Optimizing Processes with RFID and Auto ID: Fundamentals, Problems and Solutions, Example Applications

Bartneck/Klaas/Schoenherr Optimizing Processes with RFID and Auto ID

Optimizing Processes with RFID and Auto ID Fundamentals, Problems and Solutions, Example Applications

Editors: Norbert Bartneck, Volker Klaas, Holger Schoenherr Executive Editor: Markus Weinlaender

Publicis Publishing

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

The editors, translator and publisher have taken great care with all texts and illustrations in this book. Nevertheless, errors can never be completely avoided. The publisher, author and translator accept no liability, regardless of legal basis. Designations used in this book may be trademarks whose use by third parties for their own purposes could violate the rights of the owners. www.publicis.de/books Contact for authors and editors: [email protected]

ISBN 978-3-89578-330-2 Editor: Siemens Aktiengesellschaft, Berlin and Munich Publisher: Publicis Publishing, Erlangen © 2009 by Publicis KommunikationsAgentur GmbH, GWA, Erlangen This publication and all parts thereof are protected by copyright. All rights reserved. Any use of it outside the strict provisions of the copyright law without the consent of the publisher is forbidden and will incur penalties. This applies particularly to reproduction, translation, microfilming or other processing, and to storage or processing in electronic systems. It also applies to the use of extracts from the text. Printed in Germany

Preface

Herbert Wegmann Herbert Wegmann is the manager of the Factory Sensors Division at Siemens AG, Industry Sector. Moreover, he is entrusted with the management of the group-wide AG RFID initiative.

RFID – the abbreviation for Radio Frequency Identification – has a real magic meaning. Contactless identification of all kinds of objects with electronically writeable data carriers in the absolutely low cost area with ranges of several meters provides an opportunity for several new applications: the ideas range from remote control systems for logistics centers (“internet of things”) to an intelligent refrigerator that can automatically order goods. However, contactless radio identification is not innovation as such and has been in use for industrial applications for a long time now. As a leading manufacturer of RFID systems, Siemens introduced the first industrial RFID system to the market 25 years ago. Moby M – the name of this first product – achieved a read distance between the transponder and antenna of, at most, 40 mm. However, the data carriers already had a storage capacity of 64 bytes. In the meantime, RFID is used successfully in several areas. However, despite the dynamism displayed by the development of RFID, it is not the only option available for identifying all kinds of objects. Optical codes such as barcodes – as printed on all consumer goods in supermarkets – are admittedly seen as outdated. However, the specific advantages of the optical processes that, for example, take effect with the 2D matrix code, can justifiably compete with RFID systems in some of their applications. Technology fascinates people and is the key to economic progress. However, technology with no application focus only follows an end in itself. Therefore, this book takes a look at both aspects: technical basics and successful applications. In doing so, the issue here is how existing processes can be optimized by using RFID and optical codes,

5

Preface

reducing costs, and increasing quality. Several chapters describe how automatic identification systems can be applied in a technically reliable and economically viable manner – from the factory floor to hospitals. I am proud of the fact that the authors who have compiled such an exceptional scope in terms of content are all employees at our company or at least worked for Siemens previously for several years. Their contributions clearly emphasize Siemens’ technological and solution expertise for RFID and Auto ID. Therefore, my sincere thanks go to all of the authors and the editorial team of Norbert Bartneck, Volker Klaas, and Holger Schoenherr. Special thanks also go to Leslie Miller, Michael LaGrega and Markus Weinlaender and Kerstin Springer for their project management and comprehensive editorial work.

6

Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Proven in several applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Innovation as a driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14 16 18 21

Part 1: Technical Fundamentals 2 RFID technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 What is an RFID system? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 The components of an RFID system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Reading device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Transponders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Classification of RFID systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Passive systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Semi-active systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Active systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Frequency bands and their properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24 24 25 25 28 29 30 30 34 35 35

3 Optical codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Success and limits of barcodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Standards regarding the 2D code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Technology standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Application standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Data Matrix Code features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Data Matrix Code structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Codable data with Data Matrix ECC200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Error correction and security aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Application and marking methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Application of labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Direct marking processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Verification of the Code Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Reading systems and their properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 Components of a data matrix reading system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2 Stationary reading systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.3 Mobile reading systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38 38 39 39 40 41 41 42 43 44 44 45 47 48 48 48 50 7

Contents

3.5.4 Physical and technical data integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Achieve good read results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1 Optimization of the optical conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2 Minimization of the material ambient conditions’ influence 3.6.3 Meeting the technological requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Outlook and new developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50 52 53 54 55 55

4 System architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Software in RFID and Auto ID systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 System characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 Processes, applications, and marginal conditions . . . . . . . . . 4.2 System levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Application levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4 Edgeware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 System interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Communication layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Data flow and data management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 RFID and Auto ID data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Object identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 Distributed mobile databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.4 Hybrid approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 System management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.1 Device management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.2 Edge server management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.3 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.4 Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.5 Extendibility and adaptability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.6 Invoicing functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 The EPCglobal Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.2 EPCIS and ALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57 57 57 58 58 60 60 61 62 63 64 64 64 65 66 66 67 67 68 68 68 69 69 70 70 71 71 71 72 72

5 System selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Automatic identification with Data Matrix Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 “Open Loop” applications with RFID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 “Closed Loop” applications in RFID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Conclusion: both technologies complement each other . . . . . . .

74 75 77 78 80

8

Contents

6 Standardization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Why is standardization important? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Standardization basics for RFID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 The central RFID standard ISO 18000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Further useful standards and guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Standardization of visual codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Standardization through EPCglobal and GS1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Conclusion and forecast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

82 82 83 85 86 88 89 90

Part 2: The Practical Application of RFID and Auto ID 7 Process design and profitability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 7.1 The fear of bad investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 7.2 It all starts with visions and objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 7.3 How does the company work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 7.4 The business case for RFID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 7.4.1 The concept of the calculation of profitability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 7.4.2 Procedure for RFID projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 7.5 The RFID business case in practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 7.6 Technology can inspire – but it must “fit” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 8 Introduction to the practical application of RFID . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Feasibility test / Field test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.1 Objectives of a feasibility test/field test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.2 Performing the tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.3 Results of the feasibility/field test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Solution design and pilot operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1 Objectives of pilot operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.2 Results of pilot operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Roll-out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

104 105 105 106 107 108 109 110 110

Part 3: Current Applications – from the Factory to the Hospital 9 Manufacturing control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 The dilemma of modern competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 The production of individualized serial products . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Autonomous production systems with Auto ID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Decentralizing production data with RFID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Technical requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 Is RFID worthwhile in Production? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

114 114 117 118 121 122 123 9

Contents

10

Production logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

10.1

Logistics and corporate success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

10.2

Processes in production logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

10.3

RFID in production logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

10.4 Application examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.1 Automatic order consolidation increases efficiency . . . . . . 10.4.2 RFID optimizes picking for assembly provision . . . . . . . . . 10.4.3 Transparent processes in reusable transport trusses . . . . . 10.4.4 Replenishment is ensured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.5 The matching seat for the right car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 11

130 130 131 131 132 132

Summary and forecast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Container and Asset Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

11.1 Requirements for Container Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.3 Standardizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.4 Technical Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.5 Data structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.6 Additional peripheral processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

135 136 137 137 139 139 141

11.2

Economic viability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

11.3

Container and Asset Management in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

11.4 Business models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 11.4.1 Rental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 11.4.2 Sale and repurchase model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 11.5 12

Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Tracking and Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

12.1 Application areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1.1 Discrete manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1.2 Process industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1.3 Tracking and Tracing in logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

149 149 151 152

12.2 Drivers for Tracking and Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.1 Corporate advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.2 Legal regulations and standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.3 Consumer protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.4 Transparency for end users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

153 153 153 153 154

12.3 Advantages of Tracking and Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 12.3.1 Reactive Quality management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 12.3.2 Proactive Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 12.4

Tracking and Tracing in practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

12.5

Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

10

Contents

13 Optimization of Supply Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1 Increasing variety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Change of the demands on business processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 New business processes require new technologies . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 Advantages of RFID employment across the board . . . . . . . . . . 13.5 Further development options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

158 158 159 161 162 164

14 Vehicle logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1 Special requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2 Technical basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Application scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3.1 Utilization at automobile groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3.2 Fleet management for public local transport . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3.3 Dock and yard management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

167 167 168 169 170 172 174

15 RFID at the airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1 Processes in airport logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 Areas of use for RFID in airport logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2.1 Process optimization on the airside and landside . . . . . . . . 15.2.2 RFID on container transport container transport systems . 15.2.3 RFID BagTag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2.4 RFID-supported servicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2.5 Improvement in the catering area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2.6 RFID in Cargo Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2.7 Advantages due to RFID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3 Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

177 177 180 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 186

16 Postal automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1 Auto ID in postal logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 RFID – the innovative Auto ID technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2.1 RFID-based application systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3.1 Printable transponders with polymer technology . . . . . . . . 16.3.2 RFID transponders with visual, readable information . . . . 16.3.3 “Internet of things” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3.4 RFID in future postal logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

188 189 191 193 196 196 196 196 197

17 RFID in hospitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1 Potential of RFID in the health sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2 Reference projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2.1 Jacobi Medical Center and Klinikum Saarbruecken . . . . . . . 17.2.2 MedicAlert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2.3 “Klinikum rechts der Isar” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

198 198 199 199 200 201 11

Contents

17.3 17.4 17.5

The economical value of RFID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 RFID in the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Part 4: How to proceed? 18 RFID – printed on a roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1 Protection of trade marks with printed electronics and RFID . 18.1.1 Trade mark protection for flawless mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1.2 Dine without disgust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1.3 Identifiability creates clarity in the supply chain . . . . . . . . 18.2 Technological basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3 Possible solutions using printed RFID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

210 211 211 212 212 213 215

19 RFID and sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2 Technical basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2.1 Schematic structure of RFID sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2.2 Decentralized sensor data storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2.3 Systems available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2.4 Central sensor data storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3 Initial applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3.1 Temperature monitoring for blood preserves . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3.2 Quality assurance for worldwide container transports . . . 19.4 Possible future applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4.1 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4.2 Temperature and relative air humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4.3 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

217 217 218 218 219 219 222 223 223 224 224 224 225 225

20 RFID security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1 Data protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1.1 Personal profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1.2 External attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2 Information security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2.1 Protection of saved data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2.2 Protection of data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3 Classic protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3.1 Symmetrical encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3.2 Problems in the use of symmetrical encryption . . . . . . . . . 20.4 Protection against complex threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.4.1 Creation of RFID clones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.4.2 Protection measures by means of certificate-based solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

227 227 228 228 230 230 230 231 231 232 233 233

12

234

Contents

20.4.3 Asymmetric cryptography and PKI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 20.4.4 RFID and PKI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 20.5 Security in RFID standardization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 21

Epilogue: En route to the “internet of things” . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Editor and authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Index

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

13

1 Introduction

Holger Schoenherr

The effort put forth to clearly and unambiguously describe objects and persons in our vicinity is as old as humankind. Names are a central element of all cultures and languages and are the root of our personal identity. Names create a basis for the targeted exchange of information: they form an access index for a specific quantity of information about an individual or item. Names can, therefore, be defined as information that is allocated to a person, an item, an organizational unit, or a term in turn enabling its/their identification and individualization. The machine readability of the name and its symbolization play a central role in the automation of business processes. Therefore, innumerable items bear machine-readable individual descriptions such as plain text, barcodes, or electronically stored information: goods on a supermarket shelf, post consignments, machine parts, workpieces, transport containers, or ID card documents. Automatic identification includes the assignment, allocation, transmission, and processing of these descriptions. The results are then available for informational purposes, further analyses, statistics, control tasks, and for decisionmaking. It is essential that the processes and conditions from the real world are directly depicted in the world of information systems (IT). This results in enormous advantages for the entire value-added chain from production via logistics to the consumer. Today, optical codes are the most common with an estimated share of 75 % of the total occurrence of identification systems. Symbols are captured by scanners that beam the barcode and measure the light reflected. The information included is decoded and processed by IT systems. In addition to the reflection principle, there are also scanners that function similarly to a digital camera. A world without optical codes is hardly conceivable any more. In the meantime, there are some 50 common specifications that are structured in a one-dimensional or multidimensional way, depending on their application, in which they require differing amounts of space and vary in their stor14

1 Introduction

age capacity. Billions of objects are marked in this manner; prominent examples include the barcodes on the articles in supermarkets. However, 2D and Data Matrix Codes have been established in industrial manufacturing processes. The reasons for this are the high storage density, robustness, and attachment options on a multitude of surfaces. A detailed explanation of the current state of the technology is covered in Chapter 3. In addition to optical systems, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) also plays a decisive role. The Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) is recognized as the most important pioneer of this radio technology. When he postulated “Maxwell’s equations”, named after him, he did not suspect the speed at which radio technology would expand during the subsequent centuries (Fig. 1.1). In addition to other excellent scientists such as Heinrich Rudolf Hertz and Guglielmo Marchese Marconi, Maxwell was largely responsible for providing the basic contribution to the description of the entity, spread, and transmission of electromagnetic waves. The phenomenon of transmitting signals through the “airwaves” enabled humankind to push forward to new communication dimensions: the radio age had commenced. However, also in view of the huge steps forward, the idea of tiny, radio-emitting devices on items was dismissed as utopia up until well into the 20th century. Since 2000, RFID has gained a high level of recognition, although this technology has already established and proven itself for several years in industry and company logistics. This has to do with the storing of information directly on physical objects using mobile data carriers. The data can then be read and written wirelessly.

Fig. 1.1 With the equations named after him, James Clerk Maxwell also laid the foundations for RFID (Photo: Pixtal)

15

1 Introduction

1.1 Historical Development What use does wireless communication with items have? One response was born during the Second World War. In unclear air-to-air encounters, one’s own aircraft and the enemy’s aircraft were frequently confused, which resulted in fatal consequences. That is why scientists from the US Navy research laboratory (NRL) as well as British experts started working on a system to distinguish allies and enemies in 1937. When the radar signal from the ground station strikes a device that is located onboard it responds with a code and transmits it to the interrogator ground station’s radar frequency. The analysis of this information enabled the identification of all aircraft, in turn distinguishing between allies and enemies. Because the device transmits and responds, it was called the transponder, which is a description that has been maintained up to present times for the RFID data carriers. The further-developed forms of the transponder are now onboard all aircraft today and are essential for air traffic control as well as the effective management of flight progress (Fig. 1.2). With this view, we have approached the most important aspects of RFID. Communication is wireless, in which there is no need for a visual connection. No manual operation is required, in which the information that was previously stored is transmitted. Processes that to date were complex and not transparent have become transparent as a result. On the other hand, this provides the opportunity for a targeted exertion of influence. Admittedly, the first transponders were as large as a suitcase, correspondingly heavy and were high energy consumers. Developments in the field of transmission technology, integrated circuits, and semiconductor technology soon made them significantly smaller and at the same time this led to higher performance transponders. At the

Fig. 1.2 The basic principle of RFID is still used for the identification of aircraft today. This simple transponder can transmit a four-digit code as well as the aircraft’s altitude (Photo: Garmin Ltd.)

16

1.1 Historical Development

Fig. 1.3 We can no longer envisage today’s commerce without barcodes – as shown here at a modern scanner checkout counter. (Photo: Wincor Nixdorf)

outset of the 1970s, article surveillance systems were introduced in sales rooms. To begin with, single-bit transponders were used, in which, technically speaking, they were simple LC elements that only displayed their presence in the read field. If a customer “forgot” to pay for an article, a high-pitched beep reminds them when passing through the scanner gate at the exit. Such devices are installed in virtually all department stores nowadays. At about the same time, barcodes were implemented as an optical identification system for commerce. In 1974, Wrigley’s chewing gum was the first product marked with a barcode that was machinescanned in supermarkets. The triumphal march of the barcode and standards connected with it such as the European Article Number (EAN) were inexorable (Fig. 1.3). Therefore, the barcode only needed a little less time for wide scale market penetration than RFID, because the first barcode patent was already applied in the USA in 1949. At the beginning of the 1980s, applications for marking livestock arrived and consequently the use of RFID for individualization spread. As opposed to article surveillance systems, a comparatively large memory is required for these transponders, enabling the storage of data such as an unambiguous number or the animal’s date of birth. The USA and Norway developed RFID-based toll systems. RFID was also introduced in production work for manufacturing controlling. The first industrial RFID systems, such as Moby M from Siemens, were still designed as active components from a device-related view17

1 Introduction

Fig. 1.4 Siemens has provided RFID to industry for 25 years: on the left-hand side “Moby M” from 1983, and on the right-hand side the current Simatic RF300 system.

point (Fig. 1.4), for which a battery provided the energy that was required to operate the internal circuit elements of the transponders. Despite this, the range was only a few centimeters. With the foundation of the AutoID Lab at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), a new chapter in the history of RFID technology was opened. RFID literally became the synonym for automatic identification and for the automatic transparency of logistical processes. The terms “internet of things” and “RFID” have been inseparably connected since then. The target: a global solution for the comprehensive tracking of articles based on a biunique number. All articles according to this approach are equipped, by the manufacturer, with an RFID transponder, in turn enabling automatic recording all along the supply chain. The data gained reflects the status of the full supply chain at all times and thereby enabling its comprehensive optimization. This concept is based on very low cost and at the same time high-performance disposable transponders, the so-called Smart labels with sufficient memory and a range of several meters. Furthermore, a global data standard – the Electronic Product Code (EPC) – and a global IT system for the provision of individual product information are defined.

1.2 Proven in several applications Auto ID and RFID are effective as backbone technologies for the future global economy. There are various reasons that make wide scale introduction a necessity. Therefore, the worldwide export of articles 18

1.2 Proven in several applications

grew four times faster than production in 2005, when measured related to the gross national income (GNI). Added value cycles spread out worldwide, in turn adapting to the changing market requirements highly dynamically. Competition among companies is global; static supplier relationships give way to dynamic sourcing, which is controlled via the Internet. Therefore, for example, in the automotive industry the manufacturers’ own real net output ratio will drop from 35 % in 2006 to 25 % in 2015. However, the structure of added value changes. The deliveries to date predominantly consisted of similar type components. However the trend now is towards knowledgebased supplies. In addition to automotive engineering, the aircraft industry also exemplifies this. Here, complete segments or assemblies are delivered prefabricated. Agility, fast reaction times, and the ability to react flexibly to the end manufacturer’s changes form the basic requirements of all suppliers. Finally, the customers’ requirements regarding the products’ increase – similar articles that are “mass produced” become less and less accepted, especially for high-price technological articles. This development towards “mass customization” requires vast consistency of the processes – from design to production. The logistics chain also plays a decisive role. Deliveries must arrive at the customer’s location as was ordered and be coordinated with precise timing in the correct order – only in this way is it possible to realize the just in time and just in sequence concepts. The systems for automatic identification are also essential here. Wireless automatic identification is already “state-of-the-art” for production technology in many cases. Automatic control of the production processes based on individual object data is the focus for these applications. For example, spray robots in automotive engineering are controlled dependent on the car body shape (e.g. cut-out for a sunroof) (Fig. 1.5). In brief: the products bear all the information for their processing and assembly. This enables the implementation of fully new, decentral manufacturing controlling concepts. The automatic recommencement of manufacturing using the status information that is directly stored on the workpiece is a further advantage. The data carriers that are used are robust and move in closed loops with the workpieces or workpiece carriers. At the end of a run, the data are saved, the transponder is deleted, and then sent into the next circulation. If the number of runs increases, the cost share of a transponder per run is naturally reduced. Therefore, such applications often pay off within less than two years. Foodstuffs, drugs, and technical components are three completely different application areas. For example, the full integrity of the pro19

1 Introduction

Fig. 1.5 Where vehicles are painted in the automobile industry, RFID has shown to be “state-of-the-art” for several years now. (Photo: Duerr AG)

duct is essential within the pharmaceuticals supply chain. It must be guaranteed that the correct and, above all, original drug is provided to the patient. The term “E-Pedigree” describes the “electronic family tree” of such products. Moreover, gapless proof of the origin and stations of the supply chain will become compulsory in the future. This is only possible if automatic identification technology is used. The 2D code is favored at item level and RFID at the box and pallet levels. However, current experiments in the pharmaceuticals industry are also directed at testing the performance capability of RFID at item level. One reason for this is that RFID could also be used as an electronic authentication certificate. Furthermore, the administration of assets is one of the most promising areas for the application of RFID. Here, above all, it is a question of the stock optimization of the transporter wagons, circulatory containers, and tools required. On the one hand, sufficient quantities of these assets must be available in order to be able to produce and supply. On the other hand, assets are fixed capital with no direct yield, in turn making it desirable to strive for the lowest possible stock. Thanks to RFID, the life cycle can be reconstructed without a gap and for assets that leave the area of accessibility of a company with a clear statement that can be made as to where an asset is located. In addition, thanks to the RFID transponders on various objects, it is also possible to add further processes to RFID-supported asset management, and thereby further increasing the profitability of this respective solution. 20

1.3 Innovation as a driver

Moreover, numerous specialized RFID and Auto ID applications can be found in individual industries. The identification of patients in the healthcare sector, management of supply logistics for automobile manufacturers, or controlling luggage transport platforms at airports are just some selected examples.

1.3 Innovation as a driver The history of automatic identification is marked by constant innovation. All new developments enable new applications. However, at the same time restrictions such as the read rate remain. Things that we could not possibly dream of 10 years ago are a reality today. Additionally, today’s problems are resolved tomorrow, by using elegant solutions. Technologists and scientists work on varied topics of which three should be emphasized here. One of the most important objections to the mass use of RFID transponders today is the data carrier costs. One possible approach to the solution to this is the use of printed electronic circuits. The materials that are used are polymers with semiconductor properties. The advantage: the integrated circuit of an RFID data carrier can be produced in just one single process step. That saves on costs and smoothes the way for transponders in the 1 cent range. The enrichment of RFID with additional functions results in a new dimension of applications. Today, sensors for recording ambient parameters, such as temperature, pressure, and acceleration are already combined with RFID transponders. These are the first three steps to autonomous, intelligent systems that interact with their environment. We envisage transponders in the future that make decisions independently that are based on ambient data. Within the course of decentralization and mobilization of information, fully new aspects of data security become increasingly important. If, for example, RFID transponders are used as an authentication proof for drugs, it must be technically impossible to copy the microchip included. The use of asymmetrical cryptography in passive lowcost transponders is beneficial here. However, the inventiveness of engineers and scientists is not merely restricted to the radio protocols or the chip design. On the contrary, the promising linkage of a long range and acceptable storage capacity along with the lowest transponder prices also make fully new archi21

1 Introduction

tecture in production and logistics systems conceivable. The key word “internet of things” makes the exact direction clear: towards distributed, autonomous systems that do without a central control component, which is similar to the Internet. The mobility of the data achieved by Auto ID and RFID forms the basis of a new development step in the design of those complex systems that are increasingly affecting our lives.

22

Part 1

Technical Fundamentals

2 RFID technology

Dieter Horst

The abbreviation RFID has also been current outside professional circles for a few years. The massive spread of these systems in trade and logistics and not least the hype triggered by UHF-RFID helped the term on its way to the IT press and even to daily newspapers. But what does this term actually mean?

2.1 What is an RFID system? RFID stands for Radio Frequency Identification – unfortunately, this is not very meaningful. Therefore, I propose the following definition: An RFID system comprises of at least one reading device and one mobile data storage unit that can be read contactlessly by a reading device using a high frequency transfer procedure.

Transponder

Reader device

Energy Transmitter

Receiver

Data

Data

Fig. 2.1 Illustration of an RFID system

24

2.2 The components of an RFID system

Even if the term Reader purely indicates reading alone, reading devices can generally also write in practice. All RFID systems have a common factor: the data are transferred using high frequencies, that is to say, by using electromagnetic waves. In several cases, even the energy required for reading or writing the data storage unit is also transferred and thereby reduces the manufacturing expense for the transponder to a minimum. Various terms are used in connection with the processing of transponders, which provide information about the application: • Identification: Here we mean the recognition of a transponder, the simplest variant of an RFID system. Often, read-only systems for which the transponder manufacturer allocates a series number (ID) that is linked by the user to the object to be identified. • Mobile data storage unit: This form of identification can frequently be found among industrial applications. The principle is that all the important data are saved and updated as required in the transponder and, therefore, on the object to be identified. For this purpose, an RFID system is required that on the one hand enables writing and reading, and on the other hand provides a larger data volume. The user memories here are all in the region of several 10 Kbytes, which is more than sufficient for many practical applications. • Locating: A special type of the RFID system is used to locate objects (Real Time Location System, RTLS). These systems’ decisive property is the provision of location information for an object (in addition to its identification). However, the determination of the location information is technically rather expensive.

2.2 The components of an RFID system 2.2.1 Reading device There are several synonymous terms for the RFID reading device: Read-Write device, Scanner, Reader, and Interrogator. The terms scanner and reader should not be taken too literally as the devices can normally also write. The reading device has the task of accepting commands from the higher-ranking controller and executing them independently. Fig. 2.2 shows the most important reader components. 25

2 RFID technology

Interfaces

Digital part

Analog part

RS-232

μC FPGA DSP

Transmitter

RAM FLASH

Receiver

Ethernet Dig. I/O LED

Fig. 2.2 Block diagram of a reading device

Digital part Generally, a microcontroller takes over the control of the reading device. The processing power can differ widely here, varying from an 8bit microcontroller via digital signal processors (DSPs) or programmable logic (FPGA) up to a 32-Bit processor with a real-time operating system. Here it becomes apparent that reading devices frequently deal with far more complex tasks than merely reading a transponder. Finally, the application decides what performance capability is required. Analog part Considerable parts of the robustness and performance capability of an RFID reading device are determined by the analog circuitry. The response signals from transponders are nearly always very weak. Therefore, a high-performing receiver that can deal with both weak signals and various interferences is the centerpiece of a good reader. The transmission signal is also generated in the analog part. At the same time, it is important to ensure that the transmitter provides a signal that is as “clean” as possible, i.e. free of phase noise and spurious emissions. This is important for the performance capability, avoidance of disturbances, and adherence to legal stipulations. The transmitter must also be thermally stable and robust: for example, the removal of the antenna during operation must not cause damage to the transmitter. The transmitter output can be up to 10 W. Interfaces The major task of RFID reading devices is communication. Therefore, they often have several interfaces (Fig. 2.3):

26

2.2 The components of an RFID system

• Serial interfaces (RS232, RS422) are the most common. They are necessary to connect the device to a PC or a programmable logic controller control (mostly via multifunctional communication modules). • The Ethernet interface is becoming increasingly common, whether as the standard variant that is known from the world of IT or as a robust industrial version with real-time capability. Especially in logistics, the Ethernet is highly significant as it integrates particularly easily into IT systems. • Digital inputs are frequently used to trigger a read process, for example, by using proximity switches, infrared sensors, and photoelectric barriers. This can minimize the mutual disturbances as the reader only transmits if a transponder is nearby. It is also, therefore, possible to increase the maximum passage speed of the object as the reading device can execute the read process without any time delay. • Digital outputs are important for RFID access control systems (activating the opener) and logistics applications (traffic lights to indicate a successful read process). A digital output should be robust, able to cope with short circuits, and provide some output power, in turn enabling the desired devices to be connected. • LEDs can also be regarded as an optical interface. When commissioning or troubleshooting, it is rather useful if certain conditions such as “Transponder in the field” or “Communication error” are displayed directly on the device.

Fig. 2.3 Interfaces on an RFID reading device

27

2 RFID technology

2.2.2 Antennas All RFID readers have one antenna or more. They serve to emit the transmission output in a suitable manner and to record the transponder signal and supply it to the receiver. In some cases, separate antennas are used for transmission and reception. However, normally just one that fulfills both tasks is deemed sufficient. The style and shape of the antennas are as varied as the areas of use for RFID. The major factors are the desired application (e.g. required reading distance, grouping ability), the required protective category (e. g. resistance to dust, water, temperatures, shock/vibration), the data carriers used, and their storage capacity as well as the RFID technology and frequency used. Fig. 2.4 demonstrates the considerable differences: in the background there is an antenna for 13.56 MHz, which is used to identify up to 44 crates in a gate configuration. On the other hand, the small handheld write and read device Simatic RF310R with an internal antenna reads a data carrier that is only the size of a button. Normally, the antenna is connected to the reader via a 50 Ohm coaxial cable. When the devices are installed and operated, always ensure careful handling of the antenna cables, as bends or crushing will change their impedance, causing excessive attenuation and can in the end reduce the performance of the RFID system.

Fig. 2.4 Comparison of the HF systems Simatic RF310R with Moby D ANT NF (in the background)

28

2.2 The components of an RFID system

2.2.3 Transponders There are several terms that describe the RFID data storage unit: mobile data storage unit (MDS), tag, label, Smart label, and radio label. Its actual task is best described by using the made-up word transponder. It consists of the English verbs “transmit” and “respond” and describes the property of the RFID data storage unit, responding to inquiry signals. Only very few systems differ from this principle and transmit actively without requests. The simplest form of transponder consists of a chip and an antenna. More complex forms use external memory and further additional circuits, depending on the requirements.

Fig. 2.5 A selection of various transponders

Communication between the reading device and transponder takes place via the so-called air interface, which determines exactly how and with which commands the data exchange takes place. Air interfaces are often standardized in order to make the products of various suppliers interoperable (cf. Chapter 6). The great variety of transponder models is shown in Fig. 2.5. The large, heat-resistant transponder MDS U589 is illustrated on the top left-hand side. It weighs 600 grams and can handle temperatures of up to 220° C (cyclic). In contrast to this, the only 10 × 4.5 mm large “Pill” is illustrated at the front center, a tool data carrier that can be installed flush in metal, e.g. for the identification of milling heads in tool machines.

29

2 RFID technology

2.3 Classification of RFID systems 2.3.1 Passive systems For passive RFID systems, the transponder does not have its own energy source: energy is fed to most systems externally. Normally this takes place via high-frequency transmission, in rare cases also via light, sound, pressure, temperature, or other mechanisms. Special models of passive systems require no energy at all, in which they are simply based on physical effects. While the development of a high-performance passive transponder requires quite some effort, this principle provides a number of advantages: • It is easy to produce the transponder (only a chip and an antenna are required) • They have a virtually unrestricted life cycle and are service-free (no battery) • They can be extremely miniaturized • Very low costs are possible (to the order of < 0.10 euros) Systems with inductive coupling in the LF/HF range The oldest RFID systems are based on energy transfer via a high-frequency magnetic field with inductive coupling, i.e. using the transformation principle. Fig. 2.6 shows the principle: The transmitter in the reading device drives current through the antenna coil, thereby creating a high-frequency magnetic field. Alternating voltage is produced in the transponder coil by induction and is available for operating the transponder chip after rectification. Data is transferred to the reader via load modulation. At the same time, a resistive load is switched to the antenna coil in the transponder according to the modulation of data. This results in a voltage drop at the reader’s transmission coil – albeit minimal – can be detected and analyzed in the reader electronics (receiver). The frequencies that are usually used are 125 kHz (LF) or 13.56 MHz (HF), as these bands are especially attractive combined with the high permissible output power and they can be used worldwide. Read ranges in excess of one meter can be accomplished. However, at the same time large antenna coils are required (e.g. 60 × 80 cm), which 30

2.3 Classification of RFID systems

Inductive coupling

Transmitter

Antenna

~

Resonant circuit

Tag chip

Logic

Receiver

Fig. 2.6 Inductive coupling

definitely creates a problem for some applications. It is necessary to resort to different technology such as UHF in this case. Their easily predictable field behavior is a frequently underestimated property of inductive systems. This is important if it comes down to reading transponders in a defined range. As the reader’s magnetic field drops very rapidly at increasing distances (with the third exponent), on the one hand there is a really small transitional range (where the transponder is still or no longer recorded), and above all not overshooting. This makes the technology very interesting for industrial applications if, for example, several readers are installed in assembly lines within a restricted space. Mutual disturbances and overshooting are virtually excluded, making the systems extremely reliable. Systems with electromagnetic coupling in the UHF range Whereas the UHF range (300-3,000 MHz) used to be more or less exclusively dominated by active or semi-active systems, passive RFID transponders have also been on the market since around 2003. Philips (now NXP Semiconductors) was one of the forerunners with the UCODE family, which was standardized in ISO 18000-6 at a later date. Further products from various manufacturers followed suit, enabling the passive UHF system technology to spread fast. The introduction of RFID in large business groups’ supply chains had a significant influence. 31

2 RFID technology

Transponder Antenna, e.g. dipole, length typ. λ/2 ~ 15 cm

UHF reader device Transmission signal

DSP

Antenna

~

Chip

Receive signal

Fig. 2.7 Passive UHF RFID system

As opposed to the inductive systems where the magnetic field component is primarily used, the passive UHF systems are characterized by genuine electromagnetic coupling: both electrical and magnetic components are emitted. In order to be able to achieve ranges of five meters and more, a transmission output of 2 watts or more is required (regionally restricted by legal regulations). Normally, a dipole antenna is used in the transponder that couples in the wave and feeds the signal to the chip where it is rectified and provides current (Fig. 2.7). The achievable energy is very low, making modern, low-power circuit designs necessary in order to be able to use the principle at all. The transponder’s response signal is transmitted to the reader via modulated backscatter. At the same time, the chip varies the antenna’s impedance in the modulation cycle and its reflection properties as a result. Therefore, effective data transfer takes place by reflecting the signal that is transmitted. The reader must transmit an unmodulated signal (CW, continuous wave), while the transponder responds. Systems with inductive coupling in the UHF range The magnetic field component is also used in the UHF range by a new technology. The term Near Field Communication (NFC) is often used, indicating the use of the near field, which is similar to the inductive systems in the LF range. Observe the danger of confusion with the data transmission standard NFC, which is based on an RFID air interface (ISO 14443) [1]. Several advantages are achieved by using inductive coupling, such as non-sensitivity to water and a clearly limited 32

2.3 Classification of RFID systems

field, which are “paid for”, however, by an extremely low range (a few decimeters). Application is simple. The antennas from the reader and transponder must be arranged in an optimized manner for the magnetic component. Normally, small Loops are used. Fig. 2.8 shows a typical arrangement form for a near-field transponder. You can clearly recognize the loop as the antenna for the magnetic component, but also as the so-called shortened dipole (meander-shaped structure) through which the transponder can also be read over greater distances.

Fig. 2.8 Near-field-transponder (Photo: NXP Semiconductors)

The major use of the near-field transponders is for so-called item-level-tagging, or in other words for equipping individual products with RFID transponders (e.g. drugs packaging). The inductive technology also enables detection of the transponders on difficult materials such as metal (blister packaging). Separation during the read process is a further advantage because overshooting rarely occurs. This is required, for example, if used in cashier systems. Single-bit transponder Probably the oldest form of passive tagging can be found in anti-theft systems. It consists of a simple parallel resonant circuit and is read by the reading device as it varies the transmission signal over a small range, determining the voltage change for the antenna at the tag’s resonance frequency: a simple, but effective process. The tag’s information content is limited, but it suffices for its respective purpose.

33

2 RFID technology

2.3.2 Semi-active systems For semi-active RFID systems, the transponders require a battery as a power supply. However, they do not use it for active transmission. These systems are interesting if the higher requirements of the application cannot be met by passive systems, e.g. a higher range or additional functions that require more energy than can be provided by the field. Unfortunately, this coin has another side: semi-active systems are always more expensive than passive systems, have a restricted life-cycle, and also have a less favorable environmental balance because the battery normally must be disposed of as hazardous waste. Furthermore, the battery often cannot be replaced. Simple systems Systems using the technology of the semi-active transponder were already available several years ago. The simplest of these has a very simple logic circuit that has a very low power consumption and is constantly supplied with energy by the battery. Its only purpose is the uninterrupted modulation of the antenna with the bit pattern to be emitted. If the transponder reaches a high-frequency query signal (generally in the UHF range), this pattern is reflected by backscatter and analyzed in the reading device. As this process requires hardly any power, even small batteries can be used for several years. Depending on the complexity, this can bridge a distance of several meters. However, this advantage has diminished with the advent of passive UHF systems, in which such systems are becoming less significant. Complex systems The use of an additional energy source on the transponder makes more sense if a considerably broader scope of system performance is required. For example, this can be necessary in order to provide large storage capacity for achieving high data transfer rates with particularly robust transmission or for combining RFID with additional sensors for measuring environmental factors, such as temperature, pressure, and acceleration (cf. Chapter 19). Moby U from Siemens is a particularly efficient semi-active system. It was especially developed for the industrial market, in particular automobile production and has performance characteristics that cannot be realized with a passive system. Its active range limiter is a unique feature. Virtually all UHF RFID systems (both active and passive) over-

34

2.4 Frequency bands and their properties

shoot, which can lead to considerable problems in industrial and logistical processes. Moby U enables the user to parameterize the desired reading range in steps of 0.5 m. Transponders that are further away are ignored. Otherwise, only locating systems (RTLS) for which the analysis of the localization data that can be used to eliminate overshooting can offer similar advantages.

2.3.3 Active systems Only very special requirements necessitate the use of genuine active systems. If even more performance is required than for semi-active systems, active transmission must take place. At the same time, active transponders are fully powered by one battery. They generate their own transmission signal, which is actively emitted to the reading device. The known users of this kind of RFID systems include locating systems (RTLS) whose major task is both the identification and determination of the location of an object.

2.4 Frequency bands and their properties The term RFID already implies one of its most important characteristics, namely the use of radio frequency to fulfill the identification task. The spectrum of the electromagnetic waves, however, is very wide; the frequencies that are used for communication can range from a few kHz to approx. 100 GHz. As these frequencies have differing properties and, therefore, influence the functionality of RFID systems decisively, “the” RFID system with “that” frequency does not exist; instead, several realizations have become established. As the use of radio transmitters – which RFID systems are counted as – are governed by mandatory regulations from national authorities, you must check whether the frequency is approved in the country of use and a valid permit is available before commissioning an RFID device. The CE-mark is important in Europe, the FCC ID in the USA (both are normally printed on the device). If you have any doubts, contact the manufacturer before switching the device on. If the regulations are violated, you may interfere with vital frequency bands (such as rescue services). The most important frequency bands for RFID and its properties are briefly listed below. 35

2 RFID technology

Low frequency: 9-148.5 kHz This range is intended for the so-called inductive applications; the interesting range for inductive RFID systems is around 119-135 kHz as very high field strengths are permissible there. In particular, systems for the identification of animals can be found in this range. However, automobile immobilizer systems also utilize this frequency. The high ranges in excess of one meter that can be realized in this area are positive. However, its proneness to disturbances near electrical engines, switching power supplies, CRT displays, and other sources of interference which cause the emission of a relatively low-frequency disturbance spectrum. High-frequency: 13.56 MHz This spectrum, which is only 14 kHz wide, is highly popular among inductive RFID systems because the high maximum field strength makes large ranges possible. However, the simple antenna design is also advantageous (only a few turns) on the reader and transponder sides. Only very heavy interferences normally result in disturbances at 13.56 MHz. The only downfall is the size of the antennas. Fig. 2.4 makes it clear of the size that is necessary in order to achieve larger ranges. Ultra-high frequency: 865-868 MHz This spectrum, which has been available in Europe for a few years, has reached high significance in the meantime. This is due to the attractive passive UHF systems that are operated in the frequency band. Especially the high permissible output power of 2 W ERP in Europe or 4 W EIRP in the USA makes options possible that were only open to the semi-active systems (at corresponding high costs) before the frequency spectrum was released. The fact that this band cannot be used worldwide is a disadvantage to a certain extent. Therefore, the US equivalent is 902-928 MHz and the Japanese spectrum is established at 952-954 MHz. This increases technical expenditure as well as the costs for certification and approvals for the reading devices. On the other hand, transponders can be designed using broadband, in turn enabling their international use.

36

2.4 Frequency bands and their properties

Microwaves: 2400-2483.5 MHz Although this classical “microwave” band has many users (including WLAN), it is also attractive for RFID. The high bandwidth is the most important advantage, as it enables radio technology that cannot be realized in other spectrums. Therefore, the signals fluctuating due to interference (fading) can be avoided. Very high bit rates and the measurement of propagation time between transmission and return (e.g. for RTLS) are also possible. The low output power that is deemed permissible is disadvantageous and normally results in the transponders having to be equipped with batteries. References [1] Jari-Pascal Curty et.al.: Design and Optimization of Passive UHF RFID Systems. Springer 2007

37

3 Optical codes

Kirsten Drews

For some 40 years, there has been a constantly increasing requirement to label items in industry and trade with automatically readable markings and, therefore, to enable identification during the course of the entire production process and the supply chain up to the end customer.

3.1 Success and limits of barcodes The greatest success so far was the linear codes (also: 1D codes, Barcodes), for example, the EAN codes on sales packaging. However, barcodes display some very distinct restrictions, maintaining the need for further developed technology: • Analog data encoding (measurement of the bar widths and spacing) • High space requirements, above all for the width for larger data quantities • Use of labels that are necessary or a restriction on printing on paper or plastic • Poor data security • Reading that is only possible from one direction or omni-directional scanning that is only possible with expensive additional measures. In addition to the developments in the field of radio technology (RFID), optical encoding technologies were also researched further. Piled linear codes, such as PDF417 or Codablock, or the even more effective two-dimensional digital codes (also the so-called Matrix codes, 2D codes), can achieve the following objectives: • Reduction of required space • Simplification of omni-directional reading 38

3.2 Standards regarding the 2D code

• Tolerance regarding low contrasts due to digital encoding (binary code) • Increasing the codable data volume and • Increasing the read security by employing high-performance error correction processes. Moreover, processes were found to apply matrix codes directly to the workpiece by using various different effective marking processes. This hindered loss of the codes, ensuring high robustness against external influences during the product’s life cycle. This saves also the cost for the label application. The term Direct Part Marking (DPM) was established for this direct marking of the workpieces and merchandise.

3.2 Standards regarding the 2D code According to a study by the Fraunhofer-Institut [1] covering nearly 100 companies in Germany, standards have a particularly high standing for users of Auto ID technology as they ensure the free availability of a technology on the market at reasonable prices, comparability of components, and their compatibility above and beyond company boundaries and continents. NASA proved to be a driver of the technology for several years. Research took place in collaboration with manufacturers of marking and coding processes in the Symbology Research Center in Huntsville, Alabama, which was jointly founded by NASA and CiMatrix Corp., Massachusetts in 1997 within the scope of a “Space Act Agreement”. The focus was to find a highly compact and secure marking solution that does not use labels. Two NASA documents were the result of these activities, the “Standard for applying Data Matrix Identification Symbols on Aerospace Parts” (NASA-STD-6002) and the manual “Application of Data Matrix Identification Symbols to Aerospace Parts using Direct Part Marking Methods/Techniques” (NASA-HDBK-6003).

3.2.1 Technology standards However, the essential organization for standardization of 2D codes just as for RFID technology is the international specialists’ association AIM Global (Association for Automatic Identification and Mobility). In addition to several known barcodes, in the meantime nearly ten dif39

3 Optical codes

a)

b)

c)

Fig. 3.1 Examples of 2D codes: QR Code (a), Data Matrix ECC200 (b), and Aztec Code (c)

ferent 2D codes have been standardized by AIM. These include the code types Aztec, QR code, Maxi code, Dot code A, Code one, and the Data Matrix Code in the ECC000-140 and ECC200 variants (Fig. 3.1). You can also download code specifications for several stacked barcodes and combined code types from the AIM website (www.aimglobal.org). Data Matrix ECC200 has been implemented the most so far.

3.2.2 Application standards In addition to the technical standards, several applications are also based on the Data Matrix Code. On the one hand, subsequent to NASA’s activities, the US Department of Defense, DoD, has decided to prescribe a binding requirement on its suppliers that all expensive, serialized, inventoried expendable components that are decisive for the use or placing of an order are identified with coded data content according to the prescribed regulations based on the Data Matrix Code ECC200. This specification is known as the UID (Unique Identification) MIL-STD-130 and is being introduced worldwide following several additions to the specification. Also the Data Matrix Code ECC200 contains a unique identifier worldwide. On the other hand, Data Matrix Code was approved by GS1 as an additional option for use as an EAN code. The so-called EAN Data Matrix is viewed as especially appropriate for use on small items, for example in the jewelry or cosmetics sectors. In the healthcare sector, the EHIBC (European Health Industry Business Communication Council) and GS1 force the use of different processes when standardizing the coding standards, each of which pro40

3.3 Data Matrix Code features

vides alternatives to using barcodes, matrix codes, and RFID. At the end of 2007, GS1 reported that the European medical technology association EUCOMED decided to adopt the GS1 coding – a combination of EAN 128 and the EAN Data Matrix.

3.3 Data Matrix Code features Matrix codes consist of similar-sized elements or cells and a search pattern. The data are coded in the binary depiction as dark or bright cells as opposed to barcodes where the spacing between as well as the width of the lines is decisive for their respective meaning. Matrix codes can also still be interpreted in case of slight contrast differences. The different matrix codes vary in several of their parameters, e.g. fixed or variable size, error correction options, the type of search pattern, the cell form or codable data quantity, and in the symbol sets that are supported.

3.3.1 Data Matrix Code structure The objective of developing the Data Matrix code was to create a dynamically changeable code in terms of its size (dependent on the space available), the resolution of the marking process and the reading conditions, and with reference to a square or right-angled format. Furthermore, the code should enable the storage of high data quantities within the smallest possible space. This was achieved by designing the search pattern for finding the code fast as well as simultaneously functioning as an indicator for the number of cells, columns, and the size of the matrix elements. This made the code size scaleable as desired (resolution-dependent). At the same time, you can select either a square or right-angled form of depiction. For better structuring and readability, the search patterns are re-inserted above a certain data quantity, forming a basic pattern by combining 4 × 4 or 16 × 16 Data Matrix Codes. The L-shaped finder border (Fig. 3.2) serves to detect the location of the code quickly in the image after image recording by using a search algorithm. At the same time, the code can be at any position in the image. Following this, the frequency pattern is determined by using the opposite pattern of the alternating border regarding what num41

3 Optical codes

Alternating border

Finder border, solid border

Data area

Fig. 3.2 Data Matrix code structure

ber of rows and columns are to be expected in the data area, and also determining, therefore, the size of the cells. By default, the code is depicted in black on a white background. However, an inverse depiction with white on a black background is also permissible. The standard requires a quiet zone of one cell’s width minimum around the code in order to cleanly separate the code and background. The number of columns and lines ranges from a 10 × 10 matrix to a maximum of 144 × 144 columns and lines. The largest rectangular version has 16 lines and 48 columns. The majority of Data Matrix codes that are used is in the region of up to 48 × 48 cells. One of the Data Matrix’ special strengths is that the code can be applied to a part directly using various marking processes, that is to say, without a label. However, the standard’s requirements here can very often not be adhered to without incurring very high costs. Therefore, the actual directly marked codes seldom correspond 100 % to the standard. Depending on the form of the background, for example concave or convex, distortions occur. The marking systems are not set ideally or the backgrounds are not prepared accordingly, in turn resulting in cells that are too large or small or create scratches and changes to the background color. Moreover, it is a special challenge to read 2D codes with an image processing system that must tolerate additional influences, e.g. material reflections, trapezoid-shaped distortions due to sloping angles of viewing or shadows that are cast by uneven surfaces.

3.3.2 Codable data with Data Matrix ECC200 Data Matrix Codes support a wide range of coding schemes that also determine the codable data quantity. The coding schemes available are ASCII, Text, C40, ANSI X12, EDIFACT, and Base 256. The use of special code words enables switching between the symbol sets or to special coding, such as the EAN Data 42

3.3 Data Matrix Code features

Matrix. As for the code word 232, the data structure of the Data Matrix code would correspond to the EAN 128 Standard.

Table 3.1 Quantity structure of the codable characters for Data Matrix ECC200 Number: Lines × Columns

Figures 0-9

Alphanumerical (0-9, a-z, spaces)

8 bit ASCII (byte 0-255)

10 × 10

6

3

1

48 × 48

348

259

172

144 × 144

3116

2335

1556

The QR and Aztec 2D codes also enable the coding of a similar data quantity and are, therefore, equally suitable for data management on an object as in data matrix. This distinguishes these codes clearly from the barcodes that have the primary task of coding an identifier and the recourse to a centrally held database that is associated with it. 2D codes, therefore, push forward into the area that is typically an RFID technology strength, namely remote carrying of data on the object. However, a considerable advantage of the RFID technology is that the data carriers can be re-written several times over.

3.3.3 Error correction and security aspects One of the most fundamental differentiation features between 2D codes and barcodes is their far-reaching capability to recognize errors and to correct them. This capability is also described by using the term ECC for “Error Correcting Code”. It is already possible to correct the Data Matrix codes ECC000 to ECC140 to a certain extent. However, ECC200 is the only Data Matrix code that utilizes the powerful ReedSolomon (RS) algorithm for error recognition and correction. One of the RS process’ particular strengths is that it also provides good results in case of burst or block errors. This is practically relevant because, despite the data bytes being spread over the entire data field in case of the soiling of the code, several bits belonging to a character are affected together. Consequentially, the data coding for the Data Matrix code includes redundancies. A 10 × 10 Data Matrix code as such already requires five error bytes for coding three data bytes, but can then correct more serious faults on more than 50 % of the data field. The data to error bytes ratio improves considerably for larger codes. However, it is always ensured 43

3 Optical codes

that up to 28 % of the data field can be faulty without an incorrect reading resulting. We must observe that smaller faults of the finder and frequency edge can also result in non-reading as they are not included in the error correction process. In this case, the ability to compensate for such errors primarily depends on the reading capabilities of the camera systems. 2D codes also meet high demands pertaining to data consistency and availability with their direct marking options. Mechanically effective marking processes also ensure that towards the end of a product life cycle, the code can be found and remains readable. In cases where labels or RFID tags have failed, for example with medical instruments that are sterilized hundreds of times over, 2D codes have proven their suitability. In the future, a fully different kind of security view should not remain unobserved in the eyes of industry. If the availability of appropriate reading devices was still a restricting factor in the past due to relatively high prices, nowadays several mobile phones with a camera and decoding algorithms can easily be re-equipped as 2D code reading systems. Hacker attacks and unauthorized access to company data are simplified due to this. Therefore, it makes sense to utilize cryptographic processes for security in those cases involving sensitive data.

3.4 Application and marking methods 3.4.1 Application of labels Generally, printing a label under controlled conditions leads to print results closer to standards and comparatively high contrasts. This considerably simplifies the requirements of the reading systems, making the respective use of inexpensive devices possible. A further advantage of labels is that the material properties as opposed to some mechanical marking processes are not changed. However, robust, durable availability requires expensive label material. In particular when dealing with high quantities, the cost for highquality and at the same time reasonably durable labels play a significant role. In this case, it is worthwhile to check for alternative options for direct marking of objects.

44

3.4 Application and marking methods

3.4.2 Direct marking processes Initially, it has to be checked if the object to be marked changes its mechanical sturdiness due to the marking process. If this is the case, e.g. for heavily burdened workpieces or very thin materials, then some processes such as drilling or laser etching by removal cannot be used. Furthermore, the material must basically be suitable for the marking means selected. The manufacturers of the marking devices with their extensive experience with most of the materials are the appropriate partners for analyzing suitable materials. Alternatively, we recommend carrying out respective tests. Below we have selected some of the many possible methods for direct workpiece and product marking. Printing Direct marking using inkjet printing has stood the test of time on many different materials such as paper and cardboard packaging and collapsible boxes, wood, cork, ceramics, stone, and some metals. As the ink is only applied to the surface of the material, the marking has no effect on the material properties. High-performance thermotransfer printers that transfer the ink to the material via an ink ribbon, which is systematically heated, offer an alternative to inkjet printers. Although these printers do not permit such high material speeds, they are nonetheless suitable for matrix codes due to their high resolution. Laser printers, which are familiar to us from their use in our offices, also meet the requirements for printing 2D codes. However, they are primarily used for document management when printing on paper. Laser labeling The best known process for laser use is engraving, which changes the surface of the object mechanically by material removal. The high-impact laser beam evaporates the material in a controlled manner. A cavity is formed that is made visible, rich in contrast, by using corresponding lighting. The throw-off created (material protrusions) on the sides of the engraved groove are critical as they hamper the code’s homogeneous illumination. With laser etching, the uppermost layer of several material layers is removed under laser exposure. In as far as attention was paid to a

45

3 Optical codes

good contrast between the covering layer and the base layer, an easily readable marking is thereby created. This process is used on circuit boards and special plastic labels that are suitable for use with this laser process. The color change to the material when heated is used by tempering during heat treatment. Without too strong of an effect on the material, the color change is utilized for marking, especially on metal. As opposed to engraving, this process does not create any cavities in the surface and is, therefore, well-suited for use with objects that must be kept sterile. However, such marking only remains durable if the material is not heated further because the marking can degenerate. Especially all when working with plastics, a controlled color change is desired. A suitable doping of the plastic material with the impact of the laser can achieve targeted color combinations and high contrasts. If plastic is prepared accordingly, the laser can also make an embossed marking by foaming material fractions. However, this results in fuzzy edges between the light and dark cells and can only be used successfully for large format codes. The flexibility and suitability of laser marking only has one disadvantage – the purchase costs for a laser marking system are high compared to other methods and only pay-off, if there are high quantities of the products to be marked. Pin marking Pin marking technology, which is relatively stress-free for the material, is also cheap to purchase as opposed to laser marking (Fig. 3.3). This method strikes a hard metal pin against the material with an upwards and downwards movement, providing a sequence of interconnected craters. Dotpin marking can also be used for hard metals without any problems. The low costs and speed are comparable to laser marking, which make this marking technology for matrix codes highly attractive. The craters created during pin marking are circularshaped and the displaced material is deposited at the edge of the crater in a small mound. This form leads to special challenges for reading devices as the shadows cast by the craters can sometimes be seen as rings (to their special form also known as “donuts”) and can, sometimes be seen as half-moon-shaped crescents or if the base of the crater is fully reflected, as small, bright dots in the image. Not all code reading systems are capable of recognizing and decoding such codes reliably. 46

3.4 Application and marking methods

Fig. 3.3 Effects of the lighting for pin-marked codes (left to right: 2 × dark field variants, diffused direct light)

Further alternative marking methods The processes of scribing, drilling, and etching have a major effect on the material. When drilling, take into account that the undefined backgrounds in the drilled holes can trigger rather demanding read tasks.

3.4.3 Verification of the Code Quality Testing the successful application of the code subsequent to marking is decisive for a stable process. As the quality of nearly all codes deteriorates during the life cycle, it is advised to start with the best possible code quality. The high-performance reading systems then serve as a security reserve for unexpected events or deteriorated codes, in turn guaranteeing process stability even under conditions that become less favorable. In order to achieve this, we recommend using a verification system directly after application of the marking. During the course of this verification, a code reading system carries out measurement of the code quality under constant conditions with regard to mounting and lighting arrangement, based on various parameters. These parameters are defined in several international standards. Each of the parameters is allocated to a quality level from A (excellent quality) to D (poor quality), or F (inadequate quality). The target is to stabilize as many as possible of the parameters on level A or B, with isolated exceptions in C. Quality D or F codes should not be channeled into the process. As well as recognizing that the marking process is possibly not appropriate for the material, the settings for the marking devices can also be optimized by using the values provided. If there is a sufficient understanding of the marking technology, required servicing measures for the marking systems can even be deduced from the worsen47

3 Optical codes

ing of certain parameters, e.g. a necessary tool change for a pin marker.

3.5 Reading systems and their properties 3.5.1 Components of a data matrix reading system Code reading systems include the following components: • Camera unit consisting of a lens, sensor, and image capturing unit • Lighting • Controller unit, consisting of process and communication interfaces • Housing and physical connection technology. Depending on the task, these elements can vary widely with regard to their construction form and integration. You can see this immediately when comparing stationary code reading systems and manual reading systems. However, you can also find very small reading systems among the fixed mounting systems (stationary code reading systems), where fix-focus lenses, some LEDs such as lighting, and the entire image capturing and processing unit as well as a communication interface are integrated into the housing. There are modular systems at the other end of the scale that can be supplemented flexibly with matching lighting and lenses and offer various communication interfaces. Whereas some of the devices are mainly suitable for uncomplicated, high-contrast applications, the other products are used in the area of demanding direct marking, e.g. in the automotive and aviation industries.

3.5.2 Stationary reading systems The use of stationary reading systems enables fully automatic data collection without constant monitoring or operation by a person. These fixed installed reading systems are used in several form factors: As PC-based image processing systems, intelligent cameras with a compact design, or with a remote camera head. We still must distinguish between the image processing systems that support the reading of matrix codes as a side function and pure code reading systems with a SW user interface that is exclusively optimized for the parame48

3.5 Reading systems and their properties

terization of the code read task. Moreover, there are still variants that are designed as verification systems. Compact code reading systems are the largest market segment for reading Data Matrix Codes. Fix-focus position lenses, lighting, and an analysis device are combined in one casing. The devices frequently offer a default parameter setting, making it possible, as it were, to demonstrate the reading capability for codes directly out of the box. At the same time, the user is supported by installed focusing and target aids, which also make installation on-site easier. As the demands of the reading task increase for direct markings or critical installation situations for which the read distances are not covered by fixed lenses, compact structured reach their limits, which also cannot be overcome by optimal parameter settings. The more flexible modular code reading systems enable the free selection of the lens and, therefore, a high degree of freedom regarding the distance to the object and the size of the read window. Furthermore, the lighting is offered as an externally connectable unit that can then, for example, also be positioned at a specific angle to the reading device in order to avoid total reflection (Fig. 3.4). In line with the trend to miniaturize, sub-compact reading devices with dimensions not exceeding 60 mm in any direction have also been available for a few years now. In most cases, these devices are derived from the HW technology of manual reading devices. How-

Fig. 3.4 When reading from needled Data Matrix Codes on cast iron, we recommend using contrasting lighting (Photo: W. Geyer)

49

3 Optical codes

ever, the result is the restriction of reader performance to more or less unproblematic codes and installation situations. But, as the experience of users leads to constantly better marked codes, these readers will also be used for directly marked codes. The compactness of the devices goes along with limited communication options or external interface converters, making the costs of the solution as a whole, higher.

3.5.3 Mobile reading systems If it is not possible to ensure that the same or a similar part can always be read in the same position in an identification application with 2D codes, the option of using a mobile reading system is available. The flexibility of these systems is advantageous. However, they always require an operator. Manual systems for reading 2D codes must include CCD array sensors and are frequently equipped with complex lighting mechanics, which also enable the reading of low contrast direct marks. Inexpensive systems that use a few LEDs for lighting are available on the market for reading 2D codes on paper and labels. Most of these devices can also read 1D codes and stacked codes. The restriction here is often that the code is too wide due to the rectangular shape of the image window. Occasionally combined systems can be found that overcome this problem by using a scanner as well as a CCD matrix camera to read the barcodes. In order to read directly marked 2D codes successfully, a lighting concept is required that adjusts and optimizes the light. Reading devices that are available on the market use variable lighting for this purpose, which is changeable between light-field and dark-field lighting and also the so-called “light pipes”, which utilize the reflecting properties of materials to supply light evenly from the sides.

3.5.4 Physical and technical data integration The decision to use Auto ID technology never indicates only a locally restricted application – it is always accompanied with a far-reaching change to the IT processes and data management. In particular, in case of logistics applications such as the organization of the materials flow to manufacturing, the technology quickly jumps over company limitations and requires the integration of customer and supplier data. Local use of the coded information only suffices for closed 50

3.5 Reading systems and their properties

manufacturing processes. However, this is increasingly viewed as wastage as, once applied, a 2D code is available for the entire product life cycle. Stipulations must take various viewpoints into consideration for successful integration. Some of these go beyond the requirements of RFID systems: 1. Should data management take place on the object (large code) or should the code only include an identifier and further data be kept centrally? 2. Should the code be used for process control or for documenting product tracking? 3. Should the connection to the main level take place via a programmable logic controller (PLC) or an IT system? 4. Do images of the codes or possibly also only fault patterns have to be archived or is short-term availability from the reading device’s memory sufficient? 5. Should display functionality be provided for the system operator? The most important interfaces are the connections to the other automation landscape participants (machine-machine-interface) and the user interfaces (man-machine-interface), which is briefly discussed below. Application communication interfaces Due to the limitations of barcodes, central data management is the standard for several logistics applications where the Data Matrix Code replaces a barcode. When simply upgrading a barcode scanner, connection via a serial RS232 interface often suffices. On the one hand, the code strings can be passed on securely via this interface and the reading device can be parameterized at the same time. The USB interface has similar significance. However, this assumes a PC as its communication partner. Normally, bus systems such as Industrial Ethernet or RS485 with the Profinet, Ethernet-IP, or Profibus DP protocols are already in use in the production environment. To reduce complexity, the existing bus systems are also used for connecting the code readers. Due to the high bandwidth, Industrial Ethernet is the top choice for the data-intense transmission of images. There are also systems available on the

51

3 Optical codes

market which allow data separation: parameterization and image transfer are transmitted to PCs via Industrial Ethernet and the process data are transmitted to a PLC via Profibus. In particular, if parts identification via a matrix code triggers the next processing steps, this solution can be optimal regarding the total costs. Operator interfaces The concepts used for the available code reading systems vary widely with regard to the operator interface. Most systems are supplied with parameterization software that is used to make initial system settings and in case of any faults. Many suppliers assume that code reading systems are used as barcode scanners for which also no image is required by the user during operation. Some devices provide considerably more comfort. A monitor can be connected via the integrated VGA interface to display the camera images and other analysis data – a function that is especially important in case of recognition problems. This incorporates correspondingly powerful analysis software that must become more intelligent with the fewer parameters provided. Integrated Web servers provide the option to operate the devices without using additional programs.

3.6 Achieve good read results The target of all identification tasks is to capture the data from all of the objects to be identified within as short a period as possible and fault-free. The Auto ID technology supports in this respect the avoidance of errors (for example, transmission errors in case of manual data capture) and also implementing secure reading. At the same time, a reading rate of 100 % is sought. In industrial and logistical applications, non-reading that is reported is far preferable to unnoticed faulty reading, because in case of the non-reading, the object that is in question can be phased out and subsequently recorded manually. On the other hand, faulty reading causes incorrect data stocks and even, possibly, brings production to a halt. For practical applications, the requirements of the read rate normally fluctuate between 99 % and 99.99 %. In its implementation, this means that the users accept non-reading of 100 per 10,000 parts, depending on how high the costs are for manual intervention and on the value of the marked objects. 52

3.6 Achieve good read results

3.6.1 Optimization of the optical conditions The use of a CCD camera for reading codes makes a relatively high degree of flexibility possible with regard to system installation. Neither the reading distance nor the angle are pre-defined statically and can, therefore, be optimized using the total optical system consisting of the sensor, lens, and lighting. However, the most important target is always to achieve a high read rate and this requires the observation of certain recommendations and framework conditions. The following criteria basically have a positive effect on high read rates and short decoding times: • Quality of the codes (contrast, adherence to standards (quiet zone, uninterrupted finder and alternating borders, and cell shape) • Low distortion due to placing the reading device as vertically as possible to the object’s surface and the code • Reflection-free and homogeneous code background • Stable positioning, above all with regard to the rotation of the code in the image window (several reading devices permit restriction of the search window and angle via parameters, thereby restricting the duration of the search) • Matching code size and camera resolution ratio. A ratio of at least 5 × 5 pixels per matrix cell has proven ideal for secure read results. Generally, the requirements are not excessively stringent for reading printed or laser codes on paper, labels, or other “cooperative” surfaces on which good contrasts and codes conform to the standards can be achieved. Therefore, mostly compact reading devices with integrated, ring-shaped lighting have become established for these reader tasks. Mostly these devices also have fixed focal lengths or socalled fixed focus lenses, stipulating the distance and image window size within a narrow scope. The direct marks for which the above-mentioned optimized ratios cannot be achieved pose a greater challenge. The following measures can be employed to improve the read results: • Calculation of the optical system for a accurately focused image and the optimum code size for the selected field-of-view. This often results from the possible positioning accuracy of the code, which can fluctuate widely between the applications, and where its improvement may cause rather high costs for mechanics. 53

3 Optical codes

• Optimization of the uniformity of the code and the contrast via a material and distance-dependent lighting concept. • Minimizing the optical distortion due to positioning the camera as vertically as possible while observing any possible reflections. A slight angle of 10 to 20 degrees has often proven ideal, especially when using the integrated lighting as total reflections can occur here.

Fig. 3.5 The influence of illumination on contrast and readability of a laser 2D code (left-hand side: Ring light, right-hand side: Diffused axial lighting)

Depending on the state of the code with reference to mechanical material changes (protrusions or material removal) as well as the roughness and reflectivity of the material can become highly challenging with regard to lighting techniques. Fig. 3.5 shows some of the effects.

3.6.2 Minimization of the material ambient conditions’ influence The material initially does not influence the sensory recording in case of an optical system (although the reflection properties of the material must be taken into consideration), as opposed to radio technology, which might be affected by water or metal in the surroundings. However, soiling of the lenses or the object due to dust or oil can influence the reader’s success in the long-term. You can only protect them against insidious, worsening read rates with corresponding protective methods and regular cleaning if a fundamental elimination of the problem is not possible. You must also take into consideration for all identification applications that the quality of the code tends to deteriorate during a multilevel production process with possible intermediate periods of storage. For example, we would like to refer to slight rust traces that may 54

3.7 Outlook and new developments

dramatically change the reflection properties of the object after a storage phase. We can only control such effects by analyzing the process in detail, the parts concerned, and the conditions, which must be observed with foresight. Generally speaking that isolated non-reads that occur provide highly demanding challenges to the diagnosis functions of a reading device. As a minimum, a reading device should provide the opportunity to save errorneous images including the read parameters used and time stamps. At the same time, it is then also possible to reconstruct effects such as a time-dependent change of ambient light. 3.6.3 Meeting the technological requirements When working with matrix cameras, inadequate positioning of the code and resulting in a code outside of the camera’s field-of-view is a common error source. Therefore, when selecting a code reading system, the performance properties, the integration into an automation system and mechanics should also be observed. The following questions should be answered: • How precisely can I position and what size must the field of view be? Might I need a higher camera resolution? • How many parts must be read per second? Do I need especially high-performance reading devices or special parameter settings by more accurate definition of code type and orientation, in order to achieve faster reading results? • How can I trigger image capturing? Can I distinguish the objects in such a manner that a trigger signal can be created by a proximity switch? Or do I require a self-triggered image acquisition where a code is continually searched for in the image (which indicates the need for a high-performance system)? The answers to these questions have a considerable influence on the selection of the reading system that is appropriate for the respective application.

3.7 Outlook and new developments Following the first years of careful testing, matrix code technology has developed to become a recognized alternative to barcodes and RFID in the meantime. At the same time, common efforts of recent 55

3 Optical codes

years by industry and suppliers in the area of standardization have led to growing trust and a common understanding of the correct application of the 2D code and, in particular, the Data Matrix code. With the expansion of the application areas and number of uses, there is a current trend in the use of budget systems, above all for unproblematic marks. Moreover, the increased performance capability of processors, along with further efforts to improve analysis software, has reduced the risk of unread codes. The selection of code formats in the 2D range does not stand still with the standardized codes. New applications and requirements drive innovation forward and new code types are developed, which could become tomorrow’s standard. In the meantime there are codes on the market with an external form that can adapt flexibly to the space available and codes that, in addition to the pure information, also contain security features for product authentication. Standardization, innovative progress, and the specific properties of Data Matrix codes and other 2D codes such as low space requirements, minimal costs for marking, and non-sensitivity pertaining to environmental influences will ensure 2D codes’ long-term place among the important Auto ID technologies. References [1] Fraunhofer-Institut für Materialfluss und Logistik (IML): Marktbefragung April 2004

56

4 System architecture

Peter Schrammel

RFID and Auto ID systems provide computer systems with access to the physical world of things. This means that relevant data can be automatically recorded directly at the object location, thereby enabling process control and optimization. The mobility of real objects largely requires a spatial distribution of the infrastructure requiring management. The recorded data must also be preprocessed in order to extract their business benefit. This chapter deals with the requirements and solutions regarding the architecture, data processing, management, and operation of these systems.

4.1 Overview The architecture of a system is understood as the totality of components (hardware and software) as well as their arrangement and interaction. The architecture specifies the important properties of a system, thereby determining its options and limits. On the other hand, the architecture concept depends on the required properties of the system. In RFID and Auto ID systems, these are particularly determined by the characteristics of the realizable business processes.

4.1.1 Software in RFID and Auto ID systems An RFID or Auto ID application is nearly always an automated system that displays and supports the business process. It spans all the system levels (Fig. 4.1), from objects equipped with transponders to the device infrastructure, Edgeware to the business logic, i.e. right up to the display of local, company-wide, and sometimes even cross-corporate business processes.

57

4 System architecture

Inter-enterprise level Enterprise level Process level Access level Device level Object level

Fig. 4.1 System levels in RFID and Auto ID systems (comp. [1])

4.1.2 System characteristics In RFID and Auto ID systems, we distinguish between closed and open systems. In closed systems, the objects are only recorded within an institution to stay there or keep returning back to them. An open system, on the other hand, permits utilization by many users for their own application; the object flow is usually not a circuit. Therefore, the transponder on a car chassis could, for example, be used by the manufacturer for production control, by the dealer for inventory purposes, and by a commercial customer for the administration of the car fleet. A further characteristic is the type of interaction between the system and object. This take place, for example, on an assembly line or through manual handling such as during the inventory of IT equipment with a mobile recording device. In central systems, the business logic takes place centrally; one example is a pet register with which veterinarians and authorities can ascertain information on the animal and owners by reading the injected transponder. Such a system is organized locally, when this information is stored on the transponder and could be read offline anywhere. Decentral systems are applied wherever local processing and control are required, which a central system can no longer cope with, for example in an automation system.

4.1.3 Processes, applications, and marginal conditions The process flow in a typical RFID application (Fig. 4.2) first requires the initialization of the transponder. This is achieved by optically and electronically programming and issuing them with a unique number, which is also affixed to the object. The now uniquely identified object then passes the various identification points in the process such as 58

4.1 Overview

goods shipment, for example. At the end of the life cycle, the transponders in some systems can be detached from the object and destroyed. As the physical environment (metal, liquids, antenna alignment, etc.) influences the transponder’s reading quality, other technical and organizational measures are required apart from the optimization of the RFID hardware, which need to be coordinated by the entire system.

Initialization

Equipping

Palletization

Goods shipments

Inventory

Goods entry

RFID printer

RFID cash till

Disposal

Sales

Fig. 4.2 Typical RFID process in Logistics

The concrete requirements of the system depend on the properties of the application, whether only tracking or real-time control takes place, for example, or the size of the recordable units at goods receipt or whether only manual recording takes place with a mobile recording device. However, RFID-supported processes do not only take place within a company but can also be designed to overlap with business partners. The tracking of goods transport, for example, is a globally distributed process that not only involves suppliers and customers but also logistics and transporting companies as well as institutions such as customs, banks, and insurance companies. A further requirement is contained in the question of who is to receive what information when, in what form, and how fast.

59

4 System architecture

4.2 System levels RFID and Auto ID systems are usually hierarchically structured. The data volume decreases from the bottom upwards, while the latency period increases. Many fast reacting systems perform preprocessing in the lower levels, so that the higher levels are only confronted with the information actually required for the fulfillment of their tasks. Then again, central monitoring, remote administration, and optimization are also required.

4.2.1 Components An RFID system consists of a multitude of components: • transponders • RFID devices such as RFID readers or RFID printers • automation devices such as programmable logic controllers (PLC), signal lights, photoelectric barriers, and other sensors • mobile reading devices (PDAs, handhelds) for executing mobile applications • network and communication structure • Edgeware such as a component of RFID middleware, which abstracts the subjacent hardware landscape and provides an interface for recording and writing data, for data preprocessing, and device maintenance • Edge servers for Edgeware and local business logic processes • The actual middleware serves transparent, secure data distribution in the corporate network. • Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems are responsible for the secondary processes. They maintain all the information required for the execution of central business logic. • There are often RFID repositories between ERP und Edge servers, in remote systems for performance reasons or as an interface to external systems. • Clients such as interfaces to human users • External interfaces for the connection to further systems

60

4.2 System levels

4.2.2 Topologies The system topology describes the arrangement of these components in the system. Fig. 4.3 shows the topology of a globally distributed RFID system. Such a decentral system consists of a local infrastructure at every location, which is maintained and controlled by an Edge server, which in turn represents the gateway to the central system. Remote data processing is offset by local system administration. The simplest architecture can be achieved with a local system, consisting of (mobile) RFID reading devices and transponders with all the required information only (data-on-tag). Mobile RFID reading devices assume a special status because they can fulfill various tasks in the system. Apart from a purely offline system,

Company B, London headquarters Company A, Vienna headquarters Admin client

Application server

DB server Internet

LAN Application server

Business clients

Company A, location 1: Amsterdam

Company A, location 3: Hamburg

Local client LAN RFID printer

Internet VPN

EdgeEdgeserver server

Mobile RFID reader

WLAN

RFID reader Signal lamp LAN

Company A, location 2: Shanghai Edge server

RFID reader

Photoelectric barrier

LAN SPS

RFID reader

RFID reader

Fig. 4.3 Globally distributed RFID system

61

4 System architecture

online application is also possible during which only the Edgeware and a client are located on the MDE for operator information purposes, while the local business logic is executed on a stationary Edge server.

4.2.3 Application levels In RFID and Auto ID systems, the application logic is located at all levels (Fig. 4.4), as tasks should always be performed on the lowest level possible. This already starts at the transponder: if an RFID has a sensor function, for example, then it makes sense that the transponder itself executes algorithms for the filtering, evaluation, and storage of environment measurement data in order to reduce the communication volume via the air interface to the greatest possible extent [2]. The reader often allows for the prefiltering of recorded transponders (transponder access) so that only data, in which it is actually interested, are registered on the Edge server in the first place. Edgeware (device access) consists of several levels: the readers are controlled at the lower levels, just as in the activation and deactivation of the RF field, for example. Transponder recognition and further commands for communication with the individual transponders are initiated from the levels above. Then, the read-in raw data have to be transformed into higher data types or the writable data coded into binary format. The final step is comprised of filtering and aggregation operations. The real-time control functions are displayed in the local business logic on this basis.

Business clients

Administration

Monitoring

Security

Central business logic RFID repositories Local business logic RFID data access RFID transponder access RFID transponder logic

Fig. 4.4 Application levels in RFID systems

62

4.2 System levels

Data distribution to the local business logic and external systems takes place at the middleware level. This level is usually carried out as a repository where the data are persistently stored. Information users periodically retrieve new data (Pull Principle) or are informed of new data (Push Principle). The local business logic executes the processes that are displayed in an ERP system (Enterprise Resource Planning) and provides interfaces to clients for controlling and monitoring processes. Cross-level topics include security and management functions such as system administration, monitoring, and configuration. Apart from the functionality of communication with the transponders, so-called “intelligent” RFID readers have become a trend, whereby Edgeware and even sometimes the local business logic run on a remote controllable device.

4.2.4 Edgeware Edgeware is responsible for device and transponder access, thereby separating the business logic from interaction with the hardware. The Edgeware reduces the data volume (e.g. with processing rules) and only transfers compressed information to higher levels [3]. RFID system application standards were developed for the interface to the business logic, headed by the EPCglobal Application Level Events (ALE) Interface [4]. Important Edgeware concepts are the abstractions of the physical reading devices to logical devices. This allows the business logic to request data from “goods receipt” for example, without having to know the number of real RFID reading devices installed there or the manufacturer of these readers. This enables the regrouping or exchange of RFID components without changes to the business logic. The interface to the business logic can either be event-based, i.e. the business logic reacts to events generated by the Edgeware, or it is controlled by the application, i.e. it actively starts operations via the Edgeware. A further Edgeware task area is raw data processing (e. g. filtering of duplicate, unimportant, or incorrect events), the aggregation of transponder data (e.g. of cartons on a pallet or the articles in a carton) and the derivation of additional information (e.g. the direction of movement or the number of objects). Stored data must be interpreted and the writing processes automatically verified. Events must also be 63

4 System architecture

temporarily stored if they cannot be immediately processed by the business logic.

4.3 Integration RFID and Auto ID systems are not independent systems; they usually require connection to existing systems resulting in external system interfaces. A large number of various devices within a dynamic system landscape is a challenging integration task.

4.3.1 System interfaces System interfaces are communication channels to existing further systems. On the lower levels, these are interfaces to real-time interaction (e.g. with an automation system) for local sensors or displays as well as to interaction with users. Control of these interfaces should not take place via the direct business logic but rather via the Edgeware. Typical external interfaces at higher levels are existing databases, SMS gateways, and banking interfaces in RFID based payment systems such as electronic tickets. System interfaces at the enterprise level include reporting functions and customer web portals.

4.3.2 Communication layers Not all protocol stacks of communication systems that are applied in RFID systems are persistently standardized. However, the properties of proprietary interfaces must be transparent for the levels above. This is still simplest with the air interface between RFID reading devices and transponders in order to ensure interoperability with transponders from different manufacturers. The application layer can be extended by the manufacturer specifications to implement additional functions. This can usually be achieved by positioning the transponder protocol externally via the reader protocol in such a way that the Edgeware can generate any commands that the RFID reader then sends to the transponder unchanged. Proprietary application protocols are exchanged between the RFID reading devices and Edge servers. Therefore, each device type must have its own protocol module (driver) in the Edgeware. Similarly, the application interfaces to other devices at the device level are nearly

64

4.3 Integration

Central BL

Local BL

Application Presentation

e.g. SOAP Web service

Session Transport Network Data link

e.g. proprietary RFID reader protocol

e.g. ISO / IEC 15693

e.g. TCP / IP / Ethernet e.g. UART / RS232

Physical layer Enterprise systems

Edge servers

RFID SLG

Transponder

Fig. 4.5 Example of communication layers (BL: Business logic)

always proprietary. RS232 or Ethernet but also USB and WLAN are increasingly used at the lower protocol levels. Interfaces based on web services count as “state-of-the-art” for communication between higher layers. Standardized protocols of the application layer between the data and process levels would be, for example, the Application Level Events (ALE) acc. to EPCglobal. Fig. 4.5 shows the example of a section through the communication levels of an RFID system.

4.3.3 Technologies Many technologies could be considered for the integration of components and the connection of external systems. If RFID reading devices are directly involved in an automation system, in which activation modules will be available that, as protocol converters, enable the connection of, for example, RS422 to Profibus. These modules also fulfill various Edgeware functions such as, for example, the system’s controlled startup. Edgeware such as Simatic RF Manager enables a connection not only to the automation but also to IT systems. OPC (Object Linking and Embedding for Process Control) is widespread as an application layer in automation technology. Mobile devices communicate whether in batch operation via docking stations or wireless via WLAN or Bluetooth. USB or RS232 is usually used for a cable connection.

65

4 System architecture

Proprietary XML messages directly via TCP, XML, or CSV files via FTP or also remote calls via CORBA are still used for the connection of existing systems. Otherwise, the connection of external systems either takes place via SQL, if these are databases, or via web services if these are applications. Java and .NET have asserted themselves for business logic programming purposes and distinguish themselves with their extensive platform independence. In most instances, modern web technologies allow the replacement of independent Thick Client Applications with web applications. This holds considerable maintenance advantages, as own software does not need to locally installed – it simply requires a web browser. Finally yet importantly, this significantly reduces the requirement of client resources and processing power.

4.4 Data flow and data management Process control and subsequent evaluations require the maintenance of far more data in the RFID and Auto ID system than the actual transponder ID. This section describes exactly which data flow within a system such as this and for what purpose, the origin of data, the point in time at which they are created, and which concepts are available to support the management of these data through the system architecture.

4.4.1 RFID and Auto ID data The central identification characteristic is the unique identifier (UID) that is, depending on the technology, either assigned by the manufacturer or independently generated from a reserved number range. This is uniquely linked to an object during the application of the transponder. Caution is required when using a transponder for several objects during its life cycle or if several transponders are linked to the same object: this contradicts the basic principle of unique object identification with considerable disadvantages for e.g. database access. Object description data contain information on the type of object, to what other objects it belongs or what other objects it entails and what properties it has. These data stem from the Enterprise system and are linked during UID initialization and/or written to the transponder.

66

4.4 Data flow and data management

Tracking data include the time stamp and recording location. These stem from the system configuration or from a timer and are linked to the UID during every recording. The triple combination of UID, time, and location represent an elementary recording event to enable the tracking of an object along its way. These tracing data correspond to normal tracking data, the difference being that the information of a tracked object can be stored on the transponder itself. Ambient data such as temperature are either recorded by the transponder itself and read out during recording or measured with additional sensors and linked to an event via the Edgeware. The process data include all the information on the process step where the event occurred, i.e. why the object is recorded by whom and the status in which it currently is. These data are read from the system configuration or via clients. Further information can then be derived from these basic data such as stopping time, throughput time, direction recognition, and the number of objects in aggregations.

4.4.2 Object identification In many RFID systems the transponders only serve for the identification of objects; all the information linked to the object are contained in a database. With this “minimalist” approach the RFID transponders purely serve as a barcode replacement [5]. The advantages of such systems are low transponder costs, rapid reading processes, and the elimination of writing processes (with the exception of initialization). The disadvantage is that even local business processes always require online connection to the backend system (data-on-network). Their area of application is logistics, for example, where it is a matter of automatic recording and especially bulk recording at gates and conveyor belts requiring high reading speed. One example would be the determination of all articles in a carton or all cartons on a pallet.

4.4.3 Distributed mobile databases The reverse paradigm is to store all the data required for local business processes in the transponder memory (data-on-tag). The transponder, therefore, turns into a mobile database itself – data are transferred at the object level via physical movement. The disadvantages here are the longer reading times and writing processes. 67

4 System architecture

This principle is predominantly applied in closed systems, for example in automation or in those systems where individual recording and manual object manipulation prevail. An online connection is not required, thereby saving costs for a WLAN infrastructure or mobile radio transmission for mobile devices. The transmission of data to downstream systems is time delayed. One problem, however, is the transport of meta information, as all communicating devices need to know how the stored data must be interpreted.

4.4.4 Hybrid approaches A compromise is to route data into the database not only as so-called virtual transponders but also to (partially) store them on the transponder [6]. Business processes can thus be executed online as well as offline. A problem is that special measures need to be taken to keep the data consistent, as these may possibly be modified by two places simultaneously.

4.5 System management An RFID or Auto ID system often consists of hundreds of components who all need to be configured, monitored, maintained, and protected from unauthorized access. A system such as this must, therefore, provide functions that support the total operation.

4.5.1 Device management The device level requires sophisticated management in order to enable the configuration of the device landscape. For instance, RFID reading devices require the setting of various communication parameters and a location, i.e. a logical device. The device status then has to be monitored during operation to allow the detection of a failure. This usually takes place via so-called heartbeat messages, which are either regularly sent to the system or queried by the system. During a failure, this allows switching over between redundant devices or to initiate the removal of defect by service staff. The exchange of components requires Plug’n’Play abilities to enable smooth replacement even during ongoing operation. The system must automatically re-incorporate and configure the new device into the system. 68

4.5 System management

Finally, updating the device’s firmware is of large significance. It is unimaginable to have to manually install a new firmware version in thousands of devices from Paris to Tokyo! Coordination of implementing the updates is usually the task of the Edge server.

4.5.2 Edge server management Edge servers are mainly used for remote device maintenance. However, software (Edgeware and local business logic) must also be distributed on the Edge servers themselves. The challenge with larger updates is to ensure that not all Edge servers start the update simultaneously, thereby overloading the central server. In order to also achieve sufficient error tolerance in Edge servers, it would be expedient to execute these in active-active operation. If one computer fails, the second computer can adopt the procedures of the first until the former – if possible – resumes operation. An important point is error diagnosis in RFID systems. Log files and error handling for the devices are managed in the Edge server and can be remotely evaluated. During the search for an error the process must be – sequentially and contextually – traceable to each individual reading process. Similar to RFID reading devices, Edge servers also require monitoring of the current status, whereby additional parameters such as CPU capacity, memory allocation, reading rates, and reliability of the maintained devices are also usually required to maintain the desired level of the “Quality of Service” (QoS).

4.5.3 Security Security is an important requirement for systems, especially in the case of sensitive (business) data. Transmission between Edge servers and the Enterprise server, therefore, takes place via a Virtual Private Network (VPN) on the Internet. Communication with business partners usually also takes place along these lines. HTTPS (Secure Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) is used for web services. System-wide user administration is generally required, which not only conducts user authentication at the terminals but also accepts the system components reciprocally. Access control is, however, only poorly pronounced so far. Protection of IT systems at higher levels is network-technically solved with firewalls. Although access authoriza69

4 System architecture

tion is also required at the transponder level it is seldom applied. A new approach is represented by the implementation of strong cryptographic algorithms in passive transponders (see Chapter 20).

4.5.4 Availability Availability and system stability are decisive for all automatic control, in which a system failure would lead to considerable costs (for example, in production systems). Apart from the redundancy of RFID devices and servers, securing communication connections is of large significance. The Edge server must be able to temporarily store the data transmitted to the central system as well as caching the data required by the central system to process the local business data to the greatest possible extent (offline ability). In case of non-availability of the central system, this would at least enable temporary local operation. These abilities are especially required for handhelds, which either only work offline or are only occasionally connected due to unavailability of the radio connection. These measures also relieve the central system by locally buffering larger data volumes that are not real-time relevant and transmit them to the central system with a time delay. Error tolerance is also an important aspect for the lowest level. Reading errors, for example, must be compensated for by an error-tolerant and correcting Edgeware, if possible.

4.5.5 Extendibility and adaptability Adaptability, open interfaces, and plug’n’play ability are all important for the configuration and modification of an RFID or Auto ID system, as these often have to be adapted to the changeable requirements of a company. The software architecture must, therefore, be structured in such a way that even radical changes can be reacted to in a flexible way. It could emerge, during pilot operation for example, that the HF technology for the application is unsuitable and that UHF is needed instead. Such a change should not result in the new development of the software but should rather be solvable with a few changes to the configuration. A similar change applies for the application of transponder types from various manufacturers or in the case of different protocols, reading devices, communication interfaces, or data models.

70

4.6 The EPCglobal Network

4.5.6 Invoicing functions A new approach for the application of RFID or Auto ID system is to provide operation as a service for other companies (compare Chapter 13). Utilization of the system is then invoiced via defined performance parameters such as the number of reading events. The systems must provide a function in this regard, enabling invoicing according to transactions, events, transponders, or processes.

4.6 The EPCglobal Network The EPCglobal Network [7] is a standardization initiative for the development of industrial standards for a global network, helping trade partners to monitor all the products that are equipped with an RFID based Electronic Product Code (EPC) and enabling the exchange of product-related information.

4.6.1 Overview The component interfaces of the EPCglobal Network are defined by a series of interrelated standards. Fig. 4.6 shows a part of the components of the EPCglobal Network and their classification in the application levels of the reference model.

Central BL

EPCIS Accessing Application

ONS

EPCIS Query IF Repository

EPCIS Repository EPCIS Capture IF

Local BL

EPCIS Capturing Application Application-Level Events IF

Edgeware

Filtering & Collection

Reader Management

Reader Protocol

Reader Management IF RFID Reader

Devices

EPC Tag Specification Transponder

RFID-Transponder

Fig. 4.6 Components in the EPCglobal Network (compare)

71

4 System architecture

Basically, the EPCglobal Network is designed to be decentralized; each company operates its infrastructure and administrates its EPC data, i.e. there is no central data maintenance.

4.6.2 EPCIS and ALE The EPC Information Service (EPCIS) serves the exchange of information on products and product movements. The Object Naming Service (ONS) enables an enquiry on who is responsible for which EPC. The EPC data can then be queried from the responsible EPCIS repository. It must, of course, be specified who may query which information via the Query interface. The typical information stored in an EPCIS repository are the EPC itself, production data such as batch number, production, and process data; transport data such as order and delivery notes; product status in process steps and during transport – everything in connection with venue, time, and ambient information. An important architectural element of the EPCglobal Network is the separation of data recording from the business logic through the Application Level Events Interface (ALE). This interface abstracts the functions that are used for detecting the RFID transponders, the collection of data over a certain period, data filtering and grouping and counting of transponders. The concept of the logical devices enables the separation of the business logic from the actual hardware infrastructure. In a so-called Event Cycle Specification via the ALE interface, the application discloses how and which data must be recorded. This can be achieved by the single storage of specifications and polling or based on so-called subscriptions. The Event Cycle Specification defines the start and stop conditions of the recording (a specified duration of time, for example), the required stability of the number of transponders in the field, trigger conditions as well as the type and scope of the returned reports (required filter operations, groupings, and counting).

4.7 Summary RFID and Auto ID systems enable data to be linked to an individual object. These, usually mobile, objects run through an often globally networked infrastructure, thereby controlling the business processes with the help of a sophisticated software system.

72

4.7 Summary

The processes and requirements for Auto ID and RFID are basically identical: integration in processes, processing of large data volumes, high availability, security and management functions diagonally across all system levels, remote administration of the infrastructure and process logics as well as extendibility and plug’n’play abilities. However, due to higher reading rates and more complex interaction in RFID systems, the high requirements for such a system become all the more clear. This is what enables the utilization of the manifold options provided by the RFID transponders. A clearly structured system architecture with the specified properties is the prerequisite that RFID or Auto ID can actually fulfill their tasks in the business processes in order to achieve the expected process improvements and economic advantages during everyday operation. References [1] See EPCglobal Inc: The Application Level Events (ALE) Specification. Sept. 2005. Available at: http://www.epcglobalinc.org/standards/ale/ ale_1_0-standard-20050915.pdf [2] See F. Thiesse: Architektur und Integration von RFID-Systemen. In: Das Internet der Dinge – Ubiquitous Computing und RFID in der Praxis. Springer, 2005. [3] See B. Prabhu, X. Su, H. Ramamurthy, C. Chu, R. Gadh: WinRFID – A Middleware for the enablement of Radio Frequency Identfication (RFID) based Applications. University of California, Los Angeles, Wireless Internet for the Mobile Enterprise Consortium, 2005. Available at: http://www.wireless.ucla.edu/rfid/winrfid/ [4] See http://www.epcglobalinc.org/standards/ale/ale_1_0-standard-20050 915.pdf [5] See S. Sarma, S. Weis and D. Engels: RFID Systems and Security and Privacy Implications. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Security in Pervasive Computing, Boppard, pages 454-469, Mar. 2003. [6] See C. Floerkemeier, M. Lampe: RFID middleware design – addressing application requirements and RFID constraints. In: Proceedings of the joint conference on Smart objects and ambient intelligence: innovative contextaware services: usages and technologies, Grenoble, pp. 219-224, 2005. [7] See http://www.epcglobalinc.org/standards/architecture/architecture_1_2framework-20070910.pdf

73

5 System selection criteria

Peter Hager

Whether in classical production controlling, consistent supply logistics, or tracking batches or products – the identification technologies Data Matrix Code (2D code) as well as RFID distinguish themselves from the Barcode (1D code) through their high data security as well as their use in rough industrial surroundings. On the one hand, solid basic knowledge of the technological differences between the Data Matrix Code and RFID (Table 5.1) is important for product selection.

Table 5.1 Important features of the identification technologies Data Matrix Code and RFID Criterion

Data Matrix Code

Principle

Optical recognition

RFID Radio transmission

Visual connection

Required

Not required Low to high

Reach

Low to medium

Sensitive regarding

In part, reflections

In part water, metal

Direct marking

Possible

Not possible

Price for labels

Very favorable

Favorable

Information density

High

Very high

Change to the data

Not possible

Possible

Grouped recording

Not possible

Possible

On the other hand, the determination of the user requirements also requires the observation of the process and the process environment. Special attention must be given to the following for the selection of the most appropriate identification technology: • strengths and weakness of the respective technology • unique marking or repetitive writability • reuse of the data carrier in the process chain

74

5.1 Automatic identification with Data Matrix Code

• material and properties of the markable products • available space for marking • ranges or recording distances • environmental influences such as light conditions, ambient temperatures, or dirt whereby in practice the user must include several criteria mirrored in the application as well as weighted selection criteria.

5.1 Automatic identification with Data Matrix Code Typical applications of using the Data Matrix Code are parts consisting of metal, ceramics, plastics, and glass applied in vehicle gear boxes, flat module groups, ink cartridges, or medical instruments. The Data Matrix Code can even be applied where there is limited space for marking on the product, i.e. electrical components or circuit boards. Apart from the identification number, the Code can also be used to permanently store production specifications and measurement data on the workpiece through all the processing steps, whereby even 25 % soiling or damage of the data field could enable the secure read-out. Important criteria for the application of the Data Matrix Code are: • small to medium sized data volumes • permanent marking directly on the object • interfering metal or water in the environment • high quantities • firm fixation of the recordable object • integration in automation and IT The Data Matrix Code can be attached in various ways – whether through inkjet or thermotransfer printing or via laser, matrix printing or press cut. With a memory capacity of more than 100 bytes, the Data Matrix Code allows the recording and evaluation of extensive product data, whereby the code must be positioned in the exact center of the reading device – usually a CCD or CMOS matrix camera. The respective selection of sensor, lens, and lighting achieves stable reading rates even in difficult lighting conditions or low contrast also near 75

5 System selection criteria

metal surfaces or metal objects. Ranges of several meters are even possible under strong lighting. If the Code is applied for production control, e.g. if the type of workpiece processing is stored directly, the connection to industrial bus systems such as Profibus or Industrial Ethernet or the connection to programmable logic controllers (PLCs) becomes imperative: respective SW components should be available for data communication with the Code reading devices. The adjustment of Code data with the actual processing data – these are usually contained in a production planning system – requires direct communication with IT systems. The application of direct marking requires observation to the four process steps Mark, Verify, Read, and Communicate (MVRC®, Fig. 5.1). First the marking process that is most suitable for the respective supporting material is selected. Then, the code is verified with an internal reading device and improved, if required, to ensure the code’s quality at the process start. Therefore, the secure reading of the code is also ensured under difficult processing conditions. The recorded data are then transferred to the superimposed IT system in the matching format via the respective communication interfaces.

Production Direct marking with 2D code

Verification of the 2D code

Reading and transmission of the 2D code

Fig. 5.1 Direct marking with Data Matrix Code – the MVRC principle ensures high code quality

When applying RFID, we distinguish between two application principles – one-off use of the data carrier and the continuous reuse of the data carrier. 76

5.2 “Open Loop” applications with RFID

5.2 “Open Loop” applications with RFID RFID systems are increasingly used along the logistics supply chain as they provide new qualities regarding goods security, goods availability, or reduced logistics costs through fast and safe recording during goods receipt and shipping. The data carriers, mostly the so-called Smart Labels, are used once off and permanently remain on the object along the entire supply chain. The lowest possible label price is appropriately important (Fig. 5.2).

Production

Central warehouse

Department store

Cartons or external packaging with RFID

Fig. 5.2 “Open Loop” applications – the data carriers are used only once along the entire supply chain

Important criteria for Open Loop applications are: • small data volumes, • standardized data filing, • bulk recording, • high quantities, • variable fixation of the recordable objects and • integration in IT. The Smart Labels have very reduced data capacity and usually provide only one identity number (ID). The RFID system reads these out and determines the actual information with the help of superimposed database systems, such as the nature of the product and its respective serial number or the destination venue for the goods. The electronic product code (EPC) has established itself as a standard, as 77

5 System selection criteria

its 96 Bit enable a globally unique number system. Therefore, external packaging or cartons, for example, can be provided with a unique identification. As the information is obtained via the network – the so-called “Dataon-Network” concept – the simple integration of the RFID systems in the IT world (e.g. ERP systems) is an important prerequisite. To achieve optimum performance, the synchronization of several readers as well as the filtering and preprocessing of the RFID data via RFID middleware would be of advantage. The RFID systems require ranges of several meters to enable the thoroughfare of forklifts between the antennas during the shipping and receiving of goods. Secure recording of the objects during varying transponder alignment must also be ensured. Many transponders have to be reliably recorded simultaneously (bulk recording), if for example one pallet has a large number of marked cartons.

5.3 “Closed Loop” applications in RFID This classic form of RFID application has been used in production and material flow control for many years and enables the economical production of configurable serial products such as contactors, PCs, household goods, or automobiles. The data maintained locally on the transponder directly support the control of process and testing steps. The data are reused after the production cycle by being channeled back to the production line after having been provided with new data. The transponder price, therefore, plays a subordinate role. The important criteria for Close Loop applications are: • data changeability, • medium to large data volumes, • small to medium quantities, • robustness of the data carrier, • firm fixation of the recordable object and • integration in automation and IT. RFID systems with a small range are applied in most track-guided conveyor systems, as only the tag that is routed immediately past the antenna is to be read. In this case, RFID not only ensures unique iden78

5.3 “Closed Loop” applications in RFID

tification but the data locally maintained on the transponder also directly support the control of processing and testing steps. Apart from production instructions, the tags with up to 64 Kbyte memory also contain quality information that is updated after every processing step. This enables the development of remote automation structures, which clearly reduce the effort required for local data maintenance, as the required information is available in real-time at the processing stations without requiring a connection to the IT system. The robustness of the RFID components to environmental influences is also of great significance for fault-free operation in industrial applications. Special protection against dust, liquids, or chemicals as well as heat resistant versions for temperatures above 200° C must be provided depending on the respective application. An important prerequisite is the simple integration in automation, for example via Bus systems such as Profibus or Industrial Ethernet, with programmable logic controllers (PLCs). If the respective SW components are available in PLCs for data communication with the RFID reading devices, programming is simplified significantly. The close interaction of the RFID system and the PLC also ensures the automatic restart of the entire system after a failure. In Intralogistics applications, pallets or circulatory containers such as pallet cages or EGB boxes are marked with RFID transponders instead of workpiece carriers (Fig. 5.3). These are provided with a unique identification and can be automatically registered and administrated in a superimposed IT system. This allows for the respective transparency in the goods and material flow and enables optimization ap-

Production

Workpiece carrier with RFID

Intralogistics

Pallets or pallet cages with RFID

Fig. 5.3 “Closed Loop” applications – the data carriers are reused often, especially in production automation as well as the intralogistics between partners

79

5 System selection criteria

proaches for moveable investment goods. The respective design of the RFID tags also allows for secure recording on metal objects. It is here that wide RFID system ranges are also required, so that a forklift can comfortably fit between the antennas for the shipping and receiving of goods.

5.4 Conclusion: both technologies complement each other If one looks at the entire production process, both technologies are already being applied today (Fig. 5.4). Therefore, semi-finished parts in pre-production, which are directly processed with a Data Matrix Code according to their coding, are drilled or milled for example and then routed to final assembly.

Goods entry

Prefabrication

Final assembly

Direct marking with 2D code

Direct marking with 2D code

Workpiece carrier with RFID

Goods shipments

Pallets or pallet cages with RFID

Pallets or pallet cages with RFID

Fig. 5.4 Application of both technologies by using the respective advantages in the production process

This assembly line is controlled with RFID. The transponder is attached, for example, to a workpiece carrier and contains all the production specifications or quality data. The RFID data are read out at every assembly station and updated after processing. The entire assembly cycle is thereby recorded on the data carrier.

80

5.4 Conclusion: both technologies complement each other

At the end of the assembly line the finished product receives its individual identification via direct marking with a Data Matrix Code and the RFID data are transferred to the Production Planning System. This also ensures unique product identification any time after delivery as well as its allocation to the production data. Apart from the technology selection, the selection of the right provider is also significant. The emphasis on an extensive technology and automation competence should be especially coupled with objective advice. Further important criteria are an extensive product portfolio that contains both technologies and is able to be easily integrated at the automation and IT levels, as well as long-term and extensive experience in the realization of projects.

81

6 Standardization

Gerd Elbinger

Standardization is regarded as an important aid for thinning out the jungle of the various RFID systems and identification processes. Although the technologies have been applied on a daily basis for years now, RFID in particular has been regarded as the domain for creative radio specialists developing individual solutions for a long time.

6.1 Why is standardization important? The application of RFID has always required the observation of certain rules. In Germany, one referred to the postal regulation “NömL” (Nicht-öffentlicher mobiler Landfunk = dedicated use of), as this enabled the formal legal utilization of RFID systems. The introduction of CE marking for industrial products in Europe required a binding declaration of conformity as confirmation for adherence to the relevant standards and regulations. This created clarity regarding the approval regulations: the specifications of the ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) as applied for RFID. The first standards were created for RFID systems for identification in close-up ranges at 13.56 MHz (ISO/IEC 14443). The benefit of cross-corporate standards was also soon recognized for goods logistics and material flow chains. Uniform and continuous processes bear considerable advantages for customers, operators, and suppliers: • improved customer acceptance • increased competition through comparability • “Second Source” purchasing is made possible and reduces dependence • investment security for customers and manufacturers • open systems enable global application 82

6.2 Standardization basics for RFID

• continuity along the entire supply chain • realistic prices due to a broader range • concentration on a few basic technologies • strengthening of your position towards the regulation authorities As long as the application of RFID systems is limited to one area, such as a production plant with closed transponder cycle, for instance, standardization can be neglected. This is a completely different matter when cross-corporate processes and objects or material movements have to be automated and monitored with RFID in open supply chains. In this case, reading devices and transponders from various manufacturers have to cooperate easily. The generally binding rules must be specified and maintained.

6.2 Standardization basics for RFID Especially for RFID, the path to standardization was difficult. As technologies in various frequency bands abounded, it was very important to integrate and unify the existing RFID processes into one rule. This gave rise to ISO/IEC 18000 as the definition of a standard for the air interface between the reading device and transponder for goods identification purposes, whereby already existing standards were considered and integrated. The basis for the specification of transmission frequencies is formed by the respective nationally valid and governmentally prescribed regulation provisions. Radio waves reach far and cross borders. Therefore, an international harmonization of transmission frequency utilization was inevitable. In Europe, this is achieved by the CEPT (European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations). The CEPT is the umbrella organization for the unification of postal and telecommunication procedures in cooperation with the regulating authorities of the individual member states. The use of frequency bands and their conditions of use are developed and recommended by the CEPT: implementation is performed by the member states (Fig. 6.1). The actual detailed work is carried out by ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute). ETSI is a non-profit organization with the objective of creating, defining, and publishing uniform standards for telecommunication in Europe. To some extent, the organi83

6 Standardization

zation is the executive institution for the superimposed CEPT. ETSI provides a detailed specification of which frequency may be used with which parameters and limit values (e.g. capacity, bandwidth, modulation, and others). In the US, ETSI corresponds to the FCC (Federal Communications Commission).

Inductive near field coupling

Electromagnetic shaft

EN 301 489 – EMC for Short Range Devices EN 300 330

EN 300 220

ISO 18000-2

EN 300 440 EN 302 208

ISO 18000-3

ISO 18000-7 ISO 18000-6 ISO 18000-4 Field Strength dBμA/m

Europe

USA

Power Emission mW EIRP

Permissible disturbance level 5

1 2 105 Hz 100 kHz

5

1 2 106 Hz 1 MHz

5

1 2 107 Hz

5

1 2 108 Hz

5

1 2 5 10 109 Hz Frequency 1 GHz

Permissible emission values according to CEPT

Fig. 6.1 Frequency division by CEPT for Short Range Devices – this includes RFID – with schematically spread emission values. The ISO standards for the RFID air interfaces have been specified according to ISO 18000, which are suitable for the ISM frequencies.

The assignment of frequencies is the responsibility of individual states who can sell or license usage rights (as was the case with the assignment of the UMTS frequencies in Germany in 2005), with the exception of only a very few, license free frequency bands, which may be used free of charge for general industrial, scientific, or medical purposes (ISM frequency bands: industrial, scientific, and medical). In order not to have to pay license fees for RFID use, we took the standardization of RFID frequency bands on ISM frequencies as a standard. The UHF frequencies 865-868 MHz, to whom special significance is ascribed for the use of RFID in logistics chains, were only released for use with RFID systems in 2004.

84

6.3 The central RFID standard ISO 18000

6.3 The central RFID standard ISO 18000 The attractive ISM frequency bands were increasingly allocated with RFID standards and defined in detail based on the ETSI approval regulations. This venture was largely implemented in 2004 and led to ISO/IEC 18000 Part 1 to 7 – Definition of the air interface for the identification of goods, which specified the important operation parameters such as transmission frequency, bandwidth, modulation, and data coding. The following list shows an overview of the current status: • ISO/IEC 18000-1

General section with superimposed specifications

• ISO/IEC 18000-2

Transmission frequencies below 135 kHz

• ISO/IEC 18000-3

Transmission frequency 13.56 MHz

• ISO/IEC 18000-4

Transmission frequency 2.45 GHz

• ISO/IEC 18000-5

Transmission frequency 5.8 GHz (withdrawn)

• ISO/IEC 18000-6

Transmission frequency in the UHF range (860 to 960 MHz)

• ISO/IEC 18000-7

Transmission frequency 433 MHz

The fact that this not only created one standard but many is due to the strongly varying physical properties of the different frequency ranges. In addition, a natural selection process will take place in time, during which many presumable standards will prove to be unnecessary or obsolete. There is an evaluation of the various parts of the ISO/IEC 18000, in which ISO standards are to take place at this stage for the air interface of RFID systems. Although ISO/IEC 18000-2 in the frequency range up to 135 kHz – generally called LF “low frequency” – may be old, it is by no means outdated. In machine construction, and especially in tool identification and identification of metal objects, this frequency provides important advantages. Ferrite cores or ferrite foils can be used to help control the disadvantageous influence of transmission properties through metal. The RFID systems in this frequency band are, therefore, extremely robust. However, this is only achieved at the price of slow data transmission. The frequency band 13.56 MHz – generally known as HF “high frequency” – is the selection compromise wherever small to medium 85

6 Standardization

reading ranges are required. This frequency band is globally available as a uniform ISM frequency. Efficient solutions can be realized for normal identification tasks in production and along the conveyor route. Communication is fast, secure, and, regarding field geometry, homogeneously and clearly delineated. The UHF band acc. to ISO/IEC 18000-6 is currently the most important standard in the long range. Extremely cost efficient, passive transponders (Smart Labels) and, at the same time, extremely fast data transmission at distances over 5 meters and bulk recording ability of several hundred tags are the properties that have awoken great hope in this new standard. This is, however, gained with high transmission power, inhomogeneous fields, and overshooting that makes practical use more difficult. Not to forget the frequency band at 2.45 GHz with a bandwidth of 82 MHz. Very small tag antennas and extremely high transmission rates are both possible here. However, WLAN and Bluetooth installations are competitors to RFID.

6.4 Further useful standards and guidelines The ISO standard 18000 describes the basic technical conditions and operation parameters for RFID systems in the respective frequency bands. To ensure that these are adhered to as well as to safely guarantee the interoperability of the components from different manufacturers, corresponding testing procedures were created and published in the form of “Technical Reports” (TR): • ISO TR 18046

Testing methods for the review of the performance characteristics of reading devices and transponders.

• ISO TR 18047

Testing methods for the review of conformity with air interface standards acc. to ISO 18000-2 to 7.

The standard not only pays the required attention to the technical efficiency but also to the health of the people, whereby the basis is formed by ISO standards EN 50357 and EN 50364. It ensures that, despite all the requirements regarding performance, delivery rate, and range, humankind is protected from any danger. Assurance requires the specification of measurement methods and limit values. The thermal effect of electromagnetic radiation on the human body is used as a basis. The limit values refer to the incorporated performance of the 86

6.4 Further useful standards and guidelines

respective body part, measured as an SAR unit (SAR: specific adaption rate in W/kg). Apart from performance and distance, the transmission frequency is also important for evaluation. Further supplementary standards must still be mentioned in this connection: • ISO/IEC 14443

Proximity Smart Cards 13.56 MHz; Electronic ticket, closed wallet, goods receipt slip, and logistics

• ISO/IEC 15693

Vicinity Cards and Smart Labels 13.56 MHz; incorporated in ISO 18000-3 Mode1

• ISO/IEC 15961

Communication of identified goods data; display of data as objects, user interface (API), data protocol to reading device, and data exchange with the host system

• ISO/IEC 15962

Identification of goods with RFID; interpretation of transponder data, function and data coding; display of transponder data

• ISO/IEC 15963

Unique identification; unique manufacturer identification for clear distinction of tags

Standards ISO/IEC 15961 and ISO/IEC 15962 specify data protocols and the structure of data and orders for the exchange of RFID data. They also describe the interface parameters and orders for application and the data management from the application down to data storage in the transponder. ISO/IEC 15963 supplements this by the uniform marking of ISO transponders. Although some standards refer to ISO/IEC 18000, they also define the appropriated application standards. It is here that it applies from the attachment to the data format and from the tag size to the technical implementation: • ISO/IEC 17358

Application requirements

• ISO/IEC 17363

Freight containers

• ISO/IEC 17364

Reusable transport unit

• ISO/IEC 17365

Transport unit

• ISO/IEC 17366

Product packaging

• ISO/IEC 17367

Product tagging

87

6 Standardization

There are many more RFID standards, such as animal identification, which is one of the oldest of all.

6.5 Standardization of visual codes Apart from RF identification, visual identification with the use of barcodes has already existed for a long time. While the one-dimensional 1D barcode is often still designed for manual recording, the introduction of two-dimensional visual codes also enabled more efficient automatic recording (compare Chapter 3). As the use of barcodes was still fixed on open, cross-corporate goods distribution processes, standardization has always played a decisive role. Therefore, not only the symbol sets are standardized but also the coding via bar symbols, i.e. how a recognizable symbol is displayed. This includes the light/dark variations as well as the bar/gap ratio. For 1D barcodes, which are predominantly used for simple identification with reduced information contents, the following allocation can only be made in part according to Table 6.1. The two-dimensional barcode, especially the Data Matrix Code, distinguishes itself through higher data density, simpler and more secure readability, and higher recognition reliability. For code type ECC 200, there is standard ISO 16022, which defines the basic structure, code structure, and display: • ISO/IEC 16022

International Symbology Specification DMC

This standard is actually based on code creation in printing technology and builds upon quadratically arranged contrast information,

Table 6.1 Overview of barcode standards Standard

Model

Code extent

EN 797

EAN 8.13

10 digits

Trade, cash systems

EN 797

UPC A,E

10 digits

Trade, cash systems

EN 799

Code 128

128 symbols (ASCII)

Industry, product identification

EN 799

UCC/EAN 128 (extension of EN 799)

35 symbols/characters

Trade, Industry

EN 800

Code 39

43 symbols (alphanumerical)

Production, material flow

EN 801

2/5 Interleaved

10 digits

Pharmaceutical products, transport technology

88

Applications

6.6 Standardization through EPCglobal and GS1

which is applied in lines and columns. The following standards are also available for more detailed specification: • ISO/IEC 15415

2D Print Quality

• ISO/IEC 15418

Symbol Data Format Semantics

• ISO/IEC 15434

Symbol Data Format Syntax

In this case, ISO 15415 is of particular significance, describing the criteria for printing quality. It ensures that a code is reliably recognizable. A further characteristic of the Data Matrix Code ECC 200 is based on punctiform coding points, or so-called “dots”. This characteristic is used wherever the code is not applied with printing technology but rather with needle embossing, drilling, or laser engraving directly on the identifiable object (Direct Part Marking, DPM). Unfortunately ISO 15415, designed for printed DMC, can only be used in a limited manner. AIM, therefore, defined an additional DPM quality guideline for round coding points, which also formulates the lighting requirements. Due to its high data volume, the Data Matrix Code is also suitable for goods’ identification with the Electronic Product Code (EPC). Therefore, an extremely cost efficient alternative to RFID technology is available for the EPCglobal data strategy.

6.6 Standardization through EPCglobal and GS1 Not only is the physical recording of goods identification significant for the utilization of automatic identification in the global goods flow, but also the local assignment and interpretation of data contents. Organizations such as EAN (European Article Number) and UCC (Uniform Code Council) attempted to uniformly specify the data contents of barcodes and to maintain the number bands. The commercial EAN codes are an excellent example, as they enable unique article and manufacturer allocation with only a few bytes. The unification and continuous goods’ identification are, therefore, a fundamental requirement for the functional merchandize management processes and steering of commodity flows. This task is currently internationally realized by the GS1 organization. It was created by the fusion of the European EAN International and American UCC,

89

6 Standardization

whereby, not only the barcode was adopted for goods’ identification purposes, but also the RFID technology with the specifications from EPCglobal. The GS1 and its national associations regard themselves as a competence and service center for cross-corporate business processes. This is achieved by the uniformity of goods’ identification and the exchange of associated information. To ensure this service, the GS1 associations globally allocate and maintain number bands for the unique identification of goods and packaging units. The important basic principle here is that only a superimposed definition, the allocation and maintenance of globally valid code structures, and code number bands could ensure the goods’ supply chains and the tracking of goods. Because only the uniqueness of the identifying code enables the correct access to the product data in the global network of goods identification. Of course the activities of GS1 go hand in hand with standardization efforts. The important basic elements here are: • Barcode (EAN) • RFID (EPCglobal) • Electronic data exchange/E-Business (EDI).

6.7 Conclusion and forecast Standardization and specification ensure the openness of process and supply chains as well as the interoperability of tools. Telecommunication regulations are specifications to protect other frequency users, especially private and public services such as radio, TV, and mobile phones. The standardization of RFID ensures that transponders, reading devices, and IT components from different manufacturers in open distribution processes can be applied together. However, there is a discrepancy between diversification and standardization, and between innovation and regulation. Every manufacturer will attempt to develop competitive advantages through more performance or innovative technology. Diversification and innovation drive technology towards new efficiency, thereby increasing the respective efficiency of applications. To achieve this, one needs as much standardization as necessary and as much diversification as possible. 90

6.7 Conclusion and forecast

However, the standardization process also requires vigilance. Providers may be tempted to use a one-sided formulation of standards in order to protect their proprietary technology or to market patent licenses. This reverses the sense of standardization as this would promote distortion of the competition. Despite these qualms, the recording and control of increasingly enormous global commodity flows is only possible with standardization. As RFID is the technology that will achieve all of this in an economically justifiable form, it must generally recognize the valid specifications and standards.

91

Part 2

The Practical Application of RFID and Auto ID

7 Process design and profitability

Peter Segeroth

“RFID?! Is that still worth our while?” This, or a similar, question could summarize the reaction of many decision makers regarding the introduction of RFID technology into their operative processes. This statement is confirmed in survey results; the doubts in the economic success of RFID predominate. The decision-maker level, therefore, generally doubts the profitability of RFID applications. Apart from further factors, the high costs of RFID transponders are listed as a main argument. Although these are said to be on a steep descent – as can be read in publications on the topic – the application would only be worthwhile from 0.05 euros per transponder.

7.1 The fear of bad investment The fate of spotlighting the introduction of new information technologies primarily as cost causers and less as beneficial technology does not only concern RFID technology. There is a relatively low acceptance for new technology due to the frequent lack of transparency of the qualitative and especially quantitative benefits . In short: the lack of a business case. An economic feasibility study (Business Case) serves the company for decision making and investment planning purposes. It concerns the answer to the question: “What’s left on the line for me and how do I avoid bad investment?” Before an investment, e.g. in RFID technology, the company has to first analyze its objectives and problems, conduct

Target analysis

Problem analysis

Looking for alternatives

Fig. 7.1 The path to the RFID Business Case

94

Investment appraisal

7.2 It all starts with visions and objectives

the actual investment appraisal, and use the results to make its respective decision (Fig. 7.1). Keeping to these steps will provide the company with the required transparency before the introduction of RFID. Speculations on high prices for RFID transponders and on a reduced benefit are quantified and determined. The company receives a well-founded basis for its investment decision.

7.2 It all starts with visions and objectives The basis for the successful implementation of RFID projects is the existence of corporate vision and objectives. Usually, these were already defined by the companies in a strategic planning process or can be defined with external help – before the introduction of RFID technology. The definition process depends on the company’s current situation. Regarding the introduction of RFID technology, which refers to a concrete application area, it would be advisable to develop the relevant and critical business fields and business processes within the scope of the target analysis and to concentrate on these. In other words, the introduction of RFID could initially be limited to production, for example. In this case, further business fields or processes remain unconsidered. This first definition phase usually proceeds with the following steps: 1. Creation of a profile of the current as-is situation 2. Definition of the corporate vision 3. Specification of performance objectives 4. Specification of business process objectives 5. Identification of the vision’s effects on the company 6. Prioritization of business fields and business processes The following questions are answered during the creation of the profile on the current as-is situation and the definition of the corporate vision: • Is today’s business also tomorrow’s business? • Can changes in customer requirements be expected? • What do we have to do today in order to be successful tomorrow? 95

7 Process design and profitability

• How can today’s market position be extended and safeguarded? • Do we utilize our market position or are our profit reserves sitting idle? • Where does the company want to be in 5 years? (analysis and reality check of long-term planning) The specification of business process and performance objectives entails topics such as: • Improvement of business process performance • Utilization of the economical and/or functional advantages of new technologies • Utilization of systems that are optimally aligned to their specific application purpose • Utilization of systems with high reliability. A final task during the prioritization of business fields (primary business processes) is the analysis and definition of those business fields (subdivisions) that are particularly predestined for the application of RFID. This top-down approach shows that the challenges for the company and the resulting measures are the basis of a company change. The application of the RFID technology is linked to the analysis results of the individual business fields.

7.3 How does the company work? For RFID projects, we recommend a top-down (from rough to detail) approach to the Actual Process Analysis. During a first work meeting, which is to be moderated by decision makers and practitioners from the various business fields, the business processes are developed in a clear form – e.g. per business field. The result (Fig. 7.2) provides the participants an overview of the input, output, and process participants and enables the initial planning of the RFID scenario within the analyzed business process. The next step includes the detailing of business processes with a process sequence performance model (Table 7.1). This is created in consideration of the time, costs, quality, and other measured quantities (e.g. capital employed, the number of required employees). There96

7.3 How does the company work?

Organization

Process analysis production Management

V

V

V

V

V

V

Foreman

D

D

D

D

D

D

D

Worker

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

V

Functions

Primary product

Pre-fab part

Equipping

Input

 Unfinished

Preparation

 Production

primary product

data

Output

 Part A  Operating

Attachment of part B

 Part B

Intermediate control

 Control

Completion

 Part C

equipped

 Production

Quality control

 Pre-fab part  Control

process

materials

 Machine

Application

Attachment of part A

process

 Part A

 Part B

 Quality

start

 Pre-fab

tested part

part

 Control results

RFID SAP Database Appl. A App. B

Fig. 7.2 Exemplary actual display of the business process “parts production”

fore, the current objectives and those for future business process performance (target concept) are compared. Future business process performance can either: • contain values stemming from the best practical experience (Best Practice of, for example, competitors or business partners) or • contain values based on the improvement of business processes through the use of RFID technology. The input from the business process Actual Analysis and the business process performance model represent the basis for the draft of an improved business process, in which RFID technology has already been taken into consideration. Table 7.1 Exemplary display of process sequence performance models Event

Result

Process Thread

Time

Cost

Quality

Capital

now

future

now

future current

future

current

future

Process customer order

4 days

.25 days

$15/ order

$15/ 5% .01 % order returns returns

$1500/ clerk

$4000/ clerk

Refund Customer Authorization returns merchandise sent to billing

Process customer return

10 days

.5 day

$50/ order

$5/ order

–

–

Merchandise shipped to customer

Ship customer order

2 days

.25 days

$10/ order

50 days of 30 days of $5/ 5% .01 % inventory inventory order returns returns ($30M) ($50M)

Customer order merchandise

Ship ticket released to warehouse

Ship ticket released to warehouse

.1 % error

.1 % error

97

7 Process design and profitability

7.4 The business case for RFID 7.4.1 The concept of the calculation of profitability Investments in new technologies are the prerequisite for the technical progress of one’s own products as well as for increased productivity and the ability to compete. However, they tie up capital in the longterm. The decision to introduce RFID in the operational process of a company is, therefore, dependent on the level of resulting capital returns to be expected as a result of the investment. The benefits of an investment must, therefore, outweigh its costs. However, reasons also exist that speak for the investment even if it does not have a reasonable chance (costs > benefit) (for example, the necessity as a supplier to deliver goods with RFID transponders). The profitability of an investment is calculated in a business case, that is to say, an assessment of the figures associated with business measures as defined in strategic planning. The additional success affected by the investment (as opposed to business success without this investment) is assessed here. The result of this business case is a primary factor for management’s decision-making. The most important merits of a business case are: • Increased decision reliability • Creation of the scope for decision-making: the business case also shows alternatives. • Creation of an overview and transparency: all relevant information is provided. • Creation of commitment, clarity, understanding, and comparability: performance figures whose derivation and comparison becomes apparent. • Creation of a basis for the later assessment of the success of the project and support of project controlling. A business case is always based on assumptions: costs and benefits are estimated, and the future development of the company, type, and scope of use of the investment are anticipated. A residual risk of impreciseness also remains, even after preparing a detailed, conservatively calculated business case. Nonetheless, it provides the best, and indispensable, decision basis for an investment.

98

7.4 The business case for RFID

7.4.2 Procedure for RFID projects The results of the target and problem analysis provide a basis for answering the question as to what contribution the introduction of RFID technology will provide to the achievement of the company’s strategic objectives. The preparation of a business case is divided into three major phases: derivation of costs, derivation of benefits, and implementation of the calculation of profitability. The determination of the values (costs and benefits) is always “risky” as it uses plan values as a total of assumptions. Nonetheless, the derived values are decisive for the calculation of profitability. Therefore, it is necessary to provide robust, reasoned figures; all the values and their derivation must be documented in writing. Derivation of the costs The costs of RFID projects are often limited to the RFID transponders. The transponder price is relevant for projects with an open cycle. This is different for projects where the transponders are re-used: the costs for transponders here are far less significant due to the frequent circulation. In addition to the transponder costs, all further costs must naturally be fully derived. For this purpose, it is useful to systematically record the costs in the categories provided (Table 7.2). We recommend documenting all the derived costs in a table. Depending on the scope of the project, it may make sense to go into further detail with sub-categories.

Table 7.2 Categories for deriving the costs

External costs (for external partners) • Software costs • Hardware costs • Services costs

Internal costs (within the company)

Investment costs (project phase)

Operational costs (operation phase)

• • • • • • •

RFID middleware RFID transponders RFID readers and antennas Server and PC Consultancy and project costs Implementation Miscellaneous

• Software, updates • Replacement investments (RFID hardware, IT) • Service • Maintenance • Miscellaneous

• • • • •

Project employee costs Travel costs Occupancy costs Hardware and software Miscellaneous

• Training • Application support • Miscellaneous

99

7 Process design and profitability

The result that was worked out serves primarily as input for the profitability calculation and is also used for project planning and budgeting. Derivation of the benefit The major benefit of using RFID is to increase productivity as well as cost reduction by process cost reduction via process optimization and rationalization effects. In order to simplify recording and quantification of the full benefit of an investment, benefit categories were created and specified in a second step (Fig. 7.3). Especially the recording of the benefits by increased productivity takes place based on analyzed business processes. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze every business process as a process sequence performance model and to determine and document the potentials. The result of the benefit observation flows into the profitability calculation, in turn also providing an initial estimate regarding the benefit potentials of the investment.

Benefit categories Higher turnover

Increased productivity Benefit Lower operating costs Lower current assets

Quantifiability of benefits Increased existing turnover sources

Quantifiable (tangible)

Non-quantifiable (intangible)

New turnover sources Uniform processes

Direct

Indirect

Higher degree of automation Cost savings Cost avoidance Reduction of warehouses Reduction of claims

Fig. 7.3 Derivation of benefit

Profitability calculation The profitability calculation compares the results of the derivation of the costs and benefits and determines the profitability by using calculation processes. In practice, static or dynamic processes are applied; selection is made depending on the framework conditions of the profitability calculation. The static processes relate to time-independent 100

7.5 The RFID business case in practice

individual values and are, therefore, relatively easy and quick to use. However, they are less precise than the dynamic process. The dynamic processes are of advantage when regarding the profitability of an investment over a longer period (for example five years) and more precise due to the consideration of the reserve discounting of the stream of incoming and outgoing payments.

7.5 The RFID business case in practice At Amberg Equipment Plant, which is owned by Siemens AG, RFID systems are used for the production of switching devices. A business case was prepared to prove the profitability of the use of RFID in manufacturing at this works and provides the following example for the practical implementation of a profitability calculation. By newly developing a production line, Siemens AG followed the objective of guaranteeing the manufacturing of a wide array of product variants while maintaining high production quality. Production is planned to be more flexible, of a higher quality and at lower costs (Chapter 9). After the production processes were analyzed, RFID and barcodes were tested as potential technologies to define basic conditions and assumptions for the business case. Analysis and comparison of the benefits of both technologies provided positive results for RFID technology, in which the qualitative benefits of RFID outweighed the use of barcodes. The qualitative benefit of RFID in detail: • Increased quality – Manufacturing dates constantly updated on the RFID transponder – The RFID transponders are written with information from current QA results – Faulty components are automatically sorted out and the error directly eliminated – Components are returned to the assembly process following correction • Increased speed – Increased throughput speed – due to “Data on tag” no data access (“Data on network”) is necessary and, therefore, fast data transfer 101

7 Process design and profitability

– Reduction of set-up time – due to “Data on tag” (writing production data on the transponders), the production control system is triggered directly • Reduction of the use of IT: – Managing without implementing a database by using “Data on tag” – Focusing the employees on high system availability, timely error correction, and concluding quality assurance The following cost estimate was implemented to quantify the benefit. In the business case, they were compared to the cost estimation results. The result of the cost comparison: the costs for RFID technology of €155,000 were some €35,000 higher than for barcode technology (Table 7.3).

Table 7.3 Barcode and RFID costs at Amberg Factory Item

Barcode solution

RFID solution

Reading devices

EUR 50,000

EUR 60,000

Transponder

–

EUR 40,000

Software (including integration)

EUR

Extra IT expenses, output devices

EUR 25,000

5,000

EUR 15,000 –

Proportional project costs

EUR 40,000

EUR 40,000

Total costs

EUR 120,000

EUR 155,000

Due to the higher quantitative benefit provided by RFID as opposed to barcode technology – in particular, due to the increased system production capacity – it was possible to overcompensate the approximately €35,000 higher investment in RFID through the consequent resulting additional profits. As a final step, a business case was calculated for the application of RFID technology, whereby the results of cost assessment and quantified benefits were included in a simple (statistic) Return-on-Investment period rule for a period of 5 years as a calculation basis (Fig. 7.4). The result: the investment in RFID technology had already amortized in the second year of operation.

102

7.6 Technology can inspire – but it must “fit”

in EUROS 150,000

95,000 100,000 50,000

12,000 Year

0 1

2

3

-50,000

-70,000 -100,000

Cumulative cash flow -150,000

-155,000

-200,000

Fig. 7.4 The investment in RFID had already amortized in the second year of operation

7.6 Technology can inspire – but it must “fit” Before investing in RFID technology we recommend conducting a Business Case. Determine all the cost and benefit categories – RFID transponders are not the “be all, end all” in the determination of the total investment amount. The relevance of the costs for RFID transponders depends on the character of the application (key word: open or closed cycle). Technology inspires and because of that one thing may not be forgotten: the RFID technology must be suitable for the company. This means: the knowledge of the visions, strategies, and individual challenges of the company is the basis for successful RFID application.

103

8 Introduction to the practical application of RFID

Michael Schuldes

The technology is available, the application scenarios are formulated, the economical benefit is assessed – how can a vision now become reality? A systematic procedure has proven its worth throughout many projects, as shown in Fig. 8.1. This model works irrespective of concrete application and sector. The first steps – the process analysis, formulation of the target concept, and economic feasibility study – were already discussed in Chapter 7. Now, it is a matter of turning the analytical results into reality.

Roll-out Solution design Feasibility test Profitability analysis RFID assessment RFID quick scan

Preparation of wide scale application

Realization, pilot operation

Verification of RFID technology in a realistic environment

Cost-benefit analysis, ROI

Process analysis (ACTUAL/TARGET) and RFID solution concept

Process identification with RFID benefit potential

Fig. 8.1 The procedure for RFID introduction

The implementation of a target concept under real conditions can involve a few surprises: during the concept, did anyone remember that the gate for receiving goods consists of metal or that the reinforced concrete in the ground may affect the reading result or that reading results can be distorted by reflections, e.g. caused by transport vehicles or containers in the vicinity? However, standard solution ele-

104

8.1 Feasibility test / Field test

ments have meanwhile been developed and tested by the manufacturers of RFID systems. Here, the possible combinations of RFID transponders and reading devices for certain applications are first measured, tested, and tried in practical applications under laboratory conditions. However, in special cases, for example under critical physical circumstances, the wealth of experience is not sufficient. An “outof-the-box” RFID solution does not always exist. That is why the findings that were obtained during the course of the project must be incorporated into the subsequent steps of the project.

8.1 Feasibility test / Field test The risk of the introduction of RFID technology can be controlled by specifically limiting its application to selected products, certain marking levels, and predetermined processes. A feasibility test or field test can also be regarded as a simulation in the broadest sense. In order to prevent negative surprises at a very early stage, a field or feasibility test, based on the target concept, should be the next step in the successful implementation of an RFID project. The RFID feasibility test/ field test serves to check and adjust the technical feasibility of a previously created RFID concept in the customer’s real environment.

8.1.1 Objectives of a feasibility test/field test If the target concept did not include a specification of the technology or the usable hardware based on technical and/or economic aspects, the respective decisions will be made no later than during the feasibility test. To ensure reliable statements regarding the application of the selected technology, RFID testing with own commodities and in own environments cannot be foregone. The test results are incorporated into the usable technology and RFID components and form the basis of the later design of the solution. A feasibility test can be performed before a profitability calculation, as otherwise the creation of a Return-on-Invest (ROI) may not make sense for a solution that is technically unrealizable at a later stage. While a feasibility test only checks whether the RFID technology can be generally applied in the planned environment, the field test also checks the permanent environmental effect on the planned technology.

105

8 Introduction to the practical application of RFID

8.1.2 Performing the tests A test concept accurately specifies the scope, period, objectives, and expected results. When creating this concept together with the customer, observe the definition of assessable test objectives. As existing IT systems should not be interfered with at this stage, the respective software is provided based on which test can be evaluated.

Fig. 8.2 Extensive tests show whether the metal barrels that are loaded on a pallet influence the readability of the pallet transponder, for example.

Depending on the RFID system used, environmental influences can have the most varied effects. The result of the tests is the optimum attachment and alignment of the transponders to the objects as well as the optimum installation of the antennas. The optimum attachment point (sweet spot) is found by attaching various transponders to different parts of the respective object (Fig. 8.2). Various attachment options (screwing, gluing, welding, etc.), the size of the transponder, and suitable installation points are included in the evaluation of the test to the same extent as the applicability by employees and the influences on the existing processes. Some of the most important aspects in creating a feasibility or field test are: • Each RFID location planned in the target concept must be tested individually. If required, alternative locations may have to be considered. 106

8.1 Feasibility test / Field test

• Legal and internal security regulations must be complied with. • When reviewing the locations, for example, ensure that all the already existing machinery that may emit electromagnetic interferences are switched on. • The determination of the exact tag position on the identifiable objects is a trial and error exercise. Every transponder position on the object and every possible angle between the transponder and reading device must be tested. • Every possible packaging material must be tested, just as every object (product) that may be inside the packaging. The contained products may have an influence on the reading quality, e.g. coffee packaging consisting of aluminum or cell phones with metal casing. • Transponders are often too large to be attached to small objects, or the objects do not feature a suitable attachment point. Then, check whether alternative attachment options are available and practical (e.g. a tag with a transponder). Verification of reading speed at production belts is easy to determine by increasing or decreasing the belt speed. Testing when transport passes by reading devices at varying speeds (e.g. forklift in shipping and receiving goods) at varying distances is more difficult. We recommend a testing series over longer periods of time.

8.1.3 Results of the feasibility/field test Probably the most important result of a feasibility or field test is the answer to the question of whether the application of the technology in the customer specific environment is executable as planned from a technical and economic point of view. The test report provides information on problems such as: • Which RFID technology and which hardware components are best suited to comply with the customer requirements contained in the target concept? • Where are the measurement points and what data flows can be expected? • What is the optimum attachment and alignment of the transponders to the objects as well as the optimum installation of the readers? 107

8 Introduction to the practical application of RFID

• Which writing/reading distances can be reached? • Does recording take place automatically or via mobile handheld devices? • What are the effects of RFID technology on the existing processes and habits? As the problems of the business processes are also analyzed in the RFID field trials, mutually active cooperation between the customer and RFID service provider is indispensable.

8.2 Solution design and pilot operation The solution design phase deals with the concept and development of an extensive solution for the customer. In other words, it concerns the answer to the question of how the requirements as specified by the customer can be put into practice. Unlike the feasibility or field test, which basically concentrates on the selection of suitable hardware and its locations or the attachment on the objects, the solution design particularly involves the design of software integration. During this phase it is essential to integrate the process rules into the RFID middleware, to filter and select the data according to the workflow, and to transfer them in a targeted manner. Depending on the tasks, extensive pilot operation may also be expedient in order to review the feasibility of the RFID concept by incorporating the knowledge from the feasibility/field test into the customer’s real environment during continuous application. This pilot implementation requires the installation of the complete system into the real working environment. Unlike the final roll-out, operation and utilization of the system are reduced to manageable parts, and – for security reasons – no complete integration into the existing IT systems will take place (parallel operation). This will also provide the first conclusions on the load behavior and the integration of the new mass data as well as the effects on process control without unduly interrupting the operational process. The testable systems are more manageable during occurring problems, in which the detection of errors is simplified. The introduction of RFID technology requires the solving of a multitude of necessary migrations. Important prerequisites are, among others:

108

8.2 Solution design and pilot operation

• The technology must be robust and available. • The allocation of costs and benefits must be clear. • System integration and data synchronization must have been fully completed. A 100 % reading rate is difficult to achieve in some applications with the current state-of-the-art. If the recording accuracy in, for example, the clothing industry is very high, the reading quality in other logistics departments will strongly depend on the environment and the identifiable object. This has to do with the fundamental laws of physics, if a transponder is completely shielded by metal, for example. The design of an RFID application requires the development of reliable solutions or reversion to the provider’s wealth of experience. As a complete RFID solution often consists of components from different partners (software, hardware, installation, and support), the functioning project and partner management from this project phase onwards is also of great significance. The expense of conducting possible pilot operation strongly depends on the complexity and number of the respective processes. Simpler applications often no longer require a pilot phase due to the use of ready made components. In the environment of, for example, a complex spare part management process with many edge processes (warranty processes, repair cycles, scrapping, etc.), pilot operation could take several weeks or even months.

8.2.1 Objectives of pilot operation During the pilot phase, the achievement of the required accuracy, data flow, and performance in the real environment are tested and recorded over a longer period of time. Evaluation of the results then provides a useful troubleshooting tool and serves the employees as a document for knowledge exchange purposes. A well prepared pilot phase provides the option of assessing the subsequent system behavior during occurring errors as well as defining and taking suitable subsequent measures. Concepts for suitable software can already be developed within the assessment, but application only takes place during pilot operation. It is here that the interfaces to the superimposed IT systems can also be tested. The recorded data are checked and evaluated with simple aids, e.g. Excel, ASCII files). Then, further suppliers/customers or products

109

8 Introduction to the practical application of RFID

are incorporated in increments. This makes it easy to determine any errors that occur for which products, customers, or suppliers. Close cooperation between the involved associations can significantly expedite the solution to a problem. The load tests uncover any deficiency in the business processes and further system anomalies. This can help determine the volume of data up to which the system functions soundly. Cooperation with the involved partners must be ensured for compatibility reasons. To ensure the secure and uninterrupted process of daily work during subsequent roll-out, create emergency plans in case of error, prepare work arounds, and define the alarm events.

8.2.2 Results of pilot operation The solution design’s task is not only the technical solution concept of the RFID system but also the consideration to the respective system software’s performance requirements. What is the use of the recording systems providing the data in real-time if the software is overburdened with processing? The weak points could be data complexity, financial influences, or a different understanding of how data exchange with business partners should take place. A complete test considers the examination of the correct transponder attachment, the communication between the transponder reader and the connected system, the data collection in the RFID system, and the data check. The exchanged data going back and forth between the participating systems, data exchange with auxiliary systems, and with trading partners must also be reviewed. Furthermore, the work flows between these systems should follow the entire process, from the start onwards to the consumption of the data or product. The interfaces must permit seamless integration between all the systems. The data flow must follow all the processes, and the corresponding data must correspond in every phase.

8.3 Roll-out If the transparency regarding the economic benefit and effects on the processes are established, the tests are successfully completed and if a decision on the application of an area-wide RFID solution has been made, then the final step takes the form of the roll-out. The following partial steps must be taken with all the partners involved:

110

8.3 Roll-out

• System integration for the existing IT and customer process landscape • Process Reengineering • If required, involvement of further public entities or production/ logistics units (global roll-out) • Development of a maintenance concept and support • Employee training A key element in every implementation is the integration of existing systems as well as existing ERP or WMS installations. Let us not forget that a further level is added to the system administration with regard to data management, hardware allocation, utilization of the RFID middleware, and the infrastructure behind the new level (e.g. new servers, which need to be connected to the domain). Integration requires new interfaces that have to cooperate with all the systems. At this point it becomes clear whether all the marginal conditions in the planning, design, and selection have been thoroughly checked and considered. As from a certain capacity, especially during the observation of the entire supply chain, a final consideration should be given to whether the operation of the complete RFID system can also be outsourced to a service provider.

What also has to be considered A final word on a topic that is often forgotten during the introduction of a new technology or new processes: the employees. The employees need to be promptly, plausibly, and positively informed about required organizational changes due to adjusted or new processes. The clarification of benefits and possible hazards should be conducted openly. The installed processes must be lived according to the specified marginal conditions, as the expected ROI may otherwise not be realized. An important part of the introduction strategy is the creation of a data protection guideline between all involved partners. Experience shows that the installation of an RFID system also requires extensive adjustment work and often a substantial amount of explanatory support. Larger investments are required in most cases, whether for technology or the required infrastructure (software, hardware, and others). RFID will not become a product that the end customer

111

8 Introduction to the practical application of RFID

can buy over the counter, and not even in the near future. RFID introduction is too costly for that and also too demanding due to the “contact” with critical business processes.

112

Part 3

Current Applications – from the Factory to the Hospital

9 Manufacturing control

Markus Weinlaender

“You can have it in any color as long as it’s black”: this quotation, ascribed to the US entrepreneur Henry Ford on his famous “Model T”, marks an important element of industrial production. The highest possible quantity of preferably similar parts was thought to be the key to cost optimization and the achievement of degression effects. At Ford, the unification of production was able to accelerate manufacture: additional paint lines or changeover times were not required and the color black dried the fastest.

9.1 The dilemma of modern competition But times have changed. Customers of valuable products are no longer satisfied with a “one size fits all” version. In fact, there are a variety of versions from various manufacturers on the market. Providers must bring various versions of a product to the market themselves to address all the different customer groups. Car salespeople, for example, can select from a multitude of models; even a change in manufacturer is easily possible with the comparable technical maturity of the products. Market behavior has changed altogether: from a seller’s market – where the supplier dominated the market action and asserted their interests – to a buyer’s market, where the consumer is at the center of all the effort. At the same time, international competition has become dramatically more intense. Due to modern communication media such as the Internet, the market’s transparency has increased significantly: customers can gather extensive information on the services and prices of suppliers. The disappearance of trade barriers has promoted the export of goods. Finally, the Asian and Eastern European states have also caught up technologically: where only simple goods could once be purchased in these areas, today’s products are on par with those from Western industrial nations or even superior in some cases. The 114

9.1 The dilemma of modern competition

triumphal procession of the Japanese electronics industry is only one example that is also currently being repeated in China. This creates a dual challenge for Western companies: having to react quickly and flexibly to ever stronger differentiating customer demands while maintaining or increasing competitiveness with regard to their own production costs. A possible solution approach is individualized serial products (mass customization). This entails products that on the one hand can be economically manufactured in industrial production (i.e. are not manufactory products) but which, on the other hand, provide sufficient variety options for the fulfillment of customer demands. If consistently pursued, a supply such as this changes a company’s entire value chain, from development to production to sales and marketing (Fig. 9.1). Therefore, the conception of new products requires the provision of sufficient configuration options involving basic modules or exchangeable production steps. Sales and Marketing must also be provided with the respective catalog and ordering systems. This concept denotes a special challenge for production in particular, as the classic “pre”-fabrication of serial and mass goods before the actual order is hardly imaginable for individual products. Offers such as these can be found in many sectors. The automotive industry plays a precursory role: there is hardly a supplier who does not provide their customers with a “configurator” on the Internet for individual adjustment to one’s dream car. It is not profitable for manufacturers to produce all the possible versions in advance – rather the vehicles are only produced after the receipt of the order (made-to-or-

Development

 Modularization

Sales

 Configuration options

 Communication of the configuration options

 Customized product structures

 Configurators, interactive catalogs  Relationship management

Production

 Adaptive manufacturing processes  A high degree of flexibility  Command of the complexity  Flexible secondary processes, e.g. materials flow, purchasing

Logistics

 Individual delivery planning and implementation  Information systems for transparent logistics chains

Fig. 9.1 Special requirements for the value chain for configurable serial products

115

9 Manufacturing control

der). The highlight: some manufacturers provide their customers with the option of changing fitting details just before the respective production step. This is made possible by efficient IT systems. The situation is similar with renowned computer manufacturers. On the one hand, they start a standard series that covers the mass requirements and, on the other hand, there are sufficient users who want to tailor their device to their own individual requirements themselves. This is another case where preproduction is not profitable due to the extensive version options and enormous capital commitment. For the IT sector, this denotes a further risk: if rarely demanded variations were stocked, this could cause price pressure on unsold devices due to rapid technical progress to where these would only be sellable at a loss. Other respective examples are rare in other sectors, such as the food industry. A few variations in taste and packaging size are typical for this industry’s range. However, individualized serial products are also on the rise. A prominent example is the young company “mymuesli.com”, located in Passau, Germany (Fig. 9.2). Customers can order their personal muesli mix on the startup’s website: according to the manufacturer’s information, more than 70 selectable ingredients in any random mixture lead to more than 566 quadrillion product variations. Customers can reorder and exchange their recipes among each other with the use of “Mix-ID”, a unique identifica-

Fig. 9.2 MyMuesli.com produces around 566 quadrillion product variations

116

9.2 The production of individualized serial products

tion for every mixture. In comparison: a typical supermarket will barely stock 20 different muesli varieties.

9.2 The production of individualized serial products If a company dares to move from standardized to individualized serial products, it is faced with an extensive transformation process, which entails all the departments of the company. The individualization of the range will increase the complexity of all the processes considerably; at the same time, the cost position and delivery options (time, location) must remain competitive. This transformation process concerns, in particular, development and production. The development division, which is hitherto aligned with as cost efficient producibility as possible while adhering to demanded target prices and quality, must now also achieve the objective of individuality. For cost and time reasons, the option of the complete development of all orderable variations can be discarded. Development must rather revert to standardized modules, which enable adaption through parameterization or a different combination of modules. Certain adaptation steps are then only performed in production, that is, after an order receipt. There are many measures in production that enable the cost efficient manufacture of individualized serial products. Suitable manufacturing technologies and machinery can be applied, which enable adaptation to every single workpiece. One example are CNC supported processing machines, which enable the fully automatic processing of individual pieces if accordingly integrated into the IT control systems and interlinked in the production flow. A second option is provided by the order related assembly of individual products. The assembly process, for example of a customer specifically manufactured computer, is basically similar to all other computers. However, the installation of various components creates very special products, depending on the order (e.g. varying memory expansion, graphics cards, or preinstalled software packages). Order related material flow control is also required here, which takes the individually required product to the assembly section at the right time. However, the reliable operation of such a factory, an assembly with a reduced susceptibility to failure, requires new control concepts. Such an operation no longer involves rigid machinery but rather a living 117

9 Manufacturing control

organism. Meanwhile, the realization is that the decentralization of planning and control in turn shows that a significant strategy is taking hold. Decentralization means that decisions are made on as low an automation hierarchy level as possible, i.e. “on site”. Ideally the workpiece will bring all the information along to its processing without requiring central units for individual control purposes. Finally, this concept leads to autonomous manufacturing cells, which can perform a certain production step independent from other units and optimize themselves with their ability to learn.

9.3 Autonomous production systems with Auto ID The use of flexible manufacturing stations undeniably requires the unique identification of the respective workpiece: after all, the machine must perform a program that is individualized for every workpiece. The theoretical possibility of using a computer to predict each good’s movement is hardly practically realizable: the risk of possible deviations is too high, and the data technical effort too complex. Various identification systems are being applied in practice. In the simplest of cases, the product is given a process slip to take along, which contains a record of the manufacturing program. The employees will then set the machinery to the respective product. Obviously this method is not particularly mature. Apart from time consuming processing, a further problem is the high error risk. Incorrect input or wrong machine settings can lead to considerable costs and delays. Automatic identification systems should, therefore, be preferred. Although a process slip can also be used in this case, the product will only be identified via the barcode. The relevant data are called up from a database based on the read identification number. The advantage is in the prevention of input errors. A production order is created in the database at the production start. The identification number is printed on the process slip, which takes the product through production. The identification number is read out at every station and the machine set according to the specifications in the IT systems. However, this organization is also not efficient as the process slips are recorded manually, although this does seem completely sufficient for some goods that still require a large number of manual process steps, for example the assembly of personal computers, which cannot be fully automated.

118

9.3 Autonomous production systems with Auto ID

If the automated processing of the product is feasible, its identification should also take place automatically. 2D codes and the respective camera systems should be selected. In contrast to barcodes, the 2D codes can also be attached to the workpiece itself, for example with a laser (Chapter 3). This not only permits identification in production but also during the entire life cycle – an important element for product tracking (Chapter 12). This is realized by connecting the code readers directly to the programmable logic controllers, which monitor the production flow (compare Fig. 9.3). If a workpiece is routed via suitable transport technology, the reader will initially recognize the coding and provides the PLC with the read number. This in turn sends the number of the IT system in the background and receives the information on the manufacturing program of this workpiece. Then, it sends a response to the database to note the changed workpiece status. Manual processing of the workpiece is also possible, for example with a random detailed inspection. In this case a handheld reading device can be used to record the 2D code at the testing station and to call up a test program.

Production control (MES)

Automation (Simatic S7)

Cell A

Cell B

Sensor level (code reader)

Physical processing Workpieces with 2D coding

Production flow

Fig. 9.3 Order control with 2D code identification. Every workpiece is identified with a 2D code; the processing program is queried at every line at the production control level.

119

9 Manufacturing control

Fig. 9.4 Under rough environmental conditions (e.g. car painting), RFID provides considerable advantages to visual systems (Photo: Duerr AG)

RFID systems could replace 2D codes as an alternative. The radio technology is insensitive to dirt of any kind. This makes it interesting for applications for which rough environmental conditions are unavoidable. One example would be paint robots and dips as they are applied in automobile manufacture (Fig. 9.4). If the chassis is treated with atomized spray or color dipped, visual codes can no longer be recognized. An RFID transponder on the other hand will also function if they are covered in paint. The respective casing can provide heat resistant packaging for the transponders, which also allows their use in baking ovens after painting. In this way the transponder can accompany the chassis nearly through the entire production process. Observation of the required IT architecture, however, displays a problem in this concept. Every query of the identity number requires access to the central database system. This requires a high degree of availability with respective complexity. Finally, a large number of accesses per second must be performed at maximum speed. The time period required for the provision of data passes unused for the actual production step. The logical development, therefore, is in decentralizing the data in order to achieve autonomous stations from a data technical point of view.

120

9.4 Decentralizing production data with RFID

9.4 Decentralizing production data with RFID Apart from insensitivity to environmental influence, a second advantage of RFID as opposed to visual codes is the possibility of rewriting the data carriers: once printed, a 2D code cannot be changed. Together with the high memory capacity of RFID transponders (up to 32 Kbytes), remote automation architectures can be realized, which clearly reduce the effort for local data maintenance. The concept (Fig. 9.5): An RFID transponder with a large memory is attached to each workpiece (or at the workpiece carrier) and stores all the required production data such as material list, production instructions, testing specifications, etc. These data are queried from the production control system at the start of a production line and programmed on the transponder. PLC controllers at the individual manufacturing stations read these data directly from RFID readers and use them to control the production step. Ideally the background systems need not be queried. After the production step is completed, the PLC can store the status and quality data on the RFID transponder before it is transported to the next station with the workpiece. Such a concept provides considerable advantages: the individual stations can perform their manufacturing step autonomously. Central

Production control (MES)

Automation (Simatic S7)

Initialization

Cell A

Cell B

Sensor level (RFID reader)

Production flow

Physical processing Workpieces with an RFID transponder

Fig. 9.5 Remote production control with RFID

121

9 Manufacturing control

planning and control is only required at the start of the manufacturing line, when the transponders are initialized. The complexity in the automation systems and in the engineering of such factors, therefore, decreases. Reducing complexity is equivalent to decreasing the susceptibility to failure for the entire plant. Small production modules are created instead of a monolithically organized block, and can be easily operated, maintained, optimized, or exchanged.

9.5 Technical requirements Special requirements must be fulfilled when selecting RFID systems for remote production control: Separation of reading events, range limitation, high memory capacity, and special integration into the automation landscape. One of the main differences between systems for production control and those for logistics applications is the imperative necessity of separation. While a gate application requires the simultaneous recording of many transponders, e.g. during goods receipt, and thereby providing an advantage over other technologies, in production it is more a matter of really only recording a single transponder – namely the one currently attached to the workpiece in the machine. Overshooting and reflections are poison for these applications. Finally yet importantly, the rule “as far as necessary but as close as possible” also applies to this requirement for the system range (maximum distance from the antennas to the RFID transponders). For example, it is possible to apply RFID systems with a range of only a few centimeters for track-guided conveyor routes. This excludes the possibility of reading the next workpiece on the belt. If it is impossible to move the antennas so close to the transponders (e.g. during final automobile assembly), the RFID systems have to feature certain constructive characteristics for active range limitation – a simple reduction of transmission efficiency is insufficient due to the possible reflections. In order to read the transponder only and immediately in front of the reader antenna despite overshooting and reflection, the industrial system Moby U by Siemens has realized elaborate signal run-time measurement (RSSI) (Chapter 2). A further difference between Production and Logistics is displayed in the required memory capacity of RFID transponders. As a complete production program is to be stored on the transponder in Production,

122

9.6 Is RFID worthwhile in Production?

chips with 2 to 32 Kbytes have to be used here. Users in Logistics – especially in the EPCglobal environment – are content with a mere 96 bit. As high a reading speed as possible is required at the same time. Fast reading of the information remains a critical parameter, even if access is accelerated by expedient memory management on the chip (for example, if only fixed defined parts are read at a station instead of the entire memory). Finally, the RFID systems in Production are integrated in completely different ways. While the logistics applications could commence from an IT environment, the memory programmed controls such as Simatic S7 dominate the field in the production environment. The RFID reading devices have to be integrated into these controls so seamlessly that the S7 programmer can easily access the RFID data via completed components.

9.6 Is RFID worthwhile in Production? The use of automatic identification in Manufacturing is an integral part of a comprehensive production concept. It is, therefore, difficult to measure the actual RFID/Auto ID ratio at such a solution in commercial key figures. However, if the decision has been made in favor of architecture with autonomous elements, there is still a decision between RFID and visual codes. There is a difference in the various costs for the infrastructure (especially reading devices). Furthermore, the transponder costs are significant: although the visual code also has to be purchased, this expense is negligible when compared to the costs for the RFID transponders. On the other hand, higher failure rates due to dirt may have to be calculated for visual systems. An example – based on Sirius production at the Amberg electronics production plant of Siemens AG – clarifies when an RFID application is worthwhile (ref. method compare Chapter 7). Siemens produces switching devices of the “Sirius” family at its plant in Amberg, Germany. Numerous parameters result in a large number of possible combinations: alone the smallest switch size “S00” is available in 1,500 possible versions. Siemens further provides a 24hour delivery guarantee for these devices. The designers of the Amberg production line have, therefore, realized a “Just-in-Time” production, in which the switching devices are produced in the exactly

123

9 Manufacturing control

required quantities after order receipt. Even so, the plant is fully automated, and thereby provides consistently high quality at comparatively low costs. In this case, the key is RFID technology. The production line is divided into 60 processing stations, each of which can perform one production step for the various versions: e.g. assembly of the coil bodies or attachment of the lid plate. The devices are assembled on a plastic workpiece carrier, which the transport system routes through the entire production. RFID “tells” the processing stations what to do: the workpiece carrier contains an integrated RFID chip that bears all the manufacturing instructions and complete parts list. This knowledge is programmed to every transponder at the start of production. Every station has an RFID reader that reads the data from the transponder and makes them directly available for the Simatic control technology (Fig. 9.6). As an RFID system, Moby I by Siemens is applied with a memory capacity of 8 Kbyte per transponder. The result is a highly flexible production line that could even theoretically produce individual pieces. The application of visual identification systems and a respective database in the background were considered as an alternative. A solution such as this would have been less expensive for a first investment. However, the running costs make RFID more economical. For one, the system specific disadvantages of visual codes lead to a higher failure

Fig. 9.6 RFID supported production of Sirius switching devices at the Siemens plant in Amberg

124

9.6 Is RFID worthwhile in Production?

probability, e.g. caused by dirt on camera lenses or the codes themselves. This reduces the line’s maximum utilization limit, while the IT systems cost more not only in their acquisition but also in their operation. As each production station initially queries the processing step to be performed, the IT systems must provide the required information in real-time and with the highest degree of availability, which also involves solving problems such as the versioning of a type in an ongoing operation. Although this is possible, it is more expensive than the use of RFID in the long run. Production experts at Siemens have established that an investment into RFID pays off in less than two years.

125

10 Production logistics

Heinz-Peter Peters

Having the right material at the right time at the right location is the fundamental task of logistics and is an important prerequisite for the economic success of industrial companies.

10.1 Logistics and corporate success But what is logistics? The definition of the Bundesvereinigung Logistik (BVL) [Confederation of German Employers] is: “Logistics entail the holistic planning, control, coordination, implementation, and monitoring of all the intra-corporate and cross-corporate flows of information and goods from companies and supply chains with decisive influence on corporate success”. Referring to intra-corporate logistics in manufacturing companies, this leads to the subdivision of production logistics. Their task is the planning, controlling, and monitoring of the material flow from the receipt of goods across the

Logistics

Procurement market

Requirements planning

Packaging

Storage

Production planning

Handling

Sales market

Sales planning

Picking

Transporting

Materials flow

Information flow

Suppliers

Procurement logistics

Production logistics

Distribution logistics

Fig. 10.1 Material and information flow in Logistics

126

Customer

10.2 Processes in production logistics

entire production process to shipping as well as – at a superimposed level – the creation of a logistics compatible optimal material flow control. Therefore, the physical transport of materials and goods, i.e. concrete packaging, storage, picking, and transporting is assigned to logistics. Production logistics also includes the application of modern information and communication technologies for the support of work processes, e.g. electronic tracking of material on its way from goods receipt to processing to shipping (Fig. 10.1). The challenge is to directly interlink the material flow with the information flow, and thereby supplying the transported material with the information. The following sections describe a solution for this task through the application of RFID technology.

10.2 Processes in production logistics The identical requirements for companies are low stocks of raw material, semi-finished and finished products, short throughput times, and flexible production processes while maintaining high quality. At the same time, the customers demand individualized products, i.e. the ability to provide batch size (small quantities) is demanded in production (see Chapter 9). Rapid processing of orders equals the means for rapid production processes and these require an efficient material flow between incoming and outgoing goods. In the division of production logistics, this affects the production itself as well as production associated logistics processes incoming and outgoing goods, transport, handling, picking, and storage (Fig. 10.2).

Goods entry

Trucks

Transport

Warehousing

Handling

Production

Warehousing

Consignment sales

Goods shipments

Forklift

Warehouse

Conveyor / crane or similar

Machine assembly

Warehouse

Carton for packaging

Trucks

Fig. 10.2 Production associated logistics processes

These days, production logistics is often marked by manual processes such as manual input and information and communication systems with local data maintenance. The delivered goods are manually recorded at goods receipt and transported to a storage facility or a pro127

10 Production logistics

cessing station by warehouse staff. Processing is started manually and the results are documented by hand. These processes are work and time intense, in which errors occur frequently, and last but not least they cause high costs due to work effort and error removal. Although the use of barcodes for data recording greatly reduces the number of errors, the work effort remains the same, as identification still has to be performed manually. Furthermore, central data maintenance requires complex networks, which are heavily burdened by permanent communication. The failure of the process computer or the network leads to a complete production standstill. An improvement of the situation is only possible through organizational measures created by logistics compatible strategies and structures. We differentiate between demand-controlled logistics strategies, e.g. Just-in-sequence/Just-in-time (material is accurately provided according to sequence) or consumption-controlled logistics strategies, e.g. Kanban (a demand impulse is linked to a container and triggers provision). The implementation of these solutions leads to process improvements and has already ensured a reduction in the throughput times and stocks. Large potential, however, is left for sustainable material flow optimization through RFID-based solutions.

10.3 RFID in production logistics The physical material flow of raw materials, components, partial systems, or finished products in production logistics is always offset by a respective information flow. The current information on the order, as well as the condition and quality of the individual object must be as promptly available as much as possible. Efficient material flow control, therefore, requires the extensive transparency of the working process in the production related logistics of material and data. RFID technology enables moved objects to be supplied with information and to link the material flow directly to the information flow. The use of RFID transponders on transport aids such as boxes, pallets, and pallet cages or on the material itself enables the real-time recording of information during transport, whereby the RFID transponders assume the identification of the objects as well as the remote and mobile data storage of further information such as order data, process, and quality data. The expected area-wide application of RFID in the cross-corporate information and material flows and supply chains will also lead to optimum and efficient production logistics. The RFID 128

10.3 RFID in production logistics

supported logistics processes would go beyond the internal production plant and involve suppliers and customers. Together with the transport, the goods equipped with RFID transponders are automatically recorded during unloading from the truck. The information is reconciled with the orders and the supplier’s delivery note. Erroneous or incomplete deliveries are recognized immediately. The internal transport information is then stored in the RFID transponders. The inward stock movement is automatically read at the storage points. The parts are rerecorded at stock removal and specified with transport information. The associated booking of goods takes place automatically. In the simplest of cases, the current delivery data are automatically recorded at the good’s dispatch during the loading of the truck and transferred to the customer in the form of delivery notes. Booking in the merchandise management system also takes place simultaneously. The typical tasks in shipment processing for the consolidation of customer orders or the distribution of bulk orders are further optimized by RFID. The remote data maintenance poses fewer requirements on the information. The communication and networks are relieves of these requirements. This is achieved through local storage of target and routing information on the RFID transponders attached to the commodity or transporting aids. The goods can, therefore, communicate with the transport technology and navigate through systems by themselves. All of the route decisions are made directly at control level based on the locally available data: not the control system but rather the transport means decide on the route in cooperation with the goods and transporting aids. The situation can also be further improved in the already mentioned logistics strategies. The just-in-time strategy (JIT) requires close coordination between the supplier and manufacturer. The material order is determined by the production sequence, but the associated material request follows at very short notice within the hour. Wrong deliveries would lead to a production standstill. RFID enables the largest possible information technical integration of all those involved. Decisions can be made quickly and immediately on-site. For the realization, RFID transponders are attached to a transporting aid and are written with the transport, production, and quality data. The respectively relevant data are read out during transport along the decision points. Interception into the material flow is possible to the end.

129

10 Production logistics

Fig. 10.3 Example of a Kanban monitoring board: the board’s equipment with RFID (left) provides a fully automated display in the automation and IT systems (right), without the established work process having to be changed.

During Kanban-oriented provision, the customer or consumer always decides what is to be produced (Push or Pull Principle). Basic Kanban elements are: only the material actually consumed is produced and only to the consumed volume; delivery is firmly defined and the goods are always in fault-free condition. In this case a wrong delivery would also lead to production standstill. For more recent Kanban solutions, the containers or the Kanban cards are provided with an RFID transponder. The transponders or cards uniquely identify the container’s contents. Once a container is empty, its card is inserted into a monitoring board with an integrated RFID antenna (Fig. 10.3). The data are automatically read and transferred to production logistics control. Then, operator-independent and expeditious replenishment control takes place.

10.4 Application examples As RFID has already been applied in production control for more than 20 years (Chapter 9), the most obvious step was to extend its use to production related logistics. A few realized projects from various sectors and applications are described below.

10.4.1 Automatic order consolidation increases efficiency Even if this example stems from distributions logistics, it displays the benefit of remote data maintenance very clearly. At the mail order

130

10.4 Application examples

company Quelle in Leipzig, all logistical tasks, from goods receipt and storage to picking, packing and dispatch are processed at one distribution center. The high number of customer orders, daily peaks of 180,000 from a range of 160,000 articles, requires flexible, fast, and reliably functioning logistics systems. The answer is the remote control of complex material flows from picking to a multi-level sorting system to dispatch with the help of RFID technology. Every picking container has an RFID transponder with the container identification, customer order, and additional routing information stored on it. This information is used on-site directly in the programmable logic controllers (PLCs) for route decision purposes. It is here that the RFID system has led to an efficient and flexible solution. 10.4.2 RFID optimizes picking for assembly provision This example describes the batch size in production. At the hardware manufacturer Maxdata, PC systems are produced according to customer orders; the completed systems are not stored. The production processes must, therefore, take place particularly quickly and reliably. For this reason, the components and partial systems are picked in a production warehouse acc. to orders and the completed systems are assembled, tested, and shipped in assembly. The picking containers were already equipped with RFID transponders, which are also used for material flow control in picking. The serial number is stored in the RFID transponder and therefore the picking container is linked to the order. Goods are moved out and also past so-called “stations”, which are set up for the picking areas. This means that containers can overtake each other to avoid congestion. The transponder is read at every out-station and an on-site control decides whether the goods are to be moved in or out. 10.4.3 Transparent processes in reusable transport trusses RFID also works reliably under extreme environmental conditions. The Tnuva association in Israel wanted a reliable identification solution for goods tracking in the food industry. For hygienic reasons, plastic pallets with integrated RFID transponders were used as reusable transport trusses. The finished goods (e.g. yogurt) went through various process steps such as heat storage, cooling tunnels, quality control, and storage in a cooling warehouse with 4° C. The transponders are read in dispatch for the administration of the reusable pallets. On the one hand, the RFID system supports the material flow in 131

10 Production logistics

production and storage. On the other hand, this permits the easy realization of product tracking to the end customer.

10.4.4 Replenishment is ensured This example displays cross-corporate cooperation to ensure the production supply of raw materials. Here, RFID enables a consumer-oriented logistics strategy in the sense of Vendor Managed Inventory (VMI). Finsa, Spain’s largest manufacturer of chipboard and fiberboard needed a solution for the Trans-European material supply of its twelve production plants. Together with DSM, the supplier of the raw material melamine, Orbit Logistics Europe GmbH denoted a specialist for global storage logistics and VMI. The realized solution is based on RFID technology for marking big bags as individual trusses. Unique identification via a specific number in the Electronic Product Code (EPC) allows for tracking back to the production batch. The commodity flows are automated through dynamic storage and monitoring and ensure reliable material supply. The on-site goods management system regularly reconciles inventory data with the Orbit logistics computer. The data are processed, the required orders are initiated, and the commodity flows are tracked in the Orbit computer center. This RFID application has led to significantly improved storage. Errors were reduced and costs were lowered.

10.4.5 The matching seat for the right car The following example once more describes the close cooperation between the supplier and customer, and in this case the automotive industry. It is also an example of the requirement-oriented just-in-time logistics strategy (JIT). At Johnson Controls, a manufacturer of vehicle seat components and systems, RFID technology has already been successfully applied at the plant in Bochum for many years (Fig. 10.4). Ideally there are two combined application options: automatic recording of internal processing data and the provision of delivery data at the customer’s goods receipt. As a solution, a specific transporting aid has been equipped with a transponder. The individual work stations have installed RFID reading devices, which store all the production and quality data on the transponder. Once ordered by the customer, the seats in goods shipment are sorted in the right sequence for direct delivery to the 132

10.5 Summary and forecast

Fig. 10.4 Johnson Control uses RFID to control vehicle seat logistics. The RFID reader is directly integrated in the transport system (circle) (Photo: W. Geyer)

assembly station at the automobile manufacturer. The delivery data are written on the tag and automatically adopted in the customer’s goods receipt. There are often only three hours between the order of a customer-specific seat and its installation in the car. Due to the application of RFID, the efficiency in production was able to be significantly optimized and the partnership with the customer was cemented.

10.5 Summary and forecast The advantages and optimization potential due to the application of RFID in production logistics are obvious. A current survey by industrial analysts from the Aberdeen Group has revealed that due to the introduction of RFID technology, the best companies were able to reduce throughput times in production by 34 % and improve their delivery punctuality by 6 %. Furthermore, safety stocks were reduced by four days and changeover times by 8 % [1]. A world in which all logistical objects are equipped with RFID transponders creates the basis for the “internet of things”. The next step is the modularization of mechanics in the material flow and the respective programming of the IT systems in the information flow. Con133

10 Production logistics

sistent decentralization has enabled decisions for new optimized routes of the respective material on-site. The self-organization of production-related logistics is accompanied by this: the material controls the system. However, this solution can only work based on the respective information carried on the RFID tags. The next consistent step on this basis would then be the area-wide introduction of RFID technology. This provides the opportunity for cross-corporate supply networks. References [1] Refer to various reports and market analysis by the Aberdeen Group, www.aberdeen.com, 2007

134

11 Container and Asset Management

Jens Dolenek

Not only product quality and performance are decisive for corporate success in today’s global competitive environment but also the manner in which the products reach their destination. Highly detailed and automated process and supply chains are required, thanks to which the products quickly, efficiently, and specifically reach the desired destination. Reusable transport units for the material flow are used in many business relations. These “Returnable Transport Items” (RTI) can therefore be used several times for the exchange of goods and commodities within a logistical network. RTI and transported goods form a conclusive unit together with the assigned information. From the point of origin to their final destination, the transport units can pass through multi-tiered further processing and a complex supplier network that is created on this basis. In order to provide consistent data for the suppliers, sub-contractors, logistics service providers, and end customers in such a network, it is necessary for each of these units to be uniquely identifiable. Multisite and cross-corporate standardization of data structures and the respective interfaces is required to enable the interpretation and further processing of the information of the RTI and the transported goods by all those concerned. This approach provides RTI transparency along the entire supply chain.

11.1 Requirements for Container Management In the context of container management, the previously described RTIs are generally called “containers”. The reusable transport units can feature the following characteristics: pallets, glass bottles, barrels, individual workpiece carriers, wagons, containers, trolleys, boxes, folding boxes, and others (Fig. 11.1). The term “asset” expresses the commercial significance of the RTI while simultaneously expanding the view of assets such as tools or system parts. 135

11 Container and Asset Management

Fig. 11.1 Various forms of reusable transport items (RTI)

11.1.1 Motivation The main objective of an asset management system is to use transport units or other assets as efficiently and economically as possible and – in case of specialization such as Container Management – to apply them in the specified transport and storage processes. This requires an accurate statement on the status of each individual transport unit. Targeted actions, which are required for the functioning of the complete process chain, can be derived from the overall observation. If, for example, the existing stock of load carriers is insufficient to handle increased transport requirements, additional load carriers will have to be included in the process. Continuous availability of information allows for the control and optimization of a process chain under the aspects of cycle time, quality, quantity, and finally, the associated costs and investments. The connection of information flow and physical material flow also helps in

136

11.1 Requirements for Container Management

achieving increased process transparency, which can be used for performance increases and cost reduction purposes.

11.1.2 Objectives This motivation for Container Management enables the derivation of objectives, which could be achieved with the application of the suitable technologies. The control of processes required extensive transparency. The required status information on every container in this respect can be summarized into the following categories: • container condition and application • movement data and times • general management and administration. Missing information on the container’s area of application, its current condition (“damaged”, “requires repair”, etc.) or the exact duration in which a container is in circulation, can lead to an information deficit within the entire system. The completeness of the status information of every individual RTI and their immediate availability can thereby counteract such an information deficit. A further objective is the storage of important data directly at the physical unit (e.g. quality data on the container) in order to have this available in the process directly. The combination of distributed and local data forms the basis for a data structure with immediate connection to the actual process. Due to the flexible programmability of tags in RFID technology and their consistency in rough environments, the requirement of data to be distributed directly on the object can be safely fulfilled. In contrast, conventional identity technologies such as barcodes and Data Matrix Code do not provide any options for storing variable information directly on the physical unit.

11.1.3 Standardizing Standards and common specifications are necessary to implement a reliable and steady flow of goods across sites and companies with a number of participants. If, for instance, one looks at the different types of packaging and transport of goods in a supply chain, it could 137

11 Container and Asset Management

be seen as a simplified form of architecture (Fig. 11.2), which can be sub-divided into different, defined layers.

Layer 5

Means of transport (e.g. truck, aircraft, ship)

Layer 4 ISO 17363 Freight Containers

Container (e.g. overseas container)

Layer 3 ISO 17364 RTI - Returnable Transport Items

Truss unit (e.g. pallet)

Layer 2 ISO 17365 Transport Units

Transport unit

Layer 1 ISO 17366 Product Packaging

Pkg

Layer 0 ISO 17367 Product Tagging

Item

Transport unit

Pkg

Item

Item

Pkg

Item

Item

Item

Fig. 11.2 Extract from the specifications with ISO-relevance in the supply chain (Source: ISO 17364; International Organization for Standardization)

Different requirements exist regarding materials handling and the data associated with that on each of the individual layers. For instance, on the item layer only product-specific data such as part numbers or serial references are of importance. On the other hand, on the transport unit layer super-imposed information such as package quantities and weight of the transport unit are of relevance. The supply chain layers are shown graphically in Fig. 11.2. Furthermore, this figure shows the ISO specifications in which the standards for the RFID technologies in the different layers are specified (ISO 1736x). Layers 0 to 4 cover the applications of RFID technology within the supply chain. The ISO specification 17364 – Supply Chain Applications of RFID – Returnable Transport Items (Layer 3) must be emphasized specifically in the context of re-usable transport units. As the figure shows, not all the layers need to be filled, depending on specific products and the processes associated with them. For instance, transport packaging (Layer 2) without a re-usable transport palette (Layer 3) can be transported in a freight container (Layer 4). 138

11.1 Requirements for Container Management

11.1.4 Technical Specifications The use of different RFID technologies in different layers is not defined uniquely in the specifications in most cases. Therefore, the use of a specific RFID frequency depending on the specific processes and existing environmental conditions is not specified in ISO 17364. However, in various segment-specific and cross-industry recommendations the use of specific frequency bands is recommended. For instance, in the VDA Recommendation 5501 (RFID in the container management of the supply chain/Association of the German Automotive Industry) the use of UHF is recommended because the performance of this technology can best cope with the demands of the relevant logistic processes of the automotive industry. However, trading partners can conclude bilateral agreements. It is in this way that implementation specifications can be defined explicitly in the relevant Trading Partner Agreements (TPA). For a complex with universally applicable RTIs this approach does, however, represent high administrative overheads and is inflexible for expansion.

11.1.5 Data structures As a prerequisite for a container management system it must be ensured that every container can be identified and that every container has only one instance in the database of the entire system. In order to achieve such uniqueness, universal and binding data structures for the generation of container identifiers must be defined. The minimum requirements for such a data structure are an enterprise identifier or company identification number and a serial reference, which is unique within the company identification number. These minimum requirements are applied in the following two implementations. International Unique Identification of RTIs (ISO 15459-5) In order to ensure the uniqueness of the company identification number, various issuing agencies issue numbers to companies, which may only be used by these companies. Issuing agencies are, for instance: Odette (OD), Dun and Bradstreet (UN) or DHL Freight GmbH (ND) (Source: ISO – International Organization for Standardization). Fig. 11.3 shows the structure of the data with the saved Issuing Agency Code (IAC) and the issued Company Identification Number, CIN. In this way, a container is assigned to one defined owner. Every contain-

139

11 Container and Asset Management

IAC

Company Identification Number (CIN)

Serial Reference

N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 N10N11N12N13N14N15N16 … N32

Fig. 11.3 Data structure of a unique container identification (extract) – ISO 154595 (Source: ISO 17364)

er in the company is individually identified via a serial reference. It is in this way that holistic database uniqueness is created for each transport unit. Global Returnable Asset Identifier (GRAI) Similar to the previous concept, the GRAI data structure is used to assign the company identification number by GS1 to the company (Fig. 11.4). GS1 is a service provider and competence center for business processes across consumer product companies and its adjoining economic sectors. A type for the “Asset” transport unit can be assigned as a supplement within the identification by the managing company. This offers the opportunity of classifying the assets, directly on the object layer, in order to be able to control material flows depending on the type of packaging.

GS1 Company Prefix

Asset Type

Check Digit

Global Returnable Asset Identifier

0 N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 N10N11N12N13

Serial Number

X 1 variabel X 16

Fig. 11.4 Format of GRAI identification (extract) (Source: ISO 17364)

In summary, the described data structures exclusively serve the purpose of an identification key for a reusable transport unit. However, actions and information can be reported to the linked IT structures via this key. For instance, properties, contents, and movements of the objects can be saved in and retrieved from a central database. Furthermore, it makes sense to be able to save supplementary information directly on the RFID transponder and thereby directly on the object.

140

11.2 Economic viability

11.1.6 Additional peripheral processes In addition to the identification data on the container, ideally container and material data are either beforehand or simultaneously sent to the customer and the supplier of logistic service provider per EDI (Electronic Data Interchange). This specifically serves the purpose of simplifying the business processes and of verifying the feasibility of planned material flows against real material flows. When capturing the container identifier, the receiver of the goods can thereby check whether they have received all or even the correct containers. In case of deviations, discrepancies can be identified with corresponding error messages and can be reported.

11.2 Economic viability When is the use of RFID economically feasible in container management? In order to be able to provide a well-founded answer to this question an exact observation of the process in the relevant field of application is required. The investment for RFID-supported container management, which comprises individual RFID tags on the objects, stationary and mobile installation and the IT integration, must be analyzed in a focused fashion against process optimization as a cost saving potential. These could, for instance, be lower process margins of error and reduce staff costs as a result of automatic identification. If stationary installations and the IT structure are taken as once-off costs and if investment in RFID tags on the RTIs is projected onto their average cycle times, the investment can be shown for a defined period of time. Example: A transponder on the container with a price of € 2 is read three times per cycle. The container has a cycle time of one day. If the life cycle of a container is taken to be 7 years (at 260 utilization days per year), this results in a cost of € 0.11 per cycle or € 0.037 per reading over the entire period of time. As this example shows, the costs of the transponder cannot be taken to be critical. The necessary installations and IT implementation are

141

11 Container and Asset Management

the real cost drivers. By taking into consideration the once-off costs (installation and IT), the use of RFID in container management is promising, provided that the following boundary conditions are given: 1. Closed loop operation, where the data carriers can be re-used during the process (see example above). 2. Highly automated processes, where the automated identification of objects is possible (e.g. materials handling installation). 3. High number of measurement and reading positions, thereby reducing the cost per reading (see example above). Furthermore, the following properties of reusable transport units serve as general decision basis for the introduction of the management system: 1. High investment costs for special container/load carriers, which are kept as high quality assets. 2. High loss or damage rates, which can be analyzed and eliminated by means of creating transparency. 3. Maintenance-intensive RTI, which must be identified uniquely during their service life, in order to be able to perform maintenance or inspections.

11.3 Container and Asset Management in Practice Different implementation scenarios for the identification of reusable transport units in container management are described in the following sections. Different targets can be pursued here, depending on the process requirements and application. Container inventory and Container tracking Automatic or manual identification of containers serves for the simplification of stocktaking processes. If the process chain is structured consistently, so that all the movements of the container can be captured, continuous stocktaking can be performed. This means that a current image with all the information about the containers can be retrieved within the process chain. In addition, the task of continuous tracking can be accomplished. If the requirement of continuous and complete capturing of material 142

11.3 Container and Asset Management in Practice

flows has been complied with, it can be established exactly at which point in time which container has passed a specific point or is situated at which location. For instance, the identification at the shipping and receiving of goods can be used to book containers that were moved to a higher level system for goods flows. Container controlling The re-writable property of the RFID transponder is used in active container controlling to save the target address and other cycle-specific data on a per container basis. Quick and effective control of material flows can be achieved with the data directly on the container. For instance, in the automotive industry highly specialized cable harnesses are transported from the supplier to the automobile manufacturer in reusable containers. During the manufacturing of the cable harness, production is already performed according to the specified sequence (Just In Sequence, JIS) of the end customer. The challenge is to control the harnesses exactly according to sequence to the installation site, even if the sequence or the status of automobiles changes at short notice and a different assembly sequence is required. Such highly flexible process requirements can be implemented with an active container controlling, where logistic fine control can be implemented without a higher level material flow system. On the other hand, the quality data from the intermediate work steps of the product can be saved to the data carrier of the load carrier/container. Content management It is not only necessary to know the contents for the sequence-exact supply of containers. Moreover, there are applications where more detailed information regarding the load must be available at any time. For instance, in the foodstuff industry, information regarding expiration dates or production batches can be saved directly on the container. Here too – based on information regarding the product – focused steps and measures for further processing are initiated (e.g. application of the FIFO principle for products with a limited shelf life). Further central databases can be used via cross references in order to provide a comprehensive data record for the container or product.

143

11 Container and Asset Management

Container condition The container management system promises high benefit especially in case of maintenance-intensive RTIs. For instance, it must be possible for all participants within the supply chain to have an overview of whether the relevant container is available for further utilization, or whether it must be repaired. Peripheral processes that specify the release or re-use can then be accomplished at defined locations, e.g. at the owner of the reusable transport units. Distributed validity and availability of container condition information enables the perfect planning and controlling of service-related actions. Depending on the specific requirements of a container management system, the previously mentioned application scenarios can be combined. Transparent processes are created with the functional linking of scenarios, thereby avoiding time consuming investigations to obtain information regarding individual containers and products. Additional solution blocks, which contribute to the further improvement of performance, can be implemented. Example: Asset Management at Siemens Berlin An application example of asset management being applied in conjunction with a tool management system in a production environment is shown below. Parallels to the storage and transport processes and cost- and maintenance-intensive tools as well as reusable transport units can be created. Knowledge regarding the current application or storage location is needed, as well as the necessity for saving process-related data directly on the object.

Fig. 11.5 Tool management for precision devices at Siemens PG Berlin (Photo: W. Geyer)

144

11.4 Business models

At Siemens Power Generation in Berlin (gas turbine manufacturer), RFID technology is used to optimize tool management. The system manages the use and storage of precision devices, which are required for the manufacturing of various components for turbines. A higher degree of transparency of tools and the effective utilization thereof is achieved in this way. In order to achieve such an improvement in quality, each of the approximately 3,500 maintenance intensive devices of the production site were fitted with an industrial RFID transponder (Fig. 11.5, left). Besides a unique identification number and a plain text description, supplementary data regarding the device quality and latest maintenance is also saved in this data carrier. By ensuring that the production devices can only be moved at defined entry and exit locations between various manufacturing sectors (Fig. 11.5, right), improved inventory information is thereby achieved. Based on this information, manufacturing planning can plan the tools more efficiently and in a more controlled fashion. All the tools and movement data are managed centrally in order to be able to derive further analysis and process optimization from it.

11.4 Business models New opportunities regarding cost accounting between the involved partners also result from the individual identification of assets and containers. A bilateral supply relationship between a supplier and an end customer is assumed for the simplified explanation below.

11.4.1 Rental In this model, the owner – in most cases the end customer or a pool operator – makes their reusable transport units available to be used by the supplier (filling with material). The owner is responsible for sufficient stock within the process chain. After goods receipt of the empties at the supplier, a rental fee is charged after an agreed processing time. If the container was already returned to the end customer in the meantime, the rental feel does not become due. Settlement of the account, therefore, takes place after the period of time at the supplier or after a number of cycles. This business model maintains the circulation of containers because the supplier will want to avoid unnecessary costs due to excessively long storage of the reusable transport units. Loss or shrinkage can 145

11 Container and Asset Management

be retraced based on inventory and movement accounts of the containers. “Resting” transport units at the supplier or the end customer are accounted for via inventory accounts. All the objects having left the goods dispatch of a company and not yet arrived at goods receiving of the target are booked in the movement or transit accounts (i.e. those objects that are currently transported by the logistics service provider). Based on a reporting system, inventory, retention times, and handling times of containers can be shown transparently.

11.4.2 Sale and repurchase model In the sale and repurchase model there is no permanent owner of containers. The containers are rather “sold” at the time of dispatch. Transfer of ownership to the supplier thus automatically happens at the goods dispatch of the end customer. If the transport unit is sent back to the end customer after having been filled by the supplier, then the transfer of ownership to the end customer again takes place with the return – similar to the supply of empties. A company (pool operator) is responsible for the entire inventory, without becoming a permanent owner of the containers. The purchasing and sales processes with associated transfer of ownership represent the business processes in this model. For the company that is responsible for the logistical activities, the agreed repurchase value of the containers will be different from the sales value. This difference in value is used to cover the logistics costs. If the supplier is responsible for the logistics activities, for instance, their container purchase value will be lower than the sales value. Accounting is, therefore, done concurrently with the cycle. Sales and repurchase values are agreed contractually and can involve additional participating companies. Container shrinkage and loss cannot be passed on in this model and is directly for the account of the company being the owner of the container at the time of the loss.

11.5 Perspective If the use of an RFID-supported container management system only represents relatively low savings potential for individual process steps per identification point and transport process, savings are accumulated over the service life of a reusable transport unit. Based on 146

11.5 Perspective

partial use of transport units across the respective industry, e.g. small load carriers (“KLT”) in the automotive industry, a long-term and consistent conversion to RFID technology for transport units is only possible based on the standards that are provided for this purpose. It is a prerequisite for widespread acceptance of RFID technology in container management that all the companies involved in the processes must see an advantage for their company in the introduction thereof. Company-specific measures can then be derived from these potentials, which will lead to increased performance or cost savings, which in turn will amortize the investments.

147

12 Tracking and Tracing

Harald Lange

Tracking and Tracing describes the request of manufacturers and consumers to record the history of products. The real changes of state and location create a digital trace. This can be tracked back to the origin of the product via each individual station: “Where is the product?”, “Which stations have the product passed?”, and “In which condition is the product?” In order to be able to answer these questions for finished products, data for semi-finished products or ingredients must also be on hand. This targeted data collection opens up new opportunities to guarantee and prove the properties of an individual product. Besides for the question of Quality Assurance, capturing of actual data offers the option of having a direct influence on production decisions. For the costly manufacture of complex products, the question regarding location and time is also connected to questions such as: “Which other goods were at the same location at the same time?” These evaluations, for instance, allow the unintended coincidence of different chemicals in one room to be avoided. Some prerequisites must, however, be complied with in order to be able to completely answer the seemingly simple questions regarding location, time, and status. • It must be possible to uniquely identify every product at any point in time. • Every location where a product can be must be known. • It must be possible to capture every status with the required parameters; this also includes fault statuses. • This information must be aggregated and saved, so that it is available for evaluations and decisions. Monitoring and documentation of the manufacturing process as well as its traceability is performed manually in many instances and is cor-

148

12.1 Application areas

respondingly expensive. Systems for the automatic identification must be used for recording this data in order to ensure competitiveness. Another motivation for Tracking and Tracing is the compliance with existing legal regulations. The compliance with different national and international specifications is an absolute prerequisite in order to be able to offer products in the marketplace. Of course, the measures for compliance with relevant specifications result in substantial financial costs for producers. This gives rise to a mutual desire of consumers and manufacturers to make the quality of products visible and thereby to protect themselves against imitations. Especially in areas with high security requirements such as the aviation industry or plants for the obligatory monitoring of other sectors, Tracking and Tracing systems have an established position.

12.1 Application areas 12.1.1 Discrete manufacturing Discrete manufacturing is characterized by a line structure, where each part that must be manufactured successively in turn passes different work stations. The sequence of work stations is normally specified in a work plan. Depending on the complexity of the product, the level of detail of the work plan also increases. At any point in time that is of interest during the manufacturing process of a product, the exact location of the part is important. It can, for instance, be in a machine or in front of a measuring station. If the product is now named, it is quite easy to prepare a location and time recording. This information can even be used in real-time at different locations of the process control system. Of course, it is important to assign the name of product that must be manufactured as early as possible – normally before the first processing step. It makes sense to define an end point as well as a start point in order to obtain a better overview. In a well synchronized manufacturing process, where every work step is exactly according to the work plan, and where there are no malfunctions, this type of tracking can easily be omitted. The only parameter of importance here is time. Since every product is completed after a processing time from the start of production, a back calculation for every location can be made. 149

12 Tracking and Tracing

In practice, limitation of so-called “time windows” of a production process only allows a rather coarse observation of the product during the manufacturing phase. Possible malfunctions as well ever more complex and flexible manufacturing processes do not allow for a sufficiently exact local analysis via a time-based observation. This necessitates the use of event-driven Auto-ID systems. Auto-ID systems primarily have the task of assigning and detecting unique names. In practice, RFID systems as well as Data-Matrix-Codes are used (Fig. 12.1).

Fig. 12.1 Identification in discrete manufacturing: left RFID for a gearbox assembly, right DMC at different workpieces (Photo left: W. Geyer)

With the aid of these two technologies it is possible to assign data to individual products during the course of the manufacturing process. This assignment of data is an absolute prerequisite for recording, the individual stations in the life cycle of goods. The following sequence results from the example of an automotive assembly line with approximately 400 cycles: The chassis of an automobile is assigned an identification number before the first processing cycle. This number is written to a RFID transponder, which is attached to the chassis. With the assignment of this number the chassis is firmly linked to the virtually existing vehicle in the manufacturing control system. Each subsequent processing step and every part that is mounted on the chassis can now be assigned exactly, up to the point when the vehicle is complete. All of the necessary data for the processing stations such as for instance type and furnishing, as well as all the generated data such as for instance the numbers of fitted parts and times can easily be assigned and saved. As a result, the question “Where are you?” can be answered at any time at the relevant locations. At the end of the as150

12.1 Application areas

sembly process, a finished vehicle results from the manufacturing order. A data record has been allocated to the vehicle via the identification number, which was assigned at the start of the assembly process. The question “Where have you been?” can be answered with the aid of this data record.

12.1.2 Process industry In most cases it is not possible to see or touch products in the process industry. The reason for this is that the manufacturing process quite often is closed, i.e. production takes place in pipelines, units, or containers. The properties of the products are influenced and changed by heating, cooling, or mixing. These processes can either be continuous or batch processes. Typical sectors are, for instance, chemical, pharmaceutical, or food and beverages. In order to be able to assign data at specific intermediate steps of the production process, the exact location and time are required. As a result of the aggregate condition, a direct description of the product is not possible in many production steps. In order to achieve the highest possible relevance of data (normally measuring data) to the product, the data is virtually assigned in a supervisory or control system to the relevant batch. For fixed installation systems, this can be accomplished via valve positions or time windows. This enables questions to arise about the location of the product to be subsequently answered sufficiently and exactly. In numerous process oriented manufacturing processes no fixed installation of possible routes has been provided. Products are put into containers for intermediate storage and are transported from process step to process step. A quick and secure assignment of the product to the container is possible with the aid of Auto ID systems. If the location of the relevant products is known, then the allocation of additional product-related data is also possible. This is of particular importance for the manufacture of pharmaceutical products or foodstuffs, because a number of samples and tests are performed during the manufacturing process. Insights gained can quickly be made available to the relevant production station. Especially dividing and mixing of different charges as well as the further processing of partial quantities can quickly result in a complex database in centralized systems. The process of determined locations and the allocation thereof to the product results in a comprehensive product history. For the introduction of an E-Pedigree solution, which is planned in many coun151

12 Tracking and Tracing

ERP

RFID MV camera applicator MV camera closure writing utensil emission control carton control

Process visualization WinCC

MV camera code control package insert

Machine control Simotion - Reporting system - Operating mode management - Shift register

Printer data matrix code (variable data)

MV camera blister pack closure control

RFID verifier reader device

Profinet

MV camera quality control (e.g. security tag)

MV camera emission control

MV camera verifier (expiry date, lot code etc.) and data matrix code control

Simatic machine vision system / camera

Cartoning machine

Labeling machine

Simatic RF RFID system write / read device

Fig. 12.2 Hybrid identification in a drug packing line

tries throughout the pharmaceutical industry, this represents important prerequisites. In practice, the 2D code is also used besides for RFID. Hybrid solutions are being discussed, especially in the pharmaceutical industry. In this way, the 2D code could be used for the identification of individual blisters, while RFID transponders would identify comprehensive packaging units (Fig. 12.2). The high speed of packaging plants poses a special challenge. In order to guarantee the necessary performance, the immediate processing of visual and radio codes in a programmable logic controller (“PLC”) of the plant is required.

12.1.3 Tracking and Tracing in logistics “Just in Time” or “Just in Sequence” are terms referring to complex logistical processes. It is the aim of these strategies to get the right products to the right location at the right time (compare Chapter 10). With the aid of Auto-ID systems goods shipments can quickly and efficiently be distributed worldwide. It is a matter of course for all leading logistics companies to provide their customers with information regarding location and status of shipments in real-time. The transparency resulting from Tracking and Tracing enables the recipient to perform exact planning, which in turn makes it possible to reduce stock and thereby the costs at all the levels of the manufacturing and logistics chain.

152

12.2 Drivers for Tracking and Tracing

12.2 Drivers for Tracking and Tracing 12.2.1 Corporate advantages Continuous optimization of the manufacturing processes of different products has resulted in highly efficient manufacturing. Transparency within manufacturing is an important factor for the development of further potentials for improving the cost situation. This transparency makes it possible to react very flexibly to malfunctions or order fluctuations, which oppose optimal manufacturing. Another advantage is the complete capturing of all the important manufacturing data and the utilization of this data to directly influence production in real-time. In addition, the provision of exact status information in the Internet, e.g. manufacturing status of ordered goods, improves planning accuracy on the customer’s side. Products that have been assigned a unique identity offer this advantage across the entire logistical chain and the entire life cycle of a product. In this way, recall actions or logistics can utilize the identifications that already are on the product, all without additional costs.

12.2.2 Legal regulations and standards For an international exchange of goods and worldwide manufacturing, the use of standards, e.g. for terms and numbering systems is required. Already when generating Tracking and Tracing data, compliance with these standards such as for the EPC scheme should be observed. The EPCglobal initiative is supported by experiences gained by the GS1 organization based on the assignment and management of number systems. Manufacturers and users of RFID systems are members. It is the objective of this initiative to create standards for the worldwide uniform utilization of RFID.

12.2.3 Consumer protection In the USA, the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) is the responsible authority for the protection of public health. All the manufacturers of drugs that are licensed in the USA must manufacture them in plants that have been certified by the FDA. This specifically means compliance with and application of validation specifications. Tracking and Tracing information constitute an important prerequisite for

153

12 Tracking and Tracing

the validation capability across the entire manufacturing and distribution process of drugs, for instance.

12.2.4 Transparency for end users The desire for healthy nourishment has resulted in an increase of the demand for foodstuff produced in an ecologically compatible way. As for other products, the consumer wants to be sure that the indicated product properties are genuine. Especially-automated Tracking and Tracing systems offer a high degree of reliability here. Relevant evaluation programs can offer the customer the option to easily retrace the product development process via the Internet.

12.3 Advantages of Tracking and Tracing Quick and automatic capturing and processing of information is a prerequisite for the direct capture and evaluation of detailed information regarding manufacturing processes. Data quality has been particularly improved by the automatic capturing of production data. It is one of the primary objectives of these activities to optimally utilize existing manufacturing capacities. The introduction of quality assurance measures is intended to prevent errors, because besides the potential hazard for the user, any type of error also bears the risk of having to repeat individual production steps (re-work) or of the product being useless (scrap). Initially, it was attempted to detect quality deviations in due time with the aid of suitable intermediate tests and the capturing thereof (e.g. Job Cards). With increasing automation and the associated continued increase of production speeds, the manual capturing of manufacturing processes was no longer feasible in many sectors. Only the introduction of operating data capturing systems allowed the most important manufacturing events to be captured almost in real-time. This made the more exact analysis of actual manufacturing procedures possible. Allocation of the operational data directly to a product was only possible at a reasonable cost with the aid of Auto-ID systems. Now, quality data can also be retrieved from operational data. This is important because current manufacturing plants quite often do not allow direct quality control during production. By tracking products and tracing manufacturing events, new Quality Assurance strategies are available. 154

12.4 Tracking and Tracing in practice

12.3.1 Reactive Quality management By measuring and evaluating quality parameters after a production run or during the product life cycle, the actual properties of products can be established. If deviations from the set point occur, the reasons for the deviations must be investigated. The evaluation of existing product-related data (e.g. locations, times, or events) provides very comfortable options of influencing the respective manufacturing parameters in a focused way during the running of production and to avoid a repeated occurrence of deviations. 12.3.2 Proactive Quality Assurance An important advantage of Auto-ID solutions is that individual information regarding products, equipment, and auxiliary systems can be made available directly on-site – for RFID-based systems directly on the part, and for barcode systems via a unique part ID as reference to information in a data source or database. In this way, for instance, an incorrect cleaning status or the violation of a time restriction can be detected even before the relevant aggregate is used. Errors are prevented proactively.

12.4 Tracking and Tracing in practice Capturing of product history and status in the foodstuff processing industry is of primary importance, especially from the point of view of Quality Assurance and consumer protection. The following example shows how a largely staff-independent Tracking and Tracing solution can be structured for an egg production system. An egg processing factory of the Grupo Leche Pascual in Spain is supplied with eggs from a number of chicken farms. The eggs are stacked in reusable transport containers (racks) in the chicken farm. Each of these transport containers is furnished with an RFID tag on top. The data of all the eggs on the rack, such as the laying time, quality, and weight, are transferred to this RFID transponder. The egg racks are collected from a number of different chicken farms with a truck of the egg processor. When the racks are loaded onto the truck, the data is transferred from the rack to an RFID reader that is installed on the truck. The position of the vehicle is known via a GPS, so that the supplier of every egg charge can be uniquely established and saved automatically through the combination of RFID and GPS data. 155

12 Tracking and Tracing

Fig. 12.3 Complete RFID tracing of egg products (Photo: Peters)

When the loaded truck returns to the factory upon completion of the tour, the data of the cargo on the truck is transferred to the IT system directly at the entrance to the factory premises. The consignment is checked by weighing the racks after offloading the truck. Identification of the consignment also allows automatic accounting without any manual input. The necessary laboratory samples are taken from the consignment at the same time. The consignment is now placed in intermediate storage in an allocation area. The laboratory releases the charge for further processing after evaluation of the samples. Verification of the release is performed automatically before the processing step. The eggs are automatically cracked and processed here. Status data is captured automatically in the entire supply chain from the chicken farm via the transport up to the processing operation, without employees having to perform any identification tasks. If status data deviate from the set point value, e.g. weight timeout or missing laboratory release, the operator is informed accordingly. A degree of production security is achieved with the system, which is installed here, that is not dependent on the qualification of employees. All the required data of the supply chain are saved in the Quality Assurance system of the egg processor and can be allocated to finished products, if required. This allows for retracing from the finished product nearly to the individual chicken.

156

12.5 Perspective

12.5 Perspective Further development of the indent technologies will enable quick and low cost identification of the product and all the components involved in the production process in the future. Further improvement of functions such as bulk readability for RFID as well as improved capturing of information via visual systems will gain in importance. The permanent integration of automatically readable coding in products will significantly simplify the option of acquiring information in industrial manufacturing. As a result of the expected improvements of data quality throughout all the sectors of the production life cycle, the aspects of counterfeiting of products and protection of manufacturing information will become increasingly important. The handling of enormous volumes of arising data also requires reconsideration. A seamless transition from the virtual world to the real world will play an even more important role. If, for instance, a planned automobile is assembled as a real automobile in an automobile factory from chassis, engine and wheels, then a virtual image of the automobile is created at the same time, consisting of events, types, and serial references. Whether the virtual image accompanies the real automobile on a storage medium or whether it remains in the database of the automobile factory will not lastly depend on how successful selective data access can be organized and authorized.

157

13 Optimization of Supply Networks

Volker Klaas

Whoever buys a suit, a hard disk recorder, or an automobile today expects a well-sorted offer of diverse options at market related, acceptable prices to be provided by a good specialized dealer. It must be possible to select a product for the relevant budget from different colors, sizes of furnishings, and technical configurations, which must be available for delivery within a short period of time or immediately. If one looks at the parameters option diversity price and time more closely, a number of conclusions can be arrived at.

13.1 Increasing variety In the course of increasing individualization of offers in highly developed markets, the diversity of product options is subject to constant growth. Because a respectively differentiated demand is on hand, a high degree of diversity of characteristics of a product offers a welcome opportunity to the vendor to differentiate themselves from the competition. The textile industry with its increasing specialization for different target groups can be taken as an example. This applies even more specifically to pricing. If comparable products can be offered at a more attractive price than the competition, this presents a clear market positioning advantage. This development can be observed almost daily in the advertising in the electronic consumer goods industry. The availability of the goods at the scheduled time at the scheduled location is a prerequisite for the efficiency of the diversity of price and supply to be a differentiating market characteristic. These days nobody is prepared to wait for an electronic device – when the purchase decision has been made, customers want take their new acquisition home immediately. For textiles, the availability of standard and seasonal articles in all colors and sizes is taken for granted. Long

158

13.2 Change of the demands on business processes

waiting times have a negative influence even on complex technical equipment such as automobiles. These briefly sketched demands of consumers towards the vendors of products have an immediate effect on the value-added process and involved partners – wholesale and retail, distributors, logistics operators, and not least the manufacturers themselves. The cooperation of these partners in the supply chain is at the center of the observation – in view of increasing complexity and meshing of individual supply chains – in one supply network.

13.2 Change of the demands on business processes However, the complexity of supply networks increases continuously. More and more production steps are transferred to countries offering the preconditions for a favorable cost structure through low wage levels, in order to be able to keep up with the constant price pressure. This process is accompanied by increasing specialization, which leads to further cost advantages. Both of these lead to a more emphasized global distribution of production, with the result that the supply chain is hardly in just one hand any more. At the same time, services in the value-added process are outsourced to foreign providers. For example, individual parts for automobile doors are assembled into functional units by the logistics service provider and instruction manuals and packaging are also assembled into the end product (e.g. mobile telephone) as a sales unit by the logistics service provider. In the textile sector, wholesalers or distributors frequently take over the preparation of goods, i.e. ironing and folding ready for sale. These examples show a trend that will increasingly establish itself in the coming years: On the one hand, because competition demands become more stringent, and on the other hand because more and more markets such as India or China are developing to higher levels of complexity. The result is an ever closer meshing of manufacturing, refinement, and distribution of goods. At the same time, the interdependence of all involved parties increases. When a supply chain does not function properly, i.e. supplying wrong goods at the wrong time or not at all, the success of the remaining partners is threatened seriously.

159

13 Optimization of Supply Networks

Interaction between supply chain partners thereby becomes more intensive (Fig. 13.1). Raw materials, semi-finished products, and finished products must be exchanged between individual companies and must be processed further in due time. This is only possible if the associated information and requirements are available “just in time” and are transferred to the right partner at the right time. Not only the goods flows themselves, but also the associated planning, supervision, and control information thereby become ever more complex and time critical.

Supplier / Customer relationship management

Integrated product development

Supplier company

Integrated logistics

Automobile manufacturers

Sales and Purchasing

Knowledge base Market places and platforms on the Internet

Fig. 13.1 Sample of a complex supply network in the automobile supply industry

In the electronics industry, short-term demand fluctuations must be taken into account immediately in production, logistics, and refinement. The rate of shrinkage must be reduced without a delay of the logistics processes and service and return actions must be made more effective and customer-friendly. In textile logistics, item-related “real-time” control instruments are required in order to avoid dreaded “out of stock” situations despite the variety and extremely complex sales structures. Comprehensive documentation of individual stations is of paramount importance in the automotive and pharmaceutical industries, not least because of legal requirements (see Chapter 12).

160

13.3 New business processes require new technologies

13.3 New business processes require new technologies In production and internal production logistics, a high degree of automation is a matter of course for many years already. As soon as new technologies of supervisory and control systems of production processes became available, they were employed in many instances. Competitive pressure from innovative companies gaining market share with the adaptation of new technologies leads to other vendors in the sector to also utilize the technical developments after a slight time delay. For instance, Auto-ID/RFID technologies have been a matter of course in the production environment for a number of years (see Chapter 9). Manual control and test activities have been superseded by automated goods and information flows in due time. In the case of supply networks across companies, this is currently hardly applicable. Shipping and receiving of goods are only automated at the level of packing units by means of barcodes, if at all, but not at the item level. Generally, costly manual sorting and picking activities are required: Collection and further picking of a standard transport container with textiles can currently take up to two weeks. The logistics route is all but transparent in this case. For instance, a number of weeks can pass while goods are on their way from the manufacturer in Asia to a logistics center in Europe, without current status information being available. If unforeseen delays occur, neither the sales processes (e.g. for textiles or entertainment electronics) nor the production processes (automobile manufacturing) can be adapted in time. The same applies to the status of deliveries being processed by a number of supplier or processing levels. In this case too, the principal does not have the information regarding the current status of their order. A lack of transparency also applies to large parts of shop management processes, i.e. to the tracking of the goods’ movements on the sales floor. Items that were placed in the wrong areas can only be traced again by means of costly manual re-work or time-intensive inventory operations. How should a technology be structured, which allows similar quantum leaps in productivity in the presented logistic processes, as was accomplished in the production environment? Initially, the most important requirements are investment and operating costs. If tracking of individual items or production components

161

13 Optimization of Supply Networks

is required as described above, such a technical solution must be relatively inexpensive in order to gain acceptance. Furthermore, capturing ranges of a few meters must be possible, in order to allow for the simultaneous, automatic capturing of individual items within a dispatch unit, e.g. palette, during a standard logistics process such as goods receiving, goods dispatch, or picking. Such options have been available for some time via RFID technology based on UHF and EPC-Gen2 standards. Technical reliability and the field of application of such RFID labels has increased at the same rate as their prices have decreased. If this enables the item-precise tracking of goods flows in a supply network, this means that individual events (changes of location or status of goods) can be captured electronically at the time of the occurrence and that the information can be made available to involved parties in real-time. It is, therefore, also possible to establish a connection between the real world of global goods movement to the global structure of information technology for logistics processes, allowing in turn a new quality of processes and information.

13.4 Advantages of RFID employment across the board In RFID-supported supply networks, information regarding businessrelated events is available for the involved parties at the time of the respective occurrence. Costly manual preparation and evaluation of historic information is not required any more. Standard processes can thus be automated and process times and costs can be reduced drastically. In addition the error rate, which is relatively high in manual processes, can be reduced significantly. The overall quality of logistics processes is increased significantly, which improves market positioning of involved companies and increases customer satisfaction. Companies disposing of exact information regarding the receipt, dispatch, and processing statuses of their supplies at the individual stations of the value-added chain, are in a position to act in time in case of exceptional situations. If such information is only available with a significant time delay, as in the past, only subsequent reaction is possible, which in most cases is nothing more than containment of damages. Information provided on time enables the proactive creation of goods buffers, which balance the delivery delays on the one hand 162

13.4 Advantages of RFID employment across the board

and, on the other hand, limit resource binding to the absolutely necessary volume. In case of short-term regional demand fluctuations, for instance weather-dependent additional demand for textiles in certain regions, the relevant control information can be entered into the logistics process in due time and distribution can be adapted to the new situation. Another aspect relates to the control of goods flows. If it is discernable at any point in time where own goods should be and where they actually are, then it is possible to immediately react to deviations. Such deviations could be weak points in the process, which are exposed by RFID and can then be rectified. It could, however, also be criminally based shrinkage, which can be uncovered immediately due to the real-time information on hand, and can be curtailed as soon as possible. Product imitations or the covert use of low quality components are further criminal options in complex supply chains. If the retracing of products or product parts down to the item level is guaranteed due to RFID technology, such activities no longer have a chance of success. However, if individual items can be tracked in innovative supply networks by means of RFID, then existing RFID item identification should also be used in subsequent sales processes and shop management, as mentioned above. By correspondingly furnishing sales areas, for instance with RFID shelves for on the shelf goods, RFID hangers for hanging goods or mobile capturing devices for sales staff, in-store processes can achieve a degree of transparency that was not possible up to now. All the movements of goods can be captured and thereby can be controlled. Even novel processes such as RFID-based information systems are feasible: The customer automatically receives comprehensive information regarding the product, tips on combination options with other products, and much more (Fig. 13.2). Quite often, subsequent service or a customer care process follow the sales process, e.g. in the trade of electronic consumer goods. In case of guarantee claims, processing via identification of the product with an attached RFID transponder is expedited. RFID-supported product history simplifies the decision for or against further repair in case of older products. For some business processes, there also is a unique link between the device and the user, for instance for pay-TV receivers or for loaned-equipment such as DSL routers or set-top boxes for digital cable reception. Quite often such devices are found in short-term rental business and are returned by the customer and put into circulation again. RFID-supported assignment to the user and the link to 163

13 Optimization of Supply Networks

Fig. 13.2 If individual items are furnished with transponders, in-store processes can also be improved: such as shown here with an RFID-based customer information system (Photo: METRO AG).

the past utilization history of the device simplify the processing of payment activities and required preparation. In this way, real-time information enables optimal customer care and increases customer loyalty to the company. It applies to all the presented application fields of RFID technology, that time- and item-precise capturing of actual goods movement obviously enables significantly higher planning quality than was previously possible with historic data. If processing times and changes in the supply chain are known exactly per station, future processes can be planned optimally, based on this information. Transparency and real-time information breeds trust – both in the partner and in own capabilities.

13.5 Further development options Even if the advantages of RFID-supported supply networks are obvious, they are up to now only implemented at a few companies, who are particularly innovation-minded. The reasons for this are that the required UHF/Gen2 technology has only been available in businessproven form since 2006. Also, costs for this technology are quite often regarded as too high. Finally, many companies tied up in totally dif164

13.5 Further development options

ferent value-added chains. An automobile supplier, for instance, does not service only one customer, but a whole range of manufacturers. Most textile producers or producers of electronic equipment supply different retail chains. Therefore, it is customary that the requirements regarding information to be exchanged are structured differently in different supply chains. If a company were to implement these different requirements, it would result in significant additional costs and required resources. If, however, the RFID technology is to be used across the board, then it must be considered how these barriers to introduction can be removed. One option would be for companies with high demand power to motivate their suppliers with more or less explicitly formulated financial sanctions to participate in RFID-supported logistics processes. This would have the advantage of achieving a quick implementation. However, a disadvantage is the absence of an independent motivation for the utilization of RFID: The suppliers will furnish their goods with RFID transponders, but will not enjoy any profit themselves from the technology. Another option of enhancing the introduction of the new technology is an operating model for RFID infrastructure, made available by neutral providers, i.e. providers who are not participating in the respective supply chain. Similar to IT outsourcing, the operator of the installation offers a complete operation of the RFID infrastructure, from installation through maintenance to a communication platform for the exchange of relevant information in the required formats. Such operating models create the optimal conditions for the employment of RFID in complex structures. An easy introduction to the technology is offered to individual partners, irrespective of their IT knowledge or existing IT resources, because the operator provides implementation and maintenance, including 24-hour service (Fig. 13.3).

AutoID backbone ®

Supplier (Asia)

Manufacturer (Europe)

Logistics service providers

Distributor / trade

After-sales service

Identification and status information regarding the goods flow

Fig. 13.3 Presentation of an Auto-ID/RFID operating model

165

13 Optimization of Supply Networks

This also means that the new partner, possibly changing production sites or new suppliers, can be incorporated flexibly and on short notice. Demand fluctuations or cost increases at individual production sites can be taken into account immediately. Business-related information is prepared via the communication platform in such a way that individual companies can process it in real-time in their IT systems. Participants in such an RFID operating model only have one partner for the exchange and preparation of information, even if customers or suppliers change, so that no additional dependencies arise. Not least, the high investment barrier can be reduced significantly by such an operating model. Instead of high initial investment costs, the users of the operating model pay for services on a transaction- or item-basis. This makes the investment risk clear and the arising costs are directly linked to the utilization of the RFID infrastructure.

166

14 Vehicle logistics

Marcus Bliesze, Hans-Juergen Buchard

RFID applications for the optimization of vehicle logistics are mostly distributed over very large areas. In this case, persons as well as objects that are furnished with data carriers need to cover great distances. The processes in the automobile logistics are quite often complex and contain many degrees of freedom in many instances. The spatial and time dynamics to which processes in vehicle logistics are exposed, require a high degree of real-time transparency. If, for instance, the positions of all the vehicles waiting for offloading of goods at a warehouse in the Dock and Yard Management are known at any point in time, the allocation of free docks can be arranged in such a way that trucks can easily shunt and thus start with offloading as soon as possible. Transparency is also required in fixed processes, in order to be able to identify possible optimization potentials through statistical evaluations of vehicle movements.

14.1 Special requirements In vehicle logistics there are markedly modified technical requirements for RFID systems compared to other applications. The objects are moving on open spaces and in indoor environments. Furnishing open parking spaces with cabled RFID write and read devices is either too expensive or is not possible at all in many instances because of non-existent installation possibilities at parking bays. Capturing the parking bay position of vehicles in such instances can only be accomplished by real-time locating systems (RTLS), of which the infrastructure is constructed around the open space. In the past, technical solutions with which vehicles could be tracked within production without human intervention were lacking. Initially, manual bookings on paper with subsequent transfer to IT parking spot management systems were performed for the relocation of vehicles, which had left the production line and were identical on first 167

14 Vehicle logistics

sight. These procedures were time consuming and were error-ridden due to manual inputs. The up-to-dateness of the information was always subject to a time delay. A faulty booking invariably led to escalation by follow-on errors, which could only be cleared by costly inventory measures. Due to the resulting inaccuracy of the manually captured information and lack of up-to-dateness of the captured information, acceptance of the system was very low. This resulted in long search times for production, for vehicles that had left the normal production line. Long search times mean extended delivery times, unsatisfactory date reliability, and invariably lead to higher costs.

14.2 Technical basis Locating systems (RTLS) belong to the family of active RFID systems. They determine the position of objects in an area at regular intervals. RTLS data carriers send signals with a settable blink rate to so-called RTLS access points, which form the fixed RTLS infrastructure (Fig. 14.1). The signals of the RTLS data carriers enable the RTLS-AccessPoints to generate runtime information (“LI”). It is transferred to a central computing unit, where the runtime information of different

Ru

A

n

tim

e

inf

or

m

at

ion

(L

I)

Pos5

Ru

n

tim

e

in

fo

rm

at

i

(L

on

A

I)

ID1 Movement

T

Pos3

(ID1

)

Pos4

A

T

Pos2

tion

Ru

rma info ger Trig

A

n

Magnetic trigger field (1-6 m)

tim

e

n Ru

tim

e

inf

m or

io at

n

(L

inf

or

I)

m

at

ion

T

(L

I)

A

Area to be covered TriggerEvent

Blink Movement (time) System Output

Blink

LI

LI

Pos5

Pos4

Blink

ID1 Gate1

Blink

Blink

LI

LI

LI

Pos3

Pos2

Pos1

Fig. 14.1 Functional concept of RTLS

168

RTLS Access Point

ID..

RTLS Tag

14.3 Application scenarios

access points is used to establish the position of the RTLS data carrier in the area on hand (Pos1 ... Pos5). Contrary to conventional RFID gates, where the capturing of objects only takes place at defined positions, RTLS systems work over large areas. The position of objects can be determined at any point of the covered area. Despite this, there are applications where it is necessary to additionally work according to the conventional RFID gate principle. For this purpose, RTLS data carriers are capable of detecting a magnetic field that is emitted from so-called triggers. This field can be parameterized for a range of 1 - 6 m. The magnetic field transmits a trigger identification number in order to be able to distinguish between the different triggering fields. If a RTLS data carrier detects the magnetic field of a trigger, the transponder reads the trigger identification number and immediately transfers it to the RTLS access points together with its own identification number. In Fig. 14.1 the RTLS data carrier enters a trigger field between positions three and four, and immediately generates a message with the trigger ID to the system. The trigger principle is used at central access control points, for instance. Here, a boom must be opened when an authorized vehicle approaches. Immediate reaction of the access control system is required in order not to force the vehicle to stop. The two functions of locating and determining the trigger location enable the blink rate of the RTLS data carrier to be reduced to a minimum in order to conserve battery life, while real-time reaction in certain instances is still possible. The selection of the blink rate essentially depends on the dynamics of the possible movement of objects to be located. Once the RTLS infrastructure is established and the data carrier is fixed to the object, many utilization options are available without any additional cost. Continuous data transmission presents a current view of the production process and a transparent process. Any conspicuousness during the process is detected and can be rectified.

14.3 Application scenarios Optimal logistics processes require current information. Real-time locating does not only offer information, but it does link information with the current location of the object. Process transparency is in169

14 Vehicle logistics

creased significantly by knowing the location of the goods at the current time.

14.3.1 Utilization at automobile groups The Sicalis RTL system is used in all of the factories of an automobile manufacturer for tracking vehicles in the final assembly sector. It reliably tracks vehicles that have left the fixed sequence of the assembly line in order to get to dispatch via various test and finishing stations (electrical test, roller test bed, and adjustment stations). Sicalis RTL allows for the capturing and visualizing of all the vehicle movements in the indicated areas, halls, and open spaces as well as in factory stores. The high degree of precision of the RTLS components of the Moby R system makes it possible to pinpoint the parking position and to transmit it to the further processing systems of the operator.

Fig. 14.2 RTLS transponder on the interior rear view mirror for locating the vehicle

Vehicles that have left the assembly line, but need to be returned to the production hall at a later stage for final completion, are furnished with a mobile data carrier (RTLS transponder). This transponder is fixed to the interior rear view mirror of the vehicle with a clamp (Fig. 14.2). Depending on the logical sequence, the vehicle is parked in one of the parking lots close to production. If a vehicle is now recalled by

170

14.3 Application scenarios

the assembly finishing system, the location of the vehicle can be retrieved or can be displayed via a web browser on the Intranet. The use of RTLS saves on time consuming searches when trying to find the vehicle. The finishing employee can directly access the vehicle and bring it to finishing. Before the introduction of the RTLSbased system a number of finishing employees were engaged in the search of the vehicle. Especially during the run-up of a new vehicle type there is a high demand for the postponed finishing of individual vehicles because the finishing processes are not yet fully harmonized. Because many thousands of vehicles are being pre-produced for “Day X”, a substantial savings potential arises only for this instance. By introducing a new transporter model, a utility vehicle manufacturer also relies on RTLS technology in order to increase production transparency, to shorten processing times, and to improve the reliability of delivery. The radio infrastructure in the factory consists of 18 Moby-R antennas, 19 triggers, and 500 RTLS transponders. The data carriers are parameterized in such a way that they transmit a signal (blink) every four minutes. These blinks are received by at least three time-synchronized and LAN-capable Moby-R antennas

Fig. 14.3 Sicalis RTL graphically shows the vehicle position on a map

171

14 Vehicle logistics

over a distance of up to 300 meters, and are transmitted via the existing network to the processing software. A central server establishes the current position of the data carrier, based on the lapsed time differences of the signal between antennas (and thereby the position of the vehicle), and saves the information in the database. The mini transporters that are furnished with transponders at the end of the finishing line can be located in the external parking lots in real-time with a precision of about three meters. The production employee uses the Sicalis RTL map application on their PC in order to quickly locate a vehicle (Fig. 14.3). In this way the employee obtains an overview of all the parked vehicles and can search for a particular transporter. This information enables the employee to collect the vehicle and bring it to the finishing process. Since all of the vehicle movements are captured by Sicalis RTL in realtime, the transparency of the finishing process is improved significantly. In this way production bottlenecks and individual “long standing time vehicles” are quickly detected. It is possible to react immediately to the insights that were gained. The introduction of the locating system leads to significant time savings on the processes and thereby leads to substantial cost savings due to the absence of all the vehicle search times.

14.3.2 Fleet management for public local transport In public local transport, reliable compliance with schedules is an essential factor for customer satisfaction. A well organized fleet is the basis for date reliability and besides that it is a prerequisite for the cost efficiency of a fleet. The central element of fleet management is the management of schedules (Fig. 14.4). This is where the allocation of drivers to their routes and vehicles takes place. In maintenance management, the vehicles are prepared and maintained for the next trip. It provides vehicle data such as the exact location, mileage, tank

Maintenance management - Parking spaces for buses - Servicing plans - Mileage - Fuel fill level - Repair times

Schedule management

Schedule - Routes - Departure times

Allocation of driver to line, vehicle and parking space

Fig. 14.4 Planning components for schedule management

172

14.3 Application scenarios

fill, and maintenance cycles as a valuable contribution to the schedule management system. Maintenance tasks are only necessary if the maintenance interval does not allow allocation to the shortest route of the schedule. Allocation of vehicles to routes can now be executed in a focused fashion. The use of a RTLS system can supplement the automatically created documentation with permanently available location information of the vehicles on-site. It is, for instance, possible to make statements in due time about when vehicles leave maintenance and can be scheduled again. Statistical service life figures established from long-term studies at individual work stations serve as a prediction of the processing times of the maintenance process. Possible bottlenecks of the process or the unfavorable arrangement of workstations are identified. Finally, time savings on the maintenance process is achieved because the automatic detection of parking spots allows for the quicker location of parked vehicles. Idling times of work stations can also be eliminated in this way. It is possible to achieve the overall maximum flexibility of the allocation of drivers and fleet up to shortly before departure by using RTLS. This yields significant advantages: • Minimized risk of failure of the allocated vehicle • Quick reaction to failures • Increased schedule adherence through planned collection times of vehicles • Increased economic viability through more even utilization and a possible reduction of the fleet • Targeted, demand-controlled tank filling (instead of daily filling) through the allocation of vehicles with partially filled tanks to short routes • Reduction of maintenance work due to the utilization of the full maintenance interval • Automatic documentation of work steps. Concrete implementation Fig. 14.5 shows the site of a bus company. Vehicles arrive at and leave the site via an entrance and exit furnished with an access control system, based on RTLS. Every bus is driven into a wash bay as the first step of the maintenance process. 173

14 Vehicle logistics

Gas station (outdoors)

4 Entrance / exit

Parking spaces 5

Service stations (gas station, wear and tear, servicing, damages)

5

2

Parking spaces

Parking spaces

Parking spaces

3

1

Washer system

Garage for maintenance work

Office buildings

Parking facilities

5

5

Fig. 14.5 Operating site of a bus company

Subsequently, the buses are able to head for individual service stations and the filling station, depending on what is required. The requirement for maintenance is established by consulting the maintenance documentation and fleet management planning system. The parking of finished busses is preferably done in parking halls in order to be able to immediately provide ready for use vehicles, even in winter. Vehicles waiting for a service station are parked outside. Shortly before the departure of a bus, the driver gets a printout in the office with the route, bus, and location of the bus, and can thus commence their trip in the shortest possible time. Moby-R is again used as a locating system. Antennas were installed at the filling station, parking halls, and parking spots and outside. Magnetic field triggers are used at the access control system at the entrance and exit to the site, at the washing bay, and service stations.

14.3.3 Dock and yard management The dock and yard management system can also be optimized by RTLS technology. This includes the optimization of traffic flow on a factory site, access control, and allocation of loading positions. For an Austrian automobile manufacturer, loading and offloading up to 174

14.3 Application scenarios

1,800 vehicles per day must be accomplished – a logistical and organizational challenge, not only for goods receiving, but also for factory security, who must monitor and document every entry and exit. Through a RTL-based vehicle control system logistics planning and security are supported in their tasks. The clue: Instead of masses of paper and subsequent manual input of data, RTL offers “electronic access authorization” by a transponder. The logistics process is shown in Fig. 14.6: Trucks first drive to a waiting area outside of the factory in order to report to goods receiving. The drivers receive a Moby-R transponder, which is assigned to the truck from there on. From this point in time the loaded goods are visible for the planner in the factory and can be accessed by a mouse click. As soon as the planner calls for the truck, its vehicle registration number, and the docking station appear on a large display screen. At the same time, the truck is authorized to enter the factory. When the truck arrives at the gate, a trigger identifies the transponder, checks the access authorization, and opens the boom.

Delivery process External goods traffic

Container traffic

Internal goods traffic

Finished vehicle shuttle

Permanent access approval

With a fixed allocated data carrier Registration: allocation of data carrier and waiting position Works entrance Unloading / loading Data carrier handover, release for exit Works exit

Fig. 14.6 Processes in operational logistics

When the truck leaves the factory, the system ensures that the transponder is handed back again. For trucks loaded with vehicles to be delivered, the system automatically displays the list of vehicles contained in this delivery order together with detail information on the security screen (Fig. 14.7). The security employee at the gate can eas-

175

14 Vehicle logistics

Fig. 14.7 Two RTLS triggers (circled) serve the monitoring of the factory exit

ily check the actually loaded vehicles regarding quantity, model, and furnishing in this way. Shuttle trucks, official vehicles, or visitor vehicles with permanent access authorization receive a personal data carrier and can access the factory directly. The employed Sicalis RTL system enables targeted and prioritized control of the supply flow: Lines at the gate such as before the introduction of the system are something of the past. Material arrives at the offloading point “just in time”. The number of trucks on-site is reduced. All the vehicle movements are transparently saved in the database by Sicalis RTL. In case of damages, claims for alleged waiting times at goods receiving, the archived transaction data can be used to check the actual waiting times.

176

15 RFID at the airport

Regina Schnathmann

For operative and economical considerations in the aviation industry, the optimization of processes is the priority concerning top reliability and security with simultaneous, consistent cost optimization as its focus.

15.1 Processes in airport logistics Increasing international competition with new participants (especially low-budget airlines) and more stringent security regulations alongside parallel growth in the number of passengers and airfreight quantities have considerably influenced the framework market conditions throughout the past few years. Innovative technologies also provide an answer to the changed framework conditions and future requirements that create lasting benefits both in the area of processes and with regard to the costs. Solutions based on RFID technology that are also being used more and more frequently at airports are providing an important contribution. Above all, RFID applies its strength in places where there are large numbers of objects (Fig. 15.1). Where there are millions of passengers with corresponding large amounts of baggage and air-freight volume, which is always on the increase, RFID provides several advantages for use in airports and for airlines for passenger, baggage, and cargo logistics. The highest optimization expectations within passenger handling are in the area of passenger tracking. The latest figures speak of a volume of transported pieces of baggage of approximately 2.25 billion items per year [1] with an upward trend. The requirements resulting from this trend will not be manageable using the technology that has been used to date. New technologies and systems are called for that enable comprehensive, integrated baggage management worldwide, marking the baggage clearly and securely, guiding, tracking, following and delivering and, if neces177

15 RFID at the airport

Employee identity cards

Cargo handling Access and driven access control

Baggage handling

ULD tagging Baggage sorting

Ticketless flying

Baggage handling system Inventory localization Check-in registration Inventory identification (apron vehicles, catering trolleys, pallets)

Passenger tracking VIP smart cards

Fig. 15.1 RFID technology in the airport area

sary, tracing it quickly – all of this for the entire course of a passenger’s journey. By tracking passenger flows, airport operators hope to increase security and improve the predictability of their processes. This would be accompanied with the minimization of the resources used. The use of RFID-based tickets and corresponding display systems provides the air passenger more and current information, for example for finding the correct departure gate or individual flight timetable changes as well as on other data relevant to travel. Customer retention and also customer satisfaction can be increased considerably. However, the passengers have some reservations with regard to data protection. In addition, in the check-in area the persons responsible for the introduction of RFID expect automation of the sub-processes: registration, baggage check-in, and receipt of the boarding pass to a large extent. Ticketless flying is on the rise, especially among business travelers. The possibility also to do without the typical boarding pass as a paper document in the passenger process makes the use of the new technology attractive. The data required for the current flight could be input to the airline’s individual bonus card in the future.

178

15.1 Processes in airport logistics

The other large area of use for RFID systems is baggage transport and its several sub-processes. Especially large-scale airports such as Frankfurt, Dubai, and Peking transport the baggage items on kilometer-long track systems in individual containers. Sorting systems ensure that the baggage items are correctly discharged at the right place. An RFID system here consists of the combination of a mobile or stationary read-write device and the transponders on the transport containers. When integrated in baggage management, the system can automatically determine where the case or container is and its status in all the transport sections. This makes goods flow transparent and enables the complete documentation of all the baggage flows. In particular, for baggage handling and sorting, the desire to replace traditional barcode marking attached to baggage at check-in exists. Although the initial costs are lower if barcodes are used, the follow-up costs entail higher expenditure. As when you wear glasses, the barcode scanner must be cleaned regularly at short intervals. If this is not performed, the read rate worsens and the costs increase. According to the latest figures, misdirection or baggage loss costs the industry almost 24.4 billion euros per year. Cost advantages arise here through speeding up handling and comparatively low servicing costs. Often inefficient and expensive tracking of the baggage items becomes redundant through the automatic and complete monitoring of the goods flow. This, therefore, increases the entire throughput in the logistics chain. A further positive effect results with regard to customer benefits: the passenger can be provided with detailed information regarding the location of their baggage at all times. Tracking jobs when searching for baggage becomes simpler because it is easier to reconstruct where the baggage has been transported to. This should mean that waiting for a mistakenly incorrectly checked-in baggage item at the destination airport will soon be outdated. Due to the increased security measures, it is conceivable that RFID solutions will be used as transponders on cases upon entering airport grounds. Unattended baggage could be removed quickly and efficiently using RFID or allocated back to the passenger. Currently, RFID systems are most frequently introduced for internal company applications. Contactless employee identification cards are used at several airports within the scope of access and entrance controls. At the same time, RFID transponders are used to localize and identify inventory. Examples of this include locating trolleys within the airport building and tracking apron vehicles. 179

15 RFID at the airport

As for all other RFID projects, the profitability through savings in the process flows must initially be proven for airport applications. However, in addition to this, security aspects play an important role when investment decisions are made. As the business processes in airport logistics are very clear for the specific area of airport logistics, they can quickly be examined in detail. The major emphasis is placed on the optimization potential by the long-term use of new technologies and their introduction in several phases, ensuring the smooth continuation of operations, and designing an unproblematic system transition.

15.2 Areas of use for RFID in airport logistics 15.2.1 Process optimization on the airside and landside Processes take place in different areas at airports: a distinction is made between the airside and landside. The airside area includes all the processes that take place after security checks and on the movement areas for the aircraft. Access authorization there is highly restricted. The landside processes take place where these restrictions do not exist, e.g. where the terminal is, all the public roads, shops, and hotels. Now, RFID technology is already used in several application areas: for example, within the airport itself it is used to manage catering trolleys. But RFID is also drawn on more and more for freight transport. Various goods and machines must be tracked in the socalled airside area. And ultimately, RFID systems are also used for servicing valuable components within the transport systems. The transponders that are used must be certified and approved by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) or the German Luftfahrt-Bundesamt. Along with baggage handling and baggage sorting, the important areas of baggage-passenger reconciliation and the limitation of baggage loss can be implemented using RFID systems. Some examples of systems and applications that have been realized at international airports or for international airlines: • Cincinnati International Airport – Real-time flight information is used to improve ground support functions. • Newark International Airport – Airside vehicles are “tracked” in order to hinder access by non-authorized persons in the protected areas. 180

15.2 Areas of use for RFID in airport logistics

• The airline Air Canada – The catering equipment is tracked in realtime in order to avoid loss and theft and to improve utilization. • Hong Kong International Airport – The loading devices in the freight area are equipped with transponders at Hong Kong International Airport. • Zaventem Brussels and Arland Stockholm – Baggage is transported here in “old” and re-useable boxes that are automatically guided to the correct loading points. • Toronto and Vancouver Airports – Suppliers and staff can only enter areas of restricted access through Smart Card entry controls. • Swissair/Sabena – Zurich Airport – in order to make check-in and access to the VIP lounge easier, approx. 70,000 “frequent fliers” own Zürich Airport Smart Cards. Emirates Airlines offers its frequent flier customers the possibility to use the e-gates at Dubai Airport with their frequent flier card when leaving or entering the country. The major application area for RFID systems is on the landside that is mostly observed below.

15.2.2 RFID on container transport container transport systems The current common equipping of logistics systems with RFID takes place directly on the transport system containers. Instead of barcode recognition, RFID technology is installed. Small modules with the transponder are installed on the trays. The reader, antenna, and interface module are located on the track system. The transponder contains the data with the description, starting point, and target point. RFID should in no way be seen as a mere “modern barcode” – RFID achieves considerably more: compared to conventional technology where the information where the container should be driven to is provided to the system by the higher-ranking control level, this information is already directly available on each individual container. Therefore, the container can move faster and more securely within the system. However, an RFID transponder is also superior in case of short-term changes such as a gate changes as it is rewriteable (Fig. 15.2). RFID provides improved efficiency in baggage management. Moreover, the installation of scanner gates becomes superfluous. Finally, the read rate is far higher than for traditional barcode systems. 181

15 RFID at the airport

Fig. 15.2 RFID technology in a container transport system (Photo: W. Geyer)

This reduces the total amount of misrouted baggage, in turn reducing the baggage handling costs. RFID readers are easier to install, reliable, resistant to errors, and more robust in “rough” surroundings.

15.2.3 RFID BagTag The latest developments concern the identification of the baggage items directly on the cases. The basis for this is the belt conveyor system where the baggage items are placed loosely and are each equipped with a so-called “BagTag”. With it, all the important and relevant information is attached directly to the baggage. The system components used for this purpose are based on the IATA (International Air Transport Association) RP1740c recommendations. The baggage items are equipped with UHF transponders here. The data is read in real-time, processed, and provided to the superior baggage management system. With their Simatic RBS, Siemens has developed a reader station for the new kind of baggage marking (Fig. 15.3). The new system was tested using exhaustive long-term tests under realistic conditions in the Siemens Airport Center in Germany in order to ensure functional security and throughput for its practical application. One of its first applications is at Wuhan Airport in China. The technology used is easy to integrate in existing baggage transport technology. This simplifies installation and commissioning, enables the precise planning

182

15.2 Areas of use for RFID in airport logistics

of the time required for such and ensures system reliability from the onset. The system, which is tailored for baggage handling requirements at airports, increases baggage management efficiency and is easy to integrate. The read rate is considerably higher than for traditional barcode systems: it is over 99 % under realistic conditions.

Fig. 15.3 RFID BagTag: on the left-hand side the RFID transponder in the baggage trailer, on the right-hand side the Simatic RBS reader station (Left photo: W. Geyer)

If we progress further with technological developments here, the reusability of the transponders could also be an acceptable solution. In this case, the RFID transponders would not be torn off and destroyed after use as executed at present. Instead they would be reused several times. A further solution would be to fully integrate the transponder in the case. If the transponder already contained security-relevant information, the second screening could be saved as the contents of the case are already known. However, data protection plays an important role here. We propose deleting all the data when leaving the airport area. This could hinder access to the information stored.

15.2.4 RFID-supported servicing For the service and maintenance areas of use, RFID systems are also used to store the service history in the respective objects’ transponder. Such marking is also worthwhile for high-value individual components in a baggage transport system. In other words, the security 183

15 RFID at the airport

for high-value products also justifies the use of RFID technology. The important areas of use still include: maintenance and inventory management systems and locating objects belonging to companies such as fire protection valves, baggage trolleys, spare parts, and vehicles. For example, at Frankfurt Airport, the fire protection valves have been serviced via RFID for several years already. The legislators have assigned long-term duty of proof of maintenance. The preparation of job sheets in this connection was a challenge with regard to archiving and also retrieving when fulfilling the obligation to provide proof. Due to media breakage, there was also a high error quota: the order data had to be entered in the data systems later and manually. Moreover, no information with regard to services carried out could be stored or attached to the fire protection valves. Therefore, it was difficult to prove whether servicing had been carried out in an orderly manner. With the RFID system, the service employee’s identification card can now be directly recorded on location when servicing takes place. The order data are provided to the employee via a handheld device, which is connected to logging and mobile reporting back. RFID is also used for identity card allocation and invoicing. It is, therefore, possible to file orders directly with no media breakage and no data loss as the data is entered once. Servicing can only be entered after the transponder has been read into the system: therefore, proof of the actual implementation of the work is provided.

15.2.5 Improvement in the catering area The handling of the trolleys for passenger catering is a further area where RFID technology is used. As established by IATA in an examination, the total savings potential in this area amounts to nearly $470 million USD per year. What are the relevant indicators of these applications? The area includes trolley tracking, vehicle servicing, and inventory management – data gathering of the contents of the trolley tables. Trolley tracking means that it is known where the trolley table is currently located, either always or at key positions within the overall process. On top of the information as to what is in the trolley, inventory management of the trolleys includes data on the transponders, when a trolley must be sent to a flight, when it must be returned to the supplier, to the caterer or to the airline store. Here, it is important to have a fast control of the food and drinks that have been delivered. It must 184

15.2 Areas of use for RFID in airport logistics

be assured, at least for the traditional carriers who normally have a contract with the caterers, that they are always served and that all the flights are adequately equipped. A sophisticated selection of food and drinks calls for good stocks of the most varied of items. Traditional carriers do not earn any “additional money” by selling food. Quite the opposite is true for the discount airlines: the contents and trolley tracking are weighted differently by business partners. For example, necessary repair work on the trolley is recorded on the transponders. Moreover, the anticipatory servicing that is controlled by the frequency of use, can be noted by the transponders. Airlines and caterers see their greatest advantage in improved tracking here. Content tracking is in the foreground of the thoughts made by authorities and aircraft operators. Therefore, short-term advantages due to RFID-controlled trolley servicing and content tracking are achieved in all three process areas. For example, sample projects have been carried-out at KLM and Lufthansa. IATA itself has made precise process analyses in the catering area.

15.2.6 RFID in Cargo Logistics The current air-freight figures from the Working Group for German Airports [Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Verkehrsflughäfen (ADV)] are increasing healthily. Similar to passenger developments, the cargo volume is also rising steeply. In Germany alone, for example, the air-freight volume by July 2007 rose by 4.3 % to nearly two million tons. This trend also reflects the world market. In order to determine precisely where the goods are, it makes sense to use RFID systems in the cargo area. Transponders are attached to Unit Load Devices (ULD). However, the application of RFID in all areas of logistics and warehousing reaches beyond the aviation industry as external participants (for example, logistics service providers) are also involved in the process chain. In case of goods production where the products are sent from the production facility by overland shipment, then by air-freight and again by overland shipment to the user’s works and where a continuous information chain exists, it makes sense to use continuous RFID with standardized logs and formats. Inventory management, maintenance, and handling provide good application options for this technology in the cargo area. Air-freight companies, therefore, frequently have several thousand consignments per transport. In such cases, it is an important advantage to know what goods are where. 185

15 RFID at the airport

15.2.7 Advantages due to RFID Although the barcode reading gates are cheaper to purchase than RFID readers, they incur higher servicing costs due to their mechanical complexity. Moreover, they have a lower reading speed than RFID systems. Experts, therefore, see considerable cost advantages for RFID systems in the area of baggage management when viewing processes holistically. What advantages do these systems offer customers? A baggage system using RFID can be more secure for the passenger as cases are thereby not lost. Especially with a view to the new large aircraft such as the Airbus A380, fast passenger and freight processing are gaining importance. While passport control processes passengers with epassports faster, thus making check-in faster, baggage items with RFID labels are loaded faster and more securely. The Emirates Airline provides a concrete example of the increased comfort they offer their passengers by using these systems. Owners of the frequent flier card “Skywards Gold” can use a fast E-gate access at Dubai Airport. The airport operators also profit from the introduction of RFID. The automatic monitoring of the baggage flow decisively increases throughput in the logistics chain, in turn lowering expenses for manual tracking. Using RFID, the whereabouts of the baggage item could become more transparent for the passenger. Finally yet importantly, such a system also results in customer loyalty due to its higher transparency. The increasing integration of the markets supports the use of RFID systems. At the same time, the heart of the matter is to exploit the competitive advantages by systematic recording and controlling complex logistical interrelationships in the value-adding network. From a purely economic viewpoint, the intensified cost and competitive pressure on international markets supports more widespread use of RFID systems. Above all, in applications and sectors, opportunities can be discovered where productivity progress should be achieved through improved automation. In total, the use of RFID will increase the transparency of the supply chain and the transaction costs for the companies will be reduced.

15.3 Perspectives When developing RFID for air traffic, the focus is placed on measurable benefits. The IATA develops special analyses, standards, and 186

15.3 Perspectives

business cases for many promising applications. The analyses are backed-up by application examples. If we look at the different airport sizes, it becomes apparent that the greatest need to act is at the large hubs. One focus of attention here is baggage processing and sorting because the volume of baggage and freight incurred is rising by approx. 5-6 % per year. In order to cope with this volume, the reduction of misdirecting and even loss of baggage is highly significant. A further advantage: flight delays are reduced drastically by faster baggage identification if a passenger does not show up. RFID will also play an important role in passenger tracking. Baggage and freight tracking und the fastest possible processing can only be used efficiently if the passenger list is also complete and baggage and passenger reconciliation has been successful. An electronic boarding pass with an RFID transponder may prove to support this process. RFID is more than just a technology for improving sorting performance and accuracy. On the contrary, the full potential of the technology is released if both the core processes and the supporting applications are observed throughout the entire added-value chain and the performance range of a system. Therefore, RFID is the key to creative design of new applications and efficient processes. References [1] See SITA: 4th Annual Baggage Report, 2008

187

16 Postal automation

Dr. Norbert Bartneck

Postal services are one of the largest logistics services worldwide, considering the number of goods, letters and packages transported as well as collected, sorted, transported between the sorting centers and delivered (Fig. 16.1). These processes must take place at high speed, with high quality at a favorable price and, therefore, require optimized automation technology. Beside the mail-items as central goods, the containers are further objects for postal logistics, and their automatic identification is of central importance for process improvements. Until a few years ago, primarily automation was concentrated on the operative processes. Recently, monitoring and planning functions are playing a more important role to increase transparency and efficiency can further be increased. Examples of this include the administration of stocks of transport containers, checking consignments for completeness, checking consignments dispatched for the correct addressees, and monitoring of the trucks on the company’s premises. RFID offers new opportunities to record the information required regarding the objects efficiently.

Letter mailbox

Counter

Sorting incoming post

Delivery office

AusgangsSortierung

EIngangsSortierung

Zustellamt

Collection

post

Sorting outgoing post

Abholung PO boxes

Preparation of business post and packages

Large deliverers

International

International

Fig. 16.1 Operative processes for postal logistics

188

Mass receiver

16.1 Auto ID in postal logistics

16.1 Auto ID in postal logistics The marking and identification (Auto ID) of the objects to be processed is a central topic for the automation of logistics. Automatic identification is used to decide what particular object is being processed or what object category and how it must be processed, for example the direction. Such identification can have two different forms: as information readable by humans (for example, a written address) or as a machine-readable code (for example a barcode). Automatic recognition takes place via optical systems or radio systems (RF readable). However, for processes requiring manual work steps the information should also be readable by humans. Two forms must be distinguished in the contents of the Auto ID: on the one hand, identification using a unique number and, on the other hand, storage of relevant data (for example, the address of a letter). Various Auto ID variants are used for postal logistics (Fig. 16.2): • Text information such as the address as logistical information for controlling mail processing or additionally attached notes such as the sender or advance provisions. The text information can be read automatically by using optical recognition systems. • Linear barcode with the address as coded logistical information (AdressCode) or with a item ID, recorded using optical reading systems.

Target address

Securing payment

Forwarding address

Business reply mail

Fig. 16.2 Various Auto ID processes at the consignment level

189

16 Postal automation

• 2D barcode, being able to store a larger data quantity due to its twodimensional structure (for example stamps). • Fingerprint, an innovative method that uses the characteristic visual features of a mail-item for its identification (for example, the location and content of the address field and stamps). • RFID transponder with passive or active technology. All of these technologies have their specific strengths. For example, only text information can also be read and written by humans without additional technical devices and also attached (written). On the other hand, barcodes are more easily machine readable and very cheap to attach. Address codes enable processing without access to central servers and ID codes enable multiple-stage determination of an address (for example, first the destination location, then the road, and then the house number). On the other hand, the fingerprint can be applied without any additionally attached codes, meaning a considerable advantage for business mail and print products. Last but not least, RFID offers specific advantages such as group recording, writability, and reading without visual line-of-sight. In general all Auto ID technologies are used in different applications. Mail items Whereas letters and flats from private senders or small companies contain their information mostly as printed text or handwritten addresses, mail from large suppliers and packets often include additional barcode information (linear and 2D codes). The attached address in plain text is decoded for sorting and transferred to the sorting machine. As all postal consignments must be sorted at least twice, an extra code is added for simplification purposes. The fingerprint can be used for applications where the later attachment of a barcode is technically awkward or disturbs (the entire letter is photographed). This is of special advantage for flats to which it is expensive to attach a barcode later due to the wide variety of envelope design. Containers Today’s solutions note the information required (direction, mail type) on labels that are attached to the containers. This information is attached extra as a barcode for automated solutions where the containers are transported to the processing stations using automated transport systems. Innovative approaches to automatic container manage190

16.2 RFID – the innovative Auto ID technology

ment use RFID technology as its strengths (group reading, no visual contact required) can be used well here and the cost disadvantages as opposed to a barcode are less relevant as the transponders are reused. Trucks Solutions used to date identify trucks and loading devices either by using their number plate, which is the official vehicle’s number plate, or a transport number. Similarly to container management, innovative approaches to automatic depot and transport management use more and more RFID technology as the high range of RFID enables considerable process improvement.

16.2 RFID – the innovative Auto ID technology Whereas postal logistics has successfully used barcodes for several years, the importance of RFID technology has only been gaining ground during the past few years. Due to the cost of the transponders, the RFID applications’ focus is on containers and transport vehicles. As the RFID transponders are used several times for these applications, the question of costs plays a lesser role here than for mail items where the transponders can only be used once. UHF technology with passive transponders, read ranges of up to ten meters and robust read rates has been applied for postal automation. The simplest transponder form, the so-called Smart Labels, cost less than 0.20 euros and is well-suited for the identification of the typical plastic containers. On a metallic surface as can be frequently found on containers enable sufficiently good readability. Active transponders are used for applications that require a longer range. In this case, tags can be used in the 2.45 or 7 GHz range, achieving ranges of 50 meters or more. To capture the RFID transponder information in postal applications, various different system configurations are required, depending on the specific requirements and the existing environment. Capturing individual mail items in sorting systems Sorting systems can be divided in sorting machines designed for high throughput for large letters and flats and in material handling systems for packets and containers. For cost reasons, RFID does not play

191

16 Postal automation

a practical role for letters and flats today. Special scan gates are used for capturing the information along the conveyor systems or RFID tunnels that read or program the RFID transponders. They are installed over the transport route and are capable of separating sequential objects with a high degree of reliability. RFID gates As opposed to small containers that are transported over automatic conveyor routes, the large transport containers (roll containers, pallets) are transported manually or by using ground conveyor vehicles. Stationary installations (RFID gates), which record the RFID transponders as they pass through (Fig. 16.3), are suitable for applications where the containers are transported through defined gates. The antennas are either integrated directly in the dock doors on the sorting center’s ramps or realized with specific constructions. In order to determine the actual direction of transport, these gates are equipped with additional sensors. These are often simple photoelectric barriers that are able to determine the direction of an object moving through a gate. RFID gates enable the simultaneous capturing of a large transport container and the included letter boxes.

Fig. 16.3 A typical gate construction

192

16.2 RFID – the innovative Auto ID technology

RFID localization Applications that enable permanent determination of the position of containers in a room or a plot of land require active localization (RTLS). For simple solutions, it suffices to know that the object searched for is in the capturing range of a reader unit. Higher-performance systems enable the precise localization of the object by using several receiver devices. These locating systems achieve nowadays ranges of 50-100 m indoors and 100-200 m outdoors, with an accuracy of one meter. Recording using mobile readers Capturing data by mobile readers is a common recording method in the logistics area. The information regarding the object (packet or container) is read by employees using an RFID handheld reader and transmitted to the corresponding system together with further information (for example, the measurement position, workplace, and time).

16.2.1 RFID-based application systems RFID technology is constantly gaining ground at the container and load carrier levels for postal applications of which the most important are described below. Asset management (Asset tracking and management system) Crucial assets are pallets and roll containers for transporting the mail items in the postal sphere as well as Unit Load Devices (ULD) and pallets for air cargo. The large quantity of these assets represents a considerable value for the companies. Without systematic control, the containers are subject to continuous loss and substantial consequential costs. Prompt and locally suitable availability of the containers is decisive for efficient implementation of the transport processes. Asset management provides functions for tracking, compensation, and maintenance of these assets, including comprehensive reporting and high-performance event management. The basis of these functions is the continuous recording of asset movements and the constant inventory enabled by such, based on RFID. Normally, the containers are moved by defined routes from the sender to the receiving customer. The most important points on these routes are the en193

16 Postal automation

trance and exit gates in the sorting centers or the depots where automatic capturing of the outgoing and incoming assets can be made using RFID gates. For this purpose, the assets are equipped with passive UHF transponders. If the applications additionally require recording asset movements within large halls or open-air areas, then active localization solutions are needed. Dock and yard management The transport of the consignments to and between the sorting centers is carried out by trucks, consisting of tractors and various load carriers (trailers). Correct and efficient coordination and monitoring of these load carriers to and in the depots requires comprehensive systematics – using RFID as the information carrier. This includes checking entrance approval, allocation of ramp occupancy, allocation of the waiting and parking positions, as well as the provision of empty trailers. RFID plays a central role in the automation of these processes. A comprehensive dock and yard system requires the recognition of the transport units at defined positions (for example, the entrance to the depot or the loading and unloading ramps) as well as localization on the entire yard. To realize this, the loading devices are equipped with passive UHF transponders that are recorded by readers at the access gate and the ramps. For localizing the trailers that are on the depot premises, the loading devices are additionally equipped with active transponders for locating purposes. Arrival and dispatch management A further application field where RFID technology asserts its advantages is the delivery and distribution process in the sorting centers. While checking the correct compilation of the delivery is interesting upon arrival, incorrect transport destinations should be avoided when distributing. Upon delivery, the frequently prepared list of the letter containers as notified in advance with the consignment quantity is used and reconciled with the information recorded by RFID at the sorting center entrance. It can then be established whether a delivery is complete and correct. When the consignments are delivered, there is a risk potential of sending them to an incorrect destination (misrouting). Misrouting causes direct costs due to the then necessary extra transport as well as indirect costs resulting from customer dissatisfaction. The information provided regarding the intended direction of a transport, is

194

16.2 RFID – the innovative Auto ID technology

compared with the direction allocated to the containers, thus avoiding misrouting. The transport containers that are currently mostly plastic have to be equipped with UHF labels or metal-compatible transponders for an RFID-supported solution. RFID gates installed at the entrance and exit gates are used to capture the container data of when to transfer, which are read in bulk when passing the gate and transferred via middleware and the integration platform of the application software. Mail-item tracking Although RFID technology at mail-item level generally does not yet play a role due to the costs involved, it is already highly significant at quality control level. In order to ensure that quality of the processes and to identify possible weaknesses, the run-times of the items on the individual routes between the sender and recipient must be monitored. Two solution concepts are used for this task: on the one hand, a sensor-based measurement system that stores acceleration data on an electronic test letter and enables conclusions regarding the duration of different steps (for example, letter box, mail collector) when these data are analyzed at the end of the transport (for example, letter mailbox, post collector). This system works without a network-wide infrastructure but it requires technically more complex test letters. A future extension of the test letter will include a navigation component to enable a time measurement as well as precise geographical tracking. The second concept uses RFID-based test letters, which are recorded at defined measurement points. A system such as this, for historic reasons is fundamentally based on relatively expensive semi-passive HF technology and is used by the international post organization (IPC) to determine the transportation time between the national postage companies. The on-going development and standardization of UHF technology makes it possible in the meantime to execute network-wide tracking using test letters, which are equipped with simple UHF Smart labels.

195

16 Postal automation

16.3 Outlook From the innovations that are under development, three topics should be mentioned with which we expect to achieve high additional application potential for postal automation.

16.3.1 Printable transponders with polymer technology One hurdle when introducing RFID technology at the consignment level is the transponder price. We expect great progress here with polymer technology with which we will succeed in manufacturing RFID chips using a mass-printing process and, therefore, combining the functional strengths of RFID technology with the price advantages of the barcode. Chapter 18 describes the details of this technology.

16.3.2 RFID transponders with visual, readable information As humans play an important role in the post logistics process chain, they must be able to access the relevant control information without needing additional technical devices. If a barcode is the information carrier, this is achieved by printing the plain text information on the labels next to the barcode. If the RFID transponders are written contactless, alternative technologies are required to achieve visual readability. Various projects are working on technologies to make the relevant control information from the information carrier visible.

16.3.3 “Internet of things” Chapter 21 presents a future vision of logistics, whereby RFID plays a central role as an information carrier. Analogous to internet data, the objective is to control goods flows as flexibly as possible using local intelligence from the starting point to the target point. This means that the transport systems no longer depend on a central control system and a networked information system as the objects save the information locally. The transport process can adapt independently and flexibly to changing situations. The local control concepts, software architecture, and RFID technology are worked on in large research projects managed by the Fraunhofer Institute for Materials Flow and Logistics (IML) and with participating industrial partners such as Siemens.

196

16.3 Outlook

16.3.4 RFID in future postal logistics Liberalization and decentralization of postal services will further increase the requirements of postal logistics regarding productivity, quality, and flexibility. Postal service providers offer new services (3PL: Third Party Logistics, external logistics service providers) and the processing of the post consignments is increasingly implemented by a network of service providers. All of this requires a high degree of transparency and controllability of the processes. Clear-cut interfaces must be created with regard to responsibility and costs. This offers opportunities for high-performance RFID solutions that will make a considerable contribution to master the challenges to future postal logistics.

197

17 RFID in hospitals

Thomas Jell

Headlines such as “Scissors left in patient” or “Babies swapped after birth” keep appearing in the media. It is, therefore, not surprising that doctors and hospitals are increasingly confronted with the demand for more security for patients. On top of this, there are increasing demands by patients regarding their care, which additionally challenge the healthcare sector in times of tight budgets. Whether it is for the identification of patients, dosage of drugs, or tracking theater instruments and staff – with modern IT and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) clearly improved security and care of patients is possible. Another aspect in favor of radio technology: Cost savings as well as faster, simpler, and yet secure management of patient data.

17.1 Potential of RFID in the health sector Many decision makers can hardly imagine that data exchange via radio suffices to sufficiently and correctly care for patients. They do, however, become increasingly aware that the use of modern IT in hospitals can increase patient security or can even save lives. Results of RFID pilot projects in the USA and Germany already show a huge potential for the small chips in the health sector. An example of this is the location of foreign objects, so-called “alien objects”, which are left behind in the bodies of patients during operations with an average probability of 1:3,000 to 1:5,000 despite rigorous manual checks. In addition, this frequency rises with often unforeseen procedures. Objects are more frequently left behind in unusual operations and in emergency situations the risk is nine times higher. Consistent tracking of theater equipment with the aid of RFID transponders, as is currently being tested in the “Klinikum rechts der Isar” in Munich, can significantly reduce this risk. The results of a study by the action group for patient security in 2007 also call for increased use of RFID in hospitals: Because one in every 198

17.2 Reference projects

thousand of the approximately 17,000 fatalities in German hospitals could have been prevented. In the USA 44,000 to 98,000 patients die annually due to incorrect treatment or imprecise work. Solutions such as the RFID wrist straps that are being used in the “Klinikum Saarbruecken” or the patient card with RFID chip used by the MedicAlert organization in the USA, enable doctors to uniquely identify patients and provide important information about the case history or allergies. Mix-up of data or even people as well as drug errors can be prevented efficiently in this manner. Hospitals can at least partially protect themselves against economic damages and threatening loss of their good image due to mistakes with far reaching consequences or medical errors with the aid of RFID.

17.2 Reference projects 17.2.1 Jacobi Medical Center and Klinikum Saarbruecken At the Jacobi Medical Center in New York, a RFID pilot project for the identification of patients was started for the first time in 2004. Due to the radio chips, doctors and health care staff can identify patients quicker and easier and can access patient data easier and more securely. The Klinikum Saarbruecken is currently successfully testing the same solution, for which the US hospital was awarded the prize for the best medical innovation by the Health Care Research and Innovations Congress (HCRIC) in 2005. In Saarbruecken, selected patients of the station for internal medicine are participating in the project. They wear wrist straps with integrated RFID chips on which a number is saved, which is comparable to a barcode. Doctors and health care staff read this number within seconds with a mobile unit, for instance a RFID-capable PDA, tablet PC, or mobile scanner, and immediately obtain important information for drug security such as age, weight, and size of the patient as well as their case history and measurement and laboratory values (Fig. 17.1). Hospital staff can then update this data during the course of treatment. This allows a more precise and faster input and transmission of the diagnosis, reduces error sources, saves error-prone paperwork, and creates more time for attention to individual cases. Modern encryption technology guarantees protection against unauthorized access. A database with evaluation software, the electronic prescription system by RpDoc Solutions, verifies the correct allocation of drugs, 199

17 RFID in hospitals

Fig. 17.1 Reading patient data with a RFID-capable PDA within seconds.

based on the saved information. This ensures that the right patient is administered the right dosage of the drug at the right time in the right way. In case of an error, the system switches to red and explains the reason. This intelligent helper can save lives – for instance, in cases of illnesses such as kidney insufficiency, where even small wrong dosages can be fatal. Besides for increased security, the expert program offers another advantage: It knows the exact composition of the prescription and calculates the exact price of the drug per patient per day. If possible, the system then recommends cheaper equivalent generic drugs in order to save costs. Another advantage for patients is that they can make enquiries themselves. They can, for instance, enquire their state of health via an information terminal. This includes blood pressure, weight, treatment, and discharge dates. Furthermore, they have the option of informing themselves regarding the diagnosed illness and common types of therapy in many different languages.

17.2.2 MedicAlert Siemens IT Solutions and Services together with MedicAlert in the USA are testing the use of RFID, in order to improve the emergency treatment of patients. The non-profit organization is a reliable part200

17.2 Reference projects

ner for the secure management of patient files and allows the exchange of medical information between patients and service providers. Up to now the approximately four million members were wearing a necklace with a medal onto which the identity of the bearer was engraved. Emergency staff then had access to the most important medical data via a 0800 telephone number. Since the end of 2006, some 3,500 MedicAlert members have been furnished with a plastic card with an integrated RFID chip. This allows smoother access to important information such as one’s general medical condition, case history, or allergies. This is of cardinal importance for emergency treatment of patients. Information about the patient’s doctor and closest relatives can also be lodged online with MedicAlert. Emergency staff can identify the person within seconds via a PDA with RFID reader, even through one’s clothing or the wallet. Therefore, from an information technology point of view, nothing is in the way of optimal and safe treatment at the site of an accident. When admitted to the California State University Hospital, the patient passes two RFID readers installed at the entrance to the emergency ward. After the RFID card has been read, they automatically establish a secure connection to the comprehensive MedicAlert database. Hospital staff members thereby immediately have comprehensive information at their disposal to treat the patient. From a technical point of view the patient card of MedicAlert is comparable to the German health card, whereby its implementation in the USA was many times faster. While advantages and disadvantages as well as data privacy legislation is still debated in Germany, the value of the RFID chip card has already convinced many Americans: Uncomplicated access to patient data expedites the diagnosis, avoids test repetitions for already diagnosed illnesses, improves the chances of detecting hidden illnesses, and improves the quality of care and security standards. Concerns regarding data privacy were solved quite simply: Patients enter the data for their files themselves via a web portal and the card reliably takes over the identification. If necessary, a doctor is available for assistance.

17.2.3 “Klinikum rechts der Isar” The “Klinikum rechts der Isar” (University hospital on the right hand side of the river Isar) of the Technical University of Munich is currently investigating the potential of RFID technology together with Siemens at different levels – from tracking of abdominal covers to over201

17 RFID in hospitals

all theater management, also involving suppliers. The objectives are multi-layered: Besides for a higher level of security for patients, the hospital aims for more exact planning of resources and operation procedures as well as optimized logistics. The workgroup “Minimalinvasive Interdisciplinary Therapeutic Intervention” (MITI) officially started a RFID project in March 2007 after two years of preparatory work, which is intended to run until 2010 for this purpose. Two aspects are in the foreground in the theater of the future: To minimize patient suffering as much as possible as well as to improve and expedite all the work procedures (Fig. 17.2).

Fig. 17.2 RFID could soon reduce the risk of errors during operations

In the first step, MITI managers and the superintendent Prof. Hubertus Feußner along with his colleagues will investigate how abdominal covers can be tracked during an operation. Each abdominal cover is fitted with a transponder consisting of a micro chip with a copper or aluminum antenna. The readers required for reading the chips are situated directly underneath the instrument side board, underneath the operating table and in the container for used abdominal covers. Abdominal covers can be identified uniquely via the chip code.

202

17.2 Reference projects

The “Klinikum rechts der Isar” profits in a number of ways through the use of radio chips: On the one hand, each of the abdominal covers, which can be reused up to 20 times, can automatically be sorted and replaced after the specified maximum number of cleaning and disinfection processes. This life cycle management will be the task of the laundry and is to be implemented for operation in 2008. On the other hand, it can be verified automatically how many used abdominal covers are in the container and how many are on the side board. If this number deviates from the initial count, the system triggers an alarm on a theater monitor. Normally, two employees always manually count and verify all the operating utensils before and after an operation. RFID can in the future present another security factor and reduce the risk of error. In a second phase of the project, MITI will furnish theater staff with transponders in order to exactly track their movements at the workplace. This will allow a workflow prediction, which will lead to the highest degree of efficiency and security. The RFID system could for instance recognize when an operation nears its end and then automatically trigger processes: Theater staff and the anesthetist are informed that the next patient must be prepared for the operation. This system could in the same way detect unforeseen procedures and call for support. Scenarios such as these serve both the security of patients and an optimal utilization of resources and have a positive effect on the cost structure of the hospital. Doctors and theater staff attach an identification card with a RFID transponder in the frequency range of 868 MHz for purposes of tracking presence and roles. No personal data is stored on the card, only role-related information such as “operating doctor” or “anesthetist” is entered. Thereby, potential criticism regarding data privacy is already curtailed. Antennas in the room register the movement of theater staff and transmit this data to the reader. After completion of the operation, each team member returns their card. Capturing of each of the actors when entering or leaving the theater provides valuable information regarding the phases of the operation. In order to further increase the security of the patient during operations and to prevent unnecessary suffering, the MITI team has further visions for the future: Fitting of theater instruments such as needles, scissors, and clamps with tags. Here, one would have to wait until suitable chips (acceptable size, temperature resistance, etc.) are available on the market. From a financial point of view the use of RFID is

203

17 RFID in hospitals

viable for the hospital: On average, costs of USD 90,000 arise for an abdominal cover that was left behind, if patients submit claims.

17.3 The economical value of RFID Regarding the use of RFID in the environment of patient processes, there will always be potential for technical improvement. Despite that, the current state of development is such that it allows worldwide marketing of RFID solutions in the health sector. The challenge is in convincing the responsible persons in hospitals of the economical value of radio technology and of achievable return on investment (ROI). Experts assume that hospitals can expect savings of single figure millions just by the reduction of drug errors with RFID. Besides for increased patient security, tracking and tracing of abdominal covers and theater staff can improve the economic viability of hospitals and relieve employees. In view of all these aspects, the substantial RFID investment could be amortized within a foreseeable period. Hospitals with maternity wards will in the future not be able to avoid the introduction of RFID technology for the sure identification of newly born babies because of economic reasons. In order to gain parents-to-be as customers, they must be convinced of the quality of care for their offspring in the hospital. This includes keeping the risk of a baby mix-up as low as possible – and RFID makes this possible.

17.4 RFID in the future Not only the abovementioned RFID projects in the health sector sound promising in view of improved patient processes. For the planned introduction of a full RFID identification system, also for the tracking of persons, for instance in the Imaging Science Institute (ISI) in Erlangen, Siemens, together with its partners, is developing new solutions for the improvement of patient security in 2008. In addition, all the involved parties continuously improve successfully implemented solutions. Radio range For instance, the company successively improves radio range. Currently, the read-out of the standard radio chips at a frequency of 204

17.4 RFID in the future

13.6 MHz, and mobile readers up to a range of 15 cm, functions very well. However, radio radii of up to one meter are requested by users. Only then can RFID chips of highly contagious patients be written and read without a problem and without the risk of infection. Dosage of drugs The Munich researchers also focus on innovation in order to improve drugs and with that patient security. An automatic dosage unit could be coupled to the expert system in order to reduce error sources in the dosage of drugs. It would fill the exact ration of drugs into a pouch fitted with RFID for every patient. When the drug is administered to the patient, the data on the package is compared with that of the recipient for the last time. In this way it is ensured that every patient is taken care of properly. Because of the relatively high transponder prices for this application, the efficient use of this solution is currently not yet possible. The use of cheaper polymer chips (see Chapter 18) could be a breakthrough. Monitoring of blood preserves Various Siemens sectors as well as a consortium of scientists and technologists are profiting from the development of a new solution for blood bags, which is based on RFID chips. Here, blood preserves were fitted with RFID tags. The system monitors the blood along the entire transfusion chain, “from artery to artery” – i.e. from the donor through processing, distribution, storage, to transfusion. Fitted with active transponders, the radio technology can trace the route of a blood product and a mix-up is virtually impossible. In addition, RFID has a temperature sensor that monitors the cold chain continuously and completely. Medical staff can immediately transmit product-specific defects to the reporting system, the “Hämovigilanz-Register” register via a web-based application. The register documents all the reported incidents with collected and processed blood products. Temperature monitoring is very complex, because differing temperature profiles must be maintained within the transfusion chain. The RFID technology used here must resist different production processes such as pasteurizing or centrifuging. At the “University Clinic for Blood Group Serology and Transfusion Medicine at the Medical University of Graz” [“Universitätsklinik für Blutgruppenserologie und Transfusionsmedizin der Medizinischen Universität Graz”], passive 205

17 RFID in hospitals

Fig. 17.3 Blood bag with RFID chips

RFID labels were subjected to an endurance test for the first time. The chips, which were fixed to blood bags, had to survive a sterilization and pasteurization process as well as centrifuging at up to Mach 5,000. The blood bags were then supplied to the blood bank and were used there in a routine processing and hospital environment. Among others, proven and reliable chip, sensor and battery technologies are required for the use of RFID transponders with temperature sensors, which were developed and tested by “Schweizer Electronic AG” in Schramberg. The active RFID labels resulting from the test phases are currently being checked by the blood bag manufacturer MacoPharma according to specific criteria, which are decisive for the blood bank. After completion of the project in the blood bank of the University of Graz, which is planned for the end of 2008, registration with national and international authorities will be examined. RFID monitoring of risk patients Siemens plans to improve the quality of life of risk patients, such as dementia sufferers, in the future with RFID wrist straps. As an alternative to closed stations and institutions, the special wrist straps can be used, which will trigger an alarm when a specific area is exited. Patients can then move around freely, but institution staff is informed in due time if an “escapee” must be taken back to the room.

206

17.5 Conclusion

17.5 Conclusion In view of the already implemented RFID projects for patient security, it can be stated that the quality of treatment of patients and their security enjoy a very high priority, from a technical point of view. However, since the development of RFID technology for the health sector is still in its infancy, the sector can expect numerous novelties in the next few years.

207

Part 4

How to proceed?

18 RFID – printed on a roll

Wolfgang Mildner

In a joint venture of Siemens AG and the Leonhard Kurz Stiftung and Co. KG, called PolylC, RFID will in the future be manufactured according to a new principle: By means of a roll-to-roll procedure, polymer printed electronics are to be produced quickly and efficiently. The electronics are thin and flexible and can easily be integrated into products (Fig. 18.1). The new manufacturing process promises significantly lower costs for RFID transponders. The basic technology of printed electronics, with the application of new materials and new manufacturing procedures, allows for the use of electronics (especially of RFID) in areas where this seemed to be impossible up to now for reasons of cost or space.

Fig. 18.1 PolyID®, a printed RFID transponder (Photo: PolyIC)

210

18.1 Protection of trade marks with printed electronics and RFID

18.1 Protection of trade marks with printed electronics and RFID Printed electronics creates new solutions for one of the burning problems in the consumer market: The ever increasing number of imitation products can be combated better with electronic and optical identification and authentication. In principle, everything seems to be quite easy: Manufacturers and distributors of quality products of any kind want to optimize internal processes, minimize costs, and establish their reputation and market position by means of flawless goods. End users expect flawless and authentic products for their money, which they can trust in every respect without reservation. Unfortunately, reality is somewhat different at times. Almost not a single day goes by without the media reporting about product imitations or risks through spoiled foodstuff and drugs. The one aspect causes economical damage that can hardly be expressed in figures any more, while the other on top of that threatens the health if not even the lives of those involved. The example of the pharmaceutical and foodstuff industry will subsequently show which demands are made by the economy for an optimal production and distribution chain.

18.1.1 Trade mark protection for flawless mixtures Medical progress is not least noticeable in the multitude of drugs, with which illnesses can be successfully combated, which a few decades ago inevitably led to the death of the patient. The more specialized the drug is and the higher the development cost was, the higher the price of the drug must be in the end. Unfortunately, expensive pharmaceutical products do not only have an influence on the health of patients, but also on the greed of those dealers trying to penetrate the lucrative market with cheap imitations. With dangerous results in many ways: Preparations without an active ingredient are ineffective and can have the same fatal results such as over doses. The risk is, if the patient or the treating doctor does not recognize a drug, which on face value looks flawless, to be an imitation. The manufacturer of the real product suffers turnover losses and is at peril of being made responsible for the damages caused by the imitation drugs. For them, it is essentially important to exclude all manipulation possibilities as far as possible on the long road from

211

18 RFID – printed on a roll

the production line to the end user. Costly packaging and optical “seals of genuineness” alone do not suffice any more.

18.1.2 Dine without disgust Complete traceability of the distribution chain to a high degree is also desirable in the food sector – whether to fully withdraw contaminated batches from circulation or to stop sellers from selling bad food. Moreover, it is important that quality controls for perishable goods find the root cause of any faults incurred without delay and to dispel them where they occur. All investments that contribute effectively to the localization of hitherto unknown problematic areas here will payoff within the shortest of periods.

18.1.3 Identifiability creates clarity in the supply chain If it makes sense for delicatessens, it can also be of great use to other branches. From the clothing industry to automobile manufacturing, all the producers have vital interest in protecting their quality brands when it boils down to it (brand protection) and to protect themselves against freeloaders (anti-counterfeit). Nobody can or wishes to manage without doubt-free identifiability of produce and complete quality control these days! Moreover, effective optimization methods are looked for everywhere in cost-intense logistics in order to be able to continue to survive against competitors (Supply Chain Automation). These equally high and legitimate requirements can only be met through a so-called “intelligent” seal of approval, which on the one hand is cheap and, on the other hand, could only be copied at unattractively high expense. If namely an individual pill box and the individual packaging for the fillet of salmon can be unambiguously identified as originals, manipulation possibilities can be prevented to a large extent and any possible quality gaps revealed. Technical evolution is still in progress here: however, at the end of this development chain that will finally be advantageous to the end consumer, only individual numbering at the single item level can result, otherwise known as “Item Level Tagging”, with a unique Electronic Product Code (EPC). In cases where virtually one hundred percent authentication proof is provided or even transparent traceability in the production chain is to be guaranteed, proven processes such as barcodes and holograms reach their principle-causes limits: new technologies must now pave the way to a secure future (Fig. 18.2). 212

18.2 Technological basics

Fig. 18.2 Wine bottles with an integrated PolyID® tag (Photo: PolyIC)

18.2 Technological basics The options described for printed electronics and, therefore, printed RFID come into being by using new types of plastic, so-called organic semiconductors (one example of this is P3HT – Poly-3-hexylthiophene). These semiconductors are soluble and hence suitable for use in printing machinery. Further fitting materials are required for conductive and insulating structures in order to build up transistors and other standard components in a respective layer composition and to build up further standard components such as diodes, capacitors etc. The new semiconductors are actually easy to use compared to common silicon but their performance capability is considerably restricted (a factor of approx. 1,000 times lower). Therefore, the integrated circuits cannot be as high performance or complex as conventional electronics. Therefore, simpler electronics are produced that for this reason are cheaper and available as a mass product (Fig. 18.3). Integrated circuits are established to implement the RFID function by using these basic elements. Here, PolyIC demonstrated the first working integrated circuits using this basis and can also produce them in a roll-to-roll process in the meantime. 213

18 RFID – printed on a roll

Fig. 18.3 Laboratory printing machine for printed semiconductors (Photo: PolyIC)

The production process used for this consists of a combination of several different processes, each of which realizes the respective layer specifications required (layer thicknesses, resolution of the structures, registration precision, etc.). The first generation of a production process will be further simplified and optimized in the future. However, it already meets the minimum speeds of 20 meters per minute, as an effective production method. The technology is also called polymer electronics or organic electronics as polymers or organic materials are used. At the same time, RFID is only one of the many options that can be realized using printed integrated circuits. Other circuits for connecting sensors or displays provide interesting future applications for intelligent packaging with a self-monitoring function which can also display the test results. Thus, for example, intelligent milk cartons that monitor their own shelf life or their whereabouts in the cold chain will result in greater consumer security in the future.

214

18.3 Possible solutions using printed RFID

18.3 Possible solutions using printed RFID The solution to the problems and requirements as explained here is RFID. Where up until now we have had to hold optical reading devices to record each individual product, RFID systems can read out a far wider scope of data (or simply the message “I am genuine”) from a greater distance and, if required also through the product itself from the applied “tags” in the future (Fig. 18.4). This is executed considerably faster, with far fewer errors and is more manipulation-proof than it has ever been so far!

Fig. 18.4 Example of a printed entrance ticket with a printed advert – a so-called “Smart object” (Photo: PolyIC)

Here, we must emphasize that printed RFIDs and Smart Objects that are manufactured based on printed polymer electronics by no means compete in any way at all with proven silicon technology. On the contrary, the production-specific properties make printed RFIDs and related products an ideal supplement to the “hard” chips: • Flexible and malleable and also very thin integrated circuits also make attachment to soft items, to date not able to be labeled, possible. • Automatic provision in manufacturing lines can be retrofitted. 215

18 RFID – printed on a roll

• Negligible piece costs enable the exploitation of new markets, for example also and especially for low-vale mass products. • High universality, customer-specific adaptation to each area of application (also for cheap giveaways and single-use test devices). Using modern print systems, it is now possible to produce active and “intelligent” integrated circuits and that virtually free. Johannes Gutenberg would not have dared dream that five-and-a-half centuries after his groundbreaking invention of book printing with movable letters that a new print revolution is in the process of “conquering” the world and improving everybody’s lives.

216

19 RFID and sensors

Georg Schwondra

When observing RFID applications that track the movement of an object, for example within its supply chain (see Chapter 12), the requirement to record and save additional ambient parameters arises frequently. This, for example, enables the adherence to temperature limits to be clearly depicted on the time bar. The link with logistics data enables the tracing of the person responsible in the supply chain.

19.1 Motivation The ambient parameters or influences that can be recorded together with RFID include temperature, relative humidity, and pressure. If you want to monitor air humidity, this only makes sense combined with the temperature as air humidity is temperature-dependent. Isolated events that can cause damages to industrial goods are detected by monitoring the parameters of acceleration and vibration. In any case, you must define the areas and accuracy with which the parameters are to be tracked in advance. The sensors are then selected according to these requirements. Due to structural complexity, “RFID sensors” are more expensive than simple, passive RFID chips. The application is always attractive if reuse is possible as the then higher transponder price can be written off over the amount of re-use. In order to ensure the return of the transponders, an incentive system (such as a deposit system) must be created for everybody involved along the supply chain. The definition of the identification point where the RFID sensors are attached and later detached from the monitored product is especially significant. At the same time, process design should pay special attention to these process steps creating as few additional costs as possible.

217

19 RFID and sensors

The implementation of solutions with RFID sensors enables the design of new business models. For example, this enables the clear allocation of an accident to the person who actually caused it. In turn, this means that insurance payments can be saved (leads to a long-term reduction of insurance premiums) or the person responsible can be held liable.

19.2 Technical basis Basically, we can define two groups of RFID sensors: • Sensor transponders with an internal memory for the decentral storage of the ambient data. • Sensor transponders without an internal memory are centralized storage of the ambient data.

19.2.1 Schematic structure of RFID sensors RFID sensors are realized using a discrete structure as a microcontroller, field programmable gate array (FPGA), or ASIC implementation. In all cases, the sensors require an energy supply for operation (a battery or a storage battery). Fig. 19.1 shows the schematic structure.

Sensor

Microcontroller

EEPROM Quartz

Digital Frontend

Analog Frontend

Battery

A n t e n n a

Fig. 19.1 Schematic depiction of an RFID sensor

Communication with the RFID reader via the air interface is realized via the analogue and digital front end. The microcontroller governs the EEPROM memory, controls the sensor, and analyzes the sensor data according to parameterization. Should a precise time base be required by the system over long periods of time, a quartz element is

218

19.2 Technical basis

necessary. The battery provides electrical power for the microcontroller and sensors. Normally, the front end works when the battery is drained. Preferably standard devices are used as RFID-readers in order to utilize any existing infrastructures. The RFID sensors are addressed by the reading device via so-called custom commands, i.e. pre-defined protocol extensions of the respective RFID standard. These custom commands currently still differ from sensor to sensor.

19.2.2 Decentralized sensor data storage This category of RFID sensors has an EEPROM memory in which the measured ambient parameters are filed with a time stamp. The RFID sensor can be initialized via the radio interface as follows: • If cyclically re-used, the memory is deleted. • The logging mode is defined (you can normally select between recording a full curve, an out-of-range curve, or a surface integral). • The logging interval is defined. • The user-specific starting data is saved and logging started. Following this step, the RFID sensor begins with periodic measurement and, as necessary, recording the ambient parameters (depending on the logging mode selected and ambient data measured). These data can then be read out at the identification points and reconciled with data from the central system. It is also possible to adapt the logging parameters.

19.2.3 Systems available Three products from different suppliers are introduced below as examples of the approaches available today. SEAGsens The SEAGsens, a product from Schweizer Electronic AG (http://www. schweizerelectronic.ag), was developed in its original form for temperature monitoring blood bags “from vein to vein” (Fig. 19.2). The discretely structured sensor system was developed by Schweizer Electronic AG together with Siemens as a platform, in order to account for short-term product diversification with regard to other sen-

219

19 RFID and sensors

Fig. 19.2 SEAGsens-transponder (Photo: SEAG)

sors and different product geometries. The electronics and integrated circuit design was developed by the Institute for Applied research at the University of Offenburg [Institut für Angewandte Forschung der Hochschule Offenburg]. Table 19.1 shows the most important performance data.

Table 19.1 Platform specification for the SEAGsens Properties

SEAGsens

RFID technology

13.56 MHz, ISO 15693 compatible

Multiple re-usability

Yes, > 5 years

Power supply

Round cell battery CR 2430, 270 mAh,

Dimensions

69 × 58 × 6.3 mm

Measurement range

–30° C to +60° C

Recordable parameters

Temperature, relative humidity, pressure, acceleration, and vibration

Analysis modes

Full curve, overlap curve, and surface integral beneath the overlap curve

Memory capacity

64 Kbytes = > 15,000 measurement values

Measurement intervals

Freely selectable: 5 seconds to 4 hours

Measurement accuracy

Temperature: tolerance ±0.5°C (between 0°C and +70°C) Rel. air humidity: tolerance ±2 % (between 10 % and 90 %)

220

19.2 Technical basis

VarioSens The KSW-VarioSens®, a product from KSW Microtec AG (http://www. ksw-microtec.de), is an ASIC implementation of a sensor transponder (Fig. 19.3). The product is available as a flexible label with an integrated temperature sensor in credit card format. The power supply is a wafer-thin environmentally friendly battery for insertion. The KSWVarioSens® can store up to 720 temperature values and has an extra memory area for user data. As quartz was not used due to ASIC implementation, its timer precision is approx. 5 %.

Fig. 19.3 KSW-VarioSens (Photo: KSW)

Jilg parquet sensor The “Jilg parquet sensor” was developed by the companies Jilg and Tricon and is currently available as a prototype. Jilg produces and lays parquet flooring and seeks to manage its customers’ warranty claims by analyzing the environmental data. For example, the flow temperature of the heating must be limited for parquet floors with underfloor heating, otherwise the parquet floor will “distort”. When the parquet floor is laid, a sensor is also installed and analyzed as required (customer claims). By installing this sensor in the parquet flooring, Jilg can reconstruct whether the damages have were caused by exceeding the permissible heating temperature or a material fault in case of warranty claims. Moreover, the installation of this sensor makes it possible to determine whether a wooden floor damaged by humidity has been damaged by air humidity being too high (structural damp) from above or by rising damp (diffusion) from below. 221

19 RFID and sensors

19.2.4 Central sensor data storage Systems in this category distinguish themselves because the EEPROM memory is missing on the sensor transponder. The data are transmitted to the central system via the radio interface at the point in time of measurement. This assumes that the RFID sensor is always in the reception field of a reading device. Therefore, this category of transponder is normally cheaper to realize as the requirements of the microcontroller required are considerably lower. ZOMOFI, an active 2.45 GHz system, is one example of this. By using ZOMOFI, reaches of up to 160 m outdoors and up to 80 m in closed rooms can be achieved (Table 19.2). Transponders with temperature or acceleration sensors are conceivable, for example as sensors (Fig. 19.4).

Table 19.2 Excerpt from the ZOMOFI specifications Properties

ZOMOFI

RFID technology

2,400 GHz ~ 2,483 GHz

Memory capacity

112 bytes

Battery life

Typically 20,000 write cycles or 1 year (maximum life cycle dependent on the concrete application conditions)

Working temperature range

IEC 60068-2-14 (Na) – Operation: –10°C to +55°C – Storage: –20°C to +70°C

Transponder dimensions

Credit card: 54 × 85.5 × 4 mm Domino: 31 × 90 × 10.5 mm

Fig. 19.4 Transponder with a removed temperature sensor (laboratory sample)

222

19.3 Initial applications

19.3 Initial applications 19.3.1 Temperature monitoring for blood preserves Blood preservations (erythrocyte concentrate) are becoming an even scarcer resource with limited storability due to decreasing readiness to donate and increasing exclusion criteria (the age pyramid, improved diagnostics, etc.). Once donated, the blood preserves must be stored in controlled temperature ranges (Fig. 19.5).

Fig. 19.5 Temperature profile to be maintained for blood preserves in Austria

If there are variances in these requirements, the blood preservations must be thrown away. In Austria alone, blood preservations to the value of one million euros per year are thrown away due to incorrect handling or the non-monitoring of the cold chain whereby the price of a single blood preserve is 120 euros in Western Europe. On top of this, there is the ethical aspect that a product that may save lives, which is regularly called for through donation appeals, has to be discarded. Today, the products are monitored at refrigerator or box levels using temperature loggers until they are delivered and stored in the blood bank (storage in hospital). As of the point in time when the product is handed over to the ward or the operating theatre, monitoring no longer takes place and the products can also no longer be returned, even if not used. 223

19 RFID and sensors

In order to find a solution, the companies Schweizer Electronic AG, MacoPharma International GmbH, and Siemens AG established a consortium together with the University Clinic for Blood Group Serology and Transfusion Medicine [Universitätsklinik für Blutgruppenserologie und Transfusionsmedizin] in Graz and developed a temperature monitoring transponder and a clinical application. It meets the following requirements: • The course of the temperature of the blood preserve must be completely monitored from the donor’s vein to the recipient’s vein. • The electronics must survive the centrifugation process (up to the 5,000-fold multiple of gravity) that is required for blood production. • The operating costs per use must be very low. This solution has been undergoing clinical testing since the start of 2008. Following this, the respective approvals are planned, meaning that the system can still be introduced commercially in 2008.

19.3.2 Quality assurance for worldwide container transports A petroleum processing company is currently evaluating the use of RFID sensors with temperature and relative air humidity monitoring in order to secure the quality of air humidity-sensitive plastic granulate on worldwide container shipping transport. On the one hand, the analysis is intended to provide a data basis for the required quantity of absorber material, depending on the destination and season and, on the other hand, it makes possible the identification of the causer in case of claims.

19.4 Possible future applications 19.4.1 Temperature Further potential applications for RFID and temperature logging are apparent in logistics for meat and deep-frozen products. Here, the general public is exerting increasing pressure on the provision of transparency and traceability in the logistics chain. Today’s identity systems within the meat processing industry enable a clear inference from the purchased product back to the producing company. Today, it

224

19.4 Possible future applications

is not possible to make a statement as to whether temperature regulations have been observed within the scope of producing and distribution logistics. For expensive wine, temperature monitoring is as an important topic as for worldwide distribution logistics for the temperature-sensitive pharmaceutical products such as vaccinations. In the latter case, exceeding or a shortfall of the storage temperature may lead to the vaccination loosing its effect. Beer barrels are often given to event organizers by the breweries as goods on sale or return. If a barrel is not used and left in the sun, it is theoretically possible that the beer will spoil. Sometimes the brewery takes the beer back and delivers it to another customer who correctly complains. Temperature monitoring at barrel level enables exceeding the temperature to be determined in good time, to avoid “recirculating” it and charging the causer the damages.

19.4.2 Temperature and relative air humidity Especially for fruit and vegetables logistics and flower imports, the monitoring of environmental conditions is an interesting topic. The durability of the goods here is basically dependent upon the temperature and air humidity profile. A further application that is noteworthy is lending works of art. In particular, old art treasures such as papyrus rolls and paintings are highly sensitive to the ambient conditions during transport and exhibition. Museums have already had initial thoughts to equip such works of art for exhibitions with corresponding sensors in order to monitor the contractually guaranteed storage conditions and, as necessary, to carry out restoration work directly after the works of art are returned.

19.4.3 Acceleration The use of acceleration sensors is conceivable, for example for transport logistics for large transformers. These transformers have a six or seven figure value in euros and are highly sensitive to acceleration (being dropped) due to their ceramics insulation. Today, transport damages can often only be established after the installation of the transformer in the system as mostly breakages in the ceramics insu-

225

19 RFID and sensors

lation are not visible. The same applies to those components that are sensitive to being dropped in the automobile and machine manufacturing industry. A further potential application is in the area of load securing for trucks. The packaging is normally dimensioned for a specific nominal load and acceleration according to specifications. If emergency braking takes place, it is possible that these specified values are exceeded and consequently the packaging and contents are damaged. In case of damages, it is important for the person responsible for packaging to be able to prove that the permissible acceleration values were exceeded in order to clarify the question of liability.

226

20 RFID security

Dr. Stephan Lechner

The widespread use of RFID has also resulted in radio labels advancing to security-relevant areas of application in the meantime. Not only is the new technology used by libraries and supermarkets, it is also used as access control for buildings, for identifying livestock, for container tracking, as well as in many other areas and has established itself against the barcode and other methods. These applications raise security questions that can be split into two categories: data protection and information security. Whereas personal data and the question of tracking and profile formation by the unauthorized capturing of RFID transponders are predominant in the area of data protection, information security deals with comprehensive protection against manipulation and unauthorized access to saved or transmitted data.

20.1 Data protection Data protection reservations against the use of RFID are basically against unnoticed and unwanted capturing of the transponders. Due to its technical functioning principle, a passive RFID transponder starts working as soon as its antenna induces the required operating power. Activation that takes place in this manner may happen unnoticed as opposed to the comparatively conspicuous readout of a barcode as no direct visual contact must exist between antenna and transponder. In this way, data can be collected that provides information regarding the owner’s personal matters and is, therefore, subject to the pertinent data protection regulations. However, basically we must observe that the function principle and areas of application for RFID include an uncomplicated readout as a key performance feature and that without this property the use of RFID would often neither make sense nor be economical. The demand to provide a control option by the user is, therefore, difficult to realize. In particular the collection of data from several RFID transpon227

20 RFID security

ders to prepare a personal profile is significant for a further analysis of the problems.

20.1.1 Personal profiles A readout of RFIDs at the point of sales always includes the option of profile formation: for example, the combination of goods in a shopping cart could be analyzed at a supermarket checkout, in which this can also provide information referring to the purchaser’s personal matters. The customer could be identified via a customer card or an RFID-based identity card. The information saved in the transponder can also be read out after payment and this could contribute to profiling and identifying the respective owner. However, these observations are basically also valid for barcodebased scanner cash registers and electronic means of payment. If the customer or discount cards are used, the user even explicitly agrees to this connection. Nonetheless, this difficulty has made voices grow louder and louder in the past, calling for the deactivation or destruction of RFID transponders after selling the respective goods. Technical methods for implementing such measures within the scope of predetermined mechanic or electronic deactivation are definitely available. However, market introduction has not yet taken place. The data protection debate on RFID has only been able to slow down the triumph of the technology but unable to stop it. The further development of the RFID market will nonetheless be determined to a large extent by the way the much discussed security problems are addressed.

20.1.2 External attacks Unauthorized reading of RFID transponders has repeatedly been evaluated critically by the press and technical publications. For instance, it is being discussed to what extent RFID could be abused in passport control in order to positively identify a potential assault victim and then to attack it. However, the German passport with RFID was conceptualized in such a way that the document must be opened before reading the RFID is possible. (Fig. 20.1). On the other hand, a diversity of organizational measures ensures that manipulation can be excluded to a large extent. This has significantly improved the security of this RFID application.

228

20.1 Data protection

Chip in the passport cover

Symbol for an electronic passport book

Fig. 20.1 A security-critical application: The electronic passport with an RFID chip (Photo: German Federal Ministry of Internal Affairs)

Regarding technology, different standards and radio frequencies have been defined for RFID, which, among others, have an influence on reading distance. Both the limitation of the reading distance through targeted interference (“Denial of service” attack) and the increasing of reading distances for unauthorized reading are of importance from a security point of view. The capabilities of an RFID transponder cannot be significantly influenced by read attempts with manipulated readers with increased power or sensitivity. Consequently, the use of a sensitive reader does not automatically achieve longer communication distances. Even for a very sensitive receiver of the reader, it must be considered that the information sent by the RFID quickly becomes unusable due to interference. The German Federal Office for IT Security launched a study in 2006 [2] to investigate at what distances RFIDs could be read under laboratory conditions, and arrived at surprising results. Reading distances of up to two meters (for HF transponders) could easily be achieved with minor signal quality constraints that led to the speculation that longer distances could be reached in the future. When taking a closer look, however, it must be stated that boundary conditions for such measurements also play an important role. In the test, the antennas of readers and RFID were exactly aligned, which would be very difficult to achieve under real conditions. Mutual misalignment leads to severe deterioration of the results. 229

20 RFID security

20.2 Information security Not only undetected reading is a problem when using RFIDs, but also possible manipulation of stored data. Therefore, some RFIDs are already furnished with additional characteristics for the application in security environments.

20.2.1 Protection of saved data The data that is saved on an RFID is protected against direct access by a number of security systems. Besides for storing the data in the protected EPROM or EEPROM areas (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) of the chip, the data can also be deleted in case of unauthorized physical manipulation. To bypass such protection measures requires a lot of effort, good knowledge of electronics and semiconductor manufacturing, as well as elaborate measuring equipment and analyzing tools. Hardware-based protection measures will, therefore, not be dealt with any further here. Further information on the topic can for instance be found in the relevant report of the German Federal Office for IT Security [3]. Besides for physical protection of data against unauthorized capturing, there is the possibility of data encryption in order to limit unauthorized access. In case of encrypted data, no conclusions can be made regarding its contents, even if an attacker managed to access the data. Since the principles of cryptography apply to both saved data and data transmission, the relevant technologies will be briefly addressed in the following section.

20.2.2 Protection of data transmission For special security environments there is the option for the encryption of data during radio transmission, whereby only authorized readers can retrieve the contents of transponders. A differentiation must be made between a purely mathematical-cryptographic encryption and “masking” or “scrambling” of data, which in comparison with strong encryption do not offer sufficient protection against a targeted attack. Data scrambling is nothing more than a rearrangement of the data and can normally be reversed without much effort by means of mathematical software packages.

230

20.3 Classic protection measures

20.3 Classic protection measures 20.3.1 Symmetrical encryption Effective securing of stored or transmitted data is possible by means of symmetric cryptographic encryption. The central element of this encryption is a secret key, which is shared between the sender and the recipient as a mutual secret. Typically, this key corresponds to a bit sequence, which serves as an input to a mathematical encryption procedure. Since the sender and recipient of a message use the same key, it is called symmetric cryptography. RFID systems with symmetrical encryption procedures are available on the market for security-critical applications. The following must be taken into consideration: The secret key, which is only known to the sender (RFID) and the recipient (reader), must be protected against unauthorized access. If the secret key were to be compromised (i.e. disclosed), an attacker could pretend to be an authorized user. Depending on the applied cryptographic procedure and the required level of security, key lengths of 128 to 2,048 bits are regarded to be sufficient. The length of the cryptographic key must be sufficient to protect the system against computer-supported testing of all the possible keys (brute force attack). The basic principle is that longer cryptographic keys offer significantly higher security. Since mathematic and cryptographic methods are being developed over time by scientific specialists, it is advisable to choose a longer rather than shorter key in case of doubt. Not only the key, but also the stability of the employed algorithm (i.e. of the cryptographic procedure) is of vital importance for the security of encrypted data. Cryptographic procedures can be publicly known in detail without the security of the system being at risk, because the security is based entirely on the secrecy of the key in case of stable algorithms. Only if a procedure has been cracked by so-called cryptoanalysis, it should no longer be used. For instance, the Data Encryption Standard (DES), which was developed in 1977 by IBM, is regarded as unsecured, but still used in many systems in its secure triple version 3DES (“Triple-DES”). The successor algorithm AES, “Advanced Encryption Standard”, which emerged as the winner in October 2000 in a competition of the technology association and is based on the Rijdael procedure, is the essential, generally acknowledged procedure for symmetrical encryption.

231

20 RFID security

Many products do, however, contain proprietary procedures, which are not disclosed due to security reasons. This principle of “security by obscurity” is often rated as less than reliable because the stability of the cryptographic procedure must be rated higher if the technology association does not succeed in cracking the procedure, even after a long time. In military environments, on the other hand, nearly only secret algorithms are used. Despite this, it can be assumed that the construction of such “new” procedures is quite often achieved by means of focused variations of known and published algorithms, in order to utilize an acknowledged stable mathematical construction. A basic new construction of cryptographic procedures without the involvement of the cryptographic expert community requires very extensive mathematical knowledge and years of practical experience, but always contains a high risk of undiscovered weak points.

20.3.2 Problems in the use of symmetrical encryption Security-critical application fields of RFIDs have for years been addressed by special solutions and products based on symmetrical encryption. The secret key is saved in the secure storage area of the RFID. Applied algorithms are parameterized in such a way that a special reader is required to recognize the encrypted communication of the RFID. Saving the secret key in the reader has the disadvantage that in this case the device must know the keys of all the RFID transponders with which it will have contact during the course of its activity. Since the secret keys of the RFID transponders represent sensitive data, the reader must additionally be protected against unauthorized access – especially against physical dismantling – with a lot of effort. Therefore, readers are often furnished with an online data link to a central database, where the secret keys of the RFID transponders are saved. The verification of a transponder can now be accomplished via secure transmission procedures, supported by a database, without the reader getting into contact with sensitive data. The necessity of physical protection no longer exists in this constellation. However, this advantage is diminished by the requirement of an online link.

232

20.4 Protection against complex threats

20.4 Protection against complex threats While IT security is normally characterized by the three terms confidentiality, integrity, and availability, its application towards RFID scenarios is quite complex. The confidentiality of data can be compromised by unauthorized access during saving on the RFID tag or in the reader or on the transmission route, where encryption procedures are normally employed as a counter measure. The integrity (intactness) is threatened by undetected manipulation of the data on the RFID tag, on the radio route or in the reader, where digital signatures or encryption mechanisms and authentication and access control are employed as a counter measure. The availability of data can be threatened by a multitude of attacks, for instance the physical manipulation of RFID antennas, interference signals by radio transmitters, deliberately created requests to the readers or by interruption of the online link of readers. In case of artificially created overload, the regular service is no longer provided, causing corresponding attacks on the availability to be summarized under the term of “Denial of Service” attack. Before security measures for complex systems are decided upon, it is therefore necessary to carry out a comprehensive threats analysis, followed by the risk analysis of the RFID application area concerned. In its simplest case it may result that no security measures are required, because existing risks are low and would not justify the cost of additional protection measures. Without claiming to be exhaustive the following section is intended to provide a short representation of a real threat scenario for RFID systems.

20.4.1 Creation of RFID clones The identity of a RFID transponder is determined by the data saved on the transponder, which contain a world-wide unambiguous representation of, among others, the manufacturer, item number, and serial number, based on the globally standardized structure of the EPC (electronic product code). In many application fields it is not required to protect these data, resulting in the communicated data being readable as plain text on the transmission route. This does, however, also mean that unauthorized eavesdropping on data by third parties is possible (even if it is only possible at short distances during the read 233

20 RFID security

process) and especially that data can actively be retrieved by third parties (with an own reader). After successful eavesdropping or retrieving of the identity data of a RFID transponder, these data can be saved in the attacker’s reader and can later be transferred to another RFID, by which a clone (duplicate) of the original transponder is created in the logical sense. As soon as the data has been disclosed, an arbitrary number of clones can be created at any point in time. In some application fields this is not critical: The technical effort of cloning is not justifiable for the attacker if only the label of a can on the shelf of a Supermarket can be duplicated. However, in other cases the effort could be worthwhile: Drugs of which the genuineness is proven by RFID, expensive clothing that is protected against product piracy by RFID, or simply company access cards or access cards to official buildings, pose a high risk of abuse. The best protection against cloning of RFID chips is offered by encryption procedures that prevent attackers from eavesdropping on the transmission route. This requires readers and transponders to be capable of handling the special encryption technologies. The oftenpraised protection by a check of the serial number (UID) of an RFID transponder, however, is questionable. In the meantime, imitations are being produced so professionally in product piracy that existing and legitimate product codes get into circulation by means of the abovementioned cloning processes. They can often not be identified as initiations by means of cross-checking against a manufacturer database.

20.4.2 Protection measures by means of certificate-based solutions In security-related environments, similar demands are made on RFID systems as on ISO chip cards (so-called Smart Cards), which have been widely established as identification method. The RFIDs, which feature lower in storage and processor performance, have the advantage of flexibility, lower space requirement, and significantly lower cost, which qualifies them for some application fields that remain inaccessible for chip cards. High security requirements result in the field identification of documents and individual objects (item tagging) as well as in the field of identification cards and passports. Such requirements can be solved by means of certificate-based procedures (Public Key Infrastructure, PKI) for ISO chip cards, which are based on asymmetrical cryptographic procedures. 234

20.4 Protection against complex threats

20.4.3 Asymmetric cryptography and PKI Contrary to symmetric cryptography, where the sender and recipient of messages must use the same key, asymmetric cryptography has also established itself in products since the 1980s, whereby each of the participants disposes of two different keys, which operate mutually inverse. The RSA procedure is one of the most well known algorithms of this type, with a decided advantage above the symmetrical procedures: The private key of every participant is supplemented by an associated public key, which is not security-critical and through which no conclusions about the private key can be made. Therefore, the procedure is very elegant: Before sending a message, the sender encrypts the data with the public key of the recipient in such a way that only the recipient can decrypt the message with his associated private key. The principle can, however, also be employed reciprocally, whereby the sender (additionally) encrypts the message with his own private key, thereby proving that only they can be the originator of the message. This origin is verified by the recipient via the freely accessible public key of the sender. This proof of authenticity is referred to as a digital signature. In order to protect public keys against forgery, they are again digitally countersigned by higher level authorities (Certification Authorities, CAs). However, the public keys of CAs must also be protected, which subsequently leads to a tree-like hierarchical CA structure, at the root of which the so-called root-CA is situated, whose public keys must be protected by physical measures e.g. transmission by trusted messengers to lower level CAs). The structure of CAs, associated RAs (Registration Authorities), and public and private keys is referred to as Public Key Infrastructure (PKI). Digitally signed data of a special format – similar to manually signed documents – are also referred to as certificates. The internationally acknowledged X.509 certificate standard contains fields for validity dates and the issuer of the certificate, besides of the identity of the signatory. In order to control the time – wise but compromised validity of certificates in a PKI (e.g. after the discharge of a user), a recall mechanism is normally used via Certificate Revocation Lists (CRL).

20.4.4 RFID and PKI The rather complex structure of a PKI based on chip cards is quite common and provides a high degree of security, combined with the 235

20 RFID security

elegant option of reviewing certificates everywhere and at any time. In contrast to symmetrical encryption procedures, a reading device that only uses public keys requires neither online connection to the central database nor any particular protection against manipulation. Unfortunately, the passive RFID transponders currently available on the market have neither sufficient computer power nor memory capacity for the implementation of a standardized PKI. However, the first results are available from industrial research that successfully simulated asymmetric cryptography on passive RFIDs beyond the X.509 standards, whereby the design of mathematical-cryptographic security is no weaker than the standard, but global compatibility on the use of the classic X.509 certificate currently remains reserved for the chip cards and the PC based solutions. However, the future allows us to expect that the PKI procedures and certificates currently known in browsers and chip cards also permit the standardized transfer to RFIDs.

20.5 Security in RFID standardization In contrast to the standardization of RFID communication, the standardization of RFID security has not proceeded far in 2008. Various working groups in ISO or EPCglobal (compare Chapter 6), which supports the electronic RFID product code EPC, have only just started to address the security issue. Proprietary solutions are currently dominating the market, predominantly determined by RFID systems, which work based on standardized communication protocols without any noteworthy security characteristics. Especially the globally standardized ability to communicate, which is a decisive factor for the rapid spread of RFID, also represents a security risk: unprotected RFID communication can easily be intercepted and unprotected RFID transponders and be recorded and read from any reading device working within the specified parameters. From today’s point of view, it is very questionable whether the security aspects will become a default feature for RFID solutions. On the one hand, the principle of integrated security has predominantly asserted itself on the information and communication market, on the other hand there are still many legacy information technologies still existing today, whose security concepts do not comply with today’s state236

20.5 Security in RFID standardization

of-the-art. Similar is expected for RFID trends. Ever more efficient platforms will enable more complex security measures. However, the decision on how much security is required by RFID is finally made by the market. Considering the slow progress of standardization, the high cost pressure for semiconductor manufacturers and a multitude of application areas with little or very little security requirements, area-wide facilitation of RFID applications with compatible security characteristics cannot be expected even after completion of the relevant standardization work. The long, successful history of the barcode, which in comparison to RFID hardly contains opportunities for a secure concept, also supports this assessment. Due to its cost advantages and due to the more flexible physical design, RFID could develop into serious competition for chip cards and the resulting PKI in special security environments, even if the previous results on the application of PKI on RFIDs exist only in the research field and are not yet available on the market as a product. References [1] e.g. Germany's Bundesdatenschutzgesetz, http://www.gesetze-im-inter net.de/bdsg_1990 [2] Thomas Finke, Harald Kelter: Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI); Radio Frequency Identification – Abhörmöglichkeiten der Kommunikation zwischen Lesegerät und Transponder am Beispiel eines ISO14443-Systems, http://www.bsi.de/fachthem/rfid/Abh_RFID.pdf [3] See Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik, Risiken und Chancen des Einsatzes von RFID-Systemen, SecuMedia Verlagsgesellschaft

237

21 Epilogue: En route to the “internet of things”

Dr. Stefan Key

Logistics – a central component of the supply chain Logistics actually has a simple task: commodity transport from A to B with the optimum use of all the required resources. This often requires a sophisticated concept, for example when books have to be delivered within 24 hours. The coordination of the most varied commodity flows, the picking of new dispatches, or interim storage are all logistics components. The important objectives of logistics entail the timely arrival at the customer and the optimum, cost-efficient coordination of all processes with minimum expenditure (according to the Just-in-Time principle). This prevents, e.g. highly sensitive goods such as drugs or technical devices from being exposed to unnecessary transport routes. Environmental protection also plays an increasing role. Even if logistics in the supply chain is only visible at the end, during the dispatch of the produced goods to the customer, it would be wrong to believe that respective considerations on logistics only need to be made at this point in time. Real Supply Chain Management means the coordination of all the value-added steps with the required logistics. Siemens already started this many years ago with its own processes, in which the supply is observed in reverse. This changes logistics from a Push to a Pull system. An excellent example for this Push concept is the Siemens plant for medicinal computer tomographs in Forchheim. Here, the suppliers can monitor their own parts stock and replenish them promptly as required. However, if logistical aspects are ignored, this would cause significant difficulties. Optimized logistics should, therefore, already be included at the start of a new product family or during the development of a new market segment in order to create an optimized total process. For Siemens’ new Open Mail Handling System (OMS) – a real postal factory for sortation of flats, magazines and catalogues – logistics re238

21 Epilogue: En route to the “internet of things”

quirements were taken into account already at the time of system design. This system is so complex that it can no longer be built at our plants and subsequently be delivered to the customers in the usual manner. Therefore new logistics concepts had to be developed early on. An efficient logistics could otherwise only be realized with enormous costs and high costs. The companies – shipping services and manufacturers – are very well aware of the decisive role played by logistics. Globalization gives rise to ever more receiving and delivery networks. However, there is still large potential for logistics optimization. The use of information technology is the most important lever. The whole logistics chain together with it’s data can be integrated by a common IT backbone: Suppliers, services and customers will be integrated. This IT integration serves to prevent errors that would otherwise lead to considerable costs and a lack of quality. At the same time, logistics processes are subjected to considerable dynamics. Destinations change as do supplier and supply routes. Alternatively, delivery difficulties and stops occur for the most varied reasons. Here, IT systems can also help to manage the changes. Meanwhile, globalization with global procurement, highly transparent sales channels in the Internet and the increased consumer demands for individual products make it nearly impossible to statically describe the optimum route or the optimum network. For example, the PCs required for our systems may be supplied by IBM the one day or by HP on another day – depending on the range, availability, and requirements. Proceeding globalization thus leads to better quality at constant prices or the same quality at lower prices. Globalization also contributes to further progress in the productivity of the economy. A further shift is caused by the Internet platform. Let us revert to the example of books: books used to be sent from the wholesaler to the dealers and predominantly collected by the end customer themselves

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 21.1 Changes in logistical networks

239

21 Epilogue: En route to the “internet of things”

(Fig. 21.1a). Today, online portals such as Amazon.com have to send individual books to the customer, which signified a considerable increase in the number of shipments (Fig. 21.1b). The development of these online dealers to sales platforms has even resulted in random networks, because anyone can buy and sell (Fig. 21.1c). Now, Amazon.com is merely the center of a virtual network, functioning as sales opportunity, sales room, and payment system. The data model architecture as a critical system parameter These business models require a highly developed IT infrastructure. The intelligence contained in the IT systems is the key to command the resulting dynamics and variety. With regard to the control of logistics processes, the performance capability of the architecture, however, is significantly determined by the selected data model: must the logistics objects only be identified and all relevant data be maintained in a database (centralized data storage) or must they be stored on the dispatch objects themselves with suitable Auto ID technologies (decentralized data storage)? The advantage of decentralized data storage directly on the logistics objects is that real-time networks are no longer required. Let us look at an assignment system for letter post: here the barcode not only contains a reference that has to be initiated via a database but also the complete recipient address. The destination has to be determined within just five seconds during sorting. If the network is overloaded, something that can never be excluded from the Internet, the letters then get diverted into the reject container for subsequent manual processing – the sorter goes into a standstill within minutes and the entire postal process is confused. Purely central approaches are also not only dangerous for reasons of possible failures but also due to increasing commodity flows. A complexity problem arises. On the other hand, centralized architectures enable last second changes. Detailed information on the current network structure and its performance is also available. This forms an optimization basis. Logistics systems are extraordinarily expensive ventures and required continuous optimization, something that is far easier with local structures. Apart from the suitable IT architecture, modern logistics relies on Auto ID technologies in order to identify logistical units – letters, packages, pallets, and containers. Logistics requires eyes and ears, that is, sensors such as barcode readers or RFID systems as a basis for 240

21 Epilogue: En route to the “internet of things”

automated control. For example, barcodes are used to provide the shipment with information such as the destination or customer information (e.g. in direct marketing with Customer Response coding). The 2D code here is obviously superior to the classic barcode because information density is considerably higher. 2D can also be used to store security relevant information on the shipment, e.g. for postage invoicing purposes. Therefore, our integrated concept initially works decentralized with information available in printed codes. However, should the (extensive) barcode not be available or only partially readable, enabling identification only, then the centralized system takes over. This central component is normally a monitoring system performing the required optimization. RFID provides an extraordinarily important addition to this architecture. The most important advantages of RFID compared to barcodes are transponder writability and groupability. If a barcode needs to be updated, this can only be done by printing on a further barcode, whereas an RFID transponder is simply reprogrammed. This is important because logistics always entails many changes (e.g. in the destination or routing). If the barcode of a shipment contains wrong information (or has changed in the meantime), the barcode becomes obsolete. Therefore, subsequent changes to the data stored on the RFID chip are of the greatest significance. The groupability enables the use of RFID to record a box with 100 dispatches in a single working step – if barcodes were used, this would have required the individual scanning of every single letter or package. Economical application of RFID However, the introduction of RFID is still hindered by three limitations currently. On the one hand, this is the read rate, which is a purely technical problem that will be dealt with satisfactorily in the coming years. Moreover, it is a fact: also a barcode cannot always be read 100 %, for example if it is soiled. The second problem is the transponder price. Once RFID transponders really become printable (polymer transponders, cf. Chapter 18) and the costs are only in the cent range, RFID will fully replace the barcode. Today, there are already application areas where it is worthwhile using RFID – this book reports on a small selection of such success stories. At the same time, the economical use for letters is not possible yet. The price war in this area between the postal services providers is too fiercely fought – one or two

241

21 Epilogue: En route to the “internet of things”

cents cost advantage per consignment is significant. Finally yet importantly, a further problem is posed by the international standardization of both the frequencies and the data model. A specific data model is required practically for each domain, which is similar to today’s barcode development that is developed to be differentiated. The standardization of the IT interfaces, especially in the middleware area, goes hand in hand with this. There are two approaches to improve profitability: the first option is to re-use the transponders. Today, for example we are working on the use of RFID for baggage handling, where each case is equipped with an RFID label (Chapter 15). This label is torn off upon arrival and destroyed. It would actually be far cleverer to use the transponder for the next flight, for example by integrating it into a case. The second approach is to use the RFID transponder for additional process steps such as saving security-relevant information, for example. Thus, the second screening could be saved as the contents of the case are already known. RFID integrated as a fixture in cases to improve flight security could become an amazing application. Further business cases are for the taking everywhere where the costs for RFID and also the readout costs are a small proportion of the value of the product. If, for example, a baggage or letter sorting system costs hundreds of thousands anyway, it is really without problems to plan RFID at an appropriate location right from the start. This is definitively also applicable to the distribution industry. Moreover, when ensuring product security, there are application scenarios: complete monitoring may reduce losses in logistics, for example for luxury articles such as watches. New marketing options such as intelligent cross-selling are possible in business. Service processes also profit from RFID: if products are returned today, an employee must key in long serial numbers with corresponding error risks. If you have ever stood in the claims line in an electronics shop, you know very well how long it can take to identify and allocate a product unequivocally. Finally yet importantly, RFID provides the opportunity to optimize all the service provision processes associated with a highvalue product. However, in reality we must determine that the implementation of RFID is running slower than was expected by many market observers. The problem is: the use of RFID requires ample investment in the required, area-wide infrastructure. It is not a technology that can be gradually realized systematically. At Deutsche Post, for example, all 83 letter sorting centers would have to be equipped, each letter sort242

21 Epilogue: En route to the “internet of things”

ing center perhaps with 20 delivery gates. On the other hand, in particular the logistics service providers have already achieved a high degree of automation: the expensive existing systems would have to be re-equipped at high costs. For RFID, this means that a successful introduction on a large scale is only to be expected with the next automation level. If new machines are purchased, it is no problem to switch to RFID. These investments, which have already been made, are the only reason why hybrid solutions are talked about at all. It is a fact that the barcode and RFID will co-exist during a transitional period of ten years.

En route to “internet of things” However, RFID also allows for completely new approaches possible. The concept of “internet of things” is an outstanding example of cooperation between Siemens, Professor Michael ten Hompel, and the Fraunhofer Institute for Materials Flow and Logistics (IML). The reason for our involvement: in order to develop a logistical system such as a baggage transport system for a large airport, considerable expenses are incurred due to the enormous complexity. This enormous complexity can only be mastered by a decentralized system. Moreover, central systems are more prone to disturbances. Why does the Internet work so well? Because it is decentralized. Why is it decentralized? Because it was originally a military system and, therefore, was not allowed to be vulnerable. However, the vulnerability for optimization, cost, and quality reasons has considerable significance. “Internet of things” always follows this remote approach. The individual object (item) in the “internet of things” knows where it must go on its own accord. Furthermore, it can communicate the route it must take locally. Just as for E-mails if the route is not pre-planned and is developed from server to server. Let us take a baggage handling system at a large airport as an example (Fig. 21.2). If there is central architecture, the central computer will always know where every case is and determine the route for every branch. For this purpose, considerable data quantities must be pumped through the system on high-performance network cables. If a switch is disturbed or a case jammed, a diversion must be switched and this may well be five switches further back as the station directly before the disturbance has no chance at all to reach the correct destination. Such disturbances are dealt with automatically in “internet of things”. The advantage: it is all possible at considerably less expense, both on the software side and the hardware side to achieve the same 243

21 Epilogue: En route to the “internet of things”

Fig. 21.2 “Internet of things” could already soon optimize the processes at the airports (Photo: Werner Hennies/FMG)

effect as with the current architecture. The first simulations carried out by our experts using data from a real airport proved the feasibility of the concept in principle. “Internet of things” is thus no longer a utopian dream but rather a realistic alternative draft to today’s large central systems. However, “internet of things” must still prove how such a decentralized system is able to realize the necessary control and quality assurance mechanisms. A superordinated level will also remain necessary, even if it may well enjoy a considerably leaner form. This central component no longer works in real-time. However, it can measure the service quality continuously and calculate the appropriate optimization from this data. In ten years, there will definitely be sectors that use RFID comprehensively even if not all branches of industry will be ready. The global logistics network will become more flexible as a consequence and enjoy the considerable advantage: the customer is provided with the same quality at a higher speed and at substantially lower costs. The use of resources for a defined service quality will also drop, making an important contribution to the protection of global resources and the climate. RFID will create a unified language in the world of logistics, independent of the source or target of a consignment. 244

Bibliography

Ralph Brugger: Der IT Business Case. Springer 2005 Hans-Joerg Bullinger, Michael ten Hompel (Eds.): Internet der Dinge. Springer 2007 Jari-Pascal Curty, Michel Declerq, Catherine Dehollain, Norbert Joehl: Design and Optimization of Passive UHF RFID Systems. Springer 2007 Klaus Finkenzeller: Rfid Handbook. Fundamentals and Applications in Contactless Smart Cards and Identification. Wiley, 2nd Edition 2003 Werner Franke, Wilhelm Dangelmaier: RFID-Leitfaden für die Logistik – Anwendungsgebiete, Einsatzmöglichkeiten, Integration, Praxisbeispiele. Gabler 2006. Frank Gillert, Wolf-Ruediger Hansen: RFID for the Optimization of Business Processes. Wiley 2008 Milan Kratochvil, Charles Carson: Growing Modular – Mass Customization of Complex Products, Services and Software. Springer 2005 Bernhard Lenk: Data Matrix ECC 200, Monika Lenk Fachbuchverlag 2007 Michael ten Hompel, Hubert Buechter, Ulrich Franzke: Identifikationssysteme und Automatisierung. Springer 2008 Günther Pawellek: Produktionslogistik – Planung-Steuerung-Controlling. Hanser 2007. Dylan Persaud: Are you tuned into RFID? – A how-to guide for RFID Implementations. TEC Technology Evaluation Centers Charles Poirier, Duncan McCollum: RFID Strategic Implementation and ROI – A Practical Roadmap to Success. J. Ross Publishing 2006 Herbert Ruile: Gläserne Prozesse – RFID-Einsatz in betrieblichen Abläufen. In: RFID Practice Reports 2007/2008. TradePressAgency 2007 S. Sarma, S. Weis and D. Engels: RFID Systems and Security and Privacy Implications. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Security in Pervasive Computing, Boppard, pages 454-469, Mar. 2003. Bruce Schneier: Schneier's Cryptography Classics Library: Applied Cryptography, Secrets and Lies, and Practical Cryptography. Wiley 2007 245

Bibliography

Martin Strassner: RFID im Supply Chain Management. Deutscher Universitätsverlag 2005 Stroh, Ringbeck, Plenge: RFID Technology: A new innovation engine for the logistics and automotive industry? Report by Booz-Allen-Hamilton and University of St. Gallen 2004 F. Thiesse: Architektur und Integration von RFID-Systemen. In: Das Internet der Dinge – Ubiquitous Computing und RFID in der Praxis. Springer 2005

246

Editor and authors

Dr. Norbert Bartneck Dr. Norbert Bartneck is the Competence Center RFID manager at Siemens AG Mobility Division. He is responsible for RFID-based logistical solutions with a main focus on postal and airport logistics. Norbert Bartneck studied Electrical Engineering at the Technical University Darmstadt and obtained his doctorate at the Institute for Communications Engineering at the Technical University Braunschweig. Volker Klaas Volker Klaas is the Competence Center Auto ID/RFID manager at Siemens AG, IT-Solutions and Services. He is a member of the RFID working circle at BITKOM and in the EPCglobal EAG. During his career, he has gained substantial experience in the management of sales, consulting, and project management areas. Volker Klaas studied Economics and Business Administration at the Bergische Universität Wuppertal. Holger Schoenherr Holger Schoenherr is the Competence Center RFID manager at Siemens AG, Industry Automation Division. He is an AIM Germany board member. During his work in various positions at Siemens, he gained a wide scope of experience in engineering and the management of large IT and automation projects. Holger Schoenherr studied Automation Technology at the Technical University Chemnitz.

247

Editor and authors

Marcus Bliesze Marcus Bliesze studied Electrical Engineering at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. Following this, he worked in the areas of research, development, and product management in the field of RealTime Locating Systems (RTLS) and RFID. His vocational ports of call include the Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Circuits, Cairos Technologies AG, and Siemens AG. Hans-Juergen Buchard Hans-Juergen Buchard studied Computer Science at the University of Paderborn. He has worked on automation tasks in the automobile and logistics industry at Siemens AG for several years. Jens Dolenek Jens Dolenek is a consultant for the automobile and supplier industry at the RFID Competence Center at the Siemens AG Industry Automation Division. His work includes the development of new types of RFID utilization concepts in this sector. Jens Dolenek studied Electrical and Automation Technology at the University of Applied Sciences Darmstadt. Kirsten Drews Kirsten Drews has worked at the Siemens AG, Industry Automation Division in Nuremberg since 1991. She is responsible for product management of the Simatic Machine vision products. Mrs Drews holds a degree in Industrial Engineering. Gerd Elbinger Following his studies of Communications Engineering at the University of Applied Sciences, Gerd Elbinger worked in the development departments of well-known companies and managed and implemented development projects in the control and automation areas. Since 1995, he has been responsible for product management for RFID systems at Siemens. Peter Hager Peter Hager is the Head of Marketing Management for Simatic sensors at Siemens AG, Industry Automation Division. After studying Communications Engineering he worked as a hardware and software 248

Editor and authors

developer at Siemens in Munich as well as managing projects for high-frequency recording systems. Dieter Horst Dieter Horst is the manager of RFID hardware development in the Factory Sensors Segment at Siemens AG, Industry Automation Division. In addition to his tasks in the area of research and development, he also works on various standardization committees at DIN and ETSI. Dieter Horst is a Communications Engineering graduate from the University of Applied Sciences Regensburg. Thomas Jell Thomas Jell is Head of Department and Senior Principal Consultant at Siemens AG, IT Solutions and Services. He also executes management consulting and projects in the areas of Mobile Business Solutions, RFID-based and Embedded Systems, Supply Chain Management, and Intelligent Label (RFID) Systems. Thomas Jell is the author of the book “Objektorientierte Programmierung in C++” and the editor of the book “Component based Software Engineering”. He is an honorary member of the ComponentWare Consortium and a founder of the LICON Logistic Consortium. Dr. Stefan Keh Dr. Stefan Keh leads the Siemens business unit Infrastructure Logistics, the world market leader in postal and parcel service automation as well as baggage and cargo handling. In his carrier Stefan Keh acquired significant experience in development and sales of automation and software solutions. He held various executive positions within Siemens and other companies. Stefan Keh holds a master degree and a PhD in physics; he got his education at the universities of Wuerzburg, Stony Brook, Hamburg, Stanford and the research institutes DESY in Hamburg and CERN in Geneva. Harald Lange Harald Lange was responsible in the Siemens AG RFID Competence Center, Industry Automation Division as an industry consultant for the pharmaceuticals, chemistry, and foodstuffs sectors and worked out and implemented RFID-based applications in these industries. Harald Lange is a graduate engineer, specialized in the field of energy conversion engineering. 249

Editor and authors

Dr. Stephan Lechner Dr. Stephan Lechner is a Doctor of Cryptology with more than 18 years’ experience in IR security. He managed central security research at Siemens AG from 2002 to 2007. He is a member of several national and European security committees and a certified information security expert (CISSP). He has been the director of the Institute for Security and Protection of Citizens of the European Commission since November 2007. Dr. Lechner studied Mathematics at Gießen University. Wolfgang Mildner Wolfgang Mildner has been the managing director of PolyIC GmbH and Co.KG, a joint venture between Siemens AG and Leonhard Kurz GmbH, since 2004. PolyIC develops technologies for printable electronics, focusing on RFID transponders. He is the chairman of the Organic Electronic Association/VDMA. Wolfgang Mildner read Informatics at the Technical University Erlangen. Heinz-Peter Peters Heinz-Peter Peters works as an industry consultant for transportation and logistics in the RFID competence center at Siemens AG Industry Automation Division, and is responsible for elaborating RFID solution concepts for airports/airlines and aerospace, logistics, and postal services. He works in several committees, for example IATA (International Air Transportation Association). Heinz-Peter Peters studied Electrical Engineering at the Lower Rhine University of Applied Sciences. Regina Schnathmann Regina Schnathmann has been working on RFID for several years at Siemens AG. She has been responsible for worldwide communication activities such as a key account manager for airport and postal automation at Siemens AG since 2006. Mrs. Schnathmann attended Business Studies at Otto-Friedrich University in Bamberg. Peter Schrammel Peter Schrammel is a systems architect for RFID solutions at Siemens AG, IT Solutions and Services in the area of program and system development. Since his studies of Computer Science at the Vienna University of Technology and the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de 250

Editor and authors

Lausanne, he has worked intensely on RFID systems. His work focuses on design and development of RFID systems and components. Michael Schuldes Michael Schuldes is a Senior Process Consultant at Siemens AG, IT Solutions and Services in Munich. He advises companies on the topic of transport and logistics as well as Supply Chain Management. Michael Schuldes has many years’ experience in designing and piloting projects for the optimization of processes using RFID technology. He studied Mechanical Engineering in Munich. Georg Schwondra Georg Schwondra is responsible for RFID solutions in the area of program and system development at Siemens AG, IT Solutions and Services. In this function, he is responsible for product development, platform development, and solution projects in the RFID sector. Georg Schwondra studied Industrial Electrical Engineering and Control Technology at the Vienna University of Technology. Peter Segeroth Peter Segeroth is a senior consultant in the Siemens AG, IT Solutions and Services Center of Competence for Auto ID/RFID. His extensive experience includes project management, process analysis, and profitability analysis for large IT projects. Peter Segeroth studied Business Administration at the University of Applied Sciences in Cologne. Markus Weinlaender Markus Weinlaender is the marketing manager of the Competence Center RFID at Siemens AG, Industry Automation Division and coordinates the marketing activities for the Group-wide RFID initiative by Siemens. He is a graduate of the Siemens Technical Academy in Erlangen in the special field of data and automation technology and studied European Business Administration at the EFH Hamburg. His book “Entwicklung paralleler Betriebssysteme” was published in 1994.

251

Index

2D code 38, 119, 190

A Acceleration 217 Activation modules 65 Active systems 35 Actual Process Analysis 96 Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) 231 AIM website 40 Air Canada 181 Airside 180 ALE 72 Alternating border 41 Ambient data 67 Ambient parameters 217 Anti-counterfeit 212 Anti-theft devices 33 Application Level Events Interface (ALE) 72 Architecture 57, 240 Arland Stockholm 181 Assembly 117 Asset management 136, 193 Asymmetric cryptography 235 AutoID Lab 18 Automation hierarchy 118 Automobile industry 167 Automotive industry 115, 132, 150 Availability 70, 233 Aztec code 40

B Backscatter 32 Baggage handling system 243

252

Baggage transport 179 BagTag 182 Barcode 38, 74, 118, 128, 189 Benefit 100 Blood preserves 205, 223 Boxes 135 Brand protection 212 Business case 94, 242 Business models 145 Business processes 57, 95

C Calculation 100 Camera unit 48 Capability 191 Capacity 28 Capital 98 Cargo Logistics 185 CCD camera 53 CE marking 82 Central architecture systems 58 Centralized architecture 240 CEPT 83 Certificate 234 Chain 217 Chemical industry 132, 151 Cincinnati international airport 180 Cold chain 205 Communication modules 27 Communication parameter 68 Confidentiality 233 Configuration 68 Consumer goods industry 158

Container management 135 Container tracking 227 Containers 135, 190 Control 227 Controller unit 48 Cost estimate 102 Cost optimization 114 Costs 94, 123 Coupling 30

D Data Encryption Standard (DES) 231 Data Matrix Code 38, 74 Data protection 227 Data-on-network 67 Data-on-tag 67 Decentralization 118 Decentralized data storage 240 Degression effect 114 Direct Part Marking (DPM) 39, 75 Distribution logistics 130 Dock and Yard Management 167, 174, 194

E EAN 38, 89 ECC200 42 Economic viability 141, 204 Edge servers 60 Edgeware 60 EDI 90, 141 Electromagnetic coupling 31 Electronic passport 229 Electronics industry 116, 131, 160 Emirates Airlines 181

Index

Encryption 230 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) 60, 78 EPCglobal 71, 89 E-Pedigree 151 ERP systems 78 Error Correcting Code (ECC) 43 Error diagnosis 69 Ethernet 27, 51 European Article Number (EAN) 38, 89 European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) 83

F FDA 153 Feasibility test 105 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 180 Field test 105 Finder border 41 Fingerprint 190 Finsa 132 Firmware 69 Fleet management 172 Flexible manufacturing stations 118 Food industry 116, 131, 224 Food stuff industry 151, 211 Ford, Henry 114 Frankfurt Airport 184 Freight 177

Heartbeat messages 68 High-frequency 36 Hong Kong international airport 181 Hybrid solutions 243

I IATA 182 Identification 25 Imaging Science Institute (ISI) 204 Individualized serial products 115 Inductive coupling 30 Industry 177, 212 Information security 227 Infrastructure 57, 123 Integration 64, 111, 239 Integrity 233 Interface 26, 29, 51, 64 International unique identification of RTIs 139 Internet of things 18, 133, 196, 243 Internet platform 239 Investments 98 Inward stock movement 129 ISI 204 ISO/IEC 18000 83 IT backbone 239 IT systems 109

J G German Federal Office for IT Security 229 Global Returnable Asset Identifier (GRAI) 140 Goods receipt 127 Groupability 28, 241 Grupo Leche Pascual 155 GS1 40, 89, 140

H Healthcare 198

Jacobi Medical Center 199 Johnson Controls 132 Just-in-sequence 128 Just-in-time 128

K Kanban 128, 130 Klinikum rechts der Isar 201 Klinikum Saarbruecken 199 KSW-VarioSens 221

L Landside 180 Laser etching 45 Lighting 47 Localization 193 Locating 25 Locating systems (RTLS) 35 Location 198 Logging 219 Logistics 126, 238 Low frequency 36

M MacoPharma 224 Made-to-order 115 Mail items 190 Mail-item 195 Maintenance 172, 183 Maintenance concept 111 Manipulation 230 Manufacturing 149 Manufacturing technologies 117 Mass customization 115 Maxdata 131 Maxwell, James Clerk 15 MedicAlert 200 Memory capacity 122 Microwaves 37 Middleware 60 Mobile data storage unit 25 Moby U 122 Moby I 124 Moby M 17 Moby R 170 Models 29 MVRC 76

N Near Field Communication (NFC) 32 Newark international airport 180

253

Index

O Object description data 66 Object identification 66 Object Naming Service (ONS) 72 Odette 139 Open Mail Handling System (OMS) 238 Operating model 165 Optimization 100 Option diversity 158 Orbit Logistics Europe 132

P Pallets 131, 135 Partner management 109 Passive systems 30 Patient files 201 Patient security 198 Patients 198 Pharmaceutical industry 152, 211, 225 Picking 131 Pilot operation 108 Polymer 196, 210 Polymer technology 241 Postal logistics 188 Pressure 217 Printed electronics 211 Printing 45 Process 74 Process data 67 Process industry 151 Process reengineering 111 Process sequence performance model 96 Process slip 118 Processing 48 Product imitations 211 Production 114 Production data 121 Production logistics 126 Production process 131 Productivity 100 Profibus 51, 65

254

Profitability 94, 242 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) 27, 76, 119, 152 Project 104 Protection measures 230 Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) 235 Public local transport 172 Push principle 130, 238

Q QoS 69 QR code 40 Quality assurance 148, 155 Quality management 155 Quality of Service (QoS) 69 Quantify 102 Quelle 131

R Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) 24, 74, 120-121, 128, 178, 190, 198, 210 Range 122 Rate 52 Reader 25 Reading distance 28 Reading rate 109 Real-Time Locating Systems (RTLS) 167 Relative humidity 217 Repair 163 Requirements 74 Returnable Transport Items (RTI) 135 Return-on-Invest (ROI) 102, 105, 204 Reusable transport trusses 131 Reusable transport unit 135 RFID 24, 74, 120-121, 128, 178, 190, 198, 210 RFID clones 233

RFID gates 169, 192 RFID reading device 25 RFID systems 34 ROI 102, 105, 204 Roll-out 110 Roll-to-roll process 213 Routing information 129 RS232 27, 51, 65 RS422 27, 65 RS485 51 RTI 135 RTLS 35, 167 RTLS-Access-Point 168

S SEAGsens 219 Security 69, 227 Semi-active systems 34 Sensors 192, 217, 221 Separation 122 Service 183 Shipping 127 Sicalis RTL 170 Siemens 123, 144, 238 Simatic RBS 182 Simatic RF Manager 65 Solution design 108 Standardization 236 Standards 82 Supply chain 238 Supply chain networks 139, 159 Supply network 212 Swissair/Sabena 181 System stability 70 Systems 30, 34-35, 181

T Target analysis 95 Target concept 97, 104 Technology 46 Temperature 217 Temperature sensor 205 Test concept 106 Theater equipment 198 Tnuva 131 Tool management 145 Toronto airport 181

Index

Tracking and tracing 148 Trade 161 Training 111 Transformation process 117 Transponder 16, 29 Transport technology 129 Trolleys 135, 180

U Ultra-high frequency 36 Uniform Code Council (UCC) 89 Unique Identification (UID) 40

Unit Load Devices (ULD) 185 USB 65 USB interface 51

W WLAN 65 Workpiece carrier 121, 135 Wuhan airport 182

V Value chain 115 Vancouver airport 181 Variety options 115 VDA 139 Vehicle control system 175 Vehicle logistics 167 Vendor Managed Inventory (VMI) 132 Version variety 114 Vibration 217

X X.509 236 XML 66

Z Zaventem Brussels 181 ZOMOFI 222 Zurich airport 181

255