PET Clinics Vol 3 Issue 03 2009 Pediatric PET Imaging

Pediatric PET Imaging

Preface

Hongming Zhuang, MD, PhD

Abass Alavi, MD, MD (Hon), PhD (Hon), DSc (Hon)

Guest Editors

addition, the tracer biodistribution in pediatric patients is not the same as in adults. For example, thymic uptake is more common and brown adipose tissue activity is more widespread in the pediatric population. More importantly, the types of disease present in the pediatric population differ substantially from those in adults. Nuclear medicine procedures, including PET and PET/CT, are relatively underutilized in the field of pediatrics. In this issue of Positron Emission Tomography Clinics, the current applications of PET and PET/CT in the pediatric population are reviewed. Although most reviews have focused on the applications of PET and PET/CT in the evaluation of pediatric malignancies such as sarcomas and lymphomas, other potential applications of FDG PET in the pediatric population, such as detection of the source of fever of unknown origin, are also discussed. Finally, the high sensitivity and accuracy of F-DOPA PET/CT imaging in the identifying and localizing focal lesion in child suffering congenital hyperinsulinism are discussed. It is our belief that the list of applications of PET and PET/CT for probating diseases and disorders will surely increase in the coming years.

Hongming Zhuang, MD, PhD Associate Professor or Radiology University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine Chief of Division of Nuclear Medicine Department of Radiology The Childrens Hospital of Philadelphia Philadelphia, PA, USA

PET Clin 3 (2009) xi–xii doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2009.06.002 1556-8598/09/$ – see front matter ª 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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In the past few years, PET/CT imaging has become an indispensable modality in the evaluation of a variety of pathological processes in the adult population. In particular, PET/CT has played a vital role in the management of patients with a substantial members of malignancies.1,2 PET imaging is also increasingly playing a major role in the detection of many neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer disease and seizure disorders.3-5 FDG PET findings have become the gold standard in the determination of myocardial viability.6 Mismatch between decreased blood flow and increased glucose metabolism demonstrated by FDG, an indicator of myocardial viability, can predict postrevascularization improvement in heart function and long-term survival.7 Furthermore, PET/CT is emerging as a very valuable modality in the management of many infectious and inflammatory processes.8 Compared to the adult population, the literature regarding PET/CT in the management of pediatric patients is just emerging. The role and the importance of PET/CT and PET are becoming clear in the field of pediatrics as more experience is gained in regards to this population. Since pediatric patients are distinct biologically from the adults, many issues that are specific to this population need to be taken into consideration. First, the protocols for PET/CT imaging in pediatric patients differ from adults. Sedation and anesthesia are frequently necessary to achieve optimal diagnostic images. Also, a reduction in radiation dose, an issue which is of concern in the adult population,9 is ever more critical in pediatric patients. In

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Preface Abass Alavi, MD, MD (Hon), PhD (Hon), DSc (Hon) Professor of Radiology Director of Research Education Department of Radiology Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA, USA E-mail addresses: [email protected] (H. Zhuang) [email protected] (A. Alavi)

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REFERENCES 1. Bockisch A, Freudenberg LS, Schmidt D, et al. Hybrid imaging by SPECT/CT and PET/CT: proven outcomes in cancer imaging. Semin Nucl Med 2009;39(4):276–89. 2. De Wever W, Coolen J, Verschakelen JA. Integrated PET/CT and cancer imaging. Jbr-Btr 2009;92(1):13–9. 3. Foster NL, Heidebrink JL, Clark CM, et al. FDG-PET improves accuracy in distinguishing frontotemporal

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dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Brain 2007; 130(Pt 10):2616–35. Coleman RE. Positron emission tomography diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2005;15(4):837–46, x. Alavi A, Hirsch LJ. Studies of central nervous system disorders with single photon emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography: evolution over the past 2 decades. Semin Nucl Med 1991;21(1):58–81. Chacko GN. PET imaging in cardiology. Hell J Nucl Med 2005;8(3):140–4. Ghesani M, Depuey EG, Rozanski A. Role of F-18 FDG positron emission tomography (PET) in the assessment of myocardial viability. Echocardiography 2005; 22(2):165–77. Zhuang H, Alavi A. 18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomographic imaging in the detection and monitoring of infection and inflammation. Semin Nucl Med 2002;32(1):47–59. Brenner DJ, Hall EJ. Computed tomography–an increasing source of radiation exposure. N Engl J Med 2007;357(22):2277–84.

Pediatric PET Imaging

Contents Preface

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Hongming Zhuang and Abass Alavi

Patient Preparation and Performance of PET/CT Scans in Pediatric Patients

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Michael J. Gelfand and Susan E. Sharp Appropriate patient preparation is necessary for high-quality PET and PET/CT imaging in children and adolescents. Standard adult protocols and techniques will sometimes give suboptimal results, so attention to specific pediatric protocols is important. Additionally, attempts should be made to limit radiation doses, as pediatric patients are more sensitive to the effects of radiation. Administered [F-18]2-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose activities may be reduced using weight based protocols, and CT parameters should be reduced to appropriate pediatric levels, with low-dose localization settings used when diagnostic-quality CT images are not needed. Complicating factors, such as patient motion and brown adipose-tissue uptake, are more commonly encountered in pediatric patients, and appropriate measures should be taken to limit their impact on imaging.

PET in the Assessment of Pediatric Brain Development and Developmental Disorders

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Ajay Kumar and Harry T. Chugani This article discusses and reviews the role and contribution of PET in understanding the structural and functional changes that occur during brain development, and how these changes relate to behavioral and cognitive development in the infant and child. Data regarding various aspects of brain development, such as glucose metabolism, protein synthesis, and maturation and development of neurotransmitter systems will help in understanding the pathogenesis and neurologic basis of various developmental and neurologic disorders. This may help in following disease evolution and progression, planning and development of various therapeutic interventions, timing these interventions and monitoring their responses, and rendering long-term prognostication.

Clinical Application of PET in Pediatric Brain Tumors

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Wei Chen While rare in adults, central nervous system tumor is the most common solid tumor in childhood and is the leading cause of cancer death in children. Childhood brain tumors are different from those in adults in epidemiology, histologic features, and responses to treatment. Gliomas make up over one-half of all childhood brain tumors. Clinical application of PET imaging in brain tumors has demonstrated that it is helpful in tumor grading, establishing prognosis, defining targets for biopsy, and planning resection. This article emphasizes PET applications in childhood brain tumors, focusing on mainly gliomas with regard to tumor-grading and prognosis, distinguishing tumor recurrence from radiation necrosis, and PET guided diagnosis and treatment.

The Use of PET in the Evaluation of Tumors in Children with Neurofibromatosis Type 1 Michael J. Fisher Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is one of the most common tumor predisposition disorders. The role of PET for distinguishing tumor from non-malignant processes,

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detecting and grading tumors, evaluating tumor margins, predicting prognosis, directing biopsy, planning treatment, and evaluating response to therapy has been established for a wide variety of benign and malignant tumors. Children with NF1 are particularly at risk for the development of tumors of the peripheral and central nervous system, such as neurofibromas, malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors, and low-grade astrocytomas of the optic pathway and other brain regions. This article reviews the role of PET in the management of these NF1-associated tumors of childhood.

PET/CT in the Evaluation of Neuroblastoma

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Susan E. Sharp, Michael J. Gelfand, and Barry L. Shulkin I-123–metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) is the most commonly used functional imaging agent in patients with neuroblastoma, but use of [F-18]- FDG PET is increasing. MIBG is useful for defining the extent of disease at diagnosis, following response to treatment, and localizing residual and recurrent disease. In early-stage disease, FDG is often better concentrated in tumor sites than MIBG. In all stages, disease extent in the chest, abdomen, and pelvis and local metastases may be better delineated by FDG. In advanced-stage disease, MIBG is superior for following the treatment response of metastatic tumor in the marrow and bone. Several C-11– and F-18–labeled tracers may be equal to or superior to I-123-MIBG if supply problems can be resolved.

PET and PET/CT in Pediatric Sarcomas

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M. Beth McCarville Because of the rarity of pediatric bone and soft tissue malignancies, it is difficult to validate the role of emerging imaging technologies in their management. The growing body of literature regarding the use of PET and PET/CT in children supports the continued investigation of this modality in the management of pediatric sarcomas. This article reviews the current literature regarding FDGPET imaging in the management of pediatric sarcomas and presents important pitfalls in PET/CT imaging of these patients that the author, her colleagues, and others have encountered.

Fluorine-18 DOPA-PET and PET/CT Imaging in Congenital Hyperinsulinism

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Mohamed Houseni, Wichana Chamroonrat, Hongming Zhuang, MiGuel Hernandez-Pampolini, and Abass Alavi Congenital hyperinsulinism is the principle cause of hypoglycemia during infancy but successful treatment is difficult and persistent hypoglycemia carries the risk of neurologic damage. Focal and diffuse abnormalities are the common forms of hyperinsulinism. Identification and localization of focal hyperinsulinism can be cured by partial pancreatectomy. It has been shown that affected pancreatic areas utilize LDOPA in a higher rate than normal pancreatic tissue and, thus, labeling L-DOPA with fluorine-18 (FDOPA) allows functional mapping of hyperinsulinism using PET. This article presents a fundamental overview of the genetics background, pathology, management, and the role of FDOPA-PET imaging in hyperinsulinism.

Pediatric Cardiac PET Imaging Amol Takalkar, MiGuel Hernandez-Pampaloni, Gang Cheng, Hongming Zhuang, and Abass Alavi Cardiac PET imaging can play a significant role in assessing and managing children with congenital and acquired heart disorders but remains largely underused for

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multiple reasons, not related to the accuracy or usefulness of the modality. Current work focusing on evaluation of cardiac innervation, cardiac receptor function and noninvasive cardiac gene therapy assessment with PET imaging has tremendous potential to revolutionize cardiac evaluation. Awareness and widespread availability of PET systems is expected to increase use of cardiac PET applications in the pediatric population. The advent of integrated PET/CT systems with advanced CT technology and the possible integrated PET/MR imaging systems opens even more promising future possibilities for cardiac evaluation in a one-stop approach.

The Role of PET/CT in the Monitoring and Diagnosis of Pediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease

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Roland Hustinx and Edouard Louis Ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease are chronic immune-mediated inflammatory diseases that affect the digestive tract. Major progresses have been made in our comprehension the underlying molecular substrate of these diseases, and therapeutic algorithms have greatly changed over the past decade. In this article, we review the various methods for monitoring the activity of inflammatory bowel disease, with a particular emphasis on [F-18]2-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose PET and PET/CT imaging.

Applications of PET/CT in Pediatric Patients with Fever of Unknown Origin

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Mohamed Houseni, Wichana Chamroonrat, Sabah Servaes, Abass Alavi, and Hongming Zhuang Fever of unknown origin (FUO) is a challenging problem. In children, FUO is critical, as it may hide a life threatening disease. One of the main difficulties in managing patients with FUO is the absence of a universal diagnostic approach. There are many impending causes for FUO. Most cases are attributable to atypical presentations of common diseases. The key to establishing the diagnosis is through comprehensive clinical data and targeted investigations. Despite all efforts, the underlying cause remains undiagnosed in many cases. PET/CT is a powerful modality that has been proven to be useful in many common causes that could emerge as FUO. This article reviews the utility of PET/CT imaging in children with FUO.

FDG PET and PET/CT in the Management of Pediatric Lymphoma Patients

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Gang Cheng, Sabah Servaes, Abass Alavi, and Hongming Zhuang Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) PET has an ever-increasing role in the management of Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas, which has been demonstrated in numerous studies in the adult population. In children and adolescents, however, only a limited number of studies have investigated the role of FDG PET in lymphoma. This article reviews the currently available literature on the clinical application of FDG PET in the management of childhood lymphoma. The authors believe that FDG PET (and especially PET/CT) is a valuable imaging modality in the initial diagnosis, response assessment, and post-therapy residual evaluation of Hodgkin’s and FDG-avid non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas in children and adolescents, and will have a significant impact on the clinical management of pediatric lymphoma.

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Pediatric PET Imaging

PET Clinics FORTHCOMING ISSUES

RECENT ISSUES

January 2009

July 2008

New Tracers Robert Mach, PhD, Guest Editor

PET/CT and PET/MRI forAssessment of Structural and Functional Relationships in Disease Conditions Drew A. Torigian, MD, MA, and Abass Alavi, MD, MD (Hon), PhD (Hon), DSc (Hon), Guest Editors

April 2009 Molecular Imaging of Prostate Cancer Hossein Jadvar, MD, PhD, MPH, MBA, Guest Editor

April 2008 PET/CT in Gastrointestinal Cancer Roland Hustinx, MD, PhD, Guest Editor

REL ATED INTEREST January 2009 Radiologic Clinics of North America Advances in MDCT Dushyant Sahani, MD, and Vahid Yaghmai, MD, Guest Editors

THE CLINICS ARE NOW AVAILABLE ONLINE! Access your subscription at: www.theclinics.com

Patient Preparation and Per formance of PET/C T Scans in Pediatric Patients Michael J. Gelfand, MDa,b,*, Susan E. Sharp, MDa,b KEYWORDS  Patient preparation  Artifacts  PET/CT  Imaging protocols  Dose reduction

CREATING A SAFE CLINICAL ENVIRONMENT FOR IMAGING Pediatric emergency equipment and supplies must be provided and maintained wherever pediatric examinations are performed. This is especially important if PET/CT scanners are located in adult hospitals or imaging centers. Available equipment and supplies must include pediatric resuscitation equipment (including airway and intubation supplies), intravenous supplies, and

suction supplies. Personnel should have appropriate training in pediatric resuscitation. Emergency drugs should be supplied, with charts of appropriate pediatric doses. If a mobile imaging trailer is used, pediatric supplies and equipment must be taken to the mobile unit. Oxygen and suction must also be immediately available, if not already supplied, in the mobile imaging trailer.

PATIENT PREPARATION For FDG-PET/CT body imaging, pediatric patients should have nothing by mouth for 4 hours before administration of FDG. In addition, no glucose should be infused during the 4-hour period before FDG administration if the study is performed to evaluate patients with suspected or known malignancies. When oral contrast is part of the preparative regimen for CT, only artificially sweetened contrast should be used. If the patient eats, receives intravenous glucose, or is given sugar containing oral contrast during this 4-hour period, the patient will secrete insulin; this will increase the amount of FDG entering skeletal muscle and therefore degrade image quality. Plasma glucose should be tested before the study. However, in contrast to adult patients, elevated fasting-glucose levels are very uncommon in pediatric oncology patients. If the patient has type I diabetes, the patient’s physician

a Nuclear Medicine Section, Department of Radiology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, MLC 5031, 3333 Burnet Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45229-3039, USA b Department of Radiology, University of Cincinnati, 231 Albert Sabin Way, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0761, USA * Corresponding author. Department of Radiology, University of Cincinnati, 231 Albert Sabin Way, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0761, USA. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.J. Gelfand).

PET Clin 3 (2009) 473–485 doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2009.04.001 1556-8598/09/$ – see front matter ª 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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PET/CT has had a significant impact on the diagnosis and treatment of oncologic diseases in children and adolescents. [F-18]2-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose (FDG) PET/CT imaging has been useful in lymphoma, neuroblastoma, and many sarcomas, including osteogenic sarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, and rhabdomyosarcoma.1–5 FDG-PET has also been useful in the evaluation of children with intractable epilepsy who are being considered for surgical ablation of their seizure focus.6 If adult techniques and protocols are used for PET/CT scans in pediatric patients, some of the scans that are acquired will be of suboptimal quality. With appropriate attention to the imaging needs of children and adolescents, optimal quality PET/CT imaging can almost always be achieved. This article reviews patient preparation and appropriate design of pediatric PET/CT protocols.

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Gelfand & Sharp should be consulted for appropriate management of oral intake and insulin administration. For cardiac imaging with FDG, a different approach is followed to enhance cardiac-muscle FDG uptake, as described in the section, ‘‘FDG Myocardial Imaging.’’ FDG brain imaging protocols are also discussed separately in the subsection ‘‘FDG brain imaging for intractable epilepsy,’’ later in this article. At the authors’ institution, PET body imaging is begun 50 to 60 minutes after FDG injection. The time when imaging is started is based on available adult tumor uptake data, but unfortunately these data are based on adult tumors that are quite dissimilar to pediatric solid tumors.7 If the patient is too young to hold still and cooperate with imaging, sedation will be needed. When sedation is given, it is administered immediately before imaging. Sedation protocols vary from hospital to hospital, and sedation practice should conform to the individual hospital’s regulations. Oral intake is restricted for up to 8 hours before sedation. However, some sedation protocols permit intake of clear liquids up to 2 hours before sedation in infants; in this case, the more stringent 4-hour restriction on glucose intake should be followed as closely as possible. As with adults, patients should not engage in strenuous exercise for 48 hours before the PET/ CT scan; muscles that have been heavily exercised may continue to have increased glucose utilization for at least 24 hours. Patients should also lie still during the period from FDG injection until imaging is started to avoid uptake in skeletal muscle. Even nonstrenuous activity during the uptake period can result in FDG activity in muscle. Patients should void immediately before imaging. If there is high activity of FDG in the bladder at the time of imaging, ‘‘star artifacts’’ may be seen on axial images through the bladder. Protocols exist in adults that minimize the amount of bladder activity, but these have not been evaluated in children. If part of the injected activity is infiltrated at the intravenous site or if more than a trivial amount of activity is left behind in an injection port, a similar ‘‘star artifact’’ will be seen on axial images at the level of the infiltration site.

TIMING OF FDG IMAGING IN RELATION TO CHEMOTHERAPY Multidrug chemotherapy in pediatric oncology usually involves multiple courses of chemotherapeutic agents separated by rest periods that allow the patient’s marrow elements to recover. For example, in a commonly used protocol for

pediatric intermediate-risk Hodgkin’s disease, a course of chemotherapy consists of six drugs that are given over 8 days; then there is then a rest period of 13 days before the next course of chemotherapy is administered. A total of four cycles of chemotherapy are given. Successful therapy of Hodgkin’s disease will often result in complete disappearance of all FDG tumor uptake during the first course of chemotherapy, with no reappearance of tumor uptake during the remainder of treatment or during the follow-up period.8 Whenever possible, it is suggested that FDGPET/CT be performed shortly before a course of chemotherapy is scheduled to begin. FDG uptake during the first days of a course of chemotherapy may underestimate disease extent before the course of chemotherapy, and may not give an accurate picture of the amount of tumor that remains viable after the course of the chemotherapy. In an adult study, FDG uptake at 20 days after chemotherapy gave a more accurate representation of the effectiveness of chemotherapy than FDG uptake shortly after the onset of chemotherapy.9 In some pediatric chemotherapy protocols, there are no rest periods inbetween courses of chemotherapy, with some chemotherapy given every week. In these protocols, FDG-PET/CT imaging should be performed shortly before the next weekly round of chemotherapy. In tumors that respond slowly, the effect of chemotherapy on FDG uptake is usually less dramatic, and FDG imaging is clinically effective even if performed between two closely spaced rounds of chemotherapy. Cell stimulating factors, including granulocyte cell stimulating factor (G-CSF), will cause a marked increase in FDG localization in normal bone marrow, as demonstrated in Fig. 1. Unfortunately, if there is a focal metastasis in bone marrow, it may be obscured by confluent-intense marrow stimulated by G-CSF. This is rarely a problem with lymphoma, as focal metastases in areas that contain hematopoetic marrow are uncommon after initial treatment, but it may be a problem in patients with other tumors, such as neuroblastoma.10 This potential problem often can be avoided by scheduling FDG imaging just before the next scheduled course of chemotherapy. Unfortunately, at this time the PET imaging literature does not indicate how many days should elapse between the last dose of a cell stimulating factor and attempted FDG imaging. Experimental work in animals indicates that the amount of FDG uptake in bone marrow increases with both increasing doses and repeated administration of cell stimulating factors.11,12

Patient Preparation and Performance of PET/CT

Fig. 1. FDG-PET maximum-intensity projection (MIP) images in an adolescent boy with Ewing sarcoma. (A) Image obtained at diagnosis shows uptake in the primary left scapular tumor (arrow.) (B) Image obtained after chemotherapy and G-CSF administration shows a reduction in tumor uptake of FDG and markedly increased uptake throughout the bone marrow related to G-CSF.

PREVENTION OF FDG UPTAKE IN BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue on PET and PET/CT has been recognized since 2002. In 1996, FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue was first noted adjacent to the costovertebral junctions, but at that time the uptake was attributed to muscle tension.13 In 2002, Hany and colleagues14 used PET/CT to demonstrate that the FDG uptake sometimes seen in the supraclavicular regions and adjacent to the costovertebral junctions corresponded to fat density. In the same year, uptake of I-123-metaiodobenzylguanidine, sometimes seen in the neck and shoulders, was also demonstrated to be related to cold exposure, and autoradiography in mice demonstrated that this uptake was in brown adipose tissue.15 Prior to FDG-PET/CT, brown adipose tissue was believed to completely involute during infancy. PET/CT has shown this belief to be incorrect, with FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue seen as late as the sixth decade of life. Prominent brown adipose-tissue uptake has been observed in 25% to 30% of pediatric patients in both cold and warm climates, not only in winter but also in summer.16,17 The intensity of cold stress seems to determine which regions of brown adipose tissue are activated. FDG uptake first appears in

the posterior cervical and supraclavicular regions, followed by appearance of activity in the costovertebral regions. With the greatest levels of cold stress, activity appears in the subocciptal regions and mediastinum.16 The typical distribution of brown-fat activity in an adolescent or young adult is shown in Fig. 2. However, the brown-fat distribution in the pediatric patient is generally more extensive. Many sites of brown-fat uptake occur in areas that are rich in lymph nodes. This is a particular problem in children and adolescents with lymphoma, as lymph nodes that are frequently involved in lymphoma are found in very close proximity to sites where brown adipose-tissue activation occurs; and this is particularly true in the posterior cervical regions, supraclavicular regions, and mediastinum. Some have argued that PET/CT can be used to differentiate FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue from FDG uptake in lymph nodes. Although PET/CT can be useful in differentiating between FDG uptake in lymph nodes and brown adipose tissue, this approach has significant limitations. Small amounts of patient movement (as little as 2 mm–3 mm) between the CT and PET acquisitions will result in misplacement of foci of FDG uptake on the fused, coregistered CT images, with possible misplacement of FDG uptake over lymph nodes on fused images. FDG-PET images

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Fig. 2. FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue. (A) On coronal images, there is FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue in the posterior cervical (blue arrows), supraclavicular (green arrows), and axillary (red arrows) regions. (B) On axial images, there is FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue in posterior cervical (blue arrows) and suboccipital (orange arrows) regions. (C) On axial images, there is FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue in axillary (red arrows) and costovertebral junction (orange arrows) regions. On all fused PET/CT images, there is slight misregistration of PET and CT because of patient movement.

Patient Preparation and Performance of PET/CT also have lower resolution than CT images, resulting in FDG foci appearing somewhat larger than they actually are; FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue may, therefore, appear to overlap uninvolved lymph nodes. There is often uncertainty about the significance of a focus of FDG uptake that appears to correspond to a lymph node that measures less than 1 cm (below the size threshold that raises clinical concern for malignancy on CT). An important aspect of the increased sensitivity of PET over conventional imaging in lymphoma is its ability to detect involved lymph nodes that measure less than 1 cm. If there is apparent FDG uptake in a subcentimeter lymph node, the question is whether the FDG uptake is because of neoplastic involvement or because of a tiny rest of brown adipose tissue adjacent to the lymph node. There is much less uncertainty if FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue is well blocked by appropriate patient preparation. If FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue is adequately blocked, the risk of false-negative and false-positive observations is reduced. Finally, PET and PET/CT scans are much easier and faster to read if there is no brown-fat uptake on the scan. An example of complicating brown-fat activity is shown in Fig. 3. Two approaches have been used to successfully block cold stimulation of brown adipose tissue. The simplest approach is to warm the patient and avoid cold stimulation. Patients can be asked to dress warmly (more warmly than required by the outside temperature) and to turn

down the automobile air conditioning on the way to the hospital or PET center. Patients can then be held in a warm room or warmed with preheated blankets for 30 to 60 minutes before FDG injection. One study kept patients in a 25 C (77 F) holding room for 30 to 60 minutes, with a marked decrease in the frequency of significant brown adiposetissue uptake on subsequent FDG-PET scans.17 It is important to remember that patients must be warmed before FDG injection; warming after FDG injection is ineffective. The second approach is to pharmacologically block FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue. Several drugs block transmission of coldreceptor impulses through the hypothalamus and abolish postoperative shivering; these drugs are potentially useful as blocking agents of cold-induced FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue. The initial report in 1996 suggested that oral diazepam can be used to block FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue, and diazepam and other benzdiazopines have been used in adults.13 Opiates are considered to be more effective blockers of cold-induced impulse transmission through the hypothalamus than benzdiazopines. Fentanyl has been used successfully in schoolaged children and adolescents.16 Another approach that has been validated in animals and described in adults is pretreatment with the beta-blocker propranolol.18–20 Of interest, one report states that nicotine and ephedrine enhance uptake of FDG in brown adipose tissue, so these drugs should be avoided.21 Fig. 3. FDG-PET MIP images in a young woman with multiple metastases. (A) Initial image shows uptake in multiple metastatic foci within the spine, pelvis, and proximal long bones. (B) Follow-up image again shows uptake in multiple metastatic foci, but interpretation is complicated by significant amounts of FDG uptake in mediastinal, costovertebral, retroperitoneal (perinephric), lateral abdominal wall, and diaphragmatic brown adipose tissue.

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Gelfand & Sharp Almost all of the studies that describe blockade of FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue by prewarming or pharmacologic means suffer from serious design deficiencies. In most studies, patients with FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue were studied again after prewarming or pharmacologic intervention. This study design introduces obvious biases. Subsequently it was observed that patients, in the absence of intervention, will have FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue on one study and no FDG uptake on another study, in either order.22 Two studies in pediatric patients, mentioned above, used a different design, and looked at separate cohorts of patients who either received an intervention or no intervention before FDG administration. In one study, the intervention was pretreatment with fentanyl 10 minutes prior FDG injection.16 In the other, the intervention was warming the patient for 30 to 60 minutes in a temperature-controlled room at 25 C.17 In both cases, the frequency of significant FDG uptake in brown adipose tissue was decreased from a range of 25% to 30% to a range of 5% to 10%.

DESIGN OF IMAGING PROTOCOLS CT and PET are complex imaging modalities. Bringing the two technologies together in a single scanner keeps the complexity of each modality and adds a number of additional complexities that are uniquely related to the fusion of the two technologies. Design of imaging protocols must take in account, not only the usual protocol design considerations of PET and CT, but also artifact prevention in the combined PET/CT study and minimization of absorbed radiation dose in children and adolescents who are imaged. Many of the PET/CT protocol design questions have been discussed in adults by Beyer and colleagues.23

SCOPE OF THE EXAMINATION In adult nuclear medicine, most PET/CT examinations image the body from the base of the brain to the upper thighs; PET/CT examinations from the base of the brain to the feet are only occasionally performed, for example, in melanoma patients. In children and adolescents, metastases to bone occur in a large number of malignancies. The metastases are often located in the long bones, occurring most frequently in the metaphyses. Imaging from the base of the brain to the ankles should be performed routinely in many pediatric malignancies, particularly those prone to bone metastases, such as neuroblastoma and sarcomas. At the authors’ institution PET/CT scans are performed from base of brain to the

thighs only in selected oncology patients with lymphoma, limited to patients who have had negative PET/CT scans of the lower extremities in the past. Other oncology patients receive PET/CT scans from the base of the brain to the ankles.

AVOIDING ARTIFACTS RELATED TO ATTENUATION CORRECTION AND MISREGISTRATION OF PET AND CT IMAGES Misregistration and attenuation-correction artifacts occur when an organ or body part is not in the same position during the CT and PET acquisitions, or when the radiodensity of an organ or body part changes significantly between the CT and PET acquisitions. If the patient cannot hold still from the start of the CT acquisition through the end of PET acquisition, appropriate sedation or general anesthesia must be arranged; appropriate no-oral-intake status for sedation or general anesthesia must also be anticipated, as previously discussed. Nothing-taken-by-mouth instructions must be clearly communicated to the patient’s parents so that the PET/CT study and sedation or general anesthesia do not have to be rescheduled because of prohibited oral intake. Artifacts related to respiratory motion are often difficult to eliminate. A multidetector CT scan can be acquired rapidly during a breath-hold. In contrast, a PET acquisition must be acquired during normal tidal respiration because of the long imaging time. A diagnostic-quality CT scan of the chest is best acquired during full inspiration. Several studies, including one in pediatric and adolescent patients, demonstrate that larger numbers of pulmonary nodules are detected when the chest CT scan is acquired during full inspiration rather than during free breathing.24–29 Patients with osteogenic sarcoma may present with tumor nodules in the lung or develop nodules during treatment. Lung involvement may be present at the time of diagnosis in Ewing’s sarcoma and lymphoma. Unfortunately, there are little published data about the frequency of metastatic disease in the lung at relapse of tumors other than osteogenic sarcoma. Even in lymphoma, there are limited data in only two adult studies.30,31 As a result, the decision of whether or not to perform a diagnostic-quality full-inspiration chest CT in pediatric tumor patients at follow-up is often made without adequate information about the a priori probability of finding new lung metastases. When a full-inspiration diagnostic CT scan of the chest is used for attenuation correction, the diaphragm is in different positions during the PET and CT studies. As a result, the inferior portions of the lungs and superior portions of the liver and

Patient Preparation and Performance of PET/CT spleen will be in different positions on the PET and CT scans. In an adolescent patient, the position of the diaphragm may be up to 4-cm lower on the full-inspiration CT scan than on the PET scan obtained during tidal respiration. If the CT scan is used for attenuation correction, the most superior portions of the liver will ‘‘disappear’’ on the attenuation correction PET scan because ‘‘incorrect’’ attenuation correction values corresponding to the radiodensity of the lungs are being used for portions of the liver near the diaphragm. Lesions with increased FDG uptake may become difficult to see or disappear on attenuation-corrected PET images, as shown in Fig. 4. Artifacts may occur along the diaphragm. For these reasons, a full-inspiration CT scan cannot be used for attenuation correction of PET images acquired at tidal respiration.32–34 The best match in the position of the diaphragm between CT and PET occurs when the CT is acquired during end-tidal respiration.35 A breathhold at end-tidal inspiration has been suggested as the optimal breath-hold maneuver during CT acquisition; however, in the authors’ institution, there has been limited success with pediatric patients holding the diaphragm and chest in endtidal respiration during the CT portion of the study. Even with practice before the study, some patients try to sneak in a quick breath and a full-inspiration

CT scan is inadvertently acquired. As a result, the authors’ have chosen to image patients throughout the entire PET/CT study during normal tidal respiration. Because of attenuation-correction artifacts, if the PET/CT scan is used to generate optimal diagnostic-quality CT images for anatomic diagnosis, the chest must be imaged twice, once during tidal respiration in conjunction with the PET scan and again during full inspiration to maximize nodule detection. The amount of increased radiation exposure from the second acquisition of the chest CT can be limited to a relatively low additional dose, because the volume that is reimaged is considerably less than the entire CT acquisition and because some reduction in exposure settings is possible for the repeat diagnostic CT of the air containing lungs.36–39 A review of the problems associated with respiratory motion was recently published by Daou.40 If the CT scan used for attenuation correction is obtained immediately after bolus-contrast injection, there may be incorrect attenuation correction over the path of the intravenous contrast. Dense contrast in a vascular structure during CT acquisition (later to be used to calculate the attenuationcorrection matrix) will have dissipated by the time of the PET scan. There will be over-correction of the actual amount of attenuation and an

Fig. 4. Mismatch of diaphragmatic position on PET and CT. (A) Localization CT scan of the chest fused with PET images demonstrates a nodule in the left lower lobe (small faint area of reddish color at the tip of the white arrow). The nodule appears to lie above the diaphragm. The patient was asked to hold end-tidal expiration during acquisition, but instead held partial to full inspiration. (B) The same attenuation-corrected PET acquired during tidal respiration displayed without fused CT images. Because PET and CT images were acquired at different phases of respiration (CT at partial to full inspiration, and PET during tidal breathing), uptake in the nodule and nearby liver on nonattenuation-corrected images is artifactually decreased and the nodule is misplaced (black arrow) with respect to the diaphragm. (C) Nonattenuation-corrected PET. The nodule is now more clearly seen at the level of the diaphragm (black arrow). The entire liver is now visualized. (Reprinted from Gelfand MJ. Dosimetry of FDG PET/CT and other molecular imaging applications in pediatric patients. Pediatr Radiol 2009;39(S1):S46–56; with permission.)

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RADIATION DOSE AND ADMINISTERED ACTIVITY FOR PET A recent survey indicated that there is a little variation in administered FDG activities at North American children’s hospitals. Typical administered activities in children and adolescents were 0.14 mCi/kg to 0.15 mCi/kg (5.18 MBq/kg–5.55 MBq/kg). An administered activity of 0.14 mCi/kg (5.18 MBq/kq) corresponds to an administered activity of 9.8 mCi (363 mBq) in a 70-kg adult. The effective dose to the patient from this administered activity varies with age from 0.50 rem (5 mSv) in a 1 year old to 0.87 rem (8.7 mSv) in a 15 year old.43–45 PET/CT scanners sold today are capable of three-dimensional (3D) imaging, which provides much greater sensitivity than 2D imaging, but at a somewhat increased noise level. For 2D PET scanners, typical imaging times are 5 minutes per bed position. With a 3D scanner, imaging time can be decreased. An alternative that may be considered to reduce radiation dose is keeping the time per bed position at 5 minutes and reducing the administered activity for studies acquired in 3D mode.

because the increased risk of cancer from exposure to ionizing radiation was found to persist into middle age.46,47 If CT imaging parameters are kept constant, the amount of radiation absorbed by the patient increases as patient size decreases.48–50 With a moderate reduction in CT imaging parameters, the diagnostic utility of the images is not affected by the small amounts of image noise that are introduced.36,39,51–53 As these factors were recognized, particularly during the first few years of this decade, a major effort was made to educate the radiology community about the need to use the lowest radiation dose for CT in children and adolescents that was consistent with quality imaging.54–57 Subsequent surveys have indicated that education led to more appropriate practice, with widespread reduction in CT-exposure parameters used in clinical practice.58 PET/CT scanners use CT data to calculate the attenuation-correction matrix for each axial section. The needed CT data can be obtained with any of the following three approaches:

Prior to 2000, pediatric diagnostic CT studies were usually performed with adult CT exposure settings and were not modified for patient size. CT exposure settings were based on the X-ray flux needed to obtain the highest quality imaging study in adults. CT imaging settings did not take into account a number of important factors in children:

A diagnostic quality CT scan is acquired. Appropriate pediatric CT exposure parameters are used for the diagnostic CT scan, instead of adult exposure parameters very often used before 2000. A localization-CT scan is acquired. The CT images are adequate for localization of abnormal areas of radiopharmaceutic uptake, but the images are of lower quality than the diagnostic quality images obtained in the first alternative. Although a considerable amount of anatomic pathology can be recognized on these images, it is important to repeatedly caution clinicians that localization-CT images should not be considered to be a substitute for diagnostic-quality CT images. A very low-dose attenuation-only scan is acquired. No diagnostic information can be obtained from the CT images because of extremely poor image quality, but the X-ray flux is large enough to create attenuationcorrection matrices for all axial sections.

Infants, children, and to a lesser extent adolescents, are more susceptible to the carcinogenic effects of radiation than middle-aged or elderly adults.46,47 Data published in 1996 from atom bomb survivors who were exposed as children indicated the risks of radiation exposure were larger than previously estimated,

A typical effective dose for a diagnostic CT scan of the neck, chest, abdomen, and pelvis using appropriate pediatric CT exposure parameters is about 1.2 rem to 1.4 rem (12 mSv–14 mSv) (see Appendix I). Dose modulation, which adjusts the mA to the thickness of the patient along the direction of the X-ray beam as the CT tube rotates, can reduce radiation exposure without a reduction in

RADIATION DOSIMETRY AND DESIGN OF THE CT-IMAGING PROTOCOL

Patient Preparation and Performance of PET/CT image quality. The reduction in effective dose when dose modulation is used is usually about 25% to 35%. For localization-CT scans, CT-exposure parameters are deliberately reduced. Image quality may be reduced, particularly when the CT scan is viewed at soft-tissue windows. If arms or shoulders are in the field, they may create streak artifact, as demonstrated in Fig. 5. Dose modulation may be effective in preserving image quality at lower exposure settings, as well as reducing effective dose and reducing streak artifact. CT-exposure parameters should be kept high enough that lymph nodes and other small structures are clearly identified. Reduction of effective dose of 50% to 65% is possible when compared with appropriate, already reduced pediatric diagnostic-CT parameters. In addition, streak artifacts may also be significantly reduced by imaging from the base of the brain to the shoulders with the arms down, and separately imaging the chest, abdomen, and pelvis with the arms up, with enough overlap to ensure the shoulders and proximal humerii are within the field of view of one of the scans. The localization scan should not be considered to be a replacement for a high quality diagnosticCT scan. As stated earlier, a tidal respiration diagnostic-CT scan can be performed in conjunction with the PET scan, but if a full-inspiration diagnostic-CT scan is needed to detect pulmonary nodules, the chest CT will need to be repeated at full inspiration. Fahey and colleagues59 determined the minimal CT settings needed to obtain attenuation correction data without imaging. For infants and school-aged children, the required CT exposure parameters were very low: for example, 80 kVp, 5 mAs, 1.5:1 pitch. For larger teenagers, the voltage potential was increased to 120 kVp.

When exposure settings were further reduced, some noise was introduced into the attenuationcorrected images. Table 1 indicates some possible PET/CT protocols and the absorbed radiation doses associated with these protocols.

FDG-PET STUDIES LESS COMMONLY PERFORMED IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS FDG Myocardial Imaging Preparation for PET imaging of the myocardium uses a glucose load to stimulate insulin production and increase myocardial uptake of FDG. In the authors’ experience, complicated protocols that involve administration of both glucose and insulin do not appear to be necessary in children and adolescents. In a limited number of patients, the authors have used a simple protocol to increase insulin levels and ‘‘force’’ FDG into viable myocardium. In the authors’ experience to date, an appropriate glucose load 2 hours before FDG injection has been all that was needed to adequately enhance FDG uptake in myocardium.

FDG Brain Imaging for Intractable Epilepsy FDG brain imaging has been useful in the evaluation of patients with intractable seizures. Use of multiple imaging modalities, including interictal FDG-PET, ictal and interictal SPECT using Tc99m cerebral-blood flow agents, quantitative analysis of these methods, MR imaging, PET/MR imaging fusion, and functional MR imaging all have an important role in the identification of the epileptogenic zone and in surgical planning.60,61 At the authors’ institution, 0.10 mCi/kg of F-18FDG (3.7 MBq/kg) is injected, although larger administered activities of 0.14 mCi/kg of F-18FDG (5.2 MBq/kg) are used at many institutions.61,62 Typical waiting time from injection to the start of imaging is 40 minutes. During this time interval, the patient should lie quietly in a partially darkened quiet room. Imaging is generally performed for 5 to 10 minutes in 3D mode.62

FDG Imaging for Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Children and Adolescents

Fig. 5. Axial localization CT image acquired with lowdose technique. Streak artifact is seen from the patient’s arms. (Reprinted from Gelfand MJ, Lemen LC. PET/CT and SPECT/CT Dosimetry in children: the challenge to the pediatric imager. Semin Nucl Med 2007;37(5): 394; with permission.)

FDG imaging of inflammatory bowel disease in children and adolescents has been described by Loeffler and colleagues.63 In a retrospective analysis of 26 FDG-PET scans from 23 pediatric patients with suspected inflammatory bowel disease, Loeffler and colleagues found that FDGPET showed a sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of 98%, 68%, and 83%, respectively, as

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Table 1 Estimated effective dose for PET/CT protocols Protocol

Effective Dose

Protocol 1: Diagnostic CT followed by PET/localization CT Diagnostic CT with contrast (full inspiration, neck to pubis) followed by PET/CT (with localization CT) without contrast (tidal breathing, base of brain to pubis) Protocol 2: PET/diagnostic CT PET/CT (with diagnostic CT) with contrast (tidal breathing, base of brain to pubis) Protocol 3: PET/diagnostic CT, repeat full-inspiration diagnostic-chest CT PET/CT (with diagnostic CT) with contrast (tidal breathing, neck to pubis) followed by Diagnostic CT (full inspiration, chest only) Protocol 4: PET/attenuation correction only CT PET/CT (attenuation correction only; that is, no imaging) without contrast (tidal breathing, any field of view, for example, brain)

1.35 rem–2.16 rem

1.0 rem–1.6 rem

1.25 rem–2.0 rem

0.35 rem–0.56 rem

Assumptions used in calculations: 1. Diagnostic exposure CT settings are those used at the authors’ hospital.56 2. For the localization-CT scan, the pediatric diagnostic CT-exposure settings were reduced by 65%. 3. The assumed administered activity of FDG is 0.14 mCi/kg (5.18 MBq/kg). Data from Gelfand MJ, Lemen LC. PET/CT and SPECT/CT Dosimetry in children: the challenge to the pediatric imager. Semin Nucl Med 2007;37(5):391–8; and ImPACT. Available at: impactscan.org. London.

compared with endoscopy (90%, 75%, and 82%, respectively) and ultrasound (56%, 92%, and 75%, respectively). For the small bowel, FDGPET was even more reliable (100%, 86%, and 90%, respectively). The investigators concluded that, because of its high sensitivity and accuracy, FDG-PET is an excellent, noninvasive diagnostic tool for inflammatory bowel disease, especially in the pediatric patient population.63

[F-18] Fluoride Bone Imaging [F-18] Fluoride was the first radiopharmaceutic used to image bone, but with the development or the Tc-99m-phosphate and diphosphonate radiopharmaceutics and improvements in gammacamera technology, [F-18]fluoride fell into disuse. The recent growth of FDG-PET imaging in oncology has led to wide availability of high-quality PET imaging equipment. Studies that compared [F-18]fluoride PET bone imaging with Tc-99mdiphosphonate imaging in adults have demonstrated improved spatial resolution and improved sensitivity for the detection of metastases when [F-18]fluoride PET was used.64,65 Lim and others investigators66–68 demonstrated the utility of [F-18]fluoride PET bone imaging in children and adolescents with back pain not associated with malignancy. Very high-resolution images were obtained, aided by the inherently

tomographic nature of the technique. They determined some of the study parameters appropriate for [F-18]fluoride PET bone imaging, as follows: An administered activity of [F-18]sodium fluoride of 0.055 mCi/kg (2.1 Mbq/kg) has been suggested, which yields an effective dose of 0.31 mrem to 0.35 mrem (3.1 mSv–3.5 mSv), comparable to the effective dose of bone scintigraphy. Imaging can begin at 30 minutes after injection. These investigators had a PET-only scanner and did not combine PET and CT.66–69 If [F-18]fluoride PET bone imaging is performed on a PET/CT scanner, it is possible to obtain PET imaging information with an effective dose that is close to the effective dose of [F-18]fluoride PET alone, when the [F-18]fluoride PET bone scan can be performed with attenuation-only non-imaging CT scan. If needed, areas that are abnormal on [F-18]fluoride PET bone imaging can be reimaged with coregistered PET/CT imaging, limiting the volume reimaged to the region of the PET abnormality or abnormalities. CT-exposure settings for this limited repeat imaging can be at localization settings, or at pediatric diagnostic when precise anatomic information about adjacent soft tissue is required. If only bone anatomic information is needed, the low-dose localization-CT scan viewed

Patient Preparation and Performance of PET/CT at bone windows may be of adequate quality for CT bone imaging.

APPENDIX I: CHANGES IN ABSORBED-RADIATION DOSE ASSOCIATED WITH CHANGES IN CT IMAGING PARAMETERS kVp: If 120 kVp is assigned a relative dose level of 100 and other exposure parameters are kept constant, at other kVp settings, the relative absorbed-radiation doses will be: The relationship between kVp and absorbed-radiation dose is exponential. mA: There is a linear relationship between mA and absorbed-radiation dose. A 100% increase

kVp

Relative absorbed radiation dose

80 100 120 140

32 63 100 143

in mA will result in a 100% increase absorbed-radiation dose. mAs: mAs is the product of time per rotation (in seconds) and mA. A 100% increase in mAs will result in a 100% increase in absorbed-radiation dose. Rotation time: There is a linear relationship between time per rotation and absorbed-radiation dose. For PET/CT, usually 0.5 or 0.8 seconds per rotation is used. Pitch: The tightness of the spiral of the CT scanner is called pitch; a lower pitch implies a tighter spiral and a higher absorbed-radiation dose if all other parameters are kept constant. The absorbed-radiation dose is also dependent upon the characteristics of the individual model of CT scanner and slice thickness. Data from Refs; with permission.59,70,71

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33. Osman MM, Cohade C, Nakamoto Y, et al. Clinically significant inaccurate localization of lesions with PET/CT: frequency in 300 patients. J Nucl Med 2003;44(2):240–3. 34. Osman MM, Cohade C, Nakamoto Y, et al. Respiratory motion artifacts on PET emission images obtained using CT attenuation correction on PET-CT. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2003;30(4):603–6. 35. Goerres GW, Kamel E, Heidelberg TN, et al. PET-CT image co-registration in the thorax: influence of respiration. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2002; 29(3):351–60. 36. Ambrosino MM, Genieser NB, Roche KJ, et al. Feasibility of high-resolution, low-dose chest CT in evaluating the pediatric chest. Pediatr Radiol 1994; 24(1):6–10. 37. Brody AS. Thoracic CT technique in children. J Thorac Imaging 2001;16(4):259–68. 38. Lucaya J, Piqueras J, Garcia-Pena P, et al. Lowdose high-resolution CT of the chest in children and young adults: dose, cooperation, artifact incidence, and image quality. Am J Roentgenol 2000; 175(4):985–92. 39. Rogalla P, Stover B, Scheer I, et al. Low-dose spiral CT: applicability to paediatric chest imaging. Pediatr Radiol 1999;29(8):565–9. 40. Daou D. Respiratory motion handling is mandatory to accomplish the high-resolution PET destiny. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2008;35(11):1961–70. 41. Antoch G, Freudenberg LS, Stattaus J, et al. Wholebody positron emission tomography-CT: optimized CT using oral and IV contrast materials. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2002;179(6):1555–60. 42. Groves AM, Kayani I, Dickson JC, et al. Oral contrast medium in PET/CT: should you or shouldn’t you? Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2005;32(10):1160–6. 43. Stabin MG. Internal dosimetry. In: Treves ST, editor. Pediatric nuclear medicine/PET. New York: Springer; 2007. p. 513–20. 44. Stabin MG, Gelfand MJ. Dosimetry of pediatric nuclear medicine procedures. Q J Nucl Med 1998; 42(2):93–112. 45. Treves ST, Davis RT, Fahey FH. Administered radiopharmaceutical doses in children: a survey of 13 pediatric hospitals in North America. J Nucl Med 2008;49(6):1024–7. 46. Pierce DA, Preston DL. Radiation-related cancer risks at low doses among atomic bomb survivors. Radiat Res 2000;154(2):178–86. 47. Preston DL, Pierce DA, Shimizu Y. Age-time patterns for cancer and noncancer excess risks in the atomic bomb survivors. Radiat Res 2000;154(6):733–4 [discussion: 734–5]. 48. Brasch RC, Boyd DP, Gooding CA. Computed tomographic scanning in children: comparison of radiation dose and resolving power of commercial CT scanners. Am J Roentgenol 1978;131(1):95–101.

Patient Preparation and Performance of PET/CT 49. Brasch RC, Cann CE. Computed tomographic scanning in children: II. An updated comparison of radiation dose and resolving power of commercial scanners. Am J Roentgenol 1982;138(1):127–33. 50. Fearon T, Vucich J. Pediatric patient exposures from CT examinations: GE CT/T 9800 scanner. Am J Roentgenol 1985;144(4):805–9. 51. Kamel IR, Hernandez RJ, Martin JE, et al. Radiation dose reduction in CT of the pediatric pelvis. Radiology 1994;190(3):683–7. 52. Robinson AE, Hill EP, Harpen MD. Radiation dose reduction in pediatric CT. Pediatr Radiol 1986; 16(1):53–4. 53. Vade A, Demos TC, Olson MC, et al. Evaluation of image quality using 1:1 pitch and 1.5:1 pitch helical CT in children: a comparative study. Pediatr Radiol 1996;26(12):891–3. 54. Brenner D, Elliston C, Hall E, et al. Estimated risks of radiation-induced fatal cancer from pediatric CT. Am J Roentgenol 2001;176(2):289–96. 55. Brenner DJ. Estimating cancer risks from pediatric CT: going from the qualitative to the quantitative. Pediatr Radiol 2002;32(4). 228–3 [discussion: 242–4]. 56. Donnelly LF, Emery KH, Brody AS, et al. Minimizing radiation dose for pediatric body applications of single-detector helical CT: strategies at a large Children’s Hospital. Am J Roentgenol 2001;176(2): 303–6. 57. Paterson A, Frush DP, Donnelly LF. Helical CT of the body: are settings adjusted for pediatric patients? Am J Roentgenol 2001;176(2):297–301. 58. Arch ME, Frush DP. Pediatric body MDCT: a 5-year follow-up survey of scanning parameters used by pediatric radiologists. AJR Am J Roengenol 2008; 191(2):611–7. 59. Fahey FH, Palmer MR, Strauss KJ, et al. Dosimetry and adequacy of CT-based attenuation correction for pediatric PET: phantom study. Radiology 2007; 243(1):96–104. 60. Lee JJ, Kang WJ, Lee DS, et al. Diagnostic performance of 18F-FDG PET and ictal 99mTc-HMPAO SPET in pediatric temporal lobe epilepsy: quantitative analysis by statistical parametric mapping, statistical probabilistic anatomical map, and subtraction ictal SPET. Seizure 2005;14(3):213–20.

61. Muzik O, Pourabdollah S, Juhasz C, et al. Application of an objective method for localizing bilateral cortical FDG PET abnormalities to guide the resection of epileptic foci. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2005; 52(9):1574–81. 62. Williams G, Fahey FH, Treves ST, et al. Exploratory evaluation of two-dimensional and three-dimensional methods of FDG PET quantification in pediatric anaplastic astrocytoma: a report from the Pediatric Brain Tumor Consortium (PBTC). Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2008;35(9):1651–8. 63. Loffler M, Weckesser M, Franzius C, et al. High diagnostic value of 18F-FDG-PET in pediatric patients with chronic inflammatory bowel disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006;1072:379–85. 64. Even-Sapir E, Metser U, Flusser G, et al. Assessment of malignant skeletal disease: initial experience with 18F-fluoride PET/CT and comparison between 18F-fluoride PET and 18F-fluoride PET/CT. J Nucl Med 2004;45(2):272–8. 65. Schirrmeister H, Guhlmann A, Elsner K, et al. Sensitivity in detecting osseous lesions depends on anatomic localization: planar bone scintigraphy versus 18F PET. J Nucl Med 1999;40(10):1623–9. 66. Drubach LA, Sapp MV, Laffin S, et al. Fluorine-18 NaF PET imaging of child abuse. Pediatr Radiol 2008;38(7):776–9. 67. Lim R, Fahey FH, Drubach LA, et al. Early experience with fluorine-18 sodium fluoride bone PET in young patients with back pain. J Pediatr Orthop 2007;27(3):277–82. 68. Ovadia D, Metser U, Lievshitz G, et al. Back pain in adolescents: assessment with integrated 18F-fluoride positron-emission tomography-computed tomography. J Pediatr Orthop 2007;27(1):90–3. 69. Grant FD, Fahey FH, Packard AB, et al. Skeletal PET with 18F-fluoride: applying new technology to an old tracer. J Nucl Med 2008;49(1):68–78. 70. Setty B, Kalra M, Liu B, et al. Optimazation of radiation doses for pediatric head and neck CT protocols. Pediatr Radiol 2007;37(Suppl 1):S81 [abstract]. 71. Gelfand MJ, Lemen LC. PET/CT and SPECT/CT Dosimetry in children: the challenge to the pediatric imager. Semin Nucl Med 2007;37(5):391–8.

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PET in the Assessment of Pediatric Brain Development and Developmental Disorders Ajay Kumar, MD, PhD, DNBa, Harry T. Chugani, MDa,b,c,* KEYWORDS Alpha methyl tryptophan (AMT) Brain development  Developmental disorder  FDG Flumazenil (FMZ)  Functional imaging  Pediatric Positron emission tomography (PET)

Positron emission tomography (PET), along with various molecular imaging agents in its arsenal, can play an invaluable role in understanding the structural and functional changes that occur during brain development, and how these changes relate to behavioral and cognitive development in the infant and child. Although the application of PET technology has had an important impact in the study of human brain functional maturation, it is important and appropriate to begin with a brief review of the salient features of developmental neuroanatomy. In this regard, the contribution of MR imaging has been equally important and complementary to PET studies.

SOME BASICS ON DEVELOPMENTAL NEUROANATOMY The human brain remains structurally and functionally immature at the time of birth and continues to undergo multiple complex and dynamic processes consisting of anatomic, molecular, functional, and organizational changes. In fact, brain development is orchestrated through the interaction of numerous

synchronized processes, some of which continue even after birth, while some others start postnatally and take different courses, depending upon the specific brain region. For example, the neural tube is formed by 4 weeks of gestation, with neurogenesis taking place between 4 and 20 weeks and neuronal migration to their cortical destination from 12 to 20 weeks.1 Although neurogenesis and migration was previously believed to be completed by birth, it is now known that some degree of neurogenesis continues into adulthood in the hippocampus and probably in other structures.2 Neurogenesis is followed by apoptosis, peaking after neuronal migration, and reducing the number of neurons by half from 24 weeks of gestation to 4 weeks after birth.3 Although neocortical dendritic growth takes place between the third trimester of pregnancy and 2 years of age,4 some regions, such as the calcarine cortex, show earlier dendritic growth (as compared with the prefrontal cortex), with about one-third of the growth completed by birth followed by some decline between 2 and 7 years of age.5 Dendritic growth and synaptogenesis are

a Departments of Pediatrics and Neurology, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Children’s Hospital of Michigan, 3901 Beaubien Boulevard, Detroit, MI 48201, USA b Division of Pediatric Neurology, Children’s Hospital of Michigan, 3901 Beaubien Boulevard, Detroit, MI, USA c PET Center, Children’s Hospital of Michigan, Detroit, MI 48201, USA * Corresponding author. Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, PET Center, Children’s Hospital of Michigan, 3901 Beaubien Boulevard, Detroit, MI 48201. E-mail address: [email protected] (H.T. Chugani).

PET Clin 3 (2009) 487–515 doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2009.04.006 1556-8598/09/$ – see front matter ª 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Kumar & Chugani closely linked and have a similar time course.6 Synaptogenesis also begins around the twentieth week of gestation, increases rapidly after birth, and reaches peak synaptic density, 50% more than adult levels, by 2 years of age.7 However, the peak in synaptic density depends upon the brain region; the peak is earliest in the primary sensory areas, followed by the prefrontal cortex.8 In the visual cortex, it is almost 90% of the maximum at birth, reaches the maximum number by 8 months of age, and then decreases to about half the maximum between 1 and 5 years of age.9 It reaches the peak in the auditory cortex at 3 months, but only at about 15 months in the prefrontal cortex.8 Synaptic density starts decreasing around 7 years of age, reaching adult values by 12 years of age in the auditory cortex and by mid-adolescence in the prefrontal cortex.8 Myelination starts prenatally at around 28 weeks in the brain stem and generally proceeds from inferior to superior and posterior to anterior.10 Myelination of the optic radiation and occipital white matter begins 1 to 2 months after birth and gradually extends to the frontal lobe by 9 months postnatally.11,12 Myelination appears to follow the maturational pattern of functional circuitries; sensory fibers myelinate first, followed by motor fibers and associations fibers.13 The surface of the growing brain begins to fold into sulci and gyri around 15 weeks of gestational age with all major gyri, except for the occipital lobe, formed by 28 weeks.3,14 All gyri are present by birth, though relatively immature in terms of their interand intraregional connectivity. Average brain weight at birth is about 370 g and increases rapidly to achieve 80% of adult weight by 2 to 3 years and 90% by 5 to 6 years of age.15 Total cerebral volume peaks at 14.5 years in males and 11.5 years in females, with approximately 50% variation of brain volume in normal children of the same age.16 One cubic millimeter of adult brain may contain between 35 and 70 million neurons and up to twice as many glial cells,17 and about 500 billion synapses18 in the cortical gray matter, or up to 20 miles of myelinated fibers in white matter.19 Although human brain development closely follows the sequence of events observed in other primates, it proceeds on a slower timescale. According to the model that predicts the timing of different neural developmental events in various mammalian species,20,21 a delayed developmental time course leads to a relatively larger volume of the later developing structures, which may be the reason for the larger frontal cortex in human beings. Brain growth is further underscored by various remodeling processes, all undergoing

simultaneously, and leading to variable growth of gray and white matter in a region-specific fashion. Cortical gray-matter volume peaks differently in different brain regions, peaking in the frontal lobe at 11 years in girls and 12 years in boys, in the parietal lobe at 10 years in girls and 12 years in boys, and in the temporal lobe at 17 years in girls and 16 years in boys, followed by a gradual decrease.3,16 It seems that primary sensorimotor areas attain their peak thickness before secondary areas, followed by higher-order association areas.22,23 Caudate size peaks at age 7.5 years in girls and 10 years in boys.3 While total temporal lobe volume appears relatively stable from 4 to 18 years of age, the amygdala, which contains a high number of androgen receptors, increases in size in males and the hippocampus, having a higher number of estrogen receptors, significantly increases in size in females only, although no direct relationship between receptor density and growth patterns has been found.24–26 The volume and density of white matter, including corpus callosum, usually increases with age until the fifth decade, with an almost similar pattern of change seen in all the lobes.16,27–29 Although brain size is approximately 9% larger in males, the volume of frontal gray matter is higher in females, and the volume of occipital white matter is higher in males across all ages and after adjusting for the different overall brain sizes.30 Maturation of different parts of the brain also proceeds differently and is usually associated with thinning of gray matter and thickening of white matter. Longitudinal MR imaging studies have shown that cortical thickness generally decreases throughout late childhood and adolescence, with thinning of gray matter occurring first in sensorimotor areas, followed by parietal, superior temporal, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices.27,28,31,32 Regions subserving primary functions, such as motor and sensory systems, mature earliest, with temporal and parietal association cortices associated with basic language skills and spatial attention maturing next. Higher-order association areas, such as the prefrontal and lateral temporal cortices, which integrate primary sensorimotor processes and modulate basic attention and language processes, seem to mature last.27,33 The cortical thinning may be a consequence of the pruning of neural connections that has been documented in animal models,34 or may be related to increased myelination of axons within the cortical gray matter, leading to apparent thinning of gray matter.28,33 Increase in white-matter volume appears to be associated with myelination. Both these regressive and progressive processes, occurring

PET in Brain Development simultaneously, strengthen and fine tune the relevant neuronal circuitries, leading to behavioral and cognitive maturation. Concurrent with the structural development and maturation, functional (behavioral and cognitive) development also takes place. However, not much is known about the relationship between the two and it is not only a matter of scientific and academic interest but also of huge clinical and social interest to understand and explain this relationship. The human brain is highly structurally and functionally specialized, with different cortical regions supporting different components of various cognitive functions, such as language, memory, and so forth. We still do not fully understand how these specializations arise. One view is that functional specialization of various cortical regions is the result of intricate genetic and epigenetic interactions, with experience having only a fine-tuning effect. In this model, the human infant is born with ‘‘innate modules’’ and ‘‘core knowledge’’ relevant to the physical and social world.35 According to this maturational viewpoint, the anatomic maturation of specific regions of the brain, usually cortical regions, is related to newly emerging sensory, motor, and cognitive functions. Thus, in this model, visually guided behavior in an infant is controlled by subcortical structures, but with brain development, posterior followed by anterior cortical regions start to have an influence on this behavior.36,37 For example, during the first few months of life, an infant is unable to reach for objects and cannot accurately retrieve a hidden object after a short delay period if the object’s location is changed. This behavior is similar to those made by human adults with frontal lesions and monkeys with dorsolateral prefrontal lesions, suggesting that the maturation of this region is necessary to retain information over space and time.38 However, it seems too simplistic to assume that any particular cognitive function can be assigned to a certain cortical region. It is more likely that postnatal functional brain development results from interregional interactions and the onset of new behaviors during infancy should be associated with changes in activity over several brain regions. Furthermore, during infancy, patterns of cortical activation in different behavioral tasks might differ from, and be more extensive than, those observed in adults, and even similar behaviors may involve different patterns of cortical activation in infants and adults. Indeed, recent evidence indicates that the same behavior in infants and adults can be mediated by different cortical regions and neuronal circuitries. Developmental disorders like autism, which seems to involve different cortical regions

and their networks, also support this mode of cortical development.39 On other hand, functional brain development may be largely shaped by postbirth experiences and the behavioral changes are the result of continuous learning and plasticity. This notion of an extended period during childhood, when activity-dependent synaptic stabilization occurs, may help in designing early intervention to provide environmental enrichment and the optimal educational curricula, as learning is perhaps more efficient and easily retained in this biologic window of opportunity.

FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF BRAIN DEVELOPMENT The measurement of progressive metabolic changes, particularly energy production, in various brain regions during development is one of the various strategies employed to study structural and functional brain development and to delineate their relationship, as the process of neuronal growth, dendritic and synaptic proliferation, their maintenance, myelination, and various other processes involved require considerable energy expenditure. Ontogeny of these maturational changes should be reflected by changes in energy requirements in different regions of the brain. Because glucose and oxygen are the main substrates used in energy production in the brain, measurements of their consumption rates may provide a means whereby regional energy demand can be related to structural and behavioral maturation. Because energy requirement and local blood flow are closely related,40 local cerebral blood flow (CBF) rates can also be used as a surrogate measure of local energy need. Functional brain maturation is also related to change in various receptor densities, such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors, neurotransmitter levels, and cerebral protein synthesis.41,42 PET is a powerful imaging modality, which can be used for the noninvasive in vivo measurement of these functional changes and has been used to measure various regional biochemical and physiologic processes, including the mapping of brain regions involved in the processing of various sensory, motor, and other stimuli in normal adults. However, PET cannot be performed in normal children because of ethical considerations, as there is an associated radiation exposure, albeit low. For example, in studies of local cerebral metabolic rates for glucose (LCMRglc) with 2-deoxy-2[F-18] fluoro-D-glucose (FDG), the whole-body radiation dose to the child is only about 0.3 cGy and to the brain 0.5 cGy, in comparison to about 1 cGy to 3 cGy radiation dose from a CT scan.43 Although these doses are well within guidelines

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Kumar & Chugani used for common diagnostic radiologic procedures in children, it is ethically unacceptable to subject entirely normal children to even these low doses. On the other hand, brain development data should ideally come from normal children, so that besides understanding the various aspects and nuances of true structural and functional brain development, they can be reliably and confidently compared with children with various neurologic and developmental disorders. Therefore, various strategies and protocols have to be devised to acquire normative brain development data from apparently not completely healthy children. Data from children undergoing brain PET scan because of suspected neurologic problem, but later turning out to be normal, or children who underwent whole-body PET scan for some specific problem (eg, tumor) outside of the brain can be used with some caution and deliberation.

Animal Studies of Brain Development and Maturation Maturational changes of local cerebral blood flow (LCBF) and LCMRglc have been determined in a number of animals, providing important information about the relationship of change in local cerebral substrate use and behavioral maturation. Kennedy and colleagues44 used [C-14]-deoxyglucose autoradiography for quantitative determination of LCMRglc in newborn macaque monkeys. They found that the rates for structures in the lower neuraxis were equal to or exceeded those reported for the mature animal, while those above the midbrain were generally lower. The auditory system was found to have rates equal to, or exceeding, its mature levels in all parts of the pathway including the cortex. In the visual system, subcortical structures were at their mature levels while rates in the cortical areas were found to be variably low. They also found a high correlation between glucose use and local blood flow. This pattern of substrate use correlated well with the behavioral state of the neonatal monkey, whose auditory and tactile functions are more advanced than visual function. Gregoire and colleagues45 determined LCMRglc in 2- to 8-day-old beagle dogs by the quantitative [C-14]-deoxyglucose autoradiographic method and found highest glucose consumption values in brain stem nuclei (inferior olivary nucleus, vestibular nucleus, and red nucleus) and in selected deep-cerebral structures (subthalamic nucleus and ventrolateral thalamic nucleus), whereas consistently lower glucose consumption were found in the cerebral cortex. Duffy and colleagues46 measured LCMRglc in 36 neuroanatomic structures of

normal newborn puppies and found that LCMRglc was highest in the vestibular nucleus and in other gray matter nuclei of the brainstem, and declined in a caudal-to-rostral progression through the neuraxis. Lowest rates of glucose metabolism were detected in white-matter structures. In another study of cerebral energy metabolism during development, Abrams and colleagues47 found that LCMRglc in sheep was low in most brain structures during the perinatal period. The postnatal changes of LCBF in freely moving rats were measured by means of the quantitative autoradiographic [C-14]-iodoantipyrine method by Nehlig and colleagues.48 At 10 days after birth, rates of blood flow were very low and quite homogeneous in most cerebral structures except in a few posterior areas, and rose notably to reach a peak at 17 days in all brain regions studied. Rates of blood flow decreased between 17 and 21 days after birth and then increased from weaning time to reach the known characteristic distribution of the adult rat. Chugani and colleagues49 measured LCMRglc in kittens at various stages of postnatal development and in adult cats using quantitative [C-14]2-deoxyglucose autoradiography. In the kitten, very low LCMRglc levels were seen during the first 15 days of life, with phylogenetically older brain regions being generally more metabolically mature than newer structures. After 15 days of age, many brain regions (particularly telencephalic structures) underwent sharp increases of LCMRglc to reach, or exceed, adult rates by 60 days. This developmental period (15–60 days) corresponded to the time of rapid synaptic proliferation known to occur in the cat. During the immediate newborn period, synapses in area 17 of the visual system are sparse50 and showed low LCMRglc. Subsequently, there is a rapid rise in synaptic density, with a peak occurring by about 70 days postnatally,51 which matched well with the period of rapid LCMRglc increase seen in the visual cortex, reaching an initial peak at about 60 days. The investigators also found good correlation between the metabolic maturation of various neuroanatomic regions and the emergence of behaviors mediated by the specific region, and the ‘‘critical period’’ of development of visual cortex corresponded to the portion of the LCMRglc maturational curve surrounding the 60-day metabolic peak. From these animal studies, it appears that phylogenetically older brain structures (ie, brain stem, cerebellum, and thalamus) are structurally and functionally more mature at the time of birth, compared with telencephalic structures, as manifested in the primitive and low level of function and behavior at or immediately after birth. Gradual activation and maturation of various

PET in Brain Development phylogenetically newer brain regions leads to greater behavioral complexity. On the basis of these metabolic-behavioral relationships, Kennedy and colleagues44 hypothesized that the developmental increase in the metabolic rate of a particular brain region heralds its contribution to the behavioral manifestation.

Human Studies of Brain Development and Maturation Cerebral perfusion studies In a study of cerebral blood flow and oxygen use in nine normal children, aged 3 to 11 years, Kennedy and Sokoloff52 demonstrated that the average global cerebral blood flow was approximately 1.8 times that of normal adults. Similarly, they found that average cerebral oxygen use was approximately 1.3 times higher in children compared with adults. Chiron and colleagues53 studied regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in 42 children, aged 2 days to 19 years and considered as neurologically normal. They found that cortical rCBFs were lower than those for adults at birth, but subsequently increased until 5 or 6 years of age to values 50% to 85% higher than those for adults and thereafter decreased, reaching adult levels between 15 and 19 years. They found that the neonatal values of rCBF in the cerebellum and thalamus were slightly higher than adult levels, but not significantly. They also reported that cortical rCBFs, expressed in percent-global CBF, were lower at birth, then increased and reached a plateau corresponding to the adult value before the second year of age, with different cortical regions requiring different times to reach normal adult values. The shortest time was found for primary cortical regions and the longest for the associative cortex. Cognitive development appeared to be related to blood flow changes of the corresponding brain regions. Takahashi and colleagues54 evaluated functional developmental changes of the brain in children in relation to CBF and oxygen metabolism. They measured rCBF, regional cerebral metabolic rate for oxygen (rCMRO2), and regional oxygen extraction fraction (rOEF) with PET in 24 children aged 10 days to 16 years (9 boys, 15 girls), using a steady inhalation method with 15CO2, 15O2, and 15CO to measure rCBF, rCMRO2, and rOEF, respectively. They found that rCBF and rCMRO2 was lower in the neonatal period than in older children and adults, and increased significantly during early childhood. No difference in rCBF was observed between the basal ganglia and the primary cerebral cortex; however, it was prominent in the occipital lobe in

every age bracket. No significant changes in rOEF were found during childhood. FDG-PET studies Chugani and colleagues55,56 studied developmental changes of LCMRglc in 29 children, aged 5 days to 15.1 years, who had suffered transient neurologic events not significantly affecting normal neurodevelopment. They found highest LCMRglc in the sensorimotor cortex, thalamus, brain stem, and cerebellar vermis in infants less than 5 weeks old. By 3 months, LCMRglc increased in the parietal, temporal, and primary visual cortex (medial occipital or calcarine cortex), basal ganglia, and cerebellar cortex. Lateral and inferior prefrontal regions and the dorsolateral occipital cortex displayed a maturational rise in LCMRglc by approximately 6 to 8 months, with the medial and dorsal frontal cortex becoming active between 8 and 12 months of age (Fig. 1 and Table 1). Although an adult pattern was seen by 1 year of age, brain maturation was far from complete. Subsequent studies showed that limbic structures, such as the amygdala and hippocampus, were also functionally active at birth, with the anterior cingulate cortex showing a maturational rise of glucose metabolism soon after.57 Absolute values of LCMRglc for various gray-matter regions were low at birth (about 30% less than adult values).56 Mean LCMRglc for cerebral cortical regions in the first year of life was found to range from 65% to 86% of the corresponding adult values. The LCMRglc for the sensorimotor cortex, which was the earliest cortical region to display its maturational rise, was found to be closest to the adult rates during the first year, compared with other cortical structures (93% of adult value). The basal ganglia and thalamus were found to have developmental increases of LCMRglc earlier than most areas of the cerebral cortex. The thalamus was one of the earliest structures to show a maturational rise in LCMRglc and mean LCMRglc for the thalamus, lenticular nuclei, and caudate were found to be 84%, 79%, and 71%, respectively, of the adult rates during the first year. Although LCMRglc for the cerebellum as a whole was found to be closest to adult rates than any other area of brain (93% of adult value), the maturational pattern within the cerebellum was heterogeneous, with vermis, a phylogenetically older structure, showing higher maturation at birth. The brain stem was also found to have relatively advanced maturation at birth, with mean LCMRglc 89% of the adult value in the first year of life. However, LCMRglc rapidly rose to reach adult values by the second year of life and continued to rise until, by 3 to 4 years, it

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Fig. 1. Normal FDG-PET scan in (A) a 7-day-old newborn, (B) 3-month-old infant, (C) 7-month-old child, and (D) 1-year-old child (Amg, amygdala; BG, basal ganglia; BS, brain stem; CV, cerebellar vermis; DN, dentate nucleus; Hip, hippocampus; MC, motor cortex; Th, thalamus). Note that besides motor cortex, thalamus more than basal ganglia, brain stem, and cerebellar vermis, the amygdale is also quite active at birth. With increasing age, cortical glucose metabolism increases and becomes higher than cerebellar and other subcortical glucose metabolism. Even at 7 to 8 months of age, medial frontal glucose metabolism is less than lateral frontal lobe (arrowheads) and is the last to mature.

reached almost twice the adult value. These high rates were maintained until approximately 9 years of age, when they began to decline, reaching the adult rates again by the latter part of the second decade (Fig. 2). They found that highest increases of LCMRglc over adult values occurred in cerebral

cortices (190%–226%), followed by the cerebellum and brain stem (about 170%), and basal ganglia and thalamus (155%–160%). This transient increase in LCMRglc in brain is consistent with the transiently increased CBF and cerebral oxygen use, shown by Kennedy and Sokoloff

PET in Brain Development

Table 1 Rank order of adult brain regions with highest to lowest uptake/binding for various PET tracers Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)56

Flumazenil (FMZ)119

Alpha Methyl Tryptophan (AMT)208

Putamen and pallidum Caudate (head) Thalamus Calcarine cortex Transverse temporal cortex Anterior cingulate Frontal cortex Occipital cortex Parietal cortex Temporal cortex Brain stem Cerebellum

Primary visual cortex Temporal cortex Frontal cortex Hippocampus/amygdala Cerebellum Basal ganglia Thalamus — — — — —

Cerebellum Occipital cortex Parietal cortex Temporal cortex Putamen Frontal cortex Thalamus Pallidum and caudate Midbrain Amygdala and hippocampus — —

both in human beings (1957) and in dogs (1972).52,58 Kinnala and colleagues59 also reported similar findings for LCMRglc during the first 6 months of life in 20 children. LCMRglc for various cortical brain regions and the basal ganglia was reported to be low at birth. Within the first 2 months of age, LCMRglc was found to be highest in the sensorimotor cortex, thalamus, and brain stem. By 5 months, LCMRglc was found to increase in the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and cerebellar cortical regions. In general, they found

good positive correlation between whole-brain LCMRglc and postconceptional age. Van Bogaert and colleagues60 analyzed FDG-PET studies of 42 subjects, ages 6 to 38 years, using statistical parametric mapping to identify age-related changes in regional distribution of glucose metabolism adjusted for global activity, and found that adjusted glucose metabolism varied very significantly in the thalamus and the anterior cingulate cortex, and to a lesser degree in the basal ganglia, the mesencephalon, and the insular, posterior cingulate, and frontal and postcentral cortices.

Fig. 2. Plot showing change in absolute values of local cerebral glucose metabolic rates and synaptic density with age.

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Kumar & Chugani Adjusted glucose metabolism increased mainly before the age of 25 years and then remained relatively stable. They suggested that brain maturation from the age of 6 years gives rise to a relative increase of synaptic activities in the thalamus, possibly as a consequence of improved corticothalamic connections and the increased metabolic activity in the anterior cingulate cortex was probably related to these thalamic changes. Relationship between LCMRglc ontogeny and functional brain development FDG-PET studies have shown that the pattern of LCMRglc in human neonates is markedly different from that of normal young adults.55,56 The sequence of functional development of the brain during the first year of life, shown by the ontogeny of glucose metabolic pattern, correlates well with the maturation of behavioral, neurophysiologic, and neuroanatomic events in the infant. Low cortical LCMRglc—along with typically active brain-stem structures, such as the thalamus, brainstem, and cerebellar vermis, and phylogenetically older structures—appears to be related to limited behavioral functions of neonates, dominated by brain stem reflexes, such as Moro, root, and grasp response. There is relatively limited higher cortical function, such as visuomotor integrative activity. The prominent metabolic activity in the sensorimotor cortex is also consistent with its relatively early morphologic maturation compared with other cortical areas.61 Comparisons between the neonatal pattern of cerebral glucose use and those seen in various pathologic states provide some information on the structure-function relationship. For example, older infants and children who have suffered perinatal brain insult, such as hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, and have persistence of the primitive newborn reflexes, presumably because of a persisting immature cortex, show the newborn pattern of LCMRglc in FDG-PET scans. A neonatal or infantile pattern of LCMRglc is also seen in very advanced Alzheimer’s disease where, along with dementia, the patient also manifests some brain stem reflexes. At around 1 month of age, infants have difficulty in shifting their gaze from one stimulus to another, similar to that seen in adults with Balint’s syndrome, where patients with bilateral parietal cortical damage find difficulties in disengaging from one stimulus to saccade to another, indicating that immaturity of the parietal cortex in the infant has a similar behavioral outcome. As visuospatial and visuosensorimotor integrative functions are acquired in the second and third months of life, and primitive reflexes become organized,62–64 increases in LCMRglc are observed in

parietal, temporal, and primary visual cortical regions, basal ganglia and cerebellar hemisphere. It is interesting to note that, because the frontal lobe is still hypometabolic at this time, cortical suppression of brain stem reflexes probably does not seem to be exclusively related to frontal cortex inputs. By 2 to 3 months of age, infants will look toward the object and will open their hands while reaching for an object.65 This increasing refinement of their reaching maneuver is because of the maturation of the primary visual cortex by this time, compared with neonatal vision, which is largely mediated by subcortical visual structures.63 Later maturation of the dorsolateral occipital region, compared with the calcarine cortex (as shown by many anatomic studies61) also corresponds to the low glucose-metabolic activity in this region during the first few months of life. Similarly, LCMRglc remains relatively low in the frontal cortex during the first 6 months of life. Maturation of large cortical areas during the first few months of life, as shown by FDG-PET, also coincides with the maturation of EEG activity seen during this period.66 Functional maturation of the frontal cortex, lateral frontal at 6 to 8 months, followed by dorsolateral prefrontal at 8 to 12 months, coincides with the appearance of higher cortical and cognitive abilities, such as more purposeful interaction with the surroundings and development of stranger anxiety.67,68 The child also shows marked improvement in the performance on the delayedresponse task, a commonly used neuropsychologic paradigm to evaluate prefrontal lobe integrity.69 Neurobiologic correlates of LCMRGlc changes Although LCMRglc patterns qualitatively resemble those of the normal young adult by 1 year of age, absolute measurement of LCMRglc indicates that cortical maturation is far from complete, which is also reflected by relatively immature cognitive development. By 2 years of age, LCMRglc for most brain areas becomes equal to adult values, but these rates continue to increase, and in some cortical regions they reach more than twice the adult value by 3 to 4 years of age and then remain at a plateau until 9 to 10 years of age, decreasing subsequently to adult values by late second decade. To understand the possible neurobiologic events responsible for these LCMRglc changes, it is important to consider some fundamental changes during postnatal brain maturation. As discussed earlier, brain development in most species, including human beings, is characterized by overgrowth followed by elimination.61 This general rule applies to neurons as well as to their processes and synaptic contacts. Whereas

PET in Brain Development proliferation of neurons takes place prenatally, their elimination starts prenatally and continues until the second postnatal year.61 However, the overproduction and subsequent elimination (pruning) of neuronal processes and synaptic contacts mostly occur after birth, with a protracted and variable time course, depending upon the brain region.6 For example, at 7 years of age, when the brain has almost attained adult weight and volume, average synaptic density in the frontal cortex is about 1.4 times the adult value.7 As the major portion of glucose metabolism is expended to maintain the resting membrane potential,70 it is reasonable to assume a direct relationship between the cerebral energy demand (reflected by LCMRglc and indirectly by LCBF) and total membrane surface area. Therefore, it seems that the ascending portion of the rapid LCMRglc increase corresponds to the period of synaptic overproduction, whereas the plateau phase of higher-than-adult value corresponds to the period of increased energy demand as a result of transiently increased connectivity, and subsequent decline to the normal adult values may reflect the selective elimination or pruning of excessive connectivity. Indeed, a similar profile of LCMRglc changes was seen in the kitten, corresponding to changes in synaptic densities.49 Another cause for the LCMRglc pattern seen in children could be increased energy demand by oligodendrocytes during myelination, which is high during the first decade of life. Conversely, inefficient transmission by incompletely myelinated neuronal circuitries may result in higher energy demand. LCMRGlc profile and brain plasticity The developing brain shows remarkable plasticity; it can sustain extensive damage without much functional deficit. Particularly, the developmental phase of increased synaptic connectivity is characterized by considerable plasticity, and it starts to decline—both in terms of recovery and sparing of function—around 9 to 10 years of age, which coincides to the time when LCMRglc starts to decrease. Similar relationships have been seen in other species as well. In the kitten, it has been shown that the period of excessive connectivity and higher LCMRglc (from 15–30 days to 60–90 days) is also associated with a high degree of brain plasticity.49,71 Various experimental manipulations (such as monocular deprivation by suturing one eyelid) can cause neuroanatomic changes, resulting in altered connectivity during this time period.72 To understand and evaluate this critical time period, Timney and colleagues73 deprived monocular vision at different ages in cats. Their experiment indicated that a brief period of

monocular deprivation between 30 and 80 days effectively prevented the normal development of binocular depth perception. This time period corresponds to the plateau phase of increased LCMRglc in kittens and implies its relationship with higher brain plasticity. The experiment also suggests the critical role and importance of external stimuli in the development and stabilization of corresponding cortical networks. Similarly, the anatomic representation of the sensorimotor cortex in kittens has been shown to alter, with external stimulation, during this critical period of development.74 Kittens, trained for 4 to 10 weeks to avoid a mild electrical shock simply by flexing one foreleg, were found to have not only an expanded electrophysiologic representation, but also increased dendritic arborization in the somatosensory cortex contralateral to the trained foreleg. Such changes could not be induced after 10 weeks of age,74 the age that corresponds to the downward trend of LCMRglc in sensorimotor areas in the kittens.49 Language acquisition and reorganization in response to dominant hemisphere damage has been found to be maximal during early childhood, when this window of increased plasticity exists. For example, in children who have been isolated since birth from all civilization and exposure to language (‘‘feral’’ children), the subsequent ability to acquire language is greatest if intervention is started in early childhood and decreases significantly if it is started after 10 years of age.75 Similarly, string instrument players, who start playing in childhood demonstrate greater cortical representation for left than right digits.76 The decline of LCMRglc in visual cortex, beginning at about 8 to 10 years, coincides with a significant decrease in visual plasticity, as shown by the fact that enucleation before 8 years of age results in better depth perception than after 8 years.77 Significant reorganization in sensory processing occurring in blind and deaf subjects appears to have an ageat-lesion effect. In contrast to subjects with lateonset blindness (after 13 years of age) who show lower glucose use in the visual cortex compared with normal subjects studied with their eyes closed,78 in subjects with early blindness (onset before 3 years of age), glucose metabolism is maintained at a higher rate in the striate and prestriate visual cortex, with even higher activity than in blindfolded subjects with normal vision.79,80 Interestingly, the occipital cortex of early-onset blind subjects can be activated during Braille reading.81 Similarly, early-onset (before 2 years of age) deaf subjects show higher glucose use in the auditory and auditory association cortex than normal subjects with their ears plugged.82 These

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Kumar & Chugani interesting observations support earlier suggestions of intermodal competition and cortical reorganization in subjects with early sensory deprivation.83,84 Young children undergoing resective brain surgery for epilepsy or other reasons, or sustaining brain injury, show remarkable functional recovery. In a O-15 water cerebral blood perfusion study, Muller and colleagues85 showed that while there was normal left rolandic activation with movement of the right hand, hemiplegic left hand movement was accompanied by rCBF increases in the supplementary motor area, premotor area, insula, and inferior frontal cortex of the left hemisphere in a child following right hemispherectomy.85 In another study, the same group reported that patients with early-onset (before 4 years) unilateral primary motor cortex lesions showed greater activation in the secondary motor and frontoparietal nonmotor cortical regions, compared with patients with late lesions (after 10 years), suggesting a greater potential for reorganization during early development.86 It seems that some additional or seemingly unrelated brain region may also participate in functional organization, particularly early in life. Children with congenital hemiplegia, a unilateral form of cerebral palsy, often show significantly less functional and cognitive deficits in comparison to their extensive unilateral cortical damage, believed to be related to brain plasticity.87,88 Now it is well known that even higher cortical functions and cognitive skills can be sustained by a single hemisphere.89,90 However, the compensation for early unilateral brain damage may not be always complete and may depend on various neurologic factors, including the side of injury. One group reported that early right hemisphere injury may have a more detrimental overall effect on intellectual outcome than early left hemispheric injury.91

Subcortical structures, such as the basal ganglia, thalamus, and cerebellum also show variable extents of plasticity. Initial loss of glucose metabolism in the ipsilateral basal ganglia and thalamus and contralateral cerebellum, seen 3 to 6 months after hemispherectomy, is usually followed by reappearance of glucose metabolic activity in the caudate after 1 to 2 years if the surgery was done early in life.92 Partial restoration of glucose metabolism in hypometabolic ipsilateral caudate has been shown after unilateral ablation of Brodman areas 4 and 6 in young macaque monkeys.93 Restoration of caudate metabolism in the monkeys appears to be related to the remaining intact ipsilateral corticostriatal pathways or to increased influence from crossed corticostriatal pathways, described in a number of species, as in the case of hemispherectomy.94,95 In fact, basal ganglia may play a role in motor function recovery after ablation or injury of the ipsilateral motor cortex, as shown by poor recovery of contralateral motor function after removal of both the motor cortex and basal ganglia.96 Crossed cerebellar diaschisis, functional impairment at a remote site after injury to an anatomically connected area of brain, and loss of afferent input to the remote site (Fig. 3), is typically irreversible in adults.97 However, it recovers with time in children. It also depends upon the timing of injury. Indeed, Kerrigan and colleagues98 did not find evidence of crossed cerebellar diaschisis on FDG-PET scan in eight children with congenital hemiplegia. However, after examination of a larger group of subjects with unilateral brain injury, the same investigators found that crossed cerebellar diaschisis may occur in infants and children, if injury occurs postnatally.99 They further observed the phenomenon of ‘‘paradoxic diaschisis’’ (paradoxically increased cerebellar glucose metabolism contralateral to cerebral injury) in several children

Fig. 3. FDG-PET scan in a child with a large epileptic focus in the right frontal-parietal-temporal cortex (arrowheads) associated with ipsilateral thalamic hypometabolism (long green arrow) and crossed cerebellar diaschisis (black arrows).

PET in Brain Development with congenital hemiplegia who had sustained their injury at or before 4 months of age.99 Anatomic reorganization resulting in an ‘‘uncrossed’’ or ‘‘recrossed’’ corticopontocerebellar pathway may be responsible for the absence of crossed cerebellar diaschisis or presence of paradoxic diaschisis. Recent PET studies using C-11 flumazenil, a benzodiazepine antagonist, have also demonstrated that unlike adults, children with unilateral cortical damage show increased binding in both contralateral dentate nuclei and lateral cerebellar lobules, suggesting an age-dependent reorganization of GABAA receptors in cerebellum.100 Several studies on animal models have provided neuroanatomic support for increased plasticity during this period.101,102 In human beings, studies evaluating the effects of early intervention on intellectual and academic achievement in disadvantaged children103 and the effect of vocational activities on dendritic complexity104,105 further strengthens this concept, though it is not clear why some domains (eg, language) show nearly complete recovery or sparing after early injury, yet others (eg, motor, visual) show only limited recovery. Furthermore, the neurobiologic rules that govern intrahemispheric versus interhemispheric reorganization of function are not well understood. However, it seems that LCMRglc changes not only indicate the location of various maturational processes going on in the brain, but also may indicate when brain plasticity is at a maximum. This may be of importance not only in understanding neurophysiology during normal growth or diseases, but also in planning of various clinical, social, and academic interventions, which can have far-reaching impacts. PET evaluation of neuroreceptors, neurochemical mediators, and cerebral protein synthesis in brain development Similar to blood flow, oxygen use, and glucose metabolism, there are also developmental changes in various neuroreceptors and neurotransmitters. Understanding their normal patterns of expression not only will help in understanding the functional aspects of regional brain maturation but also in understanding the pathophysiology of several neurologic disorders. Our understanding of the role played by neurotransmitter receptors in the developing brain has advanced in recent years. Although PET has been extensively used for neuroreceptor imaging and evaluation of neurotransmitters, very few studies are available that have evaluated their developmental and maturational aspects, particularly in human

beings. Therefore, the discussion will be restricted to GABAA receptor binding, serotonin synthesis, and cerebral protein synthesis. Postnatal maturation of human GABA receptor The major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, GABA, acts to influence early developmental events, some of which occur before synapse formation; these include proliferation, migration, differentiation, or survival processes during neural development. To carry out these functions, different types of GABAA receptors need to be expressed both at the right time and at the right place. Several types of GABAA receptor transcripts and subunits have been described as components of functional GABAA receptors in rat neuroepithelial cells, neuroblasts, and glioblasts during spinal and cortical neurogenesis.106–109 It appears that activity-dependent synaptic plasticity in response to sensory experience in animals is related to developmental changes in GABAA neurotransmission.110,111 There are significant changes in GABAA receptor subunit composition in the developing brain: for example, in the visual cortex,112 somatosensory cortex,113 and cerebellum.114 The density of GABAA receptors in the rhesus monkey cortex increases after birth to peak (40% higher than adult value) at 2 to 4 months of age, and then gradually declines to adult values at 3 years of age.115 There are also regional and laminar-specific developmental changes in the cortical and subcortical GABAA receptor subunits.116–118 Therefore, knowledge of GABAA receptor ontogeny in human beings is not only important for understanding brain maturation, but also to investigate how GABA function may play a role in the pathophysiology of a number of developmental disorders. C-11-flumazenil (FMZ), a ligand that binds to the a-subunit of the GABAA receptor, can be used to evaluate GABAA receptor complex in vivo with PET. Chugani and colleagues119 measured age-related changes in the brain distribution of the GABAA receptor complex in vivo using FMZ-PET. They found that all brain regions showed the highest value for FMZ binding or FMZ VD (volume of distribution) at 2 years of age and then decreased exponentially with age until adult values were reached at around 20 years of age (Fig. 4). Because not much data are available for children less than 2 years of age, it is difficult to say when FMZ binding is highest. It seems that high FMZ VD in early childhood may be related to a specific role of benzodiazepine-sensitive GABAA receptors in critical periods of synaptic plasticity during human brain development. The order of

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Fig. 4. Plot showing change in flumazenil volume of distribution (measure of its binding) with age. (From Chugani DC, Muzik O, Juhasz C, et al. Ann Neurol 2001;49:621; with permission.)

brain region (from highest to lowest FMZ binding) at 2 years of age is as follows: primary visual cortex, superior frontal cortex, medial temporal cortex, temporal lobe, prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, basal ganglia, and thalamus (Fig. 5). During development, medial temporal lobe structures, the primary visual cortex, and the thalamus show the largest decrease in FMZ VD (approximately 50% decreases), compared with the basal ganglia, cerebellum, and other cortical regions (25%–40% decreases). Subcortical brain regions reach adult values earlier (14–17.5 years) than cortical regions (18–22 years). Rank order of FMZ binding in various adult brain regions is given in the Table 1. Although their finding of earlier maturation of GABAA receptors in subcortical brain regions is consistent with results of previous studies of changes in glucose metabolism with

(5-hydroxytryptamine or 5HT) is phylogenetically the oldest of the biogenic amine neurotransmitters and acts as a trophic or differentiating factor in addition to its role as a neurotransmitter. It has a regulatory role in neuronal proliferation, migration, and differentiation, and in preventing apoptotic cell death; indeed, change in its level during early stages of life is associated with altered brain development and maturation. Stimulation of serotonin receptors in vitro accelerates cell division and increases DNA synthesis. In monkeys, high levels of serotonin expression have been reported in the proliferative zone of the occipital lobe during neurogenesis.120 Cortical progenitors are also sensitive to serotonin levels and pharmacologic depletion of serotonin in the embryo induces microcephaly.42 It seems that serotonin either plays a role in establishing the number of progenitors or their proliferation at the start of corticogenesis or is involved in modeling the length of the cell cycle. At early developmental stages, serotonin modulates the migration of several neural crest derivatives121,122 and it has been postulated that serotonin influences the rate of migration by modulating the microtubule stability in specific neuronal populations. Serotonin depletion is associated with a delay in neurogenesis.123 Decreased or increased brain serotonin during development has been shown to result in disruption of synaptic connectivity in sensory cortices.124,125 Developmental changes in brain serotonin content and serotonin receptor binding have

Fig. 5. FMZ-PET scan showing normal FMZ binding in a 2-year-old child (BG, basal ganglia; Hp, hippocampus; MC, motor cortex; Th, thalamus). Note the relatively low binding in the basal ganglia and thalamus, and the high degree of binding in hippocampus.

PET in Brain Development been demonstrated in nonhuman primates.115,126 In the rhesus monkey, development of serotonin storage capacity and synthetic processes continues over a period of months and years and varies greatly in different cytoarchitectonic regions of the cerebral cortex.126 There is a rise in serotonin content beginning before birth, reaching adult values between 2 and 5 months of age in most cortical regions. Changes in rates of synthesis of serotonin generally parallel developmental changes. A smaller but significant increase in serotonin metabolism takes place in the parietal and visual cortex between birth and 36 months. Serotonin receptors also show similar developmental changes in the rhesus monkey, reaching a maximum level between 2 and 4 months of age and then declining gradually to adult levels in all layers of sensory, motor, and association regions.115 Recent development of a[C-11] methyl-L-tryptophan (AMT) as a tracer for PET now allows a direct in vivo measurement of serotonin synthesis in human beings. AMT is an analog of tryptophan, the precursor for serotonin synthesis but, unlike tryptophan, AMT is not incorporated into protein in significant amounts. AMT is converted to alpha-methyl-serotonin (AM-5HT) by tryptophan hydroxylase, but because AM-5HT, unlike serotonin, is also not a substrate for the degradative enzyme monamine oxidase, it accumulates in neurons and nerve terminals along with the releasable pool of serotonin.127,128 After intravenous injection, AMT accumulates in the brain for the first 20 minutes (less than 2% of the injected dose is present in the brain at peak values), after which a plateau is reached and maintained for up to 60 minutes, with no right-left

asymmetry in normal adults.129 Because AMTPET does not allow the measurement of absolute rates of serotonin synthesis, the term ‘‘serotonin synthesis capacity’’ (an index of serotonin synthesis) has been applied. This measurement increases after birth, reaches twice the adult value by 3 years of age, remains at a plateau until 5 years of age, and then declines, reaching adult values by 14 years of age (Fig. 6).130 Rank order of serotonin uptake values in various adult brain regions is given in the Table 1 and the AMT uptake pattern in the brain is given in Fig. 7. Values in women are 10% to 20% higher throughout the brain and particularly higher in the transverse temporal gyrus, anterior cingulate cortex, and cerebellar vermis.129 There is evidence that abnormalities of serotonergic neurotransmission are associated with several neurologic and psychiatric disorders, including autism, migraine, sleep disorders, depression, various movement disorders, and epilepsy. Although there is evidence for the potential involvement of several other neurotransmitters in autism, the most consistent findings involve serotonin. While tryptophan depletion has been reported to result in an exacerbation of symptoms in autistic subjects,131 administration of serotonin reuptake inhibitors appear to result in improvement of compulsive symptoms, repetitive movements, and social difficulties in autistic adults.132 Chugani and colleagues133 used AMT-PET scanning to study seizure-free children with autism (seven males, one female, 4–11 years of age) and their healthy nonautistic siblings (four males, one female, 8–14 years of age). Gross asymmetries of AMT standard uptake value in the frontal cortex, thalamus, and cerebellum were visualized in seven Fig. 6. Plot showing change in serotonin synthesis capacity (global brain values for K complex) with age. (From Chugani DC, Muzik O, Behen M, et al. Ann Neurol 1999;45:292; with permission.)

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Fig. 7. AMT-PET scan showing normal AMT uptake in a 14 years old child (BG, basal ganglia; Cer, cerebellum; TC, temporal cortex; Th, thalamus). Note the very high activity in cerebellum.

autistic boys, but not in the one autistic girl studied nor in four of the five siblings. Decreased AMT accumulation was seen in the left frontal cortex and thalamus in five of seven autistic boys. This was accompanied by an elevated AMT accumulation in the right cerebellum, in the region of the dentate nucleus (Fig. 8). In the remaining two autistic boys, AMT accumulation was decreased in the right frontal cortex and thalamus and elevated in the left dentate nucleus. Subsequently, Chugani and colleagues130 measured whole-brain serotonin synthesis capacity in 30 seizure free autistic children (24 males, 6 females, 2–15 years of age) and 8 of their healthy nonautistic siblings (6 males, 2 females, 2–14 years of age), and found that the trajectory of serotonin synthesis capacity in autistic children was abnormal, compared with normal children. The serotonin synthesis capacity in autistic children increased between the ages of 2 to 15 years to only 1.5 times of the adult

normal values, unlike normal siblings, in whom an increase of 2 times the adult value was found between 2 to 5 years of age. Brain development and protein synthesis Virtually all aspects of brain development, such as neurogenesis, neuronal proliferation and migration, synaptogenesis and pruning, myelination, and most cognitive functions, such as learning, memory, and so forth are dependent upon protein synthesis. Therefore, it will be of large clinical significance to study brain protein synthesis during development and maturation. This can potentially enhance our understanding of normal brain development and various developmental disorders. PET with radio-labeled leucine can measure regional cerebral protein synthesis and presently is the only available noninvasive in vivo technique to allow such measurements. However, because of many technical, methodologic, and logistic

Fig. 8. AMT-PET scan in an autistic boy showing the typical pattern of decreased AMT uptake in the frontal cortex and thalamus (left side in this case), and increased uptake in the contralateral right cerebellum and dentate nucleus (arrows).

PET in Brain Development problems, it has not been used widely. Although no study on human brain development has been performed to date, several autoradiographic studies in animals have provided interesting insight. Protein synthesis rates in most brain structures in cats at birth were found to be within the range of adult values (with some exceptions, such as the hippocampus and putamen).134 Subsequently, most structures showed a transient developmental peak during which the rates became higher than that of adults. This peak often occurred at around postnatal day 60 (P60), but in some regions lasted from P30 to P90, indicating some regional heterogeneity in the maturation of brain protein synthesis. It seems that, like glucose metabolism, there is a transitory but generally significant increase in protein synthesis rate during early development that goes beyond stable, adult values. The majority of structures progressively reached peak values of leucine incorporation by P60, but thereafter a steady decline brought the values back down to P1/adult levels by the age of P120, a profile similar to that seen with glucose-use rates in kittens.49 However, unlike glucose-use rate, no second peak was observed with the protein synthesis rate. The authors speculated that the developmental time course of protein synthesis was similar to and probably related to synaptogenesis. Nehlig and colleagues135 conducted protein synthesis studies in rats at P10 through P35 and in adult rats by measuring the incorporation of labeled methionine into brain proteins. They observed a pattern of maturation very similar to that described above for the cat, but with a different timing relative to birth. However, after making adjustments for the different time course of development in these two species, protein synthesis rates in cat and rat brains appeared to be similar. In another study also using rats, Sun and colleagues136 measured local rates of leucine incorporation into cerebral protein (lCPSleu) from age P7 to P60. They found that in most brain regions the values were highest at P10 (except for white matter, with values peaking at P14–P20) and then gradually decreased with age. With the use of the quantitative autoradiographic L-[1(14)C] leucine method, Abrams and colleagues137 measured lCPSleu in 35 regions of the central nervous system, pineal body, and whole brain of nine fetal sheep (118–139 days gestational age) and five newborn lambs (1–5 days of age). Regardless of age, lCPSleu was highest in the pineal body, brain stem, and hypothalamic nuclei and lowest in white matter, with lCPSleu correlating positively with prenatal age in sensorimotor

cortex, corona radiata, pyramidal tracts, and whole brain. These developmental data on cerebral protein synthesis add to our knowledge of normal brain development and how protein synthesis is important for the evolution of various neurologic functions. This information may provide us an insight into the pathogenesis of various developmental and neurologic disorders, particularly those related to neurogenesis, dendritic, and synaptic proliferation, and maturational processes such as myelination.

ROLE OF PET IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS PET can play an extremely important role in the evaluation of various developmental disorders. It is beyond the scope of this article to provide an exhaustive review of all pediatric conditions where PET has been applied, but the following examples will illustrate the potential of PET in understanding various childhood neurologic disorders and altering management.

Childhood Epileptic Syndromes Infantile spasms Infantile spasms, also known as West syndrome, is an uncommon epileptic disorder of infancy that usually starts between 3 and 12 months of age. These seizures are characterized by sudden severe myoclonic contractions of the entire body, typically involving the neck flexor muscles, with the chin jerking toward the torso or the head drawing inward with simultaneous raising and bending of the arms, occurring in clusters. The infantile spasms are classified as symptomatic if an underlying cause is present or cryptogenic when an underlying neurologic disorder is suspected but cannot be diagnosed. Rarely, when no underlying cause is present and the spasms are physiologic, presumably because of immaturity of electrophysiologic systems, they are referred to as idiopathic. PET can play a very important role in cases of cryptogenic or idiopathic infantile spasms, in understanding the pathogenesis of the spasms, in prognostication of these cases, or in selecting children for surgical treatment. PET can also help in etiologic classification of infantile spasm, with many cryptogenic cases being reclassified as symptomatic, as 95 out of 97 cryptogenic cases were found to have one or more abnormalities on FDG-PET scan.138 FDG-PET in these infants usually shows focal areas of hypo- or hypermetabolism or multifocal abnormalities, which are usually associated with underlying cortical dysplasia (Fig. 9).139–141 Symmetric, diffuse hypometabolism indicates

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Kumar & Chugani Fig. 9. FDG-PET scan in a 4-month-old child with infantile spasms showing hypometabolism in the right parietal and temporal cortex (arrows), and increased FDG uptake in bilateral basal ganglia.

neurometabolic or neurodegenerative disorders, rather than a lesional etiology.142 FDG-PET also shows abnormalities in the primary sensorimotor area in asymmetric and asynchronous spasms.143 Cortical hypometabolism may change with time, with persistence of hypometabolism indicating continuation of spasms and worse developmental prognosis.144 Similarly, bitemporal hypometabolism on FDG-PET scan may indicate poor longterm outcome with autistic features in these children.145 Areas of PET abnormalities usually correspond well with the EEG localization of focal ictal or interictal abnormalities,140,141 except when hypsarrhythmia is present, in which case focal electrographic abnormalities either preceding or following the presence of hypsarrhythmia correlate best with the PET abnormalities. Therefore, children with infantile spasms, particularly cryptogenic ones, should routinely undergo FDG-PET scan for further evaluation. In many cases it may be the only modality showing any brain abnormality and may help in surgical planning. As opposed to multifocal or diffuse bilateral PET abnormalities, children with unifocal lesion, consistent with electrophysiologic findings, may undergo surgical resection, which usually results in cessation of spasms (or improved spasms control) and improved long-term development.140,141 PET may also help in intracranial electrode placements, to determine the area of resection, as leading spikes followed by fastwave bursts have been shown to originate in and around glucose hypometabolic regions and whose resection is necessary for better surgical outcome.146 PET has been used to investigate the complex cortical-subcortical interactions believed to be important in the secondary generalization of focal cortical discharges resulting in spasms. PET studies have shown that, regardless of the type or extent of cortical abnormality, there is hypermetabolism in lenticular nuclei and brain stem in infants with spasms (see Fig. 9).139 It seems that infantile spasms are initiated as cortical epileptic

discharges that, during a critical developmental period, may undergo secondary generalization in an age-dependent mechanism to emerge as spasms. The onset of spasms often coincides with the functional maturation of the cerebral cortex. The offending lesion may be a focal or diffuse cortical abnormality that, at a critical stage of maturation, causes abnormal functional interactions with brainstem raphe nuclei, which project widely throughout the brain. Raphe-cortical projections could mediate the hypsarrhythmic changes seen on EEG, and the prominent serotonergic raphe-striatal pathway and descending spinal pathways may be responsible for the secondary generalization of the cortical discharges resulting in the relatively symmetric spasms.147,148 These pathogenic mechanisms can be further investigated using newer PET tracers, such as C-11 AMT (for serotonin synthesis; see above) and C-11 flumazenil (for GABAA receptor binding; see above). Lennox-Gastaut syndrome Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (LGS) is childhoodonset often-intractable epilepsy that usually starts between 2 and 6 years of age and is characterized by a slow spike-wave pattern (1 Hz–2.5 Hz) on the EEG, frequent seizures, and different seizure types, and is accompanied by mental retardation and developmental delay. The most common type of seizure is tonic, usually nocturnal, followed by myoclonic, atonic, atypical absence, complex partial, or tonic-clonic seizures. Status epilepticus is also common. Up to 20% children with infantile spasms may progress to LGS during the second year of life. Although there are many underlying pathologies, such as encephalopathy, tuberous sclerosis, hereditary metabolic diseases, inflammatory brain disease (such as encephalitis, meningitis, and toxoplasmosis), hypoxic-ischemic injury, and other birth injuries supposed to be involved in LGS, in up to one-third of cases it is cryptogenic or idiopathic. FDG-PET may show uni- or multifocal metabolic abnormalities (Fig. 10), which do not always correlate with anatomic or structural

PET in Brain Development Fig. 10. FDG-PET scan showing multiple areas of severe cortical hypometabolism in a child with LGS and multiple seizure types. The motor cortex, occipital cortex, and basal ganglia appear relatively prominently.

abnormalities and thus can help in revealing the extent of pathology and understanding the pathomechanism of various functional expressions of this disorder.149–155 FDG-PET has been used for metabolic classification of LGS into four predominant metabolic subtypes: unilateral focal hypometabolism, unilateral diffuse hypometabolism, bilateral diffuse hypometabolism, and normal glucose metabolism.149 FDG-PET can play a particularly important role in cryptogenic cases by showing underlying abnormalities and in surgical management if there is a focal lesion. Tuberous sclerosis Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is a neurocutaneous disorder, characterized by tumorous growths that involve multiple organs, including brain, retina, kidney, heart, and skin. Approximately 70% to 90% of patients with TSC have seizures, which are attributed to the presence of brain cortical malformations. Tubers typically show up as areas of cortical hypometabolism on interictal FDG-PET scan;156,157 these hypometabolic areas are believed to be caused by the decreased number of neurons and simplified dendritic pattern in the tubers. Interictal FDGPET can even detect small cortical tubers not visualized on T2 MR imaging. However, these hypometabolic areas often extend beyond the structural lesions visible on MR imaging158 and it has been shown that the seizure activity often originates from the mildly hypometabolic regions adjacent to the cortical tubers. Furthermore, in the case of multiple tubers, FDG-PET is not able to identify which of the multiple tubers are epileptogenic and, therefore, is not useful to guide surgical resection in TSC patients with medically intractable seizures. The PET tracer AMT can be used to differentiate epileptogenic from nonepileptogenic tubers, as it shows increased AMT uptake interictally in only epileptogenic tubers (Fig. 11). In epileptogenic tubers, there is increased uptake and subsequent intracellular accumulation of the AMT because of

activation of the kynurenine pathway,129 which leads to the production of neurotoxic and convulsant metabolites, such as quinolinic acid.159 AMT-PET can identify epileptogenic tubers in almost two-thirds of children with tuberous sclerosis and intractable epilepsy.129,158,160 While the specificity of AMT-PET is very high, its sensitivity is suboptimal, and appears to be related to the underlying pathology as well as the method of image analysis. In patients with tuberous sclerosis and intractable epilepsy, MR imaging-based quantitative assessment almost doubles the sensitivity of AMT-PET to 79%, from 44.4%, with visual assessment.161 This apparent discrepancy is because of the fact that nonepileptogenic tubers typically show decreased AMT uptake, and that some epileptogenic tubers showing relatively increased AMT uptake cannot be easily differentiated from adjacent normal cortex without quantitative analysis. The authors also found good correlation between resection of epileptogenic tubers suggested by AMT-PET and seizure outcome.162 Tubers with at least 10% increase of AMT uptake were all found to be epileptogenic. A cutoff threshold of 1.02 for AMT uptake ratio provided 83% accuracy for detecting tubers that need to be resected to achieve a seizure-free outcome.158,162 The use of PET has also contributed to our understanding of the neurobehavioral phenotypes of TSC, which include autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, aggression, and cognitive impairment. Application of PET, by combining FDG and AMT, has revealed the role of both cortical and subcortical dysfunction in the pathophysiology of autism in TSC.163 Glucose hypometabolism in the bilateral, lateral temporal cortex has been found to be associated with the severity of communication disturbance, whereas hypermetabolism in the deep cerebellar nuclei and increased AMT uptake in the caudate nucleus has been found to be related to stereotyped behavior, impaired social interaction, and communication disturbance.164 A recent PET study of

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Kumar & Chugani Fig. 11. Multiple tubers in a child with tuberous sclerosis and intractable seizures being evaluated for epilepsy surgery. Whereas FDG-PET showed glucose hypometabolism in multiple tubers (left), AMT-PET scan (right) showed intense uptake in a right frontal tuber (arrow) corresponding to the EEG focus.

cerebellar tubers has shown that right-sided cerebellar lesions were associated with higher social isolation and communicative and developmental disturbance compared with left-sided cerebellar lesions,165 supporting an important role of the cerebellum in autism. Sturge-Weber syndrome Sturge-Weber syndrome (SWS) is a neurocutaneous syndrome characterized by facial capillary nevus (port-wine stain) in the distribution of one or more divisions of the fifth cranial nerve and ipsilateral leptomeningeal angiomatosis. Neurologic consequences include intracerebral calcification, epilepsy, hemiparesis, hemianopia, and glaucoma. In children with SWS, FDG-PET reveals hypometabolism ipsilateral to the facial nevus and usually identifies additional areas of abnormal cortex extending beyond the lesion visible on MR imaging.43,166 However, some infants may show increased glucose metabolism interictally in the cortex underlying the leptomenigeal angioma, which with time becomes hypometabolic.43 In some patients, serial FDG-PET scans show rapidly progressing hypometabolism in the affected area, probably because of rapid demise of the brain tissue associated with the angioma.167 These patients usually show improvement in seizure status and cognitive function and therefore may not require surgical intervention (Fig. 12). Probably, early and rapid progression of unilateral disease, associated with destruction of underlying brain tissue, leads to early and more efficient reorganization in the contralateral cortex. Indeed, a recent FDG-PET study showed decreased glucose metabolism in the visual and parietal cortex on the side of the angioma but increased metabolism on the contralateral side.168 In particular, glucose metabolism was found to be very high in contralateral visual cortex of children with SWS and visual field defect, indicating that early, severe unilateral cortical damage in SWS may induce increased glucose metabolism in the

contralateral visual cortex, probably reflecting reorganization. On the other hand, persistent mild hypometabolism of the lesion may indicate ongoing functional deterioration and these patients may show persistent seizures and developmental delay.167 These are the patients who require surgical intervention to control their seizures and to improve their cognitive development by allowing the brain to reorganize itself while brain plasticity is still at a maximum. In SWS, damaging metabolic changes occur before 3 years of age,166 coinciding with a rapid increase in developmentally regulated cerebral metabolic demand.56 Progressive hypometabolism is associated with high seizure frequency in these children. However, metabolic abnormalities may remain limited or even partially recover later in some children with well-controlled seizures. Metabolic recovery accompanied by neurologic improvement suggests a window for therapeutic intervention in children with unilateral SWS.166 O-15 water PET studies have also been used to evaluate the functional activation of calcified hypoperfused brain areas during language and motor tasks.169 It was found that hypoperfused areas may become activated during language and motor performance, and progressive calcification in SWS is associated with functional reorganization in the language and motor domains. Interhemispheric reorganization was found to be more pronounced for language than for motor functions. Landau-Kleffner syndrome Landau-Kleffner syndrome, also called ‘‘acquired epileptic aphasia’’ or ‘‘aphasia with convulsive disorder,’’ is a rare childhood neurologic disorder occurring between 4 and 8 years of ages and is characterized by the sudden or gradual development of aphasia in an epileptic child, who had developed typically, including normal language, until that time. While many of the affected children have clinical seizures, some may have only

PET in Brain Development hemisphere, and which could be the reason for not as good a surgical outcome of hemispherectomy when compared with children undergoing the same operation for SWS, chronic focal encephalitis of Rasmussen, or hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Therefore, FDG-PET can be used for the presurgical evaluation of the functional integrity of the apparently normal hemisphere. In fact, the degree and pattern of the metabolic involvement of the apparently uninvolved hemisphere has been found to be correlated with surgical outcome and overall prognosis.176

Perinatal Hypoxic-ischemic Encephalopathy

Fig. 12. In a child with SWS and meningeal hemangioma of the left posterior quadrant (arrow), serial FDG scans showed progression of the cortical hypometabolism, indicating degenerative changes in the brain tissue associated with the angioma. The child showed improvement in seizure status and cognitive function.

electrographic seizures, including electrographic status epilepticus of sleep. FDG-PET has shown bilateral temporal lobe involvement, particularly superior and medial.170–172 FDG-PET has also revealed the possible involvement of temporal lobes in the generation of continuous spike waves during slow-wave sleep.173,174 FDG-PET can be further used to monitor dynamic changes of glucose metabolism in the temporal lobe during episodes of aphasia and remission (Fig. 13).175 Hemimegalencephaly Hemimegalencephaly is a developmental brain malformation characterized by congenital hypertrophy of one cerebral hemisphere with ipsilateral ventriculomegaly and is associated with epilepsy, hemianopsia, and varying degrees of developmental delay. The larger hemisphere is the more abnormal one and is highly epileptogenic, often requiring hemispherectomy for alleviation of the seizures. FDG-PET usually shows varying level of hypometabolism in the affected hemisphere.176 However, the apparently normal hemisphere also may show metabolic abnormalities (Fig. 14), indicating dysfunction of the structurally normal

FDG-PET can delineate the extent of brain damage and provide new perspective on the mechanisms of neonatal brain injury and prognostic information about subsequent functional sequelae. Cerebral perfusion PET studies in preterm infants with intraventricular and intracerebral hemorrhage have demonstrated large areas of hypoperfusion, involving the whole affected hemisphere.177 Similarly, FDG-PET studies found areas of hypometabolism extending beyond the affected regions shown by CT scan.178 In full-term neonates with perinatal asphyxia, PET usually shows relative hypoperfusion in the parasagittal regions.179 Transient hypermetabolism in the basal ganglia at the time of birth, followed by severe hypometabolism in the lenticular nuclei and thalami, has been found in newborns who suffered perinatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) and developed dystonic cerebral palsy later (Fig. 15), suggesting that transient hypermetabolism in the basal ganglia following perinatal hypoxia may be related to excitotoxic damage, causing permanent neurologic symptoms in the form of dystonic cerebral palsy.180 Similarly, total CMRglc has been found to be inversely correlated with the severity of HIE, with neonates having low CMRglc subsequently developing cerebral palsy.181 Another FDG-PET study in children with suspected HIE found that those with abnormal development had persistently low cerebral glucose metabolism.182 Therefore, it appears that FDG-PET can provide valuable information for the prediction of neurologic outcome in cases of HIE.

Cerebral Palsy Cerebral palsy is a nonprogressive neurologic disorder which may, in some cases, be related to perinatal brain injury. Depending upon the motor impairments, which depends upon the area of the brain damaged, cerebral palsy has been classified into four major types: spastic (spastic

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Kumar & Chugani Fig. 13. FDG-PET images from a child with Landau-Kleffner syndrome showing marked hypermetabolism in the left temporal region (arrow) during the peak of his aphasic episode. EEG during the PET tracer uptake period showed frequent and repetitive spike-and-wave activities from this area. A repeat FDG-PET scan during his remission state showed hypometabolism in the same region (arrow).

hemiplegia, diplegia, or quadriplegia), athetoid/ dyskinetic, ataxic, and mixed. PET can help in identifying the involvement of various cortical and subcortical structures and the extent of their damage in these various forms of cerebral palsy. FDG-PET studies have shown that the distribution of metabolic impairment almost invariably extends beyond the region of anatomic involvement. Whereas FDG-PET shows focal areas of cortical hypometabolism in the absence of apparent structural abnormality in spastic diplegic patients, a relatively normal pattern of cortical metabolism is seen in some children with choreoathetoid cerebral palsy, along with marked hypometabolism in the thalamus and lenticular nuclei and relative sparing of the caudate nucleus (see Fig. 15).98 Relative sparing of the cerebral cortex is consistent with the clinical observation that many of these children have relative preservation of cognitive function compared with their severe motor impairment. Use of FMZ-PET has demonstrated increased GABA receptor binding in the bilateral

Fig. 14. FDG-PET scan in a child with right hemimegalencephaly showing an enlarged malformed right hemisphere and additional area of mild hypometabolism (arrow) in the opposite hemisphere.

motor and visual cortex and decreased binding in the brain stem, indicating the role of GABA receptors in poor motor control.183

Developmental Dyslexia Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that manifests primarily as a difficulty with written language, particularly with reading and spelling. Various PET studies have shown the involvement of bilateral posterior temporal and parietal cortices. PET studies using O-15 labeled water in dyslexic subjects showed a failure to activate the left temporoparietal cortex during a rhyme detection task, and reduced activation/unusual deactivation in mid- and posterior temporal cortex bilaterally, and also in the inferior parietal cortex, predominantly on the left side, during both pronunciation and decision making.184,185 In contrast, dyslexic men demonstrated essentially normal activation of the left inferior frontal cortex during both phonologic and orthographic decision making. In another PET study, the dyslexic group showed less activation than the control group in the right superior temporal and right postcentral gyri, and also in the left cerebellum.186 Other PET studies revealed lower activation in right cerebellar cortex and left cingulate gyrus,187 and functional disconnection of the left angular gyrus from other parts of the reading network in adults with persistent developmental dyslexia.188 A recent O-15 PET study of the learning of phoneme categorization found a different pattern of activation in dyslexic subjects compared with normal controls.189 A strongly leftlateralized activation involving the superior temporal, inferior parietal, and inferior lateral frontal cortex was found during the speech mode in normal readers. Frontal and parietal subparts of these left-sided regions were found to be significantly more activated in the control group than in the dyslexic group. However, activations in the right frontal cortex were found to be larger in the dyslexic group than in the control group for both speech and acoustic modes compared with rest.

PET in Brain Development Fig. 15. FDG-PET scans of a child who suffered hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy at birth and later developed dystonic/choreoathetoid cerebral palsy. The left image from the newborn period showed intense hypermetabolism in the basal ganglia (arrow). The right image at 5 years showed severe hypometabolism in the lenticular nuclei and thalami (arrows). Note the relative preservation of metabolism in the cerebral cortex.

Dyslexic subjects also showed an unexpected large deactivation in the medial occipital cortex for the acoustic mode. FDG-PET studies have shown less asymmetry in glucose uptake in prefrontal and lingual (inferior) regions of the occipital lobe during reading in dyslexic subjects, indicating that brain regions are activated differently in them.190 Another FDGPET study showed significantly higher absolute and relative brain metabolism along an anteriorposterior gradient, including medial temporal lobe, in dyslexic subjects compared with normal during auditory syllable discrimination task.191 The authors have also found several patterns of abnormal glucose metabolism, including bilateral temporal and parietal hypometabolism, bilateral temporal hypometabolism, and unilateral left temporal hypometabolism in dyslexic subjects, which is in agreement with neuropsychologic data indicating heterogeneity in patients with developmental dyslexia (Fig. 16).

Tourette Syndrome Tourette syndrome is an inherited neurologic disorder with onset in childhood and is characterized by the presence of multiple motor tics and at least one vocal tic for more than 1 year; these tics

characteristically wax and wane. In the few children with Tourette syndrome who have been studied with FDG-PET, no consistent abnormalities have been found. These patients have been reported to have decreased normalized metabolic rates in paralimbic and ventral prefrontal cortices, particularly in orbitofrontal, inferior insular, and parahippocampal regions.192 Similar decreases were observed in subcortical regions, including the ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens/ventromedial caudate) and in the midbrain. These changes were more robust and occurred with greater frequency in the left hemisphere and were associated with concomitant bilateral increases in metabolic activity of the supplementary motor, lateral premotor, and Rolandic cortices. Cerebral perfusion PET studies have been used for the investigation of neuronal circuits involved in tic generation in patients with Tourette syndrome. One O-15 PET study showed robust activation of cerebellum, insula, thalamus, and putamen during tic release.193 Another O-15 PET study showed significant tics related activation in medial and lateral premotor cortices, anterior cingulate cortex, dorsolateral-rostral prefrontal cortex, inferior parietal cortex, putamen, and caudate, as well as primary motor cortex, Broca’s area, superior temporal gyrus, insula, and

Fig. 16. FDG-PET scan of a child with developmental dyslexia and normal MR imaging showing bilateral parietal cortex hypometabolism (arrowheads).

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Fig. 17. AMT-PET scan in a child with Tourette syndrome showing decreased AMT uptake in the right basal ganglia (A) and the left thalamus (B).

claustrum.194 Aberrant activity in the interrelated sensorimotor, language, executive, and paralimbic circuits identified in this study may account for the initiation and execution of diverse motor and vocal behaviors that characterize tics in Tourette syndrome, as well as for the urges that often accompany them. Several studies evaluated various aspects of dopaminergic transmission, as it is believed that disturbances in the dopaminergic system contribute to the pathophysiology of Tourette syndrome. Such studies reported elevated striatal dopamine transporter levels,195 abnormal presynaptic DOPA decarboxylase activity,196 and significantly lower D2 receptor availability in the orbitofrontal cortex, primary motor cortex, anterior

cingulate gyrus, mediodorsal nucleus of thalamus, and hippocampus, areas important for motivation and reward, sensory gating, movement, and attention, in subjects with Tourette syndrome.197 Another study also demonstrated increased dopamine release in the striatum, particularly putamen, of Tourette patients.198,199 Imaging data using AMT-PET appear to support the role of abnormal serotonergic neurotransmission in the pathophysiology of Tourette syndrome and some of its comorbid conditions, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder.200 Increased serotonin receptor binding was found not only in regions closely related to subcortical regions in patients with Tourette syndrome, but also in most other brain regions.201 Decreased AMT uptake in bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortical and bilaterally increased uptake in the thalamus with bilateral increased ratio of AMT uptake in subcortical structures to dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was reported in Tourette syndrome children.200 However, thalamic and basal ganglia asymmetry in AMT uptake is also frequently found in these children (Fig. 17).

Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinoses or Spielmeyer-Vogt Disease The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses are a group of autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorders that are characterized, in general, by seizures, developmental regression, and progressive visual impairment. While children with the juvenile form (CLN-3) or Spielmeyer-Vogt (or Batten) disease show decreased glucose metabolism in the calcarine cortex early in the course of the disease (Fig. 18), children with late infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (CLN-2; Jansky-Bielschowsky disease, with curvilinear inclusions) show rapid degeneration with generalized cortical and subcortical hypometabolism.202–206 As the juvenile form of the disease progresses, a rostral spread of glucose hypometabolism to other cortical areas is observed.206 Therefore, the rate of disease progression can be monitored with PET. PET Studies have also shown reduced striatal dopamine D1 receptors in juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis.207

SUMMARY

Fig.18. FDG-PET image from a child with neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis showing selective hypometabolism in the occipital cortex bilaterally (arrows).

Along with various molecular imaging agents in its arsenal, PET can play an invaluable role in understanding the structural and functional changes that occur during brain development and how these changes relate to behavioral and cognitive maturation in the infant and child. This article has reviewed various aspects of brain development,

PET in Brain Development such as the ontogeny of brain glucose metabolism, protein synthesis, and maturation and development of neurotransmitter systems, and has emphasized that a thorough understanding of normal maturational patterns seen on PET is a prelude to the application of this technology in understanding the pathogenesis and neurologic basis of various developmental and neurologic disorders. Application of PET methods may help in following disease evolution and progression, planning, and development of various social and therapeutic interventions, timing these interventions and monitoring their responses, as well as allowing for long-term prognostication.

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Kumar & Chugani 157. Szelies B, Herholz K, Heiss WD, et al. Hypometabolic cortical lesions in tuberous sclerosis with epilepsy: demonstration by positron emission tomography. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1983;7:946–53. 158. Asano E, Chugani DC, Muzik O, et al. Multimodality imaging for improved detection of epileptogenic foci in tuberous sclerosis complex. Neurology 2000;54:1976–84. 159. Stone TW. Kynurenines in the CNS: from endogenous obscurity to therapeutic importance. Prog Neurobiol 2001;64:185–218. 160. Fedi M, Reutens DC, Andermann F, et al. alpha[11C]-Methyl-L-tryptophan PET identifies the epileptogenic tuber and correlates with interictal spike frequency. Epilepsy Res 2003;52:203–13. 161. Juha´sz C, Chugani DC, Asano E, et al. Alpha[11C]methyl-L-tryptophan positron emission tomography scanning in 176 patients with intractable epilepsy. Ann Neurol 2002;53:S118 [abstract]. 162. Kagawa K, Chugani DC, Asano E, et al. Epilepsy surgery outcome in children with tuberous sclerosis complex evaluated with alpha-[11C]methylL-tryptophan positron emission tomography (PET). J Child Neurol 2005;20:429–38. 163. Asano E, Chugani DC, Muzik O, et al. Autism in tuberous sclerosis complex is related to both cortical and subcortical dysfunction. Neurology 2001;57:1269–77. 164. Luat AF, Makki M, Chugani HT. Neuroimaging in tuberous sclerosis complex. Curr Opin Neurol 2007;20:142–50. 165. Eluvathingal TJ, Behen ME, Chugani HT, et al. Cerebellar lesions in tuberous sclerosis complex: neurobehavioral and neuroimaging correlates. J Child Neurol 2006;21:846–51. 166. Juhasz C, Batista CE, Chugani DC, et al. Evolution of cortical metabolic abnormalities and their clinical correlates in Sturge-Weber syndrome. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2007;11:277–84. 167. Lee JS, Asano E, Muzik O, et al. Sturge-Weber syndrome: correlation between clinical course and FDG PET findings. Neurology 2001;57:189–95. 168. Batista CE, Juhasz C, Muzik O, et al. Increased visual cortex glucose metabolism contralateral to angioma in children with Sturge-Weber syndrome. Dev Med Child Neurol 2007;49: 567–73. 169. Muller RA, Chugani HT, Muzik O, et al. Language and motor functions activate calcified hemisphere in patients with Sturge-Weber syndrome: a positron emission tomography study. J Child Neurol 1997; 12:431–7. 170. da Silva EA, Chugani DC, Muzik O, et al. LandauKleffner syndrome: metabolic abnormalities in temporal lobe are a common feature. J Child Neurol 1997;12:489–95.

171. Honbolygo F, Csepe V, Fekeshazy A, et al. Converging evidences on language impairment in Landau-Kleffner Syndrome revealed by behavioral and brain activity measures: a case study. Clin Neurophysiol 2006;117:295–305. 172. Shiraishi H, Takano K, Shiga T, et al. Possible involvement of the tip of temporal lobe in LandauKleffner syndrome. Brain Dev 2007;29:529–33. 173. Maquet P, Hirsch E, Dive D, et al. Cerebral glucose utilization during sleep in Landau-Kleffner syndrome: a PET study. Epilepsia 1990;31:778–83. 174. Rintahaka PJ, Chugani HT, Sankar R. Landau-Kleffner syndrome with continuous spikes and waves during slow-wave sleep. J Child Neurol 1995;10:127–33. 175. Luat AF, Chugani HT, Asano E, et al. Episodic receptive aphasia in a child with Landau-Kleffner syndrome: PET correlates. Brain Dev 2006;28: 592–6. 176. Rintahaka PJ, Chugani HT, Messa C, et al. Hemimegalencephaly: evaluation with positron emission tomography. Pediatr Neurol 1993;9:21–8. 177. Volpe JJ, Herscovitch P, Perlman JM, et al. Positron emission tomography in the newborn: extensive impairment of regional cerebral blood flow with intraventricular hemorrhage and hemorrhagic intracerebral involvement. Pediatrics 1983;72:589–601. 178. Doyle LW, Nahmias C, Firnau G, et al. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism of newborn infants measured by positron emission tomography. Dev Med Child Neurol 1983;25:143–51. 179. Volpe JJ, Herscovitch P, Perlman JM, et al. Positron emission tomography in the asphyxiated term newborn: parasagittal impairment of cerebral blood flow. Ann Neurol 1985;17:287–96. 180. Batista CE, Chugani HT, Juhasz C, et al. Transient hypermetabolism of the basal ganglia following perinatal hypoxia. Pediatr Neurol 2007;36:330–3. 181. Thorngren-Jerneck K, Ohlsson T, Sandell A, et al. Cerebral glucose metabolism measured by positron emission tomography in term newborn infants with hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy. Pediatr Res 2001;49:495–501. 182. Suhonen-Polvi H, Kero P, Korvenranta H, et al. Repeated fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography of the brain in infants with suspected hypoxic-ischaemic brain injury. Eur J Nucl Med 1993;20:759–65. 183. Lee JD, Park HJ, Park ES, et al. Assessment of regional GABA(A) receptor binding using 18F-fluoroflumazenil positron emission tomography in spastic type cerebral palsy. Neuroimage 2007;34: 19–25. 184. Rumsey JM, Andreason P, Zametkin AJ, et al. Failure to activate the left temporoparietal cortex in dyslexia. An oxygen 15 positron emission tomographic study. Arch Neurol 1992;49:527–34.

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Clinical Application of PET in Pediatric Brain Tumors Wei Chen, MD, PhDa,b,* KEYWORDS  Brain tumors  Pediatric  PET  Diagnosis  Treatment

developed.5 Grade II gliomas are more indolent than their high-grade counterparts, but they are associated with significant neurologic disability. In children, grade II tumors have a better prognosis than those in adults in that surgical resection may result in cure, and spontaneous regression has been reported.6 However, tumor cells can acquire genetic defects, which result in anaplastic transformation to a highgrade lesion.7 They may also progress without anaplastic transformation. The clinical course of glioblastoma is usually rapid and fatal, with the median survival of 1 year. Median survival for anaplastic tumors is 2 to 3 years. After the initial treatment, these tumors invariably recur. Patients are treated with a variety of chemotherapeutic agents, although response to conventional cytotoxic chemotherapy agents and radiation therapy is often poor, and therapy-related morbidity is a significant problem in children.8 A recent study demonstrated that pediatric glioblastomas may have distinct genetic alterations different from adult glioblastomas.9 Targeted therapy is an area of active research. Metastasis from systemic tumors to the brain through hematogenous spread is uncommon in childhood. A review of the literature showed a 4.08% incidence of cerebral metastasis in 2,035 pediatric patients.10 The top three most common childhood cancers that metastasize to the brain were melanoma (13.6%), germ cell tumors (13.5%), and osteosarcoma (6.5%).

This work was supported by grants P50 CA086306 from the National Institutes of Health – National Cancer Institute, and U.S Department of Energy Contract DE-FC03-87-ER60615. a Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, 200 Medical Plaza, Suite B114-61, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA b Department of Radiology, Kaiser Permanente Woodland Hills Medical Center, 5601 De Soto Ave, Woodland Hills, CA 91367, USA * Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, 200 Medical Plaza, Suite B114-61, Los Angeles, CA 90095. E-mail address: [email protected] PET Clin 3 (2009) 517–529 doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2009.03.005 1556-8598/09/$ – see front matter ª 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

pet.theclinics.com

While rare in adults, central nervous system (CNS) tumor is the most common solid tumor in childhood, accounting for 21.2% of all cancers, and is the leading cause of cancer death in children.1 Childhood brain tumors are different from those in adults in epidemiology, histologic features, and responses to treatment.2 Although the outcome for children with brain tumors is poor, survival rates are better than in adults with similar tumors.2 Fiveyear survival for children with CNS tumors is reported as high as 74%.1 Gliomas make up over one-half of all childhood brain tumors.2 According to the World Health Organization (WHO) classification, there are three main types of gliomas based on their histologic features: astrocytomas, oligodendrogliomas, and mixed oligoastrocytomas.3 These tumors are typically heterogeneous in nature in that different levels of malignant degeneration can occur in different regions within the same tumor. Analysis of the most malignant region of the tumors establishes grading: low-grade or WHO grades I and II, and high-grade or WHO grades III (anaplastic tumor) and IV (glioblastoma). In children, lowgrade (grade I and grade II tumors) tumor is the most common type of glioma.4 In particular, grade I pilocytic astrocytoma, which is rare in adults, accounts for 24% of total childhood gliomas. Grade I pilocytic astrocytoma typically is considered curable surgically. Clinical course and treatment for grade II to IV gliomas in children are similar to those in adults, although less

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Chen Patients are followed clinically for neurologic symptoms and by neuroimaging with MR imaging, the current clinical gold standard. However, imaging the extent of contrast enhancement in malignant gliomas is limited by the difficulty in distinguishing between tumor extent and treatmentinduced changes, such as radiation necrosis.11 Proton MR spectroscopic imaging is being developed in pediatric patients to better characterizing tumor activity.12 Metabolic imaging with PET plays a significant role in evaluation of these tumors, and exciting progresses have been made in recent years. PET applications and advances in evaluation of brain tumors in adults have been reviewed recently.13,14 However, PET studies in childhood brain tumors are relatively limited when compared with those in adults.15 This article emphasizes PET applications in childhood brain tumors, focusing on mainly gliomas with regard to tumor-grading and prognosis, distinguishing tumor recurrence from radiation necrosis, and PET-guided diagnosis and treatment.

PET FOR TUMOR GRADING AND PROGNOSIS The clinical gold-standard imaging procedure, MR imaging, provides excellent anatomic details. Standard T1- and T2-weighted MR images detect brain tumors with high sensitivity with regard to size and localization, as well as mass effect, edema, hemorrhage, necrosis, and signs of increased intracranial pressure. A high-grade glioma usually presents as an irregular, hypodense lesion on T1-weighted MR imaging, with various degrees of contrast enhancement and edema. Ring-like enhancement surrounding irregularly shaped foci of presumed necrosis is suggestive of glioblastoma. However, anaplastic tumors can often present as nonenhancing tumors and even glioblastoma may present initially as a nonenhancing lesion. Likewise, some low-grade-appearing tumors may contain areas of anaplastic tumor. Early and adequate tissue sampling is important, given the potential for nonenhancing tumors to be anaplastic gliomas rather than low-grade gliomas. Grading of tumors by noninvasive imaging is especially important when tissue biopsy is difficult to obtain because of tumor location. PET uptake with 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) is generally high in high-grade tumors. It is well established that FDG uptake has prognostic value in that high-FDG uptake in a previously known low-grade tumor establishes the diagnosis of anaplastic transformation.16,17 Coregistration of FDG-PET images with MR imaging greatly improves the performance of FDG-PET.18 Tumor grading by FDG-PET image fusion with MR

imaging was prospectively studied in 19 pediatric patients with primary CNS tumors.19 Before the start of treatment, FDG-PET was obtained in all 19 patients. Sixteen patients were also studied with H215O-PET. The semiquantitative determination of the FDG scan consisted of a 10-mm diameter circular region-of-interest (ROI) after coregistration and image fusion to MR imaging to localize the tumor. Same-diameter reference ROIs were selected in the temporal cortex and white matter contralateral to the tumor. Tumors were graded using references to the gray- and white-matter uptakes. FDG uptake was positively correlated with malignancy grading, whereas H215O-PET uptake showed no correlation with malignancy (Fig. 1). Digitally performed PET/MR imaging coregistration increased information on tumor characterization in 90% of cases. Amino acid and amino acid analog-PET tracers constitute another class of tumor imaging agents.20,21 They are particularly attractive for imaging brain tumors because of the high uptake in tumor tissue and low uptake in normal brain tissue, thus higher tumor-to-normal tissue contrast. The best studied amino acid tracer is 11 C-methionine.22,23 Because of the short half-life of 11C (t1/2 5 20 min), 18F-labeled aromatic amino acid analogs have been developed for tumor imaging.24 Tumor uptake of O-2- [18F]fluoroethylL-tyrosine (FET) and 3,4-dihydroxy-6- [18F]-fluoroL-phenylalanine (FDOPA) have been reported to methionine be similar to L-[methyl-11C] 25,26 (MET). FDOPA metabolite 3-O-methyl-6[18F]fluoro-L-DOPA has also been investigated for brain tumor imaging with PET.27 Superior diagnostic accuracy of FDOPA to FDG in evaluating recurrent low-grade and high-grade gliomas was reported.28,29 FDOPA as an amino acid analog was shown to be taken up at the blood-brain barrier in normal brains by the neutral amino acid transporter. In the most detailed and comprehensive study published of FDOPA in brain tumors, FDOPA was compared with FDG in 30 patients with brain tumors and the diagnostic accuracy of FDOPA was evaluated in a subsequently expanded study to additional 51 patients.28 FDOPA demonstrated excellent visualization of high- and low-grade tumors (Fig. 2). However, no significant differences between FDOPA standard uptake values (SUVs) or tumor-to-normal brain ratio could be found between low-grade and high-grade tumors. No FDOPA study in pediatric brain tumors has been reported. MET-PET is perhaps the best studied amino acid tracer and also the best studied amino acid tracer in pediatric brain tumors. MET-PET was

PET in Pediatric Brain Tumors

Fig. 1. The tumor hotspot/brain index is significantly positively correlated with the WHO malignancy grading, although the benign hypermetabolic tumors confound the correlation (marked with green, not included in mean for WHO grade 1 tumors). (Adapted from Borgwardt L, Hojgaard L, Carstensen H, et al. Increased Fluorine-18 2-Fluoro-2-Deoxy-D-Glucose (FDG) uptake in childhood CNS tumors is correlated with malignancy grade: A study with FDG positron emission tomography/magnetic resonance imaging coregistration and image fusion. J Clin Oncol 2005;23:3030–7; with permission).

compared with FDG-PET in 27 pediatric patients with previously untreated primary CNS tumors.30 Metabolic characteristics as assessed with FDG and MET SUV and SUV-to-normal brain ratio were compared with pathologic markers, such as proliferation index (Ki-67), vascular, apoptotic, and cell-density indices. Investigators found that both FDG and MET uptakes were significantly higher in high-grade than in low-grade tumors, but there were significant overlaps (Fig. 3). Thus, no clear limits of SUVs or SUV-to-normal brain ratios can be set between low-grade and highgrade tumors. In univariate analysis, FDG-PET, MET-PET, and apoptotic index were independent predictors of event-free survival.

In a larger study, MET-PET uptake was determined in 52 pediatric patients with CNS tumors: 26 newly diagnosed, 26 recurrent diseases.31 The study evaluated the relationship between the MET uptake and histopathologic grading, as well as the prognostic value. ROIs were defined manually with knowledge of the clinical and MR imaging data. The MET-uptake index was established using the ratio of tumor ROI and MET uptake in the contralateral gray matter. Although there was significant difference in MET uptake between the higher-grade tumors and those of grade I tumors (pilocytic astrocytoma, n 5 3) and benign lesions (n 5 8), no significant differences in the METuptake index between tumor grades for either

Fig. 2. MR imaging and FDOPA-PET in a 12-year-old boy with grade III oligodendroglioma.

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Fig. 3. T2-MR imaging and L-[methyl-11C] methionine (MET)-PET and FDG-PET scans of two pediatric patients with optic tract pilocytic astrocytoma (upper) and anaplastic astrocytoma (lower). Both tumors exhibited high MET accumulation, whereas only anaplastic astrocytoma exhibited high FDG accumulation. (Adapted from Utriainen M, Metahonkala L, Salmi TT, et al. Metabolic characterization of childhood brain tumors: comparison of 18 F-fluorodeoxyglucose and 11C-methionine positron emission tomography. Cancer 2002;95:1376–86; with permission).

newly diagnosed or recurrent tumors can be demonstrated. Furthermore, no thresholds could be found at which MET uptake could be predictive of survival. Investigators concluded that clinical use of MET should be focused on evaluations of recurrence, tumor volume delineation, and biopsy guidance. It is possible that correlations between PET and tumor grade may be different for different types of tumors. MET-PET uptake and tumor grade, as well as proliferative index Ki-67, was studied in a mixed-age population of 67 pediatric and adult glioma patients.32 No correlations between SUVs or tumor-to-normal brain ratios to Ki-67 or tumor grade could be found. However, when analysis was confined to 28 cases of astrocytic tumors only, a tumor-to-normal brain ratio of 1.5 and 1.6 was found to distinguish between low-grade and

high-grade tumor, and a correlation was also found between MET-PET uptake and Ki-67.

RADIATION NECROSIS VERSUS RECURRENT TUMOR Radiation Necrosis Necrosis of the brain tissue after radiation is a known complication and potential synergistic effects of high-dose chemotherapy, and radiation therapy is being investigated.33 Clinical and radiographic data were assessed in 49 pediatric patients with brain tumors treated with high-dose chemotherapy and autologous hematopoietic stem cell rescue, preceded or followed by radiation.33 Multiple enhancing cerebral lesions were frequently seen on MR imaging scans soon after high-dose chemotherapy and radiation. Of the

PET in Pediatric Brain Tumors 49 children, 18 had abnormal MR imaging findings occurring at a median of 8 months after radiation and beginning to regress at a median of 13 months after onset. Such findings pose a major diagnostic challenge in differential diagnosis. Radiosurgery is another approach in the treatment of brain tumors. Stereotactic radiosurgery has the potential to ablate small tumors that are not surgically respectable, while reducing the damage to the brain tissue associated with delivering a high-radiation dose to the developing brain. Outcome of stereotactic radiosurgery was investigated in 90 children with brain tumors.34 Nineteen patients suspected to have radiation necrosis underwent reoperation after an interval of 0.6 to 62 months. Pathology revealed necrosis with no evidence of tumor in nine patients, whereas a mix of radiation necrosis and tumor was seen in the rest of the patients. Various treatment-related changes can be seen on MR imaging. After resection of brain tumors, late transient treatment-induced lesions in 11 pediatric patients were evaluated.35 Seventeen foci of abnormality located outside of the tumor bed, which occurred after radiation or chemotherapy, were detected. The median lesion diameter was 1 cm or smaller, without mass effect, and occurred 10 months after radiation therapy, 11 months after chemotherapy, and resolved by 3 months. FDG-PET Diagnostic limitations of FDG-PET have been demonstrated.36,37 Because of the high physiologic glucose metabolic rate of normal brain tissue, the detectability of tumors with only modest increases in glucose metabolism, such as low-grade tumors and in some cases recurrent high-grade tumors, can be difficult. There can be significant variability in FDG uptake in that high-grade tumors may actually have uptake that is only similar to or slightly above the white matter uptake, especially for highgrade tumors after treatment.36 In general, methods to define a cut-off FDGSUV value is not reliable, as relative use of glucose and FDG varied widely for brain tumors and was different from that for the normal brain.38 Attempts to use lesion to contralateal normal white-matter or gray-matter tissue yielded poor results.37 This is because of the fact that the treated brain area has a wide range of background metabolic activity and is usually lower than the metabolic activity of the normal untreated brain. As recurring tumors may have FDG uptakes equal to or lower than the normal cortex, reference with MR imaging delineates the area of interest. In the area of interest, any FDG uptake higher than the expected

background, based on references to the adjacent brain, should be considered a recurrent tumor if that corresponds to abnormalities on MR imaging, even though the uptake may be equal or less than the uptake of a normal cortex. Thus, when interpreting FDG-PET in a treated brain to distinguish recurrent tumor from radiation necrosis, it is (a) critical to evaluate lesion activity not by the absolute uptake value, not by the ratio to untreated normal brain tissue, but by whether it is above the expected background activity based on referencing to the uptake in the adjacent brain; and (b) to have the MR imaging structural information available for correlation. In a series of 44 lesions treated with stereotactic radiosurgery, FDG-PET alone had a sensitivity of 65% in subjects with metastases, but reached 86% when MR imaging and PET images were coregistered.39 Any area of FDG uptake higher than the uptake of expected background activity using the adjacent brain as a reference should be considered suspicious, as was any FDG uptake in a region showing contrast enhancement on the coregistered MR images. In a series of 117 patients after radiotherapy when such criteria was used, a sensitivity of 96% and specificity of 77% in evaluating recurrent tumor versus radiation necrosis were demonstrated.40 Sensitivity of FDG-PET can be increased by imaging at delayed intervals of 3 to 8 hours after injection, improving distinction between tumor and normal gray matter.41 The investigators hypothesized that there would be increased excretion of glucose from the cells at extended intervals between FDG administration and PET data acquisition, and this excretion is greater in normal brain tissue than in tumor. Therefore, imaging at delayed intervals may improve the delineation of tumor from normal gray matter (Fig. 4). In 19 patients with gliomas imaged from 0 to 90 minutes, and once or twice later at 180 to 480 minutes after injection, SUV was greater in the tumors than in normal gray or white matter at delayed times.41 Investigators used kinetic modeling to demonstrate that the rate constant of FDG-6-phosphate degradation k4 values were not significantly different between tumor and normal brain tissue in early imaging times, but were lower in tumor than normal brain tissue in extended-time data, suggesting that higher FDG-6-phosphate degradation at delayed times may be responsible for higher excretion of FDG from normal tissue than tumor. A potentially useful approach is to use dual-phase imaging to evaluate radiation necrosis. An attractive hypothesis would be that, similar to normal brain tissue, FDG excretion from necrotic tissue would also be greater than tumor at delayed times. Further studies are

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Fig. 4. MR image (A) and FDG-PET (B) showed a metastatic osteogenic sarcoma in a 15-year-old girl. Delayed FDG-PET at 4 hours after injection (C) showed much higher tumor-to-background ratio.

needed to evaluate whether this approach could increase the diagnostic accuracy to distinguish radiation necrosis from recurrent tumor. Amino acid-PET As amino acid tracers appear more sensitive to visualize tumor; they have the potential to have better diagnostic performance than FDG-PET in evaluating radiation necrosis. However, amino acid uptake in radiation necrosis lesions is not well known. Uptakes of FET, FDG, and 18F-Choloine (FCH) were compared in acute cerebral-radiation injury lesions (inflammatory cells) as well as acute cryolesions (disruption of blood-brain barrier) in rat.42 Both FDG and FCH were accumulated in macrophages, a common inflammatory mediator in radiation necrosis, but FET uptake was absent in macrophages. Moreover, FETuptake ratio in radiation necrosis versus normal cortex was much lower than that of FDG and FCH, suggesting that FET is promising for differentiating radiation necrosis from tumor recurrence. Although these results appear promising, larger systematic studies are needed to evaluate the diagnostic accuracies of these amino acid tracers in differentiating radiation necrosis from recurrent tumor. A promising role of MET-PET for differentiation of recurrent tumors from radiation necrosis was found in a study of 77 patients who had been previously treated with radiotherapy for metastatic brain tumor (n 5 51) or glioma (n 5 26).43 A definitive diagnosis was made on the basis of pathologic examination or clinical course. Lesions that showed spontaneous shrinkage or remained stable in size on MR imaging for more than 6 months were assumed to be radiation necrosis. Uptakes of MET-PET tended to be higher for tumor recurrence than for radiation necrosis (Fig. 5). Receiver operating characteristic analysis

demonstrated that a tumor-to-normal mean SUV of 1.41 provided best sensitivity and specificity for metastatic brain tumor (79% and 75%, respectively), and a tumor-to-normal mean SUV of greater than 1.58 provided the best sensitivity and specificity for glioma (75% and 75%, respectively). Thus, quantitative analysis of MET-PET may be useful in distinguishing between recurrent tumor and radiation necrosis.

Recurrent Tumor FDG-PET High FDG uptake in a previously diagnosed lowgrade glioma with low FDG uptake is diagnostic of anaplastic transformation. This high-FDG uptake is strongly prognostic.16 FDG-PET performs generally well in identifying growing high-grade glioma. In lesions that are equivocal on MR imaging, FDG-PET may have limited sensitivity.28 FDG-PET also is generally not sensitive in identifying recurrent lowgrade tumors without anaplastic transformation. Amino acid-PET In contrast to FDG, amino acid uptake has been shown to be increased relative to normal brain tissue in most low- and high-grade tumors and radio-labeled amino acid might therefore be preferable for evaluating recurrent tumors. Usefulness of MET-PET in 45 brain lesions that did not show increased uptake on FDG-PET was evaluated.44 MET demonstrated increased uptake in 31 out of 35 tumors, with 89% sensitivity. For 24 gliomas, MET demonstrated a positive uptake in 22 tumors, with 92% sensitivity. All 10 benign brain lesions (cysticerosis, radiation necrosis, tuberculous granuloma, hamanigoma, organized infarction, and benign cyst) showed normal or decreased MET uptake (100% specificity). MET was false-negative in cases of intermediate oligodendroglioma, metastatic tumor, chordoma, and cyctic ganglioma. In

PET in Pediatric Brain Tumors

Fig. 5. (A) Previously treated glioblastoma multiform with tumor resection and radiation. MR image obtained 13 months after initial surgery, showing contrast-enhanced lesion in left frontal lobe. MET-PET image showing obvious accumulation of tracer corresponding to abnormality on MR image. Lesion-to-normal ratio was 1.70. Recurrent tumor was pathologically confirmed by second surgery. (B) Previously treated anaplastic astrocytoma with tumor resection and radiation. MR image obtained 21 months after initial surgery, showing ringlike enhancement of lesion in right frontoparietal area. MET-PET image showing slight accumulation of tracer corresponding to abnormality on MR image. Lesion-to-normal ratio was 1.44. Gliosis without tumor was pathologically demonstrated by second surgery. (Adapted from Terakawa Y, Tsuyuguchi N, Iwai Y, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of 11 C-Methionine PET for differentiation of recurrent brain tumors from radiation necrosis after radiotherapy. J Nucl Med 2008;49:694–9; with permission).

pediatric patients, MET-PET was found helpful to identify tumor recurrence when performed in 11 patients with suspicion of disease.45 The diagnostic value of FET-PET was evaluated in 53 patients with clinically suspected recurrent glioma.46 All patients had gliomas (43 high grade and 10 low grade) and initially underwent surgery and various additional treatment modalities. All 42 patients with confirmed recurrent tumors had

focally increased FET uptake, whereas only low homogeneous FET uptakes were seen at the margins of the resection cavity in 11 patients without recurrence. Thus, focal- and high-FET uptake was considered suspicious for tumor recurrence, whereas low and homogenous uptake around the resection cavity was considered benign, after treatment changes from disrupted blood-brain barrier. Using a threshold value of

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PET TO GUIDE DIAGNOSIS Accurate grading and diagnosis are important to direct therapeutic approach and provide prognosis, and it is especially important in patients with nonresectable tumors. As amino acid tracers have shown higher sensitivity in imaging tumors that are either hypo- or iso-metabolic to normal cortex with FDG, combining FDG and amino acid tracer to guide biopsy has been investigated. FDG and MET to guide stereotactic biopsy were studied in 32 patients with unresectable gliomas.48 The double-tracer approach was proposed for these patients because they presented with a tumor considered unresectable and located in the cortical or subcortical gray matter, hence were likely to have lower sensitivity with FDG. PET images were coregistered with MR imaging and were analyzed to determine which tracer offered the best information for target definition. FDG was used for target selection when its uptake

was higher in tumor than the gray matter (14 patients). MET was used for target selection when FDG uptake was less than or equal to the gray matter (18 patients). Sixty-one of the 70 stereotactic trajectories were based on PETdefined targets and had abnormal MET uptake. All 61 MET-positive trajectories yielded a diagnosis of tumor. All of the remaining nine MET negative trajectories were nondiagnostic. The investigators concluded from the study that because MET provides a more sensitive signal, it is the tracer of choice for single-tracer PET-guided neurosurgical procedures in gliomas. Added value of FET-PET was investigated in 31 patients with suspected gliomas.49 PET and MR imaging were coregistered and 52 neuronavigated tissue biopsies were taken from lesions with both abnormal MR image signal and increased FET uptake (match), as well as from areas with abnormal MR image signal but normal FET or vice versa (mismatch). FET was negative in three patients with ischemic infarct and demyelinating disease, and these three patients were excluded from the study. In the remaining 28 patients, tumor was diagnosed in 23 and the other 5 patients had reactive changes. Diagnostic performances with MR imaging alone or MR imaging combined with FET were compared. MR imaging yielded a sensitivity of 96% for the detection of tumor tissue but a specificity of 53%. Combined use of MR imaging and FET-PET yielded a sensitivity of 93% and a specificity of 94%. The investigators concluded that combined use of MR imaging and FET-PET significantly improves the identification of tumor tissue. Amino acid-PET to guide biopsy has also been investigated in pediatric brain tumors (Fig. 6). FET-PET was used to enhance diagnostic yield in diffuse glial tumors with bithalamic involvement.50 In one case, FET-PET revealed an unexpected lesion in the left cerebellar hemisphere and biopsy showed anaplastic astrocytoma. MET-PET was used with MR imaging to guide stereotactic biopsy in nine children.51 The lesion was either so illdefined and showed such diffuse infiltration of the surrounding structures that no relevant-representative target could be selected, or it was located in critical areas so that multiple sampling could severely increase operative morbidity. PET-guided stereotactic biopsy based on selecting hypermetabolic areas provided accurate histologic diagnosis in all patients and allowed a reduction of the number of trajectories in lesions located in functional areas. Moreover, it offered additional prognostic information, allowing better understanding of the outcome in some children and led to decision making of performing secondary surgery.

PET in Pediatric Brain Tumors Fig. 6. Infiltrative anaplastic astrocytoma (WHO grade III) in a 9year-old boy. The biopsy sampling of the trajectory guided by the increased MET uptake yielded the anaplastic diagnosis, while the second trajectory guided outside the area of increased MET uptake yielded a low-grade diagnosis. (Adapted from Pirotte B, Acerbi F, Lubansu A, et al. PET Imaging in the surgical management of pediatric brain tumors. Childs Nerv Syst 2007;23:739–51; with permission).

PET TO GUIDE TREATMENT Planning Resection The localization and identification of functional cortical areas in pediatric brain tumor patients provide the neurosurgeon with the ability to achieve aggressive resections with preservation of neurologic function (Fig. 7). Five children with hemispheric brain tumors adjacent to the eloquent cortex were studied with PET for preoperative

neurosurgical planning.52 PET imaging with FDG, MET, or a combination of the two was performed to grade the tumors, and a [15O] H2O uptake study was used to characterize the anatomic relationships of the tumors to functional cortex. The cortical activation maps were obtained during control periods and during behavioral tasks and were used to document motor, visual, speech, and language organizational areas. The investigators found the combination of PET measurements Fig. 7. Parietal ganglioglioma (WHO grade I) in a 10-month-old boy. Tumor boundaries were ill defined on MR images (A). MET-PET showed a sharply delineation (B) that was subsequently projected on stereotactic MR images (C). Combination of MET-PET and MR tumor contours showed in this case that PETdefined contour was more extended than the contour on MR, allowing a complete tumor resection, as confirmed by postoperative METPET (D). (Adapted from Pirotte B, Acerbi F, Lubansu A, et al. PET imaging in the surgical management of pediatric brain tumors. Childs Nerv Syst 2007;23:739–51; with permission).

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Chen were useful in characterizing and grading tumors and instrumental in achieving effective neurosurgical planning. Postoperative results suggest that preoperative functional brain mapping has the potential to improve outcome by defining a surgical plan to maximize resection and minimize the risk of neurologic sequelae. PET-guided surgical planning may also be useful in infiltrative low-grade tumors. In 22 children with infiltrative low-grade tumors, MET-PET was combined with MR imaging in planning of a navigation procedure.53 These children presented with low-grade tumors located close to functional areas with tumor boundaries illdefined on MR imaging and could not be clearly identified for allowing a complete, or at least large, image-guided resection. The level and extent of MET uptake were analyzed to define the PET contour, subsequently projected onto MR imaging scans to define a final-target contour for volumetric resection. Investigators found that in 20 of 22 children, PET improved tumor delineation and contributed to define a final-target contour different from that obtained with MR imaging alone. MET-PET guidance allowed a total resection of MET uptake in 17 cases, as the operative margin contained nontumor tissue. Because the quality of resection represents a key factor for increasing the child’s survival in low-grade brain tumors, investigators suggest that the technique could improve the prognosis of children harboring ill-defined brain tumors. After the surgery, when postoperative MR imaging presented signals that raised the question of residual tumor, PET could be used to evaluate the metabolic uptake of the signals. MET-PET and FDG-PET, used in 20 children operated on for total resection, presented a signal on postoperative MR, raising the question of a possible tumor residue.54 An increased uptake found in 14 children led to reoperation on 11 of them, confirming the tumor histologically. Absence of PET uptake led to conservative management in six children in whom MR imaging follow-up showed no tumor progression. The investigators conclude that early postoperative PET appears to be a valid basis for complementary therapeutic decisions, especially second-look surgery, as a radical resection is a key factor for prognosis. In a large series of 400 pediatric brain tumor patients, MET-PET or FDG-PET were integrated in the diagnostic work-up of 126 selected cases.55 These 126 cases were selected when MR imaging showed limitations for (a) assessing the evolving nature of an incidental lesion (n 5 54), (b) selection targets for contributive and accurate biopsy (n 5 32), and (c) delineating tumor tissue for maximal resection (n 5 40). Investigators found

that assessing functional data with PET improved the diagnostic, surgical, and postoperative steps. It was particularly helpful when the newly diagnosed lesion was an incidental finding, so that the choice between surgery and conservative MR follow-up was debated, and when the lesion was so infiltrative or ill-defined on MR that biopsy/resection target selection was difficult. Whether PET-guidance improves outcome in terms of survival will need to be assessed.

Evaluate Treatment Response Monitoring treatment response with PET is an area of active investigation. However, little is known about the clinical value of PET in assessing treatment response in pediatric oncology, especially in pediatric brain tumors.56 In adults, promising data was reported with the thymidine analog 30 -deoxy-30 - [18F]-fluorothymidine (FLT)PET.57 FLT-PET was developed as a noninvasive method to evaluate tumor cell proliferation.58 Uptakes of FLT correlates with thymidine kinase1 (TK1) activity, an enzyme expressed during the DNA synthesis phase of the cell cycle.59 Phosphorylation of FLT intracellularly by TK1 results in trapping of the negatively charged FLT monophosphate.60,61 FLT uptake has been investigated in brain tumors 62–67 and correlations with proliferation index Ki-67 have been observed.62–64 Thus, FLT as a prognostic marker has the potential to monitor treatment response. This potential was investigated in 19 patients with malignant gliomas treated with the antiangiogenesis inhibitor bevacizumab and irinotecan.57 A more than 25% reduction in tumor FLT uptake as measured by SUV was found to be a predictive metabolic response. Metabolic responders (9 out of 19) lived three times as long as nonresponders (10.8 months versus 3.4 months).

SUMMARY Clinical application of PET imaging in brain tumors has demonstrated that it is helpful in tumor grading, establishing prognosis, defining targets for biopsy, and planning resection. PET imaging may also be an effective method to distinguish recurrent tumor from treatment-induced changes. In addition to FDG-PET, amino acid-PET seems particularly suited for imaging brain tumors. Although PET studies in pediatric brain tumors are relatively limited when compared with adults, an active collaborative research network has been established to the study of correlative tumor biology and new therapies for primary CNS tumors of childhood.68 The future will see significant progress in integrating functional neuroimaging, such

PET in Pediatric Brain Tumors as PET, into the clinical management of pediatric patients with brain tumors, as well as in our understanding of tumor biology through imaging various aspects of tumor metabolism, and ultimately in improving the patient outcome.

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[18F]Fluoro-2-D-glucose in the low-grade glioma. J Neurosurg 1996;39:470–7. Wong TZ, Turkington TG, Hawk TC, et al. PET and brain tumor image fusion. Cancer J 2004;10:234–42. Borgwardt L, Hojgaard L, Carstensen H, et al. Increased fluorine-18 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG) uptake in childhood CNS tumors is correlated with malignancy grade: a study with FDG positron emission tomography/magnetic resonance imaging coregistration and image fusion. J Clin Oncol 2005;23:3030–7. Ishiwata K, Kutota K, Murakami M, et al. Re-evaluation of amino acid PET studies: can the protein synthesis rates in brain and tumor tissues be measured in vivo? J Nucl Med 1993;34:1936–43. Jager PL, Vaalburg W, Pruim J, et al. Radiolabeled amino acids: basic aspects and clinical applications in oncology. J Nucl Med 1993;42:432–45. Herholz K, Holzer T, Bauer B, et al. 11C-methionine PET for differential diagnosis of low-grade gliomas. Neurology 1998;50:1316–22. Coope DJ, Cizek J, Eggers C, et al. Evaluation of primary brain tumors using 11C-methionine PET with reference to a normal methionine uptake map. J Nucl Med 2007;48:1971–80. Laverman P, Boerman OC, Corstens FHM, et al. Fluorinated amino acids for tumour imaging with positron emission tomography. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2002;29:681–90. Weber WA, Wester HJ, Grosu AL, et al. O-(2[18F]fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine and L-[methyl-11C]methionine uptake in brain tumours: initial results of a comparative study. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2000;27:542–9. Becherer A, Karanikas G, Szabo M, et al. Brain tumour imaging with PET: a comparison between [18F]fluorodopa and [11C]methionine. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2003;30:1561–7. Bethien-Baumann B, Bredow J, Burchert W, et al. 3-O-Methyl-6- [18F]fluoro-L-DOPA and its evaluation in brain tumor imaging. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2003;30:1004–8. Chen W, Silverman DHS, Delaloye S, et al. 18F-FDOPA PET imaging of brain tumors: comparison study with 18F-FDG PET and evaluation of diagnostic accuracy. J Nucl Med 2006;47:904–11. Schiepers C, Chen W, Cloughesy T, et al. 18F-FDOPA kinetics in brain tumors. J Nucl Med 2007;48:1651–61. Utriainen M, Metahonkala L, Salmi TT, et al. Metabolic characterization of childhood brain tumors: comparison of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose and 11 C-methionine positron emission tomography. Cancer 2002;95:1376–86. Ceyssens S, Van Laere K, Groot T, et al. [11-C]methionine PET, histopathology, and survival in primary brain tumors and recurrence. Am J Neuroradiol 2006;27:1432–7.

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Chen 32. Torii K, Tsuyuguchi N, Kawabe J, et al. Correlation of amino-acid uptake using methionine PET and histological classifications in various gliomas. Ann Nucl Med 2005;19:677–83. 33. Spreafico F, Gandola L, Marchiano A, et al. Brain magnetic resonance imaging after high-dose chemotherapy and radiotherapy for childhood brain tumors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2008;70: 1011–9. 34. Hodgson D, Goumnerova L, Loeffler J, et al. Radiosurgery in the management of pediatric brain tumors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2001;50:929–35. 35. Helton J, Edwards M, Steen R, et al. Neuroimagingdetected late transient treatment-induced lesions in pediatric patients with brain tumors. J Neurosurg 2005;102:S179–86. 36. Olivero WC, Dulebohn SC, Lister JR. The use of PET in evaluating patients with primary brain tumors: is it useful? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 1995;58: 250–2. 37. Ricci PE, Karis JP, Heiserman JE, et al. Differentiating recurrent tumor from radiation necrosis: time for re-evaluation of positron emission tomography? Am J Neuroradiol 1998;19:407–13. 38. Hustinx R, Smith RJ, Benard F, et al. Can the standardized uptake value characterize primary brain tumors on FDG-PET? Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 1999;26:1501–9. 39. Chao ST, Suh JH, Raja S, et al. The sensitivity and specificity of FDG PET in distinguishing recurrent brain tumors from radionecrosis in patients treated with stereotactic radiosurgery. Int J Cancer 2001; 96:191–7. 40. Wang SX, Boethius J, Ericson K. FDG-PET on irradiated brain tumor: ten years’ summary. Acta Radiol 2006;47:85–90. 41. Spence AM, Muzi M, Mankoff DA, et al. 18F-FDG PET of gliomas at delayed intervals: improved distinction between tumor and normal gray matter. J Nucl Med 2004;45:1653–9. 42. Spaeth N, Wyss MT, Weber B, et al. Uptake of 18 F-fluorocholine, 18F-fluoroethtyl-L-tyrosine, and 18 F-FDG in acute cerebral radiation injury in the rat: implications for separation of radiation necrosis from tumor recurrence. J Nucl Med 2004;45: 1931–8. 43. Terakawa Y, Tsuyuguchi N, Iwai Y, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of 11C-methionine PET for differentiation of recurrent brain tumors from radiation necrosis after radiotherapy. J Nucl Med 2008;49:694–9. 44. Chung JK, Kim YK, Kim SK, et al. Usefulness of 11Cmethionine PET in the evaluation of brain lesions that are hypo- or isometabolic on 18F-FDG PET. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2002;29:176–82. 45. Sorensen J, Savitcheva I, Engler H, et al. Utility of PET and 11C-methionine in the pediatric brain tumors. Clin Positron Imaging 2000;3:157–8.

46. Popperl G, Gotz C, Rachinger W, et al. Value of O-(2- [18F]fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine PET for the diagnosis of recurrent glioma. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2004;31:1464–70. 47. Rachinger W, Goetz C, Popperl G, et al. Positron emission tomography with O-(2- [18F]fluoroehtyl)-Ltyrosine versus magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of recurrent gliomas. Neurosurgery 2005;57:505–11. 48. Pirotte B, Goldman S, Massager N, et al. Comparison of 18F-FDG and 11C-methionine for PET-guided stereotactic brain biopsy of gliomas. J Nucl Med 2004;45:1293–8. 49. Pauleit D, Floeth F, Hamacher K, et al. O-(2- [18F]fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine PET combined with MRI improves the diagnostic assessment of cerebral gliomas. Brain 2005;128:678–87. 50. Messing-Junger A, Floeth F, Pauleit D, et al. Multimodal target point assessment for stereotactic biopsy in children with diffuse bithalamic astrocytomas. Childs Nerv Syst 2002;18:445–9. 51. Pirotte B, Goldman S, Salzberg S, et al. Combined positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging for the planning of stereotactic brain biopsies in children: experience in 9 cases. Pediatr Neurosurg 2003;38:146–55. 52. Kaplan A, Bandy D, Manwaring K, et al. Functional brain mapping using positron emission tomography scanning in preoperative neurosurgical planning for pediatric brain tumors. J Neurosurg 1999;91:797–803. 53. Pirotte B, Goldman S, Bogaert P, et al. Integration of [11C]methionine-postitron emission tomographic and magnetic resonance imaging for image-guided surgical resection of infiltrative low-grade brain tumors in children. Neurosurgery 2005;57:128–39. 54. Pirotte B, Levivier M, Morelli D, et al. Positron emission tomography for the early postsurgical evaluation of pediatric brain tumors. Childs Nerv Syst 2005;21:294–300. 55. Pirotte B, Acerbi F, Lubansu A, et al. PET Imaging in the surgical management of pediatric brain tumors. Childs Nerv Syst 2007;23:739–51. 56. Franzius C, Schober O. Assessment of therapy response by FDG PET in pediatric patients. Q J Nucl Med 2003;47:41–5. 57. Chen W, Delaloye S, Silverman DH, et al. Predicting treatment response of malignant gliomas to bevacizumab and irinotecan by imaging proliferation with [18F] fluorothymidine positron emission tomography: a pilot study. J Clin Oncol 2007;25:4714–21. 58. Shields A, Grierson J, Dohmen B, et al. Imaging proliferation in vivo with F-18 FLT and positron emission tomography. Nat Med 1998;4:1334–6. 59. Rasey IS, Grierson JR, Wierns LW, et al. Validation of FLT uptake as a measure of thymidine kinase-1 activity in A549 carcinoma cells. J Nucl Med 2002; 43:1210–7.

PET in Pediatric Brain Tumors 60. Toyohara J, Waki A, Takamatsu S, et al. Basis of FLTas a cell proliferation marker: comparative uptake studies with [3H]thymidine and [3H]arabinothymidine, and cell-analysis in 22 asynchronously growing tumor cell lines. Nucl Med Biol 2002;29:281–7. 61. Schwartz JL, Grierson JR, Rasey JS, et al. Rates of accumulation and retention of 30 -deoxy-30 -fluorothymidine (FLT) in different cell lines. J Nucl Med 2001; 42:283–90. 62. Chen W, Cloughesy T, Kamdar N, et al. Imaging proliferation in brain tumors with 18F-FLT PET: comparison with FDG. J Nucl Med 2005;46: 945–52. 63. Jacobs AH, Thomas A, Kracht LW, et al. 18F-FluoroL-thyumidine and 11C 65 methymethione as markers of increased transport and proliferation in brain tumors. J Nucl Med 2005;46:1948–58. 64. Choi SJ, Kim JS, Kim JH, et al [18F]30 -deoxy-30 -fluorothymidine PET for the diagnosis and grading of

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brain tumors. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2005; 32:653–9. Yamamoto Y, Wong TZ, Turkington TC, et al. 30 -Deoxy-30 -[F-18]fluorothymidine positron emission tomography in patients with recurrent glioblastoma multiforme: comparison with Gd-DTPA enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Mol Imaging Biol 2006;8:340–7. Saga T, Kawashima H, Araki N, et al. Evaluation of primary brain tumors with FLT-PET: usefulness and limitations. Clin Nucl Med 2006;31:774–80. Schiepers C, Chen W, Dahlbom M, et al. 18F–fluorothymidine kinetics of malignant brain tumors. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2007;34:1003–11. Poussaint T, Phillips P, Vajapeyam S, et al. The neuroimaging center of the pediatric brain tumor consortium-collaborative neuroimaging in pediatric brain tumor research: a work in progress. Am J Neuroradiol 2007;28:603–7.

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The Use of PET in the Evaluation of Tumors in Children with Neurofibromatosis Type 1 Michael J. Fisher, MDa,b,* KEYWORDS     

Neurofibromatosis type 1 Positron emission tomography Plexiform neurofibroma Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor Optic pathway glioma  Low-grade glioma

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is one of the most common genetic disorders with an incidence of 1/2500–1/3000.1,2 Although it is an autosomal dominant disease, up to half of cases are believed to be sporadic.3 The diagnosis is based on the presence of two or more clinical criteria (Table 1).4 The gene has been localized to the long arm of chromosome 17 (17q11.2).5–7 The complications of NF1 are varied and include bony abnormalities, hypertension, congenital heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, seizures, macrocephaly, neurocognitive deficits, and both benign and malignant tumors. The nf1 gene protein product, neurofibromin, acts as a tumor suppressor by negative regulation of the oncogene ras.8 Activating mutations of ras have been noted in over 10% of human cancers.9 Malignancies are four to six times more common in patients with NF1 than the general population.10,11 The most common NF1-associated malignancies in children are optic pathway gliomas, other central nervous system gliomas, and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors

(MPNST). Less common malignancies include juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia10,12,13 10 and rhabdomyosarcoma. In adults with NF1, pheochromocytomas,14 gastrointestinal stromal tumor,15 and breast cancer16 are also noted. The most common benign tumor in NF1 is the neurofibroma. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging are the primary imaging modalities used for the evaluation of solid tumors. Although these anatomic imaging techniques are useful for tumor detection, delineating tumor extent and diagnosing distant metastases, they provide minimal information to help with differentiating benign from malignant lesions, grading of tumors, distinguishing residual/relapsed tumor from postoperative edema or radiation injury, and predicting tumor behavior. In contrast, positron emission tomography (PET) provides functional information on a variety of metabolic processes including glucose utilization, protein synthesis, DNA synthesis, membrane biosynthesis, cerebral blood flow, and hypoxia. The role of PET for

Department of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA Division of Oncology, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, 34th Street and Civic Center Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA * Corresponding author. Division of Oncology, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, 34th Street and Civic Center Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104. E-mail address: [email protected]

b

PET Clin 3 (2009) 531–549 doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2009.04.005 1556-8598/09/$ – see front matter ª 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

pet.theclinics.com

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Fisher

Table 1 NIH consensus diagnostic criteria for neurofibromatosis type 1 The Patient must at leastTwo of the Following  6 or more cafe´-au-lait macules B R5 mm in prepubertal individuals B R15 mm in postpubertal individuals  Axillary or inguinal freckling  2 or more neurofibromas of any type or 1 plexiform neurofibroma  2 or more Lisch nodules (iris hamartomas)  Optic pathway glioma  A distinctive bony lesion, such as B sphenoid wing dysplasia B dysplasa/thinning of long bone cortex  First degree relative with NF-1 Data from Neurofibromatosis. Conference statement. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference. Arch Neurol 1988;45(5):575–8.

distinguishing tumor from nonmalignant processes, detecting and grading tumors, evaluating tumor margins, predicting prognosis, directing biopsy, planning treatment, and evaluating response to therapy has been established for a wide variety of benign and malignant tumors. Combining this functional imaging technique with anatomic localization using CT only further enhances the power of this imaging tool. Although the utility of PET has been established in adult oncology and is gaining acceptance in pediatric oncology, there is less information available on its value in the management of tumors associated with NF1. This article reviews the literature regarding the use of PET in NF1 patients. The focus is on the more common NF1-associated tumors of childhood including MPNST, plexiform neurofibromas (PN), and optic pathway and other central nervous system gliomas. Although there is a growing literature on the use of PET for pheochromocytoma,17–19 gastrointestinal stromal tumor20–22 and breast cancer,23–25 these tumors are rarely seen in children with NF1, and therefore are beyond the scope of this review.

MALIGNANT PERIPHERAL NERVE SHEATH TUMOR MPNSTs (also called neurofibrosarcoma, neurogenic sarcoma, and malignant schwannoma) are soft tissue sarcomas. They account for 10% of all soft tissue sarcomas and approximately half occur in patients with NF1.26,27 Although the incidence in the general population is 0.001%,27

patients with NF1 have a lifetime risk of 8%–13%.28 In the latter group, most arise from the malignant degeneration of a plexiform neurofibroma (PN).27,29 They are more likely to occur at a younger age in the setting of NF126,27,29 and they are the main cause of mortality in children with NF1.30 MPNST are aggressive, likely to metastasize (40%–82%),31 and associated with a poor prognosis. Five-year overall survival is 42%–53% for sporadic MPNST but only 16%–32% in NF1.27,31,32 Tumor size, extent of resection, and presence of metastases at diagnosis are poor prognostic factors.27,32 Therefore, early detection is crucial for long-term survival. Unfortunately, MPNST are difficult to diagnose in patients with NF1. ‘‘Bumps’’ (neurofibromas) are common in patients with NF1, and the symptoms accepted to be indicative of MPNST (rapid growth, persistent pain, change in texture, new neurologic deficit),27,33 are not specific and frequently associated with the benign PN as well. Given the stark prognosis of MPNST, one might advocate for the resection of all concerning lesions. However, PN are extensive and often locally infiltrate or surround crucial structures such as large blood vessels, solid organs, and major nerves, which makes resection of suspicious lesions challenging and usually unfeasible. In addition, the heterogeneous nature of transforming lesions limits the ability to target a biopsy to the malignant portion of a tumor, thus risking a false negative biopsy result due to sampling error. Although MR imaging is useful for defining tumor site and extent, it is not reliable for differentiating benign PN from MPNST. PET using [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) is able to detect levels of glucose metabolism throughout the body.34–36 Like glucose, FDG uptake is proportional to the metabolic rate of the cell. FDG PET plays an important role in staging various malignancies and its role in the diagnosis of cancer is expanding. It is particularly useful in distinguishing benign processes from malignant tumors37 and in predicting grade in various tumor types.38–42 Studies of the utility of FDG PET in musculoskeletal tumors have shown a high correlation between tumor grade and uptake of FDG.43–49 In aggregate, these studies included 325 patients, of which 35 had peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Most of these studies measured FDG uptake using a semiquantitative approach called standardized uptake value (SUV),43,45,47,49 which normalizes the uptake for the dose given and the patient’s weight, and revealed that mean SUV is higher for malignant than benign musculoskeletal tumors. Because many of the prior studies were small or

The Use of PET in Tumors in NF1 used varied methods to evaluate FDG uptake, Ioannidis and colleagues50 performed a metaanalysis to evaluate the utility of FDG for the diagnosis and grading soft tissue sarcoma. They examined 15 studies with a total of 441 soft tissue lesions, including 57 peripheral nerve sheath tumors, and concluded that FDG PET is ‘‘very good’’ at distinguishing benign from malignant soft tissue lesions but inadequate for differentiating low-grade tumors from benign lesions. It is not clear whether ‘‘low-grade tumors’’ refers to low-grade malignancy or includes benign tumors such as PN. Lodge and colleagues47 reported that there is a significant difference in the ‘‘time-activity response of benign and high-grade tumors.’’ They showed that soft tissue sarcoma peak FDG uptake occurs at approximately 4 hours, while benign lesions have peak uptake within 30 minutes, resulting in increased separation between benign and malignant lesions at the later time-point (eg, comparison of mean SUV for benign versus high-grade malignant lesions was 2.00 versus 7.98 at 60 minutes, but 1.84 versus 11.43 at 255 minutes). Others have also shown that malignant tumors do not reach maximal FDG uptake until 4–5 hours post injection.51 Other groups have used amino acid PET imaging instead of FDG. The higher proliferative rate of malignant cells requires an increase in protein synthesis with a consequently increased need for amino acids. Therefore, labeled amino acids may be taken up to a greater extent into malignant cells.52 Watanabe and colleagues49 compared L-[3-18F]-a-methyltyrosine (FMT) with FDG in 75 patients with musculoskeletal tumors (only 12 had peripheral nerve sheath tumors). There was a significant correlation between FMT and FDG uptake for all lesions. Of note, the accuracy for distinguishing benign from malignant lesions was higher with FMT (81.3%) than FDG (68%). Wegner and colleagues53 examined the impact of PET on clinical decision-making in 165 pediatric cancer patients (19 with sarcoma). This retrospective study relied on questionnaire results sent to the treating physicians. Thirty-three PET scans were performed in the sarcoma group for the diagnosis of a suspicious lesion or suspected recurrence, staging, monitoring of therapy, or the assessment of disease status following treatment. PET results led to a change in management in 13% of the 30 evaluable sarcoma cases (change in surgical approach from planned surgery to no treatment or to more aggressive resection). However, PET was proven wrong in 13% of cases (two false negative and two false positive scans).

Overall, PET was noted to be helpful in 80% of cases (changed management, helped locate the best site for biopsy, or reassured the clinician in the management plan). There have been several case reports of the use of FDG PET in NF1 patients with MPNST.54–57 FDG PET was used to help differentiate benign from malignant tissue,57 for treatment planning and follow-up,55,57 for identifying metastases,54,56 and for evaluation of recurrence/residual disease.55,57 Four series used FDG PET to differentiate benign PN from MPNST.58–61 Ferner and colleagues61 evaluated 23 PN (in 18 NF1 patients) suspicious for malignant change on the basis of symptomatology (pain, rapid increased size, new/ unexplained neurologic deficit). Seven MPNST and 15 benign PN were identified. One tumor had clinical features of malignancy, but the histology was inconclusive. Qualitative PET assessment classified 13 of the tumors as benign and ten as malignant. No malignant tumors were misclassified, but two benign tumors were classified as malignant. SUVs were calculated for twenty tumors and were significantly higher in the malignant tumors (mean 5.4) than in the benign tumors (mean 1.54), although there was a range of SUV values (2.7–3.3) in which there was overlap between benign and malignant tumors. They noted improved differentiation between benign and malignant if SUV was calculated on imaging performed 200 minutes after FDG injection. Cardona and colleagues59 examined 25 neurogenic soft tissue tumors suspicious for malignancy in 13 patients (five with NF1) and found a significantly higher median SUV for MPNST (2.9, range 1.8–12.3) than benign PN (1.1, range 0.5–1.8). Of note, SUV was calculated on images taken 55–60 minutes after FDG injection. By qualitative assessment, no malignant tumors were thought to be benign, but three benign tumors were classified as malignant. They proposed a cut-off value of SUV 1.8, which differentiated MPNST from benign neurogenic tumors with 100% sensitivity and 83% specificity. In four of the patients, the information provided by PET influenced the treatment plan either by directing resection to only those lesions with high FDG uptake or by identifying recurrent or second primary tumors. Recently, Ferner and colleagues60 expanded their initial series to 105 NF1 patients (ages 5–71 years) with 116 PN concerning for malignant transformation. Delayed imaging was performed at 240 minutes based on their initial data showing increased separation of SUV values between benign and malignant lesions with later imaging. Surgical excision or biopsy was performed on 59 lesions that were either ‘‘positive’’ on FDG PET

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Fisher or because of clinical indications. PET was used to direct biopsies to the site of highest SUV. Twentynine MPNST, 23 PN, five ‘‘atypical neurofibroma’’ (‘‘hypercellularity and nuclear atypia without mitosis or necrosis’’), and two other cancers were identified histologically. The other 57 tumors were classified as benign based on lack of ‘‘clinical evidence of malignant disease’’ on follow-up (greater than 2 years for all patients and greater than 5 years for most). Mean SUVmax for the 29 MPNST (5.7, 95% CI 3.9–7.7) was significantly higher than in the 80 PN (1.5, 95% CI 1.3–1.8). There were no MPNST with SUV < 2.5, but three PN with SUV > 3.5 (4.1, 4.8, 6.4). Thirteen tumors (seven PN, six MPNST) had an SUV between 2.5 and 3.5. They noted that FDG PET and PET/CT were also useful for identifying subclinical metastases and second primaries. They recommend resection of all symptomatic neurofibromas with SUVmax R 3.5 and close observation for those lesions with SUVmax of 2.5–3.5. Brenner and colleagues62 evaluated SUV as a prognostic factor in 16 patients with NF1 and MPNST (age 16–57 years) who underwent FDG PET before wide resection of the tumor. Of these, only two underwent adjuvant treatment (radiotherapy). The mean SUV for the entire group was 5.7 (range 2.1–11.6), consistent with that found by Ferner and colleagues,60 despite the fact that SUV was calculated on images acquired 45 minutes post FDG injection. There was no significant difference in survival between patients with grade II and grade III lesions. However, there was a significant difference in SUV between those alive after 3 years (SUV 2.5, range 2.1–2.8, n 5 3) and those who had died (SUV 6.3, range 3.2–11.6, n 5 12). When SUV of 3 is used as a cut-off, the mean survival of those with SUV > 3 was 13 months and those with SUV < 3 was 52 months. When compared with tumor grade, the accuracy of SUV < 3 for predicting survival was superior (94% versus 69%). Although promising, it is important to note that the sample size is quite low, especially of the low SUV group (n 5 3). Larger studies will be needed to corroborate this finding. One group added [11C]methionine (MET), a common amino acid tracer, to their evaluation of lesions suspected of being MPNST (by clinical symptoms or new necrosis or hemorrhage detected by MR imaging) in patients with NF1.58 Fifty lesions were identified in 45 patients using FDG PET. FDG had an accuracy of 82% in detecting MPNST (there were eight false positive and one false negative FDG PET scan). In addition, subclinical lesions were discovered by FDG PET in five patients and thereby contributed to the treatment

planning. Ten patients underwent MET PET imaging because of either equivocal FDG uptake or a discrepancy between uptake and clinical findings. Initial FDG uptake was increased in nine of these patients, of which six had no abnormal MET uptake and biopsy or clinical follow-up was negative for malignancy. Of the three patients with increased FDG and MET uptake, two patients had MPNST and one patient had a benign peripheral nerve sheath tumor on histology. One patient had no FDG or MET uptake and was negative for malignancy by clinical follow-up. The addition of MET PET improved the specificity of PET from 72% to 91% by decreasing the number of false positives from eight to two. Although FDG uptake was assessed by SUV calculated on images taken 45 to 60 minutes after tracer injection, it does not appear that delayed imaging would have improved the accuracy of FDG PET in this study, given that delayed imaging is more likely to reduce the false negative than the false positive rate. In a retrospective evaluation of the impact of FDG PET in the management of 16 PN suspected of malignant transformation, the PET results led to a change in management in 56%.53 In most cases, a planned biopsy or resection was deferred and the patient observed instead. Other management changes based on the PET results included a change from planned biopsy to extensive resection and radiotherapy and a change in the selection of lesion for resection. In addition, PET was noted to be helpful in 69% of cases. In contrast, PET was thought to be unhelpful in four cases (25%), three of whom would have undergone surgery anyway and one false positive PET scan. Extrapolation from the soft tissue sarcoma literature—as well as the more limited literature focused on NF1 patients—supports the use of FDG PET in the evaluation of PN suspected of malignant change. Although the series suffer from verification bias (ie, many of the lesions designated as PN were not biopsied), the followup period for the largest studies was at a minimum one58 or 2 years60 and certainly sufficient to clinically differentiate a PN from an MPNST. Clearly, FDG PET is useful in differentiating benign from malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors and in deciding which lesions should be biopsied or resected (Fig. 1). Suspicious lesions should be evaluated with PET, and the degree of FDG uptake should be used in conjunction with the clinical scenario to direct management. For lesions that are undergoing biopsy only, trajectories should be targeted to the area of highest FDG uptake. PET/CT is clearly useful for anatomic localization of highest tracer uptake in this setting. If FDG uptake is equivocal, the lesion should be

The Use of PET in Tumors in NF1

Fig. 1. MR (A) and FDG PET (B) images of a child with NF1 and extensive plexiform neurofibromas of the neck and chest. Over 8 months, a right supraclavicular lesion (arrow) progressed to a significant extent without associated symptoms. FDG PET scan revealed the lesion to have an SUV of 7.6. The lesion was resected with good margins and the histology confirmed to be a low-grade MPNST. There were no other FDG avid lesions concerning for metastases.

monitored closely. Perhaps MET PET may improve the accuracy of PET in this scenario, however, further study is needed before the use of MET PET can be advocated. In addition to differentiating benign from malignant, preoperative FDG PET may improve tumor staging by detecting metastases or second primary malignant lesions, and therefore may significantly alter clinical management. Last, FDG PET appears promising for predicting survival within a group of MPNST. If this is validated in larger studies, perhaps degree of FDG uptake may help stratify MPNST patients into different treatment arms.

PLEXIFORM NEUROFIBROMA Plexiform neurofibromas (PN) occur in 16.8% to 39% of NF1 patients.63–65 They are benign tumors composed of axons, Schwann cells, fibroblasts, perineural cells, mast cells, collagen fibrils, and extracellular matrix. They form along branches of nerves, nerve plexus, or spinal nerve roots, and often involve multiple fascicles of a nerve.66 Although malignant transformation is the most worrisome complication, fortunately it is rare. In contrast, benign PN are a major cause of morbidity in NF1 by causing pain and disfigurement and impairing normal function when located in the extremities or orbit. In addition, they may be lifethreatening if they compress vital structures such as the great vessels, trachea, or spinal cord.65,67 PN growth is often unpredictable, with periods of rapid growth for some lesions and periods of

slow growth, inconsistent growth or relative quiescence for others.66 FDG PET is certainly useful in identifying PN58–61,68,69 as well as cutaneous and subcutaneous neurofibromas,70 but the gold standard for detecting and defining PN extent is MR imaging using short T1 inversion recovery (STIR) or T2weighted sequences.71 MR imaging is also used to detect changes in PN volume over time, and this is more sensitively assessed using volumetric analysis.72 However, individual MR imaging studies are not able to predict which PN are likely to progress. The ability to predict which tumors are likely to progress is inherently valuable, allowing for the initiation of appropriate therapies before a tumor has grown larger and caused problematic complications. Because anatomic imaging techniques have limited prognostic value in predicting progression, using a functional imaging modality, such as PET, is attractive in this setting. Schulte and colleagues48 reported on the utility of FDG PET for the evaluation of 102 soft tissue tumors (29 benign, of which four were peripheral nerve sheath tumors). Not only was there a significant difference in FDG uptake between malignant and benign tumors, but also FDG uptake was significantly higher in ‘‘aggressive’’ versus ‘‘active’’ or ‘‘latent’’ benign lesions. A case report evaluated twenty neurofibromas (ranging in size from 1–8 cm) in an NF1 patient with FDG PET before surgical resection.70 Most of the lesions were cutaneous or subcutaneous and well circumscribed. Only six were PN. FDG

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Fisher uptake was evaluated 60 minutes after tracer injection using a qualitative four-point scale. Six lesions were painful and four of these showed growth. They imply that these six were concerning clinically for malignant transformation, but these same features are common in PN and it is unlikely to have six separate lesions transforming in one individual at the same time. Nine of the lesions had moderate to high FDG uptake. On histologic examination, all 20 were benign neurofibromas without evidence of malignant transformation. There was no association between FDG uptake and type of neurofibroma. However, there was a statistically significant association between FDG uptake and tumor growth, implying that FDG uptake may predict which PN are progressing. Unfortunately, no semiquantitative analysis was performed, eliminating the ability to compare FDG uptake with PN in other studies as well as between PN that were growing versus those that were stable in this study. Only one study has assessed the ability of FDG PET to predict PN tumor growth.73 Eighteen NF1 patients (age 6–27 years, only two older than 17 years) with stable PN by MRI (but who were considered ‘‘high-risk’’ for progression because of the likelihood of significant impairment of function, pain, or disfigurement if the tumor progressed) were studied with FDG PET with the intent of correlating FDG uptake with changes in quantitative MR imaging over the ensuing year. None of these lesions were concerning for malignant change. Nineteen lesions in 13 patients were evaluable for PN volume change. The SUVmax of these lesions ranged from 0.9 to 4 (mean 1.67, median 1.5), which is consistent with the FDG uptake values for PN noted in other series.58–61 There was a significant difference in the percent increase in PN volume in the following year for lesions that had an SUV > 2 compared with those with lower values (P 5 .016). Although the data is limited, these studies support the hypothesis FDG PET is useful to predict PN growth rate. Most current clinical trials for PN require MR imaging evidence of increased tumor volume over a time period of less than 12 months for enrollment. The ability to predict progression before actual tumor growth would enable intervention before a PN causes morbidity. If validated in larger series, FDG PET may be used to assist clinicians in deciding which PN to treat and/or which are candidates for clinical trials. In addition, FDG PET may also be valuable for assessing the response of PN to therapy. Because the growth rate of individual PN may vary over time, determining if growth arrest is caused by a particular therapeutic intervention or has

occurred spontaneously as a natural course of the disease can be difficult. In contrast to malignant tumors, benign lesions do not always shrink following therapy and persistent tumor may not herald inevitable tumor progression; therefore, anatomic imaging may be limited in the evaluation of response. Functional imaging with PET may provide a surrogate marker of treatment response. FDG PET has been used to evaluate treatment response in a variety of solid tumors, including esophageal, gastric, colorectal, breast, and lung cancer. Tumor FDG uptake has been shown to decrease before a decrease in tumor size, and reductions in FDG uptake are predictive of prolonged disease remission.23,74,75 The use of FDG PET for predicting treatment response is also promising for musculoskeletal tumors. In three of four patients with osteo- or undifferentiated sarcoma in whom FDG PET scans were performed pretherapy and after one cycle of neoadjuvant chemotherapy, change in FDG predicted tumor response.76 Two patients had a decline in peak SUV and greater that 90% ‘‘tumor cell kill’’ at resection. One patient had an increase in SUV and developed metastases during treatment. FDG uptake in the fourth patient was unchanged despite greater than 90% tumor kill. In another study, change in FDG uptake from pre-treatment to after neoadjuvant chemotherapy correlated with tumor response in 27 osteosarcoma patients.77 It is possible that FDG PET may demonstrate similar efficacy in predicting early response to treatment for PN.

LOW-GRADE GLIOMA Brain tumors are the second most common tumor seen in patients with NF1. The relative risk is greater than 100 times that of the normal population,78 with an increased risk at all ages30,78 but highest among children. Tumors reported include medulloblastoma, ependymoma, oligodendroglioma, ganglioglioma, and high-grade glioma,10,63,78–82 the latter seen more commonly in adults,78 but the overwhelming majority of CNS tumors in NF1 are lowgrade astrocytomas. They can occur anywhere in the brain but are principally located in the optic pathway, brainstem, or cerebellum in children. Adults have an increased frequency of cortical lesions.78 Optic pathway gliomas are low-grade astrocytomas that can arise anywhere in the optic pathway (including the optic nerves, chiasm, tracts, and radiations) and can result in decreased visual acuity and frank blindness. Their incidence in children with NF1 is 15%–20%, but fortunately they become symptomatic in no more than half

The Use of PET in Tumors in NF1 of patients.83–86 The majority are diagnosed before the age of five years. On histologic evaluation most optic pathway gliomas are pilocytic astrocytomas, but fibrillary astrocytomas are seen as well.87–89 In contrast to sporadic optic pathway gliomas, NF1related tumors are less likely be associated with visual impairment at diagnosis and more likely to stay stable over time.84,90–93 The incidence of non-optic pathway gliomas in NF1 has been reported to be as high as 5%,94 although more often noted to be 2%– 3%.63,79,95,96 In one study of 88 children and 16 adults with NF1, approximately one-third of all CNS tumors noted were outside of the optic pathway; almost half of these tumors were in the brainstem.81 As with tumors of the optic pathway, non-optic pathway gliomas in NF1 behave in a more indolent fashion than sporadic gliomas in similar locations. This is demonstrated most dramatically for brainstem gliomas, which tend to be highly aggressive and associated with poor survival in the general population. In contrast, brainstem gliomas in NF1 are less likely to progress, require treatment, or be life-threatening.97–99 PET is established as a valuable tool in the evaluation of adult brain tumors.40 FDG is the most common tracer used, but amino acid imaging is increasing in frequency. Although there are comparatively fewer studies specifically focused on pediatric brain tumors, they suggest that the metabolism of low-grade gliomas (LGG) in children is comparable to that of adults.40 In addition, several large studies have established the impact of PET on clinical decision making for pediatric brain tumors.53,100 PET was deemed helpful in 77% of cases and resulted in a direct management change in 15%.53 In particular, PET distinguished tumor from non-neoplastic tissue, defined tumor extent, and helped with tumor grading and evaluation of response to therapy and recurrence. In addition, PET is useful in the surgical management of patients, particularly when the choice is between resection versus observation for an incidental brain lesion and when deciding the surgical approach for a tumor that is ill-defined on MRI or infiltrates eloquent areas of the brain.100 Specifically, PET improved the selection of targets for biopsy, limited the number of biopsy trajectories required in functional brain regions, and helped delineate tumor margins to enable maximal resection. There is a dearth of literature specifically focused on optic pathway gliomas and brain tumors in NF1; however, the literature regarding the utility of PET in the evaluation of LGG is extensive. Most of the discussion here focuses on LGG in general, but there is no reason to expect that the

metabolism of low-grade astrocytomas in the optic pathway is unique. Despite the proven value of PET for differentiating tumor recurrence from radiation injury with excellent sensitivity and specificity101–105 and the potential promise of PET for radiation treatment planning (to help define the optimal target volume as well as to identify regions for dose escalation),106–109 the utility of PET for these purposes is less relevant for brain tumors in NF1, as radiation should be avoided in this population if possible because of the profound risk of secondary tumors110,111 and cerebrovascular complications.112,113 The most promising uses of PET in NF1-associated brain tumors is for the differentiation of low-grade astrocytomas from non-neoplastic lesions and for predicting tumor progression. Other potential or less common uses include: tumor grading, guidance for biopsy, treatment planning, and evaluating treatment response.

Detection One of the most promising uses of PET for gliomas in NF1 is for differentiating LGG from nonmalignant lesions seen on MR imaging scan. There is likely little added value of PET imaging for the detection of optic nerve or chiasm gliomas given their distinctive appearance on MR imaging. However, PET may help in the detection of tumors of the optic radiations and other non-optic pathway gliomas in NF1. This potential use of PET is important given the high incidence (up to 90%) of focal areas of high signal intensity on T2-weighted or FLAIR (fluid attenuated inversion recovery sequence) MR imaging sequences in NF1.114,115 These non-neoplastic lesions, formerly referred to as unidentified bright objects (UBOs), occur commonly in the basal ganglia, cerebellum, brainstem, thalamus, and subcortical white matter (Fig. 2). They arise usually in late childhood and disappear in adulthood.116 Histologically, these lesions are characterized by spongiotic or vacuolar change in the myelin.117 They do not enhance with gadolinium, exert mass effect on surrounding structures, or enlarge to a significant extent.98 At times, particularly in the brainstem, these T2 hyperintensities may be atypical in appearance or increase in size.116 Given that only approximately one-third of low-grade astrocytomas in the brainstem in NF1 enhance with gadolinium,97 distinguishing non-neoplastic T2 hyperintensities from low-grade astrocytomas can be difficult. Two studies have evaluated FDG uptake into areas of T2 hyperintensity in a total of 14 NF1 patients (aged 9 to 20 years).118,119 T2 hyperintensities were found to have either normal glucose

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Fisher Fig. 2. FLAIR hyperintense lesions seen in the basal ganglia (A) and cerebellum (B) of a child with NF1. These lesions were nonenhancing on post-gadolinium imaging.

metabolism or low metabolism compared with adjacent areas of normal brain within the same structure. Small lesions (less than 0.5 cm) were not detected by FDG PET, either because they had normal glucose metabolism or because of volume averaging with adjacent tissue. In contrast, both FDG and MET are helpful in detecting gliomas and differentiating them from nonneoplastic lesions,120–127 and therefore may be useful in differentiating low-grade astrocytomas from non-neoplastic T2 hyperintensities seen in NF1. However, FDG is more useful for evaluating higher-grade lesions. Given the high background uptake of FDG into normal brain tissue, especially gray matter,36 differentiating low-grade lesions with minimal FDG uptake from normal brain tissue can sometimes be challenging. In contrast, because of its relatively minimal background uptake into normal brain,36 MET appears to be more sensitive for detecting LGGs and delineating their margins than FDG.128–132

Prognosis Although it is unclear whether FDG uptake is independent of tumor grade as a risk factor for glioma prognosis, it does appear to be prognostic within a given glioma grade. There is an extensive literature reporting an inverse correlation between FDG uptake and survival for high-grade gliomas.133–137 Given the indolent nature of low-grade astrocytomas in NF1, predicting the likelihood of tumor progression is extremely important, so as to prevent unnecessary treatment of quiescent tumors. There are few reports evaluating FDG as a predictor of low-grade glioma progression in the absence of malignant transformation. In

a study of 28 patients, LGG with higher FDG uptake were more likely to progress and result in mortality that those without high uptake.138 Other groups have reported a correlation between MET uptake and Mib-1 labeling index, a marker of tumor proliferative activity, for astrocytic tumors of all grades139,140 and specifically for grade II astrocytomas,141 implying that those tumors with higher MET uptake may behave more aggressively. The utility of MET uptake in separating grade II gliomas that will progress from those with stable disease has been confirmed in several studies.108,121,142 In one study, an SUV threshold of 3.5 differentiated aggressive from stable lesions.108 Ribom and colleagues143,144 report an increase in MET uptake between baseline imaging and the time of low-grade glioma progression and an inverse correlation between change in MET uptake and time to progression. In contrast to FDG, MET does appear to be an independent risk factor for prognosis in gliomas,139 and perhaps the ‘‘most important prognostic factor’’ for grade II astrocytomas.145

Grading Although most gliomas in NF1 are low-grade, malignant transformation does occur at times. The utility of FDG PET for grading of brain tumors, including gliomas, was noted in one of the earliest reports of PET scanning123 and has been established repeatedly in both adults and children.120,122,126,127,146 In that early report, DiChiro and colleagues123 showed that mean glucose metabolic rate was nearly twice as much for high-grade than LGG. Others have defined cutoff values of FDG uptake that differentiate

The Use of PET in Tumors in NF1 high-grade from low-grade brain tumors with 94% sensitivity and 77% specificity.122 Several studies of LGG suggest that an increase in FDG uptake in the tumor precedes or coincides with malignant change.138,147 However, there is an overlap of signals between low-grade and high-grade lesions, which prevents complete segregation of the groups. In addition, although FDG PET may be useful for distinguishing grade II from highergrade astrocytomas, more than half of LGG in NF1 patients (particularly the optic pathway gliomas) are pilocytic astrocytomas. The latter, although grade I and benign in behavior, have repeatedly been shown to have higher FDG uptake more similar to anaplastic astrocytomas,130,148–150 and therefore limit the utility of FDG PET for differentiating them from high-grade gliomas. It is hypothesized that the vascular nature of pilocytic astrocytomas148 or their increased expression of glucose transporters contributes to their unexpectedly high FDG uptake.150,151 MET PET has also been studied for the grading of gliomas, but its utility in this setting is less clear. Several studies have found a statistically significant relationship between MET uptake and tumor grade for grade II-IV gliomas.121,152 Ribom and colleagues143 showed that not only did MET uptake increase in LGG from baseline to the time of progression, but the degree of uptake was higher in those tumors that developed anaplasia than those whose histology remained the same. Studies comparing MET and FDG PET for glioma grading are conflicting; some showing MET to be better132 and others indicating that FDG is superior.130 A recent study noted a significant difference in MET uptake between grade I and higher-grade gliomas but could not differentiate between individual grades. Given the weak relationship between MET uptake and glioma grade on static imaging, dynamic amino acid imaging is being studied. Popperl and colleagues153 constructed time-activity curves of [18F]fluoroethyltyrosine (FET) uptake from five to sixty minutes following injection. They found improved separation between grade II and highgrade gliomas using this kind of evaluation, as the LGG exhibited slight but steady increase in FET uptake over time, while the high-grade gliomas had an earlier FET peak followed by a decrease. In contrast, dynamic MET PET imaging was not useful for glioma grading.154

Guidance for Biopsy Because of the heterogeneous nature of brain tumors, especially gliomas,155 it is crucial when biopsying a lesion suspected of transformation that

the biopsy be targeted to the most malignant portion of the tumor, so as not to ‘‘under-grade’’ the tumor. Selecting biopsy targets solely on the basis of contrast-enhanced CT or MR imaging is unreliable;156 in contrast, PET imaging is enormously helpful for this purpose. Given the utility of FDG for predicting tumor grade, targeting biopsy to the area of highest FDG uptake is likely to yield the most reliable results. Pirotte, Levivier and colleagues107,157,158 have developed a technique to coregister stereotactically obtained PET images with either CT or MR images, and have shown that FDG PET is more accurate than contrast-enhanced CT or MR imaging for biopsy targeting of brain tumors. Although FDG is probably more useful for detecting malignant transformation, the increased sensitivity of MET for detection of low-grade tumors (more reliable uptake into low-grade tumors and minimal background uptake into normal brain) is likely to provide an advantage over FDG for guiding biopsy trajectories to differentiate LGG from non-neoplastic tissue. The superiority of MET over FDG in differentiating tumor from surrounding brain has been shown for brain tumors,159 and in particular gliomas,160 in which FDG uptake was low or the lesion was adjacent to gray matter (which has an intrinsically high FDG uptake). FDG and MET were integrated with CT or MR imaging for stereotactic biopsy in 45 patients with brain lesions.159 MET was the only useable tracer for targeting in 21 of 39 tumors. All 39 tumors had an area of abnormal MET uptake, and all trajectories (N 5 73) in MET-positive areas yielded tumor tissue. In contrast, all six nontumorous lesions were MET-negative, and all trajectories in MET-negative areas yielded nonneoplastic tissue. When evaluating MET and FDG specifically for biopsy of gliomas (N 5 32), all tumors had abnormal MET uptake, whereas only 27 had abnormal FDG uptake, and half of these had FDG uptake equal to that of adjacent gray matter.160 In particular, biopsy trajectories in MET-positive regions yielded tumor in 100% of cases (N 5 61), while all nine biopsies in METnegative areas yielded nontumorous tissue. In nine of the ten LGG, MET was the superior tracer to guide biopsy. Of note, in all gliomas with increased uptake of MET and FDG, the focus of maximum tracer uptake was the same for both tracers, so the likelihood of missing malignant transformation using MET PET guidance instead of FDG is low. Because the shorter half-life of MET (20 minutes) limits its use to institutions with their own cyclotron, other groups have looked at 18F-labelled amino acid tracers (half-life 110 minutes) to direct

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Fisher biopsy. Pauleit and colleagues161 studied [18F]fluoroethyltyrosine (FET) for directing biopsy in 31 suspected gliomas (nine low-grade astrocytomas). Biopsies were performed into brain regions that were abnormal on MR images and had either increased or normal FET uptake. Biopsies from T2 hyperintense areas yielded tumor in only half of cases, whereas biopsies from regions that had increased FET uptake yielded tumor 86% of the time.

Surgical Planning The frequent occurrence of non-neoplastic T2 hyperintensities in NF1 along with the fact that the borders of a low-grade astrocytoma may be ill defined (especially when part or all of the tumor is nonenhancing) make it challenging to delineate the margins of the tumor in NF1. PET guidance, particularly with MET, can help define the margins of a tumor that may be poorly defined by MR imaging scan and potentially help with surgical planning.107,162 Pirotte and colleagues163,164 have used MET PET to guide resections of LGG in both adults and children, with the goal of removing the entire area of MET uptake or the region of maximal MET uptake if the tumor was located in a brain area of functional importance. MET PET contributed to the final target resection volume in over 80% of cases and was more likely to extend the resection volume than focus it.163 It is unclear if the patients gained a benefit in longterm survival using this technique. In addition to delineating tumor margins, complete tumor resection is often limited by tumor location adjacent to functional brain regions. Techniques to define these eloquent brain regions, including Wada testing and intraoperative electrical stimulation or cortical somatosensory evoked potentials, may be unreliable and can cause complications.165 PET imaging with radiolabeled water ([15O] H2O), which measures tissue perfusion and presumably is increased in activated brain regions, may assist in surgical planning by noninvasively identifying functionally important brain regions to avoid. Activation of cortical regions can be measured during motor, visual, articulation, and receptive language tasks, and the PET images coregistered with MR images. Duncan and colleagues165 used this approach to localize areas of functional brain in 15 children with seizures (seven with tumors) and facilitate maximal resection of the seizure focus without significant neurologic sequellae. In a follow-up study, this approach altered the surgical plan to avoid critical speech/language or motor regions of brain in four of five children with tumors adjacent

to functionally important brain regions; aggressive resection was achieved without significant neurologic morbidity.166 Combining [15O] H2O PET with FDG or MET may ultimately improve surgical outcomes by defining tumor margins and important functional brain regions for the neurosurgeon.

Treatment Response For patients who undergo tumor resection, PET may be helpful in the postsurgical evaluation of residual disease. For low-grade astrocytomas that require treatment, complete surgical resection is the optimal therapy as long as the tumor is accessible for complete resection without significant risk of functional impairment.167–169 In this clinical scenario, if there is residual tumor after initial surgery, many neurosurgeons consider reoperating to effect a gross total resection.170,171 Unfortunately, it can often be difficult to distinguish residual tumor from postoperative changes on early postoperative MR imaging scans. Frequently, there may be residual linear enhancement around the tumor cavity or larger areas of T2 hyperintensity that may represent residual tumor or post-operative edema. FDG PET is unlikely to be useful in this regard, given its inconsistent uptake into low-grade tumors but high uptake by inflammatory cells, which are likely to infiltrate the resection cavity walls in the postoperative period.172 In contrast, MET uptake is not as influenced by inflammation and is sensitive for the detection of LGG. Early postoperative PET scanning (2 to 7 days after surgery) in 20 children (18 with low-grade tumors) revealed increased MET uptake in 14.173 Of these, three children had MR imaging scans with obvious residual tumor and 11 had MR imaging scans inconclusive for recurrence leading to re-operation, which confirmed residual tumor. Of the six MET-negative patients, three had clear MR imaging scans and three were inconclusive. Although the latter patients did not go back to the operating room, none of the MR imaging scans showed evidence of tumor progression during follow-up (4, 22, 40 months). Another potential use for PET imaging for lowgrade astrocytomas is in evaluating treatment response. Similar to other low-grade tumors, LGG do not always decrease in size with therapy. Therefore, it is difficult to know the clinical relevance of stable or persistent tumor after treatment. If the tumor cells have died, one would expect a drop in glucose metabolism and protein synthesis in the tumor. Similarly, an early decline in FDG or MET uptake may herald a good outcome. To date, the utility of PET for evaluating brain tumor response to therapy is unproven. The

The Use of PET in Tumors in NF1 studies are mostly retrospective with limited outcome data and wide variability in timing of PET assessment. Surprisingly, PET imaging with FDG performed early after initiation of radiation or chemotherapy showed a correlation between increased glucose metabolism and better outcome.137,174,175 Others suggest that this early increase in FDG uptake is transient and perhaps secondary to inflammation or a transient increase in glucose transport associated with cellular injury.176,177 In contrast, in a study of chemotherapy for recurrent high-grade glioma, a decrease in FDG uptake from pretherapy to 2 weeks after treatment was correlated with response at 8 weeks.178 Studies of MET PET in LGG show a decline in MET uptake following radiotherapy, but there was either no attempt to correlate this change with survival108,179 or there was no link between MET decline and outcome.144

Optic Pathway Gliomas and Other NF1-Associated Low-Grade Astrocytomas Although several of the studies on PET for brain tumors include a few subjects with optic pathway gliomas, extracting the data about these patients is difficult. There are anecdotal examples of FDG uptake in optic pathway gliomas (Fig. 3); however, the literature on the use of PET specifically for optic pathway gliomas or brain tumors in NF1 is sparse. One case report revealed high FDG uptake in an optic nerve/chiasm glioma with normal uptake in the other ‘‘unaffected’’ optic nerve in

a 51-year-old man.180 They report that the histology of the lesion was grade III; this is puzzling given the patient had symptoms for 7 years before surgery. Peng and colleagues181 used [11C]methyltrypotophan (AMT) to monitor a 16-year-old with an optic chiasm/hypothalamic glioma. They had previously reported increased AMT uptake in grade II astrocytic tumors.182 In this patient, there was a decrease in AMT uptake into the tumor from pretreatment baseline to the completion of chemotherapy (greater than 1 year of treatment). Six months after treatment, new symptoms with associated decline in visual acuity were noted. Despite a stable MR imaging scan at the time, a new focus of AMT uptake was seen. They conclude that AMT may be useful for monitoring optic glioma progression and response to treatment. A larger study retrospectively evaluated FDG PET as a prognostic factor in 24 patients with NF1 and optic pathway gliomas (N 5 15) or lowgrade astrocytomas of the brainstem or thalamus.183 FDG uptake was qualitatively assessed. Ten tumors required treatment, because of clinical (all 10) and radiographic (nine of 10) disease progression. 70% of this group had increased FDG uptake. In contrast, only one (7%) of the 14 patients that did not need treatment had elevated FDG uptake. When evaluating clinical outcome, seven of eight patients with elevated FDG uptake had progressive disease, whereas all of the patients with FDG uptake that was not elevated had stable disease. In sum, FDG uptake appeared

Fig. 3. MR (A) and FDG PET (B) images of a child with NF1 and an optic pathway (chiasm, tracts, radiations) glioma at the time of progression. FDG PET images indicate high uptake in the affected areas consistent with an actively progressing tumor.

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Fisher to correlate with clinical outcome in 96% (23 of 24) of the patients. Prospective studies evaluating PET for predicting prognosis of low-grade astrocytomas are needed to validate this finding, perhaps with MET given its increased sensitivity for detecting LGG and probable increased utility in predicting tumor progression.

astrocytomas in NF1, particularly focused on optic pathway gliomas, are needed and are likely to establish PET imaging as a valuable tool in the management of these patients. Although FDG and MET are still the most common tracers, amino acid agents with a longer half-life as well as newer tracers that measure DNA or cell membrane synthesis should be assessed.

SUMMARY Tumors are one of the most common and concerning complications in NF1. Fortunately, most of the tumors that arise in children with NF1 are low-grade; however, they can still be problematic by causing pain, functional deficits (including vision loss in optic pathway gliomas), and cosmetic disfigurement. In addition, these ‘‘benign’’ tumors can be life-threatening by exerting mass effect on surrounding structures or via malignant transformation. Functional imaging using PET has the ability to complement anatomic imaging with CT and MR imaging scan to improve the evaluation of NF1-related tumors. In particular, the utility of FDG PET imaging for detecting, grading, and evaluating malignant transformation of peripheral nerve sheath tumors is established. It is also useful for preoperative staging and to direct biopsy trajectories in these tumors. Last, it appears promising prognostically for both prediction of survival within a group of MPNST and for prediction of likelihood of PN growth. Future prospective studies may validate the use of FDG PET for peripheral nerve sheath tumor prognosis as well as evaluate its utility in predicting treatment response. In addition, evaluation of amino acid imaging may indicate its superiority or ability to complement these functions of PET imaging for PN sheath tumors. The literature on the use of PET imaging in the management of brain tumors is extensive. Both FDG and MET are valuable for detection of brain tumors, but MET appears more sensitive than FDG for detection of LGG and delineating their margins. MET PET is therefore useful to differentiate low-grade astrocytomas from the nonneoplastic T2 hyperintensities associated with NF1, as well as to direct stereotactic biopsy trajectories and to help define tumor margins for improved resection. Multitracer PET (FDG or MET with [15O]H2O) appears valuable for planning tumor resection with minimal morbidity. Although malignant transformation of low-grade astrocytomas is infrequent in NF1, the role of FDG for assessing this is clear. To date the utility of PET for predicting low-grade astrocytoma prognosis and evaluating response to therapy is unproven. Future studies on the role of PET for low-grade

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author would like to thank Abass Alavi, MD for supplying Fig. 3 and for helpful discussions.

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Fisher 154. Moulin-Romsee G, D’Hondt E, de Groot T, et al. Non-invasive grading of brain tumours using dynamic amino acid PET imaging: does it work for 11C-methionine? Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2007;34(12):2082–7. 155. Paulus W, Peiffer J. Intratumoral histologic heterogeneity of gliomas. A quantitative study. Cancer 1989;64(2):442–7. 156. Floeth FW, Pauleit D, Wittsack HJ, et al. Multimodal metabolic imaging of cerebral gliomas: positron emission tomography with [18F]fluoroethyl-L-tyrosine and magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Neurosurg 2005;102(2):318–27. 157. Massager N, David P, Goldman S, et al. Combined magnetic resonance imaging- and positron emission tomography-guided stereotactic biopsy in brainstem mass lesions: diagnostic yield in a series of 30 patients. J Neurosurg 2000;93(6):951–7. 158. Pirotte B, Goldman S, Brucher JM, et al. PET in stereotactic conditions increases the diagnostic yield of brain biopsy. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 1994;63(1–4):144–9. 159. Pirotte B, Goldman S, Massager N, et al. Combined use of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose and 11C-methionine in 45 positron emission tomography-guided stereotactic brain biopsies. J Neurosurg 2004; 101(3):476–83. 160. Pirotte B, Goldman S, Massager N, et al. Comparison of 18F-FDG and 11C-methionine for PETguided stereotactic brain biopsy of gliomas. J Nucl Med 2004;45(8):1293–8. 161. Pauleit D, Floeth F, Hamacher K, et al. O-(2[18F]fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine PET combined with MRI improves the diagnostic assessment of cerebral gliomas. Brain 2005;128(Pt 3):678–87. 162. Miwa K, Shinoda J, Yano H, et al. Discrepancy between lesion distributions on methionine PET and MR images in patients with glioblastoma multiforme: insight from a PETand MR fusion image study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 2004;75(10):1457–62. 163. Pirotte B, Goldman S, Dewitte O, et al. Integrated positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging-guided resection of brain tumors: a report of 103 consecutive procedures. J Neurosurg 2006;104(2):238–53. 164. Pirotte B, Goldman S, Van Bogaert P, et al. Integration of [11C]methionine-positron emission tomographic and magnetic resonance imaging for image-guided surgical resection of infiltrative lowgrade brain tumors in children. Neurosurgery 2005;57(Suppl 1):128–39 [discussion: 39]. 165. Duncan JD, Moss SD, Bandy DJ, et al. Use of positron emission tomography for presurgical localization of eloquent brain areas in children with seizures. Pediatr Neurosurg 1997;26(3):144–56. 166. Kaplan AM, Bandy DJ, Manwaring KH, et al. Functional brain mapping using positron emission

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tomography scanning in preoperative neurosurgical planning for pediatric brain tumors. J Neurosurg 1999;91(5):797–803. Macdonald DR. Low-grade gliomas, mixed gliomas, and oligodendrogliomas. Semin Oncol 1994;21(2):236–48. Pollack IF, Claassen D, al-Shboul Q, et al. Lowgrade gliomas of the cerebral hemispheres in children: an analysis of 71 cases. J Neurosurg 1995; 82(4):536–47. Sutton LN, Cnaan A, Klatt L, et al. Postoperative surveillance imaging in children with cerebellar astrocytomas. J Neurosurg 1996;84(5):721–5. Khan RB, Sanford RA, Kun LE, et al. Morbidity of second-look surgery in pediatric central nervous system tumors. Pediatr Neurosurg 2001;35(5): 225–9. Palma L, Celli P, Mariottini A. Long-term follow-up of childhood cerebellar astrocytomas after incomplete resection with particular reference to arrested growth or spontaneous tumour regression. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2004;146(6):581–8 [discussion: 8]. Cokgor I, Akabani G, Kuan CT, et al. Phase I trial results of iodine-131-labeled antitenascin monoclonal antibody 81C6 treatment of patients with newly diagnosed malignant gliomas. J Clin Oncol 2000;18(22):3862–72. Pirotte B, Levivier M, Morelli D, et al. Positron emission tomography for the early postsurgical evaluation of pediatric brain tumors. Childs Nerv Syst 2005;21(4):294–300. De Witte O, Hildebrand J, Luxen A, et al. Acute effect of carmustine on glucose metabolism in brain and glioblastoma. Cancer 1994;74(10): 2836–42. Maruyama I, Sadato N, Waki A, et al. Hyperacute changes in glucose metabolism of brain tumors after stereotactic radiosurgery: a PET study. J Nucl Med 1999;40(7):1085–90. Rozental JM, Levine RL, Mehta MP, et al. Early changes in tumor metabolism after treatment: the effects of stereotactic radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1991;20(5):1053–60. Spence AM, Mankoff DA, Muzi M. Positron emission tomography imaging of brain tumors. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2003;13(4):717–39. Brock CS, Young H, O’Reilly SM, et al. Early evaluation of tumour metabolic response using [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose and positron emission tomography: a pilot study following the phase II chemotherapy schedule for temozolomide in recurrent high-grade gliomas. Br J Cancer 2000;82(3): 608–15. Wurker M, Herholz K, Voges J, et al. Glucose consumption and methionine uptake in low-grade gliomas after iodine-125 brachytherapy. Eur J Nucl Med 1996;23(5):583–6.

The Use of PET in Tumors in NF1 180. Miyamoto J, Sasajima H, Owada K, et al. Surgical decision for adult optic glioma based on [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography study. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 2006;46(10):500–3. 181. Peng F, Juhasz C, Bhambhani K, et al. Assessment of progression and treatment response of optic pathway glioma with positron emission tomography using alpha-[(11)C]methyl-L-tryptophan. Mol Imaging Biol 2007;9(3):106–9.

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PET/C T in the Evaluation of Neuroblastoma Susan E. Sharp, MDa,b, Michael J. Gelfand, MDa,b, Barry L. Shulkin, MD, MBAc,* KEYWORDS  Neuroblastoma  PET  PET/CT  MIBG  FDG

Neuroblastoma is a malignant tumor derived from primitive neural crest cells that normally develop into cells of the sympathetic nervous system. The degree of cellular maturation differentiates neuroblastoma from the closely related ganglioneuroblastoma and the benign neural crest tumor ganglioneuroma. Neuroblastoma most commonly arises in the adrenal gland, but can occur anywhere along the sympathetic chain. Other common sites include the paraspinal ganglia of the posterior mediastinum and retroperitoneum.1–3 Neuroblastoma is the most common extracranial solid tumor of the first decade of childhood, comprising 8% to 10% of all neoplasms in that age group. Only childhood leukemia and primary brain tumors occur more commonly. Approximately 600 new cases of neuroblastoma are diagnosed each year in the United States. Median age at presentation is 20 to 30 months with over 90% of cases occurring in children younger than 6 years of age.1–3 Neuroblastoma is an unusual tumor in that its prognosis and distribution are variable. Some tumors spontaneously regress or mature, whereas others progress in spite of multimodality therapy. Clinical features of neuroblastoma are frequently age dependent. Children younger than 18 months tend to have a better prognosis and metastatic disease involving bone marrow, liver and skin. Children older than 18 months tend to have a poorer prognosis with metastatic disease involving bone. About 70% of patients have disseminated

disease at presentation, most commonly involving bone or bone marrow.2–4 Preferred treatment for localized neuroblastoma is surgical excision with preoperative chemotherapy given when local disease is extensive. Treatment for neuroblastoma with distant metastases includes high-dose chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and stem cell transplantation.3 The Shimada histopathologic system is used to determine the prognosis of patients with neuroblastoma incorporating patient age, presence or absence of Schwann cell stroma, degree of tumor differentiation, and mitosis-karyorrhexis index.5 Staging has traditionally been based on the International Neuroblastoma Staging System (INSS), as outlined in Table 1.6 The International Neuroblastoma Risk Group recently published a new staging system (INRGSS) that allows pretreatment staging and risk assessment as outlined in Table 2.7 The neural crest origin of neuroblastoma can aid in diagnosis and disease surveillance. Clinically, 90% to 95% of neuroblastoma patients will have high levels of urinary catecholamine metabolites, such as vanillylmandelic acid, homovanillic acid, or dopamine. Hypertension can also occur.8 From an imaging standpoint, functional agents such as metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) use the type 1 catecholamine reuptake system to visualize neuroendocrine tumors. Functional imaging agents play an important role in the diagnosis and staging of neuroblastoma. They are also used for evaluation of treatment response and detection of disease

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Department of Radiology, University of Cincinnati, ML 0761, 234 Goodman Street, Cincinnati, OH 45219, USA Section of Nuclear Medicine, Department of Radiology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, MLC 5031, 3333 Burnet Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45229-3039, USA c Nuclear Medicine Division, Department of Radiological Sciences, MS 220, Room I-3128, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105-3678, USA * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (B.L. Shulkin). PET Clin 3 (2009) 551–561 doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2009.03.006 1556-8598/09/$ – see front matter ª 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Table 1 Summary of the International Neuroblastoma Staging System (INSS)6 Stage

Description

1 2

Localized tumor without regional lymph node involvement Unilateral tumor with either ipsilateral lymph node involvement or incomplete gross resection Tumor that crosses the midline or has contralateral lymph node involvement Tumor with dissemination to distant sites, such as lymph nodes, bone, bone marrow, or liver Localized tumor in infants less than 1 year of age with metastatic involvement only of liver, skin, or bone marrow

3 4 4s

recurrence, often guiding therapeutic decisions. MIBG has been the conventional agent used for functional imaging of neuroblastoma. 99mTc-methylene diphosphonate (MDP) has traditionally been used in neuroblastoma to differentiate bone from bone marrow metastases, which may be important in differentiating Stage 4 from Stage 4S disease in infants.9 Use of fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) PET is increasing and recent work has clarified the clinical settings where FDG is likely to be of value. Investigation of new functional imaging agents continues with development of several novel radiopharmaceuticals.

METAIODOBENZYLGUANIDINE A discussion of MIBG is necessary, not only for its important role in neuroblastoma imaging, but also for its mechanism of uptake, which is shared by most functional agents used in neuroblastoma imaging with the significant exception of FDG. MIBG was originally used for localization of pheochromocytoma10 with its use in neuroblastoma following shortly thereafter.11–13 I-131 MIBG was first developed as an imaging agent.14 MIBG was labeled with I-123 soon after, but for many years I-123 MIBG was not commercially available in

the United States. I-123 MIBG was available in Europe and many US pediatric centers synthesized I-123 MIBG on site for local use.15 I-123 MIBG is now widely available in the United States and the Food and Drug Administration has recently approved its use in neuroblastoma and pheochromocytoma. Studies have also been performed using I-124 MIBG, although its use has been limited.16,17

Radiopharmaceuticals MIBG can be labeled with I-123, I-131, or I-124. I123 MIBG gives high-quality images with I-131 MIBG generally considered to be suboptimal in comparison.18 The administered dose of I-131 MIBG is limited because of its relatively long halflife (8 days), high-energy photon (364 keV), and beta particle, which add to the radiation dose without contributing to imaging. I-123 MIBG has the advantages of a shorter half-life (13 hours), an ideal photon energy (159 keV) for gamma camera and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging, and lack of a beta particle. Given administered doses resulting in the same radiation dose, approximately 10 times as many counts are obtained using I-123 MIBG at 24 hours after administration when compared

Table 2 Summary of the International Neuroblastoma Risk Group Staging System (INRGSS)7 Stage

Description

L1

Localized tumor not involving vital structures and confined to one body compartment (neck, chest, abdomen, or pelvis) Local/regional tumor with one or more image-defined risk factors (ie, involvement of 2 body compartments, encasement of major vascular structures, invasion of adjacent organs, or intraspinal extension) Distant metastatic disease (except stage MS) Metastatic disease in patients less than 18 months of age with metastases confined to skin, liver, and/or bone marrow

L2

M MS

PET/CT in the Evaluation of Neuroblastoma with I-131 MIBG. As a result, I-123 MIBG gives much higher quality images. I-124 decays by both electron capture (75%) and positron emission (25%). The electron capture mode of decay results in multiple high-energy single photons, which increase radiation dose to the patient. The high-energy photons also increase scatter and detection of random coincidence events, which add to background noise on PET images. The half-life of I-124 (4.2 days) allows imaging over several days, but limits administered activities. These factors limit the practical uses for I-124 MIBG, although its use has been described in treatment planning for I-131 MIBG therapy.16

Uptake Mechanism Functional imaging with MIBG takes advantage of the adrenergic origin of neuroblastoma. The sensitivity of MIBG in the detection of neuroblastoma is about 90% with specificity nearly 100%. MIBG enters neuroblastoma cells using the type 1 catecholamine reuptake system. MIBG is then concentrated within both the cytoplasm and specialized norepinephrine storage granules. Norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin transporters have considerable similarities, a fact that may be used when developing novel radiopharmaceuticals.

Acquisition Protocol Administered doses of I-123 MIBG are generally determined using weight (0.14 mCi/kg or 5.18 mBq/kg) or body surface area (BSA) (10 mCi/ 1.7 m2 BSA or 370 mBq/1.7 m2 BSA), with a maximum administered dose of 10 mCi (370 mBq). Saturated solution of potassium iodide (SSKI) is given before radiopharmaceutical injection to block thyroid uptake. Patient medications should be reviewed, as type 1 catecholamine reuptake is blocked by a number of drugs (including phenylephrine, pseudoephedrine, cocaine, tricyclic antidepressants, and labetalol).19 Planar and SPECT I-123 MIBG images are usually obtained 24 hours after radiopharmaceutical injection with supplemental planar images sometimes acquired at 48 hours. SPECT has aided MIBG diagnosis of neuroblastoma, improving anatomic localization.20–22 Continued improvements are expected with the advent of SPECT/CT.23,24

FLUORODEOXYGLUCOSE FDG PET is well established as an important tool for the management of adult oncology patients. Many adult tumors (including lung, esophageal, colon, and breast cancers) are well demonstrated

by FDG PET. Most pediatric tumors, including neuroblastoma, are also metabolically active and thus concentrate FDG. The diagnostic utility of FDG PET and its impact on patient management have also been reported for many pediatric cancers.25–35

Uptake Mechanism FDG is a glucose analog that is concentrated in tumor cells by the glucose transporter. Because most tumors preferentially use glucose for energy, FDG is concentrated within most tumors. FDG is therefore a less specific agent for neuroblastoma than MIBG and other radiopharmaceuticals that use the type 1 catecholamine reuptake system.

Acquisition Protocol Administered doses of FDG are generally determined using weight (0.14 to 0.15 mCi/kg or 5.18 to 5.55 mBq/kg), with a maximum dosage of 12 mCi (444 mBq). Patients undergo standard preparation, including a 4-hour or overnight fast and avoidance of intravenous glucose. Imaging is performed approximately 1 hour after radiopharmaceutical injection. In contrast to MIBG, FDG allows injection and imaging on the same day, which is often more convenient for patients and their families.

FLUORODEOXYGLUCOSE VERSUS METAIODOBENZYLGUANIDINE Shulkin and colleagues36 initially compared FDG PET with MIBG scintigraphy in 1996. They studied 17 patients (20 scans) with neuroblastoma. In 16 of 17 neuroblastoma patients, FDG uptake in tumor was readily identified. FDG compared favorably with MIBG in patients studied before therapy. In seven patients studied before therapy, FDG allowed ready visualization of the primary tumor with uptake that was usually intense (mean SUV 2.8  0.7). Depiction of the primary tumor was better with FDG in two patients, better with MIBG in three patients, and equal with FDG and MIBG in two patients. Six of seven patients had diffuse FDG and MIBG uptake in bone marrow with tumor involvement confirmed by bone marrow biopsy. On the other hand, FDG PET compared less favorably when patients were studied during or following therapy. FDG uptake in tumor sites was found in 9 of 10 patients studied during or following therapy; however, depiction of residual or recurrent disease was better with MIBG in 8 of 11 scans. FDG was deemed superior to MIBG in only two scans, with FDG and MIBG considered equivalent in one scan. FDG clearly defined tumor

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Sharp et al sites in a single patient with neuroblastoma that did not concentrate MIBG. The authors concluded that most neuroblastomas are metabolically active and can be detected using FDG PET. Despite the differences in imaging technology, which favor PET over planar scintigraphy and SPECT because of the considerably higher counts acquired in PET and its intrinsic tomographic basis, they found that FDG is often inferior to MIBG in the evaluation of neuroblastoma. This was largely because of lower tumor to nontumor uptake ratios (especially after therapy) and because of FDG uptake in nontumor sites (such as bone marrow, thymus, and bowel) causing potential false positive or false negative results. They found FDG most beneficial in tumors that failed to or weakly accumulated MIBG.36 Kushner and colleagues37 studied 51 patients (92 scans) with neuroblastoma undergoing staging evaluations to monitor treatment effect and disease status. FDG PET was performed in conjunction with MIBG scans, bone scans, CT (and/or MR imaging), urine catecholamines, and bone marrow examinations. Serial FDG PET scans accurately depicted treatment effects and disease evolution documenting progressive disease, stable disease, and complete and partial remissions. FDG findings correlated well with disease status determined by conventional imaging studies and urinary catecholamine levels. Kushner

and colleagues37 stated that the higher spatial resolution of FDG PET aided in localization of disease sites and diagnosis of small lesions. They also stated that FDG PET might be better for the detection of liver metastases because of the normal intense hepatic uptake of MIBG, which has been shown to complicate detection of hepatic neuroblastoma involvement.38 Both FDG PET and MIBG depicted widespread bone metastases. They concluded that FDG PET and bone marrow sampling are sufficient to monitor for progressive disease in neuroblastoma patients once the primary tumor has been resected and cranial vault lesions are absent or resolved. It is important to note that the studies performed by Shulkin and colleagues36 in 1996 and Kushner and colleagues37 in 2001 used PET only scanners. Attenuation correction was performed using rotating or fixed rod transmission sources and emission scans were reconstructed using filtered back projection. MIBG was labeled with either 131 I or 123I. More recently, Sharp and colleagues39 reviewed 60 patients (113 scans) with neuroblastoma. This study included patients with different stages of neuroblastoma at many points of therapy. There was consistent use of I-123 MIBG planar/SPECT imaging and also extensive use of PET/CT (as opposed to PET only). FDG PET and MIBG planar/SPECT imaging techniques were therefore largely optimized by current standards.

Fig. 1. A 2-year-old boy with stage 2 neuroblastoma imaged 2 months after resection of primary right retroperitoneal tumor without further treatment. (A) Anterior planar MIBG image demonstrates no significant uptake. (B) Anterior MIP FDG PET, (C) axial FDG PET, and (D) localization CT images demonstrate extensive uptake in right retroperitoneal tumor.

PET/CT in the Evaluation of Neuroblastoma In Stage 1 and 2 disease (10 patients/13 scans), FDG was superior in depicting disease sites. FDG depicted more primary tumor and/or local/regional metastases in six patients (nine scans). FDG and 123 I-MIBG scans were equivalent in one patient (one scan). FDG and 123I-MIBG scans were negative in three patients (three scans). In Stage 3 disease (10 patients/15 scans), results were less consistent. MIBG depicted more extensive primary tumor and/or local/ regional metastases in four patients (five scans). FDG depicted more extensive primary tumor and/or local/regional metastases in four patients (four scans). MIBG and FDG were equivalent in two patients (two scans). MIBG and FDG scans were negative in three patients (four scans).

In Stage 4 disease (40 patients/85 scans), MIBG was found to be overall superior. MIBG depicted more neuroblastoma sites in 22 patients (44 scans). FDG depicted more neuroblastoma sites in eight patients (11 scans). MIBG and FDG were equivalent in nine patients (10 scans). MIBG and FDG were complementary in two patients (three scans). MIBG and FDG scans were negative in 14 patients (17 scans). The authors therefore concluded that FDG is superior in depicting Stage 1/2 neuroblastoma, although they state that MIBG may be needed to exclude higher stage disease. They also state that FDG provided important information in tumors that weakly accumulate MIBG and at major decision points during therapy (ie, before stem cell

Fig. 2. A 2-year-old boy with stage 3 neuroblastoma status post surgical resection and chemotherapy. (A) Anterior MIP FDG PET image demonstrates focal uptake in the upper abdomen (arrow), as well as physiologic activity in thymus, bowel, and bladder. (B) Localization CT image demonstrates residual hyperdense tumor in the spinal canal with corresponding increased FDG uptake on (C) axial FDG and (D) axial fusion images.

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Sharp et al transplantation or before surgery). FDG also better delineated disease extent in the chest, abdomen, and pelvis. They found MIBG to be overall superior in the evaluation of Stage 4 neuroblastoma, especially during initial chemotherapy. This was primarily attributable to better detection of bone/ marrow metastases. They commented on the fact that recent granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (GCSF) therapy can cause diffuse FDG uptake in bone marrow, which can mimic or obscure metastatic disease. However, they warned that generalized statements regarding the use of MIBG and FDG PET in neuroblastoma will often have exceptions that could significantly affect clinical management of individual patients.39 Colavolpe and colleagues40 and McDowell and colleagues41 recently reported cases of MIBGnegative recurrent neuroblastoma that were well demonstrated with FDG PET. The patients in both reports had MIBG-positive disease at diagnosis that was MIBG-negative at relapse. In the report by Colavolpe and colleagues,40 relapsed disease was suspected owing to persistent bone pain and elevated urine catecholamines. In the report by McDowell and colleagues,41 relapsed disease was found by CT. These cases emphasize the importance of FDG imaging when MIBG

reveals less disease that suspected by clinical symptoms or conventional imaging modalities, such as CT or MR. Given these studies, it seems unlikely that FDG PET will fully replace MIBG scintigraphy in the diagnosis and management of patients with neuroblastoma. The decreased specificity of FDG PET relative to MIBG is also a drawback. However, FDG has been shown to be useful in patients with early stage disease and in tumors that weakly accumulate MIBG or do not accumulate MIBG (Fig. 1). FDG can also play an important role in recurrent neuroblastoma when MIBG reveals less disease than suspected by clinical evaluation or conventional imaging modalities. The spatial resolution of FDG PET/CT also aids in disease delineation in the chest, abdomen, and pelvis; this is true in both small tumors (Fig. 2) and extensive primary tumor and metastatic disease (Fig. 3). In patients with neuroblastoma, sites of FDG uptake do not always represent primary tumor or metastatic disease. Physiologic uptake can be seen in bowel, urinary tract, thymus, and bone marrow. Physiologic bone marrow uptake can complicate interpretation when bone/ bone marrow metastases are subtle (Fig. 4). GCSF therapy can markedly increase bone

Fig. 3. A 3-year-old girl with stage 4 neuroblastoma at diagnosis. (A) Anterior MIP FDG PET and (B) anterior planar MIBG images demonstrate uptake within the primary retroperitoneal tumor, metastatic left neck mass, and multiple soft tissue and bone metastases. The extent of tumor and number of metastases are better demonstrated with FDG PET.

PET/CT in the Evaluation of Neuroblastoma Fig. 4. A 5-year-old boy with stage 4 neuroblastoma after chemotherapy and bone marrow transplantation. (A) Anterior MIP FDG PET image demonstrates uptake in bone marrow, which could largely be considered physiologic. (B) Anterior planar MIBG image demonstrates uptake in the proximal femurs and tibias, consistent with metastatic disease.

marrow uptake limiting evaluation for metastatic disease (Fig. 5). Pathologic uptake in the skin, pleura, and lungs can be seen after radiation therapy. Pathologic uptake is also encountered in areas of inflammation/infection and at sites of prior trauma or surgery.

NOVEL POSITRON-EMITTING TRACERS Positron-emitting radiopharmaceuticals have potential advantages over conventional agents, such as I-123 MIBG. These include improved resolution of PET when compared with SPECT, accurate quantification of uptake, and short uptake times allowing injection and imaging in a single visit. Potential tracers may be labeled with either C-11 or F-18. However, the short half-life of C-11 requires on-site cyclotron synthesis, which limits the practical use of radiopharmaceuticals with this label. The longer half-life and broader availability of F-18 make use of its radiopharmaceuticals more reasonable. The PET chemistry expertise needed for radiopharmaceutical synthesis and regulatory concerns limit availability of all novel tracers.

Neuroblastoma has been studied with C-11 hydroxyephedrine (HED) and C-11 epinephrine. HED has been shown to be highly concentrated in pheochromocytoma, leading to examination of its uptake in neuroblastoma. Shulkin and colleagues42 studied seven neuroblastoma patients, each of whom had HED uptake into tumor sites identified by MIBG. Uptake was rapid with 80% of uptake occurring by 2 minutes. In most patients, relatively high retention of HED was also demonstrated. Initial prominence of hepatic and renal activity was seen, with increasing tumor-to-liver ratios noted as hepatic activity declined and tumor activity remained relatively fixed. C-11 epinephrine is also concentrated by pheochromocytomas43 and its uptake in neuroblastoma has also been investigated. Shulkin and colleagues44 studied 20 neuroblastoma patients using C-11 epinephrine PET. PET studies were performed dynamically immediately following injection with distinction of neuroblastoma uptake from background activity by 2 minutes after injection. Retention of C-11 epinephrine in neuroblastoma sites generally increased in intensity as

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Sharp et al Fig. 5. A 4-year-old girl with stage 4 neuroblastoma. (A) Anterior MIP FDG PET image obtained at diagnosis demonstrates uptake in the large left retroperitoneal tumor, as well as multiple soft tissue and bone metastases. (B) MIP FDG PET image obtained after chemotherapy and GCSF administration reveals diffuse bone marrow uptake obscuring or mimicking bony metastatic disease. Uptake in the left retroperitoneal tumor and soft tissue metastases has decreased.

background activity declined. However, C-11 epinephrine uptake was seen in only one half to two thirds of neuroblastomas, whereas MIBG uptake was seen in all of the neuroblastomas studied. Several novel F-18 agents may act as positronemitting analogs of MIBG with applications for the functional imaging of neuroblastoma. 4-[F-18]fluoro-3-iodobenzylguanidine (FIBG) has been shown to bind in vitro to human neuroblastoma cells.45 P-[F-18]-fluorobenzylguanidine (PFBG) has been studied in two dogs with pheochromocytoma.46 It is hypothesized that these agents could be used in neuroblastoma imaging, although no in vivo human studies have yet been reported. F-18 dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) uptake can be seen in neuroendocrine tumors that concentrate, decarboxylate, and store amino acids and their biogenic amines. In vitro studies (performed by Shulkin in 2003, currently unpublished), suggest that type 1 catecholamine uptake of F-18 DOPA may also occur. DOPA has been shown to be concentrated in pheochromocytomas.47

Tzen and colleagues48 performed F-18 DOPA PET/CT studies on seven patients imaged 90 minutes after injection with 4 MBq/kg BW of F-18 DOPA. All patients were premedicated with 2 mg/kg BW of oral carbidopa 60 minutes before radiopharmaceutical injection. Three patients with uptake of F-18 DOPA were diagnosed with ganglioneuroma or ganglioneuroblastoma at surgery. One patient with F-18 DOPA uptake was diagnosed with a large neuroblastoma (without DOPA uptake) and a small ganglioneuroma (with DOPA uptake). Four patients with no uptake of F-18 DOPA all had poorly differentiated neuroblastoma cells in their tumors. Tzen and colleagues48 suggested that F-18 DOPA positivity indicates a well differentiated tumor or tumor component, which may indicate better prognosis, although the clinical significance needs further investigation. This study suggests that F-18 DOPA may demonstrate well differentiated tumors adequately, but may not be useful in the general population of neuroblastoma patients.

PET/CT in the Evaluation of Neuroblastoma F-18 agents can also take advantage of the similarities among the norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin transporters. 6-[F-18]-Fluorodopamine (F-18 DA) has been used in pheochromocytoma patients with successful localization of metastatic tumor sites.49 No F-18 DA studies have yet been reported in neuroblastoma. F-18 fluorothymidine (FLT) assesses cellular proliferation and is based on a nucleoside that is incorporated into DNA. It has been studied in mice inoculated with human neuroblastoma cells.50 FLT visualized tumor in 70% of cases, whereas FDG visualized tumor in only 40% of cases. This agent could be especially useful in determining the response of tumors to therapy; however, no correlation between the cell proliferation rate and FLT uptake was detected. In vitro studies of various tracers, including those based on amino acids and nucleosides, have been performed to assess their potential for neuroblastoma imaging in vivo.51 Many of these tracers show uptake greater than that of MIBG with the highest uptake seen with the essential amino acids, threonine and methionine. Although promising in vitro, in vivo experiments using animal tumor models or human patients are needed to assess the clinical utility of these agents. Hepatic, renal, pancreatic, or bone marrow activity could potentially be high enough to limit evaluation of tumor relative to background.

SUMMARY Functional imaging plays an important role in the assessment of neuroblastoma. I-123 MIBG remains the most commonly used agent for neuroblastoma imaging; it is used to define the extent of disease at diagnosis, follow response to treatment, and localize residual and recurrent disease. Use of FDG is increasing and studies continue to clarify its role in the diagnosis and management of neuroblastoma patients. FDG has been shown to be useful in patients with early stage disease and in tumors that weakly accumulate MIBG. FDG should be used when MIBG demonstrates less disease than suspected by clinical symptoms or conventional imaging. The spatial resolution of FDG PET/ CT also aids in disease delineation in the chest, abdomen, and pelvis. FDG remains a less specific imaging agent than MIBG with physiologic and non-neoplastic pathologic sites of uptake frequently complicating image interpretation. Several novel positron-emitting radiopharmaceuticals labeled with C-11 or F-18 show potential for neuroblastoma imaging, although further studies are needed and availability is limited.

REFERENCES 1. Shulkin BL. Neuroblastoma. In: Charron M, editor. Pediatric PET imaging. New York: Springer; 2006. p. 243–55. 2. Donnelly LF. Pediatric Imaging: The Fundamentals. Pennsylvania: Saunders; 2009. 3. Jadvar H, Connolly LP, Fahey FH, et al. PET and PET/CT in pediatric oncology. Semin Nucl Med 2007;37(5):316–31. 4. Cohn SL, Pearson AD, London WB, et al. The international neuroblastoma risk group (INRG) classification system: an INRG task force report. J Clin Oncol 2009;27(2):289–97. 5. Shimada H, Chatten J, Newton WA Jr, et al. Histopathologic prognostic factors in neuroblastic tumors: definition of subtypes of ganglioneuroblastoma and an age-linked classification of neuroblastomas. J Natl Cancer Inst 1984;73(2):405–16. 6. Brodeur GM, Pritchard J, Berthold F, et al. Revisions of the international criteria for neuroblastoma diagnosis, staging, and response to treatment. J Clin Oncol 1993;11(8):1466–77. 7. Monclair T, Brodeur GM, Ambros PF, et al. The International Neuroblastoma Risk Group (INRG) staging system: an INRG task force report. J Clin Oncol 2009;27(2):298–303. 8. Brodeur GM, Castleberry RP. Neuroblastoma. In: Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, editors. Principles and practice of pediatric oncology. 3rd edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven; 1997. p. 761–97. 9. Labreveux de Cervens C, Hartmann O, Bonnin F, et al. What is the prognostic value of osteomedullary uptake on MIBG scan in neuroblastoma patients under one year of age? Med Pediatr Oncol 1994; 22(2):107–14. 10. Sisson JC, Frager MS, Valk TW, et al. Scintigraphic localization of pheochromocytoma. N Engl J Med 1981;305(1):12–7. 11. Treuner J, Feine U, Niethammer D, et al. Scintigraphic imaging of neuroblastoma with [131I]iodobenzylguanidine. Lancet 1984;1(8372):333–4. 12. Sisson JC, Shulkin BL. Nuclear medicine imaging of pheochromocytoma and neuroblastoma. Q J Nucl Med 1999;43(3):217–23. 13. Englaro EE, Gelfand MJ, Harris RE, et al. I-131 MIBG imaging after bone marrow transplantation for neuroblastoma. Radiology 1992;182(2):515–20. 14. Wieland DM, Wu J, Brown LE, et al. Radiolabeled adrenergi neuron-blocking agents: adrenomedullary imaging with [131I]iodobenzylguanidine. J Nucl Med 1980;21(4):349–53. 15. Paltiel HJ, Gelfand MJ, Elgazzar AH, et al. Neural crest tumors: I-123 MIBG imaging in children. Radiology 1994;190(1):117–21. 16. Ott RJ, Tait D, Flower MA, et al. Treatment planning for 131I-mIBG radiotherapy of neural crest tumours

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using 124I-mIBG positron emission tomography. Br J Radiol 1992;65(777):787–91. Moroz MA, Serganova I, Zanzonico P, et al. Imaging hNET reporter gene expression with 124I-MIBG. J Nucl Med 2007;48(5):827–36. Gelfand MJ. I-123-MIBG and I-131-MIBG imaging in children with neuroblastoma [abstract]. J Nucl Med 1996;37:35. Khafagi FA, Shapiro B, Fig LM, et al. Labetalol reduces iodine-131 MIBG uptake by pheochromocytoma and normal tissues. J Nucl Med 1989; 30(4):481–9. Gelfand MJ, Elgazzar AH, Kriss VM, et al. Iodine123-MIBG SPECT versus planar imaging in children with neural crest tumors. J Nucl Med 1994;35(11): 1753–7. Vik T, Pfluger T, Kadota R, et al. 123I-MIBG scintigraphy in patients with known or suspected neuroblastoma: results from a prospective multi-center trial. [abstract]. J Nucl Med 2008;49(Suppl 1):238. Serafini A, Heiba SI, Tumeh SS, et al. Influence of SPECT on interpretation of 123I-MIBG scintigraphy in patients with known or suspected pheochromocytoma and neuroblastoma [abstract]. J Nucl Med 2008;49(Suppl 1):239. Bar-Sever Z, Steinmetz A, Ash S, et al. The role of MIBG SPECT/CT in children with neuroblastoma. [abstract]. J Nucl Med 2008;49(Suppl 1):84. Rozovsky K, Koplewitz BZ, Krausz Y, et al. Added value of SPECT/CT for correlation of MIBG scintigraphy and diagnostic CT in neuroblastoma and pheochromocytoma. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008; 190(4):1085–90. Franzius C, Schober O. Assessment of therapy response by FDG PET in pediatric patients. Q J Nucl Med 2003;47(1):41–5. Wegner EA, Barrington SF, Kingston JE, et al. The impact of PET scanning on management of paediatric oncology patients. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2005;32(1):23–30. Pacak K, Ilias I, Chen CC, et al. The role of [(18)F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography and [(111)In]-diethylenetriaminepentaacetate-DPhe-pentetreotide scintigraphy in the localization of ectopic adrenocorticotropin-secreting tumors causing Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89(5):2214–21. Figarola MS, McQuiston SA, Wilson F, et al. Recurrent hepatoblastoma with localization by PET-CT. Pediatr Radiol 2005;35(12):1254–8. Kinoshita H, Shimotake T, Furukawa T, et al. Mucoepidermal carcinoma of the lung detected by positron emission tomography in a 5-year-old girl. J Pediatr Surg 2005;40(4):E1–3. Philip I, Shun A, McCowage G, et al. Positron emission tomography in recurrent hepatoblastoma. Pediatr Surg Int 2005;21(5):341–5.

31. McCarville MB, Christie R, Daw NC, et al. PET/CT in the evaluation of childhood sarcomas. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2005;184(4):1293–304. 32. Sasi OA, Sathiapalan R, Rifai A, et al. Colonic neuroendocrine carcinoma in a child. Pediatr Radiol 2005; 35(3):339–43. 33. Buchler T, Cervinek L, Belohlavek O, et al. Langerhans cell histiocytosis with central nervous system involvement: follow-up by FDG-PET during treatment with cladribine. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2005;44(3):286–8. 34. Mackie GC, Shulkin BL, Ribeiro RC, et al. Use of [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in evaluating locally recurrent and metastatic adrenocortical carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91(7):2665–71. 35. Mody RJ, Pohlen JA, Malde S, et al. FDG PET for the study of primary hepatic malignancies in children. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2006;47(1):51–5. 36. Shulkin BL, Hutchinson RJ, Castle VP, et al. Neuroblastoma: positron emission tomography with 2-[fluorine-18]-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose compared with metaiodobenzylguanidine scintigraphy. Radiology 1996;199(3):743–50. 37. Kushner BH, Yeung HW, Larson SM, et al. Extending positron emission tomography scan utility to highrisk neuroblastoma: fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography as sole imaging modality in follow-up of patients. J Clin Oncol 2001;19(14):3397–405. 38. Dessner DA, DiPietro MA, Shulkin BL. MIBG detection of hepatic neuroblastoma: correlation with CT, US and surgical findings. Pediatr Radiol 1993; 23(4):276–80. 39. Sharp SE, Shulkin BL, Furman WL, et al. I-123-MIBG scintigraphy and {F-18}FDG PET in neuroblastoma. [abstract]. J Nucl Med 2008;49(Suppl 1):84. 40. Colavolpe C, Guedj E, Cammilleri S, et al. Utility of FDG-PET/CT in the follow-up of neuroblastoma which became MIBG-negative. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2008;51(6):828–31. 41. McDowell HM, Losty P, Barnes N, et al. Utility of FDG-PET/CT in the follow-up of neuroblastoma which became MIBG-negative [letter]. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2009;52(4):552. 42. Shulkin BL, Wieland DM, Baro ME, et al. PET hydroxyephedrine imaging of neuroblastoma. J Nucl Med 1996;37(1):16–21. 43. Shulkin BL, Wieland DM, Sisson JC. PET studies of pheochromocytoma with C-11 epinephrine. Radiology 1994;193:273. 44. Shulkin BL, Wieland DM, Castle VP, et al. Carbon-11 epinephrine PET imaging of neuroblastoma. J Nucl Med 1999;40(5):129. 45. Vaidyanathan G, Affleck DJ, Zalutsky MR. (4[18F]fluoro-3-iodobenzyl)guanidine, a potential MIBG analogue for positron emission tomography. J Med Chem 1994;37(21):3655–62.

PET/CT in the Evaluation of Neuroblastoma 46. Berry CR, DeGrado TR, Nutter F, et al. Imaging of pheochromocytoma in 2 dogs using p-[18F] fluorobenzylguanidine. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2002;43(2):183–6. 47. Hoegerle S, Nitzsche E, Altehoefer C, et al. Pheochromocytomas: detection with 18F DOPA whole body PET—initial results. Radiology 2002;222(2):507–12. 48. Tzen K, Wang L, Lu M. Characterization of neuroblastic tumors using F-18 DOPA, PET. [abstract]. J Nucl Med 2007;48(Suppl 2):117. 49. Ilias I, Yu J, Carrasquillo JA, et al. Superiority of 6-[18F]-fluorodopamine positron emission

tomography versus [131I]-metaiodobenzylguanidine scintigraphy in the localization of metastatic pheochromocytoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88(9):4083–7. 50. Krieger-Hinck N, Gustke H, Valentiner U, et al. Visualisation of neuroblastoma growth in a Scid mouse model using [18F]FDG and [18F]FLT-PET. Anticancer Res 2006;26(5A):3467–72. 51. Goodwill T, Shulkin BL, Schumacher K, et al. Metabolic characterization of neuroblastoma [abstract]. J Nucl Med 2002;43(5):36.

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PET and PET/C T in Pediatric Sarcomas M. Beth McCarville, MD KEYWORDS  Pediatric  Sarcomas  Positron emission tomography  Computed tomography  Bone scan  Magnetic resonance imaging

management. Consequently, an appropriate metastatic investigation must precede the definitive approach to the primary tumor. The lung is the first site of metastatic disease in children who have sarcomas, and lung metastasis is seen in 20% to 25% of patients at diagnosis. Local-regional nodal spread is rare in osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma but occurs in up to 20% of children who have rhabdomyosarcoma. Bone marrow metastases occur in 20% to 30% of patients who have rhabdomyosarcoma and in less than 10% of patients who have Ewing sarcoma. Bone metastases occur in 10% of patients who have rhabdomyosarcoma and patients who have osteosarcoma.2–4 Therefore, the conventional imaging evaluation also includes MR imaging or CT of local-regional nodal beds, CT of the chest to assess for pulmonary metastases, and 99mtechnetium methyl diphosphonate (99mTc MDP) nuclear scintigraphy to detect bone metastases. Most children who have cancer, including children who have sarcomas, are treated on clinical trials designed to evaluate the toxicity or effectiveness of innovative cancer therapies. The Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (RECIST) were introduced in 2000 as an alternative to the World Health Organization (WHO) criteria to provide a standard, reproducible, and objective method of assessing the efficacy of experimental solid tumor therapies.5 These criteria incorporate important advances in imaging technology and simplify the WHO methodology but rely on changes in axial, unidimensional tumor measurements to define tumor response or progression. A limitation of the RECIST criteria is that solid malignancies, such as bone sarcomas and cystic soft tissue sarcomas, may respond well to

Department of Radiological Sciences, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105, USA E-mail address: [email protected] PET Clin 3 (2009) 563–575 doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2009.04.007 1556-8598/09/$ – see front matter ª 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

pet.theclinics.com

Childhood cancers, in general, are relatively rare. Among children, the hematologic malignancies (leukemias and lymphomas) and brain tumors comprise the majority of malignancies and account for about half of all cancer diagnoses. Sarcomas, malignancies that arise from mesenchymal cells that normally mature into skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, fat, fibrous tissue, bone, or cartilage, represent less than 6% of all childhood cancers.1 In children, the most common sarcomas are the primary bone tumors— osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma—and rhabdomyosarcoma, a tumor that may arise from any tissue except bone.2–4 In the United States, the annual incidence of osteosarcoma is 4.8 per million, the annual incidence of Ewing sarcoma is 2.9 per million, and the annual incidence of rhabdomyosarcoma is 4.3 per million.1 The treatment and survival of these children hinges on accurate pathologic grading of the primary tumor and identification of sites of metastatic disease. Approximately 25% to 35% of children and adolescents who have sarcomas experience tumor recurrence after treatment. Thus, patients are followed clinically and radiographically for 3 to 5 years after completion of therapy, and diagnostic imaging plays a pivotal role in their management.2–4 MR imaging of primary childhood bone and soft tissue sarcomas is indispensable for determining tumor site, size, margins, and involvement of the neurovascular bundle, features that determine tumor resectability and influence therapeutic options and prognosis. Childhood sarcomas spread via lymphatic and hematogenous routes, and the presence of metastatic disease is an important prognostic variable that significantly affects

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McCarville chemotherapy without changing substantially in size. Also, sarcomas do not shrink or grow in a uniform manner, and unidimensional measurements restricted to the axial plane may not reflect tumor response or progression accurately. Tumors that respond poorly to therapy may be followed for months before a significant increase in a unidimensional measurement occurs. Such patients are exposed to the toxicity of ineffective chemotherapy and probably have a diminished likelihood of survival.6 Furthermore, anatomic changes in tumors are inadequate for evaluating newer therapies, such as cytostatic anti-angiogenic therapies, that were introduced after development of the RECIST criteria and that are not intended to cause tumor shrinkage. The ideal evaluation of response would use reliable, reproducible, noninvasive techniques to identify nonresponding tumors early in the course of therapy to reduce unnecessary toxicity and to tailor management to optimize patient survival. 18 F-labeled fluorodeoxyglucose-PET (FDG-PET) capitalizes on the fact that tumors are highly metabolically active and accumulate more glucose (and FDG) than normal tissue.7,8 Following therapy, a decrease in glucose uptake by tumors has been shown to correlate with a reduction in viable tumor cells.9–11 Furthermore, FDG-PET can assess tumor glucose metabolism with high reproducibility.12 Therefore, for some malignancies, FDG-PET is more sensitive to tumor response or progression than conventional, anatomic imaging modalities. Recently, a group of expert oncologists, radiologists, and nuclear physicians developed recommendations on the use of FDG-PET in the management of patients who have cancer.13 The panel’s recommendations were based on the existing literature and were approved by the Board of Directors of the Society of Nuclear Medicine. They found sufficient evidence to support the use of FDG-PET in a wide variety of malignancies, but they concluded that, because of the rarity of sarcomas, there is a lack of evidence to support the use of FDG-PET in the management of these tumors. Nonetheless, the panel projected that further research is likely to raise confidence about the effectiveness of FDG-PET in managing patients who have sarcoma. Clearly, investigations of the role of this powerful functional imaging modality in managing these rare malignancies should continue. This article reviews the current literature regarding FDG-PET imaging in the management of pediatric sarcomas and presents important pitfalls in PET/CT imaging of these patients that the author, her colleagues, and others have encountered.

IDENTIFYING AN UNKNOWN PRIMARY SITE Although most sarcomas are apparent on physical examination, approximately 4% of patients who have rhabdomyosarcoma present with metastatic disease and an unknown primary site.14 Because surgical resection of the primary tumor is crucial in the management of these patients, the imaging evaluation is focused on identifying the primary site and is guided by clinical suspicion. Traditionally such evaluations could require multiple imaging modalities suitable for assessing various anatomic sites. PET and PET/CT allow evaluation of the entire patient in one setting. In adults, PET alone can reveal the location of primary tumors in 21% to 30% of patients who have occult head and neck or breast cancers but also has a falsepositive rate of approximately 20%.15 PET/CT, with the added benefit of anatomic mapping, may reduce this false-positive rate because it allows sites of physiologically increased FDG activity (eg, supraclavicular brown fat) to be localized accurately and distinguished from tumorbased activity. The Society of Nuclear Medicine currently supports the use of PET and PET/CT for the evaluation of adults who have unknown primary malignancies.13 Although there is little literature regarding the value of PET in assessing children who have unknown primary sites, the author and others have used PET and PET/CT to identify unknown primary sites in children who had widely metastatic rhabdomyosarcoma (Fig. 1).16,17

DETECTING PULMONARY DISEASE Patients who have osteosarcoma and pulmonary metastases have little chance for cure unless all metastases are surgically resected.2 Patients who have Ewing sarcoma and pulmonary metastases may have improved survival if treated with whole-lung irradiation.3 Therefore, identification of pulmonary disease is crucial to the management and survival of these children. Although chest CT is the reference standard for detecting pulmonary nodules, the author and colleagues16 found that three experienced pediatric radiologists had limited ability to classify nodules correctly as benign or malignant in 41 children who had solid malignancies and who underwent pulmonary nodule biopsy (a 57%–67% rate of correct classification). They also found a fairly high rate of benign nodule histology in this group of patients: 42% (17/41) had only benign nodules, and 10% (4/41) had both benign and malignant nodules resected. Furthermore, there was only moderate to slight inter-reviewer agreement among the

PET and PET/CT in Pediatric Sarcomas

Fig. 1. An 11-year-old girl presented with cervical, mediastinal, retroperitoneal, and pelvic adenopathy and anemia. Burkitt lymphoma was suspected, but bone marrow biopsy revealed metastatic alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma. No primary site was identified on physical examination. PET/CT was performed. (A) This maximum intensity projection PET image showed diffuse marrow abnormality and focal abnormality in the left calf (arrow). (B) MR imaging confirmed that this finding was the primary tumor (T). (From McCarville MB, Christie R, Daw NC, et al. PET/CT in the evaluation of childhood sarcomas. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2005;184:1294; with permission.)

radiologists when classifying nodules as benign or malignant based on CT features. Clearly, to reduce undue morbidity associated with thoracotomy when only benign disease is present, the ability to distinguish benign from malignant pulmonary nodules in this patient population must be improved. Franzius and colleagues18 assessed the value of FDG-PET alone to detect pulmonary metastases in patients who have osteosarcoma or Ewing sarcoma by comparing it with CT, clinical follow-up, and histologic inspection of resected nodules. They found that in 30 FDG-PET scans performed at diagnosis or recurrence (before initiation of therapy) PET had a sensitivity of 14%, a specificity of 91%, and an accuracy of 73%. They also found that the ability to detect pulmonary nodules with FDG-PET improved with increasing nodule size; 12 of 16 nodules 10 mm in diameter or larger were identified, but none smaller than 5 mm was detected (Fig. 2). Their results agree with a recent report by Vo¨lker and colleagues19 investigating the value of FDG-PET alone for staging 46 children who had Ewing sarcoma (n 5 23), osteosarcoma (n 5 11), or rhabdomyosarcoma (n 5 12). These investigators

found that 21 of 28 lung metastases detected by CT were missed by FDG-PET, resulting in a sensitivity of 25%. In their study, PET-positive nodules were 8 mm in diameter or larger, and PET-negative nodules were smaller than 7 mm. Gerth and colleagues20 showed that the fusion modality FDG-PET/CT was superior to PET alone in detecting pulmonary nodules in 53 patients who had Ewing sarcoma because of improved lesion detection by CT. Because PET/CT generally is performed using a low milliampere/second technique for CT scanning, however, image quality may not be sufficient to detect very small pulmonary nodules. Current-generation multislice helical scanners, coupled with the improved accuracy of interpretation when CT imaging is reviewed at picture archiving and communication systems using window and level adjustment and magnification tools allow the detection of increasingly smaller pulmonary nodules. The author and colleagues16 showed that small pulmonary nodules (< 5 mm) are as likely to be malignant as larger nodules in children who have solid malignancies. Given the need to treat pulmonary metastatic disease aggressively in the pediatric patient who has

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Fig. 2. (A, B) An 11-year-old boy who had osteosarcoma had a 0.5-cm pulmonary metastasis on CT (A, arrow) that was not evident on the PET image (B). (C–E) By contrast, a 21-year-old man who had osteosarcoma had a 1.0-cm pulmonary metastasis (C, arrow) showing moderate FDG avidity on (D) PET and (E) fused PET/CT images.

sarcoma, diagnostic chest CT remains an essential part of the metastatic work-up. PET/CT is preferred to PET alone as a potential adjunct to distinguish benign from malignant nodules but should be used with caution and an awareness of the inherent limitations of spatial resolution of both the PET and the CT components of the examination.18,21 In addition to these limitations, the author and colleagues have found that benign processes, such as active infection, can result in substantial FDG uptake within pulmonary nodules, similar to that seen in metastatic deposits (Fig. 3). Further investigation is needed to define better the role of PET imaging in assessing pulmonary nodules in children who have sarcomas.

DETECTING BONE AND BONE MARROW DISEASE The prognosis of children who have bone or bone marrow metastases from sarcomas is dismal. Approximately 10% of patients who have osteosarcoma develop bone metastases with or without

concurrent pulmonary metastases.2 These patients require surgical resection of all sites of metastases for any chance of cure. Up to 25% of patients who have Ewing sarcoma or rhabdomyosarcoma develop bone or bone marrow metastases. Because Ewing sarcoma is radiosensitive, targeted radiation can be beneficial when there are only few and well circumscribed bone or bone marrow metastases. When more than 50% of the marrow volume is involved, however, irradiation can result in significant myelosuppression and can compound the toxicity of chemotherapy.3 The prognosis of patients who have rhabdomyosarcoma and bone or bone marrow metastases is not improved by current surgical metastectomy or targeted radiotherapy.4 Metastases from osteosarcoma, whether in bone or soft tissue, often contain calcification or ossification. Such metastases therefore are sensitive to detection by the bone-seeking radioisotope, 99mTc MDP. Franzius and colleagues22 directly compared FDG-PET with 99mTc MDP

PET and PET/CT in Pediatric Sarcomas

Fig. 3. A 14-year-old boy suspected of having lymphoma underwent PET/CT. (A) CT shows an ill-defined, 1.8-cm pulmonary nodule (arrow) that was intensely FDG avid on (B) PET (straight arrow) and (C) PET/CT (straight arrow). Curved arrows indicate FDG-avid mediastinal adenopathy. Biopsy showed necrotizing granulomatous disease.

bone scintigraphy for the detection of osseous metastases from primary bone tumors, including 32 patients who had osteosarcoma. These investigators found that in two patients who had osteosarcoma with five bone metastases, all foci were evident on 99mTc MDP bone scan, but none were demonstrated by FDG-PET. Their results were inconclusive, however, because of the small sample size. In the aforementioned study by Vo¨lker and colleagues19 of 12 patients who had osteosarcoma, including 4 who had 31 bone metastases at the time of diagnosis, FDG-PET had a sensitivity of 90%, compared with 81% for 99m Tc MDP scintigraphy; however, the difference was not statistically significant. FDG-PET is more convincingly superior to 99mTc MDP scintigraphy in detecting osseous metastases in patients who have Ewing sarcoma. In their study, Franzius and colleagues22 found that, on 66 paired FDG-PET and 99mTc MDP bone scans performed to detect osseous metastases before or after initiation of therapy for Ewing sarcoma, FDG-PET had a sensitivity of 100% (19/19), specificity of 96% (45/47), and accuracy of 97% (64/66), compared with 68% (13/19), 87% (41/47), and 82% (54/66), respectively, for 99mTc MDP scintigraphy. Vo¨lker and colleagues19 substantiated these findings in their study that included 17 patients who had Ewing sarcoma, 6 of whom had 49 osseous metastases. These investigators found that FDG-PET had a sensitivity of 88%, compared with 37% for 99m Tc bone scan (P < .01). In their practice, the author and colleagues16 have found FDG-PET/CT to be more sensitive than 99mTc bone scan in

detecting osseous metastases in several children who had rhabdomyosarcoma, as well as in Ewing sarcoma (Fig. 4). The superiority of FDG-PET to 99m Tc MDP scintigraphy in detecting osseous metastatic disease in patients who have Ewing sarcoma or rhabdomyosarcoma probably is multifactorial. Osseous metastases from Ewing sarcoma and rhabdomyosarcoma frequently arise in and infiltrate the marrow space; for this reason bone marrow aspiration and biopsy are integral in the staging evaluation of patients who have Ewing sarcoma. It is postulated that FDG-PET can depict the increased glucose metabolism of marrow metastases before reactive osteoblastic activity occurs. Detection of bone metastases by 99mTc bone scintigraphy, on the other hand, depends on the presence of ossification within the metastatic deposit, the degree of associated destruction of normal bone cortex, and the intensity of osteoblastic activity; all of which are greater in bone metastases from osteosarcoma than in those from Ewing sarcoma or rhabdomyosarcoma. Possible cellular differences among these sarcomas in glucose uptake and metabolism also might account for the differences seen on FDGPET imaging.22 Because of the potential risk of ionizing radiation inherent in nuclear imaging, particularly for children, whole-body MR imaging has been investigated as an alternative method of detecting metastatic neoplasia.23–26 On non–contrastenhanced MR imaging, bone marrow disease appears as foci exhibiting prolonged T1 and T2 relaxation times, so that metastatic deposits are

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Fig. 4. A 5-year-old boy had rhabdomyosarcoma and biopsy-proven bone marrow metastasis. The patient underwent baseline 99mTc bone scan and PET/CT. (A) Anterior and (B) posterior bone scan images were interpreted as normal. (C) This maximum intensity projection PET image shows multiple osseous foci of abnormal FDG avidity (arrows). (D) Several foci in the femora (arrows) were confirmed by short tau inversion recovery MR imaging to be metastatic foci.

dark on T1-weighted (T1W) images and bright on T2-weighted (T2W) images. In adults, wholebody MR imaging and FDG-PET have been reported to be highly sensitive in detecting bone metastases and are superior to 99mTc scintigraphy.27–30 Children, however, have varying amounts of cellular, hematopoietic bone marrow that may mask metastatic deposits on MR imaging. Daldrup-Link and colleagues23 compared T1W whole-body MR imaging with the FDG-PET and 99mTc bone scans of 39 children, aged 2 to 19 years (mean 12.9 years), who had tumors that potentially metastasize to bone. The study included 20 patients who had Ewing sarcoma, 3 who had osteosarcoma, and 3 who had rhabdomyosarcoma. The investigators found that, in 21 patients who had 51 focal bone metastases (proven by biopsy or follow-up), whole-body MR imaging had a sensitivity of 82%, significantly higher than the 71% sensitivity of bone scan (P < .05) but significantly lower than the 90% sensitivity of FDG-PET (P < .05). Most lesions detected by FDG-PET but missed by whole-body MR imaging, occurred in small or flat bones such as the ribs (n 5 3), the skull (n 5 2), the distal radius (n 5 1), or the carpal bone (n 5 1). A potential

limitation of their study was the lack of T2W, short tau inversion recovery MR imaging which, in a small study by Mazumdar and colleagues24,31 that included two 2 children who had 24 skeletal metastases, was superior to T1W MR imaging in detecting bone lesions. MR imaging techniques, especially those that use rapid imaging sequences to reduce the need for sedation, show promise as a method of detecting skeletal metastases in children and may compare favorably with FDG-PET. Large, comparative, prospective clinical trials are needed to draw meaningful conclusions, however. In assessing children who have tumors that metastasize to bone, it is important to consider benign processes that can mimic metastatic disease on PET imaging. Akoi and colleagues32 investigated the value of PET in distinguishing benign (n 5 33) from malignant (n 5 19) bone tumors in 52 children and adults. These investigators measured the mean standardized uptake value (SUV) within a 1-cm region of interest (ROI) drawn in the area of tumor with maximum FDG accumulation. They found no significant difference between osteosarcomas and giant cell tumors (P 5 .171), between osteosarcomas and fibrous dysplasia (P 5 .127), or between fibrous dysplasia

PET and PET/CT in Pediatric Sarcomas and chondrosarcomas (P 5 .667). Furthermore, they found no statistically significant SUV threshold that reliably distinguished benign from malignant bone lesions. The author and colleagues16 reviewed imaging of 14 children who had underlying cancers (n 5 13) or aggressive fibromatosis (n 5 1) who had fibrocortical defects, nonossifying fibromas, or cortical desmoids that were discovered as foci of FDG avidity on PETCT performed for routine disease evaluation. In some cases, the intense FDG avidity of lesions mimicked the appearance of bony metastatic disease (Fig. 5). These relatively common, benign lesions often are discovered incidentally on radiographs of children and young adults. They typically regress spontaneously over time and rarely are seen after the second decade of life. In this study five patients had 99mTc bone scans performed within 1 month of PET-CT; four showed no abnormal 99mTc MDP uptake at the site of the lesion, and one showed minimally increased tracer uptake. Therefore, FDG-PET may be more sensitive than 99mTc MDP scintigraphy in detecting these lesions. Because these lesions have characteristic radiographic features that are well described in the literature, the information gained from correlative CT or plain radiographic imaging

is invaluable in determining whether further imaging or biopsy is necessary.

DETECTING NODAL METASTASES Although local-regional lymph node metastasis is uncommon in osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma, up to 20% of all children who have rhabdomyosarcoma present with nodal disease.2–4 Importantly, regional nodal spread occurs in approximately half of children who have extremity rhabdomyosarcoma and in older boys (R 10 years) who have paratesticular rhabdomyosarcoma. It is more likely to occur with the alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma subtype. In patients who have rhabdomyosarcoma, any palpable or radiographically enlarged lymph node (> 1 cm in largest crosssectional diameter) at any site requires surgical resection and pathologic inspection. All patients who have extremity rhabdomyosarcoma tumors require aggressive regional lymph node sampling, and boys 10 years of age or older who have paratesticular rhabdomyosarcoma should undergo ipsilateral retroperitoneal lymph node dissection. When lymph node metastasis is present in these children, chances of survival can be improved by intensification of chemotherapy and application

Fig. 5. A 19-year-old man who had metastatic paraganglioma underwent PET/CT. (Left) The maximum intensity projection PET image shows a focus of intense activity above the left knee (arrow). (Right) This focus of activity corresponds to a benign fibrocortical defect (arrows) on CT (upper image) and PET/CT fusion (lower image).

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McCarville of radiation therapy to the affected region.4 Therefore, identifying sites of lymph node involvement in children who have rhabdomyosarcoma is crucial to patient management and outcome. Klem and colleagues33 investigated the value of FDG-PET in detecting metastases during the baseline staging of 24 patients who had rhabdomyosarcoma (median age, 13 years) by comparing it with CT, MR imaging, clinical assessment, and histology of resected lesions. They measured the SUV of suspicious foci and considered it abnormal when it was greater than background tissue and not caused by a normal physiologic process. Six patients had biopsy-proven lymph node metastases. All six had increased SUVs in the involved nodal sites. The nodes were seen on conventional imaging, but the authors did not provide size measurements or specify whether the nodes were considered pathologically enlarged. An additional patient in their study, who had a lower extremity tumor, had a baseline PET that was ‘‘suspicious’’ for inguinal lymph node involvement. Because a CT of the inguinal area was unrevealing, chemotherapy was initiated after resection of the primary tumor without inguinal node sampling. The patient subsequently developed progression of tumor in the involved inguinal node that became evident on physical examination, FDG-PET, and MR imaging and was confirmed by biopsy. The authors concluded that had the suspicious inguinal nodes been confirmed by biopsy at diagnosis, the patient might have benefited from more aggressive therapy. In the study by Vo¨lker and colleagues,19 20 presumed lymphatic metastases were identified in 46 children who had bone and soft tissue sarcomas. These metastases occurred in eight patients: one had osteosarcoma, one had Ewing sarcoma, and six had rhabdomyosarcoma. Fourteen of the 20 nodal metastases occurred in patients who had rhabdomyosarcoma. A lesionbased analysis showed that FDG-PET was more sensitive (95%, 19/20) than CT (25%, 5/20) in detecting these nodes. Among four patients who had extremity rhabdomyosarcoma who underwent regional lymph node sampling, the conventional imaging, PET imaging, and biopsy were concordantly negative in one patient. In one patient the sampled lymph node was biopsy positive, was falsely negative by conventional imaging, and was truly positive by PET. In the two remaining patients, conventional imaging, PET and histology were concordantly positive. Limitations of their study were that no size criteria were provided for defining abnormal nodes by conventional imaging and many (16/20) of the presumed sites of nodal metastases were not confirmed pathologically.

In a small case series by Ben Arush and colleagues,34 three children who had alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma underwent PET/CT and conventional imaging for baseline staging. Two patients had moderately FDG-avid regional lymph nodes that were biopsied. In one, the node was positive for tumor; in the other, the node showed no evidence of malignancy. The third patient had mild FDG avidity within a regional node that was not resected. High-risk therapy was initiated. On scheduled follow-up the patient presented with palpable adenopathy in the area of the previously seen, mildly FDG-avid node. Lymph node biopsy revealed recurrent alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma. Consistent with these reports, the author and colleagues have found that, in patients who have extremity sarcomas, benign processes such as reactive hyperplasia, rather than metastatic disease, can cause regional nodes to be enlarged (> 1 cm in largest cross-sectional diameter) and FDG avid on PET imaging (Fig. 6). The existing evidence suggests that FDG-PET may identify sites of nodal disease overlooked by conventional imaging modalities, but care should be used in interpreting the PET findings associated with lymph nodes. In children who have sarcomas, metastatic lymph nodes may demonstrate only mild FDG avidity, whereas nonmetastatic nodes may show intense avidity. When there are discordant findings between imaging modalities or between imaging and clinical findings, and when the presence of nodal disease will affect patient management and outcome, biopsy of suspicious lymph nodes should be considered to confirm the presence or absence of metastatic disease.

ASSESSING TUMOR RESPONSE TO THERAPY Patients who have nonmetastatic osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma are treated with neoadjuvant therapy before surgical resection of the primary tumor and adjuvant therapy. Chances of survival are improved when the resected tumor is 90% or more necrotic and resection margins are negative for residual tumor.2,3 Because osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma arise in bone, tumors may respond well to neoadjuvant therapy without much change in size. Therefore, conventional imaging modalities, such as MR imaging and CT, that rely on anatomic changes have limited value in assessing the response of these tumors. Factors that predict the histologic response of the tumor to neoadjuvant therapy could help predict patient outcome and distinguish between candidates for limb-sparing surgery versus amputation or early resection, thereby allowing tailored clinical management.35 In these malignancies,

PET and PET/CT in Pediatric Sarcomas

Fig. 6. A 20-year-old woman had malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor. (A) The maximum intensity projection PET image shows the primary left thigh tumor (straight arrow) and several foci of increased FDG activity in the left pelvis (curved arrow). (B–D) PET/CT images localized the activity to enlarged left iliac nodes (arrow). (E) Contrast-enhanced, diagnostic-quality CT better demonstrates enlarged nodes (arrows) that were proven by biopsy to be reactive hyperplasia. (From McCarville MB, Christie R, Daw NC, et al. PET/CT in the evaluation of childhood sarcomas. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2005;184:1296; with permission.)

a reliable, noninvasive method, such as FDG-PET, for assessing tumor metabolism and viability would permit the oncologist and surgeon to individualize management of tumors that are aggressive, respond poorly, or arise in surgically challenging sites. The FDG-PET SUV offers a semiquantitative measure of tumor metabolic activity that shows potential as a method of assessing tumor response to therapy. In general, the SUV is obtained from a single static image of an ROI centered on the tumor. The measured SUV is corrected for the injected radioactivity per kilogram body weight. Two types of SUV may be obtained that represent different biologic information. The first type, the average tumor SUV, is the mean of all pixel-related SUVs within the ROI and is a statistical measure of tumor metabolism in general. The second type, the maximum SUV, is the highest single SUV obtained within an ROI.36 Osteogenic sarcoma and Ewing sarcoma are metabolically heterogeneous tumors. Because tumor histologic grade and patient outcome are determined by the percent of viable tumor after preoperative radiotherapy and chemotherapy, the maximum tumor SUV (SUVmax) is thought to provide the most accurate assessment of tumor grade. In a study of 29 patients who had

osteosarcoma, Franzius and colleagues37 showed that, when measured before administration of chemotherapy, a tumor-to-nontumor SUVmax ratio (T/NT SUVmax) that was at the median for the cohort (12.6) or higher significantly correlated with poorer overall survival (P < .05) and eventfree survival (P < .005). Their findings suggest that the T/NT SUVmax at diagnosis reflects tumor aggressiveness, and patients who have more aggressive tumors (higher T/NT SUVmax) are more likely than others to fail therapy. In another small study by these investigators, 17 patients who had primary bone tumors (6 who had Ewing sarcoma and 11 who had osteosarcoma) had 99m Tc MDP bone scans and FDG-PET at diagnosis and at completion of neoadjuvant therapy. All patients (n 5 15) who had a good histologic response (tumor R 90% necrotic) had at least a 30% reduction in the average PT/NT ratio, on PET imaging, from baseline to post therapy time points.9 Of the two patients who had a poor histologic response (< 90% necrotic tumor), the PT/NT ratio increased in one patient and decreased by only 11% in the other. In contrast, eight patients who had a good histologic response had either increasing PT/NT by 99mTc MDP bone scan (n 5 3) or a reduction of less than 30% (n 5 5). Of the two patients who had a poor response,

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McCarville one had a 19% decrease in T/NT on 99mTc MDP scintigraphy, and the other had an 8% increase. The findings suggest that FDG-PET is more sensitive than 99mTc MDP bone scintigraphy in detecting tumor response to therapy in patients who have Ewing sarcoma and osteosarcoma (Fig. 7). Hawkins and colleagues10,11 reported findings from two studies investigating the value of the SUVmax in assessing the response of Ewing sarcoma and osteosarcoma to neoadjuvant therapy. The first study, published in 2002, examined the correlation between the histologic response of 18 patients who had osteosarcoma and 13 who had Ewing sarcoma and tumor SUVmax measured at diagnosis (SUVmax1) and at the end of neoadjuvant therapy (SUVmax2).10 They found no difference in baseline SUVmax1 values between patients who had osteosarcoma and those who had Ewing sarcoma. After neoadjuvant therapy, however, the mean SUVmax2 and the ratio of SUVmax2/SUVmax1 were significantly higher in patients who had osteosarcoma than in patients who had Ewing sarcoma (P 5 .01 and P 5 .048, respectively). The mean percentage of necrosis was significantly lower in resected osteosarcoma tumors than in Ewing sarcoma tumors (P < .001).

All the Ewing sarcoma tumors but only 28% of osteosarcoma tumors showed a favorable histologic response. Because all Ewing sarcoma tumors showed a good response, the correlation between the SUV measurements and histologic response could not be made for this cohort. Among the osteosarcoma cohort, the correlation between histologic response and the SUVmax2 and SUVmax2/SUVmax1 ratio were significant (both P 5 .05). There was no correlation between SUVmax1 and tumor necrosis within the resected specimen for patients who had osteosarcoma. For all patients combined, an SUVmax2 lower than 2 had a positive predictive value (PPV) of 93% for identifying tumors that were 90% or more necrotic and a 75% negative predictive value (NPV) for identifying those less than 90% necrotic (unfavorable response). The PPV and NPV for a favorable and unfavorable response using a cut-off point of 0.5 for the SUVmax2/SUVmax1 ratio were 78% and 63%, respectively.10 In 2005 these investigators reported similar findings from a follow-up study of 36 patients who had Ewing sarcoma who had FDG-PET imaging at diagnosis and after neoadjuvant therapy. Among the 32 patients who underwent surgical resection of the

Fig. 7. An 8-year-old boy had osteosarcoma of distal left femur. (A) Maximum intensity projection PET image, obtained before neoadjuvant therapy, shows intense FDG avidity within primary tumor (arrow). (B) A maximum intensity projection PET image at completion of neoadjuvant therapy shows a lack of tumor FDG avidity (arrow). The resected tumor was more than 90% necrotic.

PET and PET/CT in Pediatric Sarcomas primary tumor, a SUVmax2 lower than 2.5 gave a PPV of 79% for a favorable histologic response and an NPV of 40% for an unfavorable response. The PPV and NPV for a SUVmax2/SUVmax1 ratio 0.5 or less for favorable and unfavorable responses were 77% and 33%, respectively. A SUVmax2 lower than 2.5 also was associated with improved 4-year progression-free survival for all 36 patients (P 5 .006) and for those without metastatic disease at diagnosis (n 5 24, P 5 .036). Neither the SUVmax1 or an SUVmax2/SUVmax1 ratio of 0.5 or lower was associated with progressionfree survival in this cohort. These findings corroborate those of Franzius and colleagues37 and suggest that the maximum SUV of primary osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma tumors, measured after neoadjuvant therapy, can predict tumor histologic response and patient outcome. Further studies are needed to determine whether the SUV can allow nonresponding or poorly responding tumors to be identified earlier in the course of neoadjuvant therapy, before local control, to alter patient management and improve chances of survival.

SUMMARY Because of the rarity of pediatric bone and soft tissue malignancies, it is difficult to validate the role of emerging imaging technologies in their management. The growing body of literature regarding the use of PET and PET/CT in children supports the continued investigation of this modality in the management of pediatric sarcomas. PET and PET/CT have shown value in detecting unknown primary sites in children who have widely metastatic rhabdomyosarcoma. PET/CT may provide valuable information regarding pulmonary nodules in children who have sarcomas, but its limitations must be recognized when interpreting findings. Small pulmonary nodules may be malignant but below the level of resolution by FDG-PET. Conversely, larger nodules that are benign may show intense FDG avidity. The potential value of PET/CT in the management of pulmonary nodules in children who have sarcomas requires further investigation. FDG-PET seems to be superior to 99mTc bone scintigraphy in evaluating osseous metastases in children who have Ewing sarcoma and rhabdomyosarcoma because these tumors tend to metastasize to the bone marrow before causing cortical destruction and the resultant osteoblastic reaction. On the other hand, the bone-seeking radiotracer 99mTc MDP may be superior to FDG in detecting the lytic and ossifying bone metastases often associated with osteosarcoma. When

PET is used to detect bone metastasis in children, an awareness of the commonly occurring benign bone lesions in this age group is essential, because these lesions can appear intensely FDG avid and may mimic metastatic disease. In such cases the correlative CT imaging obtained during PET/CT or plain-film radiography is instrumental in determining the need for further imaging or biopsy. Ssites of local-regional nodal FDG uptake should be interpreted with care in children who have bone and soft tissue sarcomas. Biopsy of suspicious lymph nodes probably is warranted when there are conflicting findings between imaging modalities or between imaging and physical examination. Last, because bone tumors do not change substantially in size in response to neoadjuvant therapy, CT and MR imaging are of limited value for assessing the primary tumor response. Because FDG-PET reflects the metabolic activity of tumors, and because the activity can be measured semi-quantitatively using the SUV, PET holds great promise as an alternative method of assessing the therapeutic response of these tumors. To allow early intervention when tumors are responding poorly and thus to enhance patient survival, additional studies are needed to elucidate better the optimal timing of PET during neoadjuvant therapy.

REFERENCES 1. Gurney JG, Young Jr JL, Roffers SD, et al. Soft tissue sarcomas, 111–1223, 1999. National Cancer Institute. Cancer incidence and survival among children and adolescents: United States SEER Program 1975–1995. 2. Link MP, Gebhardt M, Meyers P. Osteosarcoma. In: Pizzo P, Poplack D, editors. Principles and practice of pediatric oncology. 5th edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006. p. 1074–115. 3. Bernstein M, Kovar H, Paulussen M, et al. Ewing sarcoma family of tumors: Ewing sarcoma of bone and soft tissue and the peripheral primitive neuroectodermal tumors. In: Pizzo P, Poplack D, editors. Principles and practice of pediatric oncology. 5th edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2006. p. 1002–32. 4. Wexler L, Meyer W, Helman L. Rhabdomyosarcoma and the undifferentiated sarcomas. In: Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, editors. Principles and practice of pediatric oncology. 5th editon. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2006. p. 971–1001. 5. Therasse P, Arbuck S, Eisenhauer E, et al. New guidelines to evaluate the response to treatment in solid tumors. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92: 205–16.

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McCarville 6. Fournier LS, Cue´nod CA, Cle´ment O, et al. Imaging of response to treatment in oncology. J Radiol 2007; 88:829–43 [in French]. 7. Rohren EM, Turkington TG, Coleman RE. Clinical applications of PET in oncology. Radiology 2004; 231:305–32. 8. Kostakoglu L, Agress H Jr, Goldsmith SJ. Clinical role of FDG-PET in evaluation of cancer patients. Radiographics 2003;23:315–40. 9. Franzius C, Sciuk J, Brinkschmidt C, et al. Evaluation of chemotherapy response in primary bone tumors with F-18 FDG positron emission tomography compared with histologically assessed tumor necrosis. Clin Nucl Med 2000;25:874–81. 10. Hawkins DS, Rajendran JG, Conrad EU, et al. Evaluation of chemotherapy response in pediatric bone sarcomas by [F-18]-fluorodeoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography. Cancer 2002;94: 3277–84. 11. Hawkins DS, Schuetze SM, Butrynski JE, et al. [18F]Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography predicts outcome for Ewing sarcoma family of tumors. J Clin Oncol 2005;23:8828–34. 12. Schuetze SM, Baker LH, Benjamin RS, et al. Selection of response criteria for clinical trials of sarcoma treatment. Oncologist 2008;13(Suppl 2): 32–40. 13. Fletcher JW, Djulbegovic B, Soares HP, et al. Recommendations on the use of 18F-FDG-PET in oncology. J Nucl Med 2008;49:480–508. 14. Etcubanas E, Peiper S, Stass S, et al. Rhabdomyosarcoma, presenting as disseminated malignancy from an unknown primary site: a retrospective study of ten pediatric cases. Med Pediatr Oncol 1989;17: 39–44. 15. Varadhachary GR, Abbruzzese JL, Lenzi R. Diagnostic strategies for unknown primary cancer. Cancer 2004;100:1776–85. 16. McCarville MB, Christie R, Daw NC, et al. PET/CT in the evaluation of childhood sarcomas. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2005;184:1293–304. 17. Seshadri N, Wright P, Balan KK. Rhabdomyosarcoma with widespread bone marrow infiltration: beneficial management role of F-18 FDG-PET. Clin Nucl Med 2007;32:787–9. 18. Franzius C, Drup-Link HE, Sciuk J, et al. FDG-PET for detection of pulmonary metastases from malignant primary bone tumors: comparison with spiral CT. Ann Oncol 2001;12:479–86. 19. Volker T, Denecke T, Steffen I, et al. Positron emission tomography for staging of pediatric sarcoma patients: results of a prospective multicenter trial. J Clin Oncol 2007;25:5435–41. 20. Gerth HU, Juergens KU, Dirksen U, et al. Significant benefit of multimodal imaging: PET/CT compared with PET alone in staging and follow-up of patients with Ewing tumors. J Nucl Med 2007;48:1932–9.

21. Iagaru A, Quon A, McDougall IR, et al. F-18 FDGPET/CT evaluation of osseous and soft tissue sarcomas. Clin Nucl Med 2006;31:754–60. 22. Franzius C, Sciuk J, Drup-Link HE, et al. FDG-PET for detection of osseous metastases from malignant primary bone tumours: comparison with bone scintigraphy. Eur J Nucl Med 2000;27:1305–11. 23. Daldrup-Link HE, Franzius C, Link TM, et al. Wholebody MR imaging for detection of bone metastases in children and young adults: comparison with skeletal scintigraphy and FDG-PET. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2001;177:229–36. 24. Mazumdar A, Siegel MJ, Narra V, et al. Whole-body fast inversion recovery MR imaging of small cell neoplasms in pediatric patients: a pilot study. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2002;179:1261–6. 25. Kellenberger CJ, Epelman M, Miller SF, et al. Fast STIR whole-body MR imaging in children. Radiographics 2004;24:1317–30. 26. Goo HW, Choi SH, Ghim T, et al. Whole-body MRI of paediatric malignant tumours: comparison with conventional oncological imaging methods. Pediatr Radiol 2005;35:766–73. 27. Flickinger FW, Sanal SM. Bone marrow MRI: techniques and accuracy for detecting breast cancer metastases. Magn Reson Imaging. 1994;12:829–35. 28. Frank JA, Ling A, Patronas NJ, et al. Detection of malignant bone tumors: MR imaging vs scintigraphy. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1990;155:1043–8. 29. Eustace S, Tello R, DeCarvalho V, et al. A comparison of whole-body turboSTIR MR imaging and planar 99mTc-methylene diphosphonate scintigraphy in the examination of patients with suspected skeletal metastases. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997;169:1655–61. 30. Gosfield E III, Alavi A, Kneeland B. Comparison of radionuclide bone scans and magnetic resonance imaging in detecting spinal metastases. J Nucl Med 1993;34:2191–8. 31. Darge K, Jaramillo D, Siegel MJ. Whole-body MRI in children: current status and future applications. Eur J Radiol 2008;68:289–98. 32. Aoki J, Watanabe H, Shinozaki T, et al. FDG-PET of primary benign and malignant bone tumors: standardized uptake value in 52 lesions. Radiology 2001;219:774–7. 33. Klem ML, Grewal RK, Wexler LH, et al. PET for staging in rhabdomyosarcoma: an evaluation of PET as an adjunct to current staging tools. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2007;29:9–14. 34. Ben Arush MW, Bar SR, Postovsky S, et al. Assessing the use of FDG-PET in detecting regional and metastatic nodes in alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma of extremities. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2006;28: 440–5. 35. Malawer MM, Link M, Donaldson S. Cancer. In: DeVita VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg SA, editors. Principles and practice of oncology. 6th edition.

PET and PET/CT in Pediatric Sarcomas Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2001. p. 1891–935. 36. Brenner W, Bohuslavizki KH, Eary JF. PET imaging of osteosarcoma. J Nucl Med 2003;44:930–42.

37. Franzius C, Bielack S, Flege S, et al. Prognostic significance of (18)F-FDG and (99m)Tc-methylene diphosphonate uptake in primary osteosarcoma. J Nucl Med 2002;43:1012–7.

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Fluorine -18 DOPA- PET and PET/ CT Imaging in Congenital Hyperinsulinism Mohamed Houseni, MDa,b, Wichana Chamroonrat, MDa, Hongming Zhuang, MD, PhDa, MiGuel Hernandez-Pampolini, MDa, Abass Alavi, MD, MD (Hon), PhD (Hon), DSc (Hon)a,c,* KEYWORDS  Congenital hyperinsulinism  Persistent hypoglycemia  PET  FDOPA  PET/CT

a recessive form of hyperinsulinism, with severe symptoms that often need surgery. Milder mutations lead to hypoglycemia, which may be controlled medically.14,15 However, despite advances in genetics, many patients studied do not have a definable genetic abnormality.4,16,17 In addition to genetic disorders, hyperinsulinism in infants can occur in the setting of maternal diabetes, rhesus incompatibility, and perinatal stresses.18–20 Secondary causes of hyperinsulinism include neonatal panhypopituitarism, congenital disorders of glycosylation, fatty-acid oxidation deficiency, drug-induced hypoglycemia, anti-insulin and insulin-receptor stimulating antibodies, Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome, Perlman syndrome, and Sotos syndrome.6,12 The diagnosis of hyperinsulinism can be established by means of biochemical, genotype, clinical investigations, and pancreatic imaging. Laboratory findings include a persistent blood-glucose level less than 2.6 mmol/liter, detectable insulin at the point of hypoglycemia with raised C peptide, and inappropriately low-blood free fatty acid and ketone body concentrations. A glucose requirement of 16 mg/kg to 8 mg/kg per minute to

M. Houseni and W. Chamroonrat contributed equally to this manuscript. a Division of Nuclear Medicine, Department of Radiology, The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, PA, USA b Department of Radiology, National Liver Institute, Egypt c Department of Radiology, Hospital of University of Pennsylvania, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, 34th & Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA * Corresponding author. Department of Radiology, Hospital of University of Pennsylvania, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, PA. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Alavi). PET Clin 3 (2009) 577–585 doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2009.04.002 1556-8598/09/$ – see front matter ª 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

pet.theclinics.com

Hyperinsulinism is the most common cause of transient and permanent neonatal disorders of hypoglycemia.1,2 It has the incidence of 1 in 30,000 to 50,000 live births.3 Hypoglycemia in infancy and early childhood may lead to a variety of manifestations, ranging from poor feeding and lethargy to seizures, delayed milestones, and permanent neurologic damage.4,5 Hyperinsulinism in infancy represents a group of clinically, genetically, morphologically, and functionally heterogeneous disorders. It is characterized by inappropriate insulin secretion for the level of glycemia.6,7 Mutations in six genes have been involved in congenital hyperinsulinism (Table 1). The most common forms of mutation occur in both potassium inwardly rectifying channel and ATP-binding cassette genes located on chromosome 11p.8–11 This is associated with alteration in the function of ATP-sensitive potassium channels.12 Closure of the channel by high ATP following stimulation with glucose leads to depolarization of the membrane and activation of a voltage-gated calcium channel that results in exocytosis of insulin granules.13 Loss of either gene results in

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Table 1 Genes involved in congenital hyperinsulinism Gene Name

Symbol

Aliases

Chromosome

Autosomal Inheritance

ATP-binding cassette, subfamily C (CFTR/ MRP), member 811 Potassium inwardly rectifying channel, subfamily J, member 1110 Glucokinase (hexokinase 4)74 Glutamate dehydrogenase 175 Hydroxyacyl-Coenzyme A dehydrogenase76 Solute carrier family 16, member 1 (monocarboxylic acid transporter 1)77

ABCC8

SUR1

11p15.1

Dominant/Recessive

KCNJ11

Kir6.2, BIR

11p15.1

Dominant/Recessive

GCK

HK4

7p15.3-p15.1

Dominant

GLUD1

GDH

10q21.1-q24.3

Dominant

HADH

SCHAD

4q22-q26

Recessive

SLC16A1

MCT1

1p12

Dominant

maintain blood glucose less than 2.6 mmol to 3 mmol per liter is a key for the diagnosis, as well as treatment of hyperinsulinism.4,6 Facial dysmorphism with high forehead, large bulbous nose with short columella, smooth philtrum, and thin upper lip are often observed in hyperinsulinism.21 Histologic differentiation of hyperinsulinism includes focal adenomatous hyperplasia, diffuse disorder, atypical diffuse form, bifocal, and multifocal forms.22–24 Rarely, extra-pancreatic ectopic focal hyperinsulinism may occur.25,26 Focal adenomatous hyperplasia is a poorly delineated lesion, usually less than 10 mm in diameter, characterized by the presence of a confluent proliferation of b-cell clusters.27,28 Retaining relatively normal histology outside the focal lesion is essential for the diagnosis.29 Focal hyperplasia is associated non-Mendelian mode of inheritance of ATP-sensitive potassium channel dysfunction and ß-cell hyperplasia.28,30 The epigenetic phenomena comprise of gene silencing with loss of heterozygosity of a region of the maternal chromosome 11p15 and a reduction to homozygosity of paternally derived genes, resulting in a somatic lesion of defective b-cells within the pancreas.6,31 Diffuse hyperinsulinism is characterized by the presence of b-cells with abundant cytoplasm and a large nucleus throughout the pancreas.32,33 Diffuse forms are predominantly linked with autosomal recessive inheritance of gene mutations; however, autosomal dominant mutations have been described.34

The molecular pathophysiology of the atypical form is unclear. The pattern of pancreatic involvement is of the diffuse type, demonstrating b-cell nuclear enlargement but confined to a discrete area of the pancreas.22,23 The bifocal form is rare. Molecular biology analysis shows that the length of the deletions on the maternal chromosome 11p differs in the two foci, suggesting that the bifocal form is attributable to two independent hits.12,23

MANAGEMENT Initial Stabilization Immediate treatment should be commenced to prevent long-term neurologic complications. There should be constant administration of glucose or enteral feeds aiming to maintain the plasma glucose levels above 70 mg/dL.2 Glucagon infusion may be added if blood-glucose levels are unstable, despite high-glucose administration. Glucagon increases glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis; however, it is insulin secretagogue.35

Medical Therapy Diazoxide is a key medicine in hyperinsulinism. It inhibits insulin release by activating potassium channels, thus functional channels are required for diazoxide to be effective. Chlorothiazide is given in combination to overcome the fluid-retaining effect of diazoxide.4 The success rate is 15%

PET in Congenital Hyperinsulinism to 60%, depending on patient selection.36,37 Neonates and cases with recessive inheritance showed resistance to this line of therapy.37 Octreotide, a long-acting somatostatin analog that inhibits insulin secretion distal to potassium channels, is another line of treatment for cases unresponsive to diazoxide.38 It should be noted that tachyphylaxis may develop to octreotide.2 Nifedipine, a calcium channel-blocker agent, has been shown to decrease insulin secretion. It was introduced to avoid the side effects of diazoxide or somatostatin. It has been reported that nifedipine can be effective as a long-term therapy.39,40

diseased tissue. A diseased area gives a twofold or greater increase in plasma insulin in response to calcium stimulation, with a reported sensitivity reaching 73%.44 However, it is an invasive procedure, technically difficult, and requires special preparations.45 Transhepatic catheterization of the portal and pancreatic veins is a similar invasive method for pre-operative resection planning.36 A noninvasive method to differentiate diffuse from focal form is the use of PET/CT utilizing 18F-fluoro-L-dihydroxyphenylalanine (FDOPA). This method has been used successfully to localize focal lesions in hyperinsulinism.46–51

Surgery Surgery is required for cases with intractable hypoglycemia that is not responding to medical therapy, especially in cases with focal disease. A significant proportion of cases requiring surgery may develop diabetes mellitus, which is related to age at surgery and extent of the pancreatectomy. There is also risk of persistent hypoglycemia.41 Surgery planning is based on laboratory evaluation, genetic testing, and imaging.2 Near total pancreatectomy is performed in infants with diffuse disease and not responding to medical treatment.42 Infants with focal disease, accounting for approximately 40% to 60% of cases with potassium inwardly rectifying channel and ATP-binding cassette gene mutations,2 can be cured with limited pancreatectomy, preserving the normal pancreatic tissue. Successful surgery should be preceded with accurate localization of the focal pancreatic lesions. Partial pancreatectomy is usually aided by frozen section histologic examination to determine the extent of resection.36 Infants with hyperinsulinism require long-term management, including medical, nutritional, neurologic, and psychologic care. Unfortunately, even with adequate treatment, there is a high incidence of neurologic damage, ranging from the subtle to the severe, with an incidence range of 25% to 50%.4,5

Preoperative Planning and Localization of Focal Lesions When surgery is indicated, it is critical to identify cases with focal disease and precisely localize the focal mass. Efforts to image focal lesions using CT, MR imaging, ultrasound, and radio-labeled octreotide scans have not been successful.43 Selective pancreatic, arterial-calcium stimulation with hepatic vein sampling is effectively used to map the portion of the pancreas that contains

FDOPA-PET Pathophysiology of FDOPA-PET Scanning Dopamine receptors are expressed on b-cells and dopamine can be generated by b-cells from its precursor L-DOPA through the action of L-DOPA decarboxylase.52,53 Dopamine concentration regulates insulin secretion in vitro through inhibiting the glucosestimulated insulin secretion by specific receptorreceptor interactions.53 However, the link between dopamine and insulin secretion is not fully understood.54 Electron microscopy shows dopamine to be present in the soluble part of secretory granules. Enhanced-dopamine metabolism in abnormal b-cells of diseased areas in hyperinsulinism could be related to dopamine-carrier defect, reducing its reuptake.23 Furthermore, the diseased area is abnormally rich in L-DOPA decarboxylase. These factors lead to FDOPA accumulation in the affected regions.49 In focal hyperinsulinism, there is greater FDOPA uptake in the lesion (Fig. 1) than in the remainder of the pancreas where islets of Langerhans are dispersed. In diffuse disease, there is diffuse increased FDOPA uptake with slightly more activity in the head than the other parts of the pancreas (Fig. 2).49

Patient Selection Patients with persistent hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia and requiring surgery will benefit from FDOPA-PET scanning. Documented loss of heterozygosity of a region of the maternal chromosome 11p15 and a reduction to homozygosity of paternally derived genes is highly suggestive of focal forms. FDOPA-PET imaging could be the only noninvasive method available for localizing focal lesions.55

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Fig. 1. FDOPA-PET images of patients with typical diffuse hypeinsulinism (A) and focal hyperinsulinism (B).

Patient Preparation Informed consent and ethical approval should be provided. Medications, especially glucagon and carbidopa, might be adjusted or stopped 2 to 3 days before the imaging; however, Ribeiro and colleagues56 reported that diazoxide and octreotide cessation is unnecessary. Fasting for 6 hours together with glucose infusion and blood-glucose monitoring during the scan are important to ensure euglycemia.43 Further preparation include a sheet wrapped around the body, sand bags or holding devices for immobilization, reliable intravenous access, and bladder catheterization to avoid discomfort.57,58 Anesthesia may be achieved by intravenous propofol infusion or inhalational anesthesia via a tracheal tube.43 Parents may accompany their child.59

injection, with a sequence of 5- to 10-minute frames. Images are viewed in axial, coronal, and sagittal plans.55 Physiologic uptake of FDOPA occurs in the basal ganglia of brain, growth plates, and the urinary collection system. Mild uptake is seen in the liver, pancreas, and brain cortex.26 Gall bladder visualization may occur because of biliary excretion of FDOPA.60 Localizing the focal lesion within the pancreas can be achieved visually by assessing FDOPA uptake in the pancreas and correlating the abnormality to the corresponding CT images.49 Extrapancreatic focal FDOPA uptake has been observed and should be excluded. Furthermore, measuring the standardized uptake value is suggestive of focal disease when there is more than 1.5-fold localized FDOPA uptake compared to that remaining in the pancreas.48,55

Image Acquisition and Interpretation A PET/CT scanner is preferred, as anatomical correlation is essential. The FDOPA intravenous injection dose is 0.08 mCi/kg to 0.16 mCi/kg (3 MBq/kg –6 MBq/kg).47,51 The child is positioned in the way that the whole pancreas can be easily seen in a single-axial reformatted image. Dynamic data acquisition starts from 5 to 60 minutes after

Radiation Dosimetry Harvey and colleagues and Dhawan and colleagues developed a biokinetic data table for FDOPA assuming its homogenous distribution in the body and its elimination by kidneys and biliary tracts. Radiation doses of selected organs are presented in Table 2. The bladder wall is the target

Fig. 2. FDOPA PET/CT images from a patient suffering focal form of congenital hyperinsulinism, which was confirmed by surgical pathological examination. The CT image (left) is unremarkable. However, the PET (middle) and fused-PET/CT (right) images clearly demonstrated the abnormally increased FDOPA activity in the head of the pancreas.

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Table 2 Estimated radiation doses of F-DOPA in children Estimated Dose (mGy/MBq) Organ

Age 1-year

Age 5-year

Bladder wall Brain Heart Liver Kidney Adrenals Lung Pancreas Red marrow Estimated dose (mSv/MBq)

1 0.044 0.05 0.052 0.11 0.055 0.46 0.56 0.47 0.1

0.56 0.024 0.027 0.028 0.063 0.03 0.024 0.03 0.026 0.056

organ. Absorbed dose per unit in different organs of infants is higher than that reported in adults.61–63 Considering PET/CT, the radiation dose of the CT using 80 mAs and 140 KV is 3 mSv to 5 mSv. The effective dose from a diagnostic CT scan is estimated to be 1 mSv to 10 mSv. The calculated risk of eventual death from radiation-induced malignancy by an effective dose of 10 mSv was estimated to be 1 in 1,000.64 In addition, CT is often performed using adult exposure settings, which resulted in high radiation exposure.65 Intelligent dose reduction based on the principles of as low as reasonably achievable is essential for the safest possible care of children.66

FDOPA-PET Performance and Correlation to Management FDOPA-PET imaging has been shown to accurately distinguish focal from diffuse hyperinsulinism (see Fig. 1), and its coregistration with CT images allows precise localization of focal lesions.47,49,50,56 Until now, the sensitivity of PET scanners in detecting focal lesions is directly related to the lesion size. The smallest reported focal lesion on FDOPA has measured 4 mm by 5 mm.50 The reported sensitivity and specificity of FDOPA, in the detection of focal lesions, approach 94% and 100%, respectively.49,50,56 However, because of patient selection and absence of histopathology in some cases, the authors assume a mild degree of statistical over-estimation. In a series of 50 cases with uncontrolled hyperinsulinism, FDOPA identified 75% (18 out of 24) of patients with focal disease with 100% specificity, 100% positive and 81% negative predictive values. In addition, it accurately localized the

lesions in all the cases with focal disease detected by PET imaging. Limited pancreatectomy had been done in most of these patients and surgery was guided by PET results.47 Similar results have been reported by Otonkoski and colleagues.50 In another study by Ribeiro and colleagues, FDOPA diagnosed focal lesions in 15 patients; focal disease was proven in 14 of them, with a positive predictive value of 93%. Limited pancreatectomy with clinical remission has been achieved in all the 14 patients. Furthermore, PET had correctly localized 92% of cases with focal disease.51 In a recent study using PET/CT, 9 of 10 children with focal FDOPA uptake exactly correlated to the intraoperative site of disease (see Fig. 2). A limited resection of the pancreas has been curative in all nine cases.46 The high rate of accurate localization of focal lesions allows potentials of laparoscopic surgery with the benefit of low morbidity and better postoperative care.67 Atypical disease with diffuse pattern confined to discrete regions of the pancreas usually reveals diffuse FDOPA uptake.22,47 Partial pancreatectomy with follow-up could be curative for the atypical form; however, some cases require postsurgery medical control or repeated surgery with near total pancreatectomy.23 Extensive focal disease is another challenge: it appears as diffuse FDOPA uptake and near total pancreatectomy is indicated. On the other hand, small focal lesions in the tail of the pancreas can be overlooked because of their proximity to the kidney; however, when detected it allows laparoscopic limited pancreatectomy.47 Bifocal and multifocal forms are rare. It is difficult to distinguish multiple foci on PET imaging if they occur in the same area. A second focal disease should be considered in patients suffering hypoglycemic episodes after limited partial pancreatectomy. Bifocal, focal, and multifocal forms have to be differentiated from incompletely removed focal disease, requiring different surgical approaches.23,68 Ectopic pancreatic tissue may occur in the stomach, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.69 Although rare, hyperinsulinism has been reported to be caused by ectopic pancreatic tissue, and repeated surgery without identifying the ectopic disease will not control hypoglycemia. A FDOPA scan can also accurately localized ectopic focal lesion (Fig. 3). A focal hyperinsulinism in the wall of the duodenum detected by FDOPA-PET has been reported, in which PET results would have changed the surgical approach.26 Similarly, Peranteau and colleagues25 reported multiple ectopic lesions of focal islet adenomatosis in the jejunum in a case with postsurgical persistent

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Fig. 3. Images of FDOPA-PET from a 2-month-old girl who had subtotal pancreatectomy in an outside institution for her congenital hyperinsulinemia but was still hypoglycemic. The images (upper left, anterior maximum intensity projection image; upper right, left anterior oblique maximum intensity projection image; lower left, transaxial; lower right, coronal) revealed a remaining abnormal focus of increased tracer uptake (arrows) outside the normal pancreas bed and its proved-to-be abnormal islet pancreatic tissue in the jejunum. After resection of the jejunum, the patient turned diabetic, which was controlled by insulin.

hypoglycemia. FDOPA imaging has precisely localized the disease sites, and targeted further resection corrected the hypoglycemia. Furthermore, these two reports demonstrated the usefulness of FDOPA-PET in cases with postsurgical persistent or recurrent hypoglycemia.25,26 The FDOPA-PET results have been shown to be comparable, even better by some reports, to both selective pancreatic, arterial calcium stimulation with hepatic vein sampling and transhepatic catheterization of the portal and pancreatic veins. The reported sensitivity for both procedures were 73% and 89%, respectively.36,44 However, PET imaging is preferable, being noninvasive, simpler, and likely without complications.

LIMITATIONS AND PITFALLS Small and thin lesions may not accumulate enough FDOPA to be detectable. The smallest lesion reported in the literature has measured 5 mm in diameter.50 Conservative interpretation has been shown to underestimate the diagnosis of focal lesions. FDOPA-PET imaging for surgery planning should direct the surgeon to areas with suspicious abnormalities, even if those regions are

questionable on imaging.47 Moreover, it could be difficult to identify two or more focal lesions in the same area.23,68 In addition, focal lesions have ill-defined borders; therefore, multiple frozen sections from the remaining pancreatic tissue might be necessary.70–72 Postsurgical PET/CT imaging is another challenge, because of distortion of the anatomy, and requires careful interpretation.25,26 The head of the pancreas contains about 50% of the pancreatic tissue; this leads to more FDOPA activity in the pancreatic head compared to the body and tail. Diffuse hyperinsulinism with gradient adenomatosis having more affected cells in the head can give a false impression of focal hyperinsulinism.46 FDOPA excretion occurs mainly through the kidneys; however, elimination may occur in the liver where activity is seen in the biliary tract, gall bladder, and duodenum. Pancreatic lesions near the left kidney, gall bladder, or the duodenum could be missed, especially when small in size.46,51 On the other hand, FDOPA accumulation in the gall bladder or alimentary tract can be confused with pancreatic focal lesion.60 Dynamic imaging may help to clear this issue and a late-appearing

PET in Congenital Hyperinsulinism focal FDOPA uptake is considered positive when identified at the same location on a second scan with at least a 15-minute time interval.46 Ectopic focal hyperinsulinism has been reported in the alimentary tract.69 If ectopic lesions are suspected, gastrointestinal preparation and oral contrast agent will be helpful in the localization using PET/CT images. It has been shown that negative oral-contrast material delineates intestinal structures and overcomes contrast-induced PET artifacts.73

SUMMARY Congenital hyperinsulinism is the main cause of persistent hypoglycemia during infancy and childhood. Early detection and appropriate management is critical to avoid neurologic complications. Distinguishing diffuse from focal forms fundamentally change the management approach. FDOPAPET imaging has been shown to be accurate and precise in identification and localization of focal hyperinsulinism, allowing curative limited targeted surgery. Partial pancreatectomy saves the normal pancreatic tissue and function. In addition, FDOPA may localize extra-pancreatic ectopic focal hyperinsulinism. As a noninvasive and accurate modality, FDOPA-PET is becoming a powerful tool in the management of congenital hyperinsulinism.

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37. Touati G, Poggi-Travert F, Ogier de Baulny H, et al. Long-term treatment of persistent hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia of infancy with diazoxide: a retrospective review of 77 cases and analysis of efficacy-predicting criteria. Eur J Pediatr 1998;157(8): 628–33. 38. Kane C, Lindley KJ, Johnson PR, et al. Therapy for persistent hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia of infancy. Understanding the responsiveness of beta cells to diazoxide and somatostatin. J Clin Invest 1997;100(7):1888–93. 39. Bas F, Darendeliler F, Demirkol D, et al. Successful therapy with calcium channel blocker (nifedipine) in persistent neonatal hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia of infancy. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 1999; 12(6):873–8. 40. Muller D, Zimmering M, Roehr CC. Should nifedipine be used to counter low blood sugar levels in children with persistent hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia? Arch Dis Child 2004;89(1):83–5. 41. Jack MM, Greer RM, Thomsett MJ, et al. The outcome in Australian children with hyperinsulinism of infancy: early extensive surgery in severe cases lowers risk of diabetes. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2003; 58(3):355–64. 42. Fekete CN, de Lonlay P, Jaubert F, et al. The surgical management of congenital hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia in infancy. J Pediatr Surg 2004;39(3): 267–9. 43. Hardy OT, Litman RS. Congenital hyperinsulinism— a review of the disorder and a discussion of the anesthesia management. Paediatr Anaesth 2007; 17(7):616–21. 44. Stanley CA, Thornton PS, Ganguly A, et al. Preoperative evaluation of infants with focal or diffuse congenital hyperinsulinism by intravenous acute insulin response tests and selective pancreatic arterial calcium stimulation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89(1):288–96. 45. Cucchiaro G, Markowitz SD, Kaye R, et al. Blood glucose control during selective arterial stimulation and venous sampling for localization of focal hyperinsulinism lesions in anesthetized children. Anesth Analg 2004;99(4):1044–8 table of contents. 46. Barthlen W, Blankenstein O, Mau H, et al. Evaluation of [18F]fluoro-L-DOPA positron emission tomography-computed tomography for surgery in focal congenital hyperinsulinism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;93(3):869–75. 47. Hardy OT, Hernandez-Pampaloni M, Saffer JR, et al. Accuracy of [18F]fluorodopa positron emission tomography for diagnosing and localizing focal congenital hyperinsulinism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007;92(12):4706–11. 48. Kapoor RR, Gilbert C, Mohnike K, et al. Congenital hyperinsulinism: [18F]DOPA PET/CT scan of a focal

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49.

50.

51.

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53.

54.

55.

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57.

58. 59. 60.

61.

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lesion in the head of the pancreas. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2008;93(2):F166. Mohnike K, Blankenstein O, Minn H, et al. [18F]DOPA positron emission tomography for preoperative localization in congenital hyperinsulinism. Horm Res 2008;70(2):65–72. Otonkoski T, Nanto-Salonen K, Seppanen M, et al. Noninvasive diagnosis of focal hyperinsulinism of infancy with [18F]-DOPA positron emission tomography. Diabetes 2006;55(1):13–8. Ribeiro MJ, Boddaert N, Bellanne-Chantelot C, et al. The added value of [18F]fluoro-L-DOPA PET in the diagnosis of hyperinsulinism of infancy: a retrospective study involving 49 children. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2007;34(12):2120–8. Borelli MI, Villar MJ, Orezzoli A, et al. Presence of DOPA decarboxylase and its localisation in adult rat pancreatic islet cells. Diabetes Metab 1997; 23(2):161–3. Rubi B, Ljubicic S, Pournourmohammadi S, et al. Dopamine D2-like receptors are expressed in pancreatic beta cells and mediate inhibition of insulin secretion. J Biol Chem 2005;280(44): 36824–32. Bello NT, Hajnal A. Alterations in blood glucose levels under hyperinsulinemia affect accumbens dopamine. Physiol Behav 2006;88(1–2):138–45. Mohnike K, Blankenstein O, Christesen HT, et al. Proposal for a standardized protocol for 18FDOPA-PET (PET/CT) in congenital hyperinsulinism. Horm Res 2006;66(1):40–2. Ribeiro MJ, De Lonlay P, Delzescaux T, et al. Characterization of hyperinsulinism in infancy assessed with PET and 18F-fluoro-L-DOPA. J Nucl Med 2005;46(4):560–6. Gordon I. Issues surrounding preparation, information and handling the child and parent in nuclear medicine. J Nucl Med 1998;39(3):490–4. Shulkin BL. PET imaging in pediatric oncology. Pediatr Radiol 2004;34(3):199–204. Shulkin BL. PET applications in pediatrics. Q J Nucl Med 1997;41(4):281–91. Balan KK. Visualization of the gall bladder on F-18 FDOPA PET imaging: a potential pitfall. Clin Nucl Med 2005;30(1):23–4. Montravers F, Grahek D, Kerrou K, et al. Can fluorodihydroxyphenylalanine PET replace somatostatin receptor scintigraphy in patients with digestive endocrine tumors? J Nucl Med 2006; 47(9):1455–62. Dhawan V, Belakhlef A, Robeson W, et al. Bladder wall radiation dose in humans from fluorine-18-FDOPA. J Nucl Med 1996;37(11):1850–2. Harvey J, Firnau G, Garnett ES. Estimation of the radiation dose in man due to 6-[18F]fluoro-L-dopa. J Nucl Med 1985;26(8):931–5.

64. Brenner D, Elliston C, Hall E, et al. Estimated risks of radiation-induced fatal cancer from pediatric CT. Am J Roentgenol 2001;176(2):289–96. 65. Paterson A, Frush DP, Donnelly LF. Helical CT of the body: are settings adjusted for pediatric patients? Am J Roentgenol 2001;176(2):297–301. 66. Shah NB, Platt SL. ALARA: is there a cause for alarm? Reducing radiation risks from computed tomography scanning in children. Curr Opin Pediatr 2008;20(3):243–7. 67. Bax KN, van der Zee DC. The laparoscopic approach toward hyperinsulinism in children. Semin Pediatr Surg 2007;16(4):245–51. 68. Giurgea I, Sempoux C, Bellanne-Chantelot C, et al. The Knudson’s two-hit model and timing of somatic mutation may account for the phenotypic diversity of focal congenital hyperinsulinism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91(10):4118–23. 69. Cagirici U, Ozbaran M, Veral A, et al. Ectopic mediastinal pancreas. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2001; 19(4):514–5. 70. Adzick NS, Thornton PS, Stanley CA, et al. A multidisciplinary approach to the focal form of congenital hyperinsulinism leads to successful treatment by partial pancreatectomy. J Pediatr Surg 2004;39(3): 270–5. 71. Cretolle C, Fekete CN, Jan D, et al. Partial elective pancreatectomy is curative in focal form of permanent hyperinsulinemic hypoglycaemia in infancy: a report of 45 cases from 1983 to 2000. J Pediatr Surg 2002;37(2):155–8. 72. Suchi M, Thornton PS, Adzick NS, et al. Congenital hyperinsulinism: intraoperative biopsy interpretation can direct the extent of pancreatectomy. Am J Surg Pathol 2004;28(10):1326–35. 73. Antoch G, Kuehl H, Kanja J, et al. Dual-modality PET/CT scanning with negative oral contrast agent to avoid artifacts: introduction and evaluation. Radiology 2004;230(3):879–85. 74. Glaser B, Kesavan P, Heyman M, et al. Familial hyperinsulinism caused by an activating glucokinase mutation. N Engl J Med 1998;338(4):226–30. 75. Stanley CA, Lieu YK, Hsu BY, et al. Hyperinsulinism and hyperammonemia in infants with regulatory mutations of the glutamate dehydrogenase gene. N Engl J Med 1998;338(19):1352–7. 76. Clayton PT, Eaton S, Aynsley-Green A, et al. Hyperinsulinism in short-chain L-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency reveals the importance of beta-oxidation in insulin secretion. J Clin Invest 2001;108(3):457–65. 77. Otonkoski T, Jiao H, Kaminen-Ahola N, et al. Physical exercise-induced hypoglycemia caused by failed silencing of monocarboxylate transporter 1 in pancreatic beta cells. Am J Hum Genet 2007; 81(3):467–74.

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Pediatric Cardiac PET Imaging AmolTakalkar, MDa,b,*, MiGuel Hernandez-Pampaloni, MDc,d, Gang Cheng, MDc,d, Hongming Zhuang, MD, PhDc,d, Abass Alavi, MD, MD (Hon), PhD (Hon), DSc (Hon)c,d KEYWORDS  PET  FDG  Pediatric cardiac PET  PET MPI  Cardiac flow reserve  Myocardial viability

provided by CT imaging in exquisite detail is extremely useful in the management of pediatric heart diseases. However, it is associated with significant radiation exposure and there are concerns about the long-term effects of cumulative radiation exposure in children with repeated CT imaging. MR imaging provides a comprehensive cardiac evaluation without any ionizing radiation and with high temporal and contrast resolution. Its spatial resolution is suboptimal compared with CT, but is improving. Although it was echocardiography that revolutionized the imaging approach to congenital heart disease, MR imaging has been shown to have tremendous incremental advantages over echocardiography and allows a more comprehensive assessment of cardiac morphology and function (including heart, valves, and major vessels). In spite of its considerable advantages, cardiac MR imaging remains a quite labor- and time-intensive procedure. It requires direct hands-on protocol decision making and supervision by a qualified pediatric radiologist experienced in cardiac MR imaging, and intravenous sedation or endotracheal intubation in many pediatric patients.3 Nuclear cardiology has also progressed from simple planar cardiac imaging to more advanced single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) with ECG-gating and attenuation correction. For some time, SPECT myocardial perfusion

a PET Imaging Center, Research Foundation of Northwest Louisiana, 1505 Kings Highway, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA b Department of Radiology, LSUHSC-S, 1501 Kings Highway, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA c Department of Radiology, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA d Department of Radiology, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA * Corresponding author. PET Imaging Center, Biomedical Research Foundation of Northwest Louisiana, Shreveport, LA. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Takalkar).

PET Clin 3 (2009) 587–596 doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2009.03.007 1556-8598/09/$ – see front matter ª 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

pet.theclinics.com

There has been significant progress in understanding the pathophysiology of various pediatric heart diseases. Moreover, significant progress has been made in the surgical and medical management of these conditions leading to improved outcomes and increasing number of children surviving with congenital or acquired heart diseases. These children are at risk for development of posttreatment myocardial ischemia and hence need to be evaluated periodically to detect this potentially reversible condition.1,2 Consequently, a noninvasive and reliable imaging technique that can accurately assess the pediatric heart (perfusion, function, viability, and structure) would be extremely beneficial in such patient population. Since this patient population is special (pediatric) and is expected to survive long term, any imaging modality that has potential serious adverse effects especially with repeated testing (like cumulative radiation exposure over time) is an obvious concern in this subgroup. Fortunately, cardiac imaging has also evolved significantly over the past few decades with tremendous advances in nuclear cardiology, computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MR imaging) imaging of the heart. The phenomenal progress in CT technology now allows us to obtain extremely high resolution structural images of the heart within a few seconds. The anatomic and structural information

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Takalkar et al imaging remained the unchallenged imaging modality to assess myocardial perfusion noninvasively and is still routinely used in most places. The technique of positron emission tomography (PET) was developed soon after the SPECT imaging technique was introduced in the 1970s. However, it took almost 2 decades for PET to come to mainstream clinical imaging. Nevertheless, since the late 1990s, there has been a virtual explosion in the use of PET imaging especially for oncologic workup. This has led to widespread availability of PET instrumentation and reduced the cost of PET imaging. Consequently, other indications including cardiac applications of PET imaging have seen increasing use. Presently, there is much literature validating the utility and cost-effectiveness of cardiac PET imaging for various indications like myocardial perfusion and viability evaluations. However, most of the data in current literature focuses on the adult population. Data about the value of cardiac PET imaging in pediatric population remain sparse, although not completely nonexistent. Pediatric cardiac conditions are usually addressed in specialized medical centers that have the requisite expertise to effectively treat these complex disease entities. Hence, cardiac PET imaging has remained restricted to such advanced medical and research centers. Although underused, cardiac PET has been proven to be useful in detecting myocardial ischemia and viability in pediatric patients.

ADVANTAGES OF PET OVER SINGLE-PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY SPECT myocardial perfusion imaging is a proven reliable and cost-effective technique. However, it has several limitations, some specifically related to the pediatric population subgroup. Compared with CT (and also PET), SPECT has suboptimal spatial resolution. This assumes more significance in pediatric patients with small hearts. Attenuation correction is also suboptimal with SPECT compared with PET. Dosimetric concerns restrict the use of thallium radionuclides for SPECT myocardial perfusion and viability studies in pediatric population. Moreover, technetium-based agents suffer from high liver activity that severely affects evaluation of the inferior wall in pediatric patients.4 SPECT studies also take a comparatively longer time to complete during which the child needs to remain still/motionless necessitating sedation in most patients. Another significant issue with SPECT studies is the inability to provide absolute quantification of regional radiotracer uptake.

In contrast, PET offers superior spatial and temporal resolution as well as better attenuation correction. Dosimetric considerations are more favorable with PET because it uses radiopharmaceuticals with significantly shorter half-lives and allows for more efficient protocols.5,6 Hence, PET protocols are also completed much faster compared with SPECT studies. Moreover, it is possible to get absolute quantification of regional radiotracer uptake with PET that facilitates obtaining absolute values of myocardial biochemical processes like regional myocardial blood flow and glucose metabolism. In fact, techniques for obtaining quantification of myocardial blood flow with PET have been validated since the early 1990s.7,8 The availability of integrated PET/CT scanners makes the studies even shorter with better attenuation correction along with anatomic localization but adds additional radiation exposure from the CT portion of the study. If the CT performed is dedicated CT with contrast enhancement, it is feasible to obtain additional high-resolution structural details including CT angiography (CTA) but adds even more radiation and risks of contrast administration. So although PET/CT (with or without dedicated contrast-enhanced CT studies) offers certain advantages, there is concern over potential long-term consequences with repeated use. To minimize unnecessary radiation exposure in children, the dedicated PET scanner at Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia has the unique capability of using either CT or regular transmission scanning for attenuation correction, so that the CT portion is applied only when absolutely essential. On most PET/CT scanners, there is no alternative capability for attenuation correction other than the CT scan, but CT for attenuation correction may not be absolutely essential/advisable in all pediatric PET imaging studies.

PET INSTRUMENTATION A typical PET scanner is a cylindrical assembly of numerous block detectors in a ring configuration for optimal spatial resolution. Several scintillators such as Sodium Iodide (NaI), Bismuth Germanium Oxide (BGO), Lutetium OxyorthoSilicate (LSO), Gadolinium OxyorthoSilicate (GSO), and the newer Lutetium-Yttrium OxyorthoSilicate (LYSO) can detect the radioactive events occurring in PET imaging. PET radiopharmaceuticals contain a positron emitter that undergoes positron (b1) decay, emitting a positron (b1) and a neutrino (n). The emitted positron travels a very short distance in surrounding tissue and then combines with an electron to annihilate and release a pair of 511

Pediatric Cardiac PET Imaging KeV photons at almost exactly 180 apart. It is these photons (and not the actual positrons) that are almost simultaneously detected by the scintillation detectors in PET scanners as coincidence events and millions of such coincidences are acquired and stored in sinogram form as Lines of Responses (LORs) that basically connect the detector pair in which the coincidence occurs. This emission data are then digitally reconstructed and attenuation correction algorithms are applied to generate high-resolution tomographic images depicting the radiopharmaceutical biodistribution.

CARDIAC PET RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS Several PET radiopharmaceuticals have been evaluated to assess various myocardial biochemical parameters including perfusion, glucose and oxidative metabolism, hypoxia, autonomic innervation, and others. Currently, Rb-82 chloride and N-13 ammonia are approved by the Food and Drug Administration and used clinically for myocardial perfusion studies and F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) is used for evaluating myocardial glucose metabolism. Other PET radiopharmaceuticals are not routinely used clinically but are widely used in the research realm. These include O-15 water and C-11 acetate. O-15 water used for evaluating myocardial perfusion is considered an ideal perfusion agent as it is freely diffusible and metabolically inert, but requires complex mathematical algorithms and generates images that are too noisy for visual interpretation. C-11 acetate can reliably assess myocardial oxidative metabolism but is not useful in ischemic myocardium and use is further hampered by difficulty in optimal delivery/distribution from cyclotron site to imaging center owing to its short half-life and relatively long synthesis time for C-11 tagged radiopharmaceuticals. Several other agents to assess cardiac autonomic nervous system, cardiac receptors, cardiac hypoxia, and cardiac gene therapy assessment are also in the research or translational environment. N-13, a cyclotron-produced radioisotope, has relatively optimal physical characteristics and biologic properties to generate excellent PET images (9.9-minute half-life, 1.19 MeV average positron energy, and about 0.4-mm average positron range). It shows prolonged myocardial retention as a result of its high extraction rate and metabolic trapping via the glutamine synthetase pathway. Although it is feasible to perform exercise stress perfusion studies with N-13 ammonia in contrast to Rb-82 chloride (which allows only pharmaceutical stressing), this is not a substantial advantage

in the pediatric population (especially younger children). Rb-82, a generator-produced radioisotope, has slightly less favorable physical characteristics (higher positron energy of 3.15 MeV and longer average positron range of about 2.8 mm), that slightly hinders its inherent spatial resolution. Its ultra-short half-life of 75 seconds enables the study to be completed very fast (within 1 hour or less) but also necessitates administration of higher doses of the radiopharmaceutical. In addition, the extremely short half-life of Rb-82 allows (or rather necessitates) imaging almost during effect of the pharmacologic stressing agent, thus acquiring ‘‘pure’’ stress images (and not poststress images) not contaminated by residual radiotracer from the rest injection and with minimal background activity. Although Rb-82 does not require an inhouse cyclotron because it is generator produced and each generator can be used for up to a month, the generator itself is quite expensive, dictating a certain number of minimum studies to justify its use financially. Rb-82 chloride shows pharmacologically similar behavior to potassium and thallium-201 and needs an active Na/K-ATPase pump for intracellular transport. F-18 FDG, by far remains the most widely used PET radiopharmaceutical. F-18 is a cyclotronproduced radioisotope with a half-life of 110 minutes. This obviates the need for an on-site cyclotron, as it is feasible to transport the radiopharmaceutical to imaging centers located 2 to 3 hours away from the cyclotron site. The half-life also eases time frame restrictions on study protocols but is low enough not to cause prolonged exposure. Moreover, its optimal physical characteristics (0.63-MeV average positron energy and 0.3-mm average positron range) produce highresolution PET images. Glucose transporters (mainly GLUT-1 and GLUT-4) are responsible for intracellular transport of FDG wherein it undergoes phosphorylation to FGD-6-phosphate by the enzyme hexokinase. However, FDG-6-phosphate is not a good substrate for enzymes phosphohexose isomerase or glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and hence it does not undergo further metabolism. FDG-6-phosphate cannot diffuse out of the cells and it remains metabolically trapped within the cells (Fig. 1). Cells and tissues with higher rates of glucose metabolism show up-regulation of glucose transporters and increased glucose (and consequently FDG) uptake. All the activity on FDG PET imaging represents FDG-6-phosphate alone and the images represent a map of glucose metabolism in the body as there is no further metabolism of FDG-6phosphate and there is no further radioactive

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Takalkar et al CARDIAC PET PROTOCOLS

Fig. 1. Schema for FDG metabolic-trapping in cardiac myocytes.

decay of F-18 to any daughter molecules. Cells and tissues with higher rates of glucose metabolism show up-regulation of glucose transporters and increased glucose (and consequently FDG) uptake. Areas with increased FDG uptake represent areas with high glucose metabolism (like cancer cells, inflammatory cells, or other cells with high glucose metabolism like gray matter cells in brain or cardiac myocytes under certain circumstances). The substrate preferred by myocardium for its energy needs is highly variable and several factors including the hormonal milieu and available substrate concentration affect it substantially. A fasting environment with low plasma glucose as well as insulin levels but high plasma free fatty acid (FFA) levels promotes FFA as the preferred myocardial substrate. On the other hand, in a postprandial setting with increased plasma glucose and consequently increased insulin levels, as well as under ischemic and hypoxic conditions, glucose is favored over FFA as the preferred substrate by the myocytes.9–18 This is the underlying basis for using FDG to assess myocardial glucose metabolism (and C-11 acetate to assess myocardial oxidative metabolism). Table 1 summarizes the commonly used cardiac PET radiopharmaceuticals in the pediatric population.

The PET imaging protocol depends on the indication for the study and the radiopharmaceutical being used. PET myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) protocol is slightly different using Rb-82 chloride versus N-13 ammonia. With N-13 ammonia, typically a rest-stress protocol is followed consisting of transmission scan followed by an initial set of rest emission images of the heart obtained 5 minutes after the intravenous administration of N-13 ammonia. After an interval of about 50 to 60 minutes during which the tracer is allowed to decay completely, either pharmacologic (more common) or exercise (technically challenging but feasible; may not be practical in infants and small children) stressing is performed and a subsequent set of stress emission images of the heart are obtained 5 minutes after another intravenous administration of N-13 ammonia followed by a second transmission scan. The protocol using Rb-82 is largely similar except that there is almost no delay between the rest and stress studies in view of the extremely short half-life of Rb-82 (Fig. 2). Since the emission images are obtained very shortly (about 1 to 3 minutes) after radiopharmaceutical administration, only pharmacologic stress is feasible with Rb-82 chloride as the perfusion agent. Absolute quantification of regional myocardial perfusion/blood flow is feasible and validated with PET. This requires the ability to accurately measure the rapid initial changes of radiopharmaceutical occurring in the tissue of interest immediately after radiopharmaceutical administration until a steady-state situation is achieved. The high temporal and spatial resolution of PET imaging coupled with the short half-life of PET radioisotopes allows dynamic acquisition of PET data. Various tracer kinetic models are employed to derive absolute quantification of regional myocardial blood flow.7,8 However, this is not routinely practiced in the standard clinical setting (usually only static images are obtained) and is more labor intensive, requiring rigorous data reprocessing.

Table 1 Commonly used cardiac PET radiopharmaceuticals Radiopharmaceutical

Radioisotope

Source

Half-life

Utility

C-11 acetate

C-11

Cyclotron

20 min

F-18 FDG N-13 ammonia Rb-82 chloride

F-18 N-13 Rb-82

Cyclotron Cyclotron Generator

110 min 9.9 min 75 s

Cardiac oxidative metabolism Glucose metabolism Myocardial perfusion Myocardial perfusion

Abbreviation: FDG, fluorodeoxyglucose.

Pediatric Cardiac PET Imaging

Fig. 2. Rb-82 PET images from a patient using the standard Persantine infusion protocol. PET images were acquired at rest and then at stress on the same day with CT attenuation correction. The study shows moderately decreased tracer uptake in the inferior/posterior walls from the base to the apex with partially reversible perfusion defect, consistent with coronary artery disease in the right coronary artery distribution.

The calculated regional myocardial blood flow is generally provided in terms of mL per minute per 100 g of myocardial tissue. The protocol to assess myocardial glucose metabolism requires some additional preparation. Cardiac glucose uptake can be highly variable and patients are usually asked to fast for at least 4 hours (preferably overnight) before study. The fasting blood sugar level (BSL) is expected to be less than 110 mg/dL in most patients in this patient population and after checking the fasting BSL, an oral glucose loading dose is given (except in neonates) about 60 minutes before FDG administration to facilitate high FDG uptake by the cardiac myocytes. However, older children with known diabetes may require additional insulin supplementation with the glucose loading dose to maintain a BSL between 110 and 140 mg/dL. After 60 more minutes, dedicated PET images of the heart are obtained. To assess myocardial viability, a myocardial glucose metabolism study is routinely coupled with a myocardial perfusion study (rest only is adequate), if the perfusion study has not been performed recently or is not available for direct comparison with the metabolism images.

Although the pediatric cardiac PET protocols are similar to adult cardiac PET imaging protocols, there are few special considerations. An important issue is dose of the administered radiopharmaceuticals. This usually needs to be adjusted for the child’s body weight rather than a standard dose that is usually prescribed in adults. Moreover, because the protocols last for a relatively long time, sedation is necessary in most patients. Several sedation protocols are in clinical use including chloral hydrate, fentanyl, and midazolam19,20 and it is best to collaborate with a pediatric anesthesiologist to achieve optimal sedation and acquire high-quality images. In addition to sedation, familiarity and experience with handling pediatric concerns and providing an environment that will ease the child’s nervousness and keep him or her calm and cooperative also help significantly to achieve optimal results.

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF PEDIATRIC CARDIAC PET STUDIES The applications of pediatric cardiac PET are still evolving. At the current time, the major indications

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Takalkar et al for pediatric cardiac PET studies include assessing myocardial perfusion for ischemia as well as coronary flow reserve and assessing myocardial viability in several congenital and acquired cardiac diseases in children.21–23 Accurate assessment of myocardial perfusion is important in therapeutic planning as well as posttreatment follow-up of various congenital and acquired heart diseases in pediatric patients. As described earlier in this article, PET offers several advantages over SPECT and can potentially detect myocardial abnormalities earlier allowing earlier therapeutic intervention and facilitate a better outcome. In addition, absolute quantification of regional myocardial blood flow allows assessment of coronary flow reserve that provides supplemental information to aid in the clinical decision making process and longterm follow-up strategies. A common indication for cardiac perfusion imaging in children is to detect perfusion abnormalities in patients after corrective surgery for congenital heart disorders like transposition of great arteries (TGA) or anomalous origin of left coronary artery from the pulmonary artery (ALCAPA). TGA is now usually corrected by the arterial switch operation (ASO) and about 10% of such patients suffer from adverse events related to coronary perfusion abnormalities (myocardial infarction and sudden death as a result of coronary occlusion).24,25 Perfusion defects in patients who had undergone ASO were reported by Vogel and colleagues26 using isoproterenol stress thallium201 computed scintigraphy. Weindling and reported regional myocardial colleagues1 ischemia in patients with history of ASO by demonstrating reversible perfusion defects on exercise stress myocardial perfusion imaging with 99m-technetium–labeled sestamibi SPECT technique. Subsequently, several investigators evaluated myocardial perfusion with cardiac PET imaging in this patient population and detected perfusion abnormalities in asymptomatic patients without evidence of contractile dysfunction. Although the incidence of reversible perfusion defects was slightly lower on PET imaging compared with SPECT imaging, there was diminished coronary flow reserve as suggested by lower adenosine-induced hyperemic myocardial blood flow.27–29 Myocardial flow reserve was also found to be impaired with adenosine stress N13ammonia PET myocardial perfusion imaging in patients who underwent the earlier Mustard or atrial switch repair for TGA.30 Bengel and colleagues27 attributed the impaired coronary flow reserve to possible altered vaso-reactivity or endothelial dysfunction but the long-term prognostic significance of this remained unclear at

that time. However, Hauser and colleagues31 subsequently reported reduced coronary flow reserve as detected by PET myocardial perfusion imaging correlated significantly with impaired ventricular function in the absence of coronary stenosis by angiography in children late after Fontan-like operations and this was felt to be risk factor for long-term outcome. Singh and colleagues32 also reported diminished myocardial flow reserve in long-term survivors of ALCAPA repair using adenosine stress N13-ammonia PET myocardial perfusion imaging and suggested that this may limit cardiac output reserve and impair exercise tolerance. In most of the studies mentioned previously, along with the diminished coronary flow reserve, the resting myocardial blood flow was found to be increased. Donnelly and colleagues33 compared the resting myocardial blood flow and coronary flow reserve in infants who had anatomic repair of a congenital heart lesion with infants who had Norwood palliation for hypoplastic left heart syndrome. Using adenosine stress PET myocardial perfusion imaging with N-13 ammonia, they reported increased resting myocardial blood flow with diminished coronary flow reserve in infants after anatomic repair of a congenital heart lesion but decreased resting as well as maximal (adenosine stimulated) myocardial blood flow leading to diminished coronary flow reserve in infants after Norwood palliation for hypoplastic left heart syndrome. The authors proposed that decreased coronary flow reserve along with reduced oxygen delivery to the ventricular myocardium may partly be responsible for the unfavorable outcome seen after Norwood palliation. Hernandez-Pampaloni and colleagues21 have reported significant correlation between PET myocardial perfusion and metabolism imaging and echocardiography, angiography as well histopathology in infants and children with suspected coronary abnormalities. They confirmed that PET perfusion-metabolism imaging can reliably and accurately assess myocardial viability in pediatric population. Rickers and colleagues34 used information from PET myocardial viability evaluation using gated FDG PET to determine the treatment approach for infants and children with suspected infarction after ASO for TGA. They detected viable myocardium in akinetic or hypokinetic regions with corresponding coronary stenosis/occlusion and chose revascularization as the preferred treatment in this setting. Follow-up revealed recovery of full function in these infants. Patients with impaired glucose metabolism indicating scarring did not undergo revascularization and were steered toward medical management. A few patients had

Pediatric Cardiac PET Imaging Fig. 3. PET perfusion-metabolism viability imaging in an infant with history of ASO for TGA. N-13 ammonia perfusion PET demonstrates perfusion defects in the lateral wall, apex, and anterior wall with preserved glucose metabolism in those areas indicating myocardial viability.

normal glucose metabolism in areas that were akinetic or dyskinetic on echocardiography and were also found to have to have no coronary stenosis or occlusion angiographically. These areas were felt to represent myocardial stunning. Figs. 3 and 4 demonstrate myocardial viability with PET perfusion-metabolism imaging after ASO in patients with TGA. Another condition that has been relatively well evaluated with cardiac PET imaging is Kawasaki disease. Also known as mucocutaneous lymph node syndrome, it is a disease of unknown etiology characterized by acute vasculitis of mainly medium-sized arteries including the coronaries. Cardiac manifestations of Kawasaki disease are by far the most clinically significant manifestations and are generally caused by involvement of the

coronaries that can progress from vasculitis to aneurysms to stenosis/occlusion leading to myocardial infarction and scarring. In untreated cases, coronary manifestations can occur in up to 40% of patients. Cardiac PET imaging has been shown to be useful in assessing the various coronary manifestations of Kawasaki disease during its natural history of the disease progression. Ohmochi and colleagues35 demonstrated diminished myocardial flow reserve in the presence of coronary aneurysms associated with Kawasaki disease. Yoshibayashi and colleagues36 assessed the significance of newly appearing abnormal Q waves and their disappearance in patients with Kawasaki disease with PET perfusion-metabolism myocardial viability imaging. They found that the new appearance of abnormal

Fig. 4. PET perfusion-metabolism viability imaging in an infant with history of ASO for TGA. N-13 ammonia perfusion PET demonstrates perfusion defects in the lateral and inferior walls with decreased glucose metabolism in those areas as well indicating nonviable myocardium/ scarring.

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Takalkar et al Q waves in patients with Kawasaki disease indicates myocardial injury but a large number of them are associated with metabolically active myocardium and their early disappearance is usually associated with viable myocardium. Moreover, myocardial viability evaluation using PET perfusion-metabolism imaging has shown value in assessing treatment. Hwang and colleagues37 found PET abnormalities in about 60% of patients with acute and subacute phases of Kawasaki disease and in about 40% of patients with convalescent phase of Kawasaki disease. Different therapies during the acute phase of Kawasaki disease were not significantly effective in avoiding or diminishing myocardial injury, notwithstanding the absence of coronary arterial abnormalities. However, the 5-day regimen of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) therapy resulted in significantly lower incidence of PET abnormalities compared with the single-day regimen. Iemura and colleagues38 investigated the long-term consequences of regressed aneurysms after Kawasaki disease and found persisting abnormal vascular wall morphology and vascular dysfunction at the site of regressed coronary aneurysms in patients with previous Kawasaki disease. Ischemic perfusion defects have been reported on scintigraphic imaging even with normal coronary angiography39 and hence long-term follow-up is recommended in these patients as they seem to be at risk for developing coronary abnormalities including atherosclerosis in adult life. PET MPI can play a central role in the follow-up of myocardial perfusion status in this setting as it can detect even a small degree of perfusion abnormality. In fact, several investigators have confirmed decreased hyperemicinduced myocardial blood flow and diminished coronary flow reserve in patients with history Kawasaki disease with angiographically normal coronary arteries.40–43 This is believed to be related to endothelial dysfunction with residual damage in the coronary microcirculation and impaired coronary vasoreactivity. Thus, in addition to being useful in assessing the cardiac perfusion and viability manifestations of the various coronary manifestations occurring in Kawasaki disease, cardiac PET is also valuable in monitoring the consequences of coronary involvement with Kawasaki disease, and long-term follow-up. Thus, cardiac PET imaging provides a safe, reliable, and accurate means of assessing various myocardial processes including perfusion, flow reserve, and metabolism in a wide range of congenital and acquired heart conditions such as Kawasaki disease, coronary artery anomalies, cardiac transplant vasculopathy, valvular heart disease, and postsurgical correction of various

congenital heart diseases like TGA, ALCAPA, and others. It also offers precise assessments of the coronary blood flow and flow reserve over time for long-term follow-up.

SUMMARY In summary, cardiac PET imaging can play a significant role in assessing and managing children with congenital and acquired heart disorders but remains largely underused for multiple reasons, not related to the accuracy or usefulness of the modality. PET offers several advantages over other imaging modalities in the evaluation of cardiac perfusion and metabolism. The technique for cardiac PET imaging has been validated by several investigators. There is sufficient literature to establish the utility of this imaging modality in the pediatric population and this merits larger prospective studies to confirm the long-term clinical significance of the findings on these highly sophisticated studies. Specifically, the implications of decreased coronary flow reserve and perfusion abnormalities after surgical correction of a congenital heart lesion in the absence of demonstrable coronary stenosis on angiography remain unclear. Further work with cardiac PET may provide a broader understanding of myocardial perfusion and coronary flow reserve in infants. Myocardial perfusion assessment (with SPECT or PET) in combination with myocardial glucose metabolism with FDG PET is the gold standard for evaluating myocardial viability.44 Current work focusing on evaluation of cardiac innervation, cardiac receptor function and noninvasive cardiac gene therapy assessment with PET imaging has tremendous potential to revolutionize cardiac evaluation. Awareness and widespread availability of PET systems is expected to increase use of cardiac PET applications in the pediatric population. The advent of integrated PET/CT systems with advanced CT technology and the possible integrated PET/MR imaging systems opens even more promising future possibilities for cardiac evaluation in a one-stop approach.

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16. Liedtke AJ, Renstrom B, Hacker TA, et al. Effects of moderate repetitive ischemia on myocardial substrate utilization. Am J Phys 1995;269(1 Pt 2):H246–53. 17. Liedtke AJ, Renstrom B, Nellis SH, et al. Mechanical and metabolic functions in pig hearts after 4 days of chronic coronary stenosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995; 26:815–25. 18. Liedtke AJ. The origins of myocardial substrate utilization from an evolutionary perspective: the enduring role of glucose in energy metabolism. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1997;29:1073–86. 19. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs. Guidelines for monitoring and management of pediatric patients during and after sedation for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Pediatrics 1992;89(6 pt 1):1110–5. 20. American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists. Practice guidelines for sedation and analgesia by non-anesthesiologists. Anesthesiology 2002; 96(4):1004–17. 21. Hernandez-Pampaloni M, Allada V, Fishbein MC, et al. Myocardial perfusion and viability by positron emission tomography in infants and children with coronary abnormalities: correlation with echocardiography, coronary angiography, and histopathology. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;41(4):618–26. 22. Singh TP, Muzik O, Forbes TF, et al. Positron emission tomography myocardial perfusion imaging in children with suspected coronary abnormalities. Pediatr Cardiol 2003;24(2):138–44. 23. Chhatriwalla AK, Prieto LR, Brunken RC, et al. Preliminary data on the diagnostic accuracy of rubidium-82 cardiac PET perfusion imaging for the evaluation of ischemia in a pediatric population. Pediatr Cardiol 2008;29(4):732–8. 24. Tanel RE, Wernovsky G, Landzberg MJ, et al. Coronary artery abnormalities detected at cardiac catheterization following the arterial switch operation for transposition of the great arteries. Am J Cardiol 1995;76(3):153–7. 25. Wernovsky G, Mayer JE Jr, Jonas RA, et al. Factors influencing early and late outcome of the arterial switch operation for transposition of the great arteries. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1995;109(2): 289–301 [discussion 301–2]. 26. Vogel M, Smallhorn JF, Gilday D, et al. Assessment of myocardial perfusion in patients after the arterial switch operation. J Nucl Med 1991;32(2):237–41. 27. Bengel FM, Hauser M, Duvernoy CS, et al. Myocardial blood flow and coronary flow reserve late after anatomical correction of transposition of the great arteries. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;32(7):1955–61. 28. Yates RW, Marsden PK, Badawi RD, et al. Evaluation of myocardial perfusion using positron emission tomography in infants following a neonatal arterial switch operation. Pediatr Cardiol 2000;21(2):111–8.

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The Role of PET/C T in the Monitoring and Diagnosis of Pediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease Roland Hustinx, MD, PhDa,*, Edouard Louis, MD, PhDb KEYWORDS  Crohn’s disease  Ulcerative colitis  PET/CT  FDG  Inflammatory Bowel Disease

IBD are chronic relapsing diseases. In UC, periods of activity and remission are often well delineated, while CD is more often a chronic active disease with a continuous inflammatory process. Also, probably because of its essentially mucosal inflammation, UC is usually not associated with the development of intestinal complications. In contrast, CD is frequently complicated by fibrotic or deeply penetrating lesions, leading to intestinal strictures or fistulas. These complications affect a minority of the patients at the time of diagnosis but can be present in up to 50% to 60% of them after 10 years of evolution.11 Finally, as it always affects the rectum, UC is much more accessible to surveillance by a simple rectoscopy than CD, which can affect parts of the gastrointestinal tract that are very difficult to reach. For all these reasons, CD is a disease probably much more difficult to monitor than UC.

MONITORING INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASES Major progresses have been made over the last 10 years in clinical biology, medical imaging, and endoscopy, now giving the clinician a broad range of techniques to optimize disease diagnosis and

a Department of Medicine, Division of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Lie`ge, Campus Universitaire du Sart Tilman B35, 4000 Lie`ge, Belgium b Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University Hospital of Lie`ge, Campus Universitaire du Sart Tilman B35, 4000 Lie`ge, Belgium * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Hustinx).

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Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are chronic immune-mediated inflammatory diseases affecting the gastrointestinal tract. Classically, two subtypes of IBD are recognized: ulcerative colitis (UC), characterized by a continuous mucosal inflammation starting in the rectum and involving a variable part of the colon upward; and Crohn’s disease (CD), characterized by focal transmural inflammation involving most often the terminal ileum and parts of the colon, but that could affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract from the mouth to the anus. IBD are multifactorial polygenic diseases. A large number of genes definitely associated with IBD have been discovered, first in CD1–6 and more recently in UC.7–9 These genes are mainly involved in mucosal barrier integrity, innate immunity, and adaptative immunity. Environmental factors are also implicated, although they are less well characterized. It is currently thought that IBD are at least partly caused by an abnormal immune and inflammatory reaction to the luminal content of the gastrointestinal tract. Recent data from Europe indicate a steady increase in the incidence and prevalence of IBD, particularly in the pediatric population in which a combined incidence of 5 to 10 out of 100,000 per year has been reported.10

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Hustinx & Louis monitoring. Even if ileo-colonoscopy has been considered over the last 20 to 30 years as the gold standard, both for diagnosis and monitoring, a series of weaknesses of this technique have been highlighted: it is a rather invasive procedure, often requiring deep sedation, a large part of the small bowel can not be reached, and it only can assess mucosal inflammation while deeper layers are not seen. As previously stated, these limitations only mildly affect UC monitoring because of its pure mucosal character and its systematic distal location. In contrast, they represent serious weaknesses for CD. Fecal markers of inflammation, serologic markers, videocapsule endoscopy, and cross-sectional imaging with CT scanner or MR imaging are now more regularly used to try and remedy this. The most widely studied and currently used fecal marker of inflammation is fecal calprotectin. This is a protein originating form neutrophils granules, which is rather well correlated with the existence and intensity of inflammation in the colon and small bowel. It has a high sensitivity and specificity to differentiate IBD from irritable bowel syndrome, but can not properly distinguish IBD from other organic illnesses of the colon, including colonic cancer.12–14 It can be used as a first-line test in patients for whom a suspicion of IBD exists, before contemplating endoscopic procedures. It can also have some value in disease monitoring because it is significantly correlated to endoscopic activity of IBD.15 From this point of view however, the correlation does not appear strong enough for fecal calprotectin to be used as a universal marker with standard thresholds for remission or relapse. The value of this marker could rather be on an individual basis, with longitudinal variation in individual subjects probably being more informative. Serologic markers including anti-glycan and antibacterial antibodies are significantly associated with the diagnosis of IBD. Their positive and negative predictive values, however, are too low to be used as a diagnostic test.16 These markers could have some value in predicting the development of stricturing and fistulizing complications of CD.17 Videocapsule endoscopy allows effective noninvasive exploration of the entire small bowel. The diagnostic yield of this procedure in patients presenting with symptoms suggesting CD is higher than the one of other modalities of small bowel exploration.18,19 Nevertheless, the added value of the diagnosis of tiny erosive lesions of the small bowel, which represent the majority of lesions specifically diagnosed by videocapsule endoscopy, remains to be evaluated. Furthermore, the frequency of capsule impaction in CD is significantly higher than in other indications and

represents an important drawback of the technique that patency capsule may help to solve.20 Cross-sectional imaging has also made considerable progress, and both MR imaging and CT scanner are now used in routine practice, particularly for the evaluation of perianal CD (MR imaging) and diagnosis of abdominal complications linked to IBD (CT scanner). Entero-scanner and enteroMR imaging are also emerging as very powerful tools to assess both disease extent and activity in small bowel CD.21,22 A drawback of CT scanner is of course the irradiation, and recent studies have shown a significant increase of the total dose of irradiation over the last 20 years in CD patients in parallel to the increased use of CT scanner. Up to 15% of the CD patients now reach irradiation levels that have been associated with a significant increase in the risk of various cancers.23 The impact of this irradiation is particularly important in younger patients, and is thus particularly critical in the pediatric setting. MR imaging does not have this disadvantage and the quality of the image definition with new generation MR imaging is now close to the one obtained with CT scanner. For entero-MR imaging and entero-CT scanner, best images throughout the small bowel are currently obtained with an enteroclysis technique, which is not very well tolerated by the patient.24,25 Ongoing studies are also trying to assess the value of entero-colography with these cross-sectional imaging techniques. This would have the advantage of a one-shot transmural evaluation of the small bowel and the colon. However, this requires a bowel preparation similar to the one needed for colonoscopy. The ultimate tool for the diagnosis and monitoring of IBD, particularly CD, would be noninvasive, able to assess inflammation throughout the entire gastrointestinal tract, and to quantify its intensity in the various layers of the bowel wall. PET/CT may have such profile, as it can give a whole-body evaluation of inflammation-related increased glucose uptake, without any bowel preparation.

[F-18]2-FLUORO-2-DEOXYGLUCOSE-PET IMAGING It has long been known that [F-18]2-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose (FDG) uptake is not limited to cancer cells,26 which has led to a growing interest in evaluating the clinical applications of FDG-PET in inflammatory and infectious diseases.27 Bicik and colleagues first suggested using FDG-PET in patients with IBD.28 Skehan and colleagues soon after described, in a short report published in Lancet in 1999, the use of FDG-PET in children with IBD.29 Twenty-five patients, aged 7 to 18

PET/CT and Inflammatory Bowel Diseases years, were studied, including 15 with CD, 3 with UC, and 7 with nonspecific abdominal pain or diarrhea. Using a four-point scoring system for the PET images, they found a sensitivity of 81% and a specificity of 85% for detecting IBD in a patient per patient analysis. The sensitivity was 71% and the specificity was 81% in the bowel segment per segment analysis, using histology or small bowel follow-through as reference standards. The same group evaluated 65 children with newly diagnosed IBD (37 patients), symptoms suggesting recurrent disease (18 patients), or with recurrent abdominal pain (10 patients).30 The reference study was colonoscopy or small bowel follow-through with pneumocolon. PET correctly identified active inflammatory disease in 80% of children with IBD (81.5% with CD; 76.4% with UC). None of the children with recurrent abdominal

pain had abnormal PET findings. There was a strong correlation between the PET results and the colonoscopic findings. Neurath and colleagues studied an equally large population but none of the patients were children.31 They performed FDG-PET, hydro-MR imaging, and granulocyte antibodies scintigraphy in 59 patients with active CD. Colonoscopy was also performed in 28 patients. All three techniques had a high specificity and FDG-PET was by far the most sensitive method in the subgroup of patients with endoscopic verification. Visual analysis of the PET images provided the best results, as the standardized uptake values (SUVs) were not correlated with any of the other indicators of CD activity, such as the Crohn’s Disease Activity Index (CDAI), C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, or inflamed segments visualized at colonoscopy. In a series

Fig.1. A 16-year-old boy with CD diagnosed 1 year before is re-evaluated before introducing anti-TNFa treatment. Serum biologic markers are markedly increased. PET/CT shows diffusely increased FDG uptake in the descending colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum [(A) three-dimensional-projection image, (left panel of B)], associated with wall thickening and infiltration of the perivisceral fatty tissue on the low-dose CT.

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Hustinx & Louis of 23 children aged 2 to 16 years, PET showed a very high sensitivity for identifying diseased segments when histology was the reference standard.32 This population was somewhat heterogeneous, however, as it comprised 17 patients with CD, 2 patients with UC, and various other conditions. There was no separate analysis for the CD/ UC patients. Using a cut-off of 1.2 for the ratio target lesion SUVmax/liver SUV, the sensitivity was 98%, the specificity 68%, and the accuracy 83%.

FDG PET/CT IMAGING All the PET reports point towards a high sensitivity for detecting inflamed bowel segments, regardless of the age of the population studied.28,29,31,32 The specificity is more variable, which is understandable considering the rather frequent presence of nonspecific bowel uptake, especially in the colon.33 However, adding the anatomic information provided by the CT part of the PET/CT study may improve the specificity. Indeed, Kamel and colleagues showed that concomitant increased FDG uptake and abnormal soft-tissue density or

Fig. 2. A 30-year-old patient with a long-standing history of CD is investigated because of clinical signs suggesting disease re-activation. The CRP level is three times the normal level. FDG PET/CT shows focal uptake in the ileocolonic junction (A) (PET, CT, and fused PET/CT images) as well as an inflammatory fistula in the pelvis (B).

PET/CT and Inflammatory Bowel Diseases bowel wall thickening were strongly indicative of actual lesions, either malignant of inflammatory/ infectious.34 Several groups thus investigated PET/CT in the assessment of IBD. Louis and colleagues performed FDG PET/CT in 22 patients with CD and a clinical or biologic suspicion of active disease.35 FDG PET/CT and ileocolonoscopy were obtained within 1 week. The CDAI was calculated, and serum CRP and fecal calprotectin were measured before endoscopy. The Crohn’s disease endoscopy index of severity (CDEIS) was also recorded. Overall, the sensitivity for detecting all endoscopic lesions was 72.9% (35 of 48 endoscopically affected segments). However, PET/CT detected all the severe endoscopic lesions (14 out of 14 deep ulcers and strictures). The global PET/CT score significantly correlated with the endoscopic score (CDEIS),

clinical score (CDAI), and biologic findings (CRP). A receiver operating characteristic analysis showed that the optimal cut-off for the lesion-toliver SUV ratio was 1.47. Using this cut-off, the sensitivity for detecting severe endoscopic lesions was 100% and the specificity was 67%. The CT was mostly useful for accurately localizing the areas of increased uptake, but the logistic regression analysis showed that, unlike the SUV, bowel wall thickening was not independently associated with the presence of severe lesions (Figs. 1–3). Similarly, Meisner and colleagues found a significant correlation between disease activity and PET/CT findings in 12 adult patients with IBD, 7 with CD, and 5 with UC.36 Although the PET/CT approach has yet to be validated in children, the high sensitivity for detecting severe lesions reported in the initial publications is highly

Fig. 3. CD in a 40-year-old patient. The PET shows highly increased uptake in the descending colon. (A) threedimensional-projection image (left panel of B). The low-dose CT shows circumferential thickening of the same bowel segment.

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Hustinx & Louis encouraging. Indeed, PET/CT should not be used as a screening tool in the general population, but it may be proposed in selected patients with proven IBD and signs or symptoms of disease reactivation, as a first-line step. With a negative PET/ CT result it might be possible to proceed with a conservative attitude, whereas positive PET findings should be confirmed by endoscopy. Of course, such an algorithm cannot be recommended at this stage and should be tested on a large scale, but it may be of particular interest in children and adolescents who are often very reluctant to undergo endoscopic procedures. The combination of PET/CT may also be further exploited by performing combined PET and CT enteroclysis in the same procedure. A feasibility study was recently published by Das and colleagues, with encouraging results.37 It remains to be seen whether the additional discomfort and slightly enhanced radiation dose associated with such a procedure are worth the diagnostic gain.

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DOSIMETRY Radiation dose is of particular concern in children, and it must be taken into account whenever ionizing radiations are being used. IBD are chronic ailments that are highly likely to require multiple explorations throughout the patient’s lifetime. In a recent series of 103 patients with CD diagnosed between 1990 and 2001 and followed up for 8.9 years on average, the median total effective dose was 26.6 mSv, and ranged from 0 mSV to 279 mSV.38 CT examinations contributed to half of the total effective dose. A diagnosis of CD made during childhood and severe disease are associated with a higher cumulative exposure.23 The acquisition parameters used in the study by Louis and colleagues led to a radiation dose per procedure that is largely acceptable in an adult population.35 When the recommended doses of FDG are used in children, the effective dose from the PET procedure varies from 5 mSv in 1-yearold infants to 8.6 mSv in adolescents.39 Considering the CT procedure, a low-dose CT may decrease by a factor of 2 the exposure, as compared to a diagnostic CT. Furthermore, it is possible that in the setting of IBD, a very lowdose CT, mainly used for attenuation correction, would be sufficient in terms of clinical efficacy. Such very low-exposure CT may decrease the radiation dose to 3% of the level resulting from a conventional CT study.39

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REFERENCES 1. Duerr RH, Taylor KD, Brant SR, et al. A genome-wide association study identifies IL23R as an

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inflammatory bowel disease gene. Science 2006; 314(5804):1461–3. Hampe J, Franke A, Rosenstiel P, et al. A genomewide association scan of nonsynonymous SNPs identifies a susceptibility variant for Crohn disease in ATG16L1. Nat Genet 2007;39(2):207–11. Libioulle C, Louis E, Hansoul S, et al. Novel Crohn disease locus identified by genome-wide association maps to a gene desert on 5p13.1 and modulates expression of PTGER4. PLoS Genet 2007; 3(4):0538–43. Parkes M, Barrett JC, Prescott NJ, et al. Sequence variants in the autophagy gene IRGM and multiple other replicating loci contribute to Crohn’s disease susceptibility. Nat Genet 2007;39(7):830–2. Rioux JD, Xavier RJ, Taylor KD, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies new susceptibility loci for Crohn disease and implicates autophagy in disease pathogenesis. Nat Genet 2007;39(5):596–604. Barrett JC, Hansoul S, Nicolae DL, et al. Genomewide association defines more than 30 distinct susceptibility loci for Crohn’s disease. Nat Genet 2008;40(8):955–62. Fisher SA, Tremelling M, Anderson CA, et al. Genetic determinants of ulcerative colitis include the ECM1 locus and five loci implicated in Crohn’s disease. Nat Genet 2008;40(6):710–2. Franke A, Balschun T, Karlsen TH, et al. Replication of signals from recent studies of Crohn’s disease identifies previously unknown disease loci for ulcerative colitis. Nat Genet 2008;40(6):713–5. Franke A, Balschun T, Karlsen TH, et al. Sequence variants in IL10, ARPC2 and multiple other loci contribute to ulcerative colitis susceptibility. Nat Genet 2008;40(11):1319–23. Lakatos PL. Recent trends in the epidemiology of inflammatory bowel diseases: up or down? World J Gastroenterol 2006;12(38):6102–8. Louis E, Collard A, Oger AF, et al. Behaviour of Crohn’s disease according to the Vienna classification: changing pattern over the course of the disease. Gut 2001;49(6):777–82. Bunn SK, Bisset WM, Main MJ, et al. Fecal calprotectin: validation as a noninvasive measure of bowel inflammation in childhood inflammatory bowel disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2001;33(1): 14–22. Tibble JA, Sigthorsson G, Foster R, et al. Use of surrogate markers of inflammation and Rome criteria to distinguish organic from nonorganic intestinal disease. Gastroenterology 2002;123(2):450–60. Konikoff MR, Denson LA. Role of fecal calprotectin as a biomarker of intestinal inflammation in inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2006; 12(6):524–34. Jones J, Loftus EV Jr, Panaccione R, et al. Relationships between disease activity and serum and fecal

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biomarkers in patients with Crohn’s disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008;6(11):1218–24. Ferrante M, Henckaerts L, Joossens M, et al. New serological markers in inflammatory bowel disease are associated with complicated disease behaviour. Gut 2007;56(10):1394–403. Dubinsky MC, Kugathasan S, Mei L, et al. Increased immune reactivity predicts aggressive complicating Crohn’s disease in children. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008;6(10):1105–11. Triester SL, Leighton JA, Leontiadis GI, et al. A metaanalysis of the yield of capsule endoscopy compared to other diagnostic modalities in patients with non-stricturing small bowel Crohn’s disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101(5):954–64. Shamir R, Eliakim R. Capsule endoscopy in pediatric patients. World J Gastroenterol 2008;14(26):4152–5. Moy L, Levine J. Wireless capsule endoscopy in the pediatric age group: experience and complications. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2007;44(4):516–20. Liu YB, Liang CH, Zhang ZL, et al. Crohn disease of small bowel: multidetector row CT with CT enteroclysis, dynamic contrast enhancement, CT angiography, and 3D imaging. Abdom Imaging 2006; 31(6):668–74. Ryan ER, Heaslip IS. Magnetic resonance enteroclysis compared with conventional enteroclysis and computed tomography enteroclysis: a critically appraised topic. Abdom Imaging 2008;33(1):34–7. Desmond AN, O’Regan K, Curran C, et al. Crohn’s disease: factors associated with exposure to high levels of diagnostic radiation. Gut 2008;57(11):1524–9. Masselli G, Casciani E, Polettini E, et al. Comparison of MR enteroclysis with MR enterography and conventional enteroclysis in patients with Crohn’s disease. Eur Radiol 2008;18(3):438–47. Negaard A, Sandvik L, Berstad AE, et al. MRI of the small bowel with oral contrast or nasojejunal intubation in Crohn’s disease: randomized comparison of patient acceptance. Scand J Gastroenterol 2008; 43(1):44–51. Kubota R, Yamada S, Kubota K, et al. Intratumoral distribution of fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose in vivo: high accumulation in macrophages and granulation tissues studied by microautoradiography. J Nucl Med 1992;33(11):1972–80. Zhuang H, Yu JQ, Alavi A. Applications of fluorodeoxyglucose-PET imaging in the detection of infection and inflammation and other benign disorders. Radiol Clin North Am 2005;43(1):121–34.

28. Bicik I, Bauerfeind P, Breitbach T, et al. Inflammatory bowel disease activity measured by positron-emission tomography. Lancet 1997;350(9073):262. 29. Skehan SJ, Issenman R, Mernagh J, et al. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron tomography in diagnosis of paediatric inflammatory bowel disease. Lancet 1999;354(9181):836–7. 30. Lemberg DA, Issenman RM, Cawdron R, et al. Positron emission tomography in the investigation of pediatric inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2005;11(8):733–8. 31. Neurath MF, Vehling D, Schunk K, et al. Noninvasive assessment of Crohn’s disease activity: a comparison of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography, hydromagnetic resonance imaging, and granulocyte scintigraphy with labeled antibodies. Am J Gastroenterol 2002;97(8):1978–85. 32. Loffler M, Weckesser M, Franzius C, et al. High diagnostic value of 18F-FDG-PET in pediatric patients with chronic inflammatory bowel disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006;1072:379–85. 33. Cook GJ, Maisey MN, Fogelman I. Normal variants, artefacts and interpretative pitfalls in PET imaging with 18-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose and carbon-11 methionine. Eur J Nucl Med 1999; 26(10):1363–78. 34. Kamel EM, Thumshirn M, Truninger K, et al. Significance of incidental 18F-FDG accumulations in the gastrointestinal tract in PET/CT: correlation with endoscopic and histopathologic results. J Nucl Med 2004;45(11):1804–10. 35. Louis E, Ancion G, Colard A, et al. Noninvasive assessment of Crohn’s disease intestinal lesions with (18)F-FDG PET/CT. J Nucl Med 2007;48(7): 1053–9. 36. Meisner RS, Spier BJ, Einarsson S, et al. Pilot study using PET/CT as a novel, noninvasive assessment of disease activity in inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2007;13(8):993–1000. 37. Das CJ, Makharia G, Kumar R, et al. PET-CT enteroclysis: a new technique for evaluation of inflammatory diseases of the intestine. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2007;34(12):2106–14. 38. Peloquin JM, Pardi DS, Sandborn WJ, et al. Diagnostic ionizing radiation exposure in a populationbased cohort of patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2008;103(8):2015–22. 39. Gelfand MJ, Lemen LC. PET/CT and SPECT/CT dosimetry in children: the challenge to the pediatric imager. Semin Nucl Med 2007;37(5):391–8.

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Applications of PET/C T in Pediatric Patients with Fever of Unknown Origin Mohamed Houseni, MDa,b,Wichana Chamroonrat, MDa, Sabah Servaes, MDa, Abass Alavi, MD, MD (Hon), PhD (Hon), DSc (Hon)a, Hongming Zhuang, MD, PhDa,* KEYWORDS  Fever of unknown origin  PET/CT  Infections  Inflammation  Oncology

Close attention should be given to FUO, as it may present life-threatening or disabling diseases. Furthermore, fever by itself has associated problems.8 Febrile seizure is an important problem associated with fever. It affects up to 5% of children with fever.10,11 In the absence of preexisting neurologic damage, febrile seizures are largely innocuous.12 In addition, fever increases cardiac function and oxygen consumption.13 Fever higher than 105.8 F (41 C) carries the risk of brain damage. Moreover, antipyretics overdose may lead to pancreatic and hepatic insult and may impair the immunologic response to infection.14–16

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS Many factors influence the etiology of FUO. Agerelated immunologic factors play a significant role in increasing susceptibility of children to infections. Bacterial infections are particularly important in the first 2 years of life.17–20 Children with immunocompromise, sickle cell disease, severe malnutrition, HIV infection, and children on anticancer therapy are more liable to specific and unusual infections.21–31 Long duration of FUO would suggest chronic infections, autoimmune disorders, or neoplasms. Furthermore, there is an increased chance of failure of diagnosis in

a Department of Radiology, The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, 34th Street and Civic Center Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA b Department of Radiology, National Liver Institute, 1 El-Gizera El-Wousta Street, Zamalek, 11211, Cairo, Egypt * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Zhuang).

PET Clin 3 (2009) 605–619 doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2009.04.009 1556-8598/09/$ – see front matter ª 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

pet.theclinics.com

One common medical problem is prolonged fever, with or without localizing signs of disease. This problem is challenging for physicians, and it has not become less significant over the past decades despite significant development of medical technology.1 Fever of unknown origin (FUO) in pediatrics is defined by febrile disorders that last for more than 1 week in children or 3 weeks in adolescents with elevated body temperature to measure 101 F (38.3 C) or greater that remain undiagnosed despite comprehensive inpatient and/or outpatient investigations.2–4 It has been suggested that FUO has to be defined based on time criteria as well as the intensity of diagnostic investigations.1 Durack and Street5 subdivided FUO into classic, nosocomial FUO that occurs in hospitalized patients in whom infection was not manifest on admission, neutropenic FUO, and human immune deficiency virus (HIV)-associated FUO. Chronic episodic FUO is a fluctuating fever pattern for more than 4 weeks with a fever-free interval of at least 2 weeks.6 In literature, this uncommon type of FUO is also called recurrent FUO.7 FUO can be an atypical presentation of common disorders; however, less frequently can be a typical presentation of familiar diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, where diagnosis is possible after a prolonged period of observation.8,9

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Houseni et al cases with prolonged FUO. The availability of the updated diagnostic tools is an important factor that helps in earlier diagnosis.9,32 Geographic and climate factors have a strong influence on the pattern of pathogens. For example, group B b-hemolytic streptococci and self-limited viral infections are common in temperate areas.3,33 On the other hand, malaria is common in the tropical areas.34,35 Generally, the main causes of FUO are infectious, rheumatologic, malignant diseases and miscellaneous disorders (Box 1). Infection is the most common etiology accounting for 30% to 50% of pediatric cases with FUO. Bacterial infections are the most critical. Other infectious disorders include viral, rickettsial, and parasitic infections.8,36 Rheumatologic and connective diseases come after infections. Systemic-onset juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus are the best examples that may present as FUO. However, Kawasaki disease, Wegener granulomatosis, and other vasculitic syndromes may, uncommonly, emerge as FUO.36 Childhood malignancies account for 7% to 13% of pediatric cases with FUO. The typical examples include acute leukemia and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.37,38 There are other disorders that may induce FUO as disseminated form of class I Langerhan cell histiocytosis and drug-induced fever.39 Chronic episodic FUO may accompany chronic disorders that are associated with fever and a prolonged intermittent course (see Box 1). Familial Mediterranean fever and hyper-immunoglobulin D syndrome are classic examples in this group.36 In contrast to classic FUO, chronic episodic FUO is usually caused by rare diseases.7 It has been reported that even with intensive investigations for cases with FUO, many children will recover before establishing a diagnosis.40 However, dire consequence can occur for those children who have persistent fever.

DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH Comprehensive history and repeated, careful, and targeted physical examination are invaluable to guide the diagnostic procedures. Age and time at onset, the height of the fever and its pattern, and the use of antipyretics should be documented. Cutaneous signs; mucosal, bone and joint involvement; and signs of eyes, lungs, or gastrointestinal tract problems provide important clues.41,42 Basic laboratory tests include full blood count, C-reactive protein (CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), liver function tests, blood cultures, chest x-ray, and ultrasonographic imaging.43

Standard investigations and immunologic tests to rule out infection, malignancy, immunodeficiency, and auto-immune diseases have to be done before considering more invasive procedures.44 Investigations should be tailored according to the predominant finding of the clinical presentation.1 Advanced imaging workup in the form of CT, magnetic resonance imaging (MR imaging), and functional scanning should be relevant and focused rather than irrelevant.44

CONVENTIONAL IMAGING The decision to image a pediatric patient with FUO is complex and depends on many factors including the patient’s age as well as localizing signs. Many authors suggested that a chest x-ray may help in the initial workup of patients with FUO.8,45,46 However, some articles emphasized the presence of localizing signs before ordering a chest x-ray in an infant.47–50 Furthermore, there can be confusion regarding the findings and their significance in infants.51 Localizing signs are not always present, which adds to the difficulty in deciding how to image these patients. Ultrasonography can identify masses and collections with the benefit of no ionizing radiation, but the sensitivity is less than CT.52 Echocardiogram is useful in cases with suspected endocarditis that render negative laboratory results.53 CT and MR imaging may reveal unsuspected adenopathy, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, abscesses, or masses. Cases with sinusitis, osteomyelitis, and vasculitis can be clarified with CT and MR imaging.46,52,54 With the advent of faster MR imaging sequences, whole body MR imaging has recently been advocated in the identification of multifocal disease and has potential in identifying pathology in the patient with FUO. However, the cause of the abnormal signal cannot be discerned with MR imaging and more data are needed to determine its utility.55 Conventional imaging techniques are limited by the presence of substantial structural changes to render detectable abnormalities. Furthermore, discrimination of active lesions from residual post-therapeutic changes is often difficult.56

SCINTIGRAPHY A variety of radiolabeled compounds are used in the detection of infections, inflammatory diseases, and some malignancies. Gallium-67-citrate is commonly used in clinical practice with high sensitivity for infectious and noninfectious inflammatory disorders as well as certain malignancies. However, the quality of Gallium-67 images is

PET/CT in Pediatric Patients with FUO

Box 1 Differential diagnosis of fever of unknown origin in children

Factious fever

Generalized infections

Infantile cortical hyperostosis

Brucellosis

Hyperthyroidism

Borreliosis Cat scratch disease

Fabry disease diffusum)

Leptospirosis

Atrial myxoma

Malaria

Icthyotic disorders

Mycobacterial

Anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia

Salmonellosis

Chronic episodic fever of unknown origin

Tuberculosis

Familial Mediterranean fever (FMF)

Toxoplasmosis

Hyper-IgD and periodic fever syndrome (HIDS)

Tularemia

Familial Hibernian fever

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) Viral infections

Syndrome of periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenitis (PFAPA)

Localized infections

Behc¸et disease

Bone and joint

Cyclical neutropenia

Infection endocarditis

Autosomal dominant FMF-like syndromes

Intra-abdominal abscess

Muckle-Wells syndrome

Hepatic infection

Familial periodic fever

Familial dysautonomia Immunodeficiency

(angiokeratoma

corposus

Respiratory tract infection Urinary tract infection Mastoiditis Noninfectious inflammatory disorders Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis Systemic lupus erythematosus Sarcoidosis Inflammatory bowel disease Thyroiditis Vasculitis Lymphangiomatosis Cystic fibrosis Mastocytosis Neoplasms Leukemia

generally poor because of their low resolution and the low contrast of the abnormalities detected. Furthermore, lack of specificity and the required delayed imaging for accurate interpretation are shortcomings for Ga-67.57,58 Labeled leukocyte and labeled antigranulocyte antibodies scintigraphy are useful in many acute and some chronic infections; however, they have not been extensively used in patients with FUO. Labeled leukocyte scintigraphy is related to the amount of neutrophile accumulation. In many forms of chronic infection in which very few neutrophiles are involved, such as tuberculosis, labeled leukocyte imaging is not useful. Furthermore, leukocyte imaging has poor results in cases with aseptic inflammation.59–63

Lymphoma Neurologic tumors Sarcomas Hepatoblastoma Miscellaneous Central nervous dysfunction Diabetes insipidus Drug fever

FLUORODEOXYGLUCOSE POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY/COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/CT (FDG-PET/CT) is one of the major imaging modalities in the field of oncology and it has been recognized in the management of inflammatory and infectious disorders.64–69 The integration of PET with CT provides a unique tool combining both functional data with precise

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Houseni et al anatomic details of the body.70,71 The role of PET/ CT in the pediatric population is promising yet it is still evolving.72–74 Increased FDG uptake is demonstrated in lesions with a high rate of glycolysis. Neoplastic cells and activated leukocytes have been shown to accumulate FDG. This characteristic feature enables the detection of various malignancies as well as acute and chronic inflammatory processes.75,76 Increased uptake and retention of FDG in neoplastic and activated leukocytes are related to overexpression of the surface glucose transporter proteins and overproduction of glycolytic enzymes. The surface transporter proteins that are involved in the process of malignant transformation or stimulated leukocytes are mainly GLUT-1 and GLUT-3.77–79 Intracellular concentration of hexokinase and glucose-6-phosphatase enzymes plays an important role in the mechanism of FDG accumulation. Once entering the cell, FDG is phosphorylated by hexokinase enzyme. In contrast to glucose, FDG will not continue in the glycolytic pathway. Glucose-6phosphatase enzyme, can dephosphorylate FDG.80 Malignant cells demonstrate overproduction of type II hexokinase and to a lesser extent type I hexokinase. Furthermore, tumoral microenvironment with its cellular content influences FDG uptake by neoplasms.81,82 Stimulated leukocytes show overproduction of type II hexokinase.65,83–85 Significant FDG uptake by inflammatory cells is, especially in neutrophils, a postmigratory phenomenon of activated cells and not dependent on chemotactic stimuli.86–89 FDG-PET has been shown to be useful in cases with FUO. According to the literature, a final diagnosis was possible, with the help of FDG-PET and PET/CT, in 25% to 91% of cases with FUO.90–100 Furthermore, authors demonstrated high sensitivity and specificity for FDG-PET in detecting the source of FUO.91,93,96,101 However, accurate calculation of sensitivity and specificity is difficult, as a substantial number of patients with FUO remain undiagnosed.80 Lorenzen and colleagues96 studied 16 patients with FUO in whom diagnosis was not reached by conventional methods. FDG-PET led to the final diagnosis in 11 patients (69%). In another study, FDG-PET established the final diagnosis in 54% of the cases with FUO.90 In a study that included 48 patients, the cause of FUO was explained in 91% of cases with the help of PET/CT.93

PATIENT PREPARATION Appropriate preparation is the key to successful PET/CT imaging in pediatrics. Medical procedures

can cause kids’ distress. In addition, parents have increased interest and awareness to be fully informed about medical procedures. It is also important to be sure the child is informed at the appropriate level of understanding. Informed consent and ethical approval should be granted.102 Patients should fast for at least 4 hours before injection to reduce both glucose and insulin levels. Ideally, the glucose level before injection is less than 150 mg/dL.103 Diabetic patients may need specialist consultation to adjust blood glucose level. Furthermore, insulin injection should be 1 hour or more before FDG administration.103,104 All relevant clinical data and medications should be available. Child cooperation must be evaluated before imaging and the need for sedation is assessed on an individual basis. Establishing suitable intravenous access before scanning is helpful to reduce the possibilities of extravasation.70,105 A warm environment, minimal activity, and no talking are critical during the uptake time.106 Voiding before scanning will reduce the urinary bladder uptake and ensure comfort during the scan time. Bladder catheterization can be used when anesthesia is required.107 Normally brain gray matter has intense FDG uptake. Myocardial uptake varies among subjects. FDG is seen through the urinary system. Physiologic mild to moderate uptake is noted in the liver, spleen, and growth epiphyseal plates. Other sites of normal uptake include salivary glands, thymus, digestive tract, genital system, and brown fat. 108,109

INFECTIONS Infection is the most critical cause of FUO in children.8 FDG-PET imaging has been shown to be highly sensitive in patients at risk of infection even when the results of other diagnostic procedures were nonconclusive.110,111 FDG uptake is evident in cases with pneumonia (Fig. 1).112–115 Mahfouz and colleagues111 reported high sensitivity of FDG-PET in detecting 99 cases with respiratory infections at an early stage and the results of PET imaging influenced 28% of the management. Moreover, FDG-PET has been shown to detect acute bronchitis in the correct clinical settings (Fig. 2).116 PET/CT results are promising in the detection of abdominal infections and allow for precise anatomic localization (Figs. 3 and 4). A high sensitivity, up to 90%, has been reported for FDG-PET in revealing abdominal and pelvic abscesses, bacterial colitis, diverticulitis, and infected vascular grafts.97,111,117 Furthermore, the

PET/CT in Pediatric Patients with FUO It is common to notice normal colonic FDG activity in PET images in an adult patient. Therefore, evaluation of adult enterocolitis by FDGPET can be challenging. However, such colonic FDG activity is rare or mild in infants and young children,127 which makes it easy to use this modality to detect unexpected colitis. Ruf and colleagues128 reported the use of FDG-PET in an 18-month-old boy and revealed unexpected infectious colitis after cardiac surgery, whereas all other imaging modalities, such as abdominal CT and ultrasound were normal. The diagnosis was confirmed by histopathological examination. The authors concluded that FDG-PET is a valuable tool in the detection of unknown inflammatory foci in children.

NONINFECTIOUS INFLAMMATION

Fig.1. The PET/CT images of a 2-year and 2-month-old nonspecified immunocompromised boy, who has known chronic lung disease and currently presented with fever, demonstrates multiple scattered regions of increased FDG uptake in both lungs, more prominent in the left upper lobe. The corresponding CT images reveal bilateral pulmonary parenchymal ground glass opacities. A week after PET/CT scan, lung biopsy in the left upper lobe was done and tissue culture revealed Pneumocystis jiroveci. Pneumocystis pneumonia was then established.

sensitivity and specificity of FDG-PET in cases of soft tissue infections were 96% and 70% as reported by Stumpe and colleagues.118 Sturm and colleagues119 investigated 11 children with biliary cirrhosis who presented with FUO and were awaiting liver transplantation. Abnormal intrahepatic FDG uptake was detected in 5 cases. Generally, the presence of a localized intrahepatic infection does not render the patient unsuitable for transplantation, whereas a systemic infection is a relative contraindication and associated with increased risk of morbidity and mortality.120,121 In chronic osteomyelitis, the accuracy of FDGPET in detecting and demonstrating the extent of disease was more than 90% (Fig. 5).122–124 FDG PET is especially useful in the evaluation of traumatic osteomyelitis because increased FDG activity in the site of an uncomplicated fracture lasts only a short period of time.125 In malaria, using an animal model, FDG uptake by the spleen was found to be closely related to the blood-stage of malaria.126

Noninfectious inflammation comes next to infections as a cause for FUO in the pediatric group. It includes autoimmune and connective tissue diseases and granulomatous disorders, as well as miscellaneous diseases such as endocrine disorders.6,129 Although not investigated in children, FDG uptake by the synovium shows a significant correlation with the clinical evaluation of disease activity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Furthermore, PET imaging can delineate the extent of inflammation.130–132 Systemic lupus erythematosus is another chronic inflammatory disease that affects multiple organ systems. The clinical course of the disease makes the management challenging. It has been found that PET in combination with MR imaging can be useful to differentiate functional from morphologic changes in the central nervous system involvement of systemic lupus erythematosus. These cases may show FDG hypometabolic areas in parietooccipital, cerebellar, or frontal regions.133,134 Childhood sarcoidosis is a disease with multisystem organ involvement, and the initial presentation as FUO is common. Patients with sarcoidosis frequently show an increased FDG uptake in mediastinal and hilar lymph nodes; the abnormal uptake may extend to the pulmonary parenchyma even in the absence of typical radiologic features.90,92,97 Similarly, FDG avid lymphadenopathy can be the finding with tuberculosis, sarcoidlike disease, or Still’s disease.94,101 FDGPET is known to be able to detect active sarcoid lesions undetected by Gallium scan.135 Crohn’s disease is an inflammatory disorder of the digestive system and may cause extra-alimentary complications. Its atypical form may present as FUO.136–138 Detection of disease activity is

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Fig. 2. A 6-year-old patient presented with cough and fever. Repeat chest x-rays were negative. Cervical, thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic contrast CT were normal. PET/CT imaging was performed to assess the source of the fever. The PET images showed intense activity in the chest, which corresponded well to all major airways on the CT and fused images and indicated bronchitis.

critical for management. FDG-PET has been able to show pathologic abnormalities within the digestive tract related to Chron’s disease activity. In a study with 59 patients, FDG-PET detected 127 pathologic findings in the ileum, small bowel, and colon in 54 patients with sensitivity and specificity of 85.4% and 89.0%, respectively.139 Subacute thyroiditis is one of the causes of FUO in the absence of typical clinical features of thyroiditis.129 FDG-PET imaging may demonstrate focal or diffuse FDG uptake of the thyroid in cases with subacute painless thyroiditis.80,140,141 Vasculitis, a condition of vessel inflammation associated with reactive mural destruction, can present as FUO. FDG-PET has been shown to be effective in cases of large-vessel vasculitis. In a study that included 26 patients with vasculitis, the degree of FDG uptake was significantly correlated to the laboratory results. The accuracy of FDG-PET in the detection of vasculitis was 78.6%.142 In a different study, FDG-PET uptake was noted in three cases with vasculitis and three cases with pericarditis.94 Intravascular lymphomatosis is a rare systemic disease characterized by proliferation of lymphoid cells within the lumina of small arteries, veins, and capillaries. It has been reported that in patients

with biopsy-proven intravascular lymphomatosis who presented with FUO, diagnostic CT scan was negative but there were multiple sites of abnormal FDG activity on PET images.143 Cystic fibrosis, another rare chronic multisystem disorder, is characterized by recurrent endobronchial infections, progressive obstructive pulmonary disease, and pancreatic insufficiency with intestinal malabsorption.144,145 Chen and Schuster146 in their study with 20 patients with cystic fibrosis concluded that the amount of FDG uptake by the lungs is correlated with the inflammatory burden in patients with cystic fibrosis.

MALIGNANCIES Lymphoma, leukemia, sarcoma, and cancers of the liver, brain, kidney, colon, and pancreas can manifest as FUO.147 PET/CT scanning in pediatric malignancies has been reported to have a high sensitivity reaching 95% and high specificity measuring up to 89%.148 FDG has been shown to accumulate in nonHodgkin’s and Hodgkin’s lymphomas. Furthermore, FDG uptake is greater in the higher-grade lymphomas.149–154 The incremental value of FDG-PET is the ability to demonstrate active

PET/CT in Pediatric Patients with FUO

Fig. 3. A 3-year and 5-month-old boy with Di George Syndrome developed fever of unknown origin. PET images show diffusely increased FDG activity throughout the spleen without abnormality on the corresponding CT images. This finding is usually nonspecific; however, the subsequent workup found the abnormally increased splenic FDG activity was secondary to cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection.

disease sites that cannot be detected with other imaging modalities.155–158 Currently, diagnostic PET/CT scanning is considered to have the highest accuracy among imaging modalities for evaluation of patients with lymphoma.159–161 Second to hematologic malignancies are neurologic tumors, which account for approximately 20% of pediatric cancers. Interpretation of PET

scanning of the brain can be challenging because high FDG uptake by the gray matter can obscure pathologic lesions.159 In spite of that, it has been shown that high-grade tumors have greater FDG uptake than low-grade tumors, which may appear isometabolic or hypometabolic in comparison with gray matter.162–164 Furthermore, the degree of FDG uptake appears to correlate with survival.165 Other tracers that are being evaluated to assess brain tumors that could be potentially valuable include [C-11]methionine, [F-18]3’-deoxy-3’fluorothymidine, [C-11]methyl-L-tryptophan, and [F-18]fluoroethyl-L-tyrosine.166–171 In neuroblastoma, another neoplasm occurring in the pediatric group, FDG, [C-11]hydroxyephedrine, and [C-11]epinephrine PET have been reported to be useful in establishing the diagnosis.172,173 Cases of bone sarcomas can be evaluated with PET/CT. FDG uptake in these cases helps to delineate the extent of the disease and identifies the presence of metastases.174,175 On the other hand, rhabdomyosarcoma shows variable degree of FDG uptake, and the role of PET imaging is not established.176–180 Adrenocortical tumors and hepatoblastoma are examples of other tumors that can be diagnosed and monitored by PET imaging.181,182 Paraneoplastic syndromes are a group of clinical disorders involving nonmetastatic systemic effects that accompany malignant diseases. Fever is the most common presentation. FDG-PET is complimentary to MR imaging in assessing paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis, which is hypermetabolic on FDG-PET, and paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration, which is hypometabolic by imaging. PET images have been shown to be able to detect abnormal brain metabolism caused by paraneoplastic encephalitis with normal brain MR images.183 Furthermore, FDG-PET can detect occult malignant foci.184,185

Fig. 4. This 10-year-old boy had a remote history of T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma in the chest. FDG PET images showed no active lymphoma. However, FDG PET images found multiple hypermetabolic lesions in the liver and spleen. These lesions proved to be disseminated candidiasis.

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Fig. 5. PET/CT images of a 10-year-old girl with persistent lower back pain. PET images demonstrated intense FDG activity (arrow) in the upper thorax, which corresponded to a slightly compressed T6 vertebral body on CT and fused images. Subsequent bone biopsy proved that this patient suffered chronic osteomyelitis.

IMMUNOCOMPROMISED CHILDREN FDG-PET is valuable in the diagnosis of infections in cases with neutropenia or lymphopenia. In a study that included seven immunocompromised children, FDG-PET imaging distinguished active from inactive lesions that appear equivocal on CT and revealed infective sites that could not be detected by CT. PET scanning allowed targeted biopsy and identification of the infective agents.186 In another report of two immunocompromised neonates, PET imaging accurately localized the sites of invasive infections and was helpful in monitoring the management.187 Patients with HIV infection may demonstrate nodal FDG uptake and the pattern of uptake has been shown to be associated with the level of viral load.188 Lucignani and colleagues188 described multiple foci of increased FDG uptake in the upper torso mainly in the axillary nodes in patients with low viremia in comparison with axillary and inguinal increased nodal uptake in patients with high viremia. HIV infection is associated with an increased risk of developing opportunistic infections and tumors that may produce FUO.189 PET/CT imaging allows whole body evaluation and

identification of sites of infections and tumors ability.80,189 Furthermore, patients with HIV infection are susceptible to multicentric Castleman’s disease, which is a rare lymphoproliferative disorder associated with infection by human herpesvirus 8 that occurs in patients with AIDS. In these patients, PET imaging detects pathologic lesions more frequently than CT scans.190

LIMITATIONS Tissues with physiologic high FDG uptake such as the brain gray matter and urinary system may obscure pathologic FDG accumulation. In addition, focal FDG uptake in reactive lymph nodes and in the gastrointestinal tract may result in false positive scans. Conversely, false negative scans occur with disorders without focal abnormalities and diseases with small focal lesions.191 Radiation exposure is a growing concern in children. It has been reported that children have an increased risk of developing secondary malignancies from radiation exposure compared with adults. This is related to the longer life span of children.73 Accordingly, radiation exposure to children should follow the ALARA principle (as low as is reasonably achievable).192,193 The main source of

PET/CT in Pediatric Patients with FUO overall radiation exposure in PET/CT is the diagnostic CT. The radiation exposure from a whole body PET/CT with diagnostic contrast-enhanced CT in pediatrics is approximately 15 mSv for a 10-kg, 1-year-old child and reaches about 21 mSv for a 55-kg, 15-year-old child. This radiation can be reduced by half with the use of low-dose CT.148,194,195 Moreover, anesthesia, if required, carries the risk of adverse respiratory events.196

SUMMARY The value of PET/CT imaging in cases with FUO is based on its capability of drawing a functional and anatomic map of the whole body. FDG is able to reveal most neoplasms, infections, and many inflammatory disorders that can present as FUO. The paramount value of PET/CT lies in the ability to provide early diagnosis in the absence of overt morphologic changes. Furthermore, functional imaging can discriminate active from silent lesions. Performing PET/CT imaging in patients with FUO may unveil the underlying pathology in a significant number of patients. Consequently, implementation of PET/CT scanning in the diagnostic algorithm helps to decrease the number of unsolved cases with FUO.

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PET/CT in Pediatric Patients with FUO 117. Sugawara Y, Braun DK, Kison PV, et al. Rapid detection of human infections with fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose and positron emission tomography: preliminary results. Eur J Nucl Med 1998; 25:1238–43. 118. Stumpe KD, Dazzi H, Schaffner A, et al. Infection imaging using whole-body FDG-PET. Eur J Nucl Med 2000;27:822–32. 119. Sturm E, Rings EH, Scholvinck EH, et al. Fluordeoxyglucose positron emission tomography contributes to management of pediatric liver transplantation candidates with fever of unknown origin. Liver Transpl 2006;12:1698–704. 120. Sharma P, Rakela J. Management of pre-liver transplantation patient—part 2. Liver Transpl 2005;11: 249–60. 121. Sharma P, Rakela J. Management of pre-liver transplantation patients—part 1. Liver Transpl 2005;11: 124–33. 122. Chacko TK, Zhuang H, Nakhoda KZ, et al. Applications of fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in the diagnosis of infection. Nucl Med Commun 2003;24:615–24. 123. Guhlmann A, Brecht-Krauss D, Suger G, et al. Chronic osteomyelitis: detection with FDG PET and correlation with histopathologic findings. Radiology 1998;206:749–54. 124. Zhuang H, Duarte PS, Pourdehand M, et al. Exclusion of chronic osteomyelitis with F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomographic imaging. Clin Nucl Med 2000;25:281–4. 125. Zhuang H, Sam JW, Chacko TK, et al. Rapid normalization of osseous FDG uptake following traumatic or surgical fractures. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2003;30:1096–103. 126. Kawai S, Ikeda E, Sugiyama M, et al. Enhancement of splenic glucose metabolism during acute malarial infection: correlation of findings of FDG-PET imaging with pathological changes in a primate model of severe human malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006;74:353–60. 127. El-Haddad G, Alavi A, Mavi A, et al. Normal variants in [18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose PET imaging. Radiol Clin North Am 2004;42:1063–81, viii. 128. Ruf J, Griebenow B, Stiller B, et al. Detection of infectious colitis by 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography in a child receiving intensive care after cardiac surgery. Pediatr Radiol 2005;35:702–5. 129. Vanderschueren S, Knockaert D, Adriaenssens T, et al. From prolonged febrile illness to fever of unknown origin: the challenge continues. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:1033–41. 130. Goerres GW, Forster A, Uebelhart D, et al. F-18 FDG whole-body PET for the assessment of disease activity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Nucl Med 2006;31:386–90.

131. Ju JH, Kang KY, Kim IJ, et al. Visualization and localization of rheumatoid knee synovitis with FDG-PET/CT images. Clin Rheumatol 2008; 27(Suppl 2):S39–41. 132. Vogel WV, van Riel PL, Oyen WJ. FDG-PET/CT can visualise the extent of inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis of the tarsus. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2007;34:439. 133. Radu CG, Shu CJ, Shelly SM, et al. Positron emission tomography with computed tomography imaging of neuroinflammation in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007;104:1937–42. 134. Weiner SM, Otte A, Schumacher M, et al. Diagnosis and monitoring of central nervous system involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus: value of F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose PET. Ann Rheum Dis 2000;59:377–85. 135. Xiu Y, Yu JQ, Cheng E, et al. Sarcoidosis demonstrated by FDG PET imaging with negative findings on gallium scintigraphy. Clin Nucl Med 2005;30: 193–5. 136. Barbado FJ, Vazquez JJ, Pena JM, et al. Pyrexia of unknown origin: changing spectrum of diseases in two consecutive series. Postgrad Med J 1992;68: 884–7. 137. Larson EB, Featherstone HJ, Petersdorf RG. Fever of undetermined origin: diagnosis and follow-up of 105 cases, 1970–1980. Medicine (Baltimore) 1982; 61:269–92. 138. Lonardo A, Tondelli E, Selmi I, et al. Isolated jejunal Crohn’s disease in a young adult presenting as fever of unknown origin. Am J Gastroenterol 1998;93:2285–7. 139. Neurath MF, Vehling D, Schunk K, et al. Noninvasive assessment of Crohn’s disease activity: a comparison of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography, hydromagnetic resonance imaging, and granulocyte scintigraphy with labeled antibodies. Am J Gastroenterol 2002;97:1978–85. 140. Salvatori M, Melis L, Castaldi P, et al. Clinical significance of focal and diffuse thyroid diseases identified by (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Biomed Pharmacother 2007;61: 488–93. 141. Chen YK, Chen YL, Cheng RH, et al. The significance of FDG uptake in bilateral thyroid glands. Nucl Med Commun 2007;28:117–22. 142. Walter MA, Melzer RA, Schindler C, et al. The value of [18F]FDG-PET in the diagnosis of large-vessel vasculitis and the assessment of activity and extent of disease. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2005;32: 674–81. 143. Hoshino A, Kawada E, Ukita T, et al. Usefulness of FDG-PET to diagnose intravascular lymphomatosis presenting as fever of unknown origin. Am J Hematol 2004;76:236–9.

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159. Jadvar H, Connolly LP, Fahey FH, et al. PET and PET/CT in pediatric oncology. Semin Nucl Med 2007;37:316–31. 160. Larsson P, Holzgraefe B, Kalzen H, et al. PET/CT examination in an anaplastic malignant lymphoma with extensive reactive involvement. Clin Nucl Med 2008;33:619–20. 161. Yang DH, Min JJ, Jeong YY, et al. The combined evaluation of interim contrast-enhanced computerized tomography (CT) and FDG-PET/CT predicts the clinical outcomes and may impact on the therapeutic plans in patients with aggressive non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Ann Hematol 2008;88:425–32. 162. Borgwardt L, Hojgaard L, Carstensen H, et al. Increased fluorine-18 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG) uptake in childhood CNS tumors is correlated with malignancy grade: a study with FDG positron emission tomography/magnetic resonance imaging coregistration and image fusion. J Clin Oncol 2005;23:3030–7. 163. Francavilla TL, Miletich RS, Di Chiro G, et al. Positron emission tomography in the detection of malignant degeneration of low-grade gliomas. Neurosurgery 1989;24:1–5. 164. Schifter T, Hoffman JM, Hanson MW, et al. Serial FDG-PET studies in the prediction of survival in patients with primary brain tumors. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1993;17:509–61. 165. Patronas NJ, Di Chiro G, Kufta C, et al. Prediction of survival in glioma patients by means of positron emission tomography. J Neurosurg 1985;62: 816–22. 166. Choi SJ, Kim JS, Kim JH, et al. [18F]3’-deoxy-3’-fluorothymidine PET for the diagnosis and grading of brain tumors. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2005; 32:653–9. 167. Floeth FW, Pauleit D, Wittsack HJ, et al. Multimodal metabolic imaging of cerebral gliomas: positron emission tomography with [18F]fluoroethyl-Ltyrosine and magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Neurosurg 2005;102:318–27. 168. Juhasz C, Chugani DC, Muzik O, et al. In vivo uptake and metabolism of alpha-[11C]methyl-Ltryptophan in human brain tumors. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2006;26:345–57. 169. Langen KJ, Hamacher K, Weckesser M, et al. O-(2[18F]fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine: uptake mechanisms and clinical applications. Nucl Med Biol 2006;33: 287–94. 170. Pauleit D, Floeth F, Hamacher K, et al. O-(2[18F]fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine PET combined with MRI improves the diagnostic assessment of cerebral gliomas. Brain 2005;128:678–87. 171. Weckesser M, Langen KJ, Rickert CH, et al. O-(2[18F]fluorethyl)-L-tyrosine PET in the clinical evaluation of primary brain tumours. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2005;32:422–9.

PET/CT in Pediatric Patients with FUO 172. Jaramillo D, Laor T, Gebhardt MC. Pediatric musculoskeletal neoplasms. Evaluation with MR imaging. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 1996;4:749–70. 173. Shulkin BL, Wieland DM, Baro ME, et al. PET hydroxyephedrine imaging of neuroblastoma. J Nucl Med 1996;37:16–21. 174. Gyorke T, Zajic T, Lange A, et al. Impact of FDG PET for staging of Ewing sarcomas and primitive neuroectodermal tumours. Nucl Med Commun 2006;27:17–24. 175. Huang TL, Liu RS, Chen TH, et al. Comparison between F-18-FDG positron emission tomography and histology for the assessment of tumor necrosis rates in primary osteosarcoma. J Chin Med Assoc 2006;69:372–6. 176. Franzius C, Juergens KU, Vormoor J. PET/CT with diagnostic CT in the evaluation of childhood sarcoma. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2006;186:581 [author reply 581–2]. 177. McCarville MB, Christie R, Daw NC, et al. PET/CT in the evaluation of childhood sarcomas. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2005;184:1293–304. 178. Seshadri N, Wright P, Balan KK. Rhabdomyosarcoma with widespread bone marrow infiltration: beneficial management role of F-18 FDG PET. Clin Nucl Med 2007;32:787–9. 179. Ben Arush MW, Israel O, Kedar Z, et al. Detection of isolated distant metastasis in soft tissue sarcoma by fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography: case report. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2001;18:295–8. 180. Peng F, Rabkin G, Muzik O. Use of 2-deoxy2-[F-18]-fluoro-D-glucose positron emission tomography to monitor therapeutic response by rhabdomyosarcoma in children: report of a retrospective case study. Clin Nucl Med 2006;31:394–7. 181. Mackie GC, Shulkin BL, Ribeiro RC, et al. Use of [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in evaluating locally recurrent and metastatic adrenocortical carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91:2665–71. 182. Mody RJ, Pohlen JA, Malde S, et al. FDG PET for the study of primary hepatic malignancies in children. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2006;47:51–5. 183. Dadparvar S, Anderson GS, Bhargava P, et al. Paraneoplastic encephalitis associated with cystic teratoma is detected by fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography with negative magnetic resonance image findings. Clin Nucl Med 2003;28:893–6. 184. Linke R, Voltz R. FDG-PET in paraneoplastic syndromes. Recent Results Cancer Res 2008; 170:203–11.

185. Suzuki H, Hasegawa T, Higuchi M, et al. Usefulness of [18F] fluoro-2-deoxyglucose-positron emission tomography-computed tomography (FDG-PET-CT) in the detection of lung cancer recurrence with paraneoplastic neurological syndrome. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol) 2006;18:636–7. 186. Gungor T, Engel-Bicik I, Eich G, et al. Diagnostic and therapeutic impact of whole body positron emission tomography using fluorine-18-fluoro-2deoxy-D-glucose in children with chronic granulomatous disease. Arch Dis Child 2001;85: 341–5. 187. Depas G, Decortis T, Francotte N, et al. F-18 FDG PET in infectious diseases in children. Clin Nucl Med 2007;32:593–8. 188. Lucignani G, Orunesu E, Cesari M, et al. FDG-PET imaging in HIV-infected subjects: relation with therapy and immunovirological variables. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2009;36:640–7. 189. O’Doherty MJ, Barrington SF, Campbell M, et al. PET scanning and the human immunodeficiency virus-positive patient. J Nucl Med 1997;38: 1575–83. 190. Barker R, Kazmi F, Stebbing J, et al. FDG-PET/CT imaging in the management of HIV-associated multicentric Castleman’s disease. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2009;36:648–52. 191. Bleeker-Rovers CP, Vos FJ, Mudde AH, et al. A prospective multi-centre study of the value of FDG-PET as part of a structured diagnostic protocol in patients with fever of unknown origin. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2007;34:694–703. 192. Willis CE, Slovis TL. The ALARA concept in pediatric CR and DR: dose reduction in pediatric radiographic exams—a white paper conference. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2005;184:373–4. 193. Frush DP, Frush KS. ‘Sleeping with the enemy?’ Expectations and reality in imaging children in the emergency setting. Pediatr Radiol 2008;38(Suppl 4):S633–8. 194. Brix G, Lechel U, Glatting G, et al. Radiation exposure of patients undergoing whole-body dualmodality 18F-FDG PET/CT examinations. J Nucl Med 2005;46:608–13. 195. Byrne A, Nadel H. Whole body low dose 18F-FDG PET/CT in pediatric oncology. J Nucl Med 2007; 48(suppl 2):118P [abstract]. 196. Sanborn PA, Michna E, Zurakowski D, et al. Adverse cardiovascular and respiratory events during sedation of pediatric patients for imaging examinations. Radiology 2005;237:288–94.

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FDG PET and PET/CT in the Management of Pediatric Lymphoma Patients Gang Cheng, MD, Sabah Servaes, MD, Abass Alavi, MD, MD (Hon), PhD (Hon), DSc (Hon), Hongming Zhuang, MD, PhD* KEYWORDS  FDG  PET  PET/CT  Lymphoma  Pediatric

cannot be metabolized. The ‘‘trapped’’ F-18– labeled FDG within cells thus serves as a marker of hypermetabolic tissues, such as neoplastic tissues, in the body. FDG PET imaging has had an ever-increasing role in the clinical practice of oncology since the U.S. Health Care Administration approved wholebody FDG PET imaging for several oncological indications in the late 1990s. Use of FDG PET or PET/CT in HD or NHL in adults has become a routine and is widely used for pretreatment staging, assessment of response during therapy, and response assessment after completion of therapy.2–4 In contrast to extensive publications in the adult population, only a limited number of studies have investigated the role of FDG PET in children and adolescents with lymphoma. This article reviews the currently available literature on the clinical application of FDG PET in the management of childhood lymphoma, including its significance in initial diagnosis, response assessment, post-therapy residual evaluation and follow-up studies. A common problem in these studies is that histopathological verifications are not available, and neither CT nor FDG PET results can be compared with any reference standard. Discordant findings are generally solved by long-term clinical follow-up.

Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine, Children’s Hospital of Pennsylvania, 34th and Civic Center Blvd, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Zhuang). PET Clin 3 (2009) 621–634 doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2009.04.004 1556-8598/09/$ – see front matter ª 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

pet.theclinics.com

Lymphoma is the seventh most common malignancy in the United States and is the third most common malignancy in children. Lymphoma accounts for about 12% of all childhood cancers. About 1700 children in the United States are diagnosed yearly with lymphoma; approximately 40% of these cases are Hodgkin’s disease. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL) is more common than Hodgkin’s lymphoma (HD) and contributes to the most mortality from lymphoma.1 It is critical to assess a patient with lymphoma accurately. Local radiation may be sufficient for stage I follicular lymphoma; however, systemic therapy has to be employed for advanced stages of disease. Historically, staging was determined surgically. This type of staging was replaced by cross-sectional imaging modalities, mainly computed tomography (CT) scanning, which has been the standard practice for many years. Ga-67 scan had some roles, especially in the assessment of residual malignancy. Now, positron emission tomography (PET) with fluorine-18 fluoro-deoxy-glucose (FDG) has emerged as a powerful imaging modality in the clinical practice of lymphoma and many other cancers. Fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG PET) uses an F-18–labeled glucose analog (ie, FDG) that is transported into cells but

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Cheng et al FDG PET VERSUS CONVENTIONAL IMAGING STUDY Conventional imaging modalities (CIMs) such as CT, magnetic resonance (MR) imaging, ultrasonography and gallium scan are often used to delineate the extent of disease involvement in lymphoma patients. CT staging has been the first choice for a long time in lymphoma staging because of its high sensitivity and accuracy, as well as its wide availability and relatively low cost. Now, accumulating evidence indicates FDG PET is superior to traditional imaging modalities for the evaluation of lymphoma. Analysis of multiple clinical studies shows that FDG PET has both higher sensitivity and specificity than either CT or gallium scan.5 Similar findings have been reported in pediatric lymphoma patients.1,6–8

FDG PET Versus CT Current CT machines produce excellent quality of images with submillimeter resolution and provide high sensitivity and specificity in pretreatment staging. Because of its spatial resolution, CT scan has been the gold standard for decades in the evaluation of lymphoma patients. However, the specificity of CT is low in lymphoma patients in response assessment following therapy because residual mass often persists for a long time after treatment, and only 20% of the patients with residual mass post therapy have persistent disease.3,9 Although CT is excellent in determination of the size and location of tumor tissues, CT is frequently not able to differentiate viable tumors from necrotic or fibrotic tissues. Another reason for the low specificity of CT imaging is that CT diagnosis is heavily dependent on the ‘‘size criteria.’’ One  one centimeter is most commonly used as a limit for a normal-sized lymph node. Sometimes location-specific size criteria are employed (eg, 12 mm in the para-aortic region and 8 mm in the gastrohepatic ligament or porta hepatis).9 Nevertheless, CT often cannot detect a malignant lesion in a small node. Also, as previously described, lymph nodes may remain enlarged in size following therapy but may not necessarily reflect active disease. In addition, CT has a low sensitivity for evaluation of bone marrow infiltration by lymphoma because bone marrow involvement causes minimal structural/morphologic changes and may appear normal on CT images. In contrast, FDG PET scan examines ‘‘functional changes’’ that are relatively independent of morphologic changes. Because of its superior signal-to-noise contrast, FDG PET has been shown to be more sensitive than CT in the detection of even tumor of small dimension or

metabolically active normal-sized lymph nodes, although CT imaging has better spatial resolution in delineating anatomic changes. Direct comparison of FDG PET and CT findings in patients with lymphoma suggests that FDG PET contributes substantially to accurate staging in patients with lymphoma.10 Enlarged lymph nodes on CT are not necessary caused by lymphoma (Fig. 1). In addition, PET images are more sensitive than CT in the detection of bone marrow involvement (Fig. 2). Furthermore, FDG PET images can detect lesions in lymph nodes with a normal size (Fig. 3). In 81 consecutive and previously untreated patients with malignant NHL (n 5 43) or HD (n 5 38), FDG PET outperformed contrast-enhanced CT and provided more information about extranodal lymphoma than CT, and led to changes in tumor staging in 13/81 patients.11 Similarly, FDG PET was found to be more sensitive than CIMs for staging and restaging of pediatric HD and NHL.

Ga-67 Imaging Versus FDG PET Whole-body Ga-67 citrate (Ga-67) imaging had been used for a long time for functional imaging in lymphoma. Before PET scan became available, the primary role of Ga-67 imaging was to evaluate the effectiveness of therapy. However, the spatial resolution of Ga-67 imaging is poor and the sensitivity and specificity are low. PET outperformed both CT and Ga-67 scan with superior accuracy in staging and in restaging of lymphoma in adult patients.12 Lin and colleagues13 reported from 46 cases of new and recurrent lymphoma that FDG PET was superior to Ga-67 imaging in nodal site positivity rate (97% versus 79%) and in detecting more abnormal sites in 48% of patients. Mody and colleagues examined the value of FDG PET in the care of pediatric patients with lymphomas (8–19 years of age). In both pediatric HD and NHL, FDG PET had higher sensitivity and specificity than gallium scanning.14 FDG PET is valuable especially for detecting infradiaphragmatic lesions in children, such as those in the spleen.15 More recently, Hines-Thomas and colleagues compared the value of FDG PET and gallium and CT scans on 44 pediatric HD patients at diagnosis, early response, off chemotherapy, and off-therapy evaluations. They found that FDG PET upstaged four patients at diagnosis but did not lead to a change in therapy in any of them. At early response evaluation, FDG PET changed the response category in two patients and led to a change in radiation dose for one patient. In contrast, gallium did not change the stage of treatment for any patient.16 Radiation exposure from Ga-67 scan is higher than most other nuclear medicine scans including PET/CT.

FDG PET and PET/CT in Pediatric Lymphoma Patients

Fig.1. This PET/CT study was done on an 8-year-old boy with lymphoblastic lymphoma who had been off chemotherapy for 4 years. The study was done because recent diagnostic CT scan showed adenopathy in the bilateral neck and axilla. However, PET/CT scan did not reveal hypermetabolic lesions characteristic of lymphoma recurrence. Transaxial sections at two different levels are presented here, showing mildly enlarged bilateral axillary nodes with minimal FDG uptake (A–C, arrowheads) and multiple smaller axillary nodes at lower levels (D–F, arrows). Diffuse, mildly increased FDG uptake in the anterior mediastinum was caused by thymus activity (D–F).

Now, Ga-67 scan is seldom performed because of wider adoption of PET/CT imaging. Despite of the lack of pediatric study of comparison between Ga-67 and PET/CT, it is conceivable that information obtained from adult patients is very likely also applicable to children.

FDG PET Versus FDG PET/CT FDG PET is a functional study that is relatively independent of tumor size. It has a high tumorto-background contrast and thus a high sensitivity in visualization of hypermetabolic diseases. FDG PET has relatively poor spatial resolution in visualization of normal organs and tissues, and thus lesion localization is suboptimal. This disadvantage is significantly corrected by hybrid PET-CT scanning, which clearly enhances its diagnostic abilities in lymphoma patients. PET/CT combines a PET scanner with a multidetector helical CT scanner to obtain fused PET and CT images so that precise localization of abnormal lesions can be determined with high confidence. With the benefit of current technologies, there is little additional dose from the CT. A combined PET/CT system allows accurate spatial localization of abnormal tracer uptake. The current literature suggests that combined

PET/CT imaging offers a diagnostic advantage over FDG PET.17 Recently, Raanani and colleagues18 have shown in a retrospective study of 103 consecutive adult patients with newly diagnosed NHL (n 5 68) and HD (n 5 35) that in comparison to the assessment by CT alone, PET/CT upstaged 31% in NHL and 32% in HD (most in stages I and II) patients, and changed the management decisions in approximately a quarter of NHL and a third of HD patients. The authors concluded that PET/CT as the initial staging procedure may obviate the need for additional diagnostic CT in the majority of patients.18 No significant differences were found between unenhanced low-dose PET/CT, contrast-enhanced low-dose PET/CT and contrast-enhanced fulldose PET/CT for lymph node and extranodal disease in lymphomas,19,20 although full-dose PET/CT yielded more precise lesion delineation, it showed fewer indeterminate findings and showed a higher number of extranodal sites affected than did unenhanced low-dose PET/CT. As in the adult population, PET/CT increases the diagnostic accuracy in pediatric cancer patients. In a study involving a total of 118 FDG PET/CT studies of 46 pediatric patients, 324 sites of increased FDG uptake were detected. Discordant PET and PET/CT interpretations were found in 97

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Fig. 2. This patient was a 20-year-old male who had Hodgkin’s lymphoma. PET/CT scan on initial staging showed abnormally increased FDG uptake in T10, T11, L1, L3 (arrows in A and C) and in the right iliac and bilateral sacral bones (arrowheads in D and F) but no corresponding abnormal findings on the CT images (B and E).

sites (30%). PET alone had a significantly higher proportion of equivocal and a lower proportion of benign lesion than PET/CT (P<.001). PET/CT had significantly improved characterization of abnormal FDG foci in children who had cancer than PET alone by avoiding misinterpretation of increased tracer uptake in brown fat (39%), bowel

(17%), muscle (8%) and thymus (7%), and thus decreased false-positive PET findings.21

INITIAL STAGING It is critically important that lymphoma patients be staged accurately to direct the treatment plan.

Fig. 3. An initial staging scan for a 15-year old male with T cell NHL. Patient had extensive FDG-avid tumor tissues in the mediastinum and bilateral thoracic inlets (A to C). However, lesions in the right lower neck were missed on diagnostic CT scans because of their small size (D to F). The abnormal bone marrow activity in bilateral humeri (arrowheads in A and C) was also missed by CT.

FDG PET and PET/CT in Pediatric Lymphoma Patients This assertion is especially true for HD and for early stage patients, as any change in staging may necessitate modification of disease management and the possibility of avoiding intensive treatment and less long term side effects. Traditionally, the Ann Arbor staging system was used to determine whether focal radiation or systemic treatment should be used. In the last three decades, CT scan has been the choice for lymphoma staging. Since its introduction as an initial staging option in the mid-1990s, FDG PET scanning has proved to be of high sensitivity in detecting localized or generalized lymphoma (both HD and NHL). Most common types of lymphoma (HD and aggressive NHL, such as diffuse large B-cell NHL, follicular NHL, and mantle cell NHL) are FDG-avid.22,23 There are a plethora of studies demonstrating that FDG PET has higher sensitivity and specifictity in staging HD and high-grade NHL than CT imaging in the adult population, with an accuracy of 85%–98% (see reviews3,24). Especially in the detection of bone marrow involvement, FDG PET has significantly outperformed CT in the assessment of disease involvement.22 Although the literature is more limited in the pediatric population of lymphoma patients, the available studies are generally compatible with the discoveries in the adult population. The reported impact of FDG PET staging on the management of adult lymphoma patients ranged from 8%–45% in prospective and retrospective studies,25 and ranged from 10%–23% in studies conducted in pediatric patients.1,6,26 Fused PET/CT imaging has further improved FDG PET performance in lymphoma (modification of staging in 32.3% of patients as in a recent report8). In an early study including seven pediatric HD patients, FDG PET revealed more extensive disease than CIMs, leading to upstaging in four patients and modified clinical management in one patient. The impact of FDG PET on lymphoma is obvious despite the small sample size in this study.6 Amthauer and colleagues27 reported FDG PET in the initial staging of pediatric NHL patients resulted in upstaging followed by an intensified poly-chemotherapy in one of ten patients. Depas and colleagues reviewed the value of FDG PET in 19 children with HD (n 5 14) or NHL (n 5 5). FDG PET downstaged one patient from stage IV to stage II and upstaged one patient from stage III to stage IV, thereby changing the disease stage and treatment in 10.5% of the cases at initial evaluation.1 Hermann and colleagues compared whole-body FDG-PET with CT scans in 25 children with histologically proven HD (n 5 18) and NHL (n 5 7). In each patient, 30 regions were analyzed (22 nodal, 8 extranodal), with 662 regions (470

nodal, 192 extranodal) compared in the study. FDG-PET and CT scans had concordant positive findings in 91 regions (14%) and had concordant negative findings in 517 regions (78%). Discrepancies were mainly observed in cervical/abdominal lymph nodes, the spleen and the skeleton. As compared with CT, FDG-PET scan resulted in modification of staging in five of 25 children with lymphoma (a higher staging in four and a lower staging in two of 25 patients).26 Only a few prospective studies are available in the literature evaluating the role of FDG PET in the management of pediatric lymphoma patients.28,29 A prospective, blinded study compared FDG-PET with conventional staging methods (CSMs), including CT, ultrasound, bone scanning and bone marrow examination, for initial staging of 55 children and adolescents with HD (mean age 15.5 years, range 3.9–18.9 years). It was found that FDG PET correctly changed the staging in 15% of patients (seven up-stagings and two down-stagings). FDG PET had a significantly higher sensitivity for nodal staging but a similar sensitivity for extranodal staging. FDG PET identified significantly more positive lymphoma sites (34%) that were negative on CSMs, while CSMs revealed only 5% additional lesions. The sensitivity of FDG PET and CSMs for pretreatment staging was 96.5% and 87.5%, respectively; specificity was 100% and 60%, and accuracy, 96.7% and 85.2%, respectively. In 5% of patients, radiation regime was modified based on FDG PET findings.28 FDG-PET was inferior to CT for the detection of small lung metastases (often < 5 mm) because of its limited spatial resolution, which was the major cause of its false negative findings in the study. Nowadays, this shortcoming has been largely overcome with wider adoption of hybrid PET/CT in most clinical practice. The impact of FDG PET on lymphoma staging is greater with fused PET/CT scan. A prospective study by Furth and colleagues further demonstrated the value of integrated FDG PET/CT in the initial staging of pediatric HL versus conventional imaging modalities (CIM: with CT and MRI) in 33 patients (4–18 years of age) with histologically proven HL. The accuracy of CIM, FDG PET, side-by-side and image-fused FDG PET and CIM was: 86%, 89%, 94%, and 97% respectively for lymph node regions above the diaphragm; 94%, 94%, 97%, and 98% respectively for lymph node regions below the diaphragm; and the accuracy was 96%, 96%, 100%, and 100%, respectively in extranodal regions.29 Miller and colleagues8 evaluated the role of 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) PET/CT in 31 pediatric patients (mean

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Cheng et al age 12.9) with HL (n 5 24) and NHL (n 5 7) and found that PET/CT findings resulted in a change in staging in approximately one out of three (32.3%) pediatric patients with HL and NHL, with upstaging in seven (22.6%) and downstaging in three (9.6%) patients. This finding is consistent with the authors’ own clinical experience: among 18 pediatric HL patients who had a PET/CT scan at diagnosis with a diagnostic contrast CT within one week of PET/CT before any therapy, PET/CT scan detected more positive lesions than diagnostic CT scan (especially in extranodal lesions). Six patients (33.3%) were upstaged using PET/ CT as compared with diagnostic CT (one from stage II to III; two from stage II to IV; two from stage III to IV, and one stage II case on PET/CT, which was negative on diagnostic CT) (Cheng G, unpublished data, 2008). Image fusion not only increased the sensitivity and specificity, but more importantly, it significantly improved the reviewers’ confidence.

INTERIM TREATMENT MONITORING A combined modality approach of multi-agent chemotherapy and selected field radiotherapy is the current widely accepted treatment strategy, which has yielded excellent results in children and adolescents with lymphomas. However, current therapy has many major late side effects, including infections such as the overwhelming post-splenectomy infection syndrome, gonad dysfunction (sterility in men and premature onset of menopause in women), and other late complications involving the heart, lungs and thyroid gland. In addition, some patients develop secondary malignancies 15–30 years after the initial diagnosis and treatment, which is associated with the treatment of the primary disease. With the high cure rate, the current focus in lymphoma treatment is to avoid late side effects while maintaining effectiveness of current therapy. There is much interest in the potential value of FDG PET as an early response indicator to guide the therapeutic strategy in lymphoma patients. It has been advocated that patients who respond poorly to therapy should be identified promptly and be treated more aggressively, while patients who had a favorable response to therapy may avoid aggressive treatment. For example, early stage HD patients with complete response or a negative FDG-PET at the end of chemotherapy might not receive radiotherapy to reduce the risk of a secondary malignancy and other long-term side effects while maintaining a high cure rate.30–32 Before the introduction of FDG PET scan, it was often difficult to evaluate clinical response in

children with lymphoma, especially with mediastinal involvement. Response assessment by CIMs depends on visualization of tumor size regression in the involved regions, which is often slow and protracted, and metabolic activity of a residual tumor mass cannot be evaluated by CT. One of the major advantages of FDG PET study is that FDG PET detects biochemical changes in tumor tissues, which are relatively independent of anatomic changes. FDG PET is able to differentiate fibrosis/ necrosis from viable tumor. This functional information is particularly useful in determining response to therapy (Fig. 4). If patient responds well to the therapy, decrease or normalization in FDG uptake in tumor tissues occurs soon after the initiation of treatment, preceding shrinkage of tumor tissues. This information allows early response assessment in the treatment of lymphoma patients and therapeutic strategies can be adjusted accordingly (response-adapted therapy), even before the completion of therapy. For this purpose, the specific lymphoma entity has to be FDG-avid, which is generally achieved by obtaining a baseline scan to assess the extent of disease and the degree of FDG uptake in lymphoma sites in a given patient. Numerous studies demonstrate that interim FDG PET scans predict clinical outcome in adult lymphoma patients.9,33 The value of early response assessment with FDG PET is well established in adults with either HD or histologically aggressive NHL, and interim evaluation of response to therapy by FDG PET is becoming a routine part of patient care in the adult population to guide treatment. The current literature indicates that interim FDG PET in adult lymphoma patients is superior to CT scan in predicting complete response rate, event-free survival and overall survival, and provides important and independent prognostic information in certain aggressive lymphomas.34–36 FDG PET imaging after a few cycles of chemotherapy cycles is superior to CT scan in predicting progression-free survival and is as reliable as definitive response assessment at the end of therapy (see review37). FDG PET has strong potential to identify favorably responding patients accurately so that overly aggressive treatments can be spared, and to identify unfavorably responding patients so that the physician can adjust management accordingly and in a timely manner. A few available studies in pediatric lymphoma patients also demonstrate the usefulness of FDG PET in the evaluation of early response to therapy. Amthauer and colleagues27 reported that in five pediatric NHL patients with uncertain residual masses on conventional imaging during therapy, FDG PET correctly detected viable residual tumors

FDG PET and PET/CT in Pediatric Lymphoma Patients Fig. 4. This patient was a 19-yearold female with large B cell lymphoma. PET/CT scan on initial staging showed abnormally increased FDG uptake in the mediastinum and bilateral hila, mesenteric nodes, pelvis soft tissues, and multiple bone marrow involvements (A–D). The patient was admitted because of acute urinary retention and had a Foley catheter in place when imaged. The extensive FDG uptake in the pelvis is because of lymphoma tissues while the urinary bladder was pushed forward with minimal tracer activity (arrows in C–D). Repeat study was done 7 days later after a single cycle of chemotherapy (E–H), which showed complete metabolic response to therapy. In this repeat study, Foley catheter was removed and full bladder with radioactive urine was present (G–H). This patient received additional chemotherapy after that, and had been followed for 26 months with no evidence of tumor recurrence.

in one case, which was confirmed during followup, while the remaining four FDG-PET negative patients remained tumor-free. In a study of 48 patients who had aggressive lymphoma (24 HD, 24 NHL), mid-treatment PET scan was shown to be associated with later remission: 61% (for

NHL) and 65% (for HD) achieved complete remission in PET-negative patients, while only 50% (for NHL) and 25% (for HD) achieved complete remission in PET-positive patients.38 Miller and colleagues examined the value of FDG PET/CT imaging in 31 pediatric patients with HD (n 5 24)

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Cheng et al and NHL (n 5 7). It was found that PET/CT had a negative predictive value of 96% and when used for monitoring response to treatment, a negative study was generally associated with diseasefree period (mean 15.4  8.8 months), even when residual mass was detected. The positive predictive value (PPV) of persistent increased 18F-FDG uptake was 100% in three patients with active disease, significantly higher than the PPV of residual CT mass, which was 14%,8 but this sample size is small. The important role of FDG PET imaging in lymphoma is also evidenced by the recent International Harmonization Project recommendations, which has developed guidelines for performing and interpreting FDG PET imaging for treatment assessment in patients with lymphoma both in clinical practice and in clinical trials, based on published FDG PET literature and the collective expertise of its members in the use of FDG PET in lymphoma.39,40 The recommendations should principally apply in the pediatric population and include the following several important points:1 pretherapy FDG PET is recommended strongly with routinely FDG avid lymphoma such as diffuse large B cell lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, or (HD), and is recommended as mandatory for variably FDG-avid lymphomas (if FDG PET is used to assess their response to therapy).2 For response assessment at the conclusion of therapy, FDG PET should be performed at least 3 weeks (preferably at 6–8 weeks) after chemotherapy or chemoimmunotherapy, and at 8–12 weeks after radiation or chemoradiotherapy. If an interim FDG PET is to be obtained for response assessment, it should be performed as closely as possible (ie, within 4 days) to the subsequent cycle; for example on days 17–21 of a 21-day cycle or days 10–14 of a 14-day cycle.3 Visual assessment alone is sufficient to assess treatment response as positive or negative after completion of therapy.4 For response assessment at the conclusion of therapy, mediastinal blood pool activity is recommended as the reference level to define FDG PET positivity for a residual mass R 2 cm in greatest transverse diameter, regardless of its location, while surrounding background activity is recommended as the reference level to define FDG PET positivity for a smaller residual mass or a normal sized lymph node (% 1  1 cm in diameter).5 Use of attenuation-corrected FDG PET is strongly encouraged. Although it sounds appealing that the treatment strategy may be adjusted early, based on the interim FDG PET findings, there is lack of clinical evidence that such adjusted treatment strategy will lead to improved survival and/or decreased

rate of late stage complications. Many questions still remain: when is the best time to use FDG PET for response assessment after initiation of therapy (7 day or 42 days)? Will the same high cure rate be achieved with less intensive therapy in patients who have favorable early response? Can clinicians achieve a higher cure rate with more aggressive therapy in patients who have an unfavorable interim response?

END OF THERAPY EVALUATION After completion of several cycles of chemotherapy or chemoradiation therapy, it is critically important to make the decision: (1) if the therapy has reached its goal (if the patient has complete response); or (2) if additional treatment is required (if the patient has a residual mass of lymphoma); or (3) if second-line salvage treatment or radiation or others are needed. In contrast to the interim response assessment, the value of FDG PET at the end of therapy is well established for determining residual disease activity and in guiding the management of patients with lymphoma, and is clearly superior to CT scan. Many efforts have been made to predict the likely treatment outcome and prognosis of patient with HD and NHL41,42 and imaging studies play an important role here. A significant residual mass may form and persist after definitive treatment of HL or NHL. It could be composed of necrotic tissue, fibrous tissue, or it could be resistant residual tumor. Various imaging modalities are available to assess this mass, including radiograph, CT scan, and gallium scan. Although CT scan has high accuracy in the initial staging of lymphoma, the specificity of positive CT findings in the treated lymphoma patients is low because many patients have persistent residual masses and enlarged lymph nodes that are not necessarily viable tumors (Fig. 5). In a retrospective review of 256 children who had HD during 1985 to 2003, 26 patients were deemed to be of concern for residual disease by traditional imaging modalities, although only 10 (38%) showed resistant disease upon biopsy and the other 16 (62%) had fibrotic or necrotic tissues. The sensitivity and specificity of each imaging modality were 60% and 38% for chest radiograph, 67% and 8% for CT scan, and 71% and 71% for gallium scan.43 These CIMs are not sufficiently sensitive or specific to differentiate residual resistant tumor tissues from nontumor tissues, and surgical biopsy is still needed to rule out any harboring resistant tumor cells in these residual masses. Being a functional imaging modality, FDG PET has a unique role in the posttherapy evaluation of lymphoma patients.

FDG PET and PET/CT in Pediatric Lymphoma Patients

Fig. 5. This patient was a 17-year-old female with Hodgkin’s lymphoma. PET/CT scan on initial staging showed abnormally increased FDG uptake in a large right mediastainal mass (A–C) and a smaller focus of FDG uptake in a prevascular lymph node (arrowhead). Five weeks after chemotherapy, no abnormally increased FDG uptake was visualized, while significant mediastinal mass persisted (E and F). Mildly increased FDG uptake in the bone marrow is consistent with recent chemotherapy (arrows).

The role of FDG PET in the characterization of residual masses of lymphoma after completion of chemotherapy is well documented in adult lymphoma patients. In general, FDG PET has a high negative predictive value and variable positive predictive value. Zijlstra and colleagues in a meta-analysis reviewed 15 studies (705 patients) up to January 2004, using histology or follow-up of at least 12 months as a valid reference test. They found that FDG PET had reasonable sensitivity and high specificity for evaluation of post-therapy residual disease in HD and in NHL. The pooled sensitivity and specificity for detection of residual disease in HD were 84% (95% CI 71%–92%) and 90% (95% CI 84%–94%), respectively. For NHL, pooled sensitivity and specificity were 72% (95% CI 61%–82%), and 100% (95% CI 97%– 100%), respectively.44 In a more recent meta-analysis, Terasawa and colleagues45 analyzed cases with HD or aggressive NHL for patients who completed first-line chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or combined-modality therapy (with or without residual disease) and underwent conventional imaging tests such as CT, ultrasonography, or MRI for post-treatment restaging just before or after undergoing FDG PET. They found good overall diagnostic accuracy irrespective of the presence of any visible residual mass on CIMs.45 Several studies have examined FDG PET for post-treatment evaluation in the pediatric population of lymphoma patients. A negative FDG PET at

the end of treatment of HD and NHL is often predictive of long-term remission.7,8,46 In pediatric HD and NHL patients, FDG PET was also very accurate for characterization of posttherapy residual masses. Depas and colleagues reported that FDG PET had very high specificity at end of therapy evaluation in 16 children with lymphoma (8 HD and 8 NHL). FDG PET resulted in a true negative in 15/16 patients with one false positive in a HD patient because muscle activity was reported as possible malignancy. This confusion should not occur if hybrid PET/CT is employed. Overall, FDG PET had a specificity of 94% at the end of treatment (versus 54% for conventional methods, including physical examination, laboratory studies, chest radiograph, CT, MRI, ultrasonography and bone scan when available).1 Amthauer and colleagues also reported that FDG PET correctly revealed in one out of five pediatric NHL patients persistent tumor metabolism after completion of initial therapy. The patient had disease progression and died shortly after restaging.27 In a review of twelve FDG PET scans in ten pediatric lymphoma patients, it was found that FDG PET and CT scans were concordant in seven cases. In all five cases with discordant findings, FDG PET was negative while diagnostic CT scans were positive. All adenopathy detected by CT scans eventually disappeared during follow-up studies, indicating false positive CT findings.7 More recently, in a study of 26 pediatric patients

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Cheng et al (8–19 years of age) with lymphoma, FDG PET provided incremental information in 21% of HD cases and 33% of NHL cases in comparison with conventional imaging studies (CT/MRI), and was especially useful in distinguishing scar tissue from residual disease at the end of therapy.14 In a prospective study with 26 pediatric patients with newly diagnosed mediastinal HD (n 5 16) and NHL (n 5 10), FDG PET was used to evaluate residual mediastinal disease following completion of therapy (the median interval between the end of therapy to imaging was 17.5 days for NHL and was 72 days for HD). Edeline and colleagues46 reported that none of the 11 FDG PET negative patients with HD relapsed (and remained in their first remission for at least 28 months after the end of therapy), even though they all had residual mass on CT scan. For patients with NHL, four out of five patients with negative FDG PET findings (all with residual mass) remained in remission for at least 45 months, and the only exception was a patient with anaplastic lymphoma with negative evaluation on FDG PET scan.

SURVEILLANCE IMAGING DURING FOLLOW-UP After completion of treatment for HD and complete remission has been achieved, children with lymphoma are commonly followed-up for 5 years or so with regular surveillance imaging studies to identify evidence of residual disease and to monitor for relapse of disease. The most challenging issue is again the residual mass, which is common and may persist in children who have completed treatment for lymphoma. CT surveillance during follow up to assess disease status is unsatisfactory. In adult HD patients, the sensitivity and specificity of FDG PET were reported as 87.5% and 94.4% respectively, in contrast to 25% and 56% for CT scans. The positive and negative predictive values of PET (versus CT scans) were 87.5% and 94.4% (versus 20% and 62.5%), respectively.47 A few retrospective clinical studies addressed this issue in pediatric lymphoma patients. It was reported that FDG PET revealed more extensive disease than CIMs and led to upstaging in 2/4 pediatric HD patients, because of clinical evidence of recurrence (mean: 19 months after completion of initial therapy).6 In a long-term follow-up study of 19 pediatric lymphoma patients who had achieved complete remission, 59 FDG PET studies were performed (38 HD and 21 NHL) in 19 children (13 HD, 6 NHL), with a mean interval between the end of therapy and the first follow-up study of 9 months. There were no false negatives in HD patients but 3/21 studies in NHL patients were false positives. Overall, FDG PET had a specificity of

95% during the systematic follow-up (versus 66% for conventional methods).1 However, some studies pointed to low PPV of FDG PET as a surveillance of lymphoma recurrence in pediatric patients. Rhodes and colleagues retrospectively reviewed results of PET/CT and CT scan alone during follow-up after completion of therapy in 41 children with HD and NHL, with a median follow-up of 2.3 years. FDG uptake higher than that of the liver was considered positive. They found that PET/CT scan is more sensitive than diagnostic CT (with a sensitivity of 95% and 79%, respectively), but the PPV of PET/CT is similar to diagnostic CT (53% and 52%, respectively). Also no children with equivocal positive PET/CT findings (uptake higher than the background but less than in the liver) developed recurrent disease.48 Similarly, Levine and colleagues reviewed 255 FDG PET scans on 47 pediatric patients (age 3–26 years) with HD. Among 156 FDG PET scans obtained on 34 patients as routine surveillance after completion of therapy, 128 scans were accurate with no false negative. However, among the 28 positive FDG PET scans, only three of the scans were true positives (in two patients), and 25 scans were demonstrated to be false positives (in 12 patients). The PPV for FDG PET scans obtained in that study during routine follow-up was 11%, with a false positive rate of 16%, in contrast to 100% negative predictive value in the same settings.49 The contributing factors to false positive studies include fibrosis, appendicitis, transformation of germinal centers, abdominal wall hernia, normal thymus and HIV associated lymphadenopathy.49 Separately, in a retrospective study, 23 consecutive pediatric HD patients were reviewed with FDG PET scan for post-treatment evaluation. It was found that FDG PET is highly sensitive with a strong negative predictive value (100%), but its specificity is low (57.1%). Twenty-two of the 23 patients had a negative FDG PET scan at the end of therapy and 12 (52.2%) of them had consistent negative FDG PET scans within 6–42 months following completion of therapy. However, in 11 patients who had a positive FDG PET scan within 6–9 months after the end of therapy, only two patients had relapsed HD confirmed by biopsy. The low PPV (18.2%) compares with a concurrent CT study.50 The authors concluded that a negative FDG PET scan is more accurately representative of disease remission than a positive FDG PET is for relapsed HD. Correlation of CT results performed at the time of a positive FDG PET scan did not consistently predict disease relapse. The authors further stated that FDG PET scan positive solely at sites other than the original tumor sites at diagnosis rarely

FDG PET and PET/CT in Pediatric Lymphoma Patients indicates relapsed HD.50 It should be noted that in both studies of Levine and Meany and colleagues PET alone (not PET/CT) was employed, which is associated with much higher false-positive findings. With the advent and wider application of combined PET/CT, the ability to correlate PET data with more precise anatomic location is well established, and many false positive studies can be avoided or minimized. It is reported that using dual-time point imaging technique is potentially helpful in distinguishing benign lesions from some types of malignancies.51–56 However, there is little experience in the evaluation of lymphomas and more clinical studies (especially well-designed, prospective studies with a large patient population) are needed to evaluate the true value of FDG PET for early detection of tumor recurrence and the clinical impact of PET on patient management and outcome. In short, the role of FDG PET in post-treatment surveillance of lymphoma is not proven. Followup FDG PET scans that are performed after completion of therapy in pediatric lymphoma patients have a very high negative predictive value, but the PPV is low and false positive rate is high. Generally, any positive FDG PET scans after treatment should be interpreted cautiously and biopsy correlation should be considered before any therapeutic decisions are made. Follow-up PET/CT scan may be indicated if patients develop new clinical signs of tumor recurrence or any abnormal findings using conventional staging methods.

correctly diagnosed by FDG PET. Among the three patients who were missed by FDG PET, two of them had NHL whose malignant cells did not take up FDG at lymph node or marrow disease sites.58 Excluding the cases of non–FDG-avid lymphoma, FDG PET seemed superior to biopsy for evaluation of bone marrow involvement in lymphoma, and may reduce the need for staging marrow biopsy. FDG PET versus bone marrow biopsy in the detection of bone marrow involvement was reviewed in 194 consecutive adult patients with HD or aggressive NHL. The sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, positive and negative predictive value for FDG PET were 65.3%, 98.6%, 90.2%, 94.1% and 89.3%, respectively. The sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, positive and negative predictive value for bone marrow biopsy were 55.1%, 100%, 88.7%, 100% and 86.8%, respectively. Although FDG PET and bone marrow biopsy had similar specificity and accuracy, both had relatively low sensitivity in detecting bone marrow disease with concordant positive findings in only 10 out of 49 patients. A significant amount of bone marrow disease missed by bone marrow biopsy was detected by FDG-PET, and the treatment regimen was changed in 12 patients based on FDG-PET findings.59 Similar findings were reported in pediatric lymphoma patients. In a prospective, blinded study with 55 children and adolescents with HD, the value of FDG PET was compared with other conventional staging methods, including bone marrow examination for initial staging; FDG PET correctly changed the staging in 15% of patients (mostly upstagings).28

BONE MARROW EVALUATION An important aspect and also a major limitation of CT imaging in the management of lymphoma is the evaluation of bone marrow involvement, and accumulating evidence demonstrates that FDG PET and bone marrow biopsy are complementary in the evaluation of bone marrow involvement (Figs. 2 and 3). Retrospective analysis of 106 consecutive patients with confirmed diagnosis of lymphoma (18 HD and 88 NHL) found that FDG PET and bone marrow biopsy are complementary in assessing the presence of bone marrow involvement.57 FDG PET was more sensitive than bone marrow biopsy in HD and NHL but not in follicular lymphoma. In a study of 50 patients with HD (n 5 12) and NHL (n 5 38), FDG PET scans were analyzed in comparison with unilateral iliac crest marrow aspirates and biopsies. The FDG PET scan and marrow histology agreed in 39 patients (78%), being concordant positive in 26% and concordant negative in 52% of patients. Bone marrow biopsy missed four patients who were

SUMMARY Since its introduction, FDG PET has demonstrated substantial impact on patient management of HD and aggressive NHL. PET/CT imaging is superior for lymphoma staging to FDG PET or CT alone and is becoming the modality of choice for staging and restaging of nodal and extranodal involvement of lymphoma, for evaluating therapeutic response, and for establishing patient prognosis. It should be kept in mind that many of the data in pediatric lymphoma patients reviewed here were obtained with FDG PET alone without direct CT correlation, and available data had shown nothing but significant contribution to the management of lymphoma in pediatric as well as in adult patients. Now with wide-spread availability and acceptance of combined PET/CT devices, which collect the information of tumor metabolism and tumor size simultaneously, and which lead to higher sensitivity and specificity for staging, restaging, and treatment monitoring, FDG PET will be an essential and

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Cheng et al integrated part of the management of lymphoma patients throughout the treatment process.4,31

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Index Note: Page numbers of article titles are in boldface type.

Abdominal infections, 608–609 [11]CAcetate, for cardiac imaging, 589–590 Adipose tissue, brown, FDG uptake prevention in, 475–478 Adrenocortical tumors, 611 Alpha[11C]methyl-L-tryptophan for brain development assessment, 493, 499–500 for epilepsy, 502 for Tourette syndrome, 508 for tuberous sclerosis, 503–504 Amino acid tracers for brain tumors, 518–527 for malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors, 533–535 [13N]Ammonia, for cardiac imaging, 589–590, 592 Anomalous origin of left coronary artery from the pulmonary artery, 592–594 Aphasia with convulsive disorder (Landau-Kleffner syndrome), 504–505 Artifacts, avoidance of, 478–480 Attenuation correction, artifacts due to, 478–480 Autoimmune diseases, 609–610

B Batten disease, 508 Biliary cirrhosis, 609 Biopsy of brain tumors, 524–525 of gliomas, 539–540 Bone imaging of, 482–483 metastasis to, 566–569, 631 Brain development of animal studies of, 490–491 cerebral perfusion studies, 491 disorders of, 501–508 FDG studies of, 491–494 functional aspects of, 489–501 local cerebral metabolic rates for glucose in, 489–497 neuroanatomy, 487–489 neuroreceptor studies of, 497–500 plasticity and, 495–497 protein synthesis and, 500–501 timing of, 488–489 epilepsy in, 481, 501–505 Brain tumors, 517–529 diagnosis of, 524–525

gliomas, 536–542 grading of, 518–520 metastatic, 517 prognosis for, 518–520 radiation necrosis in, 520–523 recurrent, 523–524 treatment of, 525–527 types of, 517 Breathing, artifacts due to, 478–479 Brown adipose tissue, FDG uptake prevention in, 475–478

C Cancer brain, 517–529 fever of unknown origin in, 610–611 gliomas, 536–542 lymphomas, 610–611, 621–634 malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors, 532–535 neuroblastomas, 551–561 sarcomas, 563–575, 610–611 Cardiac imaging, 587–596 clinical applications of, 590–591 instrumentation for, 588–589 protocols for, 591–594 radiopharmaceuticals for, 589–590 SPECT for, 587–588, 592 Castleman’s disease, 612 Cerebral palsy, 505–506 Cerebral perfusion studies, of brain development, 491 Chemotherapy, imaging timing and, 474 Chlorothiazide, for congenital hyperinsulinism, 578–579 [18F]-Choline, for brain tumors, 522–523 Colitis fever of unknown origin in, 609 ulcerative, 597–603 Colonoscopy, for inflammatory bowel disease, 597–602 Congenital heart disease, 592–594 Congenital hyperinsulinism, 577–585 atypical, 581 diagnosis of, 577 diseases associated with, 577 ectopic pancreatic tissue and, 581–582 incidence of, 577 multifocal, 581 mutations involved in, 577 pathophysiology of, 579

PET Clin 3 (2009) 635–639 doi:10.1016/S1556-8598(09)00072-8 1556-8598/09/$ – see front matter ª 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

pet.theclinics.com

A

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Congenital (continued) treatment of, 578–579 Connective tissue diseases, 609–610 Crohn’s disease, 597–603, 609–610 CT for cardiac disorders, 587 for fever of unknown origin, 606 for lymphomas, 622, 628–630 for neurofibromas, 531–532 PET with. See PET/CT. radiation dosage for, 480–481, 483 Cystic fibrosis, 610

D 30 -Deoxy-30 -[18F]-fluorothymidine (FLT), for brain tumors, 526–527 Diaphragm position, artifacts due to, 479 Diazepam, for blocking FDG uptake, 477 Diazoxide, for congenital hyperinsulinism, 578 3,4-Dihydroxy-6-[18F]-fluoro-L-phenylalanine (FDOPA) for brain tumors, 518, 524 for congenital hyperinsulinism, 579–583 Dosage, radiation for CT, 480–481, 483 for PET, 480 Dyslexia, developmental, 506–507

E Encephalitis, paraneoplastic, 611 Encephalopathy, hypoxic-ischemic, 505 Enterocolitis, 609 Epilepsy, 481, 501–505 [11C]Epinephrine, for neuroblastomas, 557–558 Ewing sarcomas metastasis from pulmonary, 564–566 to bone and bone marrow, 566–569 to lymph nodes, 569–570 treatment of, 570–573

F FDG. See [18F]-2-Fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG). Fever of unknown origin, 605–619 CT for, 606 definition of, 605 diagnosis of, 606 differential diagnosis of, 605–606 in immunodeficiency, 612 in infections, 608–609 in noninfectious inflammation, 609–610 MR imaging for, 606 scintigraphy for, 606–607

ultrasonography for, 606 [11C]-Flumazenil for brain development assessment, 493, 497–498 for cerebral palsy, 506 for epilepsy, 502 [18F]-Fluoride, for bone imaging, 482–483 P-[18F]-Fluorobenzylguanidine (PFBG), for neuroblastomas, 558 [18F]-2-Fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG) administration of, 473–474 for brain development assessment, 489–490, 494, 496 for brain tumors, 518–521, 523–526 for cardiac imaging, 589–591 for cerebral palsy, 505–506 for dyslexia, 506–507 for epilepsy, 481, 501–505 for fever of unknown origin, 607–613 for gliomas, 537–541 for hemimegalencephaly, 505 for hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, 505 for inflammatory bowel disease, 481–482, 587–602 for Landau-Kleffner syndrome, 504–505 for Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, 502–503 for lymphomas, 621–634 for malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors, 532–535 for myocardial imaging, 481 for neuroblastomas, 553–557 for neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses, 508 for plexiform neurofibromas, 535–536 for sarcomas, 563–573 for Sturge-Weber syndrome, 504 for Tourette syndrome, 507–508 in bone marrow, 474 in brown adipose tissue, 475–478 radiation activity in, 480 [18F]-Fluoro-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), for neuroblastomas, 558–559 6-[18F]-Fluorodopamine, for neuroblastomas, 559 O-2-[18F]Fluoroethyl-L-tyrosine (FET) for brain tumors, 518, 522–525 for gliomas, 538, 540 4-[18F]-Fluoro-3-iodobenzylguanidine (FIBG), for neuroblastomas, 558 [18F]-Fluorothymidine, for neuroblastomas, 559

G Gallium-67 imaging for fever of unknown origin, 606–607 for lymphomas, 622–623 Gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor, in brain development, 497–498 Gliomas, 536–542 biopsy of, 539–540

Index detection of, 537–538 epidemiology of, 536–537 grading of, 538–539 optic pathway, 541–542 prognosis for, 538 surgical planning for, 540 treatment response, 540–541 Glucagon, for congenital hyperinsulinism, 578 Granulocyte cell stimulating factors, in bone marrow, 474 Granulomatous disorders, 609–610

H Heart, imaging of. See Cardiac imaging. Hemimegalencephaly, 505 Hepatoblastomas, 611 Hodgkin’s disease, 474, 610–611, 621–634 bone marrow evaluation in, 631 CT for, 622, 628–630 follow-up surveillance of, 630–631 gallium-67 imaging for, 622–623 incidence of, 621 staging of, 621, 624–626 treatment of evaluation after, 626–628 interim monitoring of, 628–630 Human immunodeficiency virus infection, fever of unknown origin in, 612 [11C]Hydroxyephedrine, for neuroblastomas, 557 Hyperinsulinism, congenital, 577–585 Hypoglycemia, in congenital hyperinsulinism, 577–585 Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, 505

I Immunodeficiency, fever of unknown origin in, 612 Infantile spasms, 501–502 Infections, fever of unknown origin in, 608–609 Inflammation, noninfectious, fever of unknown origin in, 609–610 Inflammatory bowel disease, 481–482, 597–603, 609–610

J Jansky-Bielschowsky disease, 508

K Kawasaki disease, 593–594

L Landau-Kleffner syndrome, 504–505 Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, 502–503

Leukemia, 610–611 Lipofuscinoses, ceroid, 508 Local cerebral metabolic rates for glucose, in brain development, brain, 489–497 Lung, metastasis to, 478–479, 564–566 Lymph nodes brown adipose tissue near, 475–477 metastasis to, from sarcomas, 569–570 Lymphomas, 610–611, 621–634 bone marrow evaluation in, 631 CT for, 622, 628–630 follow-up surveillance of, 630–631 gallium-67 imaging for, 622–623 incidence of, 621 staging of, 621, 624–626 treatment of evaluation after, 626–628 interim monitoring of, 628–630 Lymphomatosis, intravascular, 610 Lymphopenia, fever in, 612

M Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors, 532–535 Metaiodobenzylguanidine, for neuroblastomas, 552–557 Metastasis from malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors, 532 from sarcomas, 564–570 to bone and bone marrow, 566–569 to brain, 517 to lung, 564–566 to lymph nodes, 569–570 [11C]-Methionine, for brain tumors, 518–527 L-Methyl-[11C] methionine (MET) for brain tumors, 518–526 for gliomas, 538–542 for malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors, 534–535 3-O-Methyl-6-[18F]fluoro-L-DOPA, for brain tumors, 518 Misregistration, artifacts due to, 478–480 MR imaging for brain tumors, 518, 520–521, 524, 526 for fever of unknown origin, 606 for heart disorders, 587 for neurofibromas, 531, 537, 540 for sarcomas, 563, 567–568, 570 Myelination, of brain, 488 Myocardium, imaging of, 481, 587–596

N Necrosis, radiation, of brain tumors, 520–523 Neuroblastomas, tracers for, 551–561

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Neuroblastomas (continued) FDG, 553–557 metaiodobenzylguanidine, 552–557 positron-emitting, 557–559 Neurofibromas, plexiform, 535–536 Neurofibromatosis type 1, 531–539 diagnostic criteria for, 531 gliomas, low-grade, 536–542 incidence of, 531 malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor, 532–535 pathophysiology of, 531 plexiform neurofibroma, 535–536 Neurofibromin, 531 Neurofibrosarcomas (malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors), 532–535 Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses, 508 Neuroreceptors, in brain development, 497–500 Neutropenia, fever in, 612 Nifedipine, for congenital hyperinsulinism, 579

O Octreotide, for congenital hyperinsulinism, 579 Opioids, for blocking FDG uptake, 477 Optic pathway gliomas, 541–542 Osteomyelitis, 609 Osteosarcomas metastasis from pulmonary, 564–566 to bone and bone marrow, 566–569 to lymph nodes, 569–570 treatment of, 570–573

P Pancreas, dysfunction of, in congenital hyperinsulinism, 577–585 Pancreatectomy, for congenital hyperinsulinism, 579 Paraneoplastic syndromes, 611 Patient preparation, 473–474, 608 Pediatric patients brain development and developmental disorders in, 487–515 brain tumors in, 517–529, 536–542 cardiac imaging in, 587–596 congenital hyperinsulinism in, 577–585 fever of unknown origin in, 605–619 inflammatory bowel disease in, 481–482, 597–603, 609–610 lymphomas in, 621–634 neuroblastomas in, 551–561 neurofibromatosis type 1 in, 531–549 preparation of, 473–485, 608 procedures for, 473–485 sarcomas in, 563–575 Peripheral nerve sheath tumors, malignant, 532–535

PET for brain development and developmental disorders, 487–515 for brain tumors, 517–529 for cardiac imaging, 587–596 for congenital hyperinsulinism, 577–585 for lymphomas, 621–634 for neurofibromatosis type 1, 531–549 for sarcomas, 563–575, 610–611 PET/CT for congenital hyperinsulinism, 577–585 for fever of unknown origin, 605–619 for inflammatory bowel disease, 597–603 for lymphomas, 621–634 for sarcomas, 563–575 patient preparation for, 473–474, 608 Plasticity, brain, 495–497 Plexiform neurofibromas, 535–536 Pneumonia, 608 Positron-emitting tracers, for neuroblastomas, 557–559 Propranolol, for blocking FDG uptake, 477 Protein synthesis, in brain development, 500–501 Protocols, design of, 478

R Radiation dosage, for CT, 480–481, 483 Radiation necrosis, of brain tumors, 520–523 Radiosurgery, stereotactic, 520–521 Registration, incorrect, artifacts due to, 478–480 Respiratory motion, artifacts due to, 478–479 Rhabdomyosarcomas fever of unknown origin in, 611 metastasis from, 566–570 with unknown primary site, 564 Rheumatoid arthritis, 609 [82Rb]Rubidium chloride, for cardiac imaging, 589–590

S Safety, in clinical environment, 473 Sarcoidosis, 609 Sarcomas, 563–575 bone and bone marrow, 566–569 fever of unknown origin in, 610–611 metastatic, 569–570 neurogenic (malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors), 532–535 pulmonary, 564–566 treatment of, 563–564, 570–573 types of, 563 unknown primary site of, 564 Schwannomas, malignant (malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors), 532–535

Index Scintigraphy for fever of unknown origin, 606–607 for sarcomas, 563–564, 566–567, 569, 571 Scope of examination, 478 Sedation, for imaging, 474 Serotonin, in brain development, 498–500 Spasms, infantile, 501–502 SPECT, for cardiac imaging, 587–588, 592 Spielmeyer-Bogt disease, 508 Stereotactic radiosurgery, 520–521 Still’s disease, 609 Sturge-Weber syndrome, 504 Systemic lupus erythematosus, 609

T [99Tc]Technetium methyl diphosphonate (MDP), for sarcomas, 563–564, 566–567, 569, 571 Thyroiditis, 610 Tics, in Tourette syndrome, 507–508 Tourette syndrome, 507–508 Transposition of the great arteries, 592–594 Tuberculosis, 609

Tuberous sclerosis, 503–504 Tumors adrenocortical, 611 brain. See Brain tumors. malignant. See Cancer.

U Ulcerative colitis, 597–603 Ultrasonography, for fever of unknown origin, 606

V Vasculitis, 610

W Warming, for blocking FDG uptake, 475–478 [15O]Water for cardiac imaging, 589 for dyslexia, 506–507 for Tourette syndrome, 507

639