Oceania
ASPECTS OF TOURISM Series Editors: Professor Chris Cooper, University of Queensland, Australia Dr C. Michael Hall, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand Dr Dallen Timothy, Arizona State University, Tempe, USA Aspects of Tourism is an innovative, multifaceted series which will comprise authoritative reference handbooks on global tourism regions, research volumes, texts and monographs. It is designed to provide readers with the latest thinking on tourism world-wide and in so doing will push back the frontiers of tourism knowledge. The series will also introduce a new generation of international tourism authors, writing on leading edge topics. The volumes will be readable and user- friendly, providing accessible sources for further research. The list will be underpinned by an annual authoritative tourism research volume. Books in the series will be commissioned that probe the relationship between tourism and cognate subject areas such as strategy, development, retailing, sport and environmental studies. The publisher and series editors welcome proposals from writers with projects on these topics. Other Books in the Series Managing Educational Tourism Brent W. Ritchie Recreational Tourism: Demand and Impacts Chris Ryan Coastal Mass Tourism: Diversification and Sustainable Development in Southern Europe Bill Bramwell (ed.) Sport Tourism Development Thomas Hinch and James Higham Sport Tourism: Interrelationships, Impact and Issues Brent Ritchie and Daryl Adair (eds) Tourism, Mobility and Second Homes C. Michael Hall and Dieter Müller Strategic Management for Tourism Communities: Bridging the Gaps Peter E. Murphy and Ann E. Murphy Tourism Marketing: A Collaborative Approach Alan Fyall and Brian Garrod Music and Tourism: On the Road Again Chris Gibson and John Connell Tourism Development: Issues for a Vulnerable Industry Julio Aramberri and Richard Butler (eds) Nature-Based Tourism in Peripheral Areas: Development or Disaster? C. Michael Hall and Stephen Boyd (eds) Tourism, Recreation and Climate Change C. Michael Hall and James Higham (eds) Shopping Tourism, Retailing and Leisure Dallen J. Timothy Wildlife Tourism David Newsome, Ross Dowling and Susan Moore
For more details of these or any other of our publications, please contact: Channel View Publications, Frankfurt Lodge, Clevedon Hall, Victoria Road, Clevedon, BS21 7HH, England http://www.channelviewpublications.com
ASPECTS OF TOURISM 17 Series Editors: Chris Cooper (University of Queensland, Australia), C. Michael Hall (University of Otago, New Zealand) and Dallen Timothy (Arizona State University, USA)
Oceania A Tourism Handbook Edited by
Chris Cooper and C.Michael Hall
CHANNEL VIEW PUBLICATIONS Clevedon • Buffalo • Toronto
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Oceania: A Tourism Handbook/Edited by Chris Cooper and C. Michael Hall. Aspects of Tourism: 17 1. Tourism–Oceania–Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Cooper, Chris. II. Hall, Colin Michael. III. Series. G155.O25O25 2004 338.4'79195--dc22 2004017706 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 1-873150-87-3 (hbk) Channel View Publications An imprint of Multilingual Matters Ltd UK: Frankfurt Lodge, Clevedon Hall, Victoria Road, Clevedon BS21 7HH. USA: 2250 Military Road, Tonawanda, NY 14150, USA. Canada: 5201 Dufferin Street, North York, Ontario, Canada M3H 5T8. Copyright © 2005 Chris Cooper, C. Michael Hall and the authors of individual chapters. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. Typeset by Archetype-IT Ltd (http://www.archetype-it.com). Printed and bound in Great Britain by the Cromwell Press.
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Contents Contributors 1
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Introduction Chris Cooper and C. Michael Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Part I Australia 2 Introduction to Australia Lisa Ruhanen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3 Demand for Tourism in Australia Chris Cooper and Lisa Ruhanen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 4 The Organisation of Tourism in Australia Chris Cooper and Lisa Ruhanen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 5 The Australian Tourism Industry Chris Cooper and Lisa Ruhanen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 6 Sources of Australian Tourism Statistics Lisa Ruhanen and Chris Cooper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Part II New Zealand 7 Introduction to New Zealand Peter Treloar and C. Michael Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 8 Demand for Tourism in New Zealand Peter Treloar and C. Michael Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 9 The Organisation of Tourism in New Zealand Peter Treloar and C. Michael Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 10 The New Zealand Tourism Industry Peter Treloar and C. Michael Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 11 Sources of New Zealand Tourism Statistics Peter Treloar and C. Michael Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Part III Pacific Islands 12 Introduction to the Pacific Islands Peter Treloar and C. Michael Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 v
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Tourism in the Pacific Islands Peter Treloar and C. Michael Hall . . . . American Samoa . . . . . . . . . . . Cook Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Federated States of Micronesia . Republic of Fiji Islands . . . . . . . . French Polynesia . . . . . . . . . . . Guam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kiribati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marshall Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . Nauru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New Caledonia . . . . . . . . . . . . Niue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Northern Mariana Islands . . . . . . Palau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Papua New Guinea . . . . . . . . . . Independent State of Samoa . . . . . Solomon Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . Tokelau. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tonga. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tuvalu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vanuatu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Part IV Contemporary Themes 14 Tourism Investment in the South Pacific Larry Dwyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Customary Practices and Tourism Development in the French Pacific Anne-Marie d’Hauteserre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Tourism and Air Transport in Oceania David Timothy Duval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Destination Risk Management in Oceania Jeff Wilks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Global Warming and Tourism in Oceania Stephen J. Craig-Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Tourism Education in Oceania Stephen J. Craig-Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 A Compendium of Tourism Sources for Oceania Chris Cooper, C. Michael Hall, Lisa Ruhanen and Peter Treloar. . . . . . .
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Contributors Chris Cooper is foundation professor of tourism management and head of the School of Tourism and Leisure Management at The University of Queensland. His research interests range across tourism resort development, tourism education and training and knowledge management applied to tourism. Chris Cooper School of Tourism and Leisure Management The University of Queensland 11 Salisbury Road Ipswich Queensland Australia 4305
[email protected] Stephen J. Craig-Smith is associate professor of tourism in the School of Tourism and Leisure Management at The University of Queensland. His research interests are in tourism planning, urban tourism and tourism education. Stephen J. Craig Smith School of Tourism and Leisure Management The University of Queensland 11 Salisbury Road Ipswich Queensland Australia 4305
[email protected] Dr David Timothy Duval is a lecturer in the Department of Tourism at the University of Otago. His research interests are in the fields of migration, transnationalism, mobilities, and tourism, tourism in island environments, and transport management and planning networks.
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David Timothy Duval Department of Tourism University of Otago PO Box 56 Dunedin New Zealand
[email protected] Professor Dwyer is Qantas Professor of Travel and Tourism Economics at the University of New South Wales. He publishes widely in the areas of tourism economics and tourism management. Larry Dwyer Qantas Professor of Travel and Tourism Economics Centre for Tourism Policy Studies School of Economics University of New South Wales Sydney New South Wales Australia 2052
[email protected] Dr Anne-Marie d’Hauteserre is tourism programme coordinator in the department of geography at the University of Waikato. Her research interests are in applying geographic concepts and critical social science theories to tourism destinations and their changing relations with surrounding communities. Anne-Marie d’Hauteserre Department of Geography University of Waikato Private Bag 3105 Hamilton New Zealand
[email protected] C. Michael Hall is professor and head of the Department of Tourism, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. He is honorary professor in the department of Marketing, University of Stirling, Scotland and co-editor of Current Issues in Tourism. Michael Hall Department of Tourism University of Otago PO Box 55
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Dunedin New Zealand
[email protected] Peter Treloar is a teaching assistant at the University of Otago. He has particular research interests in wine tourism destination marketing and event and conference management. Peter Treloar Teaching Assistant Department of Tourism University of Otago PO Box 55 Dunedin New Zealand
[email protected] Lisa Ruhanen is a research assistant in the School of Tourism and Leisure Management at The University of Queensland. Her research interests are in strategic tourism planning and destination visioning. Lisa Ruhanen School of Tourism and Leisure Management The University of Queensland 11 Salisbury Road Ipswich QLD 4305 Australia
[email protected] Professor Wilks is the Director of the Centre for Tourism and Risk Management at The University of Queensland, Australia. His research interests are in the health and safety of tourists. Jeff Wilks Centre for Tourism and Risk Management School of Tourism and Leisure Management The University of Queensland 11 Salisbury Road Ipswich QLD 4305 Australia
[email protected]
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Chapter 1
Introduction
Oceania is defined as Australia, New Zealand and the islands of the Pacific east of Indonesia and the Philippines. As such it is part of the most buoyant tourism region in the world – East Asia and the Pacific – a region that is forecast to receive a quarter of the world’s international tourists by 2020 (WTO, 1998). However, as a tourism destination, Oceania’s tourism volumes will remain modest as they are constrained by the huge distances involved in travelling in the region, indeed distance pervades any discussion of tourism in Oceania – the Pacific Ocean covers almost one-third of the earth’s surface, yet contains a fraction of the earth’s population (Harrison, 2003) (Figure 1.1). This is not only in terms of intra-regional travel across the Pacific, and indeed travel within the region’s largest landmass – Australia, but also the ‘tyranny of distance’ to the world’s tourism markets. Effectively this means that Oceania will never rival the tourism volumes of, say, Europe or the Caribbean – despite the proximity of the generating markets of Asia. Nonetheless, governments across the region have recognised the economic importance of tourism for income, jobs, investment and regional development. They have realised that, increasingly, tourism is becoming more important than the primary industries that were once allimportant in the majority of region’s countries. This is clearly demonstrated by the World Travel and Tourism Council’s statistics for the economic significance of tourism in Oceania shown in Table 1.11; indeed tourism is often the only real development option for many of the Pacific islands. The very nature of Oceania as a tourism destination means that large volumes of tourism are inappropriate. Effective management of tourism is needed to conserve and protect the region’s rich natural and cultural resources – Australia, for example, has a total of 14 World Heritage sites, both Australia and New Zealand have native flora and fauna, whilst the Pacific and its islands have fragile reefs, eco-systems and indigenous cultures. Of course, the stereotyped image of much of the region is of crystal clear waters and swaying palm trees and, whilst this may be true for the Pacific islands and tropical Australia, the region also has many other types of tourism. Both Australia and New Zealand have significant business and conference tourism in the major urban centres, host world-class events such as the Olympic 1
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Oceania Introduction
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Figure 1.1 Oceania
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Oceania
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Introduction
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Games, the America’s Cup and Formula One Grand Prix, and act as settings for films such as the Lord of the Rings trilogy. It is difficult to draw generalisations across the tourism destinations of Oceania. Aside from the tourism products themselves, there is also great variation in tourism supply across Oceania. Accommodation, for example, ranges from the ‘profitless-volume’ high-rise units of the Gold Coast in Australia and parts of Hawaii, through the local home stays in the Pacific islands to 5 star lodges in New Zealand. Transportation too across the region is changing as both new budget airlines and also Asian carriers challenge the dominance of the national carriers such as Qantas and Air New Zealand. The organisation of tourism in the region showcases some of the best practice available worldwide. Both Australia and New Zealand have excellent national tourism administrations and policies, whilst the newly formed South Pacific Tourism Organisation is one of the few truly international tourism agencies in the world. Demand for tourism in Oceania has suffered at the hands of the Asian currency crisis in the late 1990s and more recently due to world events, which have not only reduced overall demand for travel but have also acted to cut airline capacity in the region. With the great distances involved, this is a severe constraint on tourism development in Oceania. Inbound volumes of tourism to Oceania are concentrated in Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii, but in both New Zealand and Australia it is the domestic market that has remained strong in the early years of the 21st century. The domestic market has delivered much-needed bed nights to support the tourism sector when the international market has declined. These paragraphs are a generalisation from a region that is rich in tourism products and examples. This volume draws together a wide range of sources to provide a comprehensive handbook of tourism in Oceania. As tourism grows in importance and significance in the countries of Oceania it is helpful to have a single source of information and reference for tourism. At the same time, this handbook attempts to provide a disciplined analysis of tourism by standardising terminologies and delivering a consistency of approach for all the countries in the region. The handbook is organised into four parts. The first three parts provide an anatomy of tourism in the region by taking a detailed look at each of the three key constituents of Oceania – Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific islands. For each of these regions we have analysed tourism demand, supply and organisation. In addition, for both Australia and New Zealand, we have devoted a chapter for each country to guide the reader through the sources of tourism statistics available. The final part of the handbook takes a thematic approach with invited chapters examining key issues of tourism in the region. Here we identified investment, air transport, risk management, land ownership, climate change and tourism education as critical to the future of the region’s tourism development.
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This has not been an easy volume to assemble. Partly this is due to the plethora of material on Australia and New Zealand, compared to the much more sparse sources for many of the Pacific islands. However, the handbook has also demonstrated the lack of consistency of tourism sources, statistics and terminology. This is nothing new to tourism researchers, of course, but is a cause for concern as tourism claims its place as one of the leading economic sectors not just in this region, but also worldwide. Stalwarts of putting this handbook together have been Lisa Ruhanen and Peter Treloar, as well as the authors of the themed chapters – Steve Craig-Smith, Anne-Marie d’Hauteserre, David Duval, Larry Dwyer and Jeff Wilks. As ever, Mike Grover and his team at Channel View have been at once patient, encouraging and supportive. Chris Cooper, Brisbane, Australia C. Michael Hall, Dunedin, New Zealand September 2003 Note 1. Throughout this volume, Tables have generally been presented at the end of the relevant chapter or section.
Table 1.1 The economic significance of tourism in Oceania Direct impact
Direct impact % of the economy
Direct and indirect impact
Direct and indirect impact % of the economy
Forecast growth to 2013 % annualised real growth
739,990
6.0
1,750,930
14.2
2.4
66.0
12.9
5.0
Exports
21.6
16.6
7.3
Capital investment
17.2
15.3
3.9
3.8
4.2
2.7
Jobs
US$ billions Gross domestic product
Government expenditure Source: WTTC (2003)
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27.9
US$ billions 5.5
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Part I
Australia
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Part I: Australia Introduction to Australia
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Chapter 2
Introduction to Australia LISA RUHANEN Australia is a unique and diverse country with great variations in its geography, society and culture. Popular icons have served to encapsulate Australia’s way of life such as food (Vegemite, lamingtons and Anzac biscuits); people (bushrangers and the early settlers); and legends such as the Anzacs and Ned Kelly that symbolise the Australian spirit (Womersley & Richmond, 2001). With a coastal-based population, the popularity of the beach has an important place in the national psyche, but the over-riding Australian image is of the ‘bush’, conjuring up images of the hardships of the first settlers, and unique and ancient landscapes (Womersley & Richmond, 2001). However, although these may be the traditional icons of Australian life, immigration, urbanisation and economic diversification have seen the country grow into a contemporary and sophisticated society with large, modern cities comparable to other western nations around the world. Australia’s tourism product reflects these changes as it develops and moves beyond the stereotypical images of the beach and the bush. As a consequence, Australia is attracting increasing numbers of visitors who are seeking to experience the cultural, heritage and food and wine products which are becoming important components of the tourism industry.
Geography The Commonwealth of Australia comprises six States, two mainland Territories and a number of external Territories, including a number of islands; Norfolk, Heard, the McDonald’s, Jervis, Cocos (Keeling), Christmas, Ashmore, Cartier and the Coral Sea Islands as well as the Australian Antarctic Territory (Encarta Encyclopedia, 2001) (Figure 2.1). Located in the southern hemisphere, Australia is the largest island nation in the world at 7,682,300 square kilometres and is approximately the same size as the United States (excluding Alaska). The country extends for approximately 4000 kilometres from east to west and 3700 kilometres from north to south, with a coastline of 25,760 kilometres. The country is bounded by the Arufa Sea to the north, the Pacific Ocean to the east, the Southern Ocean to the south and the Indian Ocean to the west (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002). Table 2.1 7
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Figure 2.1 Australia
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Part I: Australia
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outlines selected information on the States and Territories of the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia’s diverse and unique geographical and natural features form the basis of the country’s tourist appeal and attractions. Australia is one of the lowest, flattest and driest continents on earth, with three main geographical regions; the Eastern Highlands, the Central Lowlands and the Western Plateau (Darlington, 2001). • The Eastern Highlands extend across the continent from Cape York Peninsula in the north to the southernmost point of Tasmania. The coastal plains of the Eastern Highlands are separated from the interior of the country by the Great Dividing Range, a mountainous region averaging approximately 1200 metres in height, incorporating the Blue Mountains near Sydney, the Australian Alps in Victoria and the highest peak in Australia – the 2228 metre Mount Kosciusko in New South Wales (Encarta Encyclopedia, 2001). The majority of Australia’s cities and tourist facilities are located along the eastern coastal fringe and this is the most densely populated area of the country, housing more than three-quarters of the country’s population. The eastern coastline of Australia is popular for its beaches, bays and capes, with a number of natural harbours in Hobart, Port Lincoln and Albany and the well-known Sydney Harbour. Also located along the eastern coastline is one of Australia’s best-known natural assets and most popular tourist destinations, the Great Barrier Reef. The Reef is the largest known coral formation in the world, extending approximately 2010 kilometres along the northeastern coast of Queensland and is reputed to be between 2 million and 18 million years old. • The Central Lowlands are a series of vast rolling plains that extend from the Great Dividing Range to the Western Plateau and are characterised by a series of salt lakes, vast plains and low plateaus. Although mostly uninhabited the area is popular with both domestic and international visitors who are seeking an ‘outback’ experience and who desire to witness the great diversity of the Australian continent. • The Western Plateau, which is mostly desert, extends from central Australia to the Western Australia coastline and covers over two-thirds of the continent (Darlington, 2001). The fact that much of the centre of Australia is flat enhances the significance of one of its greatest natural icons, Uluru (Ayers Rock). A significant tourism attraction, Uluru is believed to be the largest monolith in the world, at 348 metres high and 9 kilometres around its base (Encarta Encyclopedia, 2001). A continent the size of Australia results in a range of vastly different climatic zones with extreme temperature fluctuations common. Approximately half of the country lies above the Tropic of Capricorn and therefore is within the tropical zone, with the remainder in the temperate (or subtropical zone). In the northern tropical
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Part I: Australia
areas of Australia, the summer months, between October and March are known as the wet season, when the area experiences high temperatures and humidity, heavy rainfall, storms and cyclonic conditions. During this time much of northern Australia becomes inaccessible and it is generally not desirable for tourists to visit during this season. During the remainder of the year the region is generally hot but does not experience the high rainfall and cyclonic extremes of the wet season. Through the populated coastal areas of Australia, from Southern Queensland to the southeast of the continent the climate is generally more temperate, although summer and winter temperature extremes are possible. In some parts of inland New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania large areas can be covered in snow and Australia’s ski resorts are located here. Throughout the interior of the continent there are very high temperatures in summer during the day, and lower temperatures at night, typical of a desert climate. In winter the days are still warm but at night the temperatures can be below freezing (Womersley & Richmond, 2001). Australia is also susceptible to extreme weather phenomenon, including cyclones, droughts, floods and bushfires. One of Australia’s biggest tourism drawcards is its natural environment, and numerous conservation mechanisms have been implemented to protect it for future generations. Australia has 14 World Heritage sites including the Wet Tropics and Fraser Island in Queensland, the virgin rainforest areas of Tasmania and the Blue Mountains in New South Wales. Since the first national park was declared in 1879 the area of national parks in Australia has expanded considerably to over 30 million hectares or 3.9% of the country.
Society Aboriginal Australia The first inhabitants, the Aborigines, migrated to Australia about 40,000 years ago, most likely from Southeast Asia during a period when low sea levels permitted simple forms of land and water travel. The Aborigines, although nomadic had a strong sense of place and intimate knowledge of their home landscapes (Encarta Encyclopedia, 2001). At the time of European settlement in 1788, there was an estimated Aborigine population of 300,000, with tribes in all parts of the country, but during the first century of white settlement, the Aboriginal population declined substantially due to the introduction of diseases from which they were not immune, social and cultural disruptions and mistreatment. By the 1920s the population had been reduced to only 60,000. More than 70% of Aborigines now live in urban areas, with traditional life maintained in small enclaves in the more remote locations of the north and centre of the continent (Encarta Encyclopedia, 2001). Collectively, Aborigines generally have lower social and economic opportunities than other Australians. However, Aboriginal communities all over Australia have begun to embrace the opportunities offered by tourism, which allows them to maintain and
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celebrate a more traditional way of life. International visitors are increasingly seeking authentic Aboriginal tourism experiences, where they can learn about customs, dances, folklore and rock art. Aboriginal tourism is becoming an important component of Australia’s cultural tourism market. European Australia From the early 1400s Europeans began exploring many parts of the southern hemisphere and mapped the continent’s coastline. In 1770 the ‘Great Southern Land’ was finally claimed for England and the continent was named New South Wales. In 1786 the British government decided to establish a penal colony at New South Wales to alleviate the severe overcrowding of Britain’s gaols and Sydney still features some of the settlement’s original buildings. During the early years of the settlement there were a number of difficulties to be faced in the harsh, strange climate, including famine and drought and ongoing struggles with the Aborigines. However, despite this the settlement continued to grow and expand. Explorers began mapping the interior of the country; new penal settlements were opened in Victoria, Tasmania and Norfolk Island to support the continued deportation of convicts, and free settlers also began to migrate to Australia to establish farms to support the growing colony. By 1840 most of the southeastern parts of the continent had been occupied by Europeans, along with parts of Western Australia, South Australia and Queensland, all of which became self-governing colonies (Barwick & Barwick, 2000). In 1840 the British government ended transportation to New South Wales, although it continued in Tasmania until 1853, Norfolk Island until 1856 and in Western Australia until 1868, by which time more than 160,000 men, women and children had been sent to Australia as convicts (Darlington, 2001; Womersley & Richmond, 2001). Travel has been commonplace for Australians since the first settlement. The need to open new lands and establish industries and towns caused the constant dispersal of people across Australia, which created an early habit of mobility and enterprise (Piesse, 2002). Initially tourism developed in the resorts surrounding the main population centres, such as the Blue Mountains near Sydney and the hill and coastal resorts close to Melbourne and other major cities, facilitated by horse-drawn and later motor coach transport and rail. As transportation advanced travel increased steadily, particularly by rail and sea, with passenger ships providing links between ports across the country. In the years following World War II, the advent of new and improved methods of transportation, coupled with rises in the standard of living and the marketing of foreign destinations, saw international travel increasing considerably (Piesse, 2002), particularly with the establishment and growth of air services. Australia’s British heritage saw the population’s way of life initially reflecting that of the early settlers, but customs were modified as the settlers adapted to the
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new country and the extremities of its climate. A culture evolved that, although based on British traditions, was unique to Australia. This culture has become increasingly sophisticated and has been promoted by government subsidies for the arts and the provision of improved facilities. Many cities and towns have built or expanded art galleries and performing arts centres with the Sydney Opera House being one of Australia’s premier icons. Australian society in the 21st century In 2001, Australia’s population was 18,972,350, which represents an increase of 6% since the 1996 census (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002d). Table 2.2 presents selected demographic data for the Australian State capitals. Other key characteristics of the Australian population from the 2001 Australian Bureau of Statistics census include: • The median age of the population was 35 years, with an increase in the proportion of people aged 65 years and over (12.6% of the population), with 20.7% of people aged between 0–14 years. The Australian population is continuing to age as a result of low fertility and increased life expectancy. • The proportion of females (50.7%) is slightly higher than males (49.3%). • The majority of the Australian population were Australian born (71.8%) and English was the only language spoken at home by 79.1% of the population. • Over 410,000 Australian’s identify as being of Indigenous origins which represents 2.2% of the total (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002d). As is the case with much of the western world, Australia’s demographic and socio-cultural circumstances are changing. Greater affluence, increased leisure time, a high percentage of women participating in the workforce, greater life expectancy and changes in family structures, have seen Australians increasingly engaging in travel both internationally and domestically (Hall, 1998). Other factors such as a high rate of car ownership amongst the population have seen the Australian domestic market expand considerably. Domestic travel is a major component of the Australian tourism industry and has led to investment in the development of new and improved facilities, especially accommodation, at dispersed points around Australia, and to modifications in the organisation and methods of tourist administration, development and promotion (Piesse, 2002).
Political Structure The nation of Australia officially began in 1901 when the six colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia became States under the central authority of the Commonwealth of Australia. Later two Territories were added to the Commonwealth, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory (Darlington, 2001). The Australian
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parliamentary system is based upon British and American government models, with two parliamentary houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Australia is managed by a federal system of administration – the official title of the federal government is the Commonwealth Government of Australia. The Commonwealth Government is formed from the party that has the most members in the House of Representatives and the leader of the party is the country’s prime minister. At the federal level, the Commonwealth Government has authority over matters affecting the entire nation such as the national economy, the welfare system, national defence and immigration. While not having explicit control over tourism it does have a facilitation and coordination role and establishes the general framework within which tourism operates, and also has a legal responsibility for areas that impinge on tourism such as quarantine, customs and excise, corporations and international trade (Hall, 1998). The Commonwealth Government does fund a ministerial department, a tourism marketing commission, and a national tourism research body. The State and Territory governments are responsible for health, education, transportation and other matters that fall within their borders and have a far more substantial role in tourism than the Commonwealth Government. The States and Territories are primarily responsible for infrastructure, facility development, planning and the regulation of tourism located within their jurisdiction (Hall, 1998). Each of the States and Territories has a tourism agency responsible for, among other things, the planning and marketing of tourism. Hall (1998) finds that there is often little difference between the tourism objectives of the States and the Commonwealth resulting in an overlap of responsibilities. Australia’s political structure also includes a local government system that has authority over local issues such as parks, housing and roads and derives its powers from the respective State or Territory government. Local government plays an important and often entrepreneurial role in tourism development and spatial planning (Hall, 1998). Further involvement in tourism usually relates to the provision of public services and facilities that are used by both residents and visitors alike and local tourism marketing through the provision of visitor information centres and promotional literature.
Economy Traditionally Australia has been a large producer of primary products. Economic sectors such as the pastoral industry have been one of the country’s economic mainstays since the early days of settlement and have played a significant role in Australia’s economic and historical development. The growth in the wool industry resulted in considerable advances in the Australian economy, and local manufacturing industries were established in response to these new market opportunities.
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Part I: Australia
Gold surpassed wool as Australia’s major export earner throughout the 1850s and 1860s, resulting in a rapid expansion of banking and commerce (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002). In the 21st century, service industries such as tourism have played a much greater role in the economy as the contributions from goods-producing industries have declined. This can be seen in Table 1.3. Tourism has become a significant economic sector for Australia. For the period 2000/2001, tourism’s contribution to Gross Domestic Product exceeded that of government administration and defence, agriculture, forestry and fishing, communication services, electricity, gas and water supply, accommodation, cafes and restaurants, personal and other services, and cultural and recreational services (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002l). In 2000/2001 the tourism sector accounted for AU$31.8 billion of total Gross Domestic Product, making it one of the economy’s most lucrative sectors. Tourism also makes a significant contribution to employment and Australia’s exports. Contribution to total employment in 2000/2001 was 6% and the industry contributed 11.2% of Australia’s total exports of goods and services (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002l).
Conclusion Optimistic tourism leaders predict that by the year 2020 Australia will be receiving approximately 20 million visitors annually. Whether this forecast is realistic or not, Australia’s international and domestic visitor numbers are set to continually increase, and this will impact upon the country’s natural, social and cultural resources. The challenge is for government authorities, management agencies and the tourism industry to ensure a balance between growth and sustainability objectives so that Australia’s tourism assets can be enjoyed by future generations of residents and visitors.
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Table 2.1 States and Territories of the Commonwealth of Australia State/Territory
Area (km2)
New South Wales
800,640
10.4
2,140
6,532
Sydney
Victoria
227,420
3.0
2,510
4,829
Melbourne
1,730,650
22.5
13,550
3,628
Brisbane
983,480
12.8
5,070
1,502
Adelaide
2,529,880
32.9
20,780
1,910
Perth
68,400
0.9
4,880
470
Northern Territory
1,349,130
17.54
10,950
198
Darwin
Australian Capital Territory
2,360
0.03
–
314
Canberra
59,740
19,387
Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania
Total
7,691,960
Percentage Length of Population Capital city of country coastline (km) (’000) 2002
100
Hobart
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002)
Table 2.2 Demographic data by Australian State capital, 2001 Persons (’000)
Sydney – NSW Melbourne - VIC Brisbane - QLD
Adelaide - SA
Persons (’000)
3,997.3
3 366.5
1,627.5
1,072.6
Males (’000)
1,967.7
1,647.9
794.5
522.0
Females (’000)
2,029.6
1,718.7
730.3
507.9
Median age
34
34
33
37
Persons born in Australia (%)
62.2
65.7
74.6
72.2
Persons (’000) Persons 2001 (’000)
Perth - WA
Hobart - TAS
Darwin - NT
Canberra - ACT
1,340.0
191.2
109.4
311.5
Males (’000)
656.8
92.6
57.1
153.2
Females (’000)
609.6
92.4
51.7
158.4
Median age
34
36
32
32
Persons born in Australia (%)
63.6
83.6
72.7
73.8
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002d) Note: NSW = New South Wales; VIC =Victoria; QLD = Queensland; SA = South Australia; WA = Western Australia; TAS = Tasmania; NT = Northern Territory; ACT = Australian Capital Territory
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Table 2.3 Industry contributions to the Australian Economy, 1999/2000 Industry
Contribution to Gross Domestic Product
Contribution to total employment
AU$m
%
%
Agriculture, forestry, fishing
18,717
3.0
4.9
Mining
27,559
4.4
0.8
Manufacturing
76,698
12.1
13.0
Electricity, gas, water supply
12,049
1.9
0.7
Construction
37,106
5.9
7.8
Wholesale trade
32,863
5.2
4.9
Retail trade
32,736
5.2
14.6
Accommodation, cafes, restaurants
12,983
2.1
5.0
Transport and storage
35,267
5.6
4.6
Communication services
18,812
3.0
2.0
Finance and insurance
41,615
6.6
3.7
Property and business services
74,192
11.7
11.3
Government administration and defence
23,289
3.7
3.8
Education
28,011
4.4
6.8
Health and community services
34,482
5.5
9.5
Cultural and recreational services
10,573
1.7
2.4
Personal and other services
15,020
2.4
3.9
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002)
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Chapter 3
Demand for Tourism in Australia CHRIS COOPER AND LISA RUHANEN
Introduction Demand for tourism in Australia has been influenced by two key factors (Hall, 1998): • the distance of Australia from major generating markets; and • the large size distances between major urban centres in Australia. This means that significant inbound tourism volumes remain out of reach for Australia, leaving domestic tourism as the mainstay of Australian tourism, representing around 75% of activity. Capital cities form relatively self-contained domestic tourism markets whilst Australia’s ageing population means that both outbound and domestic travel products have to adapt to the changing circumstances of the market. Australia’s inbound markets are also ageing, with the consequent need to change products and promotional messages.
Economic Significance of Tourism Demand The contribution of tourism to Australia’s economy can be measured from the Australian tourism satellite accounts. Here, visitor consumption includes all expenditure on goods and services in Australia by visitors. For Australia, tourism impacts upon the economic sectors of accommodation, food and beverage, transport and retail, whilst the indirect impact of tourism is felt across a broader range of economic sectors. Tourism is also a significant economic factor in both the income and spending of government in Australia. It is estimated that tourism demand directly contributed 4.3% to Gross Domestic Product in 2000/2001. The majority of this was contributed by domestic demand (76%), followed by international visitors (24%). For domestic demand, overnight visits account for 77% of consumption and daytrips 23%. In 1999/2000 by industry sector, transportation accounted for 18% of consumption; retailing (16%); food and 17
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beverage (15%); and accommodation (9%). The regions of Australia benefit significantly from the economic effects of tourism. Tourism employed 551,000 persons in 2000/2001 representing 6% of Australia’s total workforce (rising to 10% if indirect employment is taken into account). The retail sector employed 27% and the accommodation sector 18% of this total. Over one-third of employees work part-time. The majority of tourism businesses (80–90%) are small and employ fewer than 20 people, making up about one-half of the tourism workforce. By 2010 it is estimated that tourism will directly generate a further 200,000 new jobs.
Demand for Inbound Tourism to Australia The ‘tyranny of distance’ has held back the growth of inbound tourism to Australia, with the majority of visitors either coming to settle in Australia, or to do business there. Until the 1980s, Australia was not important as a holiday destination, the great majority of visitors being for business or visiting friends and relatives (VFR) purposes. In the last 20 years of the 20th century visitation increased significantly, particularly from Asia, as Asian markets developed and transport links were enhanced. In the 1980s and 1990s growth rates for inbound tourism accelerated, and by the end of the 1990s Australia was receiving arrivals of almost 4.5 million, a 9% increase in arrivals from approximately 2 million in 1990 (Table 3.1). In 2002 inbound arrivals had risen to 4.8 million, which is effectively a doubling of inbound volume on 1990. In part, this has been due to the promotional efforts of both the Australian Tourist Commission (ATC) and the Australian State governments. In turn these arrivals are delivering considerable export earnings to the Australian economy (11.2% of total exports), and record spending per visitor. In the early years of the 21st century international tourism has continued to grow significantly, boosted by the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games, and the depreciation of the Australian dollar against other currencies. There were fears that international arrivals would fall following the Olympics and promotional campaigns and a post-Olympics strategy were put in place to minimise the ‘post Olympics’ effect. Specifically, the impact of the 2000 Olympics on tourism demand were: • 110,000 international visitors; • AU$6.1 billion economic benefit; and • 150 new jobs. In 2001, there were a total of 4.8 million visitors to Australia, a fall of 2.6% on the year 2000, partly due to world events (see case study). By 2002 the decline had levelled off with virtually no change in the volume of inbound tourists. In terms of purpose of visit, business and professional reasons have increased substantially since the 1990s, representing 10% of all visits (Table 3.2). However,
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well over half of all international visitors arrive on holiday trips. Visiting friends and relatives (VFR) tourism is decreasing in importance (especially from Britain and Ireland) as holiday tourism becomes more important; nonetheless it represents almost 20% of all visits. Length of stay tends to be long given the distances travelled to reach Australia – in 1999/2000 21% of visitors stayed for at least a month (Table 3.3). The longest lengths of stay are by visitors from Europe (38 days), Asia (30 days) and North America (27 days). As Asian markets have developed and transport links enhanced, the traditional markets of Europe, New Zealand and the USA are becoming relatively less important (Table 3.4). Increased transport links with South Africa since the dismantling of apartheid have also boosted arrivals from South Africa. The main inbound markets for Australia are: • New Zealand is Australia’s number one market. This is despite the failure of Ansett, and the consequent changes to trans-Tasman routes. Other airlines have entered the route and New Zealand travellers have chosen Australia in preference to alternative long-haul destinations – perceived as unsafe – in the post-September 11th environment. • North America, though as a market it was strongly affected by the September 11th attacks, and developments in the air transport market. These included: – the failure of Ansett (as no Star Alliance partner served Australian domestic routes); – changing structures in the Canadian airline sector; and – the fact that Qantas reduced capacity on North American routes. • the UK/Ireland, both important generating markets for Australia, displaying considerable resilience. • Asia, where Japan remains important, despite being a market that was markedly affected by September 11th and the Ansett collapse. A growing number of tourists come from Singapore, Hong Kong, and other Asian countries, and many of these are in the student category. China has the potential to become a major generating market for Australia, particularly in the group travel segment and with younger and family groups. New South Wales is the most popular State for international visitors with almost 40% of all nights, followed by Queensland with over a fifth of nights (Tables 3.5 and 3.6). The International Visitor Survey (IVS) shows that the great majority of foreign visitors to Australia arrive in Sydney or Melbourne and few travel beyond New South Wales, Victoria or Queensland to take advantage of lower fares offered by the major domestic airlines. This is despite attempts to spread arrivals to other gateways (such as Perth) and the fact that the impact of deregulation of the domestic airlines in 1991 reduced prices and increased choice. As would be expected, the ma-
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Part I: Australia
jority of tourists travel to Australia by air and the percentage of tourists arriving in Australia by sea is slowly decreasing. The distribution of tourists by age group is shown in Table 3.7. The Tourism Forecasting Council predict international arrivals to increase by less than 5% per annum in the period 2001–2012 to reach 7.6 million visitors by 2012. Particularly strong markets for the first decade of the 21st century are Asia (especially China and Korea), the UK and the USA. Arrivals have been boosted by mega-events in the period, including the Rugby World Cup in 2003, and no doubt will be further boosted by the Commonwealth Games in 2006. However, the impact of international tension, acts of terrorism and heightened security alerts, allied to weak global economic growth, have reduced the optimism of inbound forecasts.
Australian Domestic Tourism Demand Domestic tourism is the ‘lifeblood’ of the Australian tourist industry, accounting for well over two-thirds of total visitation. Domestic tourism is particularly important to the economies of rural Australia, although it is the metropolitan areas that have shown growth. The early settlers in Australia were the first domestic tourists, often farmers travelling from the rural areas to the towns. The large size of Australia, coupled with the large distances between major urban centres, means that domestic tourism is mainly restricted to near city, often coastal destinations (Hall, 1998). Domestic travel by Australians, both for overnight and day trips has been depressed in the later years of the 1990s and the early years of the 21st century – estimates suggest that in any one year 30% of working Australians do not take a holiday. At best, demand for overnight trips is flat and day trips have registered a decline, despite population increases and a strong economy. There are concerns that in the economy as a whole, domestic tourism is losing its share of spending to other consumer purchases, whilst the drought of 2002/2003 has affected regional economies and changed tourists’ purchasing patterns. In response, the Australian Tourist Commission instigated the ‘See Australia’ campaign, which encourages Australians to take the time to have an Australian holiday. Overnight trips Each year Australians over the age of 15 take, on average, at least five trips involving a stay away from home, and travel has become an important element of discretionary spending, increasing travel propensities. In 2001 the domestic market was worth almost 290 million nights, with an average stay of four nights (Table 3.8). This represents a flattening of demand, as visitors take more, but shorter trips, consequently reducing the total number of nights. However, in 2002 and 2003, international events keeping Australians at home, boosted the domestic market. As would be expected, the volume of domestic tourism is closely related to the popula-
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tion size of each State, with Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria clearly dominating. The key features of domestic tourism are as follows: • New South Wales is the most popular destination (around one-third of visitor nights), followed by Queensland (around one-quarter of visitor nights), and Victoria (18% of visitor nights). However, Victoria is increasing its relative share of the market (Table 3.9). • Intrastate trips dominate, being more than twice the volume of interstate trips. • Almost half of all trips are taken for pleasure purposes, followed by VFR (29%) and business (15%) (Table 3.10). • As would be expected, air travel dominates for interstate trips, whilst private vehicles are the dominant transport mode for intrastate trips (Table 3.11). • It is a seasonal market, peaking in the summer months and school holiday periods. • The most commonly used accommodation is staying with friends and relatives (40% of visitor nights). This reflects a trend away from the traditional caravan parks to hotel/motel accommodation, and staying with friends and relatives. • Table 3.12 shows the demographic profile of domestic tourists. Overall forecasts for domestic tourism reflect the very flat growth experienced since the late 1990s. The Tourism Forecasting Council predict an average annual growth rate of 0.5% to 2012 giving a total of 314.0 million visitor nights by 2012. Business tourism is forecast to grow at a slightly greater rate. Day trips Day trips are defined by the Australian Bureau of Statistics as a round trip of 50 kilometres or more with no overnight stay. The day trip market in Australia has been in steady decline, with 146 million trips taken by Australians in 2001 (Table 3.13). Of these trips, leisure dominates (52%) followed by VFR (30%) and business (9%). Spending on day trips is pre-dominantly on retailing, fuel and food and beverage and represents around one-quarter of the spend of overnight visitors. Most trips are taken within States except for the small Australia Capital Territory where 95% of trips are taken out of the State. As would be expected, Australians tend to use private motor vehicles for day trips (91% of all trips) (Table 3.14).
Demand for Outbound Tourism from Australia Australia is the largest generator of international tourism in the Southern Hemisphere, with over 3.4 million trips taken in 2001/2002 and spending of over 4500 Australian dollars (per trip). The number of Australian residents travelling abroad
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has been increasing over the last decade due to greater economic prosperity, the desire to maintain cultural and personal links with other countries and the reducing cost of international travel as a result of competition and technology. In the 1999/2000 period the growth in inbound visitors was almost double that of outbound visitors (9% and 5% respectively) resulting in a positive balance on Australia’s travel account (Table 3.15). The following are key features of Australians’ outbound tourism: • The majority of Australian tourists who travel abroad are residents of the two most prosperous States – New South Wales and Victoria. • Europe is the most visited destination. Other popular destinations include the USA, New Zealand, the Pacific Islands (such as Fiji, Vanuatu and New Caledonia) and Asia (Thailand and Bali). The relative decline of the Australian dollar has impacted upon destination choice, although its recovery in 2003/2004 has stimulated demand for outbound travel (Table 3.16). • Purpose of visit is dominated by leisure (45%); followed by VFR (25%) and business (17%). Both business and VFR travel are increasing as the purpose of visit (Table 3.17). • The long-haul nature of Australians’ travel, allied to the high percentage of VFR traffic, means that lengths of stay are long – almost one third of travellers stay overseas for a month or longer, particular those travelling to Europe (Table 3.18). • Travel overseas by Australians does not demonstrate a strong seasonal trend. Short-term forecasts predict a continual rise in numbers of Australians travelling overseas, particularly as the Australian dollar makes foreign destinations competitive with domestic distinations. Also, some of the factors that kept Australians at home in previous years – the Sydney Olympics and the outbreak of foot and mouth disease in the UK – are less relevant. In the longer term, the Tourism Forecasting Council predict an annual growth rate of 2.9% for outbound travel between 2001 and 2012 giving a total of 4.6 million trips in 2012. Case study The impact of September 11th 2001 terrorist attacks, the Ansett collapse and the 2002 Bali bombings on Australia’s tourism demand September 11th and the collapse of Ansett There is no doubt that the twin events of the September 11th terrorist attacks and the collapse of Australia’s second airline, Ansett, also in September 2001, were
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two significant and related shocks to the tourism sector in Australia, with a consequent impact upon the demand for tourism in Australia. This is because the September 11th attacks severely impacted upon international demand, whilst the collapse ofAnsett had major repercussions for domestic demand. In response, the Prime Minister of Australia established a ‘Tourism Industry Working Group’ (TIWG) to assess the impacts of September 11th and the Ansett collapse and to make recommendations for recovery strategies. The impact International arrivals were affected immediately following September 11th with a decline of 12% of international arrivals in September 2001 compared to 2000. 2001 September October
November December
Monthly % change (international arrivals) –3.6 –10.8 –3.6 +13.4
2002 January
–1.6
February
+2.1
March
+5.1
Taking a longer-term comparison, it appears that October and November 2001 were the months most affected. Clearly, these dramatic falls in international arrivals had severe economic effects. Overall, the TIWG estimated that Australia’s GDP declined by 0.6% in the final quarter of 2001, a loss of AU$1 billion to the economy. In addition, the December quarter for 2001 demonstrated a 15% decline in exports and 0.3% decline in employment (including Ansett employees). Whilst the greatest impact was felt in that quarter, it is estimated that the effects will be felt for up to two years after the events. Most tourism indicators declined in the final quarter of 2001, but recovered in the first half of 2002. Although it is possible to discern clearly the impact of these events on tourism in Australia, it must be remembered that immediate comparisons to tourism in September 2000 are problematic as this was an atypical year due to the Sydney Olympics and introduction of the Goods and Services Tax. In terms of the accommodation sector, occupancy rates fell slightly in September 2001, but by less than 5% and the decline continued throughout the quarter. Effectively, the higher the star rating of the establishment, the greater was the impact of September 11th and the collapse of Ansett – serviced apartments and
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motels were less affected. Similarly takings were also down in the final quarter of 2001, by an average of around 4%. The collapse of Ansett saw the rise of domestic airfares across Australia – averaging 4% – as well as the imposition of levies on airfares to assist Ansett employees and to cover extra insurance charges following September 11th. In addition, Ansett’s demise left bad debts across the industry. On the international scene, Qantas began reducing services on some routes. For the sector as a whole, the following parts of the tourism industry bore the greatest impact of the two events: • businesses based in metropolitan areas; • larger businesses; • the transport, intermediaries and accommodation/food and beverage sectors; • businesses in the leisure sector; and • casual staff. The response In response to these events, the TIWG recommended that: • Australia seize the opportunity to promote itself as a safe haven; • Government support be provided to encourage visitation to regional Australia; and • a range of incentives and packages for tourism businesses and the aviation sector should be initiated. Responding to these recommendations, the Australian Tourist Commission began aggressive promotional campaigns. The markets most affected initially were the USA and New Zealand, whilst some markets actually grew – the UK, Japan, Singapore and China. The impact of the Bali bombings The Bali bombings of October 2002 severely impacted on Australians travelling to Indonesia, with cancellations occurring immediately. The Commonwealth Department of Tourism states that the impacts include: • travel agents with high exposure to Bali outbound have been most affected; • Qantas redirected Bali aircraft to domestic tropical/beach destinations and the South Pacific; and • some reorientation of cruise liners away from South East Asian ports to Australia.
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Australians who, prior to the October bombings, were intending to travel to Indonesia changed their destination but not their intention to travel. In other words, they substituted other destinations for Bali, including: • • • •
Queensland resorts in Australia; other destinations in Australia and New Zealand; the Indian Ocean islands; and the Pacific Island resorts of Fiji, Vanuatu, Cook Islands, Hawaii and French Polynesia.
Australian Tourist Commission market intelligence is suggesting that while there have been few cancellations for travel to Australia in markets such as China, Korea and Taiwan, some markets are more wary of Australia’s close proximity to Bali and the potential for terrorist attacks in Australia. Both Germany and Japan, for example, issued travel warnings to their nationals in relation to Australia as a result of the Bali bombings.
Table 3.1 Inbound visitors to Australia, 1991–2002 Year
Number of visitors
Change (%)
4,768,294
2.5
2000–01
n.y.a.
n.y.a.
1999–00
4,651,785
8.5
1998–99
4,288,027
1.6
1997–98
4,220,005
–0.8
1996–97
4,252,654
7.2
1995–96
3,966,161
12.2
1994–95
3,535,265
11.6
1993–94
3,168,961
13.8
1992–93
2,785,597
10.6
1991–92
2,519,712
13.1
2001–02
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003) Note: n.y.a = data not yet available due to delays in processing passenger card data by the Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs following a change in the method of data collection
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Table 3.2 Inbound visitors to Australia by purpose of visit, 2001–2 Purpose of visit
Number of visitors (’000)
% of visitors
Business
563.8
11.8
Holiday
3151.2
66.1
79.3
1.8
Employment Education
211.6
4.4
Other
762.4
15.9
Total
4768.3
100%
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003)
Table 3.3 Inbound visitors to Australia by average length of stay and nights in Australia, 1999 Country of origin New Zealand
Average length of stay
Total nights in Australia
Total visitors (’000)
% of visitors
15
9,652
660.8
15.95
Japan
14
8,961
662.5
15.99
Hong Kong
25
3,232
127.9
3.09
Singapore
21
4,836
234.1
5.65
Malaysia
30
3,794
126.5
3.05
Indonesia
39
3,208
82.4
1.99
Taiwan
25
3,391
133.6
3.22
Thailand
36
2,030
55.7
1.34
Korea
32
3,195
100.1
2.42
China
53
4,596
87.5
2.11
Other Asia
47
4,747
101.8
2.46
United States
22
8,606
392.5
9.47
Canada
40
3,037
75.2
1.82
United Kingdom
36
18,109
508.9
12.28
Germany
31
4,373
140.0
3.38
Other Europe
41
15,892
388.5
9.38
Other countries Total
24 31 nights
Source: Bureau of Tourism Research (2000)
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6,454
265.1
108,113
4143.1
6.40 100
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Table 3.4 International visitors to Australia by country of residence, 2001–2 Country of residence
Number of visitors (’000)
% of visitors
New Zealand
787.7
16.5
Other Oceania
119.8
2.5
Germany
136.8
2.9
United Kingdom
627.1
13.2
Other Europe
408.4
8.6
Indonesia
94.7
2.0
Malaysia
154.3
3.2
Singapore
295.8
6.2
Hong Kong
148.6
3.1
Japan
659.2
13.8
Korea
181.1
3.8
Taiwan
99.1
2.1
Other Asia
373.7
7.8
United States of America
424.4
8.9
Other America
126.7
2.7
Middle East and North Africa
56.3
1.2
Other Africa
72.7
1.5
Not stated Total
2.0
*
4768.3
100%
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003)
Table 3.5 Inbound visitors to Australian States/Territories, 1999 State/Territory
Total visits (’000)
% of visits
New South Wales
2616.2
36.1
Victoria
1113.4
15.3
Queensland
1984.0
27.3
South Australia
319.1
4.4
Western Australia
543.9
7.5
98.1
1.4
Northern Territory
367.7
5.1
Australian Capital Territory
210.5
2.9
7252.9
100%
Tasmania
Total visits to States/Territories Source: Bureau of Tourism Research (2000)
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Table 3.6 Inbound visitors to Australia, Top 20 tourism regions visited, 1999 Region visited 1. Sydney, NSW
Number of visitors (’000)
% of visitors
2275.6
55.5
2. Melbourne, VIC
997.7
24.4
3. Gold Coast, QLD
875.8
21.4
4. Tropical North QLD
755.8
18.4
5. Brisbane, QLD
704.4
17.2
6. Perth, WA
519.2
12.7
7. Adelaide, SA
296.8
7.2
8. Petermann, NT
254.8
6.2
9. Alice Springs, NT
211.1
5.2
10. Sunshine Coast, QLD
199.6
4.9
11. Whitsunday Islands, QLD
197.7
4.8
12. Northern Rivers, NSW
182.6
4.5
13. Canberra, ACT
180.7
4.4
14. Darwin, NT
179.2
4.4
15. Hervey Bay, QLD
177.9
4.3
16. Northern, QLD
146.3
3.6
17. Fitzroy, QLD
121.2
3.0
18. Western, VIC
107.7
2.6
19. Kakadu, NT
98.9
2.4
20. Hunter, NSW
88.4
2.2
4096.7
100%
Total
Source: Bureau of Tourism Research (2000) Note: NSW = New South Wales; VIC = Victoria; QLD = Queensland; SA = South Australia; WA = Western Australia; NT = Northern Territory; ACT = Australian Capital Territory.
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Table 3.7 Inbound visitors to Australia by demographic characteristics, 1999 Age (years)
% of visitors
< 15
7
15–19
5
20–24
9
25–29
13
30–34
11
35–39
9
40–44
9
45–49
8
50–54
8
55–59
7
60–64
5
65+
8
Total
100%
Source: Bureau of Tourism Research (2000)
Table 3.8 Australian domestic visitors and visitor nights, 2001 Destination
Visitors
Visitor nights
(’000)
%
(’000)
%
New South Wales
26,543
36
89,447
31
Victoria
18,142
24
55,747
19
Queensland
16,275
22
75,002
26
South Australia
5,529
7
19,508
7
Western Australia
6,698
9
28,068
10
Tasmania
1,852
2
7,970
3
Northern Territory
1,063
1
7,174
2
Australian Capital Territory Total*
2,107 74,585
3 100%
5,749 289,644
2 100%
Source: Bureau of Tourism Research (2002) Note: * = Components may not add to total as overnight visitors may visit more than one State/Territory on trip
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Table 3.9 Australian domestic overnight visitors, Top 20 regions visited, 2001 Region visited
Number of visitors
% of visitors
1.
Sydney, NSW
8,355
11
2.
Melbourne, VIC
6,419
9
3.
Brisbane, QLD
4,514
6
4.
Gold Coast, QLD
3,542
5
5.
Hunter, NSW
2,835
4
6.
South Coast, NSW
2,657
4
7.
Perth, WA
2,503
3
8.
North Coast, NSW
2,494
3
9.
Adelaide, SA
2,286
3
10.
Sunshine Coast, QLD
2,242
3
11.
Canberra, ACT
2,107
3
12.
Explorer Country, NSW
1,919
3
13.
Northern Rivers, NSW
1,843
2
14.
Western, VIC
1,694
2
15.
Big Sky Country, NSW
1,565
2
16.
South West, WA
1,457
2
17.
Central Coast, NSW
1,395
2
18.
Peninsula, VIC
1,347
2
19.
Tropical North, QLD
1,325
2
20.
Darling Downs, QLD
1,221
2
74,585
100%
Total
Source: Bureau of Tourism Research (2002) Note: NSW = New South Wales; VIC = Victoria; QLD = Queensland; SA = South Australia; WA = Western Australia; NT = Northern Territory; ACT = Australian Capital Territory.
Table 3.10 Australian domestic tourism interstate and intrastate by purpose of visit, 2001 Purpose of visit
Interstate trips (’000)
Intrastate trips Total trips (’000) (’000)
%
Holiday
9,326
24,766
32,490
43.56
Visiting friends and relatives
6,848
18,200
24,474
32.81
Business
7,233
8,263
15,014
20.13
Other
1,142
3,179
4,133
5.54
Total
22,358
52,047
74,585
Source: Bureau of Tourism Research (2002)
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Table 3.11 Australian domestic tourism transport, 2001 Tourism transport
Interstate (’000)
%
Air
11,654
46.6
Private vehicle
11,153
44.6
Other transport Total
2,205 22,538
Intrastate (’000)
%
Total (’000)
%
1,967
3.7
13,007
17.43
47,669
88.1
56,669
75.97
8.8
4,460
100
52,047
8.2
6,428
100
74,585
8.61 100
Source: Bureau of Tourism Research (2002) Note: Components may not add total as visitors may have used more than one form of transport on their trip
Table 3.12 Australian domestic tourism demographics, 2001 Age (years)
Number of visitors (‘000)
% of visitors
15–24
13,786
18.2
25–44
30,050
40.0
45–64
23,286
30.9
7,462
9.9
74,585
100%
65+ Total Source: Bureau of Tourism Research (2002)
Table 3.13 Day visitors by Australian State/Territory visited by main purpose of visit, 2001 Day visitors
Leisure (% of trips)
VFR (% of trips)
Business Other (% of (% of trips) trips)
Total visitors (’000)
%
New South Wales
34
37
35
35
50,676
34.71
Victoria
25
28
31
26
38,582
26.42
Queensland
20
15
14
19
25,735
17.63
South Australia
8
7
7
7
11,177
7.66
Western Australia
8
9
7
8
12,288
8.42
Tasmania
3
3
4
3
4,863
3.33
Northern Territory
1
*
1
*
768
0.54
Australian Capital Territory
1
1
2
1
1,920
1.31
Total Total visitors
100%
100%
100%
100%
–
76,511
42,360
13,444
13,693
146,008
Source: Bureau of Tourism Research (2002) Note: * = less than 1%
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Table 3.14 Day visitors by Australian State/Territory visited by main transport used, 2001 Day visitors (’000)
Air transport No.
Private vehicle
Other transport
Total
%
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
New South Wales
379
31
44,589
34
5,708
49
50,676
35
Victoria
245
20
35,578
27
2,758
24
38,582
26
Queensland
205
17
23,746
18
1,783
15
2 5,735
18
South Australia
139
11
10,644
8
394
3
11,177
8
Western Australia
79
6
11,486
9
723
6
12,288
8
Tasmania
47
4
4,647
3
169
1
4,863
3
Northern Territory
28
2
720
1
19
*
768
1
94
8
1,682
1
144
1
1,920
1
Australian Capital Territory Total
1,217
133,091
11,700
146,008
Source: Bureau of Tourism Research (2002) Note: * = less than 1%
Table 3.15 Australians travelling abroad, 1991–2002 Year
Number of visitors
Change (%)
2001–2
3,367,870
1.1
2000–1
n.y.a.
n.y.a.
1999–0
3,332,258
4.5
1998–9
3,188,692
5.2
1997–8
3,031,897
6.9
1996–7
2,837,207
8.1
1995–6
2,624,359
8.4
1994–5
2,421,983
5.1
1993–4
2,303,964
0.2
1992–3
2,299,504
5.8
1991–2
2,173,453
2.7
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003) Note: n.y.a = data not yet available due to delays in processing passenger card data by the Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs following a change in the method of data collection.
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Table 3.16 Australian outbound tourism by main destination, 2001–2 Destination
Number of visitors (’000)
% of visitors
Fiji
113.3
3.4
New Zealand
592.2
17.5
Other Oceania
138.2
4.1
Italy
70.8
2.1
United Kingdom
308.0
9.1
Other Europe
305.9
9.1
Indonesia
270.9
8.0
Malaysia
109.5
3.3
Philippines
58.3
1.8
Singapore
163.2
4.9
Thailand
163.4
4.8
China
121.3
3.6
Hong Kong
142.0
4.2
Other Asia
303.7
9.1
United States of America
276.0
8.2
Other America
94.8
2.8
Middle East and North Africa
77.0
2.3
Other Africa
56.8
1.7
2.5
*
Not stated Total
3,367.9
100%
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003) Note: * = less than 1%
Table 3.17 Australian outbound visitors by purpose of visit, 2001–2 Purpose of visit
Number of visitors (’000)
% of visitors
Business
674.2
20.0
Holiday
2,294.4
68.1
Employment
98.2
2.9
Education
46.6
1.4
Other
254.4
7.6
Total
3,367.9
100%
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003)
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Table 3.18 Australian outbound tourism by average nights and expenditure, 2001 Main destination
Visitors (%)
Average nights per trip
Average expenditure per trip (AU$)
United Kingdom & Ireland
10
43
7836
Other Europe
10
40
7125
New Zealand
16
12
2138
USA & Canada
13
27
7573
Hong Kong
5
14
3103
Singapore
5
11
3349
Malaysia
4
17
3129
Indonesia
8
14
2967
5
18
3992
Other Asia
Thailand
11
23
4080
Other countries
13
19
3795
Source: Bureau of Tourism Research (2002)
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Chapter 4
The Organisation of Tourism in Australia CHRIS COOPER AND LISA RUHANEN
Introduction The complex nature of tourism has led to a myriad of organisations and structures involved in Australian tourism, sprawling across government, industry and non-profit making sectors. This chapter classifies the organisation of tourism in Australia into: • • • • •
the public sector; joint public andprivate sector bodies; industry bodies; professional associations; and trade unions.
The Public Sector The Commonwealth Government It was not until the late 1920s that the Commonwealth Government first began attracting international travellers to Australia. The promotion of Australia was seen as a means of stimulating development, migration and increasing export earnings (Piesse, 2002). This partly explains the conundrum that on the one hand under the Constitution of the Commonwealth the government has no direct powers to regulate travel and tourism, whilst on the other hand; it does have powers in respect of: • matters related to freedom of trade and intercourse between States and Territories; • publicising Australia abroad and the promotion of visitor traffic as an external trade activity; and • the administration, development and promotion of travel and tourism to and within the States and Territories of Australia. 35
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In other words, the prime roles of the Commonwealth Government are overseas promotion and the facilitation and coordination of tourism in Australia. Nonetheless, with the above exceptions, tourism is not specifically mentioned in the Australian Constitution. This means that tourism policy and actions are undertaken in allied areas such as immigration or customs (Hall, 1998). It also means that there is scope for duplication of activity particularly as State and Territory governments, local governments and the private sector also have considerable responsibility and influence in tourism matters. Nonetheless, the tourism sector is seen as having the potential to provide a solid base for employment and wealth creation especially in regional Australia and it is increasingly viewed as a priority area for government.
Tourism policy The 1990s saw a number of federal tourism strategy initiatives and the appointment of a tourism minister to the cabinet. The situation in 2003 is that the Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources (DITR) houses the Tourism Division, which coordinates policy and action plans whilst the Australian Tourist Commission (ATC) is responsible for tourism marketing, funded by the Commonwealth Government with contributions from the tourism industry. In an attempt to reduce the confusion of government responsibilities alluded to above, the division of responsibilities between the Commonwealth and State governments was set up under the ‘Statement of Government Objectives and Responsibilities in Tourism’ in the Tourist Minister’s Council Agreement of 1976. Under this agreement the Commonwealth has the responsibility for international tourism and the formulation and implementation of policies, which apply, at the national level. Table 4.1 summarises tourism policy initiatives. Tourism policy in the 1990s was shaped by the 1992 document ‘Tourism – Australia’s Passport to Growth’. It had three clear aims: (1) To provide a clear statement of the Commonwealth Government’s objectives for the future development of the tourism industry. (2) To provide a sound basis for the formulation of government tourism policy and industry planning during the 1990s. (3) To enhance community awareness of the economic, environmental and cultural significance of the tourism industry. Since 2000, the two important tourism policy initiatives are: (1) The 10-year Plan for Tourism. In 2002, the DITR issued a ‘10- year plan for tourism’ discussion paper seeking a broad range of views on the future development of tourism in Australia. The plan aimed to address the issues surrounding growth forecasts for tourism in Australia, and address options of achieving sustainable growth in the industry and regions. The paper sought responses
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to issues identified by the Department. Responses were received from a very broad range of stakeholders and collated into a Green Paper released in 2003. The key areas of concern identified by the stakeholders included: (a) tourism information and research; (b) sustainability of tourism destinations and companies; and (c) marketing. Key areas of policy initiatives in the Green Paper include: • • • •
forecasting and market targeting; tourism research; the aviation industry; and tourism education and training.
(2) The Regional Tourism Programme. This is a major policy initiative to support the development of tourism in the Australian regions through the funding of regional tourism projects. The policy environment for tourism has changed post-September 11th 2001. The DITR has focused activity on the recovery of the sector and re-establishing Australia’s inbound markets. Important initiatives here include implementing the recommendations of the Tourism Industry Working Group, which was set up with the specific objective of putting a recovery plan together: • an AU$20 million short-term structural adjustment package for the tourism sector, including an AU$150 holiday rebate to the public and assistance to small businesses impacted by the collapse of Ansett; • AU$5 million funding for the travel compensation fund (matched by States and Territories); • AU$24 million extra marketing funding for the Australian Tourist Commission for international marketing; and • AU$8 million for the domestic ‘See Australia’ marketing campaign to encourage domestic tourism.
Tourism agencies and committees Australian Standing Committee on Tourism (ASCOT) (http://www.industry.gov.au) ASCOT is the forum for senior tourism officials to discuss issues at an operational level. Decisions taken by ASCOT are then passed to the Tourism Ministers Council for consideration. ASCOT comprises representatives of the relevant Ministers´ departments, the Australian Tourist Commission and the Bureau of Tourism Research. ASCOT’s main objective is to improve cooperation and coordination of government policies and activities as they affect tourism.
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Australian Tourist Commission (ATC) (http://www.atc.net.au) The ATC is a statutory authority established in 1967 to promote Australia overseas and to encourage domestic tourism. The ATC is governed by a Board that reports to the Minister for Small Business and Tourism. In 1987, under the Australian Tourist Commission Act, the ATC’s role was widened to include ensuring that Australian residents benefited from international visitation and that Australia was protected from the adverse environmental and social impacts of international tourism. In other words, the ATC looks beyond tourist volume to also ensure that Australia attracts high yield visitors and takes into account the wider agenda of sustainable tourism development. This has led to the formulation of the mission of the ATC: ‘to market Australia internationally to create a sustainable advantage for our tourism industry – for the benefit of all Australians’. The ATC’s principle objectives under the Australian Tourist Commission Act 1987 are to: • increase the number of visitors to Australia from overseas; • maximise the benefits to Australia from overseas visitors; and • in meeting these objectives, work with other relevant agencies to promote the principles of ecologically sustainable development and raise awareness of the social and cultural impacts of international tourism in Australia. The ATC is jointly funded by the Australian government and the tourism industry. The ATC works in partnership with other stakeholders – the private sector and State and Territory tourism authorities. The ATC has five corporate objectives: (1) Marketing. To position Australia as the chosen destination in all major markets by creating awareness and desire to travel to Australia. (2) Product Development and Distribution. To seek to influence all elements of the marketing variables that are involved in converting desire to travel into positive action. (3) Strategic Marketing Research. To use market research to develop competitive and professional marketing programmes, provide visitor arrival targets and to evaluate programmes to ensure their effectiveness. (4) Environmental and Social. To promote and encourage ecologically sustainable tourism development, increase the awareness and respect of international tourists and tour operators for Australia’s natural, cultural and social environment and to assess the impact of major changes in inbound tourism. (5) Corporate Direction and Support. To maximise the ATC’s achievements through effective corporate management and support and by ensuring that policymakers and the wider community appreciate the benefits to Australia of inbound tourism.
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Bureau of Tourism Research (BTR) (http://www.btr.gov.au) The BTR was established in 1987. It is a joint State and Commonwealth Government non-statutory agency which collects, analyses and disseminates information about the Australian tourism industry to the general public, government and industry. The BTR is jointly funded by Commonwealth, State and Territory Governments and by the sale of research services, statistical data and publications. It reports directly to the Minister for Small Business and Tourism. The BTR conducts a variety of research activities including: • the design, administration, management and analysis of ongoing surveys of international and domestic tourists; • the design, administration, management and analysis of one-off surveys; • the publication and marketing of results of research on current and emerging issues in tourism; and • the publication and marketing of survey data and other tourism related information. In 2002, the government reviewed the BTR and it was decided that it should continue as a centralised research agency. It was recommended that a management committee be formed to oversee the activities of the BTR. In 2003 it was under further review under the Commonwealth Government’s Tourism Green Paper discussions (Table 4.1). Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources (DITR) (http://www.industry. gov.au) The Commonwealth Government discharges its tourism responsibilities through the DITR, and specifically through the Tourism Division and the Commonwealth Minister responsible for tourism – the Minister for Small Business and Tourism. The Tourism Division is responsible for developing, implementing and administering Commonwealth Government policy and programmes relating to the tourism sector. The division contributes to the development of a sustainable, internationally competitive and innovative Australian tourism sector, and is structured into teams, which deliver the required policy outcomes, outputs and activities. Indigenous Tourism Leadership Group (ITLG) (http://www.industry.gov.au) The group was established in 2000, to leverage and deliver a range of outcomes to help realise the potential of indigenous tourism in Australia. It is a whole of government initiative supported by DITR. The group has established a national Aboriginal tourism accreditation scheme – ‘Respecting Our Culture’. Tourism Training Australia (TTA) (http://www.tourismtraining.com.au) TTA was established in 1982 to develop a flexible and effective training system for the tourism and hospitality industry. The organisation brings together a large
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number of training partners, including industry, government, unions, private and public training providers, industry associations, universities and students/trainees. It is supported by a network of State tourism training organisations. The main activities of Tourism Training Australia are: • managing the development and implementation of national training system initiatives such as National Training Packages and New Apprenticeships; • ensuring industry quality standards are met by promoting the Australian Hospitality Review Panel and Australian Tourism Training Review Panel industry recognition systems; • providing recognition of prior learning and current competence; • organising conferences, seminars and awards to exchange ideas for increasing training and service excellence; • liaising with training providers to improve training strategies and industry access to training; • developing training products and resources to assist in the delivery of quality training; • initiating and undertaking national projects which improve employment and training opportunities; • supporting a national training network that provides assistance and advice in each State and Territory; • assessing current and future workforce needs; • advising government and other organisations on industry training needs, strategies and plans; and • promoting the benefits of training to industry and key stakeholders. Tourist Ministers Council (TMC) (http://www.industry.gov.au) The TMC is a consultative forum comprising Australian tourism ministers (Commonwealth, State and Territory) and New Zealand ministers of tourism. It meets annually. Ministers responsible for tourism attend TMC meetings. The council involves Portfolio Ministers from the Commonwealth, each State and Territory and New Zealand. Representatives from Norfolk Island and Papua New Guinea hold observer status. The TMC operates in conjunction with the Australian Standing Committee on Tourism (ASCOT).
Other related public sector agencies: Environment Department of the Environment and Heritage (Environment Australia) (http://www. ea.gov.au) Environment Australia advises the Commonwealth Government on policies and programmes for the protection and conservation of the environment, including both the natural and cultural heritage. Through its portfolio of activities it aims to
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achieve a number of outcomes, including: matters of national environmental significance are protected and conserved; ensuring that Australia benefits from meteorological and related sciences and services; and Australia’s interests in Antarctica are advanced. Relevant to the tourism sector, the Environment and Heritage portfolio includes: • The Australian Heritage Commission (AHC) (http://www.ahc.gov.au) The AHC was established in 1975 to protect Australia’s national estate. The responsibilities of the commission are to advise government, prepare and maintain a register of national estate places; and develop programmes of research and education. The national estate represents places with aesthetic, history, and scientific or social significance. • Parks Australia (http://www.ea.gov.au/pa) Parks Australia is located within Environment Australia. As an agency it assists the director of national parks in the implementation of the Environment and Protection Act 1999, particularly through the management of seven land-based Commonwealth national parks, reserves and conservation zones, including Kakadu National Park and Ulurhu Kata Tjuta National Park. • The Bureau of Meterology (BOM) (http://www.bom.gov.au) The BOM commenced operations as a federal agency in 1908. The Bureau provides overall national strategic planning, management and coordination of the weather, climate and hydrological monitoring services in each of the state and territory capitals, and the regional forecasting and flood warning centres. • The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) (http://www. gbrmpa.gov.au) The GBRMPA is the lead agency for the management and development of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. The authority is charged with balancing conservation principles and reasonable human use to ensure the survival of the reef for future generations. • The Sydney Harbour Federation Trust (http://www.harbourtrust.gov.au) The Sydney Harbour Trust was established by the Commonwealth Government to plan for the future use of unique land in Sydney Harbour. The aim of the trust is to conserve the cultural heritage and protect the environment while providing public access. Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC) (http://www.ephc.gov.au) The EPHC was formed following changes to natural resource and environment related Ministerial Councils agreed by the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) in 2001. EPHC was created by amalgamating the National Environment Protection Council (NEPC), the environment protection components of the Austra-
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Part I: Australia
lian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC), and Heritage Ministers’ Meetings. The EPHC’s responsibilities include environmental protection and heritage (natural, historic and indigenous heritage). Amongst its environmental protection responsibilities are the protection of air, water and soil quality; improving the environmental performance of Australian industry, and international aspects of environment protection. Under its heritage responsibilities the EPHC monitors world and national heritage listings and management; the national heritage policy and the legislative framework for heritage protection.
Other related public sector agencies: Sport and Recreation Australian Sports Commission (ASC) (http://www.ausport.gov.au) The ASC is responsible for implementing the Commonwealth Government’s sport policy. It liaises with State and Territory governments and national sporting bodies. Department of Communication, Information Technology and the Arts (DCITA) (http:// www.dcita.gov.au) DCITA is responsible for developing and implementing policy in a number of areas including the arts, culture and sport. Sport and Recreation Training Australia (SRT) (http://www.srtaustralia.org.au) SRT Australia is a national industry training advisory board for the sport and recreation industries. It has regional counterparts and acts to advise government on training issues and develop training packages. Sport and Recreation Ministers’ Council (SRMC) (http://www.dcita.gov.au) The Council is a consultative forum for sport and recreation matters between the Commonwealth, State and Territory governments.
Other related public sector agencies: Transport Airservices Australia (http://www.airserves.gov.au) Airservices Australia was formed in 1995. It is a government-owned commercial authority responsible for the management of air traffic control over Australian airspace. Association of Australian and New Zealand Road Transport and Traffic Authorities (AUSTROADS) (http://www.austroads.com.au) AUSTROADS is the national association of road transport and traffic authorities. It provides strategic direction for the development, management and use of Australia’s road system through consultation and discussion with peak industry bodies.
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Australian Bicycle Council (ABC) (http://www.dotrs.gov.au/abc/) The ABC is the national body that manages and coordinates the national Australian cycling strategy, 1999–2004. Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA) (http://www.amsa.gov.au) AMSA is a largely self-funded government agency charged with adopting world best practice in the provision of maritime safety, aviation, marine search and rescue and marine environment protection. Australian Transport Council (ATC) (http://www.dotars.gov.au/atc) The ATC was established in 1993. It comprises Commonwealth, State, Territory and New Zealand Transport Ministers. The Council’s primary role is to review and coordinate various aspects of transport policy, development and administration. Australian Transport Safety Board (ATSB) (http://www.atsb.gov.au) The ATSB was created in 1999 and operates within the Department of Transport and Regional Services. It is operationally independent and undertakes best practice transport safety investigations. Transport safety is the responsibility of the States and Territories and the Commonwealth Government. For aviation, the Commonwealth has a primary constitutional role, whilst for road and rail this is shared with the States and Territories. Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) (http://www.casa.gov.au) CASA was established in 1995. Its primary focus is delivering aviation safety to the Australian public. Commonwealth Department of Transport and Regional Services (DOTARS) (http:// www.dotars.gov.au) DOTARS develops and implements transport and infrastructure policy. The Department’s role is to encourage economic, social and regional development by developing Australia’s infrastructure, particularly through the integration of transport and regional development. International Air Services Commission (IASC) (http://dotars.gov.au/iasc The IASC was formed in 1992. It is an independent statutory authority responsible for the allocation of capacity and route entitlements negotiated under air services arrangements to existing and prospective Australian international carriers. National Maritime Safety Committee (NMSC) (http://www.nmsc.gov.au) The NMSC was established in 1997 as an intergovernmental committee to harmonise maritime safety legislation and practice across Australia. It has developed a national maritime safety strategy and works closely with the private sector.
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National Road Transport Commission (NRTC) (http://www.nrtc.gov.au) The NRTC was established in 1991 to harmonise road transport legislation across the States and Territories of Australia and to reduce the environmental impact of road transport. It works closely with the private sector, police and motoring organisations. National Transport Secretariat (NTS) (http://www.nts.gov.au) The NTS was established in 2000 to assist State, Territory and Commonwealth governments on strategic transport issues of national significance cutting across transport modes and government jurisdictions.
State and Territory public sector tourism agencies At a regional level, tourism within Australia falls under the powers of the State and Territory governments. State and Territory support for, and participation in, the development of tourism grew rapidly in the mid to late 1950s in Victoria and Queensland, followed by Western Australia and the Northern Territory in the early 1960s. Subsequently all States and Territories have exercised their rights in respect of domestic tourism, and some have extended their activities to promotion abroad. Each State and Territory has a tourism-marketing agency and many States also have a government tourism department. Not surprisingly, in a country with a strongly federal system of government, the States and Territories have enjoyed much freedom to manage their own tourism affairs. The eight States and Territories have considerable powers in tourism, particularly domestic tourism, infrastructure and facilities and regulation and planning. The Statement of Government Objectives and Responsibilities in Tourism in the Tourist Minister’s Council Agreement of 1976 says that the States have prime responsibility for promotion and marketing of their attractions and the development of tourist facilities. Despite this, the responsibilities of the Commonwealth Government mirror many of the responsibilities of the States and Territories and there is considerable scope for duplication. Coordination of activity across the States and Territories is therefore almost impossible. Since the 1990s, the trend towards corporisation in the public sector organisation of tourism in the States and Territories has been ongoing. Each of the State/ Territory tourism agencies sees itself as a commercial organisation and in a facilitation role for the tourism sector. Some of the agencies have developed into sophisticated marketing organisations with powerful research, positioning and promotional tools that are focused on ‘brand creation’ (e.g. Tourism Queensland). The challenge for the future for these organisations will be to ensure that tourism is developed within a sustainable framework. Not only do the States and Territories have considerable tourism powers, but they also play a major role in related areas such as transport, sport and recreation
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and the environment. For example, the majority of protected areas in Australia are those designated and managed by the States and Territories. Australian Capital Territory (ACT) (http://www.canberratourism.com.au) The ACT Government places substantial importance on tourism and has over the years put into place various marketing and development strategies to encourage tourism. Tourism is the responsibility of the Canberra Tourism and Events Corporation. Recent strategic initiatives include: • developing the destination by providing a number of strategies directed towards developing and promoting the ACT tourism experience; • developing the various components of the ACT tourism industry and looking at strategies for boosting their individual and collective appeal; • addressing issues of service in the tourism industry; and • developing regional tourism and using the State’s proximity to other major centres as a tool to promote the ACT as a broader region with wider appeal. New South Wales (NSW) (http://www.tourism.nsw.gov.au) Tourism is a substantial element of the NSW economy. Tourism NSW has a number of development planning and master planning initiatives. The most recent initiatives are: • ensuring NSW tourism destinations are managed sustainably, both in developed areas and in newly developing areas; • promoting a positive climate for tourism investment and enterprise in the tourism industry to physically improve the tourism product such as accommodation, attractions and tours; and • utilising the State’s natural resources and cultural heritage to increase the movement of visitors through and into regional and rural areas. Northern Territory (NT) (http://www.nttc.com.au) Tourism is significant economic sector in the NT, and is the responsibility of the NT Tourism Commission, which was established in 1979. The Commission has developed a corporate plan and recent activities include: • implementing a destination approach to tourism development as an alternative to the regional approach where destinations will be developed in line with consumer demand; • improving access to the Territory with strategies to further enhance air, cruise and drive transport; • focusing future tourism development priorities on nature-based and cultural tourism as identified through market research and industry consultation; and
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• raising the standard and quality of tourism infrastructure particularly in the identified priority destinations. Queensland (QLD) (http://www.tq.com.au) Tourism is QLD’s most important economic sector. The sector is the responsibility of Tourism QLD, created from the former Queensland Tourist and Travel Corporation. Tourism QLD has both marketing and development powers and recent initiatives include: • facilitating regional (destination) development tourism priorities and initiatives; • encouraging increased private investment in tourism infrastructure and services; • developing plans, policies and practices for the sustainable growth of the nature based sector such as ecotourism, culture, native title and coastal management; • identifying, developing and promoting a diverse range of special interest and niche markets such as seniors and cultural heritage for State-wide marketing approaches; and • developing and marketing QLD in partnership with industry. South Australia (SA) (http://www.tourism.sa.gov.au) Tourism is the responsibility of Tourism SA, with very distinct marketing and development areas. Recent initiatives include: • enhancing and growing the State’s authentic experiences such as food and wine and the Murray River; • productive marketing of the State by targeting high yield tourists, developing the State as a backpacker destination and applying collaborative approaches to marketing; • achieving strategic policy, investment and development in infrastructure, accessibility and destination management; and • developing a strong professional and profitable industry through the use of research, technology, education and accreditation programmes. Tasmania (TAS) (http://www.tourismtasmania.com.au) Tourism, particularly domestic tourism, is vital to TAS’s economy. In 1997, Tourism TAS was given responsibility for the sector. Recent initiatives include: • a focus on matching TAS’s competitive strengths with the needs and desires of potential customers by building destination branding, researching markets and developing distribution networks;
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• developing quality, export ready experiences, products and services for customers through best practice, industry training and education, investment and building community support for tourism; and • developing an integrated industry structure which clarifies roles and responsibilities of key stakeholders and the partnerships needed. Victoria (VIC) (http://www.tourismvictoria.com.au) Tourism organisation in VIC has undergone considerable change in the last 25 years. Tourism VIC is the managing agency. Recent initiatives include: • raising community awareness and support for the significance of tourism to the Victorian community; • accelerating the development of regional tourism through the continuation of successful marketing campaigns and encouraging greater dispersal of visitors throughout the regions; • developing demand-driven product development and attract investment; and • implementing an events strategy which will deliver increasing high yield tourism. Western Australia (WA) (http://www.tourism.wa.gov.au) Tourism is the largest earner of foreign exchange earnings in WA and the WA Tourism Commission was established to further develop and market tourism in the State. Recent initiatives include: • further emphasis placed on marketing to travellers with an environmental/ nature-based orientation; • utilising partnerships with industry and the Australian Tourist Commission to promote WA as a desirable holiday destination in the identified core and future international markets; • developing, attracting, supporting and managing events that are capable of generating substantial visitor expenditure and can cost-effectively market WA nationally and internationally; and • promoting, fostering and facilitating investment in and the development of new tourist infrastructure and products, and improving existing tourist facilities and services. Local government Despite a very well organised tourism sector at both federal and regional level, with a few exceptions, the organisation of tourism is weak at the local level. Nonetheless, local governments have considerable powers available for tourism, although these powers vary from State to State. The major destinations in Austra-
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lia – Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and the Gold Coast have large marketing and development organisations, which again challenge the abilities to coordinate tourism throughout government in Australia. For example: • For Sydney, the tourism organisation is the Sydney Convention and Visitor Bureau (http://www.scvb.com.au). The aim of the Bureau is to ensure that Sydney’s market position as Australia’s premier tourism destination is maintained by capitalising on the exposure from the 2000 Sydney Olympics and developing the experiences offered by the city’s key precincts. • Melbourne’s tourism agency is VisitMelbourne (http://www. visitmelbourne. com). The agency aims to consolidate Melbourne’s tourism gateway status as Australia’s southern tourism hub. • For Brisbane the tourism agency is Brisbane Marketing (http://www. brisbanemarketing.com.au). They are seeking to increase the importance of the arts, leisure and culture through festivals and events to improve the economic and social wellbeing of the city. Other initiatives include enhancing visitor precincts through cooperative marketing and product development. • The Gold Coast is one of Australia’s largest tourism destinations with approximately 10 million visitors each year. Recent tourism initiatives include: – implementing a programme that encourages the development of a fresh, innovative tourism product and infrastructure that will reflect the desires of visitors to the city; – develop a world-class harbour that reflects economic, social and environmental best practice; and – implement an ongoing programme of tourism research (http://www. goldcoasttourism.com.au).
Public and Private Sector Bodies Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism (CRC ST) (http://www. crctourism.com.au) The CRC ST was established as a tourism research company in 1997 under the Australian Government’s Cooperative Research Centres Programme to underpin the development of a dynamic, internationally competitive, and sustainable tourism industry. The objective of the programme is to deliver innovation, strategic knowledge and products to business, communities and government to enhance the environmental, social and economic sustainability of tourism. The CRC ST was refunded in 2002 with a new seven-year research programme that began in January 2004. It is also establishing research links with the APEC countries internationally.
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Tourism Forecasting Council (TFC) (http://www.industry.gov.au) The TFC was established in 1993 to underpin decisions on policy, investment and planning. It comprises members of the tourist industry, construction and finance and government representatives. The TFC’s prime aim is to develop consensus forecasts of tourism. The forecasts include all tourism activity across all tourism sectors including domestic, international and outbound tourism.
Industry Bodies Many of the sectoral trade associations representing the tourism sector in Australia have a peak national body and a regional structure of organisations in each of the States and Territories. For example, the Australian Hotels Association has a national body based in Canberra, supported by strong regional associations. Until the demise of the national industry body – Tourism Council Australia, in late 2000, Australia was one of the few countries in the world that had an organisation that truly represented the total tourism sector. Since this organisation was disbanded, Australia’s remaining tourism industry bodies are fragmented and sector specific, reducing the effectiveness of the industry’s lobbying in government and media circles. However, each State and Territory now has its equivalent of Tourism Council Australia and in 2001 there was an initiative to form the ‘National Tourism Alliance’. Aboriginal Tourism Australia (ATA) (http://www.ataust.org.au) ATA is the peak body representing Aboriginal tour operators in Australia. ATA provides professional industry-focused indigenous representation to government and industry. A key function is the provision of a support network to indigenous operators within the industry. ATA provides policy advice and an indigenous perspective on tourism industry issues. Association of Australian Convention Bureau (AACB) (http://www.aacb.org.au) The AACB acts as a representative body for the convention bureaus of Australia and in conjunction with the Australian Tourist Commission promotes Australia’s convention facilities and services. Australasian Business Travel Association (ABTA) (http://www.abta.com.au) ABTA was established in 1995 to represent Australian and New Zealand private and public sector organisations in the pursuit of best practice business travel management. Australasian Incentive Association (AIA) (http://www.incentivemarketingassociation. org) The AIA was formed as a trade association in 1986 to enhance the effectiveness and quality of the incentive travel sector.
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Australasian Railway Association (ARA) (http://www.ara.net.au) The ARA was founded in 1994 and is the peak industry body. The ARA represents the interests of both the private and public rail sectors and promotes a competitive rail industry. Australian Amusement Leisure and Recreation Association (AALARA) (http://www. aalra.com.au) AALRA is the peak national body representing the amusement, leisure and recreation sector. AALRA has particular responsibilities in the areas of safety, operations and management within these industries. Australian Bed and Breakfast Council (ABBC) (http://www. australianbedand breakfast.com.au) The ABBC provides national representation for the Australian Bed and Breakfast industry and has responsibility for over 1000 establishments. Australian Council of National Trusts (ACNT) (http://www.nationaltrust.org.au) Formed in 1965, the Council is the federal coordinating body of the Australian national trust movement. The movement began in New South Wales in 1945 and has a national Trust in every State and Territory. The Trusts’ main aim is to acquire, conserve and present for the public benefit lands and buildings of aesthetic, historic, scientific, social or other special values. Australian Entertainment Industry Association (AEIA) (http://www.aeia.org.au) The AEIA is the peak body for the arts and entertainment industry in Australia. The AEIA represents employers in commercial and subsidised organisations and covers all aspects of the industry including opera, ballet, sporting venues, casinos, comedy, events and promotion. Australian Farm and Country Tourism (AFACT) (http://www.farmwide.com.au) AFACT was established in 1987 as the national industry association to represent farm and country tourism in Australia. The primary role is to ensure farm and country tourism continues to achieve strong growth in the tourism marketplace. Australian Federation of Travel Agents Ltd (AFTA) (http://www.afta.com.au) AFTA is the representative body for Australia’s travel agents and represents the majority of travel agents in Australia. Founded in 1957, AFTA’s aim has been to stimulate, encourage and promote travel, and to uphold the interests of travel agents. AFTA provides financial, legal and marketing benefits, education and training, and develops policies and strategies critical to the retail travel sector. AFTA’s role as an industry watchdog ensures that the viewpoint of the travel agent is transmitted through media outlets and through lobbying activities.
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Australian Hotels Association (AHA) (http://www.aha.org.au) The AHA was first established in 1839 to protect and develop the interests of Australia’s hotel industry. It is the means by which the hotel sector can be represented on a national basis in such matters as taxation, excise duty, industrial relations and tourism. The AHA is the national office, supported by branches in each State and Territory. Australian Tourism Export Council (ATEC) (http://www.atec.net.au) ATEC is the peak industry body for the Australian tourism export industry. It began as the Australian Incoming Tourism Operators Association in 1972, assuming its current title in 2000. Its primary aim is to optimise the success of its members to maximise the economic and social benefit of tourism exports for Australia. Business Events Council of Australia (BECA) (http://www.businesseventsaustralia. com) BECA is the peak industry body for the meetings, incentives and exhibitions industry in Australia. Ecotourism Association of Australia (EAA) (http://www.ecotourism.org.au) The Association was created in 1991 as the peak industry body for the Australian ecotourism industry. It has developed the nature and ecotourism accreditation programme (NEAP) and an EcoGuide programme. The association provides professional support for its members and acts as a lobby group. Exhibition and Event Association of Australia (EEAA) (http://www.eeaa.com.au) The EEAA represents all aspects of the exhibition and event industry and aims to promote professionalism and high standards in the industry. Festivals and Events Association (FEA) (http://www.fea.org.au) FEA is a professional industry body for event organisers which aims to promote the value of events to the broader community and provide a forum for sharing knowledge and expertise in the sector. Hotel, Motel and Accommodation Association (HMAA) (http://www.hmaa.com.au) HMAA is the major industry body representing the Australian accommodation sector, with over 2000 establishments from 5 Star Hotels and motels to Bed & Breakfast establishments in metropolitan and regional Australia. HMAA offers a range of services and opportunities which assist accommodation properties and corporate businesses in their day-to-day activities. HMAA supports its constituents through a network of key political and industry contacts and industrial relations advice. Inbound Tourism Organisation of Australia (ITOA) (http://www.itoa.org.au) The ITOA was established as the peak representative body of inbound tour operators in Australia.
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International Cruise Council Australasia (ICCA) (http://www.cruising.org.au) The ICCA is an association of leading cruise lines dedicated to the expansion of awareness of cruising worldwide. Meetings Industry Association of Australia (MIAA) (http://www.miaanet.com.au) The MIAA is the trade association for the Australian meetings industry. It aims to foster professionalism and excellence in all aspects of meetings management and acts as an industry lobby group. Museums Australia (MA) (http://www.museumsaustralia.org.au) MA was established in 1993. It is the peak industry body for museums and galleries. The organisations acts as lobbyist for the sector and provides a range of professional services. National Tourism Alliance (NTA) (http://www.tourismalliance.org) The NTA was officially launched in October 2001. NTA’s role is to coordinate policy and representation on behalf of the Australian tourism industry. NTA’s priority is to maintain the visibility of the tourism industry to the Commonwealth Government and to coordinate the development of a National Tourism Policy. NTA members represent over 90% of tourism industry operators covering accommodation, airlines, car touring, inbound tourism, retail travel agencies, business tourism, meetings industry, farm and country tourism, youth hostels, retail, adventure operators and the caravan and camping industry. Natural Heritage Trust (NHT) (http://www.nht.gov.au) Established in 1997 the Trust assists community groups to restore and conserve Australia’s natural environment. The trust provides funding for environmental activities at the community, regional, state and national levels. Property Council of Australia (PCA) (http://www.propertyoz.com.au) The PCA provides leadership and advocates reform in the property investment sector through market information and the setting of standards. Restaurant and Catering Australia (R&CA) (http://www.restaurantcater.asn.au) The R&CA was incorporated in 1995 as the association representing and leading the national interests of restaurants and caterers. Sport Industry Australia (SIA) (http://www.sportforall.com.au) SIA is the industry association and national peak body for the sport and recreation industry in Australia. It was established in 1976 and acts as a lobby group for the industry and to contribute to the development of a society which recognises the benefits of sport participation.
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Tourism Task Force (TTF) (http://www.ttf.org.au) The TTF was established in 1989 by a group of investors and financiers. It is a non-partisan organisation and its primary objectives are to: • protect and promote members’ interests to politicians and government officials; • deliver tools for well-informed investment decisions by the membership; • provide a forum for industry leaders to do business; • create a rational and sustainable business environment for members; • improve the investment environment for the tourism and transport industries; and • raise tourism’s profile through the media to extend the industry’s influence. Venue Management Association (VMA) (http://www.vma.org.au) The VMA was incorporated in 1992 to provide management practitioners of public assembly facilities with an organisation committed to the growth and success of the venue management industry.
Professional Associations Australian Licensed Aircraft Engineers Association (ALAEA) (http://www. alaea.asn. ac) The ALAEA represents the industrial, technical and professional interests of licensed aircraft maintenance engineers (LAMEs). The organisation includes in excess of 3000 LAMEs employed in regular public transport and regional airlines, and includes technical staff and other engineering support staff. Civil Air Operations Officers Association of Australia/The Australian Air Traffic Control Association (Civil Air) (http://www.civilair.asn.au) Civil Air aims to further the advancement of aviation within Australia and its Territories and protect the rights of its members. Club Managers Association Australia (CMAA) (http://www.cmaa.asn.au) The CMAA is registered as an industrial organisation of employees and represents 2500 professional managers of clubs. The Council for Australian Universities in Tourism and Hospitality Education (CAUTHE) (http://www.cauthe.com.au) CAUTHE was formed in the late 1980s and consists of 31 universities in Australia which teach and research in tourism and hospitality. The principal aim of the council is to promote the development of tourism and hospitality education and research in Australia.
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Trade Unions As in many countries, there is no trade union that specifically aims to represent the Australian tourism sector. Rather, the appropriate unions represent individual sectors of tourism – transport, hospitality, the public sector, etc. This has led to fragmentation of representation in the tourism sector, a sector where workers’ rights are traditionally a low priority in most parts of the world. Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) (http://www.actu.asn.au) The ACTU is the peak organisation representing the Australian workforce. The ACTU is made up of 46 affiliated unions and represents approximately 1.8 million workers. It includes trades, sales, clerical, technical and professional workers amongst its affiliated union membership. Australian Maritime Officers Union (AMOU) (http://www.amou.com.au) The AMOU was officially formed through the amalgamation of the Merchant Service Guild and the Australian Stevedoring Supervisors Association. The AMOU represents mariners as well as professional, administrative, supervisory and technical employees in the maritime industry and dependent services. Australian Services Union (ASU) (http://www.asu.asn.au) The ASU began operations following the amalgamation of the Federated Clerks’ Union (FCU), the Federated Municipal and Shire Council Employees Union (MEU), and the Australian Municipal, Transport, Energy, Water, Ports, Community & Information Services Union (ASU). The ASU is one of the largest unions in Australia with an estimated membership of 140,000. Amongst others it represents the interests of its members who work in local government, public transport, rail, airlines, shipping, travel and ports. Community and Public Sector Union (CPSU) (http://www.cpsu.org/index.html) The CPSU aims to defend workers in the public sector and the essential services provided to the community. The union represents 250,000 workers in telecommunications, broadcasting and public sector workers in Australia. Flight Attendants Association of Australia – Domestic/Regional Division and International Division (FAAA) (http://www.faaadomestic.org.au) The FAAA goal is to maintain and develop the working conditions as well as offering service and support to members. Liquor, Hospitality and Miscellaneous Workers Union (LHMU) (http://www. lhmu.org.au) The LHMU represents more than 150,000 workers. Hospitality and leisure workers are represented within the organisation, for those working in hotels, motels, restaurants, pubs, clubs, casinos, cafes, catering, tourism, leisure and theme parks.
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Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance (MEAA) (http://www.alliance.org.au) The alliance is a professional organisation for those working in the media, communications, entertainment, arts and sport industries of Australia. Rail, Tram and Bus Union (RTBU) (http://www.rtbu-nat.asn.au) The RTBU has 35,000 members in the rail, tram and government bus sectors across Australia. Shop Distributive and Allied Employees Association (SDA) (http://www/sda.org.au) The SDA is Australia’s largest trade union and represents more than 230,000 members. Some of the main areas of work covered by the SDA in the tourism sector are retail shop assistants, clerical employees, bakers and pastry cooks and fast-food workers. Transport Workers Union (TWU) (http://www.twu.com.au) The TWU has been in existence as a trade union for over 100 years, with membership of approximately 82,000, throughout Australia in the transport industry. From the tourism sector, the union represents workers in the aviation, road transport and passenger vehicles.
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Table 4.1 Key tourism policy initiatives, Australia, 1975–2003 Year
Key policy document
1975
Australian Council Act Australian Heritage Commission Act Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Act Tourism Policy
1982
Australia: Tourism in the 1980s
1983
Tourism Gets Australia Going
1987
Report of the Australian Government Inquiry into Tourism
1988
Directions for Tourism: Discussion paper Frontiers in Australian tourism: Tourism Policy (Liberal and National Party)
1989
IAC Report
1990
Arts, Environment, Tourism and Territories Legislation Amendment Act
1991
Cultural Tourism: Making it work
1992
Tourism – Australia’s Passport to Growth
1994
Creative Nation: Commonwealth Cultural Policy National Ecotourism Strategy National Rural Tourism Strategy
1995
Commonwealth Coastal Policy
1998
Tourism – A Ticket to the 21st Century
2000
National Online Tourism Strategy National Sports Tourism Strategy
2001
Regional Tourism Programme
2002
The 10-Year Plan for Tourism Discussion Paper
2003
10-Year Plan for Tourism Green paper
Source: Adapted from Whitford et al. (2001)
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Chapter 5
The Australian Tourism Industry CHRIS COOPER AND LISA RUHANEN
Introduction The Australian tourism industry is complex, comprising many economic sectors and with a diverse range of enterprises (Table 5.1). Bonlin and Greenwood (2003) illustrate the scale of the industry, with tourism related businesses representing one-third of all businesses in Australia. However, whilst the strong involvement of the private sector is clear, only 11% of public sector entities are involved with tourism. In addition, the received wisdom that tourism is a sector of small businesses is confirmed with 91% of all businesses employing fewer than 19 people, and 62% employing fewer than five people. As would be expected, the tourism industry is focused upon the State and Territory capitals and the dominant tourism regions such as the Gold Coast. Australia’s natural features, landscapes and flora and fauna provide huge potential for the development of tourism and tourism products. The wealth of the natural resources of the continent is evidenced in the designation of National Parks and World Heritage areas. The opportunities for tourism in Australia are largely, but not entirely based on natural features; Australia also has capital cities, world class icons such as the Sydney Opera House, and an expanding array of cultural and heritage attractions. The strength of Australia lies in the management of its tourism resources with care taken to develop products such as ecotourism and adventure and strong government and industry based certification and legislation to minimise the impact of tourism on the environment.
Natural Attractions National parks and other protected areas In Australia, Commonwealth or State and Territory governments designate and manage national parks and other protected areas. Australia’s responsibilities can be summarised as ensuring the ‘effective’ conservation of biological diversity by adopting the World Conservation Union’s (IUCN) six level system of protected 57
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areas. The most commonly designated protected area is national park or nature reserve, representing over 500,000 square kilometres of Australia’s land. At the top tier of protection, 14 Australian sites have gained World Heritage listing under the 1975 World Heritage Convention (Table 5.2). Australia also has 13 biosphere reserves, designated as of international significance under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere initiative in 1971. Australia had 462 national parks in 1996/97 as well as 52,164 recreational parks and gardens, 270 wildlife sanctuaries, 42 tourist caves; and 24 marine parks. In total these parks employed 16,646 full-time equivalent positions in 1996/97 and received 3.3 million visitors. Marine protected areas For the marine environment Australia has developed an ‘Ocean’s Policy’ which also includes the management of marine protected areas. Martine protected areas can be designated at Commonwealth, State or Territory level – or as a cooperative arrangement as with the Ningaloo Marine Park with joint designation by the Commonwealth and Western Australian governments. In total 3.5% of Australia’s coastline is listed as protected. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is of international significance and a World Heritage Site. It is managed by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) to a 25-year strategic plan. Indigenous protected areas As part of the six level system of designation, the Indigenous Protected Areas Programme supports indigenous Australians to meet their cultural responsibility and to care for their lands and to pass on knowledge to future generations. The Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park is an example here, managed through a Board of Management by indigenous peoples and Parks Australia.
Manmade and Heritage Attractions The Australian Heritage Commission and the various State and Territory National Trusts conserve and present Australia’s heritage attractions. Such attractions include buildings, townships, sites of historic events, wildlife habitats, ecosystems, landscapes and aboriginal places such as rock art sites, dreaming tracks, and ceremonial sites. The State and Territory National Trusts own around 300 properties and the Australian Heritage Commission lists almost 13,000 places, whilst the national trusts lists 20,474 sites of significance (Table 5.3). Significant heritage attractions include: • • • •
The Sydney Harbour Bridge; The Sydney Opera House; The Australian War Memorial; Richmond;
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• Fremantle; • Adelaide Cathedral; and • Old Parliament House. Museums and art galleries In Australia, significant museum collections were developed in the States and Territories in the 19th century before many of the national institutions were established, hence there are a number of nationally significant museums in the regions. In total, Australia had over 2000 museums and galleries in 1999/2000: Museums
1389
Art galleries/museums
249
Historic properties
411
Total
2049
The significant national collections are: • • • • • •
The National Museum of Australia; The National Gallery of Australia; The Australian National Maritime Museum; The Australian War Memorial; The National Science and Technology Centre; and The National Portrait Gallery.
Museums and galleries attracted 27.5 million visitors in 1999. For the larger venues, approximately one-quarter of all visitors were international. The museums attracting the most visitors are the larger institutions, located in New South Wales and Victoria. As Canberra has a number of national institutions, its share of visits is higher than would be expected. The majority of organisations that manage museums and galleries are operated on a volunteer basis. Nonetheless the sector employed almost 7500 persons in 1999/2000. Botanic gardens, zoos and aquaria Australia had around 30 botanic gardens and 20 arboreta in 2001, with botanic gardens found in each capital city. They employ 1250 persons and are estimated to attract 11.8 million visits annually, with the six major gardens accounting for almost two-thirds of all visits. In Canberra the Australian National Botanic Garden received 330,000 visits annually. Of these visitors 25% are international. The first zoo in Australia was founded in 1857 in Melbourne. In 2001, Australia had 53 zoos and 12 aquaria, employing almost 2000 persons. They are located
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throughout Australian capital cities and resorts and attracted over 5 million visits in 1999, of which just over 25% were international. Significant attractions are:
Botanic gardens • • • •
Australian National Botanic Gardens (Australian Capital Territory) Royal Botanic Gardens (New South Wales) Royal Melbourne Botanic Gardens (Victoria) Mt Coot-tha Botanic Gardens (Queensland)
Zoos • • • • • • • • •
Currumbin Wildlife Sanctuary (Queensland) Australia Zoo (Queensland) Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary (Queensland) Healesville Sanctuary (Victoria) Western Plains Zoo (New South Wales) Taronga Zoo (New South Wales) Victoria Open Range Zoo (Victoria) The Territory Wildlife park (Northern Territory) Monarto Zoological park (South Australia)
Aquaria • • • • •
Melbourne Aquarium (Victoria) Sydney Aquarium (New South Wales) Sea World (Queensland) Underwater World (Queensland) Reef HQ (Queensland)
Amusement and theme parks Major amusement and theme parks are defined as parks: • • • •
operated on a commercial basis; permanently based at a fixed site; multiple rides and attractions; and over 50, 000 attendees for the year.
In 2001 there were 30 large amusement/theme parks in Australia (excluding water parks) (Table 5.4). They employed 4150 persons (over half are casual employees) and attracted visitation of 8.9 million. The six largest parks accounted for 60% of
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visits. Visitation is highly seasonal with 29% of all visits in the two summer months of December and January. The majority of income came from the sale of admission and ride tickets (56%), with other sources of income including merchandise, and food and beverage. The major expenditure by the parks is on labour costs (38%). The parks had an overall financial loss in 2001, a loss that was particularly pronounced for the larger parks. Four of the largest parks are located in Queensland and this State represents a high proportion of employment and income in the sector: • • • •
Dreamworld Seaworld Movieworld Wet and Wild Waterworld
Transport Australia’s geographical scale demands a major investment in transport infrastructure not only to support the tourism industry but also to ensure regional development and a competitive economy. Transport is an important element of the Australian economy and faces a number of challenges in the future including congestion, environmental impacts, safety, competition policy and energy depletion. The Australian government has embarked upon a major initiative to ensure that the land transport system faces these challenges successfully to the year 2020. This is known as the AusLink initiative and aims to sustain economic growth, development and transport connectivity at the regional and national scale. Air transport
Airports In 2001 there were 281 licensed airports in Australia and its external Territories (Table 5.5). The majority of licensed airports are owned and operated by local councils, State government departments and private companies. The remaining airports are owned and operated by the Department of Defence or leased by the Commonwealth to private sector companies or government corporations. Ten of Australia’s airports operate scheduled international flights. Australia’s main international airport gateways are: Sydney; Melbourne; Brisbane; Adelaide; Perth; Darwin; Cairns; Coolangatta; and Norfolk Island. In 2002, the Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources assembled a comprehensive security response following terrorism threats to Australia and the 2002 Bali bombing. In particular, from 2004 baggage screening for both domestic and international flights is being increased.
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Part I: Australia
Airlines International carriers
As at 30 June 2001, Australia had air services agreements of full treaty status with 40 countries. Renegotiation of capacity and route rights has occurred under most of these to accommodate traffic growth on international routes to and from Australia. These agreements and arrangements enable airlines of Australia and its bilateral partners to operate a network of international air services to and from Australia. In 2000, 43 international airlines flew into Australia on scheduled routes (Table 5.6). In total overseas carriers represent two-thirds of international air traffic to and from Australia. In 2000, international air traffic into and out of Australia increased by 10.4% over 1999 – in part due to an increase in overseas carriers’ activities. However, following September 11th and subsequent world events, airline capacity to Australia fell significantly. This caused severe pressure on inbound capacity for some of Australia’s key markets – China, the USA, New Zealand and some European markets. In 2002, Qantas launched a new low cost airline ‘Australian Airlines’, to serve leisure traffic from Asia, based in Cairns, with routes to major Asian leisure destinations. Domestic carriers
In terms of the domestic market, the Australian air system was deregulated in 1990, with the result that budget carriers have been allowed to enter the market, though with mixed success – a number have entered the market but not succeeded. A notable exception here is Virgin Blue. In September 2001, Australia’s second domestic carrier, Ansett Australia, went out of business, leaving only Virgin Blue and Qantas to service the large domestic market. Ansett was a significant loss as not only had it been operating since 1936 in the domestic market and since 1993 internationally, but also it was Australia’s only airline in the STAR alliance. Aside from Qantas and Virgin Blue, which accounted for over 80% of passengers in 2000, a further 29 operators service about 200 airports in the domestic market. In 2000, domestic air movements increased by around 4%. As would be expected, the Sydney Olympics boosted arrivals to Sydney airport, whilst the adoption of Brisbane as the base for Virgin Blue also has boosted traffic at Brisbane airport. Virgin Blue utilise a fleet of Boeing 737s and has continued to expand its routes, particularly on the regional routes servicing secondary airports.
Surface Transport Sea As an island continent Australia has a number of seaports of varying sizes in each of the States and Territories (Table 5.7). The largest of these ports are in the capital cities and are capable of receiving large ships and cruise liners. Australia has never
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had a large international cruise market by world standards primarily due to its location away from the major generating markets. However, Australian outbound cruising is popular with several vessels marketed almost exclusively to the Australian domestic market, generally conducting South Pacific cruises to destinations such as Fiji and Vanuatu. Australia does have a larger coastal cruising industry particularly on the Great Barrier Reef and on some of the larger river systems such as the Murray River in Southern Australia. The majority of Australia’s capital cities have a ferry transportation system due to their location on harbours and river systems. Sydney has one of the most extensive ferry networks in Australia which is utilised heavily by commuters and visitors alike. There are also a large number of ferry companies operating between the mainland and Australia’s islands, as well as on the trans-Tasman route. Road In 2001, Australia had 329,045 kilometres of concrete or bitumen roads and a further 479,249 kilometres of unsealed roads (Table 5.8). In 1999 there were almost 10 million private vehicles registered to Australians, 273,000 caravans and almost 66,000 buses and coaches (Table 5.9). In 2000, motor vehicles travelled a total distance of 180,782 million kilometres – an average of 15,400 kilometres per vehicle. Only 5.4% of the use of vehicles is interstate, with over 50% being represented by use in the capital cities of Australia. Surface transport is the dominant mode for domestic tourism and long-haul coach and bus services have grown significantly over the years since their deregulation. Rail Australia does not have a well-developed rail network and has the added complication of different track gauges for historical reasons. In comparison with over 800,000 kilometres of road in Australia, the rail network only totals 39,844 kilometres of track, carrying 629,000 passengers in 2000/2001, although passengers have been increasing each year over the last decade (Tables 6.10 and 5.11). The railways in Australia have encouraged entry by private companies and competition has increased as a result. From a tourism point of view, train transport in Australia has developed a number of themed train routes.
Hospitality Industries The Australian accommodation and food and beverage sector accounts for 4.5% of all Australian businesses. Cafes and restaurants The café and restaurant sector is an important contributor to the Australian economy. The most recent industry-wide survey was conducted by the Australian
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Bureau of Statistics in 1999, at which time there were 12,845 employing businesses in the café and restaurant industry, with over one million seats available. This sector generated AU$7,174 million in income for this period and employed 152,107 persons, more than half of which were casual workers. Accommodation At the end of 2000, Australia’s accommodation stock comprised: • • • •
almost 200,000 rooms in establishments of more than 15 rooms or units; almost 30,000 holiday flats, units and houses with over 15 rooms; 466 visitor hostels; and 244,905 caravans, cabins or flats available in caravan sites.
The accommodation stock is varied, ranging from 5 Star hotels to ecolodges, small bed and breakfast establishments and caravan/camping parks. There is evidence of an increase in quality of accommodation with a reduction of bedspace in the lower categories, and serviced apartments are increasing in numbers. Geographically, the distribution of accommodation is concentrated at the Gold Coast and in the capital cities, with 78% of businesses in New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland. Accommodation stock has increased substantially since 1990 with major growth in Cairns, the Gold Coast and the Whitsunday’s, as well as in the Northern Territory and Western Australia.
Accommodation demand Demand for accommodation in Australia has been positively affected by major events such as the Sydney 2000 Olympics and the Goodwill Games in Brisbane in 2001. However, the Asian Currency Crisis and the terrorist attacks of September 11th have adversely affected international demand, but demand following both the September 11th attacks and the Sydney Olympics has been strong due to domestic demand, although room rates have fallen. Occupancy levels in 2000, for example, were: • 64% for hotels; • 53% for motels; and • 59% for serviced apartments.
Accommodation income and expenditure The majority of income for the accommodation sector comes from the provision of accommodation (60%), followed by 24% for the sale of food and beverage. As a general rule, the larger establishments have relatively more income from food and beverage sales and less from accommodation provision. The income for accommodation rose substantially in 2000, partly due to the introduction of 10% goods and
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services tax (GST) and the Sydney Olympic Games. In terms of expenditure, labour costs represent over one-third, with other expenditure being on rent, interest, depreciation, and trade commissions. Overall the accommodation sector’s operating profit was 8.1%. This figure increases for the smaller establishments, mainly because family labour is often not costed into the business expenses.
Accommodation employment The accommodation sector employed 106,051 persons in June 2001, representing an average of 18 persons per establishment. Of this total 54% were permanent employees, 43% casual and 2% working proprietors. The relatively low labour costs in the sector are partly due to the high level of casual employment. The sector employs 58% females and 42% males. In total, 85% of accommodation businesses employ fewer than 20 persons, slightly less than the figure for 1998, suggesting some concentration in the sector. Large businesses of more than 100 employees account for 3% of the sector’s businesses yet make a substantial contribution to employment and the economic benefit of the sector. This sector is unusual in the Australian economy, as it recorded a fall in employment in 2000. Accommodation development and investment In 2000, new developments in the accommodation sector reached their highest level since 1989, mainly in anticipation of the Sydney Olympic Games. The new developments were driven by New South Wales and were mainly in the serviced accommodation sector, and in the 4 and 5 Star ratings. The high activity before the Sydney Olympics resulted in a significant slow down of new developments in 2001. Caravan parks Caravans have a long history in Australian domestic tourism and in 2001 accounted for 10% of all domestic visitor nights. International visitors also use this type of accommodation, with campervans a popular form of travel (particularly by Europeans). In 2001 there were 1222 businesses operating 1417 caravan parks. In addition, local governments also operate parks. A total of 8176 persons work in the sector. The majority of income is gained from accommodation takings, with additional income from the sale of food and beverage. The majority of expenses are on labour. Almost 10% of caravan parks are located in capital cities, with a concentration in Brisbane. In regional Australia, New South Wales has the largest number of caravan parks. The key trend in this sector is the growth in capacity of cabins and flats at the parks. Clubs and casinos Clubs are an important supplier of entertainment, gambling and food and bever-
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Part I: Australia
age in Australia, particularly for the domestic market: in 2002 there were 2911 organisations running 3121 clubs employing almost 65,000 persons. Over one third of clubs were located in capital cities and suburbs. In 2002 Australia had 13 casinos employing almost 20,000 staff and representing a significant contribution to Australia’s accommodation stock with over 3000 rooms. Business event venues The ABS defines the business events venue industry comprising those businesses providing space to stage business events for 500 or more delegates. This effectively excludes the small and medium sized hotels that also stage business events. In 2000/2001 there were 13 organisations staging conventions and exhibitions, representing the major conference and exhibition centres in the capital cities and resorts around Australia. In addition there were a further 108 organisations staging business events. In terms of employment, the sector employs 10,347 persons, with the major 13 convention/exhibition centres accounting for almost one-third of this employment and over a quarter of the total income for the sector. Accommodation classification Until the early 1990s ratings of accommodation properties in Australia were done by several groups. The motoring organisations in each of the States provided star ratings of accommodation and accommodation chains tended to provide their own rating systems to their properties which led to inconsistencies in standards between chains, properties and States. In 1999 the various motoring organisations merged into one association, the Australian Registry of Tourism and Accommodation, which is responsible for the ratings system. There are three accommodation categories: hotels and motels; holiday units, apartments, cottages; and bed and breakfasts, guest house and private hotels, each of which is assessed under criteria for the respective category. However, the rating system is not mandatory and therefore does not cover all establishments. Intermediaries In the late 1990s, there were 3266 intermediaries in Australia, the majority being retailers of leisure travel products (Table 5.12). The majority of intermediaries are small – 97% employ fewer than 20 persons. In contrast, for the larger companies, 19 employed more than 100 persons. It is the larger companies that contribute substantially to both turnover and employment in the sector. The bulk of earnings in the sector originate from commission on ticket sales (around two-thirds). Other sources of income include commission on insurance and travellers cheque sales. The split of international to domestic product sales is around two-thirds to one-third. The major source of expenditure was labour costs (33%). Other costs include rent and leasing, telecommunications, advertising and
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depreciation. Operating profits in the sector are variable: although the average is 2%, for retail travel agents it is 8.1%; for inbound tour operators 6.5%, and for wholesalers negative –16.8%. In terms of employment, the sector employs 24,451 persons of whom 73% were female, 80% were full-time and 7% were owner/proprietors. The intermediaries sector is concentrated in the Eastern States with 78% of businesses located in New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria.
Investment in Australian Tourism Despite significant data problems, it is possible to paint a broad-brush picture of investment in tourism in Australia. The Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources (DITR) states that direct investment in Australian tourism comprises ‘ownership of physical property’, whilst indirect investment occurs through ‘investment in listed or unlisted tourism vehicles or property trusts with tourism assets in their portfolios’. The most common domestic sources of investment are life insurance companies and superannuation funds. Only 1% of these funds are invested in tourism, however, due to the tourism sector’s perception as being high risk, the difficulty of classifying tourism investments, the paucity of data and the lack of awareness of opportunities in the sector. The sector is also both capital and labour intensive and tends to deliver low profitability. Foreign investment increased in the first half of the 1990s, but fell in the second half, probably due to the Asian financial crisis and the declining economic situation in Japan. Taking these factors together, investment rates in tourism tend to be lower than those in the economy as a whole. The DITR defines investment rates as ‘capital expenditure as a percentage of industry value added’. For tourism in 1999/2000 investment rates are highest in the accommodation, cafes and restaurants sector; transport and storage; cultural and recreation services; and retail trade. For these sectors, investment rates increased in 1999/2000 as a result of preparations for the Sydney Olympics. Investment following the Olympics was expected to level-off or even decline. Note: Throughout this section, ABS data on attendance do not include visits by those aged under 15 years
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Table 5.1 Number of businesses by industry classification in Australia, 1998 Australia/New Zealand standard industrial classification industry
Total businesses
%
Tourism characteristic industries Travel agency and tour operator
5,346
8.9
Taxi transport
2,472
4.1
Air and water transport
2,168
3.6
990
1.6
Motor vehicle hiring Accommodation
9,158
15.2
Cafes and restaurants
21,493
35.8
Takeaway food retailers
18,247
30.3
Total tourism characteristic industries
60,054
100.0
Clubs, pubs, taverns and bars
10,018
3.4
Other road transport
27,883
9.5
1,806
*
Tourism connected industries
Rail transport Food and beverage manufacturing Transport equipment and other manufacturing Automotive fuel retailing Other retail trade
5,061
1.7
58,312
19.9
8,010
2.7
132,156
45.0
Casinos and other gambling services
2,709
*
Libraries, museums and arts
5,715
1.9
Other entertainment services
15,474
5.3
Education
22,410
7.6
Ownership of dwellings
3,865
1.3
Total tourism connected industries
293,419
100.0
Total
353,473
Source: Bolin and Greenwood (2003) Note: * = less than 1% Tourism characteristic industries are defined as ‘those industries that would either cease to exist in their present from or would be significantly affected if tourism were to cease. Tourism connected industries are defined as those industries, other than those defined as tourism characteristic, for which a tourism product is directly identifiable, and where products are consumed by visitors in volumes that are significant for the visitor and/or producer.
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Table 5.2 Australian World Heritage Sites, 2000 Place
Type
State/Territory
Kakadu National Park
Natural/cultural Northern Territory
Great Barrier Reef
Natural
Willandra Lakes Region
Natural/cultural New South Wales
Tasmanian Wilderness
Natural/cultural Tasmania
Lord Howe Island Group
Natural
Queensland
External Territory
Central Eastern Australia Rainforest Natural Reserves
Queensland & New South Wales
Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park
Natural/cultural Northern Territory
Wet Tropics
Natural
Queensland
Shark Bay
Natural
Western Australia
Fraser Island
Natural
Queensland
Fossil Mammal Sites (Riversleigh and Naracoorte)
Natural
Queensland & South Australia
Heard and McDonald Islands
Natural
External Territory
Macquarie Island
Natural
External Territory
Blue Mountains
Natural
New South Wales
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002h)
Table 5.3 Australian Heritage Commission listings, 2001/2002 Indigenous places
%
Historic places
%
Natural places
%
Total places
New South Wales
221
24.3
3,084
31.0
478
23.2
3,783
Victoria
111
12.2
2,412
24.2
247
12.0
2,770
Queensland
155
17.1
737
7.4
320
15.5
1,212
74
8.1
964
9.7
265
12.8
1,303
150
16.4
1,204
12.1
389
18.8
1,743
65
7.2
1,201
12.0
253
12.3
1,519
Northern Territory
105
11.6
144
1.4
62
3.0
311
Australian Capital Territory
28
3.1
183
1.8
30
1.5
241
External Territories
–
–
39
0.4
20
0.9
59
909
100%
9,968
100%
2064
100%
12,941
Western Australia South Australia Tasmania
Total places
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003)
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Table 5.4 Amusement and theme parks, Australia, 2000/2001 State/Territory
Amusement and theme parks
New South Wales
12
Victoria
4
Queensland
7
Other States and Territories
7
Total
30
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002k)
Table 5.5 International and domestic passenger movements through Australian airports, 2001 Airport
International passenger movements
%
Domestic passenger movements
%
Sydney
8,224,000
49.0
16,565,000
29.0
Melbourne
3,312,000
19.8
13,308,000
23.3
Brisbane
2,540,000
15.1
9,951,000
17.4
Adelaide
242,000
1.4
4,212,000
7.4
Perth
1,587,000
9.4
3,342,000
5.8
Darwin
152,000
1.0
848,000
1.5
Cairns
665,000
4.0
2,025,000
3.5
Coolangatta
42,000
*
1,795,000
3.1
Norfolk Island
16,000
*
Not available
–
2,000
*
Not available
–
*
Not available
Broome Newcastle
1,000
Townsville
Not applicable (domestic)
–
Launceston
Not applicable (domestic)
Canberra
Not applicable (domestic)
Hobart
Not applicable (domestic)
Total
16,783,000
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003) Note: * = less than 1%
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–
955,000
1.7
–
916,000
1.6
–
1,970,000
3.4
– 100%
1,326,000
2.3
57,213,000
100%
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Table 5.6 International airline traffic to and from Australia, 2001 Type of traffic
2001
%
Traffic to Australia (passengers) Qantas Airways Ansett Australia Other airlines All airlines
2,910,000 202,000* 5,330,000 8,442,000
34.5 2.4 63.1 100%
Traffic from Australia (passengers) Qantas Airways Ansett Australia Other airlines All airlines
2,908,000 195,000* 5,238,000 8,341,000
34.9 2.3 62.8 100%
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003) Note: *Ansett Australia ceased operations in September 2001
Table 5.7 Australian seaports of entry New South Wales Sydney Coffs Harbour Eden Gosford Lord Howe Island Newcastle Port Kembla Yamba Clarence River Port Botany and Kurnell Victoria Melbourne Geelong Portland Westernport South Australia Port Adelaide Kingscote Port Pirie Wallaroo Tasmania Hobart Burnie Devonport Launceston Port Latta
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Cape Thevenard Port Lincoln Robe Whyalla
Queensland Brisbane Bundaberg Gladstone Hay Point Lucinda Manly Mourilyan HarbourPort Alma Thursday Island Townsville
Abbot Point Cairns Gold Coast Dalrymple Bay Mackay Mooloolaba Rockhampton Scarborough Tin Can Bay Weipa
Northern Territory Darwin Gove Groote Eylandt Milner Western Australia Perth Broome Carnarvon Derby Exmouth Geraldton Port Walcott
Albany Bunbury Dampier Esperance Fremantle Port Headland
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Table 5.8 Length of roads, Australia, 2002 State/Territory
Kilometres
%
New South Wales
182,003
22.47
Victoria
156,500
19.32
Queensland
178,317
22.01
South Australia
96,892
11.96
Western Australia
147,855
18.25
Tasmania
24,130
2.98
Northern Territory
21,652
2.67
Australian Capital Territory
2,670
Total length of roads (kilometres)
0.33
810,019
100
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003) Note: Includes roads that are: bitumen or concrete; gravel, crushed stone or other improved surface; formed only; cleared only.
Table 5.9 Passenger vehicles and buses, Australia, 2001 State/Territory
Passenger vehicles (’000)
%
Buses (’000)
%
Total-all vehicle types (’000)
%
New South Wales
3,014
30.5
17
25.0
3,655
30.1
Victoria
2,690
27.3
16
23.5
3,223
26.6
Queensland
1,773
18.0
15
22.0
2,280
18.9
South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
857
8.7
4
5.9
1,023
8.4
1,045
10.6
10
14.7
1,327
10.9
246
2.5
2
2.9
323
2.7
68
0.6
3
4.4
99
0.8
176
1.8
1
1.6
197
1.6
9,870
100%
68
100%
12,126
100%
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003)
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Table 5.10 Rail passenger operations, Australia, 1995–2001 Year
Urban passengers (million persons)
Non- urban passengers (million persons)
Total passengers (million persons)
1995–96
556
9
566
1997–98
578
10
588
1999–00
619
11
629
2000–01
634
12
646
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003)
Table 5.11 Themed rail routes, Australia Operator
Trains
Route
Great Southern Railway
Indian Pacific
Sydney–Adelaide–Perth
The Ghan
Sydney/Melbourne–Adelaide–Alice Springs
The Overland
Melbourne–Adelaide
Queensland Rail
Sunlander
Brisbane–Cairns
Tilt Train
Brisbane–Cairns
Spirit of the Outback
Brisbane–Rockhampton–Longreach
Westlander
Brisbane–Charleville
Inlander
Townsville–Mount Isa
Spirit of the Tropics
Brisbane–Townsville
Savannahlander
Cairns–Forsayth
Queenslander
Brisbane–Cairns
Kuranda Scenic Railway Kuranda CountryLink
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Gulflander
Normanton–Croydon
CountryLink XPT
Sydney–Brisbane, Melbourne, Dubbo, Grafton, Murwillumbah
CountryLink XPLORER
Sydney–Tamworth–Armidale–Moree– Broken Hill–Canberra
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Table 5.12 Number of intermediary businesses, Australia, 1998 Type of business Retailers - corporate Retailers - conference Retailers - leisure General sales agents Total Wholesalers Ticket consolidators Inbound tour operators Tourist bureaux Total other intermediary businesses Total Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (1998)
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Number
%
325
11.4
50
1.8
2393
.2
74
2.6
2842
100%
158
37.3
16
3.8
170
40.1
80
18.8
424
100%
3266
100%
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Chapter 6
Sources of Australian Tourism Statistics LISA RUHANEN AND CHRIS COOPER
Introduction The collection of tourism statistics in Australia is done within an overall framework for the collection and publication of tourism statistics developed by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. This framework deals with both demand and supply-side statistics and takes into account decisions by the United Nations Statistical Commission and also the Bureau of Tourism Research (BTR) review of tourism statistics in 1996/97. The aim of the framework is to benefit both the users and collectors of tourism statistics by providing: ‘guidelines which will encourage consistency and compatibility in the collection and publication of tourism statistics in Australia’ (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1997: I). Figure 6.1 provides an outline of the framework for the collection and publication of tourism statistics. There are two main agencies that compile statistics for tourism in Australia. These are the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) who provide mainly supply-side statistics; and the Bureau of Tourism Research (BTR), who provide mainly demand-side statistics. We are grateful to both organisations for granting permission to use their copyright material in this publication. These statistics are published on both a regular and an ad hoc basis. In addition to these two sources of statistics other suppliers of data include: • The Cooperative Research Center for Sustainable Tourism (CRC ST) which provides a range of research reports to the tourist industry, government and researchers. • The Australian Tourist Commission (ATC) which has its own research agenda focusing on the marketing of Australian tourism, source markets, etc. These data are available in a series of research reports. • The Tourism Forecasting Council (TFC) produces a range of tourism forecasts available in report form. Other key sources of statistics are other federal government agencies, the State and Territory Governments, consultants, and academic institutions. International 75
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Part I: Australia Sources of Australian Tourism Statistics
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76
Organisations also include Australia in their reports and data series. The most significant of these are: (1) The Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA); (2) The World Tourism Organisation (WTO); and (3) The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC). The following tables (6.1 to 6.3) summarise and comment upon sources of Australian tourism statistics. Figure 6.1 Outline tourism statistics framework model Framework Elements Consumer 1.
2.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
Product
Supplier
International visitor 1.1 Overnight visitor 1.2 Same day visitor Domestic visitor 2.1 Overnight visitor 2.2 Same day
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Package travel Accommodation Food and drink Transport Recreation, culture Shopping Other
1. 2.
Non-commercial Commercial
Number Purpose of visit Date of arrival Duration of stay or trip Place of residence Nationality Destination Sex Age Marital status Level of education Economic activity status Occupation Income level No. of persons in party
1.
Product specific data Expenditure
1.
Number of establishments/ enterprises Value of sales Number of persons employed Type of persons employed Location Various economic/ accounting indicators
2.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Typical Measures
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This report provides statistical data on visitor arrivals in Asian and Pacific destinations.
Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) Statistical Report
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Compiled from Australian World Tourism government data supplied to the Organization WTO.
World Tourism Organization (WTO) Yearbook of Tourism Statistics
1947–current
From 1986 annually
From 1975 biennially
Annual
Pacific Asia Travel Association
Compiled from Australian World Tourism government data supplied to the Organization WTO.
Data range/ availability
Source
World Tourism Organization (WTO) Compendium of Tourism Statistics
Data is submitted by individual countries on a standard questionnaire. The primary source for visitor arrival data is the embarkation/disembarkation cards.
Description
Title
Table 6.1 International sources for Australian tourism statistics
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Same as for the Compendium of Tourism Statistics
Domestic tourism Overnight stays Outbound tourism Departures Expenditure Tourism activities Hotels and similar establishments Economic aggregates (GNP, exports, imports)
Inbound Tourism Arrivals (by region, mode of transport, purpose of visit) Overnight stays and length of stay Tourism expenditure
Outbound travel data Hotel room occupancy Visitor expenditures Length of stay Origin of visitor arrivals by residence/nationality to Asia Pacific countries Visitor expenditure Average hotel occupancy rate Total number of hotel rooms National tourist organisation Promotion budgets
Data included
Sources of Australian Tourism Statistics 77
The WTTC Satellite Accounts addresses economic activity within the industry by examining travel and tourism consumption and demand.
World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) Satellite Accounts
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Description
Title World Travel and Tourism Council
Source 2002
Data range/ availability
Table 6.1 (cont.) International sources for Australian tourism statistics
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Travel and tourism demand Government expenditures by agencies and departments on promotion, etc. Capital investment by the private and public sector in providing services to visitors Exports of non-visitor of consumer and capital goods
Travel and tourism consumption Personal expenditure Business travel by government and industry Government expenditures by agencies and departments which provide visitor services Visitor exports
Data included
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Part I: Australia
Description
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Caveats Care is needed in interpreting the data for 2000/2001 due to the introduction of a 10% goods and services tax.
Tourism is defined as visitors whose primary purpose is private or government business as well as leisure purposes.
Australian Tourism Internationally recognised Satellite Account as the best method for estimating tourism consumption and the size of the industry.
International visitors
Title
Funded by the Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources
Australian Bureau of Statistics
Source
1998–99 1999–00 2000–01 (all published 2002)
1997–98 (published 2000)
Data range/ availability
Table 6.2 Australian sources for Australian tourism statistics
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Tourism contribution to gross value added and GDP Tourism GDP by type of visitor Tourism gross value added by industry Gross value added (tourism and non-tourism) by industry division Tourism consumption by type of visitor Domestic visitor consumption Average consumption by type of visitor Consumption by Australians travelling overseas and inbound visitors to Australia Employed persons in tourism by age, sex and full-time/part-time basis Number of overseas arrivals and departures Visitors are split by national and international visitors. Domestic visitors are also split by visitor type (households/business and government) and length of trip (same day and overnight visitors)
Data included
Sources of Australian Tourism Statistics 79
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Overseas Arrivals and Departures
Caveats From July 2001, new passenger card processing has resulted in data quality issues and also significant delays in the release of international passenger data.
Compiled from the Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs incoming and outgoing passenger cards.
Data collected from 20,000 departing international visitors by computer assisted personal interviews at airports. Additional questions can be added to the basic survey. Australian Bureau of Statistics
Prime mechanism for the Bureau of Tourism collection of inbound Research travel for nature of trip and nature of tourist for market analysis purposes.
International Visitor Survey
Source
Description
Title
Annual 1965–current
Annual 1998–current Pre-1998 data available from (1) The International Visitor Survey conducted by the Australian Tourist Commission (1983–1997); and (2) The Survey of International Visitors conducted by the Australian Tourist Commission (1979/80–1981)
Data range/ availability
Table 6.2 (cont.) Australian sources for Australian tourism statistics
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Port of clearance Category of movement Country of residence/main destination Country of birth Country of citizenship (nationality) Country of embarkation/disembarkation State of clearance/major port of clearance State of residence/stay Purpose of journey Duration of stay Sex/ age
Demographics (age, sex, occupation) and all reasons for visit Travel arrangements (inclusive or group tour) Size and composition of group and reasons for visit Type of fare and pre-paid arrangements Type of information sources Time away from home and stop-overs City of arrival and departure Duration of stay and region of stay Type of accommodation and activities undertaken Places of interest visited Expenditure and income
Data included
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(Travel by Australians)
Bureau of The NVS uses Tourism computer-assisted telephone interviewing of Research 80,000 households. Additional questions can be added to the basic survey. The previous survey (Domestic Tourism Monitor) used a household survey approach. The NVS survey has been designed to include niche markets and a stronger regional sampling frame for greater reliability. The data have been designed to support the regions, and marketing and planning for tourism.
National Visitor Survey (NVS)
Bureau of Tourism Research
Source
A household survey designed to deliver data for policy, strategic planning and marketing by state and federal tourism bodies.
Description
Domestic Tourism Monitor
Domestic visitors
Title
Caveat The NVS data and previous surveys are not directly comparable.
Pre-1998 data available from the Domestic Tourism Monitor (1984–1998) and some State Tourism Surveys.
1998–current
Quarterly 1984–1998 Replaced by the National Visitor Survey in 1998
Data range/ availability
Table 6.2 (cont.) Australian sources for Australian tourism statistics
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Outbound (international) visitors Outbound visitor nights Age and sex Country of birth and years in Australia Employment status Annual household income Place of residence Travel behaviour for outbound visitors Destination countries visited Main reason for trip Total trip expenditure
Domestic visitors Expenditure Destinations visited (region and state level) Accommodation used Transport used to arrive at destinations Activities undertaken at destinations
Data are collected on the following topics, which are cross-classified by trips, visits, visitor nights, main destination and origin: Main purpose of trip Type of transport used Type of accommodation used Length of trip Seasonality of trip Age and sex of travellers Day trips by type of trip
Data included
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Presents size, structure and operating characteristics for key service industries.
Service Industry Statistics
Australian Bureau of Statistics
Australian Bureau of Statistics
Presents estimates of indicators for a variety of tourism related tourism industries.
Industry Wide Statistics
Source
Forecasts are produced on Tourism an annual cycle. Forecasts Forecasting are for a 10-year period Council and cover all Australian States and Territories. The forecasts contain data from the Survey of Tourist Accommodation (STA) and Overseas Arrivals and Departures (OAD) collections. From the STA collection seasonal trend data and takings data at constant prices as well as operating ratios are presented. From the OAD collection, market-segmentation data is included.
Description
Forecasts of Domestic Tourism, Outbound Travel and International Visitors
Other statistics
Title
Irregular
Irregular
Annual
Data range/ availability
Table 6.2 (cont.) Australian sources for Australian tourism statistics
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Data includes number and characteristic of establishments
Industries covered are: accommodation, cafes and restaurants, commercial art galleries, museums, retail, and amusement/leisure industry
Data includes number and characteristic of establishments
Industries covered are: retail, accommodation, cafes and restaurants, transport and cultural/recreation services
International Visitors Visitor nights Visitor numbers Visitor expenditure Country of origin Duration of stay Nights in hotels and motels
Outbound Travel Resident departures Purpose of trip
Domestic Tourism Trips Visitor nights Visitor expenditure Purpose of trip State of main destination Nights in hotels and motels
Data included
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The STA uses a mail-out Australian survey. Bureau of From 1998 the scope of Statistics the survey was changed to include only significant accommodation establishments (15 or more rooms or units). Every third year the survey expands to cover holiday flats, caravan parks and hostels.
Quarterly 1975–current
Data range/ availability
Survey of Tourist Accommodation (STA)
Source 1992–93 1994–95 1995–96
Description
Survey of Inbound The survey covers Australian Tour Operators inbound tour operators Bureau of retailing or wholesaling Statistics package tours to overseas visitors. The collection obtains details in relation to the Australian content of such tours. The survey is conducted by mail-out questionnaire to about 250 tourism operators.
Title
Table 6.2 (cont.) Australian sources for Australian tourism statistics
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Data are available by establishment type, star grading and geographic area. From July 2000, the item ‘gross takings from accommodation’ includes the Goods and Services Tax (GST)
Seasonally adjusted and trend estimates for room nights and takings, hotels and motels/guest houses; and takings at constant prices for hotels, motels/guest houses
Number of establishments/letting entities Capacity (rooms/units/sites, bed spaces) Occupancy (room/unit/site nights, guest nights, guest arrivals) occupancy rates (room/unit/site, bed spaces) Average length of stay (days) Takings from accommodation Employment (persons).
Number of passengers by country of origin Gross amount of invoices paid by those passengers for the ground content (e.g. coach transfers, accommodation, meals, cruises, etc.) of tours in Australia Full and part-time employment in Australia and full-time employment overseas Number and language skills of tour guides and tour coordinators employed by the respondents business
Data included
Sources of Australian Tourism Statistics 83
Description
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Survey of Tourist Accommodation
Quarterly 1993–current
Australian Bureau of Statistics
Quarterly
Data range/ availability
Source
Presents estimates of Australian activity in the Bureau of accommodation sector for Statistics each State and Territory.
Tourism Indicators Presents a selection of statistics from other ABS publications including: Survey of Tourist Accommodation Overseas arrivals and departures Tourism satellite account Building activity Building approvals Bureau of Tourism Research Visitor Surveys
Title
Table 6.2 (cont.) Australian sources for Australian tourism statistics
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Data include: Number of establishments, occupancy, capacity and employment, and takings
Every third year beginning 2000, data are provided for holiday flats, units, caravan parks and visitor hostels
Data available for hotels, motels, guest houses and serviced apartments
Key tourism indicators Feature article Tourist accommodation International tourism
Data included
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Part I: Australia
Fact sheets Tourism Index Tasmania Visitor Survey (1978–current) Tourism Operators Survey (1993/96/98) Intrastate Travel Report (1990–current) Victoria Tourism Highlights Research brief on tourism
South Australia
Tasmania
Victoria
Western Australia
Source
http://www.tourism.wa.gov.au/industry/research
http://www.tourism.vic.gov.au
http://www.tourismtasmania.com.au
http://www.tourism.sa.gov.au
http://www.tq.com.au
http://www.nttc.com.au
http://www.tourism.nsw.gov.au
http://www.canberratourism.com.au
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Note: The majority of statistics provided by State and Territory Tourism Agencies are sourced from national surveys. However, there are a small number of State/Territory level surveys delivering original data. These are identified in italics.
Northern Territory Travel Monitor Tourism facts and figures Regional tourism activity monitor Contribution of tourism to the economy Regional and international fact sheets International research summaries
Fact Sheets Time series data (1989–1999) NSW tourism business forecasts Regional research reviews Regional tourism profiles
New South Wales
Northern Territory
Fact sheets
Australian Capital Territory
Queensland
Data
State
Table 6.3 Sources of Australian State and Territory tourism statistics
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Part II
New Zealand
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Part II: New Zealand Introduction to New Zealand
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Chapter 7
Introduction to New Zealand PETER TRELOAR AND C. MICHAEL HALL The islands of New Zealand (Aotearoa), while young in geological terms (only around 450 million years old) comprise a nation rich in history, flora and fauna and European and traditional Maori culture. According to Maori tradition, Aotearoa was created when Maui went fishing in his canoe and reeled in the North Island from the depths of the ocean. It is claimed that this fish was turned to land by angry gods who punished Maui and his crew for not making an offering to the gods for their catch. Legend has it that the South Island was formed from Maui’s waka (canoe) and Stewart Island at the far south is his punga (anchor) (Figure 7.1). In recent years, New Zealand has been thrust into the world’s tourism spotlight through the successful staging of two America’s Cup regattas in Auckland and the popularity of the Lord of the Rings trilogy which was filmed in New Zealand. These events, coupled with the stability of this independent nation in times of relative political instability, have created a safe and welcoming destination rich in natural wonders and ready to share them with ever increasing international tourism numbers.
Physical Geography New Zealand is situated in the South Pacific Ocean, between latitude 34’S and 47’S. New Zealand is made up of two main islands, the North Island (113,729 square kilometres) and the South Island (150,437 square kilometres), and is surrounded by a number of smaller islands, the largest being Stewart Island (1,680 square kilometres) at the southern end of the South Island. The geological make-up of New Zealand offers tourists a diverse range of natural sights and formations. The North Island was formed by the sliding of the Pacific tectonic plate under the continental Indo-Australian Plate, leading to significant volcanic activity throughout the island. Thermal activity, active volcanoes and hot-spots are spread throughout the island, from White Island in the Bay of Plenty, Tongariro National Park in the centre of the North Island and Mount Taranaki (Egmont) in the south-west of the North Island near New Plymouth. Although not 89
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Figure 7.1 New Zealand fully realised by many visitors, Auckland, the largest city in the country, is located on an active volcanic plane. The most active areas are around Rotorua and Lake Taupo, which is New Zealand’s largest inland lake and was caused by a massive volcanic eruption in AD 186. Rotorua and Taupo offer tourists fascinating sights in geo-thermal activity and the aftermath of violent volcanic eruptions through such features as boiling mud, thermal springs and creeping lava. The North Island countryside is also dotted with dormant and inactive volcanic peaks which create a spectacular landscape. The South Island has only limited volcanic activity in comparison to the North, as it was created by the Pacific and Indo-Australian tectonic plates colliding into each other, leading to the development of ‘creeping’ rock formations upwards. However, remnant calderas provide the basis for the spectacular landscapes of Dunedin Harbour and Peninsula, and Banks Peninsula which includes Lyttleton and Akaroa Harbours. Hanmer Springs in north Canterbury remains the most well recognised geo-thermal attraction for visitors in the South Island. Arguably the most spectacular mountain landscapes of the South Island are the Southern Alps,
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which thanks to the collision of the tectonic plates are still growing at approximately 10 mm per year. In addition to its landscape features an important part of New Zealand’s natural attractions are its plant and animal life. New Zealand separated from the continent of Gondwana (comprising South America, Africa, India, Australia and New Zealand) around 100 million years ago, allowing many ancient plants and animals to survive and evolve in isolation. Apart from some species of bats, all mammals in New Zealand were introduced through either Maori or European colonisation. Although many indigenous species, such as the New Zealand eagle and the Moa, have become extinct, a number of native bird species have been conserved in either native forest or on off-shore islands, some of which have been cleared of predators such as rats, stoats and cats in order to ensure their survival. A number of off-shore and mainland sanctuaries are accessible by tourists including most notably the national wildlife sanctuary at Mount Bruce in the North Island. In addition to its birdlife, New Zealand also has significant areas of native forest, particularly the temperate beech rainforests in the South Island. One interesting conservation dilemma facing New Zealand is that a number of imported deer and wallaby species which are threatened in their native habitat are thriving in New Zealand leading to significant questions as to whether or not they should be culled particularly when there is a significant domestic and international market for sustainable hunting. These issues are creating significant policy problems for the national government and its agencies, particularly given the recreational and tourist interest in hunting and fishing. About 80% of all flora is endemic to New Zealand. Some examples are the tall kauri and kohekohe forests, rainforests dominated by rimu, beech, tawa, matai and rata; ferns and flax; dunelands with their spiniflex and pingao; alpine and subalpine herb fields; and scrub and tussock. The kauri and beech trees are highly significant flora because closely related species exist in Australia and South America providing biogeographical evidence for continental drift and the existence of the former super-continent of Gondwana. The introduction of foreign animal species (including humans) has led to the loss of around 10% of the nation’s native flora and fauna. Around 30% of New Zealand’s land area is protected conservation land, and about 25% of the country is covered in forest, much protected in national parks and World Heritage areas. The climate in New Zealand varies greatly throughout the country. Most of the North Island is generally sub-tropical, while the South Island is temperate. The average temperatures for the North Island range between 20°C and 25°C in summer (December–February), and 12°C and 16°C in winter, with the northern parts receiving the warmer weather (Table 7.1). Average temperatures for the South Island range from around 22°C in summer to around 10–12°C in winter. The geological make-up of the two islands has led to differences in rainfall patterns, with the
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Southern Alps in the South Island leading to a concentration of rainfall in the west and a generally dry climate in the east. The North Island, with its relatively flat topography, has a more even distribution of rainfall. Overall, the climate in New Zealand is maritime, rather than continental, and therefore typical island weather patterns, including rapid changes in the weather, are common.
Society The indigenous Maori population is believed to have settled in New Zealand from about AD 800 although there is some evidence of earlier human habitation or visitation. Maori tradition has it that the explorer Kupe’s wife named it Aotearoa (The Land of the Long White Cloud). The first known European to visit New Zealand was Abel Tasman who sailed up the West Coast in 1642. Captain James Cook visited New Zealand in 1769, circumnavigating it aboard the Endeavour, before moving on to claim Australia. Many of the place names given by Cook exist to the present day. As with Tasman, Cook’s first contact with the Maori proved to be a violent affair; however, this did not halt British plans for colonisation and attempts to exclude rival colonial powers from the lands of the southern oceans in the late 17th century. Although for the first half of the 18th century New Zealand was under the jurisdiction of the colony of New South Wales (Australia), New Zealand began to assert its own political and economic identity from the mid-18th century on. However, despite the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 conflict over land ownership and access occurred between Maori and Pakeha (Europeans) for much of the remainder of the century leading to often bloody wars not only between Maori and settlers but also between Maori tribes. The discovery of large amounts of gold in Central Otago in the South Island in 1861 led to a gold rush which dramatically increased the country’s population and economic fortunes. Between July and December 1861 Otago’s population rose from under 13,000 to over 30,000, with over half of these arrivals coming from Australia. Gold discoveries which continued throughout the remainder of the century provided opportunities for foreign investment while the increase in population base also provided market opportunities for new businesses. Arguably as important as the discovery of gold was the development of refrigeration technology which allowed for the first shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand in 1882 as well as the export of butter and cheese. Indeed, these products, along with wool and fruits production provided the basis for much of New Zealand’s economic well-being until the 1970s and, arguably, to the present day. Nevertheless, since the oil price increases of the early 1970s, greater free trade and the loss of preferential trade agreements with the United Kingdom in the 1970s as Britain joined the Common Market, the New Zealand agricultural sector has been marked by increased diversification into deer farming, wine-growing, horticulture and bulb production as well
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as developing more value-added products from the existing primary production base. Although the export of agricultural products, as well as its tourism advertising which emphasises natural and rural scenes reinforce more romantic rural images of New Zealand, the reality is that it is a highly urbanised country (Table 7.2). The largest city is Auckland which has a population of over one million people and because of the extent of Maori and Pacific Islander population is regarded as the largest Polynesian city in the world. The population of New Zealand is about 4 million, of which 14% are Maori. The two official languages of New Zealand are English and Maori, with English being the most widely spoken. However, the Maori population is increasing faster than the Pakeha, and a resurgence of Maoritanga (Maori culture) has led to the Maori dimensions of New Zealand culture having an increased presence within the national identity. Nevertheless, reconciliation is still a major issue in today’s society.
Political Structure New Zealand was given dominion status within the British Empire in 1907, and autonomy in 1937. Independence was announced formally in 1947. Unlike Australia, New Zealand does not have a written constitution. However, it does have a number of constitutional documents such as the Treaty of Waitangi and the Bill of Rights which state a number of the rights of citizens, coupled with the power of Common Law. Indeed, the Australian Constitution, which is an act of the British Parliament from 1900, still provides for New Zealand entry into the Australian Commonwealth. New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with the reigning British monarch as head of state. The Crown is represented in New Zealand by the Governor General, whose position is largely symbolic and ceremonial, although, as in Australia, he does have wide-ranging powers over the government but these are not usually enacted. The Governor General is appointed on the advice of the government of the day. The New Zealand government has three branches: the Legislature, the Executive (Cabinet) and the Judiciary. New Zealand is a unitary state with provincial governments having been abolished in the 1870s. The unicameral parliament is based in the city of Wellington at the lower end of the North Island. Government is elected using a Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) Representational system which was introduced in 1996 after many years of dissatisfaction with the representative distortions of a first-past-the-post electoral system. The term of government is three years. The first three terms of government following the introduction of MMP were characterised by coalition governments. The highest court in the nation is the British Privy Council, based in London, although appeals to this court are limited. In 2003 New Zealand was debating the introduction of a new high court based in New Zealand.
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The Treaty of Waitangi The Treaty of Waitangi is considered by many New Zealanders as the country’s founding document. However, it also remains a continuing source of debate and controversy. The Treaty was drawn up by representatives of the British Crown in order to limit the conflict between settlers and Maori and provide for an orderly legal structure for the ownership of lands and other natural resources and the imposition of British law. The Treaty was signed by 43 Northland Chiefs on 6 February 1840, and, after being taken around the country for eight months, was signed by over 500 other Maori chiefs. Although several significant chiefs and tribes did not sign the Treaty. The Treaty remains a centre-piece of New Zealand politics and society given the rights it is seen as giving to Maori and the influence that it has on governance. The Treaty is also important as a reference point for the settlement by the Crown of grievances with various Maori iwi (tribes) over the unjust loss of land or access to natural resources. Nevertheless, the Treaty remains highly controversial given the fact that it was written in Maori and English, and the translation of the document between the two different languages leaves a number of areas open to differences in interpretation.
Economy The first significant commercial operations in New Zealand were whaling and sealing which operated in New Zealand waters from the 1770s, with many of the early whaling sites providing the basis for the development of permanent settlements. In the 1870s gold was discovered leading to substantial growth in investment and population. Since the gold-rush days, the New Zealand economy has primarily been based on agriculture and manufacturing, although coal and gold mining remain significant regional industries. The entry of Britain into the European Common Market in 1973 and reduction of tariff protection since the mid-1980s has meant the gradual decline in many manufacturing industries and substantial reorientation in the country’s export markets. GDP in 2002 was NZ$120,022 billion, 2001 was NZ$112,121 billion and 2000 was NZ$105,930 billion (Table 7.3). This makes the economy about one-seventh the size of Australia’s and about one-twentieth the size of the US economy. The currency is the New Zealand dollar. This currency is also used in a number of Pacific Island nations (e.g. the Cook Islands). The exchange rate for the NZ$ is usually comparable to the Australian dollar, although slightly weaker (i.e. NZ$1 ± AU$0.90). New Zealand is considered a relatively stable economy. The economic performance of New Zealand is highly dependent on the competitiveness of its export industries which, because of the significance of primary production and tourism, means that exchange rates are a major determinant on New Zealand business success. The rate of growth in early 2000 was above the OECD average (Table 7.4). The unemployment rate in the June quarter, 2002 was 5.1% (4.9% males and 5.4%
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females); down from 5.3% and 6.1% for the same period in 2001 and 2000 respectively. Average weekly income in June quarter 2002 was NZ$518.00 ($639 for males and NZ$403 for females). Up from NZ$474 and NZ$447 for the same periods in 2001 and 2000 respectively (Table 7.5). Tourism is not identified as a separate industry for purposes of national accounts or employment statistics. Nevertheless, tourism is emerging as a major growth industry in New Zealand. According to the Tourism Research Council, tourism directly and indirectly contributes almost 10% of New Zealand’s GDP and is estimated to support nearly one job in ten in New Zealand, with an estimated 90,000 full-time equivalent jobs provided directly and 60,000 indirectly. As with a number of other countries New Zealand has developed a set of tourism satellite accounts since the late 1990s which seeks to measure the impact of both international and domestic tourism. The provisional Tourism Satellite Account (TSA) for the year ended March 2002 suggested that tourism contributed NZ$14.6 billion to the New Zealand economy and NZ$6.2 billion or 14.3% of New Zealand’s total export earnings, representing 9% of GDP. The TSA also states that tourism directly and indirectly supported an estimated 150,000 full-time equivalent jobs (9.2% of the total workforce) (Tourism Research Council New Zealand, 2003b). Table 7.1 New Zealand regional temperatures Spring
Summer
Autumn
Winter
Bay of Islands Temp (C) Rain days
19/9 11
25/14 7
21/11 11
16/7 16
Auckland Temp (C) Rain days
18/11 12
24/12 8
20/13 11
15/9 15
Rotorua Temp (C) Rain days
17/7 11
24/12 9
18/9 9
13/4 13
Wellington Temp (C) Rain days
15/9 1
20/13 7
17/11 10
12/6 13
Christchurch Temp (C) Rain days
17/7 7
22/13 7
18/8 7
12/3 7
Queenstown Temp (C) Rain days
16/5 9
22/10 8
16/6 8
10/1 7
Source: Tourism New Zealand, 2003
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Table 7.2 Population statistics by major regions of New Zealand, 2002 Region
Population+
%
North Island Northland
145,400
4.86
Auckland
1,251,500
41.83
Waikato
373,300
12.48
Bay of Plenty
250,100
8.36
Gisborne
45,200
1.51
Hawke’s Bay
148,000
4.95
Taranaki
105,500
3.53
Manawatu–Wanganui
227,100
7.59
Wellington Total North Island
445,500
14.89
2,991,600
100
South Island Tasman
43,500
4.59
Nelson
43,500
4.59
Marlborough
41,100
4.34
West Coast
30,800
3.25
Canterbury
503,800
53.17
Otago
190,700
20.12
93,400
9.86
Southland Total South Island Total New Zealand
947,600
100
3,939,100
–
Source: Statistics New Zealand, 2003
Table 7.3 New Zealand industry contribution to GDP, 1999 Industry Manufacturing
Contribution (%) 1999 17.4
Finance, insurance, business services and real estate
14.6
Transport and communications
11.9
General government services
10.7
Owner occupied dwellings
7.8
Wholesale
7.4
Community, social and personal services
6.1
Agriculture and hunting
5.8
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Table 7.3 (cont.) New Zealand industry contribution to GDP, 1999 Industry
Contribution (%) 1999
Retail
5.4
Construction
3.3
Unallocated
2.7
Forestry, fishing and mining
2.5
Electricity, gas and water
2.5
Restaurants and hotels Total
1.9 100
Summary Service industries
47.3
Goods producing industries
23.2
Primary industry Total business activity
8.3 78.8
Source: New Zealand Treasury Department, 2003
Table 7.4 Features of New Zealand exports and imports • The three main export markets for the 2001–2002 financial year were Australia (NZ$5.528 billion), United States of America (NZ$3.733 billion) and Japan (NZ$3.82 billion) • The three main sources of imports for the 2001–2002 financial year were Australia (NZ$6.843 billion), US (NZ$5.127 billion) and Japan (NZ$3.474 billion). • Total exports were NZ$26.11 billion; imports were NZ$29.19 billion. Total deficit of NZ$2.082 billion • Major exports – Milk powder, butter and cheese (NZ$3.895 billion); Meat and edible offal (NZ$3.379 billion); logs, wood and wood articles (NZ$2.024 billion); and fish, crustaceans and molluscs (NZ$ 1.230 billion) • Major imports – Mechanical machinery and equipment (NZ$3.807 billion); vehicles, parts and accessories (NZ$3.594 billion); petroleum and products (NZ$2.296 billion) and; electrical machinery and equipment (NZ$2.938 billion) Source: Statistics New Zealand, 2003
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Table 7.5 New Zealand industry by number of enterprises, total income and full-time equivalent (FTE) positions, 1999, 2000 Industry
Number of enterprises (2000)
%
11,258
3.95
4,130
1.63
34,140
2.33
372
0.13
1,894
0.75
3,300
0.22
21,076
7.39
50,379
19.83
246,690
16.81
149
0.05
8,234
3.24
5,770
0.39
Construction
36,869
12.92
13,970
5.50
111,370
7.59
Wholesale trade
16,839
5.90
54,239
21.35
97,660
6.65
Retail trade
Agriculture, forestry and fishing Mining Manufacturing Utilities
Total income 1999 ($ million)
%
FTE persons
%
35,057
12.29
33,451
13.17
Accommodation, cafes and restaurants
9,749
3.42
4,808
1.89
183,750 12.52 69,200
4.71
Transport and storage
10,895
3.82
16,512
6.50
67,870
4.62
Communication services
3,441
1.21
5,719
2.25
28,730
1.96
Finance and insurance
9,754
3.42
32,805
12.91
44,620
3.04
Property and business services
89,402
31.34
20,848
8.21
204
0.07
23,571
9.28
62,610
4.27
6,024
2.11
6,049
2.38
101,270
6.90
12,591
4.41
6,341
2.49
130,590
8.90
9,771
3.42
4,425
1.74
35,580
2.42
11,851
4.15
2,143
0.84
51,580
3.51
Government administration and defence Education Health and community services Cultural and recreational services Personal and other services Total
285,302
Source: Statistics New Zealand, 2001
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100
254,064
100
193,190 13.16
1,467,910 100
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Chapter 8
Demand for Tourism in New Zealand PETER TRELOAR AND C. MICHAEL HALL
Introduction The demand for tourism to and within New Zealand has been increasing steadily in recent years, aided by the promotion that New Zealand has received within international markets by events such as the Lord of the Rings film trilogy and the successful hosting of the America’s Cup. Further, New Zealand was voted as 2003’s ‘Top Hot Spot’ by staff at the respected Lonely Planet tourism organisation (Bray, 2003). Tourism arrivals to New Zealand now total well above 2 million visitors annually. This is a significant arrivals figure considering New Zealand’s population of less than 4 million, although considerably short of the New Zealand Tourism Board’s target of the early 1990s of 3 million international visitors per annum by the year 2000. Developments in the structure and quality of the tourism industry, coupled with aggressive marketing campaigns to major international tourism generating areas have seen New Zealand well positioned as a destination in the international marketplace. New Zealand is now considered to be in an excellent position for further development and growth well into the 21st century.
The Economic Significance of Tourism Demand The structure and diversity of the tourism industry in New Zealand impacts greatly on the measure of benefits which are received. The tourism industry is made up of a number of sectors, who directly supply visitors, and secondary supplier industries who support tourism in association with a number of other activities. The economic impact of tourism in New Zealand is measured by the Tourism Satellite Account (TSA) which reports on tourist spending in various areas of the tourism industry and in sub-sectors. Figures for the 2002 travel year found that total spending by international tourists amounted to NZ$6.141 billion. Spending by domestic tourists in 2001 reached NZ$6.9 billion, which is an increase of 9.6% on the previous year. The holiday market for international tourists contributed the most significant amount to the economy, with 2002 figures showing an average trip spend of 99
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NZ$3514 and total earnings for this market at NZ$3.55 billion. The Tourism Research Council (2002a) has released forecast figures for New Zealand up to 2008 and estimates that international tourism will contribute NZ$9.68 billion to the economy and that domestic tourism will grow at 2.3% annually. However, given the volatility of the international economy and tourism marketplace these growth figures are regarded by some commentators as optimistic. With the creation and development of improved transport systems and travel routes, successful marketing campaigns to appropriate international markets, and internal product development, tourism in New Zealand is becoming an increasingly significant industry sector. Further, forecasts predict that the growth that the tourism industry has experienced over the last decade or two will continue well into the future, firmly establishing the role of tourism within the New Zealand economy and the appeal of New Zealand as a worthwhile tourism destination for international markets.
Demand for Inbound Tourism to New Zealand International tourists to New Zealand reached a record number of 2.045 million in 2002, a massive increase of 93.7% in just 10 years (Table 8.1). On average, the growth rate for international tourism has been around 6–8% annually, although 1997 and 1998 did see slight decreases in tourism numbers (–2.0 and –0.8% respectively) as a result of the Asian financial crisis, and 1994 did see an unusually large increase in overall figures (+14.3%). The world economic and political climate, coupled with the decrease in the relative value of the New Zealand dollar compared to other international currencies since 1997, has placed New Zealand in an excellent position to improve on its share of the international tourism market. In addition, New Zealand has capitalised on the growth in tourism in Australia, as many international tourists visit both countries when visiting the region. The Trans-Tasman air route between Australia and New Zealand is by far the busiest international air route coming to New Zealand (Statistics New Zealand, 2000), due to the large number of both inbound and outbound travellers between the two nations. Australia is the most significant international market for New Zealand, accounting for 30.9% of total visitors in 2002 (Tables 8.2 and 8.3). In the six years leading up to 2002, demand from Australia increased by almost 200,000 visitors, or 46%, indicating that the Australian market still has potential for further growth into the future. Other major markets to New Zealand (in order of significance) include the United Kingdom (11.6%), the United States of America (10%), Japan (8.5%), South Korea (5.4%) and China (3.7%). China has shown significant growth in terms of percentage since 1996, with visitation figures increasing by 336% (from 17,551 to 76,534 in 2002), with the Tourism Research Council (2001) forecasting that Asian countries
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(excluding Japan) will be the major inbound growth markets for New Zealand by 2008. Over 50% of visitors in 2002 travelled to New Zealand for holiday or vacation purposes, a slightly higher percentage than 2001 (Tables 8.4 and 8.5). Visiting friends and relatives (VFR) accounted for 25.5% of visitors, and travel for business purposes accounted for 12.3%. Tourists who were visiting friends or relatives tended to stay longer than the other two markets, with an average length of stay of 25 days. ‘Holiday’ visitors stayed for an average of 18 days and business travellers stayed for an average of 14 days. The ‘other’ purpose of visit category did show the highest average length of stay (41 days) although this is most likely due to the inclusion of ‘employment’ as an option within that category (Table 8.6). The overall average length of stay for 2002 was 21.9 days. New Zealand in 2002 also hosted slightly more male tourists than female tourists (51.7% compared to 48.3%) and the largest age group market was those aged between 30 and 39 (19.3%), although the spread for age groups over 20 years of age is relatively constant (Tables 8.6 and 8.7). The most popular destination within New Zealand for international tourists was the Auckland region, which received over 20% of visitors (Table 8.8). This was followed by Canterbury (13.4%), Otago (11.2%) and the Bay of Plenty region (10.9%). Whilst travelling throughout New Zealand, similar numbers of international tourists use domestic air services as they do private cars, rental cars and coach bus services, although domestic air services are the most used transport medium (Tables 8.9 and 8.10). In 2002, 48.3% of travellers were classified as Fully Independent Travel (FIT) travellers, while 21% were semi-independent, 12.1% travelled on a package tour and 6.4% travelled within a tour group. Forecasts for international tourism to New Zealand estimate that visitor days will increase by average of 6.6% per annum up until 2008. This will see visitor days increase from 44.2 million in 2002 to 63.7 million in 2008. Total arrivals are estimated to increase by 6.0% per annum (or from 2 million to 2.86 million) until 2008, while the average length of stay is estimated to increase by around one day per stay. These results will lead to an increase in revenue from international tourists of around NZ$4 billion within five years. However, these forecasts are estimated based on current and predicted economic and political climates throughout the world, especially in stated possible growth markets like Asia, Australia, the United Kingdom and the Pacific Islands. The growth which has been forecast will also be reliant on the continued success of Tourism New Zealand’s international marketing campaign which has attributed to the growth of vital markets, especially Australia and the United Kingdom.
New Zealand Domestic Tourism Demand Domestic tourism is a significant force within New Zealand’s tourism industry. Earnings from domestic travel have been steadily growing, and contribute more to
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the economy than international tourism. Both day trips and overnight trips increased in 2001 from the previous year, although the extent of domestic tourism and length of stays is slightly down when compared to figures from the 1980s. Decreases in overnight domestic tourism can most likely be attributed to a number of factors in the local, regional and international environment. Most importantly, the deregulation of air services into and within New Zealand has led to a dramatic improvement in competitive pricing and accessibility, allowing New Zealand residents greater ease in travelling internationally. This is highlighted through outbound tourism figures which show steady increases over the last five or six years, with almost 2% more of the entire population taking overseas trips than in previous years. Australia still continues to be the dominant destination for New Zealand citizens, and international travel across the Tasman has continued to flourish, even after the demise of Ansett Airlines. In addition, even though the New Zealand dollar has lost value in relation to currencies such as the UK pound and the American dollar it remains strong in relation to some Asian currencies (such as the Thai baht and the Indonesian rupiah). Overnight trips In 2001, New Zealanders made an estimated 1.6 million domestic overnight trips and spent around 50.3 million nights away from home (Table 8.11). The average stay for 2001 was 3.0 nights, which is a significant decrease from 3.2 nights away in 2000. Combined, these figures led to a decrease of 3% in total trips from 2000 and a significant decrease of 6% for total nights spent away from home. However, regardless of the decrease in total travel time, New Zealanders still increased their total spending on domestic tourism, which has recently been seen to grow at around 6–7% annually. In 2001, total spending is estimated to have increased to NZ$4.3 billion, which is 6% greater than in 2000. Primarily, this total spend can be attributed to increases in nightly spend, which were just NZ$70 per night in 1999 and have increased to NZ$86 per night for 2001 (Table 8.12). The majority of domestic travellers were travelling for holiday purposes (41.5%), while business (16%) and visiting friends and relatives (34.9%) were also significant travel motivators (Table 8.13). Business travel was the only market sector which increased in volume in 2001. Holiday travellers also accounted for a similar percentage of the total spend on domestic tourism (at 44.2%), as did business and the VFR market (23.7% and 25.3% respectively). For overnight travellers, transport accounted for 26.8% of their spending, food accounted for 24.9% and accommodation accounted for 18.2%. Private vehicles were the most popular method of transport for overnight travellers, accounting for over 82% of the total means of travel. This was followed by just 10.6% for air travel. Buses, trains and other forms of transport appear to be on the decline for overnight tourists. The most popular destination for domestic overnight tourists is the Waikato
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region, which received 2.86 million overnight visitors in 2001. This was followed by Auckland, then the Bay of Plenty, Canterbury and Wellington. Over two-thirds of domestic tourists stayed in non-commercial or private accommodation. The total nights stayed in commercial properties has remained fairly constant, with the decreases in domestic travel usually being taken from the private accommodation segment. Forecasts by the Tourism Research Council (2002) estimate that overnight visitor figures should increase to 20.9 million trips by 2008, representing an average increase of 3.4% per annum. These forecasts will equate to a total of 58.9 million visitor nights. Day trips The day trip market within New Zealand has been increasing steadily in recent years. An estimated 38.9 million day trips were made in 2001, an increase of 5.2% since 2000. The most popular day trip destination was Auckland, receiving 7.65 million visitors, followed by Waikato, Canterbury and then Wellington. The top four destinations for day-trips account for over 61.4% of total day trips within New Zealand (Table 8.11). Day trip spending generated $2.57 billion in 2001, almost 16% greater than spending for the previous year, although spending in 2000 had fallen by 10.9% from 1999 figures. 34.7% of this spending was on transport, followed by around 24% for both food and shopping. Holiday or recreation was the most recorded reason for day trips (43.1%), followed by VFR (22.7%) and business travel (16.8%). The only purpose for travel that decreased in volume was the VFR market, which fell by 2.2%. As would be expected, the most common transport method for the day trip market was private car (91.0%).
Demand for Outbound from New Zealand Demand for outbound tourism by New Zealand citizens has been growing rapidly over the last decade or so (Table 8.14). Massive increases in outbound figures were recorded in the mid-1990s (with a peak of 18.8% growth from 1995 to 1996), although in 2001 and 2002 growth figures were at or below 0.5%, possibly due to the uncertainty about international travel generated by the September 11 2001 terrorist attacks and the Bali Bombings in 2002. In 2002 1.29 million New Zealand citizens departed on short-term overseas travel. This is a total increase of 80.4% from 1990 figures, and just below one-third of the total population for New Zealand. Despite the slow-down in growth in recent years, forecasts estimate that outbound tourism will increase to 1.7 million by 2008, representing an average increase of 4% per annum. The following are the key features for New Zealand’s outbound travel market:
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• The most popular destination for outbound travel is Australia, which hosted over 50.3% of New Zealand travellers in 2002. The other major destinations were USA (5%), Fiji (5%) and UK (5%) (Table 8.15). • The seasonality pattern for outbound tourism closely follows public holidays and school holiday programmes, with peaks recorded in December, March/April, June and September. • Over 40% of outbound tourism is attributed to the holiday market in 2002, with 29% travelling to visit friends and relatives, possibly immigrants returning to their birth country for special occasions. Business travel accounted for 16.5% of outbound travel, although this figure is most likely underestimated as New Zealand departure cards were altered to include a conference/convention section and this is recorded under ‘other’ in purpose for travel summaries. (Note: ‘Other’ recorded 11.9% in 2002, and increased by around 5500 responses in 2000 when the cards were changed) (Table 8.16). • Over 50% of outbound tourists were male, and over half of all travellers were between 30 and 55 years of age. • The length of stay for long-haul destinations such as the USA and UK is far greater than short-haul destinations like Australia (31.75 days and 48.33 days respectively compared to 13.17 days) (Table 8.17).
Case study The impact of the America’s Cup on tourism in New Zealand After a successful America’s Cup campaign in 1995 with the yacht Black Magic, New Zealand was presented with the charge of hosting the America’s Cup for the 1999/2000 regatta. This event, and the subsequent success of Team New Zealand, presented the opportunity to host the regatta again in 2002, and offered many significant benefits to the New Zealand economy, in particular the New Zealand tourism industry. The hosting of the regatta involved considerable development of the Viaduct area in Auckland, which was largely supported by government and private investment. Economic benefits from tourism spending were augmented by the presence of syndicate teams operating for many months in the Auckland area, all of whom provided income to the travel, accommodation and food and beverage industries. It is estimated that total direct and indirect expenditure came to $165 million due to the hosting of the America’s Cup. Whilst the majority of this spending benefited the Auckland area specifically, on-spend throughout the country was, although not officially quantified, estimated to be considerable. That is, tourists who visited the Auckland region specifically for the Regatta were also likely to
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visit other regions of New Zealand while in the country. Further to the injections of foreign exchange as a result of the hosting of the America’s Cup, 1470 full-time equivalent employment positions were created. Other benefits to the New Zealand tourism industry as a result of the hosting of two America’s Cup regatta’s included: • Just in the year leading up to the 2002 America’s Cup defence, the accommodation and hospitality sectors earned over $24 million. • The multi-million dollar investment into Auckland’s viaduct and the creation of accommodation, food and beverage and other tourism infrastructure remains a legacy for the Auckland community to capitalise on in order to continue to grow its tourism industry. • Media exposure of the America’s Cup was significant and the ‘free’ promotion of New Zealand to international markets is estimated to have created a significant pull-factor for the New Zealand tourism industry.
Table 8.1 Inbound visitors to New Zealand, 1992–2002 Year
Number of visitors
Change (%)
2008*
2,860,000*
+ 18.67
2005*
2,410,000*
+ 17.85
2002
2,045,064
+ 7.11
2001
1,909,381
+ 6.86
2000
1,786,765
+ 11.17
1999
1,607,241
+ 8.27
1998
1,484,512
– 0.85
1997
1,497,183
– 2.06
1996
1,528,720
+ 8.51
1995
1,408,795
+ 6.52
1994
1,322,565
+ 14.31
1993
1,156,978
+ 9.60
1992
1,055,681
+ 9.57
1991
963,470
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003b) Note: * = forecast figures
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Table 8.2 Inbound visitors to New Zealand by country of origin, 1997–2002 Country of origin Argentina Australia Austria
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
3,565
4,209
5,001
5,271
4,680
2,603
433,010
501,892
523,428
273,862
630,549
632,470
4,459
4,313
4,234
5,001
4,804
4,824
Bahrain
290
227
292
306
326
291
Belgium
2,179
2,744
2,912
3,688
3,623
3,962
Brazil Canada Chile
3,910
3,478
3,484
4,632
5,664
5,735
29,682
31,016
33,296
32,971
36,694
39,669
881
963
1,016
1,078
1,123
1,438
17,551
16,410
23,241
33,502
53,174
76,534
Denmark
7,223
7,237
7,265
7,371
7,426
8,001
Finland
1,458
1,925
2,008
1,940
2,062
2,091
China
France
6,543
7,404
9,300
10,716
10,934
13,239
Germany
46,698
46,481
46,243
51,451
52,482
48,951
Hong Kong
30,392
28,913
29,694
29,942
30,439
28,873
190
84
136
174
77
138
India
4,764
5,315
6,602
8,327
12,665
17,270
Ireland
4,515
5,655
7,011
9,559
11,252
13,489
Israel
3,601
3,984
4,125
5,430
7,149
7,481
Italy
5,315
5,850
7,173
7,885
6,632
8,379
161,046
152,977
147,345
151,373
149,085
173,567
181
227
294
304
237
181
Iceland
Japan Kuwait Luxembourg Malaysia Mexico
299
249
240
295
360
324
18,139
14,008
17,174
20,531
21,074
22,195
1,193
1,274
1,810
2,066
2,020
3,035
16,226
17,374
19,553
23,873
25,164
26,037
Norway
2,467
2,792
3,293
3,863
4,033
4,086
Saudi Arabia
1,016
1,096
1,180
1,171
1,289
1,503
Singapore
27,527
26,743
33,903
35,725
32,808
34,019
South Africa
13,705
15,264
14,896
16,200
17,229
15,790
South Korea
108,266
17,686
43,234
66,581
87,167
109,936
2,398
3,082
3,834
4,157
4,200
5,030
Netherlands
Spain Sweden Switzerland
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9,101
9,615
11,287
10,575
12,309
12,239
12,251
12,093
13,441
14,155
15,233
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Table 8.2 (cont.) Inbound visitors to New Zealand by country of origin, 1997–2002 Country of origin
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Taiwan
45,857
40,375
40,228
40,848
36,188
38,358
Thailand
22,035
14,341
23,246
26,693
20,814
24,832
1,248
1,278
1,622
1,814
2,184
2,574
UK
148,182
155,290
168,271
200,250
211,646
236,986
USA
143,574
162,343
180,881
195,781
187,381
205,289
51,486
5,701
56,811
47,989
59,044
58,913
United Arab Emirates
Not specified Other countries Total
105,904
101,650
111,257
129,417
140,973
139,429
1,497,183
1,484,512
1,607,241
1,786,765
1,909,381
2,045,064
–
– 0.84
+ 8.27
+ 11.36
+ 6.86
% Change
+ 7.11
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003b)
Table 8.3 New Zealand’s Top 10 major international markets by country of residence, 2002 Country of residence
Number of visitors
% of visitors
1 Australia
632,470
30.93
854,800
29.89
2 United Kingdom
236,986
11.59
373,500
13.06
3 United States of America
205,289
10.04
244,700
8.56
4 Japan
173,567
8.49
212,700
7.44
5 South Korea
109,936
5.38
201,600
7.05
6 China
76,534
3.74
159,600
5.58
7 Germany
48,951
2.39
56,300
1.97
8 Canada
39,669
1.94
46,500
1.63
9 Taiwan
38,358
1.88
45,200
1.58
10 Singapore
Number of % of visitors visitors – 2008 – 2008 forecast forecast
34,019
1.66
41,400
1.45
Total for 10 top markets
1,595,779
78.03
2,236,300
78.19
Total visitors (all markets)
2,045,064
100.00
2,860,000
100.00
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003b)
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Table 8.4 New Zealand inbound visitors by purpose of visit, 2001 and 2002 Purpose of visit
Business Holiday/vacation VFR
Number of % of Number of % of % Change Number of visitors – visitors – visitors – visitors – – 2001 to visitors – 2002 2002 2001 2001 2002 2008* 251,686
12.31
247,448
12.96
1.71
286,900
1,073,908
52.51
989,426
51.82
8.54
1,490,000
522,448
25.55
499,730
26.17
4.55
771,000
9.05
14.03
312,100
7.11
2,860,000
Other
197,022
Total
2,045,064
9.63 100
172,777 1,909,381
100
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003b) Note: * = forecast figures
Table 8.5 New Zealand International visitor expenditure by purpose of visit, 1998–2002 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
%2002
Holiday People Total spend ($NZ million) Average spend
728,122 20,292.5 2,787
819,583 2470.9 3015
907,505 2998.2 3304
946,896 1,011,143 3159.4 3553.0 3337 3514
56.32 57.86 –
VFR People Total spend ($NZ million) Average spend
271,643 393.8 1,450
284,830 504.5 1771
262,717 537.0 2044
299,095 671.0 2243
315,551 703.9 2231
17.57 11.46 –
Business People Total spend ($NZ million) Average spend
244,742 468.2 1,913
227,974 540.4 2370
272,182 546.4 2007
284,795 647.1 2272
290,018 703.7 2426
16.15 11.46 –
Other People Total spend ($NZ million) Average spend
99,381 323.9 3,259
107,486 381.5 3549
143,396 685.6 4781
164,597 758.0 4605
178,755 118.0 6602
9.96 1.9 –
Total 1,343,888 1,439,873 1,585,800 1,695,383 1,795,467 People 3,215.2 3897.3 4767.2 5235.5 6140.7 Total spend 2393 2707 3006 3088 3420 ($NZ million) Average spend Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003c) Note: Figures calculated at end of December and may differ from other total arrival figures
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Table 8.6 New Zealand international visitors by gender and length of stay, 1998–2002 1998 Number Male Female Total
1999 %
784,529
52.8
699,983
47.2
1,484,512 100
2000
Number
%
846,228
52.6
761,013
47.4
1,607,241 100
Number
2001 %
Number
932,359
52.1
854,406
47.9
1,786,765 100
2002 %
Number
%
991,578
51.9
1,059,504
51.7
917,803
48.1
985,560
48.3
1,909,381 100
2,045,064 100
Total visitors by length of stay (days) <5
250,075
16.8
272,057
16.9
301,721
16.9
317,476
16.6
333,582
16.3
5–7
303,675
20.4
331,071
20.6
362,670
20.3
375,923
19.7
409,951
20.0
8–10
233,072
15.7
247,079
15.4
279,048
15.6
298,114
15.6
307,855
15.0
11–13
84,939
5.7
93,369
5.8
104,276
5.8
110,950
5.8
122,837
6.0
14–19
217,913
14.6
230,921
14.4
260,831
14.6
277,359
14.5
289,940
14.1
20–29
162,781
11.0
176,940
11.0
199,856
11.2
214,260
11.2
229,142
11.2
30 +
232,057
15.6
255,804
15.9
278,363
15.6
315,299
16.5
351,757
17.2
Average length of stay by purpose of visit (days) Business
13
13
11
13
14
Holiday
17
17
17
17
18
VFR
25
25
25
25
25
Other
27
29
34
39
41
Total
20
20
20
21
22
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003b)
Table 8.7 New Zealand inbound visitors by demographic characteristics, 1998– 2002 Age (years)
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
0–14
115,156
121,814
145,854
157,705
168,968
8.26
15–19
66,787
72,640
81,314
88,251
100,526
4.92
20–29
283,264
298,318
334,987
365,210
383,513
18.75
30–39
288,529
316,175
349,901
378,098
394,108
19.27
40–49
256,903
273,189
306,456
322,855
354,155
16.88
50–59
239,251
268,330
294,699
309,338
334,240
16.34
60 + Total
234,622
256,775
273,554
288,924
309,554
1,484,512
1,607,241
1,786,765
1909381
2,045,064
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003b)
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% 2002
15.14 100
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Table 8.8 Visits to New Zealand regions by international visitors, 2002 State/Territory
Total visits
% of visits
Northland
279,517
4.7
Auckland
1,313,482
22.1
Waikato
416,899
7.0
Bay of Plenty
648,658
10.9
19,625
0.3
Gisborne Taranaki
48,480
0.8
Hawkes Bay
132,200
2.2
Manawatu/Wanganui
130,125
2.2
Wellington
459,179
7.7
Marlborough
149,450
2.5
Nelson
177,938
3.0
Tasman
60,547
1.0
West Coast
347,920
5.8
Canterbury
798,070
13.4
Otago
668,831
11.2
Southland
254,296
4.3
Other
50,144
0.8
5,955,361
100%
Total visits to regions
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003b)
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Table 8.9 New Zealand international visitors by transport used, 1998–2002 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
% 2002
Domestic air
404,541
445,261
487,480
472,009
547,528
22.45
Coach tour
329,854
392,425
406,839
435,213
477,454
19.58
Rental car
348,035
363,947
407,171
461,929
477,398
19.58
Private car
261,745
257,651
270,873
294,291
322,463
13.22
Ferry
194,083
222,351
263,070
222,707
250,244
10.26
Scheduled bus
101,288
101,025
115,792
102,692
98,602
4.04
78,757
89,587
101,390
96,896
93,200
3.82
Train Campervan
51,414
50,098
61,100
54,088
57,922
2.38
Backpacker bus
33,323
36,680
38,017
36,848
35,409
1.45
Cruise ship
18,358
12,170
13,944
15,735
30,324
1.24
Other
42,708
40,955
55,888
49,138
44,762
1.84
Don’t Know Total
5,076
6,068
4,385
2,711
3,026
1,869,182
5,291,218
2,225,949
2,244,257
2,438,332
0.12 100
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003d)
Table 8.10 Inbound visitors by travel style in New Zealand, 1998–2002 Tour group
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
102,276
119,682
142,888
133,253
130,304
% 2002 6.37
Package traveller
173,629
194,261
223,939
216,487
247,408
12.10
FIT
750,539
806,236
849,438
950,482
988,501
48.34
SIT
317,445
319,694
369,536
395,160
429,253
20.99
Not stated
140,623
167,368
200,964
213,999
249,598
12.21
1,484,512
1,607,241
1,786,765
1,909,381
2,045,064
Total
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003e) Note: FIT = Fully Independent Travel; SIT = Semi-Independent Travel.
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Table 8.11 New Zealand domestic travel by day trip, overnight and total nights, 2001 Destination
Day trip visitors
%
Overnight visitors
%
Total domestic nights
%
Northland
2,052,031
5.27
1,059,495
6.4
3,495,562
6.94
Auckland
7,650,663
19.65
2,491,107
15.05
6,479,157
12.87
Waikato
7,256,787
18.64
2,859,176
17.27
7,929,207
15.75
Bay of Plenty
3,483,691
8.95
1,937,477
11.70
5,504,420
10.94
265,673
0.68
207,200
1.25
656,945
1.31
1,105,298
2.84
667,208
4.03
1,849,310
3.67
974,049
2.50
384,208
2.32
1,320,014
2.62
Manawatu/Wanganui
2,944,412
7.56
1,141,197
6.89
2,859,992
5.68
Wellington
3,808,934
9.78
1,477,050
8.92
4,211,716
8.37
Marlborough
245,337
0.63
297,456
1.80
1,704,205
3.39
Melson
405,165
1.04
339,814
2.05
1,537,855
3.06
Gisborne Hawkes Bay Taranaki
Tasman Canterbury West Coast Otago Southland Total*
301,214
0.77
147,900
0.89
739,020
1.47
520,7841
13.38
1,830,145
11.05
6,181,498
12.28
526,440
1.35
262,222
1.58
1,131,499
2.25
1,957,292
5.03
1,085,759
6.56
3,665,951
7.28
747,582 38,932,409
1.93 100
369,841 16,557,255
2.23 100
1,068,461
2.12
50,334,812
100
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2002) Note: Components may not add to total as overnight visitors may visit more than one region per trip
Table 8.12 New Zealand domestic tourist expenditure by category, 1999–2001 1999
2000
2001
% 2001
Transport
687,397,431
716,381482
894,507,802
34.74
Food
683,320,919
572,791540
643,229,161
24.98
Alcohol
141,814,336
115,623368
126,093,578
4.89
Gifts and souvenirs
108,905,550
94,228808
116,558,939
4.53
Recreation
156,129,766
125,373798
130,176,025
5.06
Other shopping
685,880,131
570,237984
636,597,037
24.73
23,770,931
19,397120
27,520,263
1.07
2,487,219,064
2,214,034,100
2,574,682,805
Day trip
Gambling Total
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Table 8.12 (cont.) New Zealand domestic tourist expenditure by category, 1999–2001 1999
2000
2001
% 2001
Transport
900,520,595
1,040,039,297
1,162,815,243
26.78
Food
976,053,711
1,044,656,226
1,081,977,777
24.92
Alcohol
331,605,875
375,802,697
405,830,909
9.35
Gifts and souvenirs
121,136,714
132,695,651
127,602,713
2.94
Recreation
265,788,237
274,868,793
286,823,938
6.61
Other shopping
458,468,703
461,101,273
462,184,458
10.64
Overnight
Gambling Accommodation Total
29,369,253
30,790,868
24,552,596
0.57
722,778,724
735,468,715
790,862,556
18.21
3,805,721,812
4,095,423,520
4,342,650,190
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003f)
Table 8.13 New Zealand domestic tourism by purpose of visit, 2001 Purpose of visit
% of visits
Total domestic Holiday
43
Visiting friends and relatives
23
Business
20
Other
14
Total
100
Overnight Holiday
41.5
Visiting friends and relatives
34.9
Business
16.0
Other Total
7.6 100
Day trip Holiday
43.1
Visiting friends and relatives
22.7
Business
16.8
Other Total Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2002b)
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100
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Table 8.14 New Zealanders travelling abroad, 1990–2002 Year
Total travellers
Change (%)
1990
717,278
–
1991
778,956
+ 8.60
1992
750,895
– 3.60
1993
799,659
+ 6.49
1994
823,834
+ 3.02
1995
920,107
+ 11.69
1996
1,092,879
+ 18.78
1997
1,131,682
+ 3.55
1998
1,166,417
+ 3.07
1999
1,184,920
+ 1.59
2000
1,283,439
+ 8.31
2001
1,287,296
+ 0.30
2002
1,293,935
+ 0.52
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003h)
Table 8.15 New Zealand outbound tourism by main destination, 2001–02 Australia
United Kingdom
USA
Fiji
Asia
Other
Total
1998
616,743
68,641
78,956
66,445
154,277
181,356
1,166,418
1999
620,027
72,091
76,992
68,828
150,081
196,901
1,184,920
2000
684,934
70,110
78,778
46,436
165,100
238,081
1,283,439
2001
676,047
60,940
65,913
63,078
163,144
258,174
1,287,296
2002
650,849
65,162
67,182
66,867
169,949
273,926
1,293,935
50.30
5.04
5.19
5.17
13.13
21.17
100
% 2002
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003i)
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Table 8.16 New Zealand outbound visitors by purpose of visit, 1998–2002 Holiday
VFR
Business
Other
Total
1998
547,009
326,526
230,539
62,344
1,166,418
1999
542,934
334,362
243,379
63,835
1,184,510
2000
554,828
374,120
259,439
94,404
1,282,791
2001
535,601
376,086
225,769
149,137
1,286,593
2002
546,715
378,872
213,270
154,122
1,292,979
% 2002 2008* % 2008*
42.3
29.3
16.5
11.9
100
673,800
522,100
312,400
190,900
1,699,300
39.7
30.7
18.4
11.2
100
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003j) Note: * = Forecast figures
Table 8.17 New Zealand outbound tourism by average nights by major destination, 1998–2002 1998
Australia
USA
UK
Fiji
14.42
26.50
50.83
13.58
1999
14.25
26.83
52.42
12.67
2000
13.92
28.83
51.92
12.42
2001
13.25
30.83
49.42
11.58
2002
13.17
31.75
48.33
12.00
Source: Tourism Research Council New Zealand (2003k)
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Chapter 9
The Organisation of Tourism in New Zealand PETER TRELOAR AND C. MICHAEL HALL
Introduction Given the size and diversity, and the domestic and international nature of the tourism industry, businesses in tourism are impacted by a broad range of domestic and foreign policy. (Tourism Industry Association New Zealand, 2003) New Zealand has had a long history of central government involvement in the tourism industry. For example, the Department of Tourist and Health Resorts which was created in 1901 was one of the first national level government tourism organisations established anywhere in the world. Its name reflected the early emphasis of tourism in New Zealand on spa tourism which was significant not only for domestic tourism but which was also being promoted throughout the British Empire. Indeed, the hot springs and geysers of Rotorua were set aside for public recreation as early as the 1870s because of their tourism potential. However, tourism’s place in the structure of government has shifted dramatically over the years, reflecting both changes in the nature of tourism as well as the political philosophy of the parties in power. From 1964 to 1990 central government intervention in tourism was undertaken by the Department of Tourist and Publicity. The principal functions of the Department were: (1) To encourage and develop the New Zealand tourist industry and tourist traffic to, within, and beyond New Zealand. (2) To establish, maintain, develop, and operate publicity, information, and public relations services and to charge for those services where appropriate. (3) To establish, maintain, and operate a travel service for reward. (4) To act as agent for any person or organisation where the Minister considers it necessary or expedient for the operation of the travel service. (5) To administer the Tourist and Health Resorts Control Act 1908 and to carry out 116
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the functions of the Department formerly known as the Department of Tourist and Health Resorts. (Tourist and Publicity Department Act 1963, Sec. 7) In 1989 the Act was amended to focus on the first four functions in light of the reduction of direct government involvement in tourism development and the management of day-to-day tourism operations. In July 1990 the New Zealand Tourist and Publicity Department was restructured into the New Zealand Tourism Department (NZTD). In August 1991 the NZTD was itself restructured into the New Zealand Tourism Board (NZTB), now branded as Tourism New Zealand, which is responsible for international marketing and promotion and a Ministry of Tourism which was responsible for policy advice to government and the responsible Minister. Under the New Zealand Tourism Board Act 1991 the object of the NZTB is ‘to ensure that New Zealand is so marketed as a visitor destination as to maximise long-term benefits to New Zealand’ (Sec. 6), with the functions of the Board stated as: (1) All the Board’s functions shall be performed (a) for the purpose of achieving its object; and (b) in every financial year, in accordance with the statements for the year for the time being approved under Section 8 of this Act. (2) Subject to subsection (1) of this section, the Board’s functions are (a) to develop, implement, and promote strategies for tourism; and (b) to advise the government and the New Zealand tourism industry on matters relating to the development, implementation, and promotion of those strategies (New Zealand Tourism Board Act 1991 Sec. 7, Tourism New Zealand, 2001a). The NZTB Act reflected a major change in government thinking with respect to tourism in that it directly precluded the possibility of NZTB involvement in promoting domestic tourism and direct involvement in tourism development. Both of these functions were regarded as being the domain of the private sector and local and regional government. Nevertheless, close relationships exist between Tourism New Zealand and the private sector particularly through the private sector board members who are appointed by the Minister of Tourism. Major changes also occurred in government policy-making with respect to tourism. In July 1994 the then Ministry of Tourism was replaced by a Tourism Policy Group (TPG) based in the Ministry of Commerce which continued the Ministry’s role of overseeing policy development and implementation, particularly with respect to issues of sustainability. In July 1998 the TPG and the Sport, Fitness and Leisure policy unit in the Department of Internal Affairs were themselves replaced by the Office of Sport and Tourism, a small semi-autonomous policy advice and coordinating unit. In 2000 the Office was moved from the Department of Internal Affairs to the Ministry of Economic Development where it became the Ministry of
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Tourism in New Zealand
Public Sector
Central Government
MED
Industry NZ
Local Government
RTOs
The Ministry of Tourism
/Site
Private Sector
Tourism Companies
TIANZ
MANZ ITOC HARZZ Other Associations
ATITO, Industry ITO
Tourism NZ
Qualmark
Government
Ministry
Crown Entity
Associations
Figure 9.1 The tourism structure within New Zealand, 2003 Source: Tourism Industry Association New Zealand (2003a)
Tourism. However, in light of the changing dimensions of government and tourism there are a myriad of government and private sector bodies that have involvement in tourism and its governance (Figure 9.1).
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The Public Sector National Tourism Bodies
The Ministry of Tourism / te Manatu Tapoi (http://www.tourism.govt.nz/) The Ministry of Tourism works closely with industry, and central and regional governments with the aim of ‘maximising benefits to New Zealand from the sustainable development of the tourism industry (Ministry of Tourism, 2003). The primary roles of the Ministry of Tourism are to: • provide tourism policy advice to the Minister of Tourism; • work with other government departments (such as the Department of Conservation) on key tourism policy issues; • provide tourism research and statistics (via the Tourism Research Council New Zealand); • advise on and evaluate government investment in tourism; • administer the Tourism Facilities Grants Programme; and • assist with major events. The role of the Ministry of Tourism can clearly be seen in Figure 9.2, which shows the Ministry working as a cooperative and organisational linking ministry which does not control the economic or marketing activities of the tourism industry, but rather is a body attempting to provide a link between all the vital tourism industry bodies and relevant government departments. According to the Ministry of Tourism, tourism policy is about issues such as: • use of the environment, fisheries and oceans as tourism resources today, whilst protecting them for future generations; • providing appropriate tourist facilities and access to our country; • developing our culture and Maori heritage as tourist attractions, whilst respecting their values; and • planning for the development of the tourism industry and the economy. With the Ministry of Tourism working ‘to ensure there is an appropriate policy environment to allow tourism to generate maximum benefits at minimum costs’. Government tourism policy Government policy towards the tourism industry was officially documented in the New Zealand Tourism Strategy 2010. The strategy was designed by the Tourism Strategy Group (TSG), which is a panel of both industry and government representatives and is designed to provide a framework for decision making that will allow the tourism industry, in partnership with central and local government, to face the future with confi-
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Government Investment in Tourism
Ministry for Economic Development
Tourism New Zealand
The Ministry of Tourism
Industry New Zealand
cto
r
ur
cto
se
ism
se
ism ur
To
To
Organisations the ministry works closely with Foundation for Research Science and Technology Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Department of Conservation Ministry for the Environment NZ Imigration Service Ministry of Transport NZ Customs Service Te Puni Kokiri Statistics NZ
r
The Economic Development Team
Figure 9.2 The Ministry of Tourism within the Tourism Industry, 2002 Source: Ministry of Tourism (2002a)
dence and build the capabilities for sustainable growth. It acknowledges that in an increasingly competitive global marketplace the New Zealand tourism industry needs to be world class. (TSG, 2001: 1) The strategy states a new three-tiered vision for New Zealand’s tourism industry, attempting to incorporate a number of vital elements of tourism and society (Figure 9.3). The strategy further outlines four main objectives and subsequent plans for achieving these objectives, in order to lead and direct tourism initiatives in the future towards the realisation of the strategy’s mission. The objectives are outlined below. (1) Securing and conserving a long-term future ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
To recognise the value of the natural environment and actively protect, support and promote its sustainability.
MAORI PARTICIPATION
To ensure Maori are partners in the tourism sector and that Maori culture and identity is protected.
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HERITAGE PROMOTION
To proactively foster the recognition, understanding and appreciation of New Zealand’s built, historical, cultural and Maori heritage.
COMMUNITY GOODWILL
To have New Zealanders and their communities understand and actively support tourism.
(2) Marketing and managing a world class visitor experience COMPELLING BRAND
To strengthen the unique elements of New Zealand’s culture, lifestyles, and environments in our brand positioning and New Zealand and regional product development.
DESTINATION OF CHOICE
To establish New Zealand as a leading tourism destination in our target markets.
SPREADING BENEFITS
To optimise yield, seasonality and regional spread.
MARKET LEADERSHIP
To sustain and strengthen our distribution channels to ensure long-term distribution access and profile of New Zealand tourism products.
(3) Working smarter BUSINESS CAPABILITY
To improve the capability of people and businesses working in the tourism sector.
GOVERNMENT COMMITMENT
To have the public sector responsive, aligned and committed to their role in infrastructure and regional development investment.
SECTOR COOPERATION
To increase sector efficiency and effectiveness.
(4) Being financially and economically prosperous BUILDING PROSPERITY
To achieve greater financial contribution and economic growth for tourism operators and investors, the regions and New Zealand as a whole.
Regular updates on the implementation of the strategy are provided at: http://www.tourism.govt.nz/strategy/index.html
Tourism New Zealand (TNZ) (http://www.tourisminfo.govt.nz/ – corporate website) (http://newzealand.com/ or http://www.purenz/com – tourist website) Tourism New Zealand is an international marketing agency responsible for marketing ‘destination New Zealand’ offshore. TNZ is the government’s representative
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in the marketplace, with the charge of promoting New Zealand as a tourism destination to both domestic and international tourists. TNZ receives $55 million in funding from the central government annually. The major programmes of TNZ are: • to develop tourism in a sustainable and viable manner; • to use the global marketing campaign of 100% Pure NZ to sell New Zealand as a destination. This campaign was established in 1999 and uses advertising, internet, international media coverage, events and trade training to market the destination. The internet site lists over 6000 accommodation, transport, activities and visitor attractions; • to use events as a promotional tool to market regional destinations to worldwide audiences; • an international media programme inviting media from around the world for familiarisation visits. In the 2001–2002 financial year, the programme hosted 472 media organisations, including 52 television crews from all target markets; and • trade training – to train and develop the tourism trade through the use of Tourism New Zealand staff (both onshore and offshore) as training operators conducting seminars and product education, familiarisation trips, public relation activities aimed at trade and by answering trade enquiries. In the 2001–2002 financial year, Tourism New Zealand trained 13,000 members of the travel trade throughout the world.
Tourism Research Council New Zealand (TRCNZ) (http://www.trcnz.govt. nz/) The Minister of Tourism established the Tourism Research Council of New Zealand in 2000 ‘to ensure the provision of quality information, research, and forecasts to meet the needs of a wide range of tourism sector users’. The TRCNZ is funded by the central government and identifies its purpose as ‘to define, champion and pursue an integrated research strategy to ensure the coordinated provision of consistent, authoritative and reliable research, information and forecasting’. The key priorities of the TRCNZ are to: • • • •
advise on the purchase and management of the core tourism statistics; articulate a research and development strategy for tourism; stimulate the undertaking of priority applied tourism research; and ensure the effective dissemination of outputs to users.
The Tourism Research Council New Zealand essentially performs six operations to facilitate the supply of tourism information and statistics to the industry and to government personnel. These are:
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INTERNATIONAL VISITOR ARRIVALS (IVA)
Gathers information on short-term visitor arrivals to New Zealand.
TOURISM SATELLITE ACCOUNT (TSA)
Provides an official measure of the impact of tourism on the New Zealand economy.
INTERNATIONAL VISITOR SURVEY (IVS)
Gathers information of the activities of international visitors to New Zealand
COMMERCIAL ACCOMMODATION MONITOR (CAM)
Provides data on the supply side of the tourism industry.
DOMESTIC TRAVEL SURVEY (DTS)
Gathers information on domestic travel activity by New Zealanders.
FORECASTING
Provides informed industry forecasts for the tourism industry based on world conditions and collected information. (Tourism Research Council New Zealand, 2002)
The TRCNZ operates as an advisory body that meets on a quarterly basis and comprises senior private and public tourism sector representatives. As of early 2003 industry and government departments represented on the Council included the Department of Conservation, Air New Zealand, Statistics New Zealand, University of Otago, Tourism New Zealand, Tourism Industry Association of New Zealand, Ministry of Tourism and the Foundation of Research, Science and Technology. As of 2003 much of the research undertaken by government was available at no cost on the website of the TRC. Other related public sector agencies
Ministry of Maori Development/Te Puni Kokiri (http://www.tpk.govt.nz) Te Puni Kokiri is a major player in Maori tourism development as a result of its wide mandate with respect to Maori affairs. Te Puni Kokiri’s general roles are to: • advise the Minister of Maori Affairs on policy initiatives; • actively work with whanau, hapu, iwi and Maori organisations to establish realistic goals and targets for Maori development; • work with whanau, hapu, iwi and Maori organisations to build the capacity of these groups and individuals to become economically and socially independent; • monitor progress towards those targets and report to the Minister; • monitor and audit programmes and services delivered to Maori by government; and
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• work with other government departments to ensure that mainstream programmes work to eliminate social inequality.
The Department of Internal Affairs (http://www.dia.govt.nz/diawebsite.nsf) Casino Inspectors, Chief Inspector’s Office The Casino Supervision and Inspection office of the Department of Internal Affairs is responsible for the regulation of the Casino Control Act 1990. Environment
Department of Conservation (http://www.doc.govt.nz) The Department of Conservation works closely with the Ministry of Tourism, tourism operators, Tourism New Zealand, Tourism Industry Association of New Zealand, regional tourism organisations and other groups with the aim of ensuring that tourism perspectives and impacts are taken into account in the development of conservation policies and management of facilities. Ministry for the Environment (http://www.mfe.govt.nz) The Ministry for the Environment works in consultation with the tourism industry to help tourism operators develop environmental management systems and to certify their operations. Further, they work to ensure that the benefits and impacts of tourism on the environment are managed and monitored. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (http://www.maf.govt.nz) The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry also works with the Ministry of Tourism and other government departments to ensure that border control is maintained in relation to customs regulations and that tourism operations are carried out in a way that has minimal impact on the integrity of the agriculture and forestry environments within New Zealand Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (http://www.pce.govt.nz/) The Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (PCE) is an independent Officer of Parliament appointed for a five-year term under the Environment Act 1986. The Commissioner’s job is to review and provide advice on environmental issues and the system of agencies and processes established by the government to manage the environment. Several reports of the PCE have focused on tourism issues. The primary objective of the office is to contribute to maintaining and improving the quality of the environment in New Zealand through advice given to Parliament, local councils, business, Maori, communities and other public agencies.
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Transport
Ministry of Transport (http://www.transport.got.nz) The Ministry of Transport works with many government and non-government departments to facilitate the travel of people throughout New Zealand and internationally. Some of the organisations that they work with include: • • • • • • •
Civil Aviation Authority – http://www.caa.govt.nz Maritime Safety Authority – http://www.msa.govt.na Land Transport Safety Authority – http://www.ltsa.govt.nz Aviation Security Service – http://www.avsec.govt.nz Transit New Zealand – http://www.transit.govt.nz Transfund New Zealand – http://www.transfund.govt.nz Transport Accident Investigation Commission – http://www.taic.org.nz
The role of the Ministry is to develop policy and advise government on transport related issues; and to contract and monitor all the relevant transport related agencies to ensure that they are functioning in an ‘accessible, efficient and safe’ manner which meets the needs of people and the environment (Ministry of Transport, 2002).
New Zealand Immigration Service (http://www.immigration.govt.nz) and the New Zealand Customs Service (http://www.customs.govt.nz) The New Zealand Immigration Service and the New Zealand Customs Service monitor and control all visitors arriving to New Zealand from a foreign country and manage the distribution of visas and visitor permits. These departments work closely with the Ministry of Tourism to ensure that the integrity and security of New Zealand is maintained with minimal disturbance or inconvenience to visitors, in order to maintain a satisfactory tourist experience. Consultation is performed through the New Zealand Air Facilitation Committee (FAL), which is an interagency committee designed to facilitate air passengers at the border. Regional and local government In New Zealand there are 12 regional councils and 74 territorial authorities of which 15 are city councils and 59 are district councils. Under the Local Government Act (under review in 2003) councils are subject to planning and management disciplines including: • preparing annual plans and budgets in consultation with their communities; • reporting annually on performance in relation to plans; • preparing long-term financial strategies including funding, borrowing management and investment policies;
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• • • •
adopting accrual accounting practices; valuing their assets; separating policy/regulatory from operational functions; and preparing policies and plans concerning other functions, especially resource management, land transport and biosecurity.
The functions of regional councils are: • • • • • •
management of the effects of use of freshwater, coastal waters, air and land; biosecurity control of regional plant and animal pests; river management, flood control and mitigation of erosion; regional land transport planning and contracting of passenger services; harbour navigation and safety, marine pollution and oil spills; and regional civil defence preparedness.
The functions of territorial councils (district and city councils) are: • community well-being and development; • environmental health and safety (including building control, civil defence, and environmental health matters); • infrastructure (roading and transport, sewerage, water/stormwater); • recreation and culture; and • resource management including land use planning and development control. Regional Tourism Associations (RTOs) There are 26 RTOs operating throughout New Zealand who are funded primarily through regional council spending. They operate in association with Tourism New Zealand and promote their region to international markets as well as domestic travellers. The primary regional tourism organisations operating in New Zealand are: Destination Northland Tourism Auckland Tourism Coromandel First Light Tourism Eastland Tourism Bay of Plenty Hawkes Bay Tourism Tourism Waikato Tourism Rotorua Destination Lake Taupo Destination Ruapehu Destination River Region Tourism Wairarapa
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http://www.northland.org.nz http://www.aucklandnz.com http://www.thecoromandel.com http://www.eastland.tourism.co.nz http://www.bayofplentynz.com http://www.hawkesbaynz.com http://www.waikatonz.co.nz http://www.rotoruanz.com http://www.laketauponz.com http://www.ruapehu.tourism.co.nz http://www.rivernz.com http://www.wairarapanz.com
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Destination Taranaki Totally Wellington Tourism Destination Marlborough Latitude Nelson Hurunui Tourism Christchurch and Canterbury Marketing Tourism West Coast Central South Island Tourism Tourism Dunedin Lake Wanaka Tourism Destination Queenstown Tourism Central Otago Destination Fiordland Tourism Southland
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http://www.taranakinz.org http://www.wellingtonnz.com http://www.destination.co.nz/Marlborough http://www.nelsonnz.com http://www.hurunui.com http://www.christchurchnz.net http://www.west-coast.co.nz http://www.southisland.org.nz http://www.dunedinnz.com http://www.wanaka.co.nz http://www.queenstown-nz.co.nz http://www.tco.org.nz http://www.fiordland.org.nz http://www.southland.org.nz
Local Government New Zealand (http://www.lgnz.co.nz) Local Government New Zealand is the national voice of local government in New Zealand. According to LGNZ, its goals and key activities are to secure national policies and legislation that supports effective local governance. LGNZ: • lobbies and advocates on behalf of member councils; • seeks to work collaboratively and in partnership with central government to achieve objectives; • continuously identifies policy or legislative issues that need to be addressed; • develops a clearly stated local government manifesto that spells out the key policy and legislative changes that local government needs to secure; • undertakes policy analysis and research to support our advocacy on behalf of the sector; and • maintains a highly visible and credible profile as the national voice of local government. Tourism is of increasing significance to local government in New Zealand with the development of a Local Government Tourism Strategy Postcards From Home in May 2003 available from the Local Government New Zealand website.
The Private Sector Tourism associations and industry bodies Tourism Industry Association New Zealand (TIANZ) (http://www.tianz.org.nz)
TIANZ is a membership based and funded tourism association representing
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over 3500 tourism businesses throughout the tourism industry in New Zealand. The four main areas of activity for TIANZ are: • Industry Advocacy – this includes government relations and media and industry relations; • Business Networking – providing forums for business and professional development (TRENZ, the New Zealand Tourism Conference and the New Zealand Tourism Awards) and vehicles to identify issues that impact on business and sector performance; • Industry Development Programmes – developing, coordinating or sourcing programmes for the industry that can contribute to improvements in business performance/results; and • Membership Services – membership deals, newsletters and issues updates.
Conventions and Incentives New Zealand (CINZ) (http://www. conventionsnz.co.nz) The CINZ is the trade association representing the conventions, meeting, travel incentive and exhibition sectors in New Zealand. It is active in marketing its members’ products and services to buyers for the increasingly significant meetings and events market within the country. Industry specific tourism bodies
Inbound Tour Operators Council New Zealand (ITOC) (http://www.itoc.org.nz) The mission of the ITOC is ‘to unite all inbound tour operators for the purpose of marketing New Zealand as an internationally competitive tourist destination by promoting and arranging inbound travel of the highest standards through encouragement of development of services, facilities, training and education.’ The Council represents inbound tourism industry and tourism industry operators and comprises of inbound tour operators and their suppliers. The ITOC is more than 25 years old and members handle most of New Zealand’s visitor arrivals. Adventure Tourism Council (http://www.tianz.org.nz) The Adventure Tourism Council provides a framework for cooperation in the fast-growing adventure tourism sector. Its objectives include quality, management and safety systems, environmental care, education and training. Automobile Association of New Zealand (AA) (http://www.aaguides.co.nz) The AA distributes annual New Zealand accommodation and attraction and activity guides. The AA and Tourism New Zealand jointly fund Qualmark, a national quality and grading system for the accommodation and retail sectors.
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Backpacker Accommodation Council (BAC) (http://www.bacnz.gen.nz) The BAC represents both the YHA and commercial backpacker accommodation providers throughout New Zealand. Bus and Coach Association of New Zealand Incorporated (http://www. busandcoach.co.nz) The Bus and Coach Association of New Zealand Incorporated represents all road passage operators other than taxis. Event Sponsorship Association of New Zealand (ESA) (http://www.esa.org.nz) ESA was formed to provide those involved in the event industry with a self-regulating body to ensure that high standards are set and maintained. Heritage Trails Foundation (http://www.nzsouth.co.nz/heritagetrails) The Heritage Trails Foundation is a charitable trust which develops and promotes New Zealand’s heritage resources. Holiday Accommodation Parks Association of New Zealand (HAPNZ) (http://www.holidayparks.co.nz) HAPNZ promotes parks and ensures that members maintain high service and facilities standards. Hospitality Association of New Zealand (HANZ) (http://www.hanz.org.nz) HANZ is the national association representing licensed taverns and hotels in New Zealand in industrial, legal and tourism related issues. It was formerly known as the Hotel Association of New Zealand. Hospitality Standards Institute (http://www.hsi.co.nz) The Hospitality Standards Institute promotes training for people employed in the hotel and catering industries. Major Accommodation Providers of New Zealand (MAP) MAP represents larger accommodation providers. Motel Association of New Zealand (MANZ) (http://www.nzmotels.co.nz) MANZ is the trade organisation representing motels in New Zealand.
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New Zealand Commercial Jet Boat Association (NZCJBA) (http://www. shotoverjet.com) The NZCJBA represents commercial jet boat operators in New Zealand. New Zealand Federation of Bed and Breakfast Hotels Incorporated (http://www.nzbnbhotels.com) The New Zealand Federation of Bed and Breakfast Hotels Incorporated represents the interests of the private hotel and bed and breakfast accommodation sectors. New Zealand Institute of Travel and Tourism (http://www.nzitt.co.nz) The New Zealand Institute of Travel and Tourism encourages individual excellence within the travel and tourism industry, by promoting education and training to achieve quality service and professional standards. New Zealand Lodge Association (http://www.lodgesofnz.co.nz) The New Zealand Lodge Association represents exclusive lodge properties throughout New Zealand. New Zealand Lodge Association (http://www.nzmga.co.nz) The New Zealand Lodge Association represents mountain guides throughout New Zealand and runs the training courses guides are required to pass to gain internationally recognised UIAGM (Union Internationale des Associations de Guides de Montagne) accreditation. New Zealand Professional Fishing Guides’ Association (http://www.flyfishing. net.nz) The New Zealand Professional Fishing Guides’ Association coordinates and promotes the use of professional fishing guide services. New Zealand Rafting Association (http://www.nz-rafting.co.nz) The New Zealand Rafting Association represents the rafting industry throughout New Zealand. It registers guides and oversees their qualification as required by the Maritime Safety Authority. New Zealand Registered Hunting Guides’ Association (http://www.tianz. org.nz) The New Zealand Registered Hunting Guides’ Association co-ordinates and promotes the use of professional hunting guide services.
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New Zealand Ski Council (http://www.snow.co.nz) The New Zealand Ski Council coordinates and promotes the development and marketing of New Zealand snow sports. New Zealand Spa Association (http://www.rotorua-business.com) The New Zealand Spa Association is a New Zealand wide initiative in spa, health and wellness, driven by a strong central North Island grouping of spa facility owners. Rental Vehicle Association of New Zealand The Rental Vehicle Association of New Zealand represents rental car and campervan operators. Rural Tourism Council The Rural Tourism Council represents tourism operators working in the rural community outside heavily urbanised areas. Sea Kayak Operators Association of New Zealand (SKOANZ) (http://www. seakayak.org.nz) SKOANZ represents commercial sea kayaking operators in New Zealand. Travel Agents’ Association of New Zealand (TAANZ) (http://www.taanz. org.nz) TAANZ represents New Zealand travel agents, retail and wholesale, inbound and outbound. It has a code of ethics and a bonding system for members, which protects the public against business failures. Industry Training Organisations
Aviation, Tourism and Travel Training Organisation (ATTTO) (http://www. attto.org.nz) Established in 1994, ATTTO is recognised as the industry training organisation for aviation, travel and tourism. Its mission is to develop and manage the three industries, and it is funded by contributions from industry. Hospitality Standards Institute (HIS) (http://www.hsi.co.nz) Established in 1993, HIS is an industry-endorsed provider of national standards for the hospitality sector. HIS aims to provide training opportunities to employees of the hospitality sector.
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Sport, Fitness, Recreation Industry Training Organisation (SFRITO) (http:// www.sfrito.org.nz) SFRITO sets standards, develops new qualifications and creates training systems to suit the needs of workplaces in the adventure tourism sector. Tourism and hospitality unions in New Zealand
Service & Food Workers Union of Aotearoa (http://www.sfwu.org) The Service & Food Workers Union of Aotearoa is a trade union designed for workers in the hospitality industry as well as other service related positions. Public Service Association (http://www.psa.org.nz) The Public Service Association is a trade union designed for people working in government or public employment, which includes workers in many tourism operations. Significant NGOs
Environment and Conservation Organisations of Aotearoa New Zealand (ECO) (http://www.eco.org.nz) The ECO was founded in 1971 and is a non-profit network of 70 environment related organisations with a concern for conservation and protection of the environment. Vision Visitors and their host communities understand and embrace the spirit of manaakitanga (hospitality) while New Zealanders’ environment and culture is conserved and sustained in the spirit of kaitiakitanga (guardianship) and Tourism is a vibrant and significant contributor to the economic development of New Zealand
Figure 9.3 New Zealand’s three-tiered tourism strategy, 2001 Source: Tourism Strategy Group (2001)
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Chapter 10
The New Zealand Tourism Industry PETER TRELOAR AND C. MICHAEL HALL
Introduction The tourism industry in New Zealand is diverse and dynamic, involving many elements of the public and private sectors in the development, governance and provision of tourism services throughout the country. The importance of the tourism industry to the New Zealand economy is highlighted in figures released by the Ministry of Tourism in 2002. Their research showed that tourism in New Zealand was a NZ$13.2 billion industry and contributed 9.7% of the nation’s Gross Domestic Product. Furthermore, tourism enterprises accounted for 9.2% of all employment, or 150,000 direct and indirect jobs (Inside Tourism, 2003). Of the total earnings in 2002, international tourists accounted for NZ$6.2 billion, which makes tourism the second largest exporter in New Zealand after the dairy industry, generating 14.3% of total exports (Inside Tourism, 2003). International inbound tourism growth has been substantial since the early 1980s with periods of slowdown only occurring at times of international crisis such as the first Iraq war, the Asian financial crisis, and the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 11 2001. The tourism industry is expected to continue to grow well into the future. The National Tourism Strategy 2010 released in 2000 found that in the previous decade, international visitor numbers had increased by 85% and domestic travel activity by 40%. The strategy anticipates that the continued growth and development of the tourism industry will see tourism related earnings increase to NZ$26.8 billion by 2010. As with many countries the tourism industry in New Zealand is characterised by a small number of large companies and a large amount of small businesses. As of 2002 there were 10 public-listed companies on the New Zealand Stock Exchange and between 13,500 and 18,000 small to medium enterprises (Tourism New Zealand, 2002). This chapter outlines the varied elements that comprise the tourism industry within New Zealand. New Zealand offers a wealth of tourism attractions to international and domestic visitors. Primarily, the nation’s tourism attractions are centred around its natural 133
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endowments including diverse landscape, and indigenous flora and fauna. This is complemented by an attractive agricultural landscape which, together with its natural features, combine to provide the ‘clean and green’ images of the highly successful ‘100% Pure’ campaign used by Tourism New Zealand. In addition to natural and rural attractions, cultural attractions include the promotion of elements of Maori tradition and arts and crafts while the cultures of more recent settler groups such as European, Pacific Islander and Asian are also an increasingly important component of tourism promotion. The adventure tourism industry is another flourishing tourism sector which attracts many international tourists as well as satisfying domestic demands, while sport and event based tourism, particularly related to yachting (America’s Cup) and rugby union internationals, have also been significant for tourism promotion to specific international and domestic market segments.
Natural Attractions Introduction The lead conservation agency is the Department of Conservation (DOC), which was created in 1987. DOC works closely with New Zealand tourism bodies to ensure the protection and conservation of natural areas and biodiversity throughout the country, particularly given the importance of national parks and tourist attractions. In 2000, the DOC developed their ‘Conservation 2000’ plan that states specific goals in relation to the management of visitors to environmentally sensitive areas. The plan also provides tourism operators with specific management protocol to ensure the protection of the environment and to encourage the satisfaction and control of visitors to sensitive areas. The goals defined by the plan include: Goal 1: Protection To ensure that the intrinsic natural and historic values of areas managed by the department are not compromised by the impacts of visitor activities and related facilities and services. This links closely to other key department strategic initiatives such as the biodiversity action plan and the historic heritage strategy. Goal 2: Fostering visits To manage a range of recreational opportunities that provide contact with New Zealand’s natural and historic heritage; and provide a range of recreational and educational facilities and services that are consistent with the protection of the intrinsic natural and historic values of department-managed areas. Goal 3: Managing tourism concessions on protected lands In managing a range of recreational opportunities, to allow the private sector to provide visitor facilities and services where they do not compromise the intrinsic natural and historic values of areas managed by the department and do not compromise the experiences or opportunities of other visitors.
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Goal 4: Informing and educating visitors To share knowledge about our natural and historic heritage with visitors, to satisfy their requirement for information, deepen their understanding of this heritage and develop an awareness of the need for its conservation. (This goal operates alongside ‘Conservation Connections’, the Department’s public awareness strategy.) Goal 5: Visitor safety To provide visitors with facilities that are safe and are located, designed, constructed and maintained in accordance with all relevant legislation and sound building practices to meet appropriate safety standards. To raise visitor awareness of the risks present in department-managed areas and the level of skill and competence they will require to cope with these risks (Department of Conservation, 2000). National parks and other protected areas New Zealand has 14 national parks throughout the country, covering a total of 2.8 million hectares. Tongariro National Park, located in the centre of the North Island, was New Zealand’s first national park established in the 1880s and is now also a significant World Heritage Site. Recognised for its cultural and natural values, Te Wahipounamu (New Zealand’s South West corner) is also classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site/Area and incorporates three national parks – the Westland National Park, the Mount Cook National Park, and the Mount Aspiring National Park. Combined, the National Conservation Estate accounts for over 10% of New Zealand’s total land area. All national parks are under the jurisdiction of the DOC for protection and conservation (Table 2.23). The New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands, which incorporates five island groups in the Southern Ocean, are also classified as a World Heritage Site. Marine protected areas The Department of Conservation was given the charge of defining and protecting marine reserves under the Marine Reserves Act 1971. The department defines 18 marine reserves throughout New Zealand, which protect species in around 7% of coastal areas. However, about 99% of the total area protected under the marine reserves is in two large reserves around the Kermadec and Auckland Islands (DOC, 2003a) (Figure 10.1).
Heritage Attractions Heritage sites in New Zealand which are considered to be of significant cultural, artistic or historical significance are protected and managed by the Ministry for Culture and Heritage under the authority of the Minister for Arts, Culture and Heritage. Sites including historical graves and war monuments, museums, antiquities,
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Figure 10.1 Protected areas in New Zealand, 2003 Source: Department of Conservation (2003a) and creative art locations fall within the jurisdiction of this Ministry. The quasi-government New Zealand Historic Places Trust is a significant manager of many European and Maori cultural heritage sites as are local councils, Iwi (tribes), and the private sector. Maori cultural attractions A government led discussion into Maori based tourism in 2001 found that, even
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though experiencing traditional Maori culture and performances rated in the Top 15 attractions cited by international tourists, there were a number of factors negatively impacting upon the growth of the Maori tourism industry. These include: • Maori employees are less likely to have tourism related qualifications; • Maori tourism businesses had a lower than average turnover; • banks and investors considered investing in Maori tourism activities as a high risk venture; • over 90% of inbound tour operators sold Maori products but considered demand to be low, and operators expressed concern about the lack of variety within the Maori tourism sector and the lack of new product; and • a lack of career path for people working within Maori tourism. (Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry, 2001) The majority of Maori tourism attractions in New Zealand are located in the North Island, as this was where most of the original settlements were when the Maori people arrived in the country. Some of the major Maori tourism attractions include Tamaki Moari Village and Whakarewarewa Thermal Village in Rotorua, the Buried Village in Rotorua and various Marae and iwi tribal houses where traditional Maori performances and communications can be experienced. Significant organisations working with the Ministry of Arts and Heritage in relation to Maori culture and tourism include Te Puni Kokiri (Ministry of Maori Development), Maori Arts and Crafts Institute, and the Aoteroa Traditional Maori Performing Arts Society. Museums and art galleries Te Papa museum is New Zealand’s national museum and is located in Wellington. It was opened in 1998 and received 95,000 visits in the first week. By 2000, the museum had hosted over 3 million visits. New Zealand is home to a wide variety of museums with various foci. Collections can be found relating to history, Taonga Maori, art, transport, military, maritime, science, community and society, natural history or the Pacific region. In total, there are over 460 museums throughout New Zealand. The most significant national collections are found at Te Papa and the Auckland Art Gallery (with over 12,000 works). Museums in New Zealand are administered by the Ministry for Culture and Heritage in accordance with the Government’s Regional Museums Policy. Considerable support for museums is also made available by regional and local councils often in conjunction with support from the wider community. New Zealand also has a considerable wealth of high quality regional art galleries with some of the most significant galleries to be found in Auckland, Rotorua, New Plymouth, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, Dunedin and Gore. In addition to European paintings from the colonial period many of the
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regional galleries have extensive collections of local art while some galleries also have significant modern and contemporary art collections, e.g. Christchurch, Gore, New Plymouth, and Lower Hutt.
Popular Activities and Attractions In 2002, geothermal sites attracted the greatest number of international tourists, with a total of 424,000 visitors, up 5% from the previous year. This was followed by the visiting of beaches, an activity undertaken by 367,000 tourists, showing an increase of 3% from the previous year. Visiting New Zealand’s Sky Tower, the 12th highest tower in the world, was the third most experienced activity (345,000 or an increase of 1.4% from the previous year), followed closely by visitation to museums or galleries. Activities reported for package tour travellers showed geothermal visits as the primary attraction visited (126,000), followed by Maori performances (124,000) and sightseeing tours (119,000). However, figures for all these activities were lower than in the previous year. Gondolas (up 3000 visitors) and glow worm caves (up 1000 visitors) were the only main activities to have increased in 2002. The majority of activities undertaken by package tourists were experienced on bus tours around the Auckland/Rotorua area. For independent travellers, the most participated activity was visiting beaches (316,000), followed by geothermal tourism (297,000) and museums/galleries (265,000). The Sky Tower was the fourth most popular attraction, showing an increase of 33% in numbers from the independent traveller market (Tourism Research Council New Zealand, 2003). New Zealand has only one large-scale amusement park, which is the Rainbow’s End in Auckland. Botanic gardens, zoos and aquaria Botanic gardens, zoos and aquaria are traditional tourist attractions which are well represented in New Zealand. The country hosts at least 20 classified botanic gardens, located in most major cities in the North and the South Island. Some of the major examples of these are the Auckland Regional Botanic Gardens and the Christchurch Botanic Gardens. In 2002, 230,149 international visitors went to botanical gardens Zoos are another major tourism attraction. The largest zoo in New Zealand is the Auckland Zoo, located close to the city, who hosted 625,717 visitors in 2002. Other major zoos and wildlife parks include the Wellington and Hamilton Zoos, the Nga Manu Sanctuary and the Mt Bruce National Wildlife Centre. In 2002, the zoos in New Zealand received 30,930 visits from tourists. Other attractions within New Zealand centred around animals also often prove to be popular. Aquaria such as Kelly Tarlton’s Antarctic Encounter and Underwater
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World, which alone received 89,238 visitors in 2002, satisfy a demand from international and domestic visitors alike. Adventure tourism The adventure tourism industry in New Zealand is becoming increasingly popular due to the availability of suitable natural resources and capable tour providers who are able to provide a satisfactory adventure tourism product. Adventure tourism activities such as game fishing, scenic cruises, white water rafting and jet boating are the most significant water-based adventure tourism activities in New Zealand attracting international tourists. Scenic boats and jet boats are among the most popular activities for international and domestic tourists and attract some 340,000 participants each year. Sea kayaking also attracted 48,875 tourists in 2002, and white-water rafting attracted 43,034 visitors. In relation to land-based adventure tourism, activities include hiking, mountain biking, abseiling and rock-climbing, bungy jumping, four wheel driving, skydiving and importantly snow based activities. The bungy-jumping industry in New Zealand is particularly popular with international tourists, and in 2002 this sector accommodated almost 100,000 participants. Mountain biking and snowboarding each received 17,000 visitors in 2002, while mountain-based activities received almost 40,000 tourists. The New Zealand adventure tourism industry has also created a number of specialty activities, like Extreme Rides and the Fly By Wire. The primary region for adventure tourism is the South Island, around the Central Otago and Canterbury regions, with Queenstown promoting itself as the adventure capital of New Zealand, although a number of adventure activities can also be found in the North Island.
Transport Travel into and within New Zealand is relatively easy for tourists due to a well-developed transport network throughout the country, linking air, sea, rail and road transport in an accessible and functional manner. The relatively small size of New Zealand ensures travel times between destinations are short and travel is generally inexpensive. The only negative aspect of the transport system within New Zealand is the long-haul nature of international travel for most international markets except Australia given New Zealand’s location within the South Pacific. Overall, NZ$1.6 billion of government funds are spent annually on maintaining the country’s land transport system. In 2002, the New Zealand Government released its Transport Strategy, recognising that transport represents around 16% of citizens’ total household expenditure, and that the growth of the industry needs to be controlled to ensure its sustainability and reliability into the future (Department of Transport, 2003).
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However, there is substantial tension over transport policy given the concentration of population in Auckland and the associated transport issues that have emerged as a result and the desire of other regions to have access to transport funds. Air transport
Airports New Zealand has seven international airports – Auckland, Wellington, Hamilton and Palmerston North in the North Island; Christchurch, Dunedin and Queenstown in the South Island. However, the primary international airports which receive direct scheduled flights are Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch. Wellington Airport is limited to the type of aircraft that it can accommodate due to the size of its runways. In total, there are 27 main airports in the country, serviced by a number of carriers (Table 10.2). In 2000, the air travel industry in New Zealand serviced around 1.7 million international passengers and 57 million domestic passengers. Airlines International carriers
In 2003, 27 foreign airlines offer services to New Zealand, including three cargo airlines; however, some of these services were available through code-share arrangements. There are two New Zealand based airlines with international scheduled flights, Air New Zealand and Freedom Air, the latter being a wholly Air New Zealand owned ‘value-based’ airline offering no-frills services between New Zealand and the East coast of Australia, as well as some domestic travel. In 1998, Air New Zealand was reported as having one of the highest aircraft to population ratios in the world, with around 3400 planes and 9040 pilots for a population of 3–4 million. The trans-Tasman route is the busiest international air route to New Zealand, both in terms of passenger numbers and air transport providers. In 2000 10 passenger airlines serviced this route. However, this figure is under constant revision in the light of problems facing the world’s airlines in 2001 and 2002 with United Airlines withdrawing its direct flights but maintaining code-shares with Air New Zealand (Table 10.3). Domestic carriers
The two major domestic carriers in New Zealand are Air New Zealand and Qantas. Foreign interests in providing domestic services increased in 1990 with the deregulation of airline control, allowing foreign ownership of domestic services to increase up to 100%. A large number of smaller regional operators also provide domestics air services throughout New Zealand (Table 10.3).
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Surface transport In 1999, road, rail and water transport accounted for NZ$336 million in spending. In addition to this NZ$242 million was spent within the hire car industry, and indirect spending on fuel and other automobile related products amounted to over NZ$1 billion. Further, international tourism spending on these products accounted for NZ$393 million of the total direct and indirect spending. Therefore, land travel throughout New Zealand is not only a necessity for the facilitation of tourists between products, but is also a significant contributor to the economy.
Sea New Zealand seas and inland water ways are monitored and controlled by the Maritime Safety Authority (MSA) of New Zealand, which is a government entity established in 1993 and within the portfolio of the Minister of Transport. ‘Its principle objective is to undertake activities that promote a safe maritime environment and provide effective marine pollution prevention and effective marine oil pollution response system, at reasonable cost’ (MSA, 2003). Cruise ships only operate in New Zealand in and around the summer period (October–April). In 1950, two-thirds of all visitors to New Zealand arrived by sea. However, cruise ship visitation peaked in 1967 with 97,800 passengers and has since decreased to accounting for less than 1% of visitor arrivals. In 2000, there were 27,900 sea passengers, with over 63% of these either flying into New Zealand and then boarding a cruise ship, or vice versa. Further, over three-quarters of cruise ship passengers were over 50 years old, compared with less than one-third for air passenger arrivals (Statistics New Zealand, 2000a, 2000b) (Tables 10.4 and 10.5; Figure 10.2). Another area of the tourism industry which falls under the jurisdiction of the
Figure 10.2 Visitors by overseas port, New Zealand, 2000 Source: Statistics New Zealand (2000b)
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MSA is the adventure tourism industry in cases where it involves water activities.
Road In 2000, there were 2.5 million cars registered and on the roads throughout New Zealand, a figure which is expected to grow to 3.1 million by 2015. In total, there are also 82,000 kilometres of road throughout the country and 16,772 bridges (Table 10.6). The maintenance and control of state highways is performed by Transit New Zealand, which is a Crown entity. The maintenance of urban and rural roads is the responsibility of the relevant regional council for that area. There are 74 national and provincial road-controlling authorities that manage state highways and motorways in New Zealand. Around 25% of visitors to New Zealand use one of the many rental cars available for hire, while another 25% use coach bus facilities while in the country. Rail The rail network extends over 3898 kilometres throughout New Zealand, 2178 bridges and 149 railway tunnels, the longest stretching 8.9 kilometres. In 2002, only 7% of international tourists used a train at some time during their visit. Essentially, the intercity railway system in New Zealand is used for cargo movement, and passenger services are generally supplied for resident movement in urban centres. Tranz Rail is New Zealand’s largest rail network provider. Tranz Rail has exclusive use of over 3807 kilometres of the total route length laid in New Zealand, and is a private company operating in accordance with regulations specified by the New Zealand Railways Corporation. Tranz Rail runs all the metropolitan rail services in New Zealand, which are located in Wellington and Auckland, and also have co-ownership of New Zealand’s leading tourist railway passenger service, Tranz Scenic. In 2003 there were proposals for a takeover of Tranz Rail which would involve the New Zealand Government purchasing back the railway lines with the passenger and freight services being run by a new company. Tranz Rail is also significant in transport terms because it is the major ferry provider between the North and the South Island across the Tasman Strait and therefore provides a vital freight and passenger service.
Hospitality and Accommodation Sector Although there are a number of accommodation chains the sector is characterised by a large number of small businesses. Cafes, restaurants, pubs, taverns and bars make up 51.4% of this sector and accommodation 30.7%. Specialised food re-
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tailing, hospitality clubs and other business services make up the rest of the industry sector. In 2001, the accommodation, café and restaurant sector employed 80,355 people, the majority of whom were female (50,277). This represented 4.65% of the population. In 2002 the industry contributed 7.36% of the nation’s Gross Domestic Product. Accommodation The most detailed source of information on the accommodation sector is the Accommodation Survey undertaken monthly by Statistics New Zealand. The Accommodation Survey is funded by regional tourism organisations throughout New Zealand. In February 2003, New Zealand’s accommodation sector inventory comprised: • 2204 hotels, motels, motor inns and apartments, with a total room count of 1,465,000 rooms; • 623 hosted accommodation venues; • 316 backpacker and hostel venues, with 503,000 rooms; and • 1,508,000 sites available in caravan parks and camping grounds (417 properties). The accommodation sector in New Zealand is extremely varied and offers tourists options including 5 Star hotels, roadside motels, bed and breakfast properties, home stays, farm stays, backpackers and caravan or camping areas (Table 10.7). The Christchurch region has the highest number of commercial accommodation establishments in New Zealand (196), followed by Auckland (167), Rotorua (140), and Taupo (120). Wellington, the country’s capital city, had 69 accommodation venues. In January 2003, the accommodation sector in New Zealand employed 22,120 full-time equivalent employees, an increase of 1240 from a year earlier. Accommodation demand Demand for commercial accommodation in New Zealand in March 2003 decreased by 5.6% (175,000) to 2.95 million total visitor nights. This decrease is attributed by TRCNZ to the time of year when Easter celebrations were held (outside school holidays) for domestic travel; and the SARS outbreak and the War on Terrorism in terms of international tourist arrivals. For the year ending in March 2003, overall visitor nights increased 1.08 million to 28.98 million nights when compared to the year leading to March 2002. All accommodation types experienced a decrease in visitation in March 2003, except for backpacker accommodation which recorded an increase of 11,000 visitors. Regionally, only eight regional tourism offices recorded an increase in guest
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nights, while 18 recorded a decrease. The Auckland region recorded the highest number of visitor nights, at 364,179. Caravan parks and camping grounds Caravan parks and camping grounds are a well-established tradition in New Zealand, although they frequently have low occupancy rates and operate in an industry sector particularly susceptible to seasonal influences. In February 2001, there were 417 establishments, with an average occupancy rate of 21.3%, and a total guest night count of 697,000. This figure is 2.3% higher than figures recorded for 2002, although the seasonal nature of this sector can be seen when comparing February results to the peak month of January, which showed an average occupancy rate of over 35%. Accommodation classification An official accommodation rating system in New Zealand was not introduced until 1993. Until then, accommodation ratings were provided by a number of private companies, namely the Automobile Association of New Zealand (AA). In 1993, the New Zealand Tourism Board, the AA and other industry groups formed a company, Qualmark New Zealand Ltd, which developed a rating system based on the star system used in many other destinations around the world. The Qualmark system rates properties in relation to the products that they offer combined with the quality of the product. The star system ranges from 1 star to 5 stars, with 5 stars representing a property offering the best available in New Zealand. Clubs and casinos Clubs and casinos operating in New Zealand are a major supplier of entertainment to New Zealand residents and, to some extent, tourists, although determining the significance of this sector to the tourism industry is difficult to establish. Casinos operate in Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin, Hamilton and Queenstown. The number of people employed in the gaming industry is well in excess of 4000 in New Zealand, and in 1998 the turnover at gaming establishments was NZ$6.8 billion. A study conducted in 1998 found that 27% of patrons at Christchurch casinos were not New Zealand residents, and that 14% of patrons at Auckland casinos were not New Zealand residents, therefore suggesting that the tourist market within the gaming industry is high. Further, 20% of overseas visitors were found to have attended a casino during their stay. The specific financial contribution to the gaming industry from tourist spending has not been determined.
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The Events Sector The events sector in New Zealand is seen as an increasingly vital segment of the tourism industry, acting as a significant travel motivator for both international and domestic tourists. Business meetings and conventions, exhibitions, festivals, reunions, training meetings, and sporting events all act as major drawcards for travel to or around New Zealand, whether the travel is voluntary or compulsory in the case of business travel. The incentives market is also emerging as a potential growth industry and widespread marketing activities are currently being undertaken by Conventions and Incentives New Zealand and private enterprises to capitalise on the change in market characteristics.
Investment in the Tourism Industry The New Zealand Tourism Strategy 2010 states that further investment in the tourism industry will be necessary to ensure continued growth and prosperity for tourism operations throughout the country. The study estimates that NZ$11 million will need to be spent initially to begin the actions specified in the plan, and then considerable further spending to continue marketing and development programmes. This funding will be sourced from a collection of government bodies and territorial local authorities, the private sector and tourism associations, with an emphasis on managing spending more efficiently to maximise returns for investment. A number of the major areas for investment recommended by the strategy include: • the development of national and regional tourism organisations and marketing bodies; • the creation of representative Maori tourism bodies; • the development of technology and environment programmes; • the development of business tools for small-to-medium tourism enterprises; • further implementation of the Qualmark system throughout the tourism industry; and • improvements to distribution channels within the various sectors of the industry. A tourism strategy developed by the New Zealand Tourism Board in the early 1990s suggested that air travel and other transport operations servicing tourists were sufficiently developed to cater for expected growth in tourism demand. However, the strategy suggested that tourism attractions were becoming increasingly important to visitor markets, and that this area, combined with improvements in the range of accommodation options offered, were the most important areas to focus on.
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Case study: New Zealand Tourism and Lord of the Rings The Lord of the Rings trilogy was filmed largely at locations throughout New Zealand, taking advantage of the naturally spectacular scenery and the economic benefits of filming in New Zealand. The flow-on benefits from the free media exposure that the tourism industry in New Zealand received due to this film have been large and varied, even to the extent of tourism operations being created to capitalise on the interest that tourists to New Zealand are showing for discovering the film locations. New Zealand exposure The Lord of the Rings trilogy was filmed in the late 1990s and early 2000 in a variety of locations throughout New Zealand and the films were released in 2001, 2002 and 2003 respectively. New Zealand was selected for a number of reasons, summarised by the following quote from the film’s director and associate producer: That is the beauty of New Zealand with fields that resemble England, mountains that could double as the Swiss Alps, or beautiful pristine lakes that you get in Italy. All this eclectic mix of locations in a small country where it is easy for a film crew to get from point A to point B. (Lord of the Rings, 2002) The world premier for the third film was hosted in Wellington, New Zealand’s capital city, in December 2003. Lord of the Rings tourism Tourism development and exploitation of the films’ success has been widespread throughout New Zealand. Tourism bureaus from Tourism New Zealand to regional tourism organisations are promoting and facilitating tours to locations where scenes from the films were shot. An Auckland based tour company, Red Carpet Tours, was created specifically to cater for tourists requiring personal tours to film locations. The Central New Zealand Government allocated NZ$500,000 for the promotion of New Zealand as the home for the Lord of the Rings trilogy (Active Travel, 2003). Air New Zealand, the nation’s national carrier, developed a marketing campaign around the films, painting a number of their aircrafts with giant images from the films and promoting themselves with the by-line ‘Airline to Middle-Earth’. A book by Ian Brodie titled The Lord of the Rings Location Guidebook had sold over 70,000 copies by mid-2003. The book guides tourists to specific scene locations.
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Table 10.1 New Zealand national parks National Park
Region
Hectares
Abel Tasman National Park
Tasman
Aoraki Mount Cook National Park
West Coast
70,696
Arthurs Pass National Park
Canterbury
114,500
Egmont National Park
Taranaki
Fiordland National Park
West Coast
22,530
33,534 1,200,000
Kahurangi National Park
Tasman
452,002
Mount Aspiring National Park
West Coast
355,543
Nelson Lakes National Park
Nelson
102,000
Paparoa National Park
West Coast
Rakiura National Park
Southland (Stewart Island)
157,000
Te Urewera National Park
Bay of Plenty/Gisborne
212,672
Tongariro National Park
Wanganui/Manawatu
Westland Tai Poutini National Park
West Coast
Whanganui National Park
Wanganui/Manawatu
30,000
79,598 117,547 n.a.
Source: Department of Conservation (2003a)
Table 10.2 Airports in New Zealand, 1998 Location
Name
Type
Paved/unpaved
Runway length
Alexandra
Alexandra
Civ.
Paved
3,900 ft
Ashburton
Ashburton
Civ.
Unpaved
4,500 ft
Auckland
Ardmore
Civ.
Paved
4,700 ft
Auckland
Auckland Intl
Civ.
Paved
11,900 ft
Blenheim
Woodbourne
Civ.
Paved
4,600 ft
Chatham Is
Chatham Is/Tuuta
Civ.
Paved
4,400 ft
Christchurch
Christchurch Intl
Civ.
Paved
10,700 ft
Christchurch
Wigram
Civ.
Paved
5,100 ft
Coromandel
Coromandel
Civ.
Unpaved
2,000 ft
Dannevirke
Dannevirke
Civ.
Unpaved
3,900 ft
Dargaville
Dargaville
Civ.
Unpaved
2,600 ft
Dunedin
Dunedin
Civ.
Paved
6,200 ft
Feilding
Feilding
Civ.
Paved
2,300 ft
Gisborne
Gisborne
Civ.
Paved
4,200 ft
Glenorchy
Glenorchy
Civ.
Unpaved
2,000 ft
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Table 10.2 (cont.) Airports in New Zealand, 1998 Location
Name
Type
Paved/unpaved
Runway length
Glentanner
Glentanner
Civ.
Paved
3,100 ft
Gore
Gore
Civ.
Unpaved
4,200 ft
Great Barrier
Great Barrier
Civ.
Unpaved
3,000 ft
Hamilton
Hamilton
Civ.
Paved
5,600 ft
Hastings
Hastings
Civ.
Paved
3,500 ft
Hawera
Hawera
Priv.
Unpaved
3,100 ft
Hokitika
Hokitika
Civ.
Paved
4,300 ft
Invercargill
Invercargill
Civ.
Paved
5,600 ft
Kaikohe
Kaikohe
Civ.
Unpaved
5,000 ft
Kaikoura
Kaikoura
Civ.
Paved
2,200 ft
Kaipara Flats
Kaipara Flats
Civ.
Unpaved
2,700 ft
Kaitaia
Kaitaia
Civ.
Paved
4,600 ft
Karamea
Karamea
Civ.
Unpaved
3,000 ft
Kerikeri
Kerikeri
Civ.
Paved
3,900 ft
Manapouri
Manapouri
Civ.
Paved
5,000 ft
Masterton
Masterton
Civ.
Paved
4,100 ft
Matamata
Matamata
Civ.
Unpaved
3,500 ft
Matarangi
Matarangi
Civ.
Unpaved
2,600 ft
Mercer
Mercer
Civ.
Unpaved
2,400 ft
Milford Sound
Milford Sound
Civ.
Paved
2,900 ft
Mount Cook
Mount Cook
Civ.
Paved
5,100 ft
Napier
Napier
Civ.
Paved
4,200 ft
Nelson
Nelson
Civ.
Paved
4,400 ft
New Plymouth
New Plymouth
Civ.
Paved
4,200 ft
North Shore
North Shore
Civ.
Paved
2,400 ft
Oamaru
Oamaru
Civ.
Paved
4,200 ft
Okiwi
Okiwi Station
Civ.
Unpaved
2,700 ft
Omaka
Omaka
Civ.
Unpaved
3,300 ft
Omarama
Omarama
Civ.
Unpaved
4,500 ft
Opotiki
Opotiki
Civ.
Unpaved
3,400 ft
Palmerston North
Palmerston North
Civ.
Paved
6,200 ft
Paraparaumu
Paraparaumu
Civ.
Paved
4,400 ft
Pauanui Beach
Pauanui Beach
Civ.
Unpaved
2,700 ft
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Table 10.2 (cont.) Airports in New Zealand, 1998 Location
Name
Type
Paved/unpaved
Runway length
Pukaki
Pukaki
Civ.
Paved
3,500 ft
Queenstown
Queenstown
Civ.
Paved
6,200 ft
Raglan
Raglan
Civ.
Unpaved
2,100 ft
Rangiora
Rangiora
Civ.
Unpaved
2,600 ft
Reeve
Reeve
Civ.
Unpaved
2,100 ft
Rotorua
Rotorua
Civ.
Paved
4,500 ft
Stratford
Stratford
Civ.
Unpaved
3,100 ft
Taumarunui
Taumarunui
Civ.
Unpaved
4,100 ft
Taupo
Taupo
Civ.
Paved
4,500 ft
Tauranga
Tauranga
Civ.
Paved
4,200 ft
Te Anau
Te Anau
Civ.
Unpaved
2,300 ft
Te Aroha
Te Aroha
Civ.
Unpaved
2,700 ft
Te Kuiti
Te Kuiti
Civ.
Unpaved
2,800 ft
Thames
Thames
Civ.
Unpaved
2,300 ft
Timaru
Timaru
Civ.
Paved
4,100 ft
Tokoroa
Tokoroa
Civ.
Paved
2,700 ft
Turangi
Turangi
Civ.
Unpaved
2,700 ft
Waihi Beach
Waihi Beach
Civ.
Unpaved
2,100 ft
Waimate
Waimate
Civ.
Unpaved
2,000 ft
Waipukurau
Waipukurau
Civ.
Unpaved
3,400 ft
Wairoa
Wairoa
Civ.
Paved
4,400 ft
Wanaka
Wanaka
Civ.
Paved
3,900 ft
Wanganui
Wanganui
Civ.
Paved
4,500 ft
Wellington
Wellington Intl
Civ.
Paved
6,300 ft
Westport
Westport
Civ.
Paved
4,100 ft
Whakatane
Whakatane
Civ.
Paved
4,100 ft
Whangarei
Whangarei
Civ.
Paved
3,500 ft
Source: Airports in New Zealand (1998) Note: Excluding military and private
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Table 10.3 International and domestic passenger movements through New Zealand airports, 2000 Airport Auckland Christchurch
International passenger movements
%
Domestic passenger movements
%
1,240,000
69
–
–
395,362
22
–
–
Wellington
5
–
–
Queenstown
89,855 –
*
–
–
Dunedin
–
*
–
–
Palmerston North
–
*
–
–
Hamilton Total
–
*
–
–
1,797,101
100%
57,213,000
100%
Source: Statistics New Zealand (2000a) Note: * = less than 1%
Table 10.4 Cruise ship passenger movements, New Zealand, 1998–2002 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Overseas
14,400
20,000
17,100
18,900
34,100
USA
8,100
13,200
10,700
10,300
18,500
Australia United Kingdom Canada NZ Residents
700
1,300
2,100
1,400
6,400
1,400
1,600
1,500
1,800
2,800
600
900
600
1,000
2,200
500
600
800
700
10,500
Fiji Australia Total
0
0
0
0
1,600
100
200
200
100
1,300
14,900
20,600
17,900
19,600
44,700
Source: Statistics New Zealand (2002)
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Table 10.5 New Zealand sea ports of entry North Island
South Island
Opua
Nelson
Whangarei
Picton
Auckland
Christchurch
Tauranga
Timaru
Napier
Dunedin
Wellington
Invercargill
New Plymouth
Onehunga
Source: New Zealand Marine (2003)
Table 10.6 Length of roads, New Zealand, 2002 Region
State highways
Local roads
Total
%
Northland
710.5
5781.3
6491.8
12.35
Auckland
324.0
7542.7
7866.7
14.97
North Island
Waikato
1711.4
8503.2
10214.6
19.44
Bay of Plenty
714.1
3753.5
4467.6
8.50
Gisborne
330.9
1849.0
2179.9
4.15
Hawkes Bay
510.4
4147.2
4657.6
8.86
Taranaki
386.5
3466.3
3852.8
7.33
Manawatu/Wanganui
959.6
7781.4
8741.0
16.63
Wellington
236.3
3838.2
5883.7
46662.9
52546.5
640.0
3428.3
4068.3
10.21
Canterbury
1333.9
13956.4
15290.3
38.38
West Coast
872.9
1914.5
2787.4
7.00
1295.0
9037.0
10332.0
25.94
757.8
6428.3
7186.1
18.04
Total North Island
4074.53
7.75 100
South Island Marlborough/Nelson/Tasman
Otago Southland
171.2
171.2
Total South Island
Chatham Islands
4899.6
34935.7
39835.3
Total New Zealand
10783.3
81598.6
92381.8
Source: Transfund New Zealand (2003) Note: Excludes unformed roads
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Table 10.7 Accommodation establishments in New Zealand, 2003 Accommodation type Hotels/resorts Motels/motor inns/apartments
Number of establishments
%
579
16.26
1626
45.66
Hosted accommodation
624
17.52
Backpackers/hostels
318
8.93
Caravan parks/camping grounds
414
11.63
Total Source: Statistics New Zealand (2003a)
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100
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Chapter 11
Sources of New Zealand Tourism Statistics PETER TRELOAR AND C. MICHAEL HALL
Introduction In general, tourism statistics are collected within an overall framework of New Zealand statistics by Statistics New Zealand. Statistics New Zealand (Te Tari Tatau is its Mäori name) is a government department in New Zealand and New Zealand’s national statistical office (Figure 11.1)
International Visitor Survey (IVS)
Domestic Travel Survey (DTS) Tourism Satellite Account (TSA)
Forecasting Commercial Accommodation Monitor (CAM)
International Visitor Arrivals (IVA) Historic Aggregation
Current Dynamics
Future Focus
Figure 11.1 The organisation of tourism statistics in New Zealand Source: Ministry of Tourism (2002) 153
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Part II: New Zealand
As a government department, Statistics New Zealand acts as an agency to provide official tourism statistics about New Zealand, both in terms of demand and supply. These tourism statistics are commonly processed by the Ministry of Tourism, while the Tourism Research Council – New Zealand (TRCNZ) acts as a publisher of tourism statistics, primarily from the demand side.
New Zealand National Tourism Statistics The TRCNZ provides core tourism statistics pertinent to New Zealand tourism. These core tourism statistics are: • The Tourism Satellite Account. • Forecasting of trends. • Four key surveys: – International Visitor Arrivals (IVA); – International Visitor Survey (IVS); – Commercial Accommodation Survey (CAS); and – Domestic Travel Survey (DTS). Of the four key surveys undertaken within New Zealand, the International Visitor Arrivals survey is the oldest, having commenced in 1960. The other major surveys commenced between 1983 and 1996, with all four surveys undergoing major changes to accommodate various demand requirements. In July 2002, all surveys were moved within the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Tourism in order to improve collection efficiency and cooperative data gathering. The Ministry of Tourism undertook a ‘Review of Core Tourism Statistics’ in December 2002 to determine the quality of the information gathered and presented in all six programmes, and to suggest improvements for each component based on the needs of users. Results from this review highlighted a number of issues for improvement, including: • the datasets are technically fit for use at a national level, although the dissemination of the data for use at a regional level did not fully meet the needs of local-level decision makers; • a lack of qualitative measures for elements of the tourist experience such as satisfaction and motivation; • the need to understand the needs of users and to increase their awareness and knowledge of the data available; and • the need for further integration between datasets, including the alignment of classifications and concepts. On an individual level, only the Commercial Accommodation Monitor and the Domestic Travel Survey required further development and improved communica-
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tion to the end users. Implementation of the ‘Review’ is planned to be undertaken by the Ministry of Tourism’s Research Team between 2003 and 2005. The Tourism Research Council New Zealand cooperates with Tourism New Zealand, New Zealand’s National Tourism Organisation, and the Tourism Industry Association New Zealand (TIANZ), to provide specific tourism reports and establish strategy models such as the New Zealand Tourism Strategy 2010.
New Zealand Regional Tourism Statistics At a regional level in New Zealand, tourism organisations gather limited information on area-specific tourism activity, primarily from a demand perspective. TRCNZ is responsible for disseminating national tourism statistics into regional categories and producing specific regional information for use by industry. Data gathering programmes available for public or industry use are not undertaken by any Regional Tourism Organisations in New Zealand.
Other Sources In addition, other key sources for statistics are: federal government agencies, regional tourism organisations, consultants, and academic institutions. International Organisations also include New Zealand in their publications, reports and data series. The most significant of these are: • The Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA); • The World Tourism Organisation (WTO); and • The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC). Tables 11.1 and 11.2 summarise the key sources of tourism statistics for New Zealand.
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World Tourism Organization
Compiled from New Zealand World Tourism Organization government data supplied to the (WTO) Yearbook of WTO. Tourism Statistics
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World Tourism Organization
Compiled from New Zealand government data supplied to the WTO.
World Tourism Organization (WTO) Compendium of Tourism Statistics
1947–current
From 1986 annually
From 1975 biennially
This report provides statistical data on Pacific Asia Travel Annual visitor arrivals in Asian and Pacific Association destinations. Data is submitted by individual countries on a standard questionnaire. The primary source for visitor arrival data is the embarkation/disembarkation cards.
Data range/ availability
Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) Statistical Report
Source
Description
Title
Table 11.1 International sources for New Zealand tourism statistics
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Same as for the Compendium of Tourism Statistics
Inbound Tourism: Arrivals (by region, mode of transport, purpose of visit) Overnight stays and length of stay Tourism expenditure Domestic tourism: Overnight stays Outbound tourism Departures Expenditure Tourism activities Hotels and similar establishments Economic aggregates (GNP, exports, imports)
Outbound travel data Hotel room occupancy Visitor expenditures Length of stay Origin of visitor arrivals by residence/ nationality to Asia Pacific countries Visitor expenditure Average hotel occupancy rate Total number of hotel rooms National tourist organisation promotion budgets
Data included
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The WTTC Satellite Accounts World Travel and addresses economic activity within the Tourism Council industry by examining travel and tourism consumption and demand.
World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) Satellite Accounts
Source
Description
Title 2002
Data range/ availability
Table 11.1 (cont.) International sources for New Zealand tourism statistics
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Travel and tourism consumption: Personal expenditure Business travel by government and industry Government expenditures by agencies and departments which provide visitor services Visitor exports Travel and tourism demand: Government expenditures by agencies and departments on promotion, etc. Capital investment by the private and public sector in providing services to visitors Exports of non-visitor of consumer and capital goods
Data included
Sources of New Zealand Tourism Statistics 157
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The purpose of the International Visitor Survey (IVS) is to provide accurate, quarterly national information on the characteristics, behaviour and expenditure of international visitors.
International Visitor Survey
Data collected from 5000 respondents annually at New Zealand’s three largest international airports; Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch, through face-to-face surveys of departing international visitors. Converting to in-flight surveys after 2003.
The Tourism Satellite Account uses an international methodology to measure the economic contribution of tourism to GDP and to provide economic analysis of the New Zealand tourism industry.
Description
Tourism Satellite Account
International visitors
Title
Tourism Research Council New Zealand
Prepared by Statistics New Zealand
Tourism Research Council New Zealand
Source
Quarterly data available for 1997–current
Collected regularly since 1995
Available: 1997–1999 2000–2002 (provisional)
First undertaken in 1995
Date range/ availability
Table 11.2 New Zealand sources for New Zealand tourism statistics
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Expenditure; Demographics and motivations; Activities; Transport used; Accommodation types used; Regions visited; Trip satisfaction.
Tourism expenditure; Contribution to GDP; Breakdown of tourism expenditure; Tourism export earnings; Tourism employment.
Data included
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Domestic Travel Survey
Domestic visitors
The target population is all New Zealand residents aged 15 years or over, sourced through a telephone survey. To ensure a representative sample, daily total quotas, weekly age/sex quotas and monthly regional quotas were set. Currently the sample size is around 12,000 respondents however from 2003 the sample will increase to 15,000 interviews per-year.
Provides estimates on the size of the domestic travel market to a regional level and estimates on direct expenditure in regions and flows of expenditure between regions. Currently conducted by AC Neilson, funded by the Ministry of Tourism.
Tourism Research Council New Zealand
All arriving international visitors who Tourism Research intend to stay for less than 12 months Council of New are counted in International Visitor Zealand Arrivals data. Prepared by Data is compiled from incoming and Statistics New outgoing passenger cards on all Zealand international flights.
International Visitor Arrivals
Source
Description
Title Destination; Country of citizenship; Country of residence; Visitor arrival and departure counts; Duration of stay; Purpose of visit; Respondent demographics.
Data included
Day trips; Overnight trips; Nights away; Places stayed; Data Main reason of trips; disseminated into Transport used; quarterly Activities undertaken; statistics. Expenditure. Currently available to 2001
Conducted 1984–1990, 1999–present
Reported monthly
Available in current form since 1994–current
First undertaken in 1960
Date range/ availability
Table 11.2 (cont.) New Zealand sources for New Zealand tourism statistics
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Commercial Accommodation Survey
Forecasts of International Visitor Arrivals, Domestic and Outbound Tourism, and Tourism to New Zealand Regions
Other statistics
Title
Tourism Research Council New Zealand
Source
Surveys are completed through mail-out.
Tourism Research The Commercial Accommodation Council New Survey (CAM) monitors trends in Zealand New Zealand’s commercial accommodation sector, which includes GST registered commercial accommodation providers with $30,000+ annual turnover.
All forecasts are based on changes in demand, and assume that supply will be maintained in accordance with changes of demand.
The purpose of the forecast series, funded by the Ministry of Tourism, is to produce accurate forecasts of tourism activity in New Zealand. The key objectives are to refine and enhance existing forecasting capabilities and to produce accurate and reliable forecasts of tourism activity in New Zealand that can be used with confidence by members of the tourism industry.
Description
First undertaken in 1996 and conducted monthly
Current forecasts are for the 2002–2008 period conducted in 2001
Date range/ availability
Table 11.2 (cont.) New Zealand sources for New Zealand tourism statistics
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Employment; Guest nights by origin.
Quarterly
Capacity; Occupancy; Guest nights.
Monthly
Visitor nights; Visitor numbers; Visitor expenditure; Purpose of visit; Country of origin; Duration of stay.
International Visitors
Resident departures; Purpose of trip.
Outbound Travel
Trips; Visitor nights; Visitor expenditure; Purpose of trip; Travel to individual regions.
Domestic Tourism
Data included
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Statistics New Zealand also provides a Statistics New variety of information on other Zealand industries and operations in New Zealand which operate in part association with the tourism industry.
Related Industry Statistics
Source
Description
Title Various
Date range/ availability
Table 11.2 (cont.) New Zealand sources for New Zealand tourism statistics
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Transport industry statistics; Aviation industry statistics; Economic and employment statistics; and Other tourism statistics not included in TRCNZ publications.
Data included
Sources of New Zealand Tourism Statistics 161
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Part III
Pacific Islands
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Part III: Pacific Islands Introduction to the Pacific Islands
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Chapter 12
Introduction to the Pacific Islands PETER TRELOAR AND C. MICHAEL HALL The islands of the Pacific, located in the Pacific Ocean between Australia, New Zealand, South America and Asia, often conjure up the image, in the minds of many Western tourists at least, of swaying tropical palm trees, white sand beaches, warm crystal-clear waters and, possibly, dusky maidens in grass skirts welcoming visitors with fronds of flowers and performing traditional dance. This stereotypical, and highly gendered, image of ‘paradise’ has been consistently portrayed over many years not only in tourist advertising but also in many other forms of image making, such as film, newspapers and magazines, novels and even academic works. Moreover, what is remarkable about this image is its consistency for much of the past 200 years and probably longer. However, in reality, while tourism does play a significant role in the micro-economies throughout the region, tourism arrivals only account for approximately 0.15% of the total tourism arrivals throughout the world, and the actual differences between countries, and even within countries, are highly variable.
Geography The Pacific Islands are generally designated into three geographical sub-regions (Figure 12.1): (1) Micronesia – including Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, Nauru and Tuvalu. (2) Melanesia – including Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, and western Fiji (Fiji being partly Melanesian and partly Polynesian). (3) Polynesia – the Cook Islands, French Polynesia, American Samoa, the Independent State of Samoa, Fiji, Tonga, Niue, Tokelau, and the Wallis and Futuna Islands. 165
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Figure 12.1 The Pacific Islands
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167
Society Indigenous tribes have been living in the regions throughout the Pacific for about 10,000 years, although the migration of most contemporary cultures to islands in the remote areas of the Pacific is thought to have begun around 1000 years ago. The people are generally considered to be friendly and welcoming to visitors. In most countries, the tribal system of leadership and community is intrinsic to the culture of the people, and the friendliness and generosity is usually a result of a more cooperative style of existence than that experienced in much of the developed world. Missionaries had a large impact on the island cultures in the 1800s, and silenced a large part of the traditional beliefs and community structure that played an overarching role in the lifestyle of the original island people. Most residents are now practising a form of Christian religion, although traditions have widely been maintained through spoken tales of the past and the indigenous arts and crafts which are a large tourist attractor and vital contributor to some economies. Nevertheless, the various churches hold enormous political, social and economic influences throughout much of the Pacific. The nations in the Pacific region also have significantly varying populations. The population can range anywhere between the two extremes of Papua New Guinea (over 5 million people) through to Pitcairn island which houses only 47 people. Although the region is home to only about 0.1% of the world’s population, over one-third of the world’s languages are to be found there, including over 700 in Papua New Guinea alone; however, many of the traditional languages have now been lost. Another major concern affecting many of the small nations is international migration of their citizens to larger countries such as Australia, New Zealand and the United States, where employment opportunities and chances for prosperity are greater. Nevertheless, these diasporic populations of Pacific Islander populations represent not only significant VFR tourist markets but are also an important source of remittances which help sustain some of the island economies
Political History Few islands in the Pacific were able to stem the tide of colonial occupation and settlement which happened in the Pacific region in the late 1700s through to the early 1900s. The European empires of France, Germany and Great Britain, and the United States, claimed islands for strategic defence and trade reasons, often forcing the indigenous populations into relinquishing their sovereignty with promises of protection and economic benefits. Today, a large number of the countries in the region have achieved political independence or are operating a localised government system in association with a foreign country. Nevertheless, most nations find it difficult to survive in the global economy without the financial assistance of donor countries, including many of the former colonial powers, Australia, Japan and New Zealand.
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During World War II, many of the islands played an important strategic role in the defence of Allied nations from Japanese military aggression. The remnants of these battles, including forts and sunken battleships, now play a role as a popular tourism attraction for many countries, especially for ocean based tourism activities such as diving and snorkelling. In addition, many of the airports constructed as military bases during the war came to serve as the hubs of airline development in the post-war period to the present-day. Many of the islands also continued to have military significance for much of the period of the Cold War with American and French military bases still located throughout the Pacific. In addition, because of the relative isolation of a number of Pacific islands a number of atolls and islands were used for the atmospheric and underground testing of nuclear weapons. Although reasonably politically stable as compared to some developing regions, such as Africa and South America, the countries of the Pacific have experienced a degree of political instability since the early 1980s with international focus being concentrated on Fiji which has experienced several coups, and New Caledonia in which the indigenous Kanaks have sought self-determination and greater autonomy from France. At various times these political events have had the effect of shifting Western tourist perceptions of the whole region.
Economy In general, the economies of the Pacific islands rely heavily on agriculture and fishing as major export earners and economic and employment contributors. Manufactured goods are important economic activities on the larger islands, such as Fiji, while local crafts are significant in many of the islands. Some nations have also developed specific renewable natural resources such as pearl farming in Tahiti, with the black pearl in particular being popular in foreign markets and contributing significantly to the economy. Foreign economic aid and remittances also play a significant role in the maintenance of some economies and the support of island inhabitants. Despite high variability in growth rates and patterns of development, the significance of tourism to the island nations cannot be overestimated, with some countries realising around half of their annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) from tourism receipts. Further, ‘despite development constraints, impediments and economic problems associated with some Pacific Islands, the economic benefits derived from tourism have been viewed by many island governments as a way of reducing dependence on uncertain aid income’ (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1996). However, there remains high variability in infrastructure, transport, accommodation and the capacity of host nations to cater to tourism. For example, in 1996, Palau and the Cook Islands achieved 49% and 47% of their GDP respectively from tourism, while the tourism industry in Vanuatu, Samoa and Fiji contributed around
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20%. In smaller countries, limited by their tourist infrastructure and capacity, tourism was still able to contribute around 13% in Niue, 8% in Tonga, 4% in the Solomon Islands and 3% in Tuvalu (UNESCAP, 1998).
Organisation of Tourism National governments and tourism authorities are now placing an increasing level of importance on the development of tourism in the Pacific Region where it is perceived as one of the best available economic development opportunities. In addition, a number of regional organisations which encourage and promote tourism also exist. These organisations include: South Pacific Tourism Organisation (SPTO) (http://www.tcsp.com) Formerly known as the Tourism Council of the South Pacific, this association started informally in the early 1980s. The organisation now represents 13 countries in the Pacific Region, and performs functions such as marketing, human resource and advisory services, finance and administration. The overarching aim of the organisation is ‘assisting any organisation, large or small, national or international, involved in South Pacific travel and tourism’ (SPTO, 2002). The SPTO received substantial financial support from the European Community and is a significant conduit for tourism directed foreign aid in terms of development planning. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (UNESCAP) (http://www.unescap.org) The mission of UNESCAP is ‘To assist its members and associate members in further developing the tourism sector, in particular, sustainable tourism, by both strengthening the capacities of both human resources and institutions and promoting regional cooperation, especially networking of training institutions’ (UNESCAP, 2002). Policy areas defined by the Plan of Action for Sustainable Tourism Development in Asia and the Pacific (PASTA) are: • • • • • •
human resources development in the tourism sector; economic impacts of tourism; environmental management of tourism; infrastructure development and investment for the tourism sector; facilitation of travel; and regional and sub-regional cooperation in tourism development.
Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) (http://www.spc.org.nc) The SPC was founded in 1947 under the Canberra agreement which joined six governments throughout the world who had control over countries in the Pacific
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region, in order to coordinate regional-wide actions. Since then, a number of the countries have gained independence and the organisation now consists of 22 Pacific Region countries, and five of the original six controlling countries. The SPC is the premier regional, technical and development organisation of the Pacific. An international organisation, SPC works in partnership with its members, other organisations and donors to deliver priority work programmes to member countries and territories. Its work programmes aim to develop the technical, professional, scientific, research, planning and management capability of Pacific Island people and directly provide information and advice, to enable them to make informed decisions about their future development and well-being (SPC, 2003). A number of the programmes undertaken by this organisation are related to using tourism as a means for improving the economy and society within the Pacific region. The organisation also regularly collects statistical information relating to tourism in the individual countries.
Other relevant organisations The Bank of Hawaii (http://www.boh.com) and the Asian Development Bank (http://www.adg.org) also often undertake planning projects in association with the individual Pacific Islands, and these companies also collate economic, social and statistical information which contain tourism relevant data. The Pacific Islands Trade and Investment Commission is an agency of the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat which also produces information with relevance for tourism (http://www.pitic. org.au).
Tourism Demand Visitor arrivals to the Pacific Region generally reached their peak in the mid-1990s, and although a number of countries are still experiencing tourism growth, the influence of the Asian economic crisis, the War on Terrorism and various natural disasters has led to a slight contraction within the industry (Table 12.1). Japan, Korea, and the United States are generally the major markets for the islands in the northern part of the Pacific. Countries further south in the region often source their tourism market from Australia, New Zealand and other Pacific Islands, with some contribution from long-haul markets such as the United Kingdom. The traditional cruise ship business in the Pacific Region is one tourism sector which has seen a considerable fluctuation in business, primarily due to changing consumer patterns and the relative travel distance between the Pacific Islands in comparison with other cruising destinations. In contrast, tourism activities involving eco-tourism, marine tourism or cultural tourism are becoming increasingly significant attractors for the islands.
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Economic Contribution of Tourism to the Pacific Region by Country, 2000 The economic contribution of tourism to the Pacific Region varies greatly between countries. Well-established tourism destinations such as Hawaii and Guam, which receive well over a million visitors a year, have the ability to rely on the tourism industry to create a relatively stable economy, while small nations such as Nauru, Niue or Tuvalu, who receive 1000 or fewer visitors per year and are confined by capacity constraints, face substantial development issues with respect to tourism. For example, Hawaii, which is the most prominent tourism destination within the Pacific Islands, receives around US$10 billion annually in tourism receipts. In comparison, Niue receives around US$1 million annually from tourism. However, relative to each individual economy within the region, the receipts from tourism are still extremely significant and a vital element in the economic mix. Table 12.1 Demand for tourism in the Pacific Islands by country, 1996–2001 Country American Samoa
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
6,475
4,513
5,680
6,858
6,333
Cook Islands
48,354
49,866
48,630
55,599
72,994
Federated States of Micronesia
22,562
–
–
–
17,152
2001 – 74,575 –
% 2001 – 0.83 –
Fiji
339,560
359,441
371,342
409,955
294,070
348,014
3.88
French Polynesia
163,774
180,440
188,933
210,800
240,450
227,658
2.54
Guam
1,352,361 1,373,210 1,128,855 1,155,517 1,279,243 1,124,198
12.53
Hawaii
6,723,141 6,761,135 6,595,790 6,741,037 6,975,866 6,303,791
70.24
Kiribati
4,206
5,054
5,679
3,112
4,829
4,574
0.05
Marshall Islands
6,116
6,254
5,727
4,622
5,246
5,399
0.06
Nauru New Caledonia Niue
– 91,121
– 105,137
– 103,835
– 99,735
– 109,587
– 100,515
– 1.12
1,522
1,820
1,736
1,870
1,647
1,407
0.02
736,517
726,690
526,298
491,602
526,111
497,685
5.55
Palau
69,330
73,719
64,194
55,493
57,732
54,111
0.60
Papua New Guinea
61,385
66,000
67,830
67,357
54,235
0.60
Northern Mariana Islands
–
Samoa
73,155
67,960
77,926
85,124
87,688
88,263
0.98
Solomon Islands
10,290
13,807
15,802
6,224
2,427
3,418
0.03
–
–
–
Tokelau
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–
–
–
–
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Table 12.1 (contd.) Tonga
26,642
Tuvalu Vanuatu Total % Change
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26,162
27,102
30,949
34,694
32,386
0.36
898
1,000
1,100
1,000
1,000
1,140
0.01
46,123
49,624
52,085
50,746
57,364
53,300
0.59
9,783,532 9,871,832 9,288,544 9,477,600 9,774,433 8,974,669 100 –
+ 0.90
– 5.91
+ 2.04
+ 3.13
– 8.18
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Chapter 13
Tourism in the Pacific Islands PETER TRELOAR AND C. MICHAEL HALL
American Samoa Geography American Samoa is a group of seven Polynesian islands in the Pacific, located north of Tonga and south-west from Hawaii (Figure 13.1). The country consists of five volcanic islands, Tutuila, Ofu, Olosega, Ta’u, Aunu’u, and two atolls, Rose Island and Swain’s Island, all presenting a variety of unique and attractive countryside typified by sharp inclines and rugged, dense vegetation. The combined land size for the seven islands is only 122 square kilometres (Figure 13.2). The climate on the islands is typical of a nation so close to the equator, with warm to hot temperatures throughout the year and high humidity. While this weather
Figure 13.1 The location of American Samoa 173
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Figure 13.2 American Samoa
pattern has given rise to the lush rainforests to be found on the islands, and in the 4000 hectare National Park of American Samoa, the capital city, Pago Pago, and the nearby and aptly named Rainmaker Mountain receives an average annual rainfall of 5000 mm (Lonely Planet, 2003). American Samoa’s relative isolation in the Pacific Region has led to the development of interesting and individual flora, in which many pharmaceutical companies are interested for their potential health benefits. However, this isolation has also led to a lack of native animals (aside from human introduced) except for a few small mammals and reptiles. Society The largest of the seven islands is Tutuila (where the capital Pago Pago is located) and 92% of the nation’s 67,000 citizens live there. The high concentration of residents in the one area has led to the rise of many over-population issues, including a reduction in the living standard of much of the population. The population is primarily indigenous Samoan (89%); however, Caucasians (2%) and many other races
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are present. Currently, the government is expressing concern with the growth of the population, stating that while it has increased ten-fold in the last 100 years, the usable land size has not increased at all, as only 30 square kilometres of the main island has a gradient of less than 30 degrees and therefore suitable for agriculture. American Samoa is a nation rich in natural and cultural heritage, and the people are often considered very friendly and welcoming of visitors and tourists. The nation is very religious, with 98% of the population practising Christians. The primary language in American Samoa is Samoan, although English is widely spoken. Political history American Samoa is believed to have been inhabited by humans as early as 1000 BC, although European explorers did not discover it until the 18th century. International conflict in the late part of the 19th century between Britain, Germany and the United States led to the creation of the 1899 treaty, which saw the Samoan archipelago divided into two and claimed by Germany and the United States, the latter gaining the smaller group of eastern islands. The British initially failed to gain any of the Samoan islands and only assumed control of German Samoa after the First World War. American Samoa became an official unorganised territory of the United States in 1900, and therefore the current US president heads the ruling government and the economic system operates using the US dollar. However, although the people are considered citizens of the United States, they are still unable to vote in congressional elections. Economy The economy in American Samoa is largely structured around traditional Polynesian communal land ownership. Recently, the government developed a working party to identify ways to stimulate the economy in the face of overwhelming physical and geographic constraints to growth. A report titled ‘Transforming the Economy of American Samoa’ (2002) was produced and submitted to the United States government requesting assistance to prevent any further degradation of the economy and standard of living. The report highlighted four major growth areas, with tourism and telecommunications/information technology being the two primary growth areas identified. The US government currently accounts for about one-third of all employment, with another third being attributed to the tuna fishing and canning industry. The association with the US is vital to the nation, as it is its major trading partner and contributor of economic aid. In recent times, the country’s government has attempted to increase the destination’s profile as a competitive tourist destination, although these efforts have been
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impacted greatly by financial difficulties in Asia, which is an obvious potential market due to their tourism preferences and proximity. Tourism in American Samoa Tourism in American Samoa achieved its peak in the 1970s with close to 35,000 visitors to the tiny Pacific Island nation (American Samoa Economic Advisory Commission, 2002). However, since then visitor numbers in all categories have plummeted and have now stagnated at around 6000 visitors annually. The economic development plan (see above) highlights three potential niche tourism markets whose specific interests may outweigh the transport costs of travelling to this relatively undeveloped tourism destination, especially in relation to transportation facilities. The three areas highlighted were eco-tourism, cultural tourism and handicraft-heritage tourism. The Independent State of Samoa is the primary competitor for American Samoa, and aggressive marketing from this destination is believed to impact greatly on the success of American Samoa’s tourism industry.
Tourism attractions The American Samoan tourism product is largely centred around its climate, natural geography and, to some extent, its traditional culture. The main tourist attractions that are promoted to potential markets include: • • • • • • • •
American Samoa National Park; traditional American Samoan villages; red quicksand and rock formations on Aunu Island; marine sanctuary; tropical fish and coral; humpback whales; scuba diving and snorkelling; volcanic tourism.
Accommodation Tatuila Island is the primary tourism destination, and contains approximately 10 accommodation venues, providing about 356 rooms. The major hotel is the Rainmaker Hotel (181 rooms), although this hotel has often received negative attention due to the lack of care taken to maintain it. The other major hotel is Tradewinds West (104 rooms). The Manua’a Islands also offer another four accommodation venues, although combined only 30 rooms are available. Accommodation properties in American Samoa are not associated through an industry organisation or accommodation association. Primary marketing for the lodging sector is done through the American Samoa Office of Tourism.
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Transport The Pago Pago International Airport in Tutuila is the primary access point to the nation, with Hawaiian Air, Air Pacific, Air New Zealand and Polynesian Air making regular flights. Domestic airports can also be found in Ofu, Olosega and Ta’u. In addition, Pago Pago harbour is a deep-sea harbour capable of welcoming cruise ships and freight. Regular and reliable inter-island transport is supplied by the small, local airline, Samoa Air. A number of inter-island ocean services are available, although the trips can take up to a day each. Within the islands, a bus service is provided by the government, the Aiga bus, but this service is not well managed and scheduled services can be unpredictable. Car hire facilities are also available. Tourist demand Tourist arrival numbers have changed little over the last decade, with numbers remaining around the 6000 mark, excluding a slump period in 1997. The major market, as can be seen in Table 13.1, is the United States. This is to be expected considering that American Samoa is a territory of the United States and travel to this Pacific Island is relatively easy for US citizens. The next largest market is New Zealand. Similar to a number of Pacific Island nations, 1997 was a slow year, although the most significant drop in tourism arrivals was found in the New Zealand market. As can be seen in Table 13.2 and Figure 13.3, the largest travelling market to American Samoa is the VFR market, which can largely be attributed to citizens migrating from American Samoa to the United States or other countries for employment and standard of living improvements. Tourist arrivals are generally around the 14% level.
Business 14% Employ 16%
Tourist 14%
VFR 56%
Figure 13.3 Arrivals to American Samoa by purpose of visit, 1999 Source: Department of Commerce, American Samoan Government (2002)
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Tourism economic indicators The contribution to the economy by the tourism sector in American Samoa has been largely limited by financial concerns in East Asia, which is considered to be the primary target market for development in the future. Another inhibitor on economic contribution is that the majority of tourists are within the visiting friends and relatives market, which is less likely to spend foreign money on tourism products such as accommodation or food and beverage services. Instead, they are likely to stay with friends and relatives while visiting and use private facilities. Specific levels of economic contribution attained through tourism are ambiguous. The Economist Intelligence Unit (1996) placed tourism earnings at around US$10 million in 1996; the World Tourism Organization (2001) estimates incomes for 1998 at US10 million; and it is unlikely that this figure has changed significantly due to the lack of noticeable change in visitor arrival figures. However, it should be noted that this figure may have increased somewhat due to greater tourism numbers travelling to the region in general, and the breakdown of visitor purposes may have altered slightly to include a greater percentage of leisure visitors.
Cook Islands Geography The Cook Islands is a chain of 15 islands spread over 2.2 million square kilometres of territory halfway between Hawaii and New Zealand (Figure 13.4). The islands, named after Captain James Cook, are roughly divided into two groups, with significant geographical and geological differences between the North and the South. The south islands are generally of volcanic origin, giving rise to rugged mountain terrain covered in thick rainforest vegetation. The north islands, almost 1,000 kilometres away, are predominately older coral atolls of limestone base. The majority of the population lives on the south islands, namely on the largest island, Rarotonga, which is home to the nation’s capital Avarua. The only native mammal on the islands is the Pacific fruit bat, although a number of other species have been introduced following European colonisation. Interesting bird life and an array of marine life typical to the Pacific Islands can also be found. The climate is relatively stable, although it is usually wetter in the mountainous interiors of the southern islands than in other areas. Year round average temperatures range between 25ºC and 29ºC, with the hottest parts of the year during the southern hemisphere’s summer period. Society The Cook Islands are thought to have been settled by Polynesians in about AD 800, migrating from the present-day Tonga and Samoa. Today, the population in the Cook Islands is about 20,800, primarily made up of Polynesian natives (81.3%) and Polynesian descendants who have intermarried with European settlers
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Figure 13.4 The Cook Islands (15.4%). Three languages are now spoken widely in the Cook Islands, English, Maori and Pukapukan, the latter a western Polynesian dialect. Christianity is widespread and practised enthusiastically, due to the arrival of Christian missionaries in 1821 and their aggressive dismissal of the traditional cultural religion of the Polynesian population. In recent times, significant issues have arisen due to the emigration of skilled labour from the Cook Islands to New Zealand where opportunities are far greater. Estimates are that the total number of Cook Islanders living in Australia and New Zealand is about 37,000. In the outer islands, the traditional Polynesian lifestyle of family orientated organisation and farming communities remains intact. In the larger cities, such as on Rarotonga, the Western influence has been more profound, with monetary concerns at the centre of the economy, although agriculture and farming still play a large part in the people’s daily lives. Traditional recreational activities are still maintained, including Polynesian music making, dance and feasts.
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Political history A Spanish explorer, Alvaro de Mendana, was the first European to sight the Cook Islands in 1595; after this the islands were ignored until 150 years later when Captain James Cook sailed through them between 1773 and 1777. The missionaries arrived soon after and instilled tight laws and controls over the nation, greatly affecting the culture on the main islands, while leaving the outer islands to themselves. In 1888, Britain declared protectorate status over the Cook Islands, and then ceded control to the New Zealand government in 1900. By 1901, all the islands were annexed as part of New Zealand which began to rule the nation externally. This control was loosened in 1965 when the citizens chose a self-governing leadership style, still in association with New Zealand. Due to this, the country now manages its own affairs of state, whilst still using the New Zealand dollar as their currency and relying on New Zealand for defence. The traditional governing system in the Cook Islands involved a tribal, self-governing system of chiefs (matai) chosen through heredity and prowess. To some extent, this traditional system has been incorporated into contemporary governance. Economy The Cook Islands enjoys a relatively stable economy due largely to reliable trading partners, economic ties with New Zealand and sustainable local industry. In 2001, the country’s GDP was NZ$183.8 million with a healthy growth rate of 7.1%, even in light of recent constraints placed on the economy due to a reduction in foreign aid from New Zealand. Traditionally, the major industries on the islands have been agriculture and fishing, with local manufacturing also being a significant economic earner. In recent times, tourism is playing an increasingly vital role in the economy, with the restaurant and accommodation sector having the largest growth of all sectors at 18%. Black pearl diving is also a profitable industry for the region, with black pearls being very popular to export markets. In 1996, tourism accounted for around 46% of total earnings for the country, and continues to account for almost 50% of the GDP today. Tourism in the Cook Islands Tourism in the Cook Islands has been developing for many years, and has led to the development of a significant tourism industry that contributes greatly to the nation and has placed the country as one of the Pacific Islands’ top tourism destinations in terms of infrastructure and visitation. An intricate network of government bodies, tourism associations and individual tourism operators work together to promote and develop a sustainable tourism environment. The Ministry of Tourism and Transport is the government body responsible for policy development in relation to tourism. The Ministry operates in association with the Cook Islands Tourism Corporation, another government agency, which is
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responsible for the organisation of the tourism industry within the Cook Islands and the promotion of tourism to relevant international markets. The industry is also represented by a number of industry associations including the Tour Operators Association and the Restaurant Association. The Cook Islands Statistics Office collects tourism statistics. Recent marketing and development programmes which have been initiated by the Cook Islands tourism industry include: • a renewed focus on cultural tourism as a means to increase tourist visitation; • the introduction of a tourism accreditation scheme to manage and control the tourism product throughout the islands; • a focus on encouraging foreign investment in the hotel sector to increase the accommodation sector’s range of product and capacity; and • changing marketing focuses to include more direct targeting aimed at increasing current major markets such as Australia and New Zealand and to focus on attracting Northern hemisphere markets.
Tourism attractions Tourism attractions in the Cook Islands are largely centred on the natural beauty of the islands and the culture, although the missionary impacts in the 19th century have stifled a lot of the traditional culture of the native population. Rarotonga is the primary tourism destination and offers an insight into the missionary influence, with tourists able to visit the Papeiha Stone, which is said to be where the first person preached Christianity to the people, and the CICC Church, which was built around 1853. Mountains such as Raemaru and Rua Manga offer facilities for scenic excursions and hiking, and the country’s culture can be viewed at the Cook Islands Cultural Village which offers guided tours and ample information about the traditional Polynesian lifestyle. On the outer islands, nature experiences are the primary attractor, with clean beaches, lagoons, coral reefs and tropical fish in abundance. Water sports such as snorkelling, diving, cave diving and swimming are enjoyed widely. Some of the outer islands do still offer the untouched Pacific Island experience, especially islands such as Suwarrow which are scarcely populated and only accessible by private yacht. Accommodation In total, the number of rooms available throughout the Cook Islands is 1143 (Table 13.3). The majority of these can be found on Rarotonga (986 rooms), where the two largest hotels are found; The Edgewater Resort (207 rooms) and The Rarotongan Beach Resort (156 rooms). In 2002 there were 37 hotel and motel properties employing over 590 people throughout the country, which is around 3% of the total population.
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A strategic tourism plan developed by the Tourism Task Force (1995) in the Cook Islands investigated possibilities for the development of tourist accommodation facilities between 1995 and 2000. Comments made suggested that lack of investment, including foreign input, in the accommodation sector was severely limiting the tourist capacity throughout the nation. They also suggested that this issue was further compounded by the lack of suitably trained service staff to operate within the hotel premises at a standard expected by international tourists. Current programmes by the Cook Islands Development Investment Board are attempting to rectify this issue, and have lead to the building of a multi-million dollar Pacific resort on Aitutaki.
Transport The Cook Islands has one international airport located in Rarotonga, the country’s main island. Air New Zealand is the primary international airline servicing the nation, with connections between the Cook Islands and New Zealand, Australia, the United States West Coast and a number of other Pacific Island nations. Aloha Air, the regional airline for Hawaii, also provides limited services to Rarotonga. Air Rarotonga provides a regional air service for travellers between islands, and this transport is normally efficient and relatively cheap. Two international shipping services also operate services between Auckland, Samoa, Tonga and Niue. There are a number of minor shipping services that operate between Rarotonga and the outer islands, and between New Zealand and some of the outer islands. Within the islands, tourism transport infrastructure is well developed, with airport shuttles, car hire companies, ‘Island Bus’ services and tour drivers integrated into an efficient transport mechanism. The main island of Rarotonga is only 32 kilometres in circumference, and two major roads throughout the island are designed to facilitate easy access to all areas. Tourism demand Tourism in the Cook Islands is supported largely by visitors from New Zealand, Australia, Europe and the United Kingdom (Table 13.4). In 2002, the primary visiting market was New Zealand, who contributed 39.2% of all visitors. This market also has a high proportion of emigrants or relatives returning to visit friends or family in the Cook Islands, although a large number of the travellers are holiday visitors. The second most significant market was Europe (26.9%), followed by Australia (13.7%). Forecasts for tourism arrivals to the Cook Islands released in 2003 estimate that arrival figures should increase to around 94,000 by 2005, a significant increase on current figures. A breakdown of tourist arrivals in 2002 showed that the main purpose for visiting was clearly for vacation (85.5% or 62,228 people). This was followed by VFR
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Employ 0.1%
VFR 7.5%
Business 3.1%
Other 2.1%
Vacation 85.5%
Figure 13.5 Visitor arrivals by purpose of visit, The Cook Islands, 2002 Source: Cook Islands Statistics Office (2003)
(7.5% or 5469) and business (3.1% or 2259). Conferences, employment and other reasons accounted for the remaining 3.9% of visitors (Figure 13.5). In 2002, around 71.5% of tourists stayed at a commercial hotel or motel property (Figure 13.6). Further, the average length of stay for all visitors to the Cook Islands in 2002 was 11 days. This figure was relatively consistent for all markets, regardless of distance travelled. The average occupancy rate for 2001 was 71.1%. This is up from 58.4% in 1998, and is predicted to continue to improve. Visitors aged between 25 and 35 were the most represented age group, followed by slightly older demographic markets (Figure 13.7).
Other 19.80%
Motel 20.94%
Private 8.71%
Hotel 50.55%
Figure 13.6 Visitor arrivals by type of accommodation, the Cook Islands, 2002 Source: Cook Islands Statistics Office (2003)
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Total visitors (all countries)
184 10000 7500 5000 2500 0
0–4 yrs 10–14 yrs 20–24 yrs 30–34 yrs 40–44 yrs 50–54 yrs 60–64 yrs Age
Figure 13.7 Visitors to the Cook Islands by age group, 2002 Source: Cook Islands Statistics Office (2003)
Outbound tourism The majority of residents temporarily departing the Cook Islands in 2002 were travelling for the purpose of visiting friends and relatives, and it was found that this travel was predominantly to Australia or New Zealand to visit relatives who had immigrated to either country. It should be noted that a large portion of the sample (31.9%) did not supply a purpose for travel (Table 13.5). Tourism economic indicators In 2001, tourism receipts contributed around NZ$91.032 million to the local economy (Table 13.6). This is almost triple the 1989–1990 financial year earnings of NZ$37.2 million. Clearly, these figures show that the earnings from tourism have been growing substantially in recent years, largely supported by aggressive marketing campaigns by the Cook Islands Visitors Bureau to major markets.
The Federated States of Micronesia Geography The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) consists of 607 islands divided into four states, located in the Pacific Ocean just east of Palau and about 1500 kilometres north of Papua New Guinea. The four states are Yap, Chuuk, Koarae and Pohnpei, the latter home to the federation’s capital, Palikir (Figure 13.8). The term Micronesia, meaning small islands, is truly representative of this nation, with the total land size of all the islands amounting to just 700.8 square kilometres. Three of the island groups are mainly of volcanic origin, while Yap is a raised part of the Asian continental shelf. The topography of all the islands varies greatly. The larger volcanic islands are similar to Hawaii, with steep, dramatic and often inaccessible mountains rising over 600 metres in some parts, fertile soil, lush
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rainforests and natural water sources creating waterfalls and cascades. Many of the smaller islands are more typical of the Pacific region, being low-lying coral atolls and isolated reefs barely above sea level. The only native mammal on the islands is the Pacific bat, although a number of introduced species are now common. On the other hand, there is marine life in great abundance, with a large variety of soft and hard corals, whales, anemones, sponges, giant clams and shellfish. The islands have a tropical oceanic climate with a fairly constant temperature of around 27°C. The nation is located just south of the typhoon belt, and the occasional severe storm is known to cause significant havoc throughout the islands. The wet season is also very wet, with the inland mountain region of Pohnpei known as one of the wettest places in the world. Society The population of FSM in 2000 was 118,700, primarily Micronesians or, more specifically, Carolinian. However, the people in the individual states classify themselves accordingly, as either Yapese, Chuukese, and so on. About 48% of the population live in the state of Chuuk, 80% of whom live around the lagoon area. Pohnpei is the second most populated state (33%), followed by Yap (10.8%) and then Kosrea (7.4%). In recent years, the population, and subsequently the economy, has suffered greatly from immigration to other US associated countries like Guam, Hawaii, Saipan and the mainland itself. The languages vary throughout the states, although English is the official language and Carolinian is widely spoken. The culture in FSM has been significantly impacted by missionaries and other colonial migrants, especially from Japan and the United States. The cultural influence of the United States has been the greatest, with the most popular sport in the country being baseball, and relaxation time filled with watching American television and movies. Further, the people are overwhelmingly Christian, namely Roman Catholic (50%) and Protestant (47%), with only about half of 1% still following traditional religious beliefs. The traditional Carolinian society followed a matrilineal hierarchy of tribal chiefs and strong family or clan associations. To some extent, this belief still remains, although now in a social sense rather than in a leadership sense. That is, around five of the original nine social classes of the Carolinian people are still recognised today. The state of Yap is the most traditional of all the states. Traditional dances are one of the remaining few traditional cultural practices that are still common, with private dance ceremonies a frequent event in the villages, although these are generally closed to tourist and public viewing. Political history Inhabitation of the FSM states is thought to have begun between 4000 and 2000 BC. Magellan was the first known Westerner to sail through Micronesia in around
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Figure 13.8 The Federated States of Micronesia
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1521, although European settlement did not begin until the 1800s when British and American whalers arrived. During this period, significant conflict between the native people and the immigrants was noted, and diseases, violence and oppression saw the population of the indigenous peoples plummet. Soon after the whalers, Protestant missionaries arrived to convert the native population to Christianity, dramatically affecting the traditional culture by introducing and enforcing Western clothing, language and laws. In 1899, Germany purchased Micronesia from the Spanish, but lost their sovereignty after their defeat in the First World War, with the Japanese being given a mandate over the country in 1920 by the League of Nations. The Japanese strictly controlled the islands until the end of the Second World War, attempting to create a society similar to Japan’s by introducing traditional Japanese customs and lifeways, such as Buddhist temples and geisha houses. US control over the Micronesian Islands began at the end of the Second World War, until in 1978 the four states decided to join together under one constitution, and independence was confirmed in 1982, with the signing of a Compact of Free Association with the United States. The agreement stated that the United States had control over international relations between the then Federated States of Micronesia and other countries, and free military access, in return for annual financial aid. In 2003, the government in FSM is organised centrally through the national (federal) government which is ruled by an elected president who has a four-year term, similar to the political system in the US. There are also four individual state governments. The federal government is responsible for national issues, and the state governments are responsible for regional issues, with some access to federal funds. There is also a council of chiefs who have the ability to veto any federal or state legislation relating to culture or tradition.
Economy The economy in FSM is still heavily associated with the United States due to the occupation which ceased in 1982. Essentially, economic stability is due to the substantial foreign aid which is provided by the United States annually. The currency used is the US dollar. The major industries within the nation include copra processing, fishing and fishery licensing for foreign companies, and subsistence agriculture, the latter accounting for almost 48% of the labour force. The other significant employer within the country is the government which accounts for around 24% of employment. The GDP in 2001 was US$236.2 million, with around US$100 million contributed by foreign grants, primarily from the United States. Present concerns within the country have arisen recently about the threat of over-fishing, over-dependence on US aid and large-scale unemployment. Figures for 2001 estimate unemployment to be around 22%, although many people in rural
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areas still work in the traditional farming culture that does not register on US Census employment measures. The tourism industry, which has only started to develop relatively recently, is receiving increasing attention from the government, who wish to focus on the development of service industries due to the perceived lack of renewable and sustainable resources within the country. Tourism in FSM Tourism is generally underdeveloped throughout the islands, with minimal tourism infrastructure in place to support the industry. This lack of infrastructure has greatly limited the growth of tourism within the country, in association with the lack of attractively priced tour packages. Further, the development of tourism products across the country also limits its attractiveness as a tourism destination, as distance between sites and travel costs act as an inhibitor. However, the government aims to alter this situation and is actively promoting investment in the tourism industry in order to increase its significance within the economy. The federal government investment department comments that they are primarily trying to develop the ecotourism industry with the objective of promoting low-impact and culturally sensitive tourism. They are also promoting resort and hotel development for all the states to a lesser extent to accommodated anticipated increases in tourist numbers. In 1997, the FSM government released its National Tourism Development Strategy which highlighted a number of targeted policies to assist the tourism industry in reaching its potential. The plan identified that the tourism industry has many attributes which should attract a higher visitor frequency, due to its natural resources and varied attractions. The plan suggests that accurate and timely improvements to the industry should create growth of up to 100,000 visitors per year, greatly helping the economy within the country. The policies which were developed as a result of the plan include: (1) develop commercially sound private sector tourism businesses as the core of the visitor industry; (2) strengthen FSM tourism through linkages with other Micronesian destinations and travel businesses; (3) inform, educate, and obtain the support of the public for an expanded tourist industry that maximises economic and social benefit while sustaining the FSM’s culture and environment; (4) provide an optimal level of public infrastructure to support private sector investment in tourism and improve basic services to hotels and visitors; (5) develop tourism support services that are industry responsive, self-financing and coordinated; (6) promote FSM’s pristine island environment, culture, and people as its greatest assets;
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(7) provide the tourist industry with a labour force that meets the standards and productivity needed to be competitive; (8) optimally leverage FSM’s cultural and environmental resources for tourism; (9) mitigate any negative impact of tourism; (10) improve access to land for tourism development; and (11) ensure consistent and coordinated economic development across sectors (Economic Management Policy Advisory Team, 1999). The government department responsible for the organisation, development and marketing of tourism in FSM is the FSM Visitors Board, which is a government office operating within the Department of Economic Affairs. The FSMVB was established in 1998 with the mission to ‘coordinate and enhance the tourism promotion efforts of the states, and to assist in a national tourism promotion effort’ (Koskella, 1998). Further, each individual state has its own government based tourism department: • • • •
Chuuk Visitors Bureau; Kosrae Office of Tourism; Pohnpei Visitors Bureau; and Yap Visitors Bureau.
Tourism attractions The diving sector was evaluated as being the only established and satisfactory tourist product available, with tour operators and land and water activity providers generally not being up to standard. Diving is the major attraction in FSM, especially wreck diving for which it is renowned. Other tourism attractions include visiting ancient ruins, relatively untouched rainforests, war relics and reefs. Chuuk’s ‘underwater wreck museum’ is very popular with divers and features over 60 Japanese warships and many airplanes sunk during the Second World War. Accommodation The accommodation sector is relatively underdeveloped in the FSM, with most accommodation being small, regional enterprises. However, a number of resort style hotels exist in Chuuk, Yap and Pohnpei, with the majority of visitor accommodation being found in Yap. In 1996, there were 567 hotel rooms available with an average occupancy rate of 28%. In 1996, the room occupancy was less than 30% for all states except Yap which had an occupancy of just less than 50%. Current plans for the growth of tourism, which plan for around 100,000 tourists per year, would require another 858 rooms, or a total inventory of 1425 rooms available. However, this would require an investment of US$100 million into the lodging sector, primarily from foreign investment.
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Transport Air transport to FSM is supplied almost exclusively by Continental Air/Air Micronesia, with a small number of services provided by Air Nauru. Each of the states has its own international airport, and a large number of the islands also have domestic strips for inter-island travel. Services to the nation are provided from Honolulu, Manila, Guam and Taipei. Intrastate air services are offered by Pacific Missionary Aviation. Each state also has a deep-sea harbour, and these are located in Colonia (Yap), Moen (Chuuk), Kolonia (Pohnpei) and Okat (Kosrae). Each state except Kosrae has a private port management company, while maintenance and upgrade is the responsibility of the state governments. Shipping services are regulated by the Micronesian Shipping Corporation. Domestic sea services are available for tourists and are operated by a government owned/state operated organisation. Boat is the cheapest and most efficient means of travel between islands Yap is the only island with a public bus system. Most of the islands have extensive road systems, although the majority of these are unpaved, with only the city streets and airport routes sealed. Taxis are readily available, and hire car is the most efficient mode of intra-island transport Tourist demand Tourism arrival information and other statistics are not considered to be overly accurate, timely or comprehensive, and the industry has recently established plans to introduce an efficient tourism reporting and accounting process, although this is still in its implementation stage. However, some data are available which highlights the characteristics of the tourism demand in FSM. Between 1988 and 1990, tourism arrivals showed their most growth, increasing from 14,676 to 23,171. However, by 1996 this figure had fallen to 22,562 and by 2000 visitor arrivals were estimated at 20,500, and by 2002, tourism figures totalled 19,046 (Table 13.7). Most of the visitors to the islands are from the United States (around 60%) and from Japan (around 25%), although on Pohnpei, Japanese numbers exceed US numbers. The majority of tourists are professional or recreational divers, cultural visitors, and business and government visitors. In relation to individual state arrivals, Pohnpei receives the most arrivals, with around 10,800 in 1995. Chuuk has the second highest visitation figures (6,816 in 1995), followed by Yap (4,898 in 1992) and then Kosrae (2,503 in 1995). Tourism arrivals to Pohnpei are more likely to be business visitors than the other states, due to the capital city and parliament being located there. Reports from continental Micronesia also support claims of decreases in tourism activity, with reduced passenger loads recorded. Further, the airline predicts more decreases in movement in the coming years. Demand for tourism in FSM has reduced as a result of a large number of factors, in association with the limited development
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and coordination of tourism product within the country. The Asian economic crisis, where the major market for most Micronesian countries is sourced, led to a region wide reduction in travel, and many Asian markets find it cheaper to travel to closer countries such as Palau and Guam, where they perceive the tourism product to be similar. Furthermore, the contraction in the financial aspects of the Compact which was signed with the United States has seen less economic aid coming into the country, and therefore a resultant decrease in business travel demand from the US. Other statistics released on the travel market in 1996 note that the average length of stay for tourists was 4.3 days, amounting to a total visitor day count of 97,549. Statistics on tourism are collected by the Division of Statistics which operates within the Department of Economic Affairs.
Tourism economic indicators In 1996, it was estimated that there were 943 people employed within the tourism sector and visitor industry, generating an estimated US$3.7 million in employment earnings. In the same year, the government received US$0.98 million in tax revenue. Total visitor expenditure for the year was US$9.755 million.
Republic of Fiji Islands Geography The Republic of Fiji Islands, located in the Pacific region between Vanuatu and American Samoa, encompasses approximately 332 islands, of which only about 110 are known to be populated (Figure 13.9). The main island is Viti Levu, where the nation’s capital and centre of business, Suva, is located. Combined, the total land size for the islands is just 18,270 square kilometres, with most of the islands being from volcanic origin. Approximately 65% of the land is covered with rich forest and woodland, with another 14% of the land used as permanent pasturing land. The climate in Fiji is stable, with maximum temperatures year round averaging between 26°C and 31°C across all the islands, with the wet season being in the southern hemisphere’s summer months. However, the region is susceptible to cyclones and drought brought on by the effects of El-Nino and deforestation since the 1960s which has seen around 15% of the cleared land also affected by erosion. The island is home to around 3500 species of native flora and just one indigenous mammal, the Pacific bat. In addition, there are many introduced species. Society ‘Fijians are amongst the friendliest, most easy going and cheerful people even by the standards of the South Pacific – a region of laid back islanders’ (Destination Fiji, 2003). Almost 80% of the nation’s 856,350 citizens live on the two main islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. The population is largely native Fijian (51%) and Indian and
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Figure 13.9 The Fiji islands
Indo-Fijian (44%). Tribal life for the indigenous citizens still continues alongside the modern democratic government system, with the great Council of Chiefs being involved in most government decision-making processes. However, the presence of a large Indian population within the community has led to a forced situation of tolerance and control, and this has contributed to the rapid change and development of society, with Fiji being widely considered one of the most developed nations within the Pacific Islands region. The development of society within Fiji has seen education levels increase to comparable levels with most developed Western nations, with literacy levels at more than 91%. The official language is English, although Fijian and Hindustani are also widely spoken. The majority of indigenous Fijians converted to Christianity with the arrival of missionaries and colonisation to the islands, and this is practised in harmony with the Hindu practices of the Indian immigrant population. Political history The first settlers are believed to have landed in Fiji in around 1500 BC from other parts of Melanesia. Polynesians from Tonga and Samoa arrived in around 1000 AD
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and engaged the natives in large-scale wars, leading to the people living in fortified villages throughout the country, a situation that remained for centuries. The first known European to sight the islands was Abel Tasman, followed by Captain James Cook around 130 years later in 1774. Traders arrived soon after, and then Tongan and English missionaries arrived to spread their Christian message. In 1874, the Fiji Islands were officially annexed as part of the British Empire after a failed attempt by the local indigenous population to form a Western style government. The British people brought many Indian immigrants to work on the islands’ plantations, leading to an Indian population of almost 60,000 people by 1919. Australia also played a significant role in the early parts of the 20th century, through investment in sugar plantations and mining. Fiji became an independent nation in 1970 and installed a Westminster style government, with the political parties organised partially along racial differences. Instability has been common in the islands as conflicts between Indian Fijians (those descendants of contract labourers brought to the islands by the British) and native Melanesian Fijians often flare into violence. Two military coups in 1987 led to the development of a national constitution officialised in 1990, but perceived widely to favour the Melanesian natives. This saw massive emigration from the Indo-Fijian population, which led to political and economical instability in the face of depopulation. Amendments were made in 1997, and peaceful elections in 1999 were thought to be the end of the conflict, until another attempted coup in 2000 ushered in a new period of turmoil. Negotiations and reconsiderations saw another round of peaceful elections in 2001 and Fiji is now led democratically. Economy The size and natural resources of the Fijian Islands have made the country one of the most developed of the Pacific nations. Agriculture, especially sugar production, and tourism are the major contributing industries, although the economic benefits to the local communities from the agriculture sector is considered minimal due to low exchange rates for produce and low wages. However, the unemployment rate is only 6% and the economic outlook is promising. Current predictions see the Fijian economy growing at around 10% annually, as industry recovers from political instability and the vital tourism industry benefits from the negative image of other similar tropical island destinations such as Bali after the 2002 terrorist attacks. The economy in Fiji has been growing strongly in recent years. The GDP for 2002 is estimated at $4.106 billion, up almost $1 billion from 1998’s $3.284 billion figure. In 2002 alone, the economy grew 4.4%, with tourism and the wholesale and retail sectors being the main drivers for the growth. This is a substantial economic achievement considering the 3.2% contraction experienced in 2000 and the world’s economic slowdown in the aftermath of the September 11 terrorist attacks and global recession. The Reserve Bank of Fiji (2002) states that the buoyancy of the
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tourism and wholesale industries was mainly attributed to the resilience of the home economy’s of their major markets, Australia and New Zealand. The currency is the Fijian dollar (1 FJD equals approximately 0.834 AU$). Tourism in Fiji The Fiji Islands are probably one of the Pacific Region’s most popular and established tourism destinations. The Fijian tourism industry grew significantly in the late 1960s and early 1970s, with an average annual growth rate of about 20.25%. This saw tourism numbers rise from 40,000 in 1965, when there were only about 700 hotel rooms in the nation, to 186,000 visitors in 1973 and a total of 3104 hotel rooms (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1988). However, since the initial boom period, tourist numbers have only been increasing by around 4% per annum and visitation has been anything but consistent due largely to politically unstable periods like 2000 and 1987, and natural disasters such as the energy crisis in 1974 and frequent cyclones in the region. Today, tourism contributes more to the economy than the sugar industry, and more than the garment, gold, fishing and timber industries combined. Tourism in Fiji is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry for Tourism, Culture, Heritage and Civil Aviation, which is responsible for ‘policy, programme, research, statistical review and formulation of tourism planning’ (Ministry for Tourism, 2003). Promotion and facilitation of the tourism industry is conducted under the guidance of the Ministry through the Fiji Visitors Bureau (FVB). A number of other industry associations also represent the Fijian tourism industry, including: • The Fiji Eco-Tourism Association; • The Tourism Resource Owners Association (for cooperation between indigenous land owners and tourism operators); • Fiji Backpackers Association; • Fiji Dive Operators Association; and • Destination Associations (such as the Savusavu Tourism Association).
Tourism attractions As a destination, Fiji offers many well-developed tourism products for tourists. An extensive tour operator network has been established to assist tourists with guided tours and activities, or tourists are provided with suitable facilities to enable them to travel at their own leisure. These range from water based activities including snorkelling and scuba-diving, kayaking, rafting and yachting; to land based activities such as experiencing the unique Fijian cultures, shopping and trekking through the rainforest areas.
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Accommodation The accommodation sector in Fiji is well developed and capable of catering for large numbers of tourists. The Fiji Hotel Association was established in 1965 to represent a coordinated accommodation sector approach to the tourism industry. In 2002, the total rooms available for tourists increased to 5822 from 5520, with the total beds available increasing accordingly. Nadi hosts the majority of accommodation properties, followed by the northern region and then Suva (Table 13.8). Transport In 2002, 57,379 visitors arrived in Fiji by air. The main international airport is located in Nadi, operational 24 hours a day. International carriers include Fijian Air Pacific, Qantas, Air New Zealand, Air Caledonie, Air Vanuatu, Polynesian Airlines, Airline of the Marshall Islands and Air Nauru. Fiji’s second airport of importance, Nausori, takes domestic and occasional international traffic. Nausori is only 22 kilometres from Suva, but is prone to flooding due to its proximity to the Rema River. There are 20 other domestic airports dotted around the islands of Fiji. Air transport in Fiji is monitored by the Civil Aviation Authority of the Fijian Islands. Fiji has about 4,777 kilometres of roads, of which about 600 kilometres are sealed. A highway rings the main island of Viti Levu, the majority of which is sealed. Rental cars are readily available, and public transport is plentiful. Buses cover almost all districts on the major islands and taxi fares are metered. The fares of both are fixed by the Road Transport Authority. Fiji is well serviced by sea. Because of its location Fiji receives between 850 and 900 cruise ships each year. In 2002, 5699 visitors arrived by cruise ship. The major ports are Suva, Loutoka and Levuka. Inter-island services range from ferries, launches, aircraft, helicopters and seaplanes. Ferry routes connect most major coastal areas of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu with the main islands. Charter boats are also available. Tourist demand Total visitor arrivals reached 397,859 in 2002. The major travelling market were visitors from Australia, which accounted for 31.1% of all arrivals. Other major markets were New Zealand, the United States and the UK, all markets that have been marked for further growth by the FVB (Table 13.9). Estimates for 2003 predict that tourism will grow to see 426,000 arrivals by the end of the year. In 2001, 55.2% of visitors had their main place of stay in the Nadi area and Mamanuca/Yasawa Island. These areas generated 56.2% of total visitor expenditure; 33.2% stayed on the Coral Coast and Deube areas and these generated 27.0% of total visitor expenditure. Of arrivals in 2001, 79% were arriving for vacation and 10% were arriving for honeymoon. Almost all tourist arrivals were visiting for some leisure purpose (Table 13.10). In 2001, the average length of stay was 8.6 days, an increase of 0.4 days from 1997
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196 Organised activities and car rental 3.1%
Other 8.7%
Non-organised activities 3.9%
Shopping 13.9% Accomm. 70.4%
Figure 13.10 Tourist spending by category in Fiji Source: Statistics Fiji (2003)
(Table 13.11). The longest staying market was visitors who arrived for the purpose of visiting friends and relatives (16.9 days), followed by the holiday market who stayed an average of 8.2 days. Statistics also showed that there was no particular length of stay pattern attributable to the distance that visitors have to travel to visit Fiji. That is, long haul visitors had similar length of stay patterns to short-haul visitors. In 2002, a total of 494,373 people departed Fiji, of which 99,255 were residents and 395,118 were visitors.
Tourism economic indicators In Fiji, around 17–20% of the annual Gross Domestic Product is earned through tourism receipts, placing tourism as the nation’s second largest export earner after food exports such as sugar, fruit and fish. Tourism earnings experienced their highest rate ever in 1990, with total earning exceeding F$665 million (Table 13.12). However, budget forecasts for 2003 estimate tourism earnings to exceed this figure. The coup in 2000 impacted on the earning capacity of the tourism industry, and led to an overall drop of 26% in tourism receipts, placing extensive strain on the industry and leading to job losses and operation closures. However, the following record of receipts shows that tourism recovered quite well from the negative impacts of the coup, and managed to earn figures in 2001 close to pre-coup figures. In December 2001, tourism was estimated to employ around 40,000 people directly and indirectly across the islands. Tourism spending in Fiji is largely spent in the accommodation sector (70.4%) while tourism activities and shopping are also significant earners (Figure 13.10). The tourism plan released by Fiji’s Ministry for Tourism estimates that tourism earnings by 2007 should be in excess of FJD$1 billion, if current improvements in
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tourism growth and earning continue. Further tourism arrival estimates predict that figures should increase to 510,000 by 2005, almost 100,000 greater than 2003 figures.
French Polynesia Geography The Territory of French Polynesia is one of two French territories in the Pacific Island region, the other being New Caledonia. It is a collection of five island groups, comprising 118 islands covering a territory of 5 million square kilometres (Figure 13.11). The nearest Pacific neighbour to the islands is the Cook Islands to the west. Tahiti is the biggest and most well known of the islands, where the centre of business and capital Papeete is located. This is also the site for the only international airport serving the territory. The other groups are the Marquesas Islands, the Society Islands, the Austral Islands and the Tuamotu Islands. The region has been promoted for decades as a tropical paradise, especially to European travellers, due to its sparkling blue lagoons, palm-fringed beaches and rich, lush rainforests. The islands are a mixture of high volcanic islands and low-lying coral atolls. A large proportion of the flora and fauna is introduced species, although there is a wide range of species present. The climate is tropical with the seasons distinctly separate, namely the wet season is actually wet and the dry season dry. The average annual temperature is 27ºC. Society The population of the islands is approximately 253,000 (with 160,000 living on Tahiti), with Polynesian natives being the most numerous ethnic group (83%), followed by Europeans (12%). The official language is French, although Tahitian, a Polynesian dialect, is prominent. Some English is spoken too. The traditional culture was significantly affected by the arrival of missionaries, who found the erotic dancing and customs to be a little far from the teachings of their Bibles. They removed most of the temples and carvings which were representative of the traditional culture and forced adherence to their preachings. However, recent times have seen a semi-revival of traditional culture, with the reintroduction of traditional dances (tamure), songs and craftwork. Tourists are now able to experience the culture relevant to what it used to be in the past. Political history It is estimated that Polynesian explorers settled on French Polynesian islands around AD 400, entrenching their tribal systems and religions into the country. European explorers, along with whalers, started arriving on the shores of Tahiti in the late 1700s, introducing weapons, prostitution and Western diseases to which the natives had no natural immunity. British missionaries travelled at the beginning of the 19th century to discourage the ‘free’ lifestyle that the natives were living. Sadly,
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Figure 13.11 French Polynesia this period saw the demise of the traditional Polynesian temples and beliefs, with evangelistic missionaries forbidding any act not strictly Christian. The French officially occupied the region in 1842. In the early 1900s, French Polynesia officially became a French-Pacific settlement. Controversy and political confrontation swelled in 1995 with riots in the streets of Papeete in protest to the French government’s decision to resume nuclear testing on the Moruroa atoll since its cessation in the early 1980s. The currency used is the French Pacific Franc (Comptoirs Francais du Pacifique Franc – CFP) and the current French Prime Minister is the head of state for the nation. Since the riots of 1995, popular opinion has been swelling towards independence from French rule. However, many political leaders have clearly stated to the nation that this is not likely to happen any time soon, especially as France is unlikely to relinquish overseas territories which offer significant strategic and defence advantages. Economy Since the arrival of the French Military in 1962, ‘French Polynesia has changed
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from a subsistence economy to one in which a high proportion of the work force is either employed by the military or supports the tourist industry’ (World Fact Book, 2003). The territory also benefits greatly from its association with France through development agreements and financial aid, and has seen the unemployment rate contract substantially since a 15% high in 1992. The primary industry in the islands is tourism, which contributes approximately one-quarter of the GDP, with 45 billion F CFP per year in direct spending. The second most significant industry is a well established and profitable black pearling industry, which contributes about 15 billion F CFP annually. In 2001, the country’s GDP was US$1.3 billion (around 140 billion F CFP). Tourism in French Polynesia Tourism is considered by the territorial government of French Polynesia as a critical area for future growth. The contributions to the economy, as stated earlier, are significant and expected to increase as international travel becomes more accessible to major markets, and the outer regions of the nation are encouraged to develop tourism similar to that of the major tourist areas of Tahiti, Moorea and in the Windward and Leeward Society Islands. In relation to tourism policy, the essential direction of tourism promotion and development is targeted towards attracting the high-end market, so as to minimise tourism arrivals and subsequent impacts on the environment, while improving economic returns. Tourism promotion in Tahiti and French Polynesia is the charge of Tahiti Tourisme, who work with a variety of tourism service providers, destination management companies and travel agencies to promote and develop sustainable tourism within the region. Employees working within the tourism industry in French Polynesia are also represented by an established network of unions, including the French Polynesia Resort Hotels Union, the French Polynesia Restaurants Union and the French Polynesia Travel Agencies Union.
Tourism attractions The primary attractor to French Polynesia is the beauty of the scenery that can be found throughout the islands and in the marine areas, although the image of pristine and isolated beaches which are normally used to promote tourism to the islands can only be found outside Tahiti, the main entry point. Some of the main destinations for travellers moving outside the central area are Bora Bora, Moorea and Rangiroa. Throughout the region, the people are considered welcoming and friendly, and the culture of the native Polynesians is considered a major tourism drawcard. Experiencing the harbours, lagoons, seas and marine life is the primary tourism activity, although cultural attractions, markets and shopping are popular. One concern for tourism in French Polynesia is that transport, accommodation and activities are around 30–50% more expensive than other South Pacific islands.
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Accommodation French Polynesia offers well-established tourism facilities including a large number of quality and budget hotels, and also a number of conferencing venues. In 2001, there were a total of 2943 rooms available to tourists visiting the country, with around 35% located in Tahiti and 30% located in Moorea. In 2000 the average occupancy rate for the entire country was 67.0%, a rate which has been increasing slowly throughout the preceding decade. The average length of stay also increased to 12 days throughout the same period. Most of the more expensive resort style accommodations are located on the outer islands. Transport French Polynesia has one international airport, the Faaa Airport in Papeete, and is readily accessible from most parts of the world. Qantas, Air New Zealand, Air France, Lan Chile, Hawaiian Air and AOL service the route to French Polynesia. It is also serviced by Air Tahiti Nui, the national carrier. Getting around French Polynesia can be done by boat or air. Inter-island boats run regular routes between all island groups. Catamarans and luxury cruises, such as the Ono-Ono services, the Wind Song, Arunai and the Club Med 2, are common. In 2000, 20,000 visitors arrived in French Polynesia by cruise ship. Although subsidised in part by the government, domestic air travel can be expensive. There are seven domestic airlines servicing the islands. Whilst still relatively expensive in relation to mass-market destinations, the tourism industry in French Polynesia benefited greatly from discount airlines introduced into France and a number of other locations that made travel to Tahiti a little more affordable. However, transport difficulties in the early 1990s caused by changes in the services from the US and the cessation of a regular cruise ship service from Hawaii caused significant decreases in arrival figures. The redevelopment of some airline services, especially originating in Europe, encouraged the growth of tourism towards the end of the 20th century to reach record figures. The main roads of the islands are all sealed; however, the minor roads are not. Rental cars, scooters and bicycles are readily available for hire. Taxis are expensive; however, the cheapest and a reliable mode of transport around the developed islands is the local bus service, known as le truck. Tourist demand The primary markets for French Polynesia are by far the United States and France, although Central and South America do provide a significant number of tourists. Tourism arrival figures grew substantially between 1993 and 2001, with an overall growth of 54%. The most popular tourist arrival period is June–July, when the weather is most stable (Tables 13.13 and 13.14).
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Tourism economic indicators In 2000, tourism contributed 45.0 billion F CFP to the local economy, an increase of 66% from 1993, largely due to increases in tourism arrivals from the United States.
Guam Geography Guam is situated in the north of the Pacific Ocean, 3800 kilometres south-east of Tokyo (Figure 13.12). Guam has a total land area of 541 square kilometres and consists of two distinctly different geographical regions; the north featuring coral limestone plateaux and rises, and the volcanic, picturesque south, separated by a narrow corridor in between, which is just over five kilometres wide at its narrowest point. The island was originally included as the largest and southernmost island in the Northern Marianas island group, however it is now considered as an independent region since its annexation by the United States of America. The country’s capital Hagatna is located around half way up the island on the west coast, just south of Tumon Bay which is the major tourist area. The country comprises two volcanoes which have merged to create a mountain rising 11,500 metres from the floor of the Marianas Trench, the greatest known ocean depth in the world. This means that the country has a particularly rugged terrain of steep cliffs and active volcanic areas. There are no indigenous animals living on Guam, although the marine life is typical of the North Pacific region in general. All nine species of native birds are now extinct, due largely to the accidental introduction of the brown tree snake in the mid-1900s. The temperature in Guam is generally stable, with a mean annual temperature of 27.2ºC. In relation to other Pacific Islands, its distance from the equator means that typically it maintains the humidity without the heat of more southern Pacific nations. The wet season is normally between July and December. The area occasionally receives severe storms and typhoon, which have caused significant damage in the past. Society The population of Guam was 160,794 in 2002, and is growing at around 3000 people per year. The inhabitants of Guam are ethnically mixed. About 53% of the population are Chamorro, 23% are Filipino, 14% Caucasian, 5% other Pacific Islands and 15% other ethnic groups. English is the official language of the islands, although both English and Chamorro are spoken. Around 98% of the population is Roman Catholic, due to the arrival of Jesuit missionaries in around 1668 and their subsequent cultural domination. Recently, the Chamorro population has begun attempts to revitalise the significance of the traditional culture within Guam, requesting that the village names be converted back to their pre-colonisation names and many are trying to revive the local dialects, which are generally only spoken by older inhabitants. The Chamorro do play a significant role in the political and social life on the island.
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Figure 13.12 Guam Political history Guam was inhabited over 1500 years ago by the Chamorro, of Malay origin. Magellan was the first European to discover the islands, stopping for provisions on his voyage around the world in 1521. In 1565, the Spanish Crown officially claimed Guam and the other Marian Islands, and 100 years later Jesuit missionaries arrived to establish settlements and convert the people to Christianity. Originally, the Chamorro people welcomed the missionaries, but soon the erosion of their hierarchy and culture and conflict with the Spanish colonists, combined with the outbreaks of Western diseases to which the people had no natural immunity, saw the Chamorro population fall from around 100,000 to 6,000. Spain continued to rule the country until the end of the 19th century when it was ceded to the United States at the end of the Spanish-American war. During the Second World War, Guam became the only US territory to be captured by the Japanese after they invaded in 1941. The US reclaimed the nation three years later and today the islands plays host to over 23,000 US military personnel and facilities. It is
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regarded as the most strategically important position of the US military in the Pacific Ocean. Guam is today defined as an ‘unincorporated US territory’ and the current US president is head of state, although calls from the people for independence or to at least allow self-rule are now increasing. Economy The economy of Guam, although substantially supported by the United States government, is under severe pressure. Regular typhoons in the region have had dramatic effects on infrastructure and the vital tourism industry, including a particularly vicious typhoon in late 2002 that swept through the main tourist area of Tumon Bay. This natural disaster resulted in the closure of approximately 3300 of the available 9000 hotel rooms and many restaurants and hotels were closed or operating on a reduced capacity well into 2003. During the recovery, tourism arrivals fell from around 2600 a day to about 400 a day. In addition to the effects of nature, the September 11 2001 terrorist attacks had a massive effect on the already stagnant economy, with tourism numbers from the nation’s two major markets, Japan and the United States crashing. Japanese arrivals, already low due to the Asian economic crisis, fell by around 55%, or 47,000 tourists, equating to a loss of around US$28 million in tourism earnings per month. As a territory of the United States, the US dollar is used as currency. The US government also accounts for about 28.6% of all civilian employment in the nation, generally for positions associated with the large military presence on the island. The Gross Island Profit for 2001 was US$2772.8 million. Unemployment in the nation is relatively high, recorded at 11.4% in 2001. Overall, tourism accounts for around 20,000 direct and indirect employment positions in the country. Tourism in Guam Generally, Guam is not considered to be a typical Pacific Island nation. Excessive development and commercialism of the tourist product has left little of the traditional islander culture. Comments on Guam’s Westernisation can be quantified by pointing out that one of their unique features is the fact that they are home to the world’s largest K-mart store. The tourism product therefore is centred on the climate and built tourism attractions such as resorts and golf courses. Tourism in Guam relies heavily on the Japanese market. Therefore, the slowdown in the Asian economies, especially Japan, has had a particularly bad effect on the country, with arrival rates, spending and occupancy rates falling substantially. The sluggish American economy has also impacted negatively on the island’s economy. The tourism industry is developed and marketed by the Guam Visitors Bureau (GVB), which is an autonomous agency operating independently but in accordance with the Guam Visitors Bureau Act defined in 2002. Around 80% of GVB funding
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comes from the government, while the remainder is sourced through membership fees. The GVB Act declares that the department is responsible: • to promote Guam’s visitor industry in such manner as it deems most reasonably appropriate, including providing and disseminating information and materials promoting Guam as a visitor destination; • to promote local interest and participation at all levels of the visitor industry; • to assist, when requested, both government and private entities in the development, implementation and promotion of programmes to further educate, training, employment assistance and entrepreneurial development; • to promote local cultural activities for residents; • to promote items of local manufacture; • to promote and assist in the development of adequate tourist facilities and attractions; • to assist appropriate government of Guam agencies in the enforcement of applicable laws, rules and regulations relating to the visitor industry; and • to work with other entities to collect, analyse, evaluate and regularly publish comprehensive data on the visitor industry. (Guam Attorney-Generals Office, 2002) Within Guam, the established tourism industry has developed a number of other tourism bodies to represent the industry as a whole on a government and private level. These include the Guam Hotel and Restaurant Association (GHRA) which was established in 1972, to ‘promote the highest standards of service and quality in the hotel and restaurants on Guam’, while advocating on behalf of the industry in relation to government legislation and promoting the value of the industry within the community; and specialist market travel organisations such as the Japan Guam Travel Association and the Korea Guam Travel Association (operating within the GHRA).
Tourism attractions Guam has a highly developed tourism industry. Golf is one of the major tourism attractions for the Asian market, and in 2001 there were 10 golf courses available for public use, one being a military golf course which has opened to the public recently due to demand. The other major attraction for the nation is the marine and reef life surrounding the island, with observation, fishing, snorkelling and scuba diving very popular activities supported by an extensive tour operator network. A number of cultural attractions can be viewed and are drawcards for tourists. The most important of these is the ‘Latte Stones’ of the Chamorro people, which are ancient artefacts of traditional and sacred importance, as they were used to mark the graves and burial sites of their ancestors.
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Accommodation In 1991 the total number of hotel rooms available to the public was 5219. By 2001 this figure had grown to 9002 rooms across 48 properties, although this was slightly down from 2000 figures when there were 9290 hotel rooms available. In 2001 the average occupancy rate was 56%, with the government collecting US$18,850,160 in occupancy taxes (Table 13.15). As of September 2002 there were 4910 people working in the lodging sector in Guam. Accommodation type varies greatly throughout the island, and caters for all markets, including an established resort and luxury hotel sector. A number of the major hotels in the nation (those with greater than 500 rooms) include: • • • •
Hilton Guam Resort and Spa – 691 rooms, 26 suites; Guam Plaza Hotel – 510 rooms; Outrigger Guam Resort – 600 rooms; Pacific Islands Club – 501 rooms, 3 suites.
Transport The international airport in Guam, Won Pat International Airport, is located just six kilometres from the capital and services around 100 international flights weekly. The major carriers into the country include Air Nauru, All Nippon Airways, Asiana Airways, Continental Micronesia, Far Eastern Air Transport, Japan Airlines, and Northwest Airlines. Air services are controlled by the Department of Civil Aviation. Guam’s Apra harbour is the only deep-water harbour in the nation and is capable of handling boats from small yachts to large cargo ships. The harbour is controlled by the Port Authority of Guam. In 2001, sea arrivals reached 35,697, which is a 371.9% increase on 2000 figures, although this is primarily due to a massive increase in military arrivals, and not tourist arrivals. This is displayed by figures for February 2003 which show that in that month alone, military sea arrivals amounted to 11,064 people. Intra-island transport is generally expensive, with hire cars and taxis the most efficient means of transport. Public minivans do run sporadically. Tourist demand The primary market for Guam is the East-Asian market, which provides up to 90% of all arrivals (Table 13.16). In 2002, Japan again was the major market, contributing 76.3% of arrivals, followed by Korea (12.4%). Visitor arrivals peaked in the mid-1990s, with the 1997 calendar year recording the highest visitor figure of 1,373,210. However, by 2002 this figure had fallen 24.91%, due to the Asian financial crisis, the War on Terrorism and the impacts of natural disasters. The average length of stay in Guam is normally three to four nights; 99% of arrivals were overnight visitors, and slightly more were female. On average, 70% of
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visitors arrive for holiday purposes, followed by honeymoon and golf trips which both account for about 4% of visits (Table 13.17).
Hawaii Geography The United States State of Hawaii lies 2367 kilometres north of the equator and 4025 kilometres south-west of its nearest landmass, North America. The state comprises six main islands which are part of an archipelago stretching 2452 kilometres (Figure 13.13). The Kure atoll is a cluster of islands in the far north-west of the state, the Big Island (Hawaii) is at the furthest south-east end. The main islands are Kaua’i, Maui, Hawaii, Lana’i, O’ahu and Moloka’i, although there are in total 132 islands, 124 of which are very small and not fit for inhabitation. The total area size for Hawaii is 17,491 square kilometres. This makes it the 43rd largest state in the US. However, the total land area is 10,277 square kilometres. The islands are tips of volcanic mountains which have been spilling molten rock for 25 million years. The Big Island is still changing rapidly, as the largest and most
Figure 13.13 Hawaii
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active volcano, Kilauea, is located here and has spewed over 2 billion cubic metres of lava in the past 12 years. The highest point in Hawaii is Mauna Kea, over 4200 metres, which is also regarded as an active volcano although it has not erupted for 4500 years. Lana’i is pineapple-growing country, with 98% of the land owned by a private US company. As with many islands in Oceania the native flora and fauna that flourished during isolation is currently under pressure from species introduced by Polynesian and Western settlers. Over half of the native fauna is classified as endangered. Nevertheless, the animal life in the sea is one of the country’s main attractions, especially the hump back whales that constantly pass close to the state’s shores. The climate in Hawaii is fairly stable, with differences in temperature between summer and winter usually only a couple of degrees. Rain is usually infrequent on the south-west side. However, Hilo, on the north-east coast of Hawaii, is the rainiest city in the USA. Hurricanes and cyclones are frequent occurrences and often reap havoc throughout the islands, especially the most western islands. Society According to the United States Census conducted in 2002, 1,244,898 people live in the State of Hawaii. Of these, 896,019 live in Honolulu, 154,794 live in other Hawaii areas, 59,946 live in Kauai areas and 134,139 live in Maui. The official language of the islands is English, and although only around 9000 people actually speak Hawaiian, about 85% of the place names are in the native language. This is largely due to the maintenance of the culture and stories behind place names that are a vital and respected element of the state’s culture. The immigration of Asian people to the islands to assist the US missionaries and businessmen in pastoral and farm work has led to an interesting mix of Asian and Polynesian cultures, which make the history and people in Hawaii unique. The Hawaiian culture experienced a massive revival in the last 30 years, after being suppressed by the United States administration. Hula schools have opened throughout the state that teach people traditional Hawaiian culture, and many artists and craftspeople are returning to traditional art forms such as tapa weaving, quilt making, and the creation of colourful leis. Some citizens have now even begun speaking of the restoration of the monarchy. Political history The Hawaiian Islands are believed to have been inhabited around AD 750 by Polynesian arrivals from Tahiti. The first Westerner to sail into the islands was Captain James Cook, who arrived in 1778 and named the islands the Sandwich Islands after the Earl of Sandwich. However, in 1779 Captain Cook was killed during a violent dispute at Kealakekua Bay. In the beginning of the 19th century, a monarchy was installed with the islands united under the rule of King Kame-
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hameha the Great. This system was maintained until 1893 when Queen Liliuokalani surrendered the kingdom under pressure to the United States though under intense protest from her own people who did not wish to cede their sovereignty. By this time, US citizens had been on the islands for almost 50 years, trading with the Polynesian people for valuable sandlewood and using the islands as a whaling post. In 1898 the islands were officially annexed by the US, and in 1900 Hawaii became a US territory. A significant moment in the history of Hawaii occurred on 7 December 1941, when Pearl Harbour was bombed by the Japanese, finally bringing the United States into the Second World War. In 1959, Hawaii became the 50th State of the United States, the only state not actually connected to the mainland of North America. This decision to formally become a state of the US was largely due to the positive perception of the United States by native citizens during and following the Second World War. One year after becoming a state, jet airplanes were introduced into Hawaii and the tourism industry began to develop rapidly, quickly becoming the primary industry of the state. Resorts, golf courses and shopping centres became common and, although the improved financial conditions were welcome, many native citizens were disappointed by the ‘Americanisation of the State of Hawaii’. Significantly, given state’s history, President Bill Clinton signed a resolution in 1993 apologising for the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy 100 years earlier. However, today the state is governed as any other state in the United States. Economy Sugar processing and plantations were a large part of the economy for most of the last century; however, the last sugar plantation was in 1996. More recent agricultural production included pineapples and the Australian macadamia nut. The presence of substantial US military forces in the islands is also a significant component of the state’s economy. For many years, the tourism industry has been the major stimulant for the economy, although recent problems in Asian economies have affected the profitability of this sector. Relatively limited growth in the state’s economy at the beginning of the 1990s has improved sufficiently to see an annual growth rate in the Gross State Product of around 3%, and in April, 2003 the unemployment rate for the state was just 3.4%. In 2001, the tourism industry contributed US$10.2 billion to the local economy. Tourism in Hawaii The first official development of the tourism industry within Hawaii began in 1903 with the creation of the Hawaii Promotion Committee. However, there was limited tourism development in the 1920s and 1930s. Tourism in Hawaii really began in earnest in the 1950s, with the introduction of regular air services into the state, especially with the domestic tourism market travelling from the mainland
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United States. This period was also significant for the use of Hawaii as a backdrop for film and television series which further added to the image of the island as a ‘tropical paradise’. Rapid tourism infrastructure development assisted the growth in visitation numbers, which quickly rose from hundreds of thousands to many millions leading up to the 1990s. The peak of tourism numbers in Hawaii was in 1990 with 6.97 million visitors, and then during the 1990s, tourism numbers stagnated as a result of a large number of external events as well as issues related to the changing tourism marketplace. Between 1990 and 1993 tourist numbers fell by 12%, or 847,000 visitors and spending fell from $10.7 billion to $8.7 billion. Major events such as the first Iraq War and the Asian economic crisis affected Hawaii’s two major markets directly, Asia and the United States, and by the end of the decade, tourism numbers were still lower than 1990 figures, although improving. By 2002 visitor arrivals had reached 6.3 million. The Hawaii Tourism Authority (HTA) is the state’s primary tourism body which is charged with the role of being the state’s ‘lead entity and advocate for the tourism industry’. The agency works with government, industry and the state’s citizens to promote and develop tourism within the state and to create marketing strategies to improve the tourism positioning to major markets. The HTA was established in 1998 and defines its mission as ‘to strategically manage the growth of Hawaii’s visitor industry in a manner consistent with our economic goal, cultural values, preservation of natural resources and community interests.’ The major activities that the HTA undertakes include: • formulating short- and long-range tourism policy; • administering programmes and activities to foster and sustain a healthy tourism industry for the state; • developing and monitoring implementation of the Tourism Strategic Plan; • coordinating tourism-related research, planning, developmental and promotional activities with the public and private sectors; and • developing and implementing the state’s marketing plan and efforts. (Hawaii Tourism Authority, 2002) Other major tourism related bodies and government departments include:
Hawaii Visitors and Convention Bureau (http://www.gohawaii.com) The Hawaii Visitors Bureau was launched in 1945, and has diversified over time to include promotion of visitor service and convention and meeting operations in association with tourism promotion. The Bureau is a private organisation which is publicly funded, and they define their goal as to ‘showcase and celebrate Hawaii’s diversity and aloha to the world; to encourage people to reawaken their senses and rejuvenate their spirit in Hawaii; and to return again and again’.
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Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism (DBEDT) (http://www.hawaii.gov/ dbedt) The DBEDT is a government agency charged with increasing the growth and development of the economy in Hawaii through encouraging investment and product diversification. In relation to tourism, this department works closely with the HTA to encourage to growth of the industry and to support marketing activities and foreign investment. Accommodation The Hawaii Hotel Association (HHA) is a state-wide, non-profit trade association of hotels, hotel management firms, hotel owners, suppliers, and other related firms and individuals. This association works in association with the HTA and government to represent the hotel sector. It began in 1947, with 16 hotel members. Today it represents over 180 hotels, over 50,900 rooms, and over 500 other members, creating a total of 700 members. The accommodation sector in Hawaii is possibly the most developed of all the Pacific nations, and the range of accommodation options is arguably equal to any other developed destination in the world. Accommodation types available include hotels, motels, luxury resorts, bed and breakfast, backpacker, camping grounds, and homestay. In 2001 there were 914 visitor accommodation properties, 72,204 rooms and an average 61.1% occupancy and advertised room rate of US$159.28. By 2002, the average occupancy rate had risen over 8% to 69.3% for the year. The accommodation and food service establishments in Hawaii total to 2448 enterprises, employing over 84,214 people, with a total annual payroll of US$1.582 billion in 1999. Transport All transport into and in Hawaii is controlled through the Hawaii Department of Transportation. This government department was formed in 1959 and its mission is to ‘provide safe, efficient, accessible, and inter-modal transportation that ensures the mobility of people and goods, and enhances and/or reserves economic prosperity and the quality of life’. The Department is divided into three sections – Airports, Harbours and Highways – which all work in conjunction with their federal counterparts such as the Federal Aviation Administration, the US Coast Guard and the Federal Highways Administration. Airports
Hawaii has a total of 15 airports, including three international airports located in Honolulu, Kona and Hilo. In 2002, the airports combined catered for 32,192 million
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passengers, with Honolulu Airport catering for the majority of passengers, 19.75 million. Kahului Airport received the second highest number of passengers, 5.42 million, mainly domestic travel from within Hawaii and the mainland United States. The statistics for 2002 show a decrease in passenger movement of 2.9% from 2001. These statistics show a concern for the Hawaiian transport industry, as passenger movement had already fallen 10.7% for the 2001 calendar year when compared to 2000, largely due to the September 11 terrorist attacks which saw all the airports across the United States close and travel slow to recover. Cruise ships
Cruise ships provide a large number of the visitors to the Hawaiian State. In 2002 cruise ships undertook 133 tours to Hawaii, supplying a total of 242,144 visitors. Of these, 171,251 arrived in Hawaii on the ship and 63,776 flew into Hawaii and joined the ship mid-cruise (Hawaii DBEDT, 2002). Data for 2002 also show that cruise ship tourists stayed an average of 4.42 days in Hawaii after the cruise and arrived an average of 1.89 days before the cruise, thus further contributing to the economy. A study conducted in 2000 found that only 15.7% of cruise ship arrivals to Hawaii were international visitors, while 62.4% of visitors came from the east coast of the United States and 22.4% came from the west coast of the United States. The primary markets supplying the international tourists were Japan (3.8%) and Canada (6.8%). In comparison to air arrival figures, the differences are significant. The survey results noted that air arrivals to Hawaii comprised only 57.6% from the United States. The survey also found that cruise passengers were generally older than other visitors, stayed around one day longer and were almost exclusively travelling for vacation purposes (North West Cruise Ship Association, 2001). Road transport
The road transport system in Hawaii is a well integrated system involving highway, residential and commercial street areas. The ‘Big Island’s’ network involves a major highway circling the islands, with a number of other highways intersecting the island at various points. The city areas have normal, Western style road systems with paved roads and traffic control. In 1999, there were over 6800 kilometres of road in the entire state, with Hawaii Island having the majority of the roads with 2400 kilometres. In 2000 there were a total of 954,738 registered vehicles; around 1600 registered taxis; and 63 hire car companies throughout the state. The state also operates a public transport system of buses and airport transfers.
Tourist demand The 6.360 million visitors in 2002 provided a total of 59.4 million visitor days throughout the state. The average daily census of visitors in 2002 was 162,749 (Table
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13.18). The United States is clearly the major market for Hawaii, generally contributing over 50% of total tourist numbers. Average length of stay in 2002 was 9.34 days, up from 9.16 in 2001 (+1.9%). In 2002, visitors visited an average of 1.38 islands during their stay. Oahu received the majority of visitors (4.24 million) mainly to the city of Honolulu. Maui received the second highest number of visitors; 38.1% of visitors were visiting for the first time in 2002. Just over one million of the visitors were travelling as part of a group, while of the remaining 5.3 million visitors, just under a half were travelling on a package (Table 13.19).
Tourism economic indicators Total tourism spending in 2001 was US$10.12 billion, with over half of this revenue coming from visiting US citizens (Tables 13.20 and 13.21). The figure is down 7.3% from 2000 figures, and down just under US$1 billion from 1995 figures. Average daily spend for 2001 was US$169. Japanese visitors were the highest with US$241 per person per day, followed by visitors from other Asian countries (Figure 13.14). In 1999, the travel and tourism industry in Hawaii provided 134,300 direct employee positions and a total of 180,700 direct and indirect positions. These figures account for 23.8% and 32.1% of total employment respectively. The World Travel and Tourism Council Hawaii Tourism Report in 1999 estimated that travel and tourism employment would account for 241,200 direct and indirect jobs by 2010, or 39.6% of total employment. However, estimates for travel and tourism earnings in 2002 were
Spending per trip (US$)
2500 2000 1500
1733.2
1871.5
1916.2
Canada
All Other
1598.4
1374.8
1000 500 0 US West Coast
US East Coast
Japan Market Area
Figure 13.14 Per person per trip spending for major visitor markets, Hawaii, 2002 Source: Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism (2003)
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around the US$7.5 billion mark, contributing 16.5% of the Gross State Product. The industry was estimated to account for 154,100 jobs (20.1% of total employment), a significant drop from 1999. The industry was also thought to contribute US$905 million to tax revenues, accounting for 20.9% of total state and county tax revenue. The long-term economic effects of world events such as the War on Terrorism and the Second Gulf War are yet to be fully felt on this American tourist destination, although the impact on the economy is anticipated to be manageable, as a significant proportion of the Hawaiian tourism industry comes from US markets. Estimates for tourism growth up until 2005 predict that arrival figures will remain at around the 6 million visitor mark, which suggests little growth for the industry in the short term, particularly given that increased US concerns over security and the potential removal of current visa waiver schemes for some markets could negatively impact international arrivals.
Kiribati Geography The Republic of Kiribati encompasses 33 coral atolls spread over the Equator in Micronesia (Figure 13.15). The atolls are grouped into three main island groups: the Kiribati Islands (formerly Gilbert Islands), the Line Islands and Phoenix Islands. The Kiribati Islands include the island of Tarawa which is the main island in the group. The largest island, Kiritimati (or Christmas Island) is located within the Line Islands, and is the largest coral atoll in the world. Although the Line Islands and Phoenix Islands lie on the other side of the international dateline, Kiribati proclaims that all of its territory lies in the same time zone as the Gilbert Island group. The terrain of Kiribati consists almost exclusively of low-lying atolls with coastal lagoons surrounded by extensive reefs, many of which have tropical fish populations and Second World War wrecks. One larger island, Banaba (formerly Ocean Island), is the nation’s only volcanic island and rises to as high as 80 metres above sea level. The soil on the atolls is generally of poor quality and the rainfall can be variable. Due to the geology of the islands, they have no hills or running streams, meaning that all water needs to be obtained from wells or storage tanks. The combined land area of the Kiribati atolls is only 810 square kilometres, and includes 1143 kilometres of coastline. The climate is tropical, hot and humid. The wet season spans from November to February; however, trade winds moderate the hot temperature outside this season. Society The capital of Kiribati, Bairiki on the Tarawa Island, is home to 33,000 of the total Kiribati population of 83,980. The people are predominantly Micronesian with a
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Figure 13.15 Kiribati small percentage of Polynesian. English is the official language of Kiribati; however, to many people it is the second language to their Micronesian dialect. Every aspect of life in Kiribati involves the ocean that surrounds them. Industry is based on fishing, although increasingly, tourism is playing a major part in the nation’s economy. Transport around the islands consists mainly of boats, although there is concern over polluting the busy lagoons. The society within the Republic remains conservative and links to family heritage and traditional land are upheld and respected. Customary dancing and musical composition are the primary art forms, as well as being the basis for competition, while the building and sailing of canoes is a popular pastime. Kiribati is a very religious nation with 92% of the population practising Christians. Political history Kiribati has been the scene of dramatic and devastating incidents in the past two centuries. Charted in full by European explorers as early as 1826, the atolls of Kiribati proved popular among deserting British and American seamen, who were drawn to the atolls for the abundance of sperm whales. Copra, coconut oil, and later
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the discovery of phosphate on some of the islands drew interest from the British, who colonised the Gilbert and Line Island groups in 1916, the US taking over the Phoenix Islands shortly afterwards. The islands played host to fierce naval conflicts in the Second World War, and later became the testing site for British hydrogen bombs at the height of the Cold War. By 1979, Kiribati was granted self-rule and complete independence from the UK and US claims. Economy The economy of Kiribati is significantly limited by its distinct lack of natural resources. Originally, phosphate deposits were the main driver of the economy. However, by the time of independence these reserves had been virtually exhausted, leaving the country to survive largely on its fishing capabilities and copra exports. The country’s lack of skilled labour and private industry development has led to a reliance on foreign aid for survival, primarily from the UK and Japan, accounting for between 25 and 50% of gross domestic product (GDP) in recent years (Photius, 1999). Significantly, tourism provides more than one-fifth of the national GDP, but this spending is localised at the tourism centres, mainly Christmas Island. Tourism in Kiribati Tourism, while playing an increasingly significant role in the Kiribati economy, is largely considered underdeveloped for a Pacific Island nation. Indeed, the Tourism Council of the South Pacific employed the consultancy services of Deloitte Touche to audit the country’s tourism profile as Kiribati was receiving the second lowest number of tourists in the region. The issue of understanding the tourism product in Kiribati and how to grow this valuable industry has been further exacerbated by a lack of methodologically sound information and statistics gathering by relevant government agencies. In light of this, the tourism information supplied here is minimal and largely based on anecdotal evidence, due to the government’s reduction in data collection after 1995. A number of tourism operators work in the area, offering excursions to the nation’s historical battlefields and natural wonders. The national tourism office is the Kiribati Visitors Bureau, which is a sub-section of the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Tourism. However, the organisation of an official tourism industry with networks and cooperation is certainly in its infancy and efforts to improve standards are still in the planning process.
Tourism attractions Tourism in Kiribati is centred around the natural resources and the individual characteristics of the island layout. Day trips to nearby islands are the primary attraction, although tourists need to return to the main centres where accommodation is available. There are many Second World War Relics available for viewing, and
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diving and snorkelling throughout the reefs is increasingly popular. The traditional culture, that which has not been affected by the missionary invasion, is strong and central to the daily lives of the people, and the local customs and handicrafts serve as an interesting attraction to many visitors. The primary tourist destination, Christmas Island (Kiritimati), offers the most developed tourism facilities including accommodation and activities. The island is dotted with over 100 lakes in the interior which support an interesting bird population, and the game fishing, plantations and nature offer a number of visitor opportunities.
Accommodation There are few hotels available for tourists on Kiribati, with the major ones being found on Tarawa, Christmas Island and Abemama. Currently, plans exist to build a 150-room luxury hotel on Christmas Island. In total, there are around 69 rooms available on Tarawa and 41 rooms available on Christmas Island. Rest houses and budget accommodation can be found on most of the islands; however, provisions are considered basic and visitors are advised to come with what they need. Transport Kiribati is only accessible by air to Tarawa via Nauru by Air Nauru, Majuro by Marshall Islands Airlines or on the weekly service to Christmas Island from Honolulu. There are 16 airstrips on the islands, serviced domestically by Air Tungaru, a government corporation. From the airport in Tarawa, private bus companies provide inexpensive transport to the main centres on South Tarawa. Travelling between islands is convenient for tourists through the use of boat or light aircraft. The roads in Kiribati are in generally good condition although they are subject to flooding after heavy rains. On South Tarawa, a compacted coral road runs the length of the island and connects with North Tarawa. Other islands have coral or dirt surfaced roads. There are no street lights at night. Taxis, buses and rental cars are available in most centres, as well as pickup trucks, but transport on the outer islands is very limited. There are a few boat tours operating between Betio and many outer islands. Kiribati has a number of deep harbours, and the majority of its sea traffic consists of cargo ships. Tourist demand Tourism in Kiribati increased significantly during the 1990s, with arrival figures almost doubling between 1991 and 1998 (Table 13.22). However, this growth appears to have stagnated at the turn of the century, with arrival figure growth slowing considerably. The major markets to Kiribati are Australia and other Pacific Islands. Overall, the majority of travellers to Kiribati are business travellers, although the
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Holiday 20%
VFR 18% Business 45%
Figure 13.16 Tourism arrivals by purpose of visit, Kiribati, 2001 Source: Tourism Council of the South Pacific (1997) two major destinations within Kiribati, Tarawa and Christmas Island, receive significantly different markets (Figure 13.16). The majority of arrivals to Tarawa are not pleasure travellers, but rather are travellers visiting friends and relatives within Kiribati, or business travellers, and therefore have a minimal benefit on the economy. These visitors are most likely citizens of other countries who immigrated out of Kiribati, and are returning to visit their family. On the other hand, visitors to Christmas Islands are almost exclusively visiting for pleasure reasons (92% of all travellers in 1995).
Tourism economic indicators In 1993, overall spending by tourists is estimated at AU$1.75 million, and this was estimated to have increased to AU$2.5 million by 1995. One issue with respect to the potential economic benefit of tourism to Kiribati is that the majority of consumable goods provided for tourists need to be imported, therefore leading to significant leakages. However, given the narrow range of development options available to Kiribati it is likely that tourism will remain a significant component of development policy.
Marshall Islands Geography The Republic of the Marshall Islands is a double chain of coral islands, comprising 34 islands and around 900 coral reefs (Figure 13.17). The eastern chain is known as the Ralik Chain (Sunset Chain) and the western group is the Ratak Chain (Sunrise Chain). The nation is situated about halfway between Hawaii and Australia, and the total area of the islands amounts to 180 square kilometres, spread over around 2 million square kilometres of ocean. The capital of the Marshall Islands is Majuro, situated on the Majuro Atoll. The terrain features low coral limestone, sand islands and islets, providing little for the limited native flora and fauna that grow on the islands. While the geography
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Figure 13.17 The Marshall Islands
above sea level is unbrokenly flat, with no island rising more than a few metres above sea level, the attractions of the Marshall Islands lie in the ocean surrounding it. Thousands of species of coral, fish, whales and turtles can be found in the waters around the nation largely due to the tropical climate creating a welcoming, year-round average temperature in Majuro of 27ºC. Trade winds and tropical showers are mild and regular, and as the Marshall Islands lie on the outside edge of the Pacific Typhoon belt, tropical storms and cyclones are rare. Society The population of the Marshall Islands is 72,630, made up almost exclusively of Micronesian peoples. The majority of these people live on the Majuro and Ebeye islands. The Marshallese have two official languages, English and Marshallese, though the former is mainly spoken as a second language. Many Marshallese also speak a Malayo-Polynesian dialect in some areas. The population is predominantly Protestant, due to the influence of arriving missionaries. The Marshallese people, despite the damage done to their environment by
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occupying countries, are widely known as extremely amicable and welcoming of foreigners. Indicative of this, is the Islander’s traditional greeting, Yokwe Yuk, which means ‘Love to you’. The society still pays heed to the chiefs across the nation who hold much authority over land use and ownership, and status within society is still earned largely through kinship rather than achievement, despite the influence of the United States. However, the Western influence has changed the lifestyle characteristics of the nation to some extent, with respect to television and dietary behaviour and the adoption of US public holidays and sports. Political history Little is known of the origin or culture of the Marshallese. Early sailors commented that the hierarchy and culture was similar to that of other Micronesian Islands, and it was clear the islands had been populated for centuries before being discovered by European mariners. Germany was the first country to claim protectorate status of the Marshall Islands, until the First World War when the islands were occupied by Japan. The Japanese had possession of the nation until the conclusion of the Second World War when the nation was placed under US administration. Not long after the war ended the Americans commenced testing of atomic bombs on the Bikini and Enewetak atolls, leaving them uninhabitable and poisoned by the high levels of radiation. The Marshall Islands attained independence from the United States in 1986 under a Compact of Free Association with the United States, who also agree to pay compensation to the people one year later for damage done during nuclear tests. The US Army Base on Kwajalein is still active and is used as a missile test range. An elected president and cabinet now rule the country, although defence and economic assistance are still provided by the US and the US$ is the currency used. Economy The association with the United States is of vital importance to the economy in the Marshall Islands, as the US provides around US$65 million in annual aid, accounting for approximately 70% of the nation’s GDP. The total GDP in 1998 was US$91 million, and in 1999 this had grown to US$99 million. The rest of the nation’s economy comprises subsistence agriculture and food exports of items such as coconuts, tomatoes, melons and fish. Small-scale handicraft production also helps to boost the economy. In recent years, the nation is increasingly focusing on tourism as a means for economic growth, although in 1999 the tourism industry only accounted for less than 10% of the labour force, which is quite a low figure compared to other Pacific Island nations. The tourism industry suffered significant losses in the late 1990s due to the financial difficulties in Asia and also the effects of a serious drought period.
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Tourism numbers fell from 6254 in 1997 to 4622 in 1999 (a 27% drop), and have only recently started to recover, although figures are still well below the 1997 figure. Tourism in the Marshall Islands Tourism in the Marshall Islands is generally considered underdeveloped, with limited infrastructure to cater for large numbers of tourists. Current tourism arrivals are generally business orientated, although special interest tourists do travel to the islands for the nation’s natural diving attractions. In 1997, the government established the Marshall Islands Visitors Authority (MIVA) which is now responsible for national tourism planning, development, marketing, and promotion. In 2000, the MIVA specifically targeted the following niche markets for tourism development and promotion: • • • • •
scuba diving (both wreck and general sport diving; sport fishing (big game, fly fishing and other types); Second World War historic tourism; cultural tourism (centred on annual cultural events); and yachting/cruising. (Asian Development Bank, 2000)
The MIVA also highlighted Japan and the US as the top markets for promotional targeting. For the longer term, the MIVA aims to develop the tourism industry beyond small, specialist markets and to promote the entire mass tourism industry, with particular emphasis on its product base of over 1000 pristine islands, making it relatively unique within the world-wide tourism industry.
Tourism attractions As mentioned above, tourism attractions in the Marshall Islands are largely centred around natural, water-based activities such as diving, fishing and cruising. Organised tours and established tourism activities are relatively limited, although can be found. Accommodation The most recent hotel development in the Marshall Islands is the Outrigger Hotel, which was opened in 1996 and has 150 rooms for travellers. A Honolulu based company owns this venue. The majority of tourism infrastructure can be found in Majuro and Ebeye, and there are also a number of smaller accommodation businesses located on the outer islands such as Mili. The tourism infrastructure is sufficient to cater for current tourism numbers, but development and the growth of the accommodation sector will be needed to facilitate further tourism growth.
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Transport There are two international airports located in the Marshall Islands – the Majuro International Airport and the Kwajalein Airport. These airports are both serviced regularly by Continental Micronesia and Aloha Air from locations including Hawaii, Fiji, Kiribati, Tuvalu and Guam. Air Marshall Islands provides domestic services to many of the atolls, using the many small airstrips found in inhabited areas, and seaplanes are available for the more remote areas. Air travel into the Marshall Islands has been improved since the late 1990s with the introduction of extra services, providing greater opportunities for the growth of the tourism industry. Majuro has the most developed road network, with 46 kilometres of paved road, and most of the islands have appropriate networks of unpaved roads facilitating easy travel. The islands also have 13 deep-water docks available for both light and heavy shipping, including private and commercial vehicles. Tourist demand Tourism arrivals have been relatively constant since the early 1990s, although peak periods were seen in the 1996–1997 travel years, before financial difficulties reached the vital Asian market (Table 13.23). In 2001, the major markets were the United States and Japan, although the Japanese market was more likely to be travelling for holiday purposes. For example, in 2000, 53.2% of all business travellers were from the United States, while 42.5% of all holiday travellers were from Japan. Overall, 34.9% of travellers to the Marshall Islands are travelling for business purposes, while 27.3% are travelling for holiday. The arrival figures suggest that vacation promotion undertaken by the MIVA appears to be having some effect on the breakdown of travellers to the Marshall Islands, as holiday arrivals almost doubled between 1993 and 2001, while business arrivals remained constant (Table 13.24; Figure 13.18). The peak period for travel to the Marshall Islands is July, followed by March. In 2000, 68% of the arrivals were male, and people aged between 50 and 60 were the most recorded travellers. Tourism economic indicators Total tourism receipts in 2000 amounted to US$3.892 million (Table 13.25). Business arrival spending accounted for 65.2% of this, followed by holiday spending which accounted for 25.5%. Overall, tourism spending increased just 8.9% between 1994 and 2000, with a peak spending year in 1996.
Nauru Geography The Republic of Nauru is located in the Pacific Ocean, surrounded by the Federated States of Micronesia, Solomon Islands, Kiribati and Marshall Islands, just 56
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Other 6%
NotStated stated Not 3%
T ransit 10%
VFR 12%
Holiday 25%
Business 44%
Figure 13.18 Arrivals to the Marshall Islands by purpose of visit, 2001 Source: Marshall Islands Visitor Authority (2001)
kilometres south of the Equator (Figure 13.19). This tiny island is only 21 square kilometres in size, making it the smallest republic in the world. It has no official capital, although Yaren is the central area for life and business. Geologically, the island is essentially a phosphate rock, similar to its closest neighbour Banaba in Kiribati, which led to intense interest from foreign countries that wished to mine the phosphate resources. Unfortunately for the country, excessive mining has now left approximately 90% of the island a wasteland with no vegetation, agricultural or developable areas. Further sustainability concerns exist for the island due to the lack of potable water for the inhabitants, resulting in the import of fresh water at great expense to the country from other nations including Australia. The highest point on the island is 70 metres above sea level. There are no native animals on Nauru, and mining has placed considerable pressure on the survival of bird life which have little to feed on. The most fertile area on the island is around the Blue Lagoon in the south-west section; this area has some vegetation and it is also where the majority of the population lives. The climate is tropical, with temperatures ranging from 24ºC to 34ºC throughout the year, and little rain due to the heat the exposed rock creates, thereby affecting the island’s micro-climatic conditions. Society The population in Nauru is approximately 12,000, largely comprising indigenous Nauruans (54%) and other Pacific Islanders (26%). Nauruan and English are
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Figure 13.19 Nauru both widely spoken and Christianity is the most common religion due to the influence of Western occupation. The culture throughout the island has essentially been converted from a Micronesian society to a Western society, largely due to the intolerance of German rulers for native culture at the turn of the 20th century. Television is supplied by TVNZ, the New Zealand state television service, and the most popular sport on the island is the splendid game of Australian Rules football. The culture has also been affected by the comparative wealth of the population due to returns from the phosphate mining. Diseases common in affluent countries, such as diabetes, now plague the country and have affected the quality of life.
Political history Little is known about the early history of Nauru’s population, until it was ‘discovered’ by an English sailor travelling from New Zealand to China in 1798. He named the island Pleasant Island. Around 70 years later, German traders had begun to influence the population, which consisted of 12 tribes, and soon the guns that they had traded for goods were turned on the new arrivals. The German traders
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subsequently asked the German government for assistance and Germany declared control of the country soon after. A British prospecting company discovered the phosphate in 1899, and as a result prescribed the future of Nauru from then on. Mining began immediately, and by 1939 a British, Australian and New Zealand consortium was shipping out 1.25 million tonnes of phosphate per annum. The island was the ground for significant battles during both world wars, with occupation of the tiny nation changing hands several times, especially as both sides desired the natural minerals. After the Second World War, Nauru remained under the administration of Australia, but by 1968 full independence was achieved through the creation of an internal local council and the successful application for special member status within the Commonwealth. Two years later, the British-Australian-New Zealand mining consortium handed control of the mines to the local people, represented by the Nauru Phosphate Corporation. In 2002 the nation received international media attention after accepting refugees during the controversial Tampa crisis in Australia, in return for financial aid.
Economy The economy in Nauru has obviously been centred around the mining industry, with a percentage of the proceeds from this going towards the support of its population, and a separate percentage being allocated to aid the recuperation of the environment after a century of neglect and abuse. The financial benefits of the mining have led to the population of Nauru having one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, although significant amounts of this are spent on importing all that is needed to survive, including food and water. Concern is now present within the government and throughout the population about the sustainability of Nauru’s economy after resources in the phosphate mines have been exhausted. The government has recently introduced cost cutting measures in order to save for the future; however, the country has little other industry to support its people. Recent financial concerns have even led to the cessation of wage payments to government employees, and payments are overdue for the national carrier Air Nauru’s only aircraft. It is estimated that investment into the environment will create facilities for agriculture and inhabitation only after another 20 years. Other major industries for the Nauruan economy is the financial sector, with reports in 2001 stating that Nauru is the second largest tax haven in the world, with over 400 off-shore banks registered, and the fishery industry. The currency used in Nauru is the Australian dollar, and defence is still provided by the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia will most likely be the target for assistance in the future if the economy declines further.
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Tourism in Nauru The tourism industry within Nauru is very undeveloped, with little attention payed to the industry while economic stability was present. The Department of Culture and Tourism is responsible within the nation for the development of the tourism industry. The offshore tourism attractions of the reef and Second World War wrecks offer excellent diving, and there are a number of clean beaches on the island that would support the interest of an increased number of tourists. Deep-sea sport fishing is also available and has been promoted in Australia and New Zealand, while touring the sights of Second World War relics such as bunkers, pillboxes and guns is also an attraction. There are two hotels on the island. These are the Meneu Bay Hotel, a government-owned property with 119 rooms, and the Od-n Aiuro Hotel, both located near Anibare Bay which is the island’s best beach.
Transport Air travel to Nauru is serviced by Air Nauru, the country’s national airline. The one airport on the island is located in Yaren, near the nation’s parliament, and flights are scheduled from Fiji, Guam, Manila, Australia, New Zealand and Micronesia. The primary sealed road on the island is a 19 kilometre long road circling the island, and a number of small road intersect the island at various points. A small railway system is also present, although this is only used to transport phosphate from the mines to the Port of Nauru, the primary harbour for the nation. Tourism activity information Information on the contribution to the economy and the significance of tourism in Nauru is unavailable, as the country presently does not record statistical information on tourism.
New Caledonia Geography New Caledonia (Nouvelle-Caledonie) is a French Pays d’Outremer (POM) among the Pacific Islands. The country consists of the main island of New Caledonia (la Grande Terre – the Main Island), an archipelago called the Iles Loyaute, and numerous small islands (Figure 13.20). The total land under control of the French government is 19,060 square kilometres, making New Caledonia the third largest island in the Pacific Region after Papua New Guinea and New Zealand. The capital city is Noumea. The primary island is unlike many Pacific Islands in that it is not volcanic in origin or coral based. Instead, there is an abundance of natural flora on the fertile soil, and a substantial mountain range along the centre of the 400 kilometre long
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Figure 13.20 New Caledonia island. The surrounding islands are mainly coral atolls, with the main ones being Les Isles Loyaute (the Loyalty Islands), Isle de Pins (Ile of Pines) and Iles de Belep (Belep Islands). However, since colonisation by the French, around 80% of the natural forest has been cleared from the main island to make way for nickel mining and cattle grazing. The climate in New Caledonia is fairly constant, with low temperatures in winter around 22ºC and high temperatures in the summer wet season of around 28ºC. The geomorphological make-up of the island creates a number of different climatic conditions throughout, especially in the mountainous areas. Society The population of New Caledonia at the most recent census was 207,858, with Melanesian and European groups the major inhabitants (42.5% and 37.1% respectively). Colonial rule has seen French become the official language of the islands, although 33 other local Melanesian and Polynesian dialects are spoken. Essentially, there are three main populations co-inhabiting New Caledonia. Kanaks are the indigenous people on the islands, who adhere strongly to cultural ritual, rites and social interactions according to ‘la coûstume’ or local custom. Caldoches, or white Caledonians, are the descendants of the French convicts who
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came to the island in the 1800s. The third group is the Métros, who are the recent migrants from France and with them brought the introduction of wine, fine dining, resorts and leisure shopping. Political history Captain James Cook was the first European to sight the Main Island in 1774 and called the land New Caledonia, as it reminded him of the highlands in Scotland. However, the first Westerners to inhabit the island were British and American whalers, who landed around 1840. The islands became a French possession in 1853, when Napoleon III decided that the French needed a strategic point in the Pacific region and annexed the country. Over time, the islands have served many functions, including being an offshore penal colony in the 1800s and a defence port. Since 1956 when the islands became an official overseas territory of France, tension between the new inhabitants and the indigenous population has been escalating, with the native population desperate for their independence from colonial rule. Much of the late 1970s and early 1980s saw violent riots, killings and bombings as rebels and militia fought and targeted the local authorities and French rule. Presently, the rival factions have agreed on a truce which will hopefully stay in place until the next referendum for independence in 2013. Economy New Caledonia was once known to house 25% of the world’s nickel resources, and this has been the major industry in the country. However, as nickel resources begin to diminish and worldwide demand subsides, the country is now becoming increasingly reliant on agriculture and tourism. In 2003 the country had a 19% unemployment rate. The economy has been further affected by widespread dissent within the population which has affected the important tourism industry. The world political situation and a four-month building strike have also impacted the number of visitors and the development of tourism infrastructure. In 2000, the country’s Gross Domestic Product was around US$3.1 billion, making the economy one of the largest of the Pacific Islands. The national currency is Comptoirs Français du Pacifique franc (CFP). Tourism in New Caledonia Tourism has rapidly increased as a development focus since the riots in the 1980s. The tourism industry within New Caledonia is monitored and marketed by Nouvelle-Calédonie Tourisme Point Sud (New Caledonia Tourism South), which is the national tourism body responsible to the Chambre de Commerce et d’Industrie de Nouvelle-Calédonie (The Ministry for Commerce and Industry). There are also a number of government sponsored tourism agencies (for example Destination Loyalty Islands).
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Tourism attractions Tourism attractions and infrastructure are well developed in New Caledonia, especially around Noumea, with many organised tours and tour operators available for visitor use. In the city area visitors can experience the unique Noumean/Parisian cultural blend, through museums, markets, the Jean-Maire Tjibaou Cultural Centre and other sightseeing locations. The island also offers the typical attractions of Pacific Islands including beaches, reefs, fishing, sailing, exploring the interesting fauna in reserve areas or scuba diving in the world’s largest lagoon. Accommodation There is a total of 1881 guest rooms in New Caledonia, of which 86.2% are in Noumea. There are many large tourism developments under construction which should add several hundred rooms to the accommodation stock. However, conflict within the building industry saw building stop completely for four months at the end of 2001 and building is still sluggish. In 2001, 56% of all visitors stayed in a hotel, while 20.2% stayed with friends or family. The total number for nights recorded for the same period was 561,871, with visitors staying an average of 4.1 nights per property. The overall average occupancy rate was 47.8% for mainland properties and 40.2% for surrounding islands. Transport New Caledonia has one international airport in the north of Noumea, established in 1968, which is serviced by a variety of different airlines. The primary carrier is Air Calin which is the country’s national carrier and was established in 1983. The major travel routes into New Caledonia are from Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Hawaii, Fiji, French Polynesia and of course France. Secondary airports are located in Noumea and on the Iles of Pines, and inter-island travel is convenient by plane or boat, although it can be quite expensive. Boating is a large part of the tourism industry in New Caledonia, with the cruise ship industry providing 49,077 tourists in 2001. Cruise ship arrival figures are not included in tourism arrival figures in New Caledonia. The primary cruise ship, Pacific Sky, made 32 trips throughout the year and supplied over 48,000 of the visitors. The majority of cruise ship visitors come from Australia and New Zealand (43,218 people and 3011 people respectively). Private yacht arrivals also contributed another 1500 tourists in the same year. Intra-island transport is provided by a number of regular, efficient and interesting means, including taxi, bus, hire car and le Petit Train, which is a tourist road-train stopping at all the major resorts and throughout the city.
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Tourism demand In 2001, the major visiting market was Japan (27.8%), followed closely by France (25.1%) (Tables 13.26 and 13.27). Both of these countries’ arrival figures are down significantly from 1997/1998 figures, although the total arrival figure has been maintained through the increase of ‘other’ markets. In 2001, this sector included travellers from other Pacific Islands (13,710), other Europe (2450), the United States (1114) and Other Asia (1067). Further figures for 2001 show that 49.6% of visitors were male and that the major travelling market were those aged between 30 and 39 (20.7%). The overall primary purpose for visitation was for holiday (61.8%), followed by visiting friends and relatives (10.9%) and then business (9.5%). Estimates for tourism growth predict that tourism in New Caledonia will increase rapidly with tourism arrivals increasing by almost 20% to 2005, or to a total of 117,301 tourists. Tourism economic indicators Total spending for 2000 by visitors to New Caledonia was 26.710 billion F.CFP, with France and Japan being the most significant financial contributors (Table 13.28). This is an increase of 33.67% from 1995 figures, which showed a total spending of 19.987 billion F.CFP. In 2000, international travel to New Caledonia was by far the most significant earner, accounting for 47% of all spending. Other major income sources were accommodation (22%), food and beverage (13%) and souvenirs/gifts (8%). The tourism industry accounted directly for 3390 employment positions throughout the country. While the tourism industry is a significant employer throughout the country, a number of the large resort styles employ foreign bi-lingual employees to cater for the European, Asian and other Western tourists.
Niue Geography Niue is one of the world’s largest coral islands, with a total land area of 260 square kilometres, and is surrounded by a reef ecology rich in marine flora and fauna (Figure 13.21). However, the island’s structure has led to a relatively simple topography when compared to other Pacific islands. Aside from steep limestone cliffs along the shoreline, the majority of the island is plateau and grassland, with some rainforest areas such as the Huvalu Forest Conservation area on the east coast. The capital of Niue is Alofi, located on the west coast of the island. Known as ‘the rock’, the country’s nearest neighbour is Tonga, which is located 600 kilometres to the west. The climate is relatively stable, although the wet season brings with it tropical storms and the occasional cyclone. The highest point above sea level is 65 metres.
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Figure 13.21 Niue
Society The population is a mixture of New Zealand and Polynesian origin, and the two major languages spoken are Niuean Polynesian and English. Significant concerns for the long-term development of the island are depopulation issues. The population is currently around 1700, down from 5200 in 1966, mostly due to emigration to New Zealand where economic opportunities are far greater (the population of Niuean people in New Zealand is about four times greater than that on the island itself). The people are often considered to be laid-back, welcoming and friendly. The primary religion is Ekalesia Niue (Niue Church), which is practised by around 75% of the population and is a derivative of the Protestant Church. The rest of the population practices some form of Christianity, primarily due to the influence of a popular Niuean citizen, Peniamina, who discovered Christian religious beliefs whilst in Samoa and brought them back to the island. Political history Niue, also known as Savage Island due to the hostile welcome received by Captain James Cook in 1774, is a near neighbour of the Cook Islands. At the begin-
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ning of the twentieth century, Niue was grouped with the Cook Islands under British Protectorate and controlled by New Zealand, but its remoteness and cultural differences led its leaders to seek independence. In 1974, Niue was successful in gaining independent control of its operations, still in close but free association with New Zealand. It is now one of the smallest self-governing nations in the world. New Zealand still offers defence protection for the small country, and the New Zealand dollar is the official currency. The name, Niue, means ‘behold the coconut’. Economy The major industries in Niue are tourism, agriculture (mainly fruit) and handicrafts. Currently around 13% of the country’s GDP is sourced from tourism earnings, and efforts are underway to improve the economic contribution of tourism to assist the unstable economy. The GDP in 2000 was NZ$14.210 million. Government activity accounted for around one-third of this, followed by agriculture and fishing (NZ$2.934 million) and then transport and communications (NZ$1.741 million). Niue relies heavily on foreign aid, especially from New Zealand and the European Union, as expenditures in the government sector often exceed revenues, and aid is needed for standard expenses such as public servant wages. The sale of postage stamps to foreign collectors is also an important sector of the economy. However, the migration of skilled employees to New Zealand and other more developed nations is straining the economy and dramatically reducing the earning power of the society. Tourism in Niue The tourism industry in Niue is under intense scrutiny from the Government of Niue and the New Zealand government, and hopes to boost the flailing economy are generally centred around improving and growing the tourism sector throughout the island. In June 2003, the Niue Tourism Accreditation Scheme was initiated in an attempt to improve and sustain the tourism product in Niue. The Government is concentrating its tourism plans on: • ensuring that the long-term security, reliability and regularity of air services is maintained with Polynesian Airlines; • that the accommodation facilities are developed to match the planned growth; • that the promotions and marketing is focused and targeted; and • that the other infrastructure is well developed and maintained to a high quality standard. (Niue Government, 2003) Current marketing plans for the improvement of international awareness of Niue to important markets involves a cooperative marketing plan with Polynesian Airlines, as funding for competitive marketing activities is limited.
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Tourism attractions Unlike many of its Pacific Island neighbours, Niue does not have any sandy beaches. This is due to the geological make-up of the island, with Niue being the largest single block of coral in the world. However, it does offer reef and tropical fish attractions, and this is a primary attractor for visitors wishing to participate in diving and snorkelling. Other attractions to the island include the individual land forms of the coral island, the rainforests, coral formations and abundant numbers of caves. The local and friendly culture, the enjoyment of the stable climate and the lack of excessive tourist numbers are also attractions. Accommodation The first hotel established in Niue was the Niue Island Hotel, which has 40 rooms and was built in 1975 and refurbished in 1991. Since then, other accommodation has been established, and the total room count for the island is now approximately 235 rooms, with accommodation types ranging from hotel, to backpacker, to selfcontained units or house stay. In June 2003, the Government of Niue released plans to build 70 new accommodation units on the island; however these plans came under criticism from local accommodation owners who commented that the: government should concentrate its initial efforts at improving the facilities that are already on the island before any new places are built. Many of the facilities have been neglected over the past because tourism has not grown as hoped. With occupancy running as low as 1–5% there has been no funds to do maintenance and many places need a good facelift especially the Hotel Niue which was taken over by a locally owned company in October 2001. (Government of Niue, 2003)
Transport Niue’s one international airport, the Niue Hanan International Airport, is located three kilometres out of the capital city of Alofi and was given a NZ$7 million upgrade at the end of the 1990s, to allow access for international aircraft of a greater size than previous capacity constraints would allow. This airport was serviced twice weekly by the Royal Tongan Airlines, although the arrangement with this airline was tenuous, and in March 2001 the Tongan airline ceased air services to Niue, dramatically affecting the tourism industry. Recently, a deal has been organised with Polynesian Airlines to include stopovers in Niue for some Apia to Auckland flights. Accessibility and cost by air travel is considered one of the primary inhibitors to the growth of tourism in Niue. Tour buses and taxi services offer tourists travel from the airport, and to some extent around the island. There is no public transport system. Car hire is available to
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Holiday 36.7%
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Other 3.4%
Returning residents 33.9%
Business 13.9%
Figure 13.22 Purpose of visit, Niue, 2002 Source: Economic, Planning, Development and Statistics Unit (2003a)
travel the 130 kilometres of paved road on the island, including a 65 kilometres road circumnavigating the island.
Tourist demand Tourism arrivals in Niue have been stagnating for many years, especially since the reduction of air services to Niue. Arrival figures for 2001 show that the number of visitors is less than half what it was in 1993 (Table 13.29). The Niuean government in 1993 estimated that promotional activities would increase arrival figures to 10,000 by 2000 (Ryan et al., 1998), although these activities have clearly not been successful. The major market for Niue is New Zealand, most likely due to the ease of travel for New Zealanders, VFR, and that Niue operates using the New Zealand dollar. In 2002 the Government of Niue estimated total arrivals at 3155, including returning residents. Excluding returning residents, arrivals were 2084, an impressive 48.1% increase from the previous year, although this figure includes visitors travelling for business and to visit friends and relatives. The total number of visitors travelling for vacation purposes was 1158 (Figure 13.22). In 2002, September was the peak travel month, with Niue accepting 571 of its 3155 arrivals. The primary contributors to this figure were holiday visitors (36.7%), followed by returning residents (33.9%) and then business travel and VFR travel were similarly represented (13.9% and 12.1% respectively). Tourism economic indicators As mentioned above, tourism contributes an estimated 13% of the Gross Domestic Product. Therefore, in 2000, the earnings from tourism were an estimated NZ$1.8 million. Earnings from hotels and restaurants in 2000 were NZ$0.31 million.
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$1000 and above 15%
Not stated 1%
$500–$1000 17% $100–$500 67%
Figure 13.23 Tourist expenditure, first quarter, Niue, 2003 Source: Economic, Planning, Development and Statistics Unit (2003b) A survey of tourists conducted in the first quarter of 2003 found that of the 507 tourists received, 339 spent under NZ$500 during their stay; 88 spent between NZ$500 and NZ$1000 and 64 spent over NZ$1000 (Figure 13.23). These figures suggest that the economic return from individual tourist spending is quite low, and therefore increases in earnings from tourism which are desired will require significant increases in tourism numbers or the identification of new ways in which to encourage visitors to spend money.
Northern Mariana Islands Geography The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) is located approximately three-quarters of the way between Hawaii and the Philippines, and is the dividing line between the Pacific Ocean and the Philippines Sea. The nation consists of 14 islands, stretching north over approximately 1,000 kilometres (Figure 13.24). To the south is Guam, which is often considered the 15th island in the group, and is also a US territory. The islands in the north are primarily of volcanic origin, or are the tips of submerged volcanoes; the islands in the south are typically limestone and coral based. The main island is Saipan, where the capital Saipan (or Garapan) is located. The majority of the islands located north of Saipan are uninhabited and form part of the Northern Islands Sanctuary. One of the major physical elements of CNMI is the Mariana Trench, which is just to the east of the nation and is the greatest known ocean depth is the world, formed by the division of two tectonic plates. The only native mammal on the islands is a bat, although there are a number of introduced species. The marine life is typical of the Pacific Region. The climate has been recorded in the Guinness Book of Records
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Figure 13.24 Northern Mariana Islands for the most stable temperatures, normally around 27ºC. Typhoons are common from August to December. Society The population is approximately 77,300, which is a massive increase from the recorded 10,000 in 1970. The people are primarily Filipino (34%), Chamarro/ Indigenous (30%), Chinese (8%) and Micronesian (8%). The official spoken language is English, although Chamarro and a local dialect known as Carolinian are common.
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The introduction of Catholicism to the islands has had a significant effect on the culture, with most public holidays and cultural activities centred around church events and holy days. Political history It is widely believed by anthropologists that these islands were among the first to be settled in the Pacific, with Chamarros living on the islands as far back as 1500 BC. Magellan sighted the islands and named them the Islands of Thieves in 1521, although they were renamed Las Marianas by a Spanish priest shortly after. Jesuits established monasteries in 1668 in the face of great hostility from the native Chamorros. The Spanish Army had quelled opposition by the late 1680s. The islands were ruled by Spain until 1899 when Germany purchased them, and then in turn lost control at the beginning of the First World War. By the Second World War, there were nearly 45,000 Japanese living in the Marianas, and they used the islands as a strategic defence point as it was the closest Micronesian location to Japan. However, the US invaded in 1944, taking control of the country and killing almost the entire Japanese population on the islands. The country, for many years under the administration of the United States, formed an independent government structure in 1976. However, instead of severing ties with the United States, the country decided to forge even stronger association for political and economical security. The United States, apart from considerable financial support, provides defence for the country and the US dollar is the currency. Economy Tourism is by far the largest industry in the Northern Mariana Islands, with about 50% of all employment related to tourism and it accounts for one-quarter of the GDP. The major tourist market, as with its near neighbour Guam, is the Japanese market, although recent financial hardships in Japan have led to a slow-down in arrivals. Garment production is another major industry, employing around 17,500 people (mainly Chinese) in 2000. Garments are shipped from CNMI mainly to the US where much of the production has duty and quota exemptions. Tourism in the Northern Mariana Islands Tourism to CNMI really only began in the 1960s, after the United States Central Intelligence Agency ceased covert operations in the area and left. Tourism has since grown at an impressive rate, due to the individual character of the islands and the proximity to the Asian market. Tourism promotion and development is organised in CNMI by the Marianas Visitor Authority, which is a sub-section of the Department of Commerce. Statistics information is gathered by the Central Statistics Division of the Department of Commerce.
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Tourism attractions The tourism industry in the CNMI is very developed, and offers a commercialised product similar to Guam, designed to cater for the mass-Asian market. Golf courses, luxury hotels and other Western goods and services are available, along with the nature-based activities similar to most of the destinations in the region – diving and snorkelling, wreck diving, hiking, wind surfing, and other water sports. Due to its turbulent history and the influence of occupying countries, the traditional indigenous culture is weak, and experiencing the Micronesian culture is not a significant part of the tourism experience. Accommodation There are a total of 4,419 hotel rooms across all the islands in the CNMI, with the majority of these located in Saipan (3914). The room inventory has increased from just 740 in 1980. In 2001, the hotel occupancy rate was 54.45%, as many properties showed low occupancy due to international economic and political conditions (Figure 13.25). This increased to 63% by 2002, when there was an average day rate of just US$81, down from US$117 per day in 1998. The lodging sector accounts for around 3% of total employment in CNMI. The Hotel Association of the Northern Mariana Islands (HANMI) is the main industry body representing the lodging sector in the CNMI. It was established in 1983 and represents over 3500 rooms in the total accommodation inventory. The purpose of the association is to ‘support and encourage cooperation among member hotels Hotel Occupancy, 1992–2001 100.00%
Percentage
80.00% 60.00% 40.00% 20.00% 0.00%
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Percentage 78.10 73.49 77.03 82.62 85.57 81.35 58.05 60.44 61.23 54.43 Year
Figure 13.25 Hotel occupancy, Northern Mariana Islands, 1992–2001 Source: Hotel Association of the Northern Mariana Islands (2003)
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by providing a forum for the sharing of ideas on issues of common concern’ (Hotel Association of the Northern Mariana Islands, 2003).
Transport Saipan is the major entry point, accounting for over 97% of all arrivals in 2001. The one international airport is located here, and there are a number of small airstrips dotted throughout the islands, including Tinian and Rota, and these are serviced by regional airlines. There are direct flights from Tokyo, Hong Kong and Taipei. Connections can also be boarded in Guam. A few flights also travel between Guam and Rota; 98% of all arrivals arrive at CNMI by air. Although there are two harbours on Saipan, passenger vessels from outside the country are rare (with the exception of private yachts). The transport system within Saipan is well established, with an efficient road network in place. Car hire agencies are common in Saipan and present in the outer islands, who rely much less on car transport. Shuttle buses run between the major towns, although no significant public transport system operates within towns. Taxis are also common. Tourist demand The record year for tourism was 1996 with over 700,000 visitors to CNMI (Table 13.30). However, numbers have decreased significantly since then, largely due to the Asian economic crisis and a number of serious typhoons in the late 1990s. The late 1980s and early 1990s were the ‘boom’ period, and expectations are that improving economic conditions will allow tourism numbers to return to pre-Asian economic crisis levels. However, the industry saw decreases in arrivals again in 2001 and 2002, although this time the decrease can be attributed to the reduction in travel by American citizens due to the War on Terrorism. In 2001, Japanese visitors accounted for over 75% of all visitors to CNMI, followed by Korean (13%) and then American/Guamanian (7%). For the same year, Saipan received the majority of visitors (480,303), while Rota and Tinian received only low tourist numbers (10,412 and 6970 respectively). The most popular months to visit are January and August, while the slowest months are during the wet season from October to December. In 1999, the total number of visitors arriving for business purposes decreased by over 50%, falling from 9640 in 1998 to 4157 in 1999. This again is attributed to the Asian financial difficulties. In general, an overwhelming proportion of the visiting population arrive for holiday and tourism purposes. Tourism economic indicators Tourism spending in 2001 managed to equal the pre-Asian economic crisis
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figures for 1997 of US$585 million in 1997. These earnings are contributed to the fact that while visitation levels have slumped significantly, per person spend has increased to US$1175 from US$805 in 1997. Tourism is by now the most significant industry in the country. In 1980, tourism spending was just US$61 million and by 2001 the industry represented one-quarter of the nation’s GDP.
Palau Geography Although the country is comprised of 200 islands, the total land area is only 458 square kilometres and only eight of the islands are significantly populated (Figure 13.26). Babelthuap (Babeldaob) is the largest island in the group, and the second largest island in Micronesia. This island is connected by a concrete bridge to Koror, which is the capital island for Palau and the centre of business. Due to increased demand for facilities and infrastructure, the government is now in the process of building a new capital approximately 20 kilometres north of the old one. Large mountains and dense forest typify the main islands, which are of volcanic origin, and the surrounding smaller islands are generally low lying coral atolls surrounded by barrier reefs. Interestingly for primarily coral islands, many fertile areas can be found, and at points the land is as high as 207 metres above sea level. A large number of tropical fish species can be found throughout the nation, combined with a number of native mammals and reptiles around the volcanic-based islands, including crocodiles of up to five metres in length. Due to Palau’s proximity to the Equator, the climate is fairly stable, with temperatures generally around 27ºC. Society Palau is a relatively affluent country, with citizens enjoying an average personal income twice that of those living in the neighbouring Philippines and many states of Micronesia. The population is approximately 19,500, comprising about 70% Palauan (Micronesian and Malayan/Melanesian mixtures) and 28% Asian; 68% of the population live on Koror. The primary language is Palauan, although English is widely spoken and understood. As with most Pacific Islands, missionary practices have led to a strong Christian following. In association with this, an indigenous religion called Modekngei is practised by one-third of the population. Political history The Republic of Palau is a group of 16 states in the westernmost part of Micronesia. It is believed that the original inhabitants came from Eastern Indonesia, and archaeological research has estimated human inhabitation of the islands as early as 1000 BC. In 1686, Spain claimed sovereignty of the islands, until the nation was sold to Germany in 1899 after the Spanish-American War. Japan occupied the territory
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Figure 13.26 Palau
from 1914 until the end of the Second World War, and during their occupation closed the country to the outside world and focused on fortifying the islands and teaching the population Japanese ways of life. The United States began its administration of Palau at the end of the Second World War. In 1978, at the time of federation for the other states of Micronesia, Palau opted for independence. Since then, this independent position has been further confirmed through the signing of a Compact of Free Association with the United States, which provided the economy with US$450 million for the first 15 years of the 50 year compact. While the country is governed internally, the United States plays a large part in the country’s economic and social life, with Palau using the US$ as its currency and the US providing defence. Economy Tourism is by far the largest industry within Palau, mainly supported by its proximity to Asia. Fishing and agriculture are also major industries, in conjunction with government-based employment.
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Unfortunately for the local economy, the act of gaining independence in 1994 has placed considerable strain on the small Pacific Island nation, as the country is now no longer able to rely on financial support from the US. As with many nations within the region, Palau’s vision for economic viability and prosperity is centred around the growth of the tourism and increases in international visitors, ideals which have recently been bolstered by the improvement of air travel in the Pacific Region and improved economic outlooks for the Asian Region. Tourism in Palau The US Trust Territory Government established the Palau Tourist Commission (now the Palau Visitors Authority – PVA) in 1972 with the objective of implementing tourism development in conformity with the national economic development policy of the government. The vision for the PVA is to develop tourism in order for it to become a key operating sector and a stimulant for other economical activities within Palau. This is to be done through ensuring that ‘development ensures the well-being of the people, maintenance of the Palauan lifestyle, environmental protection and equitable distribution of the benefits among the Palauan people’ (Palau Visitors Authority, 2001). The budget for this governmental department in 2002 was US$1.2 million; however this was reduced to US$1 million after the September 11 terrorist attacks. Of these funds, 65% are allocated for promotional and marketing activities and 35% support general operational costs and community services.
Tourism attractions The primary tourism attraction in Palau is the nation’s excellent diving facilities. In recent years, it was named the No. 1 Underwater Wonder of the World. However, the protected lagoon and astounding diversity of the area has also given rise to other activities in recent years – including sea kayaking, parasailing and sport-fishing. Resorts in Koror also provide white sand beaches, swimming pools and top-notch restaurants. On Palau’s largest island of Babeldaob, remote waterfalls and hiking trails set within the rainforest provide a base for the development of eco-tourism and adventure oriented attractions. Palauan villages also provide opportunities for home-stay visits. Accommodation Palau’s first international luxury hotel, the Palau Pacific Resort, opened in 1984 and is owned by Japanese interests. This hotel accounts for 160 of the total rooms available in Palau. The majority of accommodation establishments are located in and around Koror, as well as many of the tourism product service providers. The total number of rooms available for tourists in 2001 was 931, spread over 29 properties. These properties range from resort accommodation, through to motels, backpackers and bed and breakfast sites. The average occupancy rate for 2001 was 42%.
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Transport Palau’s one international airport is located 16 kilometres outside of Koror, and is serviced by Continental/Air Micronesia departing Guam, Yap and the Philippines. This airport is limited in the size of airplane which it can accept due to runway capacity, and therefore is only suitable for short-haul flights. There are a number of small airstrips located throughout the islands, which were serviced in 1999 by a Seventh Day Adventist owned company, Palau Paradise Airways, which does not operate on Saturdays for religious reasons. Palau has a number of deep-sea harbours along its coastline, the primary one being located in Koror. These ports have been popular with mariners for many years due to their easy access, although today the harbour is almost exclusively used for cargo transport and private vehicle use. Cruise ship tourism in Palau is not significant. There is a total of only 64 kilometres of paved road in the country, primarily centred on Koror. Rental cars, private buses and other small vehicles are available to tourists for hire, although there is no public transport system present. Tourist demand The primary visitor market for Palau is Japan, which represented 40.6% of the total visitor market in 2002. Taiwan was the second significant market (27.0%), followed by the United States and the Philippines (Table 13.31). Interestingly, in 2002 after the worldwide travel industry slowed down due to the threat of terrorism and unstable economic conditions, decreases in Western market visitor arrivals were more than compensated by increases in travel for Asian markets. The Japanese market increased 6.0% and the Taiwan market increased 26.8%, leading to an overall increase in tourism numbers of 8.2% in 2002. However, while tourism figures are improving, arrival figures in 1997 were the highest the country has seen, and the slide from these peak times is largely attributed to the Asian economic crisis. For example, the Taiwan market was in 2002 still less than half what it was in 1997. Forecasts for the Palau tourism industry estimate that arrivals will increase to almost 60,000 visitors by 2005, provided that consumer economic and political environments continue to improve. Diving is by far the most prominent activity in Palau, accounting for more than two-thirds of all visitors to the islands (Table 13.32). The 2001 results also found that out of 740 divers sampled, 165 were return visitors. This segment of return visitors was also the most significant group. Tourism economic indicators Total tourism receipts for 2001 were US$57,912,421. The major contributors to this figure were Japan (US$26.4 million/45.6%), Taiwan (US$14.1 million/23.3%) and the United States (US$12.6 million/21.8%). In total, tourism receipts accounted for approximately 48% of Palau’s GDP.
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The average length of stay for all visitors is 4–5 days. The 2001 Visitor Survey found that approximately half of the respondents stayed 3–4 days, one-quarter stayed 5–6 days and 17% stayed for 7–14 days. Visitors from Europe were the longest staying market segment (normally around 9 days), most likely due to the long-haul nature of visiting Palau. The average spend per person for 2001 was US$1025.10 per trip (Tables 13.33 and 13.34).
Papua New Guinea Geography The Independent State of Papua New Guinea (PNG) is a group of islands just north of the Australian state of Queensland, and west of the Solomon Islands. In total, 20 provinces are included within the country’s territory (Figure 13.27). The islands include the east half of New Guinea (Irian Jaya which is an Indonesian province which was formerly a Dutch colony), which is the second largest island in the world, and this is accompanied by at least 600 smaller islands in the surrounding waters. This large land mass is the main area of Papua New Guinea and is home to the major shipping city of Port Moresby, the country’s capital. The topography of the islands varies greatly, with the main island dominated by
Figure 13.27 Papua New Guinea
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a central spine of mountains known as the Owen Stanley Range, with some peaks exceeding 4000 metres. Some of the outer islands are coral reefs that are home to spectacular coral formations and marine life. The rainforests that cover about 75% of the country have fostered the rise of a vast array of native flora and fauna species, especially a world-leading collection of bird species. The climate in the area is typically wet and humid most of the year, although the dry season is defined as May through October. Drought, the occasional volcanic eruption, and tsunamis can cause havoc, the latter especially devastating to the outlying islands. Some concerns about the environment have arisen due to massive logging programmes and heavy metal pollution from copper and gold mines. Society The country covers 462,840 square kilometres of land, and is home to more than 5.17 million people. This land area makes up approximately 83% of the total land area for the Pacific Islands and the population accounts for about 60% of the total population. The most widespread language in the region is pidgin English, although standard English is spoken by only approximately 1–2% of the population. In total, it is estimated that there are over 715 languages and dialects present within the country. The currency used within the islands is the Kina (PGK). The influence of missionaries had a major impact on the religious beliefs of the people, although around 34% still practise pantheistic religions based on traditional spirituality beliefs. The nation is roughly divided into four distinct social, regional, cultural and political groups; Papuans (from the south), Highlanders, New Guineans (from the north) and Islands (those closely related to the other people of the Pacific, either Melanesian, Polynesian or Micronesian). The independent traditional beliefs of the significantly different people have given rise to many varied cultural practices based on different influences and geographic locations. In more traditional areas much consideration is given to respecting and placating the spirits. Political history Now part of the British Commonwealth, the islands have seen many foreign occupiers over time until independence was achieved in 1975. In 1885, the country was divided in two with Germany controlling the north and Great Britain (who later allocated control to Australia) controlling the south. During the First World War, Australia succeeded in defeating Germany in the battle for the northern part of PNG and took control until independence. Recent times have been witness to much turmoil. Widespread violence and rioting began when Bougainville fought mainland forces for their independence. Confrontations escalated and international governments and armies were involved until in 1998, after many changes of government, an uneasy truce was reached. The nine-year revolt caused the displacement of at least 40,000 Bougainville islanders
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and saw at least 20,000 people killed. Many regions within the country are still unsafe for travel and tensions flare up occasionally. Economy Around 85% of the country’s economy is based on subsistence agriculture, although minerals such as gold, copper and oil account for 72% of all exports. Copra and forestry are also significant. The political turmoil throughout the country in recent years has had a devastating effect on the economy, with the country now in stabilisation and recovery mode rather than in a growth position. Financial aid is important for the economy, with a large amount of aid provided through the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank as well as from Australia. In 2001, the Gross Domestic Product for PNG was US$12.2 billion, which represents a –2.5% growth rate. Tourism in Papua New Guinea Port Moresby is the main tourist area, and is usually the driest and most stable part of the country. Negative media coverage, highlighting the inter-tribal warfare and high crime rates, has affected the country in recent years. However, visitors often state that the dangers are similar to that found in any major city throughout the world. Business travellers are the most significant market for the tourism industry. One report comments that international tourists visiting Papua New Guinea for leisure purposes are normally seeking adventure or originality in their travel experience, and normally these people will travel on safe, package tours that are centred around the country’s capital, Port Moresby (Zoroya, 2001). Tourism is organised and promoted by the PNG Tourism Promotion Authority (TVA), which operates under the Minister for Tourism. The CEO of the TVA is elected by the National Executive Council under advice from the Minister of Tourism. Industry specific tourism associations or bodies have not been developed, as the government’s focus on tourism development has not been a priority since independence in 1975, and no industry representatives have attempted to consolidate industry actions.
Tourism attractions The major travel lure is what lies outside the cities. It is the nation’s vast, unspoiled wilderness and indigenous cultures: 700 varieties of birds (including 38 of the world’s 42 bird of paradise species), 2800 types of orchids (one-sixth of those on the planet), volcanoes, rugged highlands, tropical rainforests, beaches, the world’s largest butterfly (the Queen Alexandra Birdwing) and excellent diving and snorkelling, combining spectacular coral and sea life, with Second World War wrecks (Zoroya, 2001). The main activities undertaken by holiday visitors in the 1999 visitor survey were diving and trekking, while visiting historical sites and fishing also rated highly. General sightseeing was rated the most common tourist activity.
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Accommodation In Papua New Guinea, the hotel product available alters significantly depending on the region visited. The majority of developed tourism facilities can be found in and around Port Moresby, as this is the gateway city and the main tourist destination. Overall, in 1995, there were 2640 rooms available, although recent figures are not available to determine whether this figure has altered in relation to fluctuating tourism demand. Transport Jackson’s International Airport is the main gateway to the country, and is located about eight kilometres from Port Moresby. Mt Hagen Provincial Airport was also declared an international airport due to mining activity in the region, but this airport is not frequented often by tourists. The islands also have a large number of domestic ports throughout the country. International services are provided by Qantas and Air Niugini. Flights can be taken between PNG and Australia, Singapore, the Solomon Islands, the Philippines and Hong Kong. Domestic services are also provided by a number of companies. Sea services into the country are almost non-existent, although ferry and boat services are available in some areas and are usually a relatively cheap alternative to air transport. During the 1980s, around 40 cruise ships annually visited PNG, although today these services have ceased. Within each of the regional centres, well-developed road networks have been built, and many hire car companies and taxi services are available. However, more remote parts of the country do not have well-developed road systems and road travel between regions is severely limited due to the terrain and lack of quality roads. Within the cities, public motor vehicles (public buses) are available and usually reliable. Tourist demand Arrival figures for 1996 were 61,385, an increase of 45% over 1995 figures (Table 13.35). Australia is by far the biggest market segment (50.2% in 1999). The other major market is Asia, normally contributing just over 20% of the travelling market. In 1999, 22% visited for holiday while 44% visited for business purposes. Europe, America and the Japanese markets were mainly visiting for holiday while Asian and Australasian visitors were normally business visitors. Repeat visitation is high, especially among the business market. The average length of stay in 1998 was 7.3 days. Estimates for the growth of tourism in PNG predict that visitor arrival figures will climb back up to around 59,343 by 2005, assuming that the uneasy truce within the country is stabilised and tourism development can progress according to demand.
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Tourism economic indicators The tourism industry, although underdeveloped, still offers substantial economic returns to the community, especially as the majority of visitors are business travellers or holiday visitors likely to spend money within the community. In 1995, tourism revenue was US$46.2 million, with average visitor spend per stay US$1247 and an average length of stay of just less than two weeks. In 1999, tourism earnings were K83.90 million (US$23.89 million) for holiday visitors alone. The average spend per visitor was K3845 compared to K2536 in 1997. Further, the average daily spend was K470 compared to K242 in 1997. Total visitor spending in 1999 amounted to US$76 million. The Australian market is the most significant contributor to the economy, although travellers from the USA spend around 100 kina more per day than Australians. Airfares and transport accounted for the most significant proportion of visitor spending, followed by accommodation and then organised tours.
Independent State of Samoa Geography The Independent State of Samoa, formally known as Western Samoa, is situated halfway between Hawaii and New Zealand in the South Pacific Ocean. Samoa consists of two main volcanic islands, Upolu and Savai’i, and eight smaller islands (Figure 13.28). The interiors of the islands are mountainous, although there is lush rainforest, home to most of the 34 species of bird found on the island, and limited numbers of other indigenous animals. The combined land area of the country amounts to 2934 square kilometres, and the highest point is Mt Silisili which rises to 1860 metres in the centre of Savai’i. Almost 80% of the land in Samoa is customary land which is held by the matai (chiefs) to lease to people or hold for their family group. Around 10% of the land is held by government. Samoa is vulnerable to occasional fierce typhoons and active volcanism, which have, in the past, devastated crops causing substantial economic problems for the nation. Another significant threat to the local people is excessive deforestation for agricultural purposes which has affected the delicate ecosystem and has led to erosion. During the months of April to October (the dry season), the Samoan hot and humid climate is cooled by south-easterly trade winds. Society Apia, the capital of Samoa, is situated on the island of Upolu; 178,631 people inhabit the nation, of whom 92.6% are Samoan and 7% Euronesians (European/Polynesian mixes). The population is almost evenly divided between the two islands, and on Upolu about 40,000 people live in the nation’s capital. The languages of Samoa are Samoan and English. Alongside their 1000-year old culture, 99.7% of Samoans now practise Christianity due to the influence of missionaries.
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Figure 13.28 Independent State of Samoa
Samoan’s traditional culture has a complex set of social hierarchies, customs and courtesies. The central unit is the aiga (family group) which is ruled by the matai in strict accordance to faa Samoa (traditional Samoan way). Since the early 1960s there has been significant migration from Samoa to New Zealand, which has alleviated a number of the population capacity concerns for the small nation. However, New Zealand has tightened their immigration policies in recent years and numbers leaving Samoa have slowed accordingly.
Political history Samoa’s experience with European colonists of the 19th century earned them an unwarranted reputation of being unfriendly and violent. The islands were fiercely fought over by the English, Americans and Germans, the latter of whom prevailed, and a colony was established. At the outbreak of the First World War, New Zealand occupied the nation and continued to govern the islands until independence in 1962. Samoa changed its name in 1997 from Western Samoa to the Independent State of Samoa. The government is ruled by a prime minister, who along with the cabinet and a representative or ‘head of state’ from one to the four royal families in the country, form the executive council. This council decides the national and international decisions on behalf of the nation, while local issues are still decided not by a local council but instead by the village matai. In recent years there has been increasing pressure for the adoption of more Western ways of decision making.
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Economy Since achieving independence the Samoan economy has been reliant on development aid, remittances and agricultural exports. However, the economy’s reliance on land resources has left the nation vulnerable due to the devastating storms which regularly occur. Agriculture is the main industry of Samoa, with exports such as coconut cream, coconut oil, and copra accounting for around 90% of total exports. Over two-thirds of the population are employed in this industry. Fish is the largest individual export for the nation, contributing $24.74 million in 2000. The tourism industry is expanding steadily every year. The Samoan government is now paying increasing attention to creating a sustainable and reliable economy, and is attempting to attract foreign investment through the deregulation of the financial sector and tighter fiscal controls and reporting requirements. In 2002, the nation’s GDP was $890.4 million, representing a growth rate of 1.8%. The 2002 fiscal year indicated that the economy was moving towards a service based economy, as traditional income earners agriculture and fishing showed little growth while the service industries comprised a total of 65% of the GDP. The currency used is the tala (SAT), with one tala equalling around AUD$0.50. Tourism in the Independent State of Samoa The Samoa Visitors Bureau (SVB) implemented a five-year National Tourism Development plan in 2002 with the aim of improving and implementing strategic marketing policies in order to increase the value of tourism within the local economy. This government department falls within the portfolio of the Minister of Tourism. Some of the key objectives of the tourism development strategy created by the SVB in association with the Treasury Department and the Ministry for Tourism are: • • • • •
to increase inbound tourist bed nights by 25% by 2004; to increase tourist daily expenditure; to establish a favourable and attractive environment for tourism investment; to promote the establishment of a quality brand name hotel; and to increase holiday tourists to 50,000 by 15% p.a. within the next five years. (Samoa Treasury Department, 2002)
Within the National Tourism Office, a number of the primary departments include: • • • • • •
marketing and promotion; research and statistics (in association with the National Statistics Office); training and education; planning and development; tourism cultural affairs; and finance and administration. (Tourism Council of the South Pacific, 1998)
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The Samoa Visitors Association is another industry body aimed at representing the Private Sector Tourism Industry. It was established in 1991 with a mission: to generate business in support of the tourism industry in Samoa; to generate employment, to offer the best in Samoan hospitality; to support sustainable tourism practices in the use of the natural physical and human resources; and, to provide a platform for the industry to have effective dialogue with Government. (Samoa Visitors Association, 2003) It represents industry operators from the accommodation, adventure tourism, airlines, arts and event management, banks, consultants, fishing, inbound tour operators, rental car agencies, restaurants, services, surfing, and travel agents.
Tourism attractions The tourism attractions of Samoa are centred around tourists enjoying the natural and scenic endowments of the country, including visiting the scenic reserves, volcanoes, waterfalls, blowholes and beaches. In addition, tourists can observe and participate in the interesting cultural life within Samoa, including traditional rituals, craftworks and festivals. The people of Samoa are generally welcoming of visitors and ready to share experiences with them, although tourists need to be aware of the cultural intricacies of the country to ensure they don’t offend any of the native people. Accommodation The Samoa Hotel Association, strongly supported by all sectors of the accommodation industry in Samoa, including traditional beach fales, resorts and hotels. It was established recently in order to ‘highlight issues requiring attention with a vision for the immediate to long term future’ (Samoa Hotels Association, 2002). Accommodation ranges from backpacker, to basic beach fales, to resort style accommodation (Table 13.36). The hotels and restaurant sector is playing an increasing role within the economy and grew an average of 8.4% between 1998 and 2002, contributing around $16.5 million to the economy in 2002. In general, the average occupancy rate for hotels is around the 55% mark. Transport Samoa’s national airline is Polynesian Air, which operates services between Samoa and New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Tonga, American Samoa and Tahiti. This airline accounted for 50% of all passenger movement into Samoa in 2002 (Table 13.37). There are also regular domestic flights from Fagalii Airport near Apia to Maota and Asau on the island of Savai’i, serviced by Samoa Air. Air New Zealand, Air Pacific, and Samoa Air also provide international flight services. The interna-
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tional airport is Faleolo International which is located west of Apia and operated by the Samoa Airport Authority. Regular boat transport is available between Upolu and Savai’i and is also very cheap as the service provider, the Shipping Corporation, is government owned. Cruise ships also visit Upolu around six times per year, with passengers disembarking for only one day of sightseeing. International drivers are permitted to drive locally after having their licence validated by the local police. Taxi services are common and readily available – there are a large number of car hire operators throughout Samoa. Regular and efficient bus service is the most frequently used mode of intra-island travel. Many inbound travel and tour operators offer a variety of transport services for visitors.
Tourist demand Tourism arrival figures have been growing steadily since the early 1990s, supported strongly by infrastructure and service provider development throughout all regions of the country. Between 1993 and 2002, tourism arrivals grew by 90%, largely due to significant growth in markets within the Pacific Region such as Australia, New Zealand and American Samoa (Table 13.38). Forecasts released in 2003 estimate that tourism will continue to grow strongly in Samoa and that visitor numbers should increase up to around 105,000 annual visitors by 2005. The primary purpose for visitation to Samoa in 2002 was to visit friends and family, and this sector is largely sourced from Australia, New Zealand and American Samoa, the major visiting markets (Table 13.39). Overall, the VFR market represented 39% of all arrivals, followed by the holiday market which represented 31% of travellers. Business travel was also a significant market and accounted for 11% of all travellers. Current development plans are to increase the significance of holiday arrivals to Samoa as this market will be more likely to pay for tourism service within the islands than people visiting friends and relatives. This can be seen by the table showing the types of accommodation used by different markets, which suggests that VFR travellers stay in private accommodation about 90% of the time (Table 13.40). By 2002, contributions to the local economy from tourism amounted to SAT$159.1 million (approx. US$51.89 million), which is almost five times greater than tourism earning just 10 years earlier (Table 13.41). Furthermore, tourism directly employs around 2500 people throughout the country, with about half operating in semi-skilled positions. Visitors from the United States generally have the highest total spend while visiting Samoa, although the Japanese market has a slightly higher daily spend but a lower average length of stay (Table 13.42). Australian visitors have the greatest length of stay out of all markets (11 days), but this group also have one of the lowest average daily spend rates, as a significant portion of this market are visiting friends and relatives.
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Solomon Islands Geography The Solomon Islands is the third largest archipelago in the Southern Pacific, situated just east of Papua New Guinea. With 992 islands in total, the islands feature a rich tapestry of tropical rainforest, scrubland, mangroves and many low-lying atolls, mixed with numerous islands whose land is entirely clear-felled (Figure 13.29). The total area of the Solomon Islands is 28,450 kilometres and the coastline spans 5313 kilometres. Only one-third of the archipelago is populated. Indigenous reptiles and marine animals are the most common throughout the islands, including crocodiles, snakes, lizards, fish, sharks, and whales. Land mammals have been reduced due to introduced species. The islands also have over 4500 plant species, which have been used for centuries for building, clothing, food and medicines. The climate is generally constant throughout the year, with temperatures around 30ºC, although the rains during the wet season (summer) are often monsoonal and bring the occasional cyclone. One other environmental factor which influences tourism development in the Solomon Islands is the existence of endemic malaria and dengue fever on a number of the islands.
Figure 13.29 Solomon Islands
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Society The population of the Solomon Islands is 494,796, of which 93% are Melanesian, 4% Polynesian and the remainder Micronesian and European people. The official language is English although it is spoken by only 1–2% of the population. There are over 120 indigenous languages spoken in the Islands, although the common language is based around Melanesian pidgin. The religion of the nation is predominantly Anglican. Despite the unrest in parts of the archipelago which received widespread international media attention in 2002 and 2003, the Solomon Islanders are welcoming of Western visitors. With such a rich cultural diversity and ancient traditions still in practice by the locals today, tourists can experience a Melanesian cultural heritage that has not been as substantially affected by missionaries as many other islands in the Pacific. However, visitors need to be sensitive to the cultural beliefs and practices of the village people in their everyday life.
Political history The colonial history of the Solomon Islands is extremely bloody. Early struggles between native inhabitants and foreign intruders bred hostility among the islanders towards white men. By the late 19th century, the Solomon Islands had earned the reputation as the most inhospitable place in the Pacific. In 1896, the British established a protectorate over the Solomon Islands and relationships between the locals and colonists improved substantially to the extent where the Islanders remained staunchly loyal to the Allies even during the most bitter fighting in the Second World War. Self-government was achieved in 1976 in the Solomon Islands, followed two years later by complete independence. Since the late 1990s, ethnic violence and political unrest have sparked outbursts of violence and crime outside the capital of Honiara. A coup attempt in June 2000 sparked the fighting between the MEF (Malaita Eagle Force – ethnic Malaitans) and the IFM (Isatabu Freedom Movement – natives of Guadalcanal) and saw armed fighting in the streets of Honiara. A peace deal was brokered in October that year, but in March 2002 violence again flared and saw the murder of two New Zealand diplomats and many others. In July 2003 an Australian-led military and police force moved into the islands to improve security and assist government in rebuilding the country’s shattered economy and political and legal institutions. Although the deteriorating situation is said not to affect tourist regions, the civic unrest and endemic crime continues to undermine the stability of the Islands. Tourists are warned to be aware of this situation and to practise extreme caution on travelling to the Solomon Islands and most countries had travel advisories in place recommending avoiding all non-essential travel to the nation in 2002 and 2003.
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Economy The major industry within the Solomon Islands is logging, which has contributed greatly to the economy although it has led to almost 10% of the country being clear-felled. Concerns about the deforestation have arisen, as the effects on the environment are increasing and the delicate reef systems around the islands are in danger due to the erosion of soil into the waters thereby cutting sunlight to the coral polyps and increasing algal growth. The government is seeking to introduce policies to limit any further effects that this industry may have on the environment, in order to avoid spoiling the nation’s tourist and fishing industries in the future. Therefore, the government is now seeking to focus on other, more sustainable economic activities in order to support the nation’s people, and tourism will play an important role within these actions. In 1999, the tourism industry accounted for around 4% of the nation’s rapidly shrinking GDP, and projections anticipate that at the cessation of the violence throughout the country, this industry will continue to grow and assist in the stabilisation of the economy. Tourism in the Solomon Islands Tourism in the Solomon Islands consists of a network of small accommodation, dive, transport and other tourism providers and is relatively underdeveloped in relation to other Pacific Island nations and international standards. The majority of tourism is focused on the Western Province in the nation. Tourism in the Solomon Islands is regulated and controlled by the Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Aviation. The primary responsibilities for this department in relation to tourism are policy formulation and planning, small tourism business development, education and training and tourism infrastructure. Marketing for the region is done through the Solomon Islands Visitors Bureau (SIVB), which was established in 1996 to replace the Solomon Islands Tourist Authority, effectively dividing the roles of this organisation between the Ministry and the SIVB. In 2001, the SIVB established the Crisis Recovery Task Force responsible for repositioning the Solomon Islands within the mindset of the travelling consumer as a viable destination of choice. This will be undertaken in association with improving the range of tourism products on offer. Statistical information is gathered by the Solomon Islands National Statistics Office within the Ministry of Finance.
Tourism attractions Tourism attractions in the Solomon Islands are typical of Pacific Island nations, and are generally focused on relaxation in the beach and marine areas, experiencing the culture and the natural landscape. The diving industry in the Solomon Islands and other water sport activities are increasingly popular. The unique reef fish,
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marine life, coral formations and sunken Second World War vessels offer a variety of attractions for water enthusiasts.
Accommodation The majority of tourism accommodation facilities are located in the Western Province in the Solomon Islands. Accommodation ranges from resort style through to home stay and backpacker accommodation. In 1995, there were a total of 405 rooms available for tourists in 20 registered properties throughout the nation. Transport The Solomon Islands have one international airport, the Henderson International Airport, located on Guadalcanal. During the fighting, this airport was closed periodically and international flights were ceased. During 2001, limited flights began operating again using air carriers including Solomon Airlines (the national carrier), Qantas, Air Vanuatu and Air Nauru, after the nation secured war-risk insurance cover for flights into the country. Plans also exist to build a new international airport which will not be affected as dramatically if the peace process fails. There are over 20 regional airstrips in the country which are serviced by a number of small airlines, Solomon Airlines, and helicopter. Air transport is controlled through the Ministry for Culture, Tourism and Aviation. The occasional cruise ship also visits Honiara, although these are infrequent and the significance of this mode of travel to the tourism industry is minimal. Inter-island boats are available but infrequent and not managed centrally. Land transport is controlled by the Ministry of Transport, Works and Utilities. Car hire is available in limited number, and taxis are the most frequently used modes of transport. Tourist demand Visitor arrivals to the Solomon Islands were affected dramatically by the political unrest experienced in the country at the turn of the century. Arrival figures were increasing healthily until 1998, and then experienced a drop of over 84% by 2000 (Table 13.43). The political unrest placed a great strain on the tourism industry within the country, and greatly affected the benefit to the economy from the tourism industry. The outlook for the tourism industry suggests that tourism arrivals to the Solomon Islands will continue to decrease over the next few years, leading to arrival figures of around 1500 by 2005. The last usable information on tourism was released in 1998 and showed that Australia was the most significant visitor market to the country, followed by other Pacific Island nations such as Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu. The primary purpose for visit was business (40%), followed closely by holiday visitors (36%) (Table 13.44).
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Tourism economic indicators The political conflict in the Solomon Islands has had a massive effect on the tourism industry within the country since 1998. In that year tourism earnings were estimated to have equalled around US$13 million. However, by 1999 tourism earnings had fallen to just SI$4.67 million (approx. US$629 000). This equated to an average spend per visit of SI$1889 (US$254) or SI$262 per day. In 1999, the tourism industry accounted for 4.38% of the nation’s GDP.
Tokelau Geography Tokelau is a tiny nation composed of three atolls – Atafu, Nukunonu and Fakaofo – located in the Pacific Ocean about halfway between Hawaii and New Zealand. The total land area for the islands is just 12 square kilometres, with the largest atoll, Nukumonu, 4.7 square kilometres in size (Figure 13.30). The atolls are essentially each a reef-bound islet surrounding a lagoon. The geomorphology of the islands has placed great strain on the people, and migration is common. While the climate in the atolls is fairly constant and averages 28ºC, the islands are often threatened by cyclones, some of which caused widespread destruction in the early 1990s. The atolls are also under threat from rising sea levels, similar to the experience of Tuvalu, as the height above sea level is only five metres at its peak across all three atolls. Society The population of Tokelau is just under 1500 and almost exclusively Polynesian. The languages spoken are Tokelauan and English, due to its association with New Zealand. Traditional culture and hierarchical systems still exist, and Tokelau is known for its lack of disturbance or shift from the traditional Polynesian ways. Land is controlled by chiefs and is passed down from generation to generation, daily operations are organised by village leaders and family representatives, and the traditional male and female work and family roles have been maintained. The only major influence that Western culture has had on the society is through religion, with almost 100% of the nation practising either Roman Catholicism or Congregationalism. There are no guns on any of the islands, and alcohol is in short supply. Political history The islands have been inhabited for around 1000 years with the first Europeans visiting in 1765. Catholic Samoans settled for a short while on the islands to convert the population to Western religions. In the mid-1800s, the already tiny population suffered greatly when Peruvian slave traders captured around 250 people and missionaries removed another 500 people. The islands were annexed by Britain in 1889
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Figure 13.30 Tokelau and the administration was handed over to New Zealand in 1925 where control has remained since. Although each of the atolls has its own administrative centre, the entire nation is ruled externally by New Zealand, which appoints an administrator to head the Office for Tokelau Affairs, based in New Zealand. The citizens are classed as citizens of New Zealand, and therefore have the right to migrate whenever they wish. In the 1970s, population growth was threatening the survival of the nation, and New Zealand began to offer incentives for people to migrate to New Zealand; this has resulted in a community of around 3000 Tokelauans now living in New Zealand. New Zealand also provides defence services for the country, and the defence forces are normally present after natural disasters. Economy The capitalist economy of Tokelau is almost non-existent, as the people support themselves through traditional methods and the major industries are centred
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around fishing and plantation work to support the population. Copra and some handicrafts provide income from export. The major economic factor is aid from New Zealand which contributes about 80% of the budget to support the administration of the community, as well as development and maintenance. The public service is the main employer within the nation, all administered offshore in New Zealand. Tourism in Tokelau Tourism in Tokelau is negligible, as infrastructure for tourists has not been built. Home stay is possible and a number of yachts visit occasionally to experience the pristine lagoons and reefs – and the lack of other tourists. The traditional Polynesian culture is also a tourist attraction for the limited number of visitors. Travel to the islands is difficult, as there is no airport and the anchorages can be quite unsafe. One ocean vessel does travel monthly from Samoa, but needs to dock at sea and visitors have to be transported to the islands by small boat. The lack of safe harbour also impacts on the ability for yacht travellers to actually get to the islands. At present, there is no active tourism promotion or development, and no plans to do so, due to the lack of resources, skills and funds to support a tourism industry. The New Zealand Tokelau Programme defined only basic community development involving education and infrastructure maintenance, indicating that tourism development in this country is unlikely for some time.
Tonga Geography The Royal Kingdom of Tonga consists of 171 diverse islands scattered over an area of 700,000 square kilometres – roughly the size of Japan. Tonga has four main island groups: Tongatapu, Ha’apai, Vava’u and the Niuas (Figure 13.31). The geography of the Tongan archipelago varies from volcanic islands to lush rainforest and bushland. Though fewer than 40 of the islands are inhabited, most of the available land has been converted into plantations or towns. The capital, Nuku’alofa (Abode of Love), lies on the main island of Tongatapu. Much birdlife and more than 100 species of tropical fish live along the reefs around Tonga’s 419 kilometres of sandy coastline. Coconut plantations are widespread, as local law denotes that any male receiving a town allotment is obliged to plant 200 coconut trees within 12 months of occupation. The Tongan climate is mildly tropical with temperatures averaging between 25ºC and 33ºC. Apart from the threat of earthquakes and volcanic activity on Fonuafo’ou, Tonga lies squarely in the South Pacific’s cyclone/typhoon belt. However, despite the occasional large cyclone every 20 years the annual winds last only from January to March. The highest point in Tonga, and one of the few mountains in this generally flat nation, is the extinct volcano Kao, which rises to a height of 1030 metres and is located on the southern ’Eua island.
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Figure 13.31 Tonga Society Tonga has a population of just over 106,000, of whom 99% are Polynesian and 1% European. The official language is English, though Tongan is also widely spoken. The people of Tonga are predominantly Christian, due to the influence of missionaries in the early 19th century, and many festivals throughout the year are of religious significance, including the solemn observance of Sunday church attendance. Recent figures also suggest around 30% of the population are Mormon. The extended family is the basic social unit in Tongan culture and the concept of
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communal lifestyle is fundamental in Tongan life. ‘The society has been compared to a pyramid, with the royal family at the apex, followed by 33 nobles and the people at the base. There is a small but growing movement calling for a more democratic system but change is very slow’ (Asia Insight, 1993). The society is highly patriarchal, and this is institutionalised by entitlements to farming and town land for no or little cost that a male receives upon turning 16. This law, which requires the government or regional nobles to cede land when males come of age, has led to a dramatic shortage of land, and many men are now unable to claim their entitlement. Further, adherence to this ancient law has seen over 63% of the total land available on Tonga allocated under allotments, while only 11% remains as government land or nature reserves. Migration, especially to New Zealand and the United States of America, has been increasing in recent years, where opportunities for economic advancement are considered greater. Although an estimated 2500 Tongans emigrate per year, the money sent home to families is vital to the economy and is encouraged. Tourists and visitors are warmly welcomed by the locals and invited to join in on the various feasts, festivities and parties throughout the year. Political history The islands of Tonga have been inhabited for approximately 3000 years. Although ‘discovered’ and named the ‘Friendly Islands’ by Captain Cook in the late 18th century, Tongan history is unique, in that it is one of the few Pacific nations never to be colonised. After the defeat of a number of lesser regional chiefs, the Taufa’ahau family succeeded in claiming control over the nation, and quickly installed a legal and institutional structure which provides the basis for present-day leadership. In 1900, Tonga became a constitutional monarchy, but was later forced to sign a treaty placing themselves under British protectorate with respect to foreign affairs. However, Tonga proudly retained millennia old traditions and customs and gained full independence from Britain in 1970. Tonga is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and remains the only monarchy in the Pacific. It should be noted that while the Kingdom of Tonga has adopted a monarchical structure based on the British model, the control of the royal family and the King over the people is widespread and the family is involved in all parliamentary decisions. Economy In light of economic resource constraints and the emigration of skilled labour to more developed nations, growth within the economy has been relatively stable and the overall standard of living is comparable to that found in other similar Pacific Island nations. The economy is heavily reliant on agricultural exports, including vanilla, coconut and other vegetables, and remittance from Tongans living overseas. The Gross Domestic Product for the 1999/2000 financial year was US$150.6 million. Government attention to economic issues has increased in recent years, as stabil-
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ity is threatened by high inflation and pressures to control the balance of payments. There is now considerable government focus on encouraging foreign investment and the development of the private sector. Even in its relatively underdeveloped state tourism is a major contributor to the economy, accounting for around 8% of the Gross Domestic Product, and the government’s focus on this area is increasing. Tourism in the Kingdom of Tonga The Tonga Visitors Bureau (TVB) is the government agency within Tonga responsible for the promotion and development of the country’s tourism industry. This department is government funded and operates within the Ministry of Labour, Commerce and Industries and Tourism. Initially the Ministry was established in 1973 but did not include tourism, which was added to the portfolio later. The TVB has representatives in Australia, New Zealand and North America. In recent years, the focus for tourism promotion has been centred on the unique culture, history and marine environments of the nation, and is increasingly paying attention to promoting Tonga as an ecotourism destination.
Tourism attractions The main tourist attraction is the Tongan culture. Cultural attractions include the Royal Palace, the Talamahu market, the pyramidal stone tombs in Eastern Tongatapu and the Tongan War Memorial. Nature-based attractions include the native flora and fauna, particularly the rich marine life, and the countryside which is dotted with blowholes, sinkholes, caves and beaches. The tourism industry does offer a number of organised tours throughout the islands, the majority of which are located in Nuku’alofa. Accommodation The tourism infrastructure in Tonga is relatively limited, with a total room inventory of only around 300 rooms. The majority of these rooms can be found on Tongatapu, which has mainly resort style accommodation. The style of accommodation varies greatly between islands, and all types of accommodation are available. Transport The major international port into Tonga is Fua’amotu International Airport located in Tongatapu, which is serviced by the nation’s own Royal Tongan Airlines, in association with Air New Zealand, Air Pacific, Polynesian Airlines, Hawaiian Airlines and Samoa Air. International flights are also available from the island of Vava’u. There are a number of internal airstrips throughout the islands, and these are serviced by a variety of domestic carriers Inter-island ferries are available for transport between the major island groups,
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although the fare for these is comparable to domestic flights, and the ferries have capacity limits. Rental cars, taxis and bus services are common in the more populated areas, and are easily attainable.
Tourist demand Tourism arrivals have been increasing steadily, climbing to 36,585 visitors by 2002 (Table 13.45). This is an increase of almost 44% on 1993 figures. The major market in 2002 were travellers from New Zealand, Australia and the United States, although it should be noted that only about 50% of visitor arrivals are actual holiday tourist arrivals, and a significant portion of arrivals are comprised of returning emigrants visiting friends and relatives. Cruise ship arrivals were a major market in the 1980s, peaking at numbers around 14,510, but by 1993 this figure had reduced to 4442 and by the end of the century cruise ship arrivals were minimal. This decline has been attributed to the location of Tonga, which is too far from the major population centres such as Sydney to be included in the 10 to 14 day cruise itineraries.
Tuvalu Geography Tuvalu is a group of nine atolls scattered between the 1.3 million square kilometres of western Pacific Ocean between Kiribati and the Samoan islands. In total, the combined land size of the nation is 26 square kilometres, making Tuvalu one of the smallest and remote countries on earth. The nine islands consist of five low-lying coral atolls and four pinnacles of land that jut out of the ocean (Figure 13.32). The geological make-up of Tuvalu has aroused the interest of geologists for many years, with expeditions being sent from Britain to the islands as early as 1900 to investigate how it can be that purely coral rock formations can be submerged to depths of over 300 metres, as coral usually survives in shallow waters. It is thought that the coral rock has formed over a slowly submerging volcano, and recent digging to depths of over 1000 feet has supported this theory with the discovery of some volcanic materials. The main island of Tuvalu is Funafuti Island, of which Fongafale is the capital. Tuvalu’s climate is tropical, moderated by trade winds. The temperature averages around 30 degrees with little seasonal variation, though the wet season is long (October to March) and humid. Due to the global increases in greenhouse emissions and their effect on rising sea levels, Tuvalu’s underground water table is threatened. In 50 years or less, Tuvalu may be entirely swamped and uninhabitable. The highest point in Tuvalu is just 4.6 metres above sea level. Excessive clearance of forest undergrowth has also caused environmental concerns, while, as on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, there is damage to coral reefs from the spread of the Crowns of Thorns starfish.
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Figure 13.32 Tuvalu There are no native animals on Tuvalu, with the only animals being the introduced species of dog, pig, chicken and Polynesian rat. There is also little native flora present, except for high numbers of coconut trees. Society Some archaeological finds, including in underwater caves, have placed humans on the islands for as long as 8000 years. However, the current population on Tuvalu was only thought to have arrived around 2000 years ago, probably with immigration from Samoa or Tonga, although traditional stories and genealogy only go back as far as 300 years. The islands have always been sparsely populated, with modern scholars estimating the pre-1900 population at no more than 3000 people, based on food supply and island capacity. Today, there are 11,146 Tuvaluans who inhabit the nation, of whom 96% are Polynesian and 4% Micronesian. The majority of the population practice Christianity. Although over-population is not a significant problem, Tuvalu has poor soil and no rivers or streams. Local agriculture can feed only three-quarters of the population, and water needs are met by catchments as there is no fresh water source on the islands.
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Political history The islands were virtually ignored by European colonists in the 19th century, although the islands were mapped and named the Ellice Islands in 1819. In order to protect its inhabitants from being shipped off for labour by Peruvian slavers, the British annexed the islands and formed a protectorate with the Gilbert Islands in 1892. During the Second World War, the Japanese invasion into the Pacific reached as far as the Gilbert Islands, just to the North of Tuvalu. American warships sailed into Tuvalu to set up a defensive post and built airfields and bunkers to service their military. In 1974, ethnic differences between the Micronesian Gilbertese and Polynesian Ellice caused the Islanders to vote for separation. In preparation for independence, the British government granted Tuvalu self-governing abilities and, in 1978, the nation was granted independence from the British and reverted to its pre-colonial name of Tuvalu, meaning ‘eight standing together’ (although the group actually contains nine islands). Today, Tuvalu is the 38th member of the Commonwealth and in 2000, Tuvalu became the 189th member of the United Nations. Tuvalu is one of the world’s smallest sovereign nations. Economy Tuvalu’s main industries include fishing, copra and tourism, although fewer than 1000 tourists visit each year. Poor soil quality and a lack of natural mineral and other resources has left fishing and subsistence farming as the economic mainstays, with the economy heavily supported by foreign aid. Development aid is provided through the Tuvalu Trust Fund, which was established by Britain, Australia, New Zealand and Korea in 1987. The economy also benefits from the 1988 fisheries treaty signed with the US which contributes around $9 million to the GDP each year and is expected to continue. Telecommunications are becoming a significant earner for the local economy, after the leasing of its area code for ‘900’ numbers and the contract leasing of its domain name ‘.tv’ for US$50 million in royalties annually over a 12 year period. Remittance from overseas workers is another major contributor to the economy, especially considering the high immigration levels to Kiribati, Australia and New Zealand. The official currency in Tuvalu is the Australian dollar, and in 2000, the GDP was AU$23.37 million, 3% of which was earned through tourism revenue. Tourism in Tuvalu The nation of Tuvalu is actively trying to promote and develop tourism to their country. The Ministry of Tourism, Trade and Commerce was established to assist in the development of the tourism industry and the nation has also joined the South Pacific Tourism Organization to assist in tourism promotion and development. In 2001, the Tuvalu Tourism Office requested training and advice from the South
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Pacific Tourism Organization and a two-week training programme was carried out in September of that year: Emphasis was placed on the main service disciplines of food service, housekeeping, bartending, front office and customer guidance. Sessions on tour guiding and supervision were also provided. Fifty-eight permanent and casual employees from hotels, motels and restaurants participated in the workshop. Several staff members from the Offices of Tourism, Customs & Immigration and Environment also attended the workshop. (South Pacific Tourism Organization Annual Report, 2001: 23)
Tourism attractions Tourism specific infrastructure and attractions are almost non-existent within Tuvalu, and essentially tourists need to organise what they will see and a means to see it themselves. Guides can be hired to transport tourists around the main island, and inter-island travel is possible, although the distance between the islands and the infrequency of reliable transport is an inhibitor. The primary attractions are similar to other Pacific Islands, in that Tuvalu is surrounded by coral reefs, providing divers and snorkers with ample locations in which to experience the natural environment. However, organised facilities for water activities are limited, and tourists are recommended to bring their own equipment. The indigenous Polynesian culture is also available to tourists, and visits to inland lagoons can also be undertaken. Some hiking is possible, although deforestation has removed most of the native flora. Essentially, the main tourism activities are relaxation and enjoyment of the surroundings. Accommodation The main island of Funafuti has around 14 accommodation venues, all very small, and in 1998 the total number of rooms available across the entire country was 59. The only hotel is the government owned Vaiaku Lagi Hotel which has 16 units. However, due to the lack of available accommodation for visitors, most facilities normally operate at very high occupancy rates (around 95%). There is also one guesthouse – the Aliki Guesthouse – on Vaitupu Island. Transport The international airport is located in Funafuti and this is the only airstrip located in the nation. Air Fiji and Air Marshall Islands service flights to Tuvalu. Lack of available transportation and the poor quality and capacity constraints of the Second World War built airstrip are seen as inhibitors to the growth of the tourism industry. In addition, the costs of travel to Tuvalu is considered to be amongst the highest
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per-mile cost in the world. Plans to develop the Funafuti airport, or to relocate it, and to build airstrips on the outer islands are under discussion. Inter-island transport (excluding private boat) is supplied by the one governmentowned passenger and cargo vessel, the Nivaga II, although this service is unreliable due to the time taken to complete one round trip and unstable weather conditions. The only tar-sealed roads in Tuvalu are in and around the capital city on Funafuti, and cars are not common. A number of taxi services and minibus services from the airport and, to a lesser extent, around town are available, but there is no public transport system.
Tourist demand Arrival figures for Tuvalu are inconsistent and relatively hard to come by. Approximate figures for 1996 suggest that Tuvalu hosted 898 tourists, of which around 50% were visiting for business purposes, and only around 20% (under 200 visitors) were visiting for holiday (Table 13.46). Tuvaluans returning to visit friends and family are also contributors to the tourism industry (about 20% of the market). Estimated figures are available for the last four years of the 20th century, and these place tourism arrivals fairly consistently at around 1000 visitors per year, with a similar breakdown for visitation purpose. The most significant arrival market is travellers from East Asia and the Pacific, and this is consistent with immigration patterns for citizens of Tuvalu living overseas who tend to reside in East Asia (especially the Philippines) or other Pacific Islands. Tourism economic indicators In 1996, tourism in Tuvalu contributed US$300,000 to the local economy, compared to around US$924 million for the region. Earnings are estimated to have decreased to about US$200,000 by 1998. In 1998, the hotel and restaurant sector contributed about 4.2% to the GDP and transport and communications accounted for about 6.6%.
Vanuatu Geography The Republic of Vanuatu consists of 83 islands which form a rough ‘y’ shape, 2500 kilometres north-east of Sydney, Australia (Figure 13.33). Vanuatu boasts a variety of landscapes, ranging from volcanic mountainous islands rising 2000 metres from the sea bed to low-lying coral atolls and rocky islets. In total, the land area of Vanuatu equals 12,200 square kilometres. Vanuatu consists of four main islands, the capital, Port Vila, being located on Eftate. While the climate is temperate and tropical, it can become humid with temperatures average in the high 20ºC in summer, the wet season. Vanuatu has the added risk of earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic activity and cyclones during the year.
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Figure 13.33 Vanuatu In recent years, severe earthquakes in the northern islands and in the capital have caused extensive damage. Water supplies are also a concern, as the majority of the population have no access to potable or reliable water. Finally, some concerns also exist over the extent of malaria and dengue fever on some islands. Society The population of Vanuatu is 196,178, of whom 80% live in rural villages. The population is 98% Melanesian with small percentages of French, Vietnamese, Chinese and Pacific Islander. Vanuatu is predominantly Christian though traditional beliefs hold sway over much of the populous. Three official languages exist in Vanuatu: English, French and pidgin (known as Bislama). There are over 100 indigenous languages throughout the nation – a feature caused by the fractured geography and isolation of the Ni-Vanuatu (indigenous people). About 22% of the population live on the main island Efate. The Ni-Vanuatu are known as some of the
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friendliest and most welcoming of the Pacific Islanders. The traditional village life remains strong despite colonial influence, and the enjoyment of Melanesian music, the traditional drink of kava and other traditional rituals is frequent. Political history While some of the islands of Vanuatu have never been inhabited, others have evidence of human presence dating back 4000 years. Spanish, Portuguese, French and English explorers described Vanuatu as ‘a garden of Eden’ in the early 19th century; however it was the French and English who formed an Anglo-French Condominium in 1906, in order to establish equal influence between the two powers. The nation was granted independence in 1980 after local dissatisfaction with their system of governance. The now Republic of Vanuatu is ruled by a president elected by a combination of parliament and regional council representatives. Economy Agriculture, fishing and tourism are the main industries of the country. Rural farming accounts for approximately 75% of the nation’s workforce, although in the urban centres about 53% of employment is in the service industries, which contribute around 65% of the GDP. Tourism itself contributes around 20% to the country’s GDP annually. The financial sector is also beginning to play an increasingly important role within the economy, due to its lenient tax structure and flexibility. The Gross Domestic Product for Vanuatu is 1997 was VT 29, 175 million (100 VT = approximately AUD$1.38 or US$0.72), with an average growth rate of 3% per annum. Tourism in Vanuatu The government in the Republic of Vanuatu is actively and inclusively supporting tourism and tourism infrastructure development within the country as a means of boosting the economy. The main government body responsible for tourism development is the National Tourism Development Office (VTO) which operates within the Ministry of Trade and Business Development: The main function of the Office is to encourage and assist the sustainable development of the tourism industry within Vanuatu by undertaking coordinated tourism marketing in overseas and domestic markets. Other functions identified under the Act are set below that the VTO shall: • establish a partnership arrangement between government and the industry to coordinate the promotion of Vanuatu as a tourism destination in key international markets; • operate on a commercial basis and seek to maximise the use of the Office budget for marketing purposes;
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• seek to maximise the level of private sector funding for marketing and support this where possible with government funding; • seek to improve the level of profitability and growth of the tourism industry through effective destination marketing; • coordinate the activities that provide information services for visitors to Vanuatu and ensure that those services are of the highest possible standard; • endeavour to preserve and stimulate pride in the cultural heritage of Vanuatu; and • encourage the greatest possible ni-Vanuatu participation in the tourism industry. (National Tourism Office, 2003) In 2002, the VTO began an aggressive marketing campaign targeting Australia and New Zealand, with the tag for the advertisements being ‘Think Vanuatu’. The advertising was designed to encourage tourists to consider Vanuatu for a variety of tourism needs, including honeymoon, family and adventure. This has followed on from previous Vanuatu advertising in Australia and New Zealand branding Vanuatu as ‘A Touch of Paradise’ after a popular song sung by Australian John Farnham. The tourism industry is represented through not only the government agencies, but also industry bodies such as the Vanuatu Hotels and Resorts Association, the Vanuatu Tour Operators Association and Vanair Limited. The Vanuatu National Statistics Office compiles statistical information and reports on the tourism industry.
Tourism attractions The primary tourism attractions in Vanuatu are the natural endowments of the country, including the reef diving industry which is represented by the Vanuatu Scuba Operators Association. Other activities include volcano viewing, kayaking, sailing, beach relaxation, sightseeing tours, and cultural activities. Most tour operators are affiliated with the Vanuatu Tour Operators Association who represent the operators at a national level and conduct cooperative marketing efforts. Accommodation There are 92 hotel and other accommodation properties in Vanuatu (Table 13.47). In 2002, the average occupancy rate for hotels in Vanuatu was just 46.4%, down from 52% in 2000. This figure can be directly attributed to the drop in arrivals over the same period. The Vanuatu Hotels and Resorts Association and the Vanuatu Island Bungalows Association represent the accommodation sector in Vanuatu. Transport The airports in Vanuatu fall under the jurisdiction of Airports Vanuatu and the Civil Aviation Authority. The primary carrier for Vanuatu is the national airline Air
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Vanuatu, flying regularly into the only international airport that is located at Bauerfield, just outside of Port Vila. As with several other Pacific Island countries, the Allies initially constructed the airport during the Second World War. The only other airline providing direct flights to Vanuatu is Air Calin, although Qantas, Air Pacific and the Solomon Airlines do have code sharing arrangements with Air Vanuatu. VanAir is the regional airline and offers domestic flights throughout the islands, although inter-island travel can also be convenient by boat. The main areas have extensive road network systems and taxis, mini buses and other transport is easy and available. Efate has around 240 kilometres of sealed road and Santo has about 370 kilometres. Car and bike hire companies exist in large numbers. The Vanuatu Land Transport Association represents all land travel operators. On the outer islands, the road systems are not as developed, and are often closed during the wet season for hazard reasons.
Tourist demand Tourism arrival figures grew steadily from 1995 to 2000 (Table 13.48). However, a slowdown in arrivals from Vanuatu’s major market Australia, led to a decrease in overall arrivals of around 8000 visitors, or a decrease of about 14%. Unlike many of the other Pacific Island nations, Vanuatu does not rely heavily on the Asian or North American markets for tourist numbers, and therefore has been able to maintain relatively good arrival figures in light of the Asian economic crisis and the War on Terrorism. The day visitor market has also been growing strongly since a dramatic drop off in arrivals in 1997. Day visitor arrivals are largely from the cruise ship market, which delivered 50,636 visitors in 2002, an increase of almost 6000 cruise ship arrivals from 1999. The main purpose for travel in 2002 was holiday (79.37%) followed by business travel (13.42%) and then visiting friends and relatives (7.21%). Forecast figures released in 2003 for arrivals into the future predict that Vanuatu’s tourism arrivals will remain at around 57,000 until 2005. Tourism economic indicators Tourism contributed US$52 million to the Vanuatu economy in 1998.
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Table 13.1 Tourist arrivals to American Samoa by region, 1993–2000 Regions Canada United States Europe South Asia Southeast Asia East Asia Australia New Zealand Pacific Other areas Total % change
1993 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A –
1994 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A –
1995 78 2846 420 5 12 87 361 2269 73 34 6185 –
1996 45 3210 368 2 11 110 498 2131 70 30 6475 4.7
1997 12 2667 184 2 1 39 292 1285 26 5 4513 –30.3
1998 59 3002 207 8 5 42 587 1721 30 19 5680 25.9
1999 62 3947 321 4 4 59 338 2089 30 4 6858 20.7
2000 45 3607 236 3 9 79 339 1853 139 23 6333 –7.6
% 2000 0.71 56.96 3.73 0.05 0.14 1.25 5.35 29.26 2.19 0.36 100
Source: Department of Commerce, American Samoan Government (2002) Note: Tourist arrivals exclude people travelling for business, employment or to visit friends and relatives
Table 13.2 Arrivals by purpose of travel, American Samoa, 1995–1999
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Business No. % 5792 14.6 5484 13.31 7018 23.3 7157 17 7068 14
Tourist No. % 6185 15.5 6475 15.71 4172 13.8 5678 14 6872 14
VFR No. % 21,627 54.4 23,430 55.9 14,598 48.3 22,847 56 27,327 56
Employment No. % 6145 15.5 6199 15.04 4453 14.7 5378 13 7808 16
Source: Department of Commerce, American Samoa Government (2002)
Table 13.3 Accommodation inventory for the Cook Islands, 2003 Island Rarotonga Aitutaki Mauke (homestay) Mitiaro (homestay) Atiu Mangaia Total Source: Cook Islands Tourism Corporation (2003b)
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Total rooms 986 124 5 2 14 12 1143
Total visitors 39,749 41,201 30,241 41,060 49,075
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272
Table 13.4 Tourist arrivals to the Cook Islands by region, 1993–2002 Regions
1993
New Zealand
1994
1995
1996
1997
15,412 15,312 14,161 11,942 12,700
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
% 2002
3,680 15,448 19,564 20,303 28,841
39.63
Australia
5,864
5,186
4,361
3,647
3,681
3,680
6,347 11,194 10,808
9,952
13.67
Cook Islanders Resident in Australia or New Zealand
5,549
–
–
3,024
1,593
2,252
2,281
3,390
5,043
–
–
7,898
7,839
5,270
6,088
6,417
5,365
5,853
6,734
7,143
6,716
9.23
17,500 20,380 18,600 18,024 19,896 19,291 18,382 23,683 22,816 19,630
26.97
USA Europe/ UK Canada
4,141
3,962
2,667
2,757
3,074
3,622
5,230
5,992
6,270
4,789
6.58
Tahiti
–
3,282
1,620
1,845
1,055
1,072
742
756
538
936
1.29
Other Pacific Islands
1,366
–
–
363
716
546
713
801
910
–
766
627
646
447
548
450
443
654
459
503
0.69
888
705
574
217
186
113
160
226
285
1,414
1.94
59,384 57,293 47,899 48,354 49,866 48,630 55,599 72,994 74,575 72,781
100
Asia Other Total % Change
–3.5
–16.4
0.95
3.13
–2.48
14.33
31.29
2.17
–
–2.40
Source: Ministry of Tourism and Transport (2000); Cook Islands Tourism, 2003c
Table 13.5 Resident departures by purpose of travel, the Cook Islands, 1998–2002 Vacation
Business
Employment
VFR
Other
Total
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
No.
1998
2245
27.23
780
9.46
600
7.28
2845
34.51
1775
21.53
8245
1999
2070
25.84
752
9.39
435
5.43
2345
29.27
2410
30.08
8012
2000
2356
26.41
780
8.75
302
3.4
2273
25.48
3209
35.98
8920
2001
1986
21.78
1338
14.69
8
0.09
3560
39.07
2219
24.36
9111
2002
1352
14.35
1335
14.17
8
0.09
3715
39.44
3009
31.95
9419
Source: Cook Island Statistics Office (2003)
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Table 13.6 Tourism receipts for the Cook Islands, 1998–2001 Year 1998 1999 2000 2001
Receipts (NZ$ million) 52.252 60.575 82.164 91.032
Growth – + 15.93 + 35.64 + 10.79
Source: Cook Island Statistics Office
Table 13.7 Tourist arrivals to the Federated States of Micronesia, 1996–2002 Regions Asia (ex. Japan) Australia Canada Europe Japan New Zealand Pacific Islands USA Other Total % Change
1996 2,068 556 199 1,012 5,162 112 1,519 6,900 50 17,578 –
1997 2,326 477 223 1,039 4,108 121 1,752 7,117 86 17,249 – 1.9
1998 1,633 388 149 1,012 3,177 119 884 5,485 52 12,899 – 25.2
1999 2000 2001 2,258 2,928 2,247 584 817 516 192 212 171 1,379 1,461 1,188 3,309 4,871 3,118 146 101 94 945 1,208 961 7,257 8,779 6,903 70 124 67 16,140 20,501 15,265 + 25.1 + 27.0 – 25.5
2002 2,827 572 220 1,474 4,057 169 1,437 8,215 75 19,046 + 24.8
Source: Division of Statistics (2003)
Table 13.8 Number of hotels by area, Fiji, 2001–2002 Area Suva Nadi Lautoka Coral Coast Mamanuca Northern Division Others Total Number of rooms Number of beds Source: Statistics Fiji (2003)
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2001 38 32 17 21 19 44 16 187 5,520 13,075
2002 40 47 17 28 19 44 23 220 5,822 14,473
% 2002 14.8 3.0 1.2 7.7 21.3 0.9 7.5 43.1 0.4 100 –
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1994
1,403
5,643
2,800
39,782
17,931
31,004
23,915
12,018
45,351
53,495
85,532
1995
1,316
5,896
5,475
45,300
17,461
30,968
24,409
10,412
39,736
59,019
78,503
1996
1997
1,429
6,334
14,770
44,598
18,545
31,875
1998
1999
13,359
44,367
68,116
1,724
6,345
12,181
44,783
20,381
32,806
1,840
7,708
1,613
35,833
22,850
29,334
39,341
12,837
48,390
70,840
1,851
7,797
1,489
37,930
26,090
28,371
40,316
13,552
62,131
72,156
80,351 100,756 118,272
28,907 35,019
11,431
38,707
63,430
79,534
2000
1,586
6,750
3,386
19,674
21,534
22,506
29,215
10,532
52,534
49,470
76,883
2001
2002
1,936
9,343
8,143
20,411
23,608
20,917
30,508
10,752
57,711
66,472
2,505
12,366
6,992
26,382
24,051
21,654
43,393
9,802
58,815
68,293
98,213 123,606
0.63
3.11
1.76
6.63
6.04
5.44
10.91
2.46
14.78
17.17
31.07
% 2002
–
10.9
–0.1
6.6
5.9
3.3
10.4
–28.3
18.3
14.3
287,462 318,874 318,495 339,560 359,441 371,342 409,955 294,070 348,014 397,859 100
Source: Statistics Fiji (2003) Note: * Budget estimate
% Change
Total
1,133
38,203
Japan
Other
16,985
Other Pacific Islands
5,046
29,786
Europe
2,685
20,233
UK
Other Asia
12,447
Canada
South Korea
40,778
42,557
USA
Australia
New Zealand
1993
77,609
Regions
Table 13.9 Tourist arrivals to Fiji by region, 1993–2003
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7.07*
426,000*
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2003
274
Part III: Pacific Islands
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275
Table 13.10 Visitor arrivals by purpose of visit, Fiji, 1997–2001 Purpose
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
Rest and recreation
84
87
88
85
79
Honeymoon
10
8
6
7
10
Scuba diving
2
1
1
2
2
Wedding
1
1
1
2
2
Culture
1
1
1
1
1
Other
2
2
3
3
6
Source: Fiji Islands Statistics Bureau (2003)
Table 13.11 Average length of stay by purpose of visit, Fiji, 1997–2001 Other
Average
1997
Business Conference Holiday 7.3
7.0
7.8
VFR 18.1
Education Transit 11.4
3.8
13.5
8.2
1998
7.1
7.0
8.2
17.8
13.4
4.2
11.8
8.5
1999
6.8
6.9
8.1
17.3
12.4
4.3
10.8
8.4
2000
7.2
6.9
8.5
17.2
13.1
1.9
15.2
8.7
2001
7.5
6.9
8.2
16.9
12.3
1.8
12.6
8.6
Source: Fiji Islands Statistics Bureau (2003)
Table 13.12 Tourism receipts for Fiji, 1997–2003 Year
Tourism receipts (F$ million)
1997
479.1
1998
482.5
+0.71
1999
558.6
+15.77
2000
413.5
–25.97
2001
521.1
26.2
2002
N/A
2003*
683.0
Source: Ministry of Tourism, Culture Heritage and Civil Aviation, Fiji (2002) Note: * = Budget estimates and growth from 2001 figures
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Change
– 31.07
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276
Table 13.13 General tourism statistics for French Polynesia, 1993–2001 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Average length of stay
10.6
11.1
12.0
11.6
12.0
11.7
11.9
12.0
–
Tourism receipts (bill. F CFP)
27.1
32.7
32.6
32.2
36.1
39.7
41.0
45.0
–
Hotel rooms
2955 3130 3044 3075 3092 3021 3420 3650 2943
Average occupancy rate (%)
57.4
59.1
60.0
53.3
54.1
59.0
65.0
67.0
–
Source: Ministère du Tourisme and Institut d’Emission d’Outre-Mer (2002)
Table 13.14 Tourist arrivals to French Polynesia by region, 1994–2002 Regions
1994
Australia & N.Z.
12,961 18,144 17,911 19,909 17,628 17,069 17,000
The Americas
55,561 54,242 54,970 53,811 62,226 80,148 102,250 106,875
46.95
Europe
71,060 77,735 73,728 83,550 87,340 91,677 96,500
36.63
Japan
19,917 19,629
Other Asia Pacific
% Change
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
% 2001
NA
–
83,399
9,657 14,411 13,489 14,256 16,000
20,316*
8.92
5,709
7,662
6,584
7,732
7,296
6,499
7,500
16,113+
7.08
878
810
924
1,027
954
1,151
1,200
955
0.42
Other TOTAL
1995
166,086 178,222 163,774 180,440 188,933 210,800 240,450 227,658 100 +12.3
+7.3
–8.1
+10.2
+4.7
+11.2
+14.1
–5.34
Source: Ministère du Tourisme and Institut d’Emission d’Outre-Mer (2001) Note: * = all Asia; + = includes Australia and New Zealand
Table 13.15 Hotel occupancy rates for Guam, 1993–2001 Year Average occupancy (%)
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
63
86
82
79
62
56
60
56
57
Source: Guam Hotel and Restaurant Association (2003b)
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Table 13.16 Tourist arrivals to Guam by region, 1995–2002 Regions
1995
1996
1997
Japan
996,219 1,028,673 1,113,012
1998
1999
2000
975,402
957,738 1,048,813
2001
2002
% 2002
901,536
786,947 76.32
United States
56,626
35,395
43,352
41,875
41,179
41,664
41,875
41,521
4.03
Northern Mariana Islands & Micronesia
32,767
50,248
50,225
45,336
39,690
28,032
36,560
26,795
2.60
Taiwan
31,816
20,909
22,453
20,545
41,444
38,451
31,539
19,500 1.89
4,533
3,950
6,831
6,517
6,233
6,000
5,697
186,264
194,585
119,118
20,268
47,299
87,070
89,655
Philippines Korea Hong Kong Other Total
6,530
0.63
128,307 12.44
N/A
7,000
8,320
7,906
8,943
9,050
9,174
8,444
0.82
42,251
11,601
9,899
11,006
12,991
8,162
9,163
13,117
1.27
1,350,476 1,352,361 1,373,210 1,128,855 1,155,517 1,279,243 1,124,198 1,031,161 100
% Change
+0.14
+1.54
–17.80
2.36
+ 10.71
–12.12
–8.28
Source: The Secretariat of the Pacific Community (2003)
Table 13.17 Characteristics for Guam’s major markets, 2001 Origin
Average length of stay Expenditure Most common age
Purpose
Hong Kong
4.78
$4276.00
30–49 (68%)
Pleasure (80%)
Japan
3.96
$1451.00
30–49 (65%)
Pleasure (89%)
Korea
3.5
$1662.00
30–49 (60%)
Pleasure (69%)
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1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
229,974
Other Asia
208,548
206,543
–
253,543
143,019
203,553
–
249,539
130,962
193,457
210,083
272,058
–
231,496
120,003
193,716
211,205
298,415
21,379
114,480
107,116
182,766
232,592
752,598
–
–
–
–
252,777
672,180
–
–
–
–
268,225
598,074
–
–
–
–
216,921
636,096
–
–
–
–
191,083
–
+ 4.84
+ 2.86
+ 2.69
+ 0.57
– 2.44
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+ 2.20
+ 3.48
–9.63
+ 0.90
6,070,995 6,364,674 6,546,759 6,723,141 6,761,135 6,595,790 6,741,037 6,975,866 6,303,791 6,360,291
187,044
–
248,179
148,041
204,093
198,213
Source: Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism (2003)
% Change
Total
Other
–
218,042
Australia & NZ
Latin America
225,864
Europe
217,047
214,379 2,130,910
Canada
1,666,275 1,819,332 2,048,411 2,146,883 2,216,890 2,004,354 1,825,588 1,856,119 1,528,562 1,484,770
1996
Japan
1995
1,419,605 1,461,094 1,457,608 1,523,516 1,444,346 1,508,698 1,601,238 1,755,689 1,588,163 1,576,340
1994
US East Coast
1993
1,909,811 2,049,341 2,035,239 2,065,147 2,071,423 2,125,993 2,308,836 2,423,653 2,372,071 2,472,002
US West Coast
Region
Table 13.18 Tourist arrivals to Hawaii by region, 1993–2003
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100
10.0
–
–
–
–
3.00
23.34
24.78
38.87
%2002
278
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279
Table 13.19 Inbound arrivals by purpose of visit, Hawaii, 2002 Purpose
Total visitors
%
5,151,350 644,294 4,572,773
80.99 10.13 71.90
Meetings/conventions/incentive Conventions Corporate meetings Incentive
419,059 276,142 81,522 70,495
6.59 4.34 1.28 1.11
Other business
221,835
3.49
Visit friends/relatives
459,909
7.23
Government/military
113,833
1.79
37,441
0.58
Pleasure (Net) Honeymoon Pleasure/vacation
Attend school
Source: Hawaii Department of Business Economic Development and Tourism (2002)
Table 13.20 Tourism expenditure by country of residence, Hawaii, 1994–2001 Year
Total
United States
Japan
Canada
Other countries
1994
10,253,911
4,504,806
3,768,143
349,484
921,581
709,897
1995
11,107,203
4,449,797
4,370,717
363,914
882,622
1,040,153
1996
10,166,844
4,651,449
3,531,913
351,511
1,033,954
598,016
1997
10,490,965
5,290,584
3,402,139
382,771
1,026,628
388,842
1998
10,309,191
5,327,957
2,932,547
346,211
1,303,556
398,919
1999
10,279,675
5,776,260
2,359,243
479,568
1,228,923
435,681
2000
10,918,136
6,452,691
2,370,355
451,457
1,121,352
522,282
2001
10,121,235
6,174,369
2,219,169
400,721
950,933
376,043
Source: Hawaii Department of Business Economic Development and Tourism (2001)
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Other
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280
Table 13.21 Major market visitor characteristics, Hawaii, 2002 US West Coast
US East Coast
Japan
Canada
All Other
3.121
2.513
2.122
0.319
1.102
22,524,189
15,367,729
8,022,179
2,144,966
5,660,606
170,579
575,384
Total spend ($US billion) Total visitor days Total arrivals
2,269,963
1,450,104
1,327,722
Average length of stay
9.92
10.60
6.04
12.57
9.84
Per person per day spend ($US)
138.6
163.5
264.5
148.8
194.8
Per person per trip spend ($US)
1374.8
1733.2
1598.4
1871.5
1916.2
Source: Hawaii Department of Business Economic Development and Tourism (2002)
Table 13.22 Tourist arrivals to Kiribati by region, 1993–2003 Regions
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Australia
529
503
496
713
896
953
598
677
671
14.67
New Zealand
175
205
216
269
245
389
181
225
147
3.21
UK
223
187
199
220
223
98
162
122
147
3.21
50
72
74
62
66
46
37
47
270
5.90
USA
1015
885
973
791
1039
1460
196
272
36
0.79
Japan
266
271
291
316
345
366
241
270
192
4.20
Germany
Fiji Other Pacific
1998 1999* 2000* 2001* % 2001
202
170
173
213
237
244
–
–
–
–
1305
1166
1201
1105
1096
1248
145
112
423
9.25
Other
485
366
319
516
907
875
1552
3104
2688
Total
4250
3825
3942
4206
5054
5679
3112
4829
4574
+18.5 –10.0
+3.1
+6.7 +20.2 +12.4
–*
–*
–*
% Change
Source: Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Tourism Kiribati (2000) Note: * = Tarawa only, % change not applicable
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58.77 100
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Table 13.23 Tourist arrivals to Marshall Islands by region, 1993–2001 Regions
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
% 2001
USA
1911
1866
1599
1642
2028
2124
2043
1999
1922
35.60
Japan
425
484
432
550
542
688
585
856
933
17.28
China
128
152
203
388
232
355
85
83
78
1.44
Taiwan
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
211
353
6.53
Philippines
230
190
202
156
155
272
175
170
180
3.33
Australia
170
192
185
216
181
180
123
140
134
2.48
Fiji
104
138
181
183
187
138
108
148
147
2.72
Kiribati
715
595
971
700
653
695
295
321
275
5.10
Others
1290
1210
1405
1976
1990
1211
1108
1155
1138
21.10
51
49
248
305
286
64
100
181
239
4.42
5024
4876
5426
6116
6254
5727
4622
5246
5399
–
–2.9
+11.3 +12.7
+2.3
–8.4
–19.3
+13.5
+2.9
Not stated Total % Change
100
Source: Marshall Islands Visitors Authority (2002)
Table 13.24 Tourist arrivals to Marshall Islands by purpose of visit, 1993–2001 Market
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
% 2001
Business
1889
2090
2029
2513
2499
1884
2047
2256
1883
34.88
Vacation
760
563
679
1113
862
858
1093
1323
1475
27.32
VFR
705
857
778
634
630
555
462
621
652
12.08
Transit
1193
967
1493
1447
1806
1258
556
548
672
12.45
Other
435
399
340
281
270
465
464
325
369
6.83
Not stated Total % Change
–
107
128
187
707
–
173
348
5024
42
4876
5426
6116
6254
5727
4622
5246
5399
–
–2.9
+11.3 +12.7
+2.3
–8.4
–19.3
+13.5
+2.9
Source: Marshall Islands Visitors Authority (2002)
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6.44 100
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282
Table 13.25 Tourism receipts for Marshall Islands, 1994–2000 (US$) Market Category
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Number of visitors
564
694
1132
883
874
1093
1323
Average length of stay
6.26
5.49
4.52
5.92
5.5
5.5
6
Average daily spend
125
125
125
125
125
125
125
441,330
476,257
639,580
653,420
600,875
751,437
992,250
Number of visitors
2092
2053
2536
2522
1905
2047
2256
Average length of stay
7.17
7.82
7.34
6.47
7.5
7.5
7.5
Average daily spend
150
150
150
150
150
150
150
Vacation
Receipts Business
Receipts
2,563,746 2,408,169 2,792,136 2,447,601 2,143,125 2,302,875 2,538,000
VFR Number of visitors
877
800
663
647
568
462
621
15.05
10.31
11.65
10.32
12
12
12
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
263,977
164,960
154,479
133,540
136,320
110,880
149,040
Number of visitors
969
1503
1468
1819
1276
556
548
Average length of stay
1.99
1.67
1.37
1.16
1.5
1.5
1.5
Average length of stay Average daily spend Receipts Transit
Average daily spend Receipts
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
192,831
251,001
201,116
211,004
191,400
83,400
82,200
Other Number of visitors
407
454
430
483
450
464
498
Average length of stay
3.61
2.64
5.84
2.1
3.5
3.5
3.5
75
75
75
75.00
75
75
75
110,195
89,892
188,340
76,072
118,125
121,800
130,725
4909
5504
6229
6354
5073
4622
5246
Average daily spend Receipts Total visitors Total receipts
3,572,079 3,390,279 3,975,651 3,521,638 3,189,845 3,370,392 3,892,215
Source: Marshall Islands Visitors Authority (2001)
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Table 13.26 Tourist arrivals to New Caledonia by region, 1995–2001 Regions
1995
1996
1997
1998
Australia
15,325
14,401
17,229
13,243 14,567
7,168
6,768
7,448
France
24,707
27,640
Japan
25,066
26,987
Other
13,990
15,325
Total
86,256
91,121 105,137 103,835 99,735 109,587 100,515 100
% Change
+1.35
+5.64
New Zealand
1999
2000
2001
%2001
18,012
19,200
19.10
7,090
9,576
8,049
8.01
30,149
39,235 29,500
30,702
25,202
25.07
34,629
35,345 31,017
31,051
27,954
27.81
15,682
9,386 17,561
20,246
20,110
20.01
+15.38
6,626
–1.24
–3.95
+9.88
–8.28
Source: Province Sud (2002)
Table 13.27 Breakdown of information on primary markets, New Caledonia, 2001 Market
Average length Peak visitation Primary reason of stay month for travel
Japan
6
France
27
Australia New Zealand All tourists
Average spend per tourist (F.CFP)*
March
Holiday (90%)
279,697
October
Holiday (47%), VFR (27%)
337,407
8
September
Holiday (62%)
150,255
8
July
Holiday (69%)
December
Holiday (61.8%)
14
98,419 243,735
Source: Province Sud Nouvelle-Caledonie (2001)
Table 13.28 Total spending by major markets, New Caledonia, 2000 (F.CFP bill.) France Japan
Australia
New Zealand
Other Total
Total spend
10.359 8.685
2.706
0.942
4.017 26.710
Total excluding transport costs
5.197
4.653
1.855
0.623
2.027 14.356
%
38%
33%
10%
4%
Source: Province Sud (2002) Note: 1 F.CFP = 0.01634 NZ$ in 2003
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15%
100%
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284
Table 13.29 Tourist arrivals to Niue by region, 1993–2001 Regions
1993 1994 1995
1996
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 % 2002 2005*
Australia
–
–
–
171
New Zealand
–
–
–
1029
215
175
142
180
8.64
–
1088 1104 1074
236
205
948
675
926
44.43
–
South Pacific
–
–
–
121
219
204
227
164
156
255
12.24
–
Other Pacific
–
–
–
18
48
24
91
59
20
0
–
–
USA
–
–
–
52
85
70
78
143
193
221
10.60
–
Canada
–
–
–
UK
–
–
–
3
13
16
8
12
0
31
1.49
–
7
14
16
49
32
0
93
4.46
–
Germany
–
–
–
22
24
27
31
21
0
42
2.02
–
France
–
–
–
1
7
1
6
4
0
30
1.43
–
Other Europe
–
–
–
44
36
34
26
47
174
110
5.28
–
Japan
–
–
–
13
14
7
21
14
0
9
0.43
–
Other Asian
–
–
–
8
18
8
7
10
30
17
0.82
–
Other
–
–
–
33
18
20
37
18
17
170
8.16
–
Total % Change
3358 2802 2161 –
Source: Government of Niue (2003) Note: * = Estimated figures
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1522
1820 1736 1870 1647 1407 2084
–16.6 –22.9 –29.6 +19.6 –5.4 +7.7 –11.9 –14.6 +48.1
100
1434 –31.2
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Table 13.30 Tourist arrivals to Northern Mariana Islands by region, 1996–2002 Regions
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
450,190 381,228 372,101 381,518 373,525 326,444
%2002
Japan
–
US & Guam
–
88,971
64,100
50,590
51,880
38,992
35,739
68.70 7.52
Korea
–
147,929
54,281
45,691
67,979
63,046
90,344
19.01
Taiwan
–
16,357
4,651
3,733
7,895
6,261
–
–
Hong Kong
–
4,387
4,542
5,560
5,319
4,844
–
–
UK
–
591
699
555
679
–
–
–
Germany
–
222
314
345
274
–
–
–
Canada
–
692
592
615
648
–
–
–
New Zealand
–
199
162
126
117
–
–
–
Australia
–
603
816
1,065
549
–
–
–
–
16,549
14,913
11,221
9,253
11,017
22,642
4.77
Other Total
736,517 726,690 526,298 491,602 526,111 497,685 475,169 100
% Change
–1.34
–27.58
–6.69
+7.02
Source: Central Statistics Division, Department of Commerce (2002)
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–5.41
–4.63
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Table 13.31 Tourist arrivals to Palau by region, 1995–2002 Regions 1995 1996 Australia/ NZ – – France – – Germany – – Hong Kong – – Italy – – Japan – – Korea – – Philippines – – China – – Taiwan – – Singapore – – Switzerland – – UK – – US – – Other – – Total 53,229 69,330 % Change – +30.25
1997 – – – – – 20,507 1,782 – – 31,246 – – – – 20,184 73,719 +6.33
1998 579 111 623 107 151 21,571 545 3,033 907 18,503 77 120 450 12,487 4,930 64,194 –12.93
1999 542 99 821 84 111 22,556 653 2,883 1,039 10,703 63 133 390 12,048 3,368 55,493 –13.56
2000 2001 2002 %2002 343 419 403 0.69 65 68 77 0.13 372 296 256 0.44 354 663 536 0.92 76 106 97 0.17 21,682 22,395 23,748 40.55 586 350 497 0.85 3,981 4,128 3,410 5.82 982 863 873 1.49 14,149 12,476 15,819 27.01 96 71 87 0.15 150 172 154 0.26 271 306 250 0.43 6,441 5,367 4,774 8.15 8,184 6,431 7,579 12.94 57,732 54,111 58,560 100 +4.04 –6.27 +8.22
Source: Palau Visitors Authority (2003)
Table 13.32 Visitor arrivals to Palau by purpose of visit, 2001 Purpose of entry Business Company trip Honeymoon Other Pleasure – Diving Pleasure – Non-diving Sports fishing Summary VFR Tourist Employment Business Other/VFR Source: Palau Visitors Authority (2001)
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Percentage 6.93 3.74 1.64 1.37 67.52 13.59 1.37 2.46 82.15 9.82 5.41 2.61
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Table 13.33 Tourist spending in Palau, 2001 Spending area
Percentage
Accommodation
29
Diving
20
Meals
19
Transportation (ex. airfares)
8
Shopping
7
Tours
5
Entertainment
5
Source: Palau Visitors Authority (2001)
Table 13.34 Average length of stay and trip spend by country of residence for major markets, Palau, 2001 Country
Average length of stay
Average spend per day
Average spend per trip
7
147
1029
Australia/NZ France
9
158
1422
Germany
9
159
1431
Hong Kong
5
156
825
Japan
5
239
1195
Korea
4
160
640
Philippines
4
137
548
China
5
165
825
Taiwan
4
287
1148
Switzerland
9
147
1323
UK
9
157
942
US
8
177
1416
Source: Palau Visitors Authority (2001)
Table 13.35 Tourist arrivals to Papua New Guinea, 1993–2001 1993 % Change
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
55,179
65,854
42,334
61,385
66,000
67,830
67,357
N/A
54,235
–
+19.35
– 35.7
+ 52.1
+7.52
+2.77
–0.70
–
–19.49
Source: Papua New Guinea Tourism Promotion Authority (2000); Douglas (1998)
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Table 13.36 Accommodation in Samoa by island group, 2002 Location Apia & Vicinity Outside Apia (Regional Upolu)
Rooms
Beds
631
1377
96
247
Savaii
123
321
Total
850
1945
Note: Figures do not include beach fales Source: Samoa Visitors Bureau (2002)
Table 13.37 Arrival methods to Samoa by market share, 2002 Travel method
Market share (%)
Polynesian Air
49.92
Air NZ
26.29
Samoa Air
14.80
Air Pacific
5.42
Other Air Carrier
0.25
Lady Naomi (ship)
1.10
Yachts
0.00
Other sea carrier
2.21
Source: Samoa Visitors Bureau (2002)
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Table 13.38 Tourist arrivals to Western Samoa by region, 1993–2002 Regions
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
% 2002
American 14,518 21,482 23,817 24,138 23,729 30,062 31,099 30,063 31,016 31803 Samoa
35.75
New Zealand
9,252 16,857 17,709 20,617 19,655 20,627 23,248 22,818 23,337 23,790
26.74
Australia
5,181
6,796
6,816
7,789
6,940
7,886
9,311 10,954 11,224 11,438
12.86
USA
5,704
7,832
6,202
8,018
6,628
7,770
7,932
9,032
8,467
8,720
9.80
Other Pacific Islands
4,735
4,927
4,284
4,692
3,764
4,261
4,781
3,395
3,164
3,865
4.34
Other European
1,532
1,942
3,017
2,006
1,617
2,173
2,331
1,545
1,066
1,098
1.23
Germany
2,672
2,472
2,696
1,690
1,673
1,506
1,541
1,784
1,928
1,196
1.34
UK
871
928
1,238
1,103
1,204
1,238
1,588
2,092
1,722
1,480
1.66
Canada
426
599
254
416
328
267
320
390
370
375
0.42
Japan
878
1,016
836
1,016
879
892
812
713
718
577
0.65
1,304
2,238
1,523
1,670
1,543
1,244
2,161
4,902
5,251
4,618
5.19
Other Total % Change
47,073 67,089 68,392 73,155 67,960 77,926 85,124 87,688 88,263 88,960 100 –
+42.52 +1.94
+6.96
–7.10 +14.66 +9.24
+3.01
+0.65
+0.79
Note: Excludes tourists from cruise ships and yachts Source: Samoa Visitors Bureau (2002)
Table 13.39 Arrivals to Samoa by purpose of visit, 1999–2002 Year
Holiday
VFR
Business
Other
Sport
Total
1999
26,323
33,204
10,848
2000
28,433
31,695
11,357
14,749
–
85,124
14,367
1,836
87,688
2001
28,305
33,279
2002
27,232
34,989
10,905
14,515
1,259
88,263
10,150
15,167
1,422
88,960
Source: Samoa Visitors Bureau (2002)
Table 13.40 Arrivals by purpose and accommodation choice, Samoa, 2002 Accommodation Holiday%
VFR%
Business%
Sport%
Other%
Total%
Hotels
67.3
9.1
69.0
72.9
24.4
38.2
Private
32.0
90.1
28.8
27.1
41.7
54.5
0.8
0.8
2.2
0.0
34.0
7.3
Not stated
Source: Samoa Visitors Bureau (2002)
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Table 13.41 Tourism earnings, Samoa, 1991–2002 (SAT$ million) Year
Earnings
% Change
1991
38.3
1992
39.6
+ 3.3
1993
50.7
+ 28.1
1994
79.2
+ 56.4
1995
83.5
+ 5.4
1996
98.9
+ 18.5
1997
101.8
+ 3.0
1998
115.2
+ 13.1
1999
125.8
+ 9.2
2000
133.1
+ 5.8
2001
136.7
+ 2.7
2002
159.1
+16.4
Source: Samoa Visitors Bureau (2002)
Table 13.42 Tourist expenditure and nights in Samoa by major market, 1997 Average total spend Average daily spend (SAT$) (SAT$)
Average length of stay (days)
USA
1809
236
7
Asia
1567
191
9
Benelux
1495
241
6
Japan
1290
242
6
Scandinavia
1186
113
10
Australia
1179
110
11
United Kingdom
1126
153
7
New Zealand
1076
117
10
Other Pacific Islands
1065
203
5
Germany
1011
112
10
Other
951
198
5
Other Europe
932
118
8
855
164
5
1154
164
7.6
American Samoa Total average
Source: Samoa Visitors Bureau (2002) Note: SAT$1 = US$0.33 (May, 2003)
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Table 13.43 Tourist arrivals to Solomon Islands by region, 1993–2001 Regions
1993
1994
Australia 4,028 4,315 New 1,439 1,483 Zealand Papua New 707 966 Guinea Vanuatu – – Fiji – 281 Other Pacific 853 636 United States 1,169 940 Canada 113 117 United 827 847 Kingdom Netherlands – 21 Germany 197 180 France 176 152 Italy – 20 Other 300 269 Europe Japan 783 547 Hong Kong – 360 Other Asia 915 714 Other 53 39 countries Total 11,570 11,919 % Change – +3.02
1995
1996
4,261 3,459 1,372 1,073
1997
1998
%1998
1999
2000 2001
5,421 1,591
5,972 1,189
37.79 7.52
– –
– –
– –
550
875
1,275
1,842
11.66
–
–
–
– 255 669 932 81 732
300 277 601 578 66 353
523 499 373 1,123 149 485
1,171 690 275 1,053 96 584
7.41 4.37 1.74 6.66 0.61 3.70
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
37 128 112 24 316
38 114 57 61 600
45 107 43 28 280
62 112 73 32 364
0.39 0.71 0.46 0.20 2.30
– – – – –
– – – – –
– – – – –
836 110 754 57
484 83 992 279
729 95 983 58
772 68 1,373 74
4.89 0.43 8.69 0.47
– – – –
– – – –
– – – –
11,208 10,290 13,807 15,802 100 –5.97 –8.19 +34.18 +14.45
6,224 2,427 3,418 –60.61 61.01 40.83
Source: Solomon Islands Visitors Bureau (2003)
Table 13.44 Visitor arrivals to the Solomon Islands by purpose of visit, 1998 Purpose of visit
Number
%
Holiday
5761
36.46
Business
6137
38.84
VFR
1641
10.38
Transit
989
6.26
Other
1274
8.06
Source: Nemaia (2003)
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14,569
1,140
10,903
1,283
602
641
East Asia Pacific
North East Asia
Australasia
Melanesia
Polynesia
Other East Asia Pacific
+11.35
28,408
–
–
–
9
79
5,643
691
396
1,393
12,844
1,051
16,375
6,302
1994
+3.91
29,520
–
–
–
59
71
5,192
543
536
1,498
14,257
1,111
17,945
6,253
1995
–9.75
26,642
–
–
–
15
72
4,485
726
393
996
13,045
1,229
16,389
5,681
1996
Other
Other Asia
China
Japan
Other Europe
Germany
United Kingdom
Other Pacific Island
Fiji
New Zealand
Australia
Canada
United States
Region
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19
503
244
834
1,767
1,430
1,027
816
1,043
8,471
4,857
339
4,812
1997
–1.81
26,162
Source: World Tourism Organization (1999); Tonga Visitors Bureau (2003)
25,513
+10.83
–
–
% Change
–
Total
–
–
8
Other
–
64
South Asia
5,374
5,498
Americas
Europe
1993
Region
Table 13.45 Tourist arrivals to Tonga by region, 1993–2002
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+3.59
27,102
44
394
463
732
1,727
1,163
1,143
1,144
1,405
8,377
4,479
295
5,736
1998
+14.20
30,949
108
454
319
796
2,276
1,189
1,390
1,142
1,642
9,774
5,746
326
5,787
1999
+12.10
34,694
78
436
468
784
2,659
1,349
1,969
1,063
1,782
10,464
5,662
359
7,621
2000
–6.66
32,386
89
597
269
832
1,944
1,290
1,367
1,150
1,696
11,064
5,416
370
6,302
2001
+12.97
36,585
150
839
44
796
1,807
945
1,334
1,558
2,112
12,938
6,261
328
7,473
2002
100
0.04
2.29
0.01
2.18
4.94
2.58
3.65
4.26
5.77
35.36
17.11
0.09
20.43
%2002
292
Part III: Pacific Islands
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Table 13.46 Tourist arrivals to Tuvalu by region, 1990–2001 Regions
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
1999
2000
2001
% 2001
Americas
76
84
164
98
133
70
101
100
100
–
–
65
5.70
East Asia Pacific
433
732
472
637
926
676
678
800
800
–
–
416
36.49
North East Asia
3
37
42
47
85
76
77
–
–
–
–
–
Australasia
163
194
173
240
383
268
252
–
–
–
–
305
Other East 240 Asia Pacific
501
257
350
458
332
349
–
–
–
–
–
Europe
26.75
129
142
176
135
204
168
106
100
100
–
–
102
8.95
Other
33
11
50
59
5
8
13
–
100
–
–
252
22.11
Total
671
969
862
929
1268
922
% Change
–
898 1000* 1100* 1000+ 1000+
+44.4 –11.0 +7.8 +36.5 –27.3 –2.6 +11.4 +10.0
–9.1
–
1140^ 100 –
Source: World Tourism Organization (1999) Note: * = World Tourism Organization (2001) estimates; + – World Tourism Organization (2001) estimates; ^ – The Secretariat of the Pacific Community (2002)
Table 13.47 Accommodation in Vanuatu, 2002 Location
No. of properties
Port Villa
30
Location Efate Island
No. of properties 14
Tanna
9
Malekula
7
Ambrym
2
Ambae
3
Aneityum
1
Banks & Torres
6
Epi
2
Erromango
1
Pentecost
1
Espiritu Santo
16
Source: Vanuatu National Tourism Office (2003)
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Table 13.48 Tourist arrivals to Vanuatu by region, 1995–2002 Regions Australia
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
24,401 26,690 28,976 32,498 30,796 36,751 33,667 29,729
%2002 60.23
New Zealand
6,436
5,689
6,108
6,180
6,487
7,985
7,512
7,252
14.69
New Caledonia
4,971
5,409
5,431
5,824
5,037
4,114
4,039
4,622
9.36
Other Pacific Islands
2,417
2,600
2,998
2,080
2,317
2,029
2,182
1,828
3.71
Europe
2,352
2,644
2,894
2,337
3,063
3,310
2,683
2,941
5.96
North America
1,157
1,223
1,172
1,297
1,343
1,502
1,413
1,438
2.91
Japan
981
927
948
965
915
810
834
730
1.48
Other
967
884
999
871
764
819
936
802
1.62
39
57
98
33
51
44
34
16
0.03
Not stated Total
43,721 46,123 49,624 52,085 50,746 57,364 53,300 49,358 100
% Change
+5.5
+7.6
+5.0
–2.6
+13.0
–7.1
–7.4
Other arrival figures Day visitors
57,283 69,559 31,332 26,838 48,714 49,793 52,778 51,245
Transit
12,104
9,644
9,289
1,457
Source: Vanuatu National Statistics Office (2003)
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4,646
2,778
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Contemporary Themes
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Part IV: Contemporary Themes Tourism Investment in the South Pacific
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Chapter 14
Tourism Investment in the South Pacific LARRY DWYER
Introduction Economic performance in the Pacific Island countries has stagnated during the last decade, placing more importance on the development of a dynamic regional tourism industry to underpin long-term sustainable economic growth and export diversification (King & McVey, 1997). Continuing earlier trends, the Pacific Island economies received about $175 million in 1998 but no data is available for tourism specifically. Most of this investment came from Australia, New Zealand and Japan (World Investment Report, 1999). There is a growing awareness among policy makers in the region that if the tourism sectors in South Pacific nations are to expand in a way that achieves competitive advantage, this will require additional investment in tourism plant and infrastructure. The basic sources of investment available to Asia-Pacific countries include domestic private capital, foreign private capital, foreign aid (bilateral and multilateral assistance) and government finance (which may be from any or all of the above). Each is constrained, with consequent impediments to tourism development in the region. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), in particular, is critical to the fast expanding services sector. Case studies show FDI contributes to growth and development, creates jobs, builds exports, provides additional sources of finance for commercial expansion, facilitates technology transfer and innovation and increases opportunities for global networking (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2000). The ability of a tourism destination to attract investment in tourism infrastructure is influenced by a complex number of characteristics, such as: • government regulations procedures, and incentives (attractiveness of the taxation policies regarding local and foreign investment and imports); • the resources and conveniences offered (e.g. attractions, transportation, access, hospitality, medical and other services, pricing, etc.); 297
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• market characteristics (visitor tastes and preferences, disposable income, propensity to travel, proximity to destination, etc.); • political stability; and • the ability of the destination to market and promote itself effectively. (ESCAP, 1994) Only if these factors combine to allow investors to earn an adequate return on their investment will they make the necessary long-term commitment to allocate funds to a host destination. An important aim therefore is to strengthen the national capabilities of Pacific Island developing countries in taking effective steps to create a favourable investment climate for the development of tourism. Often, this requires the removal of institutional and financial obstacles that make such investment difficult and, at times, counterproductive. These factors include: • • • • • • • • •
inadequate government support; underdeveloped capital markets; insufficient investment incentives; a lack of supporting infrastructure; difficulties in tackling complex land tenure systems; a multiplicity of agencies, many with overlapping functions; excessive time required to obtain decisions; a lack of adequate local expertise and reluctance to take risks; and inadequate training schemes.
These are matters over which national governments have some control and influence. South Pacific governments are currently addressing these issues in order to attract greater foreign investment. The perceived benefits include: • • • • • • •
economic growth; job creation; utilisation of domestic resources, particularly renewable resources; skills acquisition; expansion of exports; development of remote areas of the country; and facilitation of increased ownership of investment by citizens. (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2000)
This chapter will first consider barriers to investment in South Pacific tourism destinations. It will then address types of responses that these countries must make to attract greater tourism-related investment. It concludes with a recommendation that a cooperative approach be adopted to a common problem. Given the space
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limitations, the paper will focus on issues common to South Pacific economies, particularly the small island nations.
Barriers to Investment Major constraints to tourism investment in South Pacific Island economies can be grouped under six headings. Inadequate product development The success of any tourism destination is dependent to a large degree on the nature of the facilities and services infrastructure that are available to the tourist. It is convenient to examine these aspects in four groups: primary tourist facilities and services (accommodation/hotels, restaurants, and travel and tour services); secondary tourist facilities and services (shopping, recreation, entertainment and visitor information services); tertiary tourist facilities and services (health services and care, emergency and safety services, financial services and personal services); and in addition, the operation of tourism facilities, services and amenities are also dependent on a number of public infrastructure networks. These networks may include transportation, water supply, energy/power, waste disposal and telecommunications. South Pacific economies tend to have high cost utilities. Electricity and telecommunications prices are relatively high due to the lack of competition, as well as inefficiencies in public enterprises providing these services. In contrast, water and sewerage charges are highly subsidised, and the costs of providing these services are expensive for the respective governments to maintain. The lack of good tourism shopping facilities and developed visitor attractions gives rise to perception that there isn’t enough to do in the region, especially in the small island economies. Social, cultural, demographic, changes have a major impact upon virtually all products, services, markets and customers. They shape the way people live, work, play, produce and consume. New trends in tourism are creating a different type of consumer and consequently, a need for different products, different services and different strategies (Poon, 1991). Countries in the South Pacific have many substitutes and are perceived to be tired and dull. Much of the accommodation product needs updating and does not meet the aspirations of the high yield international traveller, either from short-haul markets such as Australia or New Zealand, or from longer-haul markets where it is, perhaps, even more important to meet the image of a tropical island paradise. Except for Australia, and to some extent, New Zealand, investment in accommodation, facility development, and refurbishment and general expansion of tourism plant has been inadequate. For the five years to 1996, for example, the supply of tourist accommodation in South Pacific Tourism Organisation (SPTO) member countries increased by around 10% while tourist arrivals increased by nearly 25%
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(King & McVey, 1997). Cyclone damage has impacted on stocks of accommodation in the region, particularly in Samoa and Vanuatu. For Fiji, political uncertainties have resulted in reduced investment in tourism. A major problem has been the lack of infrastructure away from main population centres. South Pacific Island economies are characterised by relative fragmentation of the accommodation sector into small, marginal and unviable units, coupled with a substandard quality of many such units (King & McVey, 1997). The combined effect is to prevent Pacific Island countries tapping major markets and attracting higher yield customers. Such underperforming units, which often are heavily discounted to attract customers, tend also to dilute national average occupancy rates achieved by industry thus reducing projected rates of return on investment. Low revenues from accommodation, rendered even lower with the practice of imposing withholding taxes on management fees and incentives, also serve to restrict the required refurbishment and upgrading of facilities. In short, investors tend to view hotel investments in the South Pacific as low return, high risk, ventures (King & McVey, 1997). The complex land tenure system relating to the customary ownership of land limits the potential for long-term investment in the region. Throughout the South Pacific, land may be leased but not owned by foreigners, and restrictions often apply to the leased land (King & McVey, 1997). Some countries place additional barriers in the way of foreign investment. The Ministry of Finance in Fiji, for example, imposes restrictions on remittances in and out of Fiji through its Reserve Bank. Foreigners are also discouraged from acquiring controlling interest in, or taking over, established locally owned businesses, despite arguments that indicate injections of foreign capital can benefit a host economy (Dwyer & Forsyth, 1994). Most countries in the region, with the exception of the Cook Islands, have exchange controls and regulations that hinder the repatriation of capital, profits and dividends. It is questionable as to whether the benefits of such restrictions warrant the reduced investment that results. Low market awareness and lack of marketing and promotion The region has been unable to mount a sustained marketing campaign in major potential long haul-markets in which awareness of region as a tourism destination is very low. Individual countries lack resources to market themselves effectively to the main tourism-generating countries as specific destinations in their own right, making it more difficult to achieve a balanced market mix and wider geographic spread of tourism traffic. Insufficient trained manpower Much of the region, outside of the countries of Australia, New Zealand and Fiji, lack adequate expertise in both the public and private sector. The small size of the tourism sector cannot justify establishment of these. This gives rise to the problem
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of maintaining service quality, an important constraint to tourism development. This issue is particularly important in the more remote tourism areas within individual countries. The problem of inadequately skilled labour is exacerbated by restrictions on the employment of foreign workers. In most countries, except for Tonga which ‘prefers’ locals to be employed ahead of foreigners, work permits are only given to foreigners in circumstances where ‘suitably skilled local employees are unavailable’ (King & McVey, 1997). The subjectivity attached to interpreting this rule often results in local labour being hired in preference to foreigners with the skills needed for provision of quality service and sound business management. Difficult and costly access International access to the Pacific and in many instances, internal access within individual countries presents an ongoing constraint to tourism development. Air access in the region is costly, with long distances from major tourism generating markets and infrequent interregional flight schedules (King & McVey, 1997). The development of larger, longer range, more fuel-efficient, planes has resulted in a steady reduction of stopover services to South Pacific countries (APEC, 1996). Inadequate capital base Given the lack of domestic savings, for most South Pacific countries, foreign aid continues to play a vital role in meeting government budgetary and development needs as well as the provision of foreign exchange. However, for many countries there are few if any options to the acceptance of foreign aid, no matter what the perceived negatives and disadvantages may be (ESCAP, 2001). There are a number of factors that influence the level of investment in tourism. These include the overall health of the economy, the investment performance of the tourism industry, including the profitability of tourism related enterprises, government regulations, access to sources of financing and the availability of tourism information and data needed to make investment decisions. Even in Australia there is lack of expertise in assessing high risk tourism investments with variable cash flows, coupled with a reluctance by Australian investors to invest heavily or in the long term in the tourism industry (Commonwealth of Australia, 2002; Dwyer & Forsyth, 1994). Weak institutional frameworks South Pacific economies are characterised by: • generally weak and under resourced NTOs; • lack of tourism policy formulation and detailed sectoral development planning, including appropriate legislative measures;
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• lack of a field marketing organisation to promote the region in long-haul markets; and • inadequate market research information and general statistical data on tourism, designed to improve development planning and marketing, and overall management of the tourism sector. Some countries have ambiguous guidelines or requirements for investment, the necessity of dealing with many agencies that have overlapping functions, and excessive length of time required for decisions. While Fiji and PNG, for example, explicitly espouse a desire for more FDI in tourism, regulatory mechanisms including the need for government approval and restrictions such as foreign exchange controls act to deter potential investors. National policy on tourism is often poorly articulated and information on the tourism sector usually inadequate for potential investors (ESCAP, 2001). Attracting investment requires that governments as well as private sector stakeholders are aware of the investment procedures and conditions of the global market. It is evident that, in many cases, the national policy on tourism (if there is one) is often unclear or poorly articulated, and information on the tourism sector is usually inadequate for potential investors. These factors continue to create a poor image. To attract foreign investment, South Pacific Island governments have to improve their reputation for competence.
Strategic Response New product development In the South Pacific, opportunities exist to invest in: • accommodation (from major hotels and integrated resorts to small, modest and low-cost accommodation, and accommodation with indigenous communities); • ancillary services (restaurants, bars, entertainment, shopping and transport); • support services (travel brokering, visitor advice and professional services); and • tourism enterprises (diving, snorkelling, fishing, sailing and visits to historical sites). Some economies have attempted to address the land tenure issue. Government land acquisition policy can certainly assist in new product development in the tourism sector, but the necessity to negotiate with traditional landowners is a deterrent for many potential investors. Product development of tourism related facilities and services must match international market expectations and competition. Additional investment is urgently needed at the high end of the accommodation market. Some recent initiatives are helping to develop new products with foreign funding. One example is that of SouthPacificInvestment.com – established in the South Pacific Region to provide
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the best interactive Internet solution for investment opportunities involving joint ventures, import/export, trading of properties, businesses for sale and tenders. This site provides a forum for both those ‘seeking’ investment opportunities and those ‘offering’ investment opportunities (http://www.southpacificinvestment.com). Need for balanced market development There is a need to develop the potential long-haul markets of Japan, Europe and North America to supplement traditional markets. There needs to be greater emphasis on regional, rather than individual country, tourism promotion campaigns, such as those initiated by the South Pacific Tourism Organisation (SPTO) especially in the main generating markets of Japan, Europe and North America. Information technology applications need greater development. Much of the region’s products are still to be listed on Internet and linked to global CRSs. There needs to be an increased uptake and use of new technologies – particularly information and communication technologies. Modern information technology means that the world has become reachable thus bringing all the international markets and business investment opportunities within reach of the smallest of these islands allowing them to promote their businesses and investment opportunities in the Pacific Region and internationally. Need for integrated tourism development planning The nature and role of investment is heavily influenced by the stage of tourism development. There are substantial opportunities to develop the regional industry in a strategic way. For example, the popularity of ecotourism globally over the last decade has provided excellent opportunities for the greater participation of the indigenous communities through the development of tourism activities, using their inherited natural and cultural resources and traditions. This opportunity has not been fully capitalised upon by the tourism sector in the South Pacific. All too frequently investment is sought without any consideration as to how it can best be utilised. It is desirable to attempt to integrate tourism development within an overall national development strategy. In the island economies, the commitment of indigenous communities is vital. Local participation in the tourism sector must be encouraged, either through investment, joint ventures, land for equity swaps, employment or the transfer of technical skills and expertise. The necessity for foreign investors to negotiate with local landowners in many cases constitutes an ever-present barrier to tourism development, however. Need for tourism research and statistics Except for Australian and New Zealand, reliable and internationally compatible data on tourism in the South Pacific have been scarce, despite the fact that there are obvious economic benefits (reduced costs) in a regional approach to provision of
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tourism research and statistics. A sound research and statistical base is critical to maintaining and improving the tourism sector’s competitiveness and to making informed public policy decisions affecting tourism. The quality, timeliness and relevance of information on tourism activity are also important to investment decisions. The SPTO has recently made efforts to standardise basic tourism statistics. This process needs to be further strengthened in order to build up a comprehensive database of basic regional tourism statistics covering the volume and characteristics of tourist arrivals, foreign exchange earnings, tourism plant capacity, impacts on Gross Domestic Product and employment. There is a need to measure the effectiveness of marketing activities in order to optimise the allocation of the region’s marketing and promotion resources, coupled with a need for specifically focused market research to provide information for more effective product design and marketing planning and facilitate private sector operations. Need for manpower development Investors must be assured that there is a reliable source of trained personnel in all aspects of tourism activity. Historically, tourism education and training in the South Pacific has been deficient in terms of scope, level and continuity of provision. Outside of Australia and New Zealand, only Fiji, French Polynesia, New Caledonia and, to some extent, PNG, have formal tourism/hospitality training facilities. Excellence in service provision is a major ingredient in ensuring satisfied customers and repeat visitation. The development of a skilled workforce capable of sustaining high levels of service is therefore critical to tourism growth and investment. Of equal importance is the need to effectively match the skills of that workforce to the particular environment in which they are working. There are opportunities for the involvement of local communities and indigenous entrepreneurs through joint ventures, land for equity exchanges, employment, and training schemes to achieve the necessary entrepreneurial, managerial and operational skills. The SPTO has developed in-service training schemes for hotel and catering staff and tour operating personnel, and also for the training of public sector tourism officials. The University of the South Pacific has a reputed programme in tourism management. Availability of skilled personnel is important to tourism growth. Overall tourism employment growth masks shortages in skilled personnel in certain categories and that, unless addressed, could impede tourism growth in the future, and in turn, affect the ability of tourism to attract new investment. Specific tourism education and training needs that can be addressed at the regional level include: • provision of hotel and catering in-service training at basic, intermediate and supervisory levels, through SPTO’s peripatetic training team;
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• training of tour operating sector staff; and • training of public sector officials and private sector personnel in tourism development planning and marketing as well as general community education about tourism. A long-term aim should be establishment of a network of regional and subregional permanent training facilities as a part of an ongoing strategy for manpower development. Creating a favourable climate for investment Foreign investment, in its catalytic role, can be ‘managed’ cooperatively by the investment sources and the host government so as to: • • • • • • • •
achieve critical mass; integrate enclaves of development; optimise infrastructure services; create a balanced structure of tourism activity; operate within aggregate and compatible carrying capacity thresholds; achieve the coordination in location, scale, quality of tourism facilities; strengthen the image of the tourism destination/region; and maintain the momentum of progress through the development lifecycle.
Some commentators say that there is a need to provide a range of financial, fiscal and other incentives that give investors a comparative advantage over other countries in terms of inducing foreign investment in the tourism sector (ESCAP, 1994). However, since financial incentives must inevitably be paid for by local taxpayers, increased incentives offered to foreign investors can result in lower gains to individual countries in the region. Most countries in the South Pacific already have a raft of financial incentives to attract FDI including: • tax concessions (Fiji, Kiribati, Niue, PNG, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu); • depreciation allowances (Cook Islands, Kiribati, Fiji, PNG, Solomon Islands); and • concessional rates of interest as well as tourism industry specific concessions involving investment allowances (Fiji, Tonga, Vanuatu). A preferred strategy for facilitating donor agency and private sector investment is for each government to: • create a positive investment climate through clear articulation of policies for the tourism sector and the investment of resources into tourism related physical and social infrastructure;
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• create an effective tourism development promotion package, including efficient procedures, which encourage FDI and introduce local partners; and • identify tourism development and investment opportunities compatible with national circumstances, and tourism market trends. (ESCAP, 2001) At the same time, regulations and procedures for registration and approval of FDI need to be simplified and made more transparent. These are important pre-conditions for the creation of an appropriate tourism investment strategy, and should be considered carefully before recourse is made to increasing financial incentives for potential investors. Notwithstanding the above, there is a strong case to be made that South Pacific countries should develop strategies that, in the long term, may lead to reduced dependence on foreign sources of investment finance. Such a case may be predicated on the expectation that a heavy dependence on foreign sources may contribute to undermining national and individual initiative. The vulnerability to external forces could be reduced by a number of internal strategies, such as: • revision of subsistence strategies, so that even without large injections of capital, surplus production in rural areas can be accessed by tourism resorts (‘subsistence affluence’); • involvement of indigenous communities in low technology and low environmental impact projects, especially to meet the preference of some tourists for authentic experiences; and • creation by government of a tourism development fund (to be operated within the framework of the national development bank). The creation of a national tourism development fund specifically to assist local entrepreneurs could be considered an imperative strategy, particularly in the smaller island economies, given the generally low level of reserves of domestic private capital. This would become the responsibility of the government, operated through the national development bank, and targeted at domestic entrepreneurs seeking funding or small-scale enterprises for which commercial banks are reluctant to lend (ESCAP, 2001). Individual countries in the South Pacific are typically too small and underresourced to undertake the required tasks on their own. Also they lack the skills and experience to plan for a sustainable development of tourism and manage the sector in a manner that maximises economic benefits while preserving and enhancing the long-term natural and cultural heritage. They also lack the means to practise international long-haul marketing and to cultivate the growth potential of niche markets in tourism generating countries. Thus there is rationale for a cooperative approach to gaining FDI inflows. A regional cooperative approach, whereby human and budgetary resources are pooled,
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is not only economically but also technically justified. It results in reduced costs and is therefore more cost effective and has greater impact because of the combined and focused application of the region’s available resources.
Conclusion It is unlikely that the above-mentioned barriers to tourism investment in the South Pacific can be resolved quickly. And some, such as the land tenure issue, will remain intractable. The downturn in world tourism following the events of 9/11 continues to affect both visitor and investment flows into the region indicating that, whatever strategies are adopted by South Pacific destinations, investment levels will depend on international economic circumstances. As King and McVey (1997) have noted, future tourism-related investment in the South Pacific is likely to shift towards Asian sources of finance, with the Japanese market firmly established in the region and South Korea and Taiwan expanding. Investment from these countries is likely to follow. As has proven to be the case in South East Asia, Australia and New Zealand, hotel investors invariably follow their country’s overseas tourists. This chapter has attempted to identify a number of key issues and obstacles in encouraging investment in tourism infrastructure. There is an urgent need for governments and agencies at all levels to create a climate for investment that ensures equitable distribution of benefits, and clear and transparent decision-making. References APEC Tourism Working Group (1996) Impediments to Tourism Growth in the APEC Region. APEC International Tourism Report No. 1. Commonwealth of Australia (2002) The 10 Year Plan for Tourism: A Discussion Paper. Department of Industry, Science and Resources, Canberra. Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2000) Foreign Direct Investment: the Benefits for Australia. Canberra Dwyer, L. and Forsyth, P. (1994) Motivation and impacts of foreign tourism investment. Annals of Tourism Research 21 (3), 512–37. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (1994) Investment and Economic Cooperation in the Tourism Sector in Pacific Island Countries. New York: United Nations. ST/ ESCAP/1386. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (2001) Promotion of Investment in Tourism Infrastructure. New York: United Nations. ST/ESCAP/2133. King B. and McVey, M. (1997) Hotel investment in the South Pacific. Travel and Tourism Analyst 5, 63–87. Poon, A., (1991) The ‘New Tourism’ revolution. Tourism Management 15 (2), 91–2. South Pacific Forum Secretariat (1997) Foreign Investment Climate in South Pacific Forum Island Countries, July 1997. United Nations (1999) United Nations World Investment Report: Foreign Direct Investment and the Challenge of Development. New York: United Nations.
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Chapter 15
Customary Practices and Tourism Development in the French Pacific ANNE-MARIE d’HAUTESERRE
Introduction Tourism development in the French territories of the South Pacific evokes a multiplicity of images as well as issues and problems. This chapter describes a major theme that has been raised as an obstacle to economic growth: customary practices. In western understanding, custom has been too readily confined to a past that its practitioners were assumed incapable to step out of, obscuring the true ability of custom to adapt. Its power resides in its ability to communicate rather than to divide. Custom is considered conservative, reactionary. Western governance only is ever considered to be modern, progressive. The cohabitation of custom (with ‘modern’ ways) can only signify antagonism and illustrations of such conflict are quickly presented. One of the main issues for any form of economic development, including tourism, will be the resolution of such apparent ‘antagonism’. How can the customary forms of land ownership and identity face the demands of capitalism which has created new values and new meanings for land and its ownership, often not compatible with the mythical and quasi-religious conception prevalent in the French (as well as other) parts of the South Pacific? There exist models of such successful cooperation (notably in Australia) and New Caledonia could become one too if the objectives and the issues remain clearly and cooperatively defined and understood by all parties, rather than in a vengeful or nostalgic manner. In French Polynesia, customary practice still governs land ownership and inheritance, having permitted continued access to land for most Polynesian families. In New Caledonia, colonisation had hindered any interaction between the Kanak and the white settlers: custom remained unchallenged for the Kanak even as the land that it was linked to had shrunk dangerously. New relations between the various ethnic groups are being developed. In Wallis and Futuna custom is blamed for the fact that economic development has not been pursued. This chapter demonstrates 308
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some of the difficulties raised by customary practices together with some of the positive contributions. Solutions sketched in each of the territories to reduce the alleged binary opposition are also presented.
French Polynesia Land ownership as an obstacle to tourism development The French state and the territorial government of ‘Tahiti and its Islands’, the tourism brand name of the area otherwise known as French Polynesia, have agreed on the need to support economic development of the territory to wean it from French subsidies (Etat-Territoire, 1994; Laventure, 1997; Progrès, 1993). They are collaborating on a plan to exploit its primary assets, one of which pillars is tourism. Tourism development can take advantage of French Polynesia’s stunning landscapes and its world renown thanks to famous artists like Gauguin or Melville and explorers like Captain Cook or de Bougainville. Such fame enables the territory to concentrate all efforts on the development of the product. Different interested investors have all stumbled, though, on one important issue: land and its customary ownership. It has affected individual investors trying to start a small bed and breakfast as well as foreign hotel chains building (or having built) luxury complexes. The ‘Fakarava Dream Hotel’ a five star ensemble of bungalows built over crystal clear lagoon waters of the atoll of Fakarava (in the Tuamotus, not too far removed from Rangiroa) could not open upon completion. A ‘probable’ owner submitted a court petition declaring him one of the proprietors of that parcel and thus entitled to rent. No action or activity on the property can be undertaken until the title has been cleared (itinerant judge interview, 2001). A similar complex, which required an investment of US$9 million, was inaugurated on the atoll of Tikehau in October 2001 but it has not attracted any counter-claims. Club Med closed its village on Moorea because the company felt the owners of the land wanted to raise the rent too high. The Kia Ora resort on Rangiroa is on land that belongs to 23 different owners and the resort had to obtain permission to expand from every one of them. The official statement about land issues in French Polynesia is the problem(s) caused by the ‘indivisibility’ of land because it ‘now prevents individuals from implementing their most cherished plans’ (personal communication from an urban planner of the outer archipelagos, 2001). For Polynesians, indivision means ‘lands held together’, rather than some remnant of pathological clinging to custom. About 75% of all agriculturally productive land in French Polynesia and close to 100% of all land in the Australs and Tuamotu archipelagos are in indivision (Bambridge, 1999). The fact that most Polynesian extended families own land as a single unit (in indivision or fenua ‘amua) is considered a handicap in a capitalist economy since it represents a brake on economic development: land is not available as collateral or as a base for entrepreneurial ventures. Academics as well as international develop-
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ment experts have also been concerned by the problem which is not uniquely Polynesian (Crocombe, 1987; Panoff, 1970; Ward & Kingdon, 1995). Some decision makers in French Polynesia want land to be divided to allow their owners to exploit them and to resolve some of the ‘incoherence’ of the situation. Such a decision was adopted by the territorial assembly following a recommendation by its Economic, Social and Cultural Council (1996) which then published a report detailing the management of this indivision (1997). Splitting the land among its various owners is not compulsory in French Polynesia but a whole set of laws does facilitate individual ownership: division must occur, for example, even if only one owner requests it. A number of mechanisms have also been set up to facilitate the process. An association, te pu ohipa teva nui was created in Papeete to support families trying to retrace their genealogies. An itinerant judge travels to the Tuamotu, Austral and Gambier archipelagos one week every month to hear local witnesses who would otherwise never be heard in Papeete (personal observation). A conciliatory commission was established in 1996 to force the parties in litigation to attempt to conciliate their perspectives before initiating court proceedings but it has been short of qualified personnel and the results have been ‘a total fiasco’ (Lévis, 2000: 212). Values of customary ownership Since colonisation, land has been maintained as a collective good (contrarily to its status as a community good under traditional custom) because the English and later French presence had transformed rapports of ownership of land (Lévis, 1999). The original nexus between land, law (rights) and culture still holds today. Polynesians remain intensely attached to land since the tradition of burying the umbilical cord and the placenta on family land continues today to recall their owner to his/her origins (Panoff, 1970). Land symbolises the Polynesian people’s belonging and most still possess their land, in spite of European spoliation in the mid-1800s: France temporarily permitted the sale of land to foreigners. In the 1870s it advertised it to potential settlers from France. Land was often returned to the Polynesians through marriages with Polynesian women of those European despoilers who settled permanently (Langevin, 1990). The land ownership (or access) problem is lived in a more nuanced way by the Polynesians, and indirectly by other residents of the territory, even though, today, some have come to consider it a material good with a monetary value. To the economic concept of land many oppose a mythical and traditional viewpoint. Today, customary land ownership, transmission and management are idealised: this imaginary obfuscates historic disruptions and dislocations suffered by ancient societies constrained by chiefly rivalries, internecine warfare, demographic growth and climatic vagaries (de Dekker & Kuntz, 1998). Difficult relations with land ownership are nothing new in this territory since an old Tahitian prayer of the early 1800s
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declared ‘May God protect me from land disputes’ (Lévis, 1999: 110). As demonstrated above (the case of the Kia Ora hotel in Rangiroa), though, division is not always necessary for the capitalist exploitation of land. There is hesitation between attachment to the land and economic opportunities. Some authors translate it as a generation gap (Lévis, 1999). It may be more the result of personal attitudes not linked to any specific generation. Langevin (1990: 101) states ‘women claim land to build a house or to farm it for family consumption while men’s claims seem oriented more towards economic returns’. Unfortunately, custom is quite nebulous today and sometimes invoked to support personal or individual interests. On a more practical plane, the same officials mentioned above do recognise that indivision protected Polynesians against loss of their land in times past as multiple ownership rendered sales difficult. Today it also permits those who do not wish to leave their island to exploit family lands abandoned by migrants to subsidise their stay (personal observation; personal communication by local officials; personal comments by local residents). It has stemmed massive emigration from the territory, as well as from the outer archipelagos to the Society Islands. Such exploitation does have drawbacks since Polynesian tradition allows (supports) other members of the extended family to claim their share of the proceeds at harvesting time. Many agriculturalists thus limit their production to avoid sharing. They also only cultivate plants with short growth cycles to minimise losses on long-term investments should other members of the family want access to their plots or demand the subdivision of the land (ibid). No family member would invest time, capital and energy in creating a tourism enterprise on family-owned land for those same reasons: kin may well be waiting by the cash register for their share of profits they never helped generate. History of land ownership Property in French Polynesia has a long and complex history reflecting two very different conceptions about relations with land and property. Land identified families, clans, and villages. Its management, as the basic provider of the community, led to specific social hierarchies, genealogies and economic, political and cultural systems. Land in the Society Islands belonged to the genealogic or the marae community not to those who cultivated it. In fact, it was in the custody of those with political or religious power who, in exchange of some of the products, leased plots to members of the lower classes (the Manahune) who cultivated them. There was a clear distinction between ownership of the land (fenua) and its utilisation (and thus ownership of the harvests or faapu). Exploitation of the land was a social relation not a right to its ownership. The descendants of the founder of a marae were the rightful owners whether they cultivated or exploited the land themselves or whether they permitted others to do so (Rouland, 1988). Although oral genealogies (and thus precise records of land distribution) had
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been elaborately maintained, even following the arrival of Europeans, many started to disappear as large segments of the population died from epidemics brought by those Europeans or from continued warfare between local clans. Such a happening liberated much land, allowing secondary families to claim title but also leaving large tracts difficult to assign (Rallu, 1990) and eventually appropriated by the French state. At the same time, the French government inexorably moved from a native court and native solutions relative to land disputes (1842) to the implementation of French law for all disputes (1866). Polynesians were also required to register their titles (tomite) in French courts in spite of continued demands for land disputes to be handled by the Toohitu, juries of native judges (interview with the then itinerant judge 2001). The tomites were to function as ancestors, transmitters of land rights (Baré, 1985: 70–1). A commission for the distribution of land rights was established in 1898 which still functions today. It is a judicial institution entirely dedicated to land affairs as these are too numerous to go through the normal court system. Many families, in the early days of the colony, could not provide title to the land in a way understood by French law. Many of the titles registered with the Toohitu between 1852 and 1886 were never transcribed and those reported to the indigenous court after 1887 were only partially registered. The classification system used was that of family names of the registrants. In French Polynesia individuals changed names several times in the course of their life since each stage in the lifecycle required an appropriate name (Rallu, 1990). Parents engendered children with different partners and either or both also adopted others (faa’amu) but the birth of all children (including legitimate ones) was not always officially registered, especially in the outer archipelagos. The registry was generally on a different atoll and petrol to run the boats was often missing. These factors have made it difficult for many families who wish to subdivide their holdings to even know which land they have a rightful claim to, and have forced them to initiate long legal battles just for recognition of their title. Many of the properties were never surveyed, or used different measures, such as (imprecise) steps or trees to mark limits: in the case of the Fakarava Dream Hotel, the limits of the original survey of the atoll together with the registered titles did not quite fit the measurements of the atoll. The survey had to be redrawn. The investors for the hotel believed that they were constructing on state-owned land until a litigant claimed to be in possession of a tomite (see above). The problem was particularly acute for owners when land was appropriated by townships or by the territory for building airports. Many owners who could rely only on oral tradition to justify their claims of ownership were never compensated although authorities today do pay more attention to it. Some claims are also never pursued because the land claimed has long been occupied by kin. Customary tradition shames one for chasing relatives off land.
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Other perspectives French law introduced the notion (totally foreign and even outright contrary to customary relations to land in French Polynesia) of the possibility to base claims of ownership on the basis of a 30-year continuous occupancy (or usucaption). It has engendered conflicts between those who felt they were the true (customary) owners through their genealogic links to that land and those who actually exploited the land and could now claim ownership of the plots used. Occupation has to be proven as having been continuous, peaceful (no one else has tried to claim the land) over that period of at least 30 years and must have received some recognition by neighbours, local authorities, etc. Some legal experts try to adapt customary practices since ‘judges are left a margin of interpretation in applying French law or accepting some customary practice’ but some judges have been remanded for trying to apply that principle (Lévis, 1999: 123) as these adaptations are not ‘legal’. Some land conflicts centred on tourism development have even been brought to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights in 1993 (Comité, 1993) when descendants of the owner of a piece of land to be exploited by the RIVNAC, a hotel company, asserted that the land had been wrongfully appropriated in 1961 and that construction work was disturbing the skeletons of their ancestors. The basis of their complaint was that French courts in Tahiti are incompetent: only the Toohitu should be used. Unfortunately, Pomare V had co-signed their end in December 1887, ratified by the law of 10 March 1891, even if recourse was made to them until 1934. A luxury Méridien Hotel has since opened on the site.
New Caledonia The context for tourism development In New Caledonia too, customary practices need to be taken into account when seeking to open it as an international destination. Tourism development is an afterthought in the history of its economic development, but it is today strongly encouraged by the French government to diversify the territory’s economy (Laventure, 1997). Tourism is one of the few activities that can provide jobs and revenues, besides the extraction of nickel; but as Lagadec et al. demonstrate, ‘relying solely on nickel to develop an economy is illusory’ (2002: 36). Nickel mines are in the hands of white owners, local or foreign; most of them are located in the Southern Province where the majority of the white population resides and where it is the majority in the government. The Southern Province contains not just the mines but also the value-adding smelter of Doniambo (Nouméa). A new smelter will be built in the Southern Province: its government had not felt the need to search for other economic ventures. Mineral exploitation provides only 9.1% of the GNP. Arts and crafts production provides cash for some of the Kanak. Cattle raising, agriculture (74.3% of farmers are Melanesian/Kanak) and fishing are some of the main primary activities but
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most are still at the subsistence level. The political and institutional future of the territory has diverted most decision makers’ energies from its economic development since 1988 (Lagadec et al., 2002), especially since half of the territory’s revenues are transfers from the French state and they represent 25% of the GNP (ITSEE, 2000: 158). One of the main issues faced by tourism is the integration of the Kanak together with their customs, so that they may benefit from the positive economic impacts of that activity. New Caledonia is the stage of an authentic indigenous culture. Its preservation does not stem from benevolent attitudes but results from enforced segregation from the rest of New Caledonian society until 1946. Kanak must participate in tourism development, not as mere decorative images on a brochure published by white operators about white-owned destinations (e.g. Talpacific Holidays brochure) or as an ‘exotic’ attraction but as entrepreneurial ‘hosts’. They should be owner-managers of various businesses, including accommodation, especially in the Northern Province, or sell their own arts and crafts, as in the Batefo cultural centre near Koné. Visitors are already welcomed by the tribes; they need only ask permission to enter their territory and remember to make a symbolic customary offering to the village elders. More facilities for overnight stays and the provision of meals and souvenirs would provide revenue to all members of the tribe. History and consequences of colonisation The Kanak of New Caledonia suffered from some of the worst forms of colonisation under French rule, with its apogee in 1877. Their lands were alienated to be redistributed to French settlers; the Kanak were then corralled into reservations and violently subjugated to the laws of the indigénat; they were forced into labour for those same settlers by different French administrations, often at times when they should have been on their own lands for planting or for harvesting; they were refused any form of education and any health service. In 1931, some Kanak were exhibited in Paris at the Colonial Fair in wooden cages (Bensa, 1990). In 1978, the French government finally initiated a Kanak land compensation scheme, followed in 1980 by action from the territorial assembly (Aldrich, 1993). When finally some of the more repressive laws were lifted at the end of the Second World War, the Kanak had no capital (monetary, educational, or land) to work with or from. They were long left to their own devices although they had finally gained the right to be fully-fledged citizens of France in 1946. Compensation occurred only after they demanded independence and reparation and the maladroit French government’s handling of the insurrection. It included Lafleur’s ‘forced’ return of the mine he held only through colonial appropriation, and the division of the island into three separate political entities (1988) in order for the Kanak to have some say in the political running of their affairs. Kanak have remained
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strongly attached to their culture and traditions, and to their land since ‘there is no written word, everything is recorded in the land’ (Tjibaou, 1996) and their identity resides in the group they belong to and the position they occupy within that group (Leenhardt, 1938). The French state, which is generally intolerant of local specificities, did add to the 1958 Constitution article 75 which permits the application of customary law to the indigenous inhabitants of New Caledonia and Wallis and Futuna. Indigenous residents can opt to live under French law or under customary law. No other group of people can opt for Kanak customary law, which concerns more than 80,000 persons: one can only be born Kanak because it is not a matter of legal rights, but a matter of identity. The Nouméa Accord (1998) thus put the Kanak at the centre of the social statutes (Garde, 1999). Kanak identity was founded on a specific link to the land. Clans were deprived of their names when their land was alienated and led to their loss of identity. The Kanak, though satisfied with the return of some of the land under their ownership up to 1998, still had demands such as re-establishing Kanak toponyms and creating legislative conduits to facilitate the re-creation of this identity link (Vladyslav, 1999). Kanak are the majority in the Northern Province where 21% of the population live (ITSEE, 2000). They are also the majority group in New Caledonia. They share with Polynesians that of the Loyalty Islands which contains 11% of the population of the territory. All land in the Loyalty Island Province was organised into reserves for the indigenous people so there was no loss of land there. The Northern and Loyalty Island Provinces need to initiate economic development and to find jobs for the majority Kanak or indigenous population. The mine of Tiébaghi in the North West of ‘Grande Terre’ (the main island) was sold back (not gifted, contrarily to the assertions of Lafleur whose consortium were the original colonial owners) but like all extractive activities returns only a small profit from its operation. Its mechanisation also restricts the number of jobs available (850 in 2000). The mining operations are run by the Société Minière du Pacifique Sud, owned mostly by the government of the Northern Province. Indigenisation of tourism development The model for Kanak tourism development would be the Agence pour le développement de la culture Kanak (ADCK)’s Jean-Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre whose mission is not just to record and collect data about a static culture and its history but to transmit living Kanak customs (Kanak culture includes 28 languages, almost all of which are still spoken in spite of 200 years of colonisation) and to integrate new forms with more traditional ones. The centre is not an inward turn to a past that cannot be travelled but a place where the Kanak recreate dynamically their identity and constantly question their ideological practices (Bensa & Leblic, 2000). ‘A return to ancient tradition is a myth’ declared Tjibaou, ‘the search for identity, the
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model for me, is in front of us, never behind . . . Being Kanak does not exclude modernity’ (1996). Kanak villages would not become theme parks providing tourists their required dose of exoticism but places to educate them about dynamic, presentday Kanak worldly practices. To protect Kanak land and custom, no development is permitted on their land, by law, without the consent of the owning tribe. Because all decisions are consensual, negotiations tend to be lengthy before all members of the tribe can be apprised of the project and can indicate their opinion. Chiefs have no more say than any other individual member of the clan. They can only guarantee the decision reached by consensus, which is recorded in writing as well as the minutes of all the discussions (Laventure, 1997; personal communication from members of governments in Province Sud and Province Nord). All forms of development on Kanak land can be requested; they cannot be forced. Development by the Kanak must be initiated or solicited by the Kanak themselves. In the Northern Province, the government has implemented a number of programmes, to provide educational and financial support for Kanak initiatives in tourism development. High schools teach a two-year specialisation in hospitality, management and catering. Itinerant teachers go to small enterprises in rural and tribal areas to improve the managing abilities of their owners/managers. They, or members of government, cannot legally prod anyone into creating a tourism product; they can only educate them about the possibilities (government representatives’ personal communication, 2001). One hitch to this community participation is the continued resistance by some Kanak community leaders to land ownership (and thus also to economic initiatives) by Kanak women since it had been prohibited in pre-colonial ‘custom’. The Club Med resort in Hienghène has instituted a new model of development that includes the Kanak: a 25-year agreement has been drawn up between the Northern Province government and the Club Med Company that manages the resort and is bound to train the Kanak personnel it has recruited. A total of 46 persons, 40 of whom are from the Koulnoué tribe and three from other surrounding tribes, are presently employed. They are to be capable of running the resort when its present owner returns it to the Koulnoué tribe. The tribe is proprietor of the land on which the resort is situated (Manager, personal communication, February 2001). Although there is a territorial government, located in Nouméa, the capital in the Southern Province, most local affairs are run by each province, according to its budget: roads along the west coast, which is part of the Southern Province, are in a much better state of repair than those that run along the east coast. Tourism promotion, even on the international market should be sponsored by each province. The Southern Province still runs the main office which has a 10-year experience in selling New Caledonia overseas. It is the only payer. The other provinces are requested to support the promotion efforts but cannot be forced to do so. Most large
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investments even in tourism are still taking place in the Southern Province. Only two international class resorts have been built in the Northern Province (Club Med at Hienghène and Malabou Beach at Poum). There is now an effort to coordinate all decisions concerning tourism development at the level of the territory without jeopardising the individual provinces’ prerogatives.
Wallis and Futuna The context These are Polynesian islands located north of Fiji where customary tradition prevails. The Polynesian population has hardly mixed with any other and its identity melds custom with the Catholic faith. Far from the trade lines in the colonial Pacific and from modernity’s circuits, no economic development of the progressive sort has been imposed on them. ‘Tourism truly seems to be their only hope of economic growth’ asserts Laventure (1997: 201). There is neither a cultural framework responsive to the need for such growth nor an economic structure to build on, though the transport infrastructure is in place. The head of the agriculture, forests and fisheries was asked to organise a local response by the economic and social council of the French state. An association of restaurant and hotel owners does exist, who would be very favourable to welcoming more visitors, but they can offer only 34 hotel rooms, not of international norms. Custom is cited as the main obstacle to such development. Very few tourists visit Wallis and Futuna and the general population is not overwhelmed by the idea of welcoming more. The recent introduction of television, however, may well bring on unexpected changes. The international airport (Hihifo) processed 27,513 passengers in 1995 versus 526,381 by New Caledonia’s Tontouta. There are historic relics from Tongan occupation in the 15th century in the form of forts. The French state had subsidised a cultural centre, an ethno-botanical garden and archaeological digs with a grant of US$120,000 in 1997 but it had not initiated any action in favour of tourism. Unfortunately, lagoon waters have been polluted by sewage dumping and by the extraction of coral and sand for building. The islands are also difficult to reach with high priced but infrequent flights from Nouméa or Nandi. The main question would be: what form of tourism should be promoted? Nature or eco-tourism for upmarket segments are to be preferred over mass beach tourism because of the cost and the infrequency of connections as well as broadly based competition for balneal forms of tourism. Small hotels well integrated into the landscape allowing direct contact with the indigenous residents whose culture is the least transformed in Polynesia by interaction with Western ideals may have strong attractivity. Any tourism project does have the advantage of a blank slate. French investors have too little knowledge of the islands to use the taxation incentives (Loi Pons and Loi Prébens) that have led to the construction of large luxury hotels in
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French Polynesia and New Caledonia. These forms of investment offer very few advantages to the local population besides a few poorly paid jobs. The incentives themselves would not apply to entrepreneurial indigenisation in Wallis and Futuna. Land distribution problems Any form of tourism development may cause conflicts or be difficult to implement because of the forms of land ownership that are not generally acceptable to financial institutions. Wallis and Futuna have remained relatively closed to globalisation so that the cultural value of land has remained strong (de Dekker & Kuntz, 1998). The king or lavelua (there are three of them on this territory where the French state has tolerated the maintenance of customary forms of governance) is the sole and perpetual owner of land. The king can entrust certain families to redistribute and manage the lands in the interest and for the needs of the whole community. The lack of surveys (cadastres) and returning migrants who are anxious to rationalise the management of land have led to conflicts that can be resolved only by following custom. There is no Western (French) form of legal recourse. The first step is to attempt conciliation and consensus between the families concerned. The next step is to bring the matter to the land Minister and ultimately (third and last step) to the lavelua himself. Even when a consensus is reached, it is not guaranteed to last since it is always oral and any member absent at the time can demand a new round of discussions to ensure his/her rights. The state and missions are not exempt from the procedure since neither can own land. Such uncertainty is anathema to financial institutions interested in investing for tourism growth. Distribution of land has been complicated by the natural increase in population, the flux of migrants and the push for capitalist exploitation, and also by the fact that genealogies and past forms of distribution were not recorded in writing, leading to very fluid practices and blurred memories of them (Rouland, 1995). The obstacle to tourism development, though, is due more to the lack of incentives since the territory’s customary ways of life have been continuously subsidised by the French state. These customs would adapt to modernity as in French Polynesia and New Caledonia under certain forms of pressure.
Conclusion The function of laws is to create possibilities, to construct realities, not to constrain them. In the same way, customary practices need not be construed as obstacles to tourism development, especially if they can encourage indigenisation of most entrepreneurial ventures. Luxury projects too need to be scaled to and blend with the local (physical as well as human) environment they use as their selling point. More interaction is likely between circuits of capital and custom as tourism seeks more peripheries. If ‘difference’ is to survive these encounters, developers will demand models of beneficial intercourse. Foreign exploitation is less
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likely in these French destinations because foreign investment is not as necessary to the survival of these communities as in other parts of the world. It should give them an opportunity to establish models of cooperation between customary and capitalist modes of behaviour for the benefit of the largest number. References Aldrich, R. (1993) France and the South Pacific since 1940. London: Macmillan. Bambridge, T. (1999) L’identité fondée sur le lien à la terre en Polynésie. In J-Y. Faberon and Y. Gautier (eds) Identité, nationalité, citoyenneté outre-mer (pp. 73–93). Montpellier: Centre des Hautes Etudes sur l’Afrique et l’Asie Modernes. Baré, J-F. (1985) Le Malentendu Pacifique. Paris: Hachette. Bensa, A. (1990) Nouvelle Calédonie: un paradis dans la tourmente. Paris: Gallimard. Bensa, A. and Leblic, I. (eds) (2000) En pays Kanak. Paris: Editions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme. Comité des Droits de l’Homme (Committee for Human Rights) (1997) Affaire RIVNAC CCPR/C/ 60ID/ 549/1993, United Nations DOC. Conseil Economique Social et Culturel (CESC) (1996) Report to the Territorial Assembly, No. 101 (October 21). Conseil Economique Social et Culturel (CESC) (1997) Foncier: gestion de l’indivision, facteur de développement économique social et culturel, Report to the Territorial Assembly, No. 103, June. Crocombe, R. (ed.) (1987) Land Tenure in the Pacific. Suva: University of the South Pacific. De Deckker, P. and Kuntz, L. (1998) La bataille de la coutume et ses enjeux pour le Pacifique Sud. Paris: l’Harmattan. Etat-Territoire (1994) Contrat de développement Etat-Territoire 1994–1998. Journal Officiel de la Polynésie Française 143 (1), 2–51. Garde, F. (1999) Allocution de clôture: existe-t-il un modèle calédonien. In J-Y. Faberon and Y. Gautier (eds) Identité, nationalité, citoyenneté outre-mer (pp. 209–18). Montpellier: Centre des Hautes Etudes sur l’Afrique et l’Asie Modernes. ITSEE (2000) Tableaux de l’économie calédonienne. Nouméa, Nouvelle Calédonie: Institut territorial de la statistique et des études économiques. Lagadec, Gael, Perret, Cécile and Pitoiset, Anne (2002) Nickel et développement en Nouvelle Calédonie. In C. Perret (ed.) Perspectives de développement pour la Nouvelle Calédonie (pp. 20–42). Grenoble: Presses Universitaires de Grenoble. Langevin, C. (1990) Tahitiennes, de la tradition à l’intégration culturelle. Paris: l’Harmattan. Laventure, M. (1997) Le tourisme, facteur de développement de l’outre-mer français. Paris: Journaux Officiels. Leenhardt, M. (1938) Gens de la Grande Terre. Paris: Gallimard. Lévis, D. (2000) Le droit foncier à Tahiti. In S. Dunis (ed.) Mythes et Réalités en Polynésie (pp. 206–14). Papeete: Haere Po and the Université de Polynésie Française. Lévis, D. (1999) Terres des hommes du grand océan. Paris: l’Harmattan. Panoff, M. (1970) La terre et l’organisation sociale en Polynésie. Paris: Payot. Pacte de Progrès (1993) Propositions de la Délégation Polynésienne. Papeete: Editions Charte du Développement. Rallu, J-L. (1990) Les populations océaniennes au dix-neuvième et au vingtième siècles. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. Rouland, N. (1995) La coutume et le droit. In P. de Dekker (ed.) Coutume autochtone et évolution du droit dans le Pacifique Sud. Paris: l’Harmattan.
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Rouland, N. (1988) Anthropologie juridique. Paris: PUF. Saura, B. (1997) Les Toohitu Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Océaniennes, 273–74. Tjibaou, J-M. (1996) La Présence Kanak. Paris: Odile Jacob. Vladyslav, G. (1999) L’identité fondée sur le lien à la terre. In J-Y. Faberon and Y. Gautier (eds) Identité, nationalité, citoyenneté outre-mer (pp. 57–72). Montpellier: Centre des Hautes Etudes sur l’Afrique et l’Asie Modernes. Ward, R.G. and Kingdon, E. (1995) Land, Custom and Practice in the South Pacific. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Chapter 16
Tourism and Air Transport in Oceania DAVID TIMOTHY DUVAL
Introduction An argument could certainly be made that the provision of passenger airlift in the Oceanic region, much of which, by extension, could be related to pleasure or business travel (or both), points to a significant dependent relationship between tourism and air transport. The geographic variability in the region is matched by a veritable patchwork of aviation services and passenger routings. For tourism in the region, especially where substantial geographic insularity is a key element, passenger airlift is critical. The extent to which air services are able to transport tourists from their point of origin to their destination often dictates the success of a nation’s tourism sector. Yet there are often underlying economic arrangements that facilitate the relationships between various nations in the region. For a relatively small and, to some degree, geographically isolated country such as New Zealand, connections to other destinations in Oceania, and indeed other regions around the world, are vital. Likewise, some Pacific Islands are not only insular but economically dependent on other nations in the region for trade and commerce transactions. Many rely on air transport to supply tourists and holidaymakers. On the other hand, Australia has a decidedly unique economic structure in the region, due in large part to its comparatively larger population and economic base. Consequently, air services within, and including, Australia are equally diverse and complex. In addition to the geographical complexity exhibited in the region, the air transport network in Oceania consists of a patchwork of alliances, feeder routes and hubs. As well, numerous air services are provided between and within the region by various large- and small-scale air transport providers. Coupled with this is the wider political structure within which such services must operate. In at least one particular case (Australia and New Zealand) the desire for stronger economic relations has led to the creation of a Single Aviation Market. In short, passenger airlift is a critical element in the broader tourist system in Oceania. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a broad overview of key issues relating to air transport operations in the Oceanic region. Any examination of air transport 321
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linkages between various countries in Oceania would generally require consideration of two broad perspectives: (1) intra-region aviation services and agreements; and (2) extra-regional linkages with other regions. This chapter, however, is more or less concerned with the former, although air transport in the region is certainly not a bounded system. Rather than follow a geographically oriented survey, a variety of themes and issues currently facing air transport operations in the region are addressed. The result is an assessment of the viability, and indeed even the economic sustainability, of such operations in the context of scheduled air services, low cost services, safety and security concerns, and the issues surrounding privatisation, deregulation, ‘open-skies’ agreement and alliances. As will be shown, the relative turbulence of the aviation industry worldwide, marked by frequent bankruptcy proceedings by several airlines, is very much represented in the region.
Scheduled Air Services Regular Passenger Transport (RPT), or scheduled air services, comprises the bulk of tourist airlift traffic in the region. Several commercial air services in the region (Table 16.1) are privately held corporations. There are, however, a substantial number which are either government-owned or primarily governmentoperated, including Air New Zealand – which is almost wholly owned by the Government of New Zealand – and most carriers based in the Pacific Islands. In fact, the story of Air New Zealand in the context of the aviation market demonstrates the degree of turbulence in the aviation market in Oceania, particularly as it relates to changing ownership, management and operational issues. Many of these issues are handled regionally; that is, extensive arrangements of ownership have taken place with other regional carriers, although some of these incorporate Pacific Asian carriers as well. The recent changes at Air New Zealand highlight the variability in the aviation sector in the region. Air New Zealand was initially privatised in 1989 by the national government. In an effort to retain the airlines as a truly national carrier, 65% of shares were offered to New Zealanders only. The government retained a special ‘Kiwi Share’ that ultimately enabled them to veto certain actions. As Findlay and Kissling (1997: 182) suggest, this allowed the government to ‘preserve the substantial ownership and control of the airline without constraining its commercial operations’. In February 2000, Air New Zealand purchased the remaining shares of Ansett Australia for approximately AU$580 million, having purchased the initial 50% earlier for approximately AU$100 million less. The mechanics of the purchase were certainly strategic, as it would have allowed Air New Zealand to have majority ownership in an airline that could successfully compete with Qantas in the
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Australian domestic market. A problem with this vision, however, was that Ansett was in severe financial trouble, partly due to managerial and labour issues within the airline, the severity of the Asian Financial Crisis, and the fact that Ansett’s fleet was old and needed to be re-equipped (Easdown & Wilms, 2002: 118). In addition to the problems Ansett was having, Air New Zealand, as a new parent, was facing similar economic problems in early to mid 2001. According to a report presented to the New Zealand government in July 2001, the airline was accruing significant losses, at the time, on trans-Tasman routes, although it was profitable along domestic and trans-Pacific routings (Air New Zealand, 2001). While Air New Zealand’s fiscal position in the early 1990s was quite strong, the purchase of Ansett, combined with the 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States, sent the airline into a financial tailspin. Singapore Airlines offered to purchase up to 49% of the airline, and despite the efforts of the Air New Zealand Board to convince the government to relax the conditions of ownership policy for New Zealand carriers (which states that no single foreign airline can own more than 25% of a national carrier in New Zealand) and thus rescue the airline, the offer was rejected. Ansett soon collapsed and the economic viability of Air New Zealand’s future operations was in question. In late 2001, rather than allowing for the sale of 49% of the airline to overseas interests (namely Singapore Airlines, the majority of which is owned by Singapore), the New Zealand government spent approximately NZ$880 million to purchase over 80% of all shares in the airline (Air Transport World, 2003). In effect, the move was a means to recapitalise the airline for the sake of national interest; the New Zealand government saw the need to have an official flag carrier operating in the wider Asia Pacific region. Despite the fluctuations in management structure at Air New Zealand over the past number of years (brought about largely in tandem with the re-acquisition of the national government as majority shareholder), other airlines in the region have enjoyed a degree of success, especially when compared to other airlines around the world. More importantly, the extent of this success is not tied directly to the size of the operation. Air Raratonga, for example, has been profitable for several years, largely due to its combination tour operator/airline management structure, but also in part because of the numerous tourists fed to the Cook Islands by Air New Zealand. Air Raratonga has operated charter flights within the Cook Islands for several years, and has even been almost wholly responsible for the development of the Aitutaki atoll some 50 kilometres north of Raratonga, where one in five international tourists will spend at least one day visiting (Johnson, 2002). The situation across the Tasman with Qantas is somewhat different from that experienced by Air New Zealand. Founded in 1920 as the Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Service, the airline was government-operated until 1992. Despite competitors such as Ansett (until its demise in 2001) and Virgin Blue, Qantas continues to enjoy a more or less stable share of the domestic airline market in Australia
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and a respectable amount of trans-Pacific loadings as it competed with United (until, at least, early 2003) and Air New Zealand. Its share of the domestic Australian market has grown significantly since 11 September, rising from 54% to 85% (Paul, 2001). The airline, which is 25% owned by British Airways, continues to exhibit relatively (and comparatively) strong growth. Travel to and from Australia is also largely dominated by Qantas (Table 16.2). While scheduled air services make up the bulk of passenger (and tourist) airlift in the region, the recent successes elsewhere in the world of low-cost air services is not without parallel in the Oceanic region. Such services offer, in many instances, considerably lower fares and provide strong competition for scheduled service providers. Low-cost services Low-cost services in passenger airlift provision are almost always associated with a ‘no-frill’ level of service. In other words, such operations, while technically classified in many cases as RPT service, trade toward the price end of the service-price continuum (Holloway, 2002). Airlines adopting this model utilise specific strategies to lower costs and provide basic levels of service to passengers. As Pender and Baum (2000) note, such strategies include, but are not ultimately limited to: • the effective and efficient utilisation of resources, which often involves using one particular type of aircraft (often the Boeing 737); • operations that target short-haul routes, and thus offering economy class-only travel (often with no pre-assigned seating); • strategic pricing structures, largely based on one-way ticketing; and • reduced cabin service, thus improving ground turn-around time and, by extension, enhancing the efficiency of aircraft utilisation. Worldwide, there are several relatively successful examples of budget carriers operating in continental or regional routings, including Southwest in the United States, Ryanair in Europe and WestJet in Canada. The entry, however, of low-cost, no-frills services in Oceania has been relatively recent. At present, there are several examples of low-cost airline operations in the Oceanic region, but most have strong managerial or operational/maintenance connections to existing full-service carriers (to the point where, in some cases, they are wholly-owned subsidiaries). In the case of New Zealand, the launch of Kiwi International Airlines in mid-1994 ushered in a new era in trans-Tasman tourism. For the first time in decades, a new airline (although initially operating as a charter carrier) was offering very competitive fares for travel across the Tasman and utilising provincial cities (e.g. Hamilton and Dunedin) that were, for the most part, left untouched by the likes of Air New Zealand. Competition for this new scheduled airline was fierce, with Qantas and
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Air New Zealand quickly making attempts to match prices on select trans-Tasman routes. Toward the end of 1995, Mount Cook Airlines, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Air New Zealand, announced the launch of Freedom Air International. Freedom Air was to be a fully chartered operation, although today it operates more-or-less as a scheduled service. (Currently, Freedom Air operates regular services from Dunedin, Palmerston North, Wellington, Auckland and Christchurch to Melbourne, Sydney, the Gold Coast and Brisbane.) Aggressive competition and a raft of external factors (including, for example, a persistent eruption of Mount Ruapehu in the North Island of New Zealand caused routing problems and delays) contributed to the demise of Kiwi International Airlines. Passenger departures from New Zealand to Australia suggest that the introduction of Kiwi and Freedom Air services had a positive impact on trans-Tasman travel. As Table 16.3 outlines, departures by New Zealand residents increased significantly for the years 1995 and 1996. Other factors certainly inform the degree of passenger demand for trans-Tasman services; such demand can only be satisfied with an appropriate level of supply (in this case, airline seats). In fact, overall outbound travel by New Zealand residents for the years 1995 and 1996 increased 12% and 19% respectively (Statistics New Zealand, 2002). There is room to consider, however, that the fare wars between Kiwi and Freedom may partially explain these increases. Added to this is the fact that increases since then have not been nearly as strong (Table 16.3) While not fully designated as a low-cost carrier, the recent introduction by Air New Zealand of its Express Class service on domestic routes can be considered a move in the direction of low-cost operations. Business Class service was eliminated, with seat configurations of the airline’s fleet of Boeing 737 aircraft re-configured to offer Economy seating only. Three broad fare classes were introduced (Express, Flexi-Saver and Full-Flexi), with the differences largely based on the degree to which changes could be made and whether or not fares are eligible for frequent flyer point accumulation. Air New Zealand’s domestic operations have, for the most part, been robust as a result of the introduction of the Express Class service. One could argue that the purpose of launching such a service was to generate travel propensity within the New Zealand domestic market among segments of the population that were previously inhibited by the often high cost of domestic travel. Despite the overall success of Air New Zealand’s Express Class branding exercise, not all domestic destinations have seen concomitant increases in either arrivals or departures. While the city of Nelson for example, has seen a 23% increase in traffic through its airport since the introduction of Express Class (Myers, 2003), the larger city of Invercargill, in the extreme south of the country, has seen increases on the order of 3% only, compared with 22% nationally and 26% for the resort town of Queenstown (MacNichol, 2003). The overall success of the Express Class brand has even led Air New Zealand to seri-
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ously consider offering similar services (or lack thereof) across the Tasman into Australia and into the Pacific (Van den Bergh, 2003). In Australia, Virgin Blue launched in August 2000 and now serves every major city in Australia. Its initial offering of Brisbane to Sydney flights, commencing in August 2000, resulted in an average monthly passenger loading increases (over 1999 loadings) of 33% until December 2000 (Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics, 2003a). Spearheaded by Richard Branson, who successfully initiated Virgin Atlantic as an international scheduled airline in the 1980s and, more recently, the low-cost carrier Virgin Express in Europe, the airline has begun to offer international services originating in Australia to Wellington and Christchurch in New Zealand and with the introduction of its Sister Airline, Pacific Blue, flights to Port Vila, Vanuatu and Nadi, Fiji. The response by Qantas, not surprisingly, was to introduce its own low-cost subsidiaries, Jetstar, a domestic carrier, and Australian Airlines, directed primarily at budget travel from Australia to Singapore, Taipei, and Japan from Cairns and the Gold Coast. Future expansion, however, is planned to link Sydney and Melbourne with Bali and Cairns to Sydney. Management and intra-regional/cross-border relationships Issues of management and inter-governmental relationships within the Oceanic region feature considerations of privatisation, deregulation, consolidation, ‘openskies’ agreements, code share alliances, and mergers. Airline ownership and management issues in the Oceanic region are perhaps only trumped in importance by established conventions designed to foster profitable route structures. For example, the relationship that New Zealand and Australia have with respect to air transport was initially developed through their mutual Air Services Agreement in 1961. The goal of this agreement was certainly political, as it was aimed at fostering goodwill and understanding between nations in the South Pacific, while at the same time it set the stage for increased cooperation in most matters relating to transport, particularly tourism. At present, both Air New Zealand and Qantas operate trans-Tasman routes, and, as discussed below, Virgin Blue is seriously considering similar routes. The evolution of this arrangement, in one sense, has been the establishment of a New Zealand-Australia ‘open skies’ agreement, which is in accordance with the Closer Economic Relationships (CER) Trade Agreement between the two countries. Overall, however, the introduction of this particular Single Aviation Market (SAM) has not overtly resulted in significant widening of route options across the Tasman Sea. The only notable exception, however, is Freedom Air’s (New Zealand) regular servicing of smaller nodes in the domestic market within New Zealand with regular flights across the Tasman. In Australia, however, most trans-Tasman routes emanate from Sydney, Melbourne or Brisbane. The extent to which this has curtailed significant tourism growth in other regional centres in Australia is cause for debate.
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One question that emerges is the viability of a single aviation market encompassing the Pacific Islands. In many respects, proposals relating to a SAM in and among the Pacific Islands stem in large part from the New Zealand and Australia SAM (Goh, 2001). Talks have already been held on this issue, beginning in mid-1998 and continuing into 2001. The intent is to establishing a limited ‘open skies’ common market in the region, but such direction is not gaining universal acceptance among all island states in the region. At stake is not only the viability of the airlines themselves, but the overall tourist economy in many small island states. In the interests of continuing tourist arrivals to many of these smaller island states, governments were in some cases forced to enter the airline business. Many smaller airlines (largely scheduled-service operations) within the Pacific Islands (e.g. Air Vanuatu, Solomon Airlines, Samoa’s Polynesian Airlines and Royal Tongan Airlines) are government-owned. Some airlines, and indeed even some governments, have suggested that opening up the skies for outside operations to move in would easily see the destruction of several local operations (Keith-Reid, 2001). Virgin Blue has expressed an interest of establishing airlift services to Samoa, Vanuatu, Fiji, Tonga and Papua New Guinea (Keith-Reid, 2003), and in 2004 established services to Vanuatu and Fiji with its Pacific Blue airline. Understandably, established Pacific carriers such as Air Pacific (46% of which is owned by Qantas), Air Vanuatu, Solomon Airlines, Samoa’s Polynesian Airlines and Royal Tongan Airlines may have difficulty competing with lower fares if routes incorporating these airlines’ home destinations are introduced by Virgin Blue. In fact, in May 2004 Royal Tongan Airlines, after accruing substantial debt, had its sole aircraft, a Boeing 757, repossessed, thus throwing the airline into receivership. Safety and security issues Without question, safety and security concerns are at the forefront of the regional aviation industry since the events of 11 September 2001, the bombing in Bali in 2001 and in 2003 the outbreak of the SARS virus. As of April 2003, numerous airlines faced substantial shifts in loadings as a result of a global slump in demand for airlift services. In mid-March 2003, Qantas announced an expected drop in demand for international services as a result of the conflict in Iraq (The West Australian, 2003). Less than two years earlier, similar concerns were being voiced by airlines throughout the Pacific. However, despite the dire forecasts for international travel worldwide following the 11 September 2001 events, domestic tourism, at least in Australia, may not have suffered. In fact, one report suggests that visits to the Goldfields region by domestic travellers increased substantially in the wake of 11 September (Kalgoorie Miner, 2002). Overall, Qantas fared reasonable well in a post-11 September aviation environment (Airwise News, 2002), and the Asia Pacific region appears to have been the most resilient (International Air Transport Association, n.d.)
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At one point, safety and security concerns would have incorporated, almost exclusively, the human threat of terrorism or violence on aircraft, whether airborne or on the ground. Without question, such concerns, whilst in existence previously, were placed at the forefront of both airline and airport operations following the 11 September attacks in New York and Washington DC. Travellers throughout the Oceanic region, even domestic passengers in New Zealand and Australia, were regularly screened at airport boarding areas, introducing significant costs to both airports and airlines. Prior to 11 September, safety in the skies was certainly a concern. Numerous studies on the effects of air rage were conducted, passenger profiling was encouraged in order to stifle such dangers, and the media were quick to report any incident which resulted in the restraining of a passenger or the diversion of an aircraft from its intended route. As of April 2003, however, the security and safety threats extend well beyond what is visible. The rapid spread of SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) worldwide resulted in significant paradigm shifts for those responsible for providing safe and secure means of moving people around the globe. Health professionals, for example, regularly screen passengers emerging from flights from Asia to New Zealand. Governments, including New Zealand and Australia, were discouraging non-essential travel to certain SARS ‘hotspots’ such as China and Toronto. In effect, with the increase in speed and efficiency by which we are able to mobilise people from part of the globe to another, a new vector layer has been created; the very means by which we are mobile, and the degree to which this is championed as globalisation in full effect, has clamped down upon public perceptions of safety in travel. Passenger numbers to those Asian countries most severely affected by SARS plummeted, and Cathay Pacific found itself denying reports that its entire fleet would be grounded if loadings did not improve (Korporaal, 2003). As well, reports in 2003 suggest that Qantas was reported to be considering a delay in delivery of new Airbus A330 aircraft due to potential long-range declines in travel due to SARS (The Australian, 2003).
Conclusion Future trends Button (1997) suggests that the extent to which air services in Oceania can be compared to other regions, particularly Europe, is largely dependent on a variety of factors. First, the European Union is small enough to facilitate short-haul routes which are economically feasible. The Oceanic region, on the other hand, features primarily medium and long-haul travel distances, aside from some short-haul domestic services. Second, the European market itself can be considered more mature than Asia-Pacific and Oceanic regions. As a result, longer-term strategies are therefore possible and desirable. The extent to which mergers of operations will be seen in the region is subjective
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speculation, at best. Qantas, Air New Zealand and Air Pacific moved toward a merger of operations in late 2002, with the intent of sharing networks and routes which would ultimately (or at least as proposed) facilitate domestic and international travel by both airlines. Consumer groups, however, were critical of the proposal and claimed that a Qantas-Air New Zealand merger would stifle trans-Tasman competition, cause fares to rise substantially, and, at least in New Zealand, severely erode the national pride held in the country’s only national airline. Virgin Blue responded to the proposal (Virgin Blue, 2003) by claiming that the healthy competition featured on trans-Tasman routes would all but disappear. Moreover, Virgin Blue suggested that several barriers (facility access and ‘strategic capacity and pricing conduct’) to its own plans to introduce trans-Tasman route structures would be enhanced through the proposed alliance. After months of hearing submissions, in April 2003 both the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) and the Commerce Commission of New Zealand (NZCC) stated that the proposed alliance would not be endorsed. The NZCC argued that such an alliance would be detrimental overall and result in a ‘lessening of competition’ in a number of markets, including the New Zealand main trunk (Auckland-Wellington) and provincial markets, the trans-Tasman market, the New Zealand/Pacific market, the New Zealand/Asia market and the New Zealand/USA market (New Zealand Commerce Commission, 2003). The ACCC, in their draft decision, stated that the proposed alliance would be ‘highly anticompetitive and offer little benefit’ (ACCC, 2003). While this decision is only in draft form at the moment, it appears unlikely that the proposal, unless radically altered to the satisfaction of both Commissions, will go forward. Other future trends will almost certainly focus on ownership of the various Pacific Island carriers in the region. Although most are government-owned, their existence is not entirely based on the commercial model of generating profits from operations. Rather, in many cases such central ownership is the means by which existing economic infrastructure (including the provision for tourism) is made viable. With larger carriers, often international in operational scope, more interested in assuring themselves of higher profits per seat kilometre on most of their routes, there is often little reason, from a pure profit perspective, to introduce services to remote destinations where demand is not extensive. Consequently, many small Pacific Island nations have been forced into the global aviation market by providing much-needed passenger airlift from larger origin markets, or at least shuttle tourists within a smaller area defined by their national boundaries (see Table 16.4). With respect to tourism in Oceania, one aspect that is deserving of attention is the degree to which current Air Service Agreements (ASAs, or bilateral) between various countries inhibit competition in passenger airlift in the region. Numerous bilateral agreements exist in the region, and are formed when two countries negotiate the right for carriers from each to fly between them (see Table 16.4). For example,
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New Zealand and Fiji currently operate under an aviation bilateral agreement which states that only one New Zealand-designated carrier may fly to Fiji and only one Fijian-designated carrier may fly to New Zealand. At present, only Air New Zealand and Air Pacific (registered in Fiji) operate such flights under this ASA. A new upstart airline in New Zealand, for example, could not begin flights to and from Fiji from New Zealand, unless that airline was able to convince both governments that the ASAs need to be altered to allow further flights. Such alterations, however, would not be tied explicitly to aviation services, and one country may well ask for other forms of economic aid or benefits for other sectors. The paradigmatic shift that many airline operations in the Oceanic region face can be placed largely in the context of: • the globalised nature of the aviation industry; • the increasing trend toward low-cost operations; and • shifts in passenger demand for airlift services as a result of global insecurities and safety concerns. Without question, the role of air transport in travel and tourism in Oceania is critical, but has undergone significant paradigmatic shifts in operational structure in the last decade. As discussed, the size of the region itself almost necessitates the use of modern jet aircraft to transport tourists intra-regionally and from other regions around the world. Deregulation of the aviation markets in New Zealand and Australia has allowed for new forms of airline service delivery in the form of low-cost carriers (Sinha, 2001). The turbulent nature of the aviation industry as a whole, as it battles externalities such as SARS, terrorism and war, has certainly been felt in the Oceanic region. Acknowledgements Many thanks to Jan Shlaefke (Department of Tourism, University of Otago) for help with the secondary research that informed this chapter, and Mr Ewan Wilson for useful discussions of all aspects of aviation. Acknowledgement is made to the Commonwealth Copyright Association (Australia) for permission to reproduce Table 16.3. References Air New Zealand (2001) Submission to the New Zealand government, 21 July 2001. (http:// www.treasury.govt.nz/release/airnz/anz12jul.asp). Air Transport World (2003) Life on the edge. March 2003: 30–4. Airwise News (2002) ‘Qantas reports profits fall’, 21 February 2002, http://news. airwise.com/stories/2002/02/1014295459.html (accessed 25 April 2003). Australian, The (2003) Wary Qantas pulls in its wings. 24 April 2003 edition, p 19 (Finance). Australian Consumer and Competition Commission (2003) Qantas/Air New Zealand Alliance, Very anti-competitive and not in public interest. Press release issued 10 April 2003 (http://203.6.251.7/accc.internet/digest/view_media.cfm?RecordID = 986).
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Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics (AVSTATS programme) (2003a) Major competitive routes since July 1994. http://www.btre.gov.au/avstats (accessed 23 April 2003). Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics (AVSTATS programme) (2003b) Scheduled international traffic to/from Australia, by top ten carriers. http://www.btre.gov.au/ avstats/docs/tabl_05.xls (accessed 15 April 2003). Button, K. (1997) Developments in the European Union: Lessons for the Asia Pacific region. In C. Findlay, C. Lin Sien and K. Singh (eds) Asia Pacific Air Transport: Challenges and Policy Reforms (pp. 170–80). Pasir Panjan, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Easdown, G. and Wilms, P. (2002) Ansett: The Collapse. South Melbourne: Lothian. Findlay, C. and Kissling, C. (1997) Flying towards a single aviation market across the Tasman. In C. Findlay, C. Lin Sien and K. Singh (eds) Asia Pacific Air Transport: Challenges and Policy Reforms (pp. 181–91). Pasir Panjan, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Goh, J. (2001) The Single Aviation Market of Australia and New Zealand. London: Cavendish Publishing Limited. Holloway, S. (2002) Airlines: Managing to Make Money. Aldershot: Ashgate. International Air Transport Association (IATA) (n.d.) A review of air transport following September 11, http://www.iata.org/911/ (accessed 25 April 2003). Johnson, G. (2002) A private airline that works. Pacific Magazine, October 2002, http://www. pacificislands.cc/pm102002/pmdefault.cfm?articleid = 5 (accessed 17 April 2003). Kalgoorie Miner (2002) Domestic tourism boom. 10 September 2002. Keith-Reid, R. (2001) ‘Open skies’ to close island airlines? Pacific Magazine, August 2001, http://www.pacificislands.cc/pm82001/pmdefault.cfm?articleid = 8 (accessed 17 April 2003). Keith-Reid, R. (2003) Worries over Virgin’s Pacific Plan. Islands Business, February 2003, http:/ /www.pacificislands.cc/pm22003/pmdefault.cfm?articleid = 44 (accessed 17 April 2003). Korporaal, G. (2002) SARS may ground Cathay fleet. The Australian, 14 April 2003. http:// www.theaustralian.news.com.au/printpage/0,5942,6279775,00.html MacNichol, K. (2003) Little impact from fares. The Southland Times, 28 March 2003. Ministry of Transport (New Zealand) (2003) http://www.transport.govt.nz/publications/ 14_211201–08.shtml (accessed 12 April 2003) Myers, J. (2003) Moves boost city’s airport. Evening Standard, 7 April 2003. New Zealand Commerce Commission (2003) Commerce Act: Qantas and Air New Zealand draft determinations. Press release issued 10 April 2003 (http://www.comcom.govt.nz/ adjudication/qantasairnz/mediareleasemar03.pdf). Paul, A. (2001) The flying kangaroo bounces back. Fortune, 16 November 2001, http:// www.fortune.com/fortune/articles/0,15114,369365,00.html (accessed 17 April 2003). Pender, L. and Baum, T. (2000) Have the frills really left the European Airline Industry? International Journal of Tourism Research 2, 423–36. Sinha, D. (2001) Deregulation and Liberalisation of the Airline Industry: Asia, Europe, North America and Oceania. Aldershot: Ashgate. Statistics New Zealand (2002) Tourism and Migration 2001, Table 3.01 (http:// www.stats.govt.nz/domino/external/web/prod_serv.nsf/htmldocs/Tourism+and+Migration+2001) (accessed 25 April 2003). Van den Bergh, R. (2003) Air NZ to extend budget service to Tasman routes. Dominion Post, 28 February 2003. Virgin Blue (2003) Virgin Blue submission in response to applications for authorisation of the proposed Qantas/Air New Zealand/Air Pacific Alliance, 12 February 2003 (www. virginblue.com.au). West Australian, The (2003) Airlines shift routes as business turns sour, 19 March 2003.
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Table 16.1 Selected commercial airline operations in Oceania, 2002 Airline
Base country of operation
Aeropelican
Australia
Alliance Airlines
Australia
Australian Airlines
Australia
Qantas Airways
Australia
Skywest Airlines
Australia
Spirit Airlines
Australia
Virgin Blue
Australia
Australian Air Express
Australia
Macair Airlines
Australia
National Jet Systems
Australia
O’Connor Airlines
Australia
Regional Express
Australia
Aus-Air
Australia
QantasLink
Australia (subsidiary of Qantas)
Air North
Northern Australia
Air Fiji
Fiji
Air Pacific
Fiji
Sunflower Airlines
Fiji
Turtle Airways
Fiji
Air Caledonie International
New Caledonia
Air New Zealand
New Zealand
Freedom Air
New Zealand (subsidiary of Air New Zealand)
Mount Cook Airlines
New Zealand (subsidiary of Air New Zealand)
Origin Pacific Airways
New Zealand
Royal Tongan Airlines
Tonga
Air Tahiti Nui
Tahiti
WanAir of Tahiti
Tahiti
Asia Pacific Airlines
Guam
Continental Micronesia
Guam / Saipan
Air Nauru
Nauru
Air Niugini
Papua New Guinea
APNG (Airlines of Papua New Guinea) Papua New Guinea Air Raratonga
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Table 16.1 (cont.) Selected commercial airline operations in Oceania, 2002 Polynesian Airlines
Samoa
Solomon Airlines
Solomon Islands
Air Vanuatu
Vanuatu
Table 16.2 Scheduled international traffic to/from Australia, by top 10 carriers* 1999–2001 Qantas Airways
1999/00
2000/01
Per cent change
5,380,012
5,870,000
9.1
Air New Zealand
1,640,146
1,870,001
14.0
Singapore Airlines
1,571,797
1,806,350
14.9
Malaysia Airlines
913,025
986,990
8.1
Japan Airlines
657,845
730,371
11.0
Cathay Pacific Airways
560,689
620,982
10.8
Thai Airways Intl
511,637
606,943
18.6
United Airlines
537,666
557,333
3.7
Ansett International
516,629
547,630
6.0
British Airways
730,200
461,852
–36.7
Source: Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics (Government of Australia) 2003b (reproduced with permission) Note: * = Ranking based on passengers carried to and from Australia in 2000/01
Table 16.3 Resident departures from New Zealand to Australia, 1993–2001 Year
Resident departures
Annual change
Percent change
1993
418,738
30,596
+7.9
1994
407,408
–11,330
–2.7
1995
460,266
52,858
+13.0
1996
587,488
127,222
+27.6
1997
598,612
11,124
+1.9
1998
616,743
18,131
+3.0
1999
620,027
3,284
+0.5
2000
684,934
64,907
+10.5
2001
676,047
–8,887
–1.3
Source: Statistics New Zealand (2002)
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Table 16.4 Airline services incorporating New Zealand New Zealand (National) International Airlines Air New Zealand (1940–present) Freedom Air International (1996–present) (subsidiary of Air New Zealand) Foreign airlines operating passenger airlift services to New Zealand Aerolineas Argentinas (1985–present) Air Caledonie International (1987–present) Air Pacific (1974–present) Air Tahiti Nui (2000–present) Air Vanuatu (1989–present) Asian Express (1997–present) Cargolux Airlines International (1999–present) Cathay Pacific (1983–84, 1984–present) EVA Air (1993–present) Garuda Indonesia (1988–present) Korean Air (1993–present) Malaysia Airlines (1989–present) Polynesian Airlines (1978–present) Qantas Airways (1961–present) Singapore Airlines (1976–present) Thai Airways International (1987–present) United Airlines (1986–2003) International Airlines Operating Passenger Airlift (Code-Share Only Basis) to New Zealand Air Canada (1998–present) – on Air New Zealand metal American Airlines (1970–1974, 1990–1992, 1995–present) – on Qantas metal British Airways (1963–present) – on Qantas metal Japan Airlines (1980–present) – on Air New Zealand metal KLM Royal Dutch Airlines (2000–present) – on Malaysia Airlines metal Lufthansa (Passenger codeshare on Air New Zealand and Thai Airways metal, 1995–present) Mexicana (1999–present) – on Air New Zealand metal Royal Tongan Airlines (1991–present) – on Air New Zealand metal United Airlines (approx. 1999–present) – on Air New Zealand metal Source: Adapted from Ministry of Transport (New Zealand) (2003)
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Chapter 17
Destination Risk Management in Oceania JEFF WILKS
Introduction In the 20th century, tourism authorities either largely ignored or significantly played down cases of illness or injury affecting their customers. When a major incident occurred, such as an earthquake or fire, tourism groups typically relied heavily on government agencies such as emergency services and police to help them through the crisis period. Since the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 in the United States, and the Bali bombings in October 2002, tourism authorities around the world have started to take a more pro-active approach to risk and crisis management. There is still a high degree of reliance on specialist government services for crisis response; however, tourism is at least seeking partnerships in this process rather than continuing with passive acceptance (Pacific Asia Travel Association, 2003). While examples of best practice in the management of tourist safety and security at destinations are not always easy to find (World Tourism Organization, 2003), some first-class partnerships have emerged from recent crisis situations. For example, the political coups in Fiji during 1987 and 2000 had the potential to totally destroy the country’s tourism industry. The Fijian tourist industry marketing recovery programme is a good example of how various government agencies and the private sector can work together to repackage a destination after a crisis (Beirman, 2003). There are several standard steps in any risk management programme and generally these include: Identify Analyse
Identify risks before they become realities. Transform risk data into decision-making information by evaluating the probabilities, timeframes, and potential impacts of each risk, then classify and prioritise them. 335
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Use the decision-making information to formulate plans and contingencies for mitigating the potential impact of each risk. Monitor the effectiveness of those plans by reanalysing risk data. Correct for deviation from the risk mitigation plans. Provide internal and external information and feedback loops to monitor changes in the risk environment. (Pacific Asia Travel Association, 2003)
The first step should always be one of identifying risks and potential risks. Among the leading sources of information on identifying risk for the travelling public are Travel Advisories issued by various governments around the world. For example, Australia’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) monitors current activities in more than 80 overseas destinations and provides advice and warnings to travellers through its travel information website (http://www.dfat.gov.au/ travel/index.html). The advice and warnings cover a range of health and safety issues, including crime, infectious diseases, seismic activity and weather patterns. A similar service is offered to travellers by the US State Department (http:// travel.state.gov/travel/warnings.html) and the Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (http://www.voyage. gc.ca/dest/intro-en.asp). Foreign government monitoring is probably the best overall barometer of both actual and perceived risk available to a travel destination. For example, as at 1 June 2003 there were Travel Warnings issued for 30 destinations by the US State Department. A Travel Warning is issued when the State Department decides, based on all relevant information, to recommend that Americans avoid travel to a certain country. The next level down are Public Announcements, which are a means to disseminate information about terrorist threats and other relatively short-term and/or trans-national conditions posing significant risks to the security of American travellers. These are made any time there is a perceived threat and usually have Americans as a particular target group. In the past, Public Announcements have been issued to deal with short-term coups, bomb threats to airlines, violence by terrorists and anniversary dates of specific terrorist events. The Solomon Islands is currently on this list. While in a slightly different format, Australia’s DFAT issues essentially the same information as the US State Department, though it is interesting to note that at any one time some destinations may appear on one warning list but not another. Figure 17.1 shows the travel advice for the Solomon Islands provided by DFAT as at 1 June 2003.
Types of Risk While civil unrest, crime and violence are high priority issues for tourist destinations; also important are health and safety issues to do with infectious diseases,
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natural disasters such as earthquakes and adverse weather patterns, and injuries due to unfamiliar activities. As noted above, the first step in effective risk management for any destination is to accurately determine the types of risk that are occurring. Perhaps the best overview of the types of risk that need to be managed in Oceania is that provided by the Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade on their travel information website: http://www.voyage.gc.ca/ dest/intro-en.asp. A summary of their travel information and advisory reports for individual destinations in Oceania as at 1 June 2003 is presented in Table 17.1 at the end of this chapter. Many of the Pacific Islands mentioned in Table 17.1 have a similar profile. That is, no serious safety or security concerns, some petty crime, typhoons and seismic activity, and a range of possible infectious diseases (most notably dengue fever, hepatitis A and typhoid fever). Malaria is specifically noted for the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, while Japanese B encephalitis is mentioned for the Northern Marianas. In late 2000 Micronesia experienced an outbreak of cholera. The range of infectious diseases prevalent in this region highlights the need for all travellers to carry appropriate travel health insurance, especially cover for emergency medical evacuation. In many smaller and remote destinations adequate medical care will not be available should a tourist require emergency treatment. Health management Travel destinations can begin to manage their risk by assisting tourists to adequately prepare for their journey before leaving home. For most destinations in Oceania this means insisting that visitors carry travel health insurance and have a pre-travel consultation with a medical practitioner. Travel agents are a logical group to provide this assistance, though recent studies show that health and safety advice provided by travel agents varies considerably (see Wilks et al., 2003). For example, Lawton and Page (1997) surveyed 314 New Zealand travel agents and found that the general level of health advice given to travellers was woefully low. In that study less than one-third of agents gave advice about malaria tablets for travellers to Vanuatu or the Solomon Islands. Similarly, less than half the agents gave advice on prevention of insect bites or care with local food and water, despite the very real risk of dengue fever from mosquito bites, and typhoid, hepatitis A and gastroenteritis that can be contracted through contaminated food or water in many destinations. While levels of personal knowledge may be low in some areas of health advice, a more recent study of travel agents in Western Australia found that most agents discussed travel health insurance with clients and more than half recommended that their clients consult a medical practitioner (Ivatts et al., 1999). The challenge for travel destinations is to work with government authorities and industry groups to ensure that timely and accurate information on health and safety issues is available
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to travel agents, and that pre-travel medical consultations are recommended along with travel health insurance. Petty crime Further examination of Table 17.1 shows that for most destinations in Oceania travellers are warned to be vigilant against minor crime. Security of personal valuables is both the responsibility of the individual tourist and the destination. Again, carrying an appropriate travel insurance policy is very important. Ryan (1996) reports that approximately 50% of travel insurance claims from the New Zealand companies he contacted were from cases involving medical matters, about a further 40–45% were due to loss of baggage and other possessions, while the remaining 5–10% were due to other causes, mainly cancellation charges. Many lost or stolen property claims are the result of tourists being careless or negligent; for example, leaving baggage unattended thinking it will be safe, or failing to lock hotel rooms or vehicles while touring. Accommodation providers at each destination have a major role to play in guaranteeing the safety and security of patrons. This involves staff training and the development of company policies and procedures (Partlow & Coon, 1998), as well as attention to the built environment (Philipp & Hodgkinson, 1994). An effective working relationship with the local police is also essential to ensure that tourists are protected from local crime and do not inadvertently wander into areas where they will be at risk (World Tourism Organization, 2003). In Table 17.1, for example, the New South Wales police warn travellers to be particularly cautious in the Kings Cross area of Sydney, Australia. Disaster planning The importance of cooperation and coordination between government agencies and tourism industry groups is critical in the area of disaster planning. For destinations in Oceania, typhoons and seismic activity can pose a very real risk to tourists, as well as to the local population. There are also a number of active volcanoes in the region. Drabek (1995) urges the tourism industry to respond pro-actively to this area of vulnerability through both internal company-specific disaster planning initiatives and partnerships to ensure adequate levels of community response capacity. The partnerships proposed here will involve a ‘whole of government’ approach that encompasses multiple hazards and all four disaster functions (preparedness, response, recovery and mitigation). Identifying unique destination risks and risk exposure Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of injury-related death among tourists worldwide (Wilks, 1999). Many of these crashes are due to visitors driving in unfamiliar environments; for example, driving on the opposite side of the road to that of the home country (Wilks et al., 1999b). Table 17.1 draws attention to those
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destinations in Oceania where traffic drives on the left and where there are unique road safety issues. For Australia and New Zealand a full review of road safety issues for international visitors was undertaken in response to the anticipated number of tourists visiting the region for the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney (Wilks et al., 1999a). The findings of that review highlight the importance of each destination providing road safety advice and assistance for tourists, since this is one area where overseas visitors are likely to experience problems. A second area where tourists are likely to experience problems is in the water (Wilks & Atherton, 1994). As Oceania is made up of island states, water-related activities are a very important part of tourism and must be monitored. For example, a recent study of water-related injuries in Queensland, Australia found that 54% of overseas visitors admitted to hospital were treated for decompression illness related to scuba diving (Wilks & Coory, 2000). As Table 17.2 shows, treatment for decompression illness was much higher for overseas visitors than for either Queensland residents or for Australians from interstate. In contrast, drowning and non-fatal submersions (injuries which occurred mainly while swimming in the surf or a swimming pool) were more prevalent for Australians than for overseas visitors. Often injury monitoring produces valuable, but unexpected findings. For example, in their study of ocean-related injuries in Hawaii, Hartung and his colleagues (1990) found that only 25% of all injuries involved tourists. Island residents, who were assumed to be much more knowledgeable about the ocean and its dangers, and therefore less likely to get hurt, accounted for the majority of injuries. This type of finding has important implications for prevention initiatives targeting specific groups. For example, if tourists are experiencing more problems than local residents with unfamiliar activities such as scuba diving and snorkelling (as they are in Australia: Wilks, 2000), but local residents experience more problems with car crashes involving speed and alcohol (Wilks et al., 2000), then risk management strategies need to be separately tailored according to the needs of each group. In some cases, quite straightforward solutions can be identified to protect both locals and visitors. For example, in their study of beach injuries, Grenfell and Ross (1992) found that a majority of injuries were due to lacerations of the feet and legs, mainly due to beach litter. Their recommended solution was to increase resources to support regular beach cleaning, with particular attention being focused on the collection and management of litter. In order to develop effective risk management strategies, destinations need reliable information on all the types of problems tourists are likely to experience. Hospital monitoring for tourist injuries and illness is a critical component of the management process (Nicol et al., 1996; Walters et al., 1993), but this needs to be supported by information on injuries and illness treated and untreated outside the hospital system (Wilks & Grenfell, 1997) as well as near misses. The latter point has important implications for public relations, as the media will often give consider-
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able coverage to stories about tourist accidents and injuries (Beirman, 2003; Wilks et al., 1996). Other considerations This review of destination risk management issues in Oceania has focused mainly on the physical health and safety of tourists. Also important are emotional considerations (customers being stressed or disappointed) and legal responsibilities, especially the tourist operator’s duty of care. Furthermore, issues to do with training and supervision of staff are critical to the effective management of a travel destination. These considerations were beyond the scope of the present chapter but must be acknowledged. For a detailed coverage of legal issues in this area, the work of Atherton and Atherton (1998) is strongly recommended.
Summary Drawing on selected Canadian travel information and advisory reports for Oceania, the present review noted that many of the Pacific Islands mentioned in Table 17.1 have a similar profile. That is no serious safety or security concerns, some petty crime, typhoons and seismic activity, and a range of possible infectious diseases. The range of infectious diseases prevalent in the region highlighted the need for all travellers to carry appropriate travel health insurance, especially cover for emergency medical evacuation. The review also noted that effective risk management strategies for addressing health, petty crime, disaster planning and unique risk exposure (such as with road and water safety) all required the cooperative and coordinated efforts of government agencies and tourist industry groups. Destinations are not a single product or service but rather a package perceived in a certain way by the customer. Just as destination marketing draws together a range of interested parties, so too should risk management be a ‘whole of destination’ effort. Health authorities, law enforcement officials, transport agencies and insurers all have a role to play in managing tourist risk. This is particularly important in a ‘recovery phase’ where destinations such as Fiji (in 1987 and 2000) and the Solomon Islands (2003) need assistance to re-establish themselves as safe destinations. References Atherton, T.C. and Atherton, T.A. (1998) Tourism, Travel and Hospitality Law. Sydney: LBC Information Services. Beirman, D. (2003) Restoring Tourism Destinations in Crisis: A Strategic Marketing Approach. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (site visited 01/06/03) Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) (site visited 01/06/03).
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Drabek, T.E. (1995) Disaster planning and response by tourist business executives. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly June, 86–96. Grenfell, R.D. and Ross, K.N. (1992) How dangerous is that visit to the beach? A pilot study of beach injuries. Australian Family Physician 21, 1145–48. Hartung, G.H., Goebert, D.A., Taniguchi, R.M. and Okamoto, G.A. (1990) Epidemiology of ocean sports-related injuries in Hawaii: ‘Akahele O Ke Kai’. Hawaii Medical Journal, 49 (2), 52–6. Ivatts, S.L., Plant, A.J. and Condon, R.J. (1999) Travel health: Perceptions and practices of travel consultants. Journal of Travel Medicine 6, 76–80. Lawton, G. and Page, S. (1997). Evaluating travel agents’ provision of health advice to travellers. Tourism Management 18 (2), 89–104. Nicol, J., Wilks, J. and Wood, M. (1996). Tourists as inpatients in Queensland regional hospitals. Australian Health Review 19, 55–72. Pacific Asia Travel Association (2003) Crisis: It Won’t Happen to Us. Bangkok: Pacific Asia Travel Association. Partlow, C.G. & Coon, E.H. (1998) Security management in the hotel industry: Implications for course development. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education 9 (4), 8–15. Philipp, R. & Hodgkinson, G. (1994) The management of health and safety hazards in tourist resorts. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health 7 (3), 207–19. Ryan, C. (1996) Linkages between holiday travel risk and insurance claims: Evidence from New Zealand. Tourism Management 17 (8), 593–601. US State Department (site visited 01/06/03). Walters, J., Fraser, H.S. and Alleyne, G.A.O. (1993) Use by visitors of the services of the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Barbados, WI. West Indies Medical Journal 42, 13–17. Wilks, J. (1999) International tourists, motor vehicles and road safety: A review of the literature leading up to the Sydney 2000 Olympics. Journal of Travel Medicine 6, 115–21. Wilks, J. (2000) Scuba diving and snorkelling safety on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef. Journal of Travel Medicine 7, 283–9. Wilks, J. and Atherton, T. (1994) Health and safety in Australian marine tourism: A social, medical and legal appraisal. Journal of Tourism Studies 5, 2–16. Wilks, J. and Coory, M. (2000) Overseas visitors admitted to Queensland hospitals for water-related injuries. Medical Journal of Australia 173 (5), 244–6. Wilks, J. & Grenfell, R. (1997) Travel and health research in Australia. Journal of Travel Medicine 4, 83–9. Wilks, J., Pendergast, D. and Holzheimer, L. (2003) Travel agents’ health and safety advice. In J. Wilks and S.J. Page (eds) Managing Tourist Health and Safety in the New Millennium. Amsterdam: Pergamon. Wilks, J., Pendergast, D. and Service, M. (1996) Newspaper reporting of tourist health and safety issues. Australian Leisure 7, 45–8. Wilks, J., Watson, B. and Hansen, R. (eds) (1999a) International Visitors and Road Safety in Australia: A Status Report. Canberra: Australian Transport Safety Bureau. Wilks, J., Watson, B. and Hansen, J. (2000) International drivers and road safety in Queensland, Australia. Journal of Tourism Studies 11, 36–43. Wilks, J., Watson, B., Hansen, J. and Johnston, K. (1999b) International drivers in unfamiliar surroundings: The problem of disorientation. Travel Medicine International 17, 162–7. World Tourism Organization (2003) Safety and Security in Tourism: Partnerships and Practical Guidelines for Destinations. Madrid: World Tourism Organisation.
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Solomon Islands This advice is current for Sunday 01 June 2003 EST The advice was issued on Wednesday 08 January 2003 17:06:46 EDT Safety and Security Australians are advised to defer all holiday travel to Solomon Islands due to continuing major law and order problems, particularly in Honiara and in many areas of rural Guadalcanal. Australians in Solomon Islands should maintain a high level of personal security awareness and monitor developments that might affect their safety. Australians planning travel outside Honiara, to rural Guadalcanal and other provinces, are advised to contact the Australian High Commission for an update on the security situation prior to travel. The Solomon Islands Government has identified restoration of law and order as a priority. Criminal lawlessness has become a major problem. Considerable work remains to be done to reconcile former combatants who still hold large numbers of weapons and to address regular serious breaches of the law. The police have limited capability to respond effectively. Australian travellers should be aware of the increased threat of terrorism globally and should consult the General Advice to Australian Travellers, available at http://www.orao.dfat.gov.au Cyclone season in the Solomon Islands is November to April. The potential damage of cyclones was underscored by Cyclone Zoe in December 2002. Health Issues Medical facilities in Solomon Islands are limited. For information on prevalent diseases and inoculations, travellers should consult their doctor or a travel clinic. Contact details for travel clinics can be found in our ‘Travelling Well’ brochure available on the Department’s website. Travel and Health Insurance Travel and health insurance is strongly recommended for all overseas travel. Travellers should check with their insurer to make sure that their policy meets their needs. In particular, travellers should be aware that some insurance companies will not pay claims which arise when travellers have disregarded the Government’s travel advice.
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Consular Assistance and Registration Australian and Canadian nationals in Solomon Islands are strongly advised to register with the Australian High Commission upon arrival in Solomon Islands and to advise the High Commission upon their departure. For further information or to register, contact the Australian High Commission, Cnr Hibiscus Ave and Mud Alley, Honiara – telephone (677) 21 561–3. The Department also offers an on-line registration service, accessible via the Internet at address: http://www.orao.dfat.gov.au The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade in Canberra may also be contacted on telephone (02) 6261 3305. While every care has been taken in preparing this travel information for travellers, neither the Australian Government nor its agents or employees including any member of Australia’s consular staff abroad, can accept liability for injury, loss or damage arising in respect of any statement contained therein. © Commonwealth of Australia 2003 | Disclaimer | Privacy
Figure 17.1 Copy of travel advice for the Solomon Islands, provided by DFAT (2003)
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Table 17.1 A summary of selected Canadian travel information and advisory reports for Oceania, 2003 Australia (capital: Canberra) is a continent located between the Indian and Pacific Oceans. English is the official language. Traffic drives on the left. Tourist facilities are widely available.
Violent crime is low; however, foreigners are targets for pickpockets and purse-snatchers, especially at airports. Vehicle break-ins are common. Travellers, especially backpackers, should ensure that their valuables are secure against theft, particularly in crowded places. The New South Wales police have advised travellers to be particularly cautious in the Kings Cross District of Sydney, as there have been violent attacks on backpackers. Robberies of safe-deposit facilities are common at inexpensive hotels and hostels. Women should not hitchhike or travel alone after dark. Many regions in the interior of Australia are remote, with small populations. Overland travellers may have limited access to telephones and other facilities. Flash floods and bush fires occur in many parts of the country, and overland travellers should monitor news reports carefully. Travellers should inform travel agents or local authorities of route details and expected date of return when travelling to remote areas. Exercise caution when driving in rural areas, particularly in the Northern Territory. There are roaming animals, no speed limits, and ‘road-trains’ (several semi-trailers hooked together). Drivers should pull over and allow oncoming road-trains to pass to avoid being sideswiped.
The Cook Islands (capital: Avarua) are two groups of islands located in the South Pacific Ocean, about halfway between Hawaii and New Zealand. Tourist facilities are widely available. The official language is English. Traffic drives on the left. The official currency is the New Zealand dollar (NZD), supplemented by Cook Island dollars and coinage for local use.
There are no serious safety or security concerns; however, petty crime is prevalent. There is one ATM machine at the ANZ bank in Avarua. Major credit cards are accepted at most hotels, shops, and restaurants.The typhoon season occurs between November and March. Travellers should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly.The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever can occur in the Cook Islands.
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Table 17.1 (cont.) A summary of selected Canadian travel information and advisory reports for Oceania, 2003 Fiji (capital: Suva) is a group of islands located in the South Pacific Ocean about two-thirds of the way between Hawaii and New Zealand. Tourist facilities and services are good. English is the official language. Traffic drives on the left.
Theft and purse snatching are common. Attention should be given to the security of personal valuables at all times. Valuables should not be left unattended on the beach. Unpopulated areas and night travel should be avoided. Do not hike alone. Fiji is located in an active seismic zone. It is recommended that Canadians know the address and telephone number of the Canadian Consulate in Nadi or the Canadian High Commission in New Zealand in the event of an emergency. The cyclone season extends from November to April. Heavy rains occasionally result in localised flash flooding. Travellers should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever can occur in Fiji.
French Polynesia (capital: Papeete) is an overseas territory of France. It is a group of islands, including Tahiti and Bora Bora, located in the South Pacific Ocean, halfway between Australia and South America. The official languages are French and Tahitian. Tourist facilities and services are widely available throughout the main islands.
There are no serious security or safety concerns. Petty crime such as pick-pocketing and purse snatching occurs. Roads are narrow. Drivers and pedestrians should exercise caution, particularly at night. French Polynesia is located in an active seismic zone. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever can occur in French Polynesia.
Guam (capital: Agana) is a territory of the United States of America, located in the North Pacific Ocean about three-quarters of the way between Hawaii and the Philippines. English, Chamorro, and Japanese are the official languages. Tourist facilities are widely available.
There are no serious security or safety concerns. Petty crime occurs. Guam is subject to typhoons, especially in August. The rainy season extends from July to December. Travellers should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever can occur in Guam.
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Table 17.1 (cont.) A summary of selected Canadian travel information and advisory reports for Oceania, 2003 Kiribati (capital: Tarawa) is a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean approximately half way between Australia and Hawaii. English is the official language. Tourist facilities are available in the capital but limited elsewhere. Traffic drives on the left. The official currency is the Australian dollar (AUD).
There are no serious security and safety concerns. Exercise caution when swimming offshore, as there are dangerous currents, particularly beyond the reef area. The lagoon in south Tarawa is polluted. Some roads flood after heavy rains. Night driving is not recommended. The typhoon seasons occurs between November and March. Travellers to the region should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever can occur in Kiribati.
Marshall Islands (capital: Majuro) consist of two island chains located in the Pacific Ocean, between Hawaii and Papua New Guinea. The former nuclear test sites of Bikini and Enewetak are part of the country. Tourist facilities and services are limited. There are a few hotels on Majuro and on Ebeye. The official language is English.
There are no serious security or safety concerns. Break-ins and thefts from hotel rooms and vehicles have increased. Exercise caution when driving, especially at night. There are few traffic signs and lights. Animals roam the streets. Some roads flood after heavy rains. The islands border the typhoon belt, but full-blown tropical storms and typhoons are rare. Travellers should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that cholera, dengue fever, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever can occur in the Marshall Islands.
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Table 17.1 (cont.) A summary of selected Canadian travel information and advisory reports for Oceania, 2003 Micronesia (capital: Palikir) is located in the North Pacific Ocean, about three-quarters of the way between Hawaii and Indonesia. The official language is English. Tourist facilities and services are limited.
There are no serious safety or security concerns. Petty crime is prevalent. Drive defensively, as road conditions are different from those in Canada. Most roads are in poor condition. Roads outside towns are often unpaved. Streetlights are rare. Many drivers do not follow safe driving practices. The typhoon season extends from June to December. Resulting damage, such as landslides, can be severe. Heavy rainfalls are common, particularly in the eastern islands. Travellers should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. All public medical services are provided from the local hospital, so services are limited and should only be used in an emergency. A good quality private medical clinic and pharmacy has recently opened. Specialist services are extremely limited. In cases of serious illness a medical evacuation to Guam, Hawaii, or Australia will be necessary. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that cholera, dengue fever, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever can occur in Micronesia.
Nauru (no official capital; government offices in Yaren District) is an island located in the South Pacific Ocean, south of the Marshall Islands. Tourist facilities and services are limited. The official language is Nauruan, but English is widely spoken.
There are no serious safety and security concerns. Traffic drives on the left. Drive defensively, as road conditions are different from those in Canada. Traffic accidents are a common cause of death and injury. The rainy season occurs between November and February. Travellers to the region should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever can occur in Nauru.
New Caledonia (capital: Noumea) is an overseas territory of France located in the South Pacific Ocean, east of Australia. The official language is French. Tourist facilities and services are widely available. The official currency is the French Pacific franc (XPF).
There are no serious safety or security concerns. Petty crime is prevalent. The typhoon season occurs between November and March. Travellers should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever and hepatitis A can occur in New Caledonia.
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Table 17.1 (cont.) A summary of selected Canadian travel information and advisory reports for Oceania, 2003 New Zealand (capital: Wellington) is located in the South Pacific Ocean, south-east of Australia. The official languages are English and Maori. Tourist facilities are widely available. Traffic drives on the left.
Violent crime against tourists is rare. Theft from unattended vehicles, especially campers, from motel rooms, and at tourist sites, ski fields, and recreational areas is a major problem and is increasing. Do not leave valuables unattended. Bag snatching and other street crime occur in major cities. Check with local tourist authorities before travelling to remote areas and leave journey details with family or friends or with the Canadian High Commission in Wellington. Drivers should be extra cautious in rural areas to avoid hitting animals. Pedestrians should exercise caution when crossing the street. Pedestrians do not have the right of way except at crosswalks. New Zealand is located in an active seismic zone. Canadians should know the address and telephone number of the Canadian High Commission in Wellington in the event of an emergency. Cyclones, strong winds, and heavy rains can occur, causing flooding and road damage. However, these are not yearly occurrences. Travellers should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. Travellers to New Zealand who are injured in a work or motor vehicle accident are generally covered for public hospital treatment by the Accident Rehabilitation and Compensation Insurance Corporation (ACC). As the result of this insurance scheme, individuals do not have the right to sue for damages (apart from exemplary damages) for personal injuries that are covered by ACC.
Niue (capital: Alofi) is a country in free association with New Zealand located in the South Pacific Ocean east of Tonga. There are limited tourist facilities and services. The official languages are Niuean and English. The official currency is the New Zealand dollar (NZD).
There are no serious safety and security concerns. Niue is subject to typhoons. Travellers should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever can occur in Niue.
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Table 17.1 (cont.) A summary of selected Canadian travel information and advisory reports for Oceania, 2003 The Northern Mariana Islands (capital: Saipan) are a commonwealth in political union with the United States of America and are located in the North Pacific Ocean between Hawaii and the Philippines. Tourist facilities and services are limited. The official language is English.
There are no serious safety or security concerns. The typhoon season occurs between August and November and damage is occasionally severe. There are active volcanoes on the islands of Pagan and Agrihan. Travellers should keep informed of r egional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever, hepatitis A, Japanese B encephalitis, and typhoid fever can occur in the Northern Marianas.
Palau (capital: Koror) is a group of islands located in the North Pacific Ocean, south-east of the Philippines. Tourist facilities are limited but are expanding. The official languages are English and Palauan.
There are no serious security or safety concerns. However, petty crime is prevalent. Heavy rains occur between July and October. Typhoons are rare. Travellers should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. Proof of yellow fever immunisation is required for those arriving from infected areas. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever can occur in Palau.
Samoa (capital: Apia) is a group of islands located in the South Pacific Ocean, between Hawaii and New Zealand. Tourist facilities and services are good. The official languages are Samoan and English.
There are no serious security or safety concerns. However, petty crime is prevalent. Samoa is located in an active seismic zone and is also subject to volcanos. Canadians should know the address and telephone number of the Australian High Commission in Apia in the event of an emergency. The islands are subject to typhoons. Travellers should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever can occur in Samoa.
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Table 17.1 (cont.) A summary of selected Canadian travel information and advisory reports for Oceania, 2003 The Solomon Islands (capital: Honiara) form an archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, to the east of Papua New Guinea. Basic tourist facilities and services are available. The official language is Melanesian pidgin. English is spoken by a small percentage of the population.
ATTENTION current travel advisory at 1 June 2003 Canadians should defer tourist travel to the Solomon Islands. Ethnic unrest, acts of lawlessness, and armed criminal activity continue, mainly throughout Guadalcanal and Malaita. Occasional shootings have occurred in the town of Gizo, in Western Province. Although a peace agreement between rival militia groups was signed in October 2000, the security situation has not improved, and the possibility of further unrest continues. Canadians in the Solomon Islands should exercise caution, monitor local developments, avoid large crowds and demonstrations, and register and maintain close contact with the Australian High Commission in Honiara. Violent crime against foreigners has occurred. Two foreign nationals were stabbed to death in Honiara in 2002. Crimes such as burglary, car theft, and assault are a major concern, especially in Honiara. Police are limited in their ability to respond effectively. Domestic flights may be cancelled without notice. Inter-island ferries are often overcrowded. Safety standards are minimal. Traffic drives on the left. Road conditions are poor. Drivers have little regard for traffic regulations and do not follow safe driving practices. Roadblocks operated by armed insurgent groups may be encountered outside Honiara. The Solomon Islands are subject to earthquakes, volcanic activity, and tidal waves. Canadians should know the address and telephone number of the Australian High Commission in Honiara in the event of an emergency. The rainy season extends from November to April. Severe tropical storms can also occur. Travellers should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever, hepatitis A, malaria, and typhoid fever can occur in Solomon Islands.
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Table 17.1 (cont.) A summary of selected Canadian travel information and advisory reports for Oceania, 2003 Tokelau is a territory of New Zealand located in the South Pacific Ocean about half way between Hawaii and New Zealand. Tourist facilities and services are limited. The official languages are Tokelauan and English. Traffic drives on the left. The official currency is the New Zealand dollar (NZD).
There are no serious safety and security concerns. The islands lie in the Pacific typhoon belt. Travellers should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever can occur in Tokelau.
Tonga (capital: Nuku’alofa) is located in the South Pacific Ocean about two-thirds of the way between Hawaii and New Zealand. Tourist facilities and services are available in the capital but limited elsewhere. The official languages are Tongan and English. Traffic drives on the left. The official currency is the Pa’anga (T).
There are no serious safety or security concerns. Petty crime is prevalent. The typhoon season occurs between October and April. Fonuafo’ou is subject to earthquakes and volcanic activity. Travellers should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever can occur in Tonga.
There are no serious safety and security concerns. Tuvalu (capital: Funafuti) is a The World Health Organization and Health Canada report self-governing member that dengue fever, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever can occur in of the Commonwealth Tuvalu. located in the South Pacific Ocean about half way between Hawaii and Australia. Tourist facilities and services are limited. The official languages are Tuvaluan and English. Traffic drives on the left. The official currency is the Australian dollar (AUD).
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Table 17.1 (cont.) A summary of selected Canadian travel information and advisory reports for Oceania, 2003 Vanuatu (capital: Port-Vila) is a group of islands located in the South Pacific Ocean, north-east of Australia. The official languages are Bislama, English and French. Tourist facilities and services are good but limited outside the capital.
There are no serious security or safety concerns. However, petty crime is prevalent. Vanuatu is situated along an active volcanic line which causes frequent earthquakes and tidal waves. An earthquake measuring 7.3 on the Richter scale occurred in January 2002, causing landslides and structural damage to buildings and bridges on the island of Efate. Canadians should know the address and telephone number of the Australian High Commission in Port-Vila in the event of an emergency. The Yasur volcano, located on the island of Tanna, is currently at alert level 3, indicating that minor eruptions have occurred. Access to the volcano and surrounding 500-metre zone is strictly prohibited. Canadians in the area should be aware of the risks and follow the advice of local authorities in the event of further eruptions or explosions. The typhoon season extends from January to April. Travellers should keep informed of regional weather forecasts and plan accordingly. The World Health Organization and Health Canada report that dengue fever, hepatitis A, malaria, and typhoid fever can occur in Vanuatu.
Table 17.2 Main conditions treated following a water-related incident for all patients admitted to Queensland Hospitals, 1995/96 to 1997/98 Main condition treated*
Overseas visitors
Interstate visitors
frequency
%
frequency
%
frequency
%
162
54.7
51
18.5
290
12.2
Fractures and dislocation
46
15.5
77
27.9
689
29.0
Drowning and non-fatal submersion
44
14.9
69
25.0
595
25.1
Decompression illness
Queensland residents
Facial injury
7
2.4
7
2.5
87
3.7
Major trauma at multiple sites
5
1.7
6
2.2
51
2.1
Lacerations/contusions
4
1.4
8
2.9
41
1.7
Paraplegia/quadriplegia
3
1.0
6
2.2
44
1.9
Moderate to severe head injury
1
0.3
–
–
25
1.1
Mild head injury
1
0.3
14
5.1
98
4.1
Burns
1
0.3
–
–
19
0.8
Barotrauma
1
0.3
3
1.1
7
0.3
Other
21
7.1
35
12.7
429
18.1
Total
296
100.0
276
100.0
2375
100.0
Note: * The main condition treated was determined using the diagnosis and procedure codes to group admissions into clinically meaningful categories
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Chapter 18
Global Warming and Tourism in Oceania STEPHEN J. CRAIG-SMITH
Introduction As with all studies of the future much rests on speculation and personal interpretation. This chapter attempts to predict what may happen to tourism in Oceania as a result of global warming. It examines the links between temperature and the related phenomena of cloud cover, wind patterns and velocity, rainfall and snow cover and relates these in turn to both the terrestrial and marine environments – the latter so dominant in Oceania. This can be considered as temperature change and downstream climate effects and an analysis of those likely effects on the wider environment (see Figure 18.1). The chapter does not attempt to examine in detail the likely causes of global warming but merely accepts that on the basis of time series data gathered from around the world it is clear that mean annual temperature is on the rise and that this trend is unlikely to reverse in the near future (Kerr, 1999). To keep what could develop into a very diverse and somewhat superficial analysis of all types of tourism activity which takes place in this large and varied region of the globe the chapter focuses on five types of tourism and looks at likely possible impacts on each in turn. Whilst such a selective approach may offend some readers the five selected, in the author’s opinion, do cover the greater part of tourism in Oceania – namely urban tourism, eco-tourism, winter based tourism, ocean based tourism and small island tourism. These are presented in this order not in sequence of importance but in sequence of increasingly significant impact from climate change. Whilst there is clearly some overlap between the categories selected each type of tourism faces its own set of changed circumstances with the author suggesting that urban-based tourism, e.g. city tours of Sydney or Auckland, are likely to be the least affected by temperature change and that island based tourism, especially low atoll type tourism, could be most affected (Viner & Agnew, 2000). Whilst there is considerable pessimism within certain communities about the consequences of global warming this chapter attempts a balanced view and outlines possible up sides as well as the possible difficulties (Wall, 1992). 353
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TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT Skiing/Snow Boarding/Walking/Climbing/Touring
Cloud Cover
Wind Patterns & Velocity
Temperature
Rainfall
Snow Cover
Diving/Swimming/Sailing/Fishing/Sun-Bathing MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Figure 18.1 Climate change and tourism
Climate Change Climate, which can be defined as ‘average weather’ is always changing – it has since the earth began to cool down almost 4 billion years ago (Environment Canada, 2000). It is only 10,000 years ago that large areas of the globe, now ice free, were in the grip of a major ice age. There has been a general climate warming with some minor fluctuation for the last 10,000 years so why the present concern? The present concern revolves around two phenomena; one, the reason for the current warming trend, and two, the speed of warming increases. Without the presence of water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere the average world temperature would be in the order of –18ºC rather than the present average of +15ºC. With the rapid increase in the world’s population and consequent land clearing and energy use over the last 200 years, the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere has increased by 30%, methane by 145% and nitrous oxide by 15%. These ‘greenhouse gases’ have increased and this has led to a consequent mean global temperature rise of almost 0.5ºC in the last 100 years. It is this cause and the speed of the rise that are of concern.
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How long such warming trends will continue are very conjectural, much depending on how fast the world uses up fossil fuels, economically develops and clears land; but Canadian scientists have predicted that temperatures will increase over the next 100 years by more then they have over the last 10,000 years. More focused on the Oceania Region, Viner and Agnew (2001) predict that summer temperatures in Australia will increase by a further 1.5ºC by 2020 and by 3º to 4ºC by 2050! Whilst increases of 1.5ºC or even 3º or 4ºC may not appear significant, mean temperature can be misleading; and whilst the mean may not seem great the average maximum temperature, especially in the summer months, can make all the difference from being comfortable at say 27º or 28ºC to being uncomfortable at 30º or 31ºC or almost unbearable at 33º or 34ºC. Higher temperatures can be attractive to potential tourists living in a cold climate but there is a limit to just how warm most people want to be. Once people feel uncomfortable increased temperature can be a deterrent rather than an attraction. As most of Oceania lies within the equatorial and tropical belts of the world there is limited tolerance for further temperature rise. Because the atmosphere is a highly volatile and interactive environment, change unfortunately does not stop with a mere temperature increase. In fact as far as tourism is concerned it is the downstream consequences of temperature rise which are probably more significant when it comes to tourism destination choice. Air temperature affects air pressure, which in turn affects air movements and wind patterns – and velocity can be very significant for tourism. Whilst some air movements can increase tourism comfort such as the diurnal onshore movement of sea breezes in coastal locations during the heat of the day, more extreme wind movements are a pronounced tourism detractor. A major concern for Oceania is a likely increase in severe climate effects such as tropical cyclones which are predicted to increase in both frequency and severity with global warming. Not only can such extremes be very dangerous but clean-up operations and repair of damage can be prohibitively expensive. Adverse news exposure of property damage and loss of life can be major deterrents for potential tourists. An increase in such extreme events can only be detrimental to the tourism attraction of the region. Ask anyone what he or she knows of Darwin and the probability is they will talk of Cyclone Tracy which almost wiped out the entire city on Christmas Day 1974. On large continental landmasses such as the United States or Australia it is possible to travel inland to avoid the worst onslaught of an advancing cyclone, but no such escape is possible on small Pacific islands. Global climate models suggest that tropical cyclones could possibly increase in intensity by between 10 and 20% with a doubling of CO2 in the earth’s atmosphere. Between 1940 and the mid 1990s the average number of tropical cyclones in the Southern Pacific has been seven but this is likely to increase to more then eight in the future. During strong El Nino events there is a greater chance of cyclones affecting
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Tuvalu, Samoa, Tonga, the Cook Islands and French Polynesia. The overall risk to the Pacific Islands from tropical cyclones could increase by up to 28% (GPI Atlantic, 2000). Wind patterns and velocities have further downstream effects. Rainfall and cloud cover can also influence tourism patterns of behaviour. In the hotter parts of Oceania increased cloud cover may be an advantage in both keeping down maximum day time temperatures and reducing the risk of skin cancer as a result of the sun’s ultra violet rays. Australia already suffers the world’s highest rates of skin melanoma. In more southern regions of New Zealand and Tasmania, however, increased cloud cover may have the opposite effect and detract from potential tourist appeal. Increased gloominess, especially when associated with rain, may more than counterbalance the advantage of higher temperatures. Rainfall, always associated with tropical cyclones and frequently associated with increased cloudiness, is likely to prove a major detractor in the region. Whilst some parts of Australia could benefit from higher rainfall figures the probability is that the increased rainfall will not occur in the drier parts of the continent (Sydney Morning Herald, 2001). As rainfall curtails most outdoor activities with the possible exception of fishing, increased rainfall in the region will deter future tourism activity. Kiribati, the northern Cook Islands, Tokelau and parts of Northern French Polynesia have become steadily wetter whereas New Caledonia, Fiji and Tonga have become somewhat drier. Cloudier conditions have been noted in Samoa, eastern Kiribati, Tokelau and parts of north-east French Polynesia. At the regional level rainfall has increased in the north-east and decreased in the south-west of the Pacific (GPI Atlantic, 2000). Snowfall and snow cover affects a very small area of Oceania, being confined to winter periods and then only on mountainous regions in the southern parts of Australia and New Zealand. Whilst there may be more snow falling in the coldest part of the year the warmer temperatures will result in a shorter snow cover season. This will render some snowfields becoming economically unviable on the margins of current snowfields.
Environmental Impact Concerns over global warming therefore, cannot be confined to air temperatures alone but must also include wind patterns, tropical cyclones, rainfall, level of cloud cover and extent of snowfield development. Before an examination of likely effects climate change may have on the activity of tourism in the region it is first necessary to look at climatic affects on both the terrestrial and marine environments in general. As this is an analysis of likely implications of climate change on tourism not all aspects of the marine and terrestrial environments are reviewed here. Set out below
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is a selective account of the likely implications that a warmer climate may have on the wider environment considered of relevance to tourism. Given the nature of Oceania sea level rise is likely to be one of the most significant environmental outcomes of global warming. Sea level rise occurs for two reasons. As the world’s atmosphere heats up, much of the planet’s fresh water supply currently locked up in ice sheets, is returned to the oceans thereby increasing the ocean water volume. Since the end of the last Ice Age sea level has been rising at an annual average of 2 millimetres per year. As water temperature rises, however, it also expands and sea level also rises as a result of thermal expansion. In Oceania the National Tidal Facility at Flinders University in South Australia reports sea level rises in the region of 25 millimetres per year or more then 10 times the global trend. Satellite data show sea level rises from Papua New Guinea to Fiji to be in the order of 20 to 30 millimetres per year. Given present greenhouse gas emissions sea level is bound to rise by a further 5 to 12 centimetres and will probably peak between 2020 and 2025 (US Environmental Protection Agency, 2001). If greenhouse gas emissions are not curtailed sea level will most likely rise by a further 14 to 32 centimetres, peaking somewhere between 2050 and 2100. Sea level rise has very serious implications for an island region. A second issue affecting the marine environment is coral bleaching. Pomerance (1999) has noted some coral reefs around the world suffer severe bleaching as a result of sea water temperature rise. When corals are stressed due to water temperature rise a critical balance which maintains the symbiotic relationship between the coral and the algae is lost. Once coral loses some or most of the algae a major source of nutrition and colour is lost (Hayes & Goreau, 1991). A reef deprived of its brilliant colour is considered as bleached; this may spell ultimate death to the reef colony in the worst cases and it very often leads to a loss of visitor appeal. Increased wind velocity may result in higher wind waves and stronger beach return water currents, which in turn may be less appealing for visitor use. Whilst larger waves may improve surfing conditions, swimming, diving, sailing and fishing may well suffer. Increased water disturbance may lead to increased turbulence, loss of water clarity, accelerated beach erosion and coastal land loss (Shea, 2002). On land, climate change may exert even greater change within Oceania. Temperature, humidity, cloud cover and wind velocity have considerable influence on vegetation cover. Not only may the quintessential beach fringed by palm trees disappear but a loss of vegetation cover can lead to a greater risk of erosion compounded by higher rainfall. Hotter, drier conditions, on the other hand, may lead to greater desertification and reduced ground water storage. Temperature change can also affect the geographical distribution, spread and areas potentially at risk from infectious diseases (Mackenzie et al., 1993). Climate change predictions for the Australian area of Oceania suggest that such diseases as Ross River virus,
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Barmah Forest virus and Murry Valley encephalitis virus could be on the rise. More generally across the region dengue fever, yellow fever and malaria could all be on the increase following temperature increases in the region (Greenpeace, 2002). Whilst it is possible to combat some of these changes, remedial action brings with it additional costs. Importations of potable water to small islands, defence of beaches with groyne fields, artificial cooling with air conditioners, increased resort facility irrigation and stronger structures capable of withstanding higher wind velocities are all possible, but the cost may well render the local tourism industry non-viable. This, together with a warmer climate at the tourist generating regions of the world such as Japan, Western Europe and North America, casts an ominous shadow over much of Oceania’s current tourism involvement. In equatorial and tropical regions of the world increased summer temperatures and shorter winters bring fewer benefits then they do in regions nearer the poles.
Tourism Impact With these factors in mind the five types of tourism currently significant in the Oceania region are now discussed. Although most people do not associate Oceania with the major urban concentrations of the world urban-based tourism is significant in some areas – notably Australia and New Zealand and to a lesser extent Hawaii and Fiji. Cities such as Sydney, Melbourne, Cairns, Auckland, Wellington, Honolulu and Suva are either tourist attractions in their own right or act as incidental attractions simply for the fact that they act as major gateways for tourist entry. As much of urban-based tourism occurs indoors (shopping, art galleries, museums, libraries, civic or parliamentary events) climate change is likely to have minimal impact on this form of tourism. There may be a need for increased shade provision in shopping streets and malls and air-conditioning in currently non-air-conditioned buildings but climate impact is likely to be small regarding this sector of the tourism industry. Eco-tourism, in spite of being a much overused word and meaning many things to many people, is a significant sector of the tourism industry in Oceania. Tourists looking for authentic experiences, unspoilt natural environments and different races and cultures have much to see in Oceania with almost every land mass and small island having its own unique contribution to make. In Australia most of Tasmania, the desert interior (the Outback) and the tropical North, in New Zealand the volcanic regions of North Island and the spectacular mountains of South Island and many of the Pacific Islands act as eco-tourism magnets. In some respects climate change may have only limited impact on this market. Tourists interested in natural ecosystems, the symbiotio → symbiotic relationship between environment and culture and first-hand experiences of natural processes should be little affected by climate change – in fact change brought about by recent climate fluctuations may well provide added interest for this group of visitors – but there are still some concerns.
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In large countries such as Australia global warming will merely result in ecosystems shifting geographically so tropical rainforest may well extend further south than it does today; but in small island countries its entire physical character might well change as there is no land for a spatial shift. Here one may be looking at extinction rather then geospatial shift. Warmer temperatures, greater humidity, stronger wind velocities, greater risk of disease and a less reliable water supply will have some adverse effects on parts of this market. Winter-based tourism has three aspects. The most widely acknowledged element of winter-based tourism is the activities associated with snow and ice. Skiing, snow boarding, sledging, winter climbing, glacier walking, skating and apre-ski activities are the main stay of winter-based tourism. The Southern Alps of New South Wales and Victoria and much of Tasmania in Australia and the uplands of North Island and the Alps of South Island of New Zealand are the main foci for winter based tourism focused on snow and ice. The risk with global warming is twofold; the snow fields will get smaller or even completely disappear and all snow areas face a shorter season. Whilst mountain areas can counterbalance snow-based activities in the winter with other non-snow activities in the summer it is usually the winter season which brings the greatest economic returns and creates the greatest employment. Many Australian ski resorts already have to resort to the use of snow-making machines in ‘poor’ years and the economic viability of much winter tourism is in doubt. Another aspect of Australian winter based tourism, less well known then snow related activities, is ‘Christmas in June’. The Blue Mountains, inland from Sydney, and the Granite Belt, inland form Brisbane, do not attract enough snow for the traditional snow and ski holidays, but the generally colder conditions in the mountains than in the coastal located cities provides an important Christmas niche market event. As many residents of Australia originate from the Northern hemisphere where Christmas occurs mid-winter, a small but viable niche market has arisen where by ‘Christmas activities’ are offered in the mountains in June. This is only possible with frost outside the hotel and a roaring fire inside. If the mountain climate warms up this niche market is in jeopardy. A third aspect of winter based tourism is that activity undertaken in a warm climate by visitors originating from a cold climate. The Mediterranean regions of Europe and North Africa have long benefited from tourists moving south in the northern winter, and the Caribbean region has performed a similar function for people in North America. Oceania is a popular winter vocation destination for people originating in Korea, China and Japan; warm Oceania being a pleasant winter destination for people caught in the grip of a northern Asian winter. If the northern winters of Asia become less severe there may be less incentive to travel south to Oceania; but this is the one aspect of winter based tourism which is unlikely to be too seriously affected by climate change.
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Ocean based tourism is nearly always popular in any country in the summer but nowhere is the ocean more popular than in Australia – nine out of every ten Australians live permanently within 100 kilometres of the Ocean. The Great Barrier Reef off northern Australia, reefs off Pacific Islands, beach holidays, wreck diving, fishing, boating and sunbaking are all important tourist activities in Oceania. Climate warming may well encourage further development of ocean based tourism in the southern latitudes of Australia and New Zealand, benefiting in particular South Island of New Zealand and Tasmania in Australia but the negative effects of global warming are considerable. Dangers of skin cancer, coral bleaching, beach erosion, a greater incidence of cyclones and increased rainfall could all contribute to grater tourism infrastructure costs and possible reduction of income. Perhaps the most significant aspect of tourism in Oceania is small island tourism which has its own charm and magical appeal for so many visitors. Whilst small island tourism mainly comprises the issues already outlined above, the island environment and especially the low island (atoll) environment, is so unique it deserves special attention and comment. Whereas global warming and associated sea level rise are but a risk to most regions of the world in the low island regions of the Pacific the implications are extinction – not just risk. Nowhere on the planet are the dangers of global warming and sea level rise so serious; a worst case scenario is total submergence and complete loss of some islands and their communities. Loss of coastal land will force the local population to concentrate at great density on refuges of higher level or to migrate altogether. Land competition for resorts and other tourism related infrastructure will only exacerbate the problem. Stormy seas will accelerate beach erosion and hinder inter-island ferry traffic, higher sea levels will not only submerge coastal land but will destroy local fresh water supplies already overused by greater population density in fewer safer areas and by a tourism influx of people traditionally from developed countries used to high levels of water demand. Infrastructure and development costs in this environment are already high (many traditional building materials and construction expertise have already to be imported) and may well become much higher in the future. When the very future of the island is at stake few organisations and companies are prepared to commit the necessary funds. The unfortunate thing is that many of these very small islands have no viable alternative to tourism development.
Conclusion It is always difficult to speculate on travel trends in the future and nowhere is this more so then on issues relating to weather and climate. This chapter does not purport to be predictive, it merely outlines possible future change and outcomes if the current trend of global warming continues into the foreseeable future. Clearly there are potential risks and problems: increased cyclonic activity, sea level rise, coastal erosion, loss of suitable coastal sites for future resorts, shortages of drinking
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water and higher risks of skin cancer are but just a few of the problems. Given the unique nature of Oceania it is difficult to be totally optimistic and dismiss these trends entirely. It would be negative and totally unproductive, however, to be completely pessimistic. Climate change will affect the entire planet and it would be dangerous to think that such changes are all negative or that Oceania is the only region of the world to face difficulties. Greater attention to water conservation, better design of resort infrastructure to capitalise on breezes rather than on mechanical air-conditioning and greater consideration to resort location can go a long way towards alleviating some of the potential difficulties noted here. Careful marketing, targeting of niche markets and development of areas and islands nearer the cooler latitudes can mitigate against some of the issues identified in this chapter. In spite of these possible problems Oceania has much to offer the tourist and one would expect tourism to remain significant and contribute to the region’s economy for a long time to come. References Environment Canada (2000) The science of climate change, http://www.ec.gc.ca/climate/ fact/science.html. GPI Atlantic (2000) Global warming may devastate pacific nations, http://www. gpiatlantic.org/me_Gwmdpn.shml. Greenpeace (2002) Climate change and emerging infectious diseases, http://archive. greenpeace.org/~climate/impacts/Erwin/3erwin.html. Hayes, R. and Goreau, T. (1991) Tropical coral reef ecosystems as a harbinger of global warming. World Resource Review 3, 306–32. Kerr, R. (1999) Big El Ninos ride the back of slower climate change. Science 283, 1108–9. Mackenzie, J., Lindsay, M. and Broom, A. (1993) Climate change and vector-borne diseases. In C. Ewan, E. Byant, D, Calvert et al. (eds) Health in the Greenhouse; the Medical and Environmental Health Effects of Global Climate Change (pp. 229–34). Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. Pomerance, R. (1999) Coral bleaching, coral mortality, and global climate change, http:// www.state.gov/www/global_issues/coral_reefs/990305_coralreef_rpt.html. Shea E. (2002) Pacific Island regional assessment of the consequences of climate change and variability (The Pacific Assessment) http://www2.eastwestcenter.org/climate/assessment/climate_draft2a.html. Sydney Morning Herald (2001) Hotter days ahead as global warming hits water supply, 8 May. US Environmental Protection Agency (2001) Global warming summary, http://www.epa. gov/globalwarming/publications/reference/ipcc/summary/page13.html. Viner, D. and Agnew, M. (2000) Climate change and tourism. In A. Lockwood et al. Proceedings of the International Conference on Tourism and Hospitality in the 21st Century. Guildford: University of Surrey. Viner, D. and Agnew, M. (2001) Workshop; climate change and tourism, http://www.cru. uea.ac.uk/tourism/tourism.html. Wall, G. (1992) Tourism alternatives in an era of global climate change. In V. Smith and W. Eadington (eds) Tourism Alternatives (pp. 194–215). Chichester/New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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Chapter 19
Tourism Education In Oceania STEPHEN J. CRAIG-SMITH
Introduction One measure of the health and maturity of a service industry is its support for, and recruitment from, degree programme education. The objectives of this chapter are to overview the origins, development, extent and characteristics of tourism degree programmes in Oceania. As with most other parts of the world, tourism education in Oceania is both varied and diverse, ranging from courses offered in secondary schools to coursework postgraduate programmes offered in a range of higher education institutions. Considerable on-the-job training is also undertaken within the Oceania region but this chapter is confined to an analysis of undergraduate degree level and postgraduate degree level programmes by coursework. Because the origins of tourism degree and postgraduate education in Oceania are diverse, and the potential readership of this book is worldwide, some preliminary definitions are necessary to avoid a minefield of terminological confusion. As already stated, this chapter will be confined to tourism education offered at degree and postgraduate level, and at the postgraduate level only to coursework programmes. Whilst successful graduates from research masters and doctoral degrees do enter the tourism industry by far the highest number enter via the coursework route. Although university and non-university tertiary education institutions offer most of the programmes examined here private tourism and/or hotel management schools or colleges offer a few. A sequence of study giving rise to a credential on successful study completion is referred to in this chapter as a programme, e.g. Bachelor of Tourism Management. The individual building blocks (usually the smallest unit for enrolment purposes) which make up a programme are referred to here as courses. As a broad generalisation undergraduate programmes offered in the region on a full-time basis extend over three years and comprise somewhere between 24 and 30 individual courses depending on institution and country involved. Care should be taken when perusing the cited literature in this chapter because many studies use the term ‘course’ to mean a ‘programme’ and ‘subject’ to mean a ‘course’. Lying somewhere between a 362
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course and a programme are ‘majors’ or ‘concentrations’ which comprise a group of related courses, usually somewhere between six and 10 thus comprising anything from a quarter to half of a degree programme. A very common form of programme designed for the tourism industry is a general business or management programme which includes a tourism major or concentration. All reference to education in this chapter adopts the terms, course, major and programme irrespective of terminology used at any particular educational institution. At postgraduate level programmes tend to be of a shorter duration: once again as a generalisation it can be stated that these programmes range between one and three semesters but a recent trend is to see three semesters of postgraduate course work compressed into 12 months of full-time study. More common at postgraduate than at undergraduate level are nested programmes where one programme has potentially two or three exit points, e.g. a Postgraduate Certificate after one semester of study, a Postgraduate Diploma after two semesters of study and a Masters degree after three semesters of study. A final word needs to be mentioned on descriptions before the analysis can begin. Some institutions and academics focus on the hospitality side of tourism and describe their programmes as either in the field of hospitality and/or hotel management even through there may be a range of elective courses within these programmes focused on travel and tourism. As a generalisation the descriptions ‘hotel’ and ‘hospitality’ can be used interchangeably albeit that hospitality strictly speaking covers a much wider range of functions and interests then just hotels. Similarly other institutions and academics focus on travel and/or tourism sometimes with little or no coverage of the hospitality sector of the industry. Once again as a generalisation ‘travel’ and ‘tourism’ can be used interchangeably but strictly speaking tourism is a much broader field of interest than straight travel. This chapter and analysis embraces a very broad view of tourism to include all sectors and functions of the tourism industry in its widest sense and includes all programmes with a special involvement in travel, tourism, hospitality, event management, etc.
Origins Relative to Western Europe and North America, Oceania embraced tourism degree and postgraduate programmes rather late and as such has adopted many of the programme characteristics first developed in other world regions. Two countries in particular have exerted great influence, the United Kingdom and the United States. Given the geopolitical realities of the Oceania region this is hardly surprising. The United Kingdom has been a colonial influence in the Southern Pacific since the end of the 18th century, and for most of the 20th century the United States has been highly influential in the Northern Pacific. Hawaii, now an integral part of the United States, boasts the longest-running degree programme in the region, being offered for the first time in 1967 and predating all other offerings by almost a
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decade. Guam, the other regional player in the Northern Pacific is of more recent origin but it has also been heavily influenced by the United States. By far the largest player in the Oceania region is Australia with a total of over 70 undergraduate and postgraduate programmes, followed by New Zealand. The other player in the South Pacific is Fiji, all three countries being ex-British colonies and until relatively recently following British higher education characteristics. Twenty years ago one could claim that there were two higher education systems in Oceania, one ex-North American and one ex-British. Over recent years, however, following an increasing globalisation of American culture, the higher education systems in Australia and New Zealand have been trending towards North America characteristics and nomenclature. Reinforcing former colonial links is one of language. In spite of the fact that almost every country in Oceania has its own indigenous language, or in some cases, many languages, the overarching common regional language is unquestionably English albeit that French is spoken in a few island countries. Unsurprisingly therefore, not only has Great Britain and the United States heavily influenced higher education in the region but many academics were imported from both counties, especially in the late 1980s and early 1990s when regionally based tourism programmes were proliferating very rapidly. Various studies (Craig-Smith & French, 1990; Craig-Smith et al., 1994; Goodman & Sprague, 1991; Wells, 1990, 1996; Wise, 1978) illustrate that tourism education in the region can trace its origins to the United States or to the United Kingdom and borrowed programmes, philosophy, content and focus from precursors in Europe or North America. Whilst the first hospitality programme appeared in the United States at Cornell in 1922, and at Strathclyde in the United Kingdom in 1965 hospitality programmes in Australia appeared only in the mid 1970s. In tourism the first programme to appear in North America started in 1945. With the exception of Hawaii, [an integral part of the United States anyway], the first tourism degree to appear in Oceania was in Australia in 1978. In terms of gestation therefore, tourism programmes in Oceania are of relatively recent origin, all post 1967 and most post 1987; they can all trace their philosophical origins to earlier related programmes in Europe or North America and many were developed by academics from these outside countries. Australia boasts the most programmes followed by New Zealand and Fiji; Guam and Hawaii represent the major island focus in the region. A number of reasons can be given for the very rapid proliferation of programmes in Oceania over the last two decades; from a mere handful of programmes on offer in the early 1980s there are now approximately 100 programmes at undergraduate and postgraduate level today. The underlying causes can be traced to the historic development of service industries in the region, the tourism industry in Oceania and the nature of higher education in the countries involved.
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Until the 1980s Oceania was a relatively unvisited region of the globe when compared with other world regions – especially Western Europe, North America and South East Asia. The relative isolation of most Pacific Island countries, the inevitable costs of dealing with small economies, the cost of inter-island transport, and the relative isolation of Australia and New Zealand from the world’s major tourist generation regions, conspired to keep mass tourism out of the region. Most international visitation prior to 1980 was intra-regional movement or visiting friends and relatives traffic from Europe to Australia and New Zealand. The bulk of this traffic was either relatively unsophisticated in world travel or was travelling mainly for family reasons and international tourism standards were generally neither expected nor demanded. The one exception to this was Hawaii which, by virtue of its association with the mainland United States could be argued as more appropriately placed within intra United States travel rather then within intra Oceania travel. Following the advent of long-haul jets, the relative decline in world travel costs and the growth of South East Asia as a major tourist generating region Oceania is now a much more significant tourist drawcard. Total visitor numbers on a world scale are still small (see earlier chapters of this book) but recent demand has moved towards higher spending and more sophisticated international tourists rather then VFR traffic between the islands and between Europe and Australia and New Zealand. Nowhere in the region was this felt more acutely than in Australia. In a few short years in the 1980s the country was faced with the need to vastly increase and improve its tourist stock and service. All of a sudden the industry was demanding more and much better educated staff. During the 1980s the regional tourism industry began to demand suitable degree programmes to train and educate a much needed service proficient workforce. Coinciding with this change in the tourism industry occurred a change in higher education in the region. Prior to the 1980s university education was mainly confined to a relativity small percentage of school leavers but as the 1980s developed countries like Australia and New Zealand began to follow trends in other developed economies and see university education opened to many more people, both school leavers and more mature potential students. Unfortunately, this expansion in university education came at a cost, namely that the amount spent per student has systematically declined since then. This has in turn led to two other trends. Firstly, many universities in the region began hunting for programmes to offer the expanding student market which were relatively easy to develop and were relatively light on resource demands. Tourism (if not hospitality) fitted the bill excellently. By and large tourism programmes require few expensive resources beyond normal computer usage common to most business programmes and staff could even be redeployed into new tourism departments created from sociology, geography, town planning, general business, etc. Secondly, many universities in the region began to supplement domestic stu-
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dents (usually but not universally funded by the state) with full fee paying students from outside the region. Initially the main overseas focus was on attracting students from the rapidly industrialising countries of South East Asia but more recently students are being attracted from Europe and North America. The climate, cost of living and relative safety of the region are important drawcards for full fee paying overseas students. An international industry such as the tourism industry is relatively easy to teach to international students, unlike, say law, which is not as easily transferable from one country to another. It was this unique combination of circumstances affecting both the tourism and the education industries that contributed to the explosive growth in tourism programmes in Oceania since the mid 1980s.
Players In Australia, the largest provider of tourism degree and postgraduate programmes in the region, universities offer the majority of programmes. Of the 40 universities in Australia (38 public and two private) no fewer then 32 offer at least one programme in tourism at either undergraduate and/or postgraduate level. By far the majority of programmes, however, have been developed by the newer universities or by non-university institutions absorbed into the university sector following major tertiary sector reorganisation in 1990. Prior to 1990 there were two distinct sectors of higher education in Australia, the traditional universities focused on research and traditional disciplines and teaching-focused Colleges of Advanced Education, which concentrated on applied professionally focused degree programmes. In 1990 the two sectors were merged, creating 38 public institutions from over 90 before the merger. New Zealand, the second largest provider of programmes in the region, still retains two sectors, universities and polytechnics. Both types of institution offer tourism programmes. The strong focus of tourism programmes in non-university tertiary institutions and in the newer universities, especially in Australia, reveals a hidden prejudice by traditional academics and traditional universities towards tourism programmes and research. Whilst this prejudice is receding, of the eight most prestigious Australian universities five are conspicuously absent from the tourism provision league and one of the eight most prestigious providers does so only because it absorbed a College of Advanced Education which developed the programmes before the merger. Hawaii is the major exception to this general trend offering a tourism programme in early 1967 and having no such academic hang-ups. This probably reflects the more liberal North American approach to applied education at university level compared with the more traditional and conservative British model. Both the University of Guam and the University of the South Pacific in Fiji first offered
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tourism programmes only in the mid to late 1990s. Table 19.1 at the end of the chapter shows the major tourism providers in Oceania. Whilst universities, and also polytechnics in New Zealand offer most of the programmes, some private college providers are offering degrees. In Australia it is very unusual for non-universities to offer degrees but hospitality and tourism forms an exception, albeit a rare exception. Four private hotel and tourism colleges offer tourism related degrees and with increasing deregulation of higher education there could well be much further growth in non-university provided programmes in the future.
Programmes It is not the purpose of this analysis to overview each and every one of the almost 100 programmes on offer in the region, rather it is to highlight some general, across the region, trends and characteristics. Given that the majority of graduates leaving the tourism and hospitality programmes seek employment in the tourism and hospitality industry it is perhaps not surprising to find that the majority of programmes at both undergraduate and postgraduate level are either in the field of business or commerce. In fact most of the programmes, on close analysis, reveal a structure comprising a general business, commerce or management degree with a major or concentration in hospitality or tourism. A survey by Wells (1996) on Australian programmes then in existence revealed tourism content of so-called tourism degrees to be anywhere from 16% to 60% of the entire programme with the balance in general business or management. The accuracy of this information is questioned by the present writer (Craig-Smith, 1998) on the grounds that it is often very difficult to distinguish between what can be considered as tourism specific and what can be considered as business specific, but the general trend of the findings is fully supported. There are a number of reasons for this strong business, commerce and/or management focus. Firstly, graduates like to have as broad a range of skills as possible so on graduation they are attractive to, but in no way confined to, the tourism and hospitality industry. Given the high burn-out rate in the industry many graduates leave the tourism and hospitality industry after some years to find employment in industries less geographically isolated, less focused on 24-hour 365-day operation and better paid. Secondly, in universities in particular, degree programme nomenclature is driven by the parent faculty and there is rarely an entire faculty devoted to tourism and hospitality. A business faculty will usually develop bachelor and master degrees of business, as an arts faculty will develop bachelor and masters degrees in arts. Thirdly, as has been stated already, tourism and hospitality rarely attract the academic ‘respect’ given to such disciplines as law, medicine, civil engineering or nuclear physics. A degree in business with a major in tourism is more readily accepted then a degree in travel, a degree in hotel management or a degree in tourism.
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A new trend, at least in the tourism programmes, if not in the hospitality programmes, is affiliation with applied science or environmental management. This latest trend reflects increased academic focus on the properties of sustainability, eco-tourism development and alternative tourism. The links between these programmes and applied science are for similar reasons there are links between other tourism programmes and general business. The major exception to the above trend is when a tourism or hospitality programme is offered by a private provider rather than a university or publicly funded non-university tertiary institution. Tourism and hospitality schools have no ‘hang-ups’ about academic niceties and in fact see programmes specifically in their own fields as giving their institutions enhanced standing with the industry and wider community. Given the diverse range of offering institutions, the wide geographical spread of the region and the number of countries included within Oceania one would not expect all programmes to have a similar content or composition. There is, however, remarkable similarity across the region with greater difference between hospitality and tourism focused programmes than between the various tourism and the various hospitality programmes themselves. There is in fact remarkable uniformity of content when examined at the macro (programme) level. In keeping with similar findings in Europe and North America, hospitality programmes focus strongly on hotel operations, food and beverage management and hospitality facility design whereas the tourism programmes focus strongly on tourism development, management, impacts and planning (Airey & Middleton, 1984; Evans, 1987; HCIMA, 1977; McIntosh & Goeldner, 1990). Even with the supporting general business curriculum there are some general differences in content with a greater emphasis on marketing, accounting and organisational behaviour in the hospitality programmes and a greater emphasis on quantitative analysis, statistics, and research methods in the tourism programmes. These however, are generalities relating to an across-the-region analysis and do not necessarily reflect any one programme. At the masters level there is generally greater flexibility with entry and exit points. As a general rule programme directors have much more discretion on who can and who cannot be admitted onto a postgraduate programme and many masters programmes have intermediate exit points at Graduate Certificate and Graduate Diploma level. Students usually have the right to leave with a lesser qualification, or if successful, continue to the end of the full masters programme. This reflects the greater diversity of entrant students regarding prior education and/or relevant industry experience into postgraduate programmes. Academic requirements regarding prior educational qualifications are less stringent for postgraduate certificate programmes then for masters programmes and a person eligible for entry to a certificate programme may not be accepted for direct entry onto a masters programme.
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The Future From the foregoing analysis it can be seen that tourism and hospitality university education in Oceania appeared later in many cases then it did in North America or Western Europe. Furthermore, it has relied heavily on imported academic staff from Europe and North America and has copied much of its curriculum content and structure. What then is the future for tourism degree education in Oceania? Firstly, attention might be paid to a more even geographical spread of tourism education provision. Australia, the largest country in the region both geographically and economically, accounts for over 75% of all programmes in the region. So prolific has been the growth of tourism programmes in Australia that many academics feel there is now a danger of overprovision and there has been a noticeable slight downturn in demand nationally for undergraduate programmes over the last two years. New Zealand is the other major player and that country too has seen a rapid increase in programmes at all levels over the last 10 years. Outside Australia and New Zealand, however, provision is very thin on the ground. Hawaii is an important provider with an academic reputation which goes much wider than the Hawaiian Island group, but the University of Guam and the University of the South Pacific are relatively small providers of tourism education. As with so much service provision in the widely scattered Pacific Islands few island countries are adequately provided for and their nationals have in many cases to travel thousands of kilometres to reach the nearest programme provider. Recent growth and development in electronic delivery of programmes may go some way to alleviate this geographical problem. Clearly, better access to programme provision is needed in many parts of Oceania. Secondly, there needs to be more attention paid to the unique socio-political and cultural aspects of the region and tourism and hospitality programmes need to go further in recognising this. All too frequently programmes at both undergraduate and postgraduate level appear as clones of programmes on offer in North America and Western Europe. There is some focus on nationality but there is still a long way to go. Programmes are still strongly focused on developed rather then developing economies and on terrestrial rather then marine dominance. With few exceptions there is little to differentiate the knowledge and skills base of a graduate from London and New York from that of a graduate educated within the region. Whilst in a global economy many skills and much knowledge should be, and is universal, an industry, and particularly the tourism industry, should be quick to adopt the ‘image’ and ‘speciality’ of the Oceania locale. Thirdly, there may be room for closer linked networks of providers in the region. In spite of its unique dispersed geographical nature there are probably fewer rather then more links and networks then there are in more homogeneous terrestrial regions of the world such as North America and Europe. Degree programmes offered by multiple providers allowing students to study in a variety of economies
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and environments within multifaceted Oceania can only be to the good of students from such a varied and diverse region of the world. References Airey, D. and Middleton, V. (1984) Tourism education – Course syllabus in the UK – a review. Tourism Management 5 (4), 57–61. Craig-Smith, S. (1998) Degree programs for the tourism industry: Their development, evaluation and future direction. Unpublished Master of Education Thesis, The University of Queensland. Craig-Smith, S. and French, C. (1990) Selected issues in Australian tourism and hospitality evaluation. Chapter 27 in Proceedings of Tourism Education Conference (pp. 144–50). Canberra: BTR. Craig-Smith, S., Davidson, M. and French, C. (1994) Hospitality and tourism education in Australia: Challenges and opportunities. Ch 28 in Tourism Research and Education in Australia. Proc. of the Tourism Research and Education Conference, Qld, Feb. pp. 311–20. Evans, M. (1987) Academic credibility and the hospitality curriculum – the image problem. The Cornell HRA Quarterly 28 (2), 44–5. Goodman, R. and Sprague, L. (1991) The future of hospitality education: Meeting the industry needs. The Cornell HRA Quarterly 32 (1), 66–70. HCIMA (1977) The Profile of Professional Management – HCIMA Study. London. McIntosh, R. and Goeldner, C. (1990) Tourism, Principles, Practices and Philosophies (6th edn). New York: John Wiley and Sons. Wells, J. (1990) Tourism education in Australia. Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Surrey (Department of Management Studies for Tourism and Hotel Industries). Wells, J. (1996) The tourism curriculum in higher education in Australia 1989–1995. Journal of Tourism Studies, 7 (1), 20–30. Wise, B. (1978) The development of higher education for the catering industry in the United Kingdom and Australia. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Strathclyde University (Scottish Hotel School).
Table 19.1 Providers of hospitality and tourism education at undergraduate and postgraduate level in Oceania, 2002 Location
Undergraduate
Postgraduate
• Bachelor of Hotel
• MA Tourism
Australia Australian Capital Territory University of Canberra
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Canberra
Management • Bachelor of Tourism Management • BA with Specialisation in Tourism
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Table 19.1 (cont.) Providers of hospitality and tourism education at undergraduate and postgraduate level in Oceania, 2002 Location Australian Canberra International Hotel School
Undergraduate
Postgraduate
• B.Bus (Hotel Management)
New South Wales
• B.Bus-Tourism
• G.Cert Tourism
Charles Sturt University
Albury-Wodonga
Macquarie University
Sydney
Southern Cross University
Lismore
• B.Sport Tourism
The University of Newcastle
Newcastle
• BA with Specialisation • Grad Cert/
The University of New South Wales
Sydney
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Management • B.Bus St with Specialisation in Tourism Management
Management
• PG Dip Hospitality and Tourism Management
• Grad Cert/ Management Grad Dip/ Master of • B.Bus in Hotel and International Catering Management Hotel • B.Bus Hotel Management Management • Grad Cert/ • B.Bus Tourism Grad Dip/ Management Master of International Tourism Management in Leisure and Master of Tourism Studies Applied Mgt in Tourism • B.Mgt with Specialisation in Hotel • Grad Cert Hotel Management Management
• B.Com with Specialisation in Marketing and Hospitality Management
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Table 19.1 (cont.) Providers of hospitality and tourism education at undergraduate and postgraduate level in Oceania, 2002 Location
Undergraduate
Postgraduate
University of Technology Sydney
Sydney
• BA Tourism
• Grad Cert/
Management • BA Tourism Management/ International Studies • B.Bus with Specialisation in Tourism
Grad Dip/ Master of Tourism Management • M.Mgt Tourism Management
University of Western Sydney
Sydney
• B.Bus Hospitality
• M.Com
Management • BA Tourism • B.Bus Tourism Management
Hospitality Management • Master of International Hotel Management • Master of International Tourism Management
Blue Mountains Blue Mountains International Hotel Management School
• BA in International
International Manly College of Tourism and Hotel Management (Macquarie)
• B.Bus in Hospitality
The Hotel School
• Bachelor of Hotel
Sydney
Hospitality and Tourism Management
and Tourism
Management
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Table 19.1 (cont.) Providers of hospitality and tourism education at undergraduate and postgraduate level in Oceania, 2002 Location
Undergraduate
Postgraduate
• B.Bus with
• Grad Cert/
Specialisation in Hospitality Management • B.Bus St Hospitality Management • B.Bus St Tourism Management
Grad Dip/ Master of Hospitality Business • Grad Dip/ Master of Tourism
Northern Territory Northern Territory Darwin University
Queensland Bond University
Gold Coast
• Bachelor of Business Administration with Specialisations in Hospitality Management
Central Queensland University
Rockhampton/ Various
• Bachelor of Hospitality Management
• Bachelor of Tourism Management
• B.Bus with Specialisation if Hospitality and Tourism Griffith University Brisbane/Various
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• Bachelor of Hotel
• Grad Cert/ Management Master of Hospitality • B.Bus Restaurant and Management Catering Management • Grad Cert/ • B.Bus with Master of Specialisation in Tourism Tourism Management Management • Master of HospitalityMast er of Tourism
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Table 19.1 (cont.) Providers of hospitality and tourism education at undergraduate and postgraduate level in Oceania, 2002
James Cook University
Location
Undergraduate
Townsville/ Various
• Bachelor of Hospitality • Grad Dip/ Management
• Bachelor of Administration Tourism • B.Bus in Hospitality and Tourism • B.Bus in Travel and Tourism The University of Queensland
Brisbane
University of Southern Queensland
Various
University of the Sunshine Coast
Maroochydore
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Postgraduate Master of Tourism • Master of AdministrationTourism
• Bachelor of
• Grad Cert/
International Hotel and Tourism Management • B.Bus with Specialisation in Hospitality Management • B.Bus with Specialisation in Travel and Tourism
Grad Dip/ Master of International Hotel Management • Grad Cert/ Grad Dip/ Master of International Tourism Management
• Bachelor of Tourism and Hospitality ManagementBachelor of Hospitality Management
• B.Bus with Specialisation in Tourism
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Table 19.1 (cont.) Providers of hospitality and tourism education at undergraduate and postgraduate level in Oceania, 2002 Location
Undergraduate
South Australia University of South Adelaide Australia
International College of Hotel Management
Regency Park
• B.Bus in International Business with Specialisation in Tourism and Hospitality • B.Mgt. with Specialisation in Tourism and Hospitality
• Bachelor of International Hotel Management • Bachelor of Restaurant Business and Management
Flinders University Adelaide
• Bachelor of Cultural Tourism
Tasmania University of Tasmania
Hobart
• Bachelor of Tourism • Bachelor of Business Administration in Hospitality Management • Bachelor of Business Administration in Tourism Management
Victoria Deakin University
Melbourne
• B.Mgt. in Hospitality Management
• B.Mgt in Tourism Management
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Postgraduate
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Table 19.1 (cont.) Providers of hospitality and tourism education at undergraduate and postgraduate level in Oceania, 2002
La Trobe University
Location
Undergraduate
Postgraduate
Melbourne
• B.Bus in Tourism and
• Grad Dip
Hospitality • B.Bus in Hospitality Management • B.Bus in Tourism Management
• • • • •
Monash University Melbourne
• Bachelor of Tourism • Bachelor of Tourism
Hospitality Management Grad Dip Tourism Management PG Dip Hospitality Management PG Dip Tourism Management MA in Tourism and Hospitality M.Bus Tourism and Hospitality
• Grad Cert in
Hospitality Management and Hospitality • MA Management TourismMaster • B. Applied Science in of Tourism Tourism Management RMIT University
Melbourne
• BAppSc in Hospitality • MA Hospitality, Management
• BAppSc in Hospitality Studies
• BATourism • BAppSc Tourism Management Swinburne University of Technology
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Melbourne
• B.Bus with Specialisation in Hospitality Management • B.Bus in Tourism and Enterprise
Tourism and Leisure
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Table 19.1 (cont.) Providers of hospitality and tourism education at undergraduate and postgraduate level in Oceania, 2002
University of Ballarat
Location
Undergraduate
Ballarat
• B.Bus and B.Mgt with
Postgraduate
Specialisation in Tourism
Victoria University Melbourne
• B.Bus in Hospitality
• Grad Dip/
and Tourism Management • B.Bus in Hospitality Management • B.Bus in Tourism Management
M.Bus Hospitality and Tourism Marketing • Grad Dip/ Master of Hospitality and Tourism Education • M.Bus Tourism Management • M.Bus Hospitality Management
• B.Com with
• Grad Cert/
Western Australia Curtin University of Technology
Perth
Edith Cowan University
Perth
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Specialisation in TourismBAwith Specialis • ation in Tourism
• B.Bus with Specialisation in Hospitality/Tourism Management • Bachelor of Tourism Management • Bachelor of Hospitality Management
Grad Dip/ Master of Tourism Management
• M.Bus Hospitality Management
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Table 19.1 (cont.) Providers of hospitality and tourism education at undergraduate and postgraduate level in Oceania, 2002
Murdoch University
Location
Undergraduate
Perth
• B.Com with
Postgraduate
Specialisation in Hospitality Management and Tourism Services • Bachelor of Tourism
New Zealand North Island Auckland University of Technology
Auckland
• Bachelor of Business in • Grad Dip in Tourism
Massey University Palmerston North
Travel and TourismMBus in Tourism
• Bachelor of Business Studies (Tourism)
University of Waikato
Hamilton
Victoria University Wellington
• Bachelor of Tourism • Bachelor of Tourism Management
• Master of Tourism Management
South Island Lincoln University Christchurch
• Bachelor of Commerce • Grad Dip in (Hotel & Institutional Management) • Bachelor of Tourism Management • Bachelor of Parks, Recreation & Tourism
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Parks, Recreation & Tourism Management • Master of Parks, Recreation & Tourism Management • Professional Masters with Hospitality & Tourism Management
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Table 19.1 (cont.) Providers of hospitality and tourism education at undergraduate and postgraduate level in Oceania, 2002 Location
Undergraduate
Postgraduate
University of Otago
Dunedin
• Bachelor of Tourism
• Grad Dip of
Southern Institute of Technology
Invercargill
TourismMaster of Tourism
• Bachelor of Tourism (Otago Programme)
• Bachelor of Hotel Management (S.Cross Programme) Pacific Islands Fiji Vitilevu University of the South Pacific
Suva
• Bachelor of Arts (Tourism Major)
Guam Guam University of Guam
Agana
• Bachelor of Business Administration (International Tourism Major)
Hawaii Oahu University of Hawaii
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Honolulu
• Bachelor of Science in Travel Industry Management (Specialisation) • Hotel Management • Restaurant Management • Tourism Management Transportation
• Master of Science in Travel Industry Management
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Chapter 20
Compendium of Sources CHRIS COOPER, C. MICHAEL HALL, LISA RUHANEN, PETER TRELOAR
Australia Print Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003) 2003 Year Book Australia, Number 85, ABS Catalogue No. 1301.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003a) Australian National Accounts: Tourism Satellite Account, 2001–02, ABS Catalogue No. 5249.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003b) Service Industries. Libraries, Museums, Commercial Art Galleries and Botanic Gardens, 2003 Year Book Australia, Number 85, ABS Catalogue No. 1301.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002) 2002 Yearbook Australia, Number 84, ABS Catalogue No. 1301.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002a) Accommodation Industry, ABS Catalogue No. 8695.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002b) Australian National Accounts: Tourism Satellite Account, 2000–01, ABS Catalogue No. 5249.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002c) Business Events Venues Industry, ABS Catalogue No. 8566.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002d) Census of Population and Housing: Selected Social and Housing Characteristics, Australia, ABS Catalogue No. 2015.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002e) Clubs, Pubs, Taverns and Bars, Australia, ABS Catalogue No. 8687.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002f) Culture and Recreation. Botanic Gardens, Zoological Parks and Aquaria, 2002 Year Book Australia, Number 84, ABS Catalogue No. 1301.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002g) Culture and Recreation. Museums and Art Museums, 2002 Year Book Australia, Number 84, ABS Catalogue No. 1301.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002h) Environment: Australia’s Land Resources. An Overview, 2002 Year Book Australia, Number 84, ABS Catalogue No. 1301.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002i) Feature Article. The impact of the September 11 terrorist attacks and the collapse of Ansett on tourism, Tourism Indicators, ABS Catalogue No. 8634.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra. 380
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Palau Print Carlile, L. (2000) Niche or mass market? The regional context of tourism in Palau, Contemporary Pacific 12 (2), 415–36. Crowe, R. (2003) Come see the paradise. PATA Compass, May-June, 20. Gilman, E. L. (1997) Community based and multiple purpose protected areas: A model to select and manage protected areas with lessons from the Pacific Islands. Coastal Management 25 (1), 59–91. Palau Visitors Authority (2001) Comprehensive Exit Survey 2001 Analysis Report. Palau Visitors Authority: Palau. White, G.M. (2000) Special issue: Asia in the Pacific-migrant labour and tourism in the Republic of Palau, Contemporary Pacific 12 (2), 307–565. Yamashita, S. (2000) The Japanese encounter with the south: Japanese tourists in Palau. Contemporary Pacific 12 (2), 437–63.
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Solomon Islands Print Douglas, N. (1997) Applying the life cycle model to Melanesia. Annals of Tourism Research 24 (1), 1–22. Douglas, N. (1997) Melanesians as observers, entrepreneurs and administrators of tourism. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 6 (1), 85–92.
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