z,1·1Ill1le r m a n , .\t. II. (1971) ,Ii . ' ~..J • . u.ft c a/ chorat:teris' ., _L · I'AllJea to rs Nationa l Co nf ICS D.J uuldrm. Washington DC' ' I . leren ce. , . I" 11 \ 11 0
Ch ap ter 7
FOUNDATIO NS OF PERFORMAN CE, IMPROVISATION, AND CO MPOSITION , _"" pll' have intellectual and em otiona l listening ex pe rienc es with m usic. 1.l\ Il'lIillg rna)' have profound aesthetic sign ifica nce, or 1)(' rat he r trill', III Ii olobrlsls and psycho logi sts m ay an alyze music in te rms o r its theon-t irnl III 11m lio n, both in the sens e of traditional music theory and psych olog irul .1 , ''P'' str uc tur es. C asual bsteners may relegate music to being n commod uy, " 1,.11 1 of a uditory decor. In an agc of sop histica ted record ing and broudm ..t t, , IUllllot,'y . it is especially easy for listeners to not consider tha t su m COIH' ("II " "" d II ll d ordered the phys ical soun ds that humans orga nize into mu sic. \ Vhil,· 11111' IIl ilo'h l urg11e phil osophically that "true' music is containe d in a SCO ft ', hit II ilia)' be realized only im perfectly, or exists in some metaphysical O f I'"ltual stale that temporal civiliza tions ma y imi tate only approxim ately, till' 111111 musical experie nce requires actual creation of sounds. ~ l u ch (If the world's mu sic, especially in the Western classic tradition, is , ,,tII pmt'd -someone provided the performe r with a guide, ofte n with pa rtie111 ," e xpectat io ns regar di ng the co nversion of writte n sym bo ls to soun ds . I " lI l q l O.~ i1 i (} l1 i s a creative act, an essential part o f comprehen sive musi c edu , "UIlII , Un fo rtunately, co mpositi on may be viewed as a gift unavailabl e to 1111 ordina ry person . Certainly, not everyone is a Mozart or an A ndn-w I I" vel Wl'hber, but arranging sounds and silences and providing in structions 1111 their reali zation is not an alien skill. Many forms of m usic combine creation with recreation as performer s hllp rovisl' the music while they play o r sing .J azz is an obvious exa mple u5 'I II' souu- folk styles, Impro visa tion p ro ceeds within ce rtai n fra mew orks : it lml.um-s cn'illivily with ex pe-ctations . I lutil till' l!lHOs, music psychology tradi tionally neg lected perfonuan cc: 11 ll' first two editions of this te xt ( 1!I7!) uud I!IHH) were no e xception , Palme r 11'1'17) suggests thai ledlllOI0/olil,n t "tl v,nll l's a nd in terest from the f ield s of I' yrhou cousrics, bionu-chan b-s. ;11 11111ial inn-llige-n rc, computer mu sic. mu sk11ll"II'y, and mus ic l'd ll(";lti' JlI h " \ 'I ' 11-(1 I II a 1I'( 'I' li t inc rease in perfomumre I " " '
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Performance a s Psych omotor Behavior Educational o bjectives occasionally are classified and organized hierarchi cally withi n three "do mains": cognitive, a ffective, and psychomotor. Cognitive objectives usually req uire primarily intellectual behaviors, as in solving :111 eq uatio n or wri ting a nove l. Affective o bjectives usually involve feelings and emotions; as C ha pter R indicat es, the affective respo nse oc curs wh en the slim nlus "acts" on th e organi sm . Psych o m otor object ives require co nside rabk ph ysica l effort; musical perfo rm ance and athletic skills are obviou s examp les. Readers who are interested in details of the various taxonomi c structures sho uld co nsult Bloom's (1!J5G) cognitive taxono my, th e a ffect ive taxo no my o r Kra thwohl, Bloom, and M asia (1964), a nd the psychomotor taxonom ies u l Simpson (prese nted in Colwell (W70)) and H arro w (W72 ). The im po rtant point here is that musical performan ce is a set of psych omo tor be haviors in which the bra in (or "mind" }' gu ides th e body in the execution of mo tor skills, In e xa m in ing the m ot o r skills requ isite for musical performam", ', t iabrielsson (W99, pp. 5 IR-5 W) recognizes four th eories. In the dosed·/ollp t!lflJry, bod y mo vemen ts produce sensory information. The brain co mp an'\ tln- infor mation with an interna l re pre sentation of intended mo vements, clu-cks fo r discrepancies, and takes approp riat e regulatory ac tion . The Q p'" {oO/J or motor p rogram theory rel ics not on sens ory feedbac k but on a ce n tral iZl'd control of all seque ntia l m ovements. A hierarch ical co mm a nd structu«e-xists, with abstract co m mands at higher levels a nd more spec ificity at loca l II'v('1s. Sdumo theory invokes abs tract re presentations of motor act ions a lit! programs, fro m which the p erformer may ge ne rate movements appropriate for part icula r situatio ns. "Reca ll" schemata manage movemen t e xecution s; "recognit ion " schemata evaluale the exec utions. Rul es for schem at a empl oy lI1('nt l'vo lve fro m pract ice and feedba ck. In the Bernsttin upproach (named fill Nimb i Bern stein , a Ru ssian physiologist), muscles functio n in group s a' ("Hul'
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, stlld i('s rq.:,al,lln J.l, 1I,,·,lItl' 1/ ,1111.11 IlS " lIthl("lI'IIIlUnll'rO . I ,I \t' IIVI 'I p,lll llll ll ~ , 1t11bi n·lta \ l SOIl ( II [ l ihat thc supl'riolll)' II \\ III . ) lit ,lll llll lllllSic. E.,~ sential\y , !'o hl' . tI\ lI\( lon g sect io ns V('\!'o I\S sho d sllh\I'1 I~ l ~."'l " ,~. nI1lv. [i.c., memorizing rdallV(,lr ( 1')~ Oa). lh at "uvl'J!",1l 1lilll-\" (p ral' ~\( I~I.~ ,' Ih the learner and th e mu SIC . '1 ' ,, ) is of Il1lbiollSva luv (1.I" .1, Ht, ''' W ' I eclacneno, . ·t,1 I,UllI'yo lld what is ne cessary n ru fit 'rfo nn a nH' whl'n it is IIH-OIVur~ II it may be ne I pc _. I )llL' ( 'r lllnc h Ihu l lIlelltal re hcarsa h t d 'ol,,'buled Ilfad icl' (l VI'1 .1 I C' • I' andta I.. II rh iudt, . . . . n' aralh on sessio n, a I \U Hg 1111, I li lt' Ilr:lctic e routme, d prac tlce ill a ' l I is sup(' rio r to m asse \"', ' ''I ,,",Il'l'fe nce s exist (1937, HHOb). d '" n s of menial reh earsal (whir h I, l hl d n ee co n 1 10 ., .\\ ) It '1' I ' ,Itnn n ( l!)!lO) cont rasl e prac > t of p sychumotor ski S , a l . II d ' o mltivc enhancemcn l ' d a co ntrol 1111\ \ Ill' n lllstrue as a ~ g h I strict phy sical rehearsa, an ' . I" , "h bi 'cis - p ructu l'( d hySical re earsar. 1t "UIl~ lIlt'n ta I an p . d abou l sightreading. I e su J C . Ivin glll V O . " 'llll.lllillll in which subjects r~~ . ween a ret est and a postlesl Illl1h 'l llll'ir design ated COl~d'tlO~S b p~; com~it1()n. Co mpariso ns 1of I tl. :~lt~~ , IInl p erfo rman ce 0 a snn _. .011 itch errors, ant r \} u 11 \ II I I I ) pcrfo m 1 the criterioll composll; ' l d ur ing lh eir p ract iet' cuu e I' ' 1' " I I ~II Il)~"'l'd that (a) subjects who actually p a,y,n tc than control subjects. (b) I' 'I' "~ h erformance . I I -r , h Uu lI had a significantly s. o rter p lI physical re hearsal result ed III ~I S H lI.. ( .• j ,hysical and aItern atlOg men ta an d (c) the co mbinatltlll pI.\( \ I 11" 1 . h mental reh earsa a one, h ' . , I rdwarsOlI l it 1I111l\10l llce tim e t an . itkanlly different from the p ) S"I.C.~ 1 )rad in'. lh' I illld itinn was not Sign . 0 substi lute for physlca I I to. h 'nla l rehearsal cle arly IS ~ f ntal practice also co nftrn ls lI"I· . ' l ' J!)\) 50S-507) reView 0 me . ' hett er thun I 1 1I 1 ,. k l ~sll n s 1. . " pp. . . Ith ou lJ"h men tal practtce IS , r h .cal pracu cea eo r" III _lq wl';lJn l)' 0 P ySI b -nefit fo r advanced per orr nc ' . .. I '. 1It1 II ,ltli("c, a nd m ay hav~ so.m e e on (198R) studied the pr~~hn' ~t1.~ I " I . rtan! investtgatlon, GniS d k·lIleve1s. I he 1'I,IIl1 slS III nu nupo vlice to advan ce s I .. I \ :\ pianists. ra nging from no . u'fied ) co mposit ion s- one b ,l!oqm' I, ranuilitar (and urud ell . 'S ",'('It ' three un . The particll \ ar pU:-Cl l ' l ,IIU I l ' l I ' . d one so nauna. . f n I 'll ' t', nl\!' ("(llllelllpo rary p~ec~, an . rdancc with skin levels. Analys~~ (:1' 1I,.d 10 individual pianists )1\ ~cco Ian ists of differ enl sk il eVt s I l~ . time allocatIOn am on g p . I ld re lwa ting ser· I II lit t'S in pHldlCe \ ' , between skill leve al ' ( , . ' C(}rt"e at ums d . ' I 'l y , ~ 1., ,\\'t.•1 s i ~lI i n can t POSitive (_ ~l) p racticing the han s separa c '. I . m easu re r - . 1 , , I . olher mU Si C ur U lltl \oll/!.('r t Jan a _. ,d coIn )ositio!l nlt lw r Ihan p aYlOg _ 1 Wll") Pll ,1,," liri ng each ass1gn c I" ,I "ll W SI'llC mt'l\lS (as in "'b et te r slo w «(l , to) makin g S ( ' !,'1.11( l:"I " '''I '1Im ~ ' (r = .' • ~ [ '-Ilun-d ill ~I'·H'It.lh - , '. I ' "thil1 k spt"lll. . , , " . . is \'Illll );. n·1 1 hUl\l"' ,,(I~ I\ . tu I I', , , ! lo .. i.... inslnlll ll'nt ;th, ts ,II' 1 ,,1 ,,1 ,..t..." ,...;\1 'M ,as">1\;tll) ,. '" I~ , \/11 '" ,11" 11, ", 1...11' )0(1111: [ ,,',n0, Imlln'·III;.I1)· , I ' alu 11''' V' , I '. , nlt" 1I1S (I ll'" .11 ,,,'I 1\\.. , U;l1 CUlliN) I . - M..."'" 11\ ( j " ~ . .. II ,'.' ," I" I ', ' r r all "XIM·ri" ,,,,,,,l 1M'" 11"1""11', 1111 ~ \ hll ,k~ "r \"', \1,0 \ '1'11,.", 1"'110 "" """ " " " l"I(,IIIIIolI" h" '11"1"" "
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~r.u s() n had som e p ianists continue . udditioual sessions; th ey ge nera ll did to pracuce t~e assigned piec es for they ga ined incre asing famil ia r] y ~ h n~t chan~e thei r practice stra tegies as perform an ce, th e p ianists I I ty Wl.t t. e mu sic. Despite im prove ments in . , arge y maintain ed th . p. )().l indica tes "the mo st sa li t f d i etr pr~Chce routines. Gruson ( . ) ' ' co nsistency sections of the im a rt en In r 109 was th e'r m preSSlve •uc lOSS _ . p ance 0 a num b iab n-peaung sections as discri . e r 0 va na les, particula rly' " • mmators of diffe . Gn b rlcl sson (19 (JI) p 'O'J) re nt musica l levels," funrti .. , . , J . no tes tha t th ' b ' . .unrnon of the mu sic' s cxte I diff I c est practIce techniques are a for • ru, I I CU ty and m . umn-r S expertise a nd st h ' ean mg as well as the per . . ' gges ts t at one sho Id ' " . Itl uppropnatc structura l uni ts ( h JU orga mze practice In rel ation I ll ' ~t' l uni ts {e.g. "A" or " B" e.? , p rases that gradua lly are expan ded to ,. • sec tio ns ex posi t! 'J ith 1 1 ,1. 1l~llI(lIlS between uni ts. , 1 IOns , wt specia l attention to
.iuu-rnction nit' p.uticu lar practice technkg i IIliesh t h at ben efit a performer depend on an of the performer' _
ss 1 , t e performer' . . llH't IiI1l11, an d the music M ' . d er s mouvauon, the perform wilh students. often withou t a~ us~. e t cators employ diverse techniques a ~ I' a funct ion of un dcrlyin -r asY~~ ICU ar re.search base. M any techniques (lIsnlss('(1 ill C hapte r 10 IS P of lea rning an d m usica l developm ent I . n general practi h ld b ' I 1,IIl happe nsta nce a imed to d ' . Ice s ou e purposeful rath e r ' d III i regularly ' and for war ' sp ecific musSIca I a n d tec hnica l goals t,ng.lge -c . 0 ' , no vice pel lonn " ex perience d pe rformer Ti m . . ers, un der the guidance of an , I ' I C IS Important but s ' . h he ti . 1 irourl se nse, lime Sile nt listen' d a IS ow t e time is spen t. III . . mg to mo e l perf IllIl SICslk'nlly, a nd relaling a rt ' I onnanc es. studying printed pa ICII a r co m po ·ti h , I IllUSK,' styIt, a re ben eficial II si a n lo ot er examples of tht, . ' as we as actual p h h syc omotor activity. After all I H ' Illllld b'l.lidt's th e body' ' III psyc omotor behavior. ' I ,li ll I '
Perro rmance Ex pertise ,T hl' ex pt'rl performer ex em llifics a .. Skllb, a ll o f whic h he or sl" I , pe rsoll wh o has "mastered " ma ny' t: Illay marslnl iI . , .. I' . ral"l ln' slralt'gics a nd tim e , II . • I St:1V K I' of a m usical go al. , , _' , .1 ocatlollS a n ' Inri f II ' I " p I 111S(' IlI vo lvl's ilio n ' Ihan I'll' .' , ' . II H ' tol;)1 " Ktm e, bUI I(l t ll l and iJI'I\I'lld ,,1 pnll'l in ',
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Siohoda (19H:>, p . 1(1) presents th ree ge ne ral pr inciples of eXJlelt \ )(' 1'I,IIlHallCt', rela led to the ('xecutioll of (lbMract ptrf OTmanet plans for lllu sil',,1 I tllllposilioll . Firsl, the (.xpe ft is " wan' of lar ge musical group ings within tlll' S ,nt' comb inations of ton ,,1 anti '1lIllpHsition. Such 1 hylillu k mate ri" l, grolll' t't1 in anmdan t"t' with hie rarchi cal or gan i7,i1tiona! pdll l'ip it's. \ " hen' relal ivl'ly ilH'XIII '11 pl'lfolllWrs ~V{' inordinate atlt'lltioll ttl perform ers pl an alU l 1".,..1 aspl'ds of Ihe III l1sir al ..lIda l . ' lil l ll C ll ll l' , I" .'f ule ill ;It:curtlall("t' wilh I""jJ.l'l 1,!lIW' jJ.tl'lb , St,("(md, tlw l·xl){·rt pt'lfollllt'l" "lIlploys 11l'xih h' lIll (' OIi Sl lOll'! \'1111 .'dllll" Illi solving \1 )(' '11 jll'lfoll\l;lIl('l' l',ollit'lIn~ n lllsd oll.. a lll'lllllllI l .1" " ,,,.1 I" 11,..llIIl~t'r fan gl' plan . IIlI'xllI'lt
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flcuh techn ical I"'" ag r-. Thli d, ,,... ,'xl" '" ",onliu " 'h e pe,fonnan ce a.' il evo lve, and take, corn'..live ''' lion wh"n n,'ce" a,'Y to p reven t inapp"'p, i,,". deviation from Ihe p eefon n" n", ' plan: Sio/' nd" like", thb to knowing whur to listen fo r m Ole 'han , imply Ib'eni ng. EV<'n 'he moni'oring stage Is laeg,'I) unconscious; A ch aracteristic of hig h ly developed p sychomotor b eha vior
i,~
that a person can opera te , ucce"fully without mu ch " "'scim" feed/',nl , Clearly, the exp en m u, ical Performer ha, m astered "'/fi elent delail so tl"" he , he can de vo'e a tten tion to a mU'icaleendi'ion of a laege scale work . The expen pecfonnee ma y be capable of exte",ive use of well.deve/op,'d knowledge ' tn ]Ctuee, or schema la. Clacke (1988) s ugge sts that gen erunv. . p rocesses a rc inv o lved in musica l p erfonnance, including sigh tread ing , pn' paced peefoemance, an d impro vi,.tion. Such Processes m ay inciude "'1"" "e n ta tio n of m usica l stru cture in a n inp ut form to the motor sys tem, as we-l l
0'
as th e p ro duction and control of musical expression, H e in dicates that th" cognitive stru ctu res in vo lved in an abstract m usical un d erstan d ing and tho,\!' involved in execu tio n of a moto r seq ue nce in service of p erf orman ce a ll' h"ed to di" ingui, h. 1n turn, tho, e p eefuemancNe/ated stru ctu ee, dilTee 10" Ihe Iype o f m usical task.
Th e " ruetuee, involved in play ing m usic from m emoey 'heoeelically ,n ,' ,I... most deeply em bedded, a"hough only pact of 'hem prob"bly 'n ,' invnlv..d '" anyone 'ime With in the peelonnan ce. Reading eelative/y nnh, ", ili,n' nnL,ic "equiee, cop ing with uncectaint ie" eega edJe" of 'he peeforou', ', hnnili"'ily wi'h the mu ,ica l style. Su ch un cenain'ie, ari, e from 'h e pe efum " " n ''''ide''iug d ilTeeent mU' ical projfftions and combinati on, of not,,' ed
I""
II'I'II S,
imperfect and in complete sty listic knOWledge, an d musical crea liv
i'y de"'"ndiug " de p"nuee f"'m , tylistic noem, . Claeke ind icate, (I'. (I) th", hilly "de'I'''' 'e ge nera tive st"'etuees eequiee comple'e infoema'ion ; 'he I" " h",ue,' who m,,,, play unfamiliar mu ,i c h.. a lim i'ed strucn,ral eep"',e,,,,, th <:tt J ops m usic, Ition llll ~i co fd(~v<" ,
o ne which mUsl un dergo Conti n uo us modificati on as 1/11 '
\ \lith im prOVisat ion, th e p erfonn cr's structur<:tl representatio n is uSllalh lJuilt' inco m p lete, T h e structu ra l h ierarch y may be rather ambiguous, ;11 11 1 siruciures m ay be organized <:tSSociatively (in a linear wa y. o ue m Usical ('VI '1l1 I"adin g anot hee) oe by eepectoiee , election (I""cowing fe"gm en', 1; 0" , ol h l'" lllusic al sco res a n d j oining them),
'0
1/1 1ll'lIly Illllsical sty les, a performance is more th an a techn icall y acnll'ah' ,,,,,di,ion o f pcopedy , eq "ence d ,"unds and silences, importan, ' ho"gh 110", aspt'( 't is, Music<:tl
tx/JTfSJirm
is 1I('cessar)', C la rke b(' /i<"ves Ih a t IIH' perflJ l'llll' l
'hives exp ee" ion f....'" i" fnn" ''' i" n "n",,1 i" "n"i,·,,1 " "" " " , ,,, nUh..,. II",,, f,o", lix"d pau ",,,., """" I in ,,/I ",,,,I... T h" exp ' ''"i v" p''''''n",,,,, jo, p ialli sts an ' h'llIptl, d ynalllks, a nd <:t n k llialion; I't 'd"OI'll lt' I"S in tlt lH'r IIlt'd l,'
,~ 7!. J
". t I"fi ll . ami CutllPfHi/io" F¥Jll1ulfl/iflll.i oj 1'o1'1111/f1ll/( , IlIIjlmv',lfI
lIil
ly 'darifj ex prl'ssu 11rJ• )' h e (I lVI' \ employ addi tio nal panlll H'1t'/ S, I llt P~'esnilln19"ty 11l{~" m struct ure. Wh en "" ,_ /,ml/ tilt, m uslcu Is' n it't IIn -' 0I" ' ,' xl" ""'o" I'II " co m p, os• ed of !'erSlllls WI111 a ' " "XI"" " .1 j _Ill id un ' is clear a nd th e a lii n-ncc I~ ., • prcssive ch aracte ristics art. 111 • , I stvle the lllU,.SI C, sinhe ex re nt p rop erties. S tru ug ('(,111'1''10 III ,'.1 i ll th e musrca s y c, , " 1'''''''' or refinem en ts of the, mu~:c : : tations in a kno": '"dg,,,,/,I,', " ~"h' . .. I "struc tures arouse bl d ealwill I' h p ea r u r msuar , I ex ex trres' p ress lvt' fcatu r( S . ISI , I' I II I II1 USI(,1 , ' "",j that audience proba y lea l tructure is we a k or obtuse, t II "",, 10 th mu " ea , . I ' " ..I m ista ke. Howeve r, w ~n e articular stru ctu re on th e n~"" c. .. I".. uucr's expressions m"y 'mpo, e a I' nizaricn al reference I", mt' ,. ,h. I" \ \l "' k· struc ' - tuU r e • deficie nt inI musica . M US ic lacking in O!JVInI IS ~ lrmorga er does, I ,_ "
'0
U
•
Opp()rhlll l~y In form a l struc ture pro~'de, ':si~a' understandings thro u~h 10" "',
1II.lII'lul ' must accep t what t i e p:r 0
",,, ,rI,, y and
e
erfo r mer with a n
du. nil' Ill(' audience and sh ape err m rt e rfo rmcr ba lan ces st ruct un- a m ,,, , " ' I",'"lve interpre tatio ns.' T he ,e~~:'n t laeke (I" 24 ) suggest: "Ck-arIy .'~
'"rl lll d" ,,' exp ressio n, as
'~?
'.' ~::::,
( :::t:,,,,c,,,ee to such an e x te n t tha"t " "111111 111'[ must not contra IC . b t a e rfo rmer must a S(I ,I "" ' I l l " I ,... incomprehensible to bvi a listener, .. way . uan d !'A' a more subtle h-vr-l. , "a ll ,1 1\ lu.L: mu sic in a tri te and 0 VIOUS d d as a perso nally selected p~J1h'I ~.llll~ :,,,,,, idual can be eegae : rStsl over a lon g l' e,.,orl 01 umc. " " I til,' ex pressiv e princi ples t hat may P 1 emotio n n ecessa rily IS pal l 0 1 fill lu uddition to st ructu re an d expres~IOl . tes a c rformer h<:ts th <.' mll'nt to
1,,'erpee'~lln.n
''''''',ll'' e f'xpert;'" . A, j u, lin (200~I;no~'~~e doe;lh i' by employmg ;'xl ;"::' :
•" 't llll1l l1it'att> particu lar e m o lJons. d na m ics tim b ra l q lla llty, a m VI 11.1 I ' lit ' S s uch as vana tio n s III temp o , hY \ I I '. >. ' , )propnate to t e p CI'fo:mance nH'd lUlll, ~ ll< h ( III'S ,,, 0' 0,1". ,' p"'pu ttCS al of emo,lon . , V,lll(hty as m d ICa to rs an d hni lies and ti me a llocalll llls, (I S'
11"'~ t'
aro~sers
"'POi ti ng her stu d y o f p ra ctice tecrfor~ers' d iffering I(-'w ls o f t ' Xpt:11 I pc states (p. 1118) " m u sica l pla ( ll slIl.L: ' II " ( ,"I )(J ve , Cruson (1988) contrasLs . She I. 111 1t '/Ill S of co n trastmg strateglCs, f transactio n s from ( o ntro llel! to '1l~IO I I I lill y h e vlcwed as a seq uence 0 I chu nks of music<:t l in fo n n allo ll ' " I' III wh ich larger and '",1 I l b ' b componen .." .. \ \'h e n a beb>lnlllng Stlll!l'lIt, III
IOH's-,~ing
a~lc
arger.~
' " huilt lip fro m m ore ,su n' eat the erroneous ton e or nw a SU lt , I , I m istake he or she IS hk cly to p nce 0 f ind cpen dt'nt n Oh', S, {'OI('"" of In >, ,, , ~ . , , " I I' SI'(jllc " I. 1h.. 'IIt'I(' ).1,slcally exists a s a IIl l , , , I" ' g('1 wo r k, \ \'h ilc th e lJt' g lllllt'l II rr I" " "',,,rr, ", ,, sma II st'gI nw llt III, atmild s rlOm ,he '01' ''Iow,, : Th ,. t'X Ilt'11 /I I ,'"lld~ hUlll the bottom Ill', I U' ('x lu' r 11Il i m uslca lly Imh.d. h iem rchu"a y 1l1ll110St'S th e Illusic in tu ind l'I" 'Il,d l'IlI, " Il It H l ' Iikdy 10 fo lio ..... , Ill ('1101'
I",,,
"'"'''lIlli/"l'd .pallern s, .." I J(' ~'Xllll , I"" ', I 0'''''' 11 11l 111" 1'i1lu llil ra ther Iha n \\ 11 11 1('lld l11.0 11 ()f ,' I 11 e lltlll ' 1l 1l1'Hl lI ~ '
.. h"h '" ' , \ "" 111',,,.10 "' 1 m"", , h " ul" ••1" \ , ,' " ," " I"11.... "'" ' "11\ ,. , . I" , " " "
"I '''1I 1W, ," C11ol1'"r It""" ~ I " '1"" 1,'111 I' " I" , I,," ' 110,,\
011
Iy
,lt1""' I'''' 1;11
01
" I " ..,.
11l')'lllld ,l ~
Few ndotions IIJ 1'0j l/HUII /li t , 1", ImJl!j.~ a I inn, (I ",1 0m//'ןןl itill"
~HO
tion ul umt .
. Thu I s' the expert IJt -i f011111 '1 Ila ~
p a n.fw d musica l goals. Expressio n and stru ct ura l a wa re ness a re 'I~arle II YI par ticula r. en lea . am . - r per o rmance p robl ems are resol ved by followi ng a f II ' n'~vt'd a nd executed performanc e p lan . In addition to dcvelo c;: c U } C~. ~l'
:~'yl:~~~, ~~~'i ~;~~~r; esrh ...,l,l ellOpe eds tOls 0deve~op detailed conceptions or m~I:~C~:II~ ;: ~ pen orm.
\\ bile we largely' ha y.e spa roo k en 0 f ex pertise " In the co nte xt of individual perfo rme . o n ncrs, particularly p lam sls expertise rna ex ' menial performers in all r' . Y . IS~ among vocal and instru penonnance media, with in all m usi I ·tyl d' large a nd sma ll e nse mble set rlncs as wel l I sica s es, a n , eas among so olsts A co d t III must plan for accepting stru cture and resu ltin r ex ) . " . " n ~c ~11 a musica l sco re , or deci ding ho w a dventurou Il cssw ven uro uss tto get in d n 'co .ntainI ed within' tlou ul interp reta tions 01 th a , sco re. N'ew a n d unusual e. partmg ro 'm tra di awa reness of structure a nd ssiblv nov . . sco res reqUire new soloist within an en s' bl • po y, ~I mterprc tanon and expressio n . ,\ e f l. ( 1111 Ilu- basic stru: : re de parting bl st'lI1hlc members in accom an in . . . ensem c tog ether. ton es . Fren ch horn playe rs repeated monir line un der a melo dy' m ust fit th ' • dan . smgers lImmmg a ha r• err soun s mt o a well e t d a ll per fo rm ance plan . conce ived with due reco . . ~ecu e o verillill r-x presslon. gruuon of m usical structure
:~sttr~~;rt~:f ~:r~:s~~~ely ~ith~~t
pl~Yin~ aft:r~;:~seve~ v~obsts ~aYin~
Pcrfo nnance Anxiety OUt' problem afflicting ma ny performer e hi , is anxiety. An xie ty "a sta te " I ae I . b! s' . vedn. ighl y ex p erienced o nes. • u e su jecnv e rstress that' It I mot ivates behavior aimed at reducing the distre ss" (S I ScMe aneous Y I ") ' . . a m on n ey er }I)l):l p. "': I,S all inevitable part of bei ng hum an . Stressfu l situ a tio ' h . " :' .' a udi uons, p ublic pe rforman ces• and oth er snuano . . ns m . whlch f~S, suc as tests. , ' t'xpoS('d pe rson" IS . , to critical eva luat ion • norm a IIy \\'1.'11 aro use som e a nxietva Exce an xlt'l r IS co un te rpro d uctive Test a nxie ' I h or SSI\"l' 01 " I: ag"s ex peri ence, 'leads ' he ljll,I CY an r real o r Imagined co nsequences (Kro hne & S · . I ' According to Rayn o r (11)8 1) abo ut 2 )"" f I chaffncr , lJIU ), 1'1 I n . . , .) pe rcen t 0 stuc ents a rc "fa ilure-threat It '( , r.e. th ey a re motivated primarily to avoid fail \V · • l c1anls a nd ex p la na lio n of the illll)ort an cc of OJ pa rtir,,','a ure. I lu ll' c1ca r sta n I ' ,11 ,'. , c r per o rmance ma y h · ',I" (Il O W 1( .Iynor ' . ' , II IIItI I t'":l r.un sllldenls' who :lrc "sl1('(~ess-t)rien" . ch sslfll' :11111(:111:11"'" ,',' Il'el",(,:t'lklt (Ill stude llts). the "fa illll"t,·thn'a lt'l1(,c1 " stude llts' ;-;ltI1l"t': t .IS ' 'k . IV ' 1tl Sl.f a I pl'l Io rllla nn' is a Iyl'.' of ," It, 't " . , , ll' , ,III. .1'1' 10 . a In<.' senl " s, so
d,,~,t,
In~;v~d~~J,~e~,:.,:~,~';:,~::~a\bi~a~~::
2HI
'I\'oid ing failure art' n -lnu-d illlill1itlt'ly, SYlilpto m s of IH'rfm ll1,lI1 n '
T hl' bogt nning level of th e hierarch y. numbered el ev e n [Le lslanc nnml x-rs IIII' levels inve rsely). includes certain personal characte ristics and t' xpl'ri 1'1 11 I ' S of the pe rform er. A mong the se are age. musica l ability. m usical uuiu h l~ , p('t"so na lity. amount and quality of performing ex pe rience, mum ory, alld I ncudla n rh ythm. Leblanc notes thai adolesce nt perform ers ma y be t's\,' " I r.dl y vulne rab le to a nx iety. as are people who are bas ically pessimists. thai 1I111 ,i f
, .,
Tht, P{'r/IJrlllt' r\ perl iJrllling 1I1ldt'r increa se a nx ie ly,
f illi lj, ~"j , IIi
r /l /lll1lollof l.l' (!fAII/Jiml lI"ho/!;oT
ulll l l'h}'-~ ical h{',lIlil co nstitllll' tilt' ('igh th It'vt'l;
n llldjlillll,~ 0/ 1' 11101101 111 1
I'ltllllion,li or physica l du ress ccrtninly
COll1
LeBlan c's seven th It'vd ls 1IIl'I lt'rlimllt'r's current a ffective sta te o r mo od , Hega rdless of wha t has hapflel lt'd o r ha s nul happened pre viously, whe n it h allllos! time to play or sing, th t.-' performer Illay be happy, sa d , pensive, ('x ilil ara ted , frightened, or in so m e ot her moud sta te. The mUsic will ha ve its emu tiona l d ema nd s, which mayor m ay not be congruen t with the current moud.
perfonnel" ~
Varia bles o f the performing en vironmen t co m p rise th e six th lew!. Le m anc no tes measurement d evi ces and procedures (these could inc/utll' microphones, ca m e ras, a nd adj ud ication procedures), p hysical com Ion, Whether one is required to perform fro m m emory, di straction s, an d ti m e 01 d ay. In ad d itio n, leBlanc stresses the imp o rtance of th e presence a nd behnv ior o f the audienc e, authority figures (such as a dj Udicators), educators, fami I)' membe" (who ma), be Suppo rtive or overl), critical). 'he media. and pee' , (such as fellow stud en ts or fellow p rofessionals). A nxi ety varies as a fu nction o f CUrs. wh n n ne performs before and the environ ment in which th e performa lln ' OC TIH' fifth leve l is on e of se lf-pe rcep tio ns immedia tely p rior to the P"! f", man,'e, Reg"'dless of what actu ally ;S occu rring, has occurred, 0 ' n",) UlTUf, the perfo nner has beliefs about va rious co nd itio ns, including rill' lIImi c's d ifficulty and appropriateness, how adequately he or sh e is prepa red, p" n unal appearance. amou nt o f individ ua l exposure (a so lo passag e draWN
.~ l'col1d
I ,(' Bla llc' s I('ve ls illcl lldl ' ,UUpll' Opportunities for prepa ration a nd auUd
p'lIion , \\ 'hal till' pPlfol'llll'/" thin ks Illight OCCllr lJlay h I' aUXit'lY'prodlld rl~, t'~ptTialJy in Sitllalioll~ Whl'll ' hI' o r ~IH' has n '/ati v('I)' liltll' ('ollirol o\'{'r pia II
' fUI1I11f/1/.1 ' hJll
(~"
1"'IIIIIIII/ I11 ( ' ' .
, tII!' " • (/ Ild ( ''0/11/101/1 1111/ I IIIf! mVlJII
'.l H:1
, st.' . Ic,c·n-cr , I ubyv ,'1 It'ild wI 111 ,.' 111 11 111 1. 1111, lVI , I if tlu- muxn-, \\'h lII~ " ,. the inl('IHlld a liI 11'111 " I I 0 1' 100 a u-n or . . I " au " veri )' VII'\\' 0 I I I nu an ce w l" 11 1111' performer p huuu-r I ,I ~' P{'I 0 . , I. ' . ' o ne is (0 1' Is llo l) ill IIIe' .n ll ~. II . _Y" Wh al il'! Wha t iU ' he r a bilities ? Wluu If a p aru cu ar s~ml~ I Ill . ' ,1" red executions go ,lWI , . , . 't l' ,,;. \Vhat If carefully re rcurse , " f a musical pr-rfonunnre ~t't IWi ' h thr the "m usic () . I I lOl Il S on so me thing ot er lan , I" rman ce a nx h-ty. \\'o lvt,rtoll a liI I " I II ' a maj' or cause ()f excess ive . pcnnr. rs .focus more o n t hemselv n-msc cs, rhnon (19 9 1) no te th at high -anxle~y per 0l"nne Motivati on for audience ' 1!I'ss o n the music t han Iow-,an xiety penonn"", ' II' .1.11 isina f th e music itse lf a mo ng IIIg I ' ' greater tha n m otivati on a n smg rom '1l' plIl\'a IS , ,, ,
-' und cxecuuon 1II ltl'o k i . .1,1t ' I ' M ' 111 difficult. Juc ' lIl g 1lI111 1 r-:
,',I',
""til1li~11l
~
h uu xiuus performers. in a performan ce ce rta inl y IS lhlnking o f everything th at coul~ g~ '70~~ Imenta l prepa rati on with a ll '"oti,'ly' [lrod ucing. but ad equate p YSlca at ct nega tive conce rn s. Sa lmon . ' may co un era .. I "" ,,,,-,"'ss o f likely connngencres h nvel preparing for performan..., an , ,m.! Meyer (1992) di scu ss comp~ellens,1 ~iscuSSion is based on their wor k, " I1"\" iating a nx iety. M uch o f th e 0 ~Wlll~ C ance anxiety are l.' nc OIIl';Igt'd ~ I IIl h read ers espec ially in te rested III per orm in d etail. , h s many socia l fu nctio ns, mul I\~ discussed frequently in thi s tex t, mus~c la TlPCIs on ".. with t1 iffind ty, ' I pe ers fro m m usrca as
I II I n
ti
-, I" , I r as cects of p e rro rmance, (199i) d o cum ents. so cla ,. _ k I 1I1l1" I'd • as Davi so n f , ,th an d op erro erf co etiquette (such as ac no w . rmance e ) I",[ Inding ers b li 'I or implicit dress codes , anT 'he p,esence
I' .
II'
r-u n d ivo rce sOCIa as ,
id
°°
" ' nl ap p lause and abid ing y exp ICI rfo rmers a re accustomed f Man y you ng pe I ' " hl.'\"ilabh~ in a ny live per ormanc~. ,J. d s and teache rs in excha nge lo r lhe~1' 1'1 n-reivi ng p ra ise from pa re nts, nel~ k' their self-es teem to ot her pPOpll: S I '!l l llie performances; they grow to Ill . . inforcem ent arc illlpo ria nt III ' ff ts Praise and p os mve rei IlII I lion s to their e lo r . h " uick to p ra ise eve n 1l1111ll I., II'I ' ' [I lng but so me teac ers, q I . I I ' I" 1I1l 11uri n g mu srca can u ' . k tI ighr pa ge , o ve rd o It a lit t i l l l llhl~' slld l as openin~ a musIC boo , to l:~healthy w ay. T hu s. for. IlIl~ ")' I \ "lllll tl'd " stud en ts self-esteem III an , , ' Vith m atu rity. moll va tlOl l ' I' tio n is largel y ex tn nSlC. " II . \ 111111" "t'lfonn ers. mo Iva l"> • • • b t ther e s t!' [I'IS a co n nectian with react ion s tl 0 It'l I " " I H Ilt 'S more IIltn nslC, U .. ' " "es crit ics and audie lll't ' 1I1t 'lIl . h , ' " um illio n co m m l C " , '. 1 "'I ~l lllS indudmgtca c CI S, I ' II ink rna)' indu ce slwss a s a Pli ' ' I" h'lt o l lt'rs li M y 1 [ M ' I' IU'IN, Exn 'ss lvc lOCU S o n w, . . 1'1, it is IJl"ese nted, Sa lmon : Ull ('yl " led 1"1 11111 11(' ( ' is anllclpa . ,' I .S wI'1l .\.s w III t ' II ho w yOIl evalua te am I It' ,.,ld. I II I, ( :2 ' ) "s tress ha s 1ll 0 l'P 10 {ll WI 1 1111 1I"1I 1t ' p, , I , Ih. 'IIl,,,l vl's " I ' Tills lh,m it docs to th e ('V t'nIS. ' I I "'S 'xist' in ex tre me caSt'S, pha ro ' , " 1" 1' " IIlXI"ly allc ~ I' S, t . , " ' . " i\ LillY Ihe ra pe utlc ,II( "~ 0 " [ ' l'lIu'e with a ph yslt"lan S g ll lt . . . V ' 11111 11 1' III I II I nil, 1' 1 ' , .11111 " Iog-ir a l tft'atlllt'IlI :o; l ll l ' , I • ' [ whll t'xllt' rien n 's tlt'll ltallllg I . i\ ill"l"> [ H" 1 11111IO ' 1 . I . . t 'Iy for )lPlfOl'll1alH{ ., 'III ' " , C 'l"lainly I H' PIOIll , • [ ' [ II I 1101 jl ll ' p II H ' .11 l'q U,1{ . [ , ' [II\od{'s o f st"gt' n lJ, II 01 { , [ [[ . ,[ .i!\1'1IIl"t' Yt'l. llIufh of w lilt " , I"" Ill l M' {If a ~ soCl'.. h' t I illl ", I'' ' I ,\ ~ 1'1.1, _I ". ,. ~ " ' '
..
('>
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1I11/orlral Perspective Muslcu l pe rforma nce may in vol ve performances of (a) pa rtic ular co m po. ilill!lS, which may be learn ed eit her by rote a nd p erformed fro m memory o r I• •lI llI' d fro m no ta tion and perform ed e ither fr o m memory o r from notation, ' II (II) im provisatio ns, which involve extemporaneous performance of newl y , , .,.III ,I! music. H istori cally, im provisa tio n a nd co mposition we re more closeII 1l·luh,d than they are today, M any gr eat co m p osers were excelle nt im proh l'l\. c.g ., Bach , H ande l, Mozart, Beethoven , and Sch u be rt. Performances II III1l the baroque figured-bass tr adi tion were essenti ally improvisations, "Uo wing th e perform er to create music extem poraneously, but within the .. 11I1 1'Xt o f the tonal harmonic fra mewo rk suggested by the figured bass, M,IlIY co m positio ns, particularly from the baro q ue era, arc called 11IlpIClvisat ions," th e inten t be ing for the pe rformer to em bellish upon till' Illm'iclt'd me lodic, harm onic , and rhythmic structur es. T he em bellishments, \d lll II usually re flec t the performer's mu sical exp ertise and techn ical v ir tuII It )', con stitute the impro visatory aspect of the musical rendition. I'u-ssin g (19 X.J a) indicates th at im provisation in Western music ha d its 1001\ in ea rly mono phonic vocal music, whic h d uring the first mill en nium W I I ~ "prima rily a mix ture of G reek, A rab ic, J ewish, Orien tal, a nd C hri st ia n u.Ihn-uccs" (p. (is). Through exposure to oral traditions, perform ers had ,ultpll' op po rtu nity for creative m usica l rendition s. Pressin g no tes th at llUjJ lIl\'isati o n certainly wa s im port ant in so lo passages, and perhaps ev e n ill I IUII,II passages. M elismatic flourishes in certain alleluia s of ea rly C hrist ia n Iltlllgy were co ntinuations of th e improvisatory practi ce s of ea rly vllca l Ill" 11 . With the beginning of organum came improvised polypho ny, und w/' IIf/fllir organum, in vo lvin g singing florid passages above the p lainsong III,mt, IIt'gan in about th e twelfth ce ntury (Pressing, 198·t a, p, tiS), As IIl)(1I 111l 111 became passe)l around the middle of the thirte enth cen lury, the multi with its rontus jir muJ be ca me a predomina nt fonn. Th e ot her pa rts of 111011 '1 \ w('rt' e ithe r im prnviw tl. C'C1I1lI" " ..d, o r em be llishm ents o f co m post't1 I " q h , In th e fift('en th n ' IIII1 I')'. j illl/mlru allll we'd singers to im provise o w'r a HIII/I'l / ir lll l/ ,I. lIsing a SYSll'lll Cl l' '' ~i ~ h h '' ill whic 'h " ,It'h im provi sing singer rea d tlu' I an lu \ firm us Lut iuld..d ;1 IlI'W p," t UIIlIVI ' "" 1I1'Iow tht, nll'l od y. Pressing 11"10', that thi rds and !\iX III'I ,11 11 1\ " 1110 ' 11.1 \ \ WI 'U ' till' prefern'd inlt'l'vu ls, I 'I 'pl at 11ll' hC 'g illll ill ~s a lld 1'111 1111 )( III plll'I\I'S, w h (' n~ oda ve s iHl d fifths
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prefe rre d , .s 1l~ h I Jy 1,' 1" 1, jl/lnb/JImloll develo ped. a nd here the o uter voices usua lly w ert- 1I0 1Ol ll'II , h UI ~ j ll ,l.; l'l'S im provised the inner voi ces.! , , 'ith early re naissuuce devr-lop uu-nt s in instru me ntal m usic. pa rticula rly for key boa rd instru men ts su ch as till' clavichord a nd harpsicho rd , came tlndevelop ment o f intablatures, relat ively plain transcri ptions of voca l m usk , which see med to serve as frameworks for im prov isatio ns o n th e keyboa rd insrru meu ts. By the beginning o f the sixteenth cent ury, there was a virtual explosion of impro visato ry techniqu es an d tr eatises a bout imp rov isa tio n, whic h wa s co nsidere d a req uired skill for perfo rmers of the tim e. T he four ma in improvisatio n proced ure s found in the sixtee nth ce ntury involved "o rn amen ta tio n of a give n line, addition of one or more co ntrapuntal p aris to a cantus finnu s (including imi ta tion based o n given o r inve nted motive s), the mes and variatio ns. and fre e im pro visatio ns" (Pressing, 1984a, P: ( 7), Im pro visation 's importa nce continued to de ve lop and rea ch ed its pea k in \\'estl'm art music during the baroq ue era; however. the ba roque also saw tilt' heginn ing of the decline o f impro visatio n in \ Vestern art music. \ Vhill' e mbellishm ents an d va ria tions on co m posed melod ies co ntinued tn ht' impo rtant during the baroque, keyboard ists' realizations of a figurtd b{l.\\ becumo the p redo m ina n t mode of ba roque im pro visation (Pr essing, l!)H ,III, II, j i() ) , "T he cadenza wa s th e last distin ctive [im provisatio nal] device pe rt inent tll tht· Baroque" (19 H4b, P' 66), and it rem ains a continuing p art of solo Pvr for man ('t' toda y. Howeve r, "the traditions of impro visatio n d ra ma tica lly d" d im'tl illlo virtual extinc tio n" (1984b, P: 66) d uring the classical and I ouumtic eras. Man y reasons exist for the decline of im prov isatio n in \Vl''llt ' rn classical mu sic; Pressing (19H4b, p, ( 6) suggests th at the cha nge 0 1 l'lI1 plw sis to composed mu sic perhaps reflec ted th e "Zeilgeirl of scie ntlfk nu-thod, economic ce ntra lizatio n. rationality, a nd the upsurge of machi nery {I·r/Illlllng-y." Il l' also notes that the rise of mu sical amateu rism with IWI fonm-rs who lacked impro visat ory skills increased the dem and for co mposed rath er th an improvised mu sic, \ Vestem classica l music since the baro qu e P'" dom inan tly has bee n co mpo sed m usic. Impro visation re mains an impo rtant asp ec t of the w estcm church organ pla }'ing tr adit ion . Whil e m uch of an orga nist' s im prov isatio n is functio nal, i.t " ~ III accommoda te the unce rta in tim ing of particul ar pa rts of the ritua l all cl 10 pro vide bri dges betw een various musical po rtio ns of the se rvice, im pw \' isaliollal skill co nstitutes a n impo rta nt pa rt of the church o rgan ist's f('pe rtoill' of ll' rtill'lua llu ' skills, WI'H'
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'II tise does not ensure expe , Performance exper ... J' . P .use as a performer,7 . n/1rrli,\'c as all impr~vi.5rr requires ex her ~scd, People who "prep are" il~.I~)rov,lsa ·1
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cal performan ce , EVt'lI I'I'0pl l' who OI l' pt'ar tu pia)' by ea r or improvise "nut urally" have e ngaged ill l' xlt'm l"11 loumiug, a lbe it in most cases informall y through an encuhu ra tio n pn Kl'ss. lmk-cd, guml im provisers lea rn to im p ro vise, but except for jazz musician s and organists, relativel y few m usicians understand mu ch about the pron 'sst's involve d in im p rovisatio n or how to go about lea rn ing to improvise. Pressing (1988, P: 130) notes tha t improvisation , as all music p erfo rmance. in volves a continuing se ries of highly complex instantaneous neurologica l processes, including {a} passing co mplex electrochemical Signa ls am ong tlunervous, endocri ne , and muscle systems; (b) execution of co mplex ph ysical act io ns; [c] rap id monito ring of the actions via visual, tac tile, and proprio ceptlve feed back syste ms; (d) prod ucing m usica l so unds and monito ring them via aud itory feedback; (e) cogniti ve evaluations of these sounds ;IS m usic; and (f) furth er cognitive processing to ge nerate the design of the nex t acti on seque nc e and trigger it. Pressing note s that the last two steps arc more cri tical to the improviser than to musicians performing spe cific co m posed works a nd observes that the given ste ps "are often collapsed into a three com po nent in fo rm atio n-p ro cessing model of human beh avio r whi ch has ready physiological an alogies: input (sense o rgans), proce ssing and decision ma king (ce ntral nervou s system, . .], a nd m oto r output (m uscle sys te ms and gla nds}" (p. 130). An examination of motor control system co m plexities is f:1I be-yond the scope of the present d iscu ssion, and readers are enc ouraged to vx aml ue Pr essing' s succinct and highl y readab le account of the syste m alltl h o w it facilitates e rro r correc tio n and m o to r refi nemen t. BaSt'd 0 11 his exa minatio n of the mo del a nd moto r control system. I'rc sslng speculates that skilled improvise rs develo p through practice "gou cml patterns of neural co n nectio ns specific lo im pro vised motor co ntro l" (p. I:il ) a nd notes that these are ak in to "motor action units, which may be co m blued into long chains to develop more co m p lex m ovements " [p. 13 1). I II summarr , skille d improvisers dev elop a "re pe rtoi re" of neuro logical CO li ru-ctio ns thai may be triggered during th e improvisati o nal process. Becan » proc essing the co nnec tions is so ra p id, the impro viser's performance mOl}' appea r to be "a uto matic" or "natu ra l." The major d ifference s among expert , lIt1t-SO·{.'xpert, and non-skilled improvisers ap pe ars 10 be, at least from aI's}' dHl lleuro iogic a l perspective, (a) the exte nt of the repertoire of ge nera l pa' h'rn s of Ileu ml co nnectio ns specific to im pro visation motor co ntro l and (h) ahili ty tll call them into ac tion auto m atica lly. Ind ividu als who m ust n IH S d o ll,~ ly thin k (Jut subseq uent ste ps in their improvisa tion s obvio usly lack I IlI' I1 m't1(·y, Oll idit y, and Oexibilily of expert improviscrs. Co nco mita nt with d cvcl opmenl of t il(' n 'pt'rt oi n ' of ge nera l patt e rns sp" t"ifk to molor co nlro l is dt'velopnlt'1l1 of thl' moVt'llll'nl pattern s for 0\'1 '1 ' It,.. lil.;:llioll of till' impro visation , Psycho lJlo tur hl'iJaviur s d t'I"' IU! un hu th
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',.vt. I,ror l'ssin g ;1I1t1 1l1 0 lUI S rus. .t I . sufnde nt \Wrftlnn an n ' skir , ,., ' tlH'Y Inllst hive . " I " 1'1 . lillh. is t·sse nt ial f()~' 11111'1 0 \1 '\1 I ~ ,. ,. 1\ in their improvisations., 10 t ' ". t..x .~ l wh at they Wish 10 till 1I11ISJ( .1 Y I uulity of the IInpr o vlsal1tl11 In t I' I • . I ( Wlte t lC q , d ,[ " " ance skills ar c IIHll I' 1 " . I idea is undt'rl\lll\t' , I 1,,1 IlI" 0 • .,' f th e mustca .. ' . llcss of the sOplll st ll~at IU1\ () krlls remains imporlanl In 1 1 ' V. ~11 t c. f erformance s I I lwll'fore, development 0 P l' lUI 'IHvis;:\tio n, (Sloboda 1!)K8) have take n th e It',\( I~ S l I Isoda (19K5) and his colleagu es , . 'I' ,' mpro v isali(lIl and n 1l111l (ISI , ll • . I derpmmngs 0 . f• 'tlHining th e psychologJc~ ~n . and the fo llowin g sectio n IS drtl~\'n. I ~ II~ , d much of th e Olaten al m rhts ' (1')"" ) I ad the balann~ ot tillSSI·t 11, ,11 • •11\ • 51 boda s o:) e • I I '" . ,' ghtful work . FoUo Wll1g 0 . ' ., tion th e n ne that ha s t I'VI' I I,..11 1 ., • ib l o f Improvlsa , , " IInll fo(u ses o n th e m ost Vl e tYIPe improvisa tion : jazz improvisa tltlll , rt a r exec l enc e or h ",,,'.I into tea p
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d i b ks and nwthOth. fo\ . I . bbraries aboun In 00 ' Ma ny music sto~~s a nd musl~ 1 "how to improvise ," and inh'rc~t Ill, SUI • l,ul.'n tial jazz mUSICianS r~gard~ng 'n no t e xamine such so urn's• .pIl son , .', 1 is high . T his d iSCUSSion WI . I .h ld co nsult on e 01 SI'v. I,,1 111,,1. '11.1 s 1 . I ch mate na s s mnu v. . 1'1" 8) ' lists or reviews 0 su 1 1'19 4· P1" e ss ll\ ~, , n l ll\l'l!' sh'( I In I k, 1984 · Greenna ge , " , . _ 1''''l'lIl'l1t ove rviews {D oe rsch u ' ' literature m ight sugg est lhat ~l1lPIOV' I hll'rsd lllk no tes that a survey of exta~t. scales modes, and cxe l"nsl' s, l.1II1 I "lio n skill can b e realize~ by m~m;::~ reflec; only a IimilNI persl~{.' ~ll\'t. II" I Ut'slion s this, noting t at sue s nds th at persons intert'sh'l III iI me \U11>l"OVisatiOn . Doerschuk recam . e the work o f Emil e .Jaq lll's, "II isation ex am m I fo r learning impro vt .' hip in vo lvt·d eurI Iy,I\ 11lin" tlwl Il\1( . ' • roach to mUSlOuns I . . , I ),.lno1.{.·, w hose tnpartlte .a p~ IIn" ~l', an d music improvlsa tIon 'h d an d rese arch on impr(lVlsat lo~I , ,nll ~ (:n'l'nnagel reviews bo~ md . 0 .s n m ethods are based on ;I tra{ill.l ll1la ,I I · th ai " m ost jazz unprovtsauv . ' t rm s of sugg<esh'tl hsll'l\ ,'lIlt III t S . t n' ap pearmg III e ,. " . ch with varta 10 ' I I alo ng p ral"lil " llll'llll'tic] I approa . combination W it 1 p ay' ) I I e1rill o r writing ex ercis es. or m . roaches of Liebman (1!)KK aIH " flo , ' ,V-) H e notes, howe ver, that the app . . • creative aspN~ls than \ 1 ~ 1 ~ 1 ', p" , l . h m o r 111 imp ro visatIon s . ' .. I d tl t most n 'se;uTh (Ill J:l / .I . It)i N) focu s m uc more ( , III 1LlOW ( ' a . , I,.t's the l'stahlislul1l'nl 01 p.11 I 'III , I ' \'1 111' 111 111\ 11 . " '(h) the vil'W I tal llIl!,IOI 1,,·'01111111. ll lllli '1l ,, 1 l\, ' n,,~,ll·V 10,,1 I", " 1"" " ""1""1" .. '11"11" .,,, ""1" ' ."1" ,1"1l1' " ;11 " ,',,;I<'n,It,,1h ' ' " Il."".I.,
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u-rn s. models. a lld p lOll ·t1 I1I I' 'l "'p I'('illt' lu till' impro visat io nal situa tio n. "wh ich , if followe d by ,ho st, pos' I·.\ Sill/ot a so lid e nough level o f m usiciansh ip,
will prod uce stylistica lly appropdall' music" (p. 14:!); (e) the view th at im pro visation is be st de vel oped b)' selling a se ries of im provisatio na l problems o r constraints as in the J aCJucs-Da1croze approach ; (d) th e view thai improvisation invo lves the " p resen ta tio n of mu ltipl e versio ns o f imp orta nt
entities by the teacher . . _, leaving the student to infer co mplete ly on his 0 1 h er own th e ways in which im p rovisa tio n or va ria tion m ay o ccur by all appreciation o f th e 'fuzziness' of the musical concept," (p. 143) wh ich Pressing labels an "im itat ive, self-d iscovery approach "; an d (e) the v iew that creative musical perfo rmance is "a llied to t he self-re aliza tio n id eas of human istic p sych ol ogy " (p . 144), Based o n h is co m p re hen sive revi ew of the hi sto ry , th eory, and approac h , es to improvisation, Pr essing offers a cognitive m odel o f impro visa tion, Ht' argues th at such a model shou ld exp lain " ho w people improv ise ; ho w p eo " p ie learn improvisa tio nal skill; a nd the o rigi n of no vel b eh avio ur" (19RH. p, 152), Pressing su m m ariz es th e ce n tral fea tu re s of hi s model as follows: It is red uctionis t, in that cognitive structures of processing and contro l are considered to be broken dow n into aspects (acoustic, musical, movements. etc.), each of these into types of analytical representation (objects, features. processes), an d each of these into characterizing elem ents (array co mponents). At the same time the model is synergistic and capabl e of beh aviou ral novelty, due to the extensive red undancy of the cogn itive representations and the distributed a nd non-linear character o f the outlined control processes. T he extensive prest'lIfl' of feedback and feedforward contribute to this, The fundamental nature uf the improvisation process is co nsidered to be the stringing togeth er of a st'ries of "event dusters" during ea ch of which a con tinuation is chose n, based upo n eithe r the contin uing of some existing stream of musical development (culled here an event-cluster class) by association of array entries, or th e interru ptio n o f that stream by the choosing of a new se t of array entries that act as constraints in the gen eration of a ne w stream (new event-cluster class), ( I 'rl'.s.~ i llg. 1988, p, HiS)
Whil l' Pressing's com p lex and in sightful m odel n eeds to be stu d ied . underslout l. a nd exam ined e m p irica lly. it un doub tedl y will be refined b efor e it is accepted as " tru t h" by a ll who a re in terested in und erstanding th e n atu re (If th e p sy chologica l p ro cesses un d e rl ying im p ro vis ation, Mean while, Sio b o da's (19S5) ch arac teriza tion of so m e o f the a ttribu tes of I Ill' jazz impro vi sa tion process m a y b e useful, \Vh at see ms t o make improvisation lllanagl';:lb le fo r j azz musicians i.s the fac t that th d r im p rovisat ioll O(TUrS withi n a la rg(' s('t of for m a l const ra in ts wh idl provi
'l!l l
I
, I w h kh h i' e mln'lIis!w s aIH I , I 1 (\l IIU!"e. anu wu«I " . "/. I\lUst rase s, l~xternall )' 5111'1'( I " S'Illbud a 110tes. for e xa m ple . It Hit .p t, . 'U11s in ' in va n,01\S v.."Iy'· I' . ", ,'' , .. n t "c h o rus" p I aye d by tne 0{
I":')v
t~";I::t:~:~:~ing the 12-~ar b~ue~"a~n~t~;~a;I:;:J ~~r~:~irl;. s~raig~tf(.~!"~.~n.~ lilt' m elody o fte n
IS
a stan ar ,
rovi satio n s u su all y retam th e
aSIC la l
d that th e subseq uent Im p .. b th h ere {32 -b ar so ng l munner a n f ·m prov lsatlOn. 0 I , ence but th e "' essence 0 i . ' .. ( 143) Slo boda n ok 's t Iil l moru c seq uence . ' h . dod lc lin e p. ' l. " l i th e 12-bar blues. IS 10 t C Ol i d' d thatJ'a:zz piano came au r, MI( III . ·Iy m e 0 I C an ' " I " • \,11.1. solo p erformance l,S ~ecessar~m and chords an d th e right h and p a) 11\~ th e le ft h and prov1dlOg rh yt , , \ " ' . th e mUSica l Vtll" .1 III tilt' solo, . . . im p rovisatio n IS . I a Jazz , ' th e t)l'es o f melo d IC, rh )'t I \ \ "-U at m akes an imprOVisation ' former d raWS on ro r th e 'lm provlsatlOn nces This voc a b 1\ lr,IIY· \1)' a p er b ild I ger scq u e . ,~, ,I. d h nnon ic devi ces u sed to UI ar h d d rhythmic pau cru s. nne. an a , , o o zed set of scale. c or , an. . d rfon u howeve r, is n otju st a mem " . I to oth er mUSicians an p e , ts d I ped "th ro ugh Ilsternng mtent y . lllS ' . th at books a nd n o ta tlOll It IS eve 0 ) 51 b da m amta tug with th e m" (Slob o d a. Pd' 143 . thO l~many gr eat jazz p erfo rmers co uld not ' ry an no tes a 'Ire n ot real I y necessa ) rend a noll' of music" {p . 143 ' ' II
WI 1
, It' ua Ing Improvisation
l~va
,
d! I b egs the que stion s. , I' m Ole late v '" " . zz p er[ooners , h -sen t The m en tio n of gr eat j3 ' ")" A d mo re speci fic to t e p re nc, . ")" '1', . , " gr eat "Wh at makes a j azz p er [o rman cc h~ ualiry o f a n im p ro v isatt,o n , 1.IS , . "How do es one ev aluate t q . b th e van ab lc s Ih ,il d~scuss~on, rposely ",'ill avoid th e first qu estion ecau se hi gh I)· subjl'd ivc . re m any , co m p lex. I (hscuss1o n P'' ' n l1u e nce jud gments o f gr eatn ess a rf rmance p er se. For eX:'UlIp 1', ::~:J ~ften go b eyond a~ assess~~nt °i~;;i~e i~nuences m any p COpll,' S!u,~ Ig;,"h alo " effect rega rding w h o is per g improvi se d o r o tiwi w 1st , I me , r th perfo rmance. I -itl •• abou t th e quahty 0 I' . ' . tion also arc Irau g \t \\ 1 i l111'n"" \" f an Ilnll rOVlsa . . . to ev aluale th e qu a Ity () .1 bt to d evelo p cn lc na 0 1 Anempl S I · ,I -rs h ave so ug \. r b le m s but SI'Vl'r:.1 H'se;tt< \{ bi ,t' • To th e ('X tent th at ( I ma ny p ro . I . I , P ills I\ H lf( ' 0 1l 'c lVI' , r I ' !llid elin es for m aking SUI" \ ,J IIt ~nl ' " II' an improvisa tio n' s q ua uy, I H g Il II S 1 , . Ig·l'e ,Il l ,1'1'11' '' IS M'sS. Il \lini rcre nt jll( l\ll" '( I · I .k " "'Hab le subj· l·divc ( UlllpOIl\'1I1 '" I t , " 'I li n )' n m trib lltc IOwan 11 M • II '. ) 11 ,1 " 111,111 ' , I l l ' . I· ' I 'S{' po u er ( W!lO, p , ll!) 1101 t ' '1 ," , • t ,,, IllItl llws l' fa("( Ol"s \llt l'n a n ' ( IV t . in g all imp fo vist'd solH ' ~t1otl nl )l. l l 'l ,
FflllIIl!lJlifil/1 11 a nd even rontradirnu )'. So lo.. IIIU )' Ill ' vahu-d for their tec h n ical virtuosi ty, bcu uuful tone qualit y, Ihytlllll il' I hurucu-nstics, no velt y. re str aint and class! cal ba lanc e. lise o f qlllli aliom . a mi I'VI'll "expressive use o f grow ls. honks, sq uea ks. and sp lit to ne s" (p. 1i!1), Whil e l'ottcr is most concerned with anulyscs of im p ro visations. his n-conum-ndauon tha t an a lyses o f im provised jazz "be eclectic, ho listic, using wha tever ap proaches he lp ex plain th e so lo's effec tive ne ss" [p. 69) holds implication s for evalua tion of im p ro visa tions. Pnrtche y' s (1973) ca refully controlled study of ch ildren 's improvisations offers insights both into strategies for evaluating th e qualit y of improvi sation s a nd for devel oping impro visational skills. Sp eci fica lly. the study so ug ht to develop a va lid an d relia ble m ethod of eva luat ing impro visatio n a nd to CO lli pare the e ffects of feed back, m odels, and repetition [i.e., trial a nd error) 0 11 the ability to im provise melodies. Partchey d ivided 86 sixth -grade children into thr ee treatment !,'TOUpS and gave ea ch child th ree individual sessio ns ill which to pract ice respectively improvising blue s, who le-to ne, a nd diaton ic melodies with gi ven taped accompanime nts for ea ch. Pre- and postt reatnwn l ev alua tions invol ved pen tatonic im provisati o ns. C hildren in th e feed back gro up hea rd im med iate record ings of thei r efforts, the models group heard sev era l ex am ples of prerecorded melodic im pro visatio ns, and the rep eti tion ~n ltlJl received no speci fic instructio ns. Children performed their lmprovisu nons on an a lto-te nor xylophone, with specific p itch bars arranged for till' particular sca le designate d for use in the im p rovisatio n. Im pro visatio ns w e recvuluured o n a nine-poi nt scale according to two performance cri teria (p Uh l' al '(' m;l(~ }' a nd rh ythmic clarity) and three creati ve criteria (to na l va r iet y, rh yth mi c va rie ty, and un ity (with subcatego ries of repetition , im ita tio n. p ih h di recti on , and p hrasing )). In tcrjudgc reliability for im p rovisation eva lua tion using Pnrtchey's crit eria ranged fro m .92 to .95 . Each group showe d signif ca nt pre-post gains; the feedback gro up' s gains were signi fica ntly hig he r thuu those of the ot he r two groups. Pre-p ost changes for creative criteria were slu tistkaJly sib'11ificant for the feedback an d models group . but p re-post c ha n~t ' " for performance cri te ria we re not. Gn;l'llnage l's ( W!H) study of predicto rs of j azz voc a l improvisati o n skitl rt'qu ired d pvd o ping an appropriate eva luat ion tool. H is basic evaluativl' ('11 Il'ria , m usicality and te chn ical ap propria te ne ss, so me w ha t paral lt'l"11 Part d w y's two broad ca tegories , but he added two criteria spl'cifica lly a pl" 0 p rial e for ev aluating vo cal im provisa lions over 12-bar blues cho rus l' ~ , Mu sic,a lity refe rs to "'h o w \..'cll the im provisation succeeds in making a IIltl..I ('a l state ment" (p. 40). and techn ica l appro priate ness refers to "how we ll lilt' im pro visatio n fits the chord change s and a nticipa tes those cha nges ; also tillll' ft'l,l" (p . .10). Th e add itio ll:11 cr ill' ria, a rticulation and relati oll sh ip 10 h ill"" , I'dl'r n 'spl'('tivt'i y ttl tlH' liSt' of "' v(J\\'l,1 and Ct lllso lla lli arti nl1a tion 10 vt'rha l i/,I' inh'IHIt't! stllllllls," a nd "how wl,1I tht, illlprllvi'ialion fits the traditioll,d
. u11m , (II/(/ l'n.!tt' UWIII r, 11II/' WVlJ(I
( 'olll/III 'lti"" '
' ' . . " "" ..tth ,lt I,vulllll .. ( III II ) ( ; n '('lIna gl' \ s cn ll' n :l SllN"> _ll lll tUf(' o f the Blues PI" ' I 't lc .lllt\ l! t'lll'1lI1 \hlilltl' 01 tl1l' " I .' I Ihtl ' In t 11' type. s Y .' uvr- rrtu-rt a mu st )L .Ipplll i . . ' 1 '\ ' . •ffl clcnt fur t''' IH'I Wlltl·t ,I,ll./. ' " . The inlt'IJ'u tlV," n-lln ntny cot , 11l1I,IOVIS.I Ion. , . .' ...,', ' G " rs lTlll'rla wa s ,0 • • I' t l' ll ~ i d a ll s usmg rcel1lhl ~l : , ,..- , . ~ for Partchc ys an ti t,l't ' I 'tIl 1
'
.
,
'
llIl/'rtIvisalion as a 'leaching Tool
. I ss ctlncellll'd With ilSSt'SS· . -d ators have" become rd e I II n-rent years, mu sic e lIC more Ctl IlCl' f1W ( I W 'II II . divld I nnprovisatw 't '' at Il l~ tlu- qu alit y of In IVI ua II b ' x penence. As Sawye r (1!)!I!I. p, . ' ou p or col a orauve I.' . II ' .k' 1l1 '111 11VlsatlOn as a gr . fi ro visat ion can potcnua ) rna t labo raho ns 0 Im p , I kills I'l ,l) states " the group co I of skills not onI y rnu srca ' , I skills. , but socru " s I ..,~ . • ', . 1I 111 '111'Ikiai in a Wide range • I ' and co llecl ive cn ·atlvlty. , up p ro ble m -so vmg, I ' 11 10. 1' <' ollab o ratlOn, gro " no n ex p erienn's ana o gOllS n
d group lmprovrsa 10 " () r havi th ree basic char l1lusical improvl!>:ltlUI\S I,IS •· t . 1 t ' ''l llo n n ~ t il t It . ' I Illll it l'd ucatn rs lllk rl'S II 1 IIIfll l' ( ' lIilhalllt 1!I!)!I). The Inn iS, 10 WIlJt)ll' Bill 11.11 1 , ' " . , . II ' _lll" l'd (l:,g:,. II fO p I1Y, ,." ', , ' , " s .l lllo tle for IllU Sll'a l' ,l1 11 " I ,' . 'I' O il llllPI OVI·!.1 lOI " • I , \t 'l , ,Illpl'a rs to )(' 1'1111\0111 » ) ' I II III' /1((I((.u -fJ riwln!rat llt'r t lall 77 s t , l k~ II 10111 , ' .I ll)I)II I' III ,lIltl
1 _ I·ntially. Sawyer co nsr ers.
dr l'U's gro up and i1ltll Vid ll,d iIlIJlIlIvi,\a lioIlS, \ Vha lever lhe goa ls, m usic ednca ters incH"lsingly a n ' a(/v' " -a lill/-: lilal /-:fl JUI ) impn wisalory expe l'ienn' become a part o f d lildrell 's IIlmic ('d lln llioll CUrriculum.
l-uundatinns r'.l / h /u, I/II/I/I(, I "'II rflV;.IfI(;(J1I, om/ COIII/ m,u'/inN '
,,, ,i liolls, OIlC fo r ,I Ill JJ, ll l' I.IY a ll
I
I
.
011I,
I -ntifled l'lllll pOSCr a m all . . 1 1ll U, '~1Il Il l' no tes that the n)m~)osl'f (~f ncconn t
I
comoositlo u for dHIll . 11 11 1 0l JJ,. . I . . addi tiona l constrnm ts (uuh I 11\\ 1 . stramts :t ll< as . ibl e , I r' ""~I with cert um ronvm. . . " " ppeare, I to become nu possl l . I I " ~,,,' " .g.
Com posiUon
' I
' " thl' course of the compus tuou , I . d to reso lve this dile mma Th s cse r a ppea re I . ,. . II nst rain ts. e CU lJ1 j"" • (bl cha nging t H.' {( , houor u co . I ' gr som e constra ints, I' , Ctll "1\111'1" (a) temporanly ( ro PhPm material to conform with c a r ICI difvi r t c new ... ) su .riurs, or [c InO I ymg I .
11\ . I
Sloboda (1 985, p . lO:i) suggests that "co mposition is the least studied a nd least well understood of all m nskal processa, and [notes that] . .. there is no snbstantial p sycho lobocal literat nre rev iew." Nevenhe less, most co llege , conse rva tory, and un ive rsity m usic d epart ments tea ch composition, and an exam ination of generative processes related to co mpositio n m ay be rel e vanl to person s involved in such teac hing.
'0
\Vhile improvisatio n a nd composition ha ve m an y commonalities, th e differences in the two processes warrant sepa ra te discussions. As Sloboda (W8S, p. 1(3) no tes, the "const,"ints of imp ro visation-immed iacy a nd fl" . ency-make it likely that there a re processes whic h im provisat ion and COmpmition do no' share." H e is panicularly co ncerned with two aspects of psy. chologicaJ act ivity that seem to be a pan of the generative process of C U IlI po silion : "the occurrence of superordinate stmctures or pla ns which see m to guide and determine the detailed "vte-by-nore working out . . . [and] til<' degree to whk h these pl ans can . . . be rat her provisiona l. They ca n, f,,, iust,mce, be changed in ligh t of th e way a particular pas sage ' tur ns ou r'" (Slo boda, p . 1(3). Jn sho rt, "the co mposer rejects possib le solutions until II<' lin ll., one which seems 10 be best for his purposes. Th e im p ro viser m ust an '('pt Ihe first solution thaI comes to hand " (p. 149). Siobodn (WH5, pp. 102-10.1) recognizes four possible approaches to ga in. ing illsights into composers' composition al p rocesses: (a) exa mina tion of ...."'1"'·' ''''' sketches an d notebooks, (b) exa mioation of what compose-, sny al""" their own compos itional proce" e" (c) "live" observation of compose" whilc .h cy are composing, a nd (d) ob,ervation and deSCription of Impro vis,lIory Ill'rfonnance. Slobo da recogn izes several limitations of the firsl two approaches, noting that co mpos ers' ske tchbooks and notebooks arc panicu. lady un sa. hfac.ory for cogn itive psychology because they ca n not explni" lhl' ullcon scious processes a compose r may use in bringing to co nsciOUSllt'S,\ il lll highly structured co mposition (p. 114). Besides the inherent con cerns COIl' h ' pora ry psycho logists hol d with respect to ve rbal repons, compose rs' wril. ings a h",,, thei,' co mp ositional pro cesses may be lim ited by th e acc oracy o f a ('lJInpost' r's m e mo ry regarding th e processes he or she Went through while ' ('(Jllll'osing a part icula r pi ece . Sloboda suggests lhal lhe mo st deta iled a lld ·l("("ura tc dcscriplioll of a compositiona l process is to he g'..r ined "by (.'xa lll in i ll~ Vt'roaliza tio lls mad t' CQllcurrr n/ with th e act" (p . 12:i ). Sioho da (lUX':;, pp.
12:i-I:H~) desnibt·s lwo
( ' 011I/' ° .\(' 1'.';'
pr olo('ols for
('O lll
°
, .
I SI boda a lso1 ' >1'1-\,1 ur .unts. . . f I o sltiona l pro toc or, 1 lIn his own highly lIlS1~~t U ~o~p r1 his compositiona l style, w II( ,~. y . wilh se ve r n I co n straints, c uing h particula I Y English C h m .e h" th at ('lllpha 1': ) SI/( huru ctenzed as " twenti et -cen lIT I harmonic framework (p. t:l .• , a n uu-lod , counte rpoint, and a stro ng tona arts and organ . His prot ocol .." ,., th " th;' work shonld be for four Ionshe p osed d uring the P" "'..ss a nd Ih " ,:lIy presents a number s\ e madein ord er to sa tisfy hIS ' .''' I ukmale for and nature o f e e~ISI?n )r makin the wor k as cOheSIV(' ,IU " in ts a nd othe r se lf-im posed cn te n a fc ibl notes that he cvcutuull ' nn . f . g) as POSSI e . . 'I . .. I (aesthetica lly san s y Ill h f d tha i Slopp ing to ft ' ( III tuus rca 50) where e earl' I I ' n-uched a point (about m ea sure hi 10 lose some m omentum , an t SII ) ' 1, hi, tho ughts in word, would cans~'t~":'t int erruption . Il l' mainta in, t:'~" :" ( m-n tly composed 3 5 m easures ~'iI 0 I led measures d iffered From I 1.11 () ,'ompOSitiOnal strategy for provid ed a pro tocol , and "' ;" IIII' previous 50 mca~ures or w ;~:ide a protocol m ay well alte~, """ ( IS I tha t "the requireme nt to P des cri b .. (Sloboda P: 1.1(1). l III ' cs . . trying to es cn e , f I ru Itt u entlrely. the process on~ .ls I sio ns from his ex pe rience 0 , } ISloboda draws three t, despite th e detail 11(' provided ' I f the composrnon. Irs vrding a pru toco or .d ga rd ing the co mpositiona I c IH lin..'s, m.''ldp. I, ;, protocol stili leit much unsa r h re t the process, he ten ded to us t S"n llld, he reported tha t th,ro ug ~Uts for continuati ons, try ing In " " ( ll~ written m ate ria l as sta rttng pom . I F' a lly he sugg ests that "an ""1"'" . . " fi " th e ea r lie r matcna . III , , ,. one's nn-dium -. r outmuntions " " . I kil l is a degree o f t rus t '" '. I I ' h t.uu co mpone nt of com.posltlOna s 'f eneratiun will yie ld man-n a w ll ~
o~qu~st,"ns
H~
~he nn~~\er~~Phad
addltIona.l .concl:~
1".';:"';'
i,
" " ','a inty that th e ha b,tua l !,(oc~~~i ';.;;venheless, Siobodn vi..w, p,ot:",:': I~ rid iption ll'r th an s~~~ rliS~; s;e d"sn as one "a n first es senthl _ p ' in understa nd ing any cOlll p lcx 1II1 II .1 IlInn -ss" (p. 1:i8).
1I"""rliral l'mprrlivl'
.. . the "",sp" a t,,, ,," , ~ t I 1' \ of
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",,,,,,i
1 ~lytllrlltlX il (/1 1-111111,1111/011.1
o/Afll.r/rll I I Jdlrlvior
('0l 1l1'0~1'1 ',~ l 'Olllpo~ilioll;d !"l'SOUI"ces a nd pI' Oces~{'s inlo C:l legorie.~ : "1I1l('OI I.~t'ioll,~" all d "("( lilscioIlS. " Ill' suggests lhal
to divide il "typ ical" two u m ad
a
co mposel' emp loys certa in loUg-h' Ull kIlO\Vlt'c1gt" which inclUdes a gt'llt'm l tona l and stylistic knowledge a nd a sr-r of "SUpl'l"Ol"dina te constra ints O il Ionn and d i'ec'; on ." The compo,e, h' ing, hi, 0' he' long-term koo wledge, whk h Siohoda c1as, We, as uncon, cio ns, into p lay while Wo,king wi th an idea fo' a composition and develops it int o a thema tic kerne l for the co mposition. As the composition develops, 'he compose' ap plies cenain 'echniques Irom a repertoire of compositiona l devices to de velop the work into an int ermed i_ ate form which he 0' she, th ro ugh a series ofgoal altem'ions and sub,equenl judgments , ega, d ing its "righ tness," even tually molds Into its final fo,m. Allo",ng for goal alte, ations is importan ' because it allows "discove,ed p rop enies of intennedia'e ' bemes . . . [ro] actually ove'wri 'e originally held goal" so that 'he composi'ion can appear to 'he compose' ge ne ra te its Own momen'um 0 ' 'life,' almost independen tly of his Will" (Sloboda, p. II !)). Detennining 'he ' OU'ces and na'u'e of uncon,cious pmcesses unded)ing a composer's inspiration s is difficult to recall or ascertain; consequently, most co mposers' acc o unts o f thei r compositional processes essen tially an' :lCCOunts of their Conscio us compositional processes.
'0
Emmerso n (l9 S!}), who also recognizes "conscio us" and "unconsc ious" dim en sions compnsees' comp nsi';nnal slrategies, suggests rhat an unde,. "a nding n f a com po'e"s s' m'egies can be useful in co mposi'i nn pedagob'Y. /I•. notes dilTe,en ces betweeo , ra di';on al wti nen
'0
RI~IECr
sOlllld~
,,,,,I
Fmulr/ali/l11\ /~l lb.lrJ ""'IIIt(" I mpfll1!l'.l' filioll. 1111(/ (,'olll/ltI.I' il ilJ lI
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. ) l M. S!. ' .S 1"01' dl '( ' IS\O Il1 (un con scious IIII. '1Ia :-;('d {conscious, II'al.I~~'~ 1 I . 11 .11l 1 '~~ltive Ihl: mod el. lfth c TE ST ph ase a 'slil oull' as a resu lt of th,' T I'.S I ,pllilM' O . -ven thou h it migh t violate SO Ill ::' " decisirm to II EIN FIlI IC I·" I,,: REpT:Rrom E is ex tend•. " :" ' ha,cd system . 'hc Emmerson suggests tha t ,,... "0 ' I · . 'I ble for usc in N h W AC . h d usic psychologists nm "n • •rvm a f NE W ACnO NS need researc an . .rat sound "r ight." II ' 1'l!Ut'l\ces 0 • ' . lar action or stra el:::J/ , \\,1,11 to a nalyze wha t makes a p~rhc~ . I- "th e sole arbiter or taste renunn I .uuions tha t th e T EST • phase IS cn uca
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,i9" 88 pp.
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at e h t eflects Emmerson •s elabo ran-c 11101 I' \ hu.l rl . w hiICh was "Widely . •• V I). exem pl ifies a com pos iuon t a ., e rs seem ( 0 find a certain .... "'1".' l a-rdah] observe s tha t expene~ced hst~n_a s found wh en liste ning to se-ru ln-usibility in U M arleau that. IS not .al\: v~rk construc te d accor d ing 10 rh
works. Ostensibly, th e wo rk IS a sen a to' Lerdahl, Boulez ulso "sha !,I" d. of se rial composition. b~~ ac~or ~ng both his 'ear' and vario us 1I1la( I", ma teria l more or les~ intu:~~c1)'~~~:hl contends th at "' he d ..W" " " lil lI ' S
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kuuwledged constraints then , depend, no ' 00 s.. ' :a.1 which Lt Marltau IS com pre d to that organiza tion {pp. :l:~ . b ut on what the coBm pose r addc ',Ilion I actu ally emp 1a ye d two kinds o f 1III1,{/m !.gu mI I d hi sueuests tha t a u ez .. I orammar. "cousclous .cr . a composing 00 U t u: a combositiono Le . bot h t h e eve ntsb"of the piece ;'1I l( I. ' III.'II II/ilrJI In d by h m ar eoa ted Roulez, t at ge ner I'mll oye I I 'ng grammar. more or less UI1COII S('IOI1'.1 wrial organization ... land a lS ( m. -ntal represen ta tion s of till' 11II1SI(~ employed by auditors, th.a tdgenc;d~~s t;:erul es of se ria l composition :l1H1 h i (I " 'J'J) Thus Boulez re lie on 0 U t U I , L" ' . • " g Le inar fa . "xp" n,'once as a listen er III crca f III , m pom y co m position is that '10 1111' ( '011 I I1 1\ fund a mental problem 0 con e co mpos ition). whil-h I,t'll a 1 I'" , iliona l b'Tam ma.es nf to rules o f H" "n ing gra,," ' ' '' input orgalllza hon, may ea I ' h he te nn s " heard Sl r l r( tlll t. .~,. nstcai,,'s w H C . .. and othe r inturt lve co d ' th at thi ' .S " I 11,11S ga" p between the two gra llllll.l hi 23 4). He co nten s . . e ither to c:rt'.,It~ anc ' 1 (I.•." a • p. . . . "Ieadmg compose" .a ". Iivor ces meth od from mtm llon'l " , "no com positio na l g ra lll ll1 ; 11 · tl ' C.(J( l' OJ WI k 'th their own " pn. v,l W ll r ' WI . I . It" ( ) 2:15). . r o nality at th e tur n 01till' Iwt 11 " nol e, Iha l ..with ,I... ,.xl"""';' ;': 0 ' land] com po 'er' n.'"..... d b. . I1I ce.,ll tI Icy. ''lIlytbin,L;" 1ll' I',111U' oi l ) t ......(p. ",.. 'J'1 1)). l ie suggests th a t sud lid .. , IPO~! " lIllllll1arS . ve'ltinf their own ('II1 II IIlISIIII Ill,1 I" ." 10 believe Illt'ir OWIl Splt'l1 ~ '" 0 . .. II v·. """I" I'"~ '1>h' . 1ll~ now appt'ar tlI t 'I't ' Iy ,II I II " " " 'lV 3 n l 'I'a n lt, :H' 1>l bt' IH ' i t 11\ I ' , ' ,, the wave 01. tht, I'II IIII 1' , ,Su I II 1"'1 \111111 ",.) , Ii all IIll'thmls . 1Il ( I sty II "S,'II"' I I " ,, 1,,·,,·.1 ,,,,,.) .•" "., lI"a ry. "T ill.' ava nt-ga ll I' 1,1\ ' 11 11 " ( I 'I . III). II I' ('a ulio ns young t"l1I1I1' 1I, a Val'1ll I) I( · t ll •'1 IlO int 01 t 00 111 I I
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l ill I 11111111 I,ll itlllillfo:l .umnars a nd dep end ing so lely O il " intuitive O lllstrai llls"-I'; 11 all d !l"hll. II I' alF-tlt'S that composltioua l grammars 'In' ne cessary for C O lll P 0:->t° I.\, h U I tha t tlu-y shou ld lak e into acco unt m usica l pt-·f·
ccpnon and cog nit ion . which art' cruicul va riables in devel oping liste ning gra m mars: Co m p o sit io n s m ust lx- comprehe nsible to knowle dgeab le liste n
crs. For Lerda hl, co m pre hen sibility "is a fl('(:cssa ry if not sufficient co nditi on for va lue" {p. 255). H e goes o n 10 make two claims rega rd ing the aesthetic of com position :
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I. The b est mu sic utilizes the full pot enti al of our cognitive reso urce s. The be st music arises from a n alliance of a compositiona l grammar with the listening gram mar. (pp. 255-256)
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Simont on's ( 19 80 , 1984, 199 .t) co ntent ana lysis of compositional creativity ill ,179 classica l co m posers' melodies supports the view that "aesthe tically sueces sful" co m positions must be co m pre hensible to listene rs. Employ ing ;I m ethodology called historiemetry, wh ich invo lves testing hypotheses about human behavior "by app lying qu antitative analyses to data co ncern ing histonca l individ ua ls" (Simo nto n, 1990, p. 3), he co m puter ana lyzed the first six 1I0 h'S of 15 ,6 18 themes of classical co m posers' works listed in Barlow a nd f\IOlW' lIstern's (1948, 1976) the m atic dictio nari es. H e ca lculate d a melodic oril!JlIrllil)' va lue fo r each the me; melodic originality was defin ed as tilt' "itIVt'l'St' o f the mean probability fo r a ll five {two-note] transitions for each tln-nu-" (Simo nto n, 199 4, po :'\4),9 Simo nton ( W!J7, Pp- 107-122) co nv eniently summ a rizes h is major find ings as tlu-y relate to "aesthetic succ ess," which is his term for repertoir e P OP ll ~ lurit y. H is objective indicato rs of ae sthet ic success, based on co mputer-gt'nt'rated melodic origina lity va lues, re vealed that "t he popularit y of a co m po · sition is a ll inverted back wa rd s-] fun ction of o riginality" (19 97, p. 111),10 111 essen ce, if melodic o rigi nality is ex tremely low or ex tremely high , the co m position seems to be less popular in the classica l repertoire than works 1'01' which m elo d ic o riginalit y is in the midd le ra nge , i.e., original eno ug h to Ill' interesting 10 a kn owledgeabl e listener but no t overwhelming. II Obviously, ot her va ria bles such as co mpose r e mine nce, musical form [e.g., instrument a l \t'rS11Sch()ral, ch a m be r versus o rche stra l}, and o ther co m posi tiona l a Uribut(,s
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. . ) . ,.,,11Ht'll t't'l,ar tknl ar wu rks . ' 1I1'1 lity ma y . I' U od,'ina lity va riatlo ll, lIwlllt Ill l~ , Ilo win 'Tfor the t,ffc('ts oftht'sl' va nI n " co I ' ' I tlli,, ' I' Vt'll a M t tl 'It his l,,'plliarit y in the c ;l ~SIC 11'1" . . , ',' uh cr stud ies, Simoutou rt'pt~r S o lo 1 . !'o I II l [p ri ari ly melodic or ib'l lla hty, Jilt I " , " lost of which he add1l t'!iS! " I ,t ',. '("t'SS p n m I ' tl IIhll'l livl' measures of a,'sl u-t u Sll( . .. - ri rinality) co rre1atl' postnvc y ~"' I I liry va riatio n and metri c () g . 'bO Hy H e sum ma n :lt's: III \I ongtna I , 0 Of! _. , ami listener nccessr I I , 1I II 'U ~lll'es of aes thetic Slgn l rcan ce tble and j·et significant CO Ill ' th si if ant an d accesSI , I '1 pupular works must be. bo !>'~I IC ri 'inality and oribrinality variati.'lIl w :~ ~ III"ili lIlIS score high In melo IC 0 7hcse same the matic attribut es. fh e pl ,t l " I t,,;.'.ihlc compositions score ow on ; re resents the compromise uetWt't'1\ rue lil\vertcd backwardsJl cu~,'c ~I PO~itiOI\S with a moderate alllO~11\1 of Ih,'M'\ WO contradictory ten~enClI~s. ,. ~ ti~n will be aesthetically siglllfll'ani fly and onb'lna tty "ana ') lIwlodic ongma I . ibl (Simonton, 1H97. P: 1B wilhollt being 10 0 in uccessr eo , Ii I pe rspective that at'sllll'11 , d ta support the t h eorc tea 1 and lislt'IlI'1 III , hOft. Simonto n s a , must cons ide r b oth strllctura "Illy Sl1 ccessful com posttlOn O
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sitiona ! Ilr{)I'I~SM s. b I counts 0 cornpo F W Il give n the lim itations of ver a ac com posers' report ed approadlt'S h logy o f co mllos ilio ll. pOI I', 's (1995) rcview o f 12 contempo rary h .' to th e psyc 0 ., , I II Inwr In tlllllpositio n offers some lIlSI~ ~ I~an and stru ctu re th eir wo rks- I hol ~ ~t':' u "hrly regarding how com pose . P hi h is based o n scveral source s: (.I) 1l: ,Il'I'c1ics heavily on FlIlm~rh's r~vlec'o",;.,wpo~~rs~Dennis Karn and SIH'rwl:I~)I<1 ' ·ews Wit two _. s- A nd rzej Panufuiik- (0 sb 01 irue , , 0 0 ' , h l ~ pel"son a I tnte rvi sl ' tfcr: (b) arti cles ab out comp"o~cr B 19 81)- (c) composers o wn '1, 1,' ~ ,', 1( 87) and Sir Michael f lppett ( owen ,. _ s,~ve Reich (1!lIiH) a nd , ml 0 • 'tio na1 srrategtcs-' . . l'lIl l lished accounts of their compos~r hed acco unts of interv iews With rmu Illlht:l"t Erickson (1!l9,t) , a nd (d) pll ( ~s' ) Elli o tt C a rt e r {F.d wa rds , ~.! )7 1 ; " ,-G len n Branca {G agne, 1.193 , (g , Moravec, 1 !)!)~) , \ \' Ilold 1989), D avid DelKTre1d,ic,i \!)H7), alH' , (V 1975) ar l e lO 1. l ,llttlstawskl arga. I,tllllis Xe na kis (Za plitny. 'i~7~) , H.' vit'w [('vcal s th at different ("(l IHpn~I~:l s. As m ilTht b e cXpt·c!(·d , ·u nu r s ... USt' m o re th an one strategy- 01 o . I so ltU' (OOlllpll SI r~ , . . I 'S 0 1 dilTert'nt slratcgJ.es alIt . , ' , I, ,'rt>ating "entnetnc s lalli , f 'k It ' ll 11I'1411l'i Y . 0 . , ,ol(ump h., And r1.ej Panll llI ' 0 \ I .. " 01k for his m el od ic, harIHon K,. a lll d, '~il4lls, which pro vitlt ' a :, ktol: o\u 1.'1ll:'17ill" tl ..'i a n enginl'l' r a nd ;lfdutt·('t, 11, \'thmic conn·pls. l "l1 llt~ XI'II,I"I '" ,' ,. ,l lll lln 's~es fro lll tlworie s of ploh· I " . s 1l 1111 1111 \ 1 1"111 ,' l , . 11-I1I'i his Ctllll POSllltlllS II I ,,', ,l lnuit O " li d St't tht'o, y, , 1, I ' IV 111,11 1" 11"1 • /,,\' \" ISI ' W .Ib llity, c"h:ll \ \lS, g:t ll I lI ll ' . , ,,li n ' Will\.; hl'furt' s\ arti n~ a {"ll\ll . (;11 '1111 HralH'a l-lllIll ' p t '\Il Il , ' ~ ,Ill
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tlon . thu s l'lla hli lllo: him 10 1lI.dlll 1l lll .. "( ;t'stall" of the work throughout till' co m pos itio na l pm t'I'S!!, I\ a d lll'illl ~ h lt k h a llse ll a lso plans th e overall str uctun- o f a co m position prior to h( 'lo:illn ill~ actua l com pos itio n. a nd he re ma ins faithfu l 10 his plan s until tilt' work is completed. Sir M ich ae l Tippett stun-s th at he usua lly begins by " mapp ing (lilt" an entire compositio n. includ ing lhl' len gt h and fo rm al structure. In th,,' actual co m positio n process, T ip pen involves himself physically by sing ing man y of th e so unds as he co m poses. Ellioll Carter begin s with a gene ra l p lan for the overall wo rk. but lndicau-s that he has "ma ny of the details of th e loc al even ts o nly very ge nerally ill mind " (Ed wards, 1971, P' 104). Carte r also assign s instru m ents a "c ha rac te r type," with each reflecting its own person ality. This use of instru ments to suggest character or persona lity usuall y ev o lves a fter a work is underwa y. C a rte r also no tes that he som etim es sketches o ut possible so lutio ns 10 prob h-mati c situatio ns until he co mes 10 a so lution that satisfies him . The lat e Polish co m pose r W itold Lu toslawski began with an o verall COil ccption of a work and developed wha t he called " key ide as," which we-re ba SI'S fo r the ov era ll co mpositio n. Key ideas may include melodic themes. formal ideas, a particular or de r, some te chnical pro ced ure, o r a pa rticu lar sOllo rity o r ha rmonic entity. Both the ov erall co nceptio n and th e ke y id ('a ~ wcu- IIl'ressary befo re Lutoslaw ski b egan a wo rk. I)('llllis Kam ini tially plan s th e fo rm al struc t ure o f a co mpositio n, w hic h Ill' nsunlly co nside rs in relatio n to p revious an d /or forthcoming compositio ns ill unh-r 10 n eal", a larger structure. H e tr ies to m ain tain the integrity of the in i liill formal stru cture, but occa siona lly alters it during th e co m positio na l plOn ·ss. Ka m uses co lo rs. visua l images. and titles as unifying ideas for mall}' uf his compositions. Certain aspects of his co m positio ns are "modular " and mar ap pe a r in more than one composition. Fulmer no tes tha t Kam re porh th at the co m positio n's preplanning stage ofte n is more exciting than ac tua lly comp osing the work an d suggests that because Kern's co m positions us ua lly art' inte rconn ected with ot he r co m positio ns, "his m usic is a co ntin ua l g"' IWI' a live process" (p. H). David Del Tred ici co llec ts noteb ook s of periodicall y occu rri ng m usir ;d idt'as, tht'l1lt's. and pattern s, to which he th en rehlrns in search of ideas fill' a 11I'W work. Il l' no ll'S th at th e process is analogo us to havin g a group of non rdalt'd words thal ne ed o rga niza tion inlo senle nce s to mak e sense. Similarly, ht' lIIusl o rgan ize his mu sica l fragm ents to make se nse of them. a p ron 's ~ sO Illt'whal ak in to fitting pieces o f a puzzle together. Del Tredici (:o mpo sl~ s OIt th,,' piano; any orche stration occurs only after co m pletio n o f th e work. Roue rl Erkkso n's co mpositio na l pror ess is ua s"'d primarily lIpon hi'l n 'lIIl'mbran ("e of nonlllll .~ icnl so unds, wh idl hI' ("nlll'c ls, n Hnuincs, and 111l'1l It'l·lllll bim's in a Illuskal co ntex t. O lln ~ a SOlilU I (·:lptlll"I'S his i n lt'r l' ~l . Ill' illlagirlt's ho w III' r ail \l SI' il ill varic'
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Comp o.fil ion Theory
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iug , am i compm iu",l, hili 11lC' I'lI ' w lll dlscu sslon is lim ited In app lication rela ted 10 mu sic {:o lllpmltlllll ' Il l'utlcl"s interested in pu rsuing resea rc h on ,\I and mu sic pro cessing otln-r Ihan rumposition should consult mil' or mo re 0 1 the following ex cellen t SOIl IH'S [ltaiu ban , Ebcloglu, & Laske, 1!)!J:l; Cla rke ,'i: Emme rson, WH!J; l 'n-ssing , I!IHH ; Smith, Smaill, & WiSh'ins, W!H ), Balaban , Ebcioglu, and La ske (1!J!):l) suggest that major differen ces t'xi1i1 betwee n traditiona l AI resea rch and AI an d music. They note th at m odeling mu sic cognition is fraught with d ifficult ies, particu larl y give n tha t th e rd" 1 once do ma in of m usic is difficult to define. Even if on e focuses on tl\l' processes of mu sic composition, th e contex t for the processes remains c lu sivc. For example, what is being modeled : Creati ve processes? O r problem solving processes? How do es the aesthe tic ente r into the model ? Are we C Oli cerned with modeling cogn itive processes underlying compositi on o f trad i tion al western tona l music, various contem por ary musics, oth e r mu sics III tilt, world, m usic of popular cu ltures, or all of the above? O bviou sly, initial efforts to model compositional processes via A I and mu sic technolog y an d th eory required setti ng parame ters. Bala ban , Ebri0Hlu, a nd Laske (1992) use the term compositional theory to "deslguuu- ;L IIt' W discip line of m usic re sea rch orien ted towar d a n empirical thcory I I I composit ional p rocesses in mu sic" (p. HU), An outgr owth of com puter appli ,·..tions in m usic, the theory is cons idered e mpirical because it is based Oil !'1111Iiri{·:11data rega rding the men tal processes of composition as indi cated ill Il 1lll pust'r s' think-aloud pro tocols, retrospe ctive re ports, a nd other doni nn-uts monnorl ng and reporting actio n sequences of mu sicians engaged in rcnupuu-r-uidcd composition. Tradi tional co mpose rs' personal sta teme nts. 01 '1 Iq llll"lt'd in the preceding se ction, are considered a necdotal and thu s imuhClIl,lll' as a found ation for com positional the ory as a scientific disciplint' (p, HU ), f\losl A I models for m usic co mposition also are lim ited not onl y by lh,' llIultifacl.-'tl'd co nstraints \•.rith which composers must deal, but also by th .. nalul"(' .lII d stylistic limita tion s of the musical genre a give n model sl-'e ks II I 1'lIl11 latt' and the ca paci t)' of the com puter system and prob'Tam s_Also, SCJ!IIl' IIlllch'ls app ea r to be developed for gaining insight into the processes IIncll 'l Iyillg lhe com pos itiona l pro cess, whereas oth ers appear to be developed 1'0 1 u-'" in ge llt'nlling compute r-assisted mu sic com positions, Rega rd less of Iii" llIodd's motivation , eac h model offers insight s int o the process o f IlIU1ii t t"t lluposition . A few mo dels arc noted b rit'Oy here to provide a n indie'lliu ll o f lilt' directions and extent o f work in the a n 'a , llall lil iho a nd Ganascia' s (1!' !J.f-) emphasis on musical memory's ro le in l!II,il 111l 11 lt,1 ,)f {'ol11 pc)sitiollal tasks revealed two basic p rob lem s: (a) Iht, prohll'lll ,.1 d, 'fining anc! building "Illllsic'll me mory " a nd (b) ~ti ll i l1g informa tioll I'rc lill t'xpt'rts n 'g;m ling how 10 rt'lrit've, modi fy, ,lIld lit t'vt'lIls from IlllIsical llH 'III11 I } into ,I h'iVt'lI Illuskal
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. I ' \lIt'S ultv in e xpl't'SSIll ~ I It, r 'IT: , I ' VI' e n- at {II IIC- J I I' , 'd ly , they no l ,·tI .1. ''11 tll " '11t ~ ,III \ \.1 l'" ' ·'aos l)rt IVU' Iu, . c'•\l U U JI )I' ( lit I " UII II, I I ' I Ih, ' l\Iks mUSiC! , .. I _I ' lso rvcog»cdly use ,II \! I '" , " ( H ~) I heir mo< t .1 · m II,, ')' ~npP\ , a compnlational l'u ll l\ails p· . ' :n m ud d devdoPUll'IlL te l is a majnr t'ollside rat1011,1, I _b -eu de vt'!op, -t! lllh'IIl"'te( Ill , I I I · t n\Uslca con ex . . u sItton ra ve t m P tl llt " I I.'I(I'IU'I) no tes that modt'!s of mU SICco mtlally stochastic {"outexts . '. -ontexts- Esse , I ' , In lH'SI ' . n .I stir a nd nonstocIrasu cC ktoa" while /Ion..doc msuc (on "'1 .::;:1 ,.\:t\~~s:~cal b ases for some "'decision-7:r:li~;s for dccision-ma~ing',1 Ic 11'\ . I 1 rithms or sets of rules as gu, .1 di S' th e essen tial plOp· II !lIs III VO ve a go f fracial models in composmg m e o also de scribes tWCI ,1,'_' rilles th e use °od l ' If-similarity {jones, P: H~~») .l e -h i h he consi{it'rs 'lh' IIf a fractal m e ~s sc mmars an d L~techlltqlles, w lC , . • t hniques, space gra d 1 .." urswc ec. ene raling self-sim ilar mo e s~. . xa m ole of music· tlullllwl'l"f\ll tools tor ~ 's (1992) C)'berneticcomposer IS an e 's~"staJl{t.lf{r' jau. , AlIIl'S al~d. l~o~100 HHi). Able to comp ose in four genre ac ce ss several dif· "It'll'· em p'fl C1Sm d(P. mim e the cybernetiCcomp ose r can . 'be strucHlft,tL ' " 1"1. "1. roc k an ra odl h W pIeces may 1 , I nuu ,1. , -, '~ each genre regar mg 0 backgrou nd chon s, lo' Wtlt models each genre have four layers: solo p\a;:;lcs for jazz, rn{~k, ami I II M'm ules for d becau se th e instru menta .\1 · f Ifill' interd drums, an ' s the I usron tJ · luI'S IIlles, an 'ined "the pro gram often gIVe avs" ( ). IK7), 1l11't111l~ arette~~~::s arc' actually going th~ir s~p:ra~l~-:; its ' composition al Wiolr.ganfl, was "deslgne 0 II , by a d;.~llOsitio/l fur 1'l,I y W le n ie -r pro 0PTam, b I ' as we as I \ 1\0\1ie I :ItI grammar 0 mUSIC, , , I {·h'\f:l<:. ' b' . d b y a cu tura . ecific e mol!una . 1'1 lI l't' SS las~ ases such that th ey ex press a sp , a tve n ("( lInpOSI1 1 ;l lt il\~ ml~S1cal ph~992 p . 210). Esse ntially, for ma~l~g n ~defillt-s u sd of h'll\tic {R,ecke~' h:' :nven oTam m atical contex t, \\ 0, gal ,g. qtisfy till' ('\11· ion 0 I d f mUSiC t ta ,,< , wtt m a gr I .s ll.,."1 I {eo from its domain know e ge 0 lsfics \Volfgan K's curl'n, sibll' solUl!o ns then sele cts th e solution that be~t sat otential into a giv" ll , b d a specific emotIve p Illl<11 gnlln m ar and , 'I' n in order to em e 11'111 , oil ' I "l11I'I1SI','Ion . Resear{·h '
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is more o n the pl Ot " '1\ l hl lll 011 IIIl' IIlOcllll'l, and the prima ry conce r n seems to be to p rovid e chil du-u wit h IIpplillu nilit·s to ex plore and structu re so und" into a m usica l who II' w ithout tl u- con straints of tr aditio nal not at ion-bawd ap proaches to compos ition. i\lmt a pproaches a llow child ren with little forma l musica l tra in ing 10 IIS(' va riou s instru ments (often pitched a nd n o n pitched percu ssio n instruments] a nd co mputer-generated so unds to e rec t.. mu sic individually o r in gro ups , Along with this movemen t has co me a limited a mount of research regard ing ch ild ren's co mpositio n, Essentially, this rese arch is ethnogra phic: Th e data pri m arily a rc based on more o r less sys tematic o bservation of child re n's co m positional p ro cesses and strategies , obse rvations of intera ctions amo ng studen ts wo rking o n group co mpositio ns, studen t reco rd s, int erviews, and the compositions themsel ves. A bri ef account o f some typica l studies follo ws, Stauffer's (1999) five-yea r longitudi na l study of child re n's co mpositio n revea led that the y d evelop un derstan ding o f musical ele men ts and styles, lea rn ho w to crea te both affec t and effect in thei r o riginal wo rks, and, par· nculurly for older ch ildren , develop functional understanding of no tation and symbols, Computers a nd appropr ia te software facilita ted child ren's musica l k-umi ug primar ily th rough repeated opportu nities to manipulat e musical ell" uu-n ts in musica l co ntexts deve loped by the child ren the mse lves . \-Vith expl" rk-uco, th e child ren ca me to co ns ider themselves composers and "beca me i ucrcuslugty fluent a t developing ex pressive ideas in th eir music" (Stauffer, p. ! , :~ ) ,
.J USl a .~ for imp rovisa tio nal ex pe rie nces, collabo ra tive experience appea rs ln: all im portant m ode fo r learning th ro ugh com positio n, and sev era l n -...r-arcln-rs have studied some effects of stu dent collabo rative effo rts (c.g. Hamilt on . :WOO; Midi & Ma cD onald , 20()O). Hamilton o bserved th at peer inu-racuon se rved two fun ctions, o ne positive (furthering a nd sharing knowl('dge ) a nd o ne negat ive (distracting from learning). M iell and M a cD on a ld exa min ed the ro le of friend ship among chi ld ren in volved in co llaborative co mpositio n a nd found that co m m unicatio n patterns differed be twee n children wo rking with friends a nd child re n wo rking with nonfricnds. Also, n-achcr ra tings of the final co mpositions p roduced by frien ds we re signiflcuntly hig he r tha n for those produced by nonfrien ds. O tlH'r resea rchers (e ,g" Burn ard, W !W; Kratus, 200 1; Younk er, 19!)H) haw fonlst·c! more o n child re n's processe s and strategies fo r co mpos itio n, as \...·1..·11 as f" clUrs in nuendng the pron 'sses and strategies, Burn ard found that 11ll' instru men t \lst'd in co mpo sing a nd the ch ild's h'Chnica l ability O il Ihat instrumen t inlluenccd the nature of tht, co m pt)sitiunal p roce ss a nd prod lll't. Kratlls uhs(·fVt·d that mdnclic co n fib'1lra lio n (a nd tin' lltlllll H' r of ha rs ava il ah lt· O il an O rll" xy lo p holle lIst'd in cr eating t ill" nllllpO."lit ion s) inlluenn 'd t ill' tillle spl' nt (' xpl ori ng d u ril\~ th(' ('C 1Illpositi' lIlal lll I li T ' S alltl tlu' nllllposilio ns' 10
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Summary . I d th e follo wing: 1 I ajo r points of this chapter lOCu e ' de essential stim uli for a\ lIl li" v1 te m . and erfo rm an ce pro cre atIOn P . 1 ' II , Mu sica\ , h the muu gUll ' 'I Illusical behavtct''. , h om otor behavior, were . " \ erform ance IS P S} c 'l, f., 1\1SIC3 P cc mediulll, .lIlt l la n the muscles. , ,th the perform er. perfo m , techniques vary \S I :1. l'rachce . ' . , rh 'sical pra d in~ . mu sical sltuatlO~' ay be beneficial in co nj un.ctl0 n Wlt~ ~ti1e inta{'l n W ,1l1 I . !\I('nta \ rehears a m like ly th an n oVIces to pr a . t erformers are mo re rror . 1 ~. Lxpe r p . l s gmen ts in response to an e '" it e ntails purpos\'1 1I ingfu\ musica se . 1, oing ove r th e mUS1C, I Practice is m o re th an slmp) g h. , al goals ' . gwen plan n lO~ for mlls~Crtise is b eyond just pl~ying ~r s:~~~ nw a ningful lllllSi 7 l't'rform ance exp 1 y abs tractlOnS, asc , 1 " t erfo rmers m ay emp 0 K, 1'.xpCI P .. t,."ctu H'S wh ll I . gs 1 cog mt lve s . ( al gro up m f ' mu sical pe rformancc IllVO ves di and Ilnpruvisatloll 'I , l:xt'ClltlO11 0 a rizc d p erformance , sigh trea mg, r m '\y shap" II am ong m em o 'cal stnlctll re () , val'Y , 0 rna)' arise from roUSI . rural ( o nu'pllo ns, ' I 'cal expresst O st their stru c \ \ , , patte rn s may sugg e al und sitllatllllhi 10 l~ USI , . ,I ' marry Illusical , p erson a " 1\ , 1'('1form ers' practice xlety \s nDIIll. , ' ance I',l, I'elform an ,I conllOl pt'lvariables inl1uenet' 1t. " . t' I '11,,1 goal seHing m ay he p • r \ re )araliol1, a n tlCl IM 1111 • • • 1:\, Cart' II P l . , ' " , ' , th t, )erfon llt'r ~ fOrln an ct' anx ld) . . 1'1111 I ' ~ III p•.IIOII11 '1\l n · a!lxlc') IS lilelmllsic. to mall Y U\ '" . ' I \f ntlw r than . I I, C( l~l~~'~.~: ("I)l\t'l' ntrali.lll ' 111 11;1' ,,, ,\1 1'1 , .:r~;.' '111)" Ollt' pt'rfon n,1I1U' in 1' (' 1" l'XCc SS! \"1'1.1111' 0 • . ' lieI'd to P \'. It \( , till' 0"111•• I,r; , pt'r ro n n crs 111" .,'1 , l ' l t·att·lI ' Iwd ivc ill .-dat io n \ 0 \ ," 11 11\ 1ll '1111 ~ l11'I!'onllan ('l' o f I\('W ) ( , , h' l ' ~ 1" " ''''1'''111 IIi, hnpro vis.1 liol1 m Vll ' '1'1
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m usic, IZ Improvisation ill \ \'(' SI ('l'1I art mu sk reached its peak during th e ba rOlJlll' era. 18 . Today, m ost people assoclutc improvisation with ja zz. 19. Impro visation invo lves a co n tin uing series o r h ig hly com p lex insta nta n e o us n eurol ogi cal p rocesses. 20. Skilled imp rovisers deve lop a vas t "reperto ire " of n eu ro logica l CO Ill U't · tio n s that m ay be triggere d durin g the improvisa tion proce ss. 2 1. Con co m ita nt with th e dev elopme nt of th is repertoire is th e development o f movement patt erns for o vert realiza tio n o f o ne's im p rovisations. 2 2. Pr essing maintain s th a t an y m ode l o r improvisation sh ou ld e xp lain ho w people impro vise, how they d eve lop imp ro visational skills. an d th e III i gin of th e n o vel b ehavior. 2 ;1. T he ess e nce o r most j azz improvisa tion is th e m elodic lin e . 2 ·1. S tu dies sh o e... that reli able eval ua tio n s o r improvisations in re latio n In p articu lar criteria are p ossibl e. 2oS. C ollaborative im provisat io n is em ergi ng as an im portant ap p ro ach III te ach ing m usic an d ot h er co llaborative beh aviors to chi ld ren. 2 1). Im p ro vi satio n and co m p os itio n d iffer; an imp rovi ser has constraints 0 1 immedi acy and fluen cy an d must ac cep t the first sol u tio n th at a ri.~I " , wherea s it com poser m ay rej ec t so lutions un til h e or sh e find s om- thai seems b est for a given p urpose . '1.7, Fo ur ap p ro ac h es to stud yin g compos ers' com p os itio nal processes iuclud- : (u) exa mining sketch b oo ks, (b ) exa m ini ng wh at co m p os e rs say nlx uu their co m p os itio ns, (c) obs erv ing com p osers' in -p ro cess co m position , an d (d) o bserving im p rovisatory pe rfo rm an ce . :.:!H . Exa m ina tio n o f p roto co l d escrip tio ns seem s 10 be an imp o rtant step i ll un dersta nding the comp lexit ies or co m p osition. ~.w. Two broad stages o f com p os itio n are insp ira tion a nd exec u tio n. ;i O. M os t co m p os e rs' compo sitiona l strategies in clude con scio us and 1lI H' 0 11 scio ns d im e ns ions. :\1. Theorists s ugges t th at com p os ers m ust em p loy bo th com positio n a l um l liste ni ng h'Tam mars . :t l , Acconllng to Le rdah l, th e best music uti lizes a listen er' s full co!-o'l liti"" potentia l. ;l:t S im o nton's historiometric analy se s o f cl assica l co m p o se rs' th l'I1 W\ re vealed th at co m p os itions with e xtrem e ly h ig h o r lo w m elodi c ori ~ ill , l l ity a n ' Olcst het il~ a ll y less success fu l th an co m p os itio ns with mid dl e · ra ll ~ '" llH'llldic origi na lity. :l l. ,\ re\' il~w o f co m posers' descri p tio ns of th l'ir t:(nn pos ilio llal stralt'g il's .' IlJJ. g:csts th at 0 111' lllay i1 1111l"t lac h fl llll llos iticJJl rn lm varilllis pe rs pl'cl ! V c ' ,~ , ;is. COlll pos it io n al tlwo l)\:1I1 o utgr o wt h o f wOI'k ill m m ic anI! a rtificia l ill l..!
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Refe r ences . ser: An ove rview- III 1\1. . M (1992). Cybernetic com pos . . 'th AI' J'm /lff/ i l'r,1 '\11 1" '1, C ., & DOIllino, ' 0 La ke (Eds.l Undmtandmg mu.U( W I . 1 K Fb d og1u & . Las ' CA Th AAAI Press. I\'lla );11.1, • .' . (pp ' lX6 - 20S). Menlo Park. :.d e !\l A. Harvard U niver sity ml III/HIC cogmtwn . d di t ' ar)' of music. Cambn ge. . . >I" W. (l!I.H). Hon or It IOn • " d d . Conal lIll'aSure llll'n t. 111 S, " Il ' SS. . I hology an e uca I , ,) S ' , 1 ' (1983). ~lotivatlO na psyc d t ~" l testing (pp :.W -'\· . ' ,1 I ~ I I ' S(ln , . J. II . ' Helmick (Eds.). On e uca ' 0"'" 1\ Andl'rson & J. S. • . ," (hili,, ' IIJ I l illl, isco:J ossey·Bass. . I . 1 perspectives on Sawyer s Id t ,I S. Pry 10 1\ III ' I (1999). F..thn omuslco ogtca . ' II ' . Laske O . (Eds.). (1992). Understanding, IIlIlH( Il'lIh .. . , , \)f;l;i~, 27,207 - 2 11. u 1\ 1IIlllan, M.• Ebd ogl , K.,. ~ 1\' en'lo Park CA: T he AAA I Press. C''''' YCllk f'tn/ .rtlives 011 mU.lic cogJl!tWrL 11(19.\8) A' dictionary of musical thrl1/es. N ' H & Morgen stern . S. . l\.lll.. w. -r., ' /Ju rl/i S (rev. 1" 1.). t \ ow n. S (1976). A dictional)" of opera a1ld SOflg 11 & Morgeo stem • . . 11,11 IIIW . ., , ' ,r dll catimlll l l:0(/[I, N"w York: C rown. .c d " at oblectives: The classijicallO fI oJ ( q - C) 1itxonomy oJ e uta wn J K 111"" 111, H . (I• :l ) . , .... y, rk: D avid Me ay. II ks , II k I' CoW/itivc domatn. rvew ~. Ed ) London: Robson 0 0 s. /111111 Ifil l . ~ Lr ,, (N Snowm an , . . . , ,I 1:2 ' " ' 1 (1981). AfichiU J lppe . . f hlldre n ages h t iroug 1 • 11,,1\ ('11 , " ' 1 d mprcv tsevv'" 0 C 142 77 78 I . T S {199m. T he m e 0 rc 1 rdi Music EducallO II , ' . ' h ','1:.:,~ ,lo~lfl~nta! perspective. CounClI/orc:~~:en's'~mprovisauon and CO ll l \ ltJS II UllI \' (lim!}) Boddv mtennon In thllll,II ' I. . . . . ' 59 174 I ,I Can;llHlI' . I'I~lh"/flgy of M ILI IC, 27, 1. • . D td Del Tredl ci IIlterv lewed by . 01.: ConversatIOn. av (!9l}l) I ', IIl.IHOI' . . I •• • 5 239 -2.')6. . Vol 3 J'/ I, l:uIl lrm/IUTa I)·.MusIC R(lII~' (i:d ). (l 9B9). M USIC, mind atld strllCzur; ·I. : I: J~I AI .1 • I,,, kl', E., & r.o1111er5OO , . (" '0' b ou m e Ed..in Chief). London. arwc At (RLVuw I'l . s ' I :mltrl/lJ!(JTa ry /lSI Siobucla I . I'ubhshers. 1 perform ance. lo]. A. , I , ':UII(,: r (1t)88). Gener atiVl' pnl\ u ples ru ',"'/Is,ca ,( /.er formallce, 1IIl/ITfIIIU IJ /WIl , /1111 1.11 "t' , .. . I 1/I1JU f" J7u /Hyr w II~ r!J J' , \ ) (' f ra /lVr proc(sses 1/ . , ,\ , (1,1 , .rn , .) o -r tI U K: C l,III' !l( 0 11 es . 1 kllo wit'tl W' /wn'III11 (pp. I-:lh . XOl , I t ' physical pr actu e , ,IIH HI ivm ,) Il (1990). [fred s llf n ll'l l t ,1 l'' ,II 1I 1. ~ II . h m M UII ( I~JII ((I llfm , ' , " l h ll, l1l,
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IK7 1% . / . ,r Will IfollhHlI: a/lll rll rnlll,~.• ,.11 I ~ ( 1970), 'l1u rli/l rW/I " " ('l " , I ,,1"'1 '. . . I' . ) NatilllWI .1/a' ldll nJI JM 1" " lItlfl'-ll.IU. \ ,. II '\ " ,,,h,llo,II'1 . (1.1.1 1. r N ' , J\ I\t . ~"111 J 111 , I " , , { In' I ',,"" ll liulII II atllHIOI I, 1 .1 11 ' ,.1"" N'II'UIl;! 1( 1111 ,'U'I . (u ll
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m llUlll , U, S " ....' r.. I'l"u., 1\ II. ( I!IIj.j). liuOTwmy ofrdllrational Ilbjrrlll!rs: I hr dauificalioll of rduralwTlltI J:t>fl/l, hill/tllnwl.. 1/: Affictive domain. r\(' w York: David MlKiIY· 1 I ' 1 1 1 1 ~" I. (:l()OI). ElTt'cl of availal,I., tlllial ity and pitch opti on s o n children's n lllll"l · uth.na l processes and Pl'O(hl(:ls.'/Oll rtlll! t{Resea1ch in MU.l ic Education, 49, :l ! J.l -:~ () Il , I u.luu-, I I. \ V., & Sch affn er, 1', ( W H:~ ), Anxiety, coping strategies, and pcrforuuun-e. III S, II. Andersen &J. S. Helmick (Ed s.), On educational (es/ing (pp. (50- 17·(). San I I,Ulf isco :Jossey· Bass. .. It,, o. (1!J92). The observer tradition of knowledge acquisition . In M . Halahau , K, Ebctoglu. & O . Laske (Ed s.), Undmtanding music with AI: l'm prctiu s on 11/1I.li( IlIK"ition [pp. 25H-289). Menlo Park, CA : The AAAI Pr ess. . 1,'1I(;1Iu', A. (1994). A theory o f music performance anx iety. Quarter!y}OItr1w! IIfMluir /(llthillg and Learning, 5 (4), fiO-68 , I r-ulnhl, E (1988). Cogn itive cons traints on compo sitiona l syste ms, InJ A. SlulJllda (Fd.}, Generative processes in music The psyeholof.!J· of prrformOllle, imlmlViwlitlll, /l1It1 ttml/illIition (pp. 23 1-259). O xford, U K : Clarendon Press. 1 t-lunan, D . (l 988). & l[-po1trait of a j aa. artist:Music thollghts and realities. Roueuhurg, t .ennany: Advan ce M usic. M,u,t 'lla. S. C., & Schmidt, C. F. (1992). On the ap plicatio n of problem n-dtu nou ~l' a rt' h 10 auto mated composition. In M. Balaban, K. Ebcioglu, & O. Laske' (Eel...), t tndrntanding music with AI: PeT5jJeetives on music cognition [pp. 2:1 H-:J.57), i\1" lllo lmk. CA: The AAA I l'r ess. ~ lll' II , D., & M aclronald. R. (:l OOO). Child ren's creative collaborations: T Ilt' iml'0 l lam'e of friendship when working toge ther on a musical co mpos itio n. S(/{'i(ll IJn,r/opmenl, 9, 3 -1H-369. ~ I ' lra vt'c , 1'. (1992). A n interview with D avid Del Tred ici. COnlrmpo1aT)' Musi{ /{rtJinv, 6, 11 - 22 . I "hourne ,!'\. (1984). Panufnik at 70 . Trmpo, 15 0 (September), 1- 10. I'.llmn , C. (19!l7), :\1usic performance. Armual Review ofPsychology, 48, I IS- J:lH. 1'lII lrh l'y, K. C. ( W7:~ ) , Th e effects offeedb ack, models, and rep etilion 0 11 llll' ahility to imp rovise melodies. L'npublis hed doctoral dissertation, T Ilt' I't'llllsylv;lllia Stah' Un iversity. 1','llt'r, (;, (1990). Anal)'zing improvised ja7.Z. Collrgt Music Symposium, 30 (I), (;·1· 7-1 . I'n·..sing.J. (1984a). T he history of classical improvisation, part I (to ((il K)). KrylnJflrfl,
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l'II's., ing:, J. (19H4b). T he hislory of classical imp rov isation, pilrt :J. ( Jj iOO - I ~ ,nll). A'rylwrml , 10 (12), S9- 60, fiS-t i7. l'll'ssilll4, J (l!)HH), Improvisatioll: Mdh llds
' ,\)'11101,11' lilt rfl/Wt!fll iOfI.l flfMII.I;col l lrluwior
" -, " l11 ' wffofm ing Il\llsiri all . In 1. Ill'lii'/o;I' &
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(Ed.), /)ofU1ll",1(/ ,.y /(I'u,' ,~/ 'hf ..11m tld"' r Sym/lIJlil/m (I'p. :-i:t l-:l l) l). Reston , VA : ~ l l l.~i (~ Ed ucarors Nati"Il"l ( 'l llll' ·l l ·lU I ' . Reic h, S. (i! lIiH). AI/Hi( fll II f,' tIIllltil l' rmr,l.I. Nt'w Yo rk: A nti-I llusion C ata log of [IU' \" hilllt,y M useum. Hl'stag no. E. ( I9H9). Jo1!iflll Cartrr: II/ romenation willI Enzo Rt.l'lagno Jor Stll /mlnt All/Jim 1989 (K. S. Wolflhal, tran s.). New Yo rk: Institu te fo r Stud ies in Amr-nc un ~ ll1 si c.
Ik slira l nJlII!J0!>I'rs a nd their compositions. Psychology ofMusic. 22, 3 1-43. xtm onron. D. K. (1997). Prod ucts. perso ns, an d pe riod s: H isto rio m etric anal yse, 01 wlll l'lJsitiullill neativity. In D.}. H arh'Teaves & A. C. Ko rlh (Eds .), Ht .wciul /!\¥ fhl/lIJI:Y lif IlIlLJic(PI" 107- 122). O xford, U K: Oxford Un iwfsit}- I'ress. ~1 ' 1111)(la, .J . A. (19 HS). TIl t TnIlJira l mind: Tht tugnitivr /IJydlOlo~ lif mUJic. O xfo rd , l JK' C IHfl'lIdll l1 I'rl'ss. 'i lu hud 'I. ,I. A. (Ed .) (I!lHH). (;",t ralilJr PfOftJJtS ill mun'e,' nit /I'ryeh/llugr o/ptr[IJrmtltllf. illl/l rlll '/~l(/liIJII, (l1/t1fmll/WJititlll . Ox furcl, U K: eLm'fUloll 1'11""<;.
:\1 1
FtJll lll/afi lH/I "I l 't,' m III/III' f. Im/Jrll/li.lfl l;ofl, und COIII/III,li/io"
~1"hHd ;I , J., &. Ib vid sUll. .1 {I I Ih), 111 } . ... \ d dnJtIIJ/""ml uf 1llUJical (o"'/)el(ll(( , I Slol~(l{la (Ed s.), M lll imi "1J.:llllllUJ.:l: or_/ ~"'J..QI.I I' ."
• 1K' t) t . I Ulllw rslt) rt:ss. ;1: . I (I' p. 171-190), O xfo rd , l ." , "HI: (I" 1-) (19!J.I). Mlu ie education: All atupcm 'l~ \ Sn131'\1. H.. " & \ VI'''III''', ( ,. A. u J.1s. ...... III , ., S ' 'l'r ·Vl'r ago , I '
"I,
1/l/(lIigwft ap/JfU(u!L London : , pnng
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.' g COImcil f IJr Research
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A IWf
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, "Jit/Ia lioll, 142, !J2-93.
.' sic m akin : The pro bl em of pl'rfol1ll' A. .(200l ). (l-:ds.). X/usit and munian : 71/tory ami lllH' anxiety. In P. K jus . 0 f d U niversity Press. '''Irll rfh [pp . 29 1-307). Oxford. U K: xdor. . In It Colwell (Ed.), Il fllldlJIIIIJ. II! ~l lIbll')-. E. V. ( I!J92). P.h ilosophical. foun a~~o2m·. New 'York: Schirmer n oo ks. . t(I({/ TI'h on music teadung and ltarn lll~ [pp. . I ' n of improvised cOluJuCL C.nn h rltll;l', , [) (1978) Ways o( tht hand: 1ne organr;;,a 10 ' w lno\\. . . 'J , MA: H arvard U nive rsity Press. . ' h S khausen (D. Butchart, truns.]. Ox fnrd, ' M (1987). ConviTsollOm WIt toe . l uUW'llIlaum , . U K: C lare ndon Pr ess. . 'cholo' Today. 20 (7). 3'2- :\H. l l l l l l l ' r, 1t. .J . (1986). TIle my~tcry of m~I;:)'dZI. pal~fnik. Ttmpo, 163 ())t·t·I'mht·r). '\ (1987) The ach ievement n I ll l .,t ·U It. £ . • • . '
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7- 1'2. VIII ~il, n .
La
, (1'1- 5) J utoJ
ki
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.Rlt. Wi/old L u/oslawski in convtrSaliolt with /fol",t pro)' . .
Lo ndon : C hester M usIC. ro visatio n: Co mmentary in response tu ' 1 I (' (1" 1)1)) Ed ucal10 n and rnusrca Imp II I ' ( I , • . " . . • -2 14 . . Sawyer. Psychology of MusIC, 2 7, 2(1): At~ention allocatio n and m otivatio n In l1l USIC W"l vnto n. D . T., & ~almon. ~. {~. '~;ilson (1-: d.l. Psychology and /It rformmr. arb (pp. pl'rform ance anx iety. In . ' . Z .11" er '2:11 - 237). Amste rd am : gwcts & :£1 mg . _ ale ries of eight -, c1even-. and four ' "ollnker , B. A. (1998). T hough t proces.~~ an~us=; c:mpositiOIl. Dism tatiOll Ab_d rtll'b tl'l'lI-vea r-old students while engage III n Il/lm~ational, 58 (I I), 4217A.. .-th I is Xc nakis. PtnprctiVt$ of NtW ,\I1I.lie, ,., 1975) Co nve rsation ~ I ann , \ \ ( .11l 1 I 11 , ' . . " I Y (Fall Winter). 86 - 101. n..
- I. .
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/U!r'IIi,t, 1Ii'I/fHli flT.\' and At /Hit' h,I VI' a sign ifica n t fi (Ii".': dur u-n vion: Such "feeling" is aroused b y a stim u lus; t' ~ !>{' ll c e , th e stim u lus 0 PI ' l'alt ' ,~ 0 11 th e perceivi ng organism , This co ntrasts willi the cognitive a nd the psychomoto r. where th e organ ism o pera tes on till' auuulus. Th is is ev iden t in high qualit y musica l p erformance, where the p e rl' lllll t'r m us t employ cogn itive processes to interpre t a co mposition and p syI ht uuotor processes to pl ay or sing , and yet obtain s a se nse o f p leasure from I Wlll g able to make beautiful so un d s. \ Vilh su fficie n t kno wledge , 0111.-' G ill 1'101I IIt'IItly d escribe the climactic an d lighti ng facto rs in vol ved in a SC
Chap te r 8
AFFECTNEBEHA~ORSAND
MUSIC
A ~ p~ycholo1,>ists
become in creasin j ' 0 ' Its vari o us m anifest atio ns ' g y c n cemcd With a ll'ective behaviol ex am p le: \ Vha t is m ean t b . a ec/ se vera l ~t1estions require atten tio n . FUl as affictive b eha vior ? Are Is aesthetic behavior the sa m .. C a n thl.-· affl.-'c tive and aestheti c b III P ~slOloglcaJ rates a ffec tive responsos > Or hil e examm ed fro b h . ., , arc p losophical explan ation s f . ma e avio ral p erspectivl' :> d lapter exa m ines s uch b asic . 0 a.est hetlC ex perie nce sufficien P Th j ~ In
c~an~s .a ndhem~tlOn~
,( '~h:II~.J ('d
to fou r broad topi~s: (a) stu d'. t e proba ble range of affec tive (c1) lllu sica l m ea n ing a n d . . bl y mg affective resp o nses to m usi ' _ I varra es that co n trib u te to .' I . c, a nr m USlca m eanmg . It
d efinitions o f
ccntr;;lu ;;:~s (~) r~ation
h 'I Ht ~rs, (c) So me approach es to
Exten d e d Definitions A'Tt'{·livl.-' responses to . ' m US1C a re large ly 1 'I~tI VI' responses encounter m co.vert, and researchers Shldyin ' any 1I1USll' rognhion 'Ierm d d of th e d Ifficu lties in herent in I d . ~ . s use to escrib fIi ' s U Y lll~ l'?dlOlog ica l Constructs inferred fro e a ecuvo response essent ially re flt'l'I OilS terms and imp lied con I m o bservab le behavio r. Also th e . . s ruc ts Used t d fli , V.II I an' not d iscre te ; d iscu ssions of th u enote a ective response to nUl.\il' 1(I(')i~;~ ~llld indi scrim ina te applicati:: :;~hco nfo Ul.l(Jed further by scem i ll~ ly IIt'l' terms cen tra l to thi s di . e term s. While lhe t{'rm s m ay have a ~~~lISSIO~ are affict, emotion, a nd Qesthetic. I'X'.lllIillt'S.lh em fro m a psychol~ ri~~toph~cal ~asis, . th e present disCIIS,~ illl ; p.~lIlo~opllJc;,d a nd psycholOgical ~ses ~~~pecll ve '. 1 he di stinctio n h ehn 'j'/l 1I ,IIIItlo lla l llsag e recognizes th ei r sub i ': terms IS no t d car·cut , a lthu ll,L: h ( ~llll'r tenu s d e fin ed briefly includ e (Ju~~e~h\': a nd p l.-' rso n al (~OllllOt'lljOll"l, tum, a llt! JrIlJitivity. I u e, t1lterest. taste, preftrm ce, (/1'1,,(0'(1
- If
,I
Affrrl
tIJJ(f/ h)t /ll'luwillf.l tlud AfIl,\ ;C ,""
memory, I ca rnill ~ , !t'Ol MlllillJJ,. uud nction . Therefore. a ny di scussion of affcc live be havior in n-lntiun to 1I11lsk must be de fined in terms more definit ive than j ust whether or 1I0t il lms an affective di mension .
Emotion O ne school of thought regarding music's impo rt is that it conveys or cxpresses emotion , Certainly, perfo rm ers ofte n express particu lar e motions by em ploying va rious expressive cu es such as te mpo and d ynam ic va riatio n (I uslin, 2(XH, pp. ;{21-:i 26). and music may arouse stro ng emotional experten ce s as it interacts with listener aspects such as physical well -being, memories, and pe rsonality, and with situa tio nal aspects suc h as loc ation, acoustic con ditions, and social aspects of an audien ce (G a brie lsso n, 200 1, pp. 443-445), Ho wever, proponents of the emotional co m municatio n pos itio n lend to usc the term emotion in a broader sense than most contem po rary psy chologists, Young (1973, P' 750) defines emotion as a disturbed affective process o r sta te "which originates in the psyduilogical situation and which is rrvraled by marked bodily changes in smooth musdes. glands, and gross behaviors." As th is definition suggests, emotional behavior is a depa rtu re fro m the normal state o f cn m posUfe. Schubert (1996, p. I9) co ncurs, noting that em o tio n describes a " tra nsie n t human conditio n that involves several dimens ions, th e most impo rtant being oalence (positive or nega tive) a nd arousal." Emotio ns a lso involve pe rception and m emory, include an en vironmental facto r-presr-u t 01' past, may be positive or negative , and includ e an arousal dimensio n , Meyer (1956 , pp - 13 - 3 2) lo ng ago theorized ho w music arouses emotion. ' Ceuuu l to Meye r's theory is the view tha t arr est or inhibi tion of a tendency to respon d arouses e motion , An individ ual's tendencies to respo nd to music result from previous ex periences with music of the style to which he or she is listening, .From previo us experience s, an indi vidual develops expectatio ns [ten dencies to re spond) rega rding the types of patterns that might co me next in the mu sic, To the degree th at th e anticipated patte rn s arc no t fort hcoming, i.e. they a rc del ayed o r do not co me at a ll, tension. or emotion. is aroused, Snnw sim ple examples of delay of mu sical expectations includ e the deceptive ra dellce (V 7 - vi, as in a G cho rd to an A cho rd in C major) instead of all ;Illtlll'utk ca dence (V 7 - I, as in G to C) and th e rapid repetitive alteratio n of I - V 7 - I - V 7 - I in a coda sectio n, resulting in a "when will it e nd
f
.
,,, .• '1 IOt!
t~xp\anati()n (\
I
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c IIII' theory does uot I'l u vul .I' .} 'lllIlst interruptions wou ld seen I • M · , llel" nolc'S \, · rou st ' { 1. . U" II all ' ,I - tions. o r a nnoya nn 'S, .. sear tn h'arn that certam
frustra , ' t \"'esll'rll mUSIC ap l .' \ Vh en an approNI'vl'l·thd ess , hstell l'.rs ly r ertain other musical entitles. e is aroused. d ter m s UHp . d 1 -ed susp cns I I h Ul l \<;. Of SO U Il . 1 co ns equent IS c a) e ' . . the inhi.bition 0 lca ·t d mUS \ f ten sion VIa " d ,.I,' c xpe c e ill'S that m er e aro us a 0 h t n slo n or em otio n to 1I " Wl 'VI' I" , Meyer rcco.gn f' little im po rt in itself. For t ~ lle t of the expecta. I ctatlo ns IS 0 d by- a full! men lUll Ira cx pe , ·t must b e fo\lowe ,' f ally comes to a ·' 11 ae.~th t:t ic meaning, 1 , I -d: the COlUpOsltlon 111 " \ U II d hord IS reac rc , . , th expects c 1l"11 (I'.g" e lution of the tnn stn u h . M eyer' s to m usthence reso [ f n su e as d , I"lIt r-n d) an I. ,. n s of theories a erno 10 b . th eo ry of e motion, , tapplca l o .., e a a SIC . 1 Most recell . U elaborat e and /or renn . authors'theoreh Ca I nl " xpl'rie~CC e~e:~~lrefinements consis:cn~ With ~~:-2I9). Mo re will ~e Iml 1I'l1ect lan gu g I· & H arwood , I!J8h, pp, h . th at theon es DoW m g .' t oint ere ts . • ( 1"'1 ~Pl'ctlvde ~ e~~~se theories later, 1 h e. lmport~~ t~e contemporary p sych o 'L\\I \ rcgar ing don are consisteu! WI di p ' ·lon of a norrary tsru . . ate s emu I III how m US\C ere tion is a relat ively tempo ent of aesthetk , int that cm o tial compon ltl)lk ,ll vtewp oi t" on is see n as an essen d '" esthetica lly va luestate . Further, emo I I . in Meyer's wor s, a ,, 1,1I . • h uon a one rs, " waning, althoug e m o u!l ,l lS(' ,
I,." (p. 28). Aothetic
tve beha vior and is the ou t, . is a articular type of affe~tl . l . is used in rela tioll \ 0 AesthetiC feeling .p The term aesthetic usual ) I. fro m interh . expencrw" . f .1' g m ay re su I rune of ae st cue . although aesth eUC ec m bi ts o r e ve nt s. di lue or mcanmg, ith nonart 0 Je c ,. III I an Its va , I phen01nena, or W1 t of the presen t ( IS· -ith n atura . bin the contex I · III tlllllS \0\ , I ·mpo rta n ce Wit 1 h of an y (I IJI'(·• , o ns re of speCla I . c nee m or e t an IIlII'wcll a , speaking of a n ex pen n ( I9Y8) suggest- tltt' CO ll I I,,,sio n becau sc wedar ed as £Uioll (1995) an d Sma ':" f nnance and tlw .. k of art," In ee , " ' ate from Its per 0 , _ III wo r k" . an enury separ 'InteractlOnS tl rs , a1 - wor as . 'Vh t makes some . I I'pt of a rnustr; f - b e questionable,~ a .\ hic al d b cu sslo n, to ,'xpl' ricnce th ereo ma _b een subject to m uch phi osbOP h of I)hi\oso phy, . d thers not h)as , ' -ed as a ranc \ an 0 h f s tradilionall y IS \llt'\o\ . valuable insig lts Ihi' point th at ae~t c ~e()r ' and d iscu ssion pr~vlde mal~)crience, tlll' pl'CSWhile philosoph ical t 1 v~lhle o f acstlll'tic feehng and e ..i. cC' '\.'> I"yd 1010g. h ' nature alH • . r . ld expe l lcn • lI'f" lrdlllg t e l i!"ni:J I'!\;lI'slllt'lil· h'l' mg .u thods used 10 l~ xal\\ l'l\t discu ssion a so H'CIlI:' I .' 'I to sIllily via thl' S,un e m e _ lly Invc hl'~"11l · .. 1 behavio rs tha t afe 'i ll IJI '\ 1 .. " " ' 1 hlllof,hls only rt'ce ll ' H .I .j . l l lt' lll V IO I. . I illl' ot hl'r asp ed s 01 lll i\ h ll '. I ' 1Il1ll'x1 of Illll _in.! pl .·I"l" IIl " WIt 'Ill . _ " .II " .".. d hlllll'·1 II" I' • ::::.~~_--"::::r 1:11" ,11 all,1 ~ " loIl\ ,
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has o. long h iMOIy . -/il till' 1"l1" I1 / ' hill p sydlO log is ls arc ab le If) s Ubs ta n tia II'
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,,,,,,1"'6,,
Commo o to m os t d l"'''''lo" , of I' a co nce r n for beauty, a nd dennlllo"" of beauty ha ve thcl r own d lmcuhl c, . Wh en one says , om elhlng ;, bea u6fu l, he or she I, re neellng a value judgment, but what causes the Indl vid ual 10 va lue som ething as beautiful has been subj ect to consideca hlp deb ate. Some ho ld tha t bea uty is inh erent in the object or event becaua- 01 its structun- or Iorm ; l.e., bea uty is a property of the object or e ven t a nd remains so regardJess of wh a t a n individ ua l respondent migh t "feel." An oppusing vie w is th a i "bea uty is in th e eyes (o r ears) of the beh oldl'r." Perhaps Saint Thomas AqUInas, as cited by Rader and ] e" up (19 76, p . 20), " a led II be": "Le t that be called beauly, the very perceptIon of whleh p ie" , cs." Th at sta te ment has two implica tion s: First, beau ty gives p lea sur e, and SITO ll d , not eve ry thing that gives p leasure is beautiful, but only th at whidl Hiv" , ple' ''" e in Immedlat" p erception . Which position reflec ts the Weal ", ln llh I"eg,lrd ing the determination of beauty has been and will continue to II!' , ,,bi"" 10 debate and conjecture. T he p oint h ere I' tha t, for mosr peopl,', Iwa u ly is Ihe subj ect matter a nd stim ulus for aesth etic experience a nd f"I,j ill}.;. While the notion tha t response to beauty is the basis for the ae sthcn, I I' SpOIl.W see ms p la uSible, not a ll aes theticians and writers on ae sthe tics agn." of music wh ich co nlli bule 10 its ae slh etie val ue Ilt neatly Inlo lh" aspects aII,al rubric of hrauty.
An/kr/ir ,x!,"'m rr I, Ihe term most oflen med 10 descnbs eubj ec nve, 1" " sona / respon se to beauty or the other aesthetic qualitie s of an object, e V('nl, or pllJlH ",nomen on . lIargreave, (l!JH6, p . 108) argue, Iha t Ihe term Is appllca l,I•. ft In , or k·ss an y reaction that an y person m ight have to an y work of a rl, d,'fin"d In Ihe broade'l po" lble term, .' For lIarw ea ve" a >chool girl', Ilk" dl,lIk e r" acllon 10 a CUrren! pop reco rd and a mu , 1e crflfc', cli llq "e of " 1I.,,,thown ' ymp hony both reneci ae sthe llc ex p erience. O lher writ"", ho w {'V('I', a re more delim iting in wha t they co ns ider aesthetic ex perie nce. 'I\eo ,,"vocate, of ae,thelle ed ucati on, Benn ett ReImer (W H9, PI" 9!J- 117) a,,,1 (;"ra, " I.. K"i e le r (W7I, PI'. :i - 2 0), also reco , e aesll", " c ex perl"", •. b'11l hUllla u ex perience. Th ey re cohrn ize the imp ortance o f beauty in 11 ;1I li lt , ""d o bj"" , a nd eVent, th ai 'u·" nOI ne ce"arffy cI," sider" d "'t, bUl lh,,)' gt'llt'ndly discuss ae sthetic experience in relati on to a rtwor ks. k
a,~
"If"·,,
/(nl ", ,·, elle, live , ha racterl' tie, of ' n aes thetic experi"nce: (a) fom " (I,) !,c'H""!Jliou , (c) alft'c t, (d) cogni tio n, a nd (e) its c ultura l ma trix, F OCll,f SU1Q;I" h ,!I,ll ' 1Il ind ivid lla l lll ust de vot e a tten tion In the a rtwork a nd respond IIWI"l 'lo I h u / Jliofl is vil'we'd as lilt' process thro ug h whic h da ta an' ren'iv,'d ,lIlel lhro ugh whifh lh" indi viehw l beco llle's aWan ' of III(' au work. Knil'l l'l
~('IIS01)"
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< the aesth e tic experience, p h y ~ ba sic typ es I II' (/lFI ( III I U I 1I,I I~ Ilurin Co nco mitant with oes rlu-tic I'XJlI'I' I' , . I' "''',1 cha• nc0 e and !" ,,'lilljo.\ llll " ';ll'llllll '1 1111,' n -spr runon, and electroderma l n' spcl, lI.\t', ,I " "'1' c ha nces ill bloodpn -ssun-, ( ' . lc I'feeling to co m plex e monoua 11111 . , 0 . , from sun p • . , 1111' fcelingful reaction ~nay va l ~ n t attrib ute of aesthetic eXpt'm 'l,l tt , .. .f>, Cognition I' a parti cularly "np,,,a~ d : ana lysis, syn thesis ab,''''''"'', ' ~' .d ll·l'ling the inte llectual p~oces~cs II~~C~;; and learning regarding tilt' styhs1 1l 'llt' rali...a nion, a nd evaluahon'k nO\;riebute greatly to the qu ality of ,an ucsII' annbutes of a mu sica l wor ltural matrix is reflected in the ae sthe tic exp'" I ,I...Ii.. ex perience. Final ly, Ihe:;: "" I es with in a cultur al co nt ext.
_" 1''1 IW1I
I 1
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e~~I:~d~al's
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because one. aes interest and .'tU; t II::: Reimer e mphasizes t at an 1 ' tic uaJities of the m usrc to \\ 11( I . I I in the ae sthc , q 1 be to the exnressiue ., nrsthrtir ·,1 b)' or im mersed " 1"11 I't , c I' gfu l reaction m us , . crc •. rHU "SH' S aI's. nullvidual att e nds., the Ice In , b lie.. des lgn uuon . For Reim titia ra ther th an to any sym 0 I rhvthm tone color, Ie xrli lt , 4/'/11 . b I dy h armony, / • , . I l u-tic qualities conveyed y m e o'i ' IS to or isomorp hic with ,p :l l l,' 111.'1 " ,,,I form are "expre".sive of or ana ogm diuons of livin gn ess" (1" I O~) • 11 1t~ l I lt,1II " I 1,·11 life ", subjectivity or th~ con , ' 5 embodied m eaning " Ihe r I'U' '', wu , vidual mus t be invo lved With t . c mu st mai nt ains that aesthe tic {,Xpl'I,WIIII' "' )' sym bolic designations,J,Relm er a sea)ns tow ard nonaesth ctic eXpe rlt'lH'I', e at face value t hiIS m .ig ht suuN"Jucsr ,I 'h valu able in a n d 0 I' Iitself, IS not a mken ' • I a acsuhctic e xperie nce serves aI lunun serv es no uti litarianh purpose Ilt ll . " vie w. that " n I of the aut o rs v tev ' This is not t It' C.1St " ' nutrar tenon other functions. , 'II. . . d tha t m usic also serves h 0 p urpose or IlJ~, It f su1 I" ", " on a n ea r to ave n II'h, le aest hetic experf~nce may app a n in di vi d u al an opportunuy for ,'" . . basi ' luable function, p robvidingd meetmg ' I'IV('S asrc hum an needs . M aslow 11 ' I' I a va . pe rie nce above and cyan . ' basic human ru-ed, it 11'11 ,,'. " ex h ti xpe n e nce " a . I f (1l17ll p. 5) co ntends that aes t ~ IC I' d oni wh en their physiol()glt~a , sa I: ,: lIh wh Ich peopie mc/ T herefore, a n ae , lhe ll,. ex l';:' 't h ' a nd ce rta in psychologJ~al ~fee :h ex perie nci ng individu al ; lhe Vl'I)' , , I( "1 :('(' is valuab.lence in. and ofva ItSIeue .or thee individua l suggests that it is fU1H:l1I1II ho lds III II the expl' rlc " ••" , t-
th~'
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be~ome m;o~~:
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~o
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,I ',,, hI, '" her we ll·befng. , . , . esl he tlc experience Is t''''1 II ",,, ,i ' Ik ime r', nn,' charaete",,,c .. '" Th e "thIng" i, th e " .""" "" " h'. IlIvo lVt' th e qualities of a percep,lt~)lel'I~:::::~" Ihe aesthetic qu a lities whir h ,m .
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A)/tl lii" /ltlllll'ifl TJ and Music :JIH the even ts with in l ilt'
I bi cct t'Vl'\lt, 01" pi ll' Iv('lllent with me o J ' I ' Ig Ihl 11 f,h adivl' part ic ipa tl~ ll l 1l 11~'~l)VI'I"t and suggests m ore of a V
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h t'l k
st huulus, a nd jfl'lingjid reactio n t hereto .
Aesthet ic ex perience differs fro m
llIo.~1
aflecr ive exp e rie nce in tha t it mus t
aesrhcuc stim ulus. T he re is so m eth ing more th an j ust an "ch how pre tty" reac tio n . Yl'l. without the immed iacy 01
involve perceptio n a nd cogniJiml ll f
a ll
the aest he tic stim ulus, the affec tive behavior ca n not be a n aesthe tic behavior. For an e x p e ri e n ce 10 b e aes th e tic, it m ust result in fecltngful reactio ns to p erceived in teractions o f those aesthe tic q ualities contri buting to th e beaut),
or meaning of an artwo rk or othe r stimulus wit h which a n observer (hstem-r to mu sic) is invo lved percep tually. Such a definition of aesthetic expe rience does not den y, howeve r, that mu sic a nd othe r aesthetic stimuli elicit man y othe r Sign ifican t affective responses. Ce rtainly hearing a compositio n with which one has had pre vious associations may elicit feelings regarding those associa tions. Meyer (2001 , p . ~H H) notes tha t music, as well as other sou nds, may evoke e motional res po nses d ue to associ ations with othe r music, natu ral soun ds, cultural activities, and individ ual experie nces, For example, hearing a them e from a previo usly seen movie gen erally elicits thoughts an d feel ings rega rdi ng th e movie, H oweve r, to say tha t such a feeling is aesthetic is que stionable; for Knieter and Reimer it p robably lacks sufficien t focus on the auditory stim ulus itself. On the oth er hand, the elicited feelings may be vcr)' meaningful to th e indi vidual. In the authors' vie w, such feelings reflect anothr-r typt' of affective resp onse to m usic.
(u her IJefinilions Seve ral addition al ter ms will b e menti oned briefly beca use eac h sugges ts a psycho logical constru ct with a substantial affective com ponent. Essentially these construc ts are covert a nd therefor e in ferred from an ind ividua l's behavio rs (including ve rbal) relative to the objects, events, or phenomena that ar e the stim ulus for the affective response. \Vhile th e defini tions are neither d iscrete nor ex ha ustive, the y reflect the terms' general mean ings as used in the litera tur e. T he definit ions essentially are the sam e as the authors haw' CJ fTt' red elsew here (Hoyle & Rad ocy, 1987, pp , 195- W9 ). Attitude. th e most ge ne ra l term , conno tes a predi sp osition toward ment al or psycho mo tor activity with respec t to a soc ial or psychological object . event, or phen om en on . T he predisposition m ay be eithe r positive or negarive, re fl ec ting eit her a pproach or avo idance activity, Kuhn (1979) notes th aI all alti tud e is relatively long te rm an d stab le and tha t a ny real cha nges in uttitud e necessarily occur over a co nsiderable period of time, I nlerl'.d suggests ft'('lings of co nce rn, invo lvt'nw nt, :lnd cur iosity. A d e'll' d l'lll art~"tioll l)('tWl't'll "altitud t, towar d s () lll t' l h i n ~" a n d "intt'rcst in SO I1I1' thin g" is t1 iffk ult, h UI in r om lllon IIS.ISt" inku'sl mott' ofh'n is Illan ifestl'd
,
'
lI lO'~~:~/r, as applied to mu sk , l~s\la\ly s~lgge:~~nregarding qu ality
II,':ting ls()m e
and
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rl Kti Ul l'qu a e " . ce an appea 1\t ' .. develop from cxpenen , U ffeetive I"esl' 0nM'S, l" '.lh spI;~ltIO;:~r experi ence apparently in:u~nce,s ~ha~ taste or att illllh · il
l'
I
t'
I
lll'I;~:fer;':;e usu'aUY is more overtk.org~~o~;;~::d indicatin g th e\1l ill~ S OIlI'
" uaUy involvemaIll ·nd taste .ld ll
lll\PI;::~~l~e::nstrating cho ices thro~;h n~:~:~~\ral int en tion n,qllilt'~~h.
::::,:;ulance or recording p~rchas~, ~" \~ :Uake in a specific decision -ilia "1Il1 " ssion of a chOIce one wou l'Itml expt e be -d both narrowly .n ll \ nllll'xi. tati vith respect to music appears to . .tlo n bro adly inchlth~s I 11ppreCla ,~on" ~ ( 196~, p . 25) notes th at appre~l~ I~S nutation, !itt'l'aw n ' Cla 1"II.ully. 1..c edr , Iatiou plan 's 11101" ponent- knowledge of mUSI lllillUI' kno w1e ge com d [ rth More na rrowly, appr~~la I hist r-v an so 0 . " httes lll'llllllllents, IS ~-d/: 'dual's sensitiv ity to aesthetic qu a "" ness to S('I1S01~ ' , on an 10 IVt [ d re sponSIVe . 1'1111' IlaSIS . r perceplion 0 an . 1 'Ollu ilOI Snuilivity usua UYb·mhP I~Sgnilive and affective dim enslodlls." bnll~ feelilll " 1 Il 'cis 0 1 co . . ti ns an su ". u l1l llh a nc rc e kl g b oth subtle discn m ll1a 10 , " lin t tlU' t..111 lI ' llf,I ', it implies rna 10 nn olations, it is not sur pnsmg • .dering t h esc co 1I ' ~ I"ll\ Sl'S . C OIlSt in the literature. , ' " " ve ry com mon ,/n flulic ,\et lSl l lV1 y IS to Musto f Affective Response Ty p es 0 . rta nt feelin g n 'sl'0BS' . erie nce is th e only Impo . bdl"1 v ior Sll~scsting that aesthetiC elxp f a broad spectrulll of affective ,. 1.'- H'h , I"." den ies the va ue U t ntrport to cons\{ I I ' 11111'11" C IUts ". T he l)fe st'nt di scussion does no . 1 . ' rel ation tu .It'sllwti I, '1IIt'd to IllUSIC. I ' 1'[ 'd ivt· hl'havlOrs 111 , _ -ctive typt'S 0 .1 I f " , 'x pt' n"t' n l~ t: S...1r 11 \'" \'.~hll' of tl~e re,sl~\~t I it ' n't'o~niJ.I'" I ha t vario~ls ~tf .elc t~~~ '~·he re!;ltivl' va \ , pl'ru'lKe pt r se, ) _ , I . ' c" ' S fill Illan y IlH!lvl( ua s' . ," I "I · 1\ i .. t to b'Tcatt'r til' !I ' SM I I I ~I ' I !"ITt'r alllong md lvn II.I s. hllPI1',lt:::e va rious al"ft'("tlvl' \1I1U 1,, !1 IllhVll ::I~IYI 1:'~ .u'stll('l it~ BlUth', is of v.;n 'atl' 11'· "1 . ' II' tiv, ' \lll" r-, , . , lihl ' th at a llY gIVe li a 1·1 . ,1 1111 } " v'lhll' for "II ilU li\'idll ,11 I "'l " II"lt COlll"OlUit
- - --
:w ,11./" Ill" IlrlllJ lI;Or,1 /l1ul A/II,lic . ,. '0 th e words of folk, po l' types are /J!lYJI'olu/!.ifil l rf(lltlmB o f lilt, au tonomic nervous system, Hect or Berlioz's descri ptions of his rea rl iolls while liste ning to a piece of mu sic, a_\ reported by Schoe n (l!H O, p. 10:1), included increased blood circulation, vie lent pul se rate, muscle contra ctions. trembling, numbn ess of the feet anti hands, a nd pa rtial paralysis o f the nerves co ntroll ing hearin g a nd vision . Wh ile it is doubtful tha t many indi vid uals' ph ysiological mechan ism s a u' affected to th e ex tent that Berlioz claimed, objective ev idence ex ists thai changes in ce rtain p hysiological rat es do acco m pany affective beh aviors, Wh eth er these changes them se lves arc affective behaviors is subject to interpretation. The behavio rist might insist that they a re beca use they a re observable (Via certa in measurin g instru m ent s); an opposi ng view is tha t they menIy are physiological correlates of affective beh avior , beca use feelings by dc f init ion are psychological rat her than physiological. A common affective b ehavior is the mood or character res ponse. In \ Vestefll cultur es certa in mu sica l sound patterns appear to chara cte rize differe nt psychologi cal mood states. Ce rtain mu sic may be soot hing or relaxing. other m usic m ay make a n individual feel happy or sad, while still other mu sic m ay elicit feelings of frustration or agitation . T he ra nge of moods that music m ay chara cterize is as gr eat as the range of mood s p eople ca n feel. There is no question that music ca n elicit m ood response; furth er, within a given cultura l co ntex t, m an y indi vid uals tend to agree regarding the moods elicited by cert ain types and exa mples of m usic. \ Vhile th e variab les unde rlying m oo d n ·sJlom es are m any, on e should recogn ize that wha tever mood respon s t~ lllusic: elicits is mu ch m ore than a respo nse to any inh erent mo od or cha racu-r of t ilt' music. Mood resp onses 10 mu sic. j ust as virtually all othe r resp oust' 10 mu sic, esse ntially are determined by an indiv idual 's prev ious experience with mu sic. Learning underlies all musical hehavior, affictive or otherwise. An individua l's previ ous associations with music in ge ne ral, and especia lly particular pieces, a lso m ay influence affective res ponse . Th e most co m m on ex a mple of this is when an indi vidual respo nds to mu sic's programmatic con te llI. Feelings of this typ e usually re late to an eve nt or story tha t th e individ nul ha s previously associated with the mu sic" Th e popularity of movie sound truck recordings suggests that m a ny peo ple wa nt to re-experience the nurr alive throu gh listening to the music. The sam e typ es of associa tion s arc made with o pe ra an d m usical co me dy. The fee ling response is mu ch more tha n 10 lilt' Illllsic itself. Listening to m usic of onc's childhood OJ" a d{) lescenct~ ma)' t'vokt, feelings from tho se yea rs associated with that mu sic. Love rs may reca ll sp('('ia l occa sion s thro ugh "thei r song," Mu sic's power to e licit strong feelings o f l'x pt'riencL's associa led with it provide s ind ividu als with a mechani sm for I('-experi(-'ncing man y significa nt events of thei r Ii V('S , " 'hil(, ph iloso pht' rs a nd ,I('stll('ticia ns hav(' ht't'll Hll' atly ('oll('t' rn t'd wilh till' wor d l l' s"~ l1 H' alli ll ~ or l1H1 sic, I"t'lativl'ly Iillll" 1otlltl)' o f lht, ft'('lings ('vok t'd
I I" ' t
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lIol'v, ' yrics h as on ·ullt'e1 . t O~\ ~ " ~\~
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\.. h'l\'iO'~· I~)'c~:~~;~;~:. pag~icularlY give~
th e
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d.i~::S~~eolac~ (:f d is:'rl'tt'l\"S:
,.. I:""PI;~:~~ ~he potential range of. res\Po~se ~n~e~: co~founding t1l~'aS\1I"l'n\t',n 11110\ 15 nd tenmno og), a ( qqf 1Mh) nuh', I 11Il l tl l\ g the ~onstrucbl:ms. As Abeles and Chung 11. , I, ~~ure purportt·(lI) 111\1 evaluatum pro . " ft -n arc em ployee to m e e nt It'ch lllqu es 0 C 1 ,1I1lt' Inc.' asurenl )' trad ition" onstruc lS I b lems are man , ., ,hllt'n'nl C . ' nl ;I\u l n'M'an" I pro " \ \ fall into tlut"t \t " t mUSIC ro ug 1 y ( \\ '1\l.JC, thc measllren d f . ll' .t\ h 'I' 1'I'SpOllSt'S tl " , 1 ".cn"p ItJrs ,lIu l (~ VC " lll'ruadlC's to stu( »" ", . 1 , tl luit"all lll';I '1U1I'S, (b) adjl'cll ( ,es (I'17I' \!17 l) , , ". a p IY:o.lO I ~ ' II ' , Her yne . , hlo;1I1 catc.'gon~s . "_, ,\ IOllltlt ,1111'111,11 h , III IIwll\g "' .. 1slim uli. 'ft.n nt '( }. " " II hlllll,III I""\lOII<;t'S t tl mUSIC.I , <. r (h.vt.ltll' Ilhiltlsophical IIlqt~Il I . ", ' ' nls ,I 111·lJtl . \I11t:, l"1I1l'lIll ' 1:'.111;'/1:: :,I:l' ; 'l'.: (IVel"'all in St'V t·" lIwtll in mu s;c psydIOlllt:.) ,
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,,111' 1/11" 1I,!ltwjrJn (l/1l1 AI/uie 1 ~1!'r Jl oIIW /r r l ' hWllda/ifil/.I' ojlt lll.l'ical lJrJlfl v jor
is particula rly dif fi n dl IlI'n lll\l ' Ilf lilt' V'lrit"ty o f ex perim en ta l conditio ns. So me stud ies ex ami li t ' ra Il' wluh- 1l111l' I'S r-xumine a mplitude; furt he r, so uuresearch so ught to e xa m ine n ,.~p i l a l itJlI ran- in rel at ion to tempo, while ot be rese arch attempted to rela te re spirunon lU listen ers' a tte ntio n o r e nj oyme nt. O the r th a n th e Rles study men tioned above. most o ther studies ex a mined by Daino w reported no clear-cut dat a regardi ng the relat ionship be tween respi ration rate o r amplitude a nd e ithe r a mu sical stim ulus o r a ve rba l respo nsl'; they me rel y described the re sponses to musical stimuli. Bartlett, howe ver, re ported se ven stud ies yielding increa sed resp iration rat es, two yielding decrease s, and six yie lding no changes. As is ap pare nt for heart rat e resea rch, resp iration resea rch provid es a mbigu o us data regarding the affe ct lvrrespo nse to music. Dainow m aintai ns th a t electrodermal (GSR) e xpe ri ments are ev en monincom plete an d inconclu sive than those fo r heart ra te a nd respiratio n. No ting that so me studies m easur e magni tude and dir ection of response , some till' number of defl ect ions, an d o thers the r ising period or respo nse laten cy, Ill' observes a ge neral me thod ological "hodgepodge" in GS R resea rch. SOl111' have atte mp te d to re late GS R to various ill-defined em otional respo nses 10 music. while o the rs have examined it in rel ation to stim ulative versus sedative m usic o r dissonant versus cons o na nt sounds. Despi te occasionally well conceived stud ies such as D reher's (1948) co m parisons of ve rbal reports and (;SH to different types of music, Dainow m ain tains that little can be co n eluded rega rd ing GS R and affective response because of the many m ethod ologiru l pro b lem s. Bartlett's review also yiel ded studies with divergen t II'sIlItS: Four, incl ud ing the D re he r and Ries studies, reported a positive reln uou ship be tween GSR and an a ffec tive dimensio n, four yie lded no positive rela tio nship with an affect ive dim ension, and the maj o rity Simply revealed ch anges in elec troderma l response to a m usical stimulus. T h e authors co n cu r wit h Daino w' s co ncl usio n. Electro myography, o r m uscle te nsion , pe rhaps holds more promise as a reflec tion o f affect ive re sponse to music than m ost other physiolog ica l m ensurcs. We stern music appears to organize sounds to deve lop te nsion-re soln tion patterns, a nd Dai no w suggests th at " it m ight be ex p ected tha t inh erent Iy It' ns(' m usic could ind uce a co rrespond ing p hysica l o r muscu lar ten sio n ill tlH' liste nt' r" (p . :.n t ), He cites research by Sears (l !)S7, l!){iO) as cvidenn' Ihal 1llusit· may alter muscle te nsion . Bart lett found that nine of Iwel v(' stlld il's n'vil'wed reporled si!,'1lifica nt changes (d ecrease s) in m uscle ten sio n, f>, lost 0 1 Ihos(' stud ies lIs('d seda tive musical stimuli, so me of whic h ''''e re in COl1j Ull1" tio n with hioft,.' e(lback, Th us, d ccl romyogra phy resea rch has dl'lllon stralt 'd clt"ll ly that m usic ca n decn'ase m uscle ten sio n, h ut whether SIKh change s a...· cha ng-es in a ffer t is prohlemat ic. Headl' rs inleresh'd ill n 'st'arch rl'sul ls for 01111'1 p h y ~io logirid IlH'aSlln "'1
. n'view Balilt'tl , l I ) , n ,lh'nt cOIllJlTl' Ile \lSIVe . . . . .. •hOlllti CO\lsult Bartld l S ( \.I. lh 1 x, I ' vario us studies he U'VICWS, h i pi I' , II at for 1 ~:~ h)'I)Ollll"lI''''1 It'lIlt'd 1Il t H d 'II, 'Inlended outcmuce (p. WIll'S la ' I . rrcspou WI , I yielded results tha t SI'('lIlt' l I~ (~) ., d r different ph ysiohlgica l nu- nsI l II .. ra te val le or . I '('ss '17.. .. ). O bv io usly, the . sll n e~s • - chan es in va rio us physio loglctL pro,l ~ . t g IT s to be mo re l)rOlll llll: nt rly m USK ca ll mduce c tlI l'S IHI , clea ' h t th e e ect seem l'lIl:t:r so me peo ple, Bartlett notes l a uslc which perhaps e licits gu" lt('r th musical stimulus is prefe rr ed m . ' ains: Do lhese ch a ngt's "' 1It' ll e _ But the qu estion rem . Ihlt 'lll'r int ere st and resp ons e. . . e' ' . hi h rain Il'lkct affect1\-'e rcsp on,s . f hysiologi cal response to musl.(. '. . t Another much-stu died type 0 p . . wave respo nse to rnus rc h us lll ~ f IT ct the interest ill IWIII I s While re search o n bralO ",,,V(' res pnn e ' m easure 0 a e , I " d primarily on b rain wav es as a . 'derable resea rch lind 1I1U1 I IIII usc d . gave rt sc to con st . II ~\lI H'ric sp ecialization an ~USIC . . , and musical processing. The H'~t'''I ' . ~ w(:ulatio n regarding b rain actiVit) or conce tual responses to (hdllll ~ I Im arily has involved perceptual I P , le rp rclthe rest'a ld l III torus po m . d not a wa vs rn 1 h ~h' l\ing< situations, C ritical revle,~~ __o 1977b ' H odges, 197 8, WHOa , .1 ~ IHll l, l i lt' sam e wa y (G ates & Brad shaw " ~~),78 1979 ; R egel ski - 1!l78 ; \\ t' h ll l l.' I ', 1 ~1! J( i; Marin & Perry, 19 99 ; ~ oC~ered Boyle, Cole, Cutiett a.: a ntl ll'l) \1171)) but two general conclusic tu- '" . eneral accept ance: ( t) IWllll: p. 10), have re ceived and. malOb~~I~C gr~e a function of the natur e i1 11~ , , . e to a co nsldera c e 'IT . in th e lwnll _plll'ric differences ar k, d (2) there are di erence s I . C t om plex ity of the mU~ical las ,. an I tasks for m usically trained and 1~ ~traIlH' . . n ot ve n rrm stca . a n d cn tilille 0 ' , pheric acuv auo n 0 C · . 222-232) recen t review an . , Is " Hodges' (1996, pp . of hemisphenc aSYllll1H , MlI )Jec . . . t' k S as mea sur es , I lI'sl'arch using dichotic hstenlOg",: h p s lateralit y effects in audition are I lilt ,', yielded similar co nclus io ns: . er a - . d (verb al or n on verb al) h ut " M II ) f d being pro cesse " ( " 'J") o the ivpe 0 soun bi I altrib utes I)· .l.' .l. · IIllt on IY t bi nd by su Jec 1 h . the task required of th e su ~e.cts .eric s ccialization and music purpo rh"e ) w l ile som e research on he m lSph P d! of the affect ive respo nst ' \( U to a b nderstan mg , I' 1 was undertaken to gam a otte r u .,s 1978 , 13) stro ng asse rt ion ,t 1,1 l;lI\siC , part ially in resp.onse little resear ch has t' xallllllt"{ 'lPsthe tic thinking is a n gh t hemlsp e, . II as eit her an independen t tI~ I . ' ' I· ti n sysle m allca Y h . . , rt'VWY lll'lll ispher ic spc cta rza 10 , " ff' T ker's (lmH) co roprc (' nSI'\(' I ho wever, suggests th"t hut , lendent variable in musu:."l.\ tCI. IIC, I hemispheriC spl'cializatiun am.1 resear ch , incl udi ng tha t .1ll Ilt'lllispheres arc involv('{1. III ~h ol t.,. , ' _IVitil'S little o r no insighl n 'ga n lll\l I 'm isilheric specialization :llH I IIHlSIt , pIC _ II . . \ W ",tI h ,',\1 , ' lIl ' lI h ;\ n '.uU~ au,hl"ry 111 \>11 ~ , , '. .. II". ;1l\" ,·~t , ~"C< I' ,III ' " I. " 'I"u "ll " lit' h.h l'ilf ("\"" 111 I1al1 y \ "'1 IIII " ~ ' In " ,,-hulle 1,, 11 mn K· . I I ' ll! .'l ,,,,, 01 ,,1 ", h.'l , nl, f \ I h II " ,,',h.e"r)· lw. ,U1 . . K Il W'' Il"1tOI1\II" ." I nol \... " ) " ' llU"ll'I'Y" l< I,I(" II1l I; \ . ,\0 ,.1'1 '" 1,' 1'" l h," ' " 1I1l' II1" I~ I' . l lll llll' M" ;\ I,{ ' Illm ,[n
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c. 11' \1 ' un- lld p. maeuetoe magnetic resonance imag;!l . (A/lU' ~ lIcr"y'katogral)h'Y (MEG) Hodges (W96 pp . 2 '" -2~ 2) .~. and Im,f1.' roll emission tomograjJhy (PE l ).' . I ' .) IIIeSt'lIls o ve r vie ws o f th t h . ua s as m easures of brain act! itv hi] ese ec mqu es' poten . ~I } w I ~ responding to vari ous m usical tasks. In add ition, he provide s an m tro d ucnon to the b· , W uch may com e to serve as a h bae! neuro 10 ogy of em otion fesearc basis fo r musrca . I arrect. tt suggests thai whit Peretz (200 l)' ' '. . e neurop sychology or neurobio lo f . 111 lis II1fancy, evidence exists for s ecific gy 0 mu sical emotions i.~ 0111' em utio nal system can ace P , nJ1t'u ral arrangemen ts, altho ugh no " . a unt lor a em otional rat \ \-111 evolve from kno led f respo nses 10 mu sic. . w e ge 0 new m casu r t h. " IIcuro luo logical bases of e ti . omen tee mques and Ihl' Whil h . me Ion rem ains to be seen. e t c above discussion suggests th .. , raIL'S as a basis for assessing att " at m easur ement of ph ysiolorri{'a l response t ' . f 0 Iem s. a certain fascination nee rve . .h 0 mu sic IS raug ht with p ro" re m ains Wit the not' th hvsi I't ' S pO llS I'S reflect music al affect I IT . Ion at p ySlOlogin d tl . nan errort to gam anoth 11' matt er, Sloboda (1991) ked t' l 3 ' . er perspe ctive 011 s "p!'a.k" en!otional experience: ~e had~slc h~tcne.rs to indic.ale (a) thn', ' pn'vrous live years (b) the . Yh I' ~en llsren tng to music d uring till' k . , m USIC t at e Iclted the h pea experience, and (I") IIII' nature o f the ph ysical response t at accompani ed th . I lI O'1 com mon respon ses, shared b a lar ' . e experie nce. '1'1", shivt'rs down the sp ine I h IY . ge m ajorny of respo nde nts WI'n ' d ' ' aug ter, ump III the thro I , ana ysls of the respon ses h a... an tears. Sloboda's " !"l'd se musical eve nts IhatSuggest~ t at rhespondents were able to p inp uin'l . ga ve n se to t e ph ysiol . / d' IT' ogtca response and th.u tIIt'll' respon ses differed f or urerent type s of . , SI I • I) lo(h.l (l!)92) reported th h ' musrca struc ture. Lall'I I' t ' at w en 67 regular .I S ene rs \..rete usked I" (Iescrtbe the ir most valued ' . I . ( motlOna experie nce with . I . as il (.Ilange ag en t (as in J . Ii I' I mu sIC, ' I cJled l1l usic 10 mten slfv o r releas e cX',· cSl~x lllg ee.mgs or ten sion ), and :'1 4 cited it as a W II\' , . mg emotions. . Anotllt'1" study (DeVries !f) () I) "sed CI ' . . , .. ynes S "se t h" ,ISS('Sslllg alTective resl)onse , . , [J V . n ogra p as a tool l U I e nes ex ' . J () mU SI C ' I'('OP / P , SOml' musicolw'V stude t . . d' . am me( respon ses o r :111 I II I 0; . n s an so me member s o f . , o .~ lorl lllusical excerpts d b an am ateur dum 'f . I . an 0 served tha t the sub'· t ' ' all' )' sun ilar." Based on both . I '. ~ e c s respons('s Wt'!t · VlSlla and statistica l analysis of thl' da l;l, 1'Ill' "'nh 'KT" l'h '''''''''nliaJl}" nwa-'llft'!; IIngt'r m.'ssun' on 'I • '. IlI" llu n h}' a pp lyillg p..t" , un' 10 lh,. h Uli o n '""1"1 ' __' hllgt ' r n'st IIll' n" llf>nd" nl I·Xp"·,.... III 11> " :I'ltl ill lwo di n " 'lio ns: "'t'rli<"aU~' (' Inli dt::,~)'~s,,~n . ,'!'pli"d 10 lh, · bUlIon is 1lI"
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I )1 ·Vri(~S maintains Ihat lIlt' .~ p l l l u,L; ru Jl h "indeed measu res the affect ive It'' l'0 llse to music" (p . ,Hi). T ill' theory is thai "m usic direct ly uctivau-s the ,It linn programs thai dri ve - rlu- expression of em otion s," (p . 6:-1) but th e moveIIW lltS presumably ar c in resJlonse only 10 the mu sic's affidivt con ten t. I thviously, this the ory and approac h need furth er testing before recei ving W'IIN " ! acce ptance as a measur e o f affective response to mu sic. Ck-ar ly, p hysiological research to date provides few insigh ts into th e affcr11\'1' l"!'sponse to mu sic. Reason s for this arc diffi cult to pinpoint, altho ugh I t.uuow and Hod ges sugges t th at m any methodo logical issues arc invol ved. l'auicula r concerns include instruc tions to subjects, lou dness o f the musica l ' lllll11 li, subject atte ntion, and possible supp ression o f respon se du e 10 leur of .livt urbing electrodes . Ano ther major difficult y involves measurem ent of th.. 1', )'('lw lohrical varia ble affect. In addition, the sheer diver sity of ph ysiolog k-nl vunablcs the mse lves and the man y aspects or each create an overw he lm ing Illmy of measur ement and interpretation pro blems. Miller (1!W2, p . ·1W) _lIAA('s1S that even if on e can de monstrate that som atic changes an' "in s)" II('" » uh musical activities, it may be merely an instan ce of "p henorucu ology whhon t psychology," H e notes that the aspects of emotio nal be havi or th;11 ,Il l ' observab le and measurable differ from emotional expe rie nces, which lumainta ins are not measurable. Finally, even if all me asu rement and research design p roblem s can be It',olv(,d, it ma y be that p hysiological responses are sufficiently unique to I,.ll h ind ividu al. who also brin gs a un iq ue ex periential background to the uu-asurc me nt situation, that m aking prediction s or generalizatio ns about the .IIII'(·live respo nse on the basis of physiologica l m easur em ents is inapprop n ,Ih', As Hahn ( W.~ 4 , p . II ) stated long ago , "an investigatio n of th e ph ysioItI,L; it';d response m ay offer a d ue but not a solution to the indi vid ual's " syI hulogical reactions."
,Itlj f'rlive Descriptors I,a jv erson s, mu sicians, psychologists, and philosophers agree that lllIISi,' , ,Ill r"'O('ct mood s and evo ke m ood respo nses in listen ers. ,,"'I ood responses 10 llIusic, as other psycholo gical respo nses to mus ic, involve I(·ami ng. ludividuals within givl' n cultura l h'TOUPS lrarn that mu sic with certain cha rI II " 'ristics renects certain llIood s whilt· llIusic with other chara cteristics 11·1l,,(·ts d irreren t IlHH)(k I 'S j· ( ' h " I , )g i s l.~ alul Ilhilosophers have d('scrilJt'd o luods in vario us ways, hUI , I S ll' l'd ill lI'st'ardl u ·lalt'd 10 llIusic, mood ge n" l,tlly n ofers 10 "rdillivl'ly Inll1 '1 ic'lll , 11I 1t·, , •• wbit'h n Ul he (:ngn i.wd hy ind i\ IC lllals anti
Allf 'l I II" IIduwlorl (/IIII M IlJ;c 1'.I)'llwluJ: I' ,,, 1-11/1/11/,,1;,1/1,1 (Jf MllJical lJduw jor ing resp on ses tomusic al l' l,d Ol 'Il,'.! a ~ discussion s of mood resjxmse to rn nsn (e.g., Eagle, 1971, pp. :n - Htl; Fmnswouh , l !lI i9, PI' . 79- Hti; Lundin, Wti7, PI' · HiO-I n ). O n the basis o f a n l'xhall"otivt, review o f tradi tional lite nuunregarding study ing affective n 'sp ollSt' 10 m usic via verbal d escriptors, Eagl,' no tes three b as ic method s for gathe ring ver ba l description s: (a) adjective ch ec klists, (b) the se mantic diffe rential, a nd (c) var ious typ es o f rat ing scales , T he adjective checklist is the m ost co m mo nly used o f the th ree met ho ds. A brief ch rono logy and summary of early research using adjec tive checklist s follows . 192 7 Schoen and Gatewood presented 10 mu sical selections to :-l2 fem..l.. subjects on two separate occasions under similar testing cond ition s. Based on a freq uen cy co unt of the adjectives checked for eac h sc k-c tion. the re searchers concluded that "a given musica l se lec tion will arouse a ce rtain definite reaction and will a rou se the sa me reactio n 011 differen t occasions" (Schoe n & Gatewood , 1927, P: Vii ). 192 7 Gatewood (1927) presented a list of 12 adj ective descriptors to :i.'i female su bj ects, who checked the moods elicited by eac h of 10 sek-c lions. The study sough t to exa mine the influence of rhythm, mel ody, harmony, and timbre on stated mood effects. Gatewood concluded that mood effects depend on defin ite m usical clem en ts. /928 Heinlein studied adjectives checked in resp on se to majo r and minor chords b y 30 musically trained and untrained subjects. Two add ition al variables stud ied were intens ity and p itch register. He foun d th.u mood effec ts were more a function o f intensity than the ch or d P l.-·I" M ' , Fur the r, pitch register also m ade a differen ce in which adjectives \ \ '( ' 1 1' checked. H e concluded "a ny fixit y of feeling-tone in rel ation to a givcu mode is dependent upon training to react in a specific manner to ;1 purely intellectu al discriminati on" (Heinlein, 1928, P: 140). /935 Hevner (1935, 1936) developed an adjec tive che cklist which llil serv ed as the basis for much subsequent resear ch on mood respoml ' to m usic, She developed an adjective circle gr ou ping fi7 adjectives int« e igh t clu ste rs, eac h cluste r con tain ing adjectives of approxim ately 1111 ' sa me m ea ning (see f ig. 8- 1). Listen ers were asked to listen to mnsicul exc erp ts and check the adjectives describing th e mood. Th e intent w a\ th at as one progressed around th e circle from du ster one to clusn -r eight the re would be eight mo re or less d iscrete m oods, re p resenting a gene ra l trend of mo od chang e through th e re spective cluste rs. 11 1'1 res ult s revealed a ge ne ral consistency among subjects in the adjt,t:tivl'\ check ed. She co nduc ted a series of follow-up studies to ascertain 1111 ' effects o f va rious d em e nts of m usic (mod ality, rh ythm, te mpo, h,1I IlI O II }' , mel ody, a nd pitch) 0 11 m ood l't' SP OI1 S( ' , From these stud ies , s ill' eond u(h'd tbnt t i ll' m ajor modr- is "hap py, /-{ran'ful, a nd playful"; II II'
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195 4 Farnsworth (J9S,') tested the in terna l cons ' f Ic vner Adj ecti ve C ircle II b istenrv of the clus ters of til(' I ib ' c 0 served th I I c,('sen e in ternally consis te nt mood a severa dusters d id nor tlfy the circle arrangemen' H patterns a nd therefo re d id n ot j us , , e rearr ang'c d r: 0 f H IIllo 10 more consiste n t ca t _ ( _, ;) 0 e vner'e ad iec tivcs cgones see Fi g. 8-2), 'J
19.75 Sopcha k ( W!i!i) dl'vI'I"l wd .rt wr-l ve-curcgory adj ect ive checklist which .S:i;1 college S O p il O lll " I "~ !l\l ·d in res pond ing to 15 composition s. five classica l, S t ' \'(' 11 popul.u, nud thn-e folk. Subjects a lso cla ssified th eir o wn m oods Oil a Ihn 't"poillt s(';II(,; "chee rfu l" to " neu tral" to "g lo o my," A hi gh e r pe rce n tage o f g lo o my su bj ects re spond ed to sorrow, joy. ca lm. love , e ro tici sm , j ea lo usy, wo n der, and crue lty." Scpc hak speculat ed th at g loomy subjects ha ve m any tens io ns and thus more read ily p roject into the music. w hile cheerful subjects may h a ve less need to project int o the m usic. 19 60 Van Sto ne (196 0) so ug h t to ascertain m o od d ifferences associated with musica l to ne qu ality. Eight mu sic a l excerpts representing Hc vm-r's eigh t duste rs were orch estrated and recorded b y three cnscmbh-s-. string, woodwind. a nd brass. Results in di cat ed no signi f ica n t di U" 1 ences am ong adjectiva l re sponses to the three typ es of c nsembk-s. A pparen tly timbre ch ange had little or no e ffec t on mood n·s pOl ls l·. While mood response in terms o f adjective checklists h as bee n su hj l'11 III r unsid era bl e stud y, th e sem antic differential technique offers anothe r fruu»work for eliciting subj ects' re sp onse s to a djective descri ptors. Essen tia lly, tilt· n-rh ui q ue attempts to measure subjects ' views, perc eptions, or CClllU' P ! S o f vario us phenomena b y use of a se ries of bi p o lar adjective s betwee n which they m ake a re sp o nse o n a five - o r seven-p oint co n tinu um," For ex am p le:
Conapt: Mood A
( "'..-'1,,1 ....y h"OPY h"K" l
m,'rr"
•
I.mcilul lighl quaint
l luppy C delicale
waceru r lyrical
PJ.lytll J
,
\pr iKhlly
d.lf ~
d" ,) rl'~\; n~
dol l'lul Jl100 m y m..lant ho Jlr mournful J'l.llhel lC
y rl
H dra mati c emphat ic maj~t ic
trlumphan l
o dreamy leiSurely <;t>n!i me nl,ll SOOth i" !,: lende r tranqu iJ
,
[
IOIlRinj! palh e tic pla inri Yt, yea rn' lI,:
ceet
a,ll 'tatcd ('-a ilin g e\c ,tin!': e- hilarated ImpelUutJs vigo rous
\l' r10U\
sollt·, 1oI,1" lIm
I ffU ~If.l Il'. 1
I.ig hr
Sa d Heavy
H umorous
SOIt '1lI1i
Eagle (Wi l ) used th e sem an tic di ffer en tial techn ique while s l ' { ' k i ll ~ ,II\Swe rS to th ree q ues tio ns: (a) Do es existing sta red mood a ffect ra ted lIIo ml u-sponscs? (b) Docs presen tation order o f m usic affect ra ted m ood r e SpUl l ~( ' tn m usic ? (c) Do simila rly rated m ood re sponses ho ld tru e for b o th vo ca l um l instrumental music ? Undergrad uate and graduate m usic majors (n =- :n l) 1.lll' d the ir p resent mood on a lO-p oi n t sca le an d the n re sp o n ded to 2 0 musiI a l selec tio ns in terms o f five pa irs o f b ip olar adj ective s (go o d- bad, pleasant uupk-asant, bri gh t-dark, depre ssed -elated, an d happy -sad). Th e 10 \'0(:,,1 " I«('('rp ts included rock, folk. (' Il U ll t rY ·W('.~te rn, popu lar ball ad, and h ymns; {nstruruen ta l ex cerp ts included j azz, march. se m i-classical, a nd classical. Sl, i, Ily sIM'aking. l' J<,U'l'l r,,, ", " J m, ~ II,,·..· ....",I. ..,,' n"un\ . 'lO ll ad j' -I'l iv('s, Although the w,-II Hev ner list ind.,,'d ll"" ',nlv ",II'" II"",. " " 1111\ , II. 'h, m,'s uf a IT" I'li v.. sl" lt .,. or llulI,ds. tIt I a
, r"JI'C
~" ( ' w n
Fi}{lIH' H-:l F ' • . ,Il ll sworl h S llltJdilk at io/l o f 11 11' 11" \ 111'1 \ I . . ' C' I 1 1'l tlVI' n fl" ,
~ " " M lJ y
"PI"'ar (Ill
";l(I J'·l l i ., ,·~ I ,, ' ~
It ,·.ul..... illl"fl'sl,'d in lh.' . " ,,,.' nll, lhll.-, " 11 11.,111'. 11111'1"" . ,"" ltld f( lIlSll!1 lilt' da_\sit !IUlin Sill I, ;m. 1 '''" 11", ,,1,,,,,11\ ( N i 7),
t-, (
h ,ll;lllld.
, " ~ff/llfll);,m'
•
tijllll dliliflll,\ fj''J 'A fJlI'ir'II II' ' " {'(/(Ill/O f
o
b lg l t ICllInd lll al u l i,' II 'I II " 'II 1 , 1" 1 nur .r., I ' ., IIH It Ulod d o ' . 11 0
,
I ,. ~ S.lll
SIC, J u l pn' s l 'IlI Oil io/l OId"1 .101'.\
tl ,t 'II CC
moo d n'sp(JJl.~t ' 10
:~ ta (e~ (p. 171) "s i/ll i!;I1- ra h -I! 1 1l1l1 J( 1 1t~:CJI. ~(.~.lI d lilg his third {Illclitio n, EOI ,It. a nd IIIsl nlll1e Ula l music 1\ ' ' flOl I.~ t,s do not hold tru e fo r b,,' I, g I
t
.
-.
J" ' / SIIIl
1t" 1
" 'I, ~s.l ru~lental Illusic, a ltho llg ;, hoI '; qua Illes.
r
I ::"1( S (I ere ntly to voca l mu sic Ih,w my see m 10 reflect II • n~
V onl
rc sa m e m o ud -.ag lc's (p p. 7O-RO) a na lysis of the I" . ":J~asure of mood response rev ea led l~:~~ture usmg adjective descript or s a, stu. ICS mention ed the reliab ility of thet o~s r~search concerns. O nly tim '" reviewed stud ies reported no statistic~lr testmg Ins tru ments. Over half of ,I.'I ca l data, nearl y half used only ti analyses; of the 20 reporting sta r 'I' eight f . requency COun ts E J 1.'0 1 f r ~ run e studies co nducted since 1960 I ' ag e noted, howe ve r, Ihal IS '~a analyses. Findings were not co . e mp Dyed more sop histicated sla ra ~lcu'ba r elem ents in e liciting mood a~~lsten~ r~garding the importa nn' 01 o Wlllg road generaliza tion : , DUg t e review wa rranted tht. fol
. ','
Rhythm see ms 10 be th ' , e e pnrnarv elem
. em In evaJuating mood . t f respo nses 10 moce, consona nt harmonies and m~s 0 ten to describe fasrt em pr rna' , (unes pitche d ' h 'gh , Jor or "a '1 , . • bo'l a IOn described disso h . m I regi sters. "£Xcii ,. n an t annollJes. (p. 79) erneIII
IIIll.'iIL "Happiness" . . th r _ _J was e term used -r
T ill' seman tto dilTeren tialle Ch . IIltu k ollwr than mood b mque also is useful for assessing res ' or c a rac ter P ' C pon scs hI (1.'17II, 19tolO, 198 2a) a re th I e teehm lllque'ser se.. rozier (1974) and M cM II II( 'II ",O IK of O sgood Sue! df m ,who demOnstra led tha i II thr '. or assessing atTe ti II ' 1'( ' pnuClpa l factors or dimensions c. ve resp on se an d ide ntifj"I' an:(Jillll fo r most of the . . (evalualtve, pOlenn and " ' \ I c sema ntic loadin f V.I' ac tvIlYI I lO ll st"lIla nt ~t: differe lliia l scales, C ro zier gsdo~ ac tor analyses of responses ( III t.1I11 e /l S10 /lS of affective mea nill bu ' dan ~Mullen each ide nlifi<.' .Ipp}' III <
'
•
II 101 II }' ar t fo rm s. T ill' d WI kll\1 .II'PllIilCh use-s ind ividua l adj t'r lives thai co l 1,·( nvr-ly com prist' a 1111 loil pall," II a nd employs var iab les associated with Illm it,..1struc ture . I\k M ulle n e xamined 1111' n-lntlouslup be tw ee n response to lilt' II l'VII I'r ,\ tlll'I'Iive Ci rcle and SOllll' previously defined d imensions of evaltwlifl/l (1'11'OIsing. be aut iful, good). j JfJteucy (interest, powerful, rugged ), and (u livil)' (I om plex, clear, o rder). H is data indica ted some m erit in Hcvner's n llll'I'pl III arrangi ng her adjective groups in a circle; two d imen sions o f seman tic ' pan " wh ich he int erprets as subfactors of the evaluative d lmeus lon. ruu-rgcd . McMullen furt her sugges ts that a third factor, associ ated with 1111' .l( livily di mension, migh t have emerged if he had used add itio na l ,u'Ii\'ity' ...I..ted adjectives in the study. Analysis of adjective descriptor s into underlying di mensio ns hold s lIlllt'lI pon-ntial for assessing affective responses to music and musical CX pl'!il' llt I ' , uut] the a ppro ac h is rece iving increased usage. One of th e m ost l'lalllIlOl h' ,' pplicalions is Asm us's (198.1)) m ultidimensiona l instrumen t for tilt' 1111';1\1111 ' 1I II' 1lt of affect ive response to mu sic. Called the 9 -Afficlive Dimensions (!J A I l ), A \llltl S' S tech nique yie lded nin e dimens ion s of affect, which he na med I'i lil, Srnsnal. Potency, Humor. Pastoral, Longing, Depression, Sedative, a nd Arlit'il)'. t>. lall)' othe rs, including Gabrielsson (1973, 1979), H argr eaves and Coh-mnu (I!ttU ), and Hylton (W81), have used the dimensional appro ach It) assess1111'111 of affective response to mu sic. " 'h ile the dime nsional approach. wlu-tber in vol ving basic factor an alytic techniques or even more sophi sriru r", I multidim e nsional scaling techn iques, is useful (a nd now rea sonably ron \'l'llient) fo r analyzing adjective descriptor data, H argreaves (198(;, p . 11 5) I .uuions tha t "a ny d imensional model is ultimately restricted by th e ran gl' o f musical stimuli on which it is based, as well as on th e subjects a nd n' sl'" 11 \I' uu-as ur es adop ted ." Fur the r, Interpretin g the e merging dimensio ns in vulv r-s IIII' resea rcher's subjective judgments. H argr eaves sugges ts that d im c u slounl upproachcs to the study o f mu sica l responses are still in their infan cy and do III II }'e t provide an ade qu ate basis for d rawing any firm co ncl usions a llollt 1111 ' IInla(1d im ensions of responses to music (p . 128). I's}'chologists co ntinue to usc adjective descrip tors as a mea ns for a s.~I· s s jt1 ~ lllood, character, and (' mo tio na l respon.ses 10 mu sic, an d HevlH' r\ work Ilr lbe J!nOs prOVide s , l fOll lH lilticlll 1'0 1" m ilch of lhis research . Conte lllllilrar)' "llld ie.s (c.g., Balkw('l1 & Th ompson , W!J!' ; Schellenberg, Kry.sd ak, & t ~ ll lll p b e ll , 20( 0) mah ' rt'fI'l'l 'lIl'I' 10 amI ,~ ll p por t her findi ng.s . Balkwl'lI ,mil I'ho lllpson, n o ting" Iha l l11 O'il 1 1 ' ~ I '; ll t h lI ~ill ~ atljl'd ive descripto rs e m ptop'tl WI'ste rn liste nl'rs li s h ' n ill ~ 10 \\'.'\ 1" 1It tllll ~ k , illVl'sliga ted Ihe e xlI'llt 10 whit'h \\ 'I ' ~ t l'rn Iistl'lle rs ,,011 111 II', o~ lli /, I ' 1l IH HtI ~ ill I lind llsia ni ra ga e xn' I 'Jl I.~ . 'I'cord('d ill No rlh Illdia. l 'm l 1f I ' l l h l ~ 11. ,,1 li\ II' ul'rs l'II('lllturah'
, "/ " IfIW/':Im,
" illi li d o l itIIl J
filA/mi mI /ldtt/vior i l/l l'l l ll lf' !Ir!/f/I'illrl /JII" M UJic
""familiar 1", ,,01 ,'y" " " '. II,, 'Y ", k.'d :1O li"1' ·"" " 1o ratc III<' d,'gn '" ofjoy, ,ad
ness, anger, a nd P P1I( "" i ll l:l nJ J.;lI I'XI' I'I"ll.~ prl'.'ic!l'ch'd 10 COllvey OIIl' of t ill ' fou r nlOod" S" bjen, we-n- oaiv< , n 'ga,'di"g Ih" excerpts culmn d "'m" ola ' he m usical variable, of 'empo, rhyll" " i, lions; Ihey ba, ed Ihd ,' ..."i "g"
"1'1
complexity, melod ic complexi'y, pitch range, and ti mbre (a nnle"Iri"g dichn lomy). Subjects correctly idenlined the mood, of joy, ,adne", and
'"
0"
10 'Iris ph en omena . I I III,·'"'" 1PI "slIII'm ll l l l S( ' S . I 1lI0SI
;: :~:'I~ ': :: !,yi~~:~~:~:i:;~:e: ,~:~~t:::r:Xle::~~~~;;~~:7~C;~::r~~J~I ::/~::-l i(\ '
a nger as co nveyed by the ragas, but no t pea ce. Balkwell and T hompsoll
believe the data suppon Iheir cro"' cultural mod el of emolion in m usic. Furth er, they no te tha t the variance in ratings for joy and sadness cou ld Ill' a" odaled with mean tem po ralings and th at melodic complexily raling" were associated with ra tings of joy (simpler m elodies) a nd sa dness (m on ' melodies), co mp lex & hellenberg, Krysciak, and C a mpbe ll (2000) examined the effects 01 pit ch and rhythm ic variables on th e perceived emotional COntent of six shon melod ies Pr ev iously j udged 10 convey one of Ihree emolion" happy, sad, '" scary. They developed Ihree altered versions 10 provide plrch only, rhYlhm
only, and baseline version, of each. Thirty undergra duale p' ycholo
major,
ra led the 2·' me lod ies as COnveyi ng one of the th ree emotions. Pitgy ch had u grea ler influence on ra tings than rhythm . Rhythm made sign ifica nt COlllri b"lion, to ralings of happy and , cary melodic, b u t only in interactio n with pitch change" which Were the predominant innu ence, on , ubjects' raling" Ahho ugh the nu m ber a nd na ture of the melodies and m oods exam ined W el l ' hmil"d . Ihe resu lts revealed Ihat ' tructural varia ble, are imeraclive and inn" l'UC€-' adjccuva] description s of mood or emotio n in music. I)ala fl'l,'arding the effects of stru ctural varia bles in bOlh the Balk welJ alld Thomp,on and Schellenberg et al. studies Were simila r 10 What Hev" .., f"('polkd in the W:iOs. Psycholo!,rists likely w ill co ntinu e using adjeclivl' descriplors as data for asseSSing m ood and e motional response to mus ic.
d f ltions of ca ncep tss, fro m "St' "t ' VI 1 e 1n 1 " . " , from a n au thor 's ow n T Ilt'y ( epen d heavily 011 drduction-Irom I d p roPOSItions " " I s from ge ne rally aCfep e th ir method is "lu-mn-ueu
t it ,
111 11
' -
umv~m~rt,e~",ic
11,"'1'.
~
i' ~ c~ur,e"
: : " ::I :;::';~~~t;~t~:~oa:, ;;;e~o~~:u:~::,~~~~~u~:~~::::~~;i~~~'~\'I;,I :): apPb~oacl.h ; o~lt~o.!;h
«m prises only one conc c : vir-wed as subjective in - rna>.. be . mor eh0 0 \ '.' It'spouse 1111 ' ht' more subjective. T e I
I
Philo,",ph k al explanalion, rega rding 'he value or meaoing of art" lic 1"'" 1l 0 111C IHI and ex p erience have been a part of \l 'estern culture since the lill Ie of PlaIn, who is cons id ered the founde r of philosoph ical aeslJ1(' rin (lI o/, 'ad,,,,, & K" hns. IUG1, 1', :1), Writings in philo,oph;"a' aes" ", Ii,.,
al" " " " i, Tht' nmgt' and diversity of views Ihat have been olht'd 't'gan lmg "I<' " 01 ,,,· and o,,"""iog "f an (and music in parti cuiar) have ,'e,,, it,'d in " p"Ii " " 'ph i",1i 'J"a gm i,'e. oiten eno"r/llng Ihow who are not wt'li , ..h" " i,'d in
anlll.~es
div€-'rgl' 1l1 vit,\\,
poinl, . a ""'''''y examil" " ion of ' OUle "f Ihe da",;"al vi,'wl", in', Ulay """ ' '''/rll't' 1o I" t' afft't'tive 1<"1"""'" 1o n" " ic, parti...dady , ill' ,. p" Ii" ' ''phica' ac·" h,'I;'-, "" I" e' t'nl, Iht' '....dit i" nai /'nd long,." " /II 'r/ing
~Il f nUl~I.(,
h
a pro ach es to the stu ) () . " verba l d escrip tions ~cc rve, diSCUSSIOn . resent e xa m .mes c nlv J p hi OS01' 11-
p
.
'') I 'c aesthetic Ih,', n " '\~:::::::, ~~,ci, ~ Iere'Ied in examini ng '~"; ;1o~~d~e:s:nd Kuhn
'u- s
lu .uld con sult a trad;tional
(1% 1) ur
It:~r~U~ecent
' ''~;~',~ :
so urces that summyari,:e, sc vera , , hi -al o,ition , (e,g" I avoes, ", : . synthesize various p hllo sop I~ to P 1(97). H oweve r, a Sa lll i'l lII~ 0 ] \ •. ht 199 2' Scm n, . . 1"1 11"1 " " 1991- Reimer & " fig , " , ffi to iII uslrate the { I { ' lII l ,
'~g"" ,
11111
'"1
l"~
whe t e r e th I' S ' tra d itiona l Idu"/mll!",,' e IC . 11"1 1 ne sees two div isions 0 f s~ec ula " tive - de aes artmen ts of phi losophy. a lll I III, rI ".,Ltic" usual ly taught in or literatur e dc purt nu-ur v, " II ta ught in the respecnv e , usua y I d general sta te men ts rega rding 'artsI pl"',,,n,,, . t'lulosophlca l aesth etics inI c ues aning while art theory invo VI' S ":~I'l und their intent. va uc, or me vles and artists. M usic ("u ll r st' s ~'l ,,,.' " . I i dividua l art works art style, ' It' I ry mu sic "Pl"" ", ' """,III"on m as defin ed by Berlyne are m US K As , h" " ld '''''' t -m art I eory d an extent, fonn and ana Y'" I . eVl I", t. It )"
\1'""" ( I!J711), or any 0 II
I'hilosoPhicallnquiry
OI l'.';/ ht'lies. \Vhill' p hilosophica l inq uiry by na tur e
lot. , " . m usical , or \rlsua a . . . specime ns of literal) , d ith a feeling of con vrcno n. h they leave the rea er W I
'; :~~~Ie
'm't".
h~,lds, th~ u~~~lit~~::~~~a~~s~'
"~i""
. . • . rious theories' ba>;" lenets su Kes 'ewed a, t 'I ' '::,;;:::::. a::thelic, for viewt'd a,t IIW/I II "Ia n J(, Ie'al- Ihe beauuful and the g " , the ,'eali",t" ", 01 10,11I C r him im l talt on wa 1/
'~~ , ~:':,',~l,~e~;;,e:l:':,tl :~~I~~;e;; lr~;/~::,,;;a;,:,::~~e:~~~~~ ;::'~~~~';':d /,, t i," t"
:::':: . ,
IlClllSS(~
co ns id e re d :l r t
'(l~ ,:x!",r,',' I'OIll:l n l id sm
so ug ht
explal\at l(l~l1sl' III ~OJ'm 0 I Jl ,'y."
II l lI h ll ll'l ic Ilnl) ellIS, W11Ilt , .,t'I Ill ,I ' ,., '" Ihe most su bl-nne
~;" :" ' : ::~i';" ;~~,t.~::'.::';':ai:, ; , ~i" ~ SI 'II
I
' I' V II 'Wl' (
.1
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'i~;,;:;:::"~n~,;:,:;,,.:, 1 " ".
VO l li t '
lJ
/,,' I :::,', '1'::/" '" ::::'/i': hl";": 1111' I,rad ica l inlt'llt'l"l , e n U l' 1 1 \ll 1 1111 '1 ~1 " '~l' it "o" "It'f1ilies the wor ld d lf"( l! y "'~ , 'c as tht, art I'lIr ,' \'I d l"'/I" "t , " . I h ' w,'}" v il' W. I'" ( I S , II .1 •"s . t'XI , _,1\ \ I IIIl1 S I I· I ' , l ll' lllll ll l 'U , d \\,111 II I , I ' oilH' I " ' " i n d l 'IIl ' IIl It '1I1 0 I It I , , lIt t' vl 'r yclay hh', . 0 11I lllll " " II ' I I ' 1 " 1111 I I 11.'1 11 ( ',
n ·11l '(
Iill"r'>
ti ll ' I t ' l\\l111I I I
I
-
..III,r I lI' r .. M" .. 'OI wm
OJ stusical Bd lflll ior
theories, as cupsulized h y SI hwmhuu ( I!Jii7. 1" :n),M include : Fre ud . desi re an d U ll f (l l l j,dIIl ISlll' j, ~ ; S;l lll a ) ' a n a, reason; La nge r, symbolic tran s (orma tion ; Ga rvin, (('('!i ng It' SI" I II M' ; Stravinsky. spec ulative vo lition ; Schoe nberg, logical d arity; Leirtu-utritt, logical imagination: and Hindenut h, symbo lic cra ftsman ship.
To facili ta te a modicu m of order in d ealing with ae sth et ic theories rclau-d to music, severa l writers have grouped ae sthetic th e ories according to h....I, philosop hical position (Meyer, 1956, pp . 1- 3; Reimer , 1989, pp. U - :17; Schwa dro n, 1967, pp. 34 - 47). The basic viewpoin ts a re sum ma rized below. The two most bas ic position s usually are classified as the absolutist and "r} ermtialist viewpoints, or in Schwad ron' s terminology, the isolationist and (/11/ textualist: Essentially, absolutist (isolationist) theories co nsider m usic's value or m eaning to be the result of the mu sica l so unds th emselves a nd nothing more. For an absolutist, there is no mus ical m ean ing beyond th at in here nt i ll the sounds them selves. Meyer (l 95G, pp. 2- 3) sees an additi onal distinction within th e absolutist fram ewor k. An absolutist ma y be a formalist. who r-uu tends that musical meanin g is primari ly intellectual and based on percepuou and understanding o f the forma l stru ctu ral relationships within a co rupo vl tton. or an expressionist. who views these structural re lationships as ca pable III exciting fee lings and emotions in the liste ne r. T he essential p oint rega rding absolutist theories, ho wever, is that any m eaning or value derived from tlu1lI 11 s i <~ must be in terms of the mu sical sounds a nd nothin g else . Edna rd l lan slick ( 19S7/ IM91) generally is recogn ized as one of the ea rliest prol'0 ncn ts of the absolutist position. Fo r H anslick and othe r absolute formalist s. mu sic's values and mean ing are derived entirely fro m the musical struct un-. In Han sllck's extreme view, the "true" m usic lies in the musical score: ;lIIY performance is an imperfect representation o f the structu re containe d within the score. Absolute expressionism ha s ga ine d a certain acceptance in re cent years, Th b vie w holds th at the mean ing of m usic not onl y comes from the music itse-ll, h UI from its expressive or aesthetic qualities rat he r tha n its struc ture or [o r rn. Cook (1!J90), who qu estion s the extent to which listen ers give atte ntion III formal details, contras ts "m usical liste ning," where people listen for ae stlu-r ic !,'Tatification, with "mu sicologica l listening," where they listen to esla b li, h musica l fa<:ts or form ulate theories. Abso lute expressionism 's majo r pmI'll Ill'nl, Bennett Reimer (19M9), argu es very eloq ue ntly th at this philosophi cal positiull should be the basis for contem porary m usic ed uca tio n p hilosoph)", T he oth('r basic position, i.e., th e view tha i mu sic's m ean ing involves !1lOll'
or
' h 'r lIlt' nUllil·(' tn ,hi' Slud)· 'It'sllw tiCll, Sl·hw' ld mn 's hilo:h l)' n ',utah l.'
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, " I'xtramusical idcus, t'l1\tJtiollS, .stori." s, th.lll lilt, sOllnds th t'I1\M'lvl:'1 , 111,1,hllh:~~ 7 iu . '27- 37), is labc1t'd the rrJrmil~a ~. 1"'\ r-vt-u sp iritual sta n's {SIIII I\ "lI, ~ 'lll , ' Il l at cs o f this positioll an.' expres' itl Nt"ld y ,I .1< . vee f human experiellct.'S, a h iHI w,f'l h II' II mntextua / 1St pmil 10 11, ' l . sic ' IS t'xp n'ssive () . IHll h l'l ; i.c. , th ey view rru u .' . th r extramusical connotaltons. 111 ,'\' llb o rt.'cogn ize that it call have (~ .e ide rablc attention in smut' of . ' , rs to be recclvmg cons ' I . . 1 " II well Llt.pn'SSIOlllsm appea , , ( 9MO) theory of exprcssltlO las )( t 110 ,' t1 'tTnt literature. Klvy s 1... . (Davies Hl!J.l). Davies offers allo th . II ' 1', vl'd , although not wi~hout .cn~clsm f th ese theories is beyond tin' ""!" I tlwory of exp ression . ExammatlOn. 0 t d in gaining an undl'rstil\l(hll~ I . but re ade rs mteres e I II ' . t tlwl ,n'scnt discussIOn, . the work o f Kivy a m aVll 'l, raged to examme '1"1 1 " III .'It. pn'ssionism are cncou d (1967 P' 42) is relativi.HIl , It' H ' ,.1 1\ Ihird po sition noted by Schwa r~nof er~onally derived vahn' tTII I'l l" 11\ I ~I position allows for deve10pmen Pd 'onditioned b y cultura l ~l ll ll l''t I erclative toan c 1 I ',· 1 ,111.1 II't·ob'lli l.es that v a u~s ar I ti ist musical meaning is a psyt· III O~1t , I II ltl historical periods, "f or the re \~lS f'stylistiCexp erien ce and t·ultllnll ti d jll ll lllll"l (If expectation , a n ~\Itgrow 0 . , lllll lun " {Schwadron, P: 4/), . u sic hilosophy and llt'sllwl H 1I 1 ~, ltwad ron' s (19H4) review of research til m, phiFosoph ical aestht.tir s: ph, to .' IIl4l1 i"l.CS nn othcr direction of co~tem~~~7 comp leted be tween 1!17,' und ",,,mrll t,/lJgy, lIe cites 1:1 doct~ral "d ls; crt: enom enology of music," FI,llo~illg•. were conce rn ed With th ? hi I ' fe nds in the aesthetK s 01 I'l tn. tint • f phtlosop Ica .. . ," 1' \ bllrro wing mctapho~ .lcxe . tion of mu sic focuses on sound as pfr 1"1. 1\ arts, phenome nologtca cxa mma '~Il" jl nuh cr th an physical sound . I as "a n overcom ing 01" 1lU'liI" • ',I, (I tJ71) P 54) view s ph enomeno ogy . te lan gl,age for soun d ,-, llIl " . .. d velop appropna II\"I!"!; " a nd a rgues th e n eed to e. I l phors The phennmcn(Jlo~y I" . ' d end on Vlsua m e a · . 1' I · hI Il "ltl of conh llumg to . ep d iving aes thetic ph ilosophy. but lt~ un r ~ n l 11I1\1>ir is still a n e me rgm g an eve 1 henom cno n is more in keep lll~ .w li li hil l" fonls on mu sic as a pe rceptua .p 'han th e po sitions of trat htltlllal r> h i · al pe rsua sion s 1'1111.'l1I po rary ps)"c o togic 'htlmophical aesthet ics. d 'n Applied Phn wmen(}I0l!J has ht't'n I ( 'hll oo 's (1983) Mu,~ic as I/ear~: A S\~c~t:on of ph enomenolobrical 'lIlalysis 1l.1 \I/otlli/.ed as the m ost system~~;~I;rPRao m aintains th at Clifton's vi~w 01" hI llIusk al e xpe rie nce (Rao . " : ton \wtwcen a person and real (II' nll.'lg. " t I app ro ach to m USICal . 'rthc outcome of a
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d escrihl' S " :nl~;::II~s r. 1Il1l_\ i~' h ' l jJ::'cJ\ ::sU(~(;:.:.;:I~dS .r(~· IIw individ ua l. J l~:'::,'; I . eman ~r, or ~~''''fll r('(flll ol~ plt'''OI ,,,I a ud it 01 pr~)f()lInd" may IriAAl' l ';" 5 a ft;Jtt)~d dP<.)SIt,'VC(d 'l1lOliOllal ('lIalili("~ a nd s~:.:'XIJ:_~'l"Il" nCt'shlhat must lik" l.:VL' ope a d" co. >t'cause I e h r lllUfllhs bUI is d ld II I t O ry Illl'cha nism fro m b uman 1('111 , • even o f visua l d a Out Ihe ag f " 01 .\ "way, o f kn ' .. a n tactua l sens o ry n I ' e () 1\ 1' o wmg duri h tee ra ntsm s d I d'lle d a ud itor)' ex . n ng t esc positive e motional ex . a n allh'1l<1,J.:/' s lIggt 'SIS tha t . pencn ces (So unds) hold inc re d t pen ences, th e a,' ~4 1 m USIC to which . 1 esc Imp ortan s I I IJt, a"cri bcd I . tn e qu ality of dellth ,'" ascnb ceo andl o m USl c of I r s ascn cd ( d I t'lw ble a lislen er to " an y c u ture o r style notjust I n ,{ a n ( cp tll 1l1' 1.\' o momen t '1 'b • , rreJ ern art Till ' ) .' lall' that was p re-lin . , an y c in touch ' with a I . . m e 111<1 )' W lltilliles arh'l " hh'UlStIC as well as pre-visuaJ a nd POSltJ ve emo tio n,ill ' 1;lrlk Ula riy fiI~;r;;; t .at mu sic reqUiring visua l explic~~e-tarctual" (p . 2X). Sil" IISIC may Ja ck th I Io n W I' artistic im ;u Ptufound throu h ' di e q ua ltles of dep th th t _ pol/ , Th is curso . • ~ ~ u ~tory percep tion may hold a mUSIC recogn izI'd ' I . r)exam ma tlOn of p h", hi . ,Il lf n lllslfie rable diversny d~ osop ical aesthetics re veals f, _ ' '' l_,ilioll has bl'l'n b regal' mg the affec tive respn ewanS\\'l'l\ . su sta ntia ted -, I nse to m usic N 1I 'III.. " " purdy specula tive lea d ' cmpl r~ca ~y, Most infonnation .1 ' ,' l. lII t 'lII~ afT('ctive res ' 109 m an y mdlViduals COn ' 0 (II ( 1 li llII'd Ily Sd n I sp ouse to accep t so m e o ther h., ce rued with Ilud('/ . • vac ro n (1967 p 3 4 ' ) P l osophicaJ p "
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11\"'1)' sho rt history . 1I.'d }'n,· ( 1 ~ '7 1. p, ,I)) traces its roots back lu Fechner's \\ 0 1 ki n th e IHflOs a nd IH7lh , but non-x that its ea rly prod ucts we ft' relativeh \1'i1 rse and not Vl'f)' l' llli~ hklling prior to l!HiO, Since about IlU;O. howe v, " uuercst in the discipli lH' has increased ma rkedl y and Inspired ne w 'II'l' lO'ld les , tech niques, aims, a nd ideas. Psychologic al ae sthe tics may involve a ny of three basic m ethod ologi es : (a) .vn rtational studies, whic h exa m ine ho w two o r mo re facto rs vary in rela tio n II, run- a nother; (b) content analysis and description, w hich invol ve m cusurcn u-nt " I uuistic and other artifacts of specific socia l !,'T(mps or hi storical pe-riods; ,I lid (c) experimental aesthetics, which examines aes the tic response t h roll ~h , II lli'rime nta l methods, i.e ., seeking through systematically varying SIIIIH' 1;11'1" 1'1 10 dete rm ine th eir cau sal e ffect o n affective beh avior. Berl yuc main ta in" tl..II ex pe rim ental methodology offers th e greatest poten tial for undr-rst.uul II'~ aesthetic respo nse to music a nd o utlines basic criteria and p re mis es thut lilult'rlie experimental aesthetics: Fil l' research to qualify as ex pe rim ental ae sth etics, it must pOSSt'SS nm- III mUH' of fo ur featur es: (a) a foc us on th e collative (stru ctura l or for m al) p lO l' "IIU's of th e musica l stim ulus, (b) a co ncentratio n o n motivation a l q uestion s. (I l stud y of no nverbal as we ll as ve rba lly expressed judgmen ts, a nd {d} s(,t'kIlllJ. links bet ween aesthetic pheno me na and o ther psychological phe no me na , III nddiuon , ex perimental aesthetics includes three basic prem ises. First, an art work" is an alyzed in information-th eoretic term s; i.e., it is 4 «rupnscd of elem ents, each of whi ch ca n transm it information of fou r types: (u) sem antic, (b) expressive, (c) cultural , and (d) syntactic. Berl yn e rec ogn ize s ' Ollie o verlap among the four types of information , but notes th at the fouI' Il1 for ma tio n so urces a lso em it ind epe ndent info rmation, thus se tting up a 14 unpctition a mo ng them . Mo re info nn atio n fro m o ne so urce ge ne ra lly III lows less fro m the o the rs, -I'ht, ,'>t.'t:o nd theoret ical premi se is that art works are collections of symhll l, III atTorda nce with th e con ception of signs and sym bols in the sem iOlit· 1l10Vt'me nl. 1I Art wo rks ha ve p roperti es in co m mo n " ith o bjects or ev('nls 11 ... 1 Ihey si!, 'llify, thereby servi ng as sym bols for co m munica ting a rtists' va l, II I'S rt'gardi ng \....hich obj ects o r eve nts de serv e attention . T he Ihird theoretica l premise is th at an art wo rk serves as a stim ulus pa l11' 111 W h O M~ collative propel"l il's giv{' it a po"itive intrinsic hedon ic va l ut~ , Vuriah les fo r measuring Iw du ll it: va lue indude degree of p I CaSll1"l~ , prd l' r" Ill'l', o r utility, which lm lally a n ' llU'aSUI't'd via e itht'l" ve rba l ex p l"(~ss i o n s or " AM
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su ch nonverba l vuu I I mamor t ha t 11'as ..pOSlliv(' . • ll)"~ illldll ~lII " 'Will d v..1 Ili t' a nd .incent ive vuh rewarding n ot 1 . I Ill'do lli, vnhn-" is . I II.' . A n art work , It't l UISI' it M' , . . . III rcrcmly II " reward results I'.10111 l'X p • .r... I \. I ' 11 \ a II H "I• " .,- t 0 an end Th) ca sura blc 01 tarian function, such as 'il'; ,u"'-g tlu- '''gall''''d sounds " fe pleasur e '" grzmg one for h sica ' '''g silence. maskiu ' U II W' ' r ot com an y utili labor. Berlync hypollu'sf,es tI me'...' lies are a a decrease a hed o nic va l arousal has rea che d an ase m arousa l 0' arou sal poten tial" f depends nn man [0 a n work 's stimulu s high. '1'1...
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blance to intensity, individual I rca nt eve nts, and collativc or rese nt M cM ullen (I982a thetics d d ' Ber! , ) , another strong I'roponent ofps p rope rties. . ' exp a neon • hi ' uon. He no tes th e kc yne s concept of arousal or . yc 0 ogrca l acs a n ind ividual-is th y concept of arousal-the degr' , afs call it, activo. e same wh ther vi ee 0 action .. perspective H . e er viewed fr or acnvity b)' . e argues th h om a cogniti arousa l at the c f at t e basic reason r . , l ive or behavioral or e 0 ps b I . to r me udi h rctween wha t is . yc n ogical aesthetics i b . mg t e concept 01 music- and the at n provides a brldg, I When a , h" is, accordin tstens to and pro cesses ac oustic ted feeling ' esponse. music's "e ne, gyJ tO responding 1'1 propertie s o f mu sic, he III , an "struc ture." crce ptuall ' d ncnvutc the listener. Botl. wh ich in co mbination; m term s of tlu'" arousa l p ro vide th f !eMulieu aud Berlyn e s erve to a rouse '" JJepend en t va lab! e ra mework for the aes th ti uggest that thi s ac tivation , na es l Ug S, psychopb . I _ forr exnert expenmcntal ae stb et· Ie respo nse to music. , . YSIO ogrca l ve,b I . tl U' psychological ae'tb ' usmg adjective descripto ' a 'atmgs, a nd etocs movemenL l nvestigato "" com,de , ed pa rt "I , ca les: (a) descrlpliv til-'s; (b) evaluativ, " leak s, In reference to stim ulus " tem ploy three classes of f sca es refie r h pa terns' c II . m a" w ing " ,bjcct' : c mg edon ic value' and ( ) . 0 .tove prop" " Psychophysiological m ,eactoons 0 ' mood whiie ex c mlernal stal' scal,... rath " , tha n measu,," ear'",es gene'ally a'e co n,ide, to a stimu'",. t"ll(lllhysinlogica l ,. _s 0h affect, as in much of th C In Icators of aro usal e pre via I ' ' escarc B h . nn "i" H,' mlng lime ' e avonrnl meam, es genc",11 a us y " ted psy(l ,xl lloratury tim ' .." ) or exploratory choice (. Y, re explaratory til/If . Ie val lOusly h b In musIc I" t . H n" I,' ' g',llera.1ll 1l10refiect tlH' l eu Ia r va n'.,I,I t"C or l"~" ~. I W li e 1 I"•IrI t'he • ' 0llII,llt'l vo ves , eSilt"PI If"lor. manip ~ .•ll"~ lI];ltio
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and study, wh ile th e a",tllliml "I' I"O,u h exami ne s rea' tim" to a rt and otlw' a" , thetic ' tim uh taken fm'" u-nl Iiic- Wbile th e synthetic ap p, oa d, has obvi· ous advantages, McMnll"n (1!J7K) argues that a great need exists lor vc n""ic I"ychologi'ts to exam ine mu sical bebavior s Ircm the latter pe"peel i . I Ic maintains th at th e psychology of mosic reflects too mucb the ou c-sided p,,,i· uon of p sychoacaustics rather tha n p sycho music. llerlyne (1974, P: 1M) no te' that both synthetic and analytic approacbe, a re nece" ary , b ut he 100 , cco gfor mu ch nizes th at th e , ynth etic app,oacb has been the dominan t appw acb al ,e,earch ." Independent vad able, gen era lly are structu ral or [o,m cha>acte,i"ti i.e., an art wo,k', collative pwperties, and tbei' effects Irequet'!" ons, Iy are evaluated within an info;matio n th eory fra mew ork . Re' ea rcb in p, ycbological aestb etics co ntinues to develop in ,eve, al directions. Tbe psycbophysiologi cal app,oaches, usin g m easurs> of variou' pby' tological rates", dependent m e",ures, and the adjective desedptor apcsp,oacb , particularly ,tudies of dimen sion ality rellected in th e desedpto , b ave , ec eived , eoewed emphasis and di,ection fto m th e theory - metbodology, and 'esea>cb 01 contemporary psycbolob"cal ae,lhetics. The major developments in p , ycbological aes thetiCS, however, see m to be eme,ging through 'esearcb u,ing exp erim ental m etbodolo gy foc using on th e collative pWPCItie' of musical stimuli such as "com plex ity, novclty/ familia' ity, ,edun dan ' cy/uncertain ty, and o, derliness, and va, ious measures of 'aesth etiC' re spousv including liking, inte, e, tin goess, and subjec tiv" fam iliarity lland compleXity" e (H ",g, ea " 19M6, p. \10). T he cnllative va riabl es gen .. y serv e as independent ve va, iable, and tbe va,ious mea""e' of aestheti c ,espo use th" dep eude nt. Relatiom h ips witbio and b etween the twO va,i ablehtclasses obvi· ou,ly arc b ighly com plex, and examioation of tbem is f'au g with m any sem antic, m ea sorement, methodological, an d theoretical problem' and i""es. T he p,esent discu ssion is inten ded to serve as an introduction 10 th e a theo'y aud issues and to p ro vide an overview of , ome of th e ' esearch din'ction ' using exp e'im methodology. Reade" inte,ested in m o'" in[o lm ' ental tion on con te mporary expe'imental aesthetiCS sbould exam ine vesH arg><'aVC" (\!IM6, PI" \10- 122) an d bis colleague, (Nnrth & H a, grea , \!)!17. 1'1" K.I- lO:I; Sluckin, H argreav e " & Coleman, \!)M2) tborougb a nd lucid rcvi,'ws of the liter atur and issue s. tb e theo,y and methodology of exp,,' imental aCS' Resea in emusic u, ing rcb thetiCS appears , pea, hcaded b y on e of Ilerlyne' s a" ociates, J. II . C m '.ic, 11I..gg & Cm,.ic', \!17.1, C m ,.i"" 1!J7·I). In the U nited State', Patrick M cMull en co nt inues tn \". tl... r hi,'[ I" o pmwnt (M cM ulle n, 1!17li, 1!177,
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WH2.1. WX2h, J ~ J~ Jh; 1\ 111\ 1u 11.. n 'se'IIT h th r ust i ll n '('I'lI ! "It I \ , II .~ A IIIOld , 1!J76). Perhaps the str o n m- u a lld his Co lle'I I' l l l ' .'; il l " Y I '. I Ul lt.. S rlll'o lJ,gh the wo rk o f David lia r ges O ' It' A' II .. s l n \ 'I I . h'T( 'aVl' S ( e.g. , lJa rgH·a ves. I!JH:l 19101 -1 j'IIN'- ' 1.\ roues Research Group in El)l rlan WHI ' No h " . . '. pp . 11O-1:! 2 ' H 0 ( • • rt & Jlargn 'a vI-'s J9ln • argreaves & Coleman C ole llJan WH2) • . . • pp . H·J- W:{ ; Sluckin H ' ' , . • algre aves, & M uch of these scholars ' •. •_ I re searc I rd ak's ( h S I .. I .. ( 1111 I l l' classica l m odeJ of heu 0 w a t mirh a nd C uddy' (19M ,.) IIwdel AI I aest cue preferen .. th · . , cast So me asp ect o f the the ce , e optImal-complexity men ta l aesth etics ' Th e Lth eory ' s ory p erv ad es m ost research in expen,' . ( 1!J71), b ut it h as been tested a o~gIn g~nera lJy is att ri b ute d to Berlylll ' research ers, incl u ding H d k n m odifi ed Over the years by , Ik ey u (1 975) D ' _ va n() l1 ~ e I ' C? lIS m any issu es a nd problem ' ~vles (19/8), and Wal ker (1 9HIJ', I u-ucs a re gro un d ed in th e assum s ~entra 10 research in exp erimen la l 'It's ::l~ ~l<.d ~Ul~e of the p resent discusSio~t~~lS ~f th e opti ma~-compJexity mo~'t:', roues as I t re la tes to th e thea "s a a~m es research III experimen lal"ll'~ 17- IH) conve n ien tly sum m .1) Ssumptions. which Smith a nd Cudd (' , a nze: y PI"
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I. Tln- cr itical aspc<;f of " I IT. . a S, IO IU us that d t . a t:t'llve value, is us complexily Co I e .e r~lIles its hedonic, or positiw' van abilily or uncertainly aSSOCi~[ed m.~ eXlly IS measured by the amOUnl of Ihen ry, it is directly related to til . with an e~enl ln terms of infonnalion , ,l',WOrtl and indirectly related to ~ a~ount of mforma tion conveyed by au :.1, I lit' rt'lalioll between co J '" un ane y. , mp eXlly and aft ' au 1Il \'(' rted U'sheped cu . 1 th ecu ve value may be describ d b ' plt'xify elicils maximum ~:'s iI7v~ aer w~rds, an intermed iale level of :on~ ' j !;:CXIl~ elicit less positive affect. ffecr, lower and h ighe r le vels of C Olli ' " . II ' {'Ired of stimulus exposure (r ., SlllllUlllS complexity and be epe uuon, training, practice) Is I ·. , Y co nsecu 0 OW('r MUlmills pane ms F --., ence, to aller the affecuv I · . ' or example, a patte 'h. e ve ues of " as 0 11 the high side of the o tim I . rn w cse Preexposure complex il ' II\{' oJllima l point with repeti~oll a p;I.I1! of cOl~pJexity would lIlove tow<J r!J palJ('rn formerly ilt Ihe op timal , a~~ Its,attractiveness would increase. Thl' ~·lIl1lpl""x il)'" and its allracliveness ~'o:~d";uld bec~me lower than opn ma! ( I' It'v(" of complexity' as mea ed b ecrease. I he result is thar a hi..l, I' " I , . ..sur y lh n t CJUl rt'( 10 d icit m aXim um positive a/Tecf. e pn 't'xpo sure scale, is /low
M o.st u f Iht, l{e 1w ra l assllm r f Ilu ' (°!T('cts u f the stim ulus's ~(:~::i:~ l~te. optim al -complexity m od el n ola ll' to , lllt~s of a musical stim ulus '11"-. ""h 1011111) ' a ,f1 b ules, H OWt' vt' r, lh t' coililtivt' " " ,.," e is /' " ' ' , · • C or n p IeXl/y, lJ ,slJ all tl ' ' , . " . 0 .1 l '( vana b lt's. 1' 1/ ' Y It (t n lla l vill'n bl , I o It' ~ I Il Il Il I Ii S illl rihuh's va rit'd 'Iel: t_, lll:lY J( ' ('itht,!" olJjrclivr, it fU Ill"l illlt or I' m n 'd u re. or JIIhjrfl;lI' th(. a'" , . . mg 10 SOI1lt' sys h 'lllittic and o hi('('liv ., • ' . M U On ! ' )(' IT , ' , I ' ( 1\ ( ' ( ('Olllp itox ily , wh i('11 l ~
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to b e a Iunrt inu 111 1l 11' luu-ra rtlun b etween the stim u lus's obje-ctive " m plt'x ity and tlu- l i s h' II I 'I ' ~ IlIlni('a l knowledge experience with the musil ,II ~l y le and/or idiom . and fam ilia rit y wit h the particular musical stimulus." III reality, m ost collative va ria h ies an' retatitnsuc; i.e . th eir q ualities d epe nd HI I tbl' interaction between th e structural attri b utes o f the m usical stim u lus ,w d th e listener's p rio r experience with m usic in general, the sty le a nd /or rduun , a nd th e particu lar p iece. S u bjec tive co m p lexity is sim ilar 10 the notion HI I llt/ ff/it ual meaning, di scu ssed in C hapter Ii. If complexity is relativistic a nd is m easured in terms o f th e m usica l stlm u 111\. as the opti mal-com p lexity model assu mes, th en the un certainty / rcrt uln 1\ r ominuu rn. another genera lly accep te d collauve variable , also must ln" 'm l(k' red relat iv istic, i.e ., a function o f b o th stim ulus stru cture (51ructllwl /(IIII I/dal/CY) and th e listener's exp erien ce with su ch music (cultural " d'IlUII/lI " IY). with the n et e ffect b eing perceptual redundancy, Rr-search ten d s to sup port the first gen e ra l a ssum p tio n. Crozier (W7.1) IIs,·lI " sy n th e tic ap p ro ac h 10 examine the effects o f un certa in ty in m elo d ic !tln ll ruu-. lie found th at variat ions in information, i.e. vary ing levels of 111 ]( "('1 ' [ll llity. a ffected su bj ec ts' ra tings o f "p leasingn ess " a n d " In te rest ingness." l urt hcr, h e reported a "rem ark ab ly hi g h d egree" o f int er-pr edictabili ty 1'!'I\H'en m ean ve rbal ra tings and n onverbal m easures o f exp lo ra tory bchn v-
1
11 11 ,
t\h: M u llen an d A rn o ld' s (1976) stu dy o f the effects o f di stribution al rcdun d Mlt y on preference and interest respon se for rhythmic seq u e nc es a lso sug ' " , '~ I s that redunda nc y influen ce s b oth preferen ce a nd interest. Pre fe rence Il'IH II'd to in crease as redund ancy d ecrea se d to a point, a fter \,.. hich prefer" Ill (' begu n to d ecrea se ; interest gen erally in cr eased as redun dan cy ,I" l lt 'ast'd , Sm ith and C uddy (1986) ex a m in ed the effects o f (o bj ective) h armon ic 1 lImple xity on 36 un ive rsity p sych ol ogy stu d e nts' "ple asingn ess" ra tin gs 0 1 ')0 melodic sequ en ces. The melod ic stim u li previously were cla ssified inl n 11\'1' complex ity lev els "acco rd ing to the rule s d efining tone se ts a nd tone pro " lP~s i ons in clas sica l Western Euro pean m usic" (p . 2 1). Essentia lly. tht , Il' w l " I llllH'I1a inty or re d u ndancy, as re flected b y d egr ee o f to na lity or IUlia l ' h l'IlKth, wa s th e variab le of co nce rn to the p re sen t d iscussion , H,c sul ts in tl i, I !lll'lI th at p lea sin b'll CSS w tings varit'd wit h level o f o bj ec live h a rmon k ("o m · 1,1" llll)', Ana lysi s tl f d at.a a("nmling to s ubj l'cts' level o f mu sica l trai niliK I" \ipall'd th at pleasi ng nt 'ss rat inv;s alsu va rit'd an :u rd ing III levd of m usk a l Illlillillg , Th eir data sup p Olll'c1 lhl' f1I S[ assump tio n or th e o p tima l·com p lexi . I\' II U Hid . i,e., t lu~ n itka l ill II U 11 la, II I' l ,t ~ t illlillus f o m p le xit y. I [h." ' " ". r tl r l ~ oh/UIII', "",I lI,h/rtl"" , ""'!"" 1'1 ' Ill> 117),
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. ' I •• ' 'I lI l l p I I O Ii orl lH ' til l" , ITIn' SI'nJil . d I"l" I 'l l '1.1 ·1 ' I ' It' utionsh lp (W1WI'I' I' """~ I. ' .. 1111.1 -co m p e Xl ty m o d e l 111'11 11,,' · lip. '( II)' Ullll llll -ct i I ' • in vc-ru-d lJ-s ha lll'd tu rvt- ~ " ' I t ( 1\' (" va Ill' may b e d es cribed by' ' Il l • . AA..~l s I uu n per illli k ' or It' mu u - pleased by Ill\l ~ic ",' ' I.' I so n WI I ' C m ore, pre fe r munI I I ' • .111 ClJl llna -rom plcxl I I (i • y ( 'O lllP ex) for him or 11t'!" tin I I . I ) cx uy ("VI.' r.e. mod erun , I It • I I)' Ill USIC I ra t is cith . (Imp e x . csea rch testing II . . . .. .. er vI'ry sim p le or VI' I) I I li S ussumptloni ncludes L II di CI va ry l ie o bjective comple ' I (' '" .' S ) O I st u le s th at a Ul'IIII" II . ' I' X l Y mtormanon or ed d ) loll lise su lJcc tive co mplex ity' ( ' I r un ane y a nd stlldi.·~
Rcseurcb exa mining the ~ per~e~ve( o r j udged co mp lexity). por ls th e inverted l.I-sba p de ects °h o th types o f co mp lexity ge nera lly' " 'I' , . e curve yp o thc S m ith and C ' five stud ies using tone sequen .h .CSIS: mit and Cuddy (mHii) dll' 1 ' ) ces ",'It va ned in form t' l' cxu y as the independen t va n bl th a Io n conte nt (i.e., COlli cur •I hest a e . a t suppo rt th e mverte ' d Ll-sha pcd · IV( lyput ('SIS (Herlyne 1971. C !!INI). Howeve r. they a ls~ :t • dr~zJer. W~4 ; Vitz, W66a , W66b ; \Valk('l · I ' .1 CI e stu res showi ng posit! Ii ( • 11 ' a uon s lips bet wee n a mo u I f ' f . sruve meal' monoton ic] W(j:l. l!J( j.l). n 0 III ormation and j udge d preferen ce (ViiI, l Iargn-a ves' rev iew of studies of sub" . , . n il ('x('('rpts sim ila rly supports th h ~ecthlv e .co m plex lty and liking for 1I111~1 , 11 I I'' I n ', 1ullcn and A rn old (197(')e yp .11 di OI esrs . ' H e no tesh t ee ro zier (1lI7,1j I . . ) stu res CIted a b II ..uu u's cited by Smit h and C dd 0 . av e. as we as so me of I h, ' im'I'IIt't! If-sha ped curve hYP~lh y: . thle fdstud les cited as suppo rt ive of Ill! ' esrs me u c Heyd uk (1975) Ra IIll( . " docy (I!IH'. :! ), I II argn'av('s and Castell ( WHo). . ll eyd uk (1!17tj) varied the h armo ni c a nd rh ' compositions so that th n d yt h mic co ntent of four IIIid IlOi IiO ' S I' ey rc nec te diffe re nt I · 1 r b! I'r (' XII )'. II sjec ts ' " liking" fat ,' ngs 0 f t h e resulta nt eve s 0 () [ ec tivc ('0 111 ' IVI' complexity provided stro n su 0 1'1 ~erslons of varying ohi"· p g [fo r th e inverted If-shaped I' hypol ill'sis and the general ....,.>ump tIons 0 the ti I It illlo!.:)' ( WX:l) tested \Valker's (WHl) ve .' 01' Ima -com~lexily 1ll0l!l'!. lll lllt,l, Ill{' " hl'llg'l'hog" the rslon of the o ptImal-co mph'xi" ory . so- nam ed be cau se \V Ik ' ' 1111' (T ntm l id(':l as bei ng a I" bl . a e r views the th eOly", I I pp Ica e to m any SItu t' . 11 '( gt. 109 has Ollt' respon se to fae ' I a Ions, Ju st as the Eurnp" .1Il 111011 La ll. Using IS instrument I 19ue . slIm r u ation, or fright. namely 1'01Ii l l~ l I k a excerp ts TOm \ Veste t i ll m~y iI.~ ell (~ollege m usic al d ., m ar music as stim uli • [ 1 non muslc maj or I ' .IIIlS II t:llllll)!cxity ( 'I' . s 0 ra le each eXCl' rll1 i • am i lanty an d pfe( R " xn'rpls ra led as moderatel y • 1 e rence. e sults rev e aled Ih 'll co mp ex we re the m t C ro ng positive linear relationshi between , . ~s pre erred . desp ill' 'I ml"itl( kd lha l pe rceived co m pi P I I k fanultan ty and pre(eren cl', II I' ext y or ac thereof IS ' more t h an j ust il 1lI .11 r II ' r01 1111'I'Ianl, y. I ll ilrglt'av('s a nd Castell (1'1° , 0 (') I co mpa red th ' C n 'lIl Olgt' ll'vds whit'h 1 ." -I I c p re erellc es of sub jel'ts u f (Id , I . ' 11(SlltlM ) Y re nt'n ' I I'IT, " . . I( II luraho!l , for four IY 'In's of 'T .1 d ' - lC (I t I ( 111 levels 0 1 lII 11'lk ,.1 . I I' II 0 I e S('qlll'nn 's ' ' [ lIIl ' 01 I('S 10 "1H'a r" a lld "fa r" t' ' .. , . .' r.lllg mg rom V('f)' fou nd S .IIIStIC.d .lppro xlIllalioll s of mn sic. H.ali ll ~
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III Ih l' fa m iliar 1lll'I(I(lil'~ 111111 IIll' lllll'allliliar folk so ng nw lodi es yid d t'd invt"l"tt'll I f-shaped rela liumhil' s wilh illl ll' asing age. bu t with a lnter peak fo r the lllll'llui liar mdodi t's. T IH' sla li..lil'a l ap proximations to music we re prderred as the subjec ts' agt's illlTt'
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I olllplex ity m odel. Althuugh re search generally supports the th eo ry 's assumptio n tha t co m pl.-xit}" and affective value m ay be described by an inverted Ij -shaped cu rve, II u- ro ll' (If familia rity is less cle ar. Research related to th e theory's third th at re pe ate d exposure to a stimulus [i.e ., increasing familia rity) o-tvcs to 100\'e r stimulus co mplexity , has yielded contradictory results, I I argrcaves' (1984) stu dy of the e ffects of re petitio n on "liking" of music O' llamined the hypoth l'sis th at th e likin g curve would, with repeated listening, ,,'Ikd an in ve rtcd U-sbapcd curve . Using musical pieces in fo ur styles, he .1I11lluCle d two ex p eriments. on c with ad ults and on e \....ith uni versity stuilt'nls. in which subjects ra ted th e pieces o n seve n-point scales for liking and hllnilia rity. Excerpts for the ad ult group were pl ayed three tim es, those for 11ll' o th er gro up four tim e s, For th e ad ult group. which h eard easy listening ,nltl ava nt-garde jazz exce rp ts. fam iliarity ratings increa sed with repetition s, l.ul results differed for different styles. For the easy listening m usic. w hich llppt'a red to be at about the listen ers' optimal levels of subjective complex iI)" , liking ra tings decl ined with re petitions, but fo r th e av ant-ga rde music. which probably wa s above the listen ers' initial o ptimal subjective complex iI)' h-vels, th e liking ratings increased wit h repetilion , For th e university stu11"llls, who hear d avant-garde jazz, pop. and classical excerpts, liking curves uho varied with style, Ratings fo r th e avan t-garde excerpts did not change, Illlllhose for the pop and classical excerpts ge nerally supp orted the inverted 1J.!>l wpcd curve. Ap parently the inve rted U-sh aped curv e pred iCts preferl'lln' well with in styles b ut not b etween styles, Perlla ps o ptim al-co mplexity 1,'vI'1s differ fo r different sty les as a fun ctio n of listeners' musical ex perience
1l\~lll1lption,
'Illtl ('x pecta tions, Smith a nd C udd y (1986). whose study was discu ssed above in relation to Ih l' first assump tion o f the optim al-complexity mod el, also exam in ed rep etilion !'ff('clS, Thei r data fl' vealed that for four of the five co m plcxity levels. _llhjl'l.ts' "p leasingness" ratings increased with repetition . However , on a pust-repetition test, whi('h ('onlil illl'd so m c repeated seque nces and so me llon ll'pl'ated seq uences. II\\' rl'jlt'titioll I,fft·(·ts d id not carry over, leading the 'l11lho rs to co nchille Ihal " I b l' l l",,~1t'I' I II which we ap p reci ate repet itio n dl'p('ntls in pa ri O il IIIl' !lIIliall y p"l ll'ivt'
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will ht, IlIlatl'l'ctt'tl lJy 11 'l'd ltlu II" (I" :11), l lurg renves' (WHli, 1'1'. I IX J:.! :.l) I'xn ,tll'nl review of lilt' literature 011 re p c'lition uud liking led h illl 10 l'olldlUJ I' rhur "the res ults of approxi mnt ely hall o f the studi es seems 10 SIlI' I' OI'I tht , inVI'l'lc'd Uvsha ped hypo thesis, whilst IIIl' o thl' r half sho w a positivI' Illtlno tollie ' uu-re ex pos ure' relation ship 1..lt'lwc'c'l1 fa mil iar ily and liking" [p. I W), I l l' ;u:know ledges that the contra dictory n '.'i llhs could be tilt' re sult o f d iITI'fl'nces in expe rimen ta l design s and pmC'! ' dures, but he arbrues q uite co nvi nci ng ly tha t they may be d ue to the va ria ' tion s in the ranges o f the famil iarity va riable sa mp led in the ex perimentn 1 stimuli. l ie mainta ins that studies showing linear relationsh ips between rep etitlon a nd p refere nce co uld just be samp ling th e beginn ing or end ing pari o f the inve rted U-sha ped curve, depending on th e initial stimulus co mplexl . ty level fo r the subjec ts. He no tes that this vi ew is in accord with Lundin 's ( Wfi7) ea rlier review o f the repetiti on literature, wh ich slated that popular mu sic ten d ed to attai n a maxima l p leasa ntness level at an early repetitio n, while classical excerp ts, wh ich presumably were m ore co mplex, rea cln-d tllt'ir affective maximum during later repetitions. S mith and C uddy's (I!JHfi) c1i M·ussiuH of the research on repeti tion effects essen tially co ncurs with Il a rg rl'avc's' explanation for the seem ingly co ntradictory results fro m repct l lion studies.
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' 19l1t'SS OVt,r1 de ll'lIdl'lll ull Vl ,dll ll l,d ll,lJ,\ II ~ llU'a Sll l't's 0 I· IY I · ~ n g:.p l cnsu " :: pn-f . " with lillI" lJ,iV t'l110 the re liability o f _.. , '. , ' ·1 · lexity model all( t 11' (o m · Cortuinly the OISSllI lll,lllIll'l 01 1111 ' oplllll.L -( o mp I' I ' I' I . . . , - I · . , , ' bl s warrant ur tncr G il I' II I ,II' x interrelationships a tllllllH Ihl' co 1.11Ive va na e I , I I . . .. T -it h. b e n a m os so I' y . r-xa nn n ation . The e xa m illat ion o~ 1" 1lI~ ,Iatl\~ f aSH-J~7 2(XH) app licat ion s o f IIf particu la r pieces, whereas l\ eyer s . . :) ,>, , .' discussed in th e ne xt . ' . th a model for meanlllg III rrm s tc, I . information eory as . . . .h I idio m o r rules of musical g ra m ' wc tton . suggest that familiarity " " ; e~e Th e 'ap pa rent relativistic nuuuv mar seems to be of ev en grcaterhlmP?d~~d ' Is as we ll a, grolll)S will di lfc'l ' I ' iabl ggests tattnJVJua, .> .• nl co l auve van a es su . I stimuli: co nseque-ntly, . hc i • ti f and res ponse to musrca " , III t edlr differences in additiodn to b'l·cllIP d illt' l I u-re IS a nee 1° .> hi h h b e n researchers' pri mary concerns to a te. l'IKes,.w I~ a~e e f iti e and a ffecti v e res po nses to m usic g euerully W hIle discussions 0 C? gn l IVa need ex ists for more stu dies, suc h a s Sm ith an' separated fo r co nven.lence. k " both perceptual and C(l~l\ilivl' d C dd ' (1986) wh ich see ' to examine
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cons ideratio n to the rth ° le ° d e nI cU tu r~tlonaJaonr devel opmen ts in expcrhuvnt..11 . hi h d ta arc ga ere , n Sh O l' ., m III w I~ a . d d in the pas t few dec ades, but refinemen t of at'sthe llhcs is still necessary if psych ologi cal :tc " rcsearc \ a a ki t dcrsta nd t l'n thctics is to pro vide satisfactory answers for those see 'Illg 0 un ..ffecti ve response to music.
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l\lull' n-o-n tly, North and H argreaves ( 1997, pp. 87-92) sought to clarify t ill' sl'('lllingly contradictory find ing of the literature regarding familiari ty ,m el lilt' in verted If-shaped cu rve. Based on a review o f research related to 11I1lsit" ill everyday life {radio plugging, preference-feedback. accuhurattm, a llel familiar ity. a nd co mplexity and tempo), they maintain tha t (a) at a llY ~i\'C' ll tim e therc sho uld be a positive rela tionship be tween liking and fam llia rity. hilt ovt.'r tim e liking sho uld wax and wane as a person chooses to (or nor to) lisn-n to given p ieces o r sty les; (b) throug h acculturation so me mu sic Ix-comcs m o re familiar and predictable. thus less subjectively co mp lex; an d, co nseq ue ntly (c) fo r ce rta in styles {c.g. rock and pop}, liking peaks ea rlie r in till' life cy cle than does liking for classical music. They co nclude that studies of IIlIl.sical pre feren ce in ever yday life seem to supp ort th e inverted U'sha rwd nl !"vc' : "nallmdistit exposure to real m usic is associated with liking for it i ll a way tha t is cOllsistellt with pr efe rence for modera tely arousing stimuli" (I" ! 10), As lIIay be appa rellt, the e xperimental aes thet ics app roach to understand ing- I lll~ afJi..clive response to Ill II S k: has developed a \vorka ble resea rch para. dig-Ill (tht' optima homp lexity model), which has genera ted considera h ll' dat a, Il o wl've r, it also is appa rent that the research paradigm needs reJi llc~. Illl'll ts so tha t more co ns i.sh' nt da ta migh l bl~ fort!J('oming. \Vhile a I1Il m her o f fat"lors lila)' ('olllrih llh' to the illfOlisistent dOlt.., futun' rl'search sho uld sn lltiniZt' .'i o mp of tht, va ria hlc's ....e l)' ca n'fully, TI lt' II',' t'an·h appc'OIrs ttl Ill'
Meaning in Music ' . . be ap parent from th e prcce diIllg d ISCUSSlons, a b ro ad g"'• I) t'xi\l s ma y .c . d s holo 'cal aesthetics. Philosophers kilt! 10 bet ween philoso phical and p ye I S', Is t nd to Lalk to psychol()~ish, lk t hilosophers an psycl10 ogl s e I.. 0 p . • d -ith whethe r music's value and impor t I'lulosophers tend to be conce rne ~ I cholo nsts t.'X.IlIJ 1 lim e fro m within the musi c 01 fro m Its referents, \\hhile P h sy I "~, I vr-t b ,I ' . t f psyc ioop tnc th e affec tive response to mu sic III cr m s 0 n thyslO 0glt.1 with• its ( t1'11, behaviora l respons e 10 mu sic. Howe v er, inform a tion em) , f I ' I ' 'slructs " I cy, ' " rs to offer a viable m eansd I01 )1"II "glng related to red un
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un c 11lt" lIli ng in Illusic a s Wt./I "IS su m .1; llI IlCS eyer s tht'urics of I'll HIliIIII inl'o fl lJal ion Ih l'Ory . " r- (I the para llels b e( w( '(' 11 h is 1/] ('01 if'. n1eyt'r's tI I'
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. l eory 0 mu sica l Illc i s 1 . . . ha s th e sa m e ba sic te ne ts as Dew :~/ed O )] lws Illeo')' ofemotion wlli. ,. aJ{('cl is a ro used w hen a le nd ey s co'!t'ia theory ofem otion. "EIll()~ ioll . 11 (!\It'r l''', WS6. p. 14). Emotion:~c~ to resp o nd is arres te d o r inh iililPd " between a stim ulus (m usic) a nd a res espo~ses. d~pend o n th e reJat iom lll' H.ry sllgges it'd th at a m usic a l sumul pon d lllg IIld lvidua l. O rigi na lly , th t, ll ll ~ ~'~d lla l to respon d in a particular wa ~sAu:~;t p rodu ce a te n d e n cy fo r a n illd l n sp (J lId o r th a t is sa tisfied WI' ,h ' dY I mulu, that arouses no te nde ll('\' II ou e a y ca n t / • , I )vcnner and \Vri l~h t (1992) no arouse e motio n " f ' e o ' , note thar Mey • b " I} 0 lIluslcal m ea n iJw to recc cn t th cr su seq ue n tly rev ised hi s tlll ' lI ' I' , 0 gm ze at a lend 110 1Il1l11'd to a sinele pan ic I_ ency 10 resp ond m o st likel ). " r,. I ' 0 u a r response b u t 1 I Sp O,Jll IJJ te rms o f a w eigh tro se t of '" resu ts in a tende Jl<")' III dl'S('n be Ihe re vision as it relates I . r ml~sl cally proba b le e vents. TI..,\ o 1Il10rmalio n Ih eo ry :
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'I' lP lIlosl probab le event prod h I uces t e least info ' r:natlO ll ; the m ost uillikl'ly , I II J! 1'fJ( uce s the most informatjo n 1'1 .M I "'~ run Ilt, lIlodifit'd to th is: m usical ' lI~s, . e,yer s th eory of mu sical rn eun ol tll ' ' , Illean lllg nnses wh ,. ,l., mllslc .S progr ess, obj ectivel ' or ta cnl "" en a Istener, uncer l.till III 11.SIl S "onunuauon ' \\ 'h-...n ,ess pro Y bable Y CSllma tes the probabilities of " II ' ~'1I1 '~d a,~. nll'anin~.ful or infon nalive. To .\1eevents ~c~r, the mu~ic is expl'ri IIIfoll llilll\'I'. (Reimer & Wrigh t, p. 214) yer , m usrc IS as meaningful as il i~ pv' t
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SI', ~ll d till' 1'lllotiuual('XIWII lhal ~d ways illvo l\'t's sl" '("iflc s tiln , ~ I ~I'l an COb'll~ h()n o f'l s tim ulus Silll.llillll n" II I. H i S -11f(' f IIV . ' 11II n ' "UlJlrtJ/Sli fllldi, 1100\,(,v,., . . " .« ( ' t'Xpl ' f1 elln's w ilh lIJ u ~ i l . . I ' .IS a ('Y" r :l{)OI 'I ) . . ll llo tltllla 1't',~ PtJIIW,~ I'Xp t't it'IH'('d W'tl ' . ' p , " IN llld icalt 's, 11 01 :'" I I lJllIM(: all ' ('Vtlkl'" d ill""" y I . I "lin ' :
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1l1l1111i ;as sou nd p all l''' '', 'JI" , lIlu ~it lila}' m ak e all u sio n s tn ot her compos tIluII\ or c u ltur a l al-tiv jlit,!t, 'I'l li'l l' al so is un id iosync ra tic "nostalgi a" emotion , \\ hll h may b e evoked by an y sound. Musica l a ffec tive expe rien ce is di stingu ished from affective c xperteu cc in 1'\lI' l yd a y life . 'le ns ions creat ed by te nd e n ci es to resp o nd in ever yday life III'I}' /0;0 un reso lved , wherea s those a ro us ed b y m usic usuall y a rc resolved wUhin .1 music al fra mewo rk. Music can serv e as b o th stim u lus a n d as n n -an1 1 1~ lu l resolution to such tende nci es; in life, that w h ich crea tes the tension U\llillly ca n not serve to re so lve it tensions, w hich may b e e ither conscious o r su bcon scio us, a rc rool, 'd ill «xpectatio ns. M usic ar o uses e x pec ta tio ns in var io us ways. Lieu-m-rs tn \\'t..stern m usic learn (cons ci ous ly or su b co n scio us ly ) th al cer tain " ,~O l l ll d " ' I ms" (m elo d ic, r hythm ic, or harmonic p atterns, phrases, e tc .) im p ly rr-rtain ruln-r m usical e n tities. Wh en th e e xp ect ed m usical cons eq uen t is d d a p 'd . _u'pl'nse is arou sed . In Meyer's (1 956, p . 28) wo rd s, greater the buildup of suspense, of tension, the greate r the emononn l release up on reso lution. This obse rvat io n po ints up the fact that in a e~lllt't i t' experien ce emotional pattern must be con sidered not on ly in terms of tension itself b ut also in terms of th e progression from tension to release, A nd th e ex pt' lienee of suspense is aesthetically valueless unl ess it is followed by a relou se which is understandable in the given context. lilt'
A musical consequent tha t will fu lfill suc h expectations is dict ated b y the poss ibilities a nd p robab iliti es o f the style o f the music al com positio n in q Ul'Snon. Wh l~ n seen in th is lig h t, sty listic kn owled ge b ecom es essen tial; w itho ut knowled ge o f a musical style 0 1' idiom, a liste ner's e x p ecta tio n s lack a 1 Ji\ ,~i s II.r fo cus , oth er th an the un e xpected , In su m m a r y, M eyer's th eory o f e m o tion is a theory of e x p ecta tion , w h idl lll'('c ssa ri ly has certain c ultural a n d sty listic presuppositions. H is l'l'lIlr a l h)'I)()thcs is is th a t "affec t o r e m otio n fe lt is arous ed w h e n a n expecta tio n - .. ll'ndency to respond - acti va ted b y the musical stim ulus situat io n , is It'Ill I)( )rarily in hi b ited o r pennanently b locked " (M e ye r, 195 6, p. :11). \ \'itho ut tilt, t'sw ntia l e xp ec ta tions, affective p OSSib ilities a re e xtre m ely lim ited , For m a ny, th e qu estion o r mus ical nwa n in g is ce n te red O il llw opp o sin g " il'WS o f th e a b so lu tists and III<' n oft'n'lI tiali sls, bill m u ch o f t he co n fusio ll lI'su lts from d iffe[l'n t Vil' WS n 'ga n ling th l' d efi n itio ll o f m eaning . Fo r M " yl'!', "A nyth ing acqu in ·g Illt'Olll in}: if il i.,: l'Ollllt'('h'd with, or i ndil~all's , o r n ' fl' rs to ~o m e l h i n g beyond ilself, ~II th"l its 1.. 1111,11111" po int s tn a nd is reve al ed i ll th a t (ullilect io n" ( 1!)5Ii, p . :1 1), 1\ ll,.lllilllJ, is t ldi m'd ill te rms of th e rel a tionsh ip hl't Wl'I'n a st im u lns a nd Ih t, Ihill"" 11 li u illh 10 01' ind icates, hut suc h a re la tio ns h ip IlIllst IH' p t'I('l'ivI't1 It }' Ih.. 1i ~l t ' lH 'l. I\k :lIIillg Ihll S a r ist' s ou t o f 1I tri · Ol d ie l'{' la lio llsllil' ;tlI 1t )l I~ (11 ) II ~ 1 1l 1 1 1I 1l 1 _, (h) Iltal 10 w h id l il l' 0i n ls, an d (to) lh l'
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conscious obs crvr-r. Me yer main tain s Ihal 1II 11 ' 1l'; ' ~ lll t · ; ltI i ll ~ ha s b een fur the r mudd led by a( ' ~ tlu-rlcian s' failurt·to ~ 1' 1 1l · (' '''plil itl" Ihatl ll which musical stim u li point." I II' n-coguizes two typ l'S of muslru l nn-uuing : t/rJigntlJivr an d embodied. TI lt' tk " lgnatlve meani ng o f a m usical stuuulus Illa y indica te events o r conse q uent » that differ from itself in kind, i.e.• no nmusica l ev en ts. Embodied meaning refers to events in which the stimulus and co nseq ue nt a rc of the sa me kind. i.c., both musical. Designat ive meaning co nce rn s thai whic h m usic !"l' IHI ' sc ms (a referential p e rsp ective), wh ile em bod ied meaning co ncerns strucnn OIl interrel atio nsh ips within the music (so m ewhat akin to a form a list 01 abso lute ex p ress ionist perspective ). Meye r is fa r mo re co nce rn ed with embodied meaning. Fur him , o ne mu sical event has meaning because it po ints to an d makes the liste ne r expect another musical eve n t Embodied musical mean ing, the refo re, is a prod uct of musica l ex pecta tio ns, develo ped as a result of past experie nces with music of a given style. Music tha t d m':"! not amuse e xpectations of a subseque nt musical co nseque nt is mea ningless Ii II' till' liste ner. Becau se expecta tion is so much a pro d uct of sty listic expert ,'11("( ', music in a style with whic h a listen er is to ta lly un familia r usually hold!tl liult· meaning for the listener. Knowledge of style implies that learning has occurred ; thus, th e pern '!, lion of mea nin g cannot occ ur without involving cogn itio n. O ne ca n no t Sl' P ,IIak tht' affective and intellectu al respo nses to music. Bo th depend on lilt' :ol ;l Il W pe-rce-ptua l processes, styli stic hab its, an d mode of m en ta l o rg an ization. Ti ll ' snnu: musical p rocesses give rise and shape to bo th type s o f expcneucc. Mt')'!'r maintains that the fo rmalists' and express io nists' co nceptio ns of ;u·!tI tlu-th- ex perience are co mplem entary rat her than co ntradictory. T he)' an ' cousick-rcd 1I 0 t different processes, but differe nt ways of ex perie nci ng 1111' sallie process. " Wh ether a piece of mu sic gives rise to affective ex perience 01 to intellectual ex perience depends upo n th e d ispositio n and tra ini ng of IIIl' lisn-m-r" (M ey e r, 1!)56. p. 40). !'1'Op!(' who ha ve bee n taught that mus ica l ex perie nce is primarily et u o tional p robabl y will ex pe rie nce delay of ex pectation as affect. T he truinr-d llI11 sidall proba bly will listen in more technical term s an d tend to ma ke IlI Il S! ('a I jlron'sses a ll object of conscio us co nsidera tion. Regardless o f the way in whit-h Olll' view s the de lay of ex pl'ctalions, M eyer's theory of expec tatioll lila)' exp lain it. I ~T I,.. nw ,m ing uf tnlfii£Q1 IlIt'a nmK v arit-s go'ally am o ng m u sicol ogi sts. at'lith e ticia m', .md p sph" l" Itl, I, _T Ilt' 1"""'111 di 'ul" i" n follow s r..1ey<er's d a_ssi\: tht·o f)' o f mllsical nll'aning" 0 11\' n m ld ilI)o( lIt' Ih••t 1lIllt liu n ,,1 mll si, (1I;",-'u,,",,'11 in C hapt.·!"!; 2 and ;1) .. I"..., is 1Il'·Mli ngful.t h" ugh not in t1w phil",,, plu 'r" lI'I" 1\'111i,, 1,p n,,' " II is 1'1I11('li"I1'II. b Ul nol 11I'( l',..sa rily sym lm lil". H.,·..d,·rs int"rest o'd in " )(1'1" 1 hlK 11I11, ;.-,,1 n,.."n mll frulll an l'lhnm llllsifol" Kical l'l'r'I"'d iVI' , h" u lt! ""I' "I(Jlhl' rt\ (:.1(J(II) I'nli)o(ht " lI i ll lt !Ii, nlSsi" ll " ( )f n 'III..... man y Wl'ilings in phil"sop hinll ;.,.sCIW li,-. " tT" r 11I'1'S11I'<: tivt's " n I1I1I,i " II 1llt',on inK"
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. r. ' ol p:"! ~I li k i ll ' lilra llt'1s between his IIH'ory of musiMeyer ( I!H)7. PI" , J :i l) ." ~ ' II II,c"'", ..s thai - tho 11Syd lOSt yl-. , I ' 1'I lit '0 1)' auc Iypu ., ..... 1III IlH';llIlng a nc 111 111 11101 1111\ I • I ' ing whether a ffcc iiv« or , I ' I ' . . li ~I ' III III t1S Ic<1 mea n t , . h ili" n llld itums w uc I !o\1\ 1 1" 1 ' ffillllica le information" ( 1!lh7, P: w Jl( 1 co rn " I c. S." lI lH . '' IS" th nst· Ill ll,lIl·d u a I. a rc ui " ".". " bo died meani ng tha t '-~ most ,f), Meyer specifica lly ar~Ill~l> that It IS IlIUSIC S em l\llIsislent with information ~h~·ory. . th r-v is a syste m for quantif)'ing d i C I te r h mformatlon eery . As .Ilscusse 10 lap e l . , . I Th ater the amount of il/Jorma· rtain ty III a sumu us. e gre " r 111I' amo unt 0 f unce " oo se T he a mo un t of III or h Minty of meamng or resp . , lI lt/I , the greater t e uncer . I ti Ius is a fun ctio n o f two h asll" . I" . es fro m a rnustca s lmu " . lllahon a rstene r rece w . h h ' ,' stmctural charactc nsucs ( "t HI h t n t to wh ic t e m usrc s ) 1 () \l UI tublcs: a te ex e . ' \ 1 ' f Ge stalt p sycholOb'Y and (II t lI' d tal o rgamzatlOna aw s 0 I hum to f un amen . ith h . m usical style. T he grea k l Ill' , " p enence WI t e gIVen It, Ih h'Ill'r s pr ev Ious ex e rc dictable the musica ll"esl'0 ll\l ·. ll11L.~ic's perceptual re d undancy, th e mar p
Variables Co ntributing to Musical Me aning .' . I meaning may be classified und er 1\'.-'0 Variab les contnbutmg to m us tca h tu ' I (co native) charactcnstice ,es () th e rela ted to t e stru c ra n Illoild catego : a os () th ose rdated to the listen er, p articula rly tilt' 01 the m usical stnn llius and b (' 9-0) . icntly groups the va riable . bl M M ullen 1 10 co nvent " xperi ential varia es. 1 c. d h: h di ngs: order complexity, a nd (tI rrn-l.ued to musical stru cture un er t ree ea I , ,
" I related to a traditional aesthetic p rin d pl e o f I tt· no te s that o rd er I S close y " I t e app ears a functio n of II . " 0 der wi thin rn usrca st ruc ur ~ lI n i ty in variety. r I llty an d rh ),th m ic rl' oslt io S stru c ra ' . I an ing but until n 'n 'ut yl',llS ib .atly to m usica m e • 1' )' appear to con tn ute gre . . ' ti n of the efTccb o f Il'M'a rche rs gave little attention to system atic tnvesuga 10
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U1 11l'r in musical structure. "I ct related to o rder, cu m-n rly , f . 1 structu re a co ns ru " Co mplexIty 0 m~slca s -ch olo .ca l ae sthetician s, altho ugh rmu-h o t 1I't' t'ives m ilch attentio n fro m P ) " dIP bl I' variable rather th a n as . . ·t. a perceIVe o r su ~ec w e li lt' rese arch cxcnunes 1 as . f , ' A discu ssed previously, tilt' " " t I attribute 0 m USIc. s , I UlI obJed lve stru c ura . II II I" va riab les is rela tivistiC, a lH as a co a Ive , . , · h t rnplcxllY '111111 0rs b e Ileve t a co " ' I r ' Ira- lions b ehveen the muSICs I ' Xlt)' re sll I ronl In I..' '-111011 responses to co m p c " . • " cXI,cric nce wit h m usic in ge ner'b " " I the Itstclier s pnor I 'lllllt'tura l attn ute s a m II . ' I' , '1(1 the l)aI1icu!a r m usic hea rt ' , .' .. I stylt' "\l l( 0 1 I' lo nl , .1 . I il l. the gIven I11USlca " • I 1 '1 ' ,' s ' I ,',"ilin l variable in a mUSICI " I "' Irl lll"t nUllp (' XI ) , • - _. I I I" wever ex anUlle( , s n • _ . ' I t 10 lilt' opl i mal -t~OInph~ xity I11m lt, ll' ~ptJII Se. as dl'l1\Ollstralt't1l1y II.. II II lt ,1 1 Y I l l" Il lll si Gl 1 prefen' n n " ,,, li lt' n' lali,,,, , hil' 1'[ 1"'1' "1'111 <11 I", h,", I,,,,, \
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is Ill(: Cl llal il)' 111111 II /" " '111 '" " " . . ' I I }.:l llt l.dly p C' l n ' IVI '!> . IS Sl illl ll h l i. '1I f C'l ' . I ' . 'l ' ~ "I II ' I as. !l'II I />O .IlH ' I IIy na lll ics g em-rally - II I , ug IllZ('( a s prim a l)' CIInll 'I I ' 1Ilt'1H{I-rc a lit IIJarmon i!' 1lI0 \, I )II 1I1 'jI 10 vue-rev I I h ' 0 / ' )11 01 e r variaL/t,s Slid . ,
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1..' , P Ull ' ll l a \ 0 '1/'/' ' " .J()fllc o r the carl)' w k ' , • 'OIl' I 0 cOlllr ib ute (19f 7 \111 Il'ga rd lllg !llood . . . .'. • pp. Jf)()- J77) a nd Fa Ill S\\'o l'lll (1')( 11 I csJ~onsl" as reporh'd by I.lllll/Hl IlHlSlca ! (psychoacollslical) va na bh-, II' ;'. '. P~)· X3 - !W). exa mine d som e Ill tb, g~.. Also, m uch of tIle resea rch ill ':( el ~~Ulg o~'der, com plexi ty, aud 1'1It 'I I! tllg r Pilvc s and his cOllcagll cs (H a _," ~XP,~l lIl1e~ll.t1 aesthe tics revit'wl'l l J ,\ Co /cma n, WS l ; No rt h & H Igleaves, 19S:2, WS't , WS(i; lIa rgn"l v,,~ \, Coleman , WH2) has a direct bea:.;~ea ves, JY~J7; . Sluckin, f-l arg n':I: I"\' - ,~ t'lIt'r&'Y and liking. g on relatIOnshi ps between complex it)' ru
:\,I~M,u llen (WHO, 19H2a, 1996) su ests ' (:e sC~PtHlns of mu sic, traditio na lly gg d that peopl~ s
con notativl' nt/ lal t'.';(·n plu rs, have taken on grea re . 01 0 0 resp onse as mdicated by adjl'c lll , I It' mai ntains that ra ther tha n iu r Import .as reflect ions of m usicalmt"I/lin l'xh' l:nal to lhe m usical stim ulu! t~t ,con notlll~ so me mood or other nlt'allil~ I'~ flv ldt, evidc nce for an inte;Jret~ con nola,hve la bels (adjective e1escri 11 01 11) Illtlll'llsi(Jlla lity Th e Pr d 1 we j)(fratftgm, as indicated by "" ,,' , . ' opose p ar ael' , I ' ( H ' ,\ II ptl 'eloml nanl psychoaco ustical ~f?l1 IS re .ahvislic a nd differs fm lll III" allnhllh.'s ex ternal 10 a d ' d para 19l1l, which considers m usic ' I , . . 1111 II ' n In epende nt ( f h 1lIIIIa.n Illrnd internrer th ese p ro . . 'r ' > urnan ,sub.Jlectivity- 17 "" 'h t'll I III' ,IIII'('IIVl' resp on se be id perues as meantneful onl y th ccnsr ered " {M l\-f lJ 6" , en COlli . 111 .. l\ l cM ullell (' !W6, pp , 3!)2-39 ) c u en , 199 t.i, p , 3 89). Ir'lIIlt'\\' k f I't" ' ' -1- subseq uently ofTe . , or n a uectlve/aesthetic res 0 . " , rs a two -dmll' nsio ll,d ~ 1I "J:l 1 n 's<-'eret,j\'I'II jzo I I I' . II a ( lI11 ensioll of M cMullc e_as IOrms d I) 01 . actioati.ton, As activation (the 1Ill' ' Il l r n s mo e mere s . t ' , op JIlHlITl positive level of ac I ' ~e s 0 a n IIlter m edialt' /1' \ " ' 1 ann'/evaluatio n (~ontin uu m (the :ePrt~n~ed"s aHame d on the rejection-an l'pl ' 'U'liv'.llio fl and evalua tion intera ct ~n ~cea ":,e~sion). In short, he arg-ut'S 1I 01.IlIVt' word As 'na be te rmlll mg the mta ninuofa m . . v appare t. t h ' , ... o·Vt'n t'O/l 1Il\,'('lkd V-shaped cu ~e, Also it 7s c IS.m terac~on may be reflected hy all ( 'a IlIl'aninlT , onSlstent With Meyer's th eory ()f 111 11 \ 1 • 0 ' COIlll'mp(lra r)' research I' ,. I 'I con lIlues to exa ' J ~.I '11I n IUles (,~~ych()'I COllsl ica l variable _ m~~e t le ~1Tl'cts of variolls 111m! 10 11 sly ca lJ('d afl('clive 01 ' s) on listeners r('sllonses \VI,,'I ' emo tIO na l res '" h ' I' "lI' 11 11 ',\ tb nl CO/llrilmte to lhe ac l' " d p om es, I ey es.\enlia lly re/lt'cl '" ,,-,. , . , Iva Ion im " fM • I , I( {'('pIs the p rem ise of a n in teractive ~n,~lOn 0 cMIIl/t'n's model. !f O il " r' ' . p ar .u Igm, mu ch o f th ' 'SlI lC lly ' I,,';.krng, -"sn ho<J" <J uslk a l IS research 1'1111 1. ' I
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I", • »nsidcred n-k-vaur In rl.., 1 011 ,1 111('1 (If musical meaning. Some recent I lI d ll ' ~ that m ight IJt' illll'll' ll'fptl vi.1 Mt'Mulll'n 's pa radigm of musl cel nu-a nlll ~ Include .J uslin a nd 1\-loltli\llll ( I ! I ~ I ! ))- l i m i ng patterns; Karn en etsky, II ill, ,lUll 'Jn -hub (1!'97)- k m po ami dynamics; Kaminska and Woolf (~ OOO) 1,,,,llItlic line ; La ukka a nd Gubrk-lsso n (~ ()OO) - t e m po, dyn am ics and tim ing; l ' I. ' N ~ nit z t'r , McAdam s, Wim be rg, and Fineberg (~ O()O) - t i m b re and psych ou . ruusticul ro ughness; a nd Schellenberg, Krysciak, an d Campbell (:2 000)- pi!c!J '" 11 1 rhythm , Obviously, th e time is right fo r a maj or mctu-aual ysis o r . "" "llTh rela ted to musical structure and affective mean ing, Vann bles rela ted to th e listene r also are m an y and complex, Abl''''s .lI u l I 'hung (1996, pp, 286 -;H~) group listene r variables or cha racteristics inh I 1w'l broa d categories: short-term and long-tam: Short-term characn-r b tic s ll1 i ~h t include existing mood, ph ysical and mental alertness, inlt'!'l'st, .1111 1 ;Irll'lltiu n le vel, while long-te rm characteristics incl ude such a ttri butes a N~ 1' 1 1 " Iul intellige nce, personality, age, gender, race, mu sical ('xpt'ril'l1('"
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Huwlim, i, a pac'k n"' , Iyp' - or afl,'cl ' " Iklt ing a rd alivd y 'cmporar y di" turba nee from il normal stille' or ('OmpOSlln', :1. At!stlutic feel ing n' slllt ~ rn lill t ('Itaill t)'pt'S (If expe riences with a rt w Olks, natura l ph enomena, III ul lll'l oh i..t h 0 1 t'Vt'll1s in whi ch tin e ma y pt'rn 'ive ht' aut y, artistic va hl" , lit ll" ' .llllll ~ , l. At'Jtlulir ".Jla inu,- l"clllill' 1"'1< "I'IIlal invo!vt'mt' nt with i n l t'r:l('tin~
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then-to: it is 11101(' thnu .i1l\1 "011 ho w pu-tty." 5, O ther types o f afft'('Ii\'(' IC·SI'0ll St· S to musica l stim uli {besides tilt' ;Il " rhctic} in cl ude mood o r cha rucn-r I't'SIHlIlses. associat ion rc s polIsPS, iut I " subjective respollses, re actio ns to word meanings (J f so ugs , prcfcn-ur I" , int e rests, attitu des, values, a nd appreciations. Ii. Four basic approaches to study of the affecti ve response (0 mu sic indll.l,
(a) psycho ph ysiological resea rch, (b) adjective descriptor research . (11 ph ilosophical inquiry, and (d) psychological aesthetics resea rch . 7. Concom ita n t with affecti ve responses are p hysiologica l re ucuo n s o f 1111 au tonomic n ervo us syste m. H. A ltho ug h physiol ogical reaction s to mu sic, particularl y he art ra te, n' ~\,1 ra tion ra te, and elec tro dermal responses, have been examin ed for ovr-r II ce ntury. such re search p rovides little insigh t into the affecti ve H'S POlI ~ I ' III m usic. !J. Ea rly re searc h using adjective descriptors focuse d o n assess ing Illo o d n~s ptl n se to m usic , but more recent research using d im ensiona l ana lp h n-chulqucs on seman tic d ifferentia l data has sparked a renewed inn-t .. ' 1 in adjective descriptors as too ls fo r unders tan d ing a ffective beh avio rs, In, Speculative aesthetics is o f two basic types: philosophical aesthetics, whir h ,~ I ' (' k s to make gen eral sta temen ts regardi ng arts p h enome na and thl 'll inte-nt, va lue, o r m ea n ing, and art theory, which in m usic is m corpor.u,-d ill Sill'll courses as music hi story, literature, and a na lysis, an d whir II illvIJIVt·s exa mi nation o f in div id ua l com p os itio ns, sty les, and co m p llsl' l, . II , Basic p hilosoph ical aesth etic positions inclu d e th e absolutist, wh ich vi ..\\·. the val ue o r m eaning of mu sic as re sulti ng from th e musical sOlllllh themselves, a n d th e rejfrrntialist, which view s m usic as reflecting 111111 1' than so u n ds th emselves; the referentiallst po sitio n m ay includ e cxtrumn sica ! ideas, emotions , sto ries, an d even sp iritua l sta tes. Il . I's yc hologica l aesthe tics, particularly with the renewed emphasis " " fJ.jlerillu'lItal aesthetics. u tilizin g m eth od s o f empirica l scie nce, fOCIISt·s 1111 llll' ('o llativ(' properlic s (If aesthetic stim u li, exa m ine s mo tiva tio n al lilli" liou s, stud ies no n ve rba l as well as verbal b eha vior, and seeks 10 (·sla llli·1I1 links lJl'tween aesthetic an d o the r psychologi ca l p hen omena . 1:1. IteM'a rd l in psychological aesthe tics ha s focused Oil the n pti ma l,(,o lll 1'1e xity m od el of m usic p reference, in wh ich a n indi vi du al's " lik ill/-:," "p ll'as illh'l lL'ss," o r "p refe re nn '" re sponse to a m usical stim u lus hyp lltlH'1 iGllly rdll'cts an inverit'd U -shaped curve with resp ect to com p lex ity. I I. Till' rollativ(· variah lt.·s (If a IIlllsica l stim u lus (cu m p l(' xity, n o vd ty/fall1il hld ty. IlIlH' 11a illty/ n'd lillda nc y) an' rt'i ati vistic. I:', A n al' pa n ' lll Jl a ra l l(' ll·x i .~I.... IJt'tw(·(·1l 1.(·ollal"< l It t\tl' p ' r's Ilu'OI)' o f 1Il1l'!
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1 D A H 0 d gel>. (Ed .), llQfulll/luk
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i\l ...It.... I I. F. (I!lHO). Responses to mu sic.. ~ ti~n~1 Associatio n for Mu s;c Thl 'l'l~PY'
' (pp. 105-140). Lawrence, K..<:;. a , In D. A. H ()t1~" s (!'A I,). Ch ung, .J. W.y mI6). ResP;~l~~~~~~t;;CAntonio. TX: I ~m 1'11'''' , Ihllldbullk of music psycholog)' (2nd ed ~pp. m anipulation of affective respons," to " ~I UUS. E, P.,J r. (19 H5). Theee.fl~cck" O(EdI,")I~'r(}((edjngs of the Restarch .\i'yIll/!O-.\,iIHlI I,'" I It, • KS: TI I t ' UmVI'fSl t\' " lIIusical st .rm u I us. 1n G . . ur. ( . q, _ 110) Lawrence, ' I I'!.yrhology and Acoustics of MU SIC pp. , 1. .. . Kansas. , I I ) 1\ cross-cultural investigall0l 1 of 1111 IH' 1I.llkwd l. 1...1•., & Tho~pson, .\~. :: ~ 1~~Jh}~SiCal and cultu ral cuel>, MIl.t ic l'rTa l" I/III. l(' plio n of emotion 10 muSIC. S) C p .,'\_ 64, " and sound stimuli . In I) . A. ' 7. . . I '. I 'esponses to mUSt . , " . h- D L (1996). Physic ogtca I . d)( 343-3H.1). San ntomu . 11,",','O "l" (f:~) Handbook of music psychology (2nd e . pp . ( ges .u.• T X: IMR Press. . d h hiolog)'. New York : App ll'w n-Ct'n lllry" f (1971). Aes/Jutles an pryc 0 n , 11"1 )' 111', . ,. d Cl"O ft~. , . . the ntW exptrimtfltal oesthetia: ena: SUPI. towaT a ll 11,,11 ne, D . E. {Ed.) (1974). 5./Udles w,. New York: H alsted Press. fI~rctit'e pS)'(hology of atsth!tI~ aPPTtclatl~~ W J. (19R2). Electrocor tical rc~pI,I .IIS II" 'le, I. D,. Cole. H. W.• Cutlctla. R . &e~in r 'affed and familiarity. lu I', I"', Slll k g >, I;' music: An exploratory study co~c th P<..'h "lo<7\' and AcolI.ltics of Mm lr {I III, ~~ hS pouu m on e '~J " I:V .' ' ) PrlJu tdings of the Reseorc :rill_ Sit)' . of K.ansas. " . , 1" . ' (' L , 1O- 1H) Lawrence, K S: T t c ..., IlIVI'I . t and n:a!uation of muncel O:!,tr/OIUI. . R d ' R 1" (19&7). MttLmremcn an I\n\'\c. ). D.• & a ocy, . •. . I Nl'~' York: Schirmer Books. ( _ Th dew lopmenl wilh age 01 w lh al ,lilt, . B W & Crozier, J. B. (19 / 4). e . ' uncertainly level . III D. L. II1 a!(,g. ' .• d . que uc cs varymg In b' . I · es 'x\)loratory re!>pons lo soun se , I Ih,'U:s ' Slth< loward (111 I! I}tfl lflf 11)' l . . h ex/ltT/lllm ta ars . r n.. ' rl)'ue (Ed .), StudIes m.t ~ new Ill _10K). Ke..... York: Halstcd Press. . . ' ., rhu/ll.(J of af5tht/ic aPlJrec~atw" {pp, ' " 1 \Ius;c alld your emo/iallS (PI" 5h-Kh), f'...... CaJlurso. A. (1:1.'>2). Th: .~al:\IrStl stilt) . n , " . '"I': York: Livenghl Publ,lshlllg. , 1 . J' ill flN dinl /,howmenology. r\e.... I lavt n. C ' I J H'~) L".\ l Ion, 'r.(. . . 'HIl.u c (/.1 IlIflrll. / .\ I UI ) ··,Ie Universitv Pn'~s : Clar endon Press, . " . IAIII. ,Hr,../II UI/!,i11 11 ,.Hm, I/UtI /1i IIl/rt, I I' f",t1. '. ,UK 1(1 " 0). , ' sound SI'I,U('IKI'S VaI) lllg ' C00 k • N . ( • , I I 111'1 )' 1" 'llt lnsl s . I hI ' .'1 , 1 n (197,1). VI·,Il;II;l1ll "' I' tI" . ) ,. I ' 'II tilt Il rw tXI!trill/OIla ar,11 t . C 10.... 1£. . . . \) I 1\,·lhnl· \bl. , .llItln l ) K. ' YO l k in unn 'rtainty kn'\. In ' " II I J!lIfl lhtlir tI!'/lrrcitllilJll {pp, 27- DO , 1.... . in : Stt/H 11I!t'IJrd /m Ilhj(tlll'( I'\}' ""jo,'l' t
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1'. T (1!J7H). Mu sic and em irical aesl . . ) Pape r preseilled at th S ' p. heu cs. I resen t and fllture dil t·. e ) mposlUm on th e Ps\-"Ch I d A ' ~lusic, Lawrell<.e, KS. I oo/;>,y an cou~tll .\ l,t
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Mn\lll lJt'II. 1'. T. (I!JHO). .\-l usic as a perce ived stim ulus o b· . . An ah l'rn ,llive theoretical fra k ID ~eci and affecllvl' rp~plJI I \' · "ydlO!lwl! (I'll I" 'j_ I<"j) I ,meworK,S n . A. Hodges (Ed .), lIandbook 0 1" 111I111' N • n. " . .awrence . Nati IA .. 'J ~l t1Mulll 'n I' T (N Wl) ro o . " ana s,<;oC1allOli for MIISil~ T llt'r a!" .' I . I· , . . . a . ......mnolahv e n'spo nses t l'xpla n' llHC Lt, ueatlOn 7l 41': 57 . ,\ 11·J\ fllllpn I' T (iIJH~b) E . . I ' , .1- , . l'r d" . . . . Illpmca aeslhetics: An OVl'l"vil'W In I' F S· k ([' I) IJ("(f m~s 0/ thr Rr:seaTch SYn/l'fJJillm UTI the 1'5 ch I . . .. ~ III . .'( , 'I X-."i5), !.aw rellcl' KS. 'r l U . . ;Y II Ogy and ArouJtlfs 0/ Millie (1'1' 1\-1 I\' •. II' IllversJt)' of Kall ~a s (' IlllIl'Il,I'. T. ( I ~ I~II;), Th l' lIl11sif ,ll l'xlJt'ril'lICl" d· IT , · · , . .Ill a Nt lvt: /al'.~t hl'I IC rt'sl'0 nsl's: A Iht'oft 'lim l framl' work f", , . . . I I IlIpJrlC,1 !"l'st'ardl III I> A II I .) I////lir /J,ly(ht,hJ~ (~ nd I'd.) (I' ll :11'17-.1(0)' S. · ..... .0< gt·s (I'..d ., 1I1II/lllJl!lJJ,; .,/ l\lfM ulll'n I' 'I' " \ II \ . . " ,Ill An lOlllo, I X: 1M R Pn''>,\ . • . . • '" I 1110 1 , , I .. , ' ( Jtl7h) ' n' ~1 a ~ fun r! ion s 01 dl \ . . I'r I' ~l'n 'lIn' al\( I ll1h'
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tribu tio nal n-dund.uu y III Ih\'lh m il SI'!jIll·IICl'S. ) o/lTl/ol I{ Rru Q((h ill ,uu.lic
Fducation, 24, 12- :11 , Ml.Yt'r , L It (I!J5ti). 1~"/II/jlJ/l 1U1I/ lllum ;,,!: in music: C hicago: Uni versity of C hicago l'n-ss. t\11 'yl'r. L. B. (19{j7). MlIJir, tiu arts, and ideas. C h icago: U n iversity Ch icago I'n-ss. :\tt')"t'f, L H. (2001). M usic and emotion : Distinction s and un ce rta inties. In 1'. N. ,1 u\ lill &.1. A. Slobo d a (Ed~.), Music and emotion: Theory and research [pp. :H 1- :{ljO), ( jxfo rd. UK: O xfo rd University Press. t\l illl'r, R. F. (1992). Affective respo nse. In R. CoI",'ell (Ed.), Handbook ofrrsrarch OFI music teaching and teaming {pp. 414-424 ). New York: Schirmer Books. Molt's, A. (W66). Inf ormation theory and a thaic perception O· E. Co hen, Iraus.]. Urbana, I I.: Uni vers ity of Illinois Press. No rlh, A. C ., & Hargreaves, D . J. (19m ). Exp erimental aesthetics and t'vt'r yda y m usic listening. In D . J H ar grea ves & A. C. North [Eds.], The social pryrh"IIJgy 11 IIIll.Iic(pp. H4-103}. O xford, U K: Oxfo rd Uni ve rsity Press. ( h good. C. E., Sud, G . .J., & Tannen baum , P. II . (I!J57). The measurement o/mrfl//illg Urbana, II.: U nivers ity of Illinois Press. 1"'I"I'tz, 1. (200 1). Listen to th e brain : A biol ogi cal perspective on m usica l t'11 101 i() I1 ~. In P. N. Juslin &J A. Slobo da (Ed s.), Music and emotion: Theory and rrsro rrh (1'1" 105- 134). Oxfo rd, L K: Oxfo rd U niversity Press. l'l t'ssllitzer, D., McAdams, S., wtnsberg, S., & Fineb erg,.I . (2000). Perceptio n \,f musi cal ten sion for nontonal o rche stra l tim bres and its relation to psychoacoustic roughness. Percept ion and Psychflphysics, 62.66-8 0. l'rh-e, H . E. (19HIi) . A p rop osed glossary fo r use ill e ffective response Ine raturc in lIlusic.)ournal of Reseatdi in Music Education, 34, 151-159. I ~,ldt'r, M ., &.Jessup, B. (1976). Art and human values. Engle wood Cli ffs, N]: l'rentice
or
I iali. n.ulocy, R. E. (1978). C erebra l dominance and music perception: Stop the fad . In I':. 1'. Asm us, Jr. (Ed .), Proa edings of the Research S)'mposium un the l'sydw/fWJ and ArflllJtia ofMUJic (pp. t W- 130). Lawrence. KS: The U niversity of Ka nSils. It ldoey, R. E. (197!-J) . He mispheric specialization in m usic perception: It all dl' IIt'ml'> . P
Cli lr~, N.I:
I'n 'lIlice·l lal l. I\ l'illll' r, n.. & \Vright, .I. E. (!'.I I\.). ( I!" I'.!) . 0 " Ill f ,wlllr, r{mllsirol rX/lfriella . r\'iwol, C <): The Univt'fs ity I 'l " ~~ l,1 ( ', ,11'1,.. 1< , Hil's. II . A. (1!lli!I). ( ;S I{ ;cl lOI 1'1" ,It 111 111( "11'1 ,11111 111' I ,·I'llt'd tn ('mot iollal fl'aflilms tl) m usic i '.r.ydWI/tl/nif' S, ,, /lIf, I I , h 'J I, I
ol.lfn Ill" Roed t'r(,r,J ( ; . ( UI!'.')). 1"" ... I/lIt/11I/ to thr fl/ty,\irj and /I,'ryrho/II/ysics 0ll/1/l.Iir (Srd l'cI ,) New YOI'k : SprillKt'I' -Vt,lIa1o\. Sche llenberg, E. G ., Krysrmk , A. 1\1., & Cam pbell, RJ (~ OOO) . I't'r cl'iving l'IIIOIiUIi in melod y: lrucracnvc dli.'t'ls of pitd l and rhythm. Music l'actption, 18. 15S- 171 Scho en. M. {Ed.] (1!tl 7). The rfJret\ (1 music. New York: H arcourt, Brace. Schoe n, M. (I!H O). The psychololfJ of music. New York: Ronald Press. Schoe n, ~1., & Ga te wood, E. L. ( J!)~ 7) . T he mood effects of m usic. In M . Srl l''' 'I' (Ed.), The effects ofmusic {pp. 13 1- 1H3). New York: Ha rcourt, Brace. Schubert, E. (1996). Enjoyme nt of negat ive e motions in music: An associative 11t' 1 wo rk explan ation. PsychololJ ofMusic, 24, 18- 2R Schwadron. A. A. (1967). Aesthetics: Dimensions for music educa tion. Washinh'101 I, I ll ' Music Educato rs Na tional Confe re nce. Schwadron, A. A. (1984). Philosop hy an d aesthet ics in mu sic ed ucation : A cr itiqlll' of the resear ch. Council for Research in Music Education, 19, ll -:n . Sc ruton, R. (J997). The aesthetics ofmusic. O xford, UK: C larendon Press. Sears , W. W. (l!l57). The effects of m usic on m uscle tone. In 1-:. T. G aston (Ed.), Mu" , t""afl)' 195 7. La wre nce, KS: Allen Press. Sears, W. W. (1!l60). A study of some effe cts of music upo n m uscle te nsion as ,'\ 1 deuced by electromyographical recordings . Doctoral disserta tion, T he Univer ~ I h of Kamas. Slubud a,.J. A. (1991). M usic struc tu re a nd emotio nal response: So me em pirical nll,1 ings. PIye/wIOK! of Music. 19, 1 1O- l ~ O . Sluhnd a, .J. A. (19!t2). Em pirical stud ies of e mo tiona l response 10 music. In ~ l. H .lOllI'S & S. H olleran (Eels.), Cognitive bases of musical communication (pp. :-J:1-·I11) Washillh'1on, D C : Am eri ca n Psychological Association. Sim kin, w., H argreaves, D.l., & Coleman, A. M . (l98~ ) . Some experime nta l stud k-s of familiarity and liking. Bulletin ofthe British Psychological SMiety, 35, IH!! - I!I I. Sma ll. C. ( 1 ~ J9 H). Musicking: 17u meanings of pnforming and lis/mingo Han over , N i l Wt·slt·yan University Press. Smith, 1"..1. (In79). The experiencing ofmusical sound: Prelude /0 a phenomm ology of mlll" New York : Go rdo n and Breach Scie nce Pub lishers. Smith, K. C ., & Cuddy, 1.. L. (1!J86). The pleasingness of melo dic seq ut'lI(t''' ' Contrasting effects of repetition a nd rule-fa miliar ity, Prychology of MllJic, 14, 17- :1:.1. Sopchak. A. L. (1!)5.'i). Individual differe nces in res ponses 10 different iyp t's of mll, i, in relation 10 sex. mood, a nd other variables. Psychological MOIwgraplu, 69 ( I I) ,
r-zu Sn-rubech. R. A. (1966). Principld ofpS;'chophysiology. New York: Academ ic Press. S u llivHn , j. W . K (I!J27). Music as expression. InJ. W. N. Su llivan (Ed.), Ba thOl'tIl, /11I J/Jiritllol drvelo/lmenl (pp. 27-37). i'\ew York: New American Lib rary. '!(IIIJt'r1, E. (~ ()Ol) . Music and mea ning : An evo lutiona ry slory. I'sychl110lfJ ofM/lJic, -t'l, K-Hl-1.
'lur ker , D. M . (19tH ). Lnu-rn l brain function . emotion . aud cnnceptuulizunuu 1'J)'[holrwical ll ullrtill, 89. I!I- ·lfi. Vall S tu lIC,. J. K. ( I~ J/i( )) . '1'111' effects of Instrunn-ntal uuu- CJ u a lity III Jon mood n 'sl" III '" In mu sic. In I,:. Sdlllt'idt'r (Ed .), ,HII.lir tht ra/I), 195.9. 1 ~ 1 ",II ' ll n ' , KS: Alh-n Prt'ss.
;\nI IIdlil/lifln
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, ' and the rate of informatioll pn ' s ~ , " IWlln 's 0 uncs VIti, 1'. C. (1!1!i1). l'ft'k l l ' lI t , . " I M' I .' 23 .0.10. " "Illat ion . O;'u ertatlll/l Abltrlltl \_lllltrrIl/IW'~~/~' f l:tnat ion prc scnt ed b y Sl'CJlIt' llfl'S of , I' C (19ti 4) I'I'eft'l't'lln ' tOI nih'S \I III ' . . \11 /., . . . ' I I ' 'h I ,,,,, 68 17b-Htt . I , JOl/rnal 0' Ex/lrrimm l(1 yl IIIJ....,: _' • . b ilit JO/lTlwl ofRX/lcmllclI /(/ lou' S. 'J r '1' 101 sillnulus v ana I I y. V~l/., I'. C . (I!Hi6a). Affect as a unc 101 . I'who/ogy, 71, 7-\.- 79 . d 'ff " amo unts of visual com ple xity. Ilrh(/l!ltlml vII I" '"' C ' (196(ib). Preference for I cr mg (I' , ) .v imet, 11,10.'> - 114. . m usic education . In R . (-; . 'I:l ylor ·,c'. ' theory an d _ ( p 3 17- 328) Rcsrou . VA: ~Iu·..r II'II Iker , I',,. 1~ (1981). H edgehog A bor S' mposlU m P . . . " "nul/rulary re/JOrl of th, Ann r » Edllcato rs Nanonal Confere nce. . mel . Some b asic co lln'I'Il" ""d \\'I'hsler P. R. (1979). M usic and bd~am apsr:;o" h7s~cOlld annual Loyola sym/lo,I ' Il m ; , d d 1 In Proete mgs re" 'J . . ' lhoughls rowar a mo e. . O· 1 LA' Loyola U mverSity. uli uI ..tic. f\ ew r ea ns, . , lll IIrmispheTf wter ILJ 01 m..... . d d ) New York: Macrnt ;111. ' " \ \ (. ' ") (1970). P'rob/mu in ae_lthetu.s (2n e \ \. ,, \ (Ed) //o1IdIHmA 1 1'f." " ,,,1 II ,,'\1-, •.. c.u. - ' . d lion I n B. B. 0 man .• ,",,'llig, P. T. (1973). Feeling an l emo d C \'ffs !'U : Prentice-H all. /,.rychl1{l1gy (pp . 74!J-n l ). Eng ewoo I ,
," 'll/taI J'rrji'rfl/t"fJ
Chapter 9
MUSICAL PREFERENCES
P
eople vary in the ir preferences for an " ' . . ~ seosOl Y expenence in whic h 111(') have a choice. Personal P" r . J e il~ lences JOT Ccr ' tai f I ( ~·~o.r, clothing, and mu sic a TC rooted in ind ivid ~I~. oo c,s, pai ntings, h OIl H' ~a mIng, and exp er ience. Preferences arc t J ua ,ologJcal needs, cultures, e modified . \Vhat is p referred i . no a ~ays consistent, an d they ca ll ano the r. n on e Instance IS no t necessarily p referred i ll
Pe~p'le m ay use prefer ence and taste lnterch a rc distingu ished on the basis ( . angeably; occas iona lly the tenus that I t ' , 0 ccrnrrutmc m Abeles (1980 ) . as e Imp ics a re latively long-t I - P. 106 suggests class of objects or events whi c~ va ue for or com mitm ent to a bro 'ul . .''''' hoi ' I e pn.'lerence imp!' ' ' ~Pl' C I Il C c orce with in a se t of ibil , res a mo re Im med ia tc a nd . POSSI I ures O n iah h ~I,IICS. or roma~ tic orc hestra l m usic and ~eC e mig t ~ve a ,taste for whit!, cb ubiis, or partIcu lar works of L ' S P erences for a parti cul ar rhi ne 0 1 ~ 'rl'"ce and taste may be a m: t~s~ t o~ tra uss. ~he differen ce between pn'f rll!''I"Csling, pro bably is of IitlIe aco~s; persp~chve, a~d, while seman tically (' lln - m aking mu sical choice guence in studymg factors which influ Musical preferen ce is an area o flo " llIusic, although in so me w co ngstanding mterest in the psychology , I , ., W h co ays prereren ce may be b d ' I(. ~ , at rectors inOuence rnusi I , . su sume within aestber . t' . sica eva uauon, a d d .. (on mumg concern to com n eCislOnma king a n' 01 p osers, perfonners or h r-rs, l'ntl"rlainers, and others who 'h ' c estra man agers, adverth e Gil Interests. A simp le preferenc;~f o:v a ve~ted interest in people's mu st havt ' llIeaning beyond the mu s'·ca' d " e mpu slca l wo rk over an other mOl). . , ecisro n S ' holo os 1I111SlGI preferen ces to assess pe ,, ' ) C a ogIsts may use exp ressed t.• I 'rso na uy vi d . . ' H II( S rega rdi ng musical choices H If ra eVlatlOns from populatiorl · I' ( 1 •( ) d~ ,' 1 ) Ill( Icated that "aesthet"" . . a . a century. ago , Ca tte II and An dersuu , IC reacuo ns could diff . · · . 1 I',lIa.rlCl H s I'ro m "normals," and alco ho l! . eren uan, psychotics a lld s chot ics. Huhn ( WS4) found that ' d ..dOhcl Wlt~ psychoses from othe r Jl!;Y[x-r SOlla . I'Ily nssc ssm om, C bot III IVI ua mUSIcal cho t 1 < o rces re fl ected d inin l .1 I . o rces a so depen ded I · • V I( un ner-ds for se nsual I" It on aest rene values and ind! 1 easure esearch Ii ll'tWt't'll and amung varillus as )ec' , . e rs 0 l{'11 ('xpJore reJal ion <;hil's Pap l(' ( WNO) fOllnd that alllon~ Ir~~,::,~rers().n~lity ilnd lTl usical pref('I"l'l1c'('<;. I'n'fl'!"t'IK(' for '\'lTlotional" m usic \ ,/ 'I . ~n lls l("J;lJ1 s. !'Xlrovt'l'ts had a gn'al l'r \ II ( 1Il1I'O\"l 'I"h
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lUI m usic wit h ,I m Ul l ' " 10 11 11,11" su nct u rc. Glasgo w, Cartier, a nd \\'ilsoll ( 1 ~ ' X 5) found "Cl lllWl'valivc," ' I\!C' IlC'rS preferring fami liar rat he r than un familloll classica l musk to a g n-un-r I'Xtt'lIt than "liberal" listen ers. IIollingcr ( I9!J:{) found that extroversio n n-lun-d positively to preference for ha rd rock. l ie,IISH found tha t peopl e's open ness to d ive rse experiences related to their cojo yme nt of mu sical styles o the r than popular music. Ra wlings, Dodge. Sherr, & Dempsey (1995) found tha t a person ality factor called "toug hn un d -dn css" or "psych oticism" [Eysenck & Eysenck, 1976) rela tes to a p rt,j{'n'IKI' lor ha rd rock mus ic a nd dissonant sou nds. The relationship o f persouulit y IIlId mu sica l prefere nce is ten uous du e to idi osyncratic behavior. This cha pter examines determ in ing what is "good" m usic, partk-nlar pn-f ou-nces. various musical. psycho logical, and social influe nces o n lllc, j'l'I('III 'I', «nd alt e rati on of preference. Wha t Is " G o od " M usic?
What music is "good" is, of course, a m atte r o fjudgmen t. Reuso ns fOI illl h vidual s judging particular music as superio r to othe r mu sic lIlay indu(II' musical cha racteristics, such as forms, tempos, o rchestra l color s, a nd lyrh s. Extramusical association s (" Da rling, our song .. .") and soc ietal pn'sslll (' ,S Ill ay be in fluentia l. Prefer ences may be based on simp le e njoyme nt, lervr III intellectualizatio n , or ideas of what one "oug ht" to prefer, G roup p rl'l'Cl't'IU'I' rcuden clcs exist; th ey a rc no t solely a matter of individu al choices. Grollp tende ncies may arouse concern for what good mu sic really is- what .I'JUJII!d 1", pre ferred? O ne tradi tional view of "good" music is tha t that which is good is good beca use of inh erent asp ects of th e mu sica l stimulus. In such a view, 11 Wltlllil ', harmonic, and formal ideals cha racterize good, even great music If till' Ii" n-ncr is ed ucated properl y in suc h ideals, his o r her prefere nces will ("(1Il 1; 11111 10 some aesthetic ideal. The view that good music m v es its good llt'ss III ih stru c ture represe nts a formalistic (Meyer, 1956; Reimer, WH9) or iwlfltimll\l {Schwad ron. 19( 7) position regardi ng m usical aesthe tics. T he Il1I1 S it" S valln' supposedly is inherent in the music itsel f.' Music, indeed all art, has properties that arouse people. The so -called "rnlla u ve" variables of novelty, surpr ise, complex ity, an d ambiguity, J"(' I;l(I'cl 10 form and struc ture, iu lhn-ncc th e observer's response . Instab ility G ill lead to discom fort; incongruit y llIay increa se a ttention (Be rlyne, W71). T ill' esse nce of Meyer's ( I!I!iti) IlwOl)' Il'p;a n linp; mu sical enjoym en t, d iscusst'd ('a rlit'r, is that tilt' cI" lay of nll uil OIl " xI" 'cla m'y pro moles pl ('asurt' th rough I l l a n , li l· k·~ IH.H v j" w Ih.,III,,' r,'~ l ll "I ' " I' " ", I""" d 'I' ~ run,i . ,.1 ?>UIH' d nd {'an I", ' Ul I~' "l'l'n ,'i 1Il""'l1 in ;on r ,ffllI,b l,' 1""1"1,>1,,,,,, ' "I '" , ,,' 'I" ,. 1" "", 1" ln '.,I" I'.....il ion.... ,Ih I'hil,....,l'llIt ,,1 rl""~ in 1't;llo, 1" '1 a (h" II" " "' , .' " 1111111 ' " 11"'11, 1'1' '/11 11}
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to Sll lll lt ll i' II I lill y 1'1'1 \1I11i1l l11ealii ng independ ent ly of performIn a m ajo r n Ul ll ih lllio ll 10 musi c ed u ca tio n p hil o so p hy an d b y ex te n Nin ll to p sy cho logi ca l a S I l\'t 'l ~ o f musica l preference , Elliott (1!J!)5) ad vanced u " praxi al" p hil osoph)' in wh ich musical procedures- the acti ve m aking o f mu sic th rough musica l acti ons- arc o f pri m e importance . EJliotl uses " m usic" us a verb; o n e " m usics" when h e or she p erforms, liste n s, co m p os es, il rra llges, or co n ducts. O ne is e ng aged in " m u sicin g" as o ne " m us ics." Sim ilarl y, Sm all ( HW8) fin ds fault with th e co ncep t o f a m usica l work: Music is an activity (Sm a ll u ses th e te rm "m usicking" }; it is not a sta tic t hi ng . Making a "work" out o f music dcemphasizes pe rformers, who then be com e only a m eans to an end, a o ne-way commu nicatio n m edium between ('0 111IH)Ser and aud ience. Beauty in a p erformance is not limited to "goo d" musil'il1 "wo rks" ; music sh ou ld no t b e di vorced from its religious, politica l, o r social contexts. T hree quotes s uccin ctl y make Small' s p oints : "T he fundi! " mental nature a n d m eaning of mu sic lie not in o bjects, not in musica l works ill all, but in actio n , in what p eople d o" (p. 8). "Ib music is to take part. in lilly III K I-'.
f(//wcity. in a musical performance. whether by jJerf onning, by listening, by rtllfllTJinJ!, practicing. by providing materialfor perJOrmance (what is called composition), or Ii)' dancing" [ital. in origin al] (p . 9). /Ir
II is not enough ( 0 ask, What is the nature or the meaning ofthis work ofmusic? , .. Using the concept of mu sicking as a human encounte r, we can ask the wide r and more int ere sting question: W'hat does it mean whm this p" f ormnllft: (of tMI work) lakes place at this time, in this place. w ith theseparticipants ? [ital. in origillall
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Fro m Ell iott's an d Small' s a rgume n ts, on e can build a ca se for "good" lll m k acq Uiri ng ils "go od ness" from its int e ractions a nd fun cl ions. S ln KlIll l' ilnd l'xlra-m usica l aspects may b e a p art, b ut the goodness m ust arise ill blOa d l"l llltex t o f ac tive musicmaking . Ind eed, in d ivid ua l critic s, m usicians, a nd listene rs may n llll i lll ll' ttl exp la in musical preferences o n the basis o f in h ere n t musical p ro p l'r1 it's, (Ill .. strong ly worded review, R eimer (1996) found Elliott' s emp hasis Oil 111'1"for m ance "d ang ero us.") Neverth eless, it may b e more fruit ful p sydlOlog il'lI l. 1)' to sludy p re ference in tenus of p eople' s expressions o f p refe re llce , wh idl ma y lx· in e xt ricabl y inlertwin ed with perfor mance. "Good" music is go o d Iwcausc p eo p le dtJirr it. d ue 10 Ihl' ir m oods, backgrou nd s, train ing , l' xlll' ri{' IlCt~ S. prej ud ices, an d h" lil'fs. SUllIt' p('op le wan t co m p le xity. Su m (' WOl IlI sim p licity. Some wa lll s t l'tl ll ~ nillTiltivl' l
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ExJstlllg Musical Preferen ces No formu la exists for pn'dieting ind ividual mu sical prefe re nces reliably, al though particular groups tend to prefer particular mu sica l styles. Mall )' inves tigations are directed towa rd preferen ces for Weste rn a rt ("classica l") music. Sma ll (19H8, pp . 3-4) no tes that classical m usic has a puzzli ng stat u s: Th e mu sic is held in high esteem , even regarded as the "essence" of mu sh . ye t it is tru ly "popu lar" with a very sma ll group o f people. O ften , investiga tions rely on polling of rep resentative gr oups a nd archival re cords (1" 10:., printed p rogr am s) of wha t is perform ed, A few studies have re lated llstem-r characteristics to musical p references, A ny measure of mu sica l preference is imperfect People m ay not respond honestly to ques tions regarding the ir preferences; reasons for attending livl' perfonnances selectively includ e nonmusical ones, such as social visibilil)', Examining co llections of recordings may be useful, but individuals va ry in the extent to which they ca n afford an extens ive collection, and possessing .. recording tells little a bout how often the O\\'ller listens to it. Eve r grl'a ll'l amoun ts o f listening may OCcur on the Inte rn et. Ana lyses o f what is '" 'I formed. b road cast, or down loaded are subj ec t to biases of co nductor s, w('althy pa trons, industry executives, and advertisers. Scho larly discussion , o f music reflect musical preferences, but with edito rial biases. Rega rd less of wha t a listen er bases a mu sica l p referen ce judgment U pO ll , the judgment repr esen ts a subjective impression of mu sical desira bility. ,, ~ with st.'l)sory impressions, magnitude estim a tio n, i.e., mea sur em en t h )' 1l1i1tching one sensory co nt inuum with another (o ften numbers, bu t not IH'C' essar ily so) is a via ble technique if one is willing to accept matching illljll'l '.\ slo ns as m easureme nt (Radoey, W86), Aesthetic j udgments may be p rot bl'/ ic in llat ure; investigators ha ve o bserved psycho physical phen ome na, such ; 1' a tend ency to hea r the seco nd member of a pair of a mbiguo lls stim uli us huv inK "more" o f the pr operty in q ues tio n, in affec tive m easu remen t (Koh, W/i.'i, J!)(i7), !'e rha ps magnitude estima tion or some oth er tech nique which d O l ' " /Jot n'Cju ire co Unling uni ts may e nable quan tifica tioll o f preli..rt~IH:CS ill II lllt'liningll il way. Sllllllna rie.':l of SO Il H '
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.I1l.\1 as rock anc! roll wa.\ 1ll'I'o m ing" na tion a lly pop lllar, Kt'slon and " in ln ( HISS) illVl'sti,a;;all'i/ l'OIIIW' .~ llldl'll lll' llIusica l p rl'li'n 'lIn 's, T hey fou nd tll;ll stud('lIts wilh ,a;;1I'a11' r allllllllll.\ o f 1Il1l.\icall raill in,L; and I'xII.'ril'lIn ' WIHI W('II' willin,L; 10 ' I" 'lid till' lilll!' II'I/llin 'd for ('on('('nlmk l! lisll'nillK Il'lHll'c1 to I' ll'
, - .. " ( I'11I11 1-r." ' ' I ·' , " "1" '11 10 111('II, , or . cur ren tly popular music • .' fer classica IIl USH , 11\ I I . . .' ' I training nnr allYother V, IlI T he evi dence was ( 'UlH ' I,.1 ,'lUI ".1I'• ",'lthl'l . m ustca . " I '1" " t ·t' for cfussicu l m USIc. r , nblc "cause d ' t 1(' p rt (11 11luence ra n-k'·mgs a re mil estones in the stud)' 0 p ll' ( I Qf ( ) Farn sworth s , I I cm mc . . B ed on polls of Anwrinll . d cha nges ac ross trme. as . «re nee m usic . H13 0, " 19 ' 4 195 1, a nd 19fi.I, "the ranking ' Ifor ' a rtI So ' tyanmembers III • 't- , . Musicc oglca CIC . d . ce " Em ine nce mea ns 1' 1'1 ' d f the ir perceive erru n en . f list com posers III o r er 0 . . d rth i ess of study. In tlu- 1I1il ibuti to musr c histo ry an wo III 1 ceived con tn uuons . d . B cb Beeth oven , 11. o z.u t " five" omposers III or e r were a , I' Yl'ar the to p rve c . urs were re Ianve ' , Iy stable across the S;H ll!' III ) , h Th nkir Hayd n, and Bra ms. e ra sr- I " b 'nee of twentie t h -cen tury ('( '" l I d h I s showed a rc auve a se yl'ars, an t cy a ~'ay . 10 'cal Society hardly is re p re senta tive 0 I)' p posers. The Am erican Mustco .~. r . rth 's po lls beca use 0 1 lal k II d r- arnswo ical listeners, an on e could crmcize . E co mposl' rs, and 1'0\\1'I 1I, di iona te atten tion to ' urop ean . I currency, isproporuona d Is evaluate d but th e rilllklllJol,' I , ' t1y wh at the respon en , r inconsistency III exac . hi t .1 , have some degree 0 (nil th . I cfcrcnces Wit III one s ) e suggest at m usrca pr f -hi Of course emi m-rm- ;1 111 t olely a matter 0 \\ IIllSy, , , siste ncy- the y are no s h (1969 plIO) repo rts polls Sh O W lllj id tica l Fa rn swort ,J., . pre fere nce a re not I en I , . d emin ence a nd 1' 11).0 \ ' 11' ( '11 · hiIpS bet , y h. less than perfect re Iallons e ween pe , rceive sed p refere nce ma On one occas ion, e xpres of particular compose rs. . b . based on enjo yment. base d on e m inenc e; on another, It may al . f three ~ usic history n-xts ( 0) d t d a content a na YSls 0 . Polandic th 197 con lI C e ki d the then most rt'I'I'lItI ts Fa rn sworth's ran IIlgs, a n . SSUoI two mustc t eory rex , .1 d most frequently m ( '; 1(' I J T h 30 composer s Cl e o f the Schwenn ca ta og. e d th 30 co m poser s rece iving tlu- Ill O S te xt, Fa rn sworth's top :10 names, ~n bel " Alth gh the seven so u rres tln• h lapped considcra y. ou . I' ' pace in Sc wann ' over Id 2 10 es on Iy "I I nam es appea red , the reby 11 11 lcat oretically co uld }'Ie names. h ' thor s Fa rn swo rth's t"t'SI'ClII . . t among t e various au , . d! hose m usic me rits ntteuuuu. ing co ns iderab le ag tecm cn de n ts, and the recordi ng indu st? reg~r 1Il ~tations for eac h o f the 71 ( ' 11]11 Poland th en cou nted the to ta nllmdel~ .o" d the 60 co mpose rs who Iwd it in th bl cd five tex ts an IS c c " I losers III l c COIn . , . \ 'In i] t iden tical, the two lsi I rn f Schwaun listings. ' ill e no , least one full co limn 0 . , di lnposer nationa lity and 11l~ lned -k blc simila rities regar mg co , k I, c on tame ' r emar s we re 0 1 wo r .~ I, d A\ a I I"C) percen t of t Ire com him e d citation . ro rical perlO . . )() ll .1. . " I. h works I) pl'tTt'1l1 W " l" 4 'Ii.'n 11('IT('llt were 0 'renc ., . German com poser · · th'm . ~ . . , t s. 1' 1'1' It;dia ll, and S.\'Ig IIIIY Iess • .3 pC'ln'lltI IW C' I'I It llsslan , I '1'jle th eresl of the wor ( , IaIH 1 lu ll ·w· " I:l I U'H T l l l an .o ll ll tl ,lfor l . Am erica n. 1(-' rCIII;t1 I11l1!,,> t I' , th.. Bnzilia n Villa. I'!1 lll~ , , ' '11l"llIS all of tho se citatiollS WI' 1/ ' l n I',II , ' . l'xn'll 01 .. • • .
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Summary ofJ<:XUUng Prtjrrfflu 5 EXi slillg. Im 'fl.'n '" ( 'I ,.' "Ol" II'l'sl('n l ,1 1'1 ("ch,s ' I") . . d, 'IH'Y 10 pn ' /i.'l" 1Il 1L, k til' Iht' 1 0 .1 " • . . 1,1 ,I IllIL'll: show a stro llg- 11'11 IH l it ( 111h a llcl lll lll 'lI 'I 'lIl h <'I 'lIt l" '"<"_, ,S ll ( '/l l' r d >0
:171 r-n-uccs m a y result hcuu I lllll" IIII II "" l y composers' e xcessiv e d evia t ions from ouu positional 110 111I '1 H\ wI·1I 11 '1 Fnuu listener s' pe rson al qualiti es. l'opular music requ ires furt lll'!" il!V('SliHil li(IIl, although Ameri can po p ula r music clea rIy ls " po p ula r" over much o f the wo rld. In the la ter e lemen ta ry school ye a rs, ,1'1 America n stud en ts app roach adolescence, prefe rences ap p('ar to (~()n v(' rge towa rd ruck or co u n try m usic, which may ma ke co m p re he nsive ed ucation in ,I va ri ety of m usical styles d ifficult. Adults m ay b ro ad en the ir tastes until their lnn-r ye ars ,
Influe nces on Musical Preferences Musical pre ference s are more than an in te ractio n o f in her ent musica l I ha ra cterist ics and ind ivid ual psyc ho logical a nd social va riables. S ocieta l pressures in fluence p reference s. A pe rson m aking a musical choi ce con sich-rs o pinio ns of o thers w ho a rc sign ifican t in his o r he r life, as we ll as cultural message s in and about th e music. Research sugg ests teacher ap proval infl u ('IICes o n eleme nta ry sc ho o l studen ts' exp resse d p references (Do ro w, I !)n ; Greer, Dorow, & H a nse r, 1 97:~) , altering pre ferences by associating m usic with Na zi Germ any (Rigg, 19 4-H), an d adolescents expressi ng prefe re nces to con form to tho se o f influen tia l peers (Ing le field , 1974; J oh nston e & Katz, 1957). O f co urse , pub lic exp ressio n o f a view in accordan ce wit h tha t o f a ll aut hority figu re, pee r leader, or perceived accep ta ble sentiment d ues nol necessa rily m ean private beli e f. A fter an ex tensive review of th e then existing litera ture , Abeles ( l!mO) ron cludc d tha t perso na lity facto rs and em otional stat es are rcluted 10 pn-ferruce, b UI not u nambigu o usly. Gender had no consiste nt in fluen ce o n pn'fl' l r-nces, alth o ugh women ge nera lly had a great er lo ng-term ccnu n lum-nt III "l"Iassica l" m usic. Racial di ffe rences in taste ex isted, and soc ial l"Ia \ '1 alll i po litica l views might intera ct to influe nce taste. C lea rly. repet ilio n ("( HIld inlllle nce p refer ence , Although no "sta nd ard ized" ta ste ex islt'd , mas, ll11'dia , peer b'TOUpS, and music al ex perience all m ight influ ence tasle . North and H a rgreaves (1997), taking a theory -base d app roa ch 10 eva llllltillll'l o f musical p reference d ecisio ns in eve l)'d ay life, de scribe nunwrous iIlSI:lII('('s o f interactio ns be lween the liste ning context and the music. Variatio ns O(TIlr in lllt' d eb'Tee of de sira ble mu sical co m p lexity , in th e ap prop riaten ess o f partit'll ' lOl l' m usic for particula r occasio ns, an d in the way on e 's atti tude towar d lIlusic ma)' be a fun ct ion o f till' n llld ilio ns 1II1 d(~ r which it is experienced a nd vin' vl'rsa_ C learly, allY consilll' ralion of illllllelln 's o n m usical prefert'IlCl's n m \1 I't'(ogn ize in teractio ns a lllo ll,l.:, l1l m il'a l and l'lIvirollm e lllal vaJiables, For o ver IWo tlt·('al h·'1 , A lIlI' l t 1,.,11 1;11I('\ wor k has been high ly inllnen lial in the study Of lllllsit"a l ll1 d l'H'lIt "ii . I. lq.l. I' ly llt't"all 'lt' o f h is rt'('og nition oft lH' im port"'IH ' o f illkra
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IllOdt. -1o f th e .so urc,(.S' III V1I1 I,. .. It ' /1I ill IlI1i Ska l lln oft.'rl> '" I pCJrtlllg research Ill' 'Ill I I · II net dill tast e and the Sill ' • • ( II .S I II 1 ' .. . o r ju go1<.'111can 01 ' III . I . e gate IS clo sed the " I Ill/-: ess. \ Vllt'lhc' r o r no t to In . '" .' .. . . ., lIlUSIC IS argl'! y IW'UtI , , 0 VI.' JaS tC atten tio n 10 a sti I ' . r- 10U't'. I lu- m ost eh.w' nt l . , . . , m il us IS a {" t1 1 1.~ 1 jf ,", . , · 0" csson 1Il InU SIC app • .' t" . , Ilslt·IU -r, lo r wh at ever reasc I recta Io n goes for nal/gh l II rl.. " " .> )11 , e ('CiS no t 10 criv(" th . , AI Ihe fifth le vel the I" " O ' e mu sIC a(l('11110Il," . . . IS en(Or s currenI affect ' . ·t • ufil " IIllllJl 10 which Iht, lisle ller h .1. d . I \'(. .s a le I ters thl' 1111 1\., ,II as (~c te In gi ve h 'ISIC aU ' , . ". , . lIa s mood will ill lluen n ' I,·" . I f l ' en lOll, II' 11 1011\ tot , - . • ( 11 ler urllCr Illlls · . I . ' " Illt'llls, "o r exa lllille " ha'>I>Y" .' , I " Ica pIO U'SSIIl,li' ;mc! jll .l ,4 , '" ' IlllrSl C IlSll a ly will lilt . ·, " j .,./. ·~' H mood lll'lil ,v, · '1",. , I" . , u at ( I ('n'III I) ' wl rh II • . , ( lilliSI('. ('I
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.H/II /ffll l " rjrrmu J Aud itory se nsitivity (lI\1'a llill,li sensitivity to parti cular aspects of musical sounds, no t hcuriug acuity, perception, or receptio n), musica l a bility a nd nnlnl ng, pe rso na lity, gen der, et hnic group , soc ioe co no mic status, maturity, a nd memo ry a rc rela tivel y sta ble persona l cha racteristics whic h charac te rize Lclllanc's fourth level. (G ive n d isco very of sign ificant effects fo r the listen er's m Ulltry in inte rn ation a l preference stud ies, Leltlan c, Fung, Boal-Palheiros, Burt-Ri der, Ogawa, O livic ra, and Sta rno u (200:l) sugg est tha t perha ps th e mod el sho uld a dd a count ry or culture variable.) A perso n may be esp ecially sensitive to phrasing, particu la r tim bres, o r rhythm s, perha ps o verly so in rela tion to other as pects, Performan ce skill on a parti cular instrument m ay sens itize the listener to litera ture featuring th at instrument; a n experie nced French horn p layer certa inly has a d iffe rent se ns itiv ity to Strauss's Till 1~'1J Le7lspiegel or th e Mozart horn co ncerti than a listen er wh o is unfamiliar with the ho m , Re mem be ring wha t was heard formerly as a guide to what one is hea ring now can be crucial for o rganizatio n . So, in put variables characte rizing the listeni ng expe rien ce com prise a musical stim ulus . T he liste ner attends to that stim ulus to the ex te nt th at he or she is physio logically abl e and personally willing. After inte rac tio n with the current affe ctive state, th e m usica l input is influenced by p erso nal cha ra cteristics and interactio ns among them , Now co mes a chan ge from va riables that influence the listener to variab les that re sult fro m the listener's ac tions . The cha nge occu rs at th e model' s le vel th re e, where the listener actively processes the in put. Processing ma y include labelling stim ulus aspec ts, Sitch a s the formal sections , instruments, style, and likel y composer. T he listener ma y consider ex tram usical as pec ts, includ ing im ag es o f wha t the m usic may "say" or "mean ." H e or she m ay esta blish musical ex pectanc ies, wh ich th en arc con f irmed or d iscon firm ed . A fter active ly pro cessing th e input at the third leve l, the listen er mak es a decision at the second lev el : H e or she ei ther decides th at a jud gm en t is possible or that m ore info rmatio n is necessary. If mo re in fo rmatio n is desirt·c1 . Ihe listener explores th e musical stim ulus and th e listening en vironment further, th roug h repeat ed listening with heighlen ed atte ntion. New input pa sses "up" the hierarchy co ntin ua lly fro m the eig hth to the seco nd le vel until th(' Ii .~t e n er is rea dy to mak e a prefe ren ce j udbrm en t. At the ve ry "to p" o f LeB la nc 's h ie ra rch y is the p refe re nce j udgme llt, a d t'cisio n ba sed o n th e ('o mhina tion u f a ll the va riab les at the lower It'vels, Tht·l istener au r/JLIOI rrjn/J IIH' lllll ska l in p ut. In the event o f ac Ct.' pta nee, till' mod el assu mes rq wlilioll II l1 lil .\ alialio ll. As stim ulus co nd itio ns cha nge, o r as liste ne r r O ll d i liCl II ~ Ch'llljJ,t·, rIll' jlld/o\IlI"1l1 lIlily dlung'e . !'('op le w ill va ry 11 111...lt 1, '1'111\',' i1 11 1" l1 l;tnn ' o r thc mod el 's va ria bk·s a ud v
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Complex ity, a nother of LeJUan c's inp ut va ria bles, may bl' an c'spl'cl.dh importan t ;nOueoce on mo sical p<efeceoee. As used here, comp lex lt)' " '1,... to ho w inlri ca te, orn ate, or co nfusing a stim ulus appear s; it is a lIlaUel" 0/ ' 11" jec·tivt· j udgment In appear an ce, [unclion , a nd ope ruuon , a n a utolllOhil,. j tuon- comp lex than a toy wago n. 'Ic) \\~slem listeners, a Bach fugue 1I\1I.,lh appl'ars more co mplex than a EUropl'an or Am eri can folk song, ' n 111 1'0 1111" tion IIIt'ory terms, a lack of fl' d unda ncy results in excessive info llllalioll, whkh inl"fl'asl's comp lex ily. Comp leX ity may be a fun cti on o f 1J1ll'l ' II ••ill!\ unf.ullilia rity, a nd a resulling b C'k of exp ecta ncy. As is 111(' GI St. wilh 0111<' 1 Ps)'c·hol0,l.,>ical co nslnJc:ts, n Hup lexity IH.'Vl'r ca n hl' I1Il'
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unalysis a nd/or IIIUhi,III ll"llsit'lllll M'" ling- o f sema ntic d ifferen tial, Liker t or simila r im plied con tinuum sruk-, or pa ired or triad ic compa rison data. Possible und erlying dimension s Illay rel at e to melodic direct ion or o ruamcn lation , ha rmonic changes and textures, rhythmic regularity, an d the deHTt·(· III which the mu sic meets expectation s." A sim pler app roach to m easuring comple xity ma y be b ased on observers' immedi ate impression s o f apparc'n t rom plcxity. In such a gLobal approach, why som ething seem s relatively complex Il l' simp le is not immediately im portant; it is enough 10 say that a stimulus hOI '! a certain am ount of complexity because of the \vay people react to it A glullal approach recogni zes th at pe op le may vary considerably in why they makrparticula r com plexity judgm ents. For some listeners, an overall impression ur a piece of music may include a degree of apparent complexity wh ich c1 t · n , · ~ ana lysis. For others, rh ythm, harmon y, melody , or another m usical plOpt'll ), may override othe r properties as a basis for comp lexity. T he au thors 1"01 11 towa rd a global approach to m easu ring apparent complexity, Conceiving m usica l p referen ce as a function of com plex ity is IIn l III"W. ltcrlyn e ( 1971) and M clvlullen (WHO) allud ed to musical affect having iI pa l ticu la r relation shi p to music's struc tural complexity, a relationship dl'sn ih able as a n inve rted If-shaped cu rve; in m ath ematica l terms, a quadratic fun c-
non," O ne important de velopment rega rd ing preference as a quad ratic function of com pl exit y is Walker's (1 980) "hedge hog" theory, so nam ed because the theory has on e exp lanation for many situations, j ust as th e sp iny little Euro pean anim al rolls into a ball in re spo nse to many stim uli, \V,t1 h 'r (p, I) states th e th eory in his own words as "p sychological even ts nearest optimum comp lexity a rc pre ferred, Oc curre nce produces sim plificatio n." Th e tlu-ory presume s an optim al comple xity level for any stimu lus cla ss, ind lld illg music. Prefe ren ce is high est when the stim ulus is a t the opti mal com ph-xit y level. Excessive com plexity resu lts in less preferenc e, as does e xcessi ve sit u pliciry. Too m uch com plex ity causes th e listen er to cease uttempt iug 10 process the stim ulus; too m uch simplicity ca uses bo redom . As a s timulus recu rs, as in repeated listening 10 a musical composition, it theore tically sim p lifics. If the stim ulus m oves closer to the optim um com plex ity level , I'll'!' crence increases; if it moves furth er away, preference decreases. If opt imal com plexity cha nges, the curve shifts in one direction or the other, a ud u pa rticular stim ulus's relative po sition on till' newly shifted cu rve m ay cha nge. Alth ough optimal com plexity It'WIs var y a mong a nd within ind ivid uals, each Indi vid ua l has a ll o pti mal ('( Imph'x it)' level for a stim ulus class at IIt,'"t or""I,,'n 111<'''1" I " " "11" I., .'-" /1.",,, 1> .m,I I I.u t" , ~' ( I ~ I ! 1"2). " I n ;, qll;uhali, 111m l ion, ,I ~ vlll l,tI ,I,- \ jll ' " ''' '''' . \ ",1,,1,1,' r It" H""" , -I<'r ;f whi l,·. T l wn II.' v;lrill lol,' X n'lI liml'" 10 illn'·,," '. ~' '' ' 1iI 1 , 1 ,· ' ,I, ·", ,,..'. II." ., ", IllI' 01" ., l'l'li v,' 11M' 01 Ki nv " rl ,' ,j I LK
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jl'('ls alo lle, SU~j:~~c~h~ ~h~y worked Oil assign ed t~7::~:; I:;;sle~~t.kalh wltl'lill'r () ca rd loud complex I di tot C I suh ~ ~,ot .t~) retaliate aga ins t the aCcom . me ~ le~ ~vhile cOl1sid erill,LI ,hou "!J I ... /0; ~ were p.lJl1fu l elec tric shock '" pli ca by admulJ stering Wha t ril l' ' Ie .11 cI Simpler m elod' , s wet e more ao'oressive th' bi ) an Sll 11<-'Cls '/ res or no m uSIC. " I n some cas 00 appt"u"('d st' I J . \\ III "Ill si:' K{}J, IIlH~ ale d 10 ac t aggressiVely in the eps, <-' ven unin suh ed SUhjl'( h .. ('Cll! suggests th resence of loud OV('lTc',K I to I"('Jalivel I ~t people aroUsed by lou d com I C~lllpl ..
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JOllnd that Afr ica n-A ,. .. , an ge nd t'r il ~ I'I'lIl nlllel~'a:lI~;~~~,:' , p~efere,llct's to the Illusic fOl~:'~:~;:' t~:lld~~ Scl.lO OI " t il jJl'l'll'I'('/l("('s fo ' .: ..' - lllel"ll:an. \ \illite sludeJl{S we _. ,. ey I enlJlh'd th,· I A fIHdll-Anlt'rica n ' , " I t' IHdlly eq ua l ill II " II II a llc Wille perform ers. ' .,
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:177 1U'lC nne a mon- !,rdl'III '1! -' lr ll', uud a hsn-nc r ma}' broaden his o r h...r ra ngl' III rboices. Much music n-qnin-s h-ami ng through formal instru ct ion before II listene r may experience more than some so rt of sound hath . K. Mueller (I ~ I7()) stressed tha i listen e rs ca n no t hea r acc urately beca use they an' nor 1.11I,.; hl to hea r mu sical details." After studying co llege a nd high school stu.h-nts' the matic recogniti on ab ilities and findi ng that typica l stude n ts showed positive resp onses towa rd div erse styles, includi ng classical and jazz, lrm-rksen (W 68) n oted the potential for deve lopin g and expa ndin g prefer1'l1C'l 'S th ro ugh education . Zc natri (19H3) believes tha t m usica l taste is partl y I og niti ve, so enhanced cognitiv e p rocessin g ability should facilitate taste fill" more co m plex contemporary musical styles. Of course. lea rn ing to hl';11 mus ical details, exposure to musical d iversity necessary to expa nd prefer«uces, an d e nha ncem ent of m usica l cognitive p rocessing a ll re q ui re struc tured ins tructional time. \Vh ile exam ining the literat ur e of ed uca tional philosophies a nd various sche m es to hold Am erican education "a cco un talih-" is beyond the scopt' of th is text, it is evident that a t the beginn ing o f tlntwenty-first ce ntury, music education beyond staged perfor man ce s may be ill jeopardy in many Ameri can schools as ex te rnally imposed testing pro('('dures that give little or no weight to mu sic and the other arts drive curricula. Seven th graders who were e ncouraged to be creative in activities related 10 contem porary mu sic outscored a co ntro l group, who followed an ex isting curriculum gu ide, on a test o f m usica l understanding [Archibeq ue. I!U;(i). Interestingly, all sevent h graders in the study de velope d an intere st in CO il tl'mporary music reg ardless of prior train ing, gr ades, or initia l atti tudes, Rep etition , a p ro cess for ma king the unfamiliar fam iliar, may help ,1111'1 and expand musica l preferenc e. Mu ll (W40) had undergraduat e 1ll 1lSid Ol Il\ lisle n to o bscu re works of Bach , C hop in, an d Brah m s, a nd raiw lIu·ir ha nd , 10 indicate "high spots." \\'ith repealed listening, as the m usic l)l'(';illW 1ll 0 11' familiar, the lengths of Ihe "high spots" increast'd. Lislc'lll' n. ('vidc'IIII )' I)('came aroused by anticipation of newly familiar sections and ra iM,t1 11...11 hands in anticipation. Getz (1966) fou nd that seventh graders' p re fcn' lIIc " It II string ensem ble exccrp ts increa sed over ten Vo"ceks as a result of fa mi liOl rll)" Ihrough repe tition . Faste r te mp os usu a lly e licit ed b'Teater p l'l'ft' n 'llr c'. Schuckert and M cD on ald (W6R) found that fOl\f- to six-yea r.old d lildr{'l\ aher ed their mu sical prefercnces bet ween jazz an d classical m usic ahe r be ill,!.:; IWluired to listen ind ividually to the It'sse r prefelT<-'d st}'le during qu id p lay ~r l h "hl'a r mu sil'al d"la ils~ IIW ;Ill ~ 10 h.·,u ~' a rio ll~ nn", ,, ..s, rer all in("mlalion fo r r"t"(,,.; ni:r.in,.; nm si • 011(finn, and n·lat" a mpilld 1111." ,"..I ml"lll.... i.. n 'Ihout lIlt' mu sic and ils pl'rfnmlaml' . A Iist" ll ,·r's abi lil>' to \O" rl>alill' abml' Ih ,· I11U ,1O ""\'Id.'m t' of ,1,·.;,il''11 Iwarin g. Ilil'card ll" ll 1,,·rn· plll,11 . Irud urillg, 11 , h'" I" .·"I..·riNl...· in I' mu , i' ·;ll l u!
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period s. \Vh ilt, n'!\t·;il'th (I.t,IUmu" 1 ! 1 1i 1 ~ Le ltlan c, Colm an, 1\1("(",:1",11 \ , Sherrill, & Malin . I!J1i1i; Lt,Hlallt· & Cote, l!) 1i ;~ ; Lclllan c e t al., in a mp ly demonst rates tha t childn-n usually prefe r fast to slow Illm i. , Mosko vitz ( 1!) ~ ' 2 ) , assessing four th graders' sclcc riuns o f fast vs. slow 11111 \ 1. found tha t repetition of slow baroque, classical. ro ma ntic, a nd atona l .11 1 m usic increased preferenc es for slow e XCl'rpts. Fam iliari ty thro ugh rep e titio n will not guara ntee a n increase in P" 'I'I " cnce, of course . Prior to atte nd ing concerts featuring contempora ry w'"1l1 wind quintets, eleme ntary, junior high scho ol, and high schoo l stud en ts i ll II mid western city heard previe w tapes to famili a rize the m with the 1II 11 \ h (Horn yak, 1966). Fami liari ty indeed increased th e ele m enta ry students ' pm itive response to the contem pora ry compositions, bu t it made no di llt,It'Il" for j unior h igh pupils. The high schoo l stud ents showed a /( 55 posill\ 1 respo nse as a result of prelim inary he aring. Cook (1990, p . Itt) cautions Ih ,'1 instructing people ab out part icular mu sic will not auto ma tically illt 'lI ' ,I ~ " enj oyment, and that e njoying m usic do es not requ ire understan din g ils sh ul tural de tails {pp . 16·t- 165). In a broad sense, style rath er th an specific examp les m ay be the hasi, It'l fam iliarity. In a study o f the effects of atte ndi ng an in -school opera pel l" I"1 •une. Sims (W92) found tha t attendance had a po sitive effect on atlitlltl." toward attend ing ope ra, opera singing, and th e pe rformers, as indicun-d 1.\ s i~ lI i1ic a n t differen ces in favor of fifth and sixth graders who atten ded 1111 opt'ra . Four th gra ders were consi stently more po sitive, with little difft'll 'll ' ht' twl'l'n those who saw the opera and those who did nut. Opera is a 1'0 111I for which young peopl e generally do not care (Le Blanc, 1981; Ll'!U'Ill \ " Sllt'rrill, I!HW; Thompson . 1991). In a study relating undergr adu ate nun mu sic majors' multicultura l aUillltl ." an d their preferen ces for and knowledge of music o f Africa. C hi na, hlll LI lnd o ncslaj apa n. Korea, the M idd le East, a nd T hail and , Fung ( I!J!H ) 1111111< 1 a sig nifica nt relationship between overall scores on a multicultura l allitlld. Inven tory a nd overall prefere nce scores. There was no sign ifica nt wl,llitl ll ship between preference and rec ogn ition. Significant relationships 1' "i \ I I·t1 l x-twcen the students' yea rs of study o f foreign language and overa ll 1111'1 1' 1 r-ncc, as well as between year in school and overall preference . Appall' nlh ce-rtai n sod al famili ar ity a nd a ttitudes ma r infl uen ce preference when ,dllli li lt' tuuxi r. is rel atively unfam ilia r. Musica l preferences can be altered , but the direction of ulterutiou i, .."I always predictab le. The p hilosop hical qu estion of whethe r (If not pn '!'t'l .'111 I' .\ hfl/lltl he alte red is not answered satisfactor ily. Music educators and , I illl should renu-mbe r that mu sical p refe ren ces resu lt from a co mpk'x ink n" I Ip'l of personal fal'to rs, ..lI nf whil'h a re 110 1 IIndt'r tht, ('()!llm l of an )' till" i ll ~tltll linu. An t'xpa nsioll of pn'f(,I"t'!H'('S may h,' alll'm pled ill ,'dll t"
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with , ,,,,,, ,n ,,hl,' " " n" ,., " I " '" "" . h n' a ,,·,n d.. nng "I ",,,, ;,-,,1 p, ,,k , '·'''·'·' n thc m any variable' th ut tu " " n" ",bIU'"ry di" '''I",' b '1, u' , ' i" " "hle. G, w "" ,." "., to inll u..uc .. 1'•.-1,...."',-, ,I". . datiw lIexibility of youn gc r stud..ntx, ,,,,,I ,h,, Im port ,," 01",.,,;'-al " xp,·etatio ns, one ,hlog tha' m o, 1r edo,a,loon , "n " nd , houldaod o is to p ,ovld .. p rc,chonl and elementa ry ,,, hool childr.. " lth a wide variety of experience, in h, tenlng to. Pcrformin g. and "" atiog " "IllYmusical styles.
Summary T lll' major pOln ls in th is chapte r include the following: I. Mosical prefere nces resoh fro m a com plex m ixture of mu slral. p,'r" " .al. env ironm ental ch arac teristiCS, ~. and "Good" m usic may b e "good" because of Inherent structu ral a'I"''' ' ; it
ma y bc "good" b ecau e" of wh at peo ple say abo ut it in co ntext; it n".y \w
"good" becau se of th e usc to wh ich it is put. Prefere nces m ay be related to various personality aspects. I. Groo p tend cn cles ex ,st in musical prefere nce. especially for ee rta,o 1" '" do minantly Germ an compose r> of e stem art mu sic. r.. The app are nt rever en ce for the pa, t observe d In eiltSslr al m", ie b a rd atively new occurrenw In Western m usic history- It probab ly's uunbut able to perpetua'ion of tradition through formal cdu catlon and th e wideo spread avail ability of music from prior eras a' well as radlr al crea'io , hy
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no nconform ing contem po rary com posers. Ii. popular music exists in many continually evolving forms; each ha' IlS own cultural orientatio n, sociological base, and mark et. 7. The preferences of m any America n ,chool childr en m ay fo, o, in""'"' ' ingly o n rock or cou ntry music with advanci ng grad e leveh ; a 1'''''' ''' ' "open-eared ness" may wax and wane with age . H. Mo sical preference and ta,te are a function of many variable' . iO"h"h og variables in 'he music. sh ort-term and long-term variable, in th e h,"""'" and variables in the cond, tlons unde r wh lrh th e music Is ex pe rtco...-d . !1. Le Blan c' s hie ra rchlral model of th e soorces of variation in mu, lr al " " ,•. is a com p rehe nsive or ganl,.atlon of musical, enviro nm ental. and Pcr,,'" al variables interacting in preferen ce decisions. 10. Em pirical sopport ex's's f",·thc p artlr olar Import an ce of , omplexity a nd tempo as mu sical variab les inOuendng p reference. I L Mo,ical p •.,.r.."......., m " y b.. "It,·,,·d " nd expanded I'"o..gh ..d.., a" o", e but the results aft ' 110 \ alwa ys pn',!i(·t;lhl .
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J{cfc r cncc s Ab eles, II . I': (I!1XO) I{ " Psye/III/0K} (p/>. 10.1'-1 ,( ~!,OIl.W.~ III 1Il1l .\ i c. III O. I\.. Hod n' Adorno, T W (1976) I:I:~' K."i: Nalional Asso~':~li(Ed.~, lIandbook 0[ 11I /ll'li York: Seab ury Pre~ . (I~ Urlum /(1 th{' -rotiolo~ 0/ mus;r (£ Bon or Music Therap\'. 5 Ar chibeque. C. P. (19 n , . . . Asht on, tran s.I, 1\'(.;\
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AS:~:. a~~ ~n" M&"'RiCaEducQ~~(Jn.e;;.'~. I:~~~4~. tas te (or conlem porary music. J ournal 't !f, doey, E (1')1)2) l{
ondboo!r oj research ",'" Quantitative anal " Schirmer Books. 01/ muSIC teaching and !{'ort/in ( ys/s, In R , Colwell (Ed,), Barn es, K. (J98B) 1( 'g pp. 141 - 183). New YorkFi. . • op 40 radio· A fi . acmg tlu musk (p 8 5 1\ " . ragmem of the i . . Her lyn e, D. E. (UJ7 fi - OJ. ~ew York: Pa ntheon. magJnalion. In S. Frith (Ed .), Crofts. . Au theua and jJsychobioloV'V "-I V n N ' new rork. A 1 ....a lteH, It H & A d ' pp eton-CCllIllr)' . ., II ersoll J C (19 "3) T lor disord ers b tI l } ... : . . .J . he lIIeasurem e 446-45 4 Y e U :Al m usic preferen ce test ./. nt ~f persona lity and beh av ChancelIor:G. R. (1975). Aesthe ' . ouma ofApplr~d Psychology, fro~n the classic Iiterafur t JC value m mu sic: Implica tions . e .of die field (Doctoral dis ~or m USICeduc' . revi ew J oUrnal ofPo 'mlill .. , . 'l.esearch p I' illid exc itement see kln ' not e: ersoDality and m usic /) o/'ow, L. G. (HJi7) _ 1'11: o~ vp enness to expe rience ? l >ryJ:t erence: ~x travt'nilllt mUsic sele ctio n and e eCI of teacher app roval/d' ogy ofM U$u , 21, 7:~- 77. :t l-,I(). Concert aUenliveness. toum I . rRlsapprovaJ ra tios on sludt' llf J' a f!J. esearch ' U . />lIt'r kSt.'1I G I (19('0) A III mU$lC Education l 10 • stud . "", , cal processe.~ a nd the e1; ' y ~f the, n 'latio nship befwee n th . 12, 1-1'1 . ~ oYIll(nt o f Illllsic. Councllli II e pe rceptIOn of Illus! F/l' 1 or esearch in M . Ed ' I(JIj , ) . J. (HN I)) '/ . ustc /I ((/li/l/l () ~ • " . it USIC matt~rJ" A ' . x ore! Vni\'ersily 'T . Il~W PhilOSoPhy of m ' . J • 1·.)"M.·llCk, II 1 & E ess. ussc euueatzon. !\'ew ' "fJ l k' ' . ., -yse nck H B G . LOlldon : Hodde/and " . . . (19m). Psychot idsm a. . , h U'flSWorfh, 1'. It (19( ( ) SMtou~h ton. fa d ,mn H/on ofp er.f01/flhh AI " , ., . )), uSU:% <'ic I · . 1I,ll r ~~ N{(J ti(J1I '4 11 ~ o a
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multic ultural att itlldl·s../lIllfllld II} N( v llrlli ill M usic Education, 42. ,1!i-!i7. t :"t..:, R.I'. ( UH)(i). Til t, Plfl'r h 0 1' 1('1)( ,tilion 0 11 listen ing respollSt'. .Il1llTllulllf ReJ(tlrr!, ill MUJic Education. 14, 17t~ - I~I :l . I :I,ISgO....·, ~t. R . Cartier, A. M ., & Wilson, G. D . (I !l HS). Co nservat ism, sensation seeking, and m usic prefere nce. Pm onality and Individual DifftrNlCts, 6, 3!J!j- 3!1fi. t ;It't' r. R. D., Dorow, L , & H an ser. S. (1973). Mu sic discrimina tion train ing a nd tlumusic selection behavior of nllfsery and prima ry level ch ildre n. Council };/r Research in Music Education, 35, 30-43. I ;1I'I'r, R. D., Dorow. L.. & Rand all. A. (1974). M usic listening preferences o f ele mentar)' school childre n. j ournal of Research in Music Education, 22. 2H.j-2!II. I ireer, R. D., Dorow, L , w achba us, G. , & Wh ite, E. R. (1973). Ad ult a pp roval and students' music selection beha vior. J ournal of Research in MUJic Education, 21. :H 5- :l H . llnhn, M . E. (W54). A pro posed technique for investigating the relurionship betwee n mus ical preferences a nd person ality struc ture. U npublished doctoral tli.. serration, University of Kan sas. ll am rn, C . E.• Net tl. 8. . & Bym stde. R. (1975). Conu mporary music and music (/Iltum . Englewood C liffs. KJ: Pre ntice-Hall. I largreaves, D . .J. (19 82). The develop m ent of aesthetic reactions to m usic. P.lyr!lIJlogy ofMusic, Speeinl Issue, 47- 50. Hargreaves, D. J. (1984). Th e effects of repetition on liking for m usic. j tlllfllOl 0/ Researdi in MUSK Education, 32, 3 ,1)-47. Heydu k. R. G. (1975). Rated prefer ence of musical com positio ns as it related to complexity an d expo su re frequency. Perception and Psychophysics, 17,X·l-9 1. Il i&,rins, K. M. (1991). H e music ofour lives. Philadelphia: Temple Un tvcrsuy l'res s. Hor nya k, R. R. (1966). An analysis of student attitudes towar d colltl'll1 l'0ral)' American m usic. Councufor Rnearch in ll/usie Education, 8, I -J.l . Inglefield. H. G . (1974, March). Conformity behavior rtjl«ted in the musicalprrftrmm '1 adolescents. Pape r prese nted a t the mee ting of the ~I u sic Ed uca tor s Niltional C onference, Anahei m, CA, U SA. .Johnstone,J, & Katz, E. (lOS7). Youth and pop ular mu sic: A stu d y o f th t' sllt'io ll!}t}' of taste. Amtriean} ournal o/Sociology, 61., 563-561'1. Kesten, ),1.J. . & Pinto. I. M . (1955). Possible factors influencing mu sical pu,rl'n 'nt I ' . j ournal afGenilie Ps-ydwlogy. 86, 101-113. Killian•.J. N . ( 1 !I ~}lJ) . Effect of model character istics on m usical prefe rences or junieII high slude nts.}OIiTnal ofRe"earrh in Musi( Ed uration, 38, 115- 123 . Koh, S . D . ( 19{j:i). Scaling Illllsici. l prefere nces. journal of Experimm tal l'sydwlogy. 70, 79-1'12. Kuh. S. D. (19 67). T inlt'·t'fro r in ftlmp"ri <;t)IJ of prefere nces for m usical exct'fpts. Amm can./mlflw l a/ I'r)'rhIIIrIKY' flO, 171- IK.'i. KOlll'Cni, V. .J. (I!JH:l). Sod al illf!'l:ll lioll alld 1lI11Sif ai prefe rellce. In D. DUl'tsr h (Ed .), V ie !J,lyrllllluKj ({m lilir' (I'p. 1!17 ,~ I t;) . NI'w YOlk : ACiI(lt'lIlic I'n !ss. IA'IUallf, A. ( I ~ J H( I). ( )Illlilll' 1,1 II I,t ('lit '~ I'I I 'l l1Ill l l ' l (It' ~(I UITl'S of va ria tion in 11 lllsir ;ll ta..tl'. COIll/eil/ilr !l( I(I"' '' //I .\1"", M, :.! ~ I H·!. 1.,..B1alll:, A. ( I!JHI). Lik eh 1,1 I\ I, , " ' 11I1"' , 11111 1 p,·. lorll1in8 lIU-t1 itllll on r hiltln' lI's
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m u si c pnofl 'n' lI l ·I'. .!Ullf lll l l /1 Nflt ,m h in Millie Eduratian, 29, I·U - I.'ili. LI'HI'lllc. A. (1!1H:l). ' \ 11 11I11'1 11.1\ \'1 ' tllO'or)' of uru sk Jl,dt'ICIl[ t'. fourn al of .\1111/. 'I1lf w/ry, 19. :lH- ·I.'i. 1.('B1i1I1t", A. ( W ~ Il , March). F.jjrfl o[ matllm/ilmlag;"x ml music Ii~tm;nl: /,r1rrma : ..I mino of t"~ litemtusr. I'a per pn'.' t'lIled at III(' Ninth Nat ional Symposium nil 1{t'.'I'arch in Mu sic Beh avior. Cnnnnn Beach, O R, USA l e luan c, A .• Colman.j., ~ft-Crary,.J.. Sherrill, C.• & Malin. S. (I !1HH). Tempo plI·t ereu r es of differen t age listen ers. j Ollmal of Research: in Music Education, ,U" l.'il i- HiH. IA'lUan c. A.• & Cote, R. (198:1). Effects of lemp o and performing medium on dill IIn'II's music preference. j ournal ofReseardi in Music Edu cation, 31, 1.57- l(ifi. Leltlunc, A., Fung. C. V., Hoal-Palheiros. G. M.• Burt-Rider. A. J , Ogawa, Y , Oh viera, A. .J.• & Starnou, L (2002, .1 u1y). Effitt ofstrmgth of rhythmic heal on puft, rmrs IIf YlJlWg music listeners in Brazil, Gru u , j apan, Po rtu.~a l, and the United Strlll\ Paper presen ted at the 19th Internation al Socie ty for Mu sic Education Reseal( " Semin ar, G oth enburg, Sweden. IA.·B1allc, A.,J ill, Y. c., C he n-Haftcck, L. Oliviera, A J ., Oosth uyseu, S., & l afurl,.l (in pH'S,.,). Tempo preferen ces of young listene rs in Brazil, C hina, Italy. South Afnru, and the United States. Council f or Ra rarch in Music Education. IA'B1all(·, A.,J ill, Y. G, Simpson, C. S., & Stamen , L. (W!JR). Pictorial versus verb.rl rauug scales in mu sic preference measureme nt. j ournal of Research in MUll. I·:dumlio", 46: -l:2S-4;{.5 . I A,llIarH:, A., & Sherrill, R. (1986). Effect of voca l vibrato and perform ers' sex on chil du-n's music preference. j ournal ofRa eardi in Musit Education. 34, 222- 237. ~ It ( ' li ll)', .J. ( l! I!I;{). Effects of listeners' and performe rs' race on music p referel1n ·~ . .Il1urlltlJ of Rlstarch ;n Music Educat;oll. 41. 2UU- 2 11. .I\!{"M ulll'n, 1'. '1: (I9HO). Mu sic as a perceived stimulus object aud affective respom ,'s: All alte rnalive theoretical framework. In D. A. Hodges (Ed.), Handbook of mu", Jl ry{holoJ.:v (VP. 182- 193). Lawren ce, KS: Nationa l Associatio n for i\l usic ·r heraI'Y' ~k Mlllh ' Il , 1'. T., & Arno ld, M . .J. (1976), Preference and inlerest as funclions of db Iribu lional redunda ncy in rh)1hm ic sequences. j ournal of Rcstarch in MUII(
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Meyer, L. II. {WSfij. Emlllio1l and mtall;ng i1l music. C hicago: University of Chit'i1Xo l'H'ss. J\h'yt'l", I.. B. (200l). Music an d emo lion: Dislinctions and unceTlainties. III P. N. .Im1in &.f. A. Sloboda (l-:ds.), Music a1ld emotio,,: 17Itory a1ld restarch (pp. 3·n - aliO), (l xford , U K : O xford Univ ersity Press. MIl ~kll vil l , E. M . ( W ~J:2). T he effect of repetition on tempo prefereu C(' of ('Ieme ntal )" r hildn' ll. .Immwl of Re.ltarch i1l MUJjc EdUca tiOll, 40, 193 - 203. !\1u,'lI" I,.I. I I. (1!}(i7). T he aeslhelic gap belwe('n consumer and compos er. CtJlw d l jill Ut.l ffl rdl i ll M IIJ;r F.dllmfirm, 15, lSI - ISH. MIIl'I1I'f, K. (1!I7U). ·Il le o llw r side of the ret"Ord . COlllu;1 fllr RtJtardl in MUJir /Mll mlilJlI, 21,22- :11 . Mull, I I. K. (1!J.l 0). I'rl'fpTll'd n'~i o l1N ill Illllsit· fOlllpositioliSam i thl' I'fleet of H'pl'l l l io ll IIpon tht'lI1 . Alfltr;rtlll.lIJUU" ,J fJj l'sychfJItJK)', 5.1, !iH:i -!i HI;.
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rad itio nal areas of the psych ol f " and pn'diction of musical b .l~gy ° d m tls,~ mclud e the m e asurCllll' lll '. " h a Il ly an IlUl SI C learn ' A" d . separate c ap ters to each area in the first two .. mg. I ter ev o (lIllo' lhe a reas for th e th ird d itl I ed itions, th e a u th o rs merg('" e i JOn, argeIy du e t . llIIm~n musical devclopmem and chan es i () emergm g un~erslanding 0/ theories of learning. For this ditl h g s m concepts of mu sica l a bility a m r . I I' e iu on , t e authors retain th .Iil( ( I!;C USS musical ab ility. . I . e merged treatrnenr . 1 . , rnusrc ea rn mg aspects f h ' 0 musrca developmcllt musica l ab nonnalities a d n approac es to a s ' · • • I p lt'f co ncludes with a b . f ("la f . sessmg musical a bility. TIll' . rre se t 0 pra ctica l s . r lI111SIC lea rn ing. uggestJons IOf [a ci litatill,lo;
Extended Definitions Ability suggests being "abl .. t d . is a Lle to perform crea te e 0 ° hsomet hlOg. A p erson with mu sica l abi l . ' . or, per aps a na lyze . if . IlI1II ly . Unfor tunate ly pe 1 . • mu sic I gr ven an 0Plw l" . ' op e mt erchange talent . I. 'Iptllude with ability a nd ' . di ... m usrca It)' , ca pacity and · • Op in io n s iffer rega rd ln th '. ' IIIlerchange. T he definhl fl ' g e permissibh- dezree III' · . o n 0 ca mmg may be m I O' uuguish lea rn ing from other d I ore c ear, but one mu st dis. ev e opmenta l phcnome d 1{'ar/llng is no t an aut om: , ' . om ena, an recogn ize that · a rc co nseq uence of tea hi The f lion s represent the autho ' .. b c lOg. e JOIJowing defini. rs vJews ased 0 th ' . Ability, a broad term d fvi '. n e l f expe rience and study. . I. e ymg p recise definit ion ref to bel Slllll d llll g, regardless of h . . . ' crs 0 e m g able to do ·1 1 ow a p erson acq uired the n.k k .\ I s, a nd ex p e rience Peep! d "er :1 e necessa ry nowlcdg.. " e may mer Wid .Jy . th el , a I llltty, as wel l as in th c f _ " e In er r amoun ts of musin J • c rorm s III wh ich the if h . • I t,r form ing, co mpos ing an I · I . Y m~n_1 est t elf mu sica l a bilit ies. ' a )7.lllg, nne Iml}fOVISlll " I l'
Ap titu d e, narruWl'r than ah ilil h t h . _ . part of a hility I"cslllrirw from ., . Y I" u . n",~el than capacity, refe rs to tbt, r't ' ~ O lll }lI wlJ O ll 0 1gl'll ,( " , I .. I - e IC t i l( OWllle nl.s :mel '-" lVi. rOllllll'lIta l eX llt'ril'lIl'l's w'·' 1 . I IIlll Si C 01 I('r than f( _I " lIlany· I1ltl.~ ic- t 'd lll · "." " , ~ ' (,lllll'('l"lIs ,.lI)r "" I lrnl.l 1 ·1 III11SK ed uca tion . Sine",' " mU Sl l -a :l )1 Ily !l,lall' to I" " I· ·t· f I ( Ill}; . 1 :l H,1
po te ntia l Stlltll'lll's tllmlnd Slit ( t ' S"~ pri or to p ro vid ing opport uni ty for Spt'· dulizcd m usical I l ' a lll i ll ~ , 1II11sind abilit y' s m easu rement problems nlh-n a rt' pro ble ms in mcnsurlug lIllI.'tind a pt itude. Ca p acity, a na rro we r term yet, refers to a pa rt of a person's ab ility that he or she possesses as a result o f genetic e ndowme nt and m atura tion . 'Iii the ex tent that musical ca pac ity increases, it increases rega rdless of cn viruu mental influe nce s. Superior audi tory detection or d iscrimination ab ility Illay be a m atte r of ca pacity, although one would need to learn labels for t'Xprt'ss, ing th ose discriminations. Achie ve m e n t refers to specific m usical ac co mp lishment, ofte n tln- re-sult of specific Instru ction. Read ing nota tion, performing a spec ific p it·("{" knowing the names of ten major sym p hony co nd uctors, an d recogn izing all 1111 ' them es of Beethoven sym phonies an d relat ing the m within their fOlllla l stru ctur es ex em plify specific achi evem ents . To assess mu sica l upriuu k- III capacity via tasks tha t require specific achieve ment is inap pro pria te, h UI JI.. ~ t achievements nevertheless m ay indica te musical ability, which in tur n mOl )' suggest possibilities for further achieveme nts . Othe r te rm s related to mu sical skill or accomp lishment include tal mt, a ll imprecise term designat ing some obvious indication of ability, usually n-l..l cd to performance, and musicality. anothe r imprecise term, refe rring 10 Iwill"; "musica l," i.e., be ing sensitive to existing or pote ntial cha ng es in a mu sif al stim ulus" An inexperien ced p erfo rmer may show musica lity whe n I H ~ or .~ I II ' rap ers a phrase or varies dynam ic levels witho ut teacher direc tion; m us iculi Iy also sim ply m ay m ean interest in music. Deve lopment refers to the growth a nd maturation p rocess th rough whid l peop le go as th ey move from an em b ryonic stage, through birth, clliltlho ud , and adolesce nc e, to an adu lt stage. It could includ e th e "disdcvclopu u-ur" thro ugh which many elderly people pass_ De velo pme nt in cludes tilt, It'sulh of physica l, e mo tiona l, and cogn itive ma turit y; it inevitably int e racts with learni ng . M usica lly, peo pl e pass through stages fro m the e a r lies t a walt·II"' , uf sou nds to, at lea st occasionally, m usica l lite racy. M an y l}(,ol' lco Ill 'V. '1 "develop" beyond a stage of sim ple musical recognition a nd singing. Le a rning is a n obse rvable change in behavior, d ue to exp erie nce, which is not attributabl e to a nyth ing else. (Th e authors pattern thi s after the clu ssk Bower and Hilgard (IDHl) dcflnltlon.) Acco rd ing to th is definition, wi thout some behavioral cha nge be tween two points in time, no lea rn ing has occ urred during that tim e span. Seuneom- who al ready ca n recite major and m ino r key s i gll a l U n~s ("a n lI ot '' It-a rn'' 10 do it, a lthough he or she obviou sly learn ed the signallll"t's i ll l lll ' I':l \!. 1,'1l11IH' l'l l1o l'l ' , SO ll W O ll e who mu st asn 'l'!ain tha t a n ind ividu al illlk l·t1 1... :'11 1I'1I1 lWd .~ ll ll H' l h i n g requirt,s () bs ervab l l~ t'vide nn' in a bd mviund I UI U I St.U\\ 111,1( U ~ t ll d ' · n t how tu produ n - a trlllllpt'l lone or h' lIin ~ him til 111'1 h. ,\\, !"l l"! " 14111/ " Io- Illar y fllrm is in.\ uffid t' nl ; It'a rn·
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With the possible exception of "auto ' " ma ne perceptual subprocesses, such as basilar membran e m ovemen t and reflex ive sta tl teal b I' e respons es to loud music, the develop ment of a ny musrca eh avior rcqui I • 1 w le n one co nceives "m usical be h ' " b urres earnmg, even . I avro r very road ly C en l" d u o nu processes or th e lack th f .11' , e lC an maturn . ere o W I influence the f f . ' IH' 1ra vro rs; co nsider th e q ual lu . f hil d re-n ' a rm s 0 particular les o c l ren s m e ' d ' and the scven teen th-century C' tn ti B , n s, an wo m en s voices, r.as ra I. ut pe ople do not oman! 1 pt'l"ul rm specific musical sound I f rg am ze, ana yze, or '1'1 I s as a resu t o instinct or s t d h ley ram to react to and with m usic, ecre e ormones.
Selected Influen ces on Mus ical Ability T he developme nt of m usical a bilit de ' , is around a person . The cel t , y p ends on what IS tn as well as what d . a rv e Importance of h di t unce -rtain , altho ugh both dl . b ' ere I y an e nvrron mem is . con mon s 0 viously a . 0 '. I T ' . d iscusses various influences. re m uenuat. his secnon AudilQry Acuity
Mu sic is an aural art form so I . II , . . l's."t'nlial part of m usical ub ',:, ' 1'I ° gI,c a slI~clent hearing sensitivity is all I I ). earmg un paire d lnd l ' I 1 h . l'xr,('ril'llcing m usi cI ' I I VI ( ua save d lfTkulty . IC III a no rma m anner I Ml " , " , uu -rus with a la rm : co n tc m I' . lSI,clans view va rio us hearing ail , po ra ry pen onners m rock b d d 1 o re It.'slras mar wear speci a l] d . -d an s an symp hony ,. . y eSI,!,'llC ea rplugs to p re se rv th . I . ""t' llsIIIVllil's. As nllit'd in C ha ' t . . • ve err lCan nH pn I' • , IIlstnll n ent a llllllsic h'aclw rs may he .u
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Genetics Recent developments in under stand ing the human geno me and iIK!I' ;L.,,('d poss ib ilities regard ing cloning hum an s, once dism issed as science firtiuu, hav e enhanc ed interest in genetic endowment. Studies of mu sical fumihcs certainly are not new (Farnsworth , 1969). However, gene tic endowment 1"01' specific m usical accom plishment is un likely, and eve n if one could clone a distinguishe d performe r or com poser, there is the really impor tant mat ter o f nurtu re: Bach, M ozart. and man y emi nent contempo rary musician s ind eed cam e from musical fam ilies, but stud ies of their fam ilial situa tions an- as much evi de nce for the influence of a high ly stimulating m usical en vi ron mcut as th ey arc for gen etic en do wm ent, if no t m ore so. Ce rtain physical chara cteristics, which may have some gene tic b asis, a ll' advantageous for particular performance tasks, So me singers ma }' be g-ifll'c1 with resonant vo cal trac ts that facilita te singing with a desirab le qualit y. 1 " 1Il ~ linger sp ans m ay help pianists perform techn ically d em and ing material, Fa.\ 1 reflexes m ay expe dite mastery of wo odwind fingerings in co m p lex pas·"lIW'''', Hypermo btlity. a disadvantage in supporting joints such as the knees nud spine, is an advantage in joints un derlying repetitive finger and wrist hUH " no ns (La rsso n, Baum, Mudh olkcr, & Kollia, 1993). Belief th at m usical ab ility beyond sp ecific pe rforma n ce aspects is largely innate does pe rsist. Ben tley (1!)()li), basing his view in par t on observing highly d iverse levels of mu sical ability in relatively homogeneou s b'TClII P S (If children, main tained th at mnsk-a l ah ilities an' mostly a matter of inna te ca pa clty. Scheid a n d En 'lt,s (1!17:i) sllgW':'I lt'd tluu the p h ys ica l s ize o f the right cereb ral hcmisphcn-ts 1'1,111 11 111 (1 '1l11 11Jla ll" lo n l11·d ju st beh ind till' primary audlto ry f o rtl~ x , illd k all''! ""'11 " 110 1111\' I IHIJ'i1 lll l" k a l ah ility. Th ey Gdll·d for post· JSI".r1M>Il ." , It·d I' ll f,llIfJU"11
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A Illusical ho me n urtu res the de I . Illt'nt from parents and .'bl· ve opment of m us ical a bility En . /. s l l~an da " ' ' COUlagl' ~:u III stilllula ting musical in terest an d sup~ort,l v,e environment m ay be n iU ~ ll vo l,Ve~lell t with m usic, T h e likel de~~am talllJng ~ oli vation for co ntinua l ,J1,ll pn ntlllg, discussed in C hap ter 4 ~s lopm enr of ab so lute p itch th ro u}-: h .' he crilic:.d ly-timed labeJ-sensatio~ one e~ampJ~ of n urt ur ed developnH'llt' lllg .m el re info rcem en t. Perform ~onnectlOns wd l n ot OCCu r withou t te,H'b ' parents and ot her sig nific", ancr llla y be more likely lat er in life I . / ., ·an pe rso ns e ncou . )' , ' w le' n , I ~ ]( ~ ( wa.rd them for doing so . Th e a ll i rage youn,g chIld ren to pe r foflll m portant llHlslCal ex p ectancies ln ' Vlllllsly discussed in the Co ntex ts f ' t~ l a l ,~ t l"ll ct uri llg, and Meye r's the(:,)' Ill~fonna,tion theo ry, hie ra rcJIica J' pe;L , I I' lt ' I H '( " · ' Y () m usIca l en)' . " x- rn .1 m us ica l c llltllfe, a nd it lllu sica ll oyme m , itn se li'om ex l'c' Ilt'IlC(', A IlOnH' tha t t'IJ('O lWIg''"' ." ". ' , H,llllC en hances tha t CUllllful eXI'" , • --" . lve nlllSI C . k' Oplll('llt II I c o rn p aJ"i.~ o ll with a hon ' 1 . ' . 1l~
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Iy passive , as ill l i s l\ ' ll ill ~ to n'c'Old illgs, Early ex posu l"(' to und ncrivc r-xpcrlcncc with mu sic ce rtainly a re ben cflcia l, bu t they do not g ua ra ntee future m usical accomplishm ent, an d, rnore im portantly, a less musica l ho me do es not ne cessarily co ndem n a child to everlasting m usical med iocrity, Rec ently, Kagan (WUX) and Bru er (W!I!J) ad d ressed curren t tendenc ie s to ove remphasize early child hood an d lguore the contin uing importance of later opp ortunities, T heir concern s p rovide a healthy bal an ce to con cerns fo r "paren ta l corr ectn ess" a nd ex cessiv e am oun ts of structu re and stim ula tion in nurtu rin g youn g ch ildren, Kagan (1998, pp . 1- 2) inclu de s infa nt determinism , a be lief tha t a t' h i l d · .~ experiences d ur ing the first two ye ars of life are p reserved for a lifcriuu-, a ~ o ne of three "seductive ide as" th at grew fro m certain inte rpretations of p ~ y ' chology.' Kagan note s (p . 3) that "m any early ide as and habits eithe r vanlah or u ndergo suc h seriou s transformation th at they cannot be retrie ved ill 100 Ic'l life, any more than th e fir st strok es of a seascape can be d iscern ed f l"ll ill till' larger scen e, once a painting is co mplete." Later (p. X), Kaga n discusses till' import anc e of discrepancies from past ex periences or current expect ation s a .~ sign ificant causes of tho ught, feeling, and action, T he hu ma n ten denc y 10 co m pare one's self w ith othe rs and the results of th ose compa riso ns rontinu ally create and res hape b eliefs about one 's self. Youn g child re n g('nt'ra lly d o no t co m pare their person al q ua lities sys tematically until age five o r six; l IJi ~ means th at events during life 's fir st two years have I (' s.~ signilk a tl("C' thuu som e p sych ologists or members of the popul ar p ress ha ve c1.lilll\'d . A d lild continues to sh ape an d reshape hi s or her idea of sel f we ll Into "d o l (' ~ n 'IIl I ' . In Sim p le langu age, lots of life rem ains a fter ea rly child hood . Bruer (1 999), writing from a perspecti ve of neurosck-uce, is ('OIHC'll l" CI I hut peo ple may mak e edu cational decisions based on very .~ I i ~ h l 1Il1CI c'1.\li1t1 c1i llH of the hu m an brain wh en in fact so-called "bra in sclen o-" i.~ 1101 r l'l " Id li clently linked to h uman d ev elop ment and educatio n, I ll' find,s 1111 C'C ' "110'11 1t I logical strands" of a "myth" involving life 's first three y t" lI ·.~ : <:.owl ll 11 111 1 change d urin g the early years, cr itical per iods," and e n r iched ('11V iIlH IIIIC 'lIh , While infant brains have m an y more synapses than ad ult brains. thl' lI'.~ ll l t ing "p lasticity" lingers lo ng in to adolescence, While learni ng' pa rticular s h. i lt,~ may b e easier at certain ages, there are large ranges of p ossibilities for 11';1111 ing. While a la ck of stimulation is detrimental to th e yo ung child, ex tra stlm . ula tio n is no t n ece ssari ly b en eficial. Wh eth er one wishe s to nurt ure musiru l deve lop me nt o r an y ot he r human qua lity, the ho me env iro n men t in ca rly child hood is not the o nly factor. Brller (pp. 20D-2 1O) has so m e ad vice, IHlfll of s k e p ti d.~ m as well as what he sees a ,~ e xcessive a tte ntio n to illcompld c ' T I,,' "llll'l' t w o ~ ", d ll d i V(' id,'a., " an ' till' J",Ii,'lllial 1I1 ' ''I I '' ~'I'Ii"l()K i (';d 1'1"0"" '''''' K"(ll'r'ali t.,' hmad Iy a nll " l O Il I I '~ IH a lld NfI"t i"N, and I hat 1l1l"1 11 11 11 1< 011 ." -l i'lIl i, Illi oli v;ll,'d by 1'1";" '11"', ~ YI " , C 11I'I'l l 'l -I I '1" H" 1I1,'d " v i, I" n " " r'lI " n, ! il k " l I " 'I i' "J" , 01 "I "" lill" pill-I! d,'v,'I" JH IlI 'lit l
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Composition a nd i ' . pl'rfol"lnc.'r Cfcat:::proVISatlon obViou sly require cr ' . of 1I0f.llt'd m usic rna a new ~c.'<J u ence of so unds and ~atlvlty; the co mpos_ a lln'S may be m o n- Y be cr~atJve (altho ug h imita t,' ,Silences, Perfo rmance S' e rerrea tJve) d ve stere o t)· · / ' 111('1' Il ll r.~ i c: is 'II J , v an a person ...... ,. prca pe rform _ . I '" . . _ ea s partly u' Ctea _. t!ve . art for, van Istefl in . d u Jly 10 SO lJl (' . creative way s n! ./. g('lle ra l ere ' t'W b' , n , a ttemp ts t J ' .~ ,. rly a.~ a lim elio n of ._ : 1.t •. a tllty are 10 >lca l : 0 ~e .a tc m Usica l ' ,n l!lic's ill defin ing ne::~a.h~'?! IS largcly IIllsu:cess"'uilJ~_eXrall1l11g Illu.') ica l . IVII) .ldeq ua tely, • , a li y bc.'ca uw of dife n 'al ivil}' m 'l . . "'quln' p rod .' ( Jl..V)7) sfrc.' ssed .) 1/,." ..' lJeh oll o r siml>/ ' n ' I . • (It''lllv' I ./. ) Ja) )(' a I OIlJ.:illalil)·, a ne! ('V'.'I , ;. ) 1 /1)' is Olultifan'h-d w'd fl )ron·ss. G Uilfor d II rl i~t , Hacll'o ' ( /"7 1') 1,1 IV,· 'l('lo rs of p'lfl in d'lf . ' I I II c·/Iey. flc.'xihility .I' ,' UAAI·.' k d II , . '. • Illlp O I!' II I("l' f , " 1.11 c n 'OIhVlf v II l"l v " o r ,I en·a llv,. I • I 'I' III Ih,· I'y l ,.~ a llc I " 0I 11i of ( '1" CII '
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tht' beholder: If a ll obse-rver j udge s some product or act as 111' .11\ \ '. ' . 1.11111'1 tha n o rdinary. unmusica l, "wro ng," o r bizarre, it is creative. at 1" u,1 1111 IIIl' obse rver, In their study compa ring hig hly cre a tive with highly illIPIIlW'nl high school students, Getzels and J ackso n (1962) adopted crucrln 1'0 1 I n-ativity that stressed novel and eve n peculiar descriptions and narratives . III O llt · example, a "crea tive" student subm itte d a blank sheet of paper , nlk-gcdly depicting ch ild ren playing in a schoolyard, and indica ted th at th t, children were playi ng d uring a snows torm. Such a stude nt m ay be creat ive , or, p (' f hap s. the student was sarcastic o r simp ly interested in avoiding wurk.' COIl r eivably, a nyone with a sense of humo r and ability to spot absurdities in daily life cou ld be highly creative if creativity is synonymous wi th inve ntiveness. C rea tivity in the sense of in ventiveness may b e hig hly useful in co mposition, impro visation, and arra nging. Yet, inven tiveness, as well as divergent thinking an d biza rre b eh avior , may h inder progress in musical development and lea rn ing ; defying cult ural musical ex pecta tio ns m ay b e consid ered ignoranee rath e r tha n creativity.' C reativity m ay characterize the musica lly able, but witho ut disci pline and d irection, crea tivity is insufficien t to m ake a perso n m usica lly succe ssful.
Intelligence Intellige nce logic ally is an im portant influ ence o n m us ica l ahi lity. A rcla tivcly intelligent p erson oug ht to be a ble to co pe with m usica l problems with more success than a relatively unintelligen t person , if on e dcfim-s illll'lIigt'l\('(' as cop ing with intellectua l demands of the environmen t. As wit h cn-arivit y, definition problems ha ve clo ud ed the re lationship of iun-lhgr-n rr - a nd m usl cal ability. Kaga n (199 l'l, p. I) cautions against geuoralizl ng psyd lologin ll processes, including intelligence, across d iffering contexts. Ili ff('n 'lll 1l11';I S' urement too ls a nd di fferen t co ncep tio ns of inte lligen ce imply diffen-n t 11t·1I ninons. \\'e will co ns ider so me traditional rela tionsh ips, th e pben onu-uon o r the idiot sav a nt, and "m us ical" intellige nce as a pa rt of mu ltip le illh' lIigt·II(·(·ll . Intelligence in th e traditional sense of academi c ab ilities Illa y 1101 Ill' ess en " ]"1](' 1"1' is no shorta,1't'of anecdotes inv olving' t lo·ltt·r ~f l"l·" li ve" I'< 'sl',o n ,,'s to
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... 0 rc ate to m usical success persists and Thatcher (1 974) su estcd th a . I,S . . p aTlII g scores o n intelligence t I ggh ' I t c?:relaho na l stud ies, (0 11 1 es s Wit musr ca abili ty " II' carc spuriously low relation shi s d ,me asure s, CO li ( 11111. validity. Using analysis of v . p ucdto problems with lest reliabiluy alld a n a ncc an trend a I ,' hn i I'ly of da ta, they conclude d tha t th " t II" na YSI: tee ~ 1~lIeS Oil a V; II j is asym uu-tnc : All highly m " I c IIl e lgen cc-m usical abili ty relationsh ip not all highly intell igen t u; lc.a peop lC app~ar to be high ly nucihgcu t, 111 11 " I, " . peop e appear to be highly' m usical. Of , " , ( .1 u bility requi res a n int eract! course, 11111 " c ion b e twecn 'intelligence and a . ,' , nnuucn tal stim ulation . PhilliIP S' (1')7(') p pro pnat c , ) suggested a close I' I ti I ' I 1'1l\'1 111llsical ab ility and iu te lli b I' e a Ions I Ip JdWI'l'l1 • igon ce, c ic vcd to result fr un-ntnl cause A h o m ' om a co mmon cn vhuu , , • . " e promotmg mu sica l ability als ' lik I 1Il1 ('lb~eJl ('e, so IS l e y 10 prOllloll' •
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Id iols savan t constitute a co n u run di l Iiollsh ip between inlellig um~ I em ma for ad voca tes of a dose n -lu f i II e nce , conce ived as a general f allility, and mu sical ability'- A n id i , orm () m te ectua l I 10 1 sav ant" IS a pe rson o f s b 1' II W ' II! 'I' who displays remarkabl bili . u norma c a nuym o ne o r rnore na A m u- i ' .nu l IA'WI' ( 1!)(iO) described 'JO Id . rrow area s. n astn st a oe-year-o man with ex ti Ik b ce p ona ey oald ubilu y. Th e ma n appeared t , a conce ntrate only when he pia ' d h ' 0111'11 fur six to nine ho urs dail . An exc II ' }e t e plallH, play by ear, he p referred m , ~ h e en.t slgh~eader \vho also co uld U SIC rrom t e c lassrc pen d H I h d nomcnu! verbatim me mo f . d O . e a so a a phI' ry or pnntc passages and events hi h I mn' month o r more in the P'as.I II ra, 'm d amaged du t W IC h I" occurre: h did Hot walk unt il IH mo nths d did e. 0 encep a ms, t e m ail an I not talk until age fi II h rum-s before he talked at d ' h h e ra n i rve. e ummcd sling lyrics, ' 1 a speec t craprst ta ugh t h im to speak by lISi ll~ Slobodu, ll cr meh n, and O 'Connor (llJH5) d rcrib ' , t't'sitling ill a reside ntial home f , " ... ' escn cd N P, an idiot sava nt or autl stlC pe rsons.'! Although N' P disp taYl'd "11 -- ll (" Is , il , d lOh, r, '" itll id io t sav all1 is illl "idiotil' sl'h()hr ~ , "S,IVil ' , . lI n ' h'l lll n'lllll,tin" th'rs" ,, ',1 Whl[t, today, "U!llIt" is a ' ' n ' , " II I Y o r Ir n 'sp o n 'I I T t , tl t<-d lllil'lil "lI';lI1ill lo\. A "m oro n~ wa - ' " , ' , ', I I~ , lI' I\'rm ilia',' hm [ a n' [iltivP!y IJIl ,t'i ,, ' ,a III rso n III tw 11I'·llI'st rUlll'li. " " ' , MI, ,,,,, ,-m a I IIl1dl",, 'nn' "" ' I n ta mg gro up" ind IVId u al , [!"t v i ,," n ' ' . . , ' W,,-S III t W 1I 11( ' I ( ll , . gr o up. ,1lI( ' ;1l1 "id iol~ was i n 1111' I"' w('st " )011""" 1"
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rological poten tials: I n ow con ceptualize an inte lligence as a bio!),lyc;'ol0f:,rical j!olelllia{lo IJ roa ,I'.\ il~/i)r· maliotllhal ((/11 be (lrtiN/led ill a rultural .l'tllin{!.11I ,wive!mdilelllJ or creale!Jrodll rlJ Ihl/ I are of value ill (J OIllure. Th is . , . sugge sts that intelligences are n ol thi ngs th..t
can b e st'('11 o r COH\llt'd . Instead , th e y are pOh' ntials- p resumably, ne ur al o llesIhal will o r will nol h I' adi vlIlt'd , d epend ing 011 tilt, values of a parlicular f ill · tu re, Ill(' o p portu ni lil's aVililable in Ih ilt cllhun', and Ihe p ersolla l d t'\isio lls mad e b y ind ivid uals and / o r 1IIt'ir fa m ilies. sf hoo lh'ad ll' rs, and o llH'rs , (p p . ;l:J-;1,)
I '.\ydlll/II):,I/Ill NII/III/aNoflJ /1 AI/Him/ Bchnoior Wh ile mu sica l ability i ~ ;L hlOatllt'flll , encompassing acc omplishments ;1\ wi-ll as potent ials, Gardner ck-uly is stre ss ing pote ntials; any intelligent'!' musica l ability relationship ma y he on e of potentials. Hi s criteria for an inu- l Hge-ure , in the 1999 (pp. :16 - 4 1) revised version, include (a) potentia l iso la (ion by brain damage, (b) a basis in human evolution, (c) a core set of OP('I utions, (d) phe no mena whic h one m ay en code in a sym bol system, (e) a c h-iu patt ern o f hu man deve lopmen t that leads to ex p ertise, (0 ex cep tiona l in dl viduals such as idiots savant an d prodigies, (g) evidence arising from c xpcri ment al psycho logy , and (h) psychom etric evidence. Certa inly, (a) bra in tra il mu can severely impair musical skill, as noted earlier; (b) mu sic m ay ha ve all evo lutiona ry bas is; (c) music involves d istinct ope rati on s on sequences 01 sounds and silences; (d) mu sic notation syste ms are well-established ; (e) as discussed bel ow, inv estiga tors have identifi ed cle ar sequences of m usical developmen t; (f) mu sical id iots sa va nt and prodigies ex ist; (g) ex pe riments 01 mall Yso rts address and manipulate musica l processes; and (h) musical skills a n ' mea sured in variou s ways. Indeed , the evidence for a musical Intelllgenois stro ng, Me asu rem ent o f m usical intelligen ce, or of any of the other Intelligences in Ga rd ner's intellect ual pantheon, is less develo ped tha n co nceptu aliza tion. Mens urem e ut thro ugh anyone-time testi ng session, as in studi es comp aring musica l ability or ap titude scores wit h ve rba l inte llige nce scores, is inadefilial I'. M easu ring th e discrepancy between wha t a person can do initially and whnt that person can d o afte r a month of in struction , in accordance wit h Vygotsky's (I!J7H) ZOfle of proximal deuelopment; may offer som e possibilities. lu au y case, th e various intelli gence s ra rely if ever ex ist in equa l amounts. Furth ermore, the degree of sepa ration of the intellige nces may not be as sueciurt as Ga rd ner suggests: Shaw (2 0 00) insists that mu sic and mathematics re qui ring spatial-te mpora l rea son ing arc connected because the requisite cognitive processing emp loys identical co rtical area s, a nd peo p le have an inna te ability to re cognize sym me tries and employ them in patte rn percep· tion a nd orga niza tion. In an y case, multiple intellige nce s co nceptually offer opportunhy tu assess a person 's capab ilities as stages in the developmenta l S('(pl<'nn's of diverse human potentials. M usica l a bility may be a fun ction of Illtlsit"a l intell ige nce and the opportunity to develop tha t inte llige nce .
Gm drr atld Race (;t'lult'r pn'M'nls a ll a ppa n 'llt pa rad ox rega rdi ng Illllsical a bility_ Gi rls domin ah' in lIIan y s("hool lIIusical orga nizat ions. \\"h ich ca n he \/eli fied by I'xillllining 1lU'1lI1lt'l'ship lists a nd attend ing COI1("(' rts a nd nlll sk feslivab, In a natiollw idl' l'Xilmi llalioli of Iwrfor uH'l"s' g('lId,' 1' a .~ 111l li('alPd by Sd IOOIs' a lld t"C , III '':'''s ' CU IlI "I..-t I II I I':' l il III S frolll (I VI ' r a :10 )' ( ' 01 1" pl'I I, ul, /,l 'r VOlllla kl' s a nt!
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, [ fe male playe rs among those p layTanur ( 1!)!)·1) OUIIII IIlol. ttlu- III Olloltll1ll 0 I ' h me Frellrh horn. tru m " " t" lIn-n ls lba.\Soon. saxop ( • \ ing h isto rirally "m Ol t' m s n u nc b " c rcussiou] increased . but so " 1 " 1111.)"1 con tra ass, P I " ~" n , ', . th sc playin g histori cally "fema c Ilel, tro mbone, c"u p IOI\l I' females amo ng o: d 'f did the proporti on 0 " "I' , I ) 10 Ze rvoudakes an anu r ho e cla rmel, VIO m , VIO a " d t (fl , . ~ I' instru ment types Incr ease a instr um ents ute , 0 co ncluded th at gender-base d segrega;l~n 0 h not at th e elementary school ny if not most, professional the h igh school and college levels, a I °1~1~~ rtal tYVes of voca I S~ , rna , d di level. Yet, except to r cer lO . I f sex ual ster eotyping an isMuch of thi s resu 15 rom " l b 'l' I are rna es. d b: _ d d "ffercn ces in musrca a tuty. pe rform ers " " , ' h -nt gen er- ase I " _ . ' cn mi nauon- not an} 111 erc . 1 k of evide nce of gcnder differen ce s III ' t as professional m usicians: O ' Ne ill (1997) noted th at despltc a aC .. ntinuc to d ormna e I I' mu sical ability, men co .. ' al roles chan ge very S O W } , f "pr oper m USIC • Gender-bas ed stereotypes 0 , more so th an in som e other area stb ° f S(~C1etIY, th ccnturv m an y m iddle class , d ed rsist In e mne ee n - J' b I Stereo typ es III e pc d b orn e mu sicall y p rofici ent ut no , n f emal es w-e rc encoura ge . toheiec ' died Am erica " I Statnre :, males w h 0 stu 1( " t d to retam t elf seem " 100 proficient i r t h cy wan e " (K 19(0) During the late I1Incmu sic risked being lab elled as effem mahte oz,.' 'm'b e:s of people from r-as t . h to ies w en vas nu • tee nt h and early rwe nuet cen n " U nit d States and established numcr. C111' \urcn \ 1 ern and south ern 'r.uro pe came, to t"1C m enreu ts ex pected their () m any Imm lgra nl paren r I I b ous e th nic su cu rures. . d as violin for th e boys. pia no or I u: e study an instrument- often sle n..'OO 'Yv h co re yea rs ago G illn'rl ( i!I ' 'l ) . 1 9 7'~ ' Ti \ 'a Il)H2) vcr tree s • . , .. It girls (Rubin , ' " a .\, . . e of women b eing mow "artlsIIC , lI ' ~ 1I found a self_p crp eluatmg stereoly.p d tl I girls. l.at el' , in a ~I ll l ly , \ . ' being gIVen m ore rea I y o . ( 11111 1) ing from musrca uanung oe d tddl hool te xtbooks, Ko w . d in music-relate rrn e sc I " I I resented in illustrations, 1 ll ' ~pill ' 1 ... 11 1llJ, I of illustratIOns use I found that females were nnderrep . d ' Uuslra!io\ls II 'ncl ,'d 10 11 , l k l I f i I nt in school mU SIC , an I " I II degree 0 IIlVO ve rne d " . femal es as a mall'lIIS, 1011 11'1 1,111 gen der-based stereotyp es. such as epicung as professionals" . f differences dil l' to voca l rlllllJ,I'S, 111'1101 1 Realistically, with the cxcepuon 0 . I, bili tv a nd achil'VI'llll' lIt ,II I' II l i d d diff nces 111 mustca a I I Y . I e nt gender-b ase I ere . d bt ' ned from till' ("tlllstlllt 1101\ 0 tura! arti fact. Ren dey (196 6), study~ng ~tah~re~~ male-female d ilr(,II' III 't'~ ill musical apt itude m easures. Ioun .no }~" rs were encoura g,pt! 10 ('xl"p i , C - I ' women III pno r yea . I mu sical ab ihty. erta m) , " d' ho should pl ay parlU"U ;If . d. and stigm as regal' 109 w " I IT only' to a certam l'I,'Tee, . . d"d I I"lTe ren c:es in m uslCa a )l I, I (F' T'" llJ7fl) hu t 111 IV} ua (I XV instrulllents eXls(e( 199s" , -. . "tl all XX rath el" tlHl II a ll e Iy are based in IJUl1U111 dilTc relwcs"COI1l: ptl(1I1 W I 1
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.I l1S t as social cond itions a nd IJl, jip/"s mu types and e nco urage 0 '· ,I' . . . ' , ." y ~}l''l)('tllalt' ge nder-bOisI'd sll'/l '1I IS( OU r il g ( ' IlII1 SICilllll V I l'l hn ic. based expecta ncica ene . 0 vemem, so may racia l all d ' . encourage or dlscourag .. I · I S uch dllTeren ces are cu h u 1 h e musrca m vo V('1111 ' u l ra , no t I e result of a in h diff III bl'ing born into any pa I· . 1 I ' ny III ere n t me ronccs du ,' r ICUa r et HUC group Afr ' " A . Ilt'u's...arily "have rh thm." . " O' , rca n- Ill Cn Call S d o I ln l Ill, nor al e Ihey necessarily , . , ' , N . I'. . Y I 1.1 hill ," a re smgers Not all H ' rap art ists. ot ,I II ., ' unganans are violinists \Vh 'l ll'b'llnnal('Jy tha i "u ndersta d ine" . IS S. I C one may a rlot' Il ' n mg a musical cultu . I t'xpl'rit"nCes in th at culture h . d . re requ ires ongs tand ill,lt " , suc un erstand mg " re lis r. I numcrsron , not inherent e thn icity. su rrom cu tlll.d Summary ofInfluences on Musical Ahility \\'e ha ve addressed severa l possibl . n 1 .... I c In ue nces on ' I h ·l· varying dt'l,rrees of fault with a ll of them ' mlls,~a , a I lly, all" alll lpt'n '('p tua l capacities are ' . . . As long as minimal physk,d present, ge ne tics hearl r . d l'il l lln' .~ uro o f little importance G' d dct . . ng acuity, a n physind I"lI,1o: 'u·ally. a ltho ugh ce rtalnly n I' en. , er .a n II et hnicity are_.rrre Ievant PSydH' o SOCIOogrca y C tivitv i . Ill' w ry lu-lpful in pr edictin " I bill ' rea IVI y IS too ill-defin ed tll g musr ca a Ihty a nd its [ik I I · ~ " V, lIl t I II Ihe cont ra rv it ,.• dlff I b hl 1 e y grO\\-11 , Illluh -r » .. I rcu n to c 19h1y . II hi . 1l'!l." lllilhly inte lligen t a lth h · II' , musrca y a e Witho ut !>eillH . .. oug uu e Igence IIkel . 'I" diff a llll lll,m if('sliltio ns with va t-vi I . h Y exrs s III nrere nt fO!"lm ,. . ', rymg re a tlons ips a nd ' I " . , I Ill' l'ons lllul'nls of mu sical h .' .t III crucuo ns among thl'llI , . a l l yvary with h( th ' d l'JIIlt'd, a nd measu red So wh I J . n JW ey a re concep tua hzl'd, ' I «('lefnunants of mu sical, a bilit a aoes III uence mustrca I a bilI illy ,, Th t' m aj ol ·1' I I y a re no! yet understood H ' .1I'I lty pro ba bly results fr I " · oweve r, 111""" ".1 ex mte ractio n 0 f auditi hvsi . , in ld ligf'l/ce and experi om a co mp / . l uJII (1I/f1 \ lIWIl, p ry51((11 ((!til ' . ' U lI re, f uemp ts to mea s '" d di 01 IIIlIty ha w' yiellk'd lntvrestln . 1 . ' . . ure an pr e let musk-a! d g ( escn p tlve infor ti OJ rna Ion, an a seq u('lln' II I m usica l develop men t is ap pa re nt. r
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Normal Musical Developm ent and Learning
/) ('vt'lo/l llH'nl. d efined abo ve as "the 'T O ' . Iht'l lllgh which Ill'oi lle go .,. I' r g will a nd maturation 1)I'nl'l '~ ~ • s ll'y mov(' Irom a n ' b ' ~)i ll h , ('hiJd houd, a nd adole!ot'(. ' I .d I ( Ill IYUIllC slage, throu,lo; h nct', 0 an a tI I stage " and I ,· ' I " ." 1\ all (J h ~w l" vab lt' dl < ,nge i't I -I.· d , ( 'arnmg, ( t'llIl.,d • )( 1.I Vlor Ill' to eXI) , ' " h· h . Hallll' to a n)·thi lw t'l S( ' " ."." ., n Il " ., W llle( . - 1 I)l'vell (nc. nc(', w lC IS not a!trib , JI" nt'nt may COllllote 1ll00( ' III I Ilillllr:t/ "llilfo id ilw " cl f 'lllil'l' . ' . , . I' I"< • I l L S wil l . 1( va nClI!t ' ·I g t · d 'l I ' lOtI' Ihl' n 'Mllt of dc '/ilwl 'II' ' /.' . . t I , 11 t ' t' a r lJl I1J.;" llIay l'OJI • C ( til . >u t I It') ' ' I f(' I ' ,I· t I · · I ' .'vi,'w SO IIl t' lJa"k 1'''lIllill ' I .' • t.1 l'( mlllllalt' y. \\ 1' shall . lot I It'(Jllt'S and IIH'lI 1'"'\1'111 a dt'vl'lo pltH'lI t,d {"J
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Theoretical Bas es O ne trad itional class ification of learning theories is the t.....o-fold ca tegorization int o behaoioral-associationist (or stimulus-response , or trial-and -error) theo ries an d the cognitive-organizational (or cognitive-field , or insightful) thee ncs. Distinctions a re not always clear, but, essentially, behavioral-association ists prefer an emp irical appro ach to studying lea rn ing and view it in term s of beh avioral sequence s, habit acquisition, and trial-and -error. Cogn itive-organ izationa l theorist s, often e m ployi ng a m ore ra tion al appro ach, arc more concern ed with central brain processes, structu ring and restruc tur ing of cognitive fields . and in sightful problem solving (Bowe r & Hilgard, 19 H1, pp, 2 -S). Nnttennan and Drew ry (1!)93) identify seven schools of th ought or "para digms " of learning: fun ctionalism , associa tioni sm, "dialectical-ma te ria list" psychol ogy, behaviori sm, Gestalt psycho logy, Freudian psychoanalysis, and cogni tive psychology. (O ne may l,'TOUp the first four schools into the be havioral -associationist camp and the remaining thr ee into the cogn iuvc-orga nizational.) While one can assume a "good guys vs. ba d guys" posture regarding theoretica l positions and laud one school or theory while excoriat ing others, no on e theory acco unts adequately for all learni ng phenomen a. No theory which survives in the literature co mple tely lacks ut ility, As Lathrop (1970) no ted at a time when music educators we re "discovering " lea rn ing theor y. lea rn ing theory does not offer ins tant explanations of or solutions 10 mu sic learning problems.'! Desp ite the lack of any "winning" theor et ica l position. theoretical frame works arc usefu l in planning inst ruction an d thera py, dc vel oping curricula, and qu estion ing reas ons for particular professiona l pructircs. Th e theories dis cussed b elow rep resent th e two major schoo ls. BEIIAVIORAI.-ASSOCIATIOKIST T HEORIES. E. L. Thorn dike (1!I:t l) vk-wcd lea rn ing as res ulting from the co nnection of stim uli with respoll s("S through loose ly conceived "bonds." Pro pe r use of reward and reinforce me nt would help establish th e bonds, A "sa tisfying sta te of affairs" wo uld stren gthen r-onncctions; establish ed co nn ect ions could be s tre n gt he n (~ d thro ugh rcwa rd I'm practice. The bonds lacked a ny physica l reality, and fe w today se riollsly H Ill sider T horndike's views as a basis on which to b uild lea rn ing e xperil'lu'es; howroeT. h is positions rega rd ing the importa nce of re inforcc ml'nt a nd the
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w here (I ) a n uncon ditio ned stimulus na tu rall y elicits a n un conduiom-d n 'spuuse, as when a hungry dog saliva tes in response to mea t powder, a pt'l SO il leaps be cause of a sudde n lou d no ise, o r a perso n blinks an eye becau«a puff o f ai r strikes it; (2) the co ndi tio ned stim ulus-a ringing bell. verba l co m manti. or so me o the r sign a l- precedes the un condition ed stimulus; and (:l) cv ont ually th e co nditio ne d stimulus elicits the sa me response, now a co ndi timll'd respo nse. With jud icio us reinforcement by occasion al pr esentation of 111 1' uncondition ed stim ulus, the pr ecision of the co ndi tioned respon sl' ma y I u- Incn-nscd.w Failure to presen t the un co ndi tion ed stimulus ev e ntua lly will hn-ak the C S-C it linkage; the response is "extinguished ." Conditio ning j, 1I0t limited to "lower" animals; among human s, student fear o f purticulm n-achers, reactions to pa rticula r functional house ho ld objects at certain tillll" of day, a nd special be hav iors of trained troops a nd march ing bands ex em " Iify rondit iontng. lt is very d ifficult to apply Pa vlov's system except in n.n ro w a pplication s becau se the requ isite US·UR links arc seldom a ppa rt·llt. uud ex tinct ion of undesira ble ge ne ra lizations to similar stim uli by withhold i n ~ the un cond ition ed stim ulus is not always practical; ye t, classical condl lion ing explai ns so me ro utine "auto matic" beh aviors in va ried settings. E. R. Guthrie (J!}fj2) stresse d co ntigu ity, as d id Pavlo v, but foun d the d Ol , sica l n m d itio ning paradigm too restrictive. Rath er than viewi ng lea rn ing .n till' substitutio n of one stim ulus for a no ther, G uthrie co nceptua lized the slim ulus as bei ng co ndit ioned to the response. Guth rie be lieved tha i a pt' rMJII wo uld con nect a mo vemen t [o ve rt o r co ve rt) that changed a stim ulus ("shill ir off" ) 10 th at stimulus. Future occurren ces of a stim ulus wo uld be met with tlumo vonu-nt : if the stimulus cha nge d, a different movement wo uld be 1 H' 1 ' 1 ' ~ sar y. l a-an ung supposed ly occu rs in o ne trial, at fuJI strength . Guth rie's tluo ry ha nd It's the o bvious cr iticism that com plex tasks, suc h as playing u " il'l " un the p ia no , are no t learned in o ne tria l by co nce iving a co mplex tas k on n
----,...... . .. ...., ....-_.- .. myriad of simp lt'l 1,1 1_, 1'111 II 111 whll II b h-urm-d ill II I\( ' trial. I II ( ;lIllu il"s syste m, n· illlllli 1·1111'111 l ~ II l1 poll .1 1I1 Ill'nll l''it' it " pl"o tel"ts" )n·ha villr from new associations; !'l1 1 (, 1l~1 1 "' l l h l~ I" 'lllt,ll \, '!'l is nonc xisn-m . One practices not tu strengthe n t'xi,li IlR !Io kills. hilt r.ulu-r 10 cha nge or protect those skills. Learn ing is habit fonnnuou, ami linn ' a pt"rson lea rn s a habit, he or she never ca n " unlea rn" or " lm -ak" the hubir-h c o r she ca n o nly rep lace it. A student who Finally slo ps habitua lly pla ying a no ta ted F# a s F in OJ pa rticula r piece has rep laced the inco rrec t habi t with th e co rr ect o ne. G uthrie's th eo ry is flexib le, a lbe it so mew ha t lacking in pre cision; its utility prob abl y lies ill ~ t s cons tru cts o f habit replacement and the all-or-none occurren ce of parts 01 a co mplex task a t definite points in time. The wisdom o f p ractici ng for a P''!" formance in conditio ns simulating the ex pec ted per formance co nditions as close ly as possible also flows from G uthrie' s th eo ry. A strict beh avioral co nce ptio n of learning m ay have re ached its ze nith in B. F. Skinne r's (1938, 1953) views, w here operant conditioning. in which a ll emitted response is stre ngt hened and made m o re likely th rou gh se lt·(·livl' reinforce ment, is the basis for Ieaming." If an encagcd pigeon perk s a l it pa r· ticular spot an d receive s food as a co nse quence , the pigeon is mo n- Uk.ply 10 pec k at that spo t ag ain a nd can lea rn to d o it w he n requ iring food . II " . cal escapes from a cage by a ce rtain combina tion of m ovemen ts, th at com biuu tio n is mo re likel y to occur when th e ca t is recagcd : the cat ca n "learn" lu escape . If a baby "discovers" th at d ropping a toy fro m tilt' crib bril~gs Mother's solicitous attention, th e ba by is mo re likel y to drop the to y agalll ; the bab y le arn s to fet ch Mother. A series o f sel ective rci nforr l..· lTlell ts G ill bu ild ra th er intri ca te cha ins of be havio r. Reinforcement may occur con tinu ously, in wh ich rase th e e xperimenter, "be havior m an ag er," or t('adl l'l reward s eac h an d every desire d re sponse, o r Intermi ucn tly, when- o nly select ed de sired respo nses are re warded . Man y arrungc m cuts an- pm sib lt·; Bower and Hi lgard (19Hl , p. 180) indica te that respo ns es d t'vl'iop('c1 II IICI I·1 variable tim e interv al rei nforcement sched ules a rc unusuall y rcsisunu 10 ex tinctio n. In theory, the pr o per reinfo rcement schedule added to opport un itir-s arranged in the prope r seq ue nce virt ually gu ara ntees the stim ulus d iscri mi nation and response d ifferentiation necessa ry for performing clearly suuclur ed tasks. Skinner's wo rk is a basis for linea r progra mlllt'd instruction , ill which lea rni ng proce eds, re lative ly e rror-free, in sma ll S{'q lll'lItial st l ' P'~ according to a stru ctured presentation of th e materi al. While Skinne r was rather unsuccessful in acco unting for development o f ve rb al beh avior, study of reinforcem ent sched ules may b e qu ill' ben e ficia l in encou raging de-ve-lopa ln operant, -Skin lll'ria n." or - inslnnlll' nlal" co nd Itioning, lilt' urganism "",h 01 "·~I "
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a~ IMl l t,t na turally o.nnril1 KI..-ha vior. In classical, " Pav]oviiln." or "S- I(" Hmd ,lio ninlt. Ih,' , tllll ulus 01
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of precisely dl'filH'd .\ l.. i1 h, As mos t e-x perienccd music tea chers rl'('II,lot Ili'l.l·, con stant praise h l ' (' uIII P S illl·lfl,(,tivt·; a varlublc praise sched ule will. ill rlu- long run . mouvun- nnur- srudeu ts 10 high er goals, Secondary reinforcer s, such as praise. do wo rk with lIIan y human learners. and a careful structuring nf reinfo rcement is a po werful lea rnin g aid . Greer (19HI) presents a useful review of manipulation s of rein forcement conti nge ncies in stud ies perta i n ! lI~ 10 music ed uca tion, Skinner's 1!)3H and 19S:{ texts presen t his system ill detail ; his Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971) prese nts his case that peop le ,II I ' not "free" because th ey always are subject to environm ental contrub . Skinne r believed that systematic planned positive co ntro ls would be SUpt'l i or to existing quasi-ran dom cont rols. Exce pt for "true be lieve rs," beh avioral-associationi st th eories fell inln some disfavor d uring the last qu arter o f the twe n tieth century among peopkilltcn' slt'd ill mu sic learn ing. Cogn itive-organ izationa l theories see med mil t,' ap pea ling because such theo ries more eas ily accommodated emerging inh't ests ill cogn itive and neural fram eworks. and the older work o f the Gestalt psychologists rega ined some favor. Yet. the classic behavio r-associationi « rlu-ones maintain some contempo rary utility (hum ans are conditioned to va l luus stimuli. rewards indeed may increase occurre nce of desired (or undesire-d] lx-hnvior ), and. as we will examine briefly after addressing cognitive-orguni z.ulonu l theories, behavioristic views rna}' enjoy a ren aissan ce. CtI, j N IT I VE,ORGA !\'I;r~\TIO NAL Tm:o R I F~'i, M any developments in viewin g b-urning as the o rga nizatio n and reorgan izatio n of cogniti ve str uctures Ilow h om tilt' wor k of the Gestalt psychologists, o f whom Kohler. Werth eiuwl, , 1111 1 Kunka were lead er s. While th e)' were primarily inter ested in perception. pe-rception exte nds to learning; in th e Gestalt view, learning is a matte r 01 perceptual organ ization. ''''hill' not new, Gestalt th eories have co ntempllnl!"}' importan ce in theories abo ut aspects of mu sic percept ion , Some mel od ies ;:11 1' inherently easier to organ ize and learn than o the rs du e to struc tura l aspect s. Auditory strea m segregation and the tonal hierar chy, m en tion ed ear lier ill lhis text, relate 10 Gestalt considerations. O ne sho uld not sim ply l'quate "Gestalt" with "nonbehav iorism" or assunuthat all cognitive theories are Gestalt. Ge stalt theo ry is a spec ific set o f urga niza fioua l princip les in the service of "good figu res." T he term Gesta lt lila)' nu-un sha pe o r form as a stimulus attribute, o r it ma y mean an entity in itscll. For the ad vocate of a Ge stalt view of learning. pro blem solving is structuring and restructuri ng perceptual relations to mak e "goo d figures" or "good ( ;t'stalts," "Good" COllstructions ma y occ ur in <:l ily st'usury mode; whill' <';('sl,.l, pr iIH:iples oflt'll an' illustra ted visua lly. a ud itory pt'l'l~ eption follows till' sa uH' pri ndpll·s. (;l 'sla lt IIlt'oriSIS mak(' 11 mi'll of insig hlful llt'haviOl , whit'll advocal t's of Iwhavioral-assodation ist IIU'orl t's an' far less Jikl'ly 10 ("nmi t!t·r. I ll s i~ht It 'lltl ill ' _~ ~ I' a ' p i ug propl'r n '!ations ill PI'ITt'ptlla! Ill·lds, IlH'nl
, I .. "·11 11('1' tha n assod alioll. Th e I ' 1I1(,S 0 1 u-n- ncer . In Gesta h Ihl'III )', (,0 ,1\11 II ~ I' til . ( , -t less) which states that p 5)" , I ,f I"r('i~ IJ{IIlZ compac I . • b .. I" "hann Olliolls" f lglll'l'S . hlU r su . theory's esst'nl'!' IS tlu- .(I U' f~ , t ward uooc or . .. chclogicel (l r~a lli f,a lio ll IS II . 0 , . 'h at a "good" or "harmol1lous laws of th e Law of Ilriigllanz help c1anfy Just "' I1gllre is." rou s eleme nts to make a ngure in P Irnity to each other. A person T he Law of Proximity sta tes that on e g Is' nearness or proxt f I accordance with the e eme n 11 11 11 11 as four twos than as two ours is more likely to group th e pattern ,'allo nes peop le are m ore likely 10 W·th sequ en I . \' , h two and two t re es. I I di 'ld'I()m or Ilzu re; Lunc 10 s o r on e . . it h as a me 0 IC 1:" I gro up sounds that arc clo ser 111 P! c . , Chapler 6) is grounde d in t u: (1967) melodi c pri ncip le o f pr?ptl1qUl.~i~~hansl, 1979. 199 0) of close am i Law of Pro xi.mity. T he ton al h~erar~hy I conte xt grows from a pcrcer\l~al dista nt tones within an establishe t~~:nter through a triadic re lationsh ip. . it in itch relations to aCfount )rox im ity of tones related to a t~na H ippe! (2000) wishe s to qu alify prorxhlffil y I ~f p itch distribution s (u-sv' I di t cture 0 t e range f I I di lances to occur at extremes (l t w for th e influence on m e 0 IC S ru situr a) and tendencies for larger tona IS
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melodi.c range (mobility). . ' ob .ccts with similar attrib utes, such as If not overridden by prOXImity, ~ I ' accordance with the Law uf , , II cup loge! icr III r hap e color or rlrnb re, \\ 1 gr . \ td tom co n iai n illl~ gro ups tl s " '11 h ar a musica I 0 SimilaritJ. A listener orte~ W I e _. four sixteenth not es (sem lquavers), as III
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1Il'Ifo rll H'rS gen erally huvr- 110 d illk llh y iun-rpn-r ing them . , III n'~ ll llll'lI t i ug ( III the Ila sk (;I'~ la h suh lnws, whic h heprefers to (' 01 11 ' "1 1' clples , Shepard (W!I!I. P: :'1:1) SIlAAt'sb that rlu- La ws o f Pro xim ity. S imila lih , Simplk-it y, a nd Com mon I )in'rli (III an' wcuk gr ouping principles. t' I1I I,11')'1 '11 wln-n in fo rma tio n is a mbiguous o r lim ited to senso ry in put. lit· f(·(''''' thai u principle of commonfate, wh en' obj ec ts moving sim uham-ously become n' ll lll·(·ted. is mu ch stronger. Pe rh aps melod ic a nd har mo nic movementtuw.ud (':I~ I ( ' I~ n' po i uts exemplifies co m mon fate . Ne vertheless. the putat ive "wl'al.. • priuciph-s ca n he rather strong aids to pe rcep tual o rganization . C1IH·ful perceptua l o rga nizatio n ca n facilitate m usic learning. For r-xum pie. music man uscri pt that vio lates the princip le o f rhythmic spaci ng " is i!' l.. in,.;: for m usic rea ding d ifficulti es, especially with ine xpe rienced pe rfon m-re, In-cause of the La w of Pro xim ity. T he La w of Sim plicity suggests Ihal a teache r sho uld begin "m usic appreciation " with no vice listen ers by IlsiUH 1I111.s ic wi th pr edi ctable and readil y pe rceivable form s. Ko hler's (W:.W) II' xl j, a g:om l so urce fllr ex p loring classic G esta lt vi ewpoi n ts. . '.'illg:t'l , a Swiss b iologist, fo unded a theo ry of geneticepistemology, a tl W IOi llW ' 0 1 form .. 1 logic an d p sychology. Developed from observations of childn-u ill natura l si-ttings. the theo ry hypothesizes four maj or dev elopmen tal sta,l.ll" llll llllg h which a ll children m ust pass in o rder to become m en tally lIlal III I'
adult s. III tiH' initial sensorimotor stage, lasting fro m birth until a bout two )'('a l's I" ",I.ll" till' child esse ntially mo ves fro m a type of motor intelligence to a 1ll0 I I ' ~)' m hol k int ellige nce as voluntary movements rep lace reflexive b ehavio r D ur ing .lh e se nso rimo to r stage. the child acquires obj ect pe rm anen ce, i,I'., IlW"'l"S [rom a lite ral state of "o ut-of-sig ht, o ut-of-mind" to recogn ition that .1 to y 1lI oth er object exists even when it is not in the chi ld's im m ediate l' m 'l ronment .
In th(' /lftoperotirmol stage. lasting ro ug hly from ages two th ro ug h S( -vI ' II , lilt" child mo ves th ro ug h va rio us illo g ical a nd inco m ple te COllt'l'''' ' , l'erccption dom inat es reaso n. as in a child say ing that a higher or wider n lll I.. ille r ho lds mo re beads than a lo we r o r narrower co n tai ne r, de spite' st'l'ill,l.l I'q ual amo un ts o f heads place-d in ea ch contai ner, Le f-rancois (1!1H:l, 1'1' :l:.:! H- :l:l!I) ind ica tes tha t a pecu liar tra nsdu cttve reason ing, ill whic h the chihl g:ot·.S fro m spec ific: Instan ce to specific instan ce, as in assuming that ,my tWII a llil ~ la l s thnt givi' milk belon g to the sam e species, cha ract erizes til(' ]In 'op erut ionul sl'lgt·. Fro lll roughly age sev en th rough 11 o r a lillie older. the child is ill tht' slaw' 1~'I' lw IIIim il,J,· (If I'hrlh,uil' ,sp" d n/l is
lU'la liolH,1 n lllv('uliIHl lh;'l H'q ui l\'s tlu- " Illl' ly Spill , , ~ I,,I ' 1"'1"\' shuuld f"lIow I' 1II),u1" ( n"t" ,, ( sl"" " ''' Iul'i,'(! h y 1\\'0 Slit ••., ,,,,, " ,~ h l h ".'l,·s . lu,,,ld I,,· ,.I,ellli ", hul I' ~ 1n ,w; 1,' C/uart, 'r lIl''' ' \\'""Id I'" III 'Y
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o f conartr op rHllltllll . 111111 11 ' Ihllll ' ll. whh It thOllg:ht p I'OH 'SSC'S Ih'P I' 1ll 1 011 a ron cret e frunn -wur k, C 1111 ' 1I ~ 1" '11 1,1 11 11 ' ~ t ll W' i ~ tlu- ('hild's effort It I k-uru n Il IM ' I'va uo n. i.c., tll1' " ' 1 nll. ll ~ ljll ll Ihul I h , ll1 W ' ~ rn n m'cur in an objt·ct' s form ur spatial a rra ngcu u-nt wilhuut I ha nlJ,ing: Ill(' o lljl'('I's o ther attribute s. In vo lume relatio ns, a n llls(·rvill J.; (h ilt! n ·l·uJ.;ni/,l·s tbur two initially ide ntica l amou nts of water remain idcntiru l w hen they an- poured into containers of d ifferen t shapes, but a noncon serviug child may insist that suddenly there is more wa ter in a wide sha llow pan than in a tall test tube. or vice versa. W hen the water is pour ed bac k in to the original ident ical containers, the sa me child will q uite easily say that th e amo unts of wa ter are identical. Pflederer (1967) iden tified five types of music conservatio n: (a) identity. whe re th ematic material m ain tains its essential characteristics across va rious permutatio ns: (b) metrical groupings, in which the listener reco gn izes and discrim inates among meters desp ite changes in no te value distributions withi n measures ; (c) augmentation and diminution, recogn ition that resp ective lengt h ening and shorten ing of a melod ic p assage's note values doe s no t chan ge th e basic tonal relat io ns; (d) transposition; wh ere a change in frequency level does not alter percepti on of tonal configurati o ns; and (e) inversion, wh ere the liste ner rec ognize s a n inverte d sim ulta neous or succe ssive interva l. Co nservation is of intere st to so m e m us ic researchers and teach e rs, part ly because ch ild ren in the concrete o perations stage often are beginning fo rm al m us ical trai ning and cons ervatio n is necessa ry fo r form pe rception a nd m usical an alysis. Conserva tio n's arriva l tim e will vary greatly with ind ividual s, and all as pects of a developmenta l stage m ust occur; attem pts to ucrch-ruuco nservatio n arc highly questionable. Piagct's fina l majo r stage is formal operatjom. where the child is cupahll' 01 form al propositio nal thinking and can combine various grou ping 0 pl·ntliOll\. T he ado lesce nt no w ca n consider d iverse possib ilities. make "w hat if" jlltl lJ, ments , a nd o rga nize principles into net w o rks. \\' hile the c h ild/ud(lll· ~tl' ll i may no t be "wise," he o r she n ow is a me nta l ad ult. Equilibration is the self-regul at ed proc ess whic h is the ba sis for psyd u ,ltlg leal develop ment a nd learn ing in Piaget' s system . It includ es auim ila tillTl, ill \....hich a learn e r accepts a new e nviro nme nta l ex perience in to Ih(' t' xisll llJol cognitive stru cture, an d accommodation, in w hich a learner a lte rs till' eogllilivt' stru ctur e to take cog nizance of a new reali ty. Lea rning proble ms may re sult when th e learn er ign or es de ta ils in a "new" stim ulus and assimi lates ra ther than accommodat es. Ne ar the e nd of the twe ntieth ce ntury , Piagct's system cam e under incrous ing criticism . pa rtly because o f th e difficulty of ap plying his the o ry in derail . In a rather n ega ti ve review, Se rafine (WHO) not es thai Piagct so ug ht 10 stud y how th(' " m ind" lu'(:o mes capa b le of th ought, la nguage, and kn o.....led gt·. a lltl was rililw r Illll'tllll'enled with I('a rn ing a nd individual differen n ·s. She a lso
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h{' l il' V(~S that musicul l' n ll~I' I\'lL li o l l tasks Illay lack valid ity OCGlUSe o f possiblc con fusion o f aural I Wl lt'l'llOIl dillk-uh ies with lack of co nservatio n. Ga rd ner (W9:1. pp. :.W- :l:l), whil e ('u'lIiting Piaget with developing im portant b road guidelin es for child development. believes tha t research shows that l'iageCs stages arc far mort' rontinnous and gr adual in the ir transition s than l'iuget ind icated . Furth e rmore, l'ia ger's o perations are more content speci fic tha n they m ight theore tica lly ap pea r; fo r exam ple, a ch ild might ex hibit CO II scrvat lou with so me materials but not with others. Piagct's theory probably is most appl icable to the deve lopment of "scientific" th inking in \Vestem lit· cra te societies; it may be less app licable to th e arts and o ther cultu re s. Desp ite the rea l danger of ove rca tcgorizing child ren in stages on the basis of uuge neralizabl e evidence and unwarranted concern with co nservatio n, l'iagct's wo rk remains valuable because it clearl y shows that child re n are not min iatur e ad ults. Music te ach ers m ust present material to children in ways in wh ich the children are ready to assimilate o r accommodate it. Exc essive ly phi losoph ical que stions (what if . ..) without co ncret e referents are unsuited to a child in the stage of co nc re te operat ions. The rele vant Hi lgard and B O W l '" (1975) chapter provide s a comp rehensive o ve rview of Plaget's system. I'iagct's The Psychology of Intelligence (1950) and The Psychowgy of the Child ( 1!Ilj!I), coauthored by Piaget and Inh elder, discuss his work and views in rh-tail. Vygotsky. an increasingly cited theo rist, was especia lly inter ested in chilIIn 'n's devel opmen t of "inne r speech" a nd tho ugh t, as we ll as how formal in struction might ex pa nd operations. V ygo tsky believed that high er cogniri ve processes differ qualita tively from fundam ental sensory processes. Soci a l interact ion is critical fo r intellectual deve lopment. A zone of proximal developmrnt (Z P D) rep re sen ts the differe nc e between a person's cu rrent ab ility or achievement a nd what th at person migh t be able to d o if given instru ct io n anti oppo rtunity. In the se nse of intelligen ce testing, musical or otherwise, a g r cu n-r Z P D m igh t ind ica te hig he r inte lligence; conversely, m o re e fficie nt or appropria te in struct ion might wide n the ZPD. D ay (19H3) and tran slations of Vygotsky's ( I!J62, 1m B) wo rks provide insigh ts into Vygotsky's theory a nd phil oso p hy a nd the funct io nal importan ce of the Z PD. Cog n itivl-'·orga nizatio na l theo ries may view people as in fo rmatio n pmn 's' sors: i.c ., people co ntin uall y recei ve information and ign o re it o r use it ill uccordnnce with the ir needs and desires. Young, Barab, a nd G a rrett (2000 ) s ll~gt' s t that lea rn ing occurs through a perceioing-uaing cycle, in wh ich pe ople' d t'l t'd information onth e basis of their inten tio ns and va rio us en vironmen tal run strai nts. Dcu-cuon is followed by actio n, in which people change their r-uviroumcnts ill order to al te-r a nd e m ploy rD;cJiviJy-affim/aIlCf re!atiollSl"jJ.I. ,\<- {'O n l i ll ~ to YO lltl,l.\ t't 011. (:,WOO, p. 150), "a ffurd unccs an' the properties 01 ;11 1 eu virounu-n t. spe-d lu'l! by Iht' informat ion lil'ld , thaI ena ble act ion .
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Musica l d l'vt'lo pllll'lll IWRi llS in IIII'm. In ad d itio n 10 ex pcrh-nci ng so unds of th e in te rn al nmn-mul s un uu nd ings . such as heartbea t a nd fluid mo vements . the fe tus G ill ex perience exte rn a l aud itory stim uli. As Le ca u net ( I!)!J/i. p. 2 4) indicat es a fter a careful re view o f pe rtin e nt studies, musica l so unds . as well as o the rs, can stim ula te the emergi ng feta l aud ito ry syste m , which is functional abo ut th ree to four mo n ths befo re birth. C ha ng es in hea rt ra te sug gest consiste n t fetal startle reactions to external so unds during ab o ut the last two months in utero, and p re natal ex pe rience with particula r stim uli m ay sho w in a p ostnatal p refere nce for ce rtain so u nds. incl ud ing a particular vo ice (o ften Mo ther), a p articular to na l or spee ch seq ue nce. a nd a pa rticular language. Le caun et concludes stro ng ly that "p renatal ex perie nce as we ll
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to contour bUI nol ind ividua l pill'll nnd interval cha nges. Interestingly, they occa sionall y ca n di scmuiu uu- a M"l'nd in g from descending two -ton e p attern s.
even thou gh o lder chil dren uud so nic adults lllay have difficulty. Infants sh ow a tendency to h'TOUP rhy thm s, as in hearing XXXOOO (wh ere X an d
a re p re sent contrasting tim b res or loudn esses] as two gro up s o f three . Pau ses
b etween contrasting gro up s lack salience, but pau ses with in gr oups catch infants' attention . 'Irchub (20()()) later notes that sim ila rities in th e perception of mu sical pattern s between infa nts a nd m usically experienced adu lts suggests a bio logical b asis for aspe cts of m usical pro cessing, inclu ding focus on contour a nd rh ythm rat her tha n specific pi tches and duratio ns, remembering unequally sized scale steps better than steps of equa l size, and p lacing m ustcal detai ls into conventio na l rhythmic arra ngem ents. Pattern organi zation is not ju st hap penstance. Around two yea rs of age, children begin to pro du ce sound sequences that contain successive intervals whic h a rc fou nd in their surrounding mu sica l cu lture. Spontaneous song, an ac tive c rea tion of (to the ch ildren) mu sically logical sequences, commo nly occurs du ring p lay an d other periods of auditory ex pression. Mos t ch ildren gradua lly m ix m or e a nd more im ita tions of songs they hear arou nd the m tleamed sonlO into the ir creations; by ap proxim ately four yea rs of age, learned song largely has replaced spo ntaneous song. Curiously. mu sicians may deem com po sition a skill wh ich few possess o r a "kill which requires inten sive a nd lengthy study . Yet, while man y of th eir ereatinn s defy acc urate notation, many ch ildren as a matter of natural developuu-ut pass thro ugh a highl y crea tive musical stage in which the y do co nside rable "com posing" within th e scope of spo ntaneous song. In additio n to reflecting the surrounding mu sical culture th rough th eir songs, childre n lea rn cultural conve ntions and stereotypes by singing. In n study where child re n aged th ree through six yea rs learn ed to d iscriminnn between tona l a nd atona l songs , child ren as young as age th ree could disc ri min ate if the y were a mong th e more competent singers, as d emonstrated by singing " H appy Birthd a y" (Dowling, 1988). Simple songs evidently factiirat e lear ning cultural scale pattern s, even witho ut formal training. O nce lilt' ("hi ld It',a rns the patterns, he or she continue s to use th e m, even whe n the Spt'("jil t I)('havior s tha t led to ac quisition of th e pa tte rns a rc forgotte n. C hild rt'll from culture s e mp loying languages in which pitch level ha s stro ng st'mantic imporl ann ' m ay sing with sonw wha t diffe rent patterns tha ll Englb h-sp('a king child rl'n. In a sm all-samp le stud y {:(lIl1paring singing of four.IO-six'year-o ld Cantonest', So tho (fro m Soulh Africa), and English d lil (!It'll, C IH'Il-lI a ftt'{'k ( I !)!)!)) fO llnd tha i Ihe Ca ntollt'sl' and So tho child n' lI sall1-\ m on ' c1ewdwd IOlll'!> ;11111 \\"t're mo re skillt'd wilh ]afF-I'.. Illusk al inh' rvals.
.· al dl'v('\ol>Oll'nt (If babies Ut' IH"l ' t h c IUUSIC I As with an y l!1'vt'lopl1wuta I !>('(I " ' I , d " me babies ma y SlOW . " ' ry nmsldl'rab y, an so I f a nd young ch lldn·n may V.I d f h ontancous a nd lcanu'c so ng 41 remar kabl e skills. lues' s (1!IH1) st~1 y o t, c s~"' OlploYiog naturalistic inquiry lR Canadian c111·Id ren rern a ins Illustrative. c., . age from seven to ''I".. 'm ethods Ries observed the ch ildren , rangt bleng,ompe rfoml hcforc their pal ' , h e they werc A , months in their home s, W er f ili While exten sive vana nou , h h th cv were arm tar, -nts and others Wit w om , . d .. · 0 a n explessiv(' mannvr , r f d that b abies 0 smg 1 , oun a I Pr I guage babies au' eXI'll'SSIVI' xisted Rjcs gene rally e , I al qu a tty c an I with style, articulatIo n, anc voc H · d I sueaestcd a devdup lllt·n l.1 'fi C -ords er a a ". N'l I vocally even without speCl l 'A. o n th s al11culaho1\ (SI'p.l1 atltlll II sequence of pitch or melody at seve n m , rd vcrv simple Ihythlll'l lluld r ) at cleven months,.IO ·J I I sound s ra ther th an war mg dd d C hildn'n I'lllploy,'t1 l''! \" 11111 nineteen months. wh en words were ad C .\ ed more slowly Ih,1ll ~1'1I11 1 " hI ed song eve op me ter at th irty m ont s .earn 0 th Id childrvu ("( 1lI1t1 sini'l. ' \" 1111" 11' 111 1' n ncous song RICS foun d ~at 3 -mo ~7hcr re sewn h (llowllllJo; ,~ 11 ," \ \ 111 ,, \ , h sonas wit h defi nit e tonality, althoug I b l until ' I U t' [ive- III SI" 1 1 ll' ~' " hll 0 h lit remains uns a c • C' ' II t at tona I y . I sul» llhu ll' ,I ll.! HI" 1lI III " IlII1 ( 86) suuues!s 1. = I knit fam1ly-ccnterel " ' I dr cn were from a close ) m hat v Ig (.hi lth l'Il, I ","l y 1Il llIt1 l1 ' " I " " . \ b h do suggest t a ) om are a ryp icar. ut t ey f her ad vann'd Illll'ic ,.11 u-11 ,1\ Ill! prescho ol, m ay be capable a rat I ) l ll) 'H h killl\l' I ~,' II"lI ("til l II .. t., ~l l ' A s children continue to mat~ r~' a:ll:i1';ll~' n i'n li lt' U II IIl ,tI ~l " ,, ' ~l , 11 11'11 , .. liN. ning of formal schoohng for r na y ,.11 ' "\,,'11 ItI' 111 11\ 1' whll I'll , .,,11 -rI ters are Hun t' s ,I ) t , become longer. rona cen,c I I 10 'Ill)' 1111111" 11 11 11' : 11.\111111 I h, ll ' III 1)' fluctuated widely in th eir re a~lol\s ups wuk-l ' \ III )' h ,~ 1,, 11 ' '1 , til I Ih .,1 l beco me steadier. Eventually, ehildn-n, a I , ) 'llll" wlll\" ol l wlflI I l hll l ~" , " ma y reJlhlln t II S , I I ' ertain musical properties , " tlH' S" lI l1' . ' \,1 '\1 Ih " I\ ~ ' , I' C d melodi . conl n u r I e llM lll ', I l nterv alic stru ctu re an me o rc nd silt'lU"('S n-taiu li lt' 'IUlll1' It' ulI\ ·' song ch anges in its tona l cenle~aOl~: 'I , " ;ord s S('1'111 10 In- " '1I " 'l llIl h' It -I" Y If)' . .."" .,1, HI fl"a ~'l Il"II I S II I W " ' 11:>1 du ra tions even th ough tempo " . 19' earn lllg,, ' !'" van t for children in learOln~ a so; "O ld r-.hcDonahl llad a Fall u") l ll ,' }' JI'" (such as the "E-I-&I·O" section 0 • cede learning pitche s" . ' al rce tion of mu sical ev en ts. ~'il-k ,lIul " mmcnting on children s aur rx:. p Co . ..'Y of Iive-year-v Il I children to llUI SKlil l oll Palmer (W9:{) note the sensltlvt d I d ·es and indiratt' th at llw sail\(' . ,t an spose Inc 0 I I our C hildren can rccogOlze r ' I .. ' m<>lod )'. They po int 0 1111 lOll , r · ' deed ISt lC sam e " . ' ,' " 'mel ody in di fferent tona Itles til b It with im nll'rsulil til 0I1t S I , ' . ' , . ". . , shive tu contour, young infan ts a Iso are sen I · l 'rvals within 111('lo(\ll's \Il(l t ,I S ~llu si{~al cuhurc, sensitivity to ('onlOli r am III I es. '" ' ' .. 1"(' U"I'''I'IlI,llion s of lilliSit' ll \ ..O Ul \( IS Ill '. y' lit' T IH' sllId y' ot duldrt 'll s V IS H .1 I I " , . " r.olt! dlihh C'll, \) ilvulso n I ' f r VI'- th r llll ~h SI'V I'Il yt .1 "I ilhuni n;ltillj:" In a sillt ) 0 I , hi stin lioll in nolal ioll sch t' lllt~) \\I t I < \lIKK) fou nd int"ll'
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II t·r Il P' lot itl,&.: ' l ~ ' I ." . . ! . n's{'ilrch e rs found 1/1'11 1/ . _I 'I I ' ' • p I !m ,tl y laSls for o rgull iza tion . "'Ill' I ' I . II ( 1/ ( u-u ('l lI p lo)'('d Ii v e ( , r ona SYJ'~m, the ch ild sifTI /,ly . ,'. 1 ' . ) pes () sys tellls . In a pic'I I ' 1' 0I1 1.1)!·( u SO Il!" lltl e . ., ' lfo ug 1 p ictures o r ir o n ' . " I '" o . o r events wrt tu n the SOli" B .. .~ •• IS III ( 1.1W lIIg a boa t f ' '' 1{ I 1'\ o.u. In an ah.l'lracl /Jatlfrtlill/f. system, lh~ hlld o w, {(~W, Ro w, '1'0111 n 'llreS('1l1 rel atio nsh ips a men r ' J" e ll usually used lin es or dots III '1 g meO( IC IOne sand p h · / .1k rn;Ucd flexibly in a rebu I Cht rases. Con s a nd words ,I' . J ryJ em. ildren em pl ' , W O I( s w ith sugg es tions of o rd ' .d . ' oym g a text system wron ". . gro upmg somcthi lik I/lwtum/rlahoralion svstem th ere hild ' li ng I e poet ry. I n a com , , . ' -J. e c I used a bstract sym bo l d re sent slm ulta nt-'o usly th • s an wo rds to nol' I e so ng s words and mu sic I di . I II not fo cus primarily on th d , a une nsions.- rhj, sysn -r u e wor S or use p icture " Ch " ('I'll/ages in the relative l IS r h s or Icons. angi ng' lll'1 . e 0 eac sys tem h h mn easing so!>histication ' , . across t e tree ages SUfT" I" 1 n no ta ting so ngs: 00 W'" I
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Haml u'rgt'r (J 9!)J ) p resents e la bora te d escri ti . 1I"!l'lIla lio lls of m usic Child fl P Ion s o f children's pictoria l n 'l' , ,' , . I ren re ect th eir g r '. f .' , V.lIlOlIS .';I m ple m et ric a nd h . oup mg () so me even ts 1Il 11l /el/ IIIUn' com plex pauerns~ rase groupings, which become b uilding blocks In il stud y co m pa ring four- to ei h t . ( :loll1 ko (W!Jcl) found a relau ,g h ' -Y bea r-o ld child ren's inv en ted notation". , ' IOns 'P etwee n rneas f S a lll/ IIIg and port rayed ures 0 m usical IInd('I. Unc!('rsta ndi ng a va ria ble abwardeness o f p itch and rhythmic rela tio nship , ase on racto r analys f th hil ' - I ' ( ,o n o n's (J!J7!J) Primary Mea " ,0 1 ' . , IS O e c I dren 's sco res 01 1 , ,I ", surss oJ J r IJ.SlC Audiation. w. • t Hl Il .1 SOp histica tio n th an to th h 'ld ' . wus more related to n ora . A hl e c I re n s ages s (' lld re n matu re until a bout , ' " la rgt ' ly as a ma tter o f furth er cUI:g~ n, l~e, mU~lCal ~bility tends to in crcilM', I' I" s un d s 0 f the sur 01 111( JIll{ lllWilcal cliltur " I J' lila IIninerSlOn . Jhe so . I ' c. me ur Ulg so unds fro dl plOt un 'd III the ho me b .hi ld m me ra as well as sounds y C I r en parents a nd ibl i b .' Sl mgs, uild music;r1 I'Xpt't'limcies a nd a se nse of 'h I " 'I \\ a IS ap p ro p nat · ' II CIIJ dn-n becom e incre 'lsingly I' 'I' , I c musr ca y and what is 11 01 I' . ' .. am i Jar wit 1 predo ' . I ' ' 1,111110111(" n mv(' n tions a nd t ' " nunant sca es, liIt e rv ill.~ , " ", ' TI C o rga niza tion a nd · b I' , , .1 Spl'( 1 IC f('pel10i re o f m ' me (" , S ll ( IVISIOns, as w('11 as IISIC. ~v en wllhout fonn 'll ' 't ' I 10 11"('("t a!ld s for what tl ' I .. " • ill S m ctlon o r any id ('a of "" I It Y 1(.lr, t le dllldrcll build !I ,' , ' ( II S am d t'v('/0fJ /In'Ii.'H'1 ' • . '/_, I 1( /I IlIlISIC<.t! ('xpL'('tall_ , I . H( S. Ie ilutlOrs strong ly " I' h " I' leV(' t a t this is a nil . ('iii tlllle fu r dt 'v ('/0 />i!I" inll'JI' .. " d , _ ". l'> Ig cn a n m uslCalh, , ' . ' ., I t ilt t s .llId Pt'l'fOI'lIlI 'IS ~ r " I I so p lIstl(.III'( futlln ' al Hli r ' " " I J.m 1'( IH'a!ors itnd " - , ,' , . ., C I l ' lI .~ Ill'Xd lllily 'Hld IIjl l'lI ' . t 1' . ,C.II( ).:IVI IS S lIlII ld ('x plui t dJi IJII SS 0 1 IVl'l St' IIIII SI<'a/ styli" dll rilllo: lil(' p lt ' SdlOO I
a nd ea rly ('/1'IIll'llllll y M huo] yt'lll'S before they b t'(o]ll(' locked Into 'Illy Ollt.' style. Overly narrow IIII1 Sk ill experiences lead 10 restrictive e xpectancies, which lea d to restrict ive p references. Further p ro b'Tess beyond the level uf learning so ngs from the surround ing culture, creating sim ila r songs, an d be ing sens itive to di ffering musica l styles, p rogress to w ha t H a rgreaves (199 6, Pp- HiS-Hi7) ca lls a "p rofessional" phase of musical d eve lo pment, re quires for mal instru ctio n, esp ec ia lly in m usic pe rfo rmance, b u t also in d evelo pin g more so p histicated an a lyt ical and listening skills and th e ab ility to rea d and e m ploy conventional music nota tio n. Cultures and ind ividual s within cultures d iffe r gre atly in the im portan ce th ey pla ce on formal instruction ; many \Vestern cultures create a m usic a lly eli te group o f perfo rmers and co m posers and a la rge gro up o f cons u me rs. In the U n ited Sta te s, re lative ly fe w peopl e deve lop their m usical abilities to it fur th er level th an that p resen t around ag e nin e, People wh o d o p ursue formal musical study in to adu lthood ma y become sk illful performers, so me eve n reaching the level o f expe rt ise d iscu ssed in Chapter 7. So me ind ivid ua ls may beco me co m posers and a rra ngers. Oth ers m ay be co m e highly so p histicate d liste ne rs. A few m ay become w id ely ad ept in all field s o f m usic. Of course, man y music students will se ttle for less th a n "superstardom" o r its equiva lent, wh ether d ue to a lack o f "tale n t," :1 la ck of m o tivatio n, o r stro nge r in te rests in fie ld s o f en d eavo r o ther than m usic , Musi cal A b no nnalitics "Norm a l" musical d eve lopment is w ide ran ging, a ltholl,.; b 1I1111 II 0 1 il o ccurs in m ost humans who have anyth ing upprunrhlug "mumul" !If 'IISII I" and in tellec tual abilities (and eve n in so me who d o Ilot ), Ypt, lll IllIIIIOI' " ltl I that ar e well beyond even the wide ran g e Of "1l0rlll al"I IlJlllilll lilli 'll! ,.I 1",1. ,1 \ ' io rs. Labelling p he nomena as ab norm a l is a ma UI'1 o f jlld";IIll'1 11 , ulld 11111 I cia ns, teach e rs, and o the rs wo rking with mu sic sho uld 1101 Ill' I n n q llit k I.. co nsider somecnc's musical behavior as ab norma l simply IWI'.IlIS" il l'l dd fcren t. H owever, som e individuals j ust ca n no t o r do 1l 0tl l'sl'llilll I II Illll'til , and so me respond in re markably unusu al wa ys. Th e au thors huvr- pll'l 11'11 til di scuss a m usia, incl udi ng its su b-cond itio n m on oronism. in u l sy lH'sllll' '1 ia , Lite rall y, a musia me an s " withou t mu sic ." O n t' lllt'd iea l t1id io lla l Y (Sp rayca r, J!)!}5, p. 66) d e fine s am usia as "a form o f ap ha sia d la rad t' rizl'd lIy an inability to p roduce o r recogn ize music." Th e d efinitio n then ex ,'m p lilie s ins ta nces in vol ving inabili ty tn play an instru m en t, p ro du cc rh yt h ms, in!t' rprd or ap p n 'ci ate musical so u nds, a nd sing. \\' hile a m usia a nd ap ha sia (a sp('ech »I'tHIIJ(:lillll (If ('()fllil re ht-'ns illll im pai rm en t) may (( Icx ist, ('ith(' r nlll d ilioll Illay t' xis! wi!ho ul rill' o lhe r, so d assifying a m usia a s il snhd iv b io ll b '1I11'slio llallll'. Lt'vilin ( I ~ ) ! J ! ' , p. 1 17) in di cait's th aI mo st illdi vidu a ls a fllit'lc'd
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with amusia Gill undr-rs t.uu l '~ I Il" ' t h , hill hav e cn nsiderahle di ffi cu lty in ('tl llI prchen dtng musical n 'lali ol1sh il's, o r ill the p erfo rman ce, reading, and n l' anon o f music. Am usia is a rather broad tc nn : classification s includ e ina bilities to d l'h'( t basic to nal pro pe rties, ditllcuhies in ca tego rizing musical structu res. a rul complex difficu lties in melodi c and rhy thm ic discriminatio n, Marin ( WH'2) und Marin a nd Perry (1999) present detailed discussion and a hi erarchical classi ficat io n of amusias. Amusia may occur following cerebra l trauma; Mari n a nd Perry (W!J!), l': fi!i!i) simply say that "b rain damage" is the ca use . Indeed, tra uma is usu ally respo nsible. b ut there is e mergi ng interest in a type of congenital amnsio. which may be responsible for some ca ses of to ne deafness. Ayotte, Peretz, and Hyde (200 2) ide n ti f ied a gro up of 11 ad ults that fit stringent criteria fnr m usical difficulti es bu t who did not have an y kno w n neurological or psych i utri c diffi cu lty, The subjects showed no difficult y in pr oc essing spee ch, and , I'm the most pa rt, had normal heari ng acuity. T hey were well-ed ucated and h,lll had music lesson s d ur ing child ho od- with a histo ry of musical fa ilun -. Yd, t ests HI' sca les, con tou r, interval, rhythm , and m usical memory , o riginal Iy designed for usc with brain-da maged patients, showed co nsiderable dim ('lilly in music p rocessing, especially regard ing pitch discriminatio n, SO, t1H'II ' lIla y lit' a sma ll segm e nt or the population w ho have what the investigators ('a ll "a ll underdeveloped system fo r pro cessing musi c" (p , 240), Music ed ur.uors and therapists dare n ot assume congenital amusia whenever the)' eurounu-r pe rsons with pitch difficu lties or ot her musical problems, bu t till' rund ttt o n ex ists, Mon%nism, w here a perso n seem s to sing o n ly o ne tone, regardless o r th e nuedrn l situa tion, is an especially frustrating fo rm of amusia, For many musi cn-achors, it is a n a rticle o r fa ith that there a re no (or at least very few ] true 1Il0i1010I W S , O rbac h ( W!}!I, p , 2fi2) suggests that no o ne is trul y "tone deaf," ill lilt' Sl'lISt' tha t they ca n no t di stinguish pit ch differences, unless they an' unabh- Itt hea r. Rath er, the p ro blem is di ffi culty in mai nta ining an accura n1llt'lod k sequence ; monotones or "to ne dear indi viduals m ay sing trul y monotouicully o r with a n o ut-of-tune albe it varia nt succe ssio n of pitches, Orbach prefe rs 10 ca ll d ifficulty in "carry ing" a melody Jinging apraxia (p. ~ li2 ), an d pr efe rs In ca ll a musia dysjJlwsia (p. 37:l). Regard le ss of the ca use. [aln-], o r inciden ce . one does find people with p itch matchi ng problems and V,'o plt' who sing with a n ·strich·d ran ge. C hora l music t('ac!H'rs o(Tasio na ll)' ~ lJ( ' O Il Il It ' r a " d ro ning" ph t'IHHlll'Il0tl a mong a tl o l t~ Sn' ll l ma les, where tht' )u)'S n l!lsistt'lllly sing hdo w the d esigna lt'C1 pit ch a nd usua lly prndtKe only I ft'Ws"IJafa h· tOllt·S, Orbadl suggps ls (PI" :,! (i2-2Ii:-l) th ai voca l tliffin dlit,s a rt' t"'l'tlll'iihlt· 1'01 !> i ll ~ i ll J.: " I'lil xia , Il\d t'('d , H" idt,c1 , 'oea l p.a('lin ' m Ol)' he he lleh ial for mall Y 1ll0l10ltllu's alHl lIt'ar,ltlClllOltllws, r t'l, Ih l'l( ' is till' possihil ity
' I " ' 'd ill!' ab nor of congcmw a llIll Sl," , . lit at le.\st nol a n unpc 0 r S ne,dhtJ;a perhaps is not all ahu(l~ I,na ~l "no rmaL" \ Vhile a ny type 0 YIY alth o ugh the plWllolll el\on I S hhar y esthesia h as add itional wa ys rnaI I • II . so n wit tru e syn to S nesth esia is a multisensor y response ,I amus ia d early is a de ICI~, a per of experiencing the envlronmen~. Y the resp ondent simultaneo us Y , stimulus. In addition to hearing a ton~, such as b y seeing a color or :xpenenees the tone in a no~audlt?ry ",ao~' co nsci oUS sensatio n, n ot m ereTh peri ence IS one sm elling an aroma. e ex , , ' ) , uent relation I verb al aSSOCIatIon . . of synesthesia , a co nstS Y In chromesthesia (the s~und-col~r type nal itch: Bright co lors accom p any ex ists b et ween color bngh tness and, ~~w Pi~chcs. Unlike dual spoken vowelhigh pitches~ dark colors acco;p:~~w often acco mpany - ah" ; whi~e ,~c~:~~ color sensatio ns, whe re red an., (Y , "I t") "ih " (a s in "bit"). and er ( ies - ay (as in " late"}, "ch as III " I.' " "home")' and blue, brown , o r pam , ' "0 (as 10 ' , ' t "b eet")' red and black accomp~)n )t e-color sensations are ra ther Idlosyncrh' , ith " • (as in "boo t • on f an art tea c l' r black go wit 00 d . (1981) describ e a case 0 , (M arks, 1915), H aack and R a oc) . _ r linkages. rc te n ced dr amatic to ne-col or sensa Y h .cian musk reach er, who ex pe nen , 1 h nornene t e m USI , ' I' As with o the r unusual mustca p e , ' th music should l'e ('ogOl/,t' t t at . lherapist or other per son work mg ~I quitt. Iihly is tlt'snihing a mUSIC ' rtin u the synesthetic ex pe nene e the person repo 0 , 'II , " T h e person IS not I ' rea l ex p enenee . I Ahl1lt y nntl 1,I'i\I'llh lM M e asurement and Prediction of Muslc.'1 , _ II I,.,'pl " I 111 11 ,,1' 101 " sure musk al ,l l l1l1ly, ,\ hl ~ ,II \ \ H I There are many ways to mea " .. \ ,1 ihl) al kil ~1 III till' "l llll "l , \ I t 11111 , ,, _ I I< · dicate s n\IIS\t,1 ,I ) achievement eIear Iy m . I' tl. II" l'II 1l'll\I'111 ti l ,I II I \ I' , th e design att'rs who '''IS \\ ' I \\ '"I ltl')' l l ~ IH7) alld .\<', 111 are IS . It Bo)' e ,tilt ' . roaches to restin g sho uld co nS\! , ' ' X' l lll i l lt' tlH' hislnrk aH)' illlp" r' ~rK~erlatioll Ab,dnJcH blum ativlIol' as 1~(';~r7~~) ( ',:ul \\'h yh lt'"' l!l I7!) , p od o ral lan~ texts h )' Ll,hm an (1!)()H), ~ol~'c" .. j t1i ;.I:(.\(,d towa rd h'st tlt'Vt'l o p ll\t' llt, , , 11) t' IlI"I!!'(' III le S(.lI t I sludents OCGISlo na 0 ' 0 _ , ' 1"" ,Ii, ""'"'' r'"n.,1"' :::::::::'----:--:
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and modern n-chnolouv Pllullll's I,dl ly sophistican-d test de sign and ad mlnl s (ra tio n. Bo y le (1!J!):l) p rt 'M ' lI!'i a Ill'la ill'l! di scussion o f typic a l ta s ks w hic h It ~ s ' mak e rs e m ploy to as sess m usica l ah ility.
So me App roaches An experience d observer may assess m usical ability by m ean s of cd ucat 1,,1 gu essing. Children va ry in the ex tent to whi ch they ac tively sec k to m a ke and listen to musical sounds, "natural" though such activity m ay be. Children with older m usically successful siblings ma y the mse lves be successful. A ll}' child who as ks for musical experiences certainly should be welcomed and encouraged, as sho uld any ad ult. Unfortunately, educated guesses ma y nus lead , particularly if they stress overt ind icators. Di scover ing "late nt" m usical ab ility requ ires H mo re form al assessment. In or der to illustrate di verse approaches, three represe ntative approache s are discussed below. In all GISeS, the main concern is for the conce pt ion o f musical ab ility the test n 'p resents. Th e Seashore Measures oj Musical Talents (Seashore, Lewis, & Sae tvcit, 19f;O) appeared initially in 1919 and were revised extens ively in 1939. By W!J4, t ilt' batn-ry was o ut of print. The battery certainly had a pion eering status and Ions histor y of use, and it provided a refer en ce aga inst whic h to com pa n' 1111\('1' approaches 10 assessing mu sical ability. Contemp orary constructs and uuitudes probab ly m ade th e Seasho re battery ob solete. Yet, th e ba ttery's c'xc 'mplHicat ion of a belief that musical ability, especially in the apt itude aspect, rests in psycho ucoustical discrim inations retains importan ce. Th e ter m "measures" ra ther tha n the singular reflected Seashore's view thut musical abi lity consisted of loosely related spe cific sensory capacities. Ead l of the six partic ular m easu res was a measure of on e narrow senso r)' skill; together, the measur es yielded a profile tha t showed a pattern of aud io tory se-ns itivity. No total score was permissible, in accordan ce with Seasho re's thc'OI")' of sp eci f ics. Th e Seashore pitch, loudness, lim e, an d timb re tests requir ed ju dgme nts uf pa ired tones. T he respond ent respectively ind icated whet he r the second ton e W OI S higher or lower, stro nger or weak er , longer or sho rter, and sam e or dilfcu-n t in com parison with the first tone. M an y of the di fferen ces wel"e ralhN sublle, subtle enough thai the fidelity o f sound reproduction eq uip " lllt'Ht and an lllstical aspects of the testing environment could aITect scon.' s, Plomp and Slt't' nekcn (19i:1) demonstra ted the variability of sound p rt' SSll n ' Ic'vI,1 in ft'vt 'rbe rant sound field s an d Ihe p lan ' de pt'IHlt'lIcy of sound St'llSa · tilIllS fiJI" sh' ady.stalt' limes. f larris()I\ an d T ho1Jll>sllIl-AIII'n ( ~ ( }( }( ») sllt)Wt'll Imw orga n sounds var ic'd ill SI'I. ..t di ITt'n' nl !ol'illiollS in an aud itorium, and thl' I t' sultill ~ diffc,lt'lHC'S ill loudness sl'llsalioll WI'II' J.:1t'a tl'l t!lOlIl Ilw S P I ~\
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ridi culous m l' i\ hiHl dy lllllikt'ly, ins tan ces of invalid te stin g do oc cur, as ill ex pecting OIl(" In It'ad formalmusic notation as part of an aptitude nu-asure.) 'lest co nstructo rs estimate reliability by co rrelating two forms o f th e sa me test, cor relatin g two ad ministrations of the same form , or correlating sco res on two halves of th e test In addition, intern al consisten cy techniqu es may estimate the ave rage in teri tem correlation . An a uth oritative d iscu ssion of classica l reliab ility techniques appears in Stanl ey (1971) , Reliability estim ates theo ret ically m ay range from -1.00 to + J.(X); negative estimations are rare . The closer to + 1.0 0, the more reliable the test. Given sufficient reliability, a n umber wh ich usu ally should be .80 or higher (in the au thors' opinion ), a test needs a suffi cient ra tionale for why it is a test of whatev er it is supposed to test in order to be valid. Since mu sical ability is no t defined d early, no predictive me asure of a bility is completely valid, and the validity of a ny given test will val] with the test use r's beliefs a nd actions. If a purported measure of musical ab ility is valid as a p redictor of m usical success, a logical way to validate such a test is to ad minister it to a la rge rep resentative sam ple, me asure the sam ple's musical success later, and look for a stro ng po sitive relations hip between scores and success. This o ften is called criterion-related or pred ictive validity, and a pro blem ma y exist with th e criterion's validi ty. Musical success often m eans ach ieveme nt in a fonnal instructional setting . C hildren particularly may be "unsuccessful" because of organ izatio nal and personality problems rather than mu sical problems, Teach er ratings eas ily arc influ enced by nonmusical vari ab les. Corr elating a new with an old test presume s thal the old one was suffi ciently valid . Valid ity ma y be a matte r of ho w well the test represents a d esign a ted body of m aterial. T his is content validity and is more readily appropriate for achieve me nt tha n for aptitud e measures. It requires a fairly com plete specification o f j ust what a m usically able person shou ld be ab le to do. Construct validi ty, the extent to whi ch a test me asu re s abili ty in accordance with underl ying theo retical construc ts of a bility. is difficult to establish. Invali dity may be a failure of the test or a failure of the theory. \ Vh atever th e test's claims for validity, the pro spe ctive test user person ally must decid e whether the test appea rs valid. Someone who believes th at musical abili ty truly is largely a matter of fine sensory discriminations of isolated tonal stimuli might be comfortable in using th e Seashore ba tte ry or a no the r test with sim ilar cha rac teristics. Someone who believes tha t "se nsitivity" to un derlying stru ctures is important might endorse the Gordon Musical AjJliludr Profile. Some one who believes that no one-time testing ca n po ssib ly assess the likelihood o f future accomplish ment adequ ately Illay be!ievt' that II Il cO llventional test is approp riate.
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demic nchk-vr-no-nt. 1111111 1llll'Illt Ullitic's for mu sica l stim ula tion, and. whe re necessary, ph ysk al au ubun-s probably offers the best approach to mak ing judgment s of n ursicu l ahility on which 10 make decision s regard ing stud en t rec ruitm ent, sclccuon, und co unseling. \Vith increasing und erstan ding cl f seq uential mu sical de velopm en t. Sloboda's (19HS) belief that "musical ex pe rtise" consists of awareness of mu sical struc ture s, such as melod ies. ha rmonies, rhyth m s, and und erlying "d ee p " stru ctu res. has increasing utility: Assessing whe re a person is in som e sequentia l developm en t o f m usical aware ness and sensitivity m ay be beneficial for assessing musica l abi lity. There is n o substitute for provid ing an uppurtunity for success, of course. Shurer-Dysc n (1999. p . 64 5) stresse s the importance of a socia l clinuue ill which peop le value and e njoy music, and the chance to do so mething usual Iy is the best predictor of whether a person is able to do sonu-thing . Conceivab ly, one could assess the zone o f p roxim al deve lopmen t. nu-n tinned ea rlier, via a series of ordered m usical tasks: Perhaps mor c muslcully able persons have wider zo nes of proxim al deve lopment; i.c. , they an' numable to p ro fit from m usica l instruc tion. Philosoph ica lly, on e ca n question the se lection a nd develo pm en t o f a mus ica l e lite , Wh ile such an elite m ay be "natural" in a competitive societ y, pa rticular ly when resources are limited, some of th e world's peo ples do nOI recogn ize a mu sical elite. Blackin g (1973) di scusses a t length the Venda peo p le of South Africa, for whom mu sicrnaking is more o f a socia l than a tec-hnica l experience. The Venda recognize that som e indi vidua ls may be boner pe rforme rs than others. but the possibility of anyonf being unm usica l is a lien to their cultur e. Allowi ng an "unmusical" pe rson to try to learn to play an instrument IIr develop sophisticated listening skills is far less risky than a llowing a pc' rsoll who \....ishcs to be a pilot but seems potentia lly to have little airplane l1 y i ll~ a bility to e nter flight schoo l. Pursuit of a m usical caree r by a pe rson hlt ' k i ll~ successful mu sica l achievemen ts is dub ious, but a ch ild who has had no lIlu ~ i ca l trainin g should no t be deni ed musical opportu nity. We know t' nuugh about m usical ability an d nonnal mu sical lea rn ing to know tha t thest' an' co m ple x areas, with ma ny facets. \ \'e do not know enough about n Hl ~i nd ability and learn ing to use them as barriers. And mu sic educa tors shollid llol be desirou s of estab lishing llIusica l barriers, Practical Sugg estion s Hc g a rd ing M usic Ed ucati o n A student bri ngs h i ~ 01 IH 'I I' XI'I'I il'IH'I'S, .'t trt' uh'1hs. a nd wea knesses til th e m usic lea rn ing sihl
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t llt"~JriL'S [e.g., ch tldn-n 's lu .uu Pillt t'M'>l',~ arc' o rganized di ITt·n·lltly tha n a du lt h,rmn process,c s, llt',ha vio rll il i a}' Ill' nlh' ll·1I throug h rein forcemen t n mtingt'ut ' lt·.~, a p I JJ~O !m;llC stimulus org il ll i /, ll t i o Jl lit("i li ta t t ~ s learning}, the y are llot "tl'll(' ln-lk-vers III an y om- tlu-ury. Ncv ert lu-lcss. a la rge a mo unt o f literature as ~" , " as pt·rso.nal experience "'lIg~;t'sts p artic ular p rinciples fu r gu id ing insuuctlO,ll al plan ning a nd. evaluat ion . \ \'h ile no reci pe for succ ess ful teachi ng ex ists, useful suggestio ns for applying so me of what we kno w a bo ut m usical 11 'i1 rni ng' and devel op ment Ilow from theo ret ica l work and research. T Ill' 1'01. lowing ideas, based on and ex panded a nd re vised from Rad ocy (1!)82) a lit! BUY,le and R~doc~ (1987), are p resented fro m the te acher's stand point. Ch-ar specifi ca tion of w hat students are to learn a nd how the teache r will vvaluu tc their lea rn ing provi des co nte nt. con text, and structure. For musical p~' ,forl1lance, s~Jec~fication of wha t to lea rn include s descriptio ns of interme(~l a t;. su-ps. whic h in vol ve structured p ractice. Gene ral instru ctions to "praclin.' ure less useful tha n specificatio n of wh a t a nd ho w to practice . In p uniculnr, students need to practice in musically meaningful segments-phrases rath er than measures, musical sec tio ns ra the r than prin ted lin es, While it ~ llay ~It· necL'ssar y to practice tro ubleso me sp ots, eve n ind ividua l ton e s, in isola tion a nd a t varied tempi. the student should in co rp orate those isolated ~ P tJ ~s, 011 a!Jpro priatL' tempi , into the m usica l no w as soo n as practical. lwulunt ion sho uld be in acc o rdance with finding information to e nha nce ~ l lI dl ' Il L<>' musica l ex pe riences. Th e in formation should improve per form 1I,lIn ', e xpand knowledge. a nd facilitate revising curricula a nd in struction . 1:.v;(I~"t t ICJn sho uld not be a scare ta ct ic. (" \Ve ha ve roo)'s to make yo u P'w> Ilt'e! ) In instruction a nd eva luation, a tea cher must avoid excessive ab stractio n w it l~ yOUIlt:J 'f students, O ne need not be a Piagetian "true be lieve r" to rec' Ign l~t· th.at yo ung child re n often req uire specific co nc re te ex a mples of muslca l sll.uatlo ns. Duple and tri ple mete r, ascending a nd descendi ng lines, simp l,' bin a ry a nd tern ary fo rms, and other basic musica l organiza tions a re abs tra ct, largely ~ea n i ngl ess lab els unless they are attached to mea ningfu l aura l ex amples . 1'01' stude nts of any age , th e provisio n of mod els a nd ex a m . plt.~ ~s h!'n efid a!.. It is especially important fo r young child ren to ha ve op port U lH~l e s to thro ugh mo vemen t, singi ng, o r instrument p laying, mu sicul acuvrues that ex em plify the musical co ncepts we desire them to de-velop. \\:hile music t'd ncators may argue abo ut the rel a tive impo rtance of mu sk n-adi ng. m uch musica l lea rning is and will continue to be based on what is n·pn's~'I.lll'd in I~lllsical no ta tio n. Tech no logi ca l de velo pmen ts, especia lly in lh l ' ubilit y I~J pruu dea r h~g h fJuality not atioll from a co m pute r, lTl ay ha vI' /Il',l d t. 1l0ta tHlll pwbl t'llls III ll11flll b lislH'd m usic It·ss Iikt'ly. Yet. olle Ill ll ~t sln vt· for as d ear a lld IIt'at notatio n as possibll'. Exn's,~ i \""ly small notation ,
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ca relessly wrun-u 1ll'lll". 'I'pl , 111111 llllilltioll thai violates the I'rind plt' of rh ythm ic '''I', Il Ill~ 111 " 11 " w ·.·IIlI,.... . Illlu ully ill n -ud ing . " ' hill' t.lwlI · ilia}' be t r adit ions Ie. II phi lId 11 111 1, II I VIII III 1I11l. k , ;l 1i~lI n lt'll t ,o r words WIt I~ n un-s llI'~~ be a con sidcruuou , til .. VOl III ~t )' I I' 0 1 ~1' pa l'il lt' l1a~s fur ea ch note IS more ~lt l . ficult to u rga lli/t · in 11· 111 110 11 10 11I 'a t" thnu till' Instru me n ta l style o f gro up mg no tes via beam s. While people Illay tli!.ag n ·t' aholl t tht· tlwort'lica l role of reward an d n ,·in. force m ea t, and people will va ry g rt'a tly ill what is rewarding a nd ho w t~III ' lI rew ard must occur, ev e ryollt' needs so me form o r rewa rd at SOl,11(, 11I,lIt., Accordingly, a learn er's demonstratio ns of desir ed be h a~iors m e nt .pra tst.; tan gible rewa rd s should acco m pany music learning. Say mg such thing s as "good jo b," aw arding stripes and m edals fo r band un ifo.rms: ~nd ~t llt'r lo kt·1lS of apprecia tio n m ay be of co ns ide rable va lue in mamt.a llllllg mtN l'sl a lit I motivation. One must be ca refu l to adj ust rewa rd and rei n for cement 10 tukrthe student's level and actual ac complishments into account. To praise a fltth grade beginning band student for co rrec tly assembling a n instrllll~t'n t is. fi ll ~ '; to prai se an ex perienced p erformer for assembly is absurd, Puhlt.c !,ra l,~ 1' III front of a stude nt's pee rs, e specially in middle school nr earl y 11IJ.:h sd lOnl, may be more em barr assing th a n rewarding . In a ll circumstan ces, tht'ft,. 1lI1l ~1 be so mething praiseworthy; to sar "good job" w hen a stude nt knows It wa s anything b ut good is co unterproductive. . Mo tiva tion is cri tica l. M odern students usua lly a rc ab le to hear lugh lJual it)' re corded performances in vario us musical styles. but th ey m ay lack tlnpatience to spend th e time a nd effort to make th e ir pe rformaucv MllllHI Ilk,· their auditory images. This require s motivation , not o nly. toward 101l~ u-uu goals, bu t also toward sho rt-term goals ne ce ssa ry for mUSICal !nogn·ss a lo ll~ the way, Maintai ning motivation req uires the te acher 10 provide 01'!'Ol llllll , ty for rewards, intrinsic as we ll as ex trinsic, and to mak e the t·XIIl'IWlI('.· 01 learning music basically positive. . Teach ers should treat failure to learn as failure to lmm. no t failure as .. lit" son . Errors require co rrectio n, no t gu ilt. \Vhile tea ch ers mu st ,~ d d H"~s II I1,tll " sirablc, co unterproductive, or "off task" beh avi o r, whe n pOSS I~ JIt .. t'h,~s ll sl: mcnt sho uld occur in pr ivate. One intere sting aspect o r huma n mu-ruruou IS the wa y in w hich many peopl e find it easier to provide m-garivc ra the,: th an positive criticism. An ensemb le d irecto r m ay cha stise on~' student ~~lU IS la,lt· for rehearsa l \v ith out praising anyo ne who ar rive d 0 11 urn c. A
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less freq uent conrenuun-d Iusfnu-tiou . !\It,ptin g twice a week for th irty mi ll utes each allows ilion' uppo li llu it)" fUI" rewa rd and e rro r co rrection and less time for p racticing mista kes Ihan meeting once a week for (;O m inutes, M usical acti vity sho uld no t II{' used as a thr eat or punishment. I'a rc uts sho uld not di scip line children for su nd ry offenses by forcing extra p rnctire, a nd tea ch ers should not call extra re hearsal s out o f anger ra the r tha n fill a ttai ning m usica l goals. Al so, the po ssibl e use o f neg ati ve reinforcement" ill re leasing stud en ts ea rly from p ra ctice is q uestiona ble : Should teachers " reward " stud ents fo r mu sical acco m plish ment b y red uc ing the stud e n ts' expe rie nce with m usic ? O ne need not believe that th e theoretical importan ce of practice is to pro teet p rior le arning in order to realize benefi ts o f p racticing fo r specific P'" formances und er a variety of co nd itio ns. Seemi ng ly tr ivial thing s such as tlulocation o f m usic stands or sea ting po sition on stage can d istract relativel y no vice performers unless th ey have learned to ad ap t and adj ust. Acous tica l co nd itio ns vary am o ng performan ce sites; to uring e nsem bles may find it adv a ntag eous to sim ulate va ried amounts of reflecti on. Lastly, makin g music is m ore th an recrea tion ; it is a cre at ive p roce ss. O ne' needs to to lerate experimentatio n and ne w id eas, a nd yet insist on di sci pllncd e xp ression of resul ts.
Summary T his cha p ter' s key sum mative poi n ts includ e the follovvin g: I. Ability is a broad te rm, deno tin g ha ving the ne ce ssary sk ills a nd expert . enc e to do so mething ; it is broade r than aptitude, which d en o tes a bility m in us the results o f formal in stru ction, and capacuy. which d enotes ge net ic en d owme n t. 2. Development is a process o f growth and maturati on , wh ich is partly dependent on learni ng. :t l.eaming is a ch ange in observable behavio r that is no t attributa ble to a n y' th ing els e . "I. Mu sical abi lity d o es not d epend on superior auditory a cuity. 5 . The in fluen ce o f genetic end o wmen t o n musical ability is un certa in ; Hl IKh ('v jelt' nce o f familial m usica l accomplishment is int ertwined w ilh t'llv iro n m enta l facto rs. I i. Wh il(' no t eve l)'o ne ca n lea rn everythi ng, a n urturi ng env iro nme n t is t"l1u"i al for de vd op ing m usical ability. 7. I'h ysit:al featurcs a fe uni mport an t in musica l ability, ('xcep t to the exte n t th at pa rticula r per for ma lH"e media ma y be in vo lved . "1 INI'!folliv,' u 'inf' IUI'll ll'nl i_ II... n 'nH,v"f l, f '.o llw lhinll: th" 1t'"rn" l li' lll, ;,\",·r, i\ -l· . fl i, o1l'n t.
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illldl(s.:fII(f. ClII111.r1 dW·, t\-1A : 1\1 1' 1' l'n-s s. (J ~ J(;n) , !IIIHiml ahilily i ll ,.1Ji!dml lJ lld its measurement. New York : Ran d om J lous e. JlLt lking ,j . ( l ~ mIJ . IIIIIV 1/I11.1'i((/1 is man ? Seattle. \VA : U niversity o f \Vashington Pr ess. Illlwl'r , G . H. , & Hilgard, E. It (198 1). Theories of learning (5th ed .]. Eng le-....ood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Iloyll', j. D. {1992}. Evalu ation of musica l ability. In R. Colwell (Ed .), Handhook of research. 1Ir! music teaching and warniug (pp. 247-2 (5) . Ne w York: Schirmer Hoo ks. IIl1yll',J. D" & Redocy, R. E, (19 87). Measurement and eialuation ofmusical experiences. New York: Schirmer Books. ltruwn, S. (2000), T h e "musilanguage" model of m usic evolution. In N . L. \Valli n, B. Mer ker, & S. Brown (Eds.) , The oTigins of music (pp . 271-3 ( 0). C am bridg e, M A: MI T Press, IInl l'r. j. 1'. (199 9). 17Ie myth ofthefirslthree years. New Yor k: Free Press , chcn-H atreck, L. (EJ99), 'Io nal Ianguage s and singing in young chil d ren, In S. W. Yi (Ed.), Music, mind, and science {pp. 479-494). Seou l: Seoul Natio na l Unive rsity Press, tnlwell, R (1969) . Music achievement tests I and 2. C hicago : Follett Ed ucational C orporation . ( 'elwell, R. (1970). TIle eoaluauon of music teaching and learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: l'rcntice-H al l. I tnrrow, A. -A. (1993), T h e role of music in deaf culture: Im p lication s for m usic edu cators,j ournaLofResearch in Music Education. 4 7. 93-100, l tavidson, L. , & Scnpp, L. (1988) . Young children's m us ica l representatio ns: Windows on musica l cognition. InJ A. Sloboda (Ed,) , Generative processes in music: The psychology of performance, improvisation, and cognition (pp . 1 9 5-2 ;~ O) . Oxfor d, UK: C laren d on Press. 11ay,.J, n (EJ83). T he zo ne of proximal d evelop m en t. In 11. Pressley &J R. Levin (Ed s.), Cogn itive strategy research: PsychologicaL [aundations [p p. 15S-1 75). Oxfor d, U K: C laren don Press. Il " lii'gc, L, & Slo boda,]. (Eds.) ( 1 ~ ) 96) . MusicaL beginningl: Origins and devclojnnent IIf /II u,I'ical com/Jetence, Oxford, UK: Oxford U n iversity Press. 11,·It.ell, J K., & Lep pla. D. A. (1992). Ge nder associations of musical instrum ents :tnd preferences of fourth-grade stu d ents for se lected ins trumen ts, Journal of
lh-utlcy, A.
Ne,I'earch in MusicEducatioll, 40, 93-103. j
I llJwlillg, \V.J. (19BB). Ton al structures and children's early learning of m usic. InJ. 1\. Slob o d a (Ed.), Gmerative processes iu music: 17Ie /JsJfhology ofjlerfOTmance, impTovi.lI/ /ion, and comjJo,I'ilion (pp. 1l3-1 2B). Oxford, UK: C la rendon Pr ess , Ilowling, W, J., & H arwoo d, D, L. (l!lH6). Music cognition. O rl ando. FL: Academic Press. l,' lI nl sworth , p, R, (1~ lm) , lJir sl/,ia1/J.lydllllogy (JIJlllIsie (2n d ed .). A m es, IA : Iowa Sta te U niversity Press, FiH/l;s, L. ( 1~ 17f;) . T ltt' ill S, 11 Il ' S ~ , 111111\(1.\ MII,I'if R(lIiew, 3 1J(:~) , 24-25 . ( ::lrdlll'l". I I, ( I ~ J ~n) , FTIlI/I( I' I{ lIIiwl ( I(It II i1llll ivl'r suy ('d.). Ne w York : Basic Boo ks. (::1l"( llIl'l", I I, ( I ~ ) ~) ! }) , bJfr'ligr//l r 1~/'(/lII fd .' !IIIIIIIld( illlrlligflll"t',\;jin t!l( 2 /.1'( (('/11111')', Ne w
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I'd students. New r i n k : \Vill'Y .' ( 11/ I' IKf'lIce: ! -:..\j!lOrriliollJ w illi KI/l (; iIJJl'r l ( ' M (1<) 12) S .... . , , I , . . .' • • l'X {!lltt' n 'J1('ps ill Illu sic . l"t I" ,' ' .
(,('l/em! PI)'dlOloK/' 25, l !/- :n. ' ,tp I U ( e anu tr millug . ./Q/lTllfll /!/ ( ;on loll, E. E. (11)(;.')<1). Mu.lim l aflli/ lldr Jlro lil B. . Co rdo n F F (1()f 5b) Tl . 'J' e. os ton: H o ugh to n-M ifflin , .. ,. . l, . I e musical aptitude profil e' A , dum . tud e It'sl ba ttery. CO/lTlcilfirR' h ' t . " ~l t w .an un rqm - musica l a pti ( ;ordol1, E. E. (1 % 8) A « d {" thearr. 1fI,.luslcEdumtlOll, 6, 12- IG. . • SU Y0 e efficIeIlcy of gene Li II. ap lltudl' le sls ill predict' hi . ra mte Ige!lCe an d lll uskal . mg ac revement 1Il m usic C 'I }· R h ll/(alioll, 13, 40- 45. ' . -ouna or esearch in Mun'l
Gurdon, E. E. (1979). Primary measure~ ofmusi ' . . ( ;I)I"lIOli. E. E. (l~)8H). Musical aplilud' p '" I (c aadiatum. Chicago : G IA PubJicatiOll s. (;n't'r H J) (I lJHI) A e roJI e rev. ed.) . It asca, IL: Ri verside , . " . . n operan t app ro ach to motivatio d IT • • rr'scnrch III m usic learn ing In R (' 'r I a rrnn an a'lect: fen y ears nt . . 7. l ay or (Ed ) Don t A roor I sYIII!JlJsium (pp. lO2-1 21) R. ., tmen ary report of the A I/ II ",..AJll f l'I"eI1Ce. . eston ' VA-. M u SIC " Ed ucators National ( ;! olllko,' , I' F,. (19lJ 1-) C h'I ld ren 's invented notations . . . ' . . , .~ l a ll d I1lK· Psyc!loillgy ofMasic, 22, 13 6- 14 7. as measures of rnusica] under ( ," dfo n l•.J. P. (1% 7). C re at ive abilities in the . ) . (; t1lhril', E. It (1!J52) 7", / '/ ,;/ ,e arts. Psychological Review, 64, 110-1 JH. • f' e rsycno ogy oJ earlllng ( d) K Il aaf k. 1'. A. , I\: Rado ey R E (19131) A . rev. e " ew York: H arp er & Ro w. " ' ' . . , . case study of a chr Ih · ' . vsrarm I!I MUJic Education, 29, 135 -90 ames enc. J ournal 11 " Il'Il vt's. D. ( 1~)~)6). The develo rnent of ar " . ll lll,il . , I )1'lh\L\t, I\: J. Slobo da (Eds) M P /1 ' . listie and m USical competence. In J. . . , ustca u:,gmnlll"f' Orieins i d; / . /'Imlfirlmce (p p .145- 170). Oxford UK' 1">" • • b . one aeoe opment oj musical Il ar,llTt'
I lnuison ,
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N . (2 000) C .. ' d' : ons tancy o f loudn ess of pipe organ an au itoriurn J I .r h . . ourna oJ t e Acoustical Society '1'
( l ~m2). Pred ict ion of musica l uchi uv . .Illll flml ll/ Re.I'eard, i ll Music Educat,· 30 '.1 (.~ em en t III
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,11/11 11'1/1 Abilify (lIId l .eaming Universit y l 'l l ' ~ .~ , K uhl, 1'. K (I !IH!J), ( )II Iwh il'N. h ird s, 11I m 111 1es. a nd me ch an isms: A corupanuivc approach 10 11 1\' a(:qui sililJll nf voc a l cnnun un lcatinn. In It.J. D ooli ng & S. II. H ulse {Eds .} , H I' w m/,aTillim' /" Iyd/(lf()l!:}' of audition: Processing crll/lp lex J fJ/I/ld.1 (pp. 379-410) . Hillsd ale , 1\] : Law ren ce Erlbaum Associates. Larsson, L. G ., Baum] .. Mudholkar, G. S., & Kollia, G . D. (J~ )9 :i). Ben efits and d is" advantages of j oint hypcrmob tbty among m usicians. New England JOT/ mal ({ Medicine, 329, 1079- 1082 . Lath rop, R. L. (1970). M usic an d m u sic edu cat io n: A psyc ho logist' s view. Musil' EducatorsJournal, 5 6(6), 47-48. Lecau net, J .-P. (199(i). Prenatal auditory experien ce . In 1. Deliege & J. S lob{J(!;!
(Eels.) , Musical beginnings: Origins and development of musical amusctence [pp. :1- :11). O xford , U K: O xford University Pres s. Lef-ran cois, G . R. (19 82) . Psycnoiogyfor teaching {4th ed. }. Belm on t. CA: Wadswor th. Le h m an , P. R. (1968). Tests and measurements in music. Englew ood C liffs, N.J: Prenti ceHall. Levitin, D . j. (1999). M emory fo r m usical at trib utes. In P. R . Cook (E d .), MUIic, cognition, and computerized sound: An introduction to pjychoacoustics [pp. 20 !1- 2 27). Camb rid ge , MA: M IT Pr ess. Lun d in , R. W. (1%7). An objective psychology of music (2n d ed.) . New Yo rk: Ronald Press. Marin, O. S. M . (19 82). Ne u rological as p ects o f m usica l per(:('plillll I'1t l' plilll ' and perfo rm anc e . In D. D eutsch (Ed.), 'l7u 11,1) 1'1111/11;:')' I~I 1II ,lIi, (',/ 111 1 "01 ,) (PI' 65 3- 724 ). San Diego , CA : Academic I'n 'sN. Marks, L. E . (UJ7.5). Synesthesia: 'I'ln - hllky IIl 'lIp14' witll III I10; I'd "1' ~ 1' 1I~ 1'. l 'Il'd,,,I"Jll'
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Meh rens, \v. A .• & Leh nuum. I. .J. (1!17:1) , ,\It/I lillmm ,/ '/11,1 n 'l/h"I /'II,' III "1",, ,/'''/1 '111.1 pSJchology. New York: I iolt, l{ilw hull , I Ii: W, \\" Nl >l l" " Kotterm an, J M .• & Drewr y. I I. N. ( 1!1!J:l), I\ fd/ll lll;:'l' IIlId "llIul/um,' "" Jrllld ' //I,I I1I /rl active approaches, Ne w York : I'll'n lHIl I 'n ' ~ s . O'Neill, S. A. (1!ID7). G eud er a nd l11u sic. III 1).. 11L II W I ' l 111 jF,II•.), H e social psychology of T1l11sic (pp. 'l li- (;:1). { ):'lflJnl, U l\ : ( l x lo II cI I Jil l \' 1'1Nil Y 1'1c·NN. Orbach , .J. ( W ! } ~ l) . SOUlld 1/1/(/ mllsic: N" flu /Jlm mY{' ({ Iht !Tmi ll. I.an lmlll , 1\111: Un iversity Press of A merica . I'a po llse k. H . ( W ~ J( i) . M usica lity in infan cy re sl'
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Slobodac] . A" 111'11 111'1'11, u., & l l'Cnnno r, N. (l9H5). An l'xce ptioll al musit':II IlIl'Ill orr. MIIJic l 'tra lltillfl , 3 , 15 .1 - 170 . • Sp earm an, C . ( I!J:.l 7). nit flbilitl /'S /lIm(111: Their nature and meesunmmt. New ' (Il k: M acmillan. Spraycar, 1\-1. (Ed .). (19!J.'i) . Stedman s medical diaionary (1 lilh ed .). Balt imore ; Willia ms & Wilkins. Stad don, J. (2 001). The new behaviorism: Mind, medianism and socir!)'. I'hiladt·lphia : Psychology Press. Stanl~y, J. C. (1971). Re liab ility. In R. L. Thorndik e [Ed.}, Educational mmsurrmrnt: w ashingt on , DC : America n Cou ncil on Education. Tawa, N. (WH2). A sound of strangers:Musica! culture, acculturation. tltJd theIwst-C'ill/'l War ethnic Ama ican. Metuchen , NJ : Scarecrow Press. T hornd ike. E. L. (1931). Thefunda mauals cfleaming. New Yo rk: Teachers Coll ege Pu-ss. Th urst o ne, L L. (I!H 7). MullijJlt -facwr analysi.f: A drot/opmf'nt and expansion uj"//'r teeum of tht mind. "Chicago: U n iversity of Chicago Pr ess. Trehub. S. E. ( 1993). The m us ic liste ning skills of in fan ts a nd )'Ollllg child ren. IIIJ T ig he & W. J. Do wl ing (Ed s.), Psychology and music: The undmtand,nx of1IIt/INJ)' flIltl Thylhm (pp. 16 l- 176). Hill sd ale , NJ : Law re nce Erlbnum Assodales. Trehub , S. (~OOO) . H um an p ro cessin g predispositions and musical universal s. III N. L. Wallin. B. Merke r, & S. Bro wn (I-:ds.), The tJ riJ!,itl.~ oj IIIl1Jic (pp. r 17- ·IHI' , Cambridge. M A: :\-l IT Press. Von Htppel. P. (2<X)()). Red efin ing p itch proxim ity : 'Icssitum and Illllb ilil)' a" I o n straints o n melodic intervals. MUJil Perception, 17, a I5- ;-I27. Vygorsky, I ~ S. (I96~ ). Though/ and la.nguagt {E. lI anfm an u & ( ; . Vakal , I'd ~ , ) . Cambridge. :\IA : .M IT Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (197H) . Mind in SOlid)' (M. Cole, cd.), Ci llnblidw'. ~ IA : II UI \" II .I U n iversily Pr ess. \Valker, E. L. (19HO). l's)'cho!ogila! complexit)' and preftrtllcr: A hrd/!,rllIlJ: thruT}' '1/1(/'111' lor. Mo nterey. CA: Bro o ks/C o le . \ \'hyb re " '. W. H . (W7l) . MtllJurtmen/ and t valua/iotl itl musi, (1 nd I'd.). Dubulj lll ', Ii\ : W. C. Brown. Win g. H . D. (19 .'> -1). So llie applica tio n of test results to educalion in m usir. Ur"uh j ournal of Edum/iOr/al Psychol0!JJ' 2-1, 161- 170. Wing , H . D. (19 6 1). S/ar/dardised ltsls of musical in/tLLigtllu . T h e Mt' re , U K: Nalio lla l Fo un d atio n for Ed ucational Resea rch . W)'att, H.. F. (1945). Imp ro v abil ily of p itch di scriminat ion . J'sydlOllI{!.iml MOIItiKm/l/u , 58 (2). (W ho le No . 267 ). You ng, M. F.. Barab. S. A.• & Garrell. S. (1 000). Agl'nt as de lector: An ecological ps)'cholo/:,'Y perspective on learning b)' percei\'i ng ·acling syste ms. In D. I I. J Ollasst'n & S. :\1. Land (Ed s.). ThtoTfti, al fOlltlda tiQtu of lraming tllviro1lmrtltf (pp. 147- 171). ~1 a h wah . NJ: l"'lwn 'u n· Erl~iltlm Associates. l'.t'rvo ud., kl's, J" & Tallu r, J ]\,1. ( I ! ' ~J I) . ( :,," d t'r a nd m usical im lw mt' nts: \Vilitl, o f dWIl'I,!d .III/m/ft! 1 1' Ur,I'f(/Td, ill M lll i/' I';dll ff/ ti on, 42, .'iH ·-li7.
---~-'jII,~""" Urv rm h IJirrr!irlll.1
Chap ter 11
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
W
hal does the future hold for research in the psycho logy of m usic? '1'1. ,· quick cavalier answer is "Who kno ws?" A few cynics might eve -n .\ ,1)' "Who care s?" Yet, some specu lation is wo rth while and potent ially inlt'll " 1 iug. especially when viewed later with a cer tain degree of hind sigh t. T Ill' complex corp us of human beh av ior o ccurring in musical conte x ts rl'l aill'l il .. fascin ation. a nd all o f so ciety's waxing an d wa nin g co ncern s im ping.· 011 musica l creation, recreation. p erforman ce, ana lysis, and appreciation. (li the first (W79) ed ition o f thi s text, th e a uthors s uggested t hat lht· !'o llllh
of hemisph er ic specialization and synesthes ia wo uld have a major f U III \ Th ere was considera ble interest in "left bra in -right b rain " co mpa rison s aw l 1111 ' "musica l brain " at the time, d ue in pa rt to various attemp ts at rd() l'IIl il l ~ r-durntiun . Ind eed, considerab le future resear ch OCCUlTed . but , two IIt '( ';I(II' _ nin-r Ihe authors' suggestion thai hem isph eric specialization W.IS a Illajul II',,'ar<"l1area in mu sic psychology , Basso (lmm, pp. ·t1 1- 412) con cluded Ih,11 hem isph eric specialization re search results were "ambiguo us" and Ih ,lt n-suhs can di ffer with the m usical task. Evidentl y, th e first ed itio n's n·lal...l ronr-lusion remains: The hu m an brain is a com plex organ , in co ntact with ,.II of its sections . Musical behavior Illay be a p roduct of either hcrnisphen- , ut hol h "c ling toget her, or of neither. Cere bra l spe cialization for m usic d !,' )I" H I ~ ( I I I the nature o f the musical task and th e experience Ill' the pc rfonm-r III II,
u-m-r. Synesthesia rem ains an interesting ph enomeno n, b UI it appl'a rs molt ' III I I curiosity then a conce rn for most indiv idua ls interested in mu sic psydwlllK\ However. it occasionall y attrac ts atte ntion in the p ress, and m odern 111,1111 imaging tec hniques may enab le ne uroscien tists to gain increa sed un d"1 stand ing of synesthesia (Begley, :200:2). T he auth ors ' second edition ( WHH) predi ction s prov ed som cwluu 111111 1' nrruru te. Multiple inte lligence. especially as exemp lified by ll ow.u .! Gurdncr 's ( I ! ' ! ';~) wor k. ind eed spawned conside ra b le interest. as did IIIl' study nf I11l1siGd expe rtise {e.g., work s ap pea ring in SlolllHla ( I !IHH)). Thm l' ideas re main importan t. ulrhough som e skepticism regardin g ruu ltiph- illl,·1 lit-:en n 's exisis {e.g., Shaw, :2 000. p. Il ), and. as C ha pn-r 10 indil'alr'_, ( ;a l'l lt u 'l' hil S u-visr-d .~ O l ll " o f hi .~ iil.'as slighlly, ,1:10
·1.11
For till' Ihil.1 ,·,llt hfl l (1' 1' 17), 11ll' authors expressed caution n-gard lng potcutia I Luh ;11111 ' 1\,, ' 1 'I ll Il\fll ilt atilills ami wa rned about makin g cx tra vugunt claims for lIHl \ il', " \111'1 i.dly ; u a he'llin g age nt and as an enhancer of tun-Hi ge nce . For this flllu th l'd ilillll, IIII' aut ho rs feel compelled 10 l'xpress simila r conc erns; !leo"ll' an ' pl Ol ll ' In "rising abov e the fad s" and makin g much of a sm all amount or information . A lthough the reaction of some per sons, anxiou s to "justify" music ed ucation or expl oit paren tal co ncerns for enhanc ing intelligen ce. to till' "Mozart effect" may exemplify "rising above the facts." th e autho rs will not belabor th e "Mozart effect" again ; th at topic is discussed thorough ly in C ha pu-r :t. Su ffice it to say tha t the effect, to the ex tent it exists. is high ly specialized anti topical. While there arc sound th eoretical and empirica l reasons for op li mally co mplex music to en ha nce pa ttern recognition and dc vclopuu-nr (Shaw. 2(X)0, pp . 7- H), on e can not enh ance int elligen ce e1/ llIu ,ue by l' x l lll ~ . ing young minds to Mozart. Som e psychologists, edu cators. an d interested laypersons give rmu-h ,,111'11 tion to th e brain. and to the importanc e of early expos ure 10 m usical srim uh. This certainly is app ropriate; as earlier chapters repo rt. learn ing must invol ve the brain, an d young children usually are open 10 a wide variety of mus icul sounds. Yet. on e mus t be careful not to adopt a "now or never " nttit lltlt' thai assum es th at mu sical development requires extra stim ulation du ring lifl".s first three years. Bruer (1999). d iscussed in Chap ter 10, notes that it is JI ll' matu re to link "brain science" to education , and th at people n-nd to " llll'lo}' a min im al understanding of neu rosc ience to advocate policy dl'('b illm . Perhap s conside rable empha sis will occur in th e area of lH'urml"it'lIll ' nud mu sic, \\'hether lab elled as neuromusicology. neuropsychology , 0 1 0 11 u- 1 wise, applying neuroscience to the study of mu sical phen onu-uu has t OU'Iid erablc promise. Certainly, there shou ld be increased clforts to lI 11 d c ' I ~ I OIl ld just what occurs during the processing and recall of m usical stim uli, 1' !i\ 1I' cially given rap id ly expanding technologies th at enable monitoring of 01l ~ 1l ing neu ral fun ctions. The authors have discussed in previou s cha pu-r ~ M il h thi ngs as inform ation theory. funda mental tracking. hierarchical pl'lt'I'ptllal stru cturing. abstract pe rform ance plan s. an d lou dness summatio n, ;111 of which obviously invoke neur al processing. A dee per and more detaih-d under standing of the bra in and th e neural networks wo uld make ussociu u-d knowledge m uch mo re complete and useful. Possibly it would 1l'1llJ'(']" un warran ted naive enth usiasm for educational fads based o n incomplete un de rstan di ng of tentative or tenuou s resear ch. such as the oft-cited Mozart effect and the ea rlier "music in the righ t hemisp here" fad . As Le man ( I!)!)!)) ind icates, neuru musicology is re leva nt to research into th e underst anding of m usical beh avio r. Ill' stresses thai ne ural prinr-ipk -s Illay lit' usefu l in explaini ng uursk'ul achiev emen ts. Th is will require study ,
in ~
neural p roc essing in "nuun ul " n mlt' xts und conm-cnons i(("rUSS cli'l 1 phn cs, such as musicology , ('Olllllllll' l modeli ng, experime ntal pSyd lo lu,lO" uud m usi c theory. A lso, o ne mu st n lllsidl 'r th atm usic learn ing uud ('o1-\ rlitillll OIT IlI" wit h in pu rtlcu lar cu lture s; cu ltu re lIl a y even override se nsatiol;, a ~ i ll IIIl' acceptance o f di sso na nt so un ds within so me cuhu ra 1 con tex ts h ilt lIot otl u-rs. Hoth srnsory neuromusicology, stud y of musical stim ulus processin g hom iiII' cochlea to th e a uditory co rtex, and cogni/ivt nturom u.n'cology, stud y 0 1 Ilw rortirul aspects o f music cognitio n, will be im po rtant in a ny uhinuue c'xl'l,l nation o f musical phenomena a nd be havi o r, \Vhile the study o f tOflog rOl ph l rnl ur-ura l rep rese ntations and thei r rel atio ns to mu sical kn ow ll'd ge is hllllUl ran t, there is far more to neu rom usico logy than a ny lo ca lizatio n o f I1 I11 Sll ,II phenomena. In C ha p ter 2 's di scu ssion of music's origins, the a uthors noted thr- 1'0"1 bility o f a com mon o rigi n of mu sic an d language , in which both sp ec'( 11 alld mu sic arose from a " rnu sila ngn age" that was nei ther speech nor music. c'al Iv lu cvolunonary histo ry. Sim ilar ities between mu sic and lan guug t- also ' In ' 11·1 eva nt rega rd ing hiera rchical perceptual stru ctu ring. where "s urfu re" fr-uuu l' ~ . ukin to what musical notation ind ica les, are subs umed into deeper a nd 1I IHIl' ubstruct underl yin g cognitive p rocesses and str uc tu res . Neuroscienufic .~ t llt h o f Hnguistlc and mu sic processing suggests that sim ilarities in b ra in ucnvu v val Y with th e aspec t of lan gu age or mu sic. Semantic p rocessing (mea llill,i() ., uuln-r di ffere nt, but th ere a re strong sim ila rities between m usical ha n nHldl pn xesslug and llugu istic syntactical processing (wo rd orde r], as we-l l , I~ lx-twer-n temporal as pects, Put another way. neural p ro cessing (If la ll,i( IlOl,i(" und mu sic is m o re sim ilar in structure than in meaning (BeSSOll , Im l!)), !lasso ( U)!J!)) sugg ests that " ne uro psycho logy o f m usic" ca n uddn-ss IInquestion o f whe ther m usica l ability grows fro m ge neral cogn ui ve flllll lillm o r has a specific "mod ularity," indepen d ent o f o ther cogllitive functi ons . Th I, n-la tcs to the concep t o f mu sica l in tell igence as part o f a g rouJl o f il1 h·lli ge-uces, b u t it also addresses how cultural aspects shape m usica l ln-havbu TIlt' au thors have mention ed th e po ssibility of "musical uni versals" in 1',II1t er cha p te rs; the y a lso ha ve give n co ns id era ble emphasis to mu sic l..lt'i nj04 , I MII'im:uhm,,1 p heno me non. Music as o rdered so und and silen ce is "a .~ i l III luuuuu lty ; the fo rm th a t ordering tak es is roo te d in culture . III Basso's W O l el ~ ( W ~ I ~ l , p. ,IW)), tln- univer sal asl'('cts of m usic are d irectly linked 10 the br a in. as Iangu ilKl' l \ din'cily link ed to some brain areas; tilt' rela tion shi p between th e br uin am l Ih,' cult urall y dr-rer num-d as pc'(:ls of m usic is no t di n-e r, uud PiISS('S th roug h IIII' It' latio ush ip hetweeu lilt' b ruin am i lilt! f ogn ilivt' fllll(:lious IIl1d t' rl yi n ~ Ilu's.' aspl'('ls (II' musir,
·I() {'o lle 'luell', IIII' .llllh ul'l 111.11-..1' IWII pn-dkuons: (a) Tilt, next few p 'ars w ill !itT lIUIIl' ill\'I" tiK.IIII lli illlt l ur-umlogicul processes u-la tcd 10 must ca l ln-huv k u :
AUTHOR IN DEX C itatio ns til ;" "11 1}" llut hm \·d IHl I h uro listed by tI ll ' first anrhnr o nly. For ex a mple, th e G etzt'i s .1IId J al:kstm stud y is listed hen'
Harlow. 29M Ham es, (i(I , J (j!J
on ly as Octzels.
Ha.',so , H O, 43 :! Baulo, 77 BcamcnL, :!4 llea uvots, 175 Beck, 12:! Beck , 155- 156, 157 Begley, ,130
A A bell's, 3 1:l 3 19, ::I:ll, 3 5:'1. ::IIi:.!, 371, 395
Adach i, ((J.l Adorno, 10, :ili4 Agg lt·ltJll. 3 88 A ie llo , 143 , :lOH, 2 17
Allen. Htl Allpo rt, 153 Alper t. 56-5 7, 6 1-62 A mes. 30 :-1 A nastas i, ::19 2
Hal1lett , ·l:t ::In, 322- :'1 2:1. ::fD
Be hre ns. ).1 5
Bcngt sson. 171l, 171l-179, 192 Benjamin, 144, U6. 14!1-150 , 167 Ben tley, UB -IM , 1!12, :!ii l, :i1l7, :1!15 Berlyn e , ·t L 3:!L :US , :U K, :H !I-:H O, :i 10, :i4 I , .u z, :i H , :16,i, 375 Be nrand, 65
-t:n
A nd rews, 191 Arch ibeq ue. :~ 7 i
Besson,
Arnold, II
Hind as, :.J.t, 65 lIIacking, :.1:.1, 25, 30, 3-1, -I I!I B1ack ....ood, :.1:l.'i U!IMlm, :.17·t Bo hlman, 46 UoiSl.'n, 171;
A rom, 2 2, 25 , 3::1 Aro noff, '157 Asm us, 353. 37;) Atkinso n. 28" Atta li, 'iX AUnt-av e , 22 1
Arone , 412 B
Bachc m , 115 Bachman , 189 Hacku s, 104, 113. 115 , l:i O, 1 25. 22 6. 2:.18,
22!1. 23:J Bail y, 155, :.W:i Ba lab an . :lO2 Balk well. 333- 33 -1 Halzano , 1;'1 2-133
Bam berger, UH . 410 Barbour, :l 2.-l. '227, :l2X. 22 9- 2:·W lkm-la, 17:1
Bharu cha , II :.!, 2 11l-:.! 19, :.1:,W, :.!:.!:l, :l l!l
noh, 21 1 IkJring. 15 4 Bowen , 29!' l\o\\l (' f , :.1 10, ass, :i !J7, 3!l!J Boyle. -U. 12 :i , 11'17. 19 1, 3 11'1 , :t i 5, 11:1, II I, 416, 4:.10 Brabe c , fi:i Hragg , 3 41 Hrc'g ma n , 175 Bridges. 2 56 , 260 Bn dgc u, H:i Brin k.ltiH- I6!l Br oad bent, :.1H Brookh ouser, 117, 1:.19 Hmphy, 293 IIm w" , H., 6/ i
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111101'.' 11, S., Ii , 10, I!I, I!I- :'W , :l J, :lli, :l7,:l7 :I:l, ·10, -107 IIIlin , I J.c" :\HH, :um-:m(), 4:11 1I111o\j.;, J 10 :1111 111, 71 11111 11I 01 1'1 1, :l~ I:\, :IlH , 1I 11 1 11.~ , :lOti 11111 1...·, 1:10, 1:1:l, H :-1, lliH, :'WI, 22 1, 2:1H
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( 'h;ll% 11i:l, :lS:1 { 'I". II l1idi('ck, ·IOH ( 'IIt'lilsky, In , :l:-I.c, {'I,ll I." , IH , 1.C,{i-IS7, 15H, Wi, Iii, li9, IHI, 2 : \ ~ ) - :l' 1 ( ), :.!7H-:l i !J, :-102 I{ 'Iillo ll, :\:17 :( ' IY IH "~' l Ui, :l li '( 'utliuuu, A., 1.'j!I, JHS
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CUIlI'II, (iH-f) !) Cu l""l'lI, HU , 21i:l-'lli:l, 27,j , 1t l, 41H C. 'ntw l lo n, ·) 1 C"ok, N., :l 11-'l 12, :U li, :-liH Co o k, 1'" 1·1 :\ C"0l"' r, I-H , 141i, I.C, O, I/iH C o rso, 11·1, I I.C, Cosla (; iOlll i, it \ ( 'oil!"!', 7.C, Un-srou, H ,C" I'I/ i, J1!J, 15 0, I.C, I l' 1 'O.~S,
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lluiunw , :\:l:l, :1:l:\- :I:l·1 1),,110 1'.', !lH, IOH I)a n" w, :IHli l Iar w in, 25, 2!J l Iaxilvu, Ii , ~I l )a vid MlIl,.J., 2ii:l l Iavldson, 1,., 2,C,1, 4 ()! )-110 Dav ies,.J., )iO, :1-12 Dav ies, S.. :1:\5, :\:\7 Davis, H., !)!) Da vi s, iO Day, ,1(14 DeG
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C rO'l.i,'r, :\:12, :\·11, :1-1:1 , :\1-1 C lld dy, li S, :l2 1, :l:\H, :l-11-:l·12, 2-1:l C lilit'lla, 71i, l :l~) I>
E Eilj.\ ll', .'ifi, 70, :l:li , :W~ , El k, 1.C,1i, HiO Ed wanls, :.!!J!J, :\0 0 l".~ a lL ,
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Ellioll, C., 1:1':.1 , IX7 nu,«. ])" :II.C" :I:I!I, :\( 1,', Enuuorson, :.!~ lt l :i!17 Er ieksllll , :L! I!I b piIlO «H -V'lI ;I .~ , !J! l, 12 ,1 , :.! III Epellck, :lli:\
F Falk, 10 i"arnswo rt h , 34 , 4 1, 66 , 111-1l2, uz, 11K, 207 , :.!08, :,!J{i, 22 5, n !), :.l:-l:I, 322, 328, 3:-10, 352,367, :l8i Farnum, W3, 263 Far rell, 1·1 Feldm an, 180 Figgs, ,NS hnk,6:l Fiske, 14:\, 2.'i1 Flavell , 152 Fletc her, 12 :.!, 125 Foley, 184, 186 Fraissc, 154, J{)Q, Hi! Franck, 160 Freeman, 10 hied 51 Frith: 10, 14- 15 ,15 , :14, (i3- 64, 65, 369, 370 Fulmer, :.!~)9-301 l-ung. 3iH
G (iab ridsson, 144 -1 4 5, 146, Ed, 16i , li6, 177, I7H, HH , 2i4, 2i5, 2i6 , zrr . 2 81, ] 1-1,
3,B Gace k , 99 Gagne, 299 Gal vao , 152- 15 3, 153 G ardner, H ., litl, 277 , 3 ~):l -,1 94, 40 4 , 406, 430 Ga rdner , 1\1., :16 Garfield, 62 Ga sto n , 5, r, 9-10, 10, Ii -H), 27 , :\0-:11, an, 11,43,69, 144, 261 Gates, 325 Galewo od , :\:.!H G eissman , 10 ( ie rinW'I , Hi·l, j(i.C, ( ;l'I /., :177
nm, «n.
(:d /" Is, ,IQI ( :ibhoII S, {iO tlillu-rt, :l~ I.C,
{:i1h pi<" I:I ,1 (;.j'I('Vl' lll'S, II H ( ;bsg:ow, :16:\ (;oldberg, 57 (; oloen , 6 2-63 Coldstein, 109 Gordon, 146, 150- 1.C, 1, 151, lIiH, l{iH- IW , lH.1, 186, 189 , 192 , I!I:L-I !J:I, I!l:l, 2.C,H, 26:.!- 2Ij3, 21i2, 2G:l, :1 ~1:L , '-110, 11:'",- ·1 I/i Gorn, :14, 58 Gr acyk,65 G reene, 229 Grc ennagcl, 2 8~) , 2D:.!-29:\ G reer, 3iO, 37 1, 400 Grego ry , to Grey, 15:1 ( i riesh abe!', 184, 191, 192 Gromko,4 10 Orubn . 81-82 Gr uson, 2i.C,- 2ili, 2i 9-2HO Guilbault, 29 :-1 Gu ilrord , :190 Guthr ie, 39H-399
H Haack, Ij9, 413 H ahn , 32i, 36:.! H aley, 5i HaH, I u, 13:.! H amilto n , :104 llarn m, 34 , 364, 368, 3W) Hanshumakcr. 71i, 77 H a nslick , :\36 H argreaves, 8, 10, 12, 14, 14- 15 , 15 , I.C,-lf i, 17, :~ 2 , ;1,1, 40, 14 :1, 25 :1- 2 5-1, :.!.H, 2!U , ,W i, 3 :1Cl, 341 , :-i4:L, :H3, :H1-:\· ID, :l l.C" :\4 6, :-152, :\i (), :l i 6, 4{)(i, 411 Harre ll, ;ICl7-:l3H H arris on , 127, ·1I-1 - lIS 1Iarro"", 2i 4 Hebb, 1.'i2 , 1.'j:-I, 2 1O Hed d en , 4 l H Ilei nll'in, :-12H llellman , II !! I k lm ho il/., 'l: lli
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ller xluu.m, :l:l l 11" \,1 11'1, :1:lX-; I:l U 11" plllk , :1.J:l. :1-1 ·1, :176 :1:1.'1. :16:1
Ih1wu d, -W I II mIK" s, ·10. -1:'1, Ii i , 7.1, 7·1, In, :U l. :1:l:! -: l:l ·l, :I:l!i. :I:lli llofh-r, I ~ JO 1[ol',I,u!!.'!', :1;"1, :1:1.'; 110 11 II o o k•.c,(i, /iO lI " m !, IX!I Honn-r , 11'11'1 lI umya k, :'IilI II UIII...1II3. 1117 11".... ,·11 .1-1 3, 2 17 1I11nK, li:l tlunu.r, !i I lluech, .'iO- ;i I Ilmd,·y. ti7 Il y holl , [·1, :1:1:1
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Kdl,tT i, !i-I K, 'll y. n, lXX K"nd 'lll . U :l K,'rr, 5:l K' ·,"ltlll . :lhl i-: lI i7 Killian , lIi5 , :mi
1 ~'2
Kn uth. 1!1:1, :,lIi:'I
L und qu ist, 1'1
Ktvy, :l:l7
M ackl in , 59-60 Madison, 160 Madsen , 75, 7,';-7Ii. 76. Hi9
Knt lh woh l, 27·1 , :1I:1
tI-'l arks.l J:l
Kratus , :!(H -:iO.'i
r.-1arsell a, :103 :\-l aslo w. 3 17 \ 1athews, !l6 , 97. 98. 99 \ ialh ur.57 r.teCrary , :i 76
Lambert, !/i'l. !N
J "t",". 11'1 1'1
La m o ni, HI- H2
JH l ltl ' ~-l> " lum.c . I-IX- I" !l, 15 9 , HI!l
l.arg(', [tl7 La rsson, :11'17 La ske, 303 Larhom-Radoc y, 7n l .ath ro p. 397 La ukka, 353
.I'·lw·r. 11 1'1 . I '·r~ i l ,l.
IX:'!. IX!i
.I"hll"" "' C .• 11'10 ---11'1 1. .I.. hll",m. (;.. 10
11'1 1
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15 l'1 . 1 ·11l, 1 ·17. 1·1 ~1 , I , n ll',~ , It. ['f'X. HiH-[W, Ifi!) .In., lill, 1 7!J, :I H, :1.C,:l
K K" ,It'III, :11'19,
;1 ~ J1
K"m"II" bky, :'I.'i:l K,tlni"n , 10~ 1
M
Kohh-r , -102 KollUl. 190 Ken-e m. 376 Koz a, :'1 95 Krann-r, 1<17, 1!i0 Krasllov ...ky, 6:l
L
.I
I,n ngu" I IIiAAIII.... Ih7 Lund , 15!1
K l1il'ln , :l lll-:117
Kw llll" , 2 l'1 H Krcm ha nsl. 100, 2 Ui, :.1 17-2 11{, 211'1 , '.I 1 ~ J . '.1'1,'1" 235-236 . 2 :'1 7, 23 7- 2 38, 2 -17, '.1·11'1. WI Ku hl , ·107 Kuhn . Iti l , 3 11'1
Iml N" tt y. :l51i IIIKld k lel, :m
1.t·w is. IX" l.id lll Mll, :iK" l.ip-'< 'o m l" '.Ito Loma x, :I I i "md o ll, 11,7 I " >II~. '.I iiU L und in , :11. ·11, I I I, I."> H- 15!1, 15 !1, 15!1- l(jO. 2 IlX- '.I(l!I, 2 lti, :l5!1. :I:n . :l:.!X, :3.">:l, ·10 [
K,Kk, 1O:l Konka, 2 :'11; Koh, aee
lel", Il l . :l-I I
1111 1..,. 11'17,
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Kll1t1 im"" , :15:1 K"I'I,on. W. 11- 15. 1.'i-1 7, :11
l l ie 10.11I.111 , :l !i X -:l.'i~ 1 I liAA III ~.
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Le Ula nc, 28 1- 28 2, 3 7n , J 71- :'I7-1 . :i7M Lec au net, :'1 3 8 , ·107
:'\.iagncl l, 19 0
Man th ei. rt M a ri n . :I:l5. 1 1:.1
t\.IcCutcht'on, l'I3 M c Donal d, 255 M cKi n llc y, 117 :\-l cM ulle n, l l, 31:'1, 3 11, ;13 2, 3:'I2-33:i. 3·H). :\.11, :H I-:H 2 , 3 4 J , :11 4 , :151, :i 5 2. 3,">:.1- :15 3 , ~1 (jt , :\75 M cNall y, 176 r.·l eeks, 'l.i M e hrens, :i 9 1 m erker, 10.22.27, 2 9-311 \ {erriam,9, 10, l()-.II , 3-1 \ Ie}'('r, L , 212- 2 13. 216, 2 -13, 2-14-245, 2 -15. 2 -16,2 17.25 9. ;'1 11-3 1.';, 3 18, J::lli. 3 47, :I-17- :i.SI. :163. 3 Ii3-:'I6 ·1. :16 -1
I..-e, 1fi7 Lel'rancois , 402
Meyer, M.. 115
1.<'I11l1al1, :'1 19, ,11:1
:\--1ic11. :10 1
Lern un, ·1:i l - 1:12 i ,,' ng . 7!1
:\-'lille r , (; " '1.7, 'l.!) \·I illt' r, I ~ . :Ill:i M ille r. It" :'1 14-3 \.'1, 327
l a-rd a hl, lB, Hl i, 1-11'1. I llJ-1 5 0, I!"lX, 171 - 17'2 ,17.1-1 71. 177-171'1. 2 n.'i, '.II'.!. zu , H7, '1:19 -'1 -10, 29 7- '.191'1 I ,l' vilin , 207, 111- ·11 '.1
Michel. Ii!l, 70
M illim ;IIl. 5:'I Mill !\, 1>.• 1·1 Mi1I... J , 1'1 1-1'1'1
Moh , 2 -1:1, '.1 ·1 1, :1·17 !\t"liHO.J , I!l l\l " lm o . J /\ .• l'l'.! M Clo~. 2 1, 15.1, 1710. IX'l , 'l .'i l , '.Ir,h Moon', 9 X, 101 , 10 J , IOli, W7-IIlX, WK, 1'1,5 \ !nr.av(·c,
:l~ J!l
Morg-dn , 1.'i:'I l\l osk fJvit...~ :'I7H l\loun lt:'lst h' , 7!I
:\-l ueJle r, j., !l , :llil'l
Mucller, K., :177 Mul l, 377 Mu rsell. IH . Wi. 111'1, 15 0, \.'i!I, IX!J, uu, 210. 22·1, 25H , 3 ll:i
Mussulrnan, II , -1-1 , ·I !I, 6], us . fiX, :ln N Kadel, 25, 27 N a nta is,H:I
Narmou r, 2·19 Nasr, ,15 ~(' u l. 9. to , 25. 27, :l!l, :1'1,. :1'L- :l :I, :1:1. :11 l\jC'w ma n . ! l~ l Kic kl'rson, 229. 2 :'In K id sun, 15 9 Nittunco . 1:'1 N.nd mark, !tI'l Nort h, lI , IK, 5-1-.'i5, r,x, Iii , .111. :11'1" .11t., :15'.1. :17 \
Noncr ruan, :1!17 N}'e, 2 ;,7, '.If,K
o O h .12 ·1 Olst'n , l j2 O'NI·iII. :'~ l.'i Orbach, 112 O rtmann. :l IlH. :l09
O sbtlUrlU·. '.I~J!I Os~t>{)d , 151 , 15:1, :1:11 , :1:1:l
O , t1 in!-i', :.12!J, 2'.1! I, :.1:1Il
Overy. XI- l'I 'l I' 1'a Ime-r, C .. 27.J 1.... lmcr, M ., IXli- IX7, l!JO
HO
Rams ey, 25 5- :25/)
l'al}o usck, 407 l'a rt·lcs. 19 l'ar k, 63 1';l rTlCUIt. 159 , 16 7 l';ark hey. 292
B., na l'uttr-r xon , It, 130
1'; llIn soll ,
I'aviov, ::19K Pa r lll'. E., 362-363 1';l f lle, K , 10 I h t·tl~ 326 I"·r!wy. l !ili 1"'nis, IS- 4 li l't-rron, l l4 ('torry . 65 I'l'lt 'r SlJll . J 10 !'I'uy. tiL !','Iw ld, 176, 192. 2,%
ltl-dcrcr, lH4, 4 0:1 Ph illip s. 2 ."2, l'iaJo:I'I. ,10·1
3n
Pit k. W !J I'i. klt'li. 96, 99 1'1<'11 1' , II I, 112 I'i ' l-r. I!Hl
& h llht'l1, :U I
~,
109, 13 3 , 171 Rausche r, 7M- 79, i9. MI-S2
Schucken, 377-:Iil1 SCh..... udr on , :U h, :u7, ;\:11'1 , ,lId , :1/, I
Ra wli ngs, 3fi ;.J R ay nor. :.11'1 0 Rcgclskt, :.150, 3:.!,'i
Sc hwic hlt'lIht'r!,. Ii i Scruton, :i:i5 Sears, :1:,'-'1 Seashore, 15·1. IHI, I!H, I!J. 2;lIi, 21iJ. :I!l:l . ,U4- 1I5 Serafine, H 3, HiX, 169. :.140, 2 IO- :l II , 403-401 Serge ant, 115 - 116, 2 2:i, :.!5:l, 255, :i !J:l S ethan-s , 105, lOS, 112, 1:'10,22,1, :22!J
Ri ntdmann. 12 M Risset. IJ I, 132
!'liL' k. 122, 1'2 :1-1 :.14 l'I" ml " W:I, lOX, IOH, I I I, 114, 13 0 , J::l:.!, 4 11
1'. ,1.11I11. ;lli7-;:lIiH I'oll ;lrd , U :I
Ritxma, lOS Ro ederer, 33, 9H, 102, 10;1, 101 , I D , [14, 11M. 125. 13 3, 2 26. 2:i O, ::1-17 Rose, M .. 175 Rose , R.. 179
POllno y. !I. :.16, 66, 6 7 I'''UO'I, :,!! 11-:.!!l2
1'0 111'1, 1/;7 1'0 "1 .. 11, .'i2 I'n·!\.s i ll~. :lH.'i-2Hti. :lKii, 2H9, 289-29 0, J 02 ' 'f ' '',Mlil/ t'r . :t l3 I'r in ', J I! I
Rose nbusch, IH:i Rothenb ule r, (j.i Rubin , ;m,'i Rubin -Rabso n, 27.'i Ruckmi ck, 154
s Sachs, [
Q
SaiJad i, 101
R ]t IlI N . :1 11;
]{;lll,wy, HI, I H . 117, :l O~ I. :125 , :1-1-1, :11;l i, :\7(i, :I~ j(1 4 :I~ j J , Wli.
H;lIf"nl . U I !tdillh" ...... I'll , 111'\ , ,,,
..
12(l
Sd lOt' l1 , 1.'i!J, :120, :12 2, :I';,/ H
R ao, 337
Reich, :.!99 Ren ner, :.159, :-116-3 17, ~1 :.! 1, 335, :B6, 3 4M, 3(~J. 3 6 'l, ~165 Repp, 179 - 11'10, IMI Restagno, 299 Rcsta k. :.171, .ins Revelll, I SS- I ~ ! l Revesz. 25, 26. 27, 29. 223 Rh od e , 109 Richards., 186 , 1M!} Richman, 23 , 33 Rtcck e n, :lO3 Rfusa. H ., :-12 3 Rtes, N., 109 Rigg, 371
Sa lm on. 2HO. 2H;i Sa rmheln, 79 Saw ye r, 293 Scha rf, 11M. 1:.1:.1, W i Sd ll' id . :IX7-:IHX Sd ll'lh'I1I " 'fH, E" ;1:1:1, :1:11,:1.'i:1 Sd l<'II" IlI..., ~ , S., 171i St lw n kl'r , 17'1,:.I 11 St h l a ll~,
:IHH
...'1oI.,,,,,.,
I' l l
H I
Ali/hIlT Indrx
Ps)'chologiro/ Foundations of Musical Behamor
Sh affer. 156
Shamma . 106- W7 Sh aw, 1'13 , 39-1, 430, H I Sh ea. .'i5, 60 Sheldo n, 160 , 165 - 166, 16 6 She pard, 100. IO!, Il7, 22:\, 22 ·1, 2:12, Ill:.! Sherbun , 102, :1H7 Sh iloa h, i5
Shrddc r. 187- 11'18, 19:1 Sh ul m an, 127 Sh ute r-U yson, 256. 4 19 Sipg t'l . I I I Simo nt on , 2 ~I H -29 9 Stms , :i7l::I Sink. 176. l7Ii- 177, 18 H Ski nne r, 399 -400 S kom ic ka, 18 7 Skrai nar, 129 Slob od a, 10, zo, 2,1, :l6, :2!J, 30 , :12, :1:1-:1-1 , 1.0, 1014 , 170 . 170-171. 17'2 , [X:l- IH:I, 20 b-2 07, 2 11. 2 12, 2 13, 25,1, 2 59. '1.77, 277-27l1, 2 M7. 2 XX. 2 !lO-2!II, 2!H -2!1fi, 3:26. 39'1- :193, -119, ,1 30 Sle ckln , 341 , :H 2, 352
Smull. :115, :-1::19, :i 65 , :Ilifi Smtih, A., :2 :IX Smuh, 1-: , :H7 Smith, K., 259, :H :2, :H:t :H-I. :H5-:H 6. :l l li, :H 7
Sm ith, M" :!02 Snytlt'r, 77 So !" h" k, :U I S p" a " 1I;111, ;I!l:l
SP" H}', 151 51" ;I } " ,II , 111 SI')t h'K"
H H'
0"1;1( 1<1 (,11 . 1O,'i - ,lOll o"l;u lllh·y, 71 -7:1, 7·1 S la nlt,}" ., 17
S1,m IT" J, :101 S I;u" n , ·I!J S",t, I,., H:l Sh' ploe , 2 XI, :.! K,\ Sit'di ng:, :2,1:l -2 i3 Su ·m b ach . :i 22 SU'Jn bt.·rg. 170-17 1 Steven s. 99, 10'1 , 11:1, I Hi, 11/0.. 117, II !I, 122, 123 , 1:l 5, 1:l6 - 1:l7 Stewart , 56
Sto ul, 60- m Strange , HI!J Stubley, 287 Sl II ~~y,
6-1
S ud now,2H9 Su lliva n . G .• ()(J
Sullivan ,.]" :1:17 S ull iva n, i . , 4 4 S um m e r s. 15 5. 159 S u ndberg, IKO. 2 12
T 'Ia nn enbaum . 'l.9!J Tan ne r, 77 ·Hawa.3 95
TaylnJ ,.J., :l:2U-22 1, 2:t I, :l51i 'lily lo r, R., 11:1 Ta y lo r, S.• IKi 'l t-mku, :.!2() 'ten ney, 11fl- 111
'li·Ih.u dL. 1lI:2. 110. :210, 2:10 Thackra y, 1!12, :2.'iti , :t62
Tlnnnpson, :17ll Tho mso n, 2 1~ J 'lhnrndikr-, E" :1!J7-:I!JX 'I'hnrndike, u., 7!J ·l"I m rs\.lllt', :19 J Tilhnann. :.I ,I!I ' '' ,d d , I:l H, I.' iii, II ' U. 1li7, IXI ' Iollu-rt, :15 0 'l(" llatis,X O Twh "b, :20. 'l.,'i:I, lO K Ir'·lIlni" I. II I
""11"1, :t77 11 "... , ,11 . :J' I'l
I
In
J'l)'d /ll/fl):, /(tl i hllll"llI/i/1/I1 flj A f,lJi((lI Il, luwi or
I
h lll b . 71i
i
u
JlIk,·f.... 71
In",: 17,'In
V;tIl fl,' (;'TT. I I I ~;1I ' Slu lU'. :l :ll V;III/:OI, :l!I!1 IV il /., :l H VOll II.-h '",}'. W:.!
\ 'llll lIi.\ I1\;lff k, 1:1:'1 Vo n I lil' l'd . ~W !l , ,101 \~'11 " ,,,'ml'r, 2::1:i \;". :.! 1!J-:.!:tO V)'/o:0t...k)'. :m:l. ·Hl 4
w W;l h hl"K. !i!l W" lk"I . L , ;H:l. :H I . '1.75, :i!J:-S
W"lk"I , lt , :.!I ; W. i1 I;1 ,~, hr-k , :.!,'i. :.1(; \\1"11,,., H, Ill, 4/6, '1.7. :U . !1!1 W;,h"lI, H I
WUIlK. Il il , Jli·I - I1i!i, Hi5 W;u d , Ilti Will ' l'll , t:l 2 W;lln", XI- X2 Wil t k i l1 ~. I ~ ': l , 26] Wi l l ~Oll , 2,1 1 W.,lwr. :U, :,w,'i Wpl"tn, :l:l5 W,'ill., ;1:1.) \\H. h, ';.! ~ U Wl' 111Il'im ,'r , 2:1/;
\"....1. 17'1-1 7:1, \\111;111111(. 10
~ I:l .
:.!:Ili, :.1:lIi-:.!:17, :H tl
W bil li,·ld, !IH
Whilll •-, 101 Why" " 'w, -, U W ilkinsu ll. 1 :.!.'i Wi ll"u. 119 Winch-I. 1[;1-1 1<1 , J:ll Windsur. lIii W ing , 160, 261, ·115
Winstllf k. 4/i- H \"'i n lcr . 4 4
Wint le, .'57-58 wo blschlage r, lfiO wokoun. 52 Wolfl, 76, 7i - 7H Wolverton, D., 2~tJ Wolverto n. v, 77 Wood ruff, :.150
\\oodwo rth. 101
Wyatt. ·115 y
Yama moto , 127 Yates, 97 'reston, 1511, 1fi8 Ynung. ~ I., ·10·1-105 You ng, 1'.• :113. ;'11 ·1 Youn ker , :-iOI- ;-:1 05
z Zaplitny, 29!} i"..enall.i. 3 77 Zerv o udakes, :19·1- ;-:1 95 Zillma n, 36 9 Zimmerman, IIH. 11«;, 256 Zwicke r, 9!l, 1()2 , 125 - 12/i, 1:17
SU lIJ Ecr I NDEX A ability (m usica l). 191. :1X1- 1!lli. ·lOh-4 1!1. ·13 0 abnormalities o f. 4 11- ·1l:-i a nd a m usical home. ;1XX-390 a nd aud ito r)" acui ty, 3 X6-:H:17 a nd cre a tivity, 390 -391 a nd ge neI', 394 - 39 6 and genet ics, 3X7 -:UU~ and in tdl igt'fice , 39 1-:1!H , 430 a nd race , :196 d efinition of, ;-:lK1, ·H3 dcvclopm r-nr of, 4116- ·1 11 in flue nces o n. 386-396 measure men t o f. ojIJ -4 19 no n m usica l predicto rs of, ·UK om nib us th eo ry of, 19 L ;1!13 p rediction o f, 413-4 19 specillcs theory o f. 19 1, 3 93 absolute pi tch , 1 1 5 ~ 116 absolutism. 3;i6 acce nt , J.I6, W)- 150 , 167 ty pes o f. 1·19- 150 ac hievemen t [musical}, 3X5 acoustic re tlox. !Iii Advana d .UltliUrlS of Musj( Audialioll, 26:.! advertising, m usk in, 55-63 aesrheuc gap, ;i tiH aesth etics, II , ·11, 315-318, J :.! I, 33 4-347. :16 :1 -3 fi·l, :170 and m usica l prefere nce, 363 - :-i6 ·j and popular mu sic, :170 ex pe rimental. 4 1, :139-3 ·11 p IJ ilo.'mp lliGII di vision s of, :U ti-:U X ps ychillog ica l, :l :.! l, :U K- :1·17 SIIl'I'III,lli\'(', :-1:15
" ITI-d , :1Il-:III, :117, J I9 -:n l ad jl'cti \l(' c1" M:ril't or " of, :I:.!7- :U I as pa ri of .u,,,111I'tit" '·" IIt·,klln', :117 dl< u ''' pon w I" n lll., k , ; lI ~ ' -:l l l d .'fin itiu ll o f, :lI l -: 1J I
physiu lugica l measures o f, :1:.!:.!-:i:l 7 tnw s o f, :1 1:1 affere nt path way, ~'X-!N alea to ric m usk , 2:1-1 ampluude, !14 am usia . 4 11-11 :-:1 an noyance, 1m ap titud e (musical). :1X·I-:1K'i, ·1 16 artific ia l in tellige nce (a nd lTIu"ic), :1tI1- :JIU arts, s uuial functions of, 15 - 17 audtarkm. ·116 aud uo ry canal, !JIj au di tory stream s"g n' l{a tio n. 175 - 17/i
n backgr ound mu sic, ·IX-55, :J1'.l defin ition o f, l!l in the markl,tpldn', 5:.!-55 in th e workpl.uv, 5 1- .'i:.! basilar m t'mlJ r;I!I" , 97, IOl -101 an d complex lum ' Inll II ll....·, 11" " , '17 lind I'm" l tJ l W Ili,nim imoli"Il, ti ll 11 1.1, W:J-1Il1 [x-at, 1-I7-I IK, I.'ill·- I.'i l, 1110 Il d , II,K 11,'1 rnemc, H K u rga nil.ation witl llll n u- I" I , 11 K p,' rn' lllio ll ol, tf iO- II,] u f. I!iH- I.'11, IIiX 11,'1
~ u hd i\"isj ,, "
tr ue, I IH bt 'at ing , I H - I 15 hin a urul. II I-I I.) first OI'd l' I', 1[·1 second order, III behavior , ·1, IU, 1.'1 1 ~ I ~ l; l , .:.! 1!1-:.!58, :ltilJ-:.!li:l, l74-:l7ti, :lHK-:l H' j d ,'finitioll u f, I (r.'vl'l" I>llH,,, t .,f Ilwl' ldk illUI luuumuk-, :.!5:.!-:.!5X {'\"illuati. m o f 1Ilt'1' ltlit· am i 11iI' m Olll lt , ';.!liO··:.!fi;1
Psyd/fJ!ogim! J.imtu!"liflfl.l (If AlII.lira! /l duw iflr
,1,1·1
pildl Id all,d , 1 -1!J-25H pnll lill'lio ll, 251-252 I'~y( h" mot"r, 274-276, 2 HI{-2H~ 1 Il"tTpliVl'. 250- 251 Ihyrhunc, 15 1- 193 11IUllUl"kulogy. H, 26 bil'll
c
, un ~l ·rv 'l l ion. UH , Hili, ,IlU 'O IlSOlHlIln:, 110- 112 (atq;:ori ('s of, 110- 111 mu.,ical , I I I- 11 2 Coni. orga n o f, !17 crea tivity, 299, :190-391 critic al ba nd wid th, 10:.1- 10:-1. I [ I, 1:.!!i-I:l7 in consonance -dtssommcc, 111 in loudness sum matio n. 125-116, 127 cultu res, 13-1-1 cycle. 9·1
D CA M EO S, 70 '-'II1("1,lIaliun tune, IO~-I IO r",,'Ki t,. (musical ], 3&5 1IIII'I>:0ri,:al I',' rn ' ption. 111. 170- 171. 21Hi- 2 07, 222 -22:~ o j' l llYl h mic g ro ups, liO - I7J o f pilth, 2(1(;-207, 22:l- 223 I "nl ~, 11:1, 22H--229 f"mlll!;l fo f, IIJ, 228 111I 1lI1I;1. II!i, :l:l :1 , III I uu..sl h l' ~ia . 1 1:I , 111 1, 1" ;1, !11;- !J7 ' ''~l1l1ion ,I -5. 2:15-23 6, 3 17 11,·flllilio n o f, 1- 5 ill ;lO'stlwtk l' xl )(·rielll.:l', 3 17 " ,II;lli",,· I H " p" r lil ' ~, :H I ">rn l,illali" ll to m' s, 109-1 10 romm uuh-anon, 12 IOml' lt'xil)'. 3-12-3 Ifi, 370 , :-J74-3i fi ,lIlel in vert ed U, :~4 4-:H Ii und prd l' rl'lICl', :H -I, :-174- 376 in ,Il'stlwlirs, :H2 ill po p ular music, 370 " plimal m odel o f. 3-12-346 , , " l1 po.,ilitlll. 2!J , I ~i05 as a h',lChing lo ul, :l1);i- :-J05 n)lll l ll' ~l ' rs' npproach ex 10, 2 ~ 1~ 1-:10 1 tlwor l'liI'a) 1,,'rs!'I't:liVl's tow ard, 2!J5 -2!1!I Ilwo ril's o f. :i lll-:i O:l ft llld itio lling,5K. 159 , :i9 K. 3!l!' Il asskal, .'i 8, :m H "I',' ra lll, :m9 l'avluvlnn, :\!IX prenatal, 15 9 t fllIfll.. nil,., n , :171 " lid Pl l'fN t'l1, " , :17 1
decibels.. 119-1 21 of inlensity le vel. 119 -1 20 of so und p res" ure level, 121 den sity, l ID developmen t (m usical), IXI- l!)(), :l5 :l~:l ."> Ii, :-J85. 396. ·102-40;i, 106-4I:i abnonnal ities in, -1 11- 113 age- based stages o f. -IO/H II definition o f. 38S in utero; 407 melodic and harm oni c, 252 - 2,'i1{ nonnal SffjUl:nc{" o f, 407-411 rh ythmic. 18 1-1 90 stages (Piagetian). ·102-103 d iffrac tion. 95 dip lacusis. 102, ;IH7 Drakt Musical Aptitudt Tats: 192, 26 1 d ynamic attending theory. 162
E ea rdru m, 9 6 effec t see. 72 efferent pathway, 91i-9!1 em inence ran kings, :-Jfj7 emotion, 313, :-1 [·1-:-1 [5, :i-i7-:-I'1!1 and musl cal mcantng. :-1 15, :Hi-:H !l de finilio n o f, :i l·1 emenainme rn, 11 -1 2, 6:i~j-1 equa lloudness cu rves 122, 12:1 equilih ratinn, ·111:1 Eustal" h ia ll tuill', !)(; 1'1(l't"t'tilhu ll, :.107- :lOH, :.! I I. :.1 1:.1 - 2 1:i, 2 11,- :.1 17, 2 1:i - :.15n, :11 1-:115, :H 7-:U9 , 350, :Jt,:!-: JI; 1
and in ltll ' llolllllll llll" " y, 'J I t 'J II. and 11111 sil'1l1 1111'.11I 1111'. . .111 ,I I'l an d l'l 'dlill d .lI lO )', 'J I I 'J t« dda )' 01 , :11 1 :11,'" ,1.',0 , .11 '" .11 , I d l·v d 0l'lIlO'II1 ul, :J II' 'J I' I in ha n u" " y, :.! Ih :J17 in llwlmlit' pl'IH '!,lio" , :.!U7-:lUK. :.! I I, :.!I:.I-:.II:I, :I n - :l'I ~ 1
F feedback, 1.'i:.!- 15:i exteroc ep tive, 152 p ro pr io n 'p tive. 152-1.';:-I frequ ency, 9 4. 101-102,225 int cmational stan dard for. 101, 225 relatio n to pitch. 101 -10:.1. fun d amental frequenc y, 10,1 fund am ental track ing. Wi fusion . 112
G Ca~to n' s considerations, 17-19 Gesta lt laws an d organizational p rincip le s, 17'2. :.1 1:.1. 2 13, ·1OfI-402 co m mon dir ec tio n. -101 -102 l'ragn anz, -101 p ro ximi ty, 101 similar ity, 401 sim plicity, 401 gn m mar, 2 12. 297- 2 91i compos itio nal. 2 12. 297-29l:'1 gt:ne rali v(,,212 listen ing , 2 12, 2!17-29X
H harmonic (:1_\ to m.. component]. IllI ha rmo ny, 2 lJ -2 1~ J, 2/jO evaluation of, :.WO historit'a l dl ' vt'lo pIlIl'1l1of. 2 1:i, '21,1 urga niT.al it>llilll'rinril' llos in, 2 Ih-2 1!' I"'ret·plllal o rga llil.atio n HI', :l15- :l1!J structural d l'UMh 'rislit'H01'. 2 11-:.1 15, 2 Ui llaw thunu- 1'1'1'1 '1'1, 71; 1ll'l1Iispllt'l'iI' SI"·I·iillit; lli" n. :I:l.'i-: I:lti, -l:l ~ l h i,'rilrd linl ll" 'l t l'I,lllill ~l l lIl I U I Ill I\, 117, Il i/ , IT.! 17S, :J1 1 :.! 1:.!,:l.lh-:.! IIf,:.! W:.I 1I
" l l1 wlml,., :l11-:.1. I'2, :l:Ih-'2 IO, 2 Ill-:J,l I o ll liylhrll, 1·1 7, !ti7, 17'i· 17."> 11I Ulo llWllioll H'd udi,, " ill, 17:1, :.1:m -:.1,10 Iillt· inlt'n·a l., in, 2:JH-:.1J 9 tll111'-_\pa n rt'tludiOil in. 17.1, :l:m tona l hu-rurchy in, 2:i7-2;m ha il' cells , m - 9!J inner, !/X
OUU' r, !Iii halo e ffect. 7fi H t'W _ 9-1 heterodyning, I III I
idiot sav am, 392- 39:1 improvisation, 285-29·1 a\ a le:u:h ing tool . :.1!1:1-2! 11 definition of, 2117 ev a luatio n of, 2 9 1 -2~I :i hil-tori ca l aspects o f. 2H.'i- 2 H7 in jazz. :lli7, 21l!1- 2!J1 ne urobiologica l a nd molOl aSI "'(t ~ tot. 2111l- 21i!J in formation theory , 2:.10- :.1:.1 1. :.1 1:\- :.1 ,111, :.!.'.! 35 1 and mu sical mcanmg, 2,1:1, :.!.'.9, :1.'. 1 dcflnfnon o f, 2 -t:J- 2 -1-1 in IJuan lifying Ionul stn'llK\ h, :.!:.!I I -'J.'2I inle llsily, Il K- I:.10, 12:.1, 1'2:I- I:.! ,1 d efini tion o[ 119 k-vel o f. II !I- l:lO relanon tu loud rws'\ , 11 K, 1'2:.1, 1:.1:1 I:.! I inh' rferenr c, 10:1, Ill!l Imerleaved melodu-s, [7.'\- 176 , :.107- '2t)1I lntermediatr AfraHIT(.\ uf Afmi r Au dia/rml, I!': 262 inn-r narional frCIIUt'IU"}' sta.ut u d , 101, :.!:.!., tnn-rvals, I 10- 11-1 appa n-ut puch 01'. I I:.!- I I:I "lipa n'n t siT\' IIf, 11:1- 11-1 r ha racn-ristu' ralios Il l', I I:i fOlN m'IIlI·I'·(lis""ll1alJ{,t· .. [ I IO-II :.! low{/ lo ts o/ Musil /.iltrary. I!/J , :.Iii:!
J
J ~\'y fll /l l {/Ii/( '"
1' ll l/ fIIl t/11I1II 1
L
:r.w,
1, ·;tlllill~.
7-1--1U, ;H ~ l, :1l' l'i-:I Kh , :1%- ·1Oii,l J!)- ·l 'J.'l. h. 'ha\"ioral th. 'u ri.'!1 uf, 3~ J7 -IIMI. ,W;;-·j(fh
tl 'KlI iIi Vt' theories
or, ,l( l(1-405
dd illihon u f, ;Ut 'i-:1Xfi
nomuuxical, 7·I- lU I'l';n-tira l suggl.'st i(,l1s rega rd ing, ,i l! i- ·j1'J. 11'1111.,1"'1" in , iii li,Io '''''' h it' fard!)' . :lli:i l
andlu-a rtng 10:;"\_ 1'1.7-1:1.9 d"finilio ll of, li t'! Il'Vt'I n f, 1'1.2 nn-asuremem (If, 119-123 rt·latiomh ip 10 in tensi ty. 11K 122.
1'l.:i - r.U SUlIlI1Mlio li o f.
J:l5- 127
lo w puch, 101;
M 11l."killl\:. 1:.!·1- 12.'i n ..·.lI l1n" (m usiu l), :l-l3. 25 9, 3 17, :;1-17-353
.md lIlf"rmil lion theor y. 243 , 259. 35 1 ,1..fl1l1lioll of, :H !l-;i 50 , I", i/(II;lli\l(', 3 17, 3.')0
,·mh" di,·d. 3 17, :-l,-in 'Iuri,.I,I"" co ntr ib ut ing to , ::l5 1-::l:i:1 ft!m'unr,l I{ A/ldiw l Ahilities, IX4 , W:l, :l(i l 1I1O' I ,~ l a ll " I I/i- I 17 lIU'J,uly, 2(J(;- :,WI, :l10-:l.n, 25 K-:l/iO {It'finilillil o f, :lOK, 2 13 ""a ln,llio n o f, :l.'iX-2fiO K'K ,dne.~s in, 2SM- 260 m .'lIIo ry for , 2,10-2 13 1" 'H"'Vtlla l orga ni7.ation of, 2 10-2 1:1, 2 1tl- 2-1:1 str m ll tral c ha racte ristics of, 20X-2 1t1 IIWtlllll rehea rsa l. 2 75 i\lt' rr iam's fUlld io ll .~ , 10-14 un-n-r, I·Hi, 14K, Hil, ](i(i- 170 la-ut o rg a n i7A1l io n in, l,i X, 161 It·" I·ls o f, HiM IK'H'{'I,lhm ol~ Hili-1 7ll uuud, XI. 27,1, lO5 "'rsus b ra in . XI, 27 ,1. 1Il5 mO{ ll · ~.
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rk-fuutnm o f. tllo liv" tion, 2X:I,1 2 l fo r performa nrc, 2K1
movemen t. 71, l:il - l!i7. IX:.!. 2:.!() a nd r hyth m fl<-' rn' ptio n, 151- 1."17 melod ic, 220 Mo zart e ffect, 7-1-75 . 7X-X3, 397, H I mulnphomcs, 10,1 mu si c, 9. 10-3 4, H -tU, If... and advertisi ng, 55 -63 and an tisocial be hav ior, 64 -65 and ch ild re n's televisio n, 59-60 and religion, H - 46 as an aid in uonmu.• leallearnin g, 7,t- X:"! as untertainmcnt, 1i:1-(i,1 as reward. 75 - 76 as therapy. IX, 6!J- 74 biological a nd evolutionary aspt'CLs of.
19-21. 26, 29- 32, 164 co m mercial aSI)l;'C1s of, 48-69 [unctio ns of. 9. 10- 21. 25 in ce re mon ies. 4 ·1 - 4M m ilita ry uses of, 46-4 7 orga nization of. 2 1-22, 22~2:1 origins o f, 25 -3:2 phys tologic al n 'spoll sCS to. -B - 014
socioc ultural aSl'txl.s of, 10- 17. :H - :H, 65 tim e b asis o f. 22. :2,1 vcrbal resl)l;JlIsc to • .i j
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neummustcology. -1:1 1- -(:1:1 new agt· m usic. ,I!' n o ise, !J.l noisin ess. 119 nonlinear oscillating models. 115- 116
o n set, 1:10- 13 1 ossk-les, 96 ov al w in dow. !)(i ove rtone, I (j,l
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partial. 10·1 partia l recall, theo ry o f. 337-33X perception, 5. 102- IOK, 117- 127, 13()- I:n , l.il -157. 166- 170. 24iJ-2H an d 1I10 V(' me nt, 1."1:2- 15:1 definition of, 5 of lo ud ness, 117-1 27 of melod y, 2 4 0~24 :i of meter, 166-170 of pitch , 102-IOK
of rh ythm. 151- 157 of timbre, 13 0-133 performance, 27:.1-2K.'i. ·120. HO abstract p la ns in . 277- 27K an xiety in, 2Xfl-2K.'i as p ~ ydlOlIl ol or lu-huvior, :l7,1- 27Ii t.'xlH'rlisf' in , :l7(i-:2Xll. 1:10 l' XIJll'.ssion in . :27X-:27!1 mmur xkill.• in. 27-1 nm ti vatluu for. 'lK:i I" " f lin ' It"('h n if!tU's ftll. 27'1-27li.
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redund.uny. 2:1. 2,1. 'l lt i. 'l -j.( -'l 'l fi, :\.1 :1 a m i p t f' fi ' H' Ilf' {" 2·1."1 ntl lttt';II, :2 ,I. :2 ,I:'i. :H :1 !' ('tn ·p lllal. :2 .j.( - 2 1."1. :1,l:i sln td u ra l. 2 15. :11:1 H'ft'u'nli,llistl l, .'il. :1:17 ...·II'..-l iu lI. 9 ,"I n-Inu tuur. !I."I n ·int ulI,·III' ·lIt. :199- liNl. t 'll. ,1'1.:.!
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l hkl, 14 K, 160 , ](;1 ta ste , deflnfuon o f. :m J. :-I6:l te ac hing, IMX- 190, ·119 -42 2 fo r rhy th mic deve lop ment, I XM- I !H) p ract ical suggesuons for , ·119-421 tem po . U6, 149 . 11,0-166 mod ulation in, 164- Hili pe rception o f, ](;0- 166 u« of MUIlallity, 16 1 terrachords, 22.'i-216 th res hold shifl. 12i - 12l'1 timbre, 130-13 3 aspects o f, 131-132 d efi nitio n o f, 1:10 meusurerne n t of, I ;{ :~ recogn ition o f, [:{1- I:I::I relations h ip to waveform , 130 tran sien t ch aracte ristics in, 13 1~ 1 :~:.1 tim e keeper modds. 1.')5 to na l hiera rchy, :.1:~7-23M ton aluy. 215. 2 19-:.!22, 2·t2 -:'! ·13 d efin itio n o f, 2 15, 2 19-:.110 det er min a nts or, 22 0-11 2 in melod ic recall. 2 12 -1U strength of. 2:.10-22 1
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