On Smith's A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

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On Smith’s

A Tree Grows in Brooklyn By Sheri Karmiol

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Publisher’s Acknowledgments Editorial Project Editor: Tere Stouffer Acquisitions Editor: Greg Tubach

CliffsNotes® On Smith’s A Tree Grows in Brooklyn Published by: Wiley Publishing, Inc. 111 River Street Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774 www.wiley.com

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SWIFT CLIFF

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CliffsNotes On Smith’s A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

WRITTEN BY: Betty Smith FIRST PUBLISHED: 1943 TYPE OF WORK: autobiographical novel GENRE: coming-of-age novel SETTING FOR STORY: Williamsburg section of Brooklyn, New York MAIN CHARACTERS: Francie Nolan; Katie Nolan; Johnny Nolan; Neeley Nolan; Aunt Sissy; Aunt Evy; Mary Rommely POINT OF VIEW: third person, omniscient narrator, which allows the reader to know the inner thoughts of the characters MAJOR THEMES: the importance of education; Francie’s need for love; the American dream; the loss of innocence; the importance of imagination MOTIFS: survival; the strength of women and frailty of men; the crushing weight of poverty; Brooklyn, religion SYMBOLS: Tree of Heaven; tin can bank; library; pearl studs

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LIFE AND BACKGROUND OF THE AUTHOR

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CliffsNotes On Smith’s A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

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Elizabeth Lillian Wehner is born December 15, 1896, in the Williamsburg section of Brooklyn, New York, and christened at Holy Trinity Church. She is the daughter of John and Catherine Wehner, German immigrants, who married February 16, 1896. Her parents call her Lizzie or Littie, and her friends refer to her as Elizabeth or Beth. She begins calling herself Betty in 1938.

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Completes eighth grade at P.S. 23 in the Greenpoint neighborhood of Brooklyn in 1910 and leaves school at age 14 to work.

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Works at a succession of jobs from 1910 to 1915, including at a factory making tissue flowers and at a clipping bureau, where she reads 200 newspapers a day.

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Attends Girl’s High School, 1915 to 1917. She is editor of the school newspaper.

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Elizabeth’s mother marries Michael Keogh in 1918. Elizabeth takes her mother’s new husband’s last name, becoming Elizabeth Keogh.

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Elopes with George Smith, June 6, 1919, moving to Ann Arbor, Michigan.

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From 1927 to 1930, Elizabeth enrolls at the University of Michigan. She also takes playwriting classes and begins writing plays, including Wives-in-Law and A Day’s Work.

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In 1930, Elizabeth is awarded the Avery Hopwood Award, for her play Jonica Starrs.

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Attends Yale University Drama School from 1931 to 1934. Elizabeth has two one-act plays produced, Mannequin’s Maid and Blind Alley in 1932.

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In 1933, Elizabeth and George Smith legally separate. She falls in love with Bob Finch, a fellow playwriting student at Yale.

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In 1937, Elizabeth wins a Berkeley Playmakers award for her play So Gracious in the Time. She wins the same award in 1938 for Three Comments on a Martyr.

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Elizabeth and George divorce in 1938, and she begins calling herself Betty Smith.

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Life and Background of the Author

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In 1939, Betty receives a $1,200 Rockefeller Fellowship. In 1940, she receives a $1,000 Rockefeller & Dramatist Guild Award.

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Betty begins writing an autobiographical novel in the late 1930s, which will eventually become A Tree Grows in Brooklyn, published in 1943. Twentieth Century Fox purchases the film rights, with half the money going to the publisher, Harper & Brothers. Finch drinks to excess and is jealous of Betty’s success. Their relationship ends, and he leaves Chapel Hill.

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In 1943, Betty begins writing to Joe Jones, a columnist for the Chapel Hill Weekly. They marry on August 7, 1943.

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The film version of A Tree Grows in Brooklyn opens in 1945. By the end of 1945, Betty has earned nearly $110,000 from the sale of more than 3 million copies of the book.

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Betty’s second novel, Tomorrow Will Be Better, is published in August 1948.

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In 1951, A Tree Grows in Brooklyn opens as a musical comedy at the Alvin Theater on Broadway. Betty and Joe separate, and she is again seeing Bob Finch, although he is married to someone else.

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Betty divorces Joe after the musical’s successful opening.

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Betty and Bob Finch marry in 1957, after his wife agrees to a divorce.

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Betty’s third book, Maggie-Now, is published in 1958.

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Betty’s last novel, Joy in the Morning, is published in 1963.

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Betty Smith dies January 17, 1972, in Shelton, Connecticut, of pneumonia. She is buried in Chapel Hill at the Legion Street Cemetery, next to Bob Finch.

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A BRIEF SYNOPSIS

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A Brief Synopsis

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When the novel opens, Francie is eleven years old. It is 1912, and the Nolan family lives in an apartment in the Williamsburg section of Brooklyn. In the courtyard is a tree, called the Tree of Heaven, which always grows, regardless of whether or not it is watered. It even grows in cement, but only in the poorest neighborhoods. Book I relates the events of one Saturday in Francie’s life, as she and her brother collect scrap junk to sell for pennies. The children live with their mother, Katie, and their father, Johnny. Katie works hard as a janitor to help support the family, and Johnny is a singing waiter, who also drinks too much. The family is Catholic, and religion is an important focus in their lives. The family is poor, but they love one another and work hard to survive on very little. Book II is a flashback that tells the story of Katie and Johnny’s meeting, their courtship, and the early days of their marriage. The young family struggles to survive, and they are always short of money. Their lives are simple, their meals not elaborate, and their apartment clean but unadorned. Katie comes from a family of strong women, but Johnny is derived of weaker stock, and as the narrator makes clear, destined to die young. Book III relates to Francie’s and Neeley’s experiences in school. Francie looks forward to school but soon discovers that the teachers in her school are unkind and often cruel to the poorest children. One day, Francie discovers a school that looks nicer and more pleasing to her, and once she is enrolled, Francie discovers that the new school is everything she had hoped it would be. Francie does well in her classes, especially in her English class. The family celebrates many holidays together, and each one is marked by special traditions that the children enjoy. Christmas is an especially important holiday. The gifts are small, but the family does not expect more. One Christmas, as Francie and Neeley drag a Christmas tree up the stairs to their apartment, Katie thinks about the struggle the children have endured and becomes convinced that education will be the best way for the children to escape the poverty they are enduring. Francie learns that women can be very cruel to one another, especially when they think another woman has violated sexual customs. Francie also has a close call when a rapist-murderer tries to attack her.

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For most of her childhood, Francie overlooked her father’s drinking because she loved him so much. She still loves him, but now that she is a teenager, she understands the economic cost of her father’s drinking. Johnny’s death when she is fourteen hits Francie especially hard. Katie is pregnant with their third child when Johnny dies. The next several months are a struggle for the family, but Katie vows to keep Francie and Neeley in school so that they can graduate in June. The new baby, Annie Laurie, is born in May, and Francie and Neeley graduate from eighth grade in June. In Book IV, Francie begins working after graduation to help the family survive, since Katie cannot work as much with the new baby. Francie is quickly promoted and given large raises. When it is time to enroll in high school, Katie decides the Neeley will go to high school, while Francie will work to help support the family. Francie and Katie argue over this decision, and while Francie eventually agrees to do as her mother wishes, the argument creates a fissure in their relationship. The family is, however, economically more stable thanks to Francie’s job. Although she never gets the opportunity to go to high school, a lifetime of reading has provided its own education. As a result, Francie takes summer college classes, where she meets Ben Blake, a fellow student who helps her study. Francie also meets Lee Rhynor, a young soldier due to ship overseas in a couple of days. Francie falls in love with Lee, but he returns to his hometown and marries his fiancée. Sergeant McShane, a retired policeman who is now a successful politician, asks Katie to marry him. He will adopt baby Laurie and pay for Francie’s and Neeley’s college education. He is a kind and generous man, and while he can never take Johnny’s place for Francie, he will make Katie happy and give her and Laurie easier lives. In Book V, the family prepares to move from their old apartment the day before the wedding. Francie prepares to move to Wisconsin to attend college and walks the neighborhood, saying goodbye to all that is familiar to her. Ben has plans to attend college and law school, has given her a ring, and is willing to wait until Francie is sure that she loves him. The Tree of Heaven in the building courtyard, which symbolizes the strength and tenacity of the poor, continues to survive, just as the people survive.

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LIST OF CHARACTERS

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CliffsNotes On Smith’s A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

Major Characters Francie Nolan: Mary Francis Nolan is the central character, the protagonist, in this coming-of-age novel. Unlike most of the other children who live in her neighborhood, whose parents are recent immigrants, Francie is a second-generation American. She was named after the fiancée of her father’s dead brother, Andy, whose name was Francis. Francie knows that she is not beautiful, but she is a generous and loving child, who grows up to be a generous and loving adult. Francie is a combination of her father’s romantic nature and her mother’s more pragmatic personality. Like her father, she stands on the roof of the apartment building in which they live and dreams of the world beyond, but like her mother, Francie understands that if she wants her dreams to be real, she has to make them real through hard work. Francie is often alone and often very lonely. She escapes into reading but is very aware of the world around her. She is a careful observer of the people and events that surround her. She has an excellent memory and stores away the smallest details of what she observes in life. Francie has a rich imagination that is sometimes frightening to her, as when she imagines the loneliness of old age or a baby suddenly aging into an old man. However, her imagination also allows her to imagine a better life, as when she sees that attending a school outside her neighborhood will offer better opportunities. Although Francie grows up in terrible poverty, she never feels like she is poor. Instead, she values everything she is given. From the time she is a small child, Francie is a storyteller, making up stories to entertain herself and writing down stories in school. She believes the best of people and continues to love her father deeply, even though she understands that his drinking contributes to the family’s poverty. Francie longs for her mother’s approval and intuitively understands that her mother loves Neeley more than she loves her daughter. What Francie desires most, however, is to be needed by someone. She is a complex character, who grows and matures throughout the novel. By the end of the novel, it is clear that Francie has inherited the Rommely strength.

Katie Rommely Nolan: Katie is Francie’s mother. Like all the women in the Rommely family, Katie comes from a family of

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strong women. She is the fourth of Mary Rommely’s four daughters. When she needs to accomplish something, Katie always finds the strength to succeed. She quickly realizes after Francie’s birth that her husband, Johnny, cannot be depended on to take care of the family. When her second child is born, Katie admits that she loves her son more than her daughter. He is a big and strong baby, whereas Francie was small and frail. Katie knows that Francie is a survivor, who can manage without her mother’s strength, but Neeley, who is born strong and hasn’t had to struggle, will need his mother’s strength to overcome the hardships of life. Although she wants to treat the children equally, Katie finds it difficult to do so. Katie’s love for Neeley is so much stronger than her love for Francie that Francie knows from a young age that her mother loves Neeley more. Katie works hard to support her family, and no matter how destitute they become, her pride will not allow her to accept any charity. Katie is a proud woman, and she is a survivor. Her efforts to survive sometimes make her hard, but there is no doubt that she loves her family. She wants her children to have a better life and feels that education is the key to escaping poverty. When the family can afford to send only one child to high school, Katie chooses to send Neeley, reasoning that Francie is determined enough to continue her schooling no matter what obstacle is put in her path. Katie never questions her decisions and thinks that she is always right.

Johnny Nolan: Johnny is Francie’s father. Johnny is weak, unable to survive in the crushing poverty in which the family lives. He is a dreamer, an impractical romantic, who lacks the abilities or incentive to make his dreams come true. When faced with reality, such as the birth of his two children and the need to support them, Johnny escapes into alcohol. Johnny loves his wife and his children, but he is unable to function as the husband and father they deserve. Like his brothers, Johnny earns his living as a singing waiter. The work is inconsistent, but it allows Johnny to drink, and it provides the instant applause he desires. The tips that he earns are used to fuel his drinking. Johnny depends on his wife, Katie, to support the family, but her strength enables her husband to continue drinking. Johnny knows that his wife can always be depended upon to provide for the family when he fails to do so. Johnny is unable to

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separate the romantic song lyrics that he sings from real life. After a disastrous fishing excursion, Johnny is disappointed and confused because the fishing trip did not turn out like the songs he sings. He is not a complete failure at life, though. Johnny does understand that an education is the way for his children to escape from the family’s poverty. He also tries to provide Francie with extra love to make up for her mother’s lack of attention. Johnny is charming and handsome, but he has no depth of character. When he is fired from the waiter’s union, he dies. Johnny is a static character, who neither grows nor changes during the novel.

Neeley Nolan: Neeley (Cornelius) is Francie’s brother. He is a year younger than his sister. The two children are close and share the poverty of their childhoods without seemingly being aware of how little they have in their lives. As he grows up, Neeley begins to resemble his father physically. He even has his father’s singing voice. But Neeley is unlike his father. He has inherited his mother’s work ethic and dislikes alcohol. Neeley is obedient and loving, a good son and brother.

Aunt Sissy: Sissy Rommely is Katie’s oldest sister. Sissy is the only Rommely daughter to not attend school, and thus, she cannot read and write. Sissy is generous and loving. She longs for motherhood and gives birth to ten babies, all of whom die at birth. When she cannot be a mother, Sissy mothers Katie’s children, and as a result, they love her, especially Francie. Sissy misdirects much of her need to mother into unwise sexual encounters. She has three husbands, all of whom are called John because that is a name she loves. After her first four children die, she leaves that husband, whom she thinks is responsible for the babies’ deaths, and marries again. She does the same thing with the second husband after her children with him all die. Sissy is unconventional in many ways. She does not bother divorcing her husbands. She was not married to them in the church, and thus as a Catholic, she does not consider herself married to these men in God’s eyes. She also has many lovers, seeking always to fill her heart, which really needs a baby to be full. Sissy uses her sexuality to attract men, and this gets her into trouble, especially after she embarrasses Katie in front of the neighbors. The other side of Sissy’s sexual nature is her giving and compassionate heart, which readers learn is more important than her promiscuity. After she

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finally adopts the baby she longs to mother, Sissy becomes a loyal and loving wife. When she is finally able to give birth to a baby who lives, it is because she rebels against the tradition that only women can be present at a birth. In choosing a Jewish male doctor, Sissy breaks with traditions, just as she has all her life.

Aunt Evy: Evy Rommely is Katie’s older sister. Like Katie and Sissy, Evy is a practical woman, who is willing to work hard for her family. She is married to Willie Flittman, who is a failure at life. When Willie is injured and cannot work, Evy takes over his job. When Willie disappears one day, Evy again takes over Willie’s job and supports the family. Evy is well known for her excellent and very entertaining imitations. When she tells her sisters about Willie’s experiences with his horse, Drummer, Evy is able to imitate Willie and the horse and bring the stories to life.

Mary Rommely: Mary Rommely is Katie’s, Sissy’s, and Evy’s mother and Francie’s maternal grandmother. She and her husband immigrated to the United States from Austria. She insists that her four daughters learn to speak only English so that they will not understand their father’s abuse. He speaks only German. Mary is a strong woman, who believes that getting an education and owning a plot of land are the ways to escape poverty and succeed in their new land. Mary is deeply religious and tells Katie after Francie is born that she must teach her child about the supernatural, including ghosts and fairy tales. Mary also tells Katie that her children must read every day from the two most important books published, a Bible and something from Shakespeare. Mary also tells Katie to create a bank and begin saving money to buy land.

Minor Characters Uncle Willie Flittman: Willie is Evy’s husband. Willie feels he is a failure, since even his horse does not respect him. He never understands that his abuse of the horse is why the horse urinates on Willie. Unlike Johnny, Willie does not drink, but he is also a dreamer who longs to escape. After Willie becomes a one-man band, he disappears from his family.

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John/Steve: John is Sissy’s third (and last) husband. His real name is Steve, although readers do not learn his name until near the end of the novel. Like Sissy’s previous husbands, Steve lets Sissy do things her way, including calling him John. He eventually asserts himself, insists that he be called Steve, and demands that Sissy marry him in a church, since he knows that this is the only way she will consider their marriage real.

Sergeant Michael McShane: McShane asks Katie to marry him after the proper mourning period to honor his first wife has ended. He is a retired policeman and a successful politician. McShane is a good man and deserving of Katie’s love. He married a young unmarried pregnant girl to save her and her family shame and was a faithful husband until his wife’s death. He is wealthy enough that there is no doubt that Katie and her youngest child, Laurie, will not have to struggle to survive. He is also generous and offers to pay for Francie’s and Neeley’s college education.

Mr. McGarrity: McGarrity owns the bar where Johnny drinks. He loves Johnny, especially the way that Johnny talks to McGarrity. McGarrity is lonely; his wife and children never talk to him, but Johnny knows how to have a real conversation. McGarrity envies Johnny, who has the kind of family that McGarrity wishes he possessed. After Johnny dies, McGarrity helps Katie by giving afterschool jobs to Francie and Neeley. He knows that Katie will never accept charity, but by employing Johnny’s children, McGarrity tries to keep his connection to Johnny alive.

Ben Blake: Ben is the young man Francie meets on her first day at her summer college classes. He is ambitious and is a careful planner, and he also helps care for his mother. He has been taking summer college classes for three years and helps Francie study for her classes. After graduation from high school, Ben plans to attend college and law school. He loves Francie and is willing to give her the time she needs to learn to love him.

Lee Rhynor: Lee is a young soldier who is about to leave for Europe when Francie is introduced to him by a friend at work. At first, Lee seems to be genuinely sweet and caring. He convinces Francie that

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he loves her, and she falls in love with him. Lee tries to convince Francie to spend the night with him, but she refuses. He returns to his hometown to see his mother and, two days later, he marries his fiancée. The novel never makes clear whether he was just lonely and caught up in the romanticism of going off to war or he deliberately tried to seduce Francie to take advantage of her youth and inexperience. He breaks Francie’s heart.

Annie Laurie: Laurie is Johnny and Katie’s third child. When Johnny learns that Katie is pregnant for the third time, he is sad, because he knows that he cannot support another child. Laurie is born five months after Johnny dies. Her birth creates even more of an economic problem for the family, since Katie has less time to work. Laurie is named after a song Johnny used to sing. McShane will adopt Laurie after he and Katie marry and will give her his last name.

Miss Garnder: Miss Garnder is Francie’s eighth-grade English teacher. She believes that Francie’s writing should only be about pretty things. After her father’s death, Francie begins to write about poverty, drunkenness, and death. Miss Garnder fails Francie’s papers when they do not reflect the teacher’s own vision about what constitutes a proper topic.

Flossie Gaddis: Flossie lives downstairs from Francie. She designs elaborate costumes to wear to masquerade parties. Flossie flirts with a man named Frank, who rejects her. Eventually, though, her persistence is rewarded when Frank asks Flossie to marry him. When Francie is a child, she watches Flossie and Frank from her fire escape.

Frank: Frank is the boy who drives the dentist’s wagon, which advertises the dental office across the street from the Nolan apartment. Frank also takes care of the horse that pulls the wagon. Frank rejects Flossie’s advances, but later asks her to marry him as a way to avoid the military draft, when World War I begins.

The Tynmore sisters: The Tynmore sisters live in the same building as Francie’s family. Lizzie is a piano instructor, and Maggie

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CliffsNotes On Smith’s A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

teaches voice. They are very poor and depend on the hospitality of their students to have enough to eat.

Joanna: Joanna is a young, unmarried mother who is ostracized by the community. When she is harassed and then stoned by a group of women, Francie learns that women can be especially judgmental and cruel to one another.

Lucia: Lucia is a Sicilian girl who is unmarried and pregnant. Her father locks her in her room and gives her only bread and water. Sissy helps Lucia and adopts her baby.

Mr. Jenson: Jenson is the janitor at Francie’s new school. He is kind to the students and, in return, they love and respect him. Jenson is better educated than a janitor usually is and has real compassion and understanding for even the poorest of children who attend Francie’s school.

Doctor and Nurse: The doctor and nurse have only a brief role when they administer a vaccination that Francie and Neeley need to begin school. The doctor shows no compassion or understanding about what it means to live in poverty, and the nurse has forgotten that she grew up in the neighborhood and managed to escape the poverty of her childhood.

Maudie Donovan: Maudie is one of Francie’s childhood friends. They are not close and are friends only because they are both Catholic girls living in poverty in the same neighborhood.

Hildy O’Dair: Hildy is Katie’s best friend. She was Johnny’s girl and introduced Katie to Johnny. She is the only person to cry at Johnny’s funeral.

Thomas Rommely: Rommely is Mary’s husband. He never forgave Katie for marrying Johnny, since he thought that she should work and support her father. He is a bitter, cruel man.

Ruthie Nolan: Ruthie is Johnny’s mother. She is possessive of all her sons and did not want Johnny to marry Katie and leave his

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mother’s home. At Johnny’s funeral, she never speaks to his widow or her grandchildren.

Henny Gaddis: Henny is Flossie’s brother. He dies of consumption. Little Tilly and Gussie: Tilly and Gussie are children who live in the same neighborhood as the Nolan family. Johnny takes Tilly on the fishing trip with Francie and Neeley. Gussie is well-known in the neighborhood for refusing to be weaned from his mother’s breast milk.

Man in the Tree Lot: The man in the tree lot throws Francie and Neeley the largest Christmas tree on his lot. He has a few moments of concern before throwing the tree, but then decides that life is hard and the children might as well know that it is a tough world.

Carney: Carnie buys the scraps of junk that the children collect and gives them a few pennies for selling to him. He pinches little girls and gives them an extra penny if they do not object.

Cheap Charlie: Charlie owns the penny candy store. He cheats the children by letting them think they can win a prize if they buy a penny ticket.

Florry Wendy: Florry is a ten-year-old girl at the end of the novel who sits on her fire escape reading a book and watching Francie get ready for her date. Florry reminds Francie of herself.

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Francie’s maternal grandmother, who encourages Francie’s imagination and love of reading

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Francie’s father, an alcoholic, who loves his daughter and son, but fails to support them

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Character Map

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CHAPTER BY CHAPTER SUMMARIES AND COMMENTARIES

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CliffsNotes On Smith’s A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

Book 1: Chapters 1–6

Summary (Chapters 1–3) Chapter 1: The first chapter of A Tree Grows in Brooklyn takes place in 1912. The setting is an area of Brooklyn called Williamsburg. The area is one of poverty, filled with recent immigrant families who are impoverished. There is a tree growing in the area that survives no matter how poor the soil or water. The tree is called the Tree of Heaven by some of the residents, since the tree grows only in the neighborhoods where the poorest people live. A Tree Grows in Brooklyn is the coming-of-age story of Francie Nolan, who is eleven years old when the story begins. It is a Saturday, and Francie and her younger brother, Neeley, spend part of the morning collecting metal scraps to sell to Carney, the junk man. The children keep only half the money they earn; the other half will be placed in the tin can bank back home. As Francie walks home, she admires the neighborhood where she lives and notices the pregnant Jewish women, whom Francie thinks must have so many babies because they hope that one will be the messiah. In contrast to the Jewish women, Francie thinks that Irish women look ashamed to be pregnant. Francie’s mother, Katie, works as a janitor cleaning three buildings. The extra money that the children earned and saved is given to Katie to be placed in the tin can. Katie sends Francie to buy stale bread at the store. After she takes the bread home, Francie wants to tag along with Neeley and some other boys, but they do not want her company. She watches as they harass a couple of other boys, including a Jewish boy, and then she walks to the library. Chapter 2: Francie reads a book a day and is trying to read every book in the library. On Saturdays, Francie checks out two books and always asks the librarian to recommend the second book. The librarian hates children, always recommends the same two books, and never looks at Francie. When she arrives back home with her books, Francie sits on the fire escape and reads as she watches some of her neighbors. Francie watches Flossie Gaddis, who lives in Francie’s building, flirt with Frank, the

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handsome young man who drives the dentist’s wagon. She invites him out to a dance for Saturday evening, but he is not interested. He is never interested. Francie has watched this same exchange between Frank and Flossie many times and comments that Flossie is “starved about men,” while her Aunt Sissy is “healthily hungry about men.” Chapter 3: Francie’s father finally appears, and readers learn that he is both charming and irresponsible. Francie loves her father, in spite of his failings. As she irons an apron for him to wear that night to work, she thinks about a conversation she overheard one day when she visited the Union Headquarters. She heard two men criticize her father for spending his tips on getting drunk, instead of supporting his family. Francie, though, thinks that her father is loved by almost everyone, including the family he fails to support.

Commentary (Chapters 1–3) These first few paragraphs serve as an introduction to the Nolan family and to the neighborhood in which they live. The neighborhood is an important part of the novel. The people and shops located there serve as the backdrop for Francie’s life. Each shop and the people who inhabit the shops are described, from their physical description to how each of the people behaves. Special attention is paid to the tree that is featured in the title of the book. The tree’s actual species is not provided. Instead it is described as a Tree of Heaven because it grows only where the poor live. In fact, people know that if the tree begins to grow in a nice neighborhood, the neighborhood is destined for poverty. The book begins with a typical Saturday for the eleven-year-old girl. Her family and a few of her neighbors are briefly introduced. These descriptions are filtered through her understanding of each of these people, so readers see the neighborhood as Francie sees it. She also notes the differences in religious beliefs. Francie is Catholic, but there are many Jewish people living in the neighborhood, as well. There is a natural conflict between the two groups. Francie’s mother tells her that Jesus was a Jew, but the neighborhood boys claim that the Jews killed Jesus, which serves as justification for harassing a Jewish boy that they see. Francie also remarks on the differences between pregnant Jewish women and pregnant Irish women, and she has observed that the Christians line up to buy Jewish bread. Francie’s love of books is also an important part of the introductory chapters. She loves reading and thinks that the neighborhood’s old

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library, which is poorly maintained, is beautiful. She notices a small bowl of flowers in the library and thinks they’re beautiful as well. Francie appreciates the world in which she lives and does not see the poverty or disrepair that envelops her neighborhood. Readers are also introduced to Johnny Nolan in these opening chapters. His background is more fully developed in Book 2, but even in this short vignette, it becomes clear that he is not the ideal father that Francie thinks him to be. His is a charming man, who can still attract the ladies, especially when outfitted in his waiter’s tuxedo. It is at home, though, where Johnny’s failings are most obvious. His children are thin and hungry, and his wife scrubs the floors of three buildings to support the family, so that Johnny can continue to project that charming, manabout-town demeanor. When Johnny puts on his tuxedo shirt, he puts on a set of pearl studs that Katie gave to him as a wedding gift. No matter how destitute the family, no matter how hungry they are, the studs are never pawned. The pearl studs represent Katie’s hopes that Johnny will always be able to provide for his family’s future. Readers should also understand that a man who is loved so very deeply by his children and wife, in spite of his many faults, cannot be all bad.

Summary (Chapters 4–6) Chapter 4: Francie visits Flossie to see what kind of costume she will be wearing to Saturday evening’s masquerade party. Flossie’s brother, Henny, is dying of consumption. When Francie looks into Flossie’s closet and admires all her lovely costumes, she also imagines that she sees a skull and bones peeking out from the costumes and understands that death is waiting there for Henny. Chapter 5: Francie’s mother, Katie, has spent this Saturday afternoon at the movies with her sister, Sissy. Aunt Sissy works in a condom factory, although the actual product made there is never so clearly explained. Instead, Francie knows that this factory makes some rubber toys and other rubber articles “which were bought in whispers.” The many loaves of stale bread that Francie had earlier brought home will feed the family for the next week. Katie is described as a wiz with stale bread, easily turning the bread into delicious meals. Francie also describes visiting the Jewish pickle seller, who always seems angry with her. She always asks for a “sheeny pickle” and does not understand that she is insulting the old man. The sour pickle, which Francie eats

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slowly and makes last all afternoon, helps to make all the stale bread even more delicious. Chapter 6: Katie sends Francie and Neeley to buy the meat that the family will eat on Sunday. Francie is warned that she must watch the butcher at Werner’s cut and grind the meat, so that he does not sell her old ground meat, which might not even be beef. Francie and Neely then go to Hassler’s, to buy a bone with meat on it. The butcher gives Francie a thick slice of liverwurst, for which she is not charged, because she is so thin and in need of nourishment. After Katie and the children eat dinner, Francie meets her friend, Maudie Donovan, and the two girls walk to confession. When Francie returns home, her Aunt Evy and Uncle Willie Flittman are visiting. He plays the guitar and also tells a story about his horse, Drummer. Willie complains that he is a failure, because even the horse does not respect him. As Neeley and Francie prepare for bed, they read one page from the Bible and one page from Shakespeare. In the middle of the night, Johnny returns home from his singing waiter job at a wedding. He brings home $3, as well as a bag of leftover food. The children and Katie all sit around the table with Johnny and eat the food that he brought home.

Commentary (Chapters 4–6) The Gaddis children offer two sides of life. Henny is dying and sarcastically reminds everyone that he is dying, while Flossie is full of life and eager to embrace all opportunities. Henny’s illness is a reminder of death. Death is all around, a constant companion for the poor who live in Francie’s neighborhood. When Francie tells her mother how the old man at the bread store scared her, Katie’s response is that everyone grows old. It is part of life and is no cause for alarm. Although Francie’s neighborhood is home to Jews and Catholics, the two groups do not mix, except for business dealings. When Francie uses the word “sheeny” when speaking to the pickle seller, she does not understand that she has insulted him because she does not know anything about his world. The two groups live so separately that they are ignorant of one another’s customs and beliefs. All of Francie’s friends are like her—Catholic. In part, they are her friends due to proximity and common beliefs.

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Food holds an important place in the narrative. Francie spends a lot of time discussing the buying, preparing, and eating of food. In these first six chapters, Francie relates several trips to buy food, which she describes in great detail. She also provides thorough descriptions of her mother’s talent for serving stale bread, as well as a description of the process of buying and eating a large sour pickle. The emphasis on food makes clear how deprived the family is, especially when it comes to food. They eat meat only on Sundays, and what they do have is artfully prepared so that it stretches as far as possible. Francie is often described as thin and with a thin face. When Johnny brings home leftover food in the middle of the night, the whole family eats it immediately, even though they do not like much of what he brought home. In the last of the introductory chapters, readers meet Francie’s two aunts, Sissy and Evy, and her uncle, Willie. It is appropriate that Sissy works in a condom factory, since she is very sexual and very fond of men. She is also a loving aunt for Francie. Aunt Evy looks like Katie and is described as being funny. Uncle Willie is unhappy. His self-esteem is poor, and he disparages himself. He feels unloved by his wife and even sees the horse as a tormenter. In this sense, he is not terribly different than Johnny. Although Willie lacks Johnny’s charm, both men recognize their own failures and inability to succeed.

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Book 2: Chapters 7–14

Summary (Chapters 7–9) Chapter 7: In the first chapters of Book 2, readers learn the story of Katie’s and Johnny’s courtship and wedding. Johnny was the boyfriend of Hildy O’Dair, Katie’s best friend. One evening, Hildy arranged for Johnny to bring a date for Katie, so that the two friends could doubledate. Katie did not like her date, but she did like Johnny, and soon enough, she set out to win Johnny for herself. This chapter also provides some background information about Katie’s family. Her father, Thomas Rommely, describes himself as a devil. He hates Katie’s marriage because he expected all four of his daughters to work and pay him their earnings. He fed his children when they were young, but once they are twelve or thirteen years old, they are to work and support him. He has no plans for any of them to marry, ever. Katie’s mother, Mary, made sure that all her children were taught to speak only English, so that they could not speak to their father, who speaks only German. In this way, she protects them from their father. Mary is a devout Catholic. She has a smooth, soothing voice, which all the women in her family have inherited. Sissy, the oldest of the daughters, married for the first time when she was only fourteen years old. She called her husband John because she liked the name, although that was not his given name. She blamed him for the four babies who died, and then left him and married a second man, whom she also called John. Sissy had four more babies with the second John, but these were also born dead. Her current husband is also called John. The second Rommely daughter, Eliza, is not as pretty or vivacious as her three sisters. She was encouraged to become a nun and did so, changing her name to Sister Ursula. Because she has facial hair, Francie thinks that all nuns grow facial hair. The third daughter, Evy, married Willie. Evy lives near the border of a nicer neighborhood. She watches the people in the better neighborhood and tries to better herself and her children. She admires people who can play music and has arranged for music lessons for her oldest son and her daughter, who received lessons on the fiddle.

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Chapter 8: This chapter provides readers with the stories of the Nolan men. Ruthie and Mickey Nolan were immigrants from Ireland. Johnny was one of their four sons. The Nolan brothers are described as talented but weak, and all were dead before age thirty-five. Johnny was the only one to live long enough to marry and have children. The oldest boy, Andy, died of consumption before he could marry his fiancée, Francine Melaney. The third son, Frankie, died a year later in an accident while drunk, and three years later, the youngest son, Georgie, died. Chapter 9: This chapter returns to the story of Katie and Johnny, who spend their first year of marriage working as night janitors at a public school. They are happily in love, but when Katie discovers she is pregnant, Katie worries because she already understands that Johnny needs her to be with him to make sure he succeeds. Katie works with Johnny at the school until her labor begins. While she is in labor, Johnny becomes drunk and loses his job. They name the baby Francie. Katie’s mother, Mary, advises her daughter to begin saving money so that she can buy land. Owning land is the only way that poor people can escape poverty. Mary also tells Katie that she must read to her children and make sure they learn to read. Sissy visits and makes the first deposit in the new tin can bank and brings a used Shakespeare and a Gideon’s Bible, so that Katie can begin reading to her daughter right away.

Commentary (Chapters 7–9) These chapters are the first of several flashback chapters that fill in the background story of Francie’s family. The chapters in Book 1 take place in 1912; the chapters in Book 2 begin in 1900, twelve years earlier. Chapters 7 and 8 tell the stories of the Rommely and Nolan families. The women are all strong survivors who can withstand anything. In contrast, the men are either bullies, like Katie’s father, or weak underachievers, like the Nolan men. None of the Rommely women marry strong men. Sissy’s husbands just fade into the background when she is finished with them, and Evy and Katie both marry men with no sense of self-worth, self-respect, or backbones. Their stories also make clear that these men will not change as they grow older. They will always be weak and unsuccessful, and their wives will always have to be strong women capable of propping up their husbands.

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Mary Rommely’s story is a typical immigrant story of hope that the next generation will have better lives than their parents. Each group of immigrants came to the United States with the hope that they could create a better life for themselves and their children. These immigrants were willing to work hard and make great sacrifices to have a better life. Katie’s mother desperately wants her daughter and new grandchild to have a better life. Like many immigrants, Mary knows that education is one way to achieve success. She also believes in the American dream of owning a home, and so advises Katie to immediately begin saving money to buy land. As these chapters make clear, it will be up to the women to ensure that the family is able to survive and to give the best life possible to their children. As the next generation of Rommely women, Francie can be expected to have inherited some of the strengths of those women. At this point in the narration, it is unclear whether she has inherited any of the men’s weaknesses.

Summary (Chapters 10–12) Chapter 10: When Francie is only three months old, Katie discovers that she is pregnant again. Francie remains a sickly baby, but Katie compares her daughter to the Tree of Heaven, which survives no matter what happens; Francie will survive as well. The second child is a big, healthy boy. Neeley is as strong as Francie is weak. Katie admits that she loves Neeley more than either Johnny or Francie, although she vows that Francie will never know that there is a difference in her mother’s love for her. Chapter 11: Johnny celebrates his twenty-first birthday with three days of drinking. When Katie locks him in her bedroom, his cries and screams are so terrible that the neighbors complain. Sissy tells Katie that drinking is simply Johnny’s weakness, and everyone has something about them that must be tolerated. Therefore, Katie must learn to live with Johnny’s drinking. Chapter 12: Katie decides that the family cannot continue to live in the same area where so many people have seen Johnny drunk. Katie finds a place for the family to live on the outskirts of Williamsburg, and in exchange for janitorial work, the house will be rent free. Katie gives the ice-man a dollar to move their belongings in his wagon. After they move, Mary brings holy water to sprinkle on the new house, blessing it.

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Commentary (Chapters 10–12) By the time that Neeley is born, Katie understands that she must be the strong parent, the one who supports the family. She is aware of Johnny’s weaknesses—his drinking and his unreliability—and she instinctively takes charge. Johnny has begun to work even less, and the family is almost totally dependent on Katie for financial support. Sissy’s advice in Chapter 11 that Katie must accept Johnny as he is suggests that Johnny will not change over the course of the narrative. Readers have already learned that all the Nolan boys die before age thirty-five, and thus it is only a matter of time before Katie is totally responsible for the family’s support anyway. When the family is forced to move, readers learn just how little they own. Katie must pay a dollar to move their belongings, which the author lists carefully in a very brief paragraph. Listing all of these items makes clear that the family has nothing of worth. They have even less after Katie must part with part of the $3.80 that she has managed to save. When Mary blesses the new house, readers are again reminded of the role that religion plays in the family’s lives. Katie refused an abortion when she had the opportunity to ease the family’s burden. She also worries about her sister Sissy’s soul, fearing that her multiple marriages and promiscuity have marked her for an eternity in purgatory. Katie hopes that God recognizes Sissy’s goodness, which is far more important than the sins she commits. In times of abject poverty and extreme hardness, religion becomes a lifeline of hope for a better world. It is not enough, however, that her Catholic religion offers the promise of heaven in the future; Katie needs help in the present.

Summary (Chapters 13–14) Chapter 13: At first, Johnny helps Katie with the janitorial work in the new building, but soon he begins to slack off, leaving her to do most of the work. Like the other children who live in this area, the Nolan children spend their days on the streets. Even very young children play in the streets, which, the narrator notes, is a sign that there is sadness in this neighborhood, where children take care of themselves while their parents work at menial jobs. Chapter 14: Sissy is the source of two scandals that force the family to once again move. She borrows a tricycle that she sees and uses it to

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give Francie and Neeley rides, but the tricycle belongs to another family. Sissy is accused of stealing, and the police are called. When the policeman arrives, Sissy works her usual charm on him, and he allows her to continue to use the tricycle. On another visit, Sissy leaves a cigarette box that was in her handbag. The children open the box and discover that it is filled with “balloons” from the rubber factory where Sissy works. The children tie the balloons together and string them from their window, where they hang outside, embarrassing the family. These scandals force Katie to move her family once again. Both Katie and Evy decide that Sissy will not be allowed in their homes again. The family moves to a new apartment in Williamsburg, where they live on the top floor but have the use of the roof, which is a great benefit in the summer. Francie is six and could start school, but she will wait a year for Neeley so that they can go together. Francie’s age reminds Johnny that he has been married for seven years and has already lived in three houses. He says this will be his last move.

Commentary (Chapters 13–14) The family has had to move twice within a short period of time, due to the behavior of Johnny and Sissy, both of whom bring disgrace to the family. Katie is concerned about what people think of her family, but Johnny seems to understand that they cannot continue to run from who they are. He and Sissy both have weaknesses. Johnny’s weakness is alcohol, but in his case, there is no countering goodness that offsets this weakness. Johnny drinks because that is how he deals with life. Rather than face life, he looks for escape. Sissy’s weakness is her love of men, but she is, at heart, a good person. Her sexuality is only a part of her personality. Her love for her family and especially for her sister’s children is the greater part of who she is. Her carelessness leads them to be ashamed and embarrassed, but in both cases, she was mothering Katie’s children. Sissy’s generosity redeems her. The same cannot be said of Johnny, who is selfish and focused only on his own needs. When Johnny says that this move will be his last move, he does not say that this will be the family’s last move. The narrator notes the discrepancy, though. Johnny seems to understand that his clock is running down. Johnny spends his time on the roof of the new apartment, where he is closer to the sky and where he can dream of other things. Francie loves the roof as well, because she can see across the bridge and the world on the other side, which she dreams of seeing. In contrast,

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Katie is the pragmatic one. She is the one who pays the movers, who arranges credit at the grocery store, and who works to support the family. While Johnny dreams on the roof, Katie scrubs floors inside to pay their rent.

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Book 3: Chapters 15–26

Summary (Chapters 15–17) Chapter 15: Much of this chapter describes the family’s new apartment, which is set up like railway cars, each room leading into the next. The kitchen looks out over a courtyard, where the Tree of Heaven grows out of the cement. The previous occupants could not afford to move their piano, and Francie is quite happy when her father sits down to play a few chords. The new apartment building is near the school. Francie watches a girl clean the erasers each day and thinks that she would love to be given such an important job. One day, Francie approaches the fence as the girl is slapping the erasers together. The girl also approaches the fence, and Francie thinks she will be allowed to touch the erasers; instead, the girl spits at Francie, hitting her in the face with spittle. Chapter 16: This chapter describes the neighborhood in which Francie will grow up. There are a number of stores, including a cigar store, bakery, and paint shop. There is also a pawnshop, which is Francie’s favorite store because of the three gold balls hanging outside the shop. There is also a wonderful tea, coffee, and spice shop, with a pair of scales that Francie admires. The narrator also describes the Chinese-owned laundry where Johnny takes his shirts to be cleaned. Chapter 17: Katie is determined to learn how to play the piano. The two Tynmore sisters live on the first floor of the same building as the Nolan family: One gives piano lessons, and the other provides voice lessons. So Katie trades cleaning services to Miss Lizzie Tynmore in exchange for piano lessons.

Commentary (Chapters 15–17) The incident with the girl cleaning the erasers awakens Francie to the cruelty of other children. Her understanding of what it means to be a teacher’s pet also suggests to her that not all education is equal.

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Some children, especially those who are the teacher’s pet, will receive more. Francie will wait an extra year to start school because Katie wants Francie and Neeley to begin together, but already, Francie has learned that not everyone receives the same education. The narrator spends quite a bit of time in the first two of these chapters describing the apartment and the neighborhood stores. These details are important influences in Francie’s life. The lengthy description of how pianos are moved explains how the Nolan family, which is quite poor, becomes the possessors of a piano. The bartering of goods that Katie arranges with Lizzie Tynmore enables three members of the family to learn how to play the piano. As a result, Miss Tynmore becomes an important and constant presence in Francie’s life. The shopkeepers in the neighboring stores are people Francie sees frequently and with whom the family deals. Each of these people is seen through Francie’s eyes. For instance, she is much taken with the Chinaman who owns the laundry; in her imagination, she sees herself as a Chinaman. Because Francie is a storyteller, she is able to create stories and histories for each person, which helps to feed her imagination and ultimately influences what she will do later in life. The need to provide tea and some sort of small snack after the piano lesson is a necessity for Miss Tynmore’s survival. The 25 cents that she is paid for each lesson is not sufficient to support the two maiden sisters; the tea and crackers helps to keep them from starving. Katie’s coffee and sweet roll is a huge step up in food, since they normally receive only crackers, and so Miss Tynmore is especially appreciative of the opportunity to give lessons to the Nolan family. The small snacks that Miss Tynmore receives (readers should assume that her sister receives similar snacks after providing voice lessons) demonstrates how important it is for the poorest of citizens to help one another. Working hard is not enough to guarantee success for the poor; they need the assistance of others. The grocery store owner who provides credit each week does his part, as do the other shop owners, who offer a similar system of credit and barter. In this way, the community works together to ensure that all members of the community survive and succeed. In contrast, Johnny’s attempt to barter for voice lessons fails because he has nothing of value to give in exchange. His only talent is as a singing waiter, a talent that is of no use to Miss Tynmore.

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Summary (Chapters 18–20) Chapter 18: Neeley and Francie have been making mud pies, and they arrive at a clinic to be vaccinated against smallpox looking very dirty. The doctor, who has been forced to do community medicine in a free clinic, sees the dirt on Francie and begins disparaging the poor, whom he calls filthy and not even capable of using soap and water. Francie is deeply ashamed and hurt by the comments. When her vaccination is finished, she tells the doctor that he does not need to repeat his comments for her little brother. After the vaccination, Francie’s arm becomes infected. Katie has told the children that if they scratch the injection site that the wound will become infected and their arms might turn black and fall off. Francie lies awake at night, afraid that she is going to die. When Johnny comes home, he cleans the wound and re-bandages it, soothing Francie, whose arm is much better in the morning. Chapter 19: Although Francie had been looking forward to school, she realizes right away that she will never be the teacher’s pet. The teacher likes only the rich children, who arrive in fancy clothing. The poor children, with their threadbare clothing, are forced to sit in the back of the classroom. The bullies rule the recesses and do not allow the poor children to use the bathrooms. Likewise, the teachers will not allow the poor children to use the bathrooms except at recess. Half of the children learn to hold their urine, while the other half wet their pants. One day, Sissy arrives as school is letting out and takes Francie for a soda. Francie is deeply ashamed that she has wet her pants and knows that her mother will scold her. The next morning, Sissy goes to Francie’s teacher. Sissy threatens and intimidates the teacher, who does not believe all that Sissy says, but in the future she allows Francie to use the bathroom. Chapter 20: Many children at school have lice. Children with lice are unmercifully teased, and their parents feel great shame. When Katie learns of the lice epidemic, she scrubs Francie’s head with the harsh soap that she uses to clean the floors, and then combs kerosene through Francie’s hair. Francie smells of kerosene, which also causes the classroom at her school to smell. Katie rejects the teacher’s pleas not to use kerosene on Francie and continues the same regimen. Francie never gets lice in her hair. In the same way, Katie combats the mumps epidemic by tying

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garlic around the children’s necks. Once again the children do not get sick. The kerosene and garlic further isolate Francie, however, who still has no friends.

Commentary (Chapters 18–20) The doctor’s cruelty when Francie goes for her vaccination is one more example of how easy it is for those who have privilege to mistreat the poor. The doctor is not accustomed to treating the poor and plans on going into private practice in Boston when he completes his training. He has no connection to the poor and no interest in helping them. The nurse and the school teachers, however, are from the community. They have been poor, but teaching and nursing are two ways in which the poor can escape poverty. At that time in history, neither job required the kind of education that was required by the end of the twentieth century. Most nurses at inner-city clinics are on-the-job practical nurses, and many teachers have completed only the eighth grade. Although the women in these professions are only just a step away from the poverty of Williamsburg, they have forgotten their origins and the compassion that they should feel for those who have not escaped. The story of the vaccinations and the fear they evoke in the poor immigrant community is a reminder that everything that immigrants encounter once they arrive in the United States is new to them and is often quite frightening. They cherish their children’s health. Most came from countries and small villages with high mortality rates, where their children’s good health was not taken for granted. Now they are being asked to surrender their healthy children for a vaccination that will give them what they have fled across the ocean to escape. Vaccinations make no sense to the new immigrant population, who instinctively fear what they do not understand. The school symbolizes a larger problem for the immigrant community. The flood of immigrants into some areas of New York City has put a strain on all public and social services. Children attend neighborhood schools, but when tenements and apartment buildings are crowded with families and many children, neighborhood schools become crowded, as well. Francie’s school has three times the number of students it was designed to hold. There are few bathrooms, but they must accommodate these extra children. The poverty in the area makes poor children behave cruelly to one another. Some children become bullies, who then bully their classmates by not allowing them to use the bathrooms.

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In contrast to the cruel teachers and children Francie encounters at school, her Aunt Sissy’s reappearance in her life brings some relief for Francie. Katie has apparently not delved into Francie’s problems at school. There is a reason why Francie is wetting her pants, but Katie works hard and is undoubtedly so focused on the survival of the family that she is oblivious to the torture Francie is enduring every day. Sissy, whose mothering instincts are very good, is able to quickly assess the situation and act upon it. Sissy’s wonderful mothering is contrasted, however, with the news that she has lost yet another baby. Sissy may be injudicious in her sexual choices, but there is never any doubt what a wonderful mother she would make, if only she can be given the opportunity. Sissy serves as a good contrast to Katie. Although much of Katie’s energy goes toward supporting the family her husband fails to support, it is worth remembering that Neeley is her favorite child. Francie needs an advocate, and her Aunt Sissy is always on her side. Johnny’s rejection of Katie’s sexual advances after the vaccination signal his anger that Francie has not been given Katie’s support.

Summary (Chapters 21–23) Chapter 21: There are two teachers who visit Francie’s school each week. The music teacher, Mr. Morton, is especially talented and is wonderfully successful at introducing classical music into the children’s lives. Miss Bernstone teaches art. Both Mr. Morton and Miss Bernstone love the children, regardless of how poor they are. Their weekly visits are the one bright spot in an otherwise unhappy educational process. Chapter 22: Francie has finally learned to read. When she realizes that she recognizes words and then phrases and sentences, she is thrilled. Francie also devises a game to help her learn arithmetic. She imagines that each number is a member of her family, which allows her to visualize arithmetic and understand it better. Chapter 23: One day, Francie walks beyond her immediate neighborhood and finds herself in a neighborhood where there are no large apartments. She sees a lovely brick building, which is the school for that neighborhood. Francie is enchanted by what she sees and wants to attend this new school. When her father comes home that evening, Francie is waiting for him and asks if she can attend the smaller school. Francie and her father walk to see the new school. When they arrive at the school Johnny begins to sing and tells Francie that they must find

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a house near the school and write down the address. They need an address to give to the school so that they can prove that Francie lives in the neighborhood. When she hears about it, Katie is not in favor of this lie, but she does not stop Johnny from writing a letter arranging for Francie to transfer to the new school. Johnny explains to Francie that the lie is for the greater good, which makes it okay. Neeley expresses no interest in changing schools, so Francie enrolls at the new school by herself. She loves her new school and does not mind that she must walk 24 blocks each direction to school. In the new school, children are not beaten or mistreated. The principal and teachers are wonderful, and even the janitor is well liked, generous, and friendly.

Commentary (Chapters 21–23) Francie’s excitement at her discovery that she can read is one of the most exciting events in her life. Readers already know from the first chapters of the narrative that Francie loves books and the library and that she reads a book a day. Her ability to create human stories out of her arithmetic problems further reinforces the comment from Miss Tynmore (the piano teacher) that Francie must become a writer. At Francie’s birth, Katie’s mother had told her daughter to nurture her child’s imagination, and as a child, Francie’s love of books is coupled with a well-developed imagination. Both traits suggest a more promising future for her than the existence of hard labor that Katie must endure. As is common for the children of immigrants, they tended to fare better than their parents in many ways. Francie’s ability to advocate for her own education suggests that she grow up with advantages that her parents did not have. The new school that she enters is far superior to the old one. The parents whose children attend this school have lived in the United States for many generations. They know their rights and their children’s rights, and they know enough to demand a better education. Unlike the school near Francie’s home, the new school is not overcrowded. Francie does not have to share a desk, and the new teachers, who are not forced to deal with many more students than they can possibly handle, tend to be kinder and more generous with their time. In the old school, the only nice teachers were the two who visited once a week, but in the new school, all the teachers are caring and kind to all the children, not just the students who are rich. In the old school, Francie was the only child in her class who could claim to be an American,

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since she was the only child whose parents were born in America. In the new school, all the children are Americans. Francie is careful in choosing Johnny to support her desire to change schools. She knows instinctively that Katie would not be helpful, because if the old school is good enough for Neeley, it is good enough for Francie, too. The vaccination story in Chapter 18, which resulted in Johnny’s comforting of Francie in the middle of the night, should be remembered in considering Johnny’s value as a father. It is Johnny who helps Francie get into the new school. Johnny is not always an attentive father, but it is clear in these two instances how much he loves Francie. Since his early death was predicted in Chapter 8, readers already understand that when Johnny dies, Francie will lose the one parent who actively cares for her emotional well-being. Although Katie loves Francie, she is primarily focused on the child’s physical well-being. Katie’s emotional tie to Neeley is much stronger, and Francie suffers, even if she does not know why.

Summary (Chapters 24–26) Chapter 24: Johnny is a Democrat, so the family attends a celebration staged by the Mattie Mahoney Association, a Democratic organization, which includes a boat ride and picnic. The boat ride and picnic are designed to entice women, who will soon get the vote, and children, who will eventually be old enough to vote, into becoming Democrats. Sergeant McShane notices Katie and admires her beauty. Katie also notices him and asks about him. Chapter 25: Johnny has begun to drink even more, but on those occasions when he is sober, he tries to be a better father to his children. On one of the days that he is sober, he takes Francie and Neeley to Bushwick Avenue to show them what they can achieve from living in a Democracy. Anything is possible in the United States. Chapter 26: At Thanksgiving, all the children dress in costumes and go into the neighborhood stores to beg for treats. Because certain stores depend on the children to buy candy the rest of the year, several of the shopkeepers provide treats on this day. This Thanksgiving begging is a long-standing tradition that is over by noon. At school, one of the girls brings a small five-cent piece from home. Francie’s teacher asks the children if someone wants to take home a small donated pumpkin pie. Francie says she will take it and give it to

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a poor family. Francie eats the pie, as she had intended to do all along. The next day when the teacher asks about the pie, Francie makes up an elaborate story about the poor family to whom she gave the pie, which does not fool the teacher.

Commentary (Chapters 24–26) Johnny is a Democrat because he needs to believe in the promises of politicians, who offer hope for a better future. The more pragmatic Katie already distrusts politicians and says that when she can vote, she will vote to throw them all out of office. Katie is too much of a pragmatist to ever believe in the promises of politicians. She is practical enough, however, to take advantage of the free boat ride and picnic offered to prospective Democrats in hopes of recruiting more votes. Johnny’s comment that she will vote as he tells her was a common response by men during the suffrage movement. Francie notices that Katie smiles when Johnny tells her that she will vote as he instructs her to vote. Francie compares her mother’s smile to the Mona Lisa, whose enigmatic smile has always suggested some sort of mystery. Francie’s comment implies that Katie is keeping her own secrets from Johnny. It is further evidence that Katie will not be controlled by Johnny. When Francie loses her tickets, McShane tells her that it is rare for a girl to lose tickets. The boys more often lose tickets, which further enforces the model that Katie and Johnny present. In losing her tickets, Francie is more like her father, willing to take chances that are risky. Katie, of course, scolds Francie for not being more careful. Katie’s attraction to McShane is disturbing to Johnny and Francie. Both of them observe Katie’s interest in the sergeant and her comment that he is a good man. Johnny’s response indicates that he thinks Katie does not consider him a good man. Johnny’s efforts to educate his children about democracy and the possibilities that living in America offer are his attempt to be a good father to his children. Johnny may not be a good provider, but his efforts on behalf of his children are a reminder that he is more than just an unreliable husband. Thus far, the narrator has related several holidays, including the fourth of July, Halloween, and Election Day. In this chapter, readers learn about Thanksgiving, which involves customs that modern-day readers would recognize as more indicative of Halloween. The episode with the pie is a reminder that food is an important focus in the lives of a poor, often-hungry family. The pie is not good and Francie does

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not enjoy eating it, but she knows that her mother is proud and would not appreciate Francie bringing home a charity pie. Readers also learn that Francie has a habit of lying or exaggerating the truth. Writing provides a way for her to tell the story the way she wishes it to be, which will also help her to tell the story the way it really happened. Francie’s teacher provides a first important step toward turning Francie into a writer.

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Book 4: Chapters 27–42

Summary (Chapters 27–29) Chapter 27: One Christmas the children go to a tree lot, where at midnight, the tree lot owner will throw the leftover trees into the crowd. If the person who catches the tree can remain standing, he or she can keep the tree. Francie and Neeley are determined to catch a tree. The man throws the first tree, which is always the largest tree left on the lot. For a moment, the tree lot owner feels a twinge of guilt over throwing such a large tree to the children, but then he reasons that if he simply gives it to them, everyone will expect the same treatment. The man throws the tree, and the children do catch it. As the children are dragging the tree up the steps to their apartment, Katie’s thoughts are filled with the hope that her children will be able to escape their parent’s poverty. Katie understands that the best way for the children to escape their poverty is through education. On Christmas Day, the family exchanges gifts. Katie makes a huge fuss over Neeley’s gift, calling it the best gift she has ever received, and Francie is hurt that her mother paid little attention to the gift received from her daughter. Later, the children are able to attend a Christmas party for poor children. The organizers are giving away a doll to a little girl, whose name is Mary. Francie claims that her name is Mary, and she receives the doll. As she returns to her seat, other children call her a beggar. Francie feels guilty about the lie, but then discovers that her full name is Mary Francis Nolan. Chapter 28: Francie becomes more aware of what people think about her father’s drinking, and she realizes that her mother is not always right about everything. Francie is less able to be distracted from her hunger and the family’s poverty. Francie thinks about becoming a playwright so that she can write plays about real situations and people. Chapter 29: Johnny decides that the children should see the ocean and takes them fishing. Johnny and the children spend several hours in the boat and the children end up with sunburns. He feeds them a huge lunch, which makes them sick. Johnny was forced to buy some fish, since he did not catch any, but he buys rotten fish. When they arrive home, Katie is angry and tells Johnny that he is not fit to be a father.

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Commentary (Chapters 27–29) As Francie grows up, she becomes more aware that life can be very disappointing. She has already learned that one school did not live up to her expectations, but now she has further evidence that the world can be a cruel place. Catching the Christmas tree was not as easy as she had expected, and her mother’s disproportionate love of Neeley’s Christmas gift is further evidence that life is not fair. Although she is able to claim the doll at the Christmas party, she also understands that this was another effort to provide charity to the poor. Francie realizes that the people who created the charity event and who provided the doll to be given away are helping poor children only to make themselves look good. They do not just give to the poor; they gloat over their giving and make the children feel worse about being poor. The narrator’s choice to show the reader the tree lot owner’s thoughts provides a glimpse into the man’s concerns about the children, who have claimed the largest tree on the lot. He realizes they can be hurt, but he cannot back down and simply give them the tree. He does not wish them to be hurt but also understands that it is a rough world and sometimes people get hurt. The children might as well learn that the world is tough. Katie’s thoughts also offer some insight into how she feels about Francie and why she treats her the way she does. Francie’s choice to attend school away from the neighborhood is interpreted by Katie as an effort by Francie to pull away from her mother. In some way, Katie feels as if Francie has rejected her. Katie acknowledges that Francie is smart and driven and that she will succeed in escaping the poverty of her upbringing. Katie also thinks that Neeley can become a doctor and escape being poor, but that he will need her help. As Francie grows up, she actually becomes more like her mother. She puts away the romanticism of her father and, indeed, recognizes what his drinking costs the family. She becomes pragmatic and more of a realist than her mother has been since Francie was born. Francie wants to rewrite the plays she sees at the theater because she realizes that the heroines in the plays should make practical choices for survival and not romantic choices, which will fade under hardship. The fishing trip serves as ample evidence to Francie of her father’s romantic nature, which only leads to disaster. A song he knows tells of the romance of the sea; taking the children to the ocean to fish was another of his romantic dreams. Johnny has always been a dreamer, but now Francie is old enough to see that her father’s dreams are not practical.

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Summary (Chapters 30–33) Chapter 30: Francie watches as an unmarried mother takes her baby out for a walk in her buggy. The older married women are aghast that the girl is proud of her baby and begin to call the child a bastard. At first the girl, Joanna, ignores the women, but eventually their harassment is so loud that it cannot be ignored, and when Joanna stands up to them, the older married women begin to throw stones at her. One of the stones hits the baby on the head, drawing blood. At that moment, the women become ashamed and walk away. Francie is deeply ashamed. Alone in the cellar of her apartment building, Francie remembers the women’s cruelty to Joanna and wonders how women, who share the pain of childbirth, can be so cruel to another woman, a mother just like them. Francie does not understand why they would not stick together and help one another. She vows never to have a woman friend. Chapter 31: Uncle Willie’s horse, Drummer, is the star of this chapter. Willie is mean and abusive to the horse, which finally retaliates by kicking Willie in the head and knocking him out. Willie must stay in the hospital, but the family needs his earnings to survive, so Evy begs to be allowed to deliver the milk to Willie’s customers. Drummer loves Evy because she is good to the horse. The horse works hard and helps Evy with the milk route. Women are not permitted to work these kinds of jobs, though, so as soon as Willie is well, he returns to work. Drummer, however, refuses to work for Willie, and eventually Willie is given another horse. Chapter 32: Francie began writing in a diary on her thirteenth birthday. It is now a year later, and she is reading the entries. Francie’s mother finds the diary and insists that Francie change the entries in which she wrote that her father was “drunk” to say that her father was “sick.” Chapter 33: Francie is curious about sex, so her mother tells her everything that she knows about the subject. This is unusual, since in this neighborhood, sex is the one subject that no one discusses. Katie is much more matter-of-fact about the topic than the other parents. A rapist-murderer is in the neighborhood, and all the parents are very concerned. Johnny has borrowed a gun from his friend, Burt, and keeps it under the pillow in their bedroom. One day, Francie walks into the building and the rapist, who has been hiding under the stairs, grabs her. When Katie sees the man attacking Francie, she quickly goes back to their apartment, grabs the gun, and shoots him in the stomach. The

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police doctor gives Francie a sedative, telling Katie and Johnny that when Francie wakes up they are to tell her that it was just a bad dream.

Commentary (Chapters 30–33) These chapters focus on sex and the relationship between men and women in several different ways. Readers learn that a woman who has a child out of wedlock, regardless of the circumstances, is an outcast and not fit for any kind of decent society. Joanna’s lover claimed to love her, but after she became pregnant, his family convinced him that if she would have sex with him, she would have sex with anyone. The lack of logic in this response is unimportant; what is important is that once a woman’s reputation is lost, that mistake can haunt a woman’s life. When the women were harassing and stoning Joanna, Francie remembered that one of the women had barely been married before her first baby was born. That she was pregnant at marriage is not unusual—it was actually very common—but once married, the sin of the baby’s conception is erased. Poor Joanna never had the opportunity to have her sin erased, so she is a pariah in the community. Francie cannot understand how women cannot support one another. She understands what hard lives women have, so their lack of sympathy for Joanna and their ability to turn on one another are shocking. Francie also wonders why the sweet love that she noticed when she saw Joanna and her boyfriend together ended in this shame. The hypocrisy of women is also something she discovers. Francie notices that men stick together, helping one another and defending one another. Women, on the other hand, attack one another. Francie decides that except for her mother and aunts, she will have nothing to do with women. In earlier chapters, readers saw how Sissy was unafraid of gossip, and in these chapters, readers see that Evy and Katie are equally brave in facing gossip. Evy takes on the milk route because the family needs the income and because she knows that she is capable of doing the job. The potential for gossip about a woman performing a man’s job is significant. Katie is equally brave in answering Francie’s questions about sex, even though doing so leaves Katie vulnerable to gossip. The next generation is also learning that gossip is destructive. Katie had previously warned Francie not to speak to Joanna, but after the stoning incident with Joanna and her baby, Francie wishes that she had been brave enough to smile and say hello to Joanna. There is little doubt that she would be brave enough in the future.

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What’s more, these chapters illustrate how strong women can be when personal strength is required of them. Previous chapters have focused on Mary’s and Sissy’s strength, but these chapters illustrate that Evy and Katie are just as strong. Evy takes on Willie’s milk route, and she does the job well. She is able to do the route because it is done in the dark and no one will see that she is a woman. It is not proper for a woman to work a man’s job, but the reason Evy is able to do the job is because she is a compassionate and caring individual. If Willie had been as good to his horse as Evy is, the horse would never have kicked him. Katie is strong and brave enough to answer her daughter’s questions about sex and shoot a rapist-murderer who attacks Francie. All the Rommely daughters are strong women, and all understand that the need to survive and to protect their children is their first priority.

Summary (Chapters 34–36) Chapter 34: In spite of all the babies who have died, Sissy still wants a baby. She learns of a young girl, Lucia, who is unmarried and pregnant. Lucia’s father has locked her in her room and is giving her only bread and water. Sissy visits the family one day when the father is not home. She offers to adopt the baby and to provide food for Lucia and her siblings and mother during the pregnancy. When Lucia’s baby girl is ten days old, Sissy brings her new daughter home. She convinces her husband that she has given birth to the baby and that he is the father. Only Katie, Johnny, and Francie know that the baby is not Sissy’s. Chapter 35: One day, Johnny comes home and is crying hysterically. The Waiters Union has kicked him out and is demanding their union pin be returned. Johnny is extraordinarily proud of his union pin, and the thought of not having it makes him fall to pieces. The lack of money, Johnny’s emotional breakdown, and the shortage of food will make this Christmas season a particularly unhappy one. Chapter 36: After awakening the next day, Johnny leaves the apartment and disappears for two days. Finally, McShane appears at the door to tell Katie that Johnny has been found unconscious in the street and he is dying. McShane takes Katie to the hospital, where she sits and watches Johnny die. The next morning, Katie tells the children that their father has died and not to cry. The doctor at the hospital wants to list alcoholism and pneumonia as the cause of death, but Katie is adamant that alcoholism not be listed

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on Johnny’s death certificate. The priest supports Katie, so the doctor lists only pneumonia as the cause of death. At Johnny’s wake there are a lot of flowers. Many people loved Johnny, and the outpouring of love provides some small comfort to the family. When Francie views her father’s body, she is surprised at how young and at peace he looks. He is only 34. With all his worries gone, he looks as young as he did when he and Katie were first married. At the funeral service, the person crying the loudest is Hildy O’Dair, Johnny’s first girlfriend. Katie is still unable to weep, though. On the way back to the apartment, Katie stops by the barber shop and asks Francie to go inside and pick up Johnny’s mug. Francie is to keep the mug, while Neeley will receive Johnny’s ring. Once they arrive back home, Katie begins to weep uncontrollably, but Sissy tells her she must stop to avoid harming her unborn child. This is the first indication for readers—and for Francie and Neeley—that Katie was pregnant when Johnny died.

Commentary (Chapters 34–36) These chapters begin with Sissy’s trick to finally have a baby that lives. The agreement between Sissy, Lucia, and her mother is the union of three women, all of whom have the welfare of the unborn baby at heart. The three of them out-smart Lucia’s father, and it appears that they have also fooled Sissy’s husband. Tricking Lucia’s father saves the baby’s life and probably Lucia’s life, as well. Tricking Sissy’s husband is a different matter, since he has made it clear that he opposes adoption and is unwilling to support another man’s child. Because the novel later makes clear that adopting this baby turns around Sissy’s life, it could be argued that tricking Sissy’s husband effectively saves their marriage. Although this is an era where paternity is especially valued, there is nothing cruel in Sissy’s deception. Johnny’s death was not a surprise, given that the narrator noted early in the book that Johnny died before age 35. At the end of Chapter 36, readers learn that Katie is pregnant. That is the secret that she whispered to Johnny at the end of Chapter 34. Johnny looked sad at the news because he has been unable to support two children and now there will be a third child. Katie’s pregnancy would limit her ability to work, and she has been the principal means of support for the family. Johnny has quit drinking, as Francie noted in her diary, but he continues to

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appear drunk. After he is fired from the Waiter’s Union, however, Johnny hits bottom. The occasional singing waiter jobs have been the only income he has brought into the family in a long time; now with no source of even occasional income, he is devastated. The death of his job portends the death of his body. Although Katie nagged Johnny about his drinking during his life, in death she makes sure that he will not be remembered as a drunk. She ensures that Johnny’s death certificate is proper, and she makes certain that at the wake there is no reason for visitors to think that Johnny was not revered by his wife and children. Johnny may have had his faults, but as Sissy told Katie shortly after they married, everyone has a weakness. Alcohol was Johnny’s weakness.

Summary (Chapters 37–39) Chapter 37: Johnny’s death is very hard on Francie and Neeley. Although Francie continues to attend church with her mother, she tells Neeley that she no longer believes in God. Katie says that the family needs to return to their usual customs, so that night, they will read a story from the Bible. She chooses the birth of Jesus for that evening’s reading. It is unusual for Katie to kiss her children, but that evening, she kisses both of them before they go to bed. Chapter 38: The new baby is due in May. Katie is worried about how she can earn enough money to feed the family, when she is unable to work as hard as normal. The best thing, everyone tells Katie, would be for Francie to quit school and get a job, but Katie refuses to even consider this choice. She prays to Johnny and asks him to help her. McGarrity, who owns the saloon where Johnny most often did his drinking, genuinely loved Johnny and valued his conversations with him. Although Johnny died owing McGarrity a lot of money, McGarrity considers the bill amply paid through Johnny’s friendship. McGarrity offers after-school jobs to Francie and Neeley. Chapter 39: Before her father’s death, Francie always received good grades. After her father died, she began writing about poverty, drunkenness, and death. The teacher does not like these topics and wants Francie to write about beautiful and pleasant things, as she did in the past. However, Francie realizes that all the writing that earned her good grades was about things that she had never experienced.

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Commentary (Chapters 37–39) Johnny’s death leaves Francie especially bereft. Because Katie has always loved Neeley the most, Francie has needed Johnny’s attention to make up for her mother’s absence of affection. With Johnny dead, Francie is especially lonely. Her questioning of God and whether she even believes in God is one way of working through the grief she feels at her father’s death. It is also a way for Francie to work through questions that she has about death and why some people die so young. Francie is especially worried that Katie will die as well. The job at McGarrity’s saloon helps to make Francie feel closer to her father. Johnny spent a lot of time with McGarrity, and Francie believes that part of Johnny’s soul still exists in the bar owner. In addition, McGarrity’s affection for Johnny helps to validate Johnny’s worth. Some people might have thought of Johnny as a drunk who could not support his family, but McGarrity was envious of Johnny, whose worth as a father was clearly seen in his children’s love for him. Although Johnny dreamed his life away and never achieved the success he wanted, McGarrity achieved financial success but never achieved his dream of having a family like the one Johnny possessed. In one sense, then, Johnny’s life was a success. His family made it so. Grief has changed Francie. One change has been in her writing. She uses the compositions that she writes for school as a way to work through her anger, disappointment, and grief. Francie’s teacher is unable to see how important it is for Francie to be able to write about what she has endured. Instead, the teacher wants Francie to write only about pretty things. The teacher’s rejection is painful to Francie, who desperately needs all the comfort available.

Summary (Chapters 40–42) Chapter 40: As Katie nears the time for her new baby’s birth, she relies upon Francie for help. Although Francie has long known that Katie does not love her as much as she loves Neeley, Francie now feels closer to her mother because she needs her help. When Katie goes into labor, she tells Francie to send Neeley for Evy. Francie tells her mother that maybe Neeley could be of more comfort and that Francie should leave. But according to Katie, men do not belong at a birth. Katie reassures Francie that she needs her and not Neeley.

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As the birth becomes imminent, Katie insists that Francie be sent from the house on a lengthy errand to buy food. All the neighbors hear Katie screaming as she gives birth. This is a pain that all women understand and share, and it is a pain that Katie wanted to spare her daughter. To assuage Francie’s hurt at having been sent away, Katie asks Francie to write the new baby’s name, Annie Laurie, in the Bible. Chapter 41: This chapter is primarily composed of partial conversations that Francie overhears from the men who crowd into McGarrity’s saloon. The men worry about prohibition, women voting (although most men think their wives will vote as they are told), and whether the United States will enter the war in Europe. There are also concerns about being identified as having too German a heritage and about the new technology of machines that might replace people. Chapter 42: Both Francie and Neeley graduate from elementary school and receive their diplomas. Their two graduation ceremonies are on the same night. Katie chooses to attend Neeley’s graduation and rationalizes her choice by claiming that it was Francie’s decision to attend a different school, so Neeley should not be punished. Aunt Sissy accompanies Francie to her graduation. Francie’s final grades are all excellent, except for her grade in composition, which is a C minus. Francie dreads entering her classroom, since the tradition is that each girl receives flowers for graduation. Francie knows the family cannot afford flowers, but when she looks at her desk, there is a large bouquet of roses on the top of the desk. The card says they are from her father. Sissy explains that Johnny signed the card a year ago and that he gave her the money to buy the roses before he died. At home Katie is pleased with Neeley’s grades, which are B and C grades. She ignores all of Francie’s A grades. The whole family goes out for ice cream to celebrate. Katie knows that both children should go to high school, but she also knows that the shortage of money means that achieving that goal will be very difficult.

Commentary (Chapters 40–42) In these final chapters of Book 4, the family story begins the transition that will mark significant changes in all their lives. The addition of the new baby brings the family back to four people, and in a real sense, helps to cushion the blow created by Johnny’s death. The birth process, from which Katie sought to shield Francie, instead pushes them

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further apart. When Katie sends Francie away to protect her daughter’s innocence, she also severs the closeness that had developed between them in the final weeks of Francie’s pregnancy. With graduation, the children have achieved more than the children of many poor families ever achieve. It is not enough for Katie, though, who knows that the children need more education to escape the poverty of their childhoods. Instead of simply celebrating this milestone, Katie is also thinking about the future and all that still needs to be accomplished. For Francie, graduation provides a small moment in which she finally accepts Johnny’s death. When she sees the flowers and the card with his signature and realizes that his death is real, she finally accepts that her life will continue without her beloved father. Katie’s choice to attend Neeley’s graduation is further evidence to Francie that her mother loves Neeley more than she loves her daughter. Francie is surprised, though, to learn that the girls in her classroom all liked her and wanted to be her friend. Francie has spent a lifetime isolating herself from other girls, as a way to protect herself from hurt and disappointment. The friendship offered by her classmates suggests that Francie need not be as lonely in the future as she has been in the past. Other changes are also in the air. Chapter 41 is a reminder that society is about to change for both men and women. Prohibition will be an unsuccessful attempt to eliminate alcohol from society and to change how people behave. Women will finally get the vote in a couple of years (in 1920), and although men worry about women voting, the political process will not really change. The war will change all their lives, as sons are sent off to fight a war. Women, like Katie, worry about the war and their sons, while men worry about war and technology, which threatens to change all their lives.

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Book 5: Chapters 43–45

Summary (Chapters 43–45) Chapter 43: During the summer after graduation, Francie and Neeley both get jobs. Francie begins to work at a factory, where she makes tissue flowers all day. At the end of their week working, Francie and Neeley stop at the bank to change their wages into brand-new dollar bills. Katie is overcome with tears when the children give her their earnings, and she goes into the bedroom so they will not see her cry. Chapter 44: Francie’s work at the factory is seasonal and she is laid off. Francie wants to work in an office but needs to be 16 to do so. After she buys more grown-up clothing and puts her braids up, Francie looks old enough to pass for 16, even though she is only 14. She gets a job as a reader at the Model Press Clipping Bureau in Manhattan. Francie is very good at her job and is given a large raise. Francie does not want to tell her mother about the raise, since she assumes quite correctly that her mother will want her to keep working instead of returning to school. Francie wants to begin high school in the fall, but Katie decides that one of the children will need to work. Even though Neeley does not want to go to high school, Katie decides that he is the one who will attend school. She reasons that Francie loves school so much that she will find a way to continue her education, but Neeley will make no effort. Accordingly, he must be forced to attend school. This decision results in a serious family fight, but in the end, Katie forces everyone to do as she wants. Chapter 45: It is Christmas again and one year since Johnny’s death. Because of Francie’s job, the family has the money to celebrate the holiday this year. At Christmas services at church, Francie is once again accepting of God and her Catholic religion. They all join in saying a prayer for Johnny’s soul.

Commentary (Chapters 43–45) Francie’s two jobs have proved to her that she is capable of helping the family survive. Although she is only 14, she has had to pretend to

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be 16. This is an age at which many girls are considered adults and are engaged or married. Although she is not really 16, Francie reasons that looking older and pretending to be older have made her older. Letting go of the romanticized view that she had of the world outside of Williamsburg has also made her more mature. Although Johnny never gave up his romantic view of the world, Francie is, indeed, her mother’s daughter. She is pragmatic and a realist at heart. Her success in her job also proves that she has learned her mother’s lessons about hard work. It is easy for readers to see how much Francie is like her mother. Francie understands what her mother does not—that mother and daughter are very much alike. Francie already knows that she does not want a lifetime of working in a factory like so many of the girls who work there. She imagines the dreary existence of factory work and knows that she needs an education. Francie is not tempted by the higher salary she is earning, but she also understands that her wages make a huge difference in how well the family lives. In spite of the financial incentive, Francie does not want to make the sacrifices her mother asks of her. The ensuing fight with her mother changes forever the relationship between the two. Francie sees her mother fumble as she picks up a cracked cup and realizes that their family, which at one time seemed whole, is also cracked. Her mother’s fumbling reminds Francie that her mother is not as strong as she thought. In a sense, Katie’s momentary weakness makes it easier for Francie to do as her mother wishes. Katie cannot continue to support the family and hold things together as she has in the past. She needs help. Katie reasons, quite correctly, that Francie will be able to complete her education in spite of the interruption that working creates. Francie finally accepts her mother’s decision, even though she hates the choice that was made for her. The family is also better able to deal with Johnny’s death. The pain is no longer as fresh. In the year since his death, the family has had to endure many celebrations, birthdays, and holidays without Johnny. They have learned that they can survive such a devastating loss. The easing of their financial problems also makes it easier for the family to live with Johnny’s death. Katie wants her children to have an easier life than she and Johnny provided. The extra money, especially the extra money that Francie earns, makes Katie’s goal of a better life for her children seem more of a possibility.

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Summary (Chapters 46–48) Chapter 46: On New Year’s Eve, Francie is convinced that the coming year, 1917, will be an important one. McGarrity has given the family a bottle of brandy, and Katie prepares a punch with the brandy. She is worried that the children might have inherited Johnny’s love of drink, but Francie does not need alcohol; she gets drunk on life. Neeley already knows that alcohol makes him vomit, and he does not like throwing up. Chapter 47: Neeley has been playing the piano and singing at the ice cream shop. Unlike his father, who was forced to sing what people requested, Neeley plays only what he wants to sing. Francie’s evenings are lonely, and she wishes for someone to ease that loneliness. Sissy, however, is not as lonely. After her first husband dies and she finds out that the second one has divorced her, Sissy and Steve are married in the Methodist church, and Steve is finally happy and convinced that Sissy will not leave him. Sissy finally tells Steve that she adopted their baby girl, but he is not upset. It was Steve who told Sissy about Lucia and her situation, which was that she had become pregnant after having an affair with a married man. Sissy is also pregnant again, for the eleventh time. Chapter 48: It is April 6, 1917, and the United States enters the war in Europe. One of the clipping bureau’s biggest clients turns out to be a German spy. Soon, the business is shut down and Francie is out of a job. She sees the loss of the job as an opportunity to try something else. Francie’s new job brings in less money, but the family still manages. Francie wants to sign up for summer college courses and explains to her mother that she will never go to high school. She is too old and knows too much to sit in a classroom with children, who have no experience with life. Francie has been reading the papers at the clipping bureau, and she has already educated herself.

Commentary (Chapters 46–48) 1917 does bring many changes to the world and to the family’s lives, as Francie predicted on New Years Eve. The German immigrants, who so loudly claim their right to sing the loudest and to sing the words they want to sing to “Auld Lang Syne,” are a reminder that, as Francie notes, the Germans always “got to be ahead.” Another change in 1917 is the legitimization of Sissy’s third marriage. Steve proves that he is finally the man to stand up to the Rommely women, as his insistence that he

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and Sissy be married in a church proves. Sissy’s response is to love him even more. Since the adoption of Lucia’s baby, Sissy has changed dramatically. The old flirtations and the need for men to adore her have been replaced by her love for her daughter. The narrator suggests that perhaps Steve might know more about the paternity of Lucia’s baby than initially suggested, but this point is not explored. Francie may not be writing as she did in school, but she continues to see herself as a writer. Her quick memory and attention to detail have served her well in each of her jobs, but they will also be of value in the future. Her desire to enroll in college is Francie’s effort to be a part of the changing world. She is no longer content to stand on the roof and watch the world, as she and her father used to do when she was younger. She and Neeley reject their father’s love of alcohol, and Francie makes clear that she will not be limited to the restrictive view of the world provided from their roof. Although enrolling in college courses is so frightening for Francie that she is literally sick to her stomach, there is never any doubt that she will succeed.

Summary (Chapters 49–51) Chapter 49: Francie loves college. A boy that she met in the bookstore, Ben Blake, helps her acclimate to her classes. He is only a senior in high school, but this is his third summer taking college courses. Ben helps Francie study for her final exam in French, which she passes. When the summer classes end, Ben tells Francie to write if she needs him. The end of her summer college courses once again leaves Francie with lonely evenings to fill. Chapter 50: Sissy has decided that a Jewish doctor will deliver her baby in a hospital. This news creates much consternation. No Rommely woman has ever had a man deliver her baby. No Rommely woman has ever had a baby in a hospital, but Sissy is confident that a Jewish doctor is a better doctor than a Christian doctor, and she will not be dissuaded. When the baby is born, Sissy has a moment of doubt when she sees the baby lying quietly on the table. His skin is blue, but then the doctor calls for oxygen and suddenly the baby is fine. Now that the country is at war, Uncle Willie tries to enlist but is turned down. Willie buys a drum and cymbals and tries to teach himself to play music. He attaches a guitar and a harmonica and begins practicing to be a one-man band, but in his heart, Willie still thinks of himself as a failure.

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Chapter 51: Francie begins to study for the college entrance exam, since the only way she can enroll in college for regular classes is to pass the exam. Mary Rommely is dying, and Neeley is dating a girl described as wild. Katie asks the children to forgo Christmas gifts and use the money to buy food for the Tynmore sisters, who are now too old to work.

Commentary (Chapters 49–51) Ben Blake is the first young man to earn Francie’s attention. She is old enough to be interested in young men, and her loneliness in previous chapters has set up the reader to expect her to fall for Ben. He is destined for success. He has his future mapped out, including college and law school, and he is still only a senior in high school. Ben offers Francie good, practical advice on how to study for her tests and how to succeed in school. When their summer college courses end, Francie is even lonelier than before she enrolled in college. Her classes and Ben’s presence had filled her time, but now she is once again very alone. Sissy’s new baby suggests that the world is changing, just as the brief conversations of Chapter 41 had foretold. The technology that the men feared would make them useless has, instead, saved the baby’s life. In the past, women gave birth with other women in attendance. Men were not participants. But with Sissy’s baby, a man is present who saves her baby’s life. Moreover, he is a Jewish doctor. When Evy remarks that Jewish women do not ask Christian doctors to deliver their babies, Sissy’s response is to ask why should they want a Christian doctor, since Jewish doctors are so much better than Christian doctors. The prejudice against Jews that was evident in the book’s opening chapters, when a boy told Neeley that the Jews killed Jesus, has not gone away completely, but Sissy’s actions have helped to breach the intolerances of the past. Uncle Willie’s behavior when he is turned down for enlistment is a reminder that many of the men in the Rommely women’s lives are not as strong as the Rommely women, who never succumb to despair, no matter how difficult their lives. Willie is a reminder of Johnny, whose own failures eventually led to his death. Willie’s descent should remind readers of Johnny’s failures, while suggesting that Willie’s role in Evy’s life may soon come to an end.

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Summary (Chapters 52–54) Chapter 52: Francie meets a young soldier, Lee Rhynor, who is about to ship overseas to the war. She likes both his smile and his honesty and agrees to go out alone with him, even though he is engaged to a girl back home. They go out to dinner, where Lee asks Francie to pretend that she is his girl just for the evening. The next day, Francie and Lee go dancing. At the end of the evening, Lee asks Francie to spend the night with him. She refuses but agrees to Lee’s request that she write a letter to him telling him how much she loves him. As soon as she gets home, Francie writes a letter to Lee in which she pours out her love for him. Chapter 53: Francie waits for Lee’s reply and within a few days, a letter does arrive. The letter, however, is from Lee’s fiancée, whom he married two days after he left Francie. In the letter, Lee’s bride thanks Francie for entertaining her fiancée while he was in New York. In a postscript, the new Mrs. Rhynor says that it was mean of Lee to pretend to be in love with Francie and he sends his apologies. Francie is devastated and thinks about writing to Ben but decides not to do so. Chapter 54: Sergeant McShane comes to visit the Nolan family. He has waited for a year of mourning after his wife’s death to pass before coming to see Katie. He asks Katie to marry him. Her reply is that she will marry him, not because he is a wealthy man, but because he is a good man. He asks if he can adopt Laurie and give her his name. Neeley asks whether he and Francie can call McShane “Dad.”

Commentary (Chapters 52–54) Over several chapters, Francie has lamented about her loneliness, and thus it is no surprise that when she meets Lee, she quickly succumbs to his flattery and nearly succumbs to his efforts to seduce her. Francie is completely inexperienced with men, which, in fact, she actually tells Lee. His request that she pretend to be his “best girl” should have warned her that he could not be trusted. After all, he had already told her that he was engaged to a girl back home. But now he is in New York and on a date with another girl, which would have been a clear warning to a more experienced young woman that he could not be trusted. Lee’s efforts to convince Francie to spend the night with him, scarcely a day after they meet, further suggests how unscrupulous he is. The next day, he returns to his hometown and within another day is married. Before he left her, Lee demanded that Francie tell him that she loves

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him, and he demanded a promise that she would never kiss anyone else or love anyone else. He also demanded that she write a letter to him affirming her love for him. This is Francie’s first experience with heartbreak and she instinctively turns to her mother for comfort. Katie, who is always the most practical member of the household, does remember what it feels like to be so suddenly and overwhelmingly in love. Katie has always tried to protect her children from pain and loss, but Lee’s betrayal is evidence that even a mother’s love cannot always protect a child. Katie also realizes that Francie is no longer a child, when Francie addresses her mother as “mother” and not “mama.” Katie remembers doing the same thing when she married Johnny. The return of McShane into the family’s life brings with it another chance for Katie to be happy. This is not the young giddy love that she and Johnny had so many years ago. Instead, McShane will bring stability and the promise of a better future for all of the family. He will pay for Francie’s and Neeley’s college education and make sure that Laurie never suffers from hunger and poverty as Francie and Neeley did as children. Francie’s final sentence in this chapter, “Poor Laurie,” is an acknowledgement that she and Neeley did have fun, even though they were poor.

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Book 6: Chapters 55–56

Summary Chapter 55: Francie passed her college entrance exams with Ben’s help, and as soon as her mother is married, she will be leaving Brooklyn to attend the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. Ben chose the college because he believes that leaving home is an important part of maturing and attending college. Francie knows that, in her heart, she will always be a girl from Brooklyn. Ben has given Francie a ring with their two sets of initials engraved on the inside, but he is not pressuring her to make a decision about loving him. He has another five years before he can finish law school and marry, and he is willing to give Francie that long to know what she wants. Readers learn that Willie simply disappeared one day, leaving Evy as the sole supporter of their family. Chapter 56: In this final chapter, Francie says goodbye to her neighborhood and to the life the family lived in their apartment. The next day, Katie and Mr. McShane will marry and leave the apartment for good. Katie insists on working on the last day, even though McShane gave her $1,000 as a wedding present. Francie visits many of the neighborhood stores that she visited in the opening pages of the novel. She also visits her old school and is surprised at how tiny it looks. Francie next visits the library to turn in the last of her books. When she returns to the apartment, Neeley comes in looking for a clean shirt to wear to work. He calls her Prima Donna, just like Johnny used to, and sings, just as her father once did. He hugs her goodbye and kisses her. Francie packs up her things, including her diary and the four compositions that she saved from school. She thinks she may try writing again. When she is finished packing, Francie prepares for her date with Ben that evening and admits that she does not love him, but she is willing to give it time and perhaps she will learn to. As she dresses for her date, she sees a young girl sitting on the fire escape watching her, just as so many years ago she watched other young women dress for dates. It is the end of one part of her life and the beginning of another.

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Commentary Book 6 provides a final resolution for many of the people and events in Francie’s life. Francie is leaving her job and going away to college. She has allowed Ben to make the decision about her college, but there can be little doubt that Francie is strong enough to make decisions when they are needed. Ben has given her a ring and is willing to give her five years to decide whether she loves him. She says that she wants to love him, but he never stumbles, never seems to need her. Francie wants someone to need her and does not yet understand that if Ben loves her, he also needs her. Evy’s fate is not unlike Katie’s. With Willie’s disappearance, Evy must be strong enough to survive and support the family. She takes over Willie’s job, and not for the first time. When Willie was hospitalized in Chapter 31, Evy took over his milk route and proved that she could perform a man’s job. Similarly, Katie is to be married, and although McShane has given her money as a wedding gift, the money is not really hers until they marry the next day, so she continues to work. Katie will always insist on doing the right thing. Neeley has grown up to become a handsome young man. He has his father’s good looks and his singing voice as well. What is certain, though, is that Neeley will not succumb to his father’s weakness, because Neeley has his mother’s strength and determination. When Francie asks Neeley whether he thinks she is attractive, his answer is honest and kind: “you’ll pass.” Neeley and Francie have survived a great deal together and although they will be apart after the next day, their bond is firmly established. Like the Nolan family, the little Tree of Heaven in the courtyard has survived. The tree was chopped down and the trunk set on fire, but the tree has sprouted a new branch from what remains of the trunk. The tree symbolizes the Rommely women and their families. Regardless of the tragedies they endure, the family will continue to survive.

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THEMES AND SYMBOLS

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Themes The Importance of Education When Francie is born in Chapter 9, Mary Rommely tells her daughter Katie that it is important that she read to her children every night. Mary sees education as one way to escape poverty. Katie is told to read a page from the Bible and a page from any of Shakespeare’s plays, and when the children learn how to read, they should read a page from each of the two books each night. This bedtime reading is the start of the children’s education. The piano lessons in Chapter 17 are Katie’s effort to expose the children to music and enhance their educations. In Chapter 19, when Francie starts school, it is an eagerly anticipated event. Although Francie is thrilled to finally learn how to read, her first school is a terrible place, where the children are beaten and mistreated. The school is overcrowded, and the teachers have no interest in teaching the poorer children. It does not take Francie long to find a school where she thinks she can get a better education. In Chapter 23, Francie learns that getting an education can be a wonderful experience. In Chapter 27, as she watches her children struggle to drag a large Christmas tree up the steps to their apartment, Katie suddenly realizes that education will be the only way for her children to have a better life. Johnny’s death in Chapter 36 makes it more difficult for Francie and Neeley to continue in school, since the family is desperate for money; however, Katie is adamant that the children must stay in school long enough to graduate from eighth grade. The family can survive until the children receive their diplomas; then the children can work. Because they need the money from Francie’s job, only Neeley is sent to high school. Francie, though, finds education in her job at the Model Press Clipping Bureau, where, in Chapter 44, the narrator describes how Francie reads 200 newspapers a day at work. She is able to enroll in college summer school in Chapter 48 because of her determination to get an education. Because she does not have a high school diploma, Francie must take the college entrance exam, which she passes. In Chapter 55, the narrator writes that Francie has been accepted by the University of Michigan. Through the determination of her grandmother Mary and her mother, Katie, as well as Francie’s own tenacity and hard work, education becomes the means by which Francie is finally able to escape the poverty of her parents’ lives.

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Francie’s Need for Love When Katie’s son, Neeley, is born in Chapter 10 of A Tree Grows in Brooklyn, she admits to herself that she will always love her son more than her daughter. Katie thinks that she can keep this disparity of love hidden from Francie and that, if she treats the children the same, Francie will never know that she is loved less by her mother. Of course, Katie is unable to treat the children the same. In Chapter 3, Francie wonders why she likes her father best, even though her mother is a good woman. The reason Francie likes her father best is revealed throughout the novel, as Katie’s love of Neeley influences how she treats Francie. For example, in Chapter 27, both children give Katie a Christmas gift. Francie makes an elaborate hat pin holder for her mother and Neeley gives each member of the family a candy cane that he bought. Francie is hurt that her mother makes a greater fuss over Neeley’s gift than the one given by Francie. However, although Katie does not provide as much love to Francie, Johnny makes up for the lack of extra attention. Johnny’s death in Chapter 36 leaves Francie without the one person who loved her above all others. In Chapter 42, Katie chooses to attend Neeley’s graduation, while Aunt Sissy attends Francie’s graduation. Francie’s grades, except for her English grade, are much better than Neeley’s grades, but Katie makes a fuss over Neeley’s grades and chastises Francie for her English grade, never mentioning all the As that she earned. The cumulative effect of Katie’s obvious favoritism is that Francie is desperately lonely and in real need of someone to love her, especially after Johnny’s death. She finds the evenings especially lonely, until she begins to work nights and is able to enroll in summer college courses during the day. Francie’s need for love results in her falling in love with Lee Rhynor, a young soldier, who tells her that he loves her, after knowing her less than two days. Because she wants so desperately to be loved, Francie responds to Lee by giving him her heart and a promise that she will wait for him to return from the war. Even after Lee betrays her, Francie continues to think about him. In Chapter 56, Francie sums up her great need for love in her assessment of Ben Blake, who has given her a ring. He loves her, but he does not need her, and more than anything, what Francie has learned throughout her life is that she has to have someone in her life who needs her to love him, just as she needs to be loved.

The American Dream The American dream was an important motivating factor in the immigrant experience. Many people left their homes and families and

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immigrated to the United States in search of a better life. Both Johnny and Katie are the children of immigrants. In A Tree Grows in Brooklyn, Francie is able to fulfill the American dream that her father instilled in her in Chapter 25 when he took her to Bushwick Avenue and showed her the mansions and the opportunities for wealth that awaits all immigrants. Francie is able to use education as a way to escape the poverty of her childhood. Mary Rommely’s comments to Katie in Chapter 9, when Francie was born, illustrate her hope that her children and grandchildren will be able achieve the American dream, which Mary believes is possible through getting an education and owning land. The universality of the dream is best illustrated in Chapter 43, when Francie and Neeley meet at the bank to have the first money they earn converted into new dollar bills. The tellers at the bank remember the first time that they earned enough money to take home to their mothers. The act of taking money home to give to their mother symbolizes the American dream and the expectation that children will have a better life than their parents. Johnny’s failures, however, nearly prevent Katie from achieving the American dream. She will achieve the dream for herself and for her youngest child, Laurie, only by marrying McShane, who has already achieved the dream through his hard work as a policeman and as a politician. It is McShane, who, in paying for Francie and Neeley to attend college, opens the way for Katie’s oldest children to achieve the American dream. The family’s forthcoming escape from poverty is implicit in McShane’s proposal of marriage to Katie in Chapter 54. In contrast, the American dream is never achieved by Johnny Nolan, who fails to achieve his dreams. Johnny has talent and might have succeeded, but early in the book, Johnny’s love of drinking predicts his failure. Although Johnny is able to join the Waiters Union and become an active member of the Democratic party—both signs that he has the ability to achieve the American dream—Johnny is unable to move beyond the fear of the future that he experiences in Chapter 9 when Francie is born. Becoming a father and having a family to support sends him into such a state of panic that he drinks and ultimately dies from drinking. Achieving the American dream takes hard work, but Johnny is a dreamer, who dreams of a better life but who lacks the incentive and hard work to make the dream come true.

The Loss of Innocence A Tree Grows in Brooklyn is the story of a young girl’s coming of age and, as such, it is inevitable that she will lose the innocence of

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childhood. As a young child, Francie is unaware of the family’s poverty and of the devastating effect that her father’s drinking has on the family. When Johnny promises Francie in Chapter 2 that he will use his winnings at the horse races later that day to take her on a trip, she never for a moment doubts that he will do so. Nor does Francie understand that her mother’s ability to make six loaves of stale bread feed a family of four for a week is a necessity to keep the family from starving. Katie is able to turn the family’s lack of food into a game, where eventually they will be rescued when food reappears. As a result, Francie innocently accepts the normalcy of starvation. Some of Francie’s innocent trust is lost in Chapter 18, when she is humiliated by the doctor giving her a vaccination, who refers to her as filthy and poor. Francie is equally disappointed to discover that her dreams about attending school do not depict the reality of cruel and unjust teachers, who hate teaching and hate their poorer students. In Chapter 28, Francie begins to realize that her father’s drinking hurts the family, although she continues to love him just as much. She also realizes that her mother is not always right about everything. Two experiences that focus on sexuality and sexual violence also open Francie’s eyes to the cruelty that lurks within the neighborhood she loves. She witnesses the stoning of an unmarried mother in Chapter 30 and wonders how women can turn against one another. She is also nearly a victim of a sexual attack in Chapter 33 by a rapist-murderer. Both of these events occur just as Francie is making the biological transition from childhood to adolescent girl. Two other events in A Tree Grows in Brooklyn contribute to Francie’s loss of innocence. The death of Johnny in Chapter 36 breaks Francie’s heart and causes her to reject God. She has never once considered that her father might die, so his death destroys the innocent expectation that her father would always be there to care for her. The betrayal of Lee Rhynor in Chapters 52 and 53 is another lesson about the loss of love, when Francie learns that someone she loves can deliberately deceive her and break her heart. In the first chapters of Genesis, Adam and Eve’s fall in the Garden of Eden occurs because they eat from the Tree of Knowledge. Francie’s fall from innocence is, likewise, because she gains knowledge about life. Knowledge brings both a loss of innocence and occasionally disillusionment, pain, and grief.

The Importance of Imagination When Francie is born in Chapter 9, Katie’s mother, Mary, tells her daughter that she needs to nurture her child’s imagination. Mary says

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that it is important for Francie to have a world that is not real, in which she can escape when the real world becomes too difficult. Mary was right, since it is imagination that will help Francie to escape the poverty of Williamsburg. Before she enters school for the first time, Francie imagines how wonderful school with be; because of this expectation, the reality when it occurs in Chapters 19 and 20 is disappointing. The schools are overcrowded and her teacher is cruel, but then Francie sees another, much-nicer school, one without a fence surrounding it and one with grass and not concrete. Francie imagines that she can attend the new school. Her imagination allows her to see herself in a better world, and, as a result, she works to create that better world for herself. When Francie first begins working in Chapter 43, she works on an assembly line making tissue flowers, and she imagines a lifetime of factory work. She knows that she wants a better life because she is able to clearly imagine the drudgery of the life that awaits her in a succession of factories, if she is unable to escape. Francie’s imagination allows her to imagine herself attending college, which will allow her to escape the drudgery of her impoverished childhood. In Chapter 44, she studies a map of the United States and imagines the world that exists beyond her own limited experience. On the day that America enters World War I, Francie carefully saves the front page from the newspaper, with its declaration of war in large letters. The narrator describes in Chapter 48 how Francie prepares a time capsule to memorialize the day. The ink on the headline of the newspaper is still wet and she places her finger tips on the headline to wet them with ink. She takes a large envelope and places the page from the newspaper in it, along with a piece of paper on which she has pressed her inky fingerprints. She includes a poem and a lock of her hair. Francie’s goal is to save the memory of the day that the United States entered the war. She can clearly imagine the changes that war will bring, but more importantly, she can imagine that she will be alive in fifty years to open the envelope. In her young life, Francie has experienced her father’s death and the deaths of all of Aunt Sissy’s babies and the death of a neighbor boy. She knows about death, but she also imagines her own life extending past that of her father’s thirty-four years. She visualizes her own future in her imagination. Imagination allows Francie to envision a world beyond the Williamsburg tenements where she lives and years filled with joy and the promise of a better life, rather than the exhaustion of spending each moment just trying to survive.

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Symbols The Tree of Heaven In the courtyard of the third apartment building in Williamsburg where the Nolan family lives throughout most of Smith’s novel, a tree is growing out of the cement. The opening chapter of A Tree Grows in Brooklyn explains that the tree is a Tree of Heaven. It only grows in the poorest of neighborhoods and it grows no matter how poor the circumstances. It can thrive in cement and without water or fertilizer. The tree represents the tenacity and strength of the poor inhabitants of the neighborhood, who survive with little food or money. Like the tree that receives so little care and nourishment, the people of the Williamsburg neighborhood survive and often thrive in such extreme poverty that many people live without adequate food, working only the most menial jobs, earning a pittance, and wearing threadbare clothing, through which they feel the biting cold. The people survive with the hope that the next day, week, or month, their lives will be better. No matter how badly they are beaten down, they continue to survive and they continue to hope. In the final chapter of Smith’s novel, Francie observes that the Tree of Heaven is still alive. It has been chopped down and the stump set on fire, but Francie notices that the tree is not dead. It has sent out a new branch and is surviving, just as the Nolan family has survived poverty and death and is now being given a new chance at a better life.

The Tin Can Bank When Francie is born in Chapter 9, Mary Rommely tells her daughter Katie to make a bank from a tin can. She is told to nail the bank to the floor of the closet and to put five cents in the bank every day. No matter how difficult it is to save money, Mary says it is important that money be put in the can each day. The money is to be saved until there is enough to buy land, so that the family can escape from the poverty of living in the tenements. In Chapter 1, when Francie and Neeley collect scrap metal to sell to the junk dealer, they put half the money they earn in the tin can bank. When the family moves in Chapter 12, they have only saved $3.80, and Katie must use $1 to pay the ice-man to move their meager belongings. In Chapter 14, when the family must move again, there is only $8 in the bank and Katie must use $2 of the money to pay for the second move. Finally, in Chapter 36, the tin can

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bank contains $18.62. It is not enough money to pay for a cemetery plot in which to bury Johnny. Katie must borrow $2 from her sister. After it has been emptied once again, Katie throws away the bank. For fourteen years, the family has used the bank to save money to buy land. Since the family now “owns land”—that is, the plot in which Johnny is to be buried—the bank has fulfilled its purpose. Francie and Neeley create another tin can bank in Chapter 43, in which they will save money to buy Christmas presents, which allows the family to have a better Christmas. For most of the book, the tin can bank represents the hope that the family can somehow escape their terrible poverty and start a new life in a home they will own. When Francie and Neeley create their own tin can bank, they are saving for a more immediate need, but the bank still represents their hope for a better future.

The Library In Chapter 2 of A Tree Grows in Brooklyn, Francie visits the library to check out two books. She thinks the library is a beautiful place, although it is small and dingy. The narrator tells readers that Francie reads a book every day. Her desire to read and to learn about the world outside of her Williamsburg neighborhood is best illustrated by Francie’s choice to read each book in the library, alphabetically. She does not choose to read only one genre of book; instead, she will read all of the books. Reading is one way for Francie to escape the poverty of her home and escape into a different world. Later, her love of reading helps Francie when she applies for a job at the Model Press Clipping Bureau, where she must read 200 newspapers a day. She is quickly promoted and earns enough money to help her family live more comfortably. The library, which she has long loved, has become a vehicle in which to improve the whole family’s life, not just Francie’s. In Chapter 55, when Francie is packing and preparing to leave the neighborhood, she walks to the library to return her books. She begins to turn in her library card, but at the last minute, decides to keep it. The card and the library represent both Francie’s education and the means by which she was able to escape poverty.

Johnny’s Pearl Studs Katie gives a set of pearl studs to Johnny when they get married. She spent nearly a month’s salary on the studs, and they are never pawned, no matter how much the family needs money. In Chapter 3, Johnny

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puts on the pearl studs before going to his job. They help to complete the image he longs to project. As a singing waiter, Johnny wears a tuxedo; the pearl studs help to create an image of affluence that will match Johnny’s elegant good looks. No matter how far Johnny falls from the image that he projects, the pearl studs are not sold. To do so would be to admit that he is no longer deserving of what the pearl studs represent. They symbolize Katie’s love for Johnny, but they also symbolize her expectation that he will use them as he supports his family. At the end of Chapter 36, after Johnny’s funeral, the narrator states that Johnny was buried with the pearl studs. Except for his ring, shaving mug, and two aprons, there are no other physical reminders of Johnny remaining in the apartment. The promise of a better life that the studs symbolized died with Johnny and was buried with him.

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GLOSSARY

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“Auld Lang Syne” ”Auld Lang Syne” is a song customarily sung on New Year’s Eve. The song is based on a poem by the late eighteenthcentury Scottish poet Robert Burns. As happens in Chapter 46, most people know the melody well and just make up words as they sing it. “Auld Lang Syne” is often translated from the Scots as “old long ago” or “since long ago.” Bushwick Avenue Bushwick Avenue was the location of several very successful breweries. The area borders Williamsburg but could not have been more different from the Nolan’s neighborhood. At the time that Johnny takes his children to walk along Bushwick Avenue in Chapter 25, it is the home of many luxurious mansions. caul A caul is a thin membrane that covers a newborn baby’s head and or face. A caul is thought to be rare, and in many cultures it is thought to indicate that the child is destined to do great things. Francie is born with a caul. consumption Consumption is an old term that was used to describe tuberculosis. Consumption was almost always a death sentence early in the twentieth century, because there were few successful treatments. Both Henny in Chapter 4 and Andy in Chapter 8 are dying of consumption. Goyem A Goyem or Goyim (the standard spelling for the word) is a Yiddish word for a person who is a non-Jew and who is ignorant about Jews. It is often used as a pejorative term. In Chapter 5, the Jewish pickle seller calls Francie a “Goyem,” a word that she does not understand. Prima Donna Prima Donna was originally a term applied to the female lead in an opera. It is also used to refer to someone who is the leading lady in the speaker’s life and is occasionally used to refer to a temperamental or vain person. Johnny often calls Francie “Prima Donna,” and since she is neither vain nor temperamental, it is likely he means that she is his leading lady. scapular A scapular is a religious object worn by Catholics. It is modeled after the monastic religious habits of some monks and nuns, who wear a top garment that looks like a long rectangular cloth with a hole cut in the center for the head to fit through. In Chapter 27, Katie’s mother makes a scapular for Francie, which she describes very well.

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sheeny Like so many other derogatory words for Jews, sheeny is a pejorative term that suggests that the Jewish pickle seller is dishonest. In Chapter 5, Francie calls the pickle that she wants a “sheeny” pickle, not understanding that this is an insult. spats Spats are a piece of leather or heavy cloth that were worn by men. Spats covered the upper part of the shoe, extending to the ankle. In Chapter 45, Neeley wants spats for Christmas, but when he wears them, the other boys who live nearby make fun of him. studs Studs are used in place of buttons on tuxedo shirts. Early in the novel, readers learn that Katie gave Johnny pearl studs as a wedding gift. They are a prized possession for Johnny and are buried with him.