No title

Eisenbrauns to PublishASORDissertationSeries TheAmericanSchoolsof OrientalResearch andEisenbrauns ofWinonaLalQe, Indiana, are pleasedto announcetheresumption of theASORDissertation Series.Twovolumesa yearwill bepublished, withmanuscripts chosenprincipally fromthefieldsof Syria-Palestini?ln, Cypriote, Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Iranian, andPunicart,archaeology, history,literature, and religion,althoughworksin relatedfieldswill alsobe considered. No subvention will be required of authors.Individuals wishingto submittheirworkforconsideration shouldcontact: JamesWeinstein Editor, ASORDissenationSeries Department of Classics GoldwinSmithHall ComellUniversity Ithaca,NewYork14853

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NEW SLIDE LECTURES BASED ONt ARCHAEOLOGY SERIES: JUDAISI\f, 2()() B.C. - A.D. 90() PresentFi a comprellen*;ixe ;lrx

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J1. rl HE tEWISH ArOR1 D 1N PALESTINE, 20() B.CC.- A.D. '9()(), bv (arol 1. Nfeyers ^2. LITERATURE IN EAR1Y JUDAISlV[, by yames H. (harleswortll 3. 1-HE MESSIANI(f HOPE, by Walter Harrelson J4. IJIFE, OEATH, AND AFTEiKLIFE, by C^eorge\/V. E. Nickelsburg J5. ASTR()LO(^Y, ASTK()NOI\fY, AN D MAGI(3, Iy James H. (;harlesworth Jfi. FROINTT EI\XP1JETO SYNA(^()(^UE, by Eri( N1.IVfeyers

SI#;RllLS:HEKO (LUL1'S This sel ies will elescril)e the l)elief in the allciellt that a htllllan hero coul(l becollle diville as a re.slllt of renlarkal)le achievelllellts.

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111recellt neals arcllaeological discovel-ies have gleatly illclease(l olll lillowledge of Early Jlltlaislll alld allcient 11elo clllts. Illtell.sis-e sttldy of the Psedepigrapha aIld l)ead Sea scl-olls has also elllalge(l tIllderstall(lillg of Farly Ill(lai.slll. \,S'rittell })y experts ill theil fiekls. (hese le( tllle.s illcorpol-ate 1lew discovelies.

I'ro(lilce(t jointiv h the International C.ellter on CChristiatl(3rigins an(l the Religion an({ Ethics InstiAll slide lee t llres collsi.st of 24 ;).)1sllll.slides (nlost in ttite, with the ai(l of a grant frolil the :National En(lowment for the Hunlallitie.S. Editor: laliles H. C;harle.S- color) allel S-page prillted Iectllre. S2.) each; $135 for worth. Project l)ire(:tor: Howar(l M. Teeple. elltire X sel ies: all postpaicl.

REIJI(sIONAND E SHICS INSXITUTE, P.O. Box 664, Evanston,IL 6()2()4 -

Frontcover:Storageroomin the cavecomplexat KhirbetEiton. Backcover:Thebasilicaandamphitheater at Samariaphotographed in 1909.

December1983

Biblical 50t+t Archaeologis

198 NEW ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE ON ANCIENT CAPERNAUM VasillioslEaferis Recentexcavations, particularly in the Greeksection,areyieldingnew insightsinto the historyof this importantsite.

207 ENIGMATICBIBLE PASSAGES The Plain Meaning of Genesis 1:1-3 HarryM. Orlinsky One of the most eminent of the recent translatorsof the Bible discusses what is probablyits best known passage.

Volume46 Number4

223 THE AMMAN AIRPORT STRUCTUREAND THE GEOPOLITICSOF ANCIENT TRANSJORDAN

IngeborgEndterO'Reilly During the nineteenth century early photographersrecordedsites in the Holy Landthat would soon be changed forever.At the turn of the century the pioneersof scientific excavationin the region used photographyto document their work. The photographsof both groupsare now recognizedas importantarchaeologicaltools.

LarryG. Herr Archaeological evidencenow indicates this structurewasa mortuarywhere cremationwaspracticedin the late thirteenthcenturyBC. Doesthis suggestthe presenceof Hittitesin Transjordan duringthis period?

230 BA PORTRAIT EdwardRobinson:Biblical Scholar

PhilipJ.King In the rediscovery of the HolyLand duringthe nineteenthcentury,few scholarscontributed as muchas Robinson.

210 UNDERGROUNDHIDING COMPLEXESFROMTHE BAR KOKHBAWARIN THE 235 WHY STUDY THE JUDEAN SHEPHELAEI PSEUDEPIGRAPHA? Amos Kloner Since 1978 more than 150 cave complexes at 70 sites have been discovered. The study of these has increasedour understandingof the second Jewish war against the Romans.

244 NEAR EASTERN ARCH&EOIDGYIN HISTORICPHaIC)GRAPHS

MichaelE. Stone Scholarlyinterestin thesewritings fromthe SecondTempleperiodis againon the rise.

251 ENIGlVIATIC BIBLE PASSAGES Mark 15:46:The Shroudof lbrin as a Problemof History and Faith D. Moody Smith The biblical and archaeological evidence for and againstthe shroudis discussed in connection with its meaning.

DEPARTMENTS 194 196 255 256

INTRODUCING THE AUTHORS FROM THE EDITOR'S DESK BOOK REVIEWS BOOKS RECEIVED

BiblicalArchaeologist is publishedwith the financialassistanceof Zion ResearchFoundation,a nonsectarianfoundationforthe study of the Bible andthe historyof the ChristianChurch. BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGISTIDECEMBER1983

193

Introducing

the

Authors

VasilliosIkaferis,of the Departmentof Antiquitiesand Museumsin Israel,is a specialistin Byzantinearchaeology in the HolyLand.His mostrecentmajorexcavationshave focusedon earlyChristianchurchesin Magen(southof anda Field(southeastof Jerusalem), Israel},Shepherd's churchandmonasteryin Kursi,locatedon the eastern shoreof the Seaof Galilee.He hasalsoexcavateda synaValleyandrecently in the Jordan gogueat Maoz-Haim completedfiveseasonsof excavationat Capernaum.

Vasillios Tzaferis

Michael E. Stone

of Bibleat the Hebrew HarryM. Orlinskyis Professor Instituteof Religionin NewYork.He UnionCollege-Jewish initiatedthe New JewishVersionof the Biblein 1955 (JewishPublicationSociety[JPS],1982landwaseditor-inchiefof the Torah(JPS,19627.HisvaluableNotes on the Dr. in 1969lJPS). New 7Eanslation of the Torah appeared in part take to invited scholar Jewish Orlinskyis the only Christiantranslationof the Bible;he wasa anauthorized whichproduced, memberof the committeeof twenty-two Version.He is currentlyworkin 1952,the RevisedStandard Bible. ingon the neweditionof this officialProtestant and of Jerusalem AmosKloneris DistrictArchaeologist the JudeanShephelahforthe IsraelDepartmentof of the Hellenistic, Antiquities.He hastaughtarchaeology Roman,andByzantineperiodsat the universitiesof Haifa andBarIlanin Israel.He recentlyservedas a fellowat the HebrewStudiesat the University CentreforPostgraduate of Oxford;his articlefeaturedin this issuewaswritten duringhis stayat Oxford.AmongDr.Kloner'spresentsubin the ects of investigationarethe necropolisof Jerusalem SecondTempleperiod,excavationsof the ancientsynagogueat Rimmonin the Negev,andseveralsites in the JudeanShephelah. and of OldTestament LarryG. Herris AssistantProfessor AdventistTheological at the Seventh-day Archaeology He receivedhis FarEastin Manila,Philippines. Seminary, andCivilizationsfrom Ph.D.in NearEasternLanguages Hisdoctoralthesis,The Scriptsof University. Harvard Ancient Northwest Semitic Seals, waspublishedby SemiticMuseumin 1978.Dr. ScholarsPressforthe Harvard andthe Amman at Heshbon,Carthage, Herrhasexcavated andceramic airportandis presentlythe chiefarchaeologist PlainsProject. Madaba specialistof the projected PhilipJ.Kingis Professorof BiblicalStudiesat Boston College.PastPresidentof the AmericanSchoolsof Oriental Researchandthe CatholicBiblicalAssociationof America,Dr.Kinghasbeenactivelyengagedin field underASORauspicesfortwentyyears.His archaeology recentbook,American Archaeology in the Mideast (The AmericanSchoolsof OrientalResearch,1983},presents

194

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

HarryM. Orlir2.sky

the historyof ASOR.His currentresearchfocuseson contributionto the studyof the prophetsof archaeology's the eighthcenturyB.C. MichaelE.Stoneis Professorof ArmenianStudiesat the andalsoTarzianVisiting HebrewUniversityof Jerusalem Professorof ArmenianHistoryandCultureat the UniHis researchinterestshaveconversityof Pennsylvania. centratedon Jewishliteratureandthoughtin the Second Templeperiod;Armenianmanuscriptsandliterature, especiallythatderivingfromandassociatedwith the parandepigraphy, Bible;andArmenianpaleography ticularlyin the HolyLandandthe Sinaipeninsula.Among activitieshe servesas editorof the his manyprofessional forthcomingvolume,/ewish Writingsof the Second TemplePeriod(CompendiaRerumIudiacarum ad Novum Testamentum 2.2) andeditorof the University of Pennsylvania Armenian Textsand Studies. Dr.Stonehas publishedwidely,andhis worksincludeScriptures Sects and Visions:A Profileof Tudaismfrom Ezrato the Tewish 19801,Faith and Piety in EarlyTudaism Revolts (Fortress,

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D. Moody Smith Philip t. King

Larry G. Herr

(withG. W.E.Nickelsburg,Fortress,19831,andthe translations andnoteson the Visionof EzraandQuestionsof Ezra in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, Volume 1, Apocalyptic Literature & Testaments (Doubleday, 19837. JamesR.Muelleris VisitingInstructorof Religionat NorthCarolinaStateUniversityin Raleigh.Inadditionto contributingtwo translationsto the neweditionof The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, he hasforthe pastsix yearsservedas the senioreditorialassistantforthe project. At presenthe is completinga majorbibliography of the New TestamentApocrypha andPseudepigrapha (with JamesH. Charlesworthl andis editinga volumeof texts andtranslationsof documentsin the Ezracycle. IngeborgEndterO'Reillyis AssistantCuratorforArchives at the Harvard SemiticMuseum.Herworkwith the museumfsphotographic archivesdatesbackto heryearsas

a Harvard Universityundergraduate studentin archaeology.Shewrites,"Duringmy studentdaysI workedas a volunteer,andthereafteras a staffmember,graduallypickingup the trainingI neededin photography, conservation, andcollectionsmanagement.AndnowhereI am,tryingto raisethe consciousnessof the archaeological community concerningphotographic documentation!" Ms.OBReilly haswrittenseveralarticleson the studyandcareof photographic collectionsandhasrecentlycompiledand editedThe Image of the East, Nineteenth-century Near EasternPhotographsbyBonhls (text byCameyGavin; TheUniversityof ChicagoPress,19827. D.MoodySmithis Professorof New TestamentInterpretation at the DivinitySchoolof DukeUniversityin North Carolina.An ordainedministerof TheUnitedMethodist Church,Dr.Smithhasreceivedmanyawardsandhonors includingPhiBetaKappa,GuggenheimandLillyFellowships,andResearchFellowof the Associationof Theological Schools.He is alsothe authorof sevenbooksand numerousarticlesandessays.A notedauthorityon the FourthGospel,ProfessorSmithis the immediatepast Directorof the GraduateProgramin Religionat Duke.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

195

ga

Biblical

Archaeologlst

Fromthe EditorJsDesk

Editor Eric M. Meyers Associate Editor lames W. Flanagan ManagingEditor Martin Wilcox Assistant to the Editor KarenS. Hoglund Book Review Editor PeterB. Machinist EditorialCommittee LloydR. Bailey Carole Fontaine VolkmarFritz LawrenceT. Geraty David M. Gunn A. T. Kraabel Bamch A. Levine Carol L. Meyers JohnWilkinson Art Director LindaHuff EditorialAssistant Melanie Arrowood SubscriptionsManager Harini Kumar Sales Advertising Allan E. Shubert Company 198 Allendale Road King of Prussia, PA 19406 215-265-0648 is published (ISSN 0006-08951 Archaeologist Biblical by the December} June, September, (March, tlUarterlY a non(ASOR}, Research of Oriental Schools American with organization educational nonsectarian profit, PhilaStreet, Spruce offices at 4243 administrative orders and all business Subscription PA 19104. delphia, Subscription be sent to ASOR should correspondence PA 19104. Philadelphia, Street, rates: $16 in the U.S., U.S. possessubscripannual Special $18 foreign. and Canada; sions, faculty: $10 in the and retired tion rates for students (To $12 foreign and Canada; U.S., U.S. possessions, rates, send a copy faculty or retired for student tlualify Curstatus.l your current that verifies of a document and U S possessions, $5 in the U.S, issues: rent single 4243 Spruce subscription

Services, Annual

$4 in faculty: and retired Students $6 foreign. $5 foreign. and Canada; U.S. possessions, receive Biblical automatically of ASOR membership as one of their annual Archaeologist Canada; the U.S., Members

benefits. and to the editor, letters manuscripts, proposals, Article should be sent to the correspondence all other editorial Publications ASOR Archaeologist, Biblical Editor, NC 27706. Station, Durham, Box HM, Duke Office, by a must be accompanied manuscripts Unsollcited bearing the proper envelope stamped self-addressed, furnish should contributors Foreign postage. return reply

international Books

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by ProType, Composition by Fisher-Harrison Printed Second-class additional

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paid

Studies, 85721.

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Hill, NC. Durham,

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changes Send address Street, 4243 Spruce

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of Oriental Tucson, AZ

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Subscripto ASOR PA Philadelphia,

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196

Ig

1983

by the

American

1983drawsto a close we mayreflecton the stateof the fieldandobservewith a sense of pridethatASORis flourishingas neverbefore.Withfieldprojectsand surveysin a growingnumberof new countries,while continuingmanyprojectsin countriesof its tradiCyprus),ourortionalactivity(Israel,Jordan, ganizationat its 1983conventionmirrorsthe surgeof creativespiritthat unprecedented the fieldof NearEasternandbiblical characterizes Twocurrentsof influencemaybe archaeology. discernedin these diverseresearchactivities:the so-callednew archaeologyon the one handandthe orientedfieldof biblical more'thistorically" archaeologyon the other. ASOR,althoughnearthe onsetof its eighty-fifth yearof workin the NearEast,showsno signsof growingold. On the contrary,its resilientnatureand diverseconstituencyensurethat its courseat the endof the twentiethcenturyremainsfundamentally in line with that of its foundingfathers.At the same time, however,recenttrendsin the fieldhaveopened new vistasof investigationthatbringinto ASOR's purviewnew landsforexplorationandnew methods forexaminingandinterpretingthe resultsof new surveysandexcavations.Changeandgrowtharethe As

Schools

of Oriental

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGISTIDECEMBER1983

keywordsin all scientific,empiricalendeavors,and no one glancingat the 1983Dallasprogramorperusing BASORorBAcouldavoidlDeingimpressedwith this fact. This magazinewill continueto bringto our readersthe resultsof these lalDors, andwe dependon ourreadersandprofessionalaudienceto recommend appropriate topicsandauthorsto the editoriallDoard. I am delightedto reportthatthe responseto ourcall forpapershaslDeenmostpositiveandthatthe currentissue accordinglyreflectsthis. I pledgemyself andthe lDoard to acknowledgeall suggestionsand sulDmissions in a promptandprofessionalmanner. As ASORconcludesits eighty-fourth year,the IsraelExplorationSocietycelelDrates its seventieth lDirthday in Jerusalemthis April-witha festivalof lDilDlical archaeologythat is studdedwith presentations lDythe luminariesof the fieldfromIsrael, Europe,andthe UnitedStates.The readeris invited to readthe scheduleof lecturespulDlished in this issue.The Israelischolarlycommunitydemonstratesbyvirtueof this programandthe commitmentof its universitiesto archaeologyas an academicdisciplinethatbilDlical archaeologyenjoys its highestlevelof activityin Israel,andall ASOR joinsin wishingthe IEScontinuedsuccesson this occasion.Israelistandardsin fieldworkandin pulDlication will providea challengeforgenerations to come. As of this writing,however,it is quitepossible thatthe birthdaypartyset to beginApril1, 1984, standsin jeopardyof beingruined.Presentnegotiations to forma new governmentifall1983)afterthe resignationof PrimeMinisterBeginhaveincluded an item regarding rabbinicalsupervisionof digsin orderto determinewhich excavationsarein violation of the Jewishlawregarding burials.The Israeli archaeological communityhascorrectlyreacted with angerandchagrinat the proposedinterference bya religiousauthorityinto empiricalresearch.We in ASORdeploresuch a regulatorytrendwhetherit be at the handsof politicalor religiousfigures.If archaeologyis to flourishtrulyin anysettingit must be unimpededandfreeto publishandinterpretall resultsof excavatedremains. As a finalnote,let me saythis aboutanother issue facingASORtoday.It hasbeensuggestedby some that the debategoingon amongourmembers in respectto the natureandscopeof the archaeologicaldisciplineis a problem.I wouldpreferinstead to see this as a naturalgrowthprocessof a dynamic institution.IfsomeASORmembersfeel ill at ease with the memoryof one of the foundingfathersex-

ploringa remotesectionof Syria-Palestine on camel with a Biblein one handandbinocularsin the other, then we must alsohonestlyrecognizeboththe difficultiesandthe promiseof the contemporary explorerof Biblelandswho ridesa Toyotajeepwith a portablecomputerin the backcompartmentanda mini-reference-library on the frontseat.In some placesthe personon camelor in a jeepmightevenbe followedorattackedbya groupof old-world-types sportingfull beardsandwearingblackorgray kaftans. Suchis the lot of today'sarchaeologist.Wemust not lose sightthat howeverdifficultthese times appearto be, the searchfortruthunitesthose of us who remainopenandcommittedto the scientific approach,an approachwhich allowsthe dataof both literaryanalysisandmaterialcultureto speakwith the commandingauthorityof evidenceuncoveredin an objectiveway.ASORandBiblical Archaeologist remaincommittedto this idealandlamentthe fact that some archaeologistsarenot freeto pursuetheir workwithoutinterference.

EricM. Meyers Editor

IN NEXT

THE BA

Eblaexcavator PaoloMatthiaebrings BAreadersupto datewith his first publishedreporton the westernpalace andthe royalnecropolisof the Amorite Period. As anoutcastfromthe courtof Saul, Davidfledintothe landof the Philistineswherethe kingof Gathgavehim one of the countrytowns,Ziklag,in whichto live.Theproblemof identifyingthe locationof biblicalZiklaghas puzzledscholarsfornearlya century.In the nextBAJoeD. Segerreportson the continuingsearchforthis elusivesite.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGISTIDECEMBER 1983

197

Arclpaeologic

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BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGISTIDECEMBER1983

naumduringthe RomanandEarly Byzantineperiods(firstthroughsixth centuriesA.D.} has finallybeendocumentedwith some certainty.Hence, the synagoguehas now been dated securelyto the late fourthor early fifth centuryon the basisof new arThe ruinsof ancientCaper- Holy Land.Theseexcavationsare chaeologicalevidenceuncoveredby still in progressandhaveprovided naum,situatedon the Franciscan excavations. evidencefordatingthe In addition,the octagonalChrisshoreof the considerable northwestem Seaof Galilee,andespe- establishmentof the synagogueand tian church,partlysurveyedandexcavatedin 1905and 1921by the ciallythe remainsof its magnificent the church. sanctuaries, are Franciscan fatherDr.Gaudence JewishandChristian RecentExcavations fascinating whenviewedwithinthe Orfali,has been shownto be conin the GreekSection andtheostructedoverthe placetraditionally framework of the historical regarded as the site of St. Peter's surrounding the The previouslyacceptedtheory, logicalcontroversy andartistic basedon architectural begansoon site.Thecontroversy the archaeological house.Therefore, fathersVirgilio aspects,that the synagoguehad afterthe Franciscan have excavationsof the Franciscans Loffreda initiat- servedthe communityduringthe CorboandStanislao revealedthat the synagogueandthe excavations in 1969 secondandthirdcenturiesA.D., has ed archaeological churchwerebuilt at approximately in the sectionof the sitebelonging been refutedby new findings,andin- the sametime andthat they stood deed,the entirehistoryof CaperCustodyof the to the Franciscan side by side forover200 yearsuntil

archaeological evidence New a revision Capernaum requires facts. accepted historscal

from of the

Generalplan of the Greeksection of Capernaum.Note its relation to the Franciscansection.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

199

andoctagonalchurchin theGreek residential Aerialviewof theruinsof thesynagogue, courtesyof RichardCleave,NearEasternPictorialArchive, Photograph sectionof Capernaum. terusalem. areat

theirfinaldestructionandabandonment in the firsthalf of the seventh centuryA.D. Earlierarchaeologicalfindings presentedby FatherCorboalso have provedreliableregardingthe history of Capernaum.The first settlement was establishedin the EarlyRoman period(firstcenturyB.C.), and it remainedone of the most important towns in the regionof the Sea of Galilee fromthat perioduntil early medievaltimes. The resultsobtainedfromthese excavationsindicatethat the entire settlement came to an abruptend in the first half of the seventhcenturyA.D. and was neverrebuiltexceptfor temporaryseasonaloccupations.This wouldtend to confirmthe doom spokenby Jesus:"Andthou Capernaum,which is exaltedunto Heaven,shall be broughtdownto Hell"{Matthew11:23). New archaeologicalevidence, however,requiresa revisionof the acceptedhistoricalfacts.The ancient site of Capernaumis divided into two sections of almost equal size, one belongingto the Francis-

can Custodyof the Holy Landand the otherbelongingto the Greek OrthodoxChurchof Jerusalem. New excavationshaverevealedthat the western,Franciscansection comprisesonly the earlytown of Capernaum,just some 30 meters fromthe eastern,Greeksection, the historyof which datesexactly fromthe point wherethe first ends, therebycontinuingthe historyof the earliersite. The two sections aredividedby a stone wall, constructedwhen the landwas purchasedby the Franciscan Custodyandthe GreekOrthodox Church.No one imaginedthen that the wall representeda meaningfulseparationbetweentwo historicallyconsecutivesites. The "Greeksection"of Capernaum comprisesan areaof about 20,000 squaremeters,extending alongthe northeastshoreof the Sea of Galilee.The site was totally neglecteduntil the 1930s,partly becausenone of the magnificent ancientstructureswereapparenton the surface;the only visible remains werethose of poorlycon-

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983 200

structedhuts that wereprobably once used for seasonalfishing.The first attemptby the GreekOrthodox Churchto put the site to some use was in 1931,when the patriarchDamianusbuilt a small churchand a winter residence, which still exist at the site. These buildingswereused foronly a few yearsandwere subsequentlyabandoned.In 1975the site came under the authorityof the metropolitan Germanos,who restoredthe church,renovatedthe house nearit, and madeplans for trees andgardens to be cultivatedaroundthe buildings.He consultedthe Israel Departmentof Antiquities,and it was subsequentlydecidedto conduct archaeologicalsoundingsin the areabeforeany workwas undertaken. Thus in October1978excavations werebegunin the Greeksection of Capernaum,andthey have continuedwithout interruptionfor five seasons.The excavationshave been conductedon behalfof the IsraelDepartmentof Antiquities and Museums,with full financial supportof the GreekOrthodox Churchof Jerusalem.In the third season,Notre Dame Universityof Indianaparticipatedin the work, and in the fourthseasonAverett Collegeof Virginiaassistedby sending a groupof studentsandprovidingfinancialhelp.The final season in 1982was carriedout with the full participationof all fourinstitutions,and a groupof students fromMissouriStateUniversityalso took part. The first season'seffortswere concentratedon a comprehensive surveyof the areain orderto define the boundariesof the site and the natureof the ruins.The results werepromising,and it became clearthat extensivearchitectural and culturalremainsexistedunder the surface. One of the most interesting discoveriesof the seasonwas a twometer-thickwall madeof basalt

m - W: g+;

boulders;it extendsin a fairly straightline alongthe waterfront fromthe Franciscansection and it boundsthe entire length of the Greekpropertyon the lake. This wall does not havethe appearance of a fortification,but ratherseems to be a jetty to preventwaterfrom penetratinginto the settlement.In addition,it probablyprovideda safe harborfor fishingboats,as is evident fromthe shapeof the dock, wheretwo sections of the wall about20 metersapartturn at right anglesand extendon a parallelline about25 metersinto the wateron the easternside of the jetty to form a pier.In areaD, not farfromthe pier,ruinsof a massivebuilding consistingof indoorpools wereuncovered.The buildingprobably servedas a fish market.The entire complexseems to confirmthe theory that the jetty andpierwere built to provideanchorageand services for fishermen. The excavationsduringthe second season concentratedin areaC in the southeasternpartof the site, wherea largestructurewas completely cleared.This buildinghad remainedin use for about350 years,and five distinctivephases werenoted,datingfromthe Late Byzantineperiodin the firsthalf of the seventhcenturyto the middle of the tenth centuryA.D. The buildingoriginallyconsisted of two side roomsand a largeinner courtyardwhich was entered fromthe south and west. It was undoubtedlyconstructedfor public use, althoughin subsequentoccupationsit was renovatedfor domestic use. In the whole areainvestigated,remainsof foundationwalls werefounddirectlyoveran occupation level containingpotteryof the EarlyRomanperiodifirstcentury A.D.>; the occupationlevel was lying directlyon virginsoil. No evidence of LateRomanor Byzantinetsecond throughlate sixth centuries}occupationwas foundin this areaof excavation.

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The same historicalpicture was revealedin areaB, southwestof areaA, where anotherlargebuilding with similaroccupational phaseswas uncovered.Herealso, the ceramicfinds indicatethat the

first settlementwas establishedin the seventhcentury,andthere are no finds to supportan occupation priorto this period. Duringthe threeexcavation seasonsfrom 1980through1982,

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

201

with stone slabsof varyingsizes and shapes.Beneathone of these slabs in buildingA was discovered a hoardof 282 gold Ummayaddinars,providingvaluable chronologicaldata. Signsof a violentdestruction, probablycausedby the earthquake in 748 A.D., wereevidentthroughout levelIV,andincludedpiles of fallen buildingstonesanda debrislayer morethana meterthick.In one case,a hugerockcompletelyblocked a street;the rockmust haverolledin fromoutsidethe town. The orientationandplan of the level-IIIcity, datedto the Abassid periodjmid-eighththroughmidninth centuriesA.D.), werechanged completelyfromthose of the prein areaA. Thehoard of gold dinars found beneath one of the stone slabs in a building floor cedingone. New structuresblocked streets,leavingonly narrowpassages.The new houses weresmalleach consistingof two to three er, workfocusedon areaA, locatedat riedoverinto this period,although The generalqualityof the rooms. modificaother new structuresand the summit of the site. A wellremainsand ceramic architectural places. tions wereaddedin several sequence definedstratigraphical indicatethe beginto seem finds of The most characteristicfeature was establishedin this area,conof Capernaum. the decline of ning this level was the regularstone pavsisting of five settlementphases levels IIIand upper two In the ing which appearedeverywhere;it coveringa periodof about350 through mid-ninth to the dated I, coveredthe earlierplasteredfloors years,fromthe earlyseventh throughthe mid-tenthcenturyA.D. Details of the city plan in the various phaseswere identifiedhere. The earliestphase,level V, datesto the firsthalf of the seventh centuryA.D. and consists of a wellorganizedcity plan, with twometer-widestraightroadsthat are flankedby largewell-constructed andplasteredbuildings.As in other areasof the site, the remainsof level V restedon a thin layerof occupationaldebriscontainingonly EarlyRomanpottery,andbeneath it lay redvirginsoil-the terra fosa that is characteristicof the area. No archaeologicalevidenceat all was foundrelatingto the Late RomanandByzantineperiods. LevelIVwas datedon the basis of ceramicand numismaticevidence to the EarlyIslamicperiod LevelsVandIVin areaA of theGreeksection.Noticethehugerockblockingoneof thestreets; (mid-sevenththroughmid-eighth of 748A.D. therockmusthaverolledin fromoutof townas a resultof theearthquake Stateof of Antiquities}Ministryof EducationandCulture} bytheDepartment Copyright centuriesA.D.). The same general Israel. principleof the city planwas car-

202

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGISTIDECEMBER1983

The

unusual large and

size and prosperous

magnificence of the synagogue Jewish community, supported fishing, and agriculture.

indicate by trade,

a

Thisdrawing,fromG.R Orfali7s Capharnaumet ses Ruines,reconstructs the Capemaumsynagogueas it wouldhaveappearedwhenviewed fromthesoutheast.Thesynagogueis nowdatedsecurelyto thelate fourthorearlyfifthcenturyA.D.

mid-tenthcenturies1,the signsof economicdeterioration become moreevident.Sometimeduring the tenth century,but priorto the arrivalof the Crusaders, the townwasabandonedandnever resettled. Fromthis new evidenceit is now clearthat at a distanceof only a few metersfromthe ruins of the synagogue,an entirelynew settlement was established,almost completely on virginsoil, duringthe firsthalf of the seventhcentury, shortlybeforethe arrivalof the Arabs.The majorityof the newcomerswereapparentlyChristians,

althoughthis is basedsolely on archaeologicalfinds such as oil lamps and ceramicplates decoratedwith crosses,a glass gem bearingthe initials of JesusChrist (the monogrammaticcombinationof the Greeklettersiota and chil, and othersmall finds.The synagogue was not rebuilt,and the Christian sanctuary,which had been constructedoverthe traditionalhouse of St. Peter,was not reused.Instead, a new churchwas probablybuilt, dedicatedto St. Johnthe Theologus, and mentionedin Christian itinerariessubsequentto the Arab occupationof the Holy Land.

HistoricalImplications As a resultof these recentinvestigations,seriousnew historicalproblems havearisenconcerningthe fate of the earlierinhabitantsof Capernaum,the causesof the destructionof the Christiansanctuary and the magnificentsynagogue,and the abandonmentof the town as a whole. In orderto answerthese questions adequately,we must keep in mind three importantfacts about the Roman-EarlyByzantineoccupationof Capernaum:Firstof all, Capernaumwas almost entirely Jewishuntil the fifth and sixth cen-

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turies,exceptfor a small groupof Christians-mainly Judeo-Christians-who settled therein the first and secondcenturiesA.D. Second,the unusualsize and magnificenceof the synagogueindicatea largeandprosperousJewish community,supportedby trade, fishing,and agriculture.The archaeologicalevidencefromthe excavationsof the Franciscanssupportsa date in the fourthor fifth centuryforthe buildingof the synagogue,perhapsas a reactionto the large-scaleconstructionof magnificent churchesthroughoutthe Holy Landduringthe fourthand fifth CentUrieS

A.D.

Third,the locationof this churchin close proximityto the synagoguemust not necessarilybe acceptedas prooffor the existence of a large,or even small, Christian community.The peculiarplan and unusualfeaturesof the church, such as a baptismalfont situated within the apse,seem to indicatea buildingintendedfor commemoration of a holy site (thehouse of St. Peter),ratherthan for the ritual needs of the community.The building was probablyerectedunder pressurefromthe Christian politicalor ecclesiastical authorities. Fromthese conclusionsbased on archaeologicalevidence,we may approachsome of the historical eventsin the Holy Landduringthe firstthree decadesof the seventh century;these may clarifythe eventsat Capernaum. Undoubtedly,the most dramatic disruptionof Christianlife was causedby the Persianinvasionin 614 A.D. and the subsequentfifteenyearoccupation.An immediate resultwas the eliminationof rule;this led to Byzantine-Christian an increasein religiousandnationalist aspirationsamongthe local non-Christianpopulation,which was hostile to Byzantineauthority. Amongthese groupswerethe Jews, who viewedthe Persianinvasionas

204

an opportunityto freethemselves of the town was also destroyed, fromthe oppressiveByzantine abandoned,and neverresettled. Immediatelyfollowingthese domination. Tothis end, the Jewishpopula- eventsand duringthe shortperiod tion cooperatedwith the Persian of the Byzantinerecoveryof the troopsagainstthe Christians.Con- Holy Land,a new town with an entemporaryliterarysourcesmention tirely differentplan was constructa treatyof friendshipand coopera- ed to the east of the earlierone, priorto the arrivalof the Arabs. tion contractedbetweenthe Jews and the Persianinvaders.Whether This historicalpicturecorresponds verifiableor not, it is probablethat to the archaeologicalevidenceunthe Jewsparticipatedin the destruc- coveredby both the Franciscanand the Greekexcavations.As we have tion of manyChristianchurches seen, the earliestphase (levelV) in and sites, in particularthose locatedin areaswith largeJewish the Greeksection was datedto the communities,especiallyin Galilee. firsthalf of the seventhcentury, If the Persianarmypenetrated priorto the Araboccupation.This level consists of limited occupathe Holy Landfromthe north, and Golan, the throughDamascus, tional debrisonly, reflectinga short periodof settlement. Tiberias,then Capernaumwould havebeen one of the first sites to The excavations,however,have not yet revealedinformationregardbe affected.It was probablyat this time that the Jewishpopulationof ing the new populationof Capernaum,and it is not knownwhether the town, underthe protectionof the Persiantroops,demolishedthe they wereall new settlersor perchurchand otherChristianplaces. hapspartlysurvivorsfromthe These buildingswereneverrebuilt, earlier,destroyedtown. comandthe small Judeo-Christian munity may havealso been extirSuggestionsfor FurtherReading Corbo,V. patedduringthe courseof the 1969 The House of St. Peterat Caphardevastation.This grouphad always naum: A PreliminaryReportof the been an objectof condemnationby First lWo Campaigns of Excavathe orthodoxJewishcommunity,as tions. Publication of the Studium a rottenbranchwhich shouldhave Biblicum Franciscanum.No. 5. ferusalem: FranciscanPrinting Press. been cut off long before.Until the seventhcentury,they weretolerated 1975 CafarnaoI: Gli Edifici della Citta. Publication of the Studium Biblibecauseof Christiandomination. cum Franciscanum.No. 19. ferusaThe Byzantines,however,recovlem: FranciscanPrinting Press. eredin the springof 629 A.D., and Loffreda,S. the emperorHeracliustriumphant- 1973 The Late Chronologyof the Synagogue of Capernaum.Israel Explorly enteredthe Holy Landwith his ation [ournal 23: 37-42. troops,seekingrevengefor the dev- Meyers,E., and Strange,J. F. astationof Christiansites and com1981 Archaeology,The Rabbis, and Early munities.Capernaumwas again Christianity: The Social and Historical Setting of Palestinian tudaone of the first sites to be affected, ism and Christianity.Nashville: as Heracliusfollowedthe same Abingdon. routeas the Persiantroopsfifteen Orfali, P. G. yearsbefore.It was probablythese 1922 Capharnaumet ses Ruines: Dapres Byzantinetroopsthat demolished les fouilles accomplies a Tell-Houm par la custodie Franciscaine de the synagogueand expelledor even terresainte (1905-1921).Paris: exterminatedthe JewishinhabiPicard. Auguste tants. Hence,both the Christian Sapir,B., and Neeman, D. sanctuaryandthe Jewishsynagogue 1967 Capernaum;History and Legacy, came to a violent end within a Art and Architecture.Tel-Aviv:The Historical Sites LibraryN1/9. spanof fifteenyears.The remainder

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BOOKS FORTHE BIBLICAL SCHOLA -

RRRnMANS' HANDBOOK TO CHRISTIANITY IN AMERICA

GENESIS, WITH AN INTRODUCTION TO NARRATIVE Forms of t}le Old Testament Literature, Volume I by Geor,geW. Coats After discussing narrativein general and the principal Old Testamentnarrativesin particular,Coats sets the book of Genesis in its largercontext and analyzesits major sections and subsections. Paper, $Ig.gs

Edited byMarkA. NollnNathan 0. Hatchn Geor,geM. MarsdennDarid F. Wellsnand John D. Woodbrid,ge

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MIRACLES AND THE CRITICAL MIND byColinBrown A new workby a leadingevangelicalscholar whichoffersa comprehensive accountof the debateon the miraclesof Jesusfromtheearly churchto the presenttimeanda fresh examinationof the placeof miraclesin faith today. Cloth,$I8.95 UNTIL JUSTICE AND PEACE EMBRACE byNicholas Wolterstof Difficultquestionsaboutthe individual Christian's responseto the world'ssocial orderarehereaddressedin termsofthe biblicalconceptof shalom. Cloth,$I3.95 HOLINESS AND POLITICS byPeter HinchliJf

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In thisprofoundlytheological,sacramentaln anddoxologicalwork,notedtheologian GeoffreyWainwright makesa pleaforfi Christianunity.Paper,$8.95 MARTIN LUTHER Prophet to the Church Catholic byJamesAtkinson

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A re-issueof a classicwhichservesas a timely reminderthatthereis historically an honorabletraditionof genuineChnstian humanism.Paper,$6.95 THE COMPULSION OF THl3 SPIRIT A Roland Allen Reader Edited byDarid Paton and CharlesH. Lon,g

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THIRTEEN FIbMSTRIPS in richsoloronbiblisalgeography andarcheology inGluding dosumentaries ontheShroud o!Turin. + updated!#177. PONTIUS PILATE COINS ON THE TURIN SHROUD + J, This filmstrippresentsextensirely documentederidencefor perhapsthe most extraordinarvclaim concerning + + the Shroudof Turin:that coins of PontiusPilatecorered the two eyes closed in death, and ttlat the coins on the + + right and left eyes can be identified to authenticate,date, and locate the origin of the Shroud. IOOFrames. + + 30 Minutecassettedeseription. $30.00 +

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(updated) editxon: Offers written and photographic data to substantiate imprints from Pilate coins on right eyes. 14,000-word Monograph by Francis L. Filas, S.J., Professor of Theology at Loyola University of Chicago. confirmatory findings of Dr. Alan Whanger of Duke University, finding 147 congruences between Shroud and Pilate coins by means of polarizing filters and overlays. Numismatic sketches, 2 slides, 1 color print. $6.50

#163. THE SHROUD OF TURIN: IS THIS THE PHOTOGRAPHOF JESUS CHRIST? 84 frames, 38-minute cassette explanation in this updated edition of the burial cloth in Turin, Italy, traditionally held to be that of Jesus Christ. Summarizes evidence currently unchanged from scientific and historical data through 1978, concluding to 3-D crucified human body from Palestine. .825.00

#173. THE 1978 EXPOSITIONOF THE SHROUD OF TURIN: A DOCUMENTARY 113 frames, 30-minute cassette explanation. Includes priceless historical scenes of Shroud in natural faint shades; pollen off Shroud; list of scientific experiments; computer reconstruction. Some photos already collectors' items. Adds new data to #163. o25 .00

#176. THE EBLATABLETS:THEIR RELEVANCETO THE BIBLE. This extremely valuable filmstrip is divided into two parts: the facts of Ebla that no one can deny; and the presentation of the argument for the influence of Ebla in understanding ideas of the Hebrew (Old) and Greek (New) Testament. Photography: Aldo Durazzi. Consultant: Mitchell Dahood, S. J. 100 Frames. 30-Minute cassette description. $35.00

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J

The

Plain Genesis

Meaning 1: 1

of

3

by HarryM. Orlinslry The

beliefof scientificcreationistsin the literaltruthof the Bibleis of coursewell known.Thereis no doubtthat a desirefor fidelityto the Wordof Godis commendable It is somethingthat a greatnumberof people, notablytranslatorsof the Bible,havesharedthrough the ages.It shouldbe pointedout, however,that althoughthe translationsof manyof the passageson which scientificcreationistsparticularlybasetheir viewsmaybe literal,they arenot necessarilyaccurateportrayalsof the meaningof the original language.An importantexampleof sucha passageis Genesis 1:1-3,andthis is the subjectof the present briefstudy. The firsttranslationof the HebrewBiblewas the Septuagint,which wasprobablymadeearlyin the secondcenturyB.C.E. The vernacularof the vibrantandgrowingJewishcommunityof Alexandria,Egypt,wasnot the Hebrewlanguageof the Bibleor of theirJudeancontemporaries but the Greekof whathadbeenAlexandeSsdomain;yet AlexandrianJewryneededto knowwhattheirBible at the time "theTeaching(torahlof Moseswith which the LordhadchargedIsrael"(Nehemiah8:1, New JewishPublicationSocietyBible),composedin Hebrew-hadto say.Andsince the Jewsof the diaspora,no less thanthose of Judea,regarded everyword in the Hebrewtext as God'sto beginwith, their Greektranslationof that text hadto reproducethose wordsas literallyas possible.Onedidnot deallightly with the wordsandphrasesof God'sTeaching.1 This philosophyof translationhas persistedand has oftenresultedin meaninglessverbiage,and sometimesevenin actualperversionof whatthe Hebrewmeant.Forinstance,the secondandthird lines in Psalm1 havetraditionallyread"Blessedis

the manwhowalksnot in the counselof the wicked,/ norstandsin the wayof sinners"(RevisedStandard Version).The psalmist,however,hardlyintendedto describeas blessedthe one who doesn'tstandin the wayof sinners;indeed,he shouldstandin theirway! The Hebrewclearlyintendedto conveythe meaning of "takethe path(orfollowthe way,orroadlof sinners" Equallyabsurdis the literalrenderingof such a passageas Genesis24:10,wherethe KingJamesVersion reads,"Andthe servanttookten camelsof the camelsof his master,anddeparted; forall the goods of his masterwerein his hand"(italicsnot added;see belowl.Thatwouldbe somehandful!Ofcourse

Sometimes a literl translation is not the portrayal of the onginal . r meamng ot a passage.

best

Hebrewbeyadois usedhere,as so oftenelsewhere, idiomatically,to mean"withhim"In contrast,a passagesuchas Genesis29:1,wherea literalrenderingof the Hebrewwouldresultin the utterlyabsurd reading,"AndJacobliftedup his feet,andcameinto the landof the peopleof the east,"the traditional word-for-word philosophyof translation-God'sown words-was rejectedin the KingJamesVersionin favorof "ThenJacobwent on his journey,andcame into the landof the peopleof the east."2 Considerone moreexample.The KingJames VersionrenderedHebrewyabbashahin Genesis1:9

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

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by"dryland,"with the wordland in italicsto indicatethatGoddidnot use a separateHebrewword here.Thatprocedure, however,wassheernonsense. The Hebrewnounyabbashah-as distinctfromthe adjectivesyabesh(masculine)andyebeshah (feminine)-meansprecisely"dryland,"andit is incorrectto renderit otherwise.3 Inview of this approachto translation,one mightthinkthat'1nthe beginningGodcreatedthe heavenandthe earth"(Genesis1:1,KingJamesVersion)is a literalrenderingof the Hebrew.Yetthis is not whatthe Hebrewmeansat all. The veryfirst word,bereshith,as everystudentof biblicalHebrew knows,means'In the beginningof,"with the wordor phrasethatfollowsindicatingthe object(asin '1n the beginningof the reignof Jehoiakimthe son of Josiahkingof Judah"Jeremiah26:1,KingJames Version). Furthermore, in the sameversein Genesisit is misleadingto renderthe last two Hebrewwords ('eth-ha-shamayim we-'eth-ha-'aretz) literallyby"the heavenandthe earth," as thoughtwo separate entitieswerecreated"inthe beginning." Alreadythe greatcommentatorRashi(RabbiShlomoson of Yitzhaq),nine hundredyearsago,hadsomething decisiveto sayon this, andhis commentis worth quoting:4 Butif youaregoingto interpret thispassagein its plainsense,interpretit thus:Atthebeginningof the creationofheavenandearth,whentheearth was (orthe earthbeing}unformedandvoid . . . Godsaid,"Lettherebelight"Forthepassagedoes not intendto teachthe orderof creation,to say that these [namely,the heavenandthe earth] came first;becauseif it had intendedto teach this,it wouldhavebeennecessarytousetheform barishonah''(Inthe beginningor At first)He createdthe heaven,"etc., since there is no instanceof the formreshithin Scripture which is notin constructto thewordfollowingit, asfor example "In the beginning of the reign of Jehoiakim" .... Sohere,too,youmustsay[that the Hebrewphrase]. . . is equivalentto "Inthe beginningof (God's) creating". . . Similarto this is the phrase.. . [in]Hosea1:1.. ., "Atthe beginningoftheHolyOneBlessedbeHe'sspeaking(or Whenthe Holy One Blessedbe He beganto speak)to Hosea,theLordsaidto Hosea," etc.And if youshouldsaythatthepurposeofthetextis to teach that these [namely,the heavenand the earth]werecreatedfirstandthatits meaningis "Inthebeginningofeverything(orFirstof all. . .) He createdthese.. . ,"the factis thatthe waters camefirst,since it is written"Andthe ruahof Godwashoveringoverthewaters" andScripture hadnot yet revealedwhen the creationof the watersprecededthe earth.5

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BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

SoRashiwasrightwhenhe notedthatthe whole of the firstverseis in eonstruetto the third: ''1l)Inthe beginningof God'sereatinglorwhenGod beganto ereate)heavenandearth.. . 13)Godsaid,'Let therebe light';andtherewaslight" with the seeond verseeonstitutinga eireumstantialelause,that is, a clausethatdeseribesthe eireumstaneesunder whiehthe aetionin the firstandthirdversestook plaee:"12)the earthbeingunformedandvoid"andso on (thisandall followingEnglishtranslationsare fromthe New JewishPublieationSoeietyBible). Whenthe storyof the ereationis resumedlater in a parallelversion,in Genesis2:4,it is, again,the temporall"when") eonstructionthat is employed: 'Whenthe LordGodMadeearthandheaven." And one maynotehowtherealso,as in 1:2,the fifthand sixthverseseonstitutea eireumstantialelause,with the seventhbeingthe fulfillmentof the fourth: 'Whenthe LordGodmadeheavenandearth.. . 17) the LordGodformedmanfromthe dustof the earth" It hasbeeninsuffieientlyreeognizedthat "heavenandearth"is the usualbibliealtermfor "world,universe." Thusthe parallelversionof ereation in Genesis2:4andfollowingbeginswith 'When the LordGodmadeearthandheaven," that is, the universe.Oreompare"theLordmakerof heavenand earth"in Psalm121:2landelsewhere)and"GodMost High,Creatorof heavenandearth"in Genesis14:19 and22;orwhere"heaven" and"earth" aremade parallelto one anotherin poetry,with the same meaningof "thewholeworld,everyoneandeverything"as in Deuteronomy32:1andIsaiah1:1:"Hear, O heaven,andgiveear,O earth,forthe Lordhas spoken." Thereis more.Sineethe seeondversein Genesis 1 is a eireumstantialelause-subjeet followedby verb(we-ha-'aretz hayethah) "theearthbeing" ratherthanaandthe earthwas"lwhiehwouldbe expressedbythe regularsequeneeof verb+ subjeet, wa-tehiha-'aretz)-theprotasisin the firstverse, 'WhenGodbeganto createthe heavenandthe earth," has as its apodosisthe thirdverse,"Godsaid, 'Lettherebe light';andtherewaslight"Thus,the firstthingthat Goddidwhen He broughtinto being the worldas the aneientHebrewauthorknewit was to ereatelight.6 It shouldbe elearfromthe abovethatunderstandingthe Biblemust involvemorethana commitmentto literalness.Onemustbe awareof howthe originallanguagewasused-especially its constructionsandidioms.Suchan awarenessalso necessarilyinvolvesan appreciationof the contextof the language,in this casethe societyof Israelin the ancientNearEast.Onlythen is it possibleto see the plainmeaningof Scripture.The workof a translator

of the Bibleis verymuchlike the workof an archaeologist,anduncoveringthe plainmeaningof a biblicalpassagerequiresthe skill of a scientific investigator. Textualstudyis the cornerstoneof all the tools of biblicalresearchandthe lreyto responsibleinterpretation. Notes IThisattitudecoincidedwiththe modeof translationcurrent in the Hellenisticmilieu,whereliteralrendering (involving usuallythe cognateGreekandLatinlanguages) wasthe norm;see H. M.Orlinsky,"TheNewJewishVersion: Genesisof the Fourth GreatAgeof BibleTranslation," in the forthcoming SamuelIwry volume,throughout andnote6. 2Forsomeof the manyinstancesin the KingJamesVersion whicharemisleadingornonsensicalpreciselybecausetheyare literal,seethe closeto twenty(inthe firsttwenty-ninechaptersin Genesisllistedin H. M.Orlinsky,"TheSeptuagint as HolyWrit andthe Philosophyof theTranslators," Hebrew Union College Annual 66, 1975,page106,note22. Onthe idiomaticuse of the Hebrewword"liftup"(nasa') seepages28 and277 {columna,

nasa) in H. M.Orlinksy, editor,Notes on the New tewish BansJation of the Torah (Philadelphia: JewishPublicationSociety,19691. sThisuseof italicsin the KingJamesVersion(compare "were"

in Genesis24:10citedabove,andsee alsopage13in Orlinsky, Notes) is political-theological ratherthanphilologicalin origin.It

wasanaspectof the earlyProtestant revoltagainstthe Roman CatholicChurch;see furtherOrlinsky,"TheNewJewishVersion" (citedin note1 abovel,note9, andseveralparagraphs leadingupto it. 4Compare page49 andfollowingin Orlinsky,Notes. tIhaveleftthe wordruah untranslated here.Traditionally translated "spirit" (andeven''Spirit''!l, theevidenceforthe meaning hereof "wind"-asalreadyin the Septuagint, the Targum, Philo, andthe Babylonian Talmud,andacceptedbysuchmedieval Jewishscholarsas Saadia,Abraham ibnEzra,andNachmanides, andasparalleled in ancientNearEasternsources-is decisive;see Orlinsky,Notes, pages52-55,with specificreference to additional dataandbibliography in the articleon"TheNewJewishVersionof the Torah: Toward a NewPhilosophyof BibleTranslation," tournal of Biblical Literature 82, 1963,pages249-64. 6rThis is nottheplaceto discussthe full significanceof light,for examplethe factthatlightvis-a-visdarknessrepresents ordervisa-vischaos.Inthe Bible,Godis of coursethe onewho"formslight andcreatesdarkness" (Isaiah45:7).

ASOR and Eisenbraunsto Publish ExcavationReports TheAmericanSchoolsof OrientalResearch andEisenbrauns arepleasedto announcethe inceptionof a newpublication cooperative forexcavation reports. Inorderto encourage publicationof digs,Eisenbrauns willbeworkingcloselywithASORto enablethepublication of prelimina1y andfinalreports. Design,composition, andproduction management willbe provided byEisenbrauns. Funding forprintingandbindingwillbetheresponsibility ofthe organization sponsoring theexcavation. Itis expectedthatthisarrangement will reduceinitial capitaloutlayforpublication onthepartoftheexcavation byaboutfiftypercent.Forfurther information contact: o>5OFO t ^ %> Z v X rlw t*&tob4t

Excavation ASORPublications P.O.BoxH.M. DulreStation Durham,NorthCarolina 27706

Reports r

t R

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

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Underground Complexes

Hiding from

in

the

Bar

the !Judean

Kokhba

War Shephelah

KLONER BYAMOS

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BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

of these discovery The recent added to our caves has majn-made second Jewish understanding of the Romans against the war

1978DavidAllon, an inspector forthe IsraelDepartmentof AntiquitiesandMuseums,was in the field investigatinginciby people dentsof cave-robbing searchingforantiquities.While talkingwith villagersfromwest of the Hebronmountains,bordering the JudeanShephelah,he was told of the existenceof subterranean warrensin the areasouth of Nahal Adorayim. The departmentsubsequently coordinatedan investigationof these warrensby membersof several kibbutzimin the region,membersof field schoolsof the Society forthe Protectionof Nature,the staffof the JoeAllon Centerforthe Studyof the JudeanFoothills,and others.This studyhas discovered morethan 150cavecomplexesat 70 sites in an areaboundedby Nahal Ayalonon the north,the Hebron mountainson the east, the Yatir Regionon the south, andthe coastal plainon the west. Mostof these are foundbeneathvillagesandtowns locatedon the sites of ancient settlements. The termcave complex describesa rowof cavitieshewn in the chalkrock,belowthe Narilevel (thelayerof about 1.5metersof hardlimestonecoveringthe chalk}, connectedto each otherby low and narrowpassages.These tunnel-like In

Storageroomin thecavecomplexat Khirbet Eitonwith tworowsof shallownichesin the wall. Thenichesweremeanttoholdobjects.

passagesarecalledmehilotin Hebrew(seeIsaiah2:19)andwill be The referredto hereas burrows. burrowsarethe characteristicthat identifiesthe complexas a placeof refuge.Passagethroughthem requiresone to crawllonhandsand knees)andsometimesevento creep (withstomachto the ground).Only in exceptionalcases can one move throughthem by merelybending down. The openingsinto chambersare alwayssmall andlow,andrequire one to kneel downin orderto enter. The rooms,halls, burrows,andeven most storeroomscouldbe sealed fromthe inside.Thus,the complexesweredesignedso that their occupantscoulddefendthemselves fromwithin, againstan enemy attemptingto enter;they wereintendedas placesof refugeand hiding,andthey havebeen dated to the time of the destructionof the SecondTempleandlater. It shouldbe notedherethat not everyseriesof cavitiesin the Judean Shephelahcan be consideredplaces of refugelandmanyof them date fromdifferentperiods).In the area of HellenisticMarisa,forinstance, therearedozensof subterranean warrensdatingfromthe thirdand secondcenturiesB.C.E.andconsistingof rooms,halls,waterinstalindustrial lations,"columbaria,"

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Ljeft:A burrowentering a square room in the cave complex at KhirbetEiton. The opposite side otthe room was closed ogby the round rolling-stoneseen in the bottom ofthe photograph. Above:An entrance to a room in the cave conaplexat Khirbet Naqiq. The room was originally closed off with a square blocking stone.

installations,andso on. Theiropenings arehigh, allowingone to enter in an uprightposition.Theirpassagesarealso high andcomfortable andcannotbe locked;they lack camouflage,secrethideaways,and otherdefensivedevices.The entrancestairwaysthat characterize these caves,which wereused for economicandreligiousfunctionsor waterreservoirs,do not appearin hidingcomplexes. Components Characteristic of the HidingComplexes In additionto theirundergroundlocation,severalcharacteristic componentsidentif:ythe warrensthat wereused as hiding places.These includeburrows, special-kindsof entrances,closing andblockingmethods,shafts, defenseinstallations,ventilation waterinstallations, arrangements,

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storageroomsandgranaries,and lampniches. charBurrowsThe key identif:ying acteristicof the hidingcomplexesof the JudeanShephelahis the burrow which connectsits variousparts andwhich definesthe subterranean warrenas a ptaceof hidingor refuge. As notedabove,the burrowis alwayshewn as a low andnarrow passagethat requiresone to crawl andsometimesevento creep;the heightbetweenthe rockflooring andthe ceilingis only 0.40 meter. In one case,the heightof the burrowis 0.25 meter,makingeven creepingverydifficult.Perhapsthis burrowwas left low in orderto save time andlaborin quarrying,as well as to mallethe passagethroughit difficult.In a few cases,the height of the passageis between0.70 and 0.80 meter,but traversingthe averageburrowis a slow andrela-

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

tively difficultprocess.As noted above,the entrancesarealso narrow andlow. The burrowsconnectedthe entranceandthe variousroomsthat werehewn in advanceandthen into the hidingcomincorporated plex. Somepassagesservedfor ventilation,othersforaccessto storageroomsor a waterreservoir, andothersas escapeburrows. The burrowsweredesignedand hewn to servea dualpurpose.Firstt they couldbe blockedandcompletely sealedoff, or subdividedinto sections that couldbe closedoff from the complexas a whole. Second, theirdimensionsandspecialinstallationsmadepenetrationand attackby an enemydifficult. Entrances.The entrancesto the complexeswereconcealedand couldbe blockedanddefended fromthe inside.The entranceswere situatedin a varietyof locations:in irregularlyshapedcaveswhich providedcamouflage,storerooms,olive waterreserpresses,"columbaria," voirs,andtombs,as well as below the floorsof privateandpublic buildings.These openingsare usuallysmall, about0.50 to 0.60 meterwide and0.60 to 0.70 meter high.The originalopeningswere not foundin all the complexes; however,afterthe overallplanis

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The shaftscreatedobstaclesfor those traversingthe burrowor entering the complexthroughthem. Someonedescendingor ascendinga shaftmaywell be surprisedby a personwaitingat the otherend, and this while his handsareoccupied with climbingandthus unavailable forusingweapons.The shaftcould also be blockedby a stone placedat its upperend, andits lowerend, and in some cases in its center,wherea t J.J landingwas installedforthis purpose. Otherdefenseinstallations.The burrowsgenerallychangeddirectlon, tormlngvarlouss.zarpturnsat eitherrightor obtuseangles.These turnsaddto the difficultyin traA Tzerticalshaft in the cave complex at KhirbetNaqiq. The shaft was originally hidden with a versing the burrow,surprisingthe horlzontal slab of stone. In the bottom of the shaft thereis an entrance to a lower leTzelroom. attackerunacquaintedwith them andforcinghim to exposehis known,theirlocationscan be surIn some cases,sectionsof the unprotectedside. mised.The entranceswerecamou- burrowswereclosedoff by small As the attackeris forcedto flagedandin manycasespurposely heapsof stonesanddirt. crawl or creep,he is deniedfreeuse installedin a concealedcorner, Sectionsof the burrowsnear of his weaponsanddefensivearmor. hiddenin the flooror walls of a the roomsto which they led were In addition he must carrysome largecistern,abovea step or articlosedby roundrolling-stones means of lighting, ficial capital.In some of the comsuch as a torchor similarto those sealingtombs. lamp, further limiting the freeuse plexes,ropesor ropeladderswere Verticalshaftswereinstalled of his hands. The inability to move probablyused.Entranceswerealso in burrowsandcouldbe closedor freely in the burrow itself, together locatedin verticalshafts,andcanbe blocked. with the needto climb shaftsand identifiedfrominsidea complex that was enteredthrougha later navigateanglesincreasesthe ability of those hidingto defend breach.Thesepartiallycut shafts Entrances were themselves. arenot coveredby dirton the surIn most cases,the entrancesto face.Shaftslike these couldbe sometimes hidden the complexesopeninto a burrow. blockedby closingstonesplacedon in corners, cisterns, Thereforeonly one soldierat a time both theirupperandloweropencan enterthe complex,andhe exings.Additionalblockedentrances or above artificial poses himselfto hand-to-hand wereapparentlyused duringthe fightingin the burrowsandshafts. hewingof the complexandwere capitals. The one attemptingto penetratethe closedup with the terminationof the work. complexis at a disadvantage; the superiorfightingpowerof a trained Closingandblockingmethods.The Shafts.In quitea numberof cases, narrowentrancesto the burrows armyunit is lost underthese partsof the burrowvariedin level wereclosedby stones.Somesealing between2 and4 meters,andsome- circumstances. stoneswerefoundin the burrows;in times between6 and8 metersor Ventilationarrangements. In the othersites, their existenceis incomplexesin the more.This occurredwhen the com- largesubterranean dicatedby bolts andbeamsused for plex incorporated earlierhalls, JudeanShephelahthat werenot lockingthem in place.The sealing rooms,columbaria,watercisterns, meantas hidingplaces,such as stones arerectangular, andso on into the warren.These similarin those fromthe thirdandsecond formto those closingtombsand centuriesB.C.E. in the areaof Marisa, differinglevelswerejoinedby crypts.In some cases,stone supthe openingswerelargeandwide, verticalshafts,with depressions portswereplacedbehindthe sealing hewn in the walls to facilitate providinga freeflow of air.Constones. climbing. sequentlytherewas no need for ,%

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ventilation.The use of subterdesignedandconstructedduringthe andgrains.The constructionof the floorsof some roomsclearlyindihewingof the complexas a whole. raneancomplexesforhiding,howcate theiruse forholdingoil jars. In some cases ancientwater ever,ralsesslgnltlcantquestlonsln regardto ventilationandairsupply cisternsdatingeitherto the Hellen- Oil was of utmost importanceto those hidingin the burrows.It was forthose occupyingthem. Closure istic or EarlyRomanperiodwere into the hidingcomconsumedas food,andalso was an of the hidingplaces,or theirblock- incorporated ing duringa seige,couldhavebeen plexes.Someof them wereblocked energysourceto light lamps. In the examplefromthe Hazfromthe insidein orderto conceal criticalforthose inside. zan site, dozensof depressionsare In some places,burrowswere them fromexternalview.On the otherhand,therearesome ancient arrangedin rows,with channels foundwhose functionwas essentially forairsupply.Theseburrows watercisternswithin the areaof the connectingthem;the floorof the roomwith the jardepressionsslants hadtwo openingswhich permitted warrensthat werenot exploitedas in the directionof one cornerin the circulationof air.An outlet for reservoirs. which a depressedcollectionbasin The cisterns,whetherhewn at aircouldsometimesbe a verynarthe time the complexwas planned, is found.If one of the jarsbroke,its rowcrackin the rock;however or of an earlierperiod,hada storage contentswouldflow to this basin, was needshaft ventilation when a andthe liquidwouldnot be wasted. ed, its dimensionswouldhaveto be capacityof up to severalhundreds The largenumberof roomsat Hazthe width andheightof the stoneof cubicmeters.Theyareusually zan andthe manydepressionsin cutterinstallingit. Whilethe foundin the largecomplexes and narrow was ventilationshaft concealed,it was nonethelessa weakpoint in the systemof hiding burrow in the freely to move inability The anddefense. to hiding of those ability the increases In othercases,the ventilation burrowbecamean alternativeenthemselves. defend tranceforthose hidingin the complex andincludedvariousessential theirfloorsindicatea publicuse intendedto accommodatemany elementsnecessaryfordefense.In people. this regard,it hadbeen suggested of the site. Cereals,legumes,andother installaSmallwater-storage that some of the ventilationarrangefoodswerestoredin jarstoo, to solid ments wereinstalledduringthe use tions arefoundalongthe burrows, them againstmold,rodents, protect of the complexandnot duringits andhewn in the baseof special construction.In otherwords,during depressionsin the walls or floorsof insects,andso forth.Whileno jars werein the roomswith the depresthe rooms.These arebell-shaped an emergencythose hidingfound that they neededa supplementary cavitieswith an opentop,andwith sions,these matchthe basesof jars foundin otherrooms. a capacityof a few hundredliters. airsupply.In such cases,an inAt some sites, evidencewas dividualsolutionto the problemof These small storageunits, foundin foundof largefoodcontainers ventilationwas foundin each almostall the hidingcomplexes, wereapparentlyforthe immediate installedin the walls of the comcomplex. Waterinstallations.These arefound use of those in hiding.In addition, plex.In addition,otherinstallations havebeen foundthat mayhavebeen in all the warrens.A placeused for small depressionsarefoundalong used forfoodstorage.However,the refugerequiresthe storageof water the burrowsandin the cornersof the rooms,designedto hold pottery matterrequiresclarificationand in one fashionor another. research,forno meansof protection Somewaterinstallationswere waterjarsforimmediateuse. A1frommold is evident. thoughno jarswerefoundin situ, locatedin roomsor cisternsquarThe complexesalso contained riedespeciallyforthis purpose.The the depressions,andof coursethe storageroomsthat couldbe closed watersupplycamefromchannelsin discoveryof manyjarsherds,proandcamouflaged.Somewerehidden which surfacerun-offwaterwas col- vide evidenceof theirexistence. underfloors.These roomscontain Storageroomsandgranaries.To lected,or which werefilledwith specialniches forstoringobjects wateroriginatingfromotherreser- date,floorswith depressionsfor holdingjarshavebeen foundat five andthey lack ventilation.Because voirs.Sometimesthey areactual the complexeswereorganizedto cisterns,andsometimescontainers sitesjin othercomplexes,heapsof of differentshapes.These installa- jarsherdshavebeen found.Jarswere providea communitywith shelter forweeksor perhapsevenmonths, used forstoringliquidssuch as oil tions areintegratedin the comboth largestorage plexes,clearlyindicatingthey were andperhapswine, as well as cereals they incorporated .

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BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983 214

Storageroomin thecavecomplexof Hazzan.Noticethedepressionson theleft thatare arrangedin rowsslantingto a corner.A lampnicheis cut into thecentralsquarepillar.

Mapshowingthelocationof thetudean Shephelah.

placesforpublicuseZandfood storageinstallationsforlimited use by a small groupor family. All the jarandstoragerooms had small openingsthat were blockedby squarestones and}in most casesfcamouflagedevices.The burrowsaIldpassagesleadingto these roomsnecessitatedcrawlings andone must realizethat transportinga jarwith a capacityof 15 to 20 litersrequireda greateffort.If the only problemwas hermetic closureZ to producewine forexampleRor to preseweotherfoods)small well-sealedopeningsat the end of a high corridoror passagewouldhave been sufficient.Butfas noted}these wereplacesof hidingandrefuge. Lampniches.Niches foroil lamps werefoundin manyplaces.According to their location}two types of niches can be differentiated. Niches in the burrowswere usuallyinstalledon the left side of

the stone-cutteras he progressedin his quarrying.The stone-cutterJ holdingthe chisel in his left hand andthe hammerin his right}would havecut the niches on his left side. If the lampwereon the rightside of the narrowburrow}the striking movementsof the stone-cutter wouldhaveblockedthe light. The niches appearevery1 to 2 meters. The chisel markstend forwardand downwardin directionandare easily recognized. This systembecameappareIlt afterthe surveyof only a few complexesfandremainedapplicable with the coIltinuationof our research.Thus the directionin which the burrowswerequarried can be determinedaccordingto the locationof the niches cut forthe oil lampsused duringthe stone-cutting. Whileoil lampscouldhavebeen placedin the burrowswhen they wereused as a refuge}not as many wouldhavebeen requiredas during t.ze quarrylngoperatlon. Lampniches in the rooms) hallsZand storeroomsarefoundat variouslevels in the upperhalf of the walls.These niches aremore carefullyhewIlthan those in the burrows.Sometimesthe niche is triangularandhas a smooth frame .

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emphasizingits position.The wall niches indicatethe use of the rooms forrefuge}storagefandso forth) wherecontinuouslightingwas required. Typesof Complexes Therearetwo main types of hidden cavecomplexes:small clustersprobably intendedforfamilyusef and largepubliccomplexes.Bothtypes wereeitherquarriedintentionally forthe purpose)or madeuse of existingcavitiesfromearlierperiods that werethen connectedby a system of narrowsubterranean burrows. The small warrenscoIlsistof an entranceJburrow}andusuallysmall rooms.They aregenerallyof limited dimensionsandsimple in execution. Suchcomplexeswerediscoveredbeneaththe remaiIlsof living quartersin settlements;in at least two sites}nine or ten separatecomplexeswereidentified.Eachfamily or groupof familiespreparedits own shelter}accordingto a method of quarryingthat was knownto the publicat large.This assumptionis strengthenedby the shelteSsproximity or connectionto living quarters.A small warrencouldbe used by one or severalfamiliesand

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hold twentyto fortypeople.Usually, such a complexhadits own small watersourceandstoreda small amountof food. A largewarrenis morecomplicatedin its plan;it has elaborate entrancesandrelativelysophisticatedmeansof sealingthem, long branchingburrowsthat can be blockedby variousmeans,andlarge rooms-some of which are,in fact, halls that can hold scoresof people andwhose ceilingsarehigh enough to permitstandingupright.The quarryingof the largewarrenswas undertakenwith relativeprecision, andcareis apparentin the detailsof the entrances,steps,ceilings,lamp niches,andso on. Duringourinvestigations,we cameuponsubterranean warrensin which the installationsforwater collectionandfoodstoragewereso prominentthat they can be consideredto haveservedprimarilyfor this purpose. Quarryingthe CaveComplexes The variouspartsof the warrens werehewn in differentways.More than one man couldworkat the same time in the small roomsand in the largecaves.The burrow,however,couldaccommodateonly one rock-cutter.He hadto lie on his stomachor on his backwhile quarryingthe differentsectionsof the burrow,andthe beginningof the rooms,until he excavateda height enablinghim to kneel or stand. Eachrock-cutterhada groupof assistantswho clearedthe rock debriswhich he left behind.In some cases,the materialwas extractedthroughshaftsthat were laterblockedwith stones;the system of shafts,therefore,was partof the constructionprocess. Thereareroomsfromwhich burrowswerehewn in two opposite directions,enablinggreaterefficiency.In one complexwhereburrowsconnectedearliercaves,it was discoveredthat quarryingmight haveoriginatedat eight different

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Right:Entranceto a storageroom in the cave complex at Hazzan. Notice the lamp niches on both sides of the opening which is just 0. 70 meter high. FarRight:An entrance to a room in the cave complex at Hazzan. The room is encircled by benches.

points at once:two entrancesfroma bell-shapedcistern,threeentrances froma columbariumcave,andthree entrancesfromshaftsthat were laterblocked.It was calculatedthat if the rateof quarryingat eachpoint was 0.5 meterperday,4 metersper daywouldhavebeen hewn.The total lengthof the burrowsin the comp..ex ln questlon,1S approximately 100meters.Accordingly, they couldhavebeen completed within a month.The quarryingof roomsfromwhich largeamountsof chalkhadto be extractedwas calculatedin the sameway,andit is estimatedthat it took one monthto excavatethe entirecomplex. Similarcalculationswere carriedout at othercomplexes,for exampleKhirbetEiton,that didnot incorporateearliercaves.At one site, to which thereis but one originalsurfaceentrance,it was calculatedthat quarryingthe main burrow,at a similarpace,would havetakenten weeks,while rooms couldhavebeenpreparedsimultaneouslyby additionalteamswho also smoothedthe surfacesof the burrowandcarriedout othertasks. In this complex,the materialwas extractedthroughthe burrowitself and,as the amountof debriswas great,the workprobablytook twice as long.The estimateis that three

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

monthswererequiredto complete the complex. The chalkof the Judeanfoothills is easily quarried.Basedon the calculationsoutlinedabove,it wouldseem that it took only monthsto preparethe complexes, andnot years,as it might appear at firstglance. Datingthe Complexes As investigationof the complexes proceeded,it becameclearthat the burrowspostdatethe Hellenistic andEarlyRomanperiods.They penetrateandnullify the original use of olive presses,columbaria,and watercisternsfromthe thirdto the firstcenturiesB.C.E. This clearchronology cannotbe establishedin all the hidingcomplexes,but in those whereburrowswereintegratedinto existingcaves,it cannotbe doubted, andbecausethe complexesareone chronologicalunit, this conclusion appliesto all. In all the complexes,both in the burrowsandespeciallyin the rooms,halls,andstorerooms,there weresigns of excavationandsieving. Accordingto reportsby villagersof the Hebronmountains,the caves wererobbedduringthe British Mandate,the periodof Jordanian rule,andno less activelyafterthe Six DayWarin 1967.The villagers

wouldspendseveraldaysin the complexessievingthe soil andZaccordingto the reportsZ manycoins werefoundin this way-sometimes as manyas atwoto each sieve.'Signs of this arduousworkwerefoundin hundredsof roomsandin sections of manyburrows.Accordingto the villagersJthey found'Xcoins with palmtrees: a descriptionfitting coins of BarKokhbaas well as of the firstJewishwaragainstRomeeThere is reasonto believethat manyof the BarKokhbacoins which reachedthe antiquitiesmarketoverthe last decadesoriginatedin these complexes andadjacentsurfacesites. Todate,,BarKokhbacoins have been foundby archaeologistsin four hidingsystems. Potterysherdsfroma varietyof vesselswerefoundin the cavecomplexesJwith jarfragmentsconstituting 80 percentof the sherds.In additionJutensils of pottery}glass} andstonewerefound.Merltion must be madeof the finds}in some burrowsJ of potterysherdsfromthe Byzantineperiodandthe Middle Ages (particularly fromthe Mameluk period)a Byzantinecoin, arld otheritems. The preliminary reportsof the discoveryof the hidingcomplexesnotedpottery fromthe firstandsecondcenturies C.E. Froma morerecentstudyof

these vessels it appearsthat the jars areof the type foundat sites dating to the destructionof the Second Temple,such as those fromdwellings in the uppercity in the Jewish Quarterin Jerusalem,fromMasada, andfromthe refuge-caves in the Judeandesert.EssentiallyZ they are jars50 to 60 centimetershigh;the radiusof theiropeningis 7 to 8 centimeters;theirneck heightis 3.5 to 4 centimetersZ andthey havetwo handleson their shoulders;their bodyandshouldersareslightly ribbed.The bodyoutline of all the jarsis similarZ but their rims are shapedin variousways;five differenttypes of jarrimswerefound in the same roomin one hiding complex. These jarstestify to use during the time of the destrllctionof the SecondTempleandlater,particularlyduringthe periodbetweenthe two Jewishwarsagainstthe Romans.

nels werediscoveredZ hundredsof meterslong, 2 to 3 metershighZand 1.0to 1.5meterswide. Comparedto the burrowsof the Judearlfoothills, they allowrelativelyeasyupright walking.Someof them werehewn in the local rockZandsome were dugin the fill of the artificialhill andsupportedby woodenbeams. The complexhas branchesJ andits constructiontechniquediffersZ as apparentlydoes its functionZfrom the complexesin the foothills. Herodionis HerodisZ accordingto the BarKokhbaletters;it servedas militaryheadquarters anda center forhis forcese At KhirbetJedur,southwestof GushEtzionZa hidingcomplexwas examinedin 1979 whose finds clearlyindicateBarKokhbause. The complexwas hewn in the local rockandconsistsof burrowswith closingdevices.Arnongthe finds are oil lampsdatingto the periodbetween the two Jewishwarsagainst the Romans. HidingComplexes NearE1CArrAb a cavefromthe in the HebronMountains SecondTempleandBarKokhba Whenconsideringthe complexes periodswas partiallyexcavatedin in the JudeanShephelahZ one must 1973.It was constructedin the same takenote of the phenomenonof wayas the hidingcomplexes,with a complexesin the Hebronmounburrowconnectingchambers.An tainsZwhereclustersof refuge-caves investigationcarriedout in 1968 havebeen foundat a numberof broughtto light coins of Alexander Jannaeus,AgrippaI, arldthe Consul sites. At Herodion}subterranean tun- FelixZeight coins fromYearsTwo

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meters

andThreeof the firstwar,andthree coins fromYearsTwoandThreeof the BarKokhbaWar.In 1973a coin was of the prefectGratusl15-16C.E.l found. Accordingto the excavatorat E1 otherfindsindicatesome CArrub, activityduringthe firstcenturies B.C.E. andC.E., but these arethe minority;most of the findsarefrom the periodbetweenthe two wars. The discoveryof coins fromthe first warnearBarKokhbacoins allowsus to use the BarKokhbacoins as the determiningchronologicalfactor,as it is knownthat coins fromthe first waralso continuedin use during the time of BarKokhba.Almost all the potteryfromone of the halls was similarto potteryfoundin othercomplexesin the foothills: storagejarsof the type commonat sites datingto the end of the Second Templeperiodandthe time of the BarKokhbaWar. ComplexesPredating Subterranean the BarKokhbaWar Fromcoins fromKhirbetMidras, the findsfromthe complexnearE1 the evidenceof the stagesin CArrub, of the complexesas the preparation placesof refuge,andfromthe analysis of some writtensourceslsee belowl,hidingandstoragecomplexescanbe assumedto havebeen readiedforuse priorto the Bar Kokhbaperiod.The JudeanShephelah underwentintensivequarrying priorto the secondcenturyC.E. Josephusrelatesin his Thetewish War(BookIV,509-13)how storage roomswerehewn on the eve of JerusaleSsdestructionby the followersof ShimeonbarGiora: Havingnowcollecteda strongforce, he first overranthe villagesin the hills, and then throughcontinual additions to his numbers was emboldenedto descend into the lowlands.And now when he was becomingaterrortothetowns,many menofstandingwereseducedbyhis strength and career of unbroken successintojoininghim;andhiswas no longeran armyof mereserfsor

spoilsof corn,andheremost of his Hisobjectwas troopswerequartered. evidenthewastraininghisforceand foran thosepreparations making;all attackon Jerusalem. 1961) ^iThackeray

brigands,but one includingnumto erouscitizenrecruits,subservient his commandas to a king.He now overrannot only the provinceof Acrabetenebut the whole district extendingto greaterIdumaea.Forat a villagecalledNuinhe hadthrown up a wall and used the place as a fortressto securehisposition;while hetumedtoaccountnumerouscaves in the valley known as Pheretae, wideningsome andfindingothers adaptedto his purpose,as store chambers and repositories for plunder.Here,too, he laid up his

Josephuswas possiblyreferringto a particularsite in our area,andfor the purposeof historicalillustration, we canpoint to the storerooms andhidingcomplexof the Hazzan site, in which thereweretwo main periodsof use. It shouldnot be presumedthat the techniquesandimprovements in the hidingcomplexeswerea resultof just a few years'experience andlearning.The morewe proceed with ourinvestigation,the morewe

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areconvincedthat a long tradition of knowledgeandexperiencewas investedin the subterranean warrens.Nor was the cave-complexa foreignimportation.The warrens appearto havebeen of local design andexecutionJandtheirintegration within andaroundsettlements pointsto theirextensiveuse during the Hellenlsticand Romanperiods. WnttenEvideIlce The followingsourcesrelatingto the BarRokhbaWarbecametangiblyandverifiablyclearwith the discoveryof the hidingcomplexes Dio Cassiussays,in his Roman History (LXIX,12-14): At Jerusalemhe foundeda city in placeoftheonewhichhadbeenrazed to the groundfrtamingIt Aelia Capitolinafand Or1the site of the templeof the god he raiseda new templeto Jupiter. Thisbroughton warof no slight importancenorof briefdurationJ forthe Jewsdeemed it intoIerablethat foreign races shouldbe settled in theircity and foreignreligiousritesplantedthere SolongJindeedJ asHadnanwasclose by in Egyptandagainin SyriaJthey remainedquiet savein so farasthey purposelymadeofpoorqualitysuch weaponsas theywerecalleduponto fumish/ in orderthat the Romans might rejectthem and they themselves might thus havethe use of them;butwhenhent [arther away theyopenlyrevolted. Tobesurefthey did not daretry conclusions[join battlelwith theRomansin theopen field/but they occupiedthe advantageouspositionsin thecountryand strengthened themwIthminesand walls,in orderthattheymighthave places of refuge whenever they shouldbe hardpressedJandmight meet together unobservedunder ground; and they pierced these subterranean passagesfromaboveat intervalsto let in airandlight. At flrst the Romans took no accountof them.Soon,howeverJ all JudaeahadbeenstirredUPJ andthe Jewseverywhere wereshowingsigns of disturbanceJwere gathering together, andgierirlg evidenceofgreat hostility to the RomansJ partlyby secretandpartlybyovertacts;many

outside nationsJtoo}were joining themthrougheagemess forgaintand the whole earthtone mightalmost say/was being-stirredup overthe matter.Then}indeedfHadriansent againstthemhis bestgenerals.First ofthesewasJuliusSevemsfwhowas dispatchedfromBritaintwherehe was governorJagainst the Jews. Sevemsdidnotventureto attackhis opponentsin the open at any one point,in view of theirnumbersand theirdesperation, butbyintercepting smallgroups}thanksto the number of his soldiersandhisunder-officersJ andby deprivingthem of foodand shuttingthemup,hewasabletmther slowly,to be sureJbutwith comparativelylittledangers tO crushJ exhaust andexterminatethem.Veryfew of them in factsurvived.Fiftyof their most importantoutpostsandnine hundred andeighty-five oftheirmost famousvillageswere razedto the ground.Five hundredand eighty thousandmen were slain in the variousraidsand battlesfand the numberof those that perishedby famine,disease and flre was past

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findingout. Thusnearlythe whole ofJud2ea wasmadedesolate,aresult of which the peoplehad had forewamlngbeforethewar.Forthetomb ofSolomonJ whichtheJewsregard as anobjectofvenerationf felltQ pieces of itself and collapsedJand many wolvesartdhyenasrushedhowling into their cities. Many Romans, moreoverJperIshed in this war. ThereforeHadrianin writingto the senatedidnot employthe opening phrasecomrnonlyaffectedby the emperorsJ 1f you andyourchildren are in health, it is well; I and the legionsarein health't ICary1925}

In the MidrashRabbahon Lamentations (I.16,section 45) this is said:

FIadrian theaccursed setupthreegarrisonsfone in Emmaus,a secondin KefarEekatia andthethirdin Bethel ofJudea.HesaidfShoeverattempts to escapefromone of them will be capturedin anotherandvice versa'9 . . . Heediately surrounded them with his leglons and slaughtered themJsothattheirbloodstreamed [to the coastandstainedthe sealas far asCypms.ThentheHolySpiritcried out, ForthesethingsI weep. Those Jew$who werehiddenlin thecaves]devoured thefleshoftheir slainbrethren, Everydayoneofthem ventured forth and brought the coq}sesto themwhichtheyate.One daytheysaid,{fLetone of us and if he findsanythin,g let him bringit andweshallhayetoeat'fOn out he foundthe slainbodyof his father which he tQok and buried and markedthe spot. FIeretumedand reportedthathe hadfoundnothing. Theysaidf/)t somebodyelsegofand ifhefindanythq lethimbringit and we shallhaveto Whenhe went OUt he bllowed the scent; and on makinga search,he discoveredthe body [of the maxlwho had been buried].He brought it to them and they ate it. Afierthey hadeatenitf theyaskedhim,"Exom wheredidyou brmgthiscprpse24He repliedJ {Trom a certaincorner"They then asked, @at distinguishing markwasover it?t9He toldthemxvhat itwasfandthe son exclaimedJ'{Woeto me! I have eatenthefleshofmyfather!J Thisis tofulfillwhatwassaidE Therefore ffie fathersshalleatthesonsinthemidst of thee,andthe sonsshall eat their fathersIEzekiel S:10). gOJ

gOiilg

eat.Jf

(Cohen1939) The BabylonianTalmudscomment ing on Shabbath16:2}in the Mishnah,says: A nail-studdedsandal:Whatis the reason-SaidSamuel:It was at the endoftheperiodofpersecution/and they[somefu,gitivesl werehidingin a carre.They proclaimed,{Mewho wouldenter,let him enter,but he whowouldgoouttlethimnotgooutM Now) the sandal of one of them became reversed}so that they thoughtthatone of them hadgone out andbeen seen by the enemies, who would now fall upon them. Thereupon theypressedagainsteach

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGISTIDECEMBER1983

219

Left:General view otthe ZudeanShephelah with KhirbetKishonin the foreground. Below: Area eust ofI3ethGubrinin the Judean Shephelah.

otherZ andtheykilledof eachother more than their enemies slew of them.... Inthathourit wasenacted: A manmustnot go out with a nailstuddedsandal. (Freedman 1938)

Hieronymus(Jerome)commenting on Isaiah2:15l''Anduponeveryhigh tower,anduponeveryfencedwall'), notes that those who applythis verseto the time of Vespasianand Hadriansay that the prophecywas fulfilledliterally forneithera high tower,northe most fortifiedwall northe most diligenttradingcould withstandthe forceof the Roman army.The inhabitantsof Judea reachedsuch a stateof desperation that togetherwith theirwives and childrenZ andtheirgoldandmoney, they remainedin crevicesin the groundandhid in the deepestof caves.

The planof the complexesand the safetyprecautionstakento prevent their discoveryandinvasion raisedthe possibilityof the existence of some directivesandguidelines/ evenif therewas no overall planningauthority.This mayreflect the militaryoutlookof the leaders of the revolt. A long traditionandexperience was investedin hidingwarrensZ and Conclusions they startedto be used duringthe The followingconclusionsemerge HellenisticandEarlyRomanperfromthe studyof the cave iods.The complexesin theirlast complexes. appearance wereall installedaround The warrensarea uniquephethe same time. nomenonshowinggreatsimilarity It took only a few monthsto in plan/technicaldetailsJand quarrythe complexes;howeverZ not methodsof construction. everywarrenwas necessarilyfinThe defenseinstallations,water ished quickly-or indeedat all. Incompleteroomsand'deadends' supply/storageJ ventilatiorlZ and lightingall indicateadvance burrowswerefound. planning. The complexeswereexcavated

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGISTfDECEMBER1983 220

to be used forrefugeovera periodof weeks or perhapsmonths.They werenot permanentdwellingsbut temporaryhidingplaces. Fromthe wordsof Dio CassiusZ we receivea pictureirlwhich the installationof subterranean complexesis partof preparation forthe revolt.Attemptsto discreditthe wordsof Dio Cassiuscan now be refuted.The complexes,in most cases,wereplannedin advanceeIn some cases,one can hypothesize excavationduringthe waritself. Perhapsthe incompleteroomsand burrows(mexltionedabove)are examplesof this. The locationanddispersalof the hidingcomplexesillustratethe strategicplanningof the leadership. The complexesareevidenceof the intensivepreparation of an entire area,andnot only of isolatedplaces.

Thesewarrensin which food,provisions,weapons,andpeoplecould be concealedconstitutethe substructureandbaseforthe outbreak of the revolt. At the same time or slightly positionsin later,the "advantageous the country"werefortified. The entireareaof the Judean Shephelahcameunderthe control of BarKokhba.The dispersalof sites with hidingcomplexes-in villages, andnot necessarilyonly alongthe main routes-indicates the existence of a ratherextensivepopulation which participatedin the war. This correspondswith the historical sources. At this stageof the investigation, thereis insufficientdatato providea definitecutoffdateforthe use of the warrens.Accordingto informationat presentbeingstudied, manyof them werestill in use during134/5C.E. The bronzecoins of BarKokhba foundin foursites of the Judean Shephelaharefromthe undated seriesattributedto the thirdyearof the war.These coins demonstrate that BarKokhbaforceswerestill rulingthe regionduringthe last yearof the war(135/6C.E.) andthe militarycollapseoccurredthere only in the latestphaseof the war. As a resultof the BarKokhba Warit seems that the northernpart of the JudeanShephelahwas practically emptiedof Jews,as was the case in most of the hills around Jerusalemandthe Hebronmountains.The centralandsouthern partsof the region,in which the majorityof the hidingcomplexes werelocated,remainedinhabitedby Jewsafterthe BarKokhbawar. This article is a revised and shorter adaptationof an article that originally appearedin Cathedra26, December 1982 (Hebrewl,and which is scheduled to appear in the lerusalem Cathedra (YadYitzahk Ben-Zvil,volume 3 (English},edited by I. L. Levine. The photographsused here were taken by Avi Navon, ShaharSegal, and Amos Kloner,

all of the IsraelDepartment of Antiquities and Museums.

HistoricalReferences Cary,E., translator 1925 Dio's Roman History,Books LXI-LXX,series eds. T. E. Pageand others. The LoebClassical Library. Londonand Cambridge:Heinemann Ltd. and HarvardUniversity Press. Pp. 447-51. Cohen, A., translator 1939 Lamentations. Volume VII (Pp. 125-271in MidrashRabbah, series eds. H. Freedmanand M. Simon. London:The Soncino Press. Freedman,H., translator 1938 Shabbath. Volume I in SederMoCed lpartof the BabylonianTalmudl, series ed. I. Epstein. London:The Soncino Press. Pp. 280-81 iShabbath 60al. Thackeray,H. St. J.,translator 1961 losephus III: The lewish War,Books IV-VII,series eds. T. E. Pageand others. Londonand Cambridge: Heinemann Ltd. and Harvard University Press.P. 153.

Moving? Make SureBA Moves With You Please attach your magazine mailing label to this coupon and send both to: ASORSubscriptionServices, 4243 SpruceStreet,Philadelphia,PA 19104. Be sure to include yournew addresson the form.Thank you!

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SuggestionsforFurtherReading Applebaum,S. 1976 Prolegomenato the Study of the Second lewish Revolt (A.D. 132-135).British Archaeological ReportsSupplementarySeries 7. Oxford:British Archaeological Reports. Mantel, H. 1968 The Causes of the BarKokhba Revolt. The lewish Quarterly Review 58: 224-42; 274-96. Schurer,E. 1976 The History of the lewish Peoplein the Age of lesus Christ (175B.C.A.D. 135),volume I, revisedand edited by G. Vermesand F.Millar. Edinburgh:T. & T. Clark. Pp. 514-57. Yadin,Y. The Rediscoveryof the 1971 Bar-KoRhba: LegendaryHero of the Last lewish RevoltAgainst Imperial Rome. Londonand Jerusalem:Weidenfeld and Nicolson.

knerican Centerof OrientalResearch in Amman, Jordan

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D

Welcomesvisitingscholars andinterestedlaymen. include: Programs classes Archaeology Lecturesandseminars Guidedsite visits A researchlibrary Studycollections Annualappointments residence Scholar's rental Vehicleandequipment Liaisonwith localofficials Rescuearchaeology contact: Forfurtherinformation iveOffices ASORAhninistrat 4243SpruceStreet PA19104 Philadelphia, Tel:(215)222-4643

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

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.

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AIRPORT AMMAN

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and the STRUCTURE of Anczent Geopolitics ltans,loraan

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HERR BYLARRYG. TwoEgyptianstonevesselsfromtheAmmanairportexcavationsdatingto the in EighteenthDynasty.Usedcourtesyof theBritishSchoolofArchaeology terusalem,VronwyHankey,andt. BasilHennessy.

T

Then the Ammanairwasac- The | portstructure \ ^ and centnl V V cidentallyunearthed lEansin 1955, southern bybulldozers w v when cameat a time its discovery usua11y has jordan LateBronzeAgesitesin Transwas jordan,whichthis structure an considered been exfoundto be,wereconsidered Harding'suninlaabited backtremelyrare.G. Lankester shortnotices(1956,1958)of the to over given conducted water 1955salvageexcavations a certainmysbyM. Salihrendered Bedouin roving tiqueto the site by accountsof amazingfindsincludinglargequan- bands. pottities of importedMycenaean tery,bronzeweapons,jewelry,and ed that the site servedas a temple stonevessels importedEgyptian for a groupof peoplewhose settleThestructureitself andscarabs. ment remainedundiscovered. wasbuiltof verylargestones The archaeologicalcommunity in a perfectly (almostCyclopean) immediatelyinterested.Who was squareplanwith a perfectlysquare these mysteriouspeople? were by rectanguinnercourtsurrounded did they live?Whydid they Where larrooms.Insidethe innercourt isolatedstructure?If it this build wasa roundstoneinstallationthat how did it reflectthe temple, a was seemedto be an incensealtar.Beandwhat bearpeople the of beliefs causeof thesefindsandbecauseof have isolation apparent its did ing isolationfrom the site'sapparent indeed it Was beliefs? those on suggestothersettlements,Harding

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isolated?Whydid they importso manyMycenaeanandEgyptianvessels andhaveso manyotherrich items?Whydid they build the structurewith such largeboulders in a very strongmasonrystyle? Whydid they constructit in a perfectlysquareplan?The questions wereintriguing,and further excavationswereclearlynecessary. Thus, in 1966the site was reexcavatedby J.BasilHennessy,who went beneaththe floorsof the structureand exploredthe immediateexteriorof the building. Whenthe 1955reportsof sensational finds werelargelyconfirmed by the 1966excavation(Hennessy 1966),speculationsconcemingthe natureof the site were abundant and imaginative.Most writerswent alongwith the temple interpretation, while the focus of the debate centeredaroundtwo issues: (1)the type of communitythe temple served(Werethey transhumantor sedentary?Whatdid this mean, in tum, aboutthe natureandnumbers

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

223

courtesyof excavation.Photograph Viewlookingeastat theAmmanairportstructureas it was beingclearedin 1966by1.BasilHennessy's 1.BasilHennessy.

of the populationof Transjordan?); those erectedin the IronII and RomanperiodsaroundAmman. and {2)the role the site playedin Othershaveorallycalledattention functional the is, that society-that to the similarityof the Amman said Some site. the interpretationof structureto the plan of Egyptian R. H. {G. it was a fire temple houses duringthe Amarpatrician a suggested Wright1966);others interpretedthe site as a and age na {Hennessy cult of humansacrifice perhapsbuilt by dwelling, domestic iden1970);yet othersintriguingly or governnobleman Egyptian an tified it with a triballeaguecenter knowledge, my {to offlcial ment 1969). Wright E. {Campbelland G. The temple designationhas, how- this view has neverbeen put into writinghowever). ever,generallybeen acceptedonly Whenthe resultsof the small for lack of moreconvincingeviexcavationconductedby my1976 dence to the contrary. combinedwith the prewere self temple In the past decadethe and announcereports liminary identificationhas come underseriexpeditions, previous the of ments ous criticism.VolkmarFritzsysfunctionof the that clear became it tematicallyand resoundinglylin A1else. something was site the my opinion)showedhow the temgive to place the not is this though ple identificationwas misplaced excava1976 the of report a detailed plan square the since lFritz1971), tion lsee Herr1983),a few remarks has no parallelamongcontempoarerelevant.Virtuallyall the evirarytemples.Alternativesuggestions havebeen no more convinc- dence dictatesa nondomesticconing:Fritzhas identifiedthe site as clusion. Besidesthe strangeisolation of the site, the inordinately a militarywatchtowersimilarto

224

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGISTIDECEMBER1983

rich finds,includingnumerousobjects importedfromGreece(Mycenaeanvessels),Cyprus(ceramic vessels),and Egypt{stonevessels and scarabs),as well as the bronze weaponsandgold jewelry,certainly speakagainsta domesticdwelling, patricianor no. Suchobjectsmay be foundin rich houses,but hardly in the quantitieswhich occurredat our site. Moreover,the types of local potterythat werefound,primarily bowls,jugs,and lamps,with a few kraters,lackedtwo basic formsof the domesticrepertoire:storagejars and cookingpots. The largequantities of basalt,diorite,andgabbro platters{notmortars)of local manufacturewouldalso be extremelyremarkablein a house. The conclusionthat the structure is not a domesticdwellingis certainly clinchedwhen one notes the hundreds,indeedthousands,of burnedhuman-bonefragments

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=_ (mostareveryminute)to be found in and aroundthe structure.There is no doubtthat the site performed some kind of specialized,nondot-S --;0;i;;Xi---; 04;>;; t0- 0 X=* mestic functionin the local society. Hennessy'sacceptanceof the ,2 interpretationof the then-prevailing site as a temple led him to suggest, 0 5F^51l--WNJX on the basis of the burnedhumanbone fragmentsfoundin 1966,that S _ the buildingserveda cult of human _I sacrifice,which, if correct,would _:ot be the first such institutionto be
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of accourltingfor the quantitiesof burnedhumanbones:cremation. Sucha practicewouldsuggestthat the site functionedas a mortuary which utilized cremationas at least

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGISTIDECEMBER1983

225

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RobertM.Little,anthropological consultantforthe 1976excavationconductedbytheauthor is shownheregoingoversomeof thefragmentary humanskeletalremainsfoundat thesite Consultingwith Dr.Littleis Lawrence7:Geraty,theexcavation's advisor.

one methodof corpsedisposal.Unfortunately,thereareno parallelinstitutions in Syria-Palestine for comparativepurposes.Since all but one of the approximately1,000 burnedhuman-bonefragments foundin 1976werefromadults,not children,and since the best literary and archaeologicalevidenceindicates that veryyoungchildrenwere the victims of humansacrificein ancientSyria-Palestine, the cremation alternativeis definitely preferred.

226

Moreover,the local pottery formsat the site arepreciselythose one wouldexpectto be foundassociatedwith burialsat this time: bowls,jugs,lamps,and a few kraters.Storejarsarealmost never foundin burialsof this period,and cookingpots arerare.LateBronze Age tombs arealso filled with importedpottery,mainly fromMycenaeanGreece;at least one of the lattervessels fromthe Amman mortuarywas a type used commonly with burialsin the homeland

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

bones

could

in-

dicate the presence of Indo-Europeans. {Hankey1974a:139).In addition, most of the stone vessels from Egyptareto be datedto periods priorto that of our site, some as earlyas the Predynasticperiod(ca. 3200 B.C.), othersfromthe Twelfth Dynasty (ca.2000-1800B.C.), and most fromthe EighteenthDynasty (ca. 1570-1300B.C.). The scarabs come fromeither the Hyksosperiod or the EighteenthDynasty.Because the local potteryof the Amman mortuarycan be limited to the thirteenthcenturyB.C., it would seem that most of these Egyptian items werealreadyantiquesor heirlooms,yet anothernot-infrequent find in LateBronzeAge tombs. Jewelryand metal weaponsarealso frequentin tombs.Althoughmost of these items couldbe foundin a temple context,there is nothing specificaboutthe corpuswhich is clearlycultic. On the otherhand, the finds fit best a mortuarycum burialcontextwherethe building wouldhaveto storeandprotect tomb furnishings(henceits strong masonry)andto providea site for burialrites which included cremation. Aboutsix metersto the north of the main buildingwas an amorphouspile of rocksaboutfourmeters squarewhich hadbeen crudely structuredby largeboulders.Since the buildingitself had been totally excavatedin 1966,this was the primaryareaof concentrationfor the dig in 1976.Manyof the rocksin the centerof the pile showedclear signs of burning,which indicates that it had servedthe site in a capacityassociatedwith fire.It shouldbe noted that the heaviest concentrationof burnedhumanbone fragmentswas foundprecisely in and aroundthis structuredrock

local of the A study assemblage ceramic airAmtnan at the site indicated port

its

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end the Bronze

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Late

that

pile, which probablyservedthe site as a pyreduringthe cremationrites. A study of the local ceramic assemblageat the Ammanairport was site indicatesthat its 1Soruit the end of the LateBronzeAge. Boththe bowl and the lamp forms are still in the traditionof the Late BronzeAge,but witness definite elements which become common in the IronI period.I wouldthus suggesta date duringthe last half of the thirteenthcenturylthe Late BronzeIIBperiod)for the site. and ceramicevidence Stratigraphic also points to the conclusionthat the site did not beginpriorto the thirteenthcentury.It probablywas not used for a very long period,to judgeby its shallowremainsand almost total lack of exterioroccupationalsurfaces. This lack of significantoccupation debrisand the functionof the site as a mortuaryboth help to suggest a reasonfor the relativeisolation of the site. Mortuaryrites, especiallythose entailingcremation, wouldhavebeen performed outside any local settlement,which in this case was probablysituated aboutfive kilometersawayat Ammanwhere some LateBronze Age remainshaverecentlybeen discovered(Bennett1978). One interesting,but extremely tentative,conclusionfromour bone datais that the bones could indicate the presenceof Indo-Europeans. I shouldunderlinethe tenta-

An artists reconstructionof an Aegean vessel discoveredat the Amman airportstructure.Its decoration indicates Minoan influence and Mycenaean workmanship. Used courtesy of the British School of Archaeologyin lerusalem VronwyHankey,and 1.Basil Hennessy.

tive natureof that suggestion,but otherfactorsmay supportit. Hennessy,for example,has notedthat the type of foundationtrenchfor the buildingis not typicalto Palestine but is betterknownfromMesopotamiawherethe non-Semitic Kassiteswere in control.Among the finds fromearlierexcavations was a Mitanniancylinderseal and a beadinscribedwith cuneifollllfrom the Kassiteperiod.While these latter finds do not pinpointany single populationgroup,they do suggesta foreignelement, or at least foreign

connectionsinvolvedin the constructionanduse of the site. If all we had werethe above evidence,our conclusionswould haveto be extremelytentative.Our interpretationof the site as a mortuarywhere cremationwas practiced allowsus, however,to be more certainaboutthe conclusionthat non-Semiteswereliving in the region. Whereasthe Semites (Canaanites) of LateBronzeAge Palestine do not seem to haveused cremation, such a rite is not unknownin the ancientNear East.Indeed,it

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

227

seems to havebeen fairlyregularly practicedby the Hittites both in their homelandand in their NeoHittite settlementsin Syriaand Palestine,reportedlyat Hammath, Azor,andTell Qasile (Kempinski 1979).This, alongwith the other dataindicatinga foreignelement at the site mentionedabove,would stronglysuggestthat Hittites were using the site, thoughperhapsnot

by moredetailedsurin Transfordan face surveys,a differentmodel,one involvingsettlements,is neededto explainthe data. Moreover,the possibleexisin tence of Hittites in Transjordan the thirteenthcenturymay indicate why therewas no Egyptiancontrol duringthe Amarna of Transjordan periodandhence no mentionof in the AmarnaLetters. Transjordan

the Hittites had gainedsome kind of controlof the regionduringthe fourteenthcenturyB.C. Whywould the Hittites, fightingthe Egyptians in westernPalestine,need to establish a presencein Transjordan? powerscoming Traditionally, fromthe northhaveseemedto rank ratherhigh in their Transjordan geopoliticalstrategy.The region was their easternflank, and control

Photographof reconstructedMycenaeanIII A 2 pictorial krater.Used courtesy of the British School of Archaeologyin terusalem, VronwyHankey,and t. Basil Hennessy.

exclusively,for mortuaryrites. Whywouldtherebe Hittites in duringthe thirteenth Transjordan centuryB.C.? This region(central has and southernTransjordanl usuallybeen consideredby archaeologiststo haarebeen an uninhabited backwatergiven overto roving Bedouinbands.Earlysurface surveysconductedby Nelson Glueckfoundveryfew LateBronze remains,and the AmamaLettersdo not seem to referto any city east of the Jordan(butsee Na'aman1981); howeveras moreand moreLate Bronzesettlementsarediscovered

228

The LateBronzeII period,especially the fourteenthcenturyB.C., was a time of confrontationbetweenthe Egyptiansand Hittites. So farwe know of this confrontationonly in westernPalestine.The role played in this conflicthas by Transjordan unknown. been may AlthoughTransjordan havebeen controlledby Egyptduring the time of ThutmoseIII(the fifteenthcenturyB.C.-see Na'aman 1981),the presenceof Hittites in duringthe thirteenth Transjordan centuryB.C. followingthe EgyptianHittite conflictwould suggestthat

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGISTIDECEMBER1983

meant they could of Transjordan concentratetheir militaryactions on a relativelysmall southernfront while the sea protectedthem on the west. The storyof the alliance of the fourkings in Genesis 14 and their routeof conquestfirst along Highway"throughthe the '{King's plateaubeforereTransjordanian turningfartherto the west illustratesthe importanceof the easternhighlandsfor militarystrategy.The Aramaeansof Syriain their warswith Israelsoughtto establisha firm hold on Transjordanbeforeworkingtheir way west-

wardto Samaria.Note that Ahab died in a battle foughtin Transjordan. Laterthe Assyrians,wishing to controlPalestinein the eighth century B.C., establisheda veryfirm controloverTransjordan beforecutting south throughPalestinetoward Egypt(Oded1970).Babyloniancontrol of Transjordan and its people was a significantproblemfor Judah in the last daysof its monarchy (2 Kings24:21. Concomitantly,Transjordan has also been importantin blocking invasionsfromthe north.David consideredit importantenoughto sacrificea largepartof his armyin securingAmmon (2 Samuel 11 and

that, in their confrontationwith Egypt,the Hittites securedtheir eastem flankby establishinga presence in Transjordan sugvgests itself. Futureworkersin the regionshould keep this hypothesisin mind. If the Hittites wereindeedpresent in Transjordan duringthis period, the questionaboutthe type of presenceis intriguing.Werethey membersof a militarygarrisonat Amman,or werethey buddingNeoHittites being absorbedat this time into the local population?The midthirteenth-century-s.c. date for the floruit of the Ammanairportsite was a time when the Hittite militarypresencewas no longeras im-

fendedthe local inhabitants(much as it offendssome peopletoday), forcingthe rite to be performedin a well-isolatedspot. Bibliography Bennett, C.-M. 1978 Excavationsat the Citadel (E1 Qal'ah),Amman. Levant 10: 1-9. Campbell, E. F., and Wright,G. E. 1969 TribalLeagueShrines in Amman and Shechem. The Biblical Archaeologist 32: 104-16. Fritz, 1971

V.

Erwagungen zu dem spatbronzezeitlichenQuadratbau bei Amman. Zeitschriftdes deutschenPalastinaVereins87: 140-52.

Hankey,V. 1974a A Late Bronze Age Temple at Amman: I. The Aegean Pottery.Levant 6: 131-59. 1974b A Late BronzeAge Temple at Amman: II. Vases and Objects Made of Stone. Levant6: 160-78. Harding,G. L. 1956 Excavationsin fordan.Annual of the Department ofAntiquities ot [ordan 3: 80. 1958 Recent Discoveries in Jordan. Palestine Exploration Quarterly90: 7-18. Hennessy, J. B. 1966 Excavationof a Late BronzeAge Temple at Amman. Palestine ExAbove:Drawingof Mycenaean IIIA 2 kraterdiscovered \ / ploration Quarterly98: 155-62. in a fragmentary stateat theAmmanairportstructure. 1970 A Temple of Human Sacrifice at Whenintactthe vesselhada decoratedzonenearthe Amman. The Gazette (Nov.l: handlesthatrepresented a chariotsceneof whichtwo 307-09. charioteers can bereconstructed. Usedcourtesyof the Herr, L. G., editor BritishSchoolofArchaeology in [erusalemX Vronwy 1983 The Amman AirportExcavations Hankey,and[. BasilHennessy.Right:An artist'sreconstruction of theMycenaean IIIA2 krater 1976. Annual of the American fromtheAmmanairportstructure.Usedcourtesyof theBritishSchoolofArchaeology in Schools of Oriental Research47-48, [erusalem,VronwyHankeyX and[. BasilHennessy. series ed. J. A. Callaway.Philadelphia: American Schools of Oriental Research. 12),and North Israelstronglymain- portantas it had been earlier;this tainedcontrolof the regionthrough favorsthe latteroption.The use of Kempinski,A. 1979 Hittites in the Bible. Biblical Arthe ninth centuryB.C. The Hasmo- local potteryat the site and the chaeology Review 5(51:20-45. nean dynastyseems to haveestab- abundanceof importedand antique Na'aman,N. lished fortson the Transfordanian objects(whichreflectsa value that 1981 Economic Aspects of the Egyptian Occupation of Canaan. Israel Explateau,and the Romansbuilt an seems to havealso been held by the ploration [ournal 31: 172-85. ambitiousstringof forts llimes} indigenousSemiticpopulation) B. alongthe fringesof the desertto would supportthis view, especially Oded, 1970 Observationson Methods of establishthe easternflankof their if the Hittites werethe only group Assyrian Rule in Transjordanafter empire.Evenas late as 1917,Genusing the airportsite. the Palestinian Campaignof Tiglath-PileserIII.[ournal of Near eralAllenbywouldnot movenorth This foreignconnectioncould Eastern Studies 29: 177-86. throughPalestineuntil Lawrence also explainthe extent of the isola- Wright,G. H. R. and his Bedouinshad disrupted tion of the site fromcontemporary 1966 The BronzeAge Temple at Amman. Turkishcontrolof the region. settlements.Foreignfuneraryrites Zeitschrift fur die aletestamentThus a model that proposes involvingcremationmay haveofliche Wissenschaft 78: 351-57.

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the rediscoveryof the HolyLandduringthe nineteenthcenturyfew scholarscontributedas muchas EdwardRobinson.A distinguished geographer andexplorer,he wasalso an outstandingphilologianandbiblicalscholar.Bornin Southington,Connecticut,in 1794,Robinsondid not manifestin his earlyyearsthe qualitiesusually associatedwith a buddingscholar.Infact,therewere severalindicationsthathe wouldfindhis careerin agriculture.He pursuedhis formaleducationat HamiltonCollegein Clinton,locatedin centralNew York.Foundedin 1793as a schoolforIndians, HamiltonCollegewascharteredin 1812and specializedin the liberalarts.Robinsonachieved such an excellentscholasticrecordat collegethat shortlyaftergraduationin 1816he wasinvitedback as a tutorin mathematicsandGreek.This appointment startedhim alongthe roadto a brilliant academiccareer.

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Robinsoncontinuedhis educationat the AndoverTheologicalSchoolin northeastern Massachusetts.Incontrastto the liberalHarvard DivinitySchool,Andover,establishedbythe Congregationalistsin 1808,wasthe centerof conservative biblicalstudiesin America.At Andover,Robinson cameunderthe influenceof the charismatic teacherMosesStuart.A distinguishedHebraist, Stuartis consideredthe fatherof modernbiblical studiesin America.ImbibingStuart'sloveof the Bible,Robinsonsoonbecamehis protege.In a short time Robinsonwasproficientenoughin Hebrewto be ableto collaboratewith the masterin several scholarlyprojects.Abouttheircooperativeventures RoswellD. Hitchcock,presidentof the UnionTheologicalSeminaryin New Yorkandalso Robinson's friendandbiographer, stated,"IfStuartwasthe more brilliant,adventurous, andelectric,firinghis pupils with enthusiasm,Robinsonwaslookeduponas the morecareful,exact,andthorough.He wasa most indefatigablestudent"lThisandsubsequentquotations,unlessotherwiseindicated,aretakenfromthe biographyof RobinsonbyHitchcockandHenryB. Smith-the onlybiographyeverwrittenon him. See the note at the endof this paperformoreinformation on it.) Intime Robinsonbecamean instructorof Hebrewat Andoverandhe alsotaughtbiblical literature. StuartandRobinsonwereboththeological conservatives; nonethelesstheyhada deeprespect forGermanscholarlymethod,whichwasfarfrom conservative.It is not surprisingthatwith Stuart's encouragement Robinsonwent to Germanyin 1826 to pursueadvancedstudies.Duringhis fouryears abroadhe cameinto contactwith the leading scholarsof Europeandtheyhada profoundinfluence on him. The researchmethodsof the Germanuniversitieswerevirtuallyunknownin Americain Robinsoiistime;at Gottingen,Halle,andBerlinhe wasexposedto the best of Germanscholarship. WilhelmGeseniusof HalleandCarlRitterof Berlin

helpedto shapeRobinsoWs life as a scholar. Gesenius,a controversial biblicalcritic,wasa pioneerin Hebrewphilologyandepigraphy. His Hebrew-Latin lexiconpublishedin 1833influenced generationsof biblicalscholars;Robinsoncontributedto the heritagebytranslatingit into English in 1836(AHebrewandEnglishLexiconof the Old TestamentIncludingthe BiblicalChaldee.Tr.from the Latinof Wm.Gesenius,Boston,Crockerand Brewster; New York,Leavitt,Lord& Co.).Eventoday the lexicon,thoughdated,is a valuablereference. Ritterwasthe celebratedgeographer who co-founded, with AlexandervonHumboldt,moderngeographical science.

Robinsonnot only translatedthe worksof othersbut alsoproducedoriginalworksof biblical scholarship.Forexample,he madea significantcontributionwith his workA Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament (Boston:Crocker& Brewster,1836).He also foundedandeditedthe American Biblical Repository andBibliotheca Sacra.The former,startedin 1831,wasthe first scholarlyseriesof articleson biblicalandtheologicaltopicsto appearin America.The latter, startedin 1834as a serialissue of tractsandessays, manywrittenbyhimself,was convertedto a quarterly in 1844andcontinuestoday,publishedby Dallas TheologicalSeminary.(American Biblical Repositorywasmergedinto Bibliotheca Sacra in 1851.) In 1837Robinsonwas offeredthe chairof biblicalliteratureat the UnionTheological Seminaryin New York.He acceptedunderthe condition thathe be permittedto travelto the Holy Land in fulfillmentof his lifelongambition,or in his words"theobjectof my ardentwishes."FromMarch to July1838Robinsontraveledin the Sinaipeninsula,Palestine,andsouthernSyria;the journey beganin Cairoandterminatedin Beirut.He wasfortunatein havingas his travelingcompanionEli Smith,an Americanmissionaryin the NearEast who hadbeenRobinsonfs studentat Andover. Smith'sfirsthandknowledgeof the Holy Landand his fluencyin Arabicwereunmatched.Consequently,RobinsonandSmithwereableto veerfromthe well-troddenpathsto exploreareasseldomseenby theirpredecessors.Smith'sknowledgeof the languagewas especiallyusefulin discoveringthe correctArabicformof placenames.Bymatchingthe modernArabicnameswith Hebrewnames,they identifiedmanysites;forexample,the nameof Anathoth,the birthplaceof Jeremiah,hasbeen preservedin that of CAnata,threemiles northof Jerusalem; Bethelwas recognizedin the Arabicplace nameBeitin;the modemer-Ramsuggestedbiblical

Ramahin the generalvicinity of Bethel.Wereit not forSmith'sknowledgeof the landandthe language, the jointundertakingwouldnot havebeenso successful.In acknowledging this fact,Robinsonpaid appropriate tributeto Smiththe Arabistwho spent the last ten yearsof his life translatingthe Bibleinto Arabic: Icountmyselffortunate inhavingbeenthusearly assuredof the companyof one, who, by his familiarandaccurateknowledgeof the Arabic language, byhis acquaintance withthepeopleof Syria,andbythe experiencegainedin formerextensivejoumeys,wassowellqualifiedtoalleviate thedifficultiesandovercome theobstacleswhich usually accompanyorientaltravel.Indeed,to thesequalifications ofmycompanion, combined with his taste for geographicaland historical researches, andhis tactin elicitingandsiftingthe information tobeobtainedfromanArabpopulation, aremainlyto be ascribedthe moreimportantandinterestingresultsof ourjourney. (Biblical Researches: Seenoteat endof article)

Inthe courseof theirjourneyRobinsonand Smithlivedfrugallyandtraveledlightly,bothconditions necessitatedbythe primitiveconditionsin those days.Theirequipmentconsistedof little more thancompass,thermometer,telescope,measuring tape,EnglishandHebrewBible,anda fewbooksof earliertravelersandexplorers.Eachkepta detailed journal,andeverynighttheyfaithfullytranscribed theirnotesof thatday.Robinsonfs biographer, Hitchcock,observed,"Dr.Robinsonwasof the Poet Gray'sopinion,that'asingleline writtenuponthe spot,is wortha whole cartloadof recollection."' WithSmitWsexpertisein ArabicandRobinsons competencein Bible,theywerebetterequippedthan anyof the earliertravelersto explorethe HolyLand, as the resultstestify.In the processof analyzing countlesssites scientifically,theywereableto identifyovera hundredbiblicalplaces,thus laying the foundationsforbiblicalarchaeologyand geography. Despitetheirextraordinary achievement, therewerelimitations.Forexample,the natureof a tell, one of the most prominentcharacteristics of the landscapeof Syria-Palestine, eludedRobinsonand Smith.Bynot recognizingthese tmncatedconesas signsof successivehumanoccupation,they failedto identifysuchimportantsites as JerichoandLachish. Theythoughtthe tells weresimplynaturalformations.Nonetheless,Robinsondeservesto be called the fatherof biblicalgeography; he wassurelythe most importan.t nineteenth-century explorerof the HolyLand. Onlythreeyearsaftertheirhistorictrip Robinsonpublishedthe resultsin a monumental bookentitledBiblical Researches in Palestine, Mt.

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simultaneousSinai, and Arabia Petraea.It appeared ly in England,America,andGermany.Appropriately the Germanversionwasdedicatedto CarlRitter,and the Americanversionto MosesStuart.RittercomBiblical Researches marked mentedthatRobinsoWs the beginningof a new erain biblicalgeography. lSubsequenteditions,with slightlymodifiedtitles, werealso to appear.In 1856he publishedBiblical Researchesin Palestine and the Ad jacent Regions, a tournal otTravelsin the year 1838, andin 1867a entitledBiblical Researches thirdeditionappeared, in Palestine and the Adjacent Regions. A tournal ot Travelsin the Years1838 & 1852.)

Societyin In 1842the RoyalGeographical LondonawardedRobinsonthe covetedgoldmedal. lookeduponlit] Accordingto Hitchcock,''[Robinson] as the highestof all his earthlyhonors" life Perhapsthe greatestambitionof RobinsoWs a systematicwork wasto writea biblicalgeography, of Palestine on the physicalandhistoricalgeography studies.He envibasedon his owntopographical sioneda two-volumework,the firstvolumeto be dividedinto threeparts:physicalgeography, geography. andtopographical historicalgeography, He wasableto bringto completiononly the first At the time of his death part,the physicalgeography. in 1863the workremainedunfinished.Hitchcock lamented,"Therelivesno manto finishit; andwhen one shallbe bornto do it, Godonly knows" Robinsonwasnaturallyskeptical,especially aboutthe piouslorewhich monksof the HolyLand transmittedto naivepilgrims.Somemayhaveconsideredhim an iconoclast,buthis criticalattitude arosefromhis scholarlytraining;he wantedto distinguishbetweenfactandfancy.'Till he wasquite

sureof a thing,he wouldnot affirmit; andit required moreto assurehim, thanit doesmost men." Robinsonwasa farbetterwriterthanspealrer, yet he wasan effectiveteacher.AboutRobinsonthe teacher,Hitchcockremarked: nogeniusin hispupils,knowingwoll Herequired how rarethat is; but he did requirea proper deferenceto his opinions,and,aboveall,fidelity and diligencein study;and no man evergave proof in his class-roomof having slighteda lesson,withoutsmartingforit. Not byaccidentdidthe wordbiblical appearin monumentalwork,Biblical the title of RobinsoWs as Researchesin Palestine; he usedit deliberately;

Hitchcockobserved: Itwasthesupremeambitionofhis lifetoexplain in andillustratetheHolyBible.Theoneadjective our languagewhich he loved the most, was of all his studies; Biblical. Itwasthewatchword andnowwe carveit uponhis tomb-stone.

Note Bibliographical Twoimportantworksrelatedto Robinsonhave recentlybeenreprinted.The biographybyHenryB. SmithandRoswellD. HitchcockentitledThe Life, Writingsand CharacterotEdwardRobinson was reprintedin 1977byArnoPressltKewYork).It was originallypublishedin 1863byAnsonD. F. greatbook RandolphlNewYork).Robinson's Biblical Researches wasreprintedin 1970in three volumesbyUniversitasBooksellerslTerusalem). Anyoneinterestedin Robinsonshouldalso see the essayon him byWilliamFoxwellAlbrightin volume 16of the Dictionary of American Biography{New Sons,1935),editedby York:CharlesScribner's DumasMalone.

Ze American Schools of Oriental Research & St. Mary's University of San Antonio present a

Biblical and Archaeological Graduate Study Tour of Cyprus Sinai, Israel, Jordan, June 26 - August 2, 1984 Cost: $3,600 per person Major Paculty: Charles H. Miller and MaryK Milne University Department of Graduate Theology, St. MaryZs Gues;t Lecturers: ASORDirectors and active field archaeologists Graduatestudentsof ASORinstitutionsare eligiblefor six graduatecredithoursfromtheir own institutions, if approvedby their advisors. For more information, contact the ASOR Corporate Representative on your own campus or Professor Charles H. Miller, St. Mary's University, One Camino Santa Maria, San Antonio, Texas 78284, (512) 43&3310.

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title Pseudepigrapha is madeup of two Greek wordsmeaning"falsely attributed" Booksso designatedareattributedto authors who didnot writethem.In itself, of course,this is not an adequatedefinition of the collectionof the Pseudepigrapha. Afterall, the phenomenonof pseudepigraphy, that is, the attributionof booksto "false" authors,waswidespreadin the ancientworldandparticularly prevalentin Greco-Roman antiquity, in Jewish,Christian,andpagan circlesalike.WehaveJewishbooks attributedto paganauthors,such as the Sentencesof Pseudo-Phocylides, writtenby a HellenisticJewand creditedto a proverbial Greekwise manof the sixth centuryB.C.E. There wereevenJewishandChristian oraclesattributedto a legendary paganprophetess,the famousSibyl. TherewereworkswrittenbyGreek pagansandattributedto Zoroaster, the Persianfounderof the Zoroastrianreligion,orto the legendary EgyptiankingNechepso.The same phenomenonis to be foundin a broadrangeof ChristianandGnostic writingas well {seeSpeyer1971; Stone19831.

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The Pseudepigrapha canbe morespecificallydefinedas Jewish writingsof the SecondTemple periodresemblingthe Apocryphain generalcharacter, yet not includedin the Bible,Apocrypha,orrabbinic literature.The definitionthus dependson an understanding of the natureandscopeof the Apocrypha. The termApocryphadesignates quiteclearlythosebooksthatwere includedin the LatinBibleof the MiddleAgesandwhichwereexcludedfromthe Protestantcanonof Scripture,forthe reformerstook the HebrewBibleas the basisfortheir OldTestament.The Apocrypha, then,werethosebooksthatwere includedin the LatinBiblebut not in the Hebrew,that is the Jewish,collectionof SacredScripture.Almost all of them arestill foundin the canonof the OldTestamentof the RomanCatholicchurch. TheseareJewishbooks,chiefly, if not exclusively,writtenin the last pre-Christian centuriesandthe first centuryC.E. All the extrabooks which werefoundin the medieval LatinBible,with one exception 14Ezra,alsocalled2 Esdras),also occurin Greek.Someof them were originallywrittenin a Semitic

language(HebreworAramaic),while otherswerecomposedin Greek. Gradually, these worksin their Greekversionswereincorporated into the Greekbiblesin use throughoutChristendom.As these biblesweretranslatedinto Latin,the extrabookswereincludedalong with those of the Hebrewcanon. Whenthe Protestantreformersmany centurieslatersoughta returnto the HebrewOldTestament,the Roman Churchreactedbydeclaringthese extraworksto be canonicalat the Councilof Trentin 1546. None of the booksof the Apocryphawerepreservedas such in the on-goingtraditionof rabbinic Judaism,in the originalHebrewor Aramaic.Certainof them, it is true, weretransmittedbackinto the Jewishtraditionin the MiddleAges, most oftenfromChristiansources, but this wasa secondaryprocess. Thus,the Apocryphais a fixedcorpusthat is the resultof a historical developmentwithin the Christian tradition. ImportantEvents Relatedto the Pseudepigrapha Duringthe Renaissancein Europe andin the followingcenturiesan

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The

translationgivenbelowwasprepared byE.Isaacforthe new editionof The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha,Volume 1, Apocalyptic Literature& Testaments IGarden City,New York: Doubleday,1983;editedbyJamesH. Charlesworth}.

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IThuslit happenedafterthis thatmy spiritpassedout of sightand ascendedintothe heavens.AndI sawthe sonsof the holy angelswalking uponthe flameof fire;theirgarmentswerewhite-and theirovercoatsandthe lightof theirfaceswaslike snow.AlsoI sawtwo riversof fire,the lightof whichfirewasshininglike hyacinth.ThenI fell uponmyface beforethe Lordof the Spirits.Andthe angelMichael,one of the archangels,seizingme bymyrighthandandliftingme up,led me out intoall the secretsof mercy;andhe showedme all the secretsof righteousness. He alsoshowedme all the secretsof the extremeendsof heavenandall the reservoirs of the starsandthe luminaries-fromwheretheycomeout Itoshine)beforethe facesof the holyones.He carriedoffmy spirit,andI, Enoch,wasin the heavenof heavens.ThereI saw-in the midstof that light-a structurebuiltof crystals;andbetweenthosecrystalstonguesof livingfire.Andmy spiritsawa ringwhichencircledthis structureof fire. Onits foursideswereriversfull of livingfirewhichencircledit. Moreover, seraphim,cherubim,andophanim-the sleeplessoneswho guardthe throneof his glory-also encircledit. AndI sawcountless angels-a hundredthousandtimesa hundredthousand,ten million times ten million-encirclingthathouse.Michael,Raphael,Gabriel, Phanuel,andnumerouslother)holy angelsthatarein heavenabove,go in andout of thathouse-Michael,Raphael,Gabriel,Phanuel,and numerouslother}holyangelsthatarecountless.Withthemis the Antecedentof Time:His headis whiteandpurelike woolandhis garmentis indescribable. I fell on myface,mywholebodymollifiedandmy spirittransformed. ThenI criedwith a greatvoicebythe spiritof the power,blessing,glorifying,andextolling.Andthosearethe blessings whichwentforthout of mymouth,beingwell-pleasingin the presenceof thatAntecedentof Time.Thenthe Antecedentof Timecamewith Michael,Gabriel,Raphael,Phanuel,anda hundredthousandandten milliontimes a hundredthousandangelsthatarecountless.Thenan angelcameto me andgreetedme andsaidto me, '%ou,sonof man,who artbornin righteousnessanduponwhomrighteousnesshasdwelt,the righteousnessof the Antecedentof Timewill not forsakeyou."He added andsaidto me,"Heshallproclaimpeaceto youin the nameof the world thatis to become"Forfromhereproceedspeacesincethe creationof the world,andso it shallbe untoyouforeverandeverandever.Everyonethat will cometo existandwalkshall{follow)yourpath,sincerighteousness neverforsakesyou.Togetherwith youshallbe theirdwellingplaces;and togetherwith you shallbe theirportion.Theyshallnotbe separatedfrom youforeverandeverandever''Sothereshallbe lengthof dayswith that Sonof Man,andpeaceto the righteousnessones;his pathis uprightfor the righteous,in the nameof the Lordof the Spiritsforeverandever.

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interestdevelopednot only in Greek but also in variousOrientallanguages.FirstHebrew,then Arabic, Aramaic,Ethiopic,andSyriac, amongothers,tooktheirplaces alongsideGreekandLatinwithin the scholarlypurview.An interest developedamongChristianscholars in rabbinicsources(preserved in Hebrew1andJewishbiblicalexegesis (preserved in otherlanguages)among othermatters.This interestin languageandrabbinicswasan importantcomponentin the complex developmentthatprovidedthe basis for,bythe endof the eighteenth century,"modern" criticalbiblical scholarship.Otherdevelopments contributedto andstemmedfrom the process-the beginningsof archaeology, the deciphermentof hieroglyphsandcuneiform,the beginningof scholarlystudyof the HolyLand,to namejusta few.It was in this contextthat the firstserious interestdevelopedin thoseJewish documentswhich mighthelpto illuminatethe New Testament. Manyworkswerediscovered,published,translated,andstudied,and they cameto be calledthe Pseudepigrapha.This wasthe firstperiodin the studyof the Pseudepigrapha. It culminatedat the endof the nineteenthcenturyandthe verystartof the twentiethin the worksof CharlesandKautzsch.An English translationwasmadeearlyin this centuryandwasprepared underthe guidanceof the renownedscholar R. H. Charles(Charles1913).He entitledthe collectionhe edited, significantly,TheApocryphaand Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament. The sameconceptionof subjectwasreflectedin the almost contemporary Germancollection editedbyE.Kautzsch(Kautzsch 1900). A lull then interveneduntil the endof the SecondWorldWarand, moreprecisely,until the discoveryof the DeadSeaScrolls.The discovery of the DeadSeaScrollsin 1947was, formanyreasons,a turningpointin

the studyof the Pseudepigrapha. Amongthe numerousmanuscripts in the libraryof the sectariancommunityat Qumranwerea numberof For manuscriptsof Pseudepigrapha. example,The Bookof Enochwas extantonly in an Ethiopictranslation of a Greektranslationof a

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of the discovery The in Scrolls Sea Dead maty for was, 1947 a turn1ng reasons, of study in the point Pseudepigrapha. the Semiticoriginal.The whole of the Ethiopicsurvived,as well as some fragmentsof the Greek,but noneof the Semitic.Indeed,therewasgreat debatewhetherthe bookwaswritten in HebreworAramaic.Moreover, one hadno ideawhetherthe Ethiopic wasa faithfultranslationof an accurateGreekrenderingof the Semitic,orwhetherandto what extenteachof the translatorshad introducedhis ownvariants. The discoveryof fragmentsof of Enochamongthe manuscripts ten has gonea longway Scrolls DeadSea of these quesmany to answering was language original The tions. the all of language the Aramaic, Qumran. from Enoch of fragments Studyof these Aramaicfragments has allowedscholarsto determine thatthe Ethiopictranslationis fairly faithfulin most sectionsof the book, althoughin one,whichgivesdetailedastronomicalandcalendary descriptions,the survivingtranslathe Furthermore, tion is abbreviated. manuthe of dating paleographic scriptsshowsthat certainpartsof Enochareas old orolderthanthe thirdcenturyB.C.E. (Milik1976; GreenfieldandStone1977;Stone

Aerial view of the Qumransettlement.

1978;fora surveyof recentscholarshipsee Nickelsburg19811.Consequently,with justthis one example in mind,we cansee that,though the theyareveryfragmentary, Qumranmanuscriptsof the Pseudepigraphahaveconsiderable importanceforthe studyof this literature. Beyondthis, however,the scrolls takeon an additionalmeasureof

importance.Not only werepiecesof other, discovered; Pseudepigrapha similarwritings,whichwerenot previouslyknown,werealso found. Throughthe Greektraditionwe had an apocryphalpsalmpreserved in some Syriacmanu(Psalm1511; scriptsan additionalfourpsalmsof this sortwerediscovered.Inthe PsalmsScrollfromQumran,a numberof othersuchcompositions

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turnedup (Sanders1965),andamong the unpublishedmaterialfromCave 4, evenmoresuchpsalmodictexts arepresent.Inthis casethe scrolls havenot merelyincreasedthe corpus of texts at ourdisposal,which in itself is a veryimportantcontribution. Theyalso enhanceourknowledgeof a literarygenre,the later Psalms,whichhappento be poorly Any attestedin the Pseudepigrapha. of the literature of Jewish study SecondTempleperiodmustnow takeveryseriouslythe Psalmsthat werewrittenat thattime. Their importanceis not limitedto the literaryhistorian,forsome of them providea deepinsightinto the religiousfeelingsandsentimentsof theirauthors. This observationleadsus on to a thirdimportantaspectof the discoveryof the DeadSeaScrolls:They werediscoveredin an archaeological andsociologicalcontext.Exceptfor those caseswheresome ancientexternalevidencesurvives,ourdating hadbeen of the Pseudepigrapha almosttotallydependenton internal criteria.Priorto 1947noneof the wereknownin Pseudepigrapha ancientmanuscripts-allwere medieval.The DeadSeaScrolls, which stem froma clearlyestabcontext, lishedarchaeological greatlyamelioratethis problem. Theyarefirmlydatedinto the SecondTempleperiod.Andthe sociologicalcontextis no less significantthanthe chronological context. Fromthe historicalsources, primarilythe worksof Josephus Flaviusandthe New Testament,we haveinformationabouta large numberof sects andgroupsthat flourishedin the ageof the Second Temple-Pharisees,Sadducees, Samaritans,andEssenesarejusta few of them.Wealsohavea plethora of literature-yetthereis verylittle literaturethat canbe confidently attributedto anyof these sects or groupswithin Judaism.The discoveryof the DeadSeaScrolls,

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Apocalypse of Abraham:A Jewishwritingpresentinga visionseenby

Abrahamas well as legendsabouthim. It survivesonly in OldChurch Slavonicandwasprobablywrittenin the secondcenturyC.E. Books of Adam and Eve:A numberof closelyrelatedversionsof a writing Formsof the booksurvivein dealingwith the storyof the protoplasts. Greek(calledTheApocalypseof Moses),Latin(TheLifeof Adamand Eve),OldChurchSlavonic(sametitle),GeorgianandArmenian(The Penitenceof Adam).All of thesemayderivefroma Jewishsourcedocument,the languageanddateof whichareunknown.

Sethiangnosticrevelationreceived Apocalypse of Aslam:An apparently byAdamandtransmittedto Seth.PerhapsfirstorsecondcenturyC.E. in date,it occursin NagHammadiCodex5. SyriacApocalypse of Baruch:An apocalypse,survivingonly in Syriacand versions.It waswrittenin the aftermathof the destructionof Syro-Arabic the Templebythe Romansandis closelyrelatedto the FourthBookof Ezra.Its chiefsubjectsarethe theologicalissuesraisedbythe destruction.

this worktells Biblical Antiquities: SometimesalsocalledPseudo-Philo, It is extantonly in Latin, biblicalhistoryfromcreationto the monarchy. althoughthe originalwasprobablyHebrew.It seemsto havebeenwritten beforethe destructionof the Templebythe Romans. Book of Enoch:A compendiumof fiveJewishapocalypsesall of which

werecomposedbeforethe destructionof the SecondTemple,namelyThe Bookof the Watchers(chapters1-36),the Similitudesof Enoch(chapters 37-71),TheAstronomicalBook(chapters72-82),TheDreamVisions 91-108).Thesecome (chapters83-90),andTheEpistleof Enoch(chapters fromdiverseperiodsandcircles,the oldestbeingthe firstandthirdparts. As a whole,the bookis foundonly in Ethiopic,butpartsof it havebeen discoveredin Greekandin the AramaicoriginalIthelatterfrom Qumran). Book of the Secretsof Enoch:Also knownas 2 EnochorSlavonicEnoch. A Jewishapocalypsefromthe time beforethe destructionof the Temple. It is extantonly in OldChurchSlavonicandit relatesEnochfsascent throughthe heavensandthe revelationsreceivedbyhim there,as well as the historyof the antediluviangenerations. FourthBook of Ezra:Also knownas 2 Esdras.An apocalypsewrittenafter

the destructionof the TemplebyTitus,probablybetween95 and100C.E. It dealswith the theologicalproblemsthatarosefromthe destructionof the Temple.Widelydiffusedamongthe Christianchurches,it has -

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survivedin manyversions,butthe Greektranslationandthe Hebrew originalhavebothperished. Booksof Giants:A writingassociatedwith the Enochcycle,relatingthe deedsof the giantswho werebornof the unionof the Wsons of God"and humanwomen(Genesis6:1-4).It is knownfromfragmentsfoundat Qumranandwasalsocurrentamongthe Manichees,morselsof whose translationsof it havealsobeenidentified.Writtenbefore100B.C.E. Bookof Jubilees:A retellingandexpansionof the biblicalhistoryfrom Creationdownto Moses.It is presentedas an angelicrevelationto Moses on Mt.Sinai.It wasoriginallywrittenin Hebrewearlyin the second centuryB.C.E.,probablyin circleslike thosefromwhichthe Essenes developedsomewhatlater. Livesof the Prophets: A collectionof biographical notesrelatingdetailsof the livesanddeedsof variousprophets.It is attributedto variousChristiannotables,particularly Epiphaniusof Cypms.Thebookcirculated widelyamongChristiansandprobablyreflectsJewishsources.Writtenin the earlycenturiesof the presentera. FourthBookof Maccabees: A bookwrittenin Greekbya HellenizedJew to showthe mle of reasonoverthe passions.Themartyrsof the Maccabeanrevoltserveas his chiefexamples. Xstamentof Moses:Alsoknownas the Assumptionof Moses.This writingrelatesMoses'last chargeto Joshua.Itspresentformdatesfrom earlyin the firstcenturyC.E. butanolderwriting,of the time of the Maccabean revolt,underliesthis.Probablyoriginallywrittenin Hebrew, this worksurvivesonly in a single,incompleteLatinmanuscript.It containsmuchimportanteschatologicalteaching. SibyllineOracles:Collectionof oraclesfabricated byJewishand Christianpropagandists overthe earlycenturiesC.E. Theywereattributed to the Sibyl,a paganprophetess. Xstamentof Solomon:A Greekwork,Christianin its presentform, containingextensivelegendaryandmagicaltraditionsassociatedwith Solomon. Xstamentsof the TwelvePatriarchs: A workgivingthe lastwills and testamentsof the twelvesonsof Jacob.It survivesin Greekin a Christian formbutclearlycontainsmanyolder,Jewishsectarianelements.It is importantforthe studyof Jewishethicalandeschatologicalteaching. This materialhas been excerptedfromthe authortsbook Scriptures,Sects and Visions:A Profileof tudaism fromEzzato the ewish RevoltsIPhiladelphia:Fortress,1980}.Copyright(C) 1980by Michael EdwardStone. Reprintedwith permission.

becausethey arelirikedwith a specificarchaeological context,and becauseamongthem aredocuments dealingwith the wayof life andconductof the sectaries,alleviatesthis difficultyto some extent.It doesnot follow,of course,that all the writingsfromQumranwerewritten byEssenes-indeed theymost assuredlywerenot. Furthermore, not all of the Pseudepigrapha havebeen foundthere.Butwe canisolatethose documentsthatweremostprobably writtenbythe Essenesandwe can knowsomethingabouthowthe peoplewho livedat Qumran assembledthe whole library.This is as importantforwhat it doesnot showas forwhat it does.Forexample,we learnthat noneof the documentsin the Apocryphaand Pseudepigrapha weredirectproducts of the Qumransect, althoughsome of them {particularly Enochand Jubilees)seem to comefromthe samebroadwingof Judaismas the Qumrancommunity.Welearnthat certaintypesof sectarianwriting, suchas the Serek{Booksof Orderor Rules)andthe pesher{esoteric biblicalcommentaries)arenot found amongthe Pseudepigrapha. In additionto the discoveriesat Qumran,a substantialnumberof ancientPseudepigrapha havebeen foundat otherlocations.Someof them werepreservedin Greekand Latin;othersweretranslationsmade fromGreekandLatininto various OrientalChristianlanguages.These documentssurvivein Syriac, Ethiopic,Arabic,ChurchSlavonic, Armenian,andGeorgian,among othertongues.The mostprominent includeThe Bookof Enochalready mentioned;the Bookof Jubilees,also preservedin Ethiopic;The Testamentsof the TwelvePatriarchsin Greek;TheApocalypseof Baruchin Syriac;The Bookof the Secretsof Enochin ChurchSlavonic;The Booksof AdamandEvein Latin, Greek,Slavonic,Armenian,and Georgian,alongwith manyother works.

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Aramaic fragmentof 1 Enoch 22 found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Used courtesy of The Shrineof the Book, The Israel Museum Jerusalem.

Israelitereligionforcedunderground of the New Testamentshouldnot be The approachto Jesus bythe growingauthorityof the Law underrated. Aramaicfragmentof 1 Enochfrom Cave 4 at Quest by Schweitzer's typified that is andRabbisdevelopingin "Late Qumran. Used courtesy of FatherPierre Benoit, 0.1? {Schweitzer tesus Historical of the (see,forinstance,Charles Judaism" 1964J-thatis, usingthe contextof 1899:202-035.It is truethat some to helpunderapocalyptic" "Jewish Christianscholarsprotestedagainst standhis activity-would not have theseviews,whichwereon the possiblewithoutthe discovery been wholemotivatedbyan animosity(at andthe the veryleast,theologicalin nature) of the Pseudepigrapha studiesof them thathadtakenplace. to the continuinglife of Judaism (Sanders1977:34-59).Nonetheless, Thus,the basiccriticismto be made of scholarshiphasmoreto dowith this line of thinkingcontinuedto evaluationsandjudgmentsthan predominatein Christianscholarwith the actualtaskof gathering shipof the literature.Jewish sourcematerialsandcarryingout scholars,on the otherhand,genthe primarystudiesof them. erallypaidscantattentionto this Inadditionto theirdirectconliterature.Whentheydidstudyit, Detail of an Ethiopictext of 1 Enoch48. tributionto religiousandliterary Copyright1978, OxfordUniversityPress. they soughtforfeaturesthatprehistory,the discoveryof PseudepifiguredrabbinicJudaism,while at the sametime minimizingits essen- graphalandotherworkshashada tial positionwithin Jewishtradition verygreatimpactuponrecent TheImportance {Ginzberg1922).Thesetwo attitudes scholarship.Whenassessedfromthe of the Pseudepigrapha pointof view of the scholarlystudy It wasthe opinionof scholarswhen are,in essence,symmetrical,and of Jewishliterature,one resulthas producedperversionsof historical thesebookswerepublishedthat judgment.Inthe perioddownto the beento forcescholarsto facethe theyoriginatedfromJewishcircles issuesof the interplaybetween discoveryof the DeadSeaScrolls, in the SecondTempleperiod.In documentsandthe wayof life of in the similarviewspredominated otherwords,andthis waswhatintheirauthors-to askquestions studyof the literature. terestedandmotivatedscholars, orother aboutthe Pseudepigrapha The realcontributionof the they helpedto providea contextfor Jewishdocumentsthatarenot studyof the Apocryphaand of the originsof the understanding to the understanding governedby concernsexternalto Christianity.No longerwasrabbinic Pseudepigrapha Judaismto formthe primarybasis forcomparisonwith earliestChrismalke Pseudepigrapha can The tian literature,but ratherthe Jewish literatureof the SecondTemple to the contnbution a significant period,andparticularlythe Pseudepigrapha,couldcontributemuch understanding of Christian insight.Manyscholarspaintedthe as opposition Pseudepigrapha origins. Jewish and the continliteraturerepresenting of uingflowof the "truestream" ,

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lDegun to penetratethe falDric of tendto interpretthe them.Inotherwords,scholarshave "orthodoxies" historicalthinkingandwriting.This time lDefore theyexistedin termsof beenmadeto beginto examinethis is anextremelyimportantdevelopliteratureas an expressionof various themselves(seeBauer1971;Kraft typesof Judaismandto undertaketo 1975;Scholem1972:304-13;Stone ment,forit permitsthe Pseudepidescribethosetypes. 1980:49-56).It hasonly lDeenin the grapha,andthe peoplewho produced Herewe movecloserto answer- last generationof Pseudepigrapha andcherishedthem,to stepoutside ingthe questionthat is posedin the scholarshipthat the implicationsof the giantshadowscastlDythe twin colossi of the New Testamentand title of this essay.The Pseudepithis wayof seeingthe worldhave graphashouldbe studied,in general terms,becausetheyembodyan expressionof the humanspirit,forthe A lthoughcertainlynotusuallyincludedamongthe major historianis alwaysenjoinedto study documents,the Apocryphon of Ezekielprovidesthe reader the humanpast.But,forthose of us with one of the moreentertainingstoriesamongthe Pseudepigrapha. TheApocryphon, datedfrom50 B.C.E.-50 who arepartof whathasbeencalled C.E., iS knownto us only in quotations byancientwritersandone "Judeo-Christian culture," a parmanuscriptfragment.The longestcitationoccursin the writingsof the ticularinterestis inherentin the ancient churchhistorianEpiphanius andin the Babylonian Talmud.The investigationof that segmentof the parable's importance lies not only in its attestation in both the Jewishand pastin which Judaismtook on the Christian traditions but also in its affirmation of the responsibility of the formit still has andin which totalindividualforhis orherownactionsandits eloquentdescriptionof Christianityemerged. the relationshipof fleshandspiritat the judgment. Sincethe Pseudepigrapha repreThetranslationgivenbelowbyS.E.Robinsonandmyselfwas sent an importantexpressionof the prepared forthe neweditionof The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha} religiousthoughtandideasof that Volume 1, Apocalvptic Literature & Testaments lGarden City,New York: Doubleday,1983;editedbyJamesH. Charlesworthl. It is presentedhere age,theirstudycanmakea signifiwithoutcommentforthe enjoymentof the reader. cantcontributionto the understandingof ChristianandJewish origins.Yetthis veryagenda,when formulatedthus,bearswithin it potentialitiesforthe perversionof truthandthe misconceptionof reality.Someof the dangershave beenillustratedin ourremarkson the evaluationof the Pseudepigrapha byJewishandChristianscholars 'Forthe deal avill be raisel 1nd those in the tC)m5S be lifted Llp," speaks the prophet.And also, so that I might not pass overin silence the alike.Oneortwo moreobservations things mentioned about the resurrectionby Ezekiel the prophetin his areratherimportantin this context. own apocryphon,I will present them here also. ForspeakingenigmatiWedo not wish to takea positivist cally, he refersto the righteous judgment, in which soul and body share: view of history;of its nature,it A certain king had everyonein his kingdom drafted,and had no seemsto us, the historicalenterprise civilians except two only: one lame Inan and one blind man, and each one is an interpretative one.Yet,to say sat by himself and lived by himself. And when the king was preparinga this doesnot givethe would-behisweddingfeast for his own son, he invited all those in his kingdom, but he torianthe rightsimplyto importhis snubbedthe two civilians, the lame man and the blind man. And they ownpreconceptionsandpet foibles were indignantwithin themselves and resolvedto carryout a plot against into his writing:Instead,he should the king. be tryingto do as honestandunNow the king had a gardenand the blind man called out from a distance to the lame man, saying, "Howmuch would our crumbof bread biaseda jobas he can.Instructive have been among the crowdswho were invited to the party7So come on, remarkson the problematicnature just as he did to us, let us retaliate (againstlhim."But the other asked,"In of these issues aremadeby what way?"And he said, "Letus go into his gardenand there destroythe Momigliano1982. things of the garden."But he said, "Buthow can I, being lame and unable Thereis a greatdangerinherent to crawl?"And the blind one spoke, 'WVhat am I able to do myself, unable in the studyof the originsof one's to see where I am going7But let us use subterfuge." owntradition.Present-day andeven Plucking the grassnear him and braidinga rope,he threw (itl to the earlierviewstendto get projected blind man and said, "Takehold and come along the ropeto me."And he backinto an agewhentheydidnot contilluCd onSclgC 542 yet exist. Modernandmedieval \X7ill

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the Talmud.Whenthey comeinto the light,it becomespossible,slowly, to startto delineatewhatappear to havebeencentralaspectsof Judaismin the SecondTemple period.New featuresof Jewishlife andthoughtbecomeevidentandthe taskof theirdetaileddescriptionand integrationinto an overallpicture canbe broached. Onlysuchan endeavorwill, in the finalanalysis,makeit possible forus to advanceourunderstanding of the developmentof rabbinic Judaismandof Christianity.This is a weightylaborbut an important one, andit is the Pseudepigrapha thatprovideus with evidencefor vital aspectsof Judaismthat would otherwiseremainunknown. Butthe studyof the Pseudepigraphahasevenfurtherimplica-

tions,on quitea differentlevelof discourse.ThesebooksweretransmittedbyvariousChristian churches.Althoughsome of them canbe identifiedbyexternal evidenceas clearlyJewishand belongingto the periodunderdiscussion (suchevidenceincludesthe DeadSeaScrollsorcitationsin ancient sources),manyof them canbe set into theirhistoricalcontextonly bya carefulstudyof theircontents. Yet,all too often,scholarshave tendedto takeworkspreservedin medievalmanuscriptsand,with no moreado,proceedas if theyhada mucholderworkperfectlypreserved orat worstclumsilyinterpolated.In fact,it is only recentlythatthe need to approachsuch worksfirstof all in the contextin whichtheywere transmittedhasbecomeevident.It

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he said, didas he (thelamemanlhadurgedlandlwhenhe approached, "Cometo me,be Imylfeetandcarryme, andI will be youreyes,guiding youfromaboveto the rightandleft."Anddoingthis theywentdowninto whethertheydamagedordidnot damage the garden.Furthermore, anythingl,neverthelessthe footprintswerevisiblein the garden. dispersedfromthe weddingfeast,going Now whenthe partygoers downintothe gardentheywereamazedto findthe footprintsin the in garden.Andtheyreportedthesethingsto the king,saying,"Everyone yourkingdomis a soldierandno one is a civilian.Sohowthenarethere Andhe wasastounded. footprintsof civiliansin the garden?" makingit clearthatit refersto Sosaysthe parableof the apocryphon, a man,forGodis ignorantof nothing.Forthe storysays: He summonedthe lamemanandthe blindman,andhe askedthe Andhe replied, blindman,"Didyounot comedownintothe garden?" me, lord?Yousee ourinability,youknowthatI cannotsee whereI '%Tho, the lameman,he askedhim also,"Didyou walk"Thenapproaching Andanswering,he said,"Olord,doyou comedownintomygarden?" Andfinallythe wish to embittermy soul in the matterof my inability?" judgmentwasdelayed. Whatthendoesthe justjudgedo?Realizingin whatmannerboth hadbeenjoined,he placesthe lamemanon the blindmanandexamines bothunderthe lash.Andtheyareunableto deny;theyeachconvictthe other.Thelamemanon the one handsayingto the blindman,"Didyou Andthe blindmanto the lame,"Didyou not carryme andleadme away?" yourselfnot becomemyeyes?"Inthe samewaythe bodyis connectedto the soul andthe soul to the body,to convict(them)of (their)common deeds.Andthe judgmentbecomesfinalforbothbodyandsoul,forthe workstheyhavedonewhethergoodorevil. JamesR.Mueller

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is a great There in inherent danger of the study the own of oneZs origin tradition. is a significantfactforthe understandingof ByzantineChristianity, forexample,that it cultivatedand transmittedcertainworks,suchas particulartypesof apocalypse,and didnot conserveothers.Which workswereso transmittedandwhy? Whichworksprovidedinspiration fora seriesof medievalcompositions?Whichaspectsof olderworks wererepeatedlytakenup and developed?Why?(Himmelfarb1981). This aspectof the studyof the is in its veryinfancy. Pseudepigrapha Therehavebeenone ortwo researchesthat haveshownthe way (Satran1980;Stone1982).Other associatedinvestigationshave lookedat the wayJewishapocryphal traditionsweretakenup anddevelopedbymedievalJudaismandChristianity(Bousset1896;Berger1976; Stone19825.Thesetwo avenuesof investigationseem likely to produce realfruitin the directstudyof the texts,in the evaluationof their characterandfunction,as well as in the differentiationof Jewishand Christianmaterials,whichis not alwaysan easytask.Fromthis particularperspective,the studyof the is likelyto be imporPseudepigrapha significant tant forunderstanding aspectsof medievalculture,as well as forJewishhistoryandChristian .

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Orlglns.

Relevantto sucha study,a new two-volumecollectionof the hasjustbeencomPseudepigrapha pleted.(Thefirstvolumewas publishedin the fallof 1983,andthe secondwill be publishedin the springof 1984.)EditedbyJamesH.

of Pennsylvania.Unpublished dissertation. Kautzsch,E. 1900 Die Apocryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments, 2 volumes. Tubingen:

J.C. B.Mohr. Kraft,R. A. 1975 The MultiformJewishHeritageof EarlyChristianity.Pp. 174-99 in Christianity, Tudaism and Other Greco-Roman Cults (M.Smith

Festschrift).Leiden:Brill. Milik, J.T. 1976

Charlesworth of DukeUniversity, the collectionincludesan introduction, translation,andcriticalnotes foreachof fifty-twodocuments.The productionof this collectionrequireda cadreof international experts.Its appearance is a goodindicatorof the roleandpositionof Pseudepigrapha studiestoday. Bibliography Bauer, W. 1971 Orthodoxyand Heresyin Earliest Christianity.Philadelphia: Fortress. Berger, K. 1976 Die griechische Daniel-Diegese.

Eine altkirchliche Apokalypse. Series: Studia Post-Biblica 26. Leiden: Brill. Bousset, W. 1896 The Antichrist Legend.London: Hutchinson & Co. Charles, R. H. 1899 Eschatology.The Doctrine of a

The Books of Enoch. Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4.

Oxford:Clarendon. Momigliano,A. 1982 Biblical Studies andClassical Studies:Simple Reflectionsabout HistoricalMethod.Biblical Archaeologist 45: 224-28. Nickelsburg,G. W.E. 1981 The Books of Enoch in Recent Research.Religious Studies Review 7: 210-17. Sanders,J.A. 1965 The Psalms Scroll of Qumran Cave 11. Series:Discoveriesin the Judean Desert of Jordan4. Oxford: Clarendon. Sanders,E. P. 1977 Paul and Palestinian tudaism. Philadelphia:Fortress. Satran,D. 1980 Daniel. Seer,Philosopher,Holy Man. Pp.33-48 in Ideal Figures in Ancient tudaism, ed. J.J.Collins and G. W.E. Nickelsburg.Series:Septuagintand CognateStudies 12. Future Life in Israel, tudaism and Scholem, G. Christianity. Reprintedin 1963. New 1972 The Messianic Idea in tudaism. New York:Schocken. York:Schocken. 1913 The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha Schweitzer,A. of the Old Testament in English, 2 1964 The Quest of the Historical tesus. volumes. Oxford:Clarendon. New York:Macmillan. Fitzmyer,J.A. Speyer, W. 1977 The Dead Sea Scrolls. Ma jor 1971 Die literarischeFalschungim heidPublications and Tools for Study, nischen und christlichen Altertum with an Addendum (tanuary 1977). tHandbuchderAltertumswissenSeries:Sourcesfor Biblical Study 8. schaft 1.21Munchen:C. H. Beck. Missoula: Scholars. Stone, M. E. Ginzberg,L. 1978 The Book of Enochand Judaismin 1922 Some Observationson the Attitude the ThirdCentury B.C.E.Catholic of the Synagoguetowardsthe Biblical Quarterly 40: 479-92. Apocalyptic-EschatologicalWritings. 1980 Scriptures, Sects and Visions. tournal of Biblical Literature 41: Philadelphia:Fortress. 115-37. 1982 The Metamorphosisof Ezra.Jewish Greenfield,J.C., and Stone, M. E. Apocalypseand MediaevalVision. 1977 The Enochic Pentateuchand the tournal of Theological Studies NS Date of the Similitudes, Harvard 33: 1-18. Theological Review 70: 51-65. 1983 ApocalypticLiterature.In Light of Himmelfarb,M. the Bible (Compendia Rerum 1981 Tours of Hell: The Development and Transmission of an Apocalyptic Form in tewish and Christian Literature. Philadelphia:University

Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum 2.2) Assen: van Gorcum.

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NEAR EASTERN OGY ARCHAEOl _

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1839,when Franceofficially in the presentedphotography, proformof the daguerrotype Francois cess, to the world, Aragogavea speechthat referred specificallyto its potentialfor archaeologicalstudiesin the Near East: In

In orderto copy the millions of hieroglyphics coveringthe interiors and exteriorsof the great monuments of Thebes, Memphis,and Karnak,it wouldtakeabouttwenty yearsandcountlessartisans.With the daguerrotype,only one man wouldbenecessary. . . to accomplish this enormoustask. Furnishthe EgyptianInstitutewith twoorthree camerasof M. Daguerreand, on severalpagesof the famousworkof ourundyingexpedition,realhieroglyphics will replace fictional, conventionalhieroglyphics. (quotedfromJammes andJammes1977)

has Sincethat time photography in factmadeseveralsignificantcontributionsto NearEasternarchaeology,andtwo of these havebeen historic.Weareof coursefamiliar madebythe with the photographs excavatzon to ptoneersot sczent1t1c recordtheirworkat the turnof the century.Lesswell known,however, is the wealthof imagesleft byearly photographers who,priorto this time, workedthroughoutthe Holy Land.Theirworkoftenrecordssites of archaeological interestwhich, aftercenturiesof relativelylittle change,wereaboutto be transformed.In the followingpagesI will sketchthe backgroundandgive examplesof these two important contributions. .

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the earlynineteenthcenturya few peopleweresuccessfulin bringing togetherthese elementsto establish workablemethodsof preservingimages.Perhapsthe most importantof thesepeoplewereLouisJacques MandeDaguerre,WilliamHenryFox Talbot,andFrederickScottArcher. Daguerrewasa Frenchshowmanandpainterwho developeda methodof makinga directpositive imageon a copperplatecoatedwith silver.He calledthis a daguerrotype. The firstone wasmadein 1837,and

tographywas perfect.Theuse of daguerrotype resultedin an image thatwas sharpanddetailed,but the imagewasunique-it couldnot be reproduced fordistribution.Calotype,since it produceda negative, wouldallowan imageto be reproducedan almostinfinitenumberof times,but the coarsepaperemployed in the processresultedin a lackof detail. In 1851,Archer,another Englishman,succeededin developing a methodthat combinedthe

.

The Developmentof Photography Photography wasnot the invention of one man.Itsbasicelementswere developedbymanypeopleworking forthe most partindependentlyof eachotherin differentcountries.In Left:Thearchof triumphat Palmyrain Syria is shownin thisalbumenprintbyBonfils.

The basilica and amphitheaterat Samariaphotographedin 1909.

the methodwaspublishedin 1839. Aboutthe sametime, Talbot,an Englishman,hadworkedout a methodof makinga papernegative fromwhich anynumberof paper positivescouldbe produced.His method,the calotypeprocess,was patentedin 1841,andhe publisheda descriptionof it in 1844-46. Neitherof these typesof pho-

and desirabletraitsof daguerrotype calotype.His wasthe collodion process-also calledthe "wetplate" technique.It involvedcoatinga glass platewith silveriodidein suspension.The platewouldbe exposed while it wasstill wet anddeveloped immediately.The resultwasa glass negativethat couldyield anynumberof positivesandthatcaptured

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LaMaisonBonfils.In 1860,whenhe wastwenty-nineyearsold,FelixBonfils wasa memberof the French militaryexpeditionsent to Lebanon underthe commandof General d'-Hautpoul to stopthe bloody fightingbetweenthe Druseandthe Marenites.Felixwasveryimpressed bythe beautyof the country,andhe spokeaboutit so glowinglyuponhis returnto Francethathis wife Lydie becameinterestedin goingthere. Thus,a fewyearslaterwhentheir son Adriendevelopeda chronic coughandthe doctorprescribeda seavoyageanda warm,dryclimate, Lydietook him to Beirut.The cough disappeared, andLydielikedthe countryas muchas herhusband had. LydieandAdrienreturnedto France,but the familysoondecided to moveto Lebanon.At thattime Felixowneda printingshopwhere he producedimagesthroughthe heliographicmethod,andhe had also alreadyestablishedhimselfas a

detailalmostas well as a daguerrotype.The collodionprocesscameto be the one usedbymost nineteenthcenturyphotographers.

Landscapes and ways of life that had remained essentially Nineteenth-century Photographers in the HolyLand unaltered for Inthe nineteenthcenturythe Near were Eastwasthe thresholdof immense centuries change.The OttomanEmpirewas about to be breakingdown,andthe European powerswerebecomingevenmorein- transfouned.

volvedin the interestsof the region. Commerceandtourismwereincreasing.As a result,landscapesand waysof life thathadremainedessentiallyunalteredforcenturieswere aboutto be transformed. The memoryof thesewould havebeenlost foreverwereit not for the diligenteffortsof manyearly photographers. Onesuchindividual wasFelixBonfils,a Frenchmanwho starteda photographic shopcalled

"LaMaisonBonfils"in Beirutin 1867.Duringthe next decadesBonfils andhis successorsin the businesstook thousandsof photographsthroughoutthe NearEast. Today,the Bonfilsphotographs are beingincreasinglyrecognizedas the mostusefulamongall thosetaken bythe earlyphotographers in the region.

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professional photographer;it was decided that the lrestway that heoas a privateforeigner could support the family under Ottoman rule was as a photographer. The family of fourowhich also included a daughter Felicia arrived in Beizut in 1867. Felix set up his shop immediatelyf and four years later he had accomplished an amazing amount of work:In a letter to the Societe Francaisede Photographieo he reportsthat he has 15/000 prints fron1591 negatives of Egypt,Palestine} Syria,and Greeceoas well as 9/000 stereoscopic views. He continued his prodigious output for many years.Takingphotographsin those days was dangerousand difficultoand he usually workedalone although he did occasionally make use of assistant photographers. In 1878 Adrien took overfrom his father the responsibility of making the photographs and Felix concerned himself with managing the lDusiness.Lydiehelped with the management, since her huslrandfrequently had to be absent for trips lrackto France.In addition, she was

The specialqualitiesof the Bonfils photographs. As CarneyE.S. Gavin pointsout in his prefaceto the collectionof Bonfilsphotographs recentlypublishedin microfichelry the HarvardSemiticMuseumIGavin studio. 1982)the Bonfilswerenot the first Felix died in 1885 and Adrien photographers in the NearEast; continued in the business for about another ten years.Eventually} therewereotherswho produced howeverohe quit photographyand morephotographs of the region;and became the proprietorof a hotel in a the workof MaisonBonfilswas neitherthe most acclaimednorthe village overlooking Beirut. most scholarly.Despitethesepoints Following the FirstWorldWar another photographerZ A. Guiragoshowever,the Bonfilsrepertoiremay sianotook overthe business from lrethe mostusefulof all Near Lydie Priorto that time he may have Easternphotographers. Thereare lrasicallyfourreasonsforthis. Firstf been her partner.GuiragossianreBonfilsprintsweremeticulously tained the use of the name Bonfils on the photographsoand he kept the processed.Consequentlyevenwhen business going until 1938 when he some deteriorationhas takenplaceo dissolved Maison Bonfils and disimage-enhancement techniquescan be successfullyapplied.Second, posed of its stock. Thus the name Bonfils was put theirsubjectswereselectedin a conon photographstaken by severalinsciouslyencyclopedicspirit.A vast dividuals. Even SOwthere is a rangeof geographical, ethnographico remarkableconsistency and biblicaloarchaeologicalarchitecturalfandhistoricaldatahavethus coherency among the photographs that bear the name. beenpreserved.Third theirwork spannedthe periodwhenthe most profoundchangeswereoccurringin the region.And,fourthfin contrast to those who attemptedto portray much involved in processing prints (anactivity that requiredthe use of great quantities of albumen-the white of eggs). She made some photographsfbut only in the Beirut

' [:e:ft: Photograph of excavationsat Samaria (modernSebaste)This gelatinsglverprintwas takenbyDavidG.Lyon ontuly28, 1908.It showsworkprogressing at thenorthwestcorner stairway.Right:Magson Bonfilsphotograph of the colonnadeat Samarla.

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the recordsforpublication,he managedto publishonly two of ten projectedvolumesof reportsof the excavations.The subsequentpostWorldWarIIexcavationsat Nippur finallyinspiredresearchinto the whereaboutsof the lost archives. The importanceof the site forinterpretationof the Sumerianculture shouldencouragescholarsto continue to excavatein the archivesof the earlyexpedition-particularly the photographs-whichremain largelyuntappedandunpublished records. Ironically,one possiblereason forthe interruptionof Fisher'sefforts to collectandpublishthe reportson Nippuris thathe joinedthe Harvard Universityexcavationsof Samariain 1908-1910.Theseexcavationsmay duringthelatterhalfof thenineteenthcentury be the next majorchapterin the Templeof Zeusat terashphotographed byMaisonBonfils. in Near historyof photography DavidG. Lyon, Easternarchaeology. Semitic firstcuratorof the Harvard Museum,while directorof the the most romanticorexoticaspects NearEast.The greatgeographical of the localpopulation,the Bonfils studiesof the earlyandmiddleyears JerusalemSchoolof the American Schoolsof OrientalResearchin set the stageforthe firstscientific wereinterestedin capturingthe 1906,hadpetitionedthe Turkish dailylife of residents. excavatlonscommenclngln tne authoritiesforpermissionto exnineties.Oncethese excavations Archaeologicalvalue of the Bonfils cavatethe site of ancientSamaria tookan active began,photography photographs.Recentlyseveral began (modernSebaste).Excavations part. scientistshavefounduse forthe The firstAmericanexcavation in 1908,underthe directionof of Bonfilsandother photographs Although photographers. in the MiddleEast,begunat Nippur GottliebSchumacher. nineteenth-century Forinstance,AdnanHadidi, bythe Universityof Pennsylvaniain Schumacherwasan accomplished of Antiquitiesof 1889,wasextensivelyphotographed. architecturaldraftsman,the site Director-General land provedtoo complexandproblematic The expeditionphotographer has madeuse of a Bonfils Jordan, and architecturally, duringthe years1893-1896its direc- to be approached panoramaof the Romanforumof GeorgeReisner,then workingin Philadelphia,which wasremarkably tor),JohnH. Haynes,tookmost of Egypt,wascalleduponto continue well preservedin 1871butis now the thousandsof glassplatesthat the excavationin 1909.The stage nowreposein the photographic engulfedbyAmman'sbusiness wasset forthe beginningof modern archivesof the Universityof Penndistrict.Inaddition,Jordanian fieldmethodin the archaeological specialistshavealso requestedBon- sylvaniaMuseum.As a resultof fils printsfromthe HarvardSemitic accusationsof incompetenceagainst MiddleEast-and one of the tools that madeit possiblewassystematic Museumto guidethem in the restor- the firstdirector,JohnP.Peters,by In Egypt,Reisner photo-recording. the staffAssyriologist,HermanV. ationof the city of Jerash,from techhadpioneereda debris-layer Hilprecht,all threemen wereemwhichfarmershave,duringrecent niqueof diggingthat recognized, ancientstonesin broiledin a seriesof eventsstill decades,rernoved Con- first,that stratificationandcareful as the "Hilprecht remembered orderto buildotherstructuresorin recordingof locationsof findswas This unsavoryaffairhad troversy." orderto burnto producelime for the unfortunateresultof scattering essential,and,second,thatbecause theirfields. the archivesandfieldrecordsof the the processof excavationis byits naturedestructiveof evidence,careexcavationall overthe world. Photographsby Archaeologists of successivestages ful photography Althoughthe architectat Nippur, The nineteenthcenturywitnessed ClarenceFisher,triedto reassemble is necessaryto preservewhatmust the beginningof archaeologyin the .

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EleanorVogel,hasproducedan archiveof photographs of enormous valueto scholarsstudyingsites in the Levant.Gluccktrulyfell in love with the East,as hadotherWestern explorersof the previouscentury. His friendshipwith the Bedouinand his senseof adventurecombined with scholarshipresultedin two

Photographic archives of an excavatlon are mz pensable to future archaeologists. *

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extensiveexploratorysurveysof archaeological sites:in Transjordan from1932to 1947,andin the Negev from1952to 1964.Duringthese subsequentlybe destroyed.It is this fatherof modernfieldmethodboth yearshe also excavatedat two sites simpleandobvioussignificanceof in Palestineandthe Sudan.Hunin Jordan-in 1937at Khirbetet Tanphotography that makesthe photodredsof glassplatesandphotographs nur,a Nabateantemple,andfrom graphicarchivesof an excavationin- fromReisner'sexcavationsarecur1938to 1940at Tellel Kheleifeh, dispensableto futurearchaeologists rentlybeingorganizedandcatanear Aqaba,a site thathe identified who maybe interestedin that site. loguedat the HarvardSemitic as the Solomonicportof EzionManyof the photographs fromthe Museum.As at Nippur,Samariawas geber.He wrotea numberof books Samariaexcavationswerepublished excavatedfurthersomeyearslater abouthis explorationsthatbecame with the reportby Reisner,Lyon,and 11931), andalso like Nippur,the site popularsuccesses,but scholars Fisherin 1924.Whilethe delayin has not yet beenfully explored. debated sonae of his archaeological publicationmayhavebluntedsome The workof the archaeologist conclusions, particularlyregarding of the impactof Reisner'sinnovaandexplorerNelson Glueck,with the site of Tell el Kheleifeh.Fortions,he is still regarded as the the aidof his researchassistant tunatelyforposterity,Glueck understoodthe importancenot only of documentinghis ownprogressin Some Examples of Publications excavation,andsites thathe explored, but also the importanceof Using Early Photographs savingthe resultingmaterialto be Monuments of Arabia!Egypt Syriaand Asia MinortJosephGiraultde studiedby futuregenerations.The Prangey,1845(illustrated with the aidof someof the earliestdaguerworkof Mrs.Vogelin organizingand rotypesof the MiddleEast);Egypt Nubia Palestine et Syrie.Dessins preservinghis voluminousphotoPhotographiquesrecueillis pendant les annees 1849 1850 et 1851 graphicrecordsandfieldnotes MaximeduCamp,1852(theresultof a tripwith his friendFlaubert, shouldbe an inspiringexampleto all sponsoredbythe Frenchgovernment); A lourney Round the Dead Sea scientists.Mrs.Vogel'sgift of these and in Bible Lands F.De Saulcy,1854;lerusalemt Etude et Reproduction archives to the AmericanSchoolsof photographiquedes Monuments de la Ville Saintet AugusteSalzmann, Oriental Research{housedin the 1856;Ordnance Surveyof lerusalemt CharlesWilson,1865;Photophoto-archives of the Harvard graphische Resultate . . . nach Aegypten entsendeten archaologischen Semitic Museum) madeit possible ExpeditiontJohannesDumichen,1871;Drei Monate in der libyschen for Gary Pratico of Harvard to reWiiste,Gerhard Rohlfs,1875;Mission Scientifique de M. Ernest evaluatethe site of Tellel Kheleifeh Chantredans la Haute Mesopotamietle Kurdistanet le Caucaset ErnestChantre,1881. fortyyearsafterits originalexcavation. Glueck'soriginalphotographs Aerial view of the Tellel Kheleifehexcavation at the end of the 1940 season.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

249

Oo>5ts [;k,>

Discover YTesdayday

The AmericanSchoolsof Oriental Researchis dedicated to helping scholarsand laymen alike discover the ancient Near East of yesterday. As a memberof ASOR, you can participatein ASOR's work in archaeology, anthropology,history, literature, art and biblicalstudies.

Photographof the basilica at Samaria taken in 1909.

areinvaluableto a studyof the site today,whereonly the barestremains of architectural featuresarenow visible,in an areathat is difficultof accessbecauseof its proximityto the Jordanian-Israeli border. AlthoughGlueck'sexcavationsat Tellel Kheleifehwerenot fully publishedandwerecloudedbycontroversy, Pratico'scurrentworkon the site is a tributeto the careful scientificrecordingbyGlueckanda fine exampleof photography's rolein archaeology. As at Nippurand Samaria,the photographic record will not ceaseto be usefuluntil the site has offeredus all its secrets. Conclusion The valueof historicphotographs of the NearEastis becomingincreasinglyobvious.Wehopethe publicationof the Bonfilscollectionof the HarvardSemiticMuseumwill inspireothersto look forand perhapsdiscovermoreexamplesof visualdocumentationthathavesurvived.The museumhas launchedan internationalprojectcalledFOCUS (tofind,organize,copy,use, and share)endangered photographic documentsof the NearEast.Weurge readersinterestedin the cultural heritageof the regionto sharein this

250

questinto the archaeologyof photographs. Acknowledgment All photographs forthis articlewere suppliedbythe HarvardSemitic Museum. SuggestionsforFurtherReading Gavin, C. E. S. 1')78 Bonfils and the EarlyPhotographyof the Near East.Harvard Library Bulletin 26: 442-G3. 1982

The Image of the Ea.st Nineteenthcentllry Near Eastern Photographs by Bonfils. Chicago:University of

Membershipin ASOR entitles you to: publications fellowships, scholarships,and travelgrants participationin field projects lectures and special programs tours of the Middle East and more Generalmembershipsare $22 per year ($14 for students) Professionalmemberships are $45 per year ($30for students) Life membershipsare $1,000 For details, write: ASOR AdministrativeOffice 4243 Spruce Street Philadelphia,PA 19104 Tel. (215)222-464314644

ChicagoPress. Gavin, C. E. S., Carella,E., and O'Reilly,I. E. 1')81 The PhotographersBonfils of Beirut and Ales 1867-1916. Camera (Marchl:4-3(r. Jammes,A., and Jammes,M.-T. 1977 EgyptianFlaubert'sTime: An Exhibition of the FirstPhotographers, 1839-1860. Aperture (no. 781:62-77. King,P.J. 1983 American Archaeology in the Mideast: A History of the American Schools of Oriental Research.

Philadelphia:AmericanSchools of OrientalResearch. Thomas, R. 1979 Bonfils & Son, Egypt,Greeceand the Levant;1867-1894. History of Photography 3: 33-46. 1979 Some 19th Century Photographersin Syria,Palestineand Egypt.History of Photography3: 157-66.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

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ENIGMATIC BIBLE PASSAGES

Mark The

15:46

Shtoud of rin of History and

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a Problem

Faith

by D. MoodySmith And he [Joseph]bought a linen shroud,and taking him down,wrappedhim in the linen shroud, andlaid him in a tomb which hadbeen hewn out of the rock. (Mark15:46i And Josephtook the body, and wrappedit in a clean linen shroud, and laid it in his own new tomb, which he had hewn in the rock. (Matthew27:59-60) Then he [Josephltook it down [thebody of Jesusl andwrappedit in a linen shroud,and laid him in a rock-hewntomb. (Luke23:53i Then Simon Petercame, following him, and he went into the tomb;he saw the linen cloths lying, andthe napkin,which hadbeen on his head, not lying with the linen cloths but rolledup in a place by itself. (John20:6-7i (All quotations from RevisedStandardVersion.i

.'f we assumethat the Gospelaccountshave some historicalbasis,what can be saidabout the linen shroudin which Jesuswas buried? .sThe SynopticGospelslMatthew,Mark,and Lukel all relatehow Josephof Arimatheaobtaineda shroud lGreek,sindon)andwrappedthe bodyof Jesus in it. The Synopticsdo not mentionthe shroud again.Johnspeaksinsteadof linen cloths (othonia) anda napkin(soudarion)foundlying in

theemptytombon Eastermorninglsee also John 19:401. Thereis no statementaboutwhat becameof them.Thereare,however,legendswhich are thoughtby some to markthe shroud'sprogress through historyandthe Mediterranean world.1 The existenceof the presentShroudof Turin canbe documentedin Francein the fourteenthcentury.Fromthereit madeits wayto Italy,whereit is nowpreservedin the Cathedralof St. Johnthe Baptistin Turinandveneratedas the veryburialshroud ofJesus.It has becomeimplicatedin the religious faithof countlessthousandsof people. As is well known,the Shroudof Turinhas imprinted uponit the imagesof the frontandback sidesof the bodyof a man-as if he hadbeen laid upon it andthen it was foldedoverhis head.The body bearsmarksof injuryidenticalto those that, according to the Gospels,wereinflictedon Jesusof Nazareth. The imageof the man resemblessome early portrayalsof Jesus. Unlike manyreligiousrelics,the shrouddoes not appearto be an obvioushoax.If it is counterfeit, ithas been cleverlyandsubtlydone. If the shroudwereonly an ancientrelic,it would be of little interest,exceptto the pious and perhaps to antiquarians. But its relationto the central claimsof faith,some wouldsay claimsof fact, of Christianitymakesit a subjectof religiousas well as historical-exegetical interestat several levels. The shroudimpingeson churchlife and belief aridit affectsthem fromboth without and within: fromwithout becauseto most Christiansit BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

251

L

Positiveandnegativeimagesof thefull-lengthshroud.Copyright HolyShroudGuild,Esopus,New York12429.

is a relativelynew phenomenonwhich now imposes itself upontheirconsciousnesslargely throughthe media;fromwithin becausechurch peoplewantto knowhow such a new "discovery" mayaffect,or confirm,theirfaith.In responseto that concern,we mayturnto a numberof the disciplinesthat arerelatedto or,broadlyspeaking,a partof theology:archaeology, exegesis,historical criticism,andsystematictheologicalreflection. As faras the shrouditself is concerned,archaeologyas the sciencethat dealswith biblicalartifactsmust presideoverareasof crucialinterest. (Sindonology-fromsindon,that is, shroud-is fundamentallyan archaeologicaldiscipline,but an unusualone.)Archaeologyperse has no interest eitherin confirmingor in debunkingreligious beliefs.Scientistspursuingarchaeologicalinterests haveon the basis of recentexamination(1978iconcludedthat the imageon the shroudwas not producedthroughnaturalcauses(forinstance,by secretionsfromthe bodyi.They agreealso that the imageis not itself a painting.Whetherthe image wassomehoworiginallyproducedby paintingis widelydoubted.In anyevent,the visible imageis not presentlyconstitutedby anypaintor coloration. Andbecausethe imageis like a photographic negative,manyexpertsbelievethat it is not the workof an artist,who wouldscarcelyhavepainted the reverseof the expectedimage(somanycenturiesbeforethe inventionof photographyi. Thereareotherpossiblesigns of authenticity.2 Carbon-14 tests to determineits actualagehavenot atthis writingbeen carriedout. Suchtests would answerthe questionof whetherthe shrouditself datesfromapproximately Jesus'time, give or takea centuryeitherway,andcouldconceivablybe authentic,or whetherit is a laterartifact. Archaeology's legitimateinterestsdo not, however,stophere.Howwell doesthe evidenceof the

252

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

shroudconformto what is knownof Jewishburial practiceat the time of Jesus?Expertsin the field suggestthat a shroudcoveringthe headas well as the frontandbackof the bodywouldbe quiteunusual if not unprecedentedin a Jewishburial,as wouldthe use of coins overthe eyes (ifthe images detectedoverthe eyesby the use of computerenhancementarecoins as some believei.3Thusthere wouldbe archaeologicalproblemsin affirmingthe shroud'sauthenticityevenif a carbon-14test put it within a periodthat wouldincludethe life of Jesus. One of the incidental,but intriguing,aspectsof shroudresearchis the spectrumof scientific,as well as religious,expertswho havebeen attractedto it. Theyrangefromnuclearphysicistsat Los Alamosto a psychiatristat DukeUniversity.While sites andartifactsclearlystemmingfrombiblical times arethe provinceof biblicalarchaeology, the primaryquestionaboutthe shroudis preciselyits periodandplaceof origin.Becauseof its physical properties,expertsin paint,fabrics,pollens,and photography, includingphoto-enlarging, havea right to speak.Moreover,scholarsin medievalhistory, the periodwhen the shroudcameto light in the West,also havesomethingimportantto contribute. Giventhis stateof affairs,it is not surprisingthat therehavebeen differencesamongthe experts aboutwho qualifiesas an expert. Therearealso some exegeticalproblems,as our initialsurveyof the texts suggests.A singleshroud is mentionedin Mark15:46(andMatthew27:59 andLuke23:531,but John19:40specificallyrefersto (linen)cloths in the plural,andJohn20:7clearlyindicatesthat a separatecloth (soudarion)hadbeen placedon Jesus'head.The shroudwouldseem to be aSynoptic,not a Johannine,artifact.Accordingto experttestimony,however,the Johanninewitness bestconformsto what is knownof ancientJewish burialpractice(asindeedJohn19:40indicates:"asis

the burialcustomof the Jews"). Moreover,the shroudcontainswhat appearto be indications (bloodstains?)of a woundin the side (mentioned only in John19:34),as well as woundsin the hands, feet, andhead.So the markson the shroudin this respectconformto, or takeaccountof a distinctive featureof the Johanninenarrative,while the shroud itself is not easily accommodatedto the Johannine narrative.4 Whathistoricalinferencesmaybe drawnfrom the shroud,andwhat aretheirimplicationsfor religiousfaith?Shouldit proveto datefromthe fourteenthcentury,5the answeris obvious.Butsuppose it datesfromapproximately the time of Christ?In that case it couldconceivablybe the burialshroudof Jesus,but not necessarilyso. The skepticmight still ask how one wouldprovethat it is not an earlyhoax,althoughthe problemsof explaininghow it was producedwouldremain. Apparentlywithin the firstcenturyChristianswere accusedof stealingthe bodyof Jesusfromthe tomb lMatthew27:64;28:13).Moreover,evenif it should be a first-centuryrelicbearingthe imprintof a crucifiedman who hadsufferedwoundssuch as are ascribedto Jesusin the Gospels,what then couldbe legitimatelyinferredaboutthe dispositionof his body?Somehavesuggestedthat it mighthave disappeared in a flashof light, so that a quasiphotographicprocessresultedin the negativeimprinton the cloth. Possibly,but at the momentthis involvesa leapof faith,or speculation.Moreover, what wouldsuch an eventhaveto do with Christian belief in the resurrectionof Jesusof Nazareth? At most it wouldconformto one ancientstrainof New Testamenttestimony,which impliesthat the earthlybodyas such was transformed(1Corinthians 15:35-55,especially51 andfollowing)and presumablydisappeared. YetChristianbelief in resurrectionwas in the

beginningbasedprimarilyon the e-xperience and testimonyof witnesses,perhapsonly latersupplementedby accountsthat the tombwas found empty.As faras can be known,the shroudplayed no partin the foundationof such belief.One cannot, nevertheless,rule out the possibilityof some such laterevidenceto support,or call into question, the earliesttestimony.Christianity,while it shares manybeliefswith Judaism,otherworldreligions, andclassicalphilosophicaltraditions,owesits existenceto certainhistoricalpersonsandevents, andit is peculiarlyimplicatedin the historical careerof Jesusof Nazareth.In otherwords,Christianity is in principlea historicalreligion,one that harksbackto andis baseduponhistoricaldata,or, better,a particularinterpretationof that data.Its presentexpressionsaretakento be rootedin its past.Therefore,it is not indifferentto the resultsof historicalinvestigation. Ourbriefreviewof the evidenceof the shroud is, however,sufficientto showwhat ambiguous historicaltestimonyit bears.In the most positively favorablecircumstancesimaginable,the possibility that it was the burialshroudof Jesus,uponwhich his imprintwas left by some as yet unexplainedprocess, cannotbe disproved.Butcontraryto some mediapresentations,not all scientistswho have examinedthe evidencehaveconcludedthat the possibilitiesof explainingit as a humanproduction havebeen exhausted.Certainlyunless or until carbon datingtests aredone,the verdictis not in. Until the scientificverdictis in-and also when it is in-we shouldask to what extentvalid religious,specificallyChristian,interestsareaffectedby the questionof the shroud'sauthenticity. Wehavealreadynoticedthat the shroudplayslittle or no rolein the New Testament.Therecan be no '%iblical doctrineof the Shroud" althoughexegetes cannotleaveit out of accountif furtherresearch

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

253

Negativeimage of the head of the rin Shroudfigure. Copyright Holy ShroudGuild, EsopusZNew York12429.

allowsforits authenticity.The most important issue of faithis, of course,whetherandhow it supportsbelief in the resurrectionof Jesus.Obviously, forsome Christiansit is alreadyperformingthat function.Evenforthem, however,it maynot be an unmixedblessing,dependinguponwhetherthe shroud'sstockgoes up or downwith carbon-14, pollen,paint,andotherkindsof tests. It is at best a moreor less ambiguoussign (Greeksemeion, compareJohn20:307of the resurrection.Ironically,in justthat respectit approachesthe functionand characterof manysigns in the Bible.A sign is frequentlyambiguous,dependingon otherfactors,particularlya judgmentaboutthe originandauthority of the one performingthe sign lcompareJohn9 and Mark3:227.In the case of the Shroudof Turin, however,thereis an importantdifference.Scientific tests maydisproveit or mayleavethe wayopenfor faithto lean uponit. This is not the case with respectto otherNew Testamentsigns,or events generallyforthat matter.6The shroudthen poses in a ratheruniquewaythe questionof the relationof Christianfaithto historicalresearch. Notes lSee Ian Wilson, The Shroud of Turin (GardenCity, NY: Doubleday,1978),who has ingeniously reconstructedthis pilgrimage.His work remains largelyhypothetical,however,and has by no means won universalcritical acceptance. 2Nevertheless,WalterMcCrone,who in 1974 provedYale's 'Vinland Map"to be a hoax, believes on the basis of his analysis

254

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

on the imageareasof the of microscopicparticlesappearing shroud-butnot,he claims,on the clearareas-thatthe shroud is the workof an artist.Seethe Skeptical Inquirer6 (Spring, 1982),pp. 29-31 and35-36 andthe workscitedthere.lNeither goneunMcCrone's evidencenorhis conclusionhas,however, of the evidenceof the contested.)Fora popularpresentation "The see KennethF.Weaver, shroud,with excellentphotographs, National Geographic(June,1980),pp. Mysteryof the Shroud," of "Shreds articleby CullenMurphy, 730-52. An informative 1981),pp. 42-65, describesthe in Harper's(November, Evidence," workof scientistsassociatedwith the Shroudof TurinResearch manyof whomareorhavebeenassociated Project,Inc.(STURP), whichis the research with the LosAlamosNationalLaboratory, centerfornuclearweapons. 30n the use of coins,see RachelHachliliandAnnKillebrew, Customa JewishBurialPracticein the 'Wasthe Coin-on-eye Biblical Archaeologist 46, pp. 147-53. SecondTemplePeriod?" Theydo not findclearevidenceforsuchusageamongJewsin the If firstcentury,althoughmanyburialsites havebeenexcavated. the shroudimagereallyshowscoinson the eyes-which is difficultto determinewith the nakedeye-two mutuallyexclusive implicationsmightbe drawn.Onecouldarguethatotherfindwe havenowsignificant ingsto the contrarynot withstanding, one couldarguethatthe evidenceforthe practice.Alternatively, thatis, a hoax. coinsprovethe shroudto be a laterfabrication, The questionof datingon otherscientificgroundsthenbecomes crucial. andDispositionof the 4ButAndreFeuillet,"TheIdentification to the Dataof the Linensof Jesus'BurialAccording Funerary FourthGospel,"ShroudSpectrumInternational 1 lSeptember, groundsthat 1982),pp.13-23,argueson exegetical-philological accountdoesnot necessarilycontradictthe the Johannine Synoptic.Forexample,the soudarion mentionedbyJohncould havebeenthe clothtiedaroundthe headto close the mouthlsee National Geographic,June,1980,p. 4791.Theothonia arenot Feuillet'sargumentsare however,so easilyaccommodated. but it seemsto me he hasat most judiciousandfair-minded, shownthe possibilityratherthanthe likelihoodof his case.On the otherside,andin favorof the singleshroud,is the consideraaccountin whichthe burial tion thatthe partof the Johannine clothsarementionedseemsto manyexegetesto be an intothe traditionalnarrativelthatis, the entire interpolation sceneof Peterandthe BelovedDiscipleat the tomb);it canbe goodclaimto being arguedthatit doesnot havea particularly consideredhistorical. 5Theshroudwasexhibitedin 1354in Lirey,France,andwas saidto be inauthenticbyBishopHenride Poitiers,who claimed the artistwhoproducedit hadhimselfadmittedhis work. 6Insomerespectsthe situationis differentin the OldTestament,whereone canfindevidenceof sieges,the destructionof findscan,of course,onlyattest cities,etc. Sucharchaeological of them.Yet the barefacts,so to speak,not Israel'sinterpretatiorl the situationis differentin thatthe eventsthemselves(although canbe, at leastin somecases,estabnot theirsign-character) degreeof certainty.Onthe other lishedwith a considerable hand,thoseeventswhicharemostmeaningfulandimportantfor the communitylforexample,the Exodusorthe givingof the Law The Exodus on Sinai)arescarcelyamenableto suchverification. is like the crucifixionof Jesusin thatthe textsprovideevidence TheGivhistoricalreconstruction. whichpermitsa reasonable of Jesusin thatit presupingof the Lawis like the resurrection textsbear posesa divineinterventionto whichnow-sacred witness,andleavesa legacyin the existenceof suchtextsandof of a historicalcommunity.Yetin eithercasethe reconstruction historianswould or"disinterested" scenariosto which"objective" assentis scarcelyconceivable.

Book

The BibleandRecentArchaeology,by Kathleen M. Kenyon, 105 pp. Atlanta: tohn Knox, 1978; $6.50 (Paper).

DameKenyondiedin August1978.This volume was one of her last worksto be published,though excavationreportsarecontinuingto appearposthumously.The materialpresentedhereconsists of the HaskellLecturesat OberlinCollegein 1976, arrangedby the late andalso lamentedH. Thomas Frank.Throughan oversight,at the time of publication the bookwas not reviewed;but with apologies, a reviewis offeredherenow. F.G. Kenyon,Kathleen'sfather,publisheda book on The Bible and Archaeology in Londonin 1940.He was especiallyconcernedto bringtogether some of the enormousnumberof discoveriesafter WorldWarI that relatedto biblicalstudies.He came to this concernout of his workas a text critic of the New Testamentandas directorof the British Museum.His focuswas on the ancientNear Easternbackgroundof the Bible.In one sense, Dame Kenyontakesthis as herpoint of departure but she largelyleavesthe ancientempiresin the backgroundto focuson ancientPalestine.Shealso comes to her studyas an excavator,so the concern is less with textualmattersthanwith the resultsof digging.She speaksandwritesforthe averageperson or student,ratherthan the expert,thoughthe expertswill appreciateher graspof the materialand honorher as the expertshe was.Thereareno footnotes,forKenyonherselfspeakswith morethan sufficientauthority,but a shortbibliography will leadthe studentfurtherforparticularsites. Kenyonconsidersher subjectin fiveperiods: the patriarchs,the conquest,the David-Solomonic period,the time of the dividedmonarchy,andNew TestamentPalestine.The text is liberallysprinkled with photographs; plans,andmaps.The visual supplementsthe verbalandaddsthe usual "thousand words"perpicture.Althoughthe text takesbroad sweeps,the resultis nonethelessa comprehensive pictureof the life andtimes of the biblicalperiod. The openingchaptertoucheson Ebla,sketches the EarlyBronzeAge andthe MiddleBronzeAge, anddiscussesthe resultsof excavationsat Jericho, RasShamra(Ugarit),Byblos,Marion the Euphrates,

Reviews

andelsewhere.The potteryandotherartifactsshow numerousconnectionsamongthe peoplesof westernAsia, as well as a numberof different peoples.Kenyonassumesthat the patriarchsas we knowthem mayrepresentsome of these peoples with theirstoriesnow combinedinto a unified whole. But she regardsthem at the most as protoIsraelitegroups,forshe sees a completebreak betweenGenesis,wherethey aredescribed,and Exodus,which inauguratesthe historyof Israel proper. Chapter2 givesthe Canaanitebackgroundand the literaryevidenceforthe entryof the Israelites into Palestine.Chapter3 givesthe archaeological data.ForKenyon,the twelvetribesrepresentdifferentgroupscomingfromdifferentdirectionsat differenttimes. The problemsof interpretationare representedby her own workat Iericho,whereonly slight remainsof the LateBronzeAge arefound, followedby apparentabandonmentof the site for severalhundredyears.The destructionof Hazor suggestsproto-Israelites strongenoughto conquer at least partof the area.Forthe followingbiblical periodof the Xudges, she saysarchaeologyoffers virtuallyno evidenceat all. The UnitedMonarchy,however,is well represented.Herworkat Ierusalemformsthe backbone of this chapterwith the outline of the city walls andthe scantyevidenceforthe Templeof Solomon.SolomoWs constructionsat Megiddo, Hazor,andGezersuggestto her that the king transformedthe faceof Palestine.Thoughthe Megiddoevidencehas been reinterpreted by Yigael Yadin,amongothers,the Solomonicperiodremains still well documented.Forthe periodof the divided monarchy,in turn,archaeologicalmaterialcomes fromKenyoWs workat SamariaandIerusalem,as well as HazorandMegiddo.In agreementwith the now widespreadview,she datesthe greatwater systemsto this periodandthe complexin Megiddo, which used to be calledSolomoWs stables,more specificallyto the time of KingAhab. The remainsof the buildingactivityof Herod the Greatat Samaria,Ierusalem,andMasadaprovide archaeologicaldataforthe New Testament period.Qumranandthe DeadSeaScrollsadda literarydimension.KenyoWs workin Ierusalem

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/DECEMBER1983

255

suggeststhe presentChurchof the Holy Sepulchre does representthe site of Calvaryoutsidethe walls of Ierusalemat that time. This bookis an excellentoverviewthat can be recommendedto anyoneinterestedin the Bible. Somestill think the patriarchsareconnectedto Israel,andsome think therewas a conquestor that the evidenceon the issue is not all in yet; so not everyoneagreeswith herbiblicalinterpretations. Butthe archaeologicaldatastill addto our of the text. understanding Henry0. Thompson Philadelphia,Pennsylvania

PISBLISNERS BOOKV Pleasesendall reviewco:piesto: Dr.PeterB. Machillist Departmentof OrientalStudies The Universityof :Arizona Tucson,Arizona85721 0

Books

Received

Michael L. Barre,The God-Listin the Treaty Between Hannibal and Philip V otMacedonia: A Study in Light otthe Ancient Near Eastern TreatyTradition.Series: The XohnsHopkins Near EasternStudies. Baltimore:The Xohns Hopkins University Press, 1983, xv + 220 pp. $22.50 (Clothl G. W.Bowersock,Roman Arabia. Cambridge: HarvardUniversity Press, 1983, xvi + 224 pp. + 16 pls. $17.50 (Cloth). Trent C. Butler, loshua. Series: WorldBiblical Commentary 7. Waco,Texas:WordBooks, 1983, xlii + 304 pp. $18.95 (Cloth). ChristopherChippindale, Stonehenge Complete. Ithaca, New York:Cornell University Press, 1983, 296 pp. $29.50 (Cloth). TerenceE. Fretheim, Deuteronomic History. Series: InterpretingBiblical Texts. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1983, 160 pp. $7.95 (Paper).

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Meiron'sarchaeologicalhistory exemplifiedthe historicalcurrents shaping Palestineearlyinthe Christian Era.The e)densive excavations includedthe majesticsynagogue, and residentialand manufacturing areas; all of whichcontributeto the authors'analysis of Meiron'shistory and everyday life. 1 21/4" X 121/4", 75 drawings,61 plates, 68 b &w photographs.Ascholarly reportforserious students of biblical archaeology, by leadingauthoritiesin theirfield. Price:$42.50. Priceto American Schools of OrientalResearch members: $26.00. To order,mailcheck or money orderto Eisenbrauns,POB 275, WinonaLake,Indiana46590

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In an inspiredcombinationof scholarship,storytelling,andart,herefor the firsttimein modernliteraryformis the storyof Inanna,the world's firstgoddessof recordedhistoryandbeloveddeityof the ancient Sumerians.DianeWolkstein,masterstorytellerandfolklorist,and SamuelNoahKramer,the preeminentlivingexperton Sumer,have retranslated, ordered,andcombinedthe fragmentedcuneiformtablets comprisingthe Cycleof Inannato createthis authenticandvitalportrait indeed,the world'sfirstlove story. "A splendidmutualaccomplishment anda greatgiftto mythology.. . Inannais a bookto be cherished." P.L. Travers "Wolksteinhas beenableto conveyin Englishthe richmetaphor,the eroticfullness,andthe rutualpacingof theseancientstories.... Taken togetherwiththe illustrations,historicaldiscussions,andtextualcomis remarkable andrare." BarreToelken,Directorof FolkloreandEthnic Studies,Universityof Oregon "Wolksteinbringsa freshenergeticapproachto this material,andher shapingsof the InannaMythsaresimultaneously simpleandpowerful. . . As an introduction to Sumeriancultureandas a celebrationof an ancientreligiouscult,thisvolumewill enlightenandinformboth scholarlyand popularaudiences." PublishersWeekly Simultaneous clothandpaperback

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Bridgingthegap between Old and New lestaments, a landmark publlshmg event. THEOLD TESTAMENT PSEUDEPIGRAPHA is the most

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It is definitive. Freshly translated and newly annotated, this two-volume set will contain more than three times as many texts as the only I other English language editiontlished 70 years ago. Doubleday & Company, Inc. TradeDivision, Dept. DF005 Garden City, New5York11530 Please send me copiesofTHE

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THE ISRAELACADEMYOF SCIENCESAND HUMANITIES

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THE INTERNATIONALCONGRESS ON BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGY to markthe 70th will takeplacein Jerusalem Congresson BiblicalArchaeology OnApril1-10, 1984,anInternational Society.TheCongressis beingorganizedbyThe IsraelAcademyof Sciencesand of the IsraelExploration anniversary Society. Humanitiesandthe IsraelExploration S.Amir,J.Aviram,M.Dothan,A. Eitan,J.C. Greenfield,M.Kochavi, OrganizingCommittee:A. Biran-Chairman, A. Malamat,B.Mazar,E.D. Oren,E.Stern,E.E.Urbach,Y.Yadin. reviewof the progressof archaeological Themajorobjectiveof the Congressis to examineandpresentanup-to-date researchrelatedto the BibleandBiblelandsfromthe Canaaniteto Herodianperiods. PostOfficeBox Congresson BiblicalArchaeology, TheInternational Interestedpersonsshouldcontact:The Secretariat, Israel. 500,91004Jerusalem,

PROVISIONALPROGRAMME THE PLENARYSESSIONS:APRIL1-5, 1984 Sunday, April 1 8p.m. Festive Opening: Session I. F. M. Cross: B. Mazar: Y. Yadin: Monday, April 2 9 a.m.-l p.m. Session II:

CHAIRMAN: N. K. Gottwald: S. Herrmann: M. Kochavi:

A. Mazar:

RESPONDENTS: DISCUSSION 3 p.m.-7 p.m. Session III: CHAIRMAN: S. Gitin: Ruth Amiran: W. G. Dever:

M. Dothan:

D. Ussishkin:

RESPONDENTS:

DISCUSSION Evening: In the presence of H.E. The President of the State of Israel Biblical Archaeology Dday The Biblical Aspect The Historical Aspect The Archaeological Aspect

Archaeology, History and Bible The Israelite Settlement in Canaan-A Case Study D. N. Freedman The Israelite Settlement as a Social Revolutionary Movement Basic Factors of Israelite Settlement in Canaan exemplified by Joshua 9 and Judges 1 The Israelite Settlement in Canaan in the light of Archaeological Surveys The Israelite Settlement in Canaan in the light of Archaeological Excavations J.A. Callaway, I. Finkelstein, L. E. Stager, M. Weippert

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Terminology A. Biran Stratigraphy and its Application to Chronology and Terminology The Transition from the Chalcolithic to the Early Bronze Age From the End of the Early Bronze to the Beginning of the Middle Bronze Nomenclature for the Archaeology of the Biblical Periods Reassessment of the Stratigraphy and Chronology of Archaeological Sites in Judaea in the light of Lachish III A. Ben-Tor,P. de Miroschedji, R. Gophna, A. Kempinski, P. R. S. Moorey, G. Van Beek, J. D. Seger, W. E. Rast

T. Jacobsen:

Reception at the Residence of H.E. The President of the State of Israel (by invitation only) The Temple in Sumerian Literature

Tuesday, April 3 9 a.m.-l p.m.

Session IV:

Israel'sNeighboursin the Iron Age in the light of ArchaeologicalResearch

CHAIRMAN: Trude Dothan: J. D. Muhly: D. B. Redford:

R. D. Barnett The Rise of the Sea People Phoenicia and the Phoenicians The Relations between Egypt and Israel from El-Amarna to the Babylonian Conquest Amon, Moab and Edom M. Bietak, Ora Negbi, E. D. Oren, E. Stern, D. Stronach

J.A. Sauer: RESPONDENTS: DISCUSSION 3p.m.-7p.m.

Session V:

CuneiformArchivesfrom the Landsof the Bible

G. Pettinato: A. Malamat: H. Cazelles: H. Tadmor: D. O. Edzard:

The Ebla Archive Mari and Early Israel Ugarit and the Bible Nineveh, Kalah and Israel Amarna and What ElseOverevaluation of a Given Archive ? J.-C. Courtois, R. Kutscher

RESPONDENTS: DISCUSSION Evening:

C. H. Gordon:

Reception hosted by the President of the Hebrew University {by invitation only The Ugaritic Texts: Half a Century of Research

Wednesday, April 4 9a.m.-12a.m.

Session VI:

Hebrewand AramaicEpigraphy

A. R. Millard:

An Assessment of the Evidence for Writing in Ancient Israel The Balaam Inscription from Deir Alla-Epigraphical Aspects The Balaam Inscription from Deir Alla-Historical Aspects A. Demski, J.C. Greenfield, A. Rofe, M. Weippert

A. Lemaire: B. Levine: RESPONDENTS:

DISCUSSION 2 p.m.-4:30 p.m. Session VII: Part I:

The Dead Sea Scrolls The Halakha and the Dead Sea Scrolls P. Benoit, o.p. CHAIRMAN: Purity and Perfection: Exclusion L. H. Schiffman: from the Council of the Community in the Serekh Ha-CEdah J. M. Baumgarten: Halakhic Polemics in New Fragments from Qumran Cave 4 An Halakhic Document from J. Strugnell: Qumran RESPONDENTS: B. Z. Wacholder, Y. Yadin Early Christianity and the Dead Part II: Sea Scrolls H. M. Orlinsky CHAIRMAN: Some Aspects of Eschatology in H. Stegemann: Texts from the Qumran Community and in Teachings of Jesus The Sons of Light in Jesus' D. Flusser: Teaching and in the New Testament DISCUSSION Reception hosted by the Mayor Evening: of Jerusalem (by invitation only} Sumerian Mythology Reviewed S. N. Kramer: and Revised

Thursday,April 5 9 a.m.-l p.m. Session VIII: Part I:

RevealingBiblical terusalem Visit to the excavationsof: The City of David The Ophel The Upper City

Part II:

P.J.King CHAIRMAN: A. D. Tushingham:FromCharlesWarrento KathleenKenyon The City of David Y.Shiloh: The TempleMount B.Mazar: The UpperCity N. Avigad: RESPONDENTS: G. Barkay,P.Benoit, o.p., M. Broshi,H. D. Lance DISCUSSION Festivedinnerat the Knessset Evening: lnot includedin registrationfee1 The Searchof the Past E. E.Urbach:

I New EvidencefromAncient Capernaum Vasillios Daferis

EdwardRobinson:Biblical Scholar Philip t. King

TheAmman AirportStructure LarryG. Herr