L
^
,
z
:4 t:
-
I .a.. -e
-
way this _ l | according civilization to 1 was Leir able pl asure. lto respond At t...
12 downloads
380 Views
25MB Size
Report
This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Report copyright / DMCA form
L
^
,
z
:4 t:
-
I .a.. -e
-
way this _ l | according civilization to 1 was Leir able pl asure. lto respond At th same to its time, physical the labors l setting. of the
BiblicalArchaeolo A Publication of the American Schools of Oriental Research Volume 52 Numbers 2 and 3 June/September1989
i
tes
62
_
GregoryMcMahon
_ _ _ _ _
Earlyin the secondmillennium B.C.E., a groupof Indo-Europeans madetheir way into Antolia, the areaknown todayas Asia Minor. These people eventuallybuilt a greatempirerivalingthat of Egypt. Their culturallegacycan be seen todayin rock carvings,huge stone monuments,hundredsof pieces of writing,and in severalbiblical passagesreferringto the Hittites.
_
l
g _
and History in Hittite
78
Anatolla
Ronald . Gorny The successfulpolitical integrationof Anatoliansettlements into the Hittite state seems to havebeen somewhatdependenton the
__ __
|
Page62
The Rel gion of the Hittite
98
Likethe king andother membersof the rulingclass, the gods stood farabovethe ordinaryHittite, dispensingfavorsor punishments I
peasantagrlculturallstandpastorallstwerethe basis upon which est d.
The Hittites gracefullyabsorbedthe variousinfluences that surroundedthem while developingan unmistakableart style of
-
l
1 l [ittite Literature
N
*
130
Ahmet Unal
l
@
[11vstratethc literaryvaluesand
Page98
| X b
,
_> l ,7^ ;:f ,,)
|
| |
Glossary
143
BookReviews LettertotheReaders Introducing the Autho s
146 59 60
' |
Onthecover:Seemingly basking in the afternoonsun is this monumental lion sculpture, one of two that flank the western gateway entrance to the UpperCity of the ancient Hittite capital, Hattusa. Photo by Ronald L. Gorny.
^ ) t
Page109
I
Biblical Archaeologist is publishedwith the financialassistanceof the EndowmentforBiblicalResearch,a nonsectarianfoundationfor the studyof the Bibleandthe historyof the ChristianChurch.
BiblicalArchaeologist,June/September 1989
57
ORIENTAL RESEARCH SCHOOLS OF AMERICAN MD 21211(301)889-1383 OFFICE,ASOR,711WEST40TH STREET,SUITE354, BALTIMORE, ADMINISTRATIVE P.KyleMcCarter,President EricM. Meyers,First Vice Presidentfor Publications WalterE. Rast, Second Vice Presidentfor Archaeological Policy GeorgeM. Landes,Secretary KevinG. O'Connell,Assistant Secretary I4l lden Gibbs, Treasurer CsnughW.Thompson, Jr.,Chairmanof the Boardof Trustees Norma Kershaw,Directorof Tours Susan FosterKromholz,Executive Director
ASORNewsletter;P.KyleMcCarter, Editor BiblicalArchaeologist;EricM. Meyers, Editor Bulletin of the American Schools of OrientalResearch;WalterE. Rast, Editor Journalof CuneiformStudies;Erle Leichty,Editor Editorfor Books, WalterE. Aufrecht
W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research (AIAR). P. O. Box 19096, 91 190 Jerusalem, Israel. Seymour Gitin, Director Edward E. Cohen, Board Chairman Joe D. Seger, President Carol Meyers, First Vice President Joy Ungerleider-Mayerson, Second Vice President John Spencer, Secretary-Treasurer Baghdad Committee for the Baghdad School. Jerrold S. Cooper, Chairman Near Eastern Studies, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218. American Center of Oriental Research (ACOR). P. O. Box 2470, Jebel Amman, Amman, Jordan. Bert de Vries, Director Robert Coughenour, President Lawrence T. Geraty, Vice President Marjorie Cooke, Secretary Anne Ogilvy, Treasurer
Biblical Biblical Archaeologist (ISSN0006-0895}is publishedquarterly(March,June,September,December}by the JohnsHopkins University Pressfor the American Schools of OrientalResearch(ASOR},a nonprofit, nonsectarianeducationalorganization with administrativeofficesat 711West40th Street,Suite 354, Baltimore,MD 21211. Subscriptions.Annual subscriptionrates are $19.95 for individualsand $30 for institutions. There is a special annual rateof $17 for students and retirees.Single issues are $7 for individuals and $10 for institutions. In Canadaand Mexico, add $3.40 for annual subscriptionsand $2 for single issues. In other foreigncountries, add$8.40 for annual subscriptionsand $2 for single issues. Ordersshould be sent to the Johns Hopkins University Press, 701 W.40th Street,Suite275, Baltimore,MD 21211(telephone:301-338-6988;telex: 5101012198, JHUPress Jnls1. Second-classpostagepaid at Baltimore, MD 21211and additionaloffices. Postmaster:Send addresschanges to Biblical Archaeologist, the JohnsHopkins University Press, 701 W.40th Street,Suite 275, Baltimore,MD 21211. Copyrightt 1989by the American Schools of OrientalResearch. All rights reserved.No portion of this journalmay be reproducedby any process or technique without the formal consent of the American Schools of Oriental
Damascus Committee. Giorgio Buccellati, Chairman Center for Mesopotamian Studies, University of California, 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024.
Archaeologist
P. O. BOX H.M., DUKE STATION, DURHAM, NC 27706
58
Cyprus American Archaeological Research Institute (CAARI1. 41 King Paul Street, Nicosia, Cyprus. Stuart Swiny, Director Charles U. Harris, President Lydie Shufro, Vice President Ellen Herscher, Secretary Andrew Oliver, Jr., Treasurer
(919} 684-3075
Researchand the JohnsHopkins University Press.Authorizationto photocopy items for personalor internal use is grantedfor librariesand other users registeredwith the CopyrightClearanceCenter lCccl TransactionalReportingService, providedthat the copier pay the base fee of $1.00 per copy plus $.10 per pagedirectly to CCC, 21 CongressStreet, Salem, MA 01970. This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying,such as copyingfor generaldistribution,for advertisingor promotionalpurposes,for creatingnew collective works, or for resale. 0006-8095/$87$1.00 + .10 Editor Associate Editor Book Review Editor Art Director Senior Editor Staff Editor Editorial Assistant
Eric M. Meyers Lawrence T. Geraty James C. Moyer Linda Huff Leslie Watkins Todd McGee C. E. Carter
Editorial Committee Peter B. Machinist Walter E. Aufrecht P. Kyle McCarter Edward F. Campbell David W. McCreery Douglas L. Esse Carol L. Meyers James Flanagan S. Thomas Parker Volkmar Fritz Jack Sasson Seymour Gitin Neil A. Silberman Jo Ann Hackett Mark S. Smith A. T. Kraabel L. Michael White Thomas E. Levy
Biblical Archaeologist, June/September1989
Advertising.Correspondenceshould be addressedto the JohnsHopkins University Press, 701 W.40th Street,Suite 275, Baltimore,MD 21211(telephone:301-338-69821 Biblical Archaeologist is not responsible for errorsin copy preparedby the advertiser. The editor reservesthe right to refuse any ad. Ads for the sale of antiquities will not be accepted. EditorialCorrespondence.Article proposals, manuscripts,and editorial correspondenceshould be sent to the ASOR PublicationsOffice, P.O.Box H.M., Duke Station, Durham, NC 27706. Unsolicited manuscriptsmust be accompaniedby a self-addressed,stampedenvelope.Foreign contributorsshould furnish international reply coupons. Manuscriptsmust conformto the format used in Biblical Archaeologist,with full bibliographicreferencesand a minimum of endnotes. See recent issues for examples of the properstyle. Manuscriptsmust also include appropriate illustrations and legends.Authorsare responsiblefor obtainingpermission to use illustrations. Composition by LiberatedTypes,Ltd., Durham,NC. Printedby PBMGraphics, Inc., Raleigh,NC. Publisher The JohnsHopkins University Press
Letter
to the
Readers
The
archaeologyand history of Anatolia are relativelyunknownto those outsidethe field. Althoughstudiesof the classicalandbiblical lands are routinely included in a Western liberaleducation,Anatoliaremainsa virtualunknown. It is a criticalregion,a physicalbridgebetweenEastand West,yetourignoranceof if oftenblocksagenuineunderstandingof the landsextendingout fromit in all directions.Ourintentin this issueofBiblical Archaeologist is to helpalleviatethis situationbypresentinginformation aboutpastandpresentarchaeological researchin ancient Anatolia.In so doing,it is hopedthat Anatolia-and the Hittites-will becomeless of an enigma. The opportunityto share my interest in Hittite Studieswasfirstpresentedto mebackin 1986byJamesC. Moyer,professorof religiousstudies at SouthwestMissouri State University (who has since become book revieweditorforBAI,andMartinWilcox,then executive editor of BA. A series was being initiated to present informationaboutthe neighborsof Syro-Palestine in the biblicalperiod.It seemedlogicalto dedicatean issue to the Hittites, a peoplelong knownto the readersof BA becauseof their inclusionin the Bible.I agreedto bring the issuetogether,andherearethe resultsof thoseefforts. Thefirstchallengewasfindinga wayof bringingthe Hittites to life, knowingthat a full treatmentwas not possible,evenin anentireissue.It wasalso importantto set abackdropagainstwhichthehistoryof Syro-Palestine might be betterunderstood.It was assumedthat many readerswouldnot be familiarwith Anatolia,or Hittite studiesin particular,so a broadpresentationof a fewkey topics,bolsteredby an extensivebibliography, seemedto be the best approachto take.Withthat in mind I chose fivebroadareasof interest:history,archaeology, religion, art,andliterature,subjectsthatwouldprovidethe reader with a goodintroductionto Hittite civilization. I was fortunateto be ableto securethe servicesof a fine groupof specialistswhose articlespresentcareful and insightfulscholarship.GregoryMcMahoWs article describesthe majoreventsin Hittitehistory,focusingnot only on kings andbattles but also on the civilizatioWs
positionin the biblicalworld.GaryBeckmaSscontribution discussesthe natureandpracticeof Hittitereligion, which, as the articleby JeannyVorysCanbypoints out, hada greatimpacton, andwasdirectlyrelatedto,Hittite art. Ahmet Unal'sarticle revealsthe flavorof Hittite literature,its variousformsandthe powerof its narrative. Finally,I havetriedto placethe Hittitesin the contextof Anatolianarchaeology,especially in light of environmentalforcesthatwereoperatingon the centralplateau at the time. It is hopedthatfuturearticleswill roundout the skeletonformedhere,especiallyin areaswherethe HittitestoucheduponSyro-Palestine. Thiswasa sizableproject,andthe effortsof all those involvedaregreatlyappreciated.Foremoston my list of those to thank are the individualcontributors,who exhibitedgreatpatiencein me as well as hardworkand dedication.Needless to say,the final responsibilityfor eacharticlelies with the individualauthor.I alsowantto thank the many friendsand colleagueswho readand commentedon variousportionsof the issue. Their insights provedto be invaluable.GaryBeckman,Gregory McMahon,and C. E. Carterdeservespecial credit for laboringoverthe glossaryentries,and,finally,I wantto thankJimMoyer,without whose confidencethis issue wouldnot havebeenpossible.
< XyXt/tr? RonaldL.Gorny Chicago,Illinois
BiblicalArchaeologistttune/September 1989
59
IntroducingtheAuthors Gregory McMahon
With an emphasis on ancient history, ancient Near Easternlanguages,andTurkishlanguageandliterature, GregoryMcMahonreceivedhis Ph.D.fromThe Oriental Instituteof TheUniversityofChicagoin 1988.Currently a professorin the Departmentof Historyat the University of New Hampshire,he hastaughtcourseson ancient NearEastern,Greek,andRomanhistoryas well as WestHe ern civilization,worldhistory,and historiography. in Bosphorus of the University the hasstudiedTurkishat in the year sequence a full has taught and Istanbul Turkishlanguageat The OrientalInstitute.Dr.McMahon
RonaldL. Gorny
.
teanny VorysCanby
60
Biblical Archaeologist, [une/September1989
.
Ahmet Unal
has receivednumerousfellowships,includingan Overseas ResearchFellowshipfrom the AmericanResearch Institutein Turkeyll985) anda FulbrightFellowshipfor researchin Turkey(1984-19857.
pedition, and the German ArchaeologicalInstitute's expeditionto Bogazkoy. Shewasa visitinglecturerat the OrientalSeminarat JohnsHopkinsUniversityfor five yearsand,for 17years,curatorof the ancientNearEasternandEgyptiancollectionat the WaltersArtGalleryin RonaldL.Gornyis a Ph.D.candidateinAnatolianarchae- Baltimore.From 1984 to 1986 she was Visiting Edith ologyat The OrientalInstitute.His dissertationinvolves PoradaProfessorof Ancient Near EasternArt and Ara reexaminationof the second-millennium remainsfrom chaeologyat ColumbiaUniversity.CurrentlyDr.Canby the Institute'sexcavationsat Alisar Hoyuk in central is a ResearchAssociateat TheUniversityMuseum. Turkey. Granteda FulbrightFellowshipto studyin Turkey forthe 1984-1985academicyear,he has traveledexten- A native of U,sakin westernTurkey,Ahmet Unal has sivelyin Turkeyaswell as Israel,wherehe hasworkedon studiedhistory,Ottomanand ancienthistory,Hittitolexcavationsat TelDanandAshkelon.He coordinatedthe ogy,Assyriology,and Near Easternarchaeologyat the articlespresentedin this issue. universitiesof Ankaraand Munich,wherehe received his Ph.D.in 1972.Since1988he hasheldalifetimeprofesGaryBeckmanis AssociateProfessorof Hittite at Yale sorship for ancient Anatolianstudies, languages,and UniversityandAssistantCuratorof the YaleBabylonian Hittitologyat the Universityof Munich.He has taught Collection. He has written widely on the social and Hittite andancienthistoryat the universitiesof Ankara culturalhistoryof the Hittitesand,since 1980,has been and Konyaand, since 1985,has workedon the Hittite a collaboratoron the Hittite DictionaryProjectat The DictionaryProjectatTheOrientalInstitute.Dr.Unalhas OrientalInstitute. participated in differentexcavationsin the Hittitehomeland,in particularAlacaHoyuk,andhas conductedhis JeannyVorysCanbyreceivedher Ph.D.fromBrynMawr own excavationsat Cengeltepenear Yozgat.He has College.She has excavatedin Turkeywith The Univer- authoredbooks on Hittite history and divinationand sity MuseumoftheUniversityof Pennsylvania's Gordion many articlespertainingto differentaspectsof Hittite expedition,the TurkishHistoricalSociety'sKultepeex- language,history,geography, archaeology, andculture.
The Joint Expedition to Caesarea Maritimahas two volumes of reports on its excavations at Caesarea on the Sea'' available. PreliminaryReports in Microfiche. 1971-1978 RobertJ. Bull,Editor Drew University Institutefor Archaeological Research (Orderfrom Eisenbrauns, PO. Box 275, Winona Lake, Indiana, U.S.A.46590)
te---
Volume IV of the Final Excavation Reports. The Pottery and Dating of VaultI JeffreyA. Blakely Archaeological Assessments, Inc., and Institutefor Archaeological Research (Orderfrom the Edwin Mellen Press, 1?0. Box 450, Lewiston, New York,U.S.A. 14090) w>
BiblicalArchaeologist7 June/September 1989
61
J
,
'
.
by
Gregory
McMahon
At the ;vesternentranceto the UpperCityof Hattusais themonumentknownas Lion lions Gate,namedforthe twoheavy-chested thatguardit. Thelion on therighthandside of thegateway,shownin profileon facing pageright,is almostintact.Noticehow the maneis renderedin a complicatedpatternof incisedtutts.Carvedout of two verylarge archedblocks,thelions werecut to fit each otherexactly.All photosin thisarticleareby McMahon. Gregory
62
nearthe beginning Sometime of the secondmillennium B.C.E., a groupof IndoEuropeansmadetheirway into Anatolia,the areawe know todayas AsiaMinor.Thesepeople carveda new faceon the peninsula situatedbetweenthe BlackSeaand They the easternMediterranean. establisheda powerfulkingdom, built a greatempire,andinfluenced theirneighborsin the ancientNear Eastforseveralcenturies.Vestigesof theirgreatempirecanbe seen today in hugcstonemonuments,rock carvings,hundredsof texts,andin severalbiblicalpassagesreferringto the Hittites.
Biblical Archaeologist, Tune/September1989
Pre-HittiteAnatolia-TheAssyrian Co10nyAge The earliestwriting,andtherefore the beginningsof historyin Anatolia, canbe tracedto the OldAssyrian ColonyAge,a periodlastingfrom about1925to 1650s.c.E.lDuringthis time Assyrianmerchants,basedin Assur,establishedtradingcoloniesat severalAnatoliancites and,through them,dida thrivingbusinessin metalsandothercommodities.The bestknownof these tradingcolonies (karumin OldAssyrian)is Kanes, Kultepe. the site of modern-day Excavationin the upperlevelsof the karumat Kaneshas uncovered cuneiformtabletswrittenin a dis-
Theearliestwriting,andtherefore the beginnings of historyin Anatolia, canbe tracedto theOldAssyrian ColonyAge.
At the topof thisglacis,alongthesouthernboundaryof the UpperCityof Hattusa,is the monolithicentrywayknownas the SphinxGate.Oneof the sphinxesthatguardedthegateis still visibletbut theothertwo arein theIstanbulandBerlinMuseums.Thelowerportal,or posterngate(Yerkapl in lbrkish,meaning"ground-gate"), opensinto a tunnelthatruns underneaththe earthworks andentersinto the UpperCity.
tinctivescriptanddialectof AkkadiancalledOldAssyrian.Mostof these documentsarecommercialin nature-correspondencewith the home officein Assur,recordsof goodstransported,andcontracts. As exemplifiedbywrittentrade agreements,the foreignbusinessmen enjoyedformalizedrelations with theirAnatolianhosts.The localprincegrantedtradingconcessionsandprotectionto the merchantsand,in return,taxed commercecarriedout in his domain. The OldAssyrianrecordscontain some nameswith Indo-European elements,attestingto the presence of Indo-Europeans who wouldlater
createthe Hittite kingdom. Fromthe discoveryof tablets writtenin OldAssyrianfoundin the palaceat Kanesit is evidentthat the localAnatolianprincesadoptedthe importantnew technologyof writing. Thesetabletswerepresumablywritten by an Assyrianscribeemployed bythe prince,but a letterto king Warsamaof Kanesfromthe kingof Mama,Anum-Hirbe,indicatesthat writingwaspracticedin otherparts of Anatoliaas well (Balkan1957). In additionto writing,the Assyriansbroughtwith them the cylinderseal, a type of seal developedin Mesopotamia.The cylinderseal is a small cylinderof stoneor metal
with an incisedinscriptionand/or scene.Whenrolledacrossa wet clay tabletthe seal leavesan impression of the legendinscribedon it and thus signsthe tablet.Manyof the OldAssyriantabletsaresealedin this way,as arethe clay"envelopes" in which some of the tabletswere enclosed.Thatthe cylindersealwas adoptedbythe local inhabitantsmay be inferredfromthe Anatolianmotifs on the seals in additionto the expectedMesopotamianforms. Developmentof the Hittite State Wearenot certainwho put an end to Assyriancommercialactivityin Anatoliain the eighteenthcentury
BiblicalArchaeologistZlune/September 1989
63
King
Pithana Anitta
Relationship Royal
MiddleChronologyl LowChronology2 .
sonof Pithana
early18thCentury Century mid-18th
@
Labama gattusili I Mursil.iIlt}3 gantili ZidantaIlt} Ammuna guziya Ilt} lElipinu Tahurwailil*} Alluwamna Hantili II ZidantaIIIe} Muniya
I
>
^
u
Q
J 2
D
^
|
z
i
2
2
S
o
2
>;;
1680-1650 1650-1620 1620-1590 1590-1560 1560-1550 1550-1530 1530-1525 1525-1500
knownHittiteking first son of Labarna nephew/adopted son of Hattusili I4 sonladopted grand of MursiliI andbrother-in-law assassin of Hantili son-in-law sonof Hantili sonof Anununa? of Ammuna sonof ZidantaI?/brother-in-law of HuzziyaI son-in-law sonof Alluwamnas
1500-1450
IIle t}
1600-1570 1570-1540 1540-1530 1530-1500 1500-1490 1490-1470 1470-1465 1465-1440 1440? 1440-1430 1430-1420 1420-141C2 1410-140CR 1400?2
Muwatalli Ilkt) lUdhaliya 6 ArnuwandaI8 lUdhaliya III lUdhaliya Itheyounger)lt) Hattusili IIle}
late18thCentury early17thCentury
ML'M .L
M 2X:LL ^ sonof HuzziyaII?' II of Thdhaliya son-in-law I sonof Arnuwanda sonof lUdhaliya
0"^
ms
i
2 2
;:
L u
.
J
M
i
;
^
.
i
L.
;
L M
:
.
1450-1420 142S1400 1400-1380 1380?
^
ffi
L ffi ;i
1400 1380 1370-1360 1360-1343 1343?
|
i
1343-1322/181° 1322/18 1322/18-1296 1296-1273 1273-1266
son of Thdhaliyam, maybe Hattusili II son of Suppiluliuma I son of Suppiluliuma I son of Mursili II son of Muwatalli II 1266-1235 1275-1250 son of Mursili II 1235-1215 1250-1220 son of Hattusili m ? ? son of Muwatalli II/cousinof lUdhaliya tV14 1215-121015 1220-1215 son of lUdhaliya IV Amuwandam 1210-120016 1215-1200 son of ThdbaliyaIV SuppiluliumaII disputed KEY Itimurdered l*}positionunclear leRexistencedebated Id1deposed IkOkn4gship 1380-1340 1340L1339 1339-1306 1306-1282 1282-1275
-
SuppiluliumaI ArnuwandaII MursiliII MuwatalliIIIl MursiliEld}l=Urhi-lEsub) gattusili El2 lUdbaliyaIV13 Kar ntalk}
Note: This table was compiled by RonaldL. Gorny.Exceptwhere noted, the datesused here areschematizationsbasedon a few known synchronismsandthe use of a time span of 20 years per generationwith adjustmentsmade for kings thoughtto be long-livedandthose thoughtto be short-lived.The lack of accurate chronologicalor genealogicaldatafor the Hittite kings precludesthe possibility of accuratechronologicaldatingat this time. All bibliographiccitations arelisted in the bibliographyof RonaldGorny'sarticle. lMiddlechronologyafter frameworkestablishedby JohnA. Brinkmanl1964}. Hittite dates basedon approximatedates suggestedby O. R. Gurneyl1981:218}. GernotWilhelm andJohannesBoese l19871. 2Lowchronologyafwter 3Sackof Babylon,1595B.C.E. middle chronologyll531B.C.E. low chronology. 4SeeBeal ll983b1 5SeeOtten l1987b}. I is a shadowyfigurewhose existence is uncertain.He was originally 6Tudhaliya proposedas the first king of this name becausethe name Tudhaliyawas foundat the beginningof one variantof the sacrificiallists as the fatherof one PU-sarruma 1KUBXI 7; compareOtten 1968:122).Consequently,the conventionthat begins the numberingof the Tudbaliyasin this fashionwas establishedat an early date. The sequence of that variant, however, has remained enigmatic, and many
64
Biblical Archaeologist7Tune/September1989
Hittitologists would disputethe existence of this figure,beginningthe sequence of Tudhaliyaswith our presentTudhaliyaII lcompareAstour, 1989: 50-511.The early system is retained here as a means of explaining different numbering systems foundin the literature. 7SeeOtten 11987b1. 8Forpossible coregencyof TudhaliyaII and ArnuwandaI, see Philo Houwink tenCate 11970:58, note 2}, O. Carruba11977:166-69, 177, note 71,andO.R.Gurney 1979: 214-151.
9CompareAstour 11989:73}. °CompareWilhelm andBoese 11987}. Battleof Kadesh,fifth year in reignof RamessesII,around1275 B.C.E. l2Treatywith RamessesII,twenty-firstyearin reignof RamessesII,around1259 daughterto RamessesII,thirty-fourthyearin reign B.C .E.; marriageof ElattusiliIII's of RamessesII,around1246 B.C.E. IV,see C. Mora(I987>. ForpossiblecoregencybetweenElattusilim andTudl}aliya See Neve 11987a:402-04}, Otten 11988},andvan den Hout 11989:87-105}. CompareSinger11987:417}. Singer11987:418}. Wenteandvan Siclen 119771wouldset this dateat 16Compare 1175 B.C.E.
Hittitecivilization wasa mixof theearly Hatticculturewiththatof theIndo-European newcomers and,later,withthatof theHurrians. B.C.E., but we knowthat the foundation of a Hittitestatefollowedshortly thereafter(Guterbock1983:24-25, note 8).Mostof ourtextualevidence forthe historyof the Hittite kingdom comesfromthe archivesfound at the Hittite capitalat Hattusa, present-day Bogazkoy/ Bogazkale,a villageeast of Ankara.Otherimportantevidencehas comefromarchaeologicalsites includingAlacaHoyuk, Alis,arHoyuk,andMa,satHoyuk. The termHittite derivesfrom the place-nameHattiused forthe pre-Indo-European inhabitantsof centralAnatolia.The Hittites,who wereIndo-Europeans, referredto themselvesas Nesites, or peopleof Nesa (Kanes),a traditionsupported by the evidenceof Hittite namesin the tabletsfoundat Kanes.Whatwe call Hittite civilizationis a mix of the earlyHatticculturewith that of the Indo-European newcomersand, later,with the cultureof the Hurriansof northernMesopotamia. One of the most importantand obviouscontributionsof these newcomerswastheirlanguage,the languagewe call Hittite today,the oldest attestedIndo-European language. Curiously,the Hittitesdidnot get theirwritingfromthe merchants basedin Assur;theirscriptmost closelyresemblesOldBabylonian andmayhavebeenborrowedfrom the scribesof northernSyria,an area in the orbitof the OldBabylonian dynastyof Hammurapi(Guterbock 1983:24-25; Hoffner1973:204). Bythe beginningof the OldHittite period(sixteenthcenturyB.C.E.), the newstatehadborrowed the cuneiform writingsystemandadaptedit to the Hittite language,beginninga distinctivelyHittite scribaltradition. The archivesat Hattusacontain texts writtenin severaldifferent
languages,the most predominantof which is the Indo-European Hittite. The othermajorlanguageof the archiveis Akkadian,the Semitic languageof Mesopotamiathat the Hittitesusedearly,alongwith Hittite, forstaterecordsand,later,for internationalcorrespondence and diplomacy. Texts,includingbilinguals, werewrittenin Hatticandin two otherIndo-European languages, LuwianandPalaic.In addition, manytexts datingmostlyto the laterstagesof the kingdomcontain, or arewrittenin, Hurrian,the agglutinativelanguageof the peopleof southernAnatoliaandnorthern Mesopotamia.Sumerian,the Mesopotamianlanguagethat wasalready usedexclusivelyas a scholarlylanguage,is attestedat Hattusain the commonuse of Sumerianlogograms as well as in vocabularylists that give Sumerian,Akkadian,andHittite equivalents.An Indo-Aryan languagerelatedto Sanskritis the originof a few technicaltermsin horsetrainingtexts adoptedfrom the Hurrians. In trackingnoticeablechanges that took placein the Hittite languageandwritingsystemduringthe roughlyfourcenturiesof the kingdomfsscribaltradition,modern scholarsuse the notedcharacteristics of the languagein a particular periodto datetexts that cannotbe datedby othercriteria.Because manyof the textsfoundin the Hittite archiveswereconsideredimportant enoughto be copied,Hittitologists areinterestedin the dateof an original compositionas well as that of a particularcopy.Thus,forexample,a clearlyOldHittitetext such as the Anittatext (CTH1)2mayexist in copieswrittenin bothOld Script andNew Script.
The OldHittite Kingdom.The Old HittiteKingdommaybe saidto begin with Labarna I, the firstkingof the dynastythat establishedthe kingdomof Hattusa.Twoearlier kings,Pithanaandhis son Anitta, bearan as yet unclearrelationshipto the firstHittite dynastyof Labarna (Guterbock1983:25).Pithanaand Anittaoccurin OldAssyriantexts (Gurney1981:19),anda daggeror spearheadinscribedwith "thepalace of Anittathe king"discoveredin the city districtat Kanesprovidesadditionaldocumentation.This dagger couldindicatethat Anittawasking at Kanesor,if the destructionof this levelcanbe attributedto him, that the daggerwas lost there.According to the Anittatext, the one text from the Hittite statearchivesattributed to him, AnittaandPithana,basedat theirhome city of Kussara,created an empiremadeup of neighboring smallkingdoms.Anittalatermoved his residenceto Kanes/Nesa.Among the kingdomsthat he conqueredwas Hattus,which hadhada karum.He sowedweedson the site andcursed anywho wouldrebuildit. In the Hittite formof the name,Hattusa,a Hittite stem vowelis addedon the olderHatticname,Hattus. It is uncertainhow longit was afterPithanaandAnittabefore LabarnaI establishedthe firstOld Hittite dynasty.His son, Labarna II, changedhis nameto HattusiliI, which means"manof Hattusa,"and mayhaveresettledHattusaand madeit his capital.It wasduringthe reignof HattusiliI that the Hittite stateemergedinto the light of history.Withthe exceptionof the Anitta text, which wasdiscoveredin the city he hadsacked,the Hittite state archivesbeginwith HattusiliI. By the time of his death,Hattusilihad
Biblical Archaeologist7lune/september 1989
65
sixteenthcenturyB.C.E., carriedon Hattusili'straditionof campaigning andextendingthe empire.Following the directionof Hattusili'scampaignssouth,MursiliI pushedthe Hittite armydeepinto Mesopotamia andsackedBabylonaround1531 B.C.E. This raidendedthe OldBabyloniandynastyof Hammurapiandis the most importantsynchronism betweenHittite andMesopotamian historyforthe earlyperiod.Babylon wasthe deepestinto Mesopotamia the Hittiteseverpenetrated,however. Above:Overallviewof themainchamber an open-airrocksanctuary of Yazlllkaya, The attackwasnothingmorethana locateda mile northeastof Hattusa.A grand raidanddidnot representa serious processionof Hittitegodsis carvedin a long attemptto controlMesopotamiaas relieffriezethatfollowsthe contoursof the naturalchamber.Themaleandfemalesides faras Babylon.Unfortunatelyfor of theprocessionmeetin themainscene, Mursili-and forHittite dynastic The visiblein themiddleof thephotograph. stability-his absenceduringthe IV, sanctuarydatesto thereignof Tudhaliya towardthe endof theHittiteEmpire.Left: Babyloniancampaignallowedthe Thisrockreliefof MuwatalliIIis locatedat developmentof a palaceintrigue. Sirkeliin southernAnatolia,onanoutcropping of rockat a bendin the CeyhanRiver.Ruling Uponhis returnMursiliI wasmurat the beginningof the thirteenthcentury dered,andthe Hittite statewasbeset is knownfortwomajor B.C.E., Muwatalli with dynasticdifficultiesthatled to events:theBattleof Kadesharound1275B.C.E. a successionof weakOldHittite a andhis movingthecapitalto Tarhuntassa, city somewherein southernAnatolia,thus kingswho couldnot keepup the shiftingtheempire'scenterof gravitytoward campaignsnecessaryto maintain Egyptianfrontier. Syriaandthe troublesome an empire. not only establishedthe capitalthat The most importantkingof the wouldservethe Hittitekingdomfor end of the OldHittiteperiodis most of its history;he hadcreatedan Telipinu,the kingknownforthe empireby campaigninginto outside TelipinuEdict(CTH191,a proclamationdealingwith the subjectof areas,especiallysouthinto Syria. ThePoliticalTestamentof HattusiliI dynasticsuccession.The text chrondescribesthe problemsencountered icles some of the internalproblems by this kingin findinga successorto anddisunityexperiencedsince the the throne;it also givesinsightsinto deathof MursiliI and,in an effortto the institutionof the Hittite asput an endto the turmoil,sets forth sembly,which the kingaddressed rulesto determinelegitimatedynas(Beckman1982:437-391.The docu- tic succession.Problemsof succesment,which is fromthe statearsion provedto be disastrousforthe chives,indicatesthatHittiteproce- OldHittite state,but the kingdom duresfordynasticsuccessionwere demonstratedsufficientpoliticalrefairlyfluidduringthe earlydaysof siliencyto survivethis earlyperiod. the kingdom. Fiveor six ephemeralkingssucceeded Hattusili'sadoptedsuccessor TelipinubeforeTudhaliyaIIbegana new,strongerdynastythat ruledin wasMursiliI who,in the mid-
66
Biblical Archaeologist, fune/September1989
Thiselaboraterockrelief,whichdatesto theEmpireperiod, was carvedon a giantboulderat Imamiuluin central drivinga Anatolia.Thecentersectionshowsthe Storm-God chariotpulledby bullsoverbowingmountaingodsheld up bysmallergods.Thehgureto theleft,perhapsa Hittite prince,carriesa bowoverhis shoulder.Thefigureto theright is a goddess,possiblyIstar.
the MiddleHittiteperiod. The MiddleHittite Kingdom.Tudhaliya II'snew dynastydrewstrength fromthat king'srenewedinterestin campaigningas the earlyOldHittite kingshaddone(seeBeal 1986for new evidenceforHittite conquest anddiplomacyunderTudhaliyaIIl. LaterMiddleHittite kingswere unableto continuethe campaigns, however,andit wasleft to SuppiluliumaI in the laterfourteenthcenturyB.C.E. to renewHittite conquests abroadandinauguratethe New Hittite, or Empire,period. The MiddleHittiteperiodis distinguishedpartlyon linguisticand paleographic groundsbasedon a characteristicformof the language (MiddleHittite)anda distinctive type of script(MiddleScript).Our understanding of the late OldHittite andMiddleHittiteperiodssuffers froma scarcityof documentationeventhe numberandpropersequence of kingsbetweenTelipinuandSuppiluliumaI is disputed.Unliketheir neighborsin Mesopotamia,the Hittites didnot keepas a formalpartof theirstaterecordsa list of rulers. Theydidkeeplists of offeringsmade to deceasedkings,which help in reconstructingthe namesandsequencesof the kings,but not all of the kingsareincludedin these lists, andsome of those who areincluded neverbecameking.Therefore,the only surewayto establisha dynastic sequenceis to findrecordsforeach kinganduse the genealogicalinformationcontainedin them. For some kingsof the middleperiodwe do not havesuch records.Some kingsareattestedonly by sealsor seal impressionsthatgivetheir nameandancestry. Perhapsthe best knownMiddle Hittite king is ArnuwandaI, who
:X century ruledin the mid-fourteenth Withhis queen,Asmunikal, Arnuwanda wrotea prayer(CTH375) thatpoignantlyreflectsthe political situationof the MiddleHittite era. In the prayer,the kingandqueen bemoanthe loss of the important cult city of Nerik;at the sametime, they remindthe godshow well the Hittiteshavecaredforthem, in contrastto the Kaska,the barbarian peoplesof the northwho nowhold Nerik.The importanceof maintaining cult offeringsto all the godsis reflectedin the prayerwhen ArnuwandaandAsmunikalpromiseto continueto givethe godsof Nerik all theirofferingsby movingthe site of theirworshipto Hakpis,a city still underHittite control. The Kaskapeoplereferredto in the prayerwereone of the most troublesomeneighborsof the Hittites. Situatedin northcentralAnaB.C.E.
<xrsE
' 'i -aris';'
tolia, northof the Hittite homeland, they werea roughtribalpeoplewho hadno centralizedcapitalandwere thereforedifficultto pin downand conquer.Inperiodsof strengththe Hittiteswereableto keepthe Kaska tribesat bay,but they exertedconstantpressureon the northernborderof the kingdomandwereready to takeadvantageof anyweaknessin Hittite militarycapability.In spite of its greatreligiousimportance,the cult city of Nerikwasnot recovered until HattusiliIIIwas ableto reestablishHittite controlhalfa centurylater. Informationaboutthe Middle Hittitekingsis also availablein a seriesof unusualtexts that scholars texts that designateas instructions, set forththe dutiesof a particular officeror a groupof stateofficials.In instrucadditionto Arnuwanda's (CTH157), tions to his "mayors"
1989 BiblicalArchaeologistfune/September
67
Above:Twomen,orgods,raisetheirarmsto a seateddeity(notvisiblein photo)on this rockrelieflocatedat GavurKales1,southwest of Ankara.Thereis no inscription,andthe butits framework, reliefhasno architectural of Hittiteimperialart. styleis characteristic Aboveright:ThisNeo-Hittitereliefdating fromtheeighthcenturyB.C.E. depicts of thekingdomof Tuwanuwa Warpalawa Tarhu,a godof vegetationand worshipping storms.Locatedat IvriznearKonyain southernAnatolia,thesculptureshowsAssyrian influence,especiallyin the treatmentof the beardsandhair,whicharetightlycurledand capandrobe carefullysculpted.Warpalawa's also couldbeAssyrian,butthe hbula,or clasp,thatholdshis robetogetherappearsto be Phrygian.
which detailstheirdutyto maintain securityin cities throughoutthe kingdom,thereis an extremelyinterestingseriesof instructionsto the borderguards(CTH261),usuallydenotedbythe Hittiteswith the Akkadianphrasebel madgalti,"lordof Thesetexts make the watchtower." clearthe prioritygivento guarding the frontiersandkeepinghostile neighboringlandsundersurveillance
68
duringthe MiddleHittitekingdom, a periodof militaryweakness. The HittiteEmpirePeriod.Withthe accessionof SuppiluliumaI in the centuryB.C.E., the mid-fourteenth middleperiodof relativeHittiteweakness ended,andthe finalphaseof the kingdom,the Empireperiod,began. SuppiluliumaI wasan exceedinglyvigorouskingwho,like the firstHittitekings,campaignedevery yearin orderto increasethe size of the kingdomandcreatea trueempireencompassingdifferentgeographicregions.Afterreestablishing Hittitepowerin centralAnatolia, Suppiluliumadirectedhis energies towarda formidableneighborto the southeast,the stateof Mitanni.This Hurriankingdomhadgrownstrong duringthe periodof Hittiteweakness,becomingone of the major powersof the ancientNearEastand establishingequaldiplomaticrelations with Egypt.Afterbeingdefeatedin his firstencounterwith the Mitannianking,Tusratta,Suppiluliumamounteda secondcampaign
Biblical Archaeologist} June/September 1989
againstthis powerfulenemy,attacking the Mitanniancapital,Wassukanni, andsackingit. Tusrattaescapedand set up a kindof government-in-exile, but Mitanni'sdaysof powerwere numbered.Suppiluliuma,meanwhile, proceededto correspondwith Egyptianpharaohsof the Amarna periodjustas Tusrattahaddone beforehim. Althoughthe Hurrianstatehad beenvanquished,Hurrianculture, especiallyliteratureandcultpractice, continuedto flourish;takenup by the Hittites,it waspreservedin their literarytradition.The Mitannian capital,with its statearchiveswritten in Hurrian,has not yet beendiscovered.MostpreservedHurriantexts come fromHattusa,an indicationof the greatculturalinfluenceexerted by the Hurrianson the Hittitesin the empireperioddespitethe collapseof theirpoliticalpowerbase. It wasperhapsas much as 30 yearslaterwhen Suppiluliumareturnedto Syria(Gurney1981:30-31) and,takingadvantageof the final
*w /
_-
R
s
-
w ,4s,,,, }
-
.
.C,
;.>,
,
^,
E
t
t
Thefortressat Karkamis becamethe centerof Hittitecontrolin Syria.
^
r -< ;
_.
v
,
- F_z,,
t
w
s
, .
*
-
o
*
.
i i. -{
- fv
s ;W
Above:Ancient Sam'al,locatedatmodern-day Zincirliin the areasouthandeastof the Hittitehomeland,wasthesiteofa Neo-Hittite (sometimescalledSyro-Hittite) kingdom. Removedin timefromtheAlacaHoyuk sphinxesof theEmpireperiod,thissphinx fromZincirliwasmanufactured at Yesemek, a Hittitequarryandsculptureworkshop.It is currentlyhousedin thegardenof the Gazianteparchaeological museum.Aboveright: Carvedinto thelivingrockat a mountain passat Hanyeri(Gezbel)in centralAnatolia is thisreliefof a late EmpireHittiteprince. Theprince,who carriesa spearanda bow,is accompaniedbya hieroglyphic inscription. Birdsarealsoseenflyingin the air.
collapseof Mitanni,annexedmore of northernSyria,includingthe strategicfortressat Karkamis.This site becamethe centerof Hittite controlin Syria,wherea viceroyfor
vf+j.^ .; B
tt
ow ^ .
X,,
S
t.
e
.
,
s
.
,
,,-
_
' otS'
i'
A
Syria,usuallya royalprince,was stationed.Suppiluliumahadeliminatedhis most powerfulsouthern neighborandthus openedthe road to Syria,an importantcomponentof the Hittite empire.This wasto have seriousrepercussionsin NearEastern politics.Assyria,which hadbeen keptin checkby its neighborMitanni, wasnow freeto expandits territory,andthis expansioneventually broughtAssyriainto conflictwith the Hittitesnearthe end of the empireperiod(Singer1985).Hittite expansioninto Syriacoincidedwith a revivalof Egyptianinterestsin the samearea,leadingeventually,around 1275B.C.E., to the battleof Kadesh. Suppiluliumaalso turnedhis
. f
3|eS
- -o
S
'
-,#
4
x
#
.
,
>b
f
t
,
__"t'-'*' -
>,_:
zesict .
^
iC
SX
.-
ff
_ *
^
--
j
l
}w
fE
,
ali
4
attentionwest, towardthe landof Arzawa,which,in the MiddleHittite period,hadbecomestrongenoughto corresponddirectlywith the Egyptianpharaoh.The Hittite kingwas againableto subduethese neighboring landsandincorporatethem into the empire.However,when Suppiluliumadied,followedbyhis son,Arnuwanda,theirsuccessor,MursiliII, faceda revoltin the landsof Arzawa. The campaignsof this Mursiliare particularlywell knownbecauseof two differentseriesof annalsin which the youngkingdescribeshis campaignsandthe peopleshe conquered.Manyrulersfromthe surroundinglandsthoughtMursiliwas too youngto ruleandthereforetried
BiblicalArchaeologist7 Sune/September 1989
69
wasan activequeen. wife,Puduhepa, Hattusili's shebrought of a priestof Kizzuwatna, Daughter homeland. culturefromherHurro-Luwian Hurrian Thisblockmonument,madeupof individual stoneswith deitiescarvedin relief,is located at EflatunPlnar,a late Empirecult site at a springin westcentralAnatolia.Themonument,whichis about23 feetlong,has a typicallyHittitelayeredcompositionin whichthecentraldeitieshelpsupportthe wingedsun-disc,symbolicof Hittiteroyalty.
to detachthemselvestromthe Hitt1te Egypt,but continuedHittite control of the areaindicatesthat the victory orbit,but Mursiliprovedthem muchof his belongedto the Hittites.The other wrongby reconquering father'sempireandconsolidatingit noteworthyeventof Muwatalli's forfuturekings.Mursilicampaigned reignin the earlythirteenthcentury in otherareasas well. He repeatedly B.C.E. washis movingthe capitalto a city somewherein journeyednorthto subduethe Kaska, Tarhuntassa, southernAnatolia.This city has not andhe hadto makeone major expeditionto Syriato replacethe beendefinitelylocated,but EmmanuelLarochehas suggested viceroyat Karkamisandforcethe Kalesias a possiblesite Meydanc1k Syrianprovincesto recognizethe (Mellink1974:1111.Locatinga new new imperialdeputy. The reignof MursiliII'sson, capitalin southernAnatoliashifted Muwatalli,is especiallynoteworthy the empire'scenterof gravitytoward becauseof two majorevents.Oneis Syriaandthe troublesomeEgyptian frontier.The brotherof Muwatalli, the battleof Kadesh,around1275 between HattusiliIII,was left in chargeof the B.C.E., a directconfrontation the Egyptiansandthe Hittitesover northernportionof the kingdom andgiventhe statusof a lesserking. borderdisputesin Syro-Palestine (Murnane1985).UnderMuwatalli WhenMuwatallidied,his son UrhiTesubsucceededhim jasMursiliIII) the the Hittitesoutmaneuvered andsoon cameinto conflictwith his Egyptianarmyled by RamessesII, uncle.Havingretakenmuchof the who wasfortunateto escapewith northernareaforthe Hittites,inhis life. This didnot preventthe pharaohfromdescribingKadeshas a cludingthe cult city Nerik,Hattusili attempts of it in IIIrespondedto Urhi-Tesub's victoryin his representations
70
Biblical Archaeologist, Tune/September1989
to excludehim fromhis shareof the ruleby deposinghis nephewand usurpingthe throne.This incident gaveriseto one of the mostunusual documentsin the Hittitearchives, the Apologyof HattusiliIIIlCTH811. In it the kingtells his versionof the story,justifyinghis actionsbynoting the greatwrongsdoneto him by andthe specialpatronage Urhi-Tesub shownto him by the goddessIstar. HattusiliIII,rulingin the midthirteenthcenturyB.C.E., provedto be an excellentking.He inheriteda smoothlyoperatingempireandkept it thatway.Duringhis reignrelations with Egypt,strainedsince the battle at Kadesh,werenormalized.The treatythat wasdrawnup between these two greatpowersaround1259 B.C.E. iS uniquein the ancientNear East;it is extantin the languagesof bothparties.The Egyptianversion wasinscribedon the walls of a templeof Ramesses.The otherversion waswrittenin Hittite on a clay tabletthatwasdiscoveredveryearly in the excavationsat Hattusa. Hattusili'swife, Puduhepa,the daughterof a priestof Kizzuwatna (Cilicia),was an exceedinglyactive queen.Onhis wayhome fromhelping his brother,Muwatalli,at the battleof Kadesh,Hattusiliwas instructedby Istarto stopin KizzuwatnaandwedPuduhepa.Puduhepa broughtHurrianculturewith her homeland, fromherHurro-Luwian which,when she laterbecame queen,hada greatimpacton Hittite
A largeunfinishedstelafromthelate Empireperiodstill lies in the areawhereit wasfound,at FaslllarnearEfldtunPlnar in westcentralAnatolia.Visibleherearetheheadandfigure who wearsa conicalcapand whohashis of the Storm-God righthandraisedabovehis head.A copyof this stelais set up in thegardenof theMuseumof AnatolianCivilizationsin Ankara.
culture.Shealsoprovedto be a very vigorousmonarchin her ownright, in conductingroyalcorrespondence her ownnameandremainingactive in affairsof stateafterher husband died (Singer1987:415;Otten 1975). Withthe deathof HattusiliIII, his son Tudhaliya,the fourthkingof that name,took the throne.Ruling at the end of the thirteenthcentury enjoyedthe peace B.C.E., Tudhaliya won byhis fatherandtheirpredecessorsandis best knownforhis efforts towardreligiousreform.The Hittite religioustendencytowardan eclecticism in which everygod,no matter what its origin,is to be propitiated ceremoniesis with the appropriate exemplifiedbeautifullyin the cult of Tudhaliya.Thesetexts inventories arelists compiledby specialdeputies commissionedbythe kingto visit cult sites throughoutAnatoliaand makean inventoryof all the religious accoutrementsin the area; cultic equipment,personnel,and traditionalcult ceremoniesareall Tudhaliya listedas cultparaphernalia. IValso triedto makesurethat traditionallocal cults continuedto performthe requiredritualceremonies, andhe broughtsomelocal cults to the capitalas well. The potentialforconflictalong borderwas the Hittite-Assyrian finallyrealizedduringthis monarcks reign.A majorbattlewas foughtbetweenTudhaliyaIVandan Assyrian ruler,probablyTukulti-Ninurta (Singer1985).Tudhaliyaalso correspondedbothwith the Assyrian courtandwith the Egyptianpharaoh. sonssucceeded Twoof Tudhaliya's him on the throne.ArnuwandaIII ruledforonlyaboutfiveyears,andwe havelittle materialfromhis reign. His brother,SuppiluliumaII,is almostcertainlythe last king of the
Hittite Empire,althoughthe recent discoveryof a tombintendedforhim 1989)has castdoubt (Bayburtluoglu on this long-heldideabecauseif Suppiluliumawasburiedin a tomb theremust havebeenat leastone kingto followhim. In anycase,correspondencefromUgaritdatingto his reignindicatesthat disasterwas on the way.In the correspondence, the rulerof Ugarit,respondingto the pressureof invaders,appealsto the greatHittite kingforhelp.Apparently,however,the Hittitesneededhelp as well. The EgyptianpharaohMerneptahsent aidto the Hittites-grain to alleviatethe effectof faminenearthe endof the empire(Singer 1987:415-16). The actualend of the Hittite Empirecanonly be guessedat, for the obviousreasonthat no one was left to chroniclethe eventafterthe capitalwas takenaround1200B.C.E. (seeSinger1985and 1987forprob-
lems in datingthe fall of the empire). Withthe sackingof Hattusa,the centralizedHittitepolity cameto an endforever,as didthe Hittite cuneiformscribaltradition;no Hittite cuneiformtabletsthat post-datethe fall of Hattusahavebeendiscovered in eitherAnatoliaor Syria.The site waslateroccupiedby the Phrygians andlaterstill by the Byzantines. Afterthe fall of the empire,many cities in AnatoliaretainedtheirHittite characterbut eventuallydevelopeda distinctiveculturecharacterizedbya mixtureof Anatolian andSyrianelements. The Hittitesandthe Bible SeveraldifferentHebrewwordsor phrasesin the OldTestamentare usuallytranslatedas Hittite or Hittites3One is asonsof Heth,"which occursonly in Genesis.See Genesis 10:15fora listingof Hethas one of the sons of Canaan.The "daughters
1989 BiblicalArchaeologist,fune/September
71
-
of Heth,"translatedas "Hittite women"in the RevisedStandard Versionandthe New International Version,occursin Genesis27:46.In thatpassage,Rebekahvoicesfearof the localnon-Hebrews becauseshe doesnot wantJacobto takea foreign wife.Thusthe patriarchsperceived the Hittitesas earlyinhabitantsof Canaan,or,in the broadestsenseof the term,Canaanites. ThemorecommonHebrewword usedto denotethe Hittites,hittl, is alsobasedon the nameHeth.This formmaybe usedto designatethe ethnicityof an individual,forinstance,"Ephron the Hittite"in Genesis 23:10.Ephronfs appearance in Genesis23 alongwith manyexamples of the sons of Hethconfirms theiridentificationwith the Hittites. This word,hittl, is alsousedin lists of peopleslivingin the promised land.In modernversionsof the Old Testamentthe singularformis used in a genericsenseandusuallytranslatedin the plural,"theHittites."In this waythe Hittitesareincludedin what is consideredto be the standardlist of the sevenmajorpeoples of Palestine:the Hittites,the Girgashites,the Amorites,the Canaanites, the Perizzites,the Hivites,and the Jebusites-as,forexample,in Deuteronomy7:1.The one attested exampleof a pluralfeminineform occursin a list of the foreign(nonIsraelite)womenadmiredby Solomon jl Kings11:1),againindicating thatthe Hittiteswerea recognizable localethnicgroup. The fiveoccurrencesof the term Hittite in the masculinepluralform deservespecialmention.Unlike most otherformsof the word,which havea narrowlydefinedusage,the masculinepluralformis usedin widelyvaryingcontexts.In Joshua
72
2-
"kingsof the Hittites"refersto some of the rulerswho importedchariots andhorsesfromSolomon.Finally,in 2 Kings7:6the veryrumorof the kingsof the Hittitesandthe kings of Egyptis sufficientlyalarmingto causethe Syriansto flee while be-
s
;^ *X; e
ws
X
.
wiS,.sx -
-
*;
-
-
-
-
4w. v
A kingof theNeo-Hittitekingdomof Milid, locatedat Arslantepecloseto present-day Malatya,is depictedin this 10-foot-tall limestonestatuedatingfromtheeighthcentury B.C.E. andcurrently housedin theMuseumof AnatolianCivilizations,Ankara. Theking's wavyhairandcurledbeardareevidenceof anAssyrianinfluenceas arethepose,flll robe,andsandledfeet.Thekingholdsa scepterin his righthandandclutchesa cloak in his left. Sculpture in theround,as opposed toreliefsculpture, wasrarein Hittitetimesbut wascommonlyproduced bytheAssyrians.
1:4the phrase"landof the Hittites" is usedas partof God'sdescription of the landpromisedto Moses.The samephraseis usedin Judges1:26, which tells the storyof the man who betrayedBethelto the Israelites andescapedto the landof the Hittites. In 1 Kings10:29,andits parallel in 2 Chronicles1:17,the phrase
BiblicalArchaeologistZ lune/September 1989
.
sleglng
l
n
wamarla.
Referencesto the Hittitesin the patriarchalnarrativeindicatethat Abrahamencounteredthem as a settled peopleof Palestine.Indeed,the Hittiteswereincludedin another description,in Genesis 15:20,of the landpromisedto Abraham.The concernfelt by IsaacandRebekahabout the foreignwives theirsons might taketurnedout to be justifiedwhen EsaumarriedJudithandBasemath lGenesis26:34),two Hittitewomen. RebekahworriedthatJacobwould also choosea bridefromamongthe localnon-Hebrewinhabitantsof Canaan,includingthe Hittites. Whenthe Hebrewsreturned fromEgyptunderMosesandJoshua, they againencounteredthe Hittites, alongwith manyotherCanaanite peoples.WhenMoses'spiesreturned after40 daysandmadetheirreport at KadeshBarnea(Numbers13:29), they locatedthe Hittites,Jebusites, andAmoritesin the hill countryand othergroupson the coastor in the Negeb.Joshua11:3cites the same threepeoples,plus the Perizzites,as inhabitantsof the hill country.References to the Hittitesalso appearin God'scatalogingof the peoplesthe Israelitesmust fightin orderto conquerthe promisedland.In Deuteronomy20:16-18the Israelitesare toldthat they must utterlydestroy the Hittites tamongothers),indicating thatHittite territorywasin the heartof the regionthat the Israelites wereto takeover.Somekindof political organizationis indicatedby
periodandthe Karkamis (Carchemish) wasa majorindependentkingdomin theOldTestament greatestcenterof Neo-Hittitesculpture.It had a distinctivestyle thatinfluencedsurrounding cities.Theseorthostats,largestoneslabsdecoratedwithreliefcarvingandusedas architectural ornamentation, arefromKarkamisanddatefromtheninthcenturys.c.E.Thewarscenerelief shownherewas carvedon alternatingblack(basalt)and whitestones,averageheightabout 5l/2feet.Thebasaltstoneshaveapparentlyweatheredtheyearsbetterthanthe whitestones. in theMuseumof AnatolianCivilizations,Ankara. Theseorthostatsarecurrentlyhoused
the referenceto the kingsof the Hittites, Amorites,Canaanites,andso on in Joshua9:1-2. The patriarchsalso encountered the HittitesaroundHebron(Genesis 23)andBeer-sheba(Genesis26:24; 27:46),andmost of the evidencewe haverelatingto theirlocationat the time of the conquestis consistent with those locations.The exception to this is Joshua1:4,in which the areaaroundthe Euphratesis referred to as "thelandof the Hittites."This doesnot fit with the otherreferences to the Hittitesas one of the local peoplesof southernPalestine;it probablyrefersto the neo-Hittite principalitiesof northernSyriadating to this period. Fromthe conqueston the Hebrewsstruggledwith the problemof Canaaniteinfluence,partlybecause they didnot completelyeradicate the local inhabitantsof Palestine. Oneof the Canaanitepeopleswhom
the Israelitescontinuedto encounter in the periodof the judgeswerethe Hittites.Judges3:5-6 notethe failure of the Hebrewsto eradicatethe Hittites and,consequently,the resulting interminglingof the peoples, andthe includingintermarriage religious assimilationof "Canaanite" influences. ThoseHittiteswho survivedthe Israeliteconquestof the promised landcontinuedto interactwith the Hebrewsduringthe periodof the monarchy.Oneof KingDavid'scomradeswhile he wasbeingpursuedby SaulwasAhimelechthe Hittite, him whomDavidaskedto accompany into Saul'scampat night (1Samuel 26:61.AhimelecksHebrewnameindicatesthat he hadbeenintegrated into Hebrewsociety.Chapters11 and 12of 2 Samueltell the storyof Uriahthe Hittite,who livedin Jerusalem,servedin the Hebrewarmy, wasone of David'smightymen, and
hada Hebrewwife. Hittiteswereamongthe Canaanite peoplesruledbyKingSolomon. As mentionedpreviously,1 Kings 11:1-2mentionHittitewomenas some of the foreignwomenin Solomon'scourt.Solomonalso forced the Hittites,alongwith otherCanaanitepeopleswho hadsurvived the conquest,to workon his building projects(1Kings9:20-21and theirparallelin 2 Chronicles8:7-8). that referIt is understandable encesto the Hittitesof Solomon's time woulddescribethem as local Canaanitepeoplewho wereleft over fromthe pre-conquestdays,but I Kings10:29(andits parallelin 2 Chronicles1:171detailsa relationshipwith Solomonthat doesnot fit into this context.This passagedescribesSolomon'sexportationof horsesandchariotsto the kingsof the Hittitesandthe Arameans. TheseHittitescannotbe the same groupSolomonwasusingforforced labor.The pairingof Hittite andArameankingsindicatesthat these monarchsshouldbe locatedin the city-statesof northernSyria,states thatwereof Neo-Hittiteand/or In the years Arameanbackground. afterSolomon,duringthe periodof the dividedmonarchy,the reputation of the kingsof the Hittites coupledwith the kingsof the Egyptianshelpedout the northernkings, andthis also raisesthe questionof which Hittitesarebeingcited.During the Syriansiegeof Samariadescribedin 2 Kings7:6,the attackers fledtheircampwhen they heardthe soundof a greatarmythat they convincedthemselveswasmadeup of the kingsofthe Hittitesandthe EgyptianshiredbyIsrael.It is extremely unlikelythat the local Palestinian Hittiteswho hadearlierworkedas
Biblical Archaeologist, [une/September1989
73
ThisNeo-Hittitereliefof a "mixedbeing," a sphinxwith a lion andman'shead,is alsoon an orthostatfromKarkamisandalsodatesfromtheninthcenturyB.C.E. Thereliefis carvedon basaltin thedistinctiveKarkamisstyle.Noticethatthe tailhas a bird'shead.A little more than4 feet tall, thesculptureis housedin theMuseumof AnatolianCivilizations,Ankara. A modernthree-dimensional copysits at a trafficsignaloutsidethe trainstationthere.
forcedlaborunderSolomonwould nowbe a vital militaryforcein the sameregionas Israel;again,this mustbe a referenceto the kingsof Neo-Hittiteprincipalitiesin Syria. In the Exilicandpost-Exilic periodsthe Hebrewscontinuedto comeinto contactwith, or recall previouscontactwith, the Hittites in Palestine.Oneof Ezekiel'sprophecies refersto the ancestryof Jerusalem:ayourmotherwas a Hittite andyourfatheranAmorite"(Ezekiel 16:45;16:3similar).When,in the late sixth centuryB.C.E., the Hebrews returnedfromexile in Babylon,Ezra wasfacedwith the samecrisisof intermarriage thathadcausedproblems forIsaacandRebekahandfor Solomon.In Ezra9:1-3,he is horrifiedbyinformationthat the Hebrews havetakenwivesfromall the local tribesof Palestine,includingthe Hittites.This representsa serious breachof Israelitepurityfrom idolatry,no less gravea matterthan it was at the time of the conquest. The patriarchaldescriptionof the promisedlandas the landof the Canaanites,the Hittites,the Amorites,andso on is againrecalledin Nehemiah9:8. Referencesto the Hittitesin the OldTestament seemto referto twodistinct groups.Onegroup,describedas the descendantsof Canaanthrough the eponymousancestorHeth,were encounteredbyAbrahamaround Hebron.Becausethese sons of Heth werelivingin the heartof the land thathadbeenpromisedto the Israelites,Godcommandedthe Hebrews,upontheirreturnfromEgypt, to destroythe Hittitesutterly.That the Hittiteswerenot completely eradicatedbut continuedto inhabit southernPalestine,includingthe areaaroundJerusalem,canbe seen
74
in the referencesto them in the Hebrewarmy,as forcedlaborconscripts,andas possiblewivesforthe Hebrews-all the wayuntil the returnfromexile in Babylon.MostOld Testamentreferencesto the Hittites makesensewhen theyarepictured as a localCanaanitepeoplewho wereneverquiteexterminatedduring the Hebrewconquestof Canaan. Fivereferencesin the OldTestament,however,do not fit this picture (Gelb1962:613-14).The reference in Joshua1:4,forexample,which describesthe areaaroundthe Euphratesas beingHittite territory, cannotreferto the Hittitesof Hebron but ratherto the Neo-Hittitekingdomsof northernSyrialseeBoling andWright1982:122-23fora differentview).InJudges1:26,the referenceto the manwho, afterbetrayingBethel,goesto the "landof the Hittites"couldreferto either southernPalestineor northern
Biblical Archaeologist 7une/September1989
Syria,but in view of the use of the phraseeres hahittim ("land of the Hittites")-Joshua1:4beingthe only otheroccurrenceof this phrase-it is quitepossiblethat it, too, refersto the Neo-Hittitearea.RobertG. Boling (1975:59)has indirectlyimpliedthat he understandsthis phraseas referringto the areaof the AnatolianSyrianHittites.Also,references to the "kingsof the Hittites"who imported horsesandchariotsfromSolomon (1Kings10:29and2 Chronicles1:17) mustindicatea powerfulandwealthy groupof kings,not a local Canaanite peoplewho hadbeenenslavedby Solomon.The samecanbe saidfor "thekingsof the Hittites"whose reputationalonecausedthe Syrian armyto flee (2Kings7:6).Bycontrast,the Neo-Hittitekingdomsfit quitewell in termsof chronology andgeography; theywerein the sameareaas the Syriansandthus wereknownto them, andthe plural
Referellvesto tlle EIittitesill tlle ()1(1l8estvllllellt see111 t() refel t() tsso distillctnrolllS:()11eill I'vllestille,
lEe
tlll()tllel
Hurrians
ill
Allvlt()litl
and
t111
the
11()l'tll
S\rl'ivl.
Horites
The Hurrianswerea neighboring peoplewhoseculturegreatlyinfluenced thatof the Hittitesaftertheywereconqueredby Suppiluliuma I earlyin the Empireperiod.Probablyoriginatingfrom the mountainsof eastern Anatolia,the Hurriansin the mid-secondmillenniumB.C.E. formedthe state of Mitanniandbecamea majorpoweralongwith the Babylonians, Egyptians, andHittites.The Hurriansspreadout overa largepartof the ancientNear East,throughnorthernMesopotamiaand Syriaand south into Palestine (Bright1981:63). Evidencethat they migratedall the waythroughPalestine anddownintoEgyptmaybefoundin the occurrenceofHurriannamesamong those of the Hyksos,foreignrulersof Egyptduringthe secondmillennium (Hoffner1973:224-25). Whenthe HyksoswerefinallyexpelledfromEgyptin themiddleofthe secondmillennium,someoftheseHurrianssettledin Palestine (Hoffner1973:225). E. A. Speiser(1962: 664-66) identifiedthe Hurrianswith the Horites, Hivites,andJebusitesof the OldTestament.He temperedthis identification, however, byalludingbriefly (1962:665) to anindigenousgroup, locatedaround Seir,calledHorites.Thissituationis perhapsanalogousto confusionoverthe term Hittite for indigenousand foreigngroupswith similarnames.The identificationofHurrianswithHoritesandotherCanaanitepeopleshasbeen contestedby Rolandde Vaux(1967).H. A. Hoffner(1973:225) agreedwith Speiserthat the Jebusites,some of whom had identifiablyHurriannames, couldbeHurrian.Itis verylikelythatHurrianshadsettledin Palestinebefore the conquest,and,therefore,we wouldexpectthatthe Israelitesencountered themduringtheirconquestof the promisedland.Inthis periodthe Egyptian nameforPalestinewasHuru,presumably becausetherewasa sizablepopulation of Hurriansin the region(Bright1981:116;Speiser1962:664). R.K.Harrison(1983:245) followedSpeiser'ssuggestionthatJebusiteand Horitewerelocal termsforpeopleknownelsewhereas Hurrians,citingthe archaeological evidencefor Hurriansin Palestineduringthe fifteenthand fourteenthcenturiesB.C.E. K.A. Kitchen(1983:242) hasbeenmorecautious, preferring to keepthe Hurriansdistinctfromthe Hivitesuntil we havemore evidenceregarding theiridentity.EdwinYamauchi(1983:256), while noting de Vaux'sobjectionsto locatingthe Hurriansin mid-second-millennium Palestine,has acceptedevidenceof HurriannamesforJebusiterulersas an indicationthat they may indeedhave been Hurrians.Thus it is at least possiblethat Hurrianscan be foundin the Old Testamentas the Horites, Hivites,andJebusites.
betweenthe "sonsof Heth"of Palestine andthe "menof Hatti"of Anatolia andnorthernSyria(seeGelb 1962:614; Hoffner1973:213-14; Speiser1983: 169-705.The use of hitti to referto bothmayreflect nothingmorethanthe similarityof the namesHethandHatti (Hoffner 1973:2145.This doesnot implythat the two groupscalledHittitesin the OldTestamentmaynot be related ancestrallyfromsome periodantedatingourearliestrecordsor that the CanaaniteHittiteswerenever confusedwith the Hittitesof the Anatolianor northSyriankingdoms who mayhavemigratedinto Palestine andsettledthere.Aharon Kempinski(1979)has arguedconvincinglyforextensivepenetration of the Hittites into Palestineafter the fallof Hattusa,andcertainly thereis archaeologicalevidenceof Hittite culturalinfluencein Palestine duringthe LateBronzeAge (Shanks1973:234-35, plate63c; CallawayandCooley1971:15-195.For the periodcoveredby the OldTestament,however,the termsusually translatedas Hittitesreferredto two distinctgroupsof people.
Syriain the OldlPstamentPeriod The historyof northernSyria(and southernAnatolia)in the periodbetweentheHebrewconquestof Canaan andthe fallof the northernkingdom of Israelis basicallythat of the ArameanandNeo-Hittitekingdoms, sometimescalledthe Syro-Hittite "kings" fits verywell with the nature only fiveoccurrencesof the plural of these states,which werenot uniformhittim in the OldTestament. kingdoms.Assyriandocumentsdating to the firstmillenniumB.C.E. fiedinto one politybut consistedof This maynot be significant,but it referto northernSyriaas the landof severalsmallkingdoms. couldbe some indicationof a disHatti,reflectingtne continued tinctionmadein the text between It is noteworthythat these five referencesto the Hittites,which,on the Hittitesof Palestine,descendants presenceof smallHittite statesin the basisof context,shouldbe of Heth,andthe Hittitesof Anatolia the southernpartof the formerHitunderstoodas referringto the Neotite Empirein spiteof the collapseof andnorthSyria,the men of Hatti. the Hittitepolityin centralAnatolia. Weshoulddistinguish,then, Hittitesof northSyria,arealso the
BiblicalArchaeologistt/une/Septem ber 1989
75
Thecollapseof Hattusa signaledthe endof theHittiteEmpire, butmanycities retained theirHittitecharacter forcenturies. Althoughthe collapseof the capital at Hattusasignaledthe endof the HittiteEmpire,manycities throughout the empireretainedtheirHittite characterforcenturiesafterthe imperialstructurehadvanished.These Neo-Hittitecities showa cultural mix ofHittiteandArameanelements in a periodof increasinglystrong Arameanpresencein Syria.The annals of the Assyriankings,who eventuallyincorporated all of these cltles lnto t.zelremplre,provlc.eone of the availablesourcesforthe political historyof these states.The archaeologicalrecordfromthis period includesarchitecturalremainsand manyexamplesof Neo-Hittitesculpture.Localdocumentationconsists basicallyof inscriptionsin hieroglyphicLuwianandAramaic;there is no corpusof nonmonumental documentationanalogousto the Hittite archivesat Hattusa. As hasbeenmentioned,the city of Karkamis,locatedon the moderndaySyria-Turkey border,wasa provincialcapitalduringthe HittiteEmpire; afterthe empirefell it becamethe centerof an independentkingdom. Excavationsat the site haveuncovereda wonderfulseriesof orthostats, stoneslabscarvedin low reliefand usedto decoratepublicbuildings. Muchof this sculpture,which dates to the firstmillenniumB.C.E., iS on displayin the Museumof Anatolian Civilizationsin Ankara.The artof the surroundingstatesreflectsthe influenceof the Karkamisschool,a style that mayhaveindirectlyinfluencedthe Greeksvia the Phrygians. Oneofthemostspectacularof all the Neo-Hittitesites wasKaratepe. Becausethe orthostatshavebeenpreservedin situ, the modernvisitorcan walkthroughthe city andget a sense of whatit lookedlike in antiquity. .
76
.
.
.
.
.
3Biblicalpassagesusedin this article arefromthe RevisedStandard Versionor the New International Version.
Bibliography
Alklm, U. B. 1968 Anatolia I (Fromthe Beginningsto the End of the 2nd Millennium ThereliefsandlongbilingualinscripB.C.).Cleveland:WorldPublishing tion of kingAzitawandawrittenin Company. hieroglyphicLuwianandPhoenician Astour,M. illustratethe blendingof Hittiteand 1989 Hittite History and Absolute Chronology of the BronzeAge. Gothenburg: Phoeniciancultureat this site. PaulistromwsForlag. TheNeo-Hittitestateswerequite Balkan,K. definitelyheirsto Hittitecivilization, 1957 Letterof KingAnum-Hirbiof Mama to KingWarshamaof Kanish.Ankara: but theydevelopeda distinctiveculTurk TarihKurumuBasimevi. tureall theirownby synthesizing Bayburtluoglu,I. AnatolianandSyriantraditions.As 1989 The Most InterestingFindingof indicatedby referencesto them in Bogazkoyin 1988 Campaign:The the OldTestament,these principaliRemainsof a RoyalTomb(Interview with Dr. PeterNeve). Museum ties hadsome contactwith the kingdom(s)of the Hebrewsfurthersouth Beal, R. (Muze}1:59-61. in Palestine.Theyneverunifiedto 1983a Studies in Hittite History.tournal of createa polityon the scaleof the CuneiformStudies 35: 115-26. Hittite Empire,andthis fragmented 1983b The Hittites After the Empire'sFall. Biblical IllustratorFall:72-81. politicalsituationmadethemeasy 1986 The History of Kizzuwatnaand the targetsforAssyrianexpansiondurDate of the SunassuraTreaty.Oriening the earlyfirstmillenniumB.C.E. talia 55: 424-45. As eachstatewasabsorbedinto As- Beckman,G. of the syria,culturallyas well as politically, 1982 The Hittite Assembly.tournal American Oriental Society 102: it lost its distinctiveHittite-Aramean 435-42. character.Thus,forsouthernAna1986 Inheritanceand RoyalSuccession tolia andnorthernSyria,the period among the Hittites. Pp. 12-31 in immediatelyfollowingthe NeoKanissuwar:Studies in Honorof Hans Guterbock.Chicago:The Hittite stateswasone of Assyrian OrientalInstitute. domination,a dominationthatevenK. tuallyextendeddownto the northern Bittel, 1970 Hattusha. The Capitalof the Hittites. kingdomof Israel. New York:OxfordUniversity Press. Boling, R. G. 1975 ludges. Series:The Anchor Bible. Notes City, NY:Doubleday. lThisdate,andall datescitedin this Boling, R.Garden G., and Wright,G. E. article,arebasedon the low chronology 1982 loshua. Series:The Anchor Bible. datingsystem.Underthe middlechronGardenCity, NY:Doubleday. ologydatingsystemthe ColonyAge Bright,J. lastedfromaround1925to 1725B.C.E. 1981 A History of Israel, third edition. Philadelphia:WestminsterPress. Fora largerdiscussionof issuesrelated Callaway,J.A., and Cooley,R. E. to an absoluteHittitechronology, see 1971 A SalvageExcavationat Raddana,in RonaldL.Gorny'sarticlein this issue. Bireh.Bulletin of the American Also see, in this article,Gorny'slist of Schools of Oriental Research201: Hittiteandpre-Hittitekingsandtheir
reignsaccordingto bothdatingsystems. Gelb, I. J.9-19. 2Hittitologistsidentifyindividual 1962 Hittites. Pp. 612-15 in The InterHittitetextsbytheirnumberin the preter'sDictionary of the Bible, comprehensive (whencompiledlCataedited by G. A. Buttrick.New York: loguedes texteshittitesbyEmmanuel AbingdonPress. Gurney,O. R. Laroche(Paris:EditionsKlincksieck, 1973a Anatoliac. 1750-1600B.C.Pp.228-55 19711, whichis abbreviated CTH.
Biblical Archaeologist, fune/September1989
in volume 2, part 1 of The Cambridge Ancient History, third edition,
Kempinski, A. 1979 Hittites in the Bible: What Does edited by I. E. S. Edwardsand others. Archaeology Say? Biblical ArchaeCambridge:CambridgeUniversity ology Review 5.4: 21-45. Kitchen, K. A. Press. 1973b Anatoliac. 1600-1380B.C.Pp.659-85 1983 Hivites. P. 242 in The International Dictionary of Biblical Archaeology, in volume 2, part 1 of The Cambridge Ancient History, third edition, edited by E. M. Blaicklock and R. K. edited by I. E. S. Edwardsand others. Harrision. Grand Rapids, MI: Regina Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Reference Library. Press. Kosak, S. 1977 Some Aspects of Hittite Religion. 1986 The Gospel of Iron. Pp. 125-35 in Series:The SchweichLectures 1976. Kaniss7lwar, Studies in Honor of Hans Guterbock. Chicago: The Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press. 1981 The Hittites. New York:Penguin Oriental Institute. Books. Mellink, M. 1974 Archaeology in Asia Minor. AmeriGuterbock,H. G. 1957 Towarda Definition of the Term can lournal of Archaeology: 78: Hittite. Oriens 10:233-39. 105-30. 1958 Kanesand Nesa, TwoFormsof One Metzger, H. 1969 Anatolia II. First millennium B.C. to AnatolianName. Eretz Israel 5:46-50. 1983 Hittite Historiography:A Survey. the End of the Roman Period. London: Barrie and Jenkins. Pp.21-35 in History, Historiography, Murnane, W. and Interpretation, edited by 1985 The Road to Kadesh. Chicago: The H. Tadmorand M. Weinfeld. Jerusalem:MagnesPress. Oriental Institute. Otten, H. Harrison,R. K. 1975 PuduXepa: Eine hethitische Konigin 1983 Hurrians.P. 245 in The Interin ihren Textzeugnissen. Mainz: national Dictionary of Biblical Akademie de Wissenschaften und Archaeology, edited by E. M. Blaickder Literatur. lock andR.K.Harrison.GrandRapids, Shanks, H. MI:ReginaReferenceLibrary. 1973 An Incised Handle from Hazor Hawkins, J.D. 1982 The Neo-Hittite States in Syriaand Depicting a Syro-Hittite Deity. Israel Anatolia."Pp.372-441 in volume 3, Exploration lournal 23: 234-35. Singer, I. part 1 of The Cambridge Ancient 1977 A Hittite Hieroglyphic Seal ImpresHistory, second edition, edited by I. E. S. Edwardsand others. Camsion from Tel Aphek. Tel Aviv 4: bridge:CambridgeUniversity Press. 178-90. 1988 Kuzi-Tesuband the 'GreatKings'of 1985 The Battle of Nihriya and the End of Karkamis.Anatolian Studies 38: the Hittite Empire. Zeitschrift ffir 99-108. Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Hoffner,H. A. Archaologie 75: 100-23. 1969 Some Contributionsof Hittitology 1987 Dating the End of the Hittite Empire. to Old TestamentStudy.Tyndale Hethitica 8: 413-21. Speiser, E. A. Bulletin 20: 27-55. 1973 The Hittites and Hurrians.Pp. 1962 Hurrians. Pp. 664-66 in The Inter197-228 in Peoples of Old Testament preter's Dictionary of the Bible, Times, edited by D. J.Wiseman. edited by G. A. Buttrick. New York: London:OxfordUniversity Press. Abingdon. 1983 Genesis. Series: The Anchor Bible. 1980 Histories and Historiansof the Ancient Near East:The Hittites. OrienGarden City, NY: Doubleday. talia 49: 283-332. Surenhagen, D. Houwink, ten Cate, P. 1986 Ein Konigssiegel aus Kargamis. 1970 The Records of the Early Hittite Mitteilungen der Deutschen OrientEmpire (c. 1450-1380 B.C.). Istanbul: gesellschaft 118: 183-90. NederlandsHistorisch-Archaeologisch de Vaux, R. Instituut. 1967 Les Hurrites de ltistoire et les 1974 The Earlyand LatePhases of UrhiHorites de la Bible. Revue Biblique Tesub'sCareer.Pp. 123-50 in Anato74: 481-503. lian Studies Presented to Hans Yamauchi, E. Gustav Guterbock on the Occasion 1983 Jebusites. Pp. 256-57 in The Interof his 65th Birthday, edited by national Dictionary of Biblical K. Bittel and others. Istanbul:NederArchaeology, edited by E. M. Blaicklands Historisch-Archaeologisch lock and R. K. Harrison. Grand Rapids, Instituut. MI: Regina Reference Library.
ANATOLIA FromPrehistoricTimes to the Comirlg of Christiarlity
ANCIENT TURKEY A Traveller's Historyof Anatolia SETONLLOYD "Verywellwrittenandveryreadable, presentedwiththe masteryandwisdom of longandintimateexperience." Crawford H. Greenewalt, Jr.
$25.00atbookst(res (r ordert(ll-free 1-800-822-6657. Visa& MasterCard only.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIAPRESS Berkeley94720
Statementof Ownership, Management,and Circulation October1, 1989 Title: Biblical Archaeologist. Publication Number 0006-0895. Frequency:Quarterly.Four issues published annually.Subscriptionprice: $30.00 institutions, $19.95 individuals.Locationof office of publication:The JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,701W. 40th Street, Baltimore,MD 21211.Headquartersof publishers: Same. Publisher: The Johns Hopkins UniversityPress,701 W.40th Street,Baltimore,MD 21211.Editor:Eric M. Meyers,ASOR Publications Office, P.O.Box H. M., Duke Station, Durham, NC 27706. Owner:The American Schools of Oriental Research,711 W.40th Street, Suite 354, Baltimore, MD 21211. The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organizationandthe exemptstatus for federalincome tax purposeshavenot changedduring the preceding 12 months. The averagenumber of copies of each issue duringpreceding12months are: (A1Total number of copies printed:7,437; (B1Paid circulation,mail subscriptions:4,929; (C1Totalpaid circulation:4,929; (D1Freedistribution:98; IE1Total distribution:5,027;(F1Copiesnot distributed:2,410; (G1Total:7,437.The actualnumberof copiesof single issue published nearest to filing date are: (A1Total numberof copies printed:7,700;(B1Paidcirculation, mail subscriptions:4,892; IC1Totalpaidcirculation: 4,892;ID1Freedistribution:90;IE1Totaldistribution: 4,982; IF1Copies not distributed:2,718; IG1Total: 7,700. Icertifythat the statementsmadebyme above arecorrectandcomplete.MarieR.Hansen,Assistant Directorand JournalsManager.
BiblicalArchaeologist,fune/September 1989
77
.
'- \ ........ XCXZalp_ lvur .RKalesl
j
K.lnvs s
...
IKut't.p.[ \ .
-
-
$
-
\
Environment, Archaeolo and Hi W
.v
.-
A:la.l Heyilk
AWnk;lra X )
'
'
.Izmlr
K;lrahcI
.
*
_ *
'
Eflitlln Plnar
|
Fir.lktin
.
- -
a
{}Aoga koyl
S
,
ti.lttllSs
-l
. M.ls.lt
. YazllIk.ls.
ACNmho k
Aliar
* X
* K.lyscr @
'
S
-
-
a' i
,^
> ' lf
*
* Kar.lhoyllk
;
*
1 1* Fa;lllar
1 riz *
,,Kar.lt:{nc
MAldt
(,.atal F30xilk /\/<.. >> > \ Ta>\ 4 :'A! \ I S;lmt,
Kark.llllis
|
wS
a
>\ .
w
r
*-
\\!,l9S.lk.s,] 11i '
Cr
\;I
{)\
\\\'X \ I
. Ug.lrit i
*/K.l.lt
sh
Bull)\tloll
!
78
_
Biblical Archaeologist} tune/September 1989
story in Hittite Anatolia by Anatolian
Archaeology
Ronald
L.
Gorny
A
Modern Turkeywas referredto by severalnamesin antiquity.The termAsia MinorcomesfromGreekandwasprobablyfirstusedin the fifthcenturyC.E. Use of thewordAsiamayultimatelygobackto Assuwa, the Hittitedesignationfor a partof thewestempeninsula.ThetermAnatoliais alsoderivedfromGreekasa referenceto theEast.Itis,however,a ratherlatetoponyn,probablyfirstusedbyaByzantinewriterin thetenthcenturyC.E. Bothtermsarenowusedasrathergeneralappellationsforthe peninsulaoccupiedby the modernnationof Turkey,with Anatolia beingin moregeneraluse becauseof its preservation in the TurkishformAnadolu. The historyof the Anatolianpeninsulahas been long andcolorful.Overthe centuriesthe landhasbeenhometo Hittites,Phrygians, Persians,Greeks,Romans, andTurks,to mentiononly a few.Thesepeoplesleft indeliblemarkson the faceof the peninsula,the meaningsof whichareonly nowbeginningto be fully realized. Althoughthe literaturehaslongsinceprovideda skeletaloutlineof the region'shistoricaldevelopment, the archaeological processoffleshingout this outlinewith intangibleevidenceis still in its infancy.Thearchaeology of Anatoliais, in fact,a stilldeveloping discipline,butits bloodlinesrundeep.As the offspringof twoprestigious progenitors-biblicalandclassicalstudies-it canclaiman illustriouslineage. TheEasternoriginsof Anatolianarchaeology canbefoundin the ancientstudy of the BibleIcompareMellink 1966b:113-15;Ramsay1907, 1972;Ceram1956: 22-45}.Becausethe geographical settingof Asia Minorformedthe backdropfor muchof the New Testament,earlybiblicalscholarsdevelopeda keeninterestin it, travelingacrossthelandanddescribingit in detail.Modernarchaeologists continue todrawinsightandinspirationfromtheseearlyexplorations. IntheWest,Anatolian archaeologywasgroundedin a longstandinginterestin classicalstudiesIMellink 1966b:111-13},a disciplinerootednot only in the literatureof nativewriters,such astheGreekhistorianThucydides, butalsoin thespectacular ruinsof classicalcities scatteredacrossAsiaMinor.Fromthis forumcameattemptsto vindicateHomeric traditionandHeinrichSchliemann's 11875,1884}ultimatediscoveryof Troy. Inviewofthisheritage,it is notsurprisingthatAnatoliawasinitiallyviewedas peripheralto biblicalandclassicalstudiesandlongremainedsubservientto both. Theearlyyearswerefocusedon the acquisitionof museumpiecesfromthe region's richsupplyof classicalmonuments.As suchAnatolianstudiesdidlittle morethan help illuminatethe historicaleventsof its "foundational" traditions.Eventhough the biblicalandclassicaltraditionshad intermingledat Anatoliansites such as Ephesus,Sardis,and PergamonIYamauchi1980X,these contactswere generally viewedin termsof secularGreektraditionsconfrontingsacralBibletraditions,or vice versa.Anatoliaremainedin the background. Therewaslittle discussionof the nativecultureintowhichthe two traditionshadbeenimplanted. The subsequentdevelopmentof Anatolianarchaeologywas influencedby severaloccurrences. OnewasthepreviouslymentioneddiscoverybySchliemannof the stratifiedremainsof Troy.Furtherworkat the site by W.Dorpfeld11902}and C. W.Blegen11963} revealedTroyto bethe centerof a nativeAnatolianculture.This was followedby the first stratigraphic excavationsat Ali,sarin centralAnatolia. Therewasalsoexcavationworkin thepreclassicallandsof Lycia,Lydia,andPhrygia largelyundertaken byarchaeologists whosefascinationstemmedfroma background in classicalstudiesIMellink1966b:112-13}.Morerecently,southeastAnatoliahas beenopenedforintensiveworkastheresultofsalvageoperations alongtheEuphrates River.Thishasencouraged scholarswitha Syro-Mesopotamian background to lend Continued on page 80
natoliais a largegeographical unit, muchof which is archaeologically unknown.1The focusof this articleis the centralplateau,the portionof Anatoliamostly enclosed by,or in proximityto, the regioWs primaryriver,the K1zllIrmak(River Halys}.Withinthe boundsof this catchmentareaarethe remainsof severalancientcities thatplayedkey rolesin the developmentof Hittite Anatolia. Kanes(modern-day Kultepe}2 wasthe centerof an Assyriantrade networkthat tappedinto the resourcesof the plateauat the beginningof the secondmillenniumB.C.E. Hattusa(modern-day Bogazkoy/ Bogazkale}3 wasthe capitalof the powerfulHittite Empireuntil it fell around1200B.C.E. In addition,the moundat Acemhoyuk,which lies nearthe southernshoreof the great SaltLake,is thoughtby manyto be the site of the importantcity of Purushanda(compareOzguvc 1966: 29-30; KempinskiandKosak1982: 99-100).Althoughothercities such as Hurma,Zalpa,andWahsusana alsoplayedimportantrolesduring this period,Kanes,Hattusa,and Acemhoyukseem to best epitomize the urbansettingof centralAnatolia at the beginningof the second millennium. Anatoliahas alwaysbeena land dominatedbyvillagesandpeasants (Tenney1938:628),an agrarianand pastoralsocietyin which the basic relationshipis the one between humanbeingsandthe land.This theme is pervasivein the warpand woofof Hittite culture,touching everysphereof life. This subsistence patternwasfraughtwith difficulties, however,as the plateauwas subject
BiblicalArchaeologist,fune/September 1989
79
Byits verynatureAnatolian archaeology should focuson villagesandfarmsteads thathavealways represented themosttypicalformof settlement. to the vicissitudesof a fickleenvironment(Unal1977).Iftheywere to surviveandprosper,peasants,pastoralists,andprinceshadto acknowledgethe primacyof the landand come to gripswith its environmental framework. Althoughthe nomenclatureof Anatolianarchaeologyis still problematic(seeaccompanying sidebar), it is not difficultto identifya common threadwoveninto its historical fabric.Byits verynatureAnatolian archaeologyshouldfocuson the villagesandsmallfarmsteadsthathave alwaysrepresentedthe most typical formof settlementin Anatolia.The peasantswho inhabitedthese settlementshavelongformedthe backboneof civilizationon the plateau. Unfortunately, only a smallnumber of villageshavebeenexcavated,and the few attemptsthathavebeen madeto analyzevillagelife in ancient Anatoliahavebeenbasedon a combinationof speculation,modern analogies,andwhatlittle canbe gleanedfromtextualsources(see, forinstance,Macqueen1986:74-75, 111-115;Archi 1973).This forces archaeologiststo relyon evidence fromthe excavationsat majorcities as a meansof understanding daily life in HittiteAnatolia.Unfortunately, such excavationstendto provide scholarswith an undeniablyurban slant (compareAdams1984:81, 113). Althoughthereareno reliable studiesof the demographicsituation that existedduringthe Middleand LateBronzeages,it appearsthat,beginningwith EarlyBronzeIII,there was a drasticdeclinein the number of urbansettlementson the plateau. Settlementsthat survived,however, experienceda concurrentincreasein size lMellaart1971:406-101.This doesnot meanthatthe city wasan 80
their exFuerti!sc to the field, and this has begun to illuminatethe borderlandx betweellAnatoliaandSyria.Onediscovery,however,hashadthe greate;timpactof all. This is the discoveryin centralTurkeyof Hattusa,the Hittitecapital. Thedi;coveryandcontinuedexcavationof Hattusaprovedto be a landmarkin the archaeology of the ancientNearEast.Locate(ion the centralplateauat the site of mo(lern-day Bogazk(\y/Bogazkale, Hattusawasa monumentalcity.Evidenceof its formcrglorycanstill be e;ecnin the vestigesof the materialculturerecovered from itxruins.Cuneiformrecordsfoundat the ;ite provideda literarytouchstoneagainst which discoveriesin otherareaxcoul(lbe measured.They documenteda native Ansltolian culturethathadonccbeena worldpower,effectivelyproviding Anatolian archacc)logy with a centralfocus.Moreimportant,the (liscoveryof this important city 1e(1 to thcactiveinvolvement of Turkisharchaeologists whoadoptedthe Hittites with a sense of nationalprideand whose leadcrshiphelpedfashionAnatolian Studiesintoanindepcndcnt fieldof research.The(iiscoveryof Hattusamust,therefore,1e coneii(lered the mo;t criticalclcment in the emancipationof Anatolian archaeologyfromits earlyidentificationwith the biblicalandclassicaltraditions. This left it freeto developan identityof its own. The discoveryof the Hittites,however,led to new problcms.Oneof the most troubling(iifficultiesconcernsthe nomenclatureusedto definethediscipline.The discoveryof Hattusacreateda tendencyto pinpointHittitestudiesas the central focusof AnatoliaIlhistoryandarchaeology, imF)lying a kindof Hittitearchaeology. Thisis a criticalissuebecausethecontemporary definitionof Anatolianarchaeolc)gy has I ecome intertwinedwith the problematicunderstanding of the termHittite9. Thisproblemhasplaguedbothphilologistsandarchaeologists sincethediscipline's inception(Guterbock1')z7:233-39;Mellink1')t(r:2-tS; Hoffner1973:197-200). Evenafterdecadesofresearchanddiscussion,philologists(Steiner1')811 andarchaeologistsIMellaartl')XI)aresitilltryingto cometo griFus with this question The emphasisOI1 Hittite Anatolistends to obscurcthe fact that Anatolian archaeolc)gy transcendsthe boundsof boththe Hittitecapitalandits empire.It is becomingclearthat a criticaltask forfutureAnatolianscholarswill be to define moreaccuratelythe roleof Hittiteurchueology withinthe framework of theoverall disciF)line. Bywhatcriteriado we (leei(leto classifysomethingas Hittite' Whereis the dividingline betweenHittiteandAnatolian?This problemis not unlikethat whichfa(:esthoseattemptingto definethe roleof biblicalarchaeologywithin the contextof Syro-Palestillian archaeology. Manyof thecautionsthathavebeenvoiced in this regardareworthrepeating(Toombs1982:89-91;Dever1982:103 07). LikeanynewdisciplineAnatolianarchaeology hassufferedthrougha periodof growingpains.Methodologically the disciplineis still in a processof maturation. Greatstrideshavebeenmade,however,andAnatolianarchaeologyhas undergone substantialchangessince its inception.Recentyearshavewitnesseda changing perceptionwithintheranksofarchaeology asa whole(Dever19X71 thatis beginning to filterdownthroughthe ranksof Anatolianarchaeologistsas well (Bittel1980: 27(}. Basicto this changeis the understanding thatindividualsitesaremoreappropriatelyunderstoodin the contextof complexsocietiesthat emergedunderthe influenceofanintricatesetofinternalandexternalforces(compare Schneider1977; Kohl197S,1979).This realizationhas led also to changesin the excavator's intentions,the theoryandmethodologyof excavation,the managementof data,andthe synthesisof all aspcctsof the datainto well-roundedpublishedinterpretations. Suchchanges,however,havenot occurredacrossthe board.Theyareacceptedin varyingdegreesbyindividualinstitutionsor excavators. This limitedacceptanceis reflectedin the lackof a clearlydefinedmethodologyforworkin Anatolia.
Biblical Archaeologist, Tune/September1989
anomalyduringthis period,but it doesleadus to believethat urban ruinspresentneithera comprehenslve nora necessarly accurateplCtureof dailylife on the plateau. Characteristically, the two cities fromwhich we possesssubstantial data,KanesandHattusa,arenotable fortheircosmopolitanandsyncretistic natures.Kanesbuilt an internationalreputationas an important terminalof long-distancetrade.Hattusa,on the otherhand,developed its uniquecharacterin a dualroleas the capitalof a far-flungempireand the centerof an ever-growing cult. The characterof these cities, however,wasprobablyatypicalof what wasto be foundthroughoutthe larger partof Anatolia.The realAnatolia wasto be foundin villagesandsmaller landholdingsscatteredthroughIn theearlyyears,interestin Anatoliawasfocusedon theacquistionof museumpieces out numerousvalleysthat characfromtheregion'srichsupplyof classicalmonumentsandnot on thenativeculture.The terizedthe Anatolianlandscape. subsequentdevelopment of Anatolianarchaeologywasinfluencedbyseveraloccurrences, oneof thembeingHeinrichSchliemann's discoveryin thelatenineteenthcenturyof the The ancientAnatolianinhabistratifiedremainsof Troy. Furtherworkat thesite showed7ioyto be thecenterof a native tants whomwe callthe Hittiteswere, Anatolianculture.Picturedhereis a rampleadingto thegatewayentranceto the 7FoyII aboveall else, a pastoralpeople, settlementdatingto the EarlyBronzeAge.Photoby RonaldL.Gorny. peasantsandagriculturalists who depended on a positive interaction Perhapsthegreatestchangein recentarchaeological methodandtheoryin Anatolianarchaeology is the tendencyto usea morescience-oriented, interdisciplinary with the land(compareBeckman 1988;Hoffner1974;von den Driesch approach(Bittel1980:276l.Theunderlyingmotivationforsuchanapproachis the and Boessneck1981;Klengel1986). realizationthatanexcavationis capableof revealingmorethanfragmented historiTheplateau'senvironmentalframecal accountsandceramicsequences.It should,in fact,relateas nearlyas possible workhada greatdealto do with how the dynamicrelationshipbetweenthe inhabitantsof a site andthe worldaround them.Thisamountsto no less thanan understanding of humanbehaviorandhow these remarkablepeoplesustained culturalprocessestakeplace.A finalanalysisof this relationshipmustincludethe themselves,in cities as well as integrationof datainto the archaeological interpretation, which in the pastended villages,a factof which we are upin unincorporated addendaandappendices.Ofparticularnotehereis the ability constantlyremindedin boththe arto discernthe roleof theenvironmentin determiningthe natureof civilizationand chaeologicalandliteraryrecords. culture.A premeditated determination to identifysuchelementsandincludethem Unfortunately, archaeologists, arin the synthesisallowsthe archaeologist to prepareexcavationstrategiescapableof thropologists, and historians have revealingunderlying,oftenintangiblerelationshipsthatarenotreadilyapparentin only recentlybegunto seriously the grossmaterialremains.In practicaltermsthis methodologyoften calls fora examinethe roleof environmental moreproblem-oriented approach especiallydesignedto gainaccessto specificdata researchwithin the frameworkof thatwill maketheserelationships discernible.Suchresearchin Anatoliais relatively recent,andtheresultsof suchworkareonlybeginningtoappear(compare Anatolianarchaeology(Angel1972; Marfoe 1979,1987;Zimanskyl9SS5). It is hopedthatin the futuresuchresearchwill prove Deighton1982;Archi1973;Zimanto be the ruleratherthanthe exception. sky 1985;Adams1981;Weiss1982; NeumannandParpola1987). .
.
BiblicalArchaeologist} tune/September 1989
.
81
to the It has oftenbeensuggestedthat theHittitesmay be tracedbackarchaeologically tombsat AlacaHoyuk,suchas therectangular peoplewhofashionedthe third-millennium shafttombsshownhere,whichdateto theEarlyBronzeIII.Servingas finalrestingplacesfor severalgenerationsof the city'sroyalhouse,thesetombscontainednumerouspreciousmetal gravegoods.PhotobyRonaldL.Gorny.
The Proto-HittitePeriod It hasoftenbeensuggestedthatthe originof the Hittitesmaybe traced to the people backarchaeologically who fashionedthe tombsof Alaca 1954:212-14; Hoyuk(Frankfort Gimbutas1963: 822-23; but compareBurneyandLang1972:49-50j Mellink1956:39-58). Linguistically, peoples the Hittite-spealring however, aregenerallylinkedwith the movepeoplesinto mentof Indo-European Anatolia,which is thoughtto have occurredduringthe secondhalfof the thirdmillenniumB.C.E. (Burney andLang1972: 86-89; Gimbutas 1963;Winn1974;Yakar1976,1981; Mellaart1981,compareSteiner, 1981).The actualdetailsof human movementsduringthis periodremainextremelyunclear,andthe lackof dataallowsforwidelydiffering opinions.Thatvariousethnic groupssuchas Hattians,Nesites,4 andHurriansareapparentlysubsumedunderthe moderndesignation Hittiteonly confusesthe situation. Whereasthe Hatticpeoplesof the north,to which the Alacaculture mustbelong,showedstrongconnections with the east,the Nesites are nowbelievedto havebeenassociated migrations with the Indo-European that camefromthe west (compare Steiner19811.Thusit is quiteposatsiblethatthe archaeologically part testedHittitesof the northern of the plateaumaynot be the ethnic equivalentof the originallinguisticallyattested,Hittite-speaking peopleswho migratedfurthersouth (Steiner1981).Thereforeourcurrent designationof Hittite shouldbe understoodto representan artificial categorizationof the peopleswho livedunderthe politicalbannerof Hattusa.All that canbe saidabout the originsof the Hittitesis that
82
they lie hidden,fornow,within the fabricof late Anatolianprehistory. Hittitecultureevidentlyevolved slowlyandin relativeisolationuntil its developmentwasspurredbythe arrivalof the OldAssyriantrade merchantsat the beginningof the secondmillenniumB.C.E. (Mellink 1966b:1211.Theseforeignmerchants establisheda widespreadnetworkof tradingcommunitiesin centralAnatolia.This networkwasmadeup of mercantilecentersknownaskarums andwabartumsthatwereestablished as suburbsof alreadyexistingsettlements tOrlin1970:25-29; Larsen 1976:230-41).The OldAssyrian merchantschoseKanesas the hub of theiractivitiesin Anatolia.The peripheralportionof the network consistedof outlyingsettlements withinwhich the Assyriansestablishedtradecentersthat weresubjectto the Assyriankarumat Kanes ;Larsen1976:277-282).Kanesas-
Biblical Archaeologist, Tune/Septemberl 989
sumeda positionof leadershipin the OldAssyriantradenetworkand, as such,possiblyprovidedan economicprototypeforthe political centralizationof powerin Hittite Anatolia.Forthis reasonit assumes a criticalrole in ourunderstanding of stateformationin earlyHittite Anatolia. It maybe suggested,therefore, thatthe Hittiteprocessof political centralizationdrewinspiration from,andoccurredpartlyin responseto, the emergenceof Kanesas the centralfocusof the OldAssyrian tradenetwork.This processbegan an introductoryphaseof widespread integrationof localAnatolianpoli. structure tzes1ntoa suprareg1ona. tOrlin1970:58, 171,183).This situation is not unlikethat foundin ethnographicallyandhistoricallydocumentedexamplessuggestingthat underlike conditionssimilarresponseswill occurin a wide variety .
.
.
Schematicmodelof the OldAssyriantradenetworkthat operatedduringthe ColonyAgein the earlysecondmillennium centers,knownas B.C.E. Thisnetworkwasmadeupof mercantile karums,thatwereestablishedas suburbsof alreadyexisting settlements.Basedin Assur,the OldAssyrianmerchantschose Kanesas thehubof theiractivitiesin Anatolia.Modeladapted fromLarsen(1987).
delineatethe ethnoculturalzones of Anatoliain the secondmillennium fromSinger's B.C.E. Extrapolating model,it becomesapparentthat Kaneswassituatedat the intersection of these zones,which placedit on the cuttingedge,if you will, of a vigorousethnoculturalexchange takingplacebetweenthese zones. Havingthis kindof activityfunnel throughthe gatesof the city must havemadeKanesespeciallyinfluenits geographic tial. Furthermore, positionon the northernterminus of severalpassesthroughthe Taurus Mountains(Garelli1963:96-100; Orlin 1970:39-43) allowedKanesto dominatethe lines of communication andexchangebetweenthose passes.As suchit wasthe idealcenter fromwhich to controlthe redistributionof tradecommodities.This fortuitousset of circumstancesprobablyhelpsexplainwhyKanesultiof cultures(GallagherandRobinson regionalstateshadconflictsthat 1953;Robinson1976;Smith 1976). couldbe resolvedonlyby imposing matelybecamethe focalpointof the tradebetweenAnatoliaandAssyria. Inmorepracticalterms,cenone city'sauthorityoveranother. tralizationof Assyrianeconomic The factthat the kingof Purushanda As the preeminentmarketplaceof activityin Anatoliaallowedforthe seems to havebeencalledthe "great Anatolia,Kanesbecamethe gateway orderlyexploitationof resourceson king"(seeLarsen1976:268-69, note throughwhich the hinterlandof the plateau.The advantagesand 56)suggeststhat the processof cen- Anatoliacouldbe reachedfromthe plainsof northernMesopotamia benefitsinherentin the positionof tralizationwaswell underwayby 1971;Hirth 1978;com(Burghardt Kanesmust havebecomeobvious the end of the OldAssyrianperiod pareSmith 1976:319, 336). veryquicklyto manywithin the hadachieved andthatPurushanda Gatewaycommunitiesareassocommunityof nativeAnatolian an earlyadvantagein the drivefor ciatedwith the formationofdendriterulers.Whilethese rulerswouldhave hegemony.Perhapsit wasthe role like marlretnetworksthat developin wantedno doubtto emulatethe Kanesplayedwithin the OldAsresponseto the demandsof longeconomicsuccessof the Assyrians, syriannetworkthathelpedoffset theywouldhavehadto overcomethe Purushanda's pre- distancetradeor the settlementof initial advantage, disparatecharacterof the Anatolian paringthe wayforthe far-reaching sparselypopulatedareas.A gateway communitymightdevelopalong city-states,eachof whichwaslimited conquestsof the earlyAnatolian importantnaturalroutesof travel to a regionthat probablyextended king,Anitta. somewherebetween30 to 60 miles The Roleof Kanes.Oneexplanation andcommunicationandat the intersectionof passagepointsbetween fromthe city itself andincludedboth forthe initial economicprimacyof the city anda limitedhinterland.An Kanesin the OldAssyriantradesys- distinctnaturalor culturalzones 1971:270, 272-73; Hirth (Burghardt obviousremedyforthis political tem maylie in two aspectsof its wouldhavebeenthe fragmentation strategicsituation.On the one hand, 1978:37; compareSmith 1976:319, concentrationof powerinsidecenas ItamarSingerhas indicated(1981: 336). An intersectioncoulddevelop betweenzonesof agriculture,natural tralAnatoliaitself. Inevitablythese 119-34),it mightbe possibleto
Biblical Archaeologist, [une/September 1989
83
Kanesultimately becamethe focalpointof andAssyria,the thetradebetweenAnatolia of Anatolia. preeminent marketplace resources,andpastoralism;in the marginalareasthat act as borders betweenregionsof densepopulation; at the interfaceof zoneswith differing technologies;or at the pointof contactbetweenareaswith different sociopoliticalorganizations.Gatewaycommunitiesarehierarchically organizedwith all subsidiarymarket This9-inchdagger,orspearhead,inscribedwith "thepalaceofAnittatheking"wasfoundin thecity districtof the ancientsite of Kanes.ThedaggercouldindicatethatAnitta,a kingof activitydirectedtowardthe gateway Kussara, actuallyruledoverKanesduringthe ColonyAgeor,if destructionof thepalaceis community(Johnson1970;Burghardt attributedto him, thatthedaggerwaslost there.Notethattheoriginaltwoholesthrough 1971:284),which is linearlylinked whichtheheadwasattachedto the shaftwerefilledin andremadefurtherdown.Photo with the far-removed coreareafrom courtesyof TahsinOzguc^. wherethe initial economicimpulse periodis unclear.On the one hand, centeranda patternof previousreoriginated(Hirth1978:38-39; gionaldominance. textualevidencesuggeststhat,beSmith 1976:319).Theirprimary The questionthen arisesas to causeof its strategiclocationwithin functionis to facilitatethe flowof what happenedwhen one of the the contextof the Assyriantrade tradein andout of these contrasting network,the roleof Kaneswasprikarumcities went into declineor areas,to act as a gatewaythroughthe marilyeconomic.Nevertheless,the ceasedto exist. It maybe thatthe naturalirregularitiesof the real promotionof Kanesto the dominant Assyrianshada systemof zonesin world(Burghardt 1971:269;Hirth positionin this networkmusthave which the Assyriankarumswerelo1978:37-38). beenpromptednot onlyby its strate- cated,one perzone.If a karumcity Kanesseemsto haveplayed gic locationbut by a longpatternof wasdestroyedor abandonedforsome such a rolein a similarpatternof reason,it maybe that the karum consistent,albeitlimited,regional long-distancetradealreadypredating dominance(Orlin1970:236-41). was reinstitutedin anothercity the arrivalof the OldAssyriantraders Onlyundersuch conditionscould within that zone.This mayaccount (Matthiae1981:176).The earlydate the merchantsbe assuredof having forthe elevationof severalcities that of this patternnow seems to be con- the securityandstabilitynecessary apparentlydidnot havekarumsin firmedbythe new discoveriescom- forsuccessin long-distancetrade. periodIIto karumstatusduringthe ing fromthe moundof Kanes(Ozguc Theestablishment of karumsat cities KultepeIbperiod(Larsen1976:239). 1986)andcanbe consideredto have such as Purushanda, Wahsusana, Tawiniya,forinstance,mayhaverebeenin placeduringthe last phase Hurma,andHattusamust havebeen placedHattusaafterits defeatat the of the thirdmillennium,if not earlier dictatedby manyof the sameconhandsof Anitta.Washaniya likewise (Orlin1970:88-89; Marfoe1987; cernsthat led to the nominationof mayhavereplacedeitherWahsusana Algaze1987).Byestablishingthem- Kanesas the focalpointof the sysor Purushanda aftertheirpolitical selvesat Kanesthe Assyrianswere tem. The hinterlandsdominatedby demise.SamuhaandTimelkijaare only followinga time-honoredMeso- these smallregionalpowerswerenot two othercities that also mayfit potamiantraditionof tradewith the particularlyexpansive,but a forinto this pattern.It maybe that highlandsof Anatolia.As suchthey tuitousblendof socialandenviron- throughsuch a systemthe Assyrians mayhavebeenableto securea mar- mentalfactorsencouraged the growth wereableto maintaina senseof ket fortheirown surplusgoodsas of these cities into alternativegate- equilibriumthroughoutthe trade well as exercisea greaterdegreeof waysthatpiercedthe farthestreaches systemin times of politicaldistress. controloverthe redistributionand, of Anatoliaand,as such,became Socioeconomicfactorsnotwithindirectly,the productionof Anato- logicallocationsforthe establishstanding,the physicalsettingin lia'shighlycovetednaturalresources. ment of outlyingtradecenters. centralAnatoliacanbe viewedas The exactpoliticalrelationship Thus,it appearsthattherewasat the commondenominatoraround betweenKanesandneighboring least somerelationshipbetweenthe which the cultureof the plateau Anatoliansettlementsduringthis initiallycoalescedto giveHittite establishmentof anAssyriantrade
84
Biblical Archaeologist, fune/September1989
Locatedon thenorthernterminusof severalpassesthroughthe TaurusMountains,Kaneswas of tradecommoditiessuchas precious theidealcenterfromwhichto controltheredistribution products.As thepreeminentmarketplaceof Anatolia,Kanes metals,wine,andagricultural becamethegatewaythroughwhichthehinterlandofAnatoliacouldbe reachedfromthe Schematicmodelof commoditiesadaptedfromLarsen(1987). plainsofnorthernMesopotamia.
cultureits peculiarcharacter.The physicalenvironmentprovidedthe regionwith a unifiedsubsistence basethat must havehelpedinitially to nurturea commonbondbetween the variouspeoplesof the plateau. This perceptionmust havebeen heightenedby the emergentOld Assyriantradenetwork,which providedthe possibilityof structured andcentralizedauthority.Suchinsightsmayhaveimbuedthe region with its firstsense of supraregional politicalpowerandeconomicunity. In this respectthe OldAssyrian tradenetworkmayhavehelpedto forthe political lay the groundwork integrationprocessthroughwhich the diverseelementsof central Anatoliawerefusedinto a viable state (Orlin1970:58, supraregional 183).Oncethis processwas initiated,
the only questionappearsto have beenwho wouldfinallycontrolthe systemonce the processof political integrationwas completed5 The PbliticalUnificationof CentralAnatolia The highlychargedactivityswirling aroundKanesultimatelybrought abouta metamorphosisin central Anatoliathat probablybeganas an emergingsense of self-awareness amongthe inhabitantsof the plateau. As previouslynoted,small citystatesformedaroundlocal centers suchas Kanes,Hattusa,Wahsusana, Zalpa,andPurushandaat a very earlystageof Anatolianhistory.The of the OldAssyrian appearance tradersmayhaveaccentuatedan alreadydevelopingpatternof larger regionalunits by andever-expanding
providingthe inhabitantsof the plateauwith botha senseof common identityanda centralfocus.In the shorttermthe growthof regional kingdomsled to internecineconflicts,as the closely situatedstates competedforspace.In the finalanalysis, however,such strugglesrepresentedonly the initialphaseof an integrationprocessthatultimately bequeathedthe reinsof political powerin centralAnatoliato Hattusa. The emergingstatesof central Anatoliahadalsobecomepocketsof densepopulationin which the stratificationof societyhadgreatlyaccelerated(compareSmith 1976).The rise of urbanizationandelitism is probablyto be linkedwith an increaseddemandforluxurygoodsand the abilityof the elite to manipulate regionaltradepatternsin theirfavor as well as to the increasingefficiency of militarytechnology(Adams1984: 109-14; Hirth 1978:35; Smith 1976). Withthis jumpin the urbanpopulation, increaseddemandforresources of andcommodities,the appearance to necessity the and socialelites, controlthe productionandredistribution of tradegoodsmust havebecomeincreasinglyimportantfactors in interstatecompetition.Other factorsmayhavebeeninvolved,of course,but it is within the context of heightenedeconomiccompetition thatwe canbest understandthe internecinepoliticalstrugglesof the Anatolianstatesduringthe early partof the secondmillenniumB.C.E. (Steiner1981: 163-64). The dramaof this periodof rivalry is narratedin severalHittite texts, amongthem the AnittaText(Neu 1974: 10-15), the TelipinuEdict(1-6) (Hoffmann1984),andthe Annalsof andSaporetti HattusiliI (Imparati 1965;Goetze 1962;Kempinskiand
1989 fune/September BiblicalArchaeologist7
85
Kosak1982;see AhmetUnal'sarticle on Hittiteliteraturein this issue). Thesetexts suggestthat these citystateshadoutgrowntheirrolesas regionalgatewaycentersandhad developedinto politicallyastutecentralplacesthatwerecapableof competingon eventermswith Kanes 1971:284;Hirth 1978: (Burghardt 42-431.Thus it seemsthat the heightenedpoliticalconsciousness of the plateausignaleda significant new roleforcentralAnatolia.Once only peripheralto the majorcivilizations of MesopotamiaandSyria,this highlandareawastransformedinto the coreof the nascentHittite state. Out of this politicalmaelstromHattusaeventuallyemergedas the dominantcity in the region. The Riseof Hattusa.Lilreothersites in centralAnatolia,Hattusamay haveoriginallybeenchosenforsettlementbecauseof its environmental assets.Waterwas abundant,andthe precipiceof Buyukkaleofferedprotectionfromhostileelements(Bittel 1970:30).In addition,the surrounding valleysofferedarableland,and the regionappearsto havebeen wooded(Bittel1970:12-13;compare Brice1978:141).Moreimportant,it waswell-positionedto tapinto both the east-westandnorth-southtrade routes.As such it waswell-suitedfor the Assyrians,who sawin the city's strategicpositionan idealsecondary gatewayto the farthestreachesof northernAnatoliaandthe thickly populatedBafraregionwherethe importantcity of Zalpawaslocated (Haas19777.Assyrianmerchants passedthroughthis gatewayto trade theirgoodsandcommodities,and theirpresencemust havebroadened considerablyHattusa'ssociopolitical consciousness.As this politicalconsciousnessevolvedinto a complex
86
Typicalviewof an excavationareain thekarumat Kanes.Enormousamountsof potterywere andhavebeenfoundin situ}thusprovidingvaluableinformationaboutdemographic preserved duringtheperiod.Photoscourtesyof TahsinOzguc. patternsandceramicdevelopment
stateideology,the city beganto struggleforcontrolof its owndestiny. The emergenceof Hattusaas a politicalpowerin centralAnatolia seemsto havebegunat an earlyperiodandoccurredin severalphases. Infact,if we cantrustthe texts,Hattusa,like Kanes,musthavealso beena regionalpoweras earlyas the twenty-thirdcenturyB.C.E. when a kingof Hatti"is said certain"Pamba, to havebeenone of 17kingsto op-
Biblical Archaeologist, fune/September 1989
posethe incursionof the Akkadian kingNaram-SinintoAnatolia(Guterbock 19387.Later,around1750B.C.E., Hattusawas still recognizedas one of the principalregionalpowerson the plateau.In the AnittaTextits king,Piyusti,is mentionedas a principalopponentof the proto-Hittite dynast,Anitta,duringhis conquests in centralAnatolialNeu 1974:137. Anitta'ssubsequentconquestof Hattusa seems to havebeen only a
1
s
r
v
_g_> e-_.g _|___ w -\,e_ V w dlscovered 5. _% S_ ditious J' @ 132, % \,,X, at gionalpowers,notonlyduringbut but "fruitstands" note illuminate ,, dating _t (Bittel the ;1its burnished ture, local 8). karum }asoneofthedominantreascendancy to possibly powers 1970). (bottom the the Hattusa pitchers site of were Old history by Old left), its Literary at only unable one Assyrian Hittite (top Kanes. repeatedly of and vigorous texts. of brought left) to Anitta's the this capitalize materiColony These red, were era toown __
.
_
8
;'r
-
,
Hattusa wasdestroyed severaltimes,but otherlocalpowerswereunableto capitalize permanently on theresultant politicalvacuum. V x
^
_
_
-_=
9-
:
;
<
o -
X_
Thesepedestaledvessels,oftencalled
_
w
5|_
_"
f 5 T
__
^X
_
pleces are characteristicexamples of clay
-
_
temporary setback,asthecitywas
_
offspring(Helckl983:275).Anexpe-
__ _Y
pursuitofpoweris reflectedin the
.
,
|
*
*
=
,>
_ s_
_
*
_
llflll
^ ^
__ _
i
T f
I 1
_
_
__
_
_
permanentlyontheresultantpoliticalvacuumlHaasl977*Singerl981:
ELa
rosefromtheashesto reassertitself asa leaderofAnatolia's north-central
,.>
' _
n
+
J
].
_
wayofcorroborating archaeological evidencelBittel1970:30-47).Nevertheless,itseemsclearthatHattusa hadestablished itself,alongside
j |
*
;
w
.
_ *.fnlll
_
t_
_J:
s tE s__!
4f
gL,
;
t
,
ThroughoutitshistoryHattusa displayed a remarkable resilience. Archaeologlcal andliteraryrecords indicatethatalthoughit wasdestroyedonseveraloccasions,other
priorto theperiodoftheAssyrian Hattusa's risetoprominence was
.
,:,_
Iiobviouslysociopoliticalin nature, fruitiona tendencyinherentin the region's environmental unity.This processwasprodded alongbythe BiblicalArchaeologist,Tune/September 1989
87
Hittite
Chronology
Unlike the Mesopotamian andEgyptian scribeswho compiledlistings of successiverulers,calledkinglists,the Hittitesapparentlyneverdevelopedthe same sense of chronologyandkept no realking lists. Theydid,howEver, compile the sowalledogering lists fordead HittitekingsIOtten1955;Gurney1972). Theseofferinglists providea greatdeal of informationregarding Hittiteroyalty, includingthe numberandtypesof offerings left for certainindividualsof the royalhouseaswellasthe namesof some Hittite queens.The lists areproblematic, howtver,not only becauseof their fragmentarystate of preservationbut also becausethey excludesomeknown kings while including royal princes who, as faras we know,neverattained kingship.Consequently, most attempts at determiriing historicalcontextin Hittite Anatoliahaveemphasizedrelative sequencesratherthanabsolutedates. Effortsto provideabsolutedatesfor Hittitehistoryarebasedon a fewhlown synchronisms.I^hesearesharedevents betweenthe Hittitesandtheirnei«bors in whicha Hittitekingis linkedin the histoncaldocumentationto an event,a foreignIcing,or a personalityto whom we cangivea relativelysecureabsolute date.In so doingit becomespossibleto link the relativeHittitesequencesto an extetual absolute sequence Igenerally Egypt}and to recordthem in tenns of approximate calendaryear8. The events thatmostreadilyallowus to dothis are portant astronocal phenomena recordedby sncient scribes.By ust currentknowledgeof these astronomical occurrences,includingthe time it thes br such eventsto recut,it is possibleto fixthesedateswith a hir degree of accuracy.These dates then become inchpinsaroundwhich the blocks of relativedatesswingandfromwhichthe piccesof Hittitehistoryarefit together mtoa chronologicalframework. In the caseof Anatolia,the histori-
88
Biblic'(l]
Arcsh(leo]ogist,
cal linchpinof earlyHittitechronology has alwaysbeenthe Sackof Babylonby MursiliI. The dateof this eventhastraditionallybeenestablishedon the basis of astronomicalobservationsfromthe sowalledVenustablets,recordsreferring to the sixth yearof the king Ammisaduqa,which we know from the Babylonianking lists to havebeen 46 years beforethe Hittite raidand collapseof the dynastyof HammurapiIcompare Astour1989).Inthe tabletdetailingobservationsof thatyear,the scribenotes theoccurrence of a conjunction between the moonandVenus,whichcantheoreticallybefixedin timebymoderncalculations.The factthatthis is a relatively frequentoccurrence, however, combined with the knowledgeof certaintextual difficulties,leavesthe actualdateof this conjunctionopento variousinterpretations ISmith1951:67; Reinerand Pingree 1975:25; Huber1982:120).Based on these calculationsscholarsarriveat threedifferentdatesforthe SackofBabylon: 1651B.C.E. forthe high chronology, 1595 B.C.E. for the middle chronology, and1531B.C.E. forthe low chronology. The *ncertaintysurrollndingthe histoAcaldocwnentationmeans that the frameworkwithin which the abso lute chronology of the Hittitestateis to be understoodremainsa highlyconjectural issue. Althoughmuch has been writtenaboutHittitechronology,practically every penod of Hittite history remainsa matterof intensedebate,and thereareslmost as manylriewpointsas thereareHittitologists.Problemsstart at the verybeginning of recordedHittite historywith questionsregardingtheir emergenceas a peopleandtheirrolein the Old Assyriancolonies of central Anatolia.The sllcceeelingHittite Old Kingdomandthe Hittite MiddleKingdom weretimes of pallaceintrigueand political assassinations.The exact sequenceof eventsduringthesepenodsis confusedin a tangleof kings,princes
/elne/Septevn1ber
1"8"
androyalretainers.As a result,the precise numberand sequenceof kings attributableto these periodsarenot universallyagreedupon.TheHittiteEmpire is somewhatbetterunderstoodbecause of the relativelyfrequentsynchronisms with Egypt,but even here debatecontinueson severalissues,not the leastof which is the mannerand date of tlle Empire's demise. Wtile Egyptianevidenceproorides the best data for correlatingevents un Hittite historyto an establishedchrb nological framework,one must also take into account the Mesopotomisn evidence, of which the Assyrianevidence is the most important.Connections with the Assyriansaremoredifficult to assess,however,becauseneither they nor the Hittites mention each otherin theirrcxyal annals.The foundation for our understandingof Assrrb Hittiterelationsis builton animportant corpusof correspondence betweenthe royalhousesofHattiandAssyria.Unfortllnntely the Assyr iIlformationis not easily correlatedwith the Egyptian material,andit becomesthe roleof the Hittites to proondeindirectsynchronismsbetweenthe two.Whenthe names of the correspondentsin the AssyroHittite correspondencearc preserved, they providean independentmeansof checking the Egyptiansynchronisms. All too often,howewr,the namesof the sender,the recipient,or both,aressing,andthe identificationof the correspondentsbecomesa matterof educated guesswork.Nevertheless,a fairlysecure svtem of chronusms with Assyria cannowbe postalatedto exisebetween Urhi-Tesub (Mursilim}andAdead-an I, betweenQattusiliII and both AdadnirariI and SalmaneserI, andbetween lildhaliyaIVandIllkulti-ninurtaL (Por a full listing of Hittite and pre-Hittite kingsusing both low andmiddlechronologydates,see my chartin Gregory McMahonfs article}.
Althoughthe chronologyof Hittite Anatoliaremains eatic, progress has been made.Recentyearshavewitnessed a steady lowerq of absolute datesm the axlcientNearEast.This is especiallytme ofeventsrelatedto Egypt {see,forexample,Beckerath1964;Hornung 1964;Helck 1972;Wenteandvan Siclen 1977}wherenew excavationsat Tellcl Dabeaprovidestrongevidencefor the loweringof Egyptiandates,especially durt the MiddleBronzeAgeIBietak 1984}.Thistrendhasproduceda kindof npple effect in Mesopotamiawhere Egyptianmatenalsprovideevidencefor a silnilkar loweringof datesthereIRedford 1979: 277-79}. In addition clear and convincq endence for the low chronologycomesfromtheNorthLevantine cityofAlalakh{Gates1987}.Becausethe lack of fixeddatesfor the ress of the vanousHittite kqs forcesscholarsto build relativechronologiesbased primarilyon synchronismswith the Egyptian system,any loweringof the Egyptian chronologyw not to mentionthose of Mesopotnmiaand Syro-Palestine, will havea dominoeffecton Anatolian chronology. Generallyspeaking,the low chronology-in one variationor anotherhas gainedan increasmgarrayof adherents{see,forexample,Wilhelmand Boese 1987;Boese and Wibelm 1979; Bietall1984;Gates 1987;for the ultralowchronology, seeWenteandvanSiclen 19771. Acceptanceofthelowchronology is farSom universal,butmanyHittitologistsandstudentsof the ancientNear Eastlwself includedlhaveacceptedit as the dardw believingit providesthe best vehiclebywhichto conveya sense of time to the studyof Hittite chronology.The matteris still muchin debate, however,and studentsareleft to determine with which systemto cast their lots. The one surething is that whichever chronologyone decideson, he or she is in goodcompany.
centralizationof economicauthority duringthe periodof commercial contactswith the Assyriansandwas consummatedbythe establishment of a royalideologyduringthe Old Hittite Kingdom,an ideologythat foundits most eloquentexpression in the TelipinuEdictreferredto previously lHoffman1984i.Thusit mightbe saidthat,whereasthe environmentprovidedthe foundation uponwhich the Hittite statewas crected,the royalideologyservedas the mortarthat bondedthe political superstructure together. The Hittite State The initial periodof Hittite dominanceon the plateaucanbe described as a continuationof the intenseinfightingthat characterized the end of the karumperiod.The Telipinu Edicttells us that intrigueandassassinationwerecommonplacein the OldHittite court.This royaldrama maybe attributed,in part,to the residualeffectsof the integration process;certainlyit illustratesthe insecurityfelt bythe crownduring the earlystageof stateformation, and,as such,it couldreflectthe strugglebetweencrownandnobility to determineeitherthe line of succession(Beckman1986)or the mode of succession(Brycel 986). It is amazingthat, in the midst of this turbulentperiod,the Hittites wereableto maketheirfirstincursions into the worldbeyondthe Anatolianplateau,thus reversingthe routeof earlierMesopotamian monarchsandtraders.Undoubtedly, the most notableof thesc campaigns wasthe conquestof Babylonby MursiliI. This momentaryflirtation with greatnesswasthwarted,however,bythe inabilityof the Hittites to resolvethe thornyissue of royal
succession(Beckman1986l.The assassinationof MursiliI andthe ensuingdynasticdisputesrobbed the stateof its leadersandeffectively sappedthe vitalityof the OldKingdom.As a result,the expansionist tendenciesof this periodgavewayto a modestretrenchmentduringthe followingMiddleKingdom(compare Beal 19861. A secondperiodof dominance beganabout1400B.C.E. with the emergenceof strongkingslike TudhaliyaIIandSuppiluliumaI. The expansionof the statetookplaceon botha geographical andan ideological level.Not only didthe empire reachits maximumextent;it came into sustainedcontactwith other majorcivilizationsof the ancient NearEastsuch as Mesopotamiaand Egypt.This contacttook placeon military,diplomaticJandcultural levelsandultimatelyresultedin the formulationof an imperialideology that differedsomewhatfromthat of the OldHittite kings.This royalideologywascharacterized by a greater theocraticsense in which the conceptsofdivineelectionandempowerment Iparahandandatar)played significantroles.The conceptof divineinterventionwasnot totally unknownin previousperiods,but it seems to havefoundits most extremeexpressionduringthe last phaseofthe empire(compareHoffner 1980:360}.Characteristic of this ideologywasan increasedemphasison the sacralcharacterof royaltyas well asa greaterinvolvementbythe divine in the affairsof state.This wasespeczallyapparentin warfare;certain kingssawdivineinterventionas a formof judgmentbetweenthe contestants(seeHoffner1980:314-17i. As the capitalof this theocratically orientedstate,Hattusabecamethe
BiZblicalArchaeologist,Tune/September1989
89
r
-
Yazlllkaya
v
9
,A \
,'
o'
/
\ )
()
3()f)
(.(>()lzz
:
Lion Gate
Thisplanof theHittitecapitalat Hattusa showsits proximityto therockshrine village Yazlllkaya as well as themodern-day Also visible,at of Bogazkoy/BogazAale. pointsalongtheouterGity walls,arethe monumentalgatewaysleadinginto andout of thecity.Notethelocationof theGreat (Temple1)in the Templeof the Weather-God LowerCityand,on theacropolisto theeast the seatof the thefortressof BuyuRkale, greatkings.Manycuneiformtabletshave beenfoundthere.Plancourtesyof the Institute. GermanArhaeological
90
King's Gate
focalpointandexponentof the royal ideology(seeNeve 1987b).This is evidentnot only in the textualmaterialsbutalsoin the sculptedimagesof Yozlllkaya. Thesematerialssuggest that this emphasiswasconnectedto the blossomingHurrianinfluences alreadyknownfromthe OldHittite period(Guterbock1954;also see AhmetUnal'sarticlein this issue). The earliestsettlementsat Hattusamust havebeenrepresentative of the essentiallyindigenous cultureof the plateau.The city eventuallytranscendedits regionalcharacter,however,and,by the last days of the empire,hadbecomethe showcaseof a widespreadsyncretismthat reflectedthe officialideologyof this
Biblical Archaeologist, Tune/September1989
religiopoliticalamalgamthrougha statecult (Laroche1975;Gurney 1977).Inthe processit cameto includemuchthat wasnot nativeto Hittiteculture.It becamefully cosmopolitan,bothin the breadthof its internationalcontactsandin the scopeof its religiopoliticalideology. This madeHattusauniquein centralAnatolia.I wouldbe remiss, therefore,if I didnot pointout that,becauseof the natureof the capitalcity,its remainsmaynot giveus an accuratepictureof life amongthe ruralinhabitantsduring this period.Instead,theyprobably depicta mixedculturethat may havebeenregardedas somewhat foreign,evento manyinhabitantsof
brought Theendof the empirewasprobably and of environmental aboutby the convergence factorsthatweakenedtheHittites. sociopolitical the nearbyHittite countryside. In the finalanalysis,Hattusa emergedas a centerof powernot only becauseof its positiveresponse to the physicalworldbut alsobecauseits kingshadboth the will and the capacityto rule.This dynamic interplaybetweenhumanbeingsand the landultimatelyfashionsthe distinctivecharacterof a civilization, andthis bringsme backto my original point:Althoughthe superstructureof the Hittite statewaspolitical in nature,it mustnot be forgotten that the kingdomwasbuilt on an underlyingecologicalfoundation. The Endof the Hittite Empire The last daysof the Hittite Empire areoutlinedin numerousliterary texts (Otten1963, 1983)that tendto focuson eventsin whichhumanbeingsplayeda majorrole.I contend, however,that therewereother,less visibleeventstakingplacethatultimatelyhelpedshapethe historical pictureof Anatolia.Theseevents wereenvironmentalin nature. Althoughwe lack reliableclimatic andchronologicaldatafor centralAnatolia,the availableevidencesuggeststhat the HittiteEmpireflourishedduringa climatically favorableperiod.In fact,the three centuriesbetween1500and 1200 to B.C.E. (theLateBronzeAge)appear havebeencoolerandmoisterthroughout the whole of the ancientNear East(Bintliff1982: 147;Neumann andParpola1987).This wasfollowed by a somewhatdrierperiodthat is thoughtto havelastedfrom1200 to about900 B.C.E. (KayandJohnson 1981:258; NeumannandParpola 1987: 163-65, 177;compareBrice 1978: 145).The beginningof this drierperiodseems to havecoincided with a chainof eventsthatgreatly
influencedthe courseof history,not only on the Anatolianplateaubut throughoutthe ancientNearEast (NeumannandParpola1987;Carpenter1966). As suggestedat the beginningof the article,patternsof settlement andsubsistencein centralAnatolia werethe directresultof humaninteractionwith the environment. The successfulpoliticalintegration of Anatoliansettlementsinto the Hittite stateseemsto havebeen somewhatdependenton the wayin which these peoplewereableto respondto theirphysicalsetting. Althoughthe Hittitesroseto a position of worldprominence,they were neverableto escapethe restraintsof theirenvironment,andbecauseof the specializednatureof urbansociety theymayhavebecomeeven moreconstrainedby them.Thus,if we arepreparedto acceptthe idea that the initial integrationof the Hittite statewas duein partto the inhabitants'positiveresponseto the environmentalframeworkof the centralplateau,we shouldnot be surprisedto findthat the endof the HittiteEmpiremayhaveoccurred partlyas the resultof a generaldisintegrationof this association.This breakdownwasprobablyprecipitated by a combinationof negativeforces in the environment,perhapselicited byhighersolaractivity(Eddy1977; but compareLandsberg1980:182) that resultedin the warmerand drierclimatementionedpreviously. Naturalcatastropheswerenot rarein the landof Hittite Anatolia (Unal1977),but the type of warming trendsuggestedherewouldhavehad a muc:1moreslgnl:lcantlmpacton the ecologyof the plateauthan wouldthe moreor less expecteddisastersthat werecommonto the re.
.
..
.
gion.Modernenvironmentalstudies variindicatethat a smalldownward ationin the amountof precipitation can adverselyaffectagriculturalproductionon the plateauas well as vegetationof the steppeuponwhich the nomadsdepend(Adams1981:11; 1950;Neumann Fisher1978:94; Erinvc andParpola1987: 162).Accordingto recentstudies,the overallimpactof this drierperiodcouldhavebecome manifestby drought(Weiss1982) andcropfailure(Erinc1978: 75-76) as well as famineandmalnutrition (Astour1965:255; Klengel1974), resulting,one wouldsuspect,in diseaseanddecliningfertility. Onemust considerthe sociopoliticalimplicationsas well. One resultcouldhavebeen internaldissatisfactionandrevoltin the homeland.Similarcircumstanceson the peripheryof the empiremighthave set off massmovementsof peoples in searchof less affectedregions (Fisher1978:94; Angel 1972: 99). We knowthat duringthe late thirteenth centuryB.C.E. the perimeterof the Hittite statewasbeingprobedby a varietyof sociopoliticalforces.Foremost amongthese forceswasthe large-scalemovementof peoplesin the formof bothmigratingnomads (vonSchuler1965:65-66) andmaraudingSeaPeoples(Sandars1978: 139-44). If the negativeenvironmentalconditionsnotedaboveactuallyprevailedat the end of the empire,they couldhavehelped underminethe foundationsof the Hittitepoliticalstructure;with the underlyingweaknessesof the state exposed,the empirewouldhave beenhighlyvulnerableto the forces confrontingit. Thatthe Hittites wereunableto withstandrelentless pressuresis detailedby accountsof the EgyptianpharaohRamessesIII
Biblical Archaeologist, Tune/September1989
91
A majordilemmafacingAnatolian archaeologists is howto explaintheapparent cessationof urban settlements afterthefallof theHittites. (Sandars1978: 139-44). Thusit wouldseem that the end of the empirewasprobablybroughtaboutby the convergenceof variousenvironmentalandsociopoliticalfactors that weakenedthe Hittitesandleft themunableto maintaintheirempirein the faceof relentlesspressure fromwithout. Conclusion Thereseems to havebeen a discontinuity of civilizationat the major sites on the plateauafterthe fall of the HittiteEmpire(Bittel1983:3738). This gapis thoughtto havecontinueduntil the appearance of Iron Agesettlementsduringthe ninth througheighthcenturiesB.C.E. (Bittel1983:37), andit seemsto havecoincidedwith the appearance of a moisterclimatethroughoutthe region(NeumannandParpola1987: 162).Thuswe areconfrontedwith one of the moreseriousdilemmas facingAnatolianarchaeologists: how to explainthe apparentcessation of urbansettlementson the plateauafterthe fall of the Hittites. As mentionedbefore,the demiseof the LateBronzeAgepalaceeconomy is generallyattributedto the incursionsof nomadicpeoples(von Schuler1965:65-66). This assumption is not unreasonablein light of historicalnarrativesindicatingthat sucha couplingof climaticchange andnomadicincursionsmaynot be withoutparallelin the historyof the ancientNearEasttNeumannand Parpola1987: 162, note 4; RitterKaplan1984;Ghawanmeh1985:315). Questionsremain,however,as to the dispositionof the indigenous populationafterthis event. The answerto this problemis probablymultifaceted.Someinhabitantsmayhavebeenkilledbynew-
92
comerswhile otherswereassimilated.Thosewho wereablemay havemigratedto otherareasof comparativesafety.Byandlarge, however,it seems reasonableto assumethat manyinhabitantsof the Hittiteheartlandsimplyreturnedto theirpastoral-nomadic roots.Indeed, such a shift maynot havebeenas drasticas is oftensupposed(Kohl 1978:472). Recentethnographic studiesshowthat thereis no clearcut line betweenpastoralismand sedentismandthat the two subsistencepatternsneednot be viewedas mutuallyexclusive(Adams1974). Instead,we mayfinda fluiditythat allowsmovementbetweenthe two modesas a meansof dealingwith an unpredictable environment(Kohl 1978:471; Barth1962:350; Nissen 1980:285-90). This levelof subsistenceleaveslittle in the wayof materialremains,however,so it may appearthatthe plateauwasunsettled duringthis period.The absenceof settlementsduringthis periodis clearat the majorurbansites of the LateHittiteEmpire,but we simply do not haveenoughevidenceto malredefinitivestatementson the overallsituation.It maybe that a new patternof settlementemerged apartfromthat of the HittiteEmpire andthat this patternhada new centerof focusof whichwe arenot yet aware(Bittel1983:37). Perhapsevidenceof this kindwill emergefrom futurestudiesrelatedto the native IronAgekingdomsof Anatolia,such as Tabal.6 Thereis, however,no evidenceforsuch a demographic shift. Finally,one factshouldbe lrept in mind.Becausethe natureof the physicalevidencemakesit verydifficult to tracearchaeologically the existenceof ruralinhabitantsin allculture,it maybe that theyarenot
Biblical Archaeologist, fune/September 1989
missingat all. The realmissingpersons of the post-Hittiteeramaywell be the urbanelite andthe urbanelite alone.Theirabsencein no wayprecludesthe possibilitythat the remainderof the populationcould havecontinuedto exist muchas they alwayshadin smaller,more traditionalvillagesettlements.Such an optionwouldhavepresentedan alternativestrategymoresuitedto the conditionspresentin Anatolia afterthe breakdownof the Late BronzeAgepalaceeconomyIn the absenceof comprehensiveregional surveys,evidencefornonurbantypes of settlementis not easyto obtain. Evidenceforsedentarylife in this regionmayyet comefromsome of the manysmallmoundsaroundHattusa.If the aristocracyhadbecome somewhatestrangedfromthe native ruralpopulation,however,these farmersandshepherds,evenif they hadthe power,maynot havehadthe inclinationto restorethe cities that hadbecomeseatsof powerforan urbanelite. Ifthis werethe case,the declineof the Hittitepoliticalstructurecouldhavebeenseenasawelcome relieffroman artificialsystemthat excludedruralpeoplefromthe fruits of power,but not fromits burdens. The roleof the environmentin the collapseof the Hittite stateis not well-attested,but I believefuture studywill showthat environmental factorswereintimatelyinvolvedin boththe integrationof the Hittite stateandits eventualdemise.My intentionhas not beento takethe side of environmentaldeterminism but to provokestudyinto an area thathasbeensomewhatneglected in Anatolianstudies.Myeffortshave not beendirectedas muchto providlng c.erlnltlveanswersas to plqulng interestandencouragingresearch .
,.
.
.
.
.
versity of ChicagoPress. 1984 MesopotamianSocial Evolution:Old Outlooks, New Goals. Pp. 79-129 in
into this areaof study.Obviously, some of the ideasexpressedhere needto be testedfurtherin the field. One of the goalsof futureexcavations in Turkeyshouldbe to devise strategiesby which such hypotheses maybe addressed. Notes lFor other overviews of Hittite archaeology, see Goetze (1961), Lloyd (1965), Mellink (1965, 1966b), and Bittel (1980). 2Located about 12 miles northeast of Kayseri, Kanes is composed of a high mound and surrounding lower city where the karum was located (Orthmann 1976- 1980). Excavation at the ancient city was first carried out by Friedrich Hrozny in 1925 but has been under the direction of Tahsin Ozgu since 1948. 3The village has recently been renamed Bogazkale, but for the sake of consistency archaeologists and philologists continue to use Bogazkoy. 4The toponym Nesa is now equated with the city of Kanes. Thus, the Nesites are to be understood here as the people of Kanes. The situation is complicated, however, by the fact that the Hittites were also speakers of Nesita (Nesumnili), Orthe language of Nesa (Guterbock 1958). 5The Hittite records indicate that many cities took part in the struggle for supremacy before Hattusa finally won out. Among them were Kanes, Purushanda, Zalpa, and Sanahuitta (Haas 1977; Singer 1981: 132, note 8). 6Forfurther information on the study of Iron Age Hittite states, see Hawkins (1982) and Gregory McMahonXs article in this issue.
Bibliography Adams,RobertM. 1974 MesopotamianSocial Landscape:A View from the Frontier.Pp. 1-20 in ReconstructingComplex Societies: An Archaeological Colloquium. Series:Supplementto the Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research20. 1981 Heartland of Cities. Chicago:Uni-
Chronology:New Evidencefrom Egypt.American tournal of Archaeology 88: 471-85 Bintliff, J.L. On the Evolution of Complex So1982 Climatic Change,Archaeology,and cieties: Essays in Honor of Harry QuaternaryScience in the Eastern Hoijer, edited by T. Earle.Malibu, CA:Undena. MeditterraneanRegion.In Climatic A lgaze, G. Changein Late Prehistory,edited by A. Harding.Edinburgh:Edinburgh 1987 MesopotamianExpansionand its Consequences. Ph.D. dissertation. University Press. Chicago:The University of Chicago. Bittel, K. 1969 Berichtuber die Ausgrabungenin Alp, S. Bogazkoyim Jahre1968.Mitteilungen 1987 Beitragezur Erforshungdes Hethitischen Temples:Kultlagenim Lichte der Deutschen Orientgesellschaft 101:5-13. der Keilschrifttexte.Series:Turk TarihKurumuYayinlariSeries VI, 1970 Hattusha:The Capitalof the Hittites. Number 23. Ankara. New York:OxfordUniversity Press. 1976 Die Hethiter.Munich:C. H. Beck. Angel, L. 1980 The GermanPerspectiveand the 1972 EcologyandPopulationin the Eastern GermanArchaeologicalInstitute. Mediterranean.World Archaeology American tournalof Archaeology 4: 101-27. 84: 271-77. Archi, A. 1983 QuelquesRemarquesArcheologiques 1973 Bureaucratieet communautes sur la Topographiede Hattusa. Pp. d'hommeslibres dans le systeme economique hittite. Pp. 17-23 in 485-509 in Comptes Rendus de Festschrift fur Heinrich Otten. LAcademie des Inscriptions. Blegen,C. W. Wiesbaden:Otto Harrassowitz. 1963 7ioy and the 7ioXans.London: 1978 Lafeste presso gli ittite. La Parola Thames and Hudson. Del Passato 179:81-89. Blegen,C. W.,and others Astour,M. 1950- 7ioy: Excavations Conducted by The 1965 New Evidenceon the LastDays of 1958 University of Cincinnati, 1932-38, Ugarit. American tournal of Archae4 volumes. Princeton:Princeton ology 69: 253-58. University Press. 1989 Hittite History and Absolute ChronBoese, J.,and Wilhelm, G. ology of the Bronze Age. Partille: 1979 Assur-DanI., Ninurta-Apil-Ekurund PaulAstrom'sForlag. die mittelassyrische Chronologie. Barth,F. WienerZeitschrift fur die Kundedes 1962 Nomadism in the Mountain and PlateauAreasof SouthwestAsia. Morgenlandes71: 19-38. Borker-Klahn,J. Unesco Arid Zone Research 18:345 1969 Zur Datierungvon KarumKanisII and following. und Ib.Istanbul Mitteilungen 14: Beal, R. 79-83. 1983a The Hittites afterthe Empire'sFall. Brice,W.C. Biblical Illustrator Fall:72-81. 1978 The Desiccation of Anatolia. 1983b Studies in Hittite History.tournal of Pp. 141-47 in The Environmental Cuneiform Studies 35: 122-26. History of the Near and Middle 1986 The History of Kizzuwatnaand the East, edited by W.C. Brice.London: Date of the SunassuraTreaty.Orientalia 55: 424-45. Academic Press. Brinkman,J.A. Beckerath,J.von 1964 Mesopotamian Chronologyof the 1964 Untersuchungen zur politischen GeHistorical Period.Series:Ancient schichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit Mesopotamia.Chicago:University in Agypten. Gluckstadt:J.J.Augustin. of Chicago Press. Beckman,G. 1986 Inheritanceand RoyalSuccession Bryce,T. among the Hittites. Pp. 13-31 in 1986 Reviewof IngeHoffmann,Der Kanissuwar: Studies in Honor of TelipinuErlass,Heidelberg:Carl Hans Guterbock. Chicago:The Winter,1984 (=Textder Hethiter 11}. Oriental Institute. Bibliotheca Orientalis 43: 750-51. 1988 Herdingand Herdsmenin Hittite Bryson,R. A., Lamb,H. H., and Donley, D. Culture. Pp.33-44 in Documentum 1974 Droughtandthe Decline of Mycenae. Asiae Minoris Antiquae, edited by Antiquity 48: 46-50. E. Neu and C. Ruster.Wiesbaden: Burghardt,A. F. Otto Harrassowitz. 1971 A hypothesis about gatewaycities. Bietak,M. Annals: Association of American 1984 Problemsof Middle BronzeAge Geographers61: 269-85.
1989 BiblicalArchaeologistTune/September
93
Burney, C., and Lang, D. M. 1972 Peoples of the Hills: Ancient Ararat and Caucasus. New York: Praeger. Canby, J.V. 1975 The Walters Gallery Cappadocian Tablet and the Sphinx in Anatolia in the Second Millennium B.C. tournal of Near Eastern Studies 34: 225-48. Carpenter, R. 1966 Discontinuity in Greek Civilization. New York: W. W. Norton. Carruba, O. 1977 Beitrage zur mittelhethitischen Geschichte I, II. Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici 18: 166-77. Ceram, C. W. 1956 The Secret of the Hittites: The Discovery of an Ancient Empire. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Deighton, H. J. 1982 The "Weather-God" in Hittite Anatolia: An Examination of the Archaeological and Textual Sources. Series: BAR International Series 143. Oxford: BAR. Dever, W. G. 1982 Retrospects and Prospects in Biblical and Syro-Palestinian Archaeology. Biblical Archaeologist 45: 103-07. 1987 The New Archaeology. Biblical Archaeologist 50: 150-51. Dorpfeld, W. 1902 lioXa und Ilion: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen in der vorhistorischen und historischen Schichten von Ilion, 1870-1894. Driesch, A. von den, and Boessneck, J. 1981 Reste von Haus-und tagdtieren aus der Unterstadt von BogazkoyHattusa. Berlin: Gebr. Mann. Eddy, J. A. 1977 Climate and the Changing Sun. Climatic Change 1: 182 and following. Emre, K 1963 The Potteryof the AssyrianColony
PeriodAccordingto the Building Levelsof the Kani,sKarum.Anatolia VII:87-89. ErinZ, S.
1950 Climatic Typesand the Variationof Moisture Regionsin Turkey.Geographical Review 40: 224-35. 1978 Changesin the PhysicalEnvironment in TurkeySince the Endof the LastGlacial. Pp. 87-110 in The Environmental History of the Near and Middle East since the Last Ice Age, edited by W.Brice.London:
Academic Press. Fisher,W.B. 1978 The Middle East: A Physical, Social, and Regional Geography, seventh edition. London:Metheun & Co. Frankfort,H. 1954 The Art and Architecture of the
94
Anatolian Name. EretzIsrael Books. V:46-50. 1975 The Hittite TempleAccordingto GallagherJ.,and Robinson,R. WrittenSources.Pp. 125-32 in Le 1953 The Imperialismof FreeTrade. Economic History Review Second Templeet Le Cult. Series:Publications de lInstitut Historiqueet Series 6: 1-15. Archeologiquede Stambul37. Garelli, P. 1983 Hittite Historiography:A Survey. 1963 Les Assyriens en Cappadoce. Paris: LibrairieAdrienMaisonneuve. Pp. 21-35 in History,Historiography, and Interpretation,edited by Gates, M.-H. H. Tadmorand M. Weinfeld.Jeru1987 Alalakh and ChronologyAgain. salem: MagnesPress. Pp. 60-86 in High Middle or Lowz Haas,V. edited by P.Astrom. Gothenburg: PaulAstrom'sForlag. 1977 Zalpa,die Stadtam SchwarzenMeer und das althethitische Konigtum. Ghawanmeh,Y. Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient1985 The Effectof Plagueand Droughton gesellschaft 109: 15-26. the Environmentof the Southern Levantduringthe LateMamluk Peri- Hawkins, J.D. 1982 The Neo-Hittite States in Syriaand od. Pp.315-22 in Studies in the HisAnatolia. Pp.372-441 in volume 3, tory and Archaeology of tordan II edited by A. Hadidi. part 1 of The CambridgeAncient History.Cambridge:Cambridge Gimbutas,M. Archaeological University Press. 1963 The Indo-Europeans: Helck, W. Problems.American Anthropologist 1972 Die BeziehungenAgyptens zu Vorde65: 815-36. rasien im 3. un 2. tahrtausend v. 1985 The Primaryand SecondaryHometournal Chr.Wiesbaden:Otto Harrassowitz. land of the Indo-Europeans. 1983 Zur Altesten Geschichte des Hattiof Indo-European Studies 13: Reiches.Pp.271-81 in Beitragezur 185-202. Altertumskunde Kleinasiens:FestGoetze, A. schrift fur KurtBittel, edited by 1957 Kulturgeschichte Kleinasien. R. M. Boehmerand H. Hauptmann. Munich:C. H. Beck. Mainz:Philippvon Zabern. 1961 Hittite and Anatolian Studies. Hirth, K. G. Pp.316-27inTheBibleandthe 1978 InterregionalTradeand the FormaAncient Near East: Essays in Honor tion of PrehistoricGatewayComof William Foxwell Albright. munities. American Antiquity 43: GardenCity, NY:Doubleday. 35-45. 1962 Reviewof H. G. Guterbockand H. Otten, Keilschrifttexte aus Bogaz- Hoffmann,I. 1984 Der TelipinuErlass.Heidelberg:Carl koy X: Text aus Gebaude K. I. Teil. Winter Pp.24-30 in Wissenschaftliche Hoffner,H. A. Veroffentlichungen der Deutschen 1973 Hittites and Hurrians.Pp. 197-228 Orient-Gesellschaft 72. Berlin:Gebr. in Peoplesof the Old Testament, Mann. edited by D. J.Wiseman.London: Gurney,O. R. OxfordUniversity Press. 1972 Reviewof H. Otten, Die hethitischen 1974 Alimenta Hethaeorum:Food Prohistorischen Quellen und die alduction in Hittite Asia Minor.Series: torientalische Chronologie. OrienAmerican Oriental Series 55. New talische Literaturzeitung 67: 451-54. Haven,CT:American Oriental 1977 Some Aspects of the Hittite Religion. Society. Series:The SchweichLectures1976. 1980 Histories and Historiansof the Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press. Ancient Near East:The Hittites. 1979 The Annointing of Tudhaliya. Series: Orientalia 49: 283-332. StudiaMediterranea1. Pavia. Hornung,E. 1981 The Hittites. New York:Penguin Books. 1964 Untersuchungenzur chronologie und Geschichte des neuen Reiches. Guterbock,H. G. Wiesbaden. 1938 Die Historische Traditionbei BabyHout, T. P.J.van den loniern und Hethitern. Zeitschrift 1989 Studien zum Spatjunghethitischen fur Assyriologie 44: 65-80. texte der Zeit TudhalijasIV:KBoIV 1954 The HurrianElement in the Hittite 1 0 + (CTH106).Ph.D. dissertation. Empire.Cahiers d Histoire Mondiale Amsterdam:Universityof Amsterdam. ltournal of World Historyl II:383-94. Houwink ten Cate, P. 1957 Towarda Definiton of the Term 1970 The Recordsof the EarlyHittite EmHittite. Oriens X: 233-39. 1958 Kanesand Nesa, TwoFormsof One pire (c. 1450-1380).Istanbul:NederAncient Orient. London:Penguin
1989 BiblicalArchaeologistTune/September
lands Historische-Archaeologisch Instituut. 1974 The Earlyand LatePhases of UrhiTesub'sCareer.Pp. 123-50 in Anatolian Studies Presentedto Hans Gustav Guterbockon the Occasion of his 65th Birthday,edited by K. Bittel and others. Istanbul:Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut. Huber,P. 1982 Astronomical Dating of Babylon I and Ur III. Series:Occasional Papers on the Near EastI/4. Malibu, CA: Undena. Imparati,F.and Saporetti,C. 1965 L'Autobiografiadi Hattusilli I. Studi classici e orientali 14:40-85. Jewell, E 1974 TheArchaeologyand History of
cient Near East.Pp.47-56 in Center and Periphery in the Ancient World,
edited by M. Rowlands,M. Larsen, and K. Kristiansen.Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. Lebrun,R. 1984 A Proposde quelques Rois Hittites Batisseurs.Pp. 157-66 in Archeologie et Religions de L:Anatolie Ancienne,
edited by R. Donceel and R. Lebrun. Centre DMistoire Louvain-La-Neuve: des Religions. Lloyd,S. 1965 Anatolia:An ArchaeologicalRenaissance. Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology 5: 1-14. Macqueen,J.G. 1986 The Hittites and Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor, revised and enlargededition. London:Thames and Hudson. Marfoe,L. 1979 The IntegrativeTransformation: Patternsof Sociopolitical Organization in SouthernSyria.Bulletin of
WesternAnatolia during the Second Millennium. Ph.D. dissertation. Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania. Johnson,E. A. J. 1970 The Organizationof Space in Develthe American Schools of Oriental oping Countries.Cambridge,MA: Research 234: 1-42. HarvardUniversity Press. 1987 CedarForestto Silver Mountain: Kay,P.A., and Johnson,D. L. Social Changeand the Development 1981 Estimation of Tigris-Euphrates of Long-DistanceTradein EarlyNear Streamflowfrom RegionalPaleoEasternSocieties. In Center and environmentalProxyData. Climatic Periphery in the Ancient World, Change3: 251-63. edited by M. Rowlands,M. Larsen, Kempinski,A., and Kosak,S. and K. Kristiansen.Cambridge: 1982 CTH 13:The ExtensiveAnnals of CambridgeUniversity Press. Hattusili I (?1.TelAviv 9: 87-116. Matthiae,P. Klengel,H. 1981 Ebla: An Empire Rediscovered, 1974 Hungerjahre in Hatti.Altorientalische translatedby C. Holme. Garden Forschungen1: 165 and following. City, NY:Doubleday. 1986 The Economyof the Hittite HouseMellaart,J. hold (E).Oikumene 5: 23-31. 1957 Anatolian Chronologyin the Early Kohl,P. and Middle BronzeAge. Anatolian 1978 The Balanceof Tradein SouthStudies 7: 55-75. western Asia in the Mid-ThirdMil1963 EarlyCultures of the South Anatolennium B.C.CurrentAnthropology lian Plateau,II.Anatolia Studies 13: 19:463-92. 199-236. Landsberg,H. E. 1971 Anatolia, c. 4000-2300 B.C.Pp. 1980 VariableSolarEmissions, the 365-415 in volume 1, part 2 of The "MaunderMinimum"and Climatic Cambridge Ancient History. CamTemperatureFluctuations.Archiv bridge:CambridgeUniversity Press. ffirMeteorologie,Geophysikund 1981 Anatolia and the Indo-Europeans. Bioklimatologie 28: 181-91. tournal of Indo-European Studies 9: Laroche,E. 135-49. 1975 LaReformeReligieuse du Roi TudMellink, M. haliya IVet sa signification Politique. 1956 A Hittite Cemetery at Gordion. Pp. 87-95 in Syncretismesdans les Philadelphia:University Museum of religions de l'antique. Series:Etudes the University of Pennsylvania. Preliminariesaux Religions Orien1965 Anatolia Chronologies.Pp. 101-31 tales dans l'EmpireRomains46, in Chronologies in Old World edited by F.Dunand and P.Leveque. Archaeology. Chicago:University of Leiden:E. J.Brill. Chicago Press. Larsen,M. T. 1966a The RoyalTombsat Alaca Huyuk 1976 The Old Assyrian City-Stateand Its and the AegeanWorld.Pp.39-58 in Colonies. Copenhagen:Akaemisk The Aegean and the Near East, Forlag. edited by S. S. Weinberg.Locust 1987 Commercial Networks in the AnValley,NY: J.J.Augustin.
1966b Anatolia:Old and New Perspectives. Proceedingsof the American Philosophical Society 110:111-29. 1984 Archaeologyin Asia Minor.American tournal of Archaeology 88: 441-59. Mora,C. 1987 Una ProbabileTestimonianzadi Coreggenzatra due SovrantiIttiti. Istituto Lombardo121:97-108. Naumann, R. 1983 ArchitekturKleinasien. Tubingen: ErnstWasmuth. Neu, E. 1974 Der Anitta-Text.Series:Studien zu den Bogazkoy-Texten 18. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Neumann, J.,and Parpola,S. 1987 Climatic Changeand the EleventhTenth-CenturyEclipse of Assyria and Babylon.tournal of Near Eastern Studies 46: 161-77. Neve, P. 1982 BuyuRkale:Die Bauwerke.Berlin: Gebr.Mann. 1984 Ein althethitisches Sammelfundaus der Unterstadt.Pp.63-89 in Bogazkoy-HattusaVI:Funde aus der Grabungenbis 1979. Berlin:Gebr. Mann. 1987a Die Ausgrabungenin Bogazkoy-Hattusa 1986. Pp.381-410 in ArchaologischerAnzeiger.Berlin:Walter de Gruyter. 1987b Hattuscha, Haupt-und Kultstadtder Hethiter-Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen in der Oberstadt.Hethitica VII:297-318. Nissen, H. J. 1980 The Mobility between Settled and Non-Settled in EarlyBabylonia: Theory and Evidence.In LArchaeologie de IVIraqedited by M. T. Barrelet. Paris:Centre National de la RechercheScientifique. Orlin, L. 1970 Assyrian Colonies in Cappadocia. Paris:Mouton. Orthmann,W. 1976- KarumKanis:Archaeologisch.Real1980 lexicon derAssyriologie 5: 378-83. Otten, H. 1955 Die hethitischen Konigslisten;und die altorientalische Chronologie. Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orientgesellschaft 83: 47-71. 1963 Neue Quellen zum Ausklangdes Hethitischen Reiches.Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orientgesellschaft 94: 1-23. 1968 Die hethitischenhistorischenQuellen und die altorientalischeChronologie. Wiesbaden:FranzSteiner. 1983 Zur fruhen Stadtgeschichtevon Hattusa nach den inschriftlichen Quellen. Istanbul Mitteilungen 33: 40-52.
1989 BiblicalArchaeologistfune/September
95
1987a Staatsvertragvon TudhaliyaIV.mit Kuruntavon Tarhuntassa.Pp.410-12 in ArchaologischerAnzeiger.Berlin: Walterde Gruyter. 1987b Das hethitische Konigshausim 15. tahrhundertv. Chr.:Zum Neufund einiger LandschenAurkundenin Bogazkoy.Wien:VerlagDer Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. 1988 Die Bronzetafelaus Bogazkoy. Wiesbaden:Otto Harrassowitz. Ozguc, N. 1966 Excavationsat Acemhoyuk.Anatolia X: 29-52. .. Ozguc, T. 1959 Kultepe-Kanis,: New Researchesat the Centerof the Assyrian Trade Colonies. Series:TurkTarihKurumu Yayinlarindan,Series V,Number 19. Ankara. 1963 The Art and Architectureof Ancient Kanish.Anatolia VII:27-48. 1986 New Observationson the Relationship of Kultepewith SoutheastAnatolia and North Syriaduringthe ThirdMillenium B.C.Pp.31-47 in Ancient Anatolia:Aspects of Change and CulturalDevelopment. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Ramsay,W.M. 1907 The Cities of Saint Paul-Their Influence on his Life and Thought: The Cities of Asia Minor.New York: A. C. Armstrongand Son. 1972 The Historical Geographyof Asia Minor.New York:CooperSquare Publishers.(Reprintof 1890 volume Redford,D. 1979 A Gate Inscriptionfrom Karnakand EgyptianInvolvementin Western Asia duringthe Early 18th Dynasty. tournalof the American Oriental Society 99: 270-87. Reiner,E., and Pingree,D. 1975 BabylonianPlanetary Omens, VolumeI: The VenusTabletof Ammi$aduqa. Series:Bibliotheca Mesopotamica2/1. Malibu,CA: Undena. Ritter-Kaplan,H. 1984 The Impactof Drought on the Third Millennium B.C.Cultures on the Basis of Excavationsin the TelAviv Exhibition Grounds.Zeitschrift der Deutschen Palastina-Vereins 100:2-8. Robinson,R. 1976 Non-EuropeanFoundationsof EuropeanImperialism:Sketch for a Theory of Collaboration.Reprinted on pp. 128-52 in Imperialism:The Gallagherand RobinsonControversy, edited by W.R. Louis.New York: FranklinWatts.
96
Veenhof,K. R. 1980 KarumKanis:Philologisch. Reallexicient Mediterranean, 1250-1150 B.C. con der Assyriologie 5: 369-78. Weiss,B. London:Thames and Hudson. 1982 The Decline of LateBronzeAge Schirmer,W. Civilizations as a Possible Response 1969 Die Bebauung am Unteren to Climatic Change. Climatic BuyuAkale-Nordwesthang. Berlin: Change 4: 172-98. Gebr.Mann. Wente,E., and Siclen, C. van Schliemann,H. 1977 The Chronologyof the New Kingdom. 1875 lioy and its Remains. London:John Pp.217-61 in Studies in Ancient Murray.(Reprintedby Arno Press, Oriental Civilization 39. Chicago: New York1976) The Oriental Institute. 1884 TroXa:Results of the Latest ReWilhelm, G., and Boese, J. searches and Discoveries on the Site 1987 Absolut Chronologieund die hethiof Homer's 7ioy. London:John tischen Geschichte des 15. und 14. Murray.(Reprintedby Arno Press, Jahrhundertsv. Chr.Pp. 74-117 in New York,19761 High, Middle or Low:, edited by 1891 Bericht uber die Ausgradbungen in P.Astrom.Gothenburg:PaulAstrom's TroXaim tahre 1890. Leipzig. Forlag. Schuler,E. von Winn, M. M. 1965 Die Kaskaer: Ein Beitrag zur Ethno1974 Thoughts on the Questions of Indographie des Alten Kleinasien. Berlin: EuropeanMovements into Anatolia Walterde Gruyter. and Iran.tournal of Indo-European Singer,I. Studies 2: 117-42. 1981 Hittites and Hattians in Anatolia at Yakar,J. the Beginningof the SecondMillen1976 Anatolia and the "GreatMovement" nium B.C.tournal of Indo-European of Indo-Europeans,ca. 2300 B.C.E.Studies 9: 119-34. Another Look. Tel Aviv 3: 151-57. 1987 Dating the Endof the Hittite Empire. 1981 The Indo-Europeansand Their Hethitica VIII:413-21. Impacton Anatolian Cultural DevelSmith, C. opment. tournal of Indo-European 1976 ExchangeSystems and the Spatial Studies 9: 94-112. Distribution of Elites:The OrgaYamauchi,E. nization of Stratificationin Agrar1980 The Archaeology of New Testament ian Societies. Pp.309-74 in ReCities in Western Asia Minor. Grand gional Analysis, second edition, Rapids,MI:BakerBook House. edited by C. Smith. New York: Zimansky,P. Academic Press. 1985 Ecology and Empire: The Structure Smith, S. of the Urartian State. Series:Studies 1951 Commentary.Pp.67 in Compte in Ancient OrientalCivilization 41. rendu de la seconde Rencontre asChicago:The OrientalInstitute. syriologique internationale. Paris: Zohary,M. Imprimerienational. 1973 Geobotanical Foundations of the Steiner,G. Middle East. Stuttgart:Gustav 1981 The Role of the Hittites in Ancient Fischer. Anatolia. to urnal of Indo-European Studies 9: 150-73. Tenney,F.,editor 1938 An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome, volume 4. Baltimore:The JohnsHopkins University Press. Todd,I. Correction 1980 The Prehistoryof CentralAnatolia It was the Babylonianswho I: The Neolithic Period.Series: Studies In MediterraneanArchaeconqueredthe city of Jerusalem ology. Gothenburg:PaulAstrom's in 587 B.C.E., not the Assyrians Forlag. as was indicatedon page 167of Toombs,L. the September1988issueof Bib1982 The Development of Palestinian lical Archaeologist. The error Archaeology.Biblical Archaeologist 45: 89-91. was introducedin the editing Unal, A. process,and we regretany con1977 Naturkatastrophenin Anatolien im fusionit mKly havecaused. 2. Jahrtausendv. Chr.Belleten XLI: 447-72. Sandars,N. K. 1978 The Sea Peoples: Warriors of the An-
Biblical Archaeologist, Tune/September1989
American Grants
Schools and
of
Oriental
Fellowships
for
Research 1 990-1
991
The Albright Institute of Archaeological Research, Jerusalem AnnualProfessorship George A. BartonFellowship HonoraryAppointments KressFellowship NEHFellowships
The Cyprus American Archaeological Research Institute (CAARI), Nicosia AnitaC. O'DonovanFellowship(1991) Fulbright ResearchFellowship HonoraryAppointments
The American Center of Oriental Research (ACOR), Amman, Jordan AnnualProfessorship Fulbright ResearchFellowship HonoraryAppointments JenniferC. Groot Fellowship
IraqExcavationGrant MesopotamianFellowship
The Committee on Mesopotamian Civilization, Baghdad
At-Large Endowmentfor BiblicalResearchTraveland ResearchAwards W. F.AlbrightFellowship
Informationregardingthese awardsis available fromthe AmericanSchoolsof OrientalResearch, theRotunda,Suite354,711 West40thStreet,Baltimore,MD21211,(301)889-1383.
National
Endowment for the "Travel to Collections"
Humanities Grants
The 'XTravel to Collections"programof the NationalEndowmentfor the Humanitiesprovides grantsof $750to assistAmericanscholarsto meet the costs of long-distancetravelto the research collectionsof libraries,archives,museums,or otherrepositoriesthroughoutthe United Statesand the world. Awardsaremade to help defraysuch researchexpensesas transportaXon, lodging, food, and photoduplicationand otherreproductioncosts.The applicationdeadlinesareJanuary 15for researchtravelbetweenJune1 and November30, and July15 forresearchtravelbetween December1 and May 31. Wewelcomehigh qualityapplicationsfor the "Travel to Collections"program.These applications, submittedby individualscholars,shouldbe for well-designedresearchprojectson topicsof signlficanceto the study of the humaniXes. Informationand applicationmaterialsare availablefrom: 'Travelto Collecdons"Program Divisionof Fellowshipsand Seminars Room316 NationalEndowmentfor the Humanities 1100PennsylvaniaAvenue,NW Washington,DC 20506(202-78&0463)
Biblical Archaeologist, June/September1989
97
Religionof the
The
Beckman Gary by HITTITES
recoveryof Hittitereli- Bittel 1970:chapter11.Rather,the scribesemployedbythe Hittite gion is difficultbecause the creatorsof the avail- kingscompiledtheirarchivesin the serviceof the royaladministration. abletextualsourcesdid not intendto conveya coherentpic- Theserecordsaidedthe bureaucracy tureto outsiders.The knowledgewe in the organizationandmaintenance of all areasof royalresponsibility, havedependschieflyon the thousandsof cuneiformtabletsdiscovered manyof which the modernobserver in the ruinsof the royalcity of Hat- wouldconsiderto be religious. The studyof Hittitereligion Among Bogazkoy. tusa,modern-day thereforebe basedon various must these tablets,however,thereareno of practicaldocuments:temple types canonicalscriptures,no theological andrecordsof cultic regulations no aicWs or cWlscourses, cWlsqulsltions prescriptionsforthe administration, to privatedevotionILaroche1971;
The
.
98
.
.
.
Biblical Archaeologist, fune/September1989
111 t17i.s'
relief froil7 t17e 11(1ill ehbl?7/er of
rock .s-lnctllblrsr t17t' Cit\'
ot Hblttl1.sbl1 /arocesLsiol7 t17e WUL1thUl'-C the lefty lebl ZX:t
617roce.s.sion
of go(l(l.S.se.
Of Al'il711t1,
.Sl1n-GOLlblU.s.S
here
given
HeZ7Llt.Thi.s gblblnbl l7roCe.s.sioI7 thU<'0I7tOl1r.$ it.self bIrolll7(l sTrbl/a.s
Ie(l /Q\! tl7l 17Ul'
/)WU.$'11I17L1/91\S;I'M;)l'M.sUl7t.$' tl7e LIttUl761b117t
(1llriS7g
\'eLlr'.S' tUs'tiX'Lll
Hl1rri
l\27Z7iCh
17b11?7d
/101'I7861
t12('
jll.st Ollt.sicl}
\X:'L11l.$Of
177b11L'gO(l.S' zto
greet.s
YblzlllkLlsbl! loltl
of
tl7M 1'0Ul\,
(1iViZ7M COlll't
t17e L'Cle/?l'6ltiO77
7 hM WdL1tl7Ur-CrObl
ot' t11M 17C\t' ltJe611vS
L'L1X),L']7b11'L1L'tLJl'i.s'tiL'Of l7i.S (liN:'il7it\'
b}
ttl b111(
I-ll7k. Hl) istL117bl.sw017 tXt'() /QL'17(1il7<<>M()l117tt1iI7thl' SI1I1-CO(1(1CMSAS? ltz'h0 \:t'Mbll'.S Go(l.s bll761((szreet.s 61 ,(1b1ttUI7t'b1,
Z7L1t b1I7(1.$'tL111(l.$' ()11 tl C'0I7LJ-.$'17b1X7C'b1
1i()17C.S. . I)Z7()t()
?N' tUlLlI717N' V()l \:'.S (,b117l)N'
Hittitereligionwas concerned with the centralpreoccupationof peasantlife: the fertilityof crops, animals,and people. properperformanceof ceremonies, reportsof diviners,religiouscompositionsusedin scribaleducation, andso on. Mostof the tabletsthat we havedateto the last 50 yearsor so of the Hittite Empire,although some earliercompositionsareavailable,eitheras originaltabletsor in latercopies. Tothe textualevidencemaybe addedthe testimonyof otherarchaeologicaldiscoveries,includinga few smalldivineimagesandother cult objects(Guterbock19831, the iconographydisplayedon seals tBeran 1967; Mora19871 androck reliefsIKohlmeyer 1983; Alexander 19861, andgroundplansof temples IBittel1970: 55-59; Neve 19871. GeneralCharacterof HittiteReligion At its base,Hittite religionwas concernedwith the centralpreoccupation of peasantlife on the central plateau:the fertilityof crops,domestic animals,andpeople.This interest is clearlyexpressedin an excerpt froma prayer: Tothe king,queen,princes,and to lall)the landof Hattigivelife, health,strength,longyears,and joy;in?)the future!Andto them givefuturethrivingof grain, vines,fruit,cattle,sheep,goats, pigs,mules,asses-together with wild animals-and of humanbeings!1 The worldof the primitivefarmer andherdsmanis reflectedthroughout Hittite religion.The chiefdeity retainedthe clearfeaturesof a growth-sustaining Storm-God,even while presidingoverthe political structureof the Hittite Empire tGoetze1957: 138-42; Deighton 1982). Geographic elementssuch as springsandmountains,bothconceivedas sourcesof fructifying
water,playedan importantrole,and tationsof a singlenationalfigure. the cultivationof grainandthe inAs the Hittite stateexpanded creaseof herdswereeachrepresented fromits corein centralAnatolia,the by a deity lHoffner1974:82-85; rangeof godsmentionedin the royal Beckxnan1983:55-56).The Hittites archivescameto includedeitiesthat naturallyendeavored to understand wereworshipedin the urbancenters the numinousthroughimagery of SyriaandMesopotamiaas well as drawnfromthe dailyexperienceof those of Indo-European andHattic peasantlife. Thusthe characterand origin.In the earliestperiod,the majestyof manydeitiesweremade Hatticdeitiesof cult centerssuch as manifestthroughan association Nerik IHaas19701andHattusaprewith some animal,wild or domestic. dominated,laterto be joinedby inGodswerefrequentlydepictedas creasingnumbersof newcomersat standingon theirassociatedbeasts; home in regionsto the southand somewereevenrepresentedin east.The Luwiandeitiesof Hupesna, animalform(Lebrun19851. Istanuwa,andLallupiya,andparticularlythe Hurriangodsof Samuha The Pantheon ILebrun 19761,Kummanni, Karkamis, The mostprominentfiguresin the andAlepposhouldbe mentioned statecult werea Storm-God, who here.Listsof divinewitnessesto wasbroughtinto Anatoliabythe treatiespresentthe imperialpanIndo-European newcomers,anda theonmostclearly{Kestemont19761, kindof Sun-Goddess borrowedfrom althoughit is puzzlingthat these the indigenousHatticpeople.In groupingsomit severalotherwise spiteof herdesignation,the latter promlnent c .eltles. deitywas chthonic,or infernal,in Inthe thirteenthcenturyB.C.E. characterandwas a memberof the some effortsweremadeat systemlongline of Anatolianfertilitygods ization,andmanydivinitieswere reachingfromthe so-calledMother- groupedinto kaluti, or "circles" of Goddessof (;atalHoyukin the sixth malesandfemales,as depicted millenniumall the wayto Cybele visuallyin the bas-reliefprocessions andDianaof the Hellenisticperiod. of Yazlllkaya. It is significantthat, This divinecouplewerepresumably althoughtheiriconography makes worshipedin the twin cellasof Hat- most of these deitiesimmediately tusa'slargesttemple. recognizableas long-standing memThe nuslnber of individualdeibersof the Hittitepantheon,their ties mentionedin the Hittite texts is hieroglyphiclabelsgivetheirnames staggering(Laroche1947;Gurney in Hurrian;Laroche1948,1952>. 1977:4-23>.The Hittitesthemselves Thatis, syncretizationhadfinally referredto their"thousandgods,"but beencarriedout. This processis also manyof these figuresarecitedinfre- reflectedby an invocationfroma quentlyin the texts andremainlittle prayerof queenPuduhepa: morethannamesto us today.This Sun-Goddess of Arinna,my multiplicityis due in partto a resislady,you arethe queenof all tanceto syncretization.Forexample, lands!In the landof Hattiyou manyHittite townsmaintainedinhaveassumedthe nameSundividualstorm-gods,decliningto Goddessof Arinna,but in reidentifythe local deitiesas manifesspectto the landwhichyou .
.
.
Biblical Archaeologist, June/September1989
99
w
t.- thrive continuum. only There when the wasdeities no strictwho
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
havemade;theland)of cedars ;thatis, Syria), youhaveassumedthenameHebat.2 Thissystematizing approach reflected theopinionof onlya smallgroupat theHittitecourt,however, andatno timewasa singleunitaryhierarchy ofgodsestablished. _
ThePlaceof theKing TotheHittites,theuniversewasa
_ ;] _t f $
.
-
.-
.
* s
-* -
-,
t
*
r
'
separation betweengodsandhumans. Thetwoclassesofbeingswereinterdependent andexistedalongside the worldofplantsandanimals,from whichbothultimatelydrewtheir sustenance. Thegodswereliterally dependent ontheofferings presented byhumans,who,conversely, could controlled thebasicprocessesof naturewerewelldisposedtoward the agriculturists andstock-breeders. Thissituationis wellillustrated bya complaint ofkingMursiliII: All ofthelandofHattiis dying, sothatnooneprepares the sacrificial loafandlibationfor you(thegods1. Theplowmen whousedto workthefieldsof thegodshavedied,so thatno oneworksorreapsthefieldsof thegodsanylonger.Themillerwomenwhousedto prepare
Above: The 711ans-tacete(l Sun1itit godcl.
s
l.st:lr. \N 170.%L'1-C'Llll77
inC111(ied
kSCXE1(11it\:' blI761b1TIl1UC1 C50177l?61t.L1;7;7f<1WS (fU(l11U17tll' il7 dating to the Middle Kil7(zdol7las lt'Cll a.s tl7L' E]77/)iE(' /)t'liO(/
texts of Hittite
historsZ The ,v,ocldes. i.s .sh0w]7 I?t'l U tlS /7blf t ot tl1L' 1017(gr of god.s il7 tj1M 177LliI?ChaI77bUr Of YS--I7]kfl\ta. 19170to 19\t Ronald L. Gornv. Left: Thi.s I710(1er77 impre.s.sioI7 ot the sedl f)f Ehli-hrzl.sn ilZzistrate.s the iconographN7 of tzt;o in7p0lt(ll1t Hittite
procession
deities. On the left StllI761.S the iitOTI17-GOci. h01(1iI7g hi.s 111SCC (ll7( the ' xv"-hierogly;7hre;reseI7till£J,hi.s I7(1INC. 'r/1d fittrUIL'on ti1e ri(>rht *vears the robes v:zIl(l .sktlll-ctl;)ewOI17]77()Z] t() tJ1e(SIlI7-CXJ()(! (lz7b1 ti1C) u777aI7 ki71g, bilt tl7ev . IlI7-(li.sc tz1?ov) 17i.s1/7el(l t1.5.$111L'.8 Il.8 tl1(]t it 18 the deit Ntrh0 i.s iI7teI(le(l i7evre.Photo collrt9.>X:ot the Y(zlL BabyloniaI7 CollectioI7 K1(,>7kS).
100
Biblical Azchaeologist, tune/September1989
household, me, should the
protect king,so
that the my
I, land the andking, my my
|
At death, the king was said "tobecome a god" and began to receive cultic observances. sacrificialloavesof the gods havedied,so that they no longer makethe sacrificialloaves.As forthe corralandsheepfold fromwhich one usedto cull the offeringsof sheepandcattlethe cowherdsandshepherds havedied,andthe corraland sheepfoldareempty.So it hap-
_
|;D
||=
!
!| i
l_
libation(sl,alA ax]inl ll sasnRscs thismatter!3 The monarchoccupieda central positioninHittiteideology(Guter-
9
pomtat whuchthe sphereof the
_
chiefpriestof the Sun-Goddess of Arinna,the kingwasresponsiblefor the properserviceof the godsby _ humankindand,in turn,represented humansocietybeforethe awesome powerof the gods.In a ritualdating to the OldHittiteperiod,the monarchspeaksof his charge: The gods,the Sun-Godandthe Storm-God, haveentrustedto
a
_ Lifi 1! g g g |
_
householdformyself4 Althoughto a certainextentthe kingwas identifiedwith the male Sun-God,as shownbyhis costume andhistitle"MySun."(Kellerman his death,at which tzmehe was said "tobecomeagod"andbeganto receive cultic observances(Otten1958).Indeed,lt 1S bellevedthat a sectlonof Yazlllkayaservedas the mortuary templeof kingTudhaliyaIV{Bittel 1970*chaPter 4'1 The queen,in turn,hada special relationshipwith the Sun-Goddess (Bin-Nun1975:197-2021,andall
_
|
11 |
|
|
_
_ _ _
! _
-
: 7:4d@a: :*-In Hittite ideology there was no strict separattion between gods and humans. Gods depended on humans for offerings,and humans dependX {edon gods for good harvests. The king occupied a centralposition in this interdependentrelattionship,representingthe point at which the sphereof the gods met that of human beings. .As chief priest, he was responsiblefor the proper n, acted as the representativeof human society service of the gods by humankind and, in turr lationship between a king and his personal god before the awesome power of the gods. The re is seen in this rock relief, also from Yazlllkaya , which shows lbdhaliya IV in the embrace of his personal god Sarruma.Notice the tall horrned cap worn by Sarrumaand the king's cartouchein the upperrighthand corner.Photto by TeannyVorysCanby.
Biblical Archaeologist, Tune/September1989
101
Ir7 the esn7all chanQberat Yaz1llkayata;X7elve gocJscarrying .scir77itars over their shotllderstlre sholvn runningin unison thevir boblie.soverZbIl^?ing. TheWse gods l:sthoare tllso .shownLIt the dr7d of
the n7ain c17amberp ivere al:2parentlst part at t11L? nes:vyear s fe.stivalperfolned is1 l70r70r of the Storr77-CTocl Photo 1wyRonald L. Gornv. t17C
oi
1ot7(i>J pr(f)cetstsior7
the
(X/ivine
in
coLlft
attenc:8clnt
defunctmembersof the royalfamily receivedoccasionalofferings(Otten 19511.All householdswereresponsibleforthe serviceof theirancestors (Archi1979bl,however,so the afterlifeof Hittite royaltywasprobablyjusta granderversionof that awaitingthe ordinaryperson. The StateCult The needsanddesiresof the Hittite godswereconceivedof as being similarto those of humansof high rank.Thetempleof a godwassimply his house,andstrictregulations governedthe serviceandbehaviorof priestswithin its precincts(Korosec 19747.Templeshousingthe most lmportantc.lvlnltleswere..arge establishmentscontainingmany storeroomsandworkshopswhere productsnecessaryfordivineservice wereproduced(Guterbock19757. Outsidethe city extensivetractsof .
102
.
.
.
.
agriculturallandweredevotedto the supportof these divinehouseholds, and,consequently,the templeswere an importantpartof the Hittite economy(Klengel19751. The primaryreligiousfunctions of the statewerecarriedout in the numeroustemplesof the capital, but the kingandhis government werealsoultimatelyresponsiblefor the moremodestshrinesthat served minordeitiesthroughoutHatti.We areindebtedto a censusmadeof local cults duringthe late thirteenth centuryB.C.E. forinformationabout the worshipandiconography of manyHittite deities (vonBrandenstein 1943;Carter19621.The following reporton the cult of a smallvillageis typical: The townLapana,(chiefdeityl Iyaya:the divineimageis a femalestatuetteof wood,seated andveiled,one cubit (inheightl.
Biblical Archaeologist, Tune/Septembet1989
Herheadis platedwith gold, but the bodyandthroneare platedwith tin. Twowooden mountainsheep,platedwith tin, sit beneaththe deityto the rightandleft. Oneeagleplated with tin, two copperstaves,and two bronzegobletsareon hand as the deity'scultic implements. Shehasa newtemple.Herpriest, a male,is a holdover.5 Regardless ofwhetherhis temple waslargeor small,within his cella the deitywas caredfor-fed and clothed-by his priesthood.Because these activitieswereperformedroutinely,they arerarelydiscussedin the texts,but the texts do giveinformationaboutthe specialdivinefestivalsorpartiesthatwereheldin honorof these deities (Guterbock 1969-19701. The scheduleof worshipvariedforeachdeity;somefestivalswereheldmonthlyoryearly,
If the requisiteworship was performed accordingto its stringentrequirements,the deities were pleased and favoredthe king. whereasothersmarkedparticular momentsin the agriculturalcalendar,such as the reapingof a harvest or the cuttingof grapes.In general, fallfestivalsfeaturedthe fillingof storagevesselswith the bountyof the harvest,while springfestivals centeredaroundthe openingof these vessels.It seems that a new year'sfestivalwasperformedin honorof the Storm-Godof Hattusa in the maingalleriesof Yazlllkaya (Otten19561;the divinecourtattendantuponthis occasionis depicted in the reliefsexecutedthere. Becausethe celebrationof importantfestivalsforthe most prominent deitiesthroughoutcentralAnatolia requiredthe presenceof the king,these festivalswereorganized into a springanda fall series,known collectively(andrespectivelylas the festivalof the crocus(Guterbock 19601andthe festivalof haste (Kosak 19761.Duringthe springtourthe kingwas requiredto travelforat least 38 days,althoughin some instancesit waspermittedforthe queen,a prince,or evena symbolic animalhideto substituteforthe monarch. Hittite festivalsgenerallyconsistedof foodofferings,oftenin the formof a communalmealuniting godandworshipers(Archi1979al, toaststo the deities (Kammenhuber 19711,andentertainment.The gods wereamusedin variousways:through athleticcompetitions,such as foot races,horseraces,andthe throwing of heavystones,throughmockbattles, andthroughthe anticsof jesters.The godswerealso treatedto musicperformedbyvarioustypesof muslclanson a W1C revarletyot lnstruments(Gurney1977:34-351. Unfortunatelywe knowverylittle aboutthe characterof Hittite music .
.
.
.
,
.
or the lyricssung,forspecificinformationwasusuallynot recorded (Kummel19731. Ifthe requisiteworshipwasperformedon time andaccordingto its stringentrequirements,the deities werepleasedwith andfavoredthe king,grantinghim personallongevityandnumerousoffspringand runningbeforehim in battle.Inturn the Hittite stateandits inhabitants prospered.Mostimportant,Hittite armleswerevlctorlous,anc. Hlttlte farmersraisedbumpercrops.Butif foranyreasonthe godswereunhappy with howthe worshipwasperformed, they mightinvokesanctionsresulting in the most negativeeffects, frompersonalsicknessto national calamity.Indeed,almostanyill was interpretedas a manifestationof divineanger.Aftermucheffort,for example,MursiliIIlearnedthat divinedispleasureat a neglected festivalanda brokentreatywith Egyptwasthe causeof the plague afflictingHatti. Descriptionsof Hittite festivals aremonotonousto readbecausethe largelyrepetitiveceremoniesare describedin minutedetail.This passageshouldconveythe flavorof these compositions: Thekingandqueen,seated,toast The halliyarithe War-God. men (playlthe largeINANNAinstrumentsandsing.The claps.The cupclapper-priest bearerbringsone snack-loaf fromoutsideandgives (itlto the king.The kingbreaks(itland takesa bite.The palacefunctionariestakethe napkinsfrom the kingandqueen.The crouchenters.The king ing (cupbearerl andqueen,standing,toastthe (divinizedlDay.The jester speaks;the clapperclaps;the .
.
.
.
.
cries"aha!"6 kita-man Ourknowledgeof nativeAnatolian mythologyis drawnlargelyfrom such texts,fortales of primordial activitiesby the godsweresometimes recitedduringa festivalas a wayof encouragingthe godsto maintainthe orderof the worldthey hadestablishedlongbefore.Thus, two versionsof the strugglebetween the Storm-Godanda cosmic serpent weretold duringthe courseof a springfestival(Beckman19827. Ritual In contrastto the festivals,which wereperformedat regularintervals, anothercategoryof ritewasintendedforuse only as the situation required.Suchceremoniesareusually referredto as rituals.Textsdescribingthese ceremoniesgiveus ourbestview of popularreligion becausemanywerenot composedin Hattusabut werecollectedbyroyal scribesthroughoutthe Hittiterealm. In most of the ancientNearEast, ritualswererecordedanonymously, but in Hattisuch compositionswere oftennamedafterthe practitioner fromwhom theywereelicited.A1thoughthe so-calledauthorof a ritualis occasionallysaidto be a priest,moreoftenfemaleexpertsin magicbearthe title "oldwoman," andmen arereferredto as "seer." ManyHittite ritualswererites of passageintendedto ease the transition of an individualfromone stageor stationin life to another. Thuswe havemanytexts describing ritualsforbirth(Beckman1983),one forpuberty(Guterbock19691,and severalfordeath(Otten19581.Rituals forthe enthronementof the monarch arealludedto (Kummel19671,but no actualtext has survived.The purpose of the majorityof rituals,how-
1989 103 BiblicalAzchaeologist,June/Septembez
Aanslation
Myth of
§1 §2
lThisis}the text of the purulli Ifestival}forthe 1. . . 1of the Storm-Godof Heaven,accordingto Kella,lthe/'anointedpriest' of the Storm-Godof Nerik:Whenthey speakthus/'Letthe landgrowland}thrive,andlet the landbe secure when it lindeed}growsland}thrives, lliterally'protected'}!"-and then they performthe festivalof purulli. Whenthe Storm-Godandthe serpentcameto gripsin lthe townof)Kiskilussa,the serpentsmotethe Storm-God. the Storm-Godsummonedall the godslsaying}: lThereafter} "Comein!Inarahas prepareda feast!" Shepreparedeverythingin greatquantity-vessels of wine, vesselsof lthedrink}marnuwan land}vesselsof Ithedrink} lwallhi.In the vesselsshe maldelan abundance. Then lInaralwent ltol lthetownof}Ziggarattaand encounteredElupasiya,a mortal. /'Iam aboutto do suchInaraspokeas followsto Elupasiya: and-sucha thing-you joinwith me!" Hupasiyarepliedas followsto Inara:/'IfI maysleepwith you,then I will come andperformyourheart'sdesire!"lAndlhe sleptwith her. andconcealedhim. Inara ThenInaratransportedElupasilyal dressedherselfup andinvitedthe serpentup fromhis hole lsaying}:/'I'mpreparinga feast-come eat anddrink!" Thenthe serpentcameup togetherwith lhis childrenl,and theyate land}drank-they dralnklup everyvesselandweresated. Theywereno longerableto go backdowninto ltheir}hole, lso that}Hupasiyacameandtied up the serpentwith a cord. The Storm-Godcameandslew the serpent.The lother}gods wereat his side. in lthe ThenInarabuilt a houseon a rockloutcropping} townof} TarukkaandsettledBupasiyain the house.Inara instructedhim:/'WhenI go out into the countryside,you must not look out the window!Ifyou look out, you will see yourwife land}yourchildren!" When(Inarawent awayand}the twentiethdayhadpassed, he lookedout the winldowlandlsawlhis wife land}lhislchildren. WhenInarareturnedfromthe countryside,he beganto whine:/'Letme (go}backhome!" /'. . . 1away1. . . 1. . . Inalrasplokeas followslto Elupasiya: 1. . . '1with anger1. . . 1the meadowof the Storm-God1. . . 1she 1 killed?lhim. Inaralwentlto (thetownof}Kiskillussalland}set her?house andltheriver?lof the wateryabyss?lintolthe handof the kingthe becauselin commemorationthereof}we are(re-}performing firstpurulli-festival-thehandlofthe kingwill hold?the house of Inaraandthe rivler?lof the wateryabyss?. (Thedivinemountain}Zaliyanuis firlstllin rank}amongall (thegods}.Whenhe has allotedrainin (thetownof}Nerik,then fromNerik. the heraldbringsfortha loafof barsi-bread He hadaskedZaliyanuforrain,andhe bringsit to him lon accountof?lthe bread. . . (severaldamagedlines followedby a gapof about40 lines}
Illuyanka §3 §4 §5 ew of the mythologicaltextsfrom l the Hittitearchiveshaveattractedas muchattentionas this one ICTH321), whichnarratesthe combatof the StormGodwith a foe designatedsimplybythe Hittitecommonnounforsnakeor serpent,illuyanka-. Althoughall of the preservedtabletswhosesize is sufficientto allowdatingbelongto the Empireperiod, therecanbe little doubtthatthis text itself is an OldHittitecomposition. Manyarchaicgrammaticalfeaturessupportthis judgment. Othercommentatorshavediscussed manyaspectsof this text,forexample, its reflectionof Anatolianmarriagecustoms,its use of widelyattestedfolkloristic motifs,andits relationshipto Greek mythology.Formypart,I wouldstress thatthe two mythologicalnarrativesof CTH321,like all knownexamplesof whatHansGuterbockhastermedAnatolian mythology, arecontainedwithina ritualcontext.§§ 1 and2 makethis exis performed plicit-the purulli-festival bothwhen,andin orderthat,the land shouldthrive,andthe mythsarethe textsof this festival.Thesetalesclearly presentseveralreligiousetiologies,the mostimportantof whichis the establishmentof a royalcult in the townof Kiskilussa,but moresignificantis the for provisionof a mythologicalparadigm a humansituation.Hittitesocietyhadto the alternacopewith andunderstand tion of periodsof growthandstapation. Theobvioussflnbolizingin CTH321of andof the the formerbythe Storm-God latterbythe serpenthasled to the interpretationof the entiremythas basically DyingGod an exampleof the Frazerian myth,butI feel thatthe resolutionof the crisisof the seasonsthroughthe combinedeffortsof humansanddeities is the mostsignificantelementhere. Inthe firstversionof the myth,only the helpof Hupasiyaenablesthe Storm=
§6 §7 §8 §9 §10 §11 §12 §13
§14 §15 §16 §17
§18 §19
§2C §21'
104 BiblicalArchaeologist,tune/Septemberl989
ThiS [ * * * ]
Because?[ . . . ] spoke.The ser[pent]defeatedthe Storm-God
andtook(hislh[eartandeyes.]AndhimtheStorm-God [. . . ] Andhe tookashiswifethedaughter of a poorman,andhe sireda son.Whenhegrewup,he tookashis wifethedaughter of theserpent. §23' TheStorm-God instructed (hislson:"When yougoto the houseofyourwife,thendemandfromthem(mylheartandeyes!" §24' Whenhewent,thenhe demanded fromthemtheheart,and theygaveit to him.Afterwards he demanded fromthemthe eyes,andtheygavetheseto him.Andhe carriedthemto the Storm-God, his father,andtheStorm-God (therebyl tookback hisheartandhis eyes. §25' Whenhe wasagainsoundin bodyasof old,thenhewent oncemoreto theseaforbattle.Whenhe gavebattleto himand wasbeginning to smitetheserpent,thenthesonof theStormGodwaswiththeserpentandshouteduptoheaven,to hisfather: §26' "Include me-do notshowmeanymercy!" ThentheStormGodkilledtheserpe[nt] andhis lownlson.Andnowthisone, theStorm-God [. . . ] §27' ThussaysKella,[the"anointed priest" oftheStorm-God of Nerik:" . . . ] whenthegods[ . . . (gapof about40 lines-insert §§27'a-27'c?l §27'a [ . . . ] andto himto ea[t. . . ] backto Ner[ik. . . ] he releases. §27tb [ . . . ] (thegodlZashapuna [ . . . ] (slhe[ . . . jed,andthe Storm-God ofNerik[and. . . ] went.AndZali[yanu . . . ] gave back[ ] §27'c [ . . . ] thenhe trans[ported?? . . . t]o?Ne[rik?. . . §28" [Thenf]orthe"anointed priest" theymadethe[fore]most godsthe[humb]lest, andthe[hum]blest theymadetheforemost gods. §29" ThecultictaxofZalilyalnu is great.Zashapuna thewifeof Zalilyalnu is greaterthantheStorm-God of Nerik. §30" Thegodsspeakasfollowsto the"anointed priest" Tabpurili: "When wegoto theStorm-God of Nerik,whereshallwesit?" §31" The"anointed priest" Tatpurilispeaksasfollows:"When yousit ona dioritestool,andwhenthe"anointed priests" cast thelot,thenthe"anointed priest" whoholds(theimageof} Zaliyanu-adioritestoolshallbesetabovethespring,andhe shallbeseatedthere." §32" "Allthegodswill arrive,andtheywill castthelot.Ofallthe godsof (thetownoflKastama, Zasbapuna willbethegreatest. §33" "Because sheis thewifeof Zalilyalnu, landlTazzuwassi is his concubine, thesethreepersonswill remainin (thetownofl Tanipiya." §34" AndthereSterin Tanipiya a fieldwill behandedoverfrom theroyal(propertyl§35" Sixkapunu-measures of field,onekapunu-measure of garden, a housetogetherwitha threshing-floor, threebuildings forthehouseholdpersonnel-itis (recordedl [on?] a tablet.I am respectful of them[attelr?, andI havespokenthesethings(trulyl. §36" Onetablet,complete,of thewordofKella,the"anointed priest." §22'
Godto avengehimselfuponhis enemy, althoughone mighthavesupposedthat his divineassistant,Inara,couldhave tied up the serpentandhis brood.An essentialfactorin the secondversionis the participation of a humanfemaleas mother,bythe Storm-God, of a son who is seeminglyentirelyhumanin nature. The olnt effortof humananddeityis the commonelementin the twoversions of a myththatotherwisediffergreatlyin plot.A similarrelationshipof human anddivineis foundin the Mythof the VanishingGodICTH322-27lwhere ritualperformances on the partof the divinehealerKamrusepa andof a mortal ritualpractitionerarebothrequiredto placatethe absentdeity.Indeed,within this lattertext, it is not clearexactly wherethe activitiesof the goddessleave offandthoseof the humanbegin. InCTH321,bothHupasiyaandthe mortaloffspringof the Storm-God come to grief.Althoughthe directcausesof theirdestructionaredifferent-the jealousyof Inarain the firstinstanceand the logicof Anatolianfamilystructure in the second-both mortalprotagonists arepunishedfora too intimaterelationshipwith the deitieswhomtheyaid,an intimacysymbolizedbysexualintercourse.WhileHupasiyaclearlydemonstrateshubrisbyhis demandforthe favorsof Inara,andthe anonymousson of the Storm-God is a blamelesstragic figuretrappedbyhis socialobligations, bothhavenonethelesscrossedthe line separatingmortalsfromdeities. The Mythof Illuyankagivesexpression to an importantfacetof the Hittites' conceptionof the universe.Theactivity of everyonecontributesto the proper functioningof the cosmos,buteachindividualmustremainin his or herproper place.As the godis to the mortal,so in a senseis the kingto the subject. Pora completeeditionof the text, accompanied byphilologicalnotes,see mypreviousarticle(1982l.This sidebar is adaptedfromthatarticle. -Gary Beckman
colophonl
Pibaziti,[thescribe,]wroteit underthesupervision of Walwaziti, thechiefscribe.
BiblicalArchaeologist,[une/September 1989 105
C5ltlyve. . el. in the iShbl[)M of bInil77bl1. zvereoften t1.eb1for erel770l7iz11 vLlr^o.se.s. TZ7e.se ZtIll-.shblvecl rZ7ytOl7.$ bZ7c1 ea'g1e.shtlveclrhytOl7.$ \vere foLlnclbItthe .siteof the karum bItKbine.s. I)hoto.scotirte.svof Tblh.sil7 CizvLis,.
evil portendedforthe personof the king (seeLaroche1971:chapter7}. Communication The Hittitesbelievedthat communicationhadto be maintainedbetween the godsandhumankindforthe worldto operateefficiently.On the one hand,as the representative of humankindthe kingaddressedthe godsthrougha varietyof typesof prayers(Laroche1964;Lebrun1985X, extractsof which havebeenquoted here.On the otherhand,godscould maketheirwishes anddispleasure knownto humansthroughomensor oracles.Omensweremessagesfrom godsto humans,most frequentlyenever,wasthe restorationof a person counteredthroughdreams(Oppencity andhousebecomea ram, to his or herproperfunctioning andlet it mountthe darkearth heim 1956:254-551.Muchmoreimwithin a particularsphereof life. in the steppe!Andlet the dark portantwerethe oracles,procedures The causeof the impairmentmight earthbecomepregnantwith the throughwhichhumanssolicitedinformationfromthe gods.Countless be divineanger,but the problem blood,impurityandsin!7 mightalsobe dueto papratar, a kind It is interestingto notethat most of recordsof augury,extispicy(divination throughthe readingof animal of pollution.Whetherthis pollution the analogiesusedin such magic entrailsX, anda curioustypeof lot wasthe resultof a person'sown mis- weredrawnfromthe dailyexperioracle(Kammenhuber 1976}have deedsor hadbeen sent by an enemy ence of the Hittitepeasant. A widerangeof difficultiescould beenpreservedin the archives.These throughblackmagic,it hadto be removedandrenderedharmless. be counteredby a ritual.Therewere divinationtechniqueswereoften This wasoftenaccomplishedby ceremoniesdesignedto alleviatesuch usedas checkson one another. PleasmadebyMursiliIIin meansof analogicmagic.A typical problemsas familystrife,sexualimincantationreads: potence,andinsomnia,andwe also an effortto determinethe cause As a rammountsa ewe andshe knowthat ritualswereperformedtO of the plagueafflictingHattiunderline the needforcommunication becomespregnant,so let this wardoffplague,militarydefeat,or
106
Biblical Archaeologist, tune/September 1989
betweengodsandhumans: Orif peoplearedyingforsome otherreason,let me see it in a dream,or let it be established throughan oracle,or let a prophetspeakit! Orin regardto whateverI communicatelasa possiblecauseof the epidemic} to all the priests,let them investigateit throughincubation!8 Conclusion Inthis shortpresentationI havetried to showthat the religiousconceptions of the Hittiteswerecongruent with theirsocialsystemandecological situation.Likethe kingand othermembersof the rulingclass, the godsstoodfarabovethe ordinary Hittite,dispensingfavorsor punishments accordingto theirpleasure. At the sametime, all inhabitantsof the Hittiteworldweremutuallydependent,andthe laborsofthepeasant agriculturalistandpastoralistwere the basisuponwhich all elsehumananddivine-rested. Notes 1 KUB 24.2 rev. 12 ' -16 ' (see glossary listing for KUB). 2 KUB 21.27 i 3-6. 3 KUB 24.3 ii 4 ' -17 ' . 4KUB29.1il7-l9. 5 KUB 38.1 iv 1-7. 6 KUB 25.6 iv 5-24 KUB 41.8 iv 29-32. KUB 14.8 rev. 41-44, as restored from duplicates. 7 8
Bibliography Alexander, R. L. 1986 The Sculpture and Sculptors of Yazlllkaya. Newark: University of Delaware Press. Archi, A. 1979a Das Kultmahl bei den Hethitern. Series: Turk Tarih Kurumu Yaylnlan IV/8: 197-213. 1979b I1dio Zawalli. Sul culto dei morti
presso gli Ittiti. Altorientalische Forschungen6: 81-94. Beckman,G. 1982 The Anatolian Myth of Illuyanka. tournal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society 14: 11-25. 1983 Hittite Birth Rituals. Series:Studien zu den Bogazkoy-Texten29. Wiesbaden:Otto Harrassowitz. Beran,Th. 1967 Die hethitische Glyptik von Boghazkoy:I. Teil. Series:Wissenschaftliche Veroffentlichungender Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft76. Berlin:Gebr. Mann. Bin-Nun, S. 1975 The Tawanannain the Hittite Kingdom. Series:Texteder Hethiter 5. Heidelberg:Carl Winter. Bittel, K. 1970 Hattusha:The Capitalof the Hittites. New York:OxfordUniversity Press. 1976 The GreatTempleof HattushaBogazkoy.American [ournal of Archaeology 80: 66-73. Brandenstein,C. G. von 1943 Hethitische Gotternach Bildbeschreibungenin Keilschrifttexten. Series:Hethitische Texte 8. Leipzig: C. Hinrichs. Carter,C. 1962 Hittite Cult-Inventories.Ph.D. dissertation. Chicago:University of Chicago. Deighton, H. in Hittite Ana1982 The "Weather-God" tolia. Series:BARInternational Series 143. Oxford:BAR. Goetze, A. 1957 Kleinasien. 2. Auflage. Series:Handbuch der Orientalistik III.1.3.3.1. Munich:C. H. Beck. Gurney,O. R. 1958 Hittite Kingship.Pp. 105-21 in Myth, Ritual and Kingship,edited by S. Hooke. Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press. 1977 Some Aspects of Hittite Religion. Series:The SchweichLectures1976. Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press. Guterbock,H. G. 1950 Hittite Religion. Pp. 83-109 in Forgotten Religions, edited by V.Ferm. New York:Philosophical Library. 1954 Authority and Lawin the Hittite Kingdom.tournal of the American Oriental Society, Supplement 17: 16-24. 1960 An Outlineof the HittiteAN.RH.SUM Festival.[ournal of Near Eastern Studies 19:80-89. 1964 Religion und Kultus der Hethiter. Pp. 57-73 in Neuere Hethiterforschung, edited by G. Walser.Series: Historia, Einzelschriften7. Wiesbaden:FranzSteiner. 1969 An Initiation Rite fora Hittite Prince.
19691970
1975
1983
Pp. 99-103 in AOS Middle West BranchSemi-Centennial Volume, edited by D. Sinor.Bloomington: IndianaUniversity Press. Some Aspects of Hittite Festivals. Pp. 175-80 in Actes de la XVlle RencontreAssyriologique Internationale. Brussels:Comite belge de recherchesen Mesopotamie. The Hittite TempleAccordingto WrittenSources.Pp. 125-32 in Le Templeet le Culte. Compte rendude la 20iemeRencontreAssyriologique Internationale.Istanbul:Institut Historiqueet Archeologique. Hethitische Gotterbilderund Kultobjekte.Pp. 203-17 in Beitragezur Altertumskunde Kleinasiens:Festschrift fur KurtBittel, edited by R. M. Boehmerand H. Hauptman. Mainz:Philipp von Zabern.
Haas,V. 1970 Der Kult von Nerik. Series:Studia Pohl4. Rome:PapstlichesBibelinstitut. Hoffner,H. A. 1974 Alimenta Hethaeorum:Food Productionin Hittite Asia Minor. Series:American Oriental Series 55. New Haven,CT:American Oriental Society. Kammenhuber,A. 1971 Heth. hassus 2e eAuzi,"derKonig trikt zwei."Studi Micenei ed EgeoAnatolici 14: 143-59. 1976 OrakelpraxistTraumeund Vorzeichenschau bei den Hethitern. Series:Texteder Hethiter 7. Heidelberg:Carl Winter. Kellerman,G. 1978 The Kingand the Sun-Godin the Old Hittite Period.TelAviv 5: 199-208. Kestemont,G. 1976 Lepantheon des instruments hittites de droitpublic.Orientalia45: 147-77. Klengel,H. 1975 Zur okonomischen Funktion der hethitischen Tempel.Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici16: 181-200. Kohlmeyer,K. 1983 Felsbilderder hethitischen Grossreichszeit. Acta praehistoricaeet archaeologicae 15: 7-154. Korosec,V. 1974 Einiges zur inneren Strukturhethitischer Tempelnach der Instruktion fur Tempelleute(KUBXIII4). Pp. 165-74 in Anatolian Studies Presented to Hans Gustav Guterbock on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday, edited by K. Bittel and others. Istanbul:NederlandsHistorischArchaeologischInstituut. Kosak,S. 1976 The Hittite nuntarrijashas-Festival {CTH6261.Linguistica 16:55-64. Kummel,H. M. 1967 Ersatzzitualefur den hethitischen
Biblical Archaeologist}tune/September 1989
107
Konig.Series:Studien zu den Bogazkoy-Texten 3. Wiesbaden:Otto Harrassowitz. 1973 Gesangund Gesanglosigkeitin der hethitischen Kultmusik. Pp. 169-78 in Festschrift HeinrichOtten,edited by E. Neu and C. Ruster.Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Laroche,E. 1947 Recherches surles nomsdes dieux hittites.Paris:LibrairieOrientaleet Americaine. 1948 Tesub,Hebat et leur cour.tournalof CuneiformStudies2: 113-36. 1952 Lepantheon de Yazlllkaya.tournalof CuneiformStudies6: 115-23. 1964 Laprierehittite: vocabulaireet typologie. Annuairede l'EcolePractiquedes HautesEtudes,Ve section 72: 3-29. 1971 Cataloguedes texteshittites.Paris: Editions Klincksieck. Lebrun,R. 1976 Samuha,foyerreligieuxde l'empire hittite.Series:Publications de lInstitute Orientalistede Louvain11. Louvain-la-neuve: InstitutOrientaliste. 1980 Hymneset priereshittites.Series: Homo Religiosus4. Louvain-la-neuve: Centre dTIistoiredes Religions. 1985 Le zoomorphisme dans la religion hittite. Pp.95-103 in LSanimal, l'homme,le dieudansle ProcheOrientancien.Leuven:Editions Peeters. Loon,M. van 1985 Anatoliain theSecondMillennium B.C.Series:Iconographyof Religions XVl12.Leiden:E. f. Brill. Mora, C 1987
Laglitticaanatolicadel IImillennio A. C.:classificazionetipologica.I. I sigillia iscrizionegeroglifica.Series: Studia Mediterranea 6. Pavia: Gianni Iunculano Editore.
Neve, P.
1987 Hattuscha, Haupt-und Kultstadtder Hethiter-Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen in der Oberstadt.Hethitica 8: 297-318. Oppenheim,A. L. 1956 The Interpretation of Dreams in the Ancient Near East. Series:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 46/3. Philadelphia:American PhilosophicalSociety. Otten, H. 1951 Die hethitischen"Konigslisten"und die altorientalischeChronologie. Mitteilungen der Deutschen OrientGesellschaft 83: 47-71.
1956 Ein Textzum Neufahrsfestaus Bogazkoy.Orientalistische Literaturzeitung 51: 101-05. 1958 Hethitische Totenrituale. Series: InstitutfurOrientforschung Veroffentlichung 37. Berlin:Akademie-Verlag.
108
The DorotResearchProfessorship1990 1991 W.F.Albright Institute ofArchaeology Jerusalem TheAmerican SchoolsofOriental Research isseekingapplications forthe 1990-1991DorotResearch Professorship attheT. F.Albright Institute of Archaeology in Jerusalem.The Professorship is for seniorscholars working in the areaof ancientNearEasternstudies,includingancient Semiticlanguages, literature, artandreligion,arehaeology, anthropology, biblicalstudies,epigraphy, geography, andrelatedinterdiseiplinary fields. The primarypurposeof the awardis to encouragea majorresearch project,whichmusthavean earlypublication date,contribute to the understanding of theculturesandpeoplesof theancientNearEast,and helpadvanceresearch in theappointee's discipline. TheProfessorship providesan awardof $30,000-a $22,000 stipend plustheuseofa furnished apartment andpartialboardattheAlbright Institute. (Residence attheInstitute is a requirement oftheaward.) Because oneofthegoalsoftheaward is toprovide a setting inwhichforeign scholars canparticipate in andenhanceacademic lifeattheInstitute, theawardis normally notopentopersonsalreadylivingin Israel.Theappointment is fora periodoffrom10 to 12 months,effective onJuly1, 1990. In additionto research,the DorotProfessor is expectedto givea semipopularlecture,eitheras partof the Rockefeller LectureSeries,jointly sponsored bytheAlbright Institute andHebrewUnionCollege,orin an equivalent forumagreedupon by the directorof the Institute.The Professor willberequired toconduct a seminar onresearch attheAlbright andserveas a resourcepersonforthecommunity of scholarsthere.The Professor willalsobe expectedto participate in thelifeof theacademic community in Jerusalem. Withinone monthaftertheendof theappointment, theProfessor must compilea reportofresultsachieved duringtheappointment andsenditto theProfessorship SelectionCommittee. (Aportionof thestipendwillbe withhelduntilthisreportis received.)In addition,theProfessor willbe required to submita briefreportabouthisor heraccomplishments and experiences forpublication in theappropriate ASORjournal. Applicants musthavea Ph.D.oritsequivalent. Applications forthe1990 appointment mustbe postmarked no laterthanDecember 15 1989. The awardwillbe announced on January20, 1990. Onlycompleted applications, witha detailed research proposal, required attachments, and lettersof reference, willbe considered bytheselectioncommittee. Applications andlettersof referenceshouldbe sentto the Selection Committeeforthe DorotProfessor,careoftheAmericanSchoolsof OrientalResearch The Rotunda Suite 354 711 West 40th Street BaltimoreMD21211.Forapplication materials andadditional information, contact theASORadministrative officesat(301) 889-1383 or,byfax,at(301) 889-1157.
Biblical Archaeologist Tune/September1989
HittiteArt by
Jeanny
Vorys
Cvnby
_.
V ;s _
a hen sculptured monumentsinnorth Syriancities dating t t to the IronAgewere firstdiscovered,theywereattributed to the Hittitesbecausemanywere accompaniedbyHittitehieroglyphs. j Wenowknowthatthese cities pre- ] servedonly faintreflectionsof the artcreatedon the Anatolianplateau duringthe secondmillenniumB.C.E. whenthe Hittiteswerein power. ] The termSyro-Hittiteart,implying w a commondenominatorbetween s the two areas,is only validin the _ Thesegiant limestone sphinxes, dating to the Hittite Empire,once looked down over Hattusa from the Sphinx IronAge.Hittiteartproperconsists at the highest point in the UpperCity. Morethan 8 feet tall, they were badly damaged in of monumentsmadein secondGal >fire that destroyedthe city but are still the best pieces of Hittite sculpturefound to date. millenniumAnatoliawhere,it is Thfeirheads, forequarters,and hindquarterswere carved in the round, whereas their sweptclear,somethingnew infusedthe bacckwings and lithe bodies with curled tails were carvedin high relief on the side of the door nbs.The sphinxes wear two different types of tight-htting caps with horns, and they have artistictraditionof the preceding lonS 1gHathorcurls hanging down over their breasts. The inlay from the eyes are missing. Their millennium.This new element plu faces, thin lips, and short chins were carved with great sensitivity. Photo of complete must surelybe associatedwith the leftthandsphinx, above, courtesy of the Staatliche Museum, Berlin. Photo of righthandsphinx e, above left, courtesy of Eski QarkMuzeswArchaeological Museum, Istanbul. incomingHittites.Speakinga new facd T |
,r, F
A/
/
rte
Imp
BiblicalArchaeologist,lune/September1989 109
#
Ts
*
r
*r
r
ne nlttjLtes graceltul y ansoroecS rr
*
@
jrr
s
s
s
vartous mltluences wsnlle creatlLng an art style all thLeilrown Indo-European language,the Hittites a lively stancesuggestinga specific transformeda landof small citymovement.Compositionsareusually statesinto a strongunitedkingdom simplewith literallysuperpositioned thateventuallybecamethe seatof an elements,althoughtherearea few empirewhile maintainingthrough- complexcompositionswith interout a deeprespectfortheirpredeces- wovenelementswherethe relationsorsin Anatolia. shipbetweenthe figuresis noted, Hittiteartwasalso that of an andrealnarrationis foundin hunt imperialstatethatwasstrongenough scenes.Inscriptionson the monuandambitiousenoughto vie with ments areshortandalwaysin hieroEgyptforcontrolof Syria.Forat glyphicscript.As in Egypt,the disleast 200 years(fromthe fourteenth tinctionbetweenreadingandseeing to the twelfthcenturiess.c.E.Ithe is oftenirrelevant:Somehieroglyphs Hittiteshaddiplomaticrelations areworksof art,andsome figures with Egypt,andthey couldnot have weremeantto be "read" as muchas beenunimpressedwith the giant seen. Somemonumentshaveno intemplesandpalacesthey sawthere. scriptionat all. MostHittiteartis Severalelementsin Hittite artsugreligiousin character.Livelybattle gestEgyptianinfluence:the megascenesexistin whichthe protagonists lithic architecture,the over-life-size arec.lvlne. sculpture,the importantstatusof Wearehamperedin ourunderthe sphinx,andthe use of the head- standingof the developmentof Hitdressof the Egyptiancow-goddess, tite artbecausethereareso few Hathor.Otherinfluencescamefrom monumentsthatcanbe datedexactly, Mesopotamia.Lilreotherpeoplesin or evenrelatively.It is particularly the ancientNearEast,the Hittites frustratingthat no monumentscan usedthe veryancientMesopotamian be securelytied to the verypowerful cuneiformsystemof writing,andin andimportantkingsof the Old learningit they adoptedsome of the Kingdomor the earlyHittiteEmpire. greatMesopotamiangodsandlitera- Mostof the workthatcanbe securely ture.TheHittitesgracefullyabsorbed datedbelongseitherin the Colony thesevariousinfluenceswhile devel- Age (nineteenththrougheighteenth opingan unmistakableartstyle of centuriess.c.E.Ior the late Hittite theirown,theirown iconography Empire(thethirteenthcenturyB.C.E . ). andtheirownpeculiarstyle of Thereis, however,a discernibleinmonuments:reliefson livingrockor ternaldevelopmentbetweenthese on enormouscut stonestructures two poles.The approximate dates andsculpturedfiguresembeddedin givento uninscribedmaterialdiffer cyclopeanarchitecture.Reliefwas fromscholarto scholaraccordingto alsousedextensivelyon the surface which endof the spectruma particuof vesselsmadeout of precious larscholarjudgesa pieceto belong. metalsor commonclay,on ivory, The artof third-millennium andon seals.Sculpturein the round Anatolia,into which the newcomers wasproducedon a monumental moved,is best knownfromthe rich scaleas well as in miniature. tombsat AlacaHoyukin central Stylisticallyspeaking,Hittite Anatolia.Withbut one exception artis characterized byplasticitythis artis characterized byflat, idollarge,clearformsthat oftenportray likehumanfigurinesandmarvelously .
The art of third-millenniumB.C.E. Anatolia, into which the Hittites came, is best known from the rich tombs at Alaca Hoyuk in the central plateau. Virtuallyall of this art is characterizedby flat, idol-like human figurines, like this 4Ys-inchbronzefigure,which has all the essential shapes of the human body, but is much stylized. Photo courtesy of the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara.
110
Biblical Archaeologist, tune/September 1989
.
stylizedfiguresof animals,such as bulls {whichwerepopularin many cultures),stags,lions, andbirds. Unusualarethe awesomemajesty andpowerof the stagrepresentations fromthe thirdmillenniumto the first.In the third-millennium tombsat AlacaHoyuk,stagswith giganticantlersoccursinglyor surroundedby abstractpatterns(Bittel 1976a:figures19,22).In Hittite art the staghunt with obviousreligious connotationsis oftenrepresented. Manypeopleshaveusedraptors, such as eagles,falcons,andhawks, as symbolsbut usuallywithout theirprey.A raptorwith its preywas anotherfavoriteAnatolianmotif that the Hittitestook overfromthe third-millenniumrepertoire(Bittel 1976a:figure237andpassedon to the IronAge. EarlyHittite Art In this article,earlyHittite artis groupedinto two periods,the Colony Ageandthe OldHittite Kingdom. The ColonyAge.This periodlasted roughlyfromthe nineteenththrough the eighteenthcenturyB.C.E. No rich tombslikethoseat third-millennium AlacaHoyukdatingto the second millenniumhavebeenexcavated, and,unfortunately, we cannotbe surewhetheror not objectsmade out of preciousmetalsthat have beenpurchasedon the artmarket come fromtombs.Thus,forthe historyof artin the earlysecondmillenniumwe aredependenton everydaymaterials,such as sealings,clay ritualvessels,anda few ivories, muchof which come fromAssyrian tradesettlementsin coloniesoutside the small city-statesof the period. Ritualvessels.It is fromthe manylocal ritualvesselsthatwe get the flavorof the new elementsin
At the time of the establishment of Assyrian tradingcenters (karums) in central Anatolia during the Colony Age, new elements were introduced to the local art. The flavor of these new elements is best seen in ritual vessels uncoveredat Kultepe,the site of ancient Kanes. Clay rhytons(ritualpouringvessels) have been found in various animal forms, including two in the shape of raptors(birdsof prey)and one in the shape of a ram'shead. Photos courtesy of the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara.
Anatolianart.Thesefiguresare,for the most part,realisticallyshaped, displayingnone of the stylizedanimal shapesthatwerecharacteristic of the thirdmillennium.Thereare drinkingvesselsin the shapeof lions andantelopesas well as cupsin the shapeof animalheads,such as cats, eagles,pigs,bulls,rabbits,andfish, oftenmadein pairs.Therearealso animalheadson spouts,rims,and handles.Otherimagesincludea manpaddlinga boatandanother manclimbinginto a boat,andon
one handlea charioteeris shown shoutingat his horses(Ozgucand Ozguc1953:338-41;plates38, 40, 41;T.Ozguc1983,1986:121,plates 47-50, colorplatesC, E, F:1-4, G:6, plates 104-08, 110,11la.b, 113:4a.b; Bittel 1976a).Someof these pieces arerealworksof artwith full plastic modelingandlarge,clear,correctly shapedfeatures.Particularlyimpressive is the hunchedpostureof the raptorsIT.Ozguc1986).A major sculptureis of a verylargeram'shead IOzgucandOzguc1953).Thereare ..
Biblical Archaeologist, fune/September1989
111
Theseivorysphinxes,probablyfromthe ColonyAgesite of Acemhoyukin centralAnatolia, havethesameclearlymarkedfeaturesof thenudefemaleivoryfigurefoundat Kultepe.They weara versionof theEgyptianHathorwig butwith theAnatolianadditionof twolargecurls on theside of thehead.Thefigureat right,a furnitureornamentin theformof a femalesphinx (36.70.8),is about5 inchestall, andthesphinxrelief,to theleft, a fragmentof a furniture plaque(36.70.II),is about3 inchestall. Giftof Mrs.GeorgeD. Prattin memoryof thelate GeorgeD. Pratt.Photoscourtesyof theMetropolitan MuseumofArt,New York.
alsohumanfaceson vesselssimilar to thosefromthird-millennium Troy. Ivories.A charmingsmoothly executedivoryfigureof a nudegirl cuppingherbreastswas foundin a graveof the laterperiodat the chief merchantsettlementof Kultepe,the ancientcity of Kanes(Bittel1976a: figure33).Sheis half-standing, halfseatedandwearsthe typicalfeminine hat perchedon the backof herenormoushead.Shehas largefacialfeaturesanda daintytorsobut very plumphips,thighs,andlegs.The little figure,who appearsto be smiling, showsan entirelydifferentapThissmoothlyexecutedivoryfigureof a nude girlcuppingherbreastswasfoundat Kultepe proachto the humanfigurefrom in a gravedatingto thelaterColonyAge. that illustratedby the flat idols Measuring about3Ysinchesin height,the figureis half-standing, half-seated,andwears foundat AlacaHoyuk,andshe forea typicalfemininehatperchedon the backof shadowsthe life-likefiguresof herhead.Shehas a daintytorsobutlarge imperialHittiteart. facialfeaturesandveryplumphips,thighs, A groupof ivoryfiguresin the andlegs.Thisfigurerepresentsan entirely differentapproachto thehumanformfrom MetropolitanMuseumof Artin thatseenin theflat,idol-likefigurinesfound New Yorkarenow knownto have at AlacaHoyuk,andit foreshadowsthe comefromthe ColonyAgecity at lifelikefiguresof laterimperialHittiteart. Photocourtesyof theMuseumof Anatolian Acemhoyukin centralAnatolia Civilizations,Ankara. (N. Ozguz1966:43-46; Harper1969:
I
..
112
Biblical Archaeologist, tune/September 1989
156-621.The groupincludesalert sphinxesseatedstifflyupright, carvedin the roundandin relief (Harper1969:figures4, 8;Canby 1975:figures9 and 10;Bittel 1976a: figure441.Thesesphinxeshavethe samelarge,clearlymarkedfeatures of the nudefemaleivoryfigurefrom Kultepe.Theyweara versionof the EgyptianHathorwig but with the Anatolianadditionof two more largecurlson the side of the head and,in one case,on the top of the head.The heavychest andshort thick legs link these figuresto later Hittite sphinxes.The postureof the Acemhoyuksphinxesis identicalto that of a giantsphinxcarvedin relief on a largeblockat AlacaHoyuk, which laterwasreusedforthe gate sphinxesthere(Canby1976:237-40, figure111.It is temptingto datethis sculptureto the ColonyAgeorshortly thereafter,particularlybecauselarge stonesculpturedatingto this period is knownfroma fragmentfoundin Kultepe(T.Ozgue;19541.
Acenlhoyuk produced the richest repertoire of glyptic designs for the local stamp seals. A kneelinglion-headedhuman figurefromAcemhoyukmayalso be of Egyptianinspiration(Harper1969 figure3, bottomleftl. Closerto Egyptianprototypesarea headless kneelingfigurefromAcemhoyuk (Harper1969:figure12)anda complete ivoryfigurefromAlacaHoyuk (Bittel1976a:figure46).The large featuresof a lion danglingan antelopefromits mouth (Harper1969: figure3, top right)is in the fullbodiedstyle of the sphinxes,as is a raptorwith its wings spread(Harper 1969:figure9;Bittel 1976a:figure47). Twomorenaturalisticallyshaped ruminantsreclineandstarebackat the giantclaw of raptorsgrasping theirhindquarters. Seals.A local adaptationof Mesopotamiancylinderseal carving is attestedon some of the merchant tabletsthat havebeenfound.These sealsoftendisplaythe characteristic Mesopotamianprocessionsof deities marchingtowarda seateddeity.The watergodof Mesopotamiaandhis two-facedvizierwereparticularly popularfigures(forexample,N. Ozgu 1965:figure13).LocalAnatolian deitiesalso havebeendistinguished, includingnumerousweathergods, some of whom areshownstanding on mountainsor on bulls.Uniqueto these seals arethe largenumberof birdsof preyanda deitystandingon a stagandholdingamanned(trained) birdon one fist, sometimeswith a deadanimaldanglingfromthe other hand(N. Ozguvc1965:figures11,17, 19,64-66).A bull bearinga conical on his backhas also been "altar" found(N. Ozguc1965:figures15a,b, 3840, 42, 55, 58, 69).These sealings bya lively,free-form arecharacterized compositioncrowdedwith images. The largefacialfeaturesaretypically Anatolian.Clothingandthe skins of
Raptorshoveringoverorgraspinganimalsis a frequentsubjectof Anatolianstampseals datingto the ColonyAge,as in thismodern sealimpression,left,fromHattusa,the housedin the ancientHittitecapital,currently Museumof AnatolianCivilizations,Ankara. Thefaceof thisgoldstampseal,above,from Kultepe,alsoin theAnkaraMuseum,shows a seatedwomanleaningreverentlytowardan altar.All of thelocal stampsealsfromthe ColonyAgearecloselyrelatedstylisticallyto theivoriesandritualvesselsof theperiod. Photoscourtesyof EditionsGallimard, des Formes,Paris. L'Univers
animalsareindicatedby linear markings,andthe manyloose animal headsin the field (forexample, 1965:figures56, 68)may N. Ozguvc rhybe relatedto the animal-shaped ton, an Anatolianspecialty. The local Anatolianstampseals of this periodareclosely related stylisticallyto the ivoriesandrhyta. Raptors,sometimesshownhovering .s,area coman1ma. Overor grasp1ng mon subject(Bittel1976a:figures plasticfigures 78-80).Well-shaped of bulls andlions also havebeen found.In addition,thereis a fine goldseal that showsa seatedwoman leaningreverentlytowardan altar (Bittel1976a:figure81;N. Ozguc 1968:plateXXX2a,b). Acemhoyukproducedthe richest repertoireof glypticdesigns,sometimes with the crowdedcomposition displayedin the local cylinderseals: a stagmanwith his prey,a sphinx with a largecurllike the localivories, .
.
a sphinxseen frontally,andgoddesses with flat roundhats that are typicallyHittite.Oneextraordinary seal showsa goddessseatedundera treebythe riverdrinkingwhile a manin frontof herraiseshis hands in greeting.Bothfiguresweartufted garments.Also in the scenearea birdin the treeanda fish, a rayed disc,andan altarin the field.Mesopotamianbull-menwereadapted fromthe cylinderseal repertoireto fit the roundsurfaceof the stamps (N. Ozguc1980:figures111,40 and 41).Theyaresometimesshown standingon fish besidea sacredtree, and,in a differentversionof the god of the huntwho was so popular,a wingedstagmanholdsanimalsup bytheirhindlegs (N. Ozguc1980: figures111,49 a.b.).At Karahoyuk nearKonya,anothersite of the ColonyAgethat probablycontinued into somewhatlatertimes, images of fish as well as a stagheadand
Biblical Azchaeologistwlune/Septembez 1989
113
It may be that some snaterialL now attributed to the E:rnpireperiod belongs to the Old Kingdotn acrobats,a templefacade,anda graphicsceneportrayinga sacred marriage.The samesortof subject appearson manysherds;therewere also scenesof the hunt, chariots,and an animalorchestra(Bittel1976a: figures139-46).The slenderwellproportioned figureswearwhite clothing,sometimespaintedwith blackdetail.Otherdetailis rendered .
.
.
Dy lnclslon.
Acemhoyukproduced the richest repertoire of engraveddesigns on stamp seals, such as this drawing of a seal impression in clay. Dating to the ColonyAge, it shows a goddess drinking underneatha tree by a riverwhile a man in frontof her raiseshis hands in greeting. Both figures wear tutted garments. A birdis perchedin the tree, and a fish, a rayed disc, and an altar are in the field. This stamp seal, like others of the period,has clear forms with no fussy detail, and the figuresare large in relation to the surface.FromN. OzguS(1980: figureIII, 38c).
manybirdsof preyhavebeenfound on seal impressions.Mostof the designsfoundat this site, however,are madeup of runningspirals,braids, guilloches,andgeometricelements oftenarrangedin a swirlingpattern Alp 1968:205-64). All of the ColonyAgestamp sealshavelarge,clear,plasticforms with no fussydetail.The size of the figuresin relationto the seal surface is largerthanthat of the cylinder seals.The samestyle has beenfound in reliefson largeclayvesselsthat werepopularin the laterColonyAge andthe OldHittite period.Fragmentsof suchvesselshavebeen foundat numeroussites.The only completeexamplefromInandik (Temizer1979:37;T.OzguJc 1988) has fourregistersof reliefshowinga longcontinuousscenein which therearemusiciansofferingfood,
114
The OldHittite Kingdom.Forthe artof the OldHittiteKingdom,comprisingroughlythe seventeenth throughfifteenthcenturiesB.C.E., we have,since the newlydiscovered stelaof a kingTudhaliyais datedto a laterperiod(Neve1986:394-96, figures29 and30),some stampcylinderseals andtwo smallreliefs. It maybe that some of the material One fragmentof this relief on hard green now attributedto the Empireperiod stone, now on display in the BogazAaleMuseum, was found in excavations at Hattusa belongshere. and the entire piece dates to the Old Hittite Reliefs.Thetwosmallreliefsdat- period. Made up of threefragmentsfound ing to the OldHittiteKingdomwere separatelyand joined together,it stands uncoveredduringexcavationsat the about 2 feet tall. The relief is of a battle scene, the top of which shows the driverof a Hittite capital,Hattusa;modern-dayspeeding chariotlunging on a fallen foe while, Bogazkoy). Oneof the reliefs,which below, anothergod spearsa victim. The relief is madeup of threefragmentsfound is unfinished, but its outlines reveala comcomposition with figuresdrawn in enerseparatelyandjoinedtogether;Neve plex getic poses. Photo courtesy of PeterNeve and 1984),showsa battlescenearranged the Bogazkoyexpedition. freelyoverthe surface.At the top a godin a speedingchariotlungeson a ondfigurestabshim anda seated fallenfoe;below,anothergodspears wingedsphinxlooks on. The headof a victim.Partsof two otherfalling yet anothergodbelowthis scene showsthat,as in the otherrelief,the figuresareseen in the field.These figuresappearto be bareheaded, battlewas spreadoverthe surface. whichwouldmeanthat theywere This reliefis worn,but the vehemortalor,morelikely,the Sun-God menceof the battleis clear. Seals.Anotherlively divine who, in Hittite times,worethe royal battleis shownon an exceptionally capinsteadof the divinecrown. Althoughthe reliefis unfinished, well-preserved seal in the Boston the outlinesshowa complexcompo- MuseumofFineArts(Frankfort 1939: sitionskillfullyexecutedwith figures plateXLIIn,o;Bittel 1976a:figures in energeticposes.The otherrelief 150-521.Herea godin a shortkilt fragment(Neve1984:plateXIIc) lungeson a fallenfigurewho wearsa tight capwith a streamer.Abovethis showsa godfallingdownon the scene a figure(thesameperson?1 lies spearof anotherdeitywhile a sec-
Biblical Archaeologist, fune/September 1989
XF
rv
Above:Anotherlivelydivinebattlescenedatingto the OldHittiteperiodis shownon thismodernimpressionof an excellentlypreserved hematitestamp-cylinder seal.In the righthandportionof thescenea godwearinga shortkilt lungeson a fallenfigurefwho wearsa tightcap andstreamer.Abovethisscenea figure(perhapsthesameperson)lies on a funeralpyreattendedbya figurewhofanstheflameswhileanother figureholdsa pitcher(ofoilzwater2). Photocourtesyof theMuseumof FineArtsfBoston.Aboveright:Thisbronzefigurineof a deityis similar in styleandsubjectto othercombativefiguresin sealimpressionsandreliefsdatingto the OldHittiteperiodfindicatingthat the battlefor hegemonyin heavenwas a commonthemein thisperiod.Foundat Dovlekin easternTurkeyf the statuetteis about7inchestall. Courtesyof theMuseumof AnatolianCivilizationsf Ankara.
on a funeralpyreattendedby one figurewho fansthe flameswhile anotherholds a pitcher.Twoswimmersappearin the field.A bronze figureof a similarbellicosedeity showsthat the style andsubject matterof the reliefsandthis seal werewidespreadin the period(Bittel 1976a:figure148).ImperialHittite texts tell of mythsaboutbattles betweenthe godsforhegemonyin heaven,but as faras we knowthe subjectwasno longerrepresentedin imperialHittite art. Figureson a somewhatlaterseal showthe heavierproportionsand morestaidactionof laterHittite art. A silverfigurinein the Ashmolean Museumin Oxford,England(Canby 1969:143-44,plate391corresponds
in proportionandmovementto those on the seal,which suggeststhat it representsa new phaseof Hittite art. The seal (Parrot1951)showsa processionof godsandstrangecreatures that some scholarsthink represents a celebrationof the stormgod'svictoryoverananthropomorphic mountain-the Ullikummiof Hittite myth (vanLoon1985:121.The seal's bottomregistercontainsa complex sceneof staghuntingled by a god carryinga spearanda bowandstanding on a lion. Rushingtowardthe godarefourdeer(?1,one seen from above.Approaching the godfrom behindis the firstof three,two-horse chariots,eachdrivenby one man,no doubtthe beaterswhosejobit wasto scareup the game.Theirspeedin-
creasesfromthe firstchariotto the fourthin which an archerstands alongsidethe charioteer.Eightstags andone doe areshownwalkingor kneeling,apparentlyunawareof theirdanger,or fleeing,wounded, anddead.Twolions (?lareseen in the fray.As faras I know,such a complexhunt sceneis not seen outsideof Egyptuntil the lion hunts of seventh-century Assyria,although the staghunt in simplerformis oftenrepeatedor referredto in later Hittite art. A silverreliefvaserhytonin the shapeof a stag'sforequarter, nowpart of the NorbertSchimmelcollection in the MetropolitanMuseumof Art in New York,cannotbe too farin time fromthe seal justdescribed
Biblical Archaeologist, June/September1989
115
Art
of
the rn
and
Esnpire
+rizedb
various
period
is
rockreliefs forms
of
sculptllre
Themorestaidactionandheavierproportions of laterOldHittiteartarerepresented bythis silverfigurine,left, boughtin Nezero,Thessaly,nowin theAshmoleanMuseumin Oxford, England.About31/4inchestall, thefigurecorresponds in proportion andmovementto thefigureson thismodernimpressionof a stamp-cylinder seal,above,whichdatesto thelate Old Hittiteperiod,andthussuggestsa newphasein Hittiteart.Thesealhas scenesin tworegisters. Thetopregistershowsa processionof godsandstrangecreatuzesthatsomescholarsthink represents a celebrationof the Storm-God's victoryoveran anthropomorphic mountain,the Ullikummiof Hittitemyth.Thebottomregistercontainsa verycomplexhuntscene,whichis notseenoutsideof Egyptuntilthelionhuntsof seventh-century-s.c.E. Assyria.Photooffigurine courtesyof TheVisitozsof theAshmoleanMuseum.Photoof sealimpressioncourtesyof the Louvre,Paris.
(Muscarella1974:number123;Bittel 1976a:figure1691.Aroundthe neck of the vessel is a friezein relief picturingtwo godswho,on the basis of Hittite texts thatdescribecult images,canbeidentifiedasthe divine Protectorsof the WildFields(Guterbock 1983:207-081.Oneof the gods sits in frontof an altarholdinga cup up to his lips while a falconperches on his left fist. In frontof him a smallerfigurewearinga shortskirt andno crownstandson a stag.He raisesa curvedstick in his right hand,andhe carriesa falconon his left fist. Three"priests" halfwrapped in cloaksapproachthese divinefigures.The firstpoursa libation,the
116
secondholdsup piecesof bread,and the thirdkneels offeringa spouted vessel.Behindthe seateddeitya stag lies besidea tree;its legs arefolded overits bodysuggestingthat it is dead.Twospears,a quiveranda falconer'spouch(?Ilie besidethe stag. The deadstaglyingbesidehunting gearjuxtaposedwith the falconer godstandingon a stagsuggeststhat the staghadto be conqueredbefore it becamethe specialanimalof the ProtectorGodof the WildFields; this perhapsexplainsthe staghunt on the Louvreseal. Artof the HittiteEmpire This period,which lastedfromthe fourteenthto the twelfthcentury B.C.E., iS characterized byreliefsand sculpturethat canbe groupedinto fourmainareas:the sculptureof AlacaHoyuk,architecturalsculpture,rockreliefs,andsculpturein the round. Sculptureof AlacaHoyuk.The ear-
Biblical Archaeologist, tune/September1989
liest monumentof imperialHittite art,datingto the fourteenthcentury B.C.E. or earlier,is at AlacaHoyukin centralAnatoliawherethe gateway to a sacredareawascarvedwith an elaboratesculpturalscheme(Bittel 1976a:figure2091.Basesof the monument'sprojectingtowerswere coveredwith two andthreeregisters of reliefs.The lowerregistercontinuedaroundthe side faceof the left towerandinto andaroundthe innerchamberof the gate.Emerging fromthe stoneon the outsidefaces of the doorjambsarethe imposing forequarters of two giantsphinxes.It is believedthat the innerdoorsof the gatemayhavebeendecorated with smallersphinxes.Likethe lowercoursesof laterbuildingsat the Hittitecapitalof Hattusa,the blockson which the Alacasculptureswerecarvedarecyclopean.The sphinxeswerecarvedon single stonesthat arealmost 13feethigh and61/2feet thick.The half-life-size
shownin sections,probablydates Thisreliefaroundtheneckof a silverrhytonin the shapeof a stag'sforequarter, seal fromthe Louvreandpossiblyhelpsexplainits complexhuntscene. to aboutthe timeof thestamp-cylinder Theneckof the vesselhas a friezedepictingtwogodswho,on the basisof Hittitetexts,can beidentifedas the Museumof of the WildFields.Photocourtesyof theNorbertSchimmelcollection,Metropolitan divineProtectors Art,New York.
The forequartersof two giant sphinxes flank the gateway to the sacred area of Alaca HoyukZthe earliest monument dating to the Hittite Empire.Only some details of dress are still visible, including cowls that end in large curls over the breastsin a versionof the Egyptianhathor wig that is very similar to that found on the Acemhoyuk sphinxes dating to the Colony Age. These wigs bear a new addition, however,a conical element with a boss and a ribbon above the cowl. The sphinxes are more than 7l/2feet tall and were carved out of single stones that are almost 13feet tall and 6l/2feet thick. Notice the outline of an earlier and much larger seated sphinx on the block in the far lefthand corner. Photo byteanny VorysCanby.
1989 117 BiblicalArchaeologist}June/September
_==
|
|
Th
sst
|
ev1;cf t
ot
t]LL
|
a
_
t
blocks
*a*r+ X]L]Lst
Xss
that
ss
are
about
3
feet
wide,
a
t
o smperla Hittite rt i at Alaca Hoyuk in central Anatolia _
L
_l
|
figuresof the reliefstendto mask themonumentalityofthearchitec-
foothigh,andup to 3 feet thick. The bottomregisterof the facadeof the left towerhas two scenes carvedin relief(Bittel1976a:figures 4 212,214).In one scene,orientedto 1 ( the right,a procession,led by the | kingandqueen,marchestowardthe J heresymbolizedby a Weather-God, | bull standingon a pedestal.The king E carriesa curvedstaffdownat his | rightside,andhe lifts his left hand in a gestureof worship.The queen hasherrighthandup in adoration. | | The royalprocessioncontinues l aroundto the sidefaceof the tower | wheretwo royalstandard-bearers | faceeachother.It has beensuggestedthat the largesculptureof a lion crouchingovera smallbull shouldbe placedabovethe bull statuestandingon a pedestalin front of the king,with the forepartof the | lion projectingbeyondthe frontface of the tower(Mellink1970:21-24). Sucha reconstructionwouldplace the wingeddisc tindicatingroyalty) | on the side of the lion sculpture, | abovethe standardon the sideface of the tower,which wouldsuggest that all the figuresthereareroyal. a small Beyondthe standard-bearers figure,probablythe crownprince, facesan attendant,andin frontof this groupotherroyalchildren marchtowardthe SphinxGate Thewallsto the sacredareaat AlacaHoyukwerecarvedin an elaboratesculpturalscheme. Onerelief,whichspanshalfof the bottomregisterof thefacadeof theleft tower,showsa royal tCanby1986:figures5-7). symbolizedbya bullstandingon a pedestal. processionmarchingtowardthe Weather-God, The blockimmediatelyleft of alongthe sidefaceof the towerwheretwo Theprocessioncontinuespast the Weather-God faceeachother(shownin lefthandblockof drawingabove)It has been the royalcoupleon the frontfaceis royalstandard-bearers sculptureof a lion crouchingovera smallbullshouldbe suggestedthatthis38-inch-high missing,but the processionconwith theforepartof thelion extending placedabovethe blockcontainingthe Weather-God, wouldplacethe wingeddisc (indicatingroyalty)on the tinues on the thirdblock,which beyondthe block.Thisreconstruction showsa priestleadinga goatbythe sideof thelion sculpturejustabovethe standardon thesidefaceof the tower,whichwould a small suggestthatall of thefigureson thoseblocksareroyal.Beyondthe standard-bearers, hornsandthreerams.The wellnakedfigure,probablyan infantprince,facesan attendant,andin frontof thisgroupother shapedanimals,groupedin twos,are royalchildrenmarchtowardthe SphinxGate.Photo,anddrawingadaptedfromMellink,by in a suggestionof leanny VorysCanby,photo with permission of the Museum ofAnatolian Civilizations Ankara shownoverlapping |
l_
l|
|
118
Biblical Archaeologist}June/September1989
-,;ka1 depthseennowhereelse on the Alaca reliefs.Next come threepriests(Bittel 1976a:figures212-14).Ending the processionaretwo small persons wearingshortskirts,presumably acrobats(Bittel1976a:figure218). Onehas his foot on the edgeof a ladderthat leansto the right.At the bottomof the ladderanothersmall figurestandswith handsraisedin adoration. The secondscene,in the same registerbut orientedleft towarda giantbull rhyton,showsa figureplaying a stringedinstrumentfollowed by anotherfigurecarryingan animal rhytonor an instrumentthat looks like bagpipes,anda thirdfigurewho maybe playinga windinstrument (Bittel1976a:figures218and219). The frontfaceof the righttower
has a reliefshowinga goddessseated within a niche.The goddess,who holdsa cupin herrighthandandthe baseof a pitcherin herleft, is being approached by threehumanfigures (Bittel1976a:figure216).The restof this facadeis missing.On the side of the rightsphinxis the preserved imageof the lowerpartof a king,or the Sun-God,who standson a doubleheadedeaglethat graspsa harein eachclaw (Bittel1976a:figure210). Abovethe processionson the facadeof the left towerweretwo moreregistersshowinghunting scenes.(Theyhavebeenmovedto the Museumof AnatolianCivilizations in Ankara.)The familiarstag hunt is carvedherein a remarkable narrativecomposition(Bittel1976a: figures224 and225;Mellink1970:
This roughly4-foot-highgrey basalt block from the facade of the left tower at Alaca Hoyuk shows the end of one sculptural scene and the beginningof another.In the righthand portion of the block are two small figures wearing skirts. One figure balances on the edge of a ladder while the other stands at the bottom of the ladder with his hands raised in adoration. PresumablyacrobatsZ these figuresend the long procession oriented right toward the Weather-God.Beside themZ anotherfigureplays a wind instrument in a scene oriented left towarda giant bull rhyton. Photo courtesy of Editions GallimardZ LZUnivers des FormesZParis.
19-20).An archerkneelingright takesaim at an unsuspectingstag thathe has luredtowardhim by tetheringa capturedstagto a tree, thus attractingotherstagsto protest encroachmenton theirterritory. Behindthe intendedvictim, two otherstagsanda fawnhaveseen the hunterandarefleeing.Inthe registers
Biblical Archaeologist} June/September1989
119
abovethis staghunt,anotherkneeling archerhunts otheranimals,one an angryboarchargingwith its head down(Bittel1976a:figure2251.The unfinishedsceneto the left seems to picturethe pouringof a libationover a largeobjectlyingbesidea tree (Mellink1970:plateI a-bl,a scene similarto that of the deadstagpicturedin reliefon the silverrhytonin the shapeof a stag'sforequarter describedin the previoussection. Otherhunt scenesexist on loose blocksat AlacaHoyuk,includinga bull chargingwith its headlowered anda lion beinghuntedbya spearmanon foot (Bittel1976a:figures 226 and2271.The lion rearsup to grabthe hunter'sspearwith its front paws.Thelion'sforequarter is twisted aroundto presentthe enragedbeast full-face.Barkingdogs-one under thelion'sbelly,the otheron its backaddto the excitementof the scene. Thesereliefshavea style all theirown.Thereis verylittle modeling on interiorsurfaces,perhapsbecausethe reliefswereunfinished. The largesculptureof a lion crouching overa bull, describedpreviously, showsthat therewereartistswho couldhandlesculpturein the round. The ramsandthe chargingbull and boararenaturallyshaped,andthe twistedlion andthe stagslooking backor fleeingarecourageous,if not successful,experimentsin new compositions.The sameinconsistencyin treatmentis foundin the humanfigures.The kneelingarcher is convincinglyshapedas aresome of the figuresin shortskirtswhose knees arecorrectlylocated.The knees of the drapedpriestsaremuch too low,though,suggestingthatthe sculptorfelt he must showone knee exposed.The feet areof all different sizes andshapes.Somefiguresare
120
Biblical Archaeologist
Above the processions on the facade of the left tower at Alaca Hoyuk were two more register.s showing hunting scenes. These blocks, which have since been moved to the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara show the familiar stag hunt carvedin a remarkablenarrative composition. In the bottom register,which is spreadover the bottom portions of the two blocks shown above, with the block at top to the left, the weathered form of a kneeling archer takes aim at an unsuspectingstag while two other stags and a fawn flee. In the upperregister also spreadover the two blocks, anotherkneeling archertakes aim at other animals, one an angryboar chargingtoward the hunter with its head down. The scene in the lefthand portion of the upperregisteris unfinished, but it seems to picture the pouringof a libation over a large object lying beside a tree. Photos courtesy of Editions Gallimard, L'Universdes Formes,Paris.
fune/September 1989
Some reliefs found on man-made structures have no inscriptions and are therefore hard to date.
ThisloosebasaltblockfromAlacaHoyuk,alsohousedin theMuseumofAnatolianCivilizations in Ankara,showsa lion beinghuntedbya spearmanon footandtwo barkingdogs.Rearing upon its backlegs,thelion triesto grabthehunter'sspearwithits frontpaws.Itsforequarter is twistedaroundtopresenttheenragedbeastfull-faced,a boldartisticattemptby the Hittite artist.Photocourtesyof EditionsGallimard,L'Univers des Formes,Paris.
barefootedshownfrontface;others wearshoes shownin profile.It is puzzlingthat the groundline is inconsistenteventhoughthe figures areobviouslyarrangedin continuous scenes.It maybe that these peculiarities resultedfromthe sculptor's realizationthat eachfigurewouldbe "read" ratherthanviewed.The artists at Alacadidnot relyon writingto helpexplainthe scenes.On only one blockat the site is a figureidentified bywriting,the Weather-God (Bittel 1976a:figure2211.The god'snameis givenin hieroglyphicideograms that,unfortunately,tell us nothing aboutthe underlyinglanguage. Onlysome detailsof dressare still visible on the wornsphinxpro-
tomes at AlacaHoyuk(Bittel1976a: figures209-2111.The giantcreatures,morethan 71/2feet tall, weara cowl that endsin largecurlsoverthe breast-a versionof the Egyptian Hathorheaddressveryclose to that on the Acemhoyuksphinxesdescribedin the sectionon EarlyHittite Art.At AlacaHoyuk,however, thereis a conicalelementwith a boss anda ribbonabovethe cowl. The heavyunarticulatedchest bulgesout andjoinsthe bodyat the knees of the short,heavylegs.Hanging in frontof the earsareribbons thatjoina rosettebandat the throat. Architecturalsculpture.Someof the otherreliefsthat havebeenfoundon man-madestructureshaveno in-
scriptionsand,therefore,arehardto date.The best andmost important of these areon the monolithicgates symmetricallyarrangedat the UpperCity of the Hittite capital,Hattusa,nowknownto be filledwith temples(mostrecently,Neve 1988: figures1, 5). On the left of the inside (cityside)doorof the easternarchedgateway,knownas the King'sGate,is a figureof a godmorethan 7 feet tall (Bittel1976a:figures267-268, 339). Dressedin a shortdecoratedkilt and carryingan axein his righthand,the godwalksforwardwith his left foot heel down.His left armis bentup with fist clenchedin a sortof salute to those who wereleavingthe city. The figurewascarvedin a veryhigh relief.His eyeball,chesthair,and skirtareincisedin elaboratedetail, which is unusual.Morethanhalfof the benignfaceis shown,andthose passingthroughthe gatelooked straightintothe god'srighteye.There wasno othersculptureon this gate. At the west side of the Upper City is the monumentcalledthe LionGate.Herethe sculpturecarved on the outsidedoorjambsis directed at those enteringthe city.On either of a heavyside is the forequarter chestedlion who standswith its mouthopen,tonguehangingdown. The pantingbeastsarerelaxedas theyguardthe city.These sculptures alsowerecarvedon verylargearched blocks.Eachmaneis renderedin a complicatedpatternof incisedtufts. Suchsurfacedetail,as has been noted,is rarein Hittite art. At the highestpointof the midwaybeUpperCity (Yerkapl), tweenthe gatesjustdescribed,were two processionalstaircasesleading up the glacisto a smalldoorthrough the fortifications(Bittel1976a:fig-
1989 121 BiblicalArchaeologist,tune/September
Art of the Hittite Empireis also characterized by bold architecturalsculpture,including this well-known figure of a god who stood on the left inside side of the eastern arched entrance,known as the KingJsGate, to the UpperCity of the Hittite capital of Hattusa. The figure,shown here in detail, stands more than 7 feet tall. He grips an axe in his right handoand his left arm is bent upwardat the elbow with his hand clenched in a fist in a kind otsalute to passersby as those leaving the city looked straight into his right eye. Photo by teanny VorysCanby with permission otthe Museum otAnatolian Civilizations Ankara.
ure997.Onthe left outsidedoorjamb of a leoninebewas the forequarter ing with Hathorcurlsanda rosette treeabovethe missinghead.On the small insidedoor,lookingdownover the city weretwo sphinxes,each about81/2feet tall. Theywerebadly shatteredin the firethat destroyed the city;still these sphinxesarethe bestpiecesof Hittite sculpturefound to date.Theirheads,forequarters, werecarvedin the andhindquarters round.Theirsweptbackwingsand lithe bodieswith tails curledup werecarvedin highreliefon the side of the doorjambs.Theyweartwo differenttypesof tight-fittingcaps with horns(Canby1975:2437.They havelongHathorcurlshanging downovertheirbreasts,andtheir plumpfaceswith thin lips andshort chins werecarvedwith greatsensitivity.The inlayfromthe eyesare missing.The elegantstyle of these piecesis in markedcontrastto that of the sphinxeswith shortconical hats,foundmorerecentlyin Temple3 in the UpperCity (Neve1987:397400, figure18a-d). An unfinishedstelamorethan 24 feet tall wasfoundlyingon a hillsideat the site of Faslllarin southcentralAnatolia(Bittel1976a: figure2645.On the frontfaceof the stelais a godwearinga conicalcap with his rightarmraisedabovehis
1989 122 BiblicalArchaeologist,lune/September
Most characteristic of imperial Hittite art are the rock reliefs fbund all over Asia AIinor
headandhis left armextendedforwardat shoulderheight;this god standson the headof a mountain god,a small figurewhose handsare claspedandwho is flankedby two largelions.Not faraway,at the springat EflatunPmar,largeashlar blocks,eachwith a singlefigureon it, wereput togetherto forma typically Hittite,layeredcomposition (Bittel1976a:figure2577.A godand goddesslookingforwardareseated underwingedsun-discsthat aresupportedbythreepiersof genii,one on top of another.The compositionis crownedby an enormouswinged disc supportedon eithersideby two piersof wingedgenii,one on top of another. Rockreliefs.Mostcharacteristicof imperialHittite artarethe rockreliefs thathavebeenfounda11over AsiaMinor.Thesefiguresaregiven no architecturalframeworkon the rocksurface.
At GavurKales1,about37 miles southof Ankara,aretwo figures,one a godapproaching a seatedfigure lBittel1976a:figures199and2007. Herethe carvingmaybe relatedto tracesof well-laidwalls anda door lAkurgalandHirmer1962:figures 98-99) In CilicianearKeben,on a steepslopeoverlookingthe Gok River,13feet abovethe ground,is a smallfigureof a goddessfacingright. Shehas bothhandsextended,perhapsholdinga branch(Tas,yurek 19767.Neitherof these monuments is inscribed.On a highrockoutcroppingin farwesternAnatolia,at Akp1narnearManisa,in a niche almost30 feet high,is a largeseated figurefacingforwardthat has been knownsince Greektimes iBittel 1976a:figures204 and2057.It has usuallybeenthoughtto be a female figure,but a recentreexaminationof the sculpturehas led to the claim that the figurehas a beardandwears
Most characteristicof Hittite imperial art are rock reliefs found all overAsia Minor.At Firaktin,probably on an ancient road, figures of king Hattusili II1pouringa libation to a god and queen Puduhepapouringa libation to a seated goddessHebat were carvedside by side. A hieroglyphicinscription was carved to their right. A cast of the unfinished relief, shown here, is on display in the gardenof the Kayseri Museum. Photo by teanny VorysCanby.
the typicallymaleconicalhat lSpanos 19837.The inscriptionsat the side appearto be personalnameslGuterbockandAlexander19837. Othermonumentsareaccompaniedbyroyalnameswrittenin hieroglyphs.Twodateto the time of HattusiliIII(around1275to 1250 B.C.E.). At Firaktinin Cappadocia, southof MountErgias,probablyon an ancientroad,figuresof the king pouringa libationto a godand queenPuduhepapouringa libation to the seatedgoddessHebatwere placedsideby side iBittel1976a: figures194, 196, 1987.In manypho-
BiblicalArchaeologistt fune/September 1989 123
'
b
e
#
o
P--s
t
- which is pulled by bulls all standing
The greatest Hittite rock monument is the open-air sanctuary, Yazlllkaya -
-
;
^
-
^
s
**;ff_
-
o-
-
-
o
o
-
*
X
-
4 -
- t---
S
t.
.
#
-
-
D-^h
_
_
..
i.,
-
.
.
".
^f
, ^
....;, e
-.
-
A4,
.w. .
.
.
s*
v-
.
f-
o
^
;
-w. ..
$
tographsthe unfinishedreliefgives the impressionof awkwardlyshort¢ z waistedfigures,perhapsthe resultof X the angleat which the photographs weretaken.At nearbyTas, i, three .< separatefigureswerecarvedfacing = righton a rockfacenot farabovethe levelof a stream.In Cilicia,on an outcroppingat a bendin the Ceyhan ^-> River,is a rathercruderepresenta--tion of KingMuwatalliII(1306to *s 1282B.C.E.) wearingceremonialrobes. ->; ; All of the last fivereliefsarelocated j v in placeswherethe sculptorwould -s- haveneededscaffolding,which sugegeststhat the locationswerechosen 4^ forsymbolicreasons. . Fourreliefsshowingprincesor > minorkingswith theirnamesspelled : out alsohavebeenfound.In Cilicia, , a princedressedin a shortkilt and carryinga bowwascarvedon a rock overlookingthe CeyhanRiverat y -Hemite,about25 miles northof the reliefof KingMuwatalli.At a passin : easternAnatolia,in the Taurus Mountainsat Hanyeri(Gezbel;see Alk1m1968:figure111;Bittel 1976a: , s figure201),the princefacesa group of figures:the bull of the WeatherGodstandingwith its hindlegs on a ; ; rectangularmountainandits fore^ legs on the personification of a mountain.An evenmoreelaborate , reliefwascarvedon a giantboulder f at Imamkulu,which is on the road t b to the Hanyeripass(Bittel1976a: ru figure203).In frontof a princethe Weather-God mountshis chariot, ;
-
i_ Thelackof an architectural framework in all rockreliefsdatingto theHittiteEmpireis evidencedin thisreliefof a Hittiteprincecarryinga bowandwearinga divinecap.More than 71/2feet tall, thereliefis locatedin westernAnatolia,at thepassat Karabelsoutheastof Izmir. PhotobyteannyVorysCanby.
124
Biblical Archaeologist, June/September1989
on threebowingmountaingods who, in turn,standon genii.A bird flies in the air.Tothe righta winged goddessopenshercloakandstands nudeon a towerof foureagleswith one head.In farwesternAnatolia,at the passat Karabel,southeastof Izmir,is anotherprincewith a bow
'
_
ThegreatestHittiterockmonumentis the locatedjusta open-airsanctuaryYaz1llkaya, shortwalkfromtheHittitecapital,Hattusa. of rockformedtwo A naturaloutcropping semienclosedchambersthatservedas a kind of cella to a small templein front.Both chambersaredecoratedin rockreliefs.In the largechamber,on the walloppositethegrand procession,is this 8l/2-foot-tallcarvingof Ddhaliya,probablythefourthHittiteking identifiedbythisname.Largeandstocky, thepgureis wrappedin ceremonialrobesand wearsa tight-pttingcap.Abovehis extended rightarmis an elaborate,carefullycarved cartouche.Becausethepgureis depictedas standingon a sacredmountain,somebelieve he representsDdhaliyaafterhis deathwhen, accordingto Hittitebelief,he becamea god. PhotobyteannyVorysCanby.
who,in this case,wearsa divinehat (Bittel1976a:figure206). The greatestHittite rockmonument is the open-airsanctuary,Yazlllkaya,a shortwalkfromthe Hittite capital,Hattusa(Bittelandothers 1975;Bittel 1976a:figures232-41). A naturaloutcroppingof rockformed two semienclosedareasthat served as a sortof cella to a small templein front.On the walls of the largerbay is a reliefshowinga grandprocession of godsandgoddessesgathered fora new year'sfestival.The gods fromthe left andthe goddessesfrom the rightmeet on the backwall wherethe chiefdeitiesof the realm arepictured.On the left, the great standson two bowing Weather-God mountaingods.He facesthe SunGoddessof Arinna,heregivenher Hurrianname,Hebat.Shestandson a lionessthat, in turn,standson rectanglessymbolizingmountains. Peekingout frombehindthe legs of
the two deitiesaretwo divinebulls. Behindthe goddessherson,Sarruma, standson a smallerleoninecreature, which also standson rectangularshapedmountains.Behindthis god of the Weatherthe granddaughters Godaredepictedas standingovera eagle. double-headed The compositionhereis very main simple.Eventhe many-layered The spacscene is straightforward. ing of the figuressuggeststhatthe processlon,as lt wounc. ltSwaym andout of the naturalrockface,was slow andstately.Manyof the deities areidentifiedby nameswrittenin Hittite hieroglyphs,phoneticallyor Mostof the names logographically. that canbe readareHurrian,andthe godsappearto be arrangedin the sameorderas in Hurriantexts.The style of the figuresandthe typeof monument,however,areentirely Hittite.No king'snameappearsin the procession,but an over-life-size .
.
.
.
figureof one of the kingsnamed Tudhaliya-afoottallerthanthe greatestgodof the procession-was carvedon an oppositewall of the largechamber(Bittel1976a:figure 253).Manyscholarsthink this relief indicatesthatTudhaliya(usually identifiedwith the fourthkingof this name)hadthe greatline of figurescarved,but I think the king's figurewasa lateraddition.The king standswrappedin ceremonialrobes wearinga tight-fittingcap.He is stockywith a verylargeheadand enormousearsbut ratherdelicate features.Overhis extendedright handis an elaborate,carefullycarved cartouche.Somebelievethe figure representsthe kingafterhe had died,or,as the Hittites said,had "becomea god,"since he is depicted as standingon a sacredmountain. It is also thoughtthat the small bayservedas a funeralchapelforthe sameking.The reliefsherearequite differentfromthose in the procession, as eachdepictsa singleunconnectedscene.On one wall is a pictureof a giantdaggerpartlysunk into the rock(Bittel1976a:figures 252, 254).The hilt of the daggeris madeup of two lions, shownvertically,in a stalkingposition;above
1989 125 fune/September BiblicalArchaeologist7
Above:Reliefs in the small bay at Yazlllkaya aredifferentfrom those in the long procession, as each depicts a single unconnected scene. One relief, partly sunk into the wall, is of a giant dagger.The hilt of the daggeris made up of two lions shown vertically in a stalking position; above them are two lion protomes surmounted by the head of a god. Right: A comparableceremonial axe was found in a hoard at Farkisjla.Decorated with numerous images, including falcon heads, a lion protome,and a winged sun disc supported by two bird-men,the axe contains a rich compendium of Hittite motifs. Photo of daggergod by leanny VorysCanby;photo of axe courtesy of KurtBittel.
126
them arelion protomessurmounted by the headof a god,probablyNergal,the Mesopotamian godof the underworld,orhis Anatolianequivalent. Theseelementsareconvincingly combined.A comparableceremonialweapon,an axe,wasfoundin a hoardat Sarkislain easternCappadocia(Bittel1976a:figure341; 1976b:20-27, platesVII-XII1. The curvedendof the bladehas falcon headson eitherside,andon bothflat sides,at the bottom,is a figurewhose bodydisappearsinto a U-shapedobject.The figurewearsa short-sleeved longdresstightlybelted.On one facea tall conicalhat has horns,
Biblical Archaeologist, [une/September 1989
but nonearedepictedon the other. The figuresupportsthe pawsof a crouchinglion protome.On the backof the lion a godstandswearing a highconicalhat with hornsand dressedin the robeof the Hittite kingor Sun-God.Abovethis figureis a wingedsun disc supportedbytwo bird-men.The butt of the bladehas threefalcon-headed lions with wings on the flat side anda wingedlion aboveandbelowthe shafthole on the narrowside. On the faceoppositethe DaggerGodin the smallchamberat Yazzllkaya,twelvegodswith scimitars overtheirshouldersareshownrunningin unison,theirbodiesoverlapping(Bittel1976a:figures250 and2511.Thesegods,who areshown at the endof the processionin the mainchamber,areassociatedwith Nergalin a Hittite text (Guterbock 1975b:191-921.Behindandfacingin the samedirectionas the DaggerGodis a figureof KingTudhaliyaIV (around1250to 1220s.c.E.1beside the toweringfigureof his personal god,Sarruma(Bittel1976a:figures 252 and2531.The godencirclesthe monarchRs shouldersin orderto grasphis righthandandguide him-a subtlecompositionmirroring the relationshipbetweena king andhis personalgodexpressedin the Hittitetexts.All scenesfacethe endof the small chamberwhere thereis a statuebasewith a nearby inscription,which,again,givesthe nameof a Tudhaliya.Somevery largefeethavebeenfoundthatmay belongto this statue(Neve1982: 389-91,figures8-101. Mostscholarsdatethe reliefsin boththe smallchamberandthe mainchamberto the sameperiod, the late thirteenthcenturyB.C.E. Clearly,however,thereis a stylistic
differencebetweenthe long scenein the mainchamberandthe individually composedscenesin the small chamber.The latterreliefsarenot physicallyjoined,andthey do not agreein scale,groundline, orbasic composition.Insteadof the concrete layeringof symbolsthat characterizes the mainscene of the procession, elementsarewoveninto the complexsinglefigureof the DaggerGodin the smallchamber.Thegraceful expressionof the king'sintimate, dependentrelationshipwith his personalgodin the small chamberbears little resemblanceto the arrogant representationof the deifiedkingin the mainchamber.The proportions of the latterking aredifferentfrom those of the king in the small chamber,andthe delicatefaceis verydifferentfromthe heavyfeaturesof the runninggods(Bittel1976a:figure 2511.Howeverthe variousscenesat shouldbe dated,they Yazzllkaya showthe wide rangeof sculptural approachesachievedby the Hittites by the end of theirempire.The high is verywornand reliefat Yazzllkaya damaged,but wherethe surfaceis preservedit showsbroad,clearforms smoothlyfinishedwithout much interiormodelingor inciseddetail, such as seen at the LionGateand the King'sGate. Sculpturein the round.Verylittle sculpturein the roundhasbeenpre- a plasticcurve,andher strangeears served,but we knowthat it didexist aresimilarto those of the sphinxes becauseof the sculpturedfeet (men- foundin the UpperCity (Neve1987: figures18a-dl.A fragmentof a very tionedabovelandthe largecloaked bodyof a figuremorethan 5l/2-feet sensitivelycarvedover-life-size humanfacewasfoundon the slopes tall foundin a levelprecedingthe gatesculptureat AlacaHoyuk(Kos,ay of the citadel(Boehmer1972:208, Also number2156,plateLXXXl. 1973:78-79, platesXL-XLIl. Numerousfiguresknownfrom foundin earlyimperiallevelsat HatHittite stonesculptureas well as tusa is the half-life-sizeheadof a goddessor queen(Bittel1976a,19841. othertypesof sculpturewereproThe figure'seyebrowsarerenderedin ducedin preciousmaterialson a
tiny scale.Althoughthey displaythe bold,clearformsthat aretypically Hittite,these piecesareoftenmore subtlyandmeticulouslyhandled thanmost of the largersculptured pieces.Therearegoldgodswith knees (Bittel1976a: hyperextended figures167-681,anda goldfigureof a womanseatedas if rockingwhile staringinto a bowl (heroracularmirror7}is quiteremarkable(Bittel 1976a:figure171;see Guterbock
Biblical Archaeologist, Tune/September1989
127
1961:149;Haas1977:87).Also made of goldis a fine pendant,partof the NorbertSchimmelcollection,showing a specialchildattendedby a femalefigure(Bittel1976a:figure 173)The structureof a baby'sbodyis skillfullyrenderedin a rockcrystal figure(Canby1986:54-57,figure5-1). Wealsohave,fromthe excavations at Tarsus,a cloakedrockcrystalfigure (Bittel1976a:figure176).Made of ivoryarea figureof an olderchild fromNuzi (Bittel1976a:figure174), a mountaingodfromHattusa(Bittel
128
1976a:figure248),andan elaborately carvedplaquefromMegiddo(Frankfort 1954:130,figure57). Conclusion In spiteof the numerousartifacts, monuments,androckreliefsthat havebeenfoundso far,we still have a greatdealto learnaboutHittite art.Fragmentsof wallpaintingwith designshavebeenfoundin the Upper City of the Hittitecapitalat Hattusa (Neve1983:438-39, figure11),and thereis a wealthof new sculptured
Biblical Archaeologist, fune/September 1989
NumerousHittitefigureswerecarvedout of preciousmaterialsduringtheEmpire period,buton a tinyscale.Thisfinegold pendant,at left, whichactuallymeasures less than2 inches,depictsa childsittingin a nurse'slap.Photocourtesyof theNorbert Schimmelcollectionin theMetropolitan Museumof Art,New York.Thebodyof an in thisrockcrystal infantis skillfullyrendered figure,above,whichis almost3 inchestall. ArtGallery,Baltimore. of the Walters Courtesy
fragmentsof typeswe knewnothing aboutuntil recently(Neve1987:figures 11,17, 18;1988:figures20-22). The firstroyalHittite tombwasuncoveredby PeterNeveat Hattusain 1988,andit has two reliefblocks. shepherdswill no doubt Wandering comeuponmorerockreliefs,all of whichwill helpus betterunderstandthe developmentof Hittite art
NY: Doubleday. 1975a Die Inscriften. Pp. 167-87 in Das Hethitische Felsheiligtum Yazlllkaya. Berlin: Gebr. Mann. 1975b Einschlagige, Textstellen. Pp. 189-92 in Das Hethitische Felsheiligtum Yazlllkaya. Berlin: Gebr. Mann. 1983 Hethitische Gotterbilder und Kultobjekte. Pp. 203-17 in Beitrage zur Bibliography Altertumskunde Kleinasiens: Festschrift fur Kurt Bittel, edited by Akurgal,E., and Hirmer,M. R. M. Boehmer and H. Hauptmann. 1962 The Art of the Hittites. London: Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. Thames and Hudson. Guterbock, H. G., and Alexander, R. Alklm, U. B. 1983 The Second Inscription on Mount 1968 Anatolia I: ArchaeologiaMundi. Sipylus. Anatolian Studies XXXIII: Geneva:Nagel Publishers. 29-32. Alp S. Haas, V. 1968 Zylinder-und Stempelsiegel aus 1977 Magie und Mythen im Reich der Karahoyukbei Konya.Series:Turk Hethiter. I Vegetations kulte und TarihKurumuYayinlarindan,Series Pflanzen magie. Hamburg. V,Number 26. Ankara. Harper, P. O. Bittel, K 1969 Dating a Group of Ivories from Ana1976a Die Hethiter.Munich:Beck. tolia. The Connoisseur November: 1976b Beitragezur Kenntnishethitischer 156-62. series: Bildkunst. Monograph derHeidelberger Kos,ay,H. Sitzungsberichte 1973 Alaca Hoyuk Excavations: PrelimiAkademiederWissenschaften: nary Report on Research and DisKlasse4. Philosophisch-historische coveries, 1963-1967. Series: Turk Heidelberg. Tarih Kurumu Yayinlarindan, Series V, 1984 KopfeinesBildwerksausderfruhen Number 28. Ankara. In Zeitdessogennatengrossreichs. BogazkoyVI:Fundeaus den Grabun- Loon, M. van 1985 Anatolia in the Second Millennium gen bis 1979. Berlin. B.C. Series: Iconography of Religions Bittel,andothers XV, Number 12. Leiden. 1975 Das Hethitische Felsheiligtum Mellink, M. J. Yazlllkaya.Berlin:Gebr.Mann. 1970 Observations on the Sculptures of BoehmerR.M. Alaca Huyuk. Anadolu xrv 15-27. 1972 Die Kleinfundevon Bogazkoyaus den Grabungskampagnen1931-1939 Muscarella, O., editor 1974 Ancient Art: The Norbert Schimmel und 1952-1969. Berlin. Collection. Mainz: Philipp von Canby,J.V. Zabern. 1969 SomeHittiteFiguresin the Aegean. Neve, P. Hesperia (tournalof the American 1982 Die Ausgrabungen in BogaskoySchool of Classical Studies at Hattusa 1981. Pp. 383-92 in Archa141-49. Athensl XXXVIII: ologischer Anzeiger. Berlin: Walter 1975 TheWaltersGalleryCappadocian de Gruyter. Tabletandthe Sphinxin Anatoliain 1983 Die Ausgrabungen in Bogazkoythe SecondMillenniumB.C.tournal Hattusa 1982. Pp. 427-40 in Archaof Near EasternStudies 34:225-48. ologischer Anzeiger. Berlin: Walter 1976 TheSculptorsof the HittiteCapital. de Gruyter. Oriens antiquus XV:33-42. 1984 Ein alter-hetitisches Relief von 1986 TheChildin HittiteIconography. Buyukkale. Pp. 91-98 in Bogazkoy Pp.54-69 in Ancient Anatolia: VI: Funde aus den Grabungen bis Aspects of Changeand Cultural 1979. Berlin. Development:Essays in Honor of 1986 Die Ausgrabungen in BogazkoyMachteld t. Mellink, editedbyJ.V. Hattusa 1985. Pp. 365-406 in ArchdCanbyandothers.Madison,VVI: ologischer Anzeiger. Berlin: Walter Universityof WisconsinPress. de Gruyter. H. Frankfort 1939 Cylinder Seals. London:MacMillan. 1987 Die Ausgrabungen in BogazkoyHattusa 1986. Pp. 381-410 in Archd1954 The Art and Architectureof the ologischer Anzeiger. Berlin: Walter Penguin. Ancient Orient. Baltimore: de Gruyter. H. G. Guterbock, 1988 Die Ausgrabungen in BogazkoyPp.139-79in 1961 HittiteMythology. Hattusa 1987. Pp. 357-390 in ArchaMythologies of the Ancient World, ologischer Anzeiger. Berlin: Walter GardenCity, editedbyS.N. Kramer.
de Gruyter. Ozguc, N. 1965 The Anatolian Groupof Cylinder Seal Impressionsfrom Kultepe. Series:Turk TarihKurumuYayinlarindan,Series V,Number 2. Ankara. 1966 Excavationsat Acemhoyuk.Anadolu X: 1-52. 1968 Seals and Seal Impressionsof Level Ib from KarumKanish. Series:Turk TarihKurumuYayinlarindan, Number 25. Ankara. 1980 Seal Impressionsfrom the Palacesat Acemhoyuk.Pp. 61-99 in Ancient Art in Seals, edited by E. Porada. Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversity Press. 1983 Sealings from Acemhoyuk in The MetropolitanMuseum of Art, New York.Pp. 413-20 in Beitragezur Altertumskunde Kleinasiens:Festschrift fur KurtBittel, edited by R. M. Boehmerand H. Hauptmann. Mainz:Philipp von Zabern. Ozguc,T. 1954 Fragmentof a Lion Statue found in the LatePhase (Ib}of the Colony Period.Belleten 18:445-47. 1983 New Findsfrom Kaneshand What they Mean for Hittite Art. Pp.421-26 in Beitragezur Altertumskunde Kleinasiens:Festschriftfur Kurt Bittel, edited by R. M. Boehmerand H. Hauptmann.Mainz:Philipp von Zabern. 1986 New Researchesat the Trading Centerof the Ancient Near East. Series:Turk TarihKurumuYayinlarindan,SeriesV,Number 41. Ankara. 1988 Inandiktepe,An Important Cult Centerin the Old Hittite Period. Series:Turk TarihKurumuYayinlarindan, .. SeriesV,Number 43. Ankara. Ozguc, T., and Ozguc, N. 1953 Ausgrabungenin Kultepe 1949. Series:Turk TarihKurumuYayinlarindan,Number 2. Ankara. Parrot,A. 1951 Cylindrehittite nouvellement acquis (AO201338}.Syriaxxviii 180-87. Spanos,P.Z. 1983 EinigeBemerkungenzum sogenannten Niobe-Monumentbei Manisa (Magnesiaad Sipylum}.Pp.477-83 in Beitragezur Altertumskunde Kleinasiens:Festschriftfur Kurt Bittel, edited by R. M. Boehmerand H. Hauptmann.Mainz:Philippvon Zabern. Tas,yurek,A. 1976 The KebenHittite Rock Relief from Silifke. TurkArkeoloXiDergesi XXII: 99-100. Temizer,R. 1979 AnkaraAnadolu Medeniyetleri Muzesi. Ankara.
1989 129 BiblicalArchaeologist,fune/September
;"
-
aC
'
v
-
^#X w
-
-
*
v
wsas
x-
-v
rhe Power of Nr>tiw connectionmaynot seem obvious,but written sourcesarean integral partof the archaeological record.In additionto beingthe cornerstoneof anyhermeneutical process,they arean importanttool in helpingus understandthe mute archaeological remains.Written sourcesarecriticalin the studyof HittiteAnatolianot only because historitheyprovidestraightforward cal accountsof the Hittitesbut also becausethey illustratethe literary valuesandabstractthoughtprocessesthat pervadedeveryaspectof Hittite life.The studyof Hittite literatureillustratesthat archaeologyandphilologyareindeed complementarydisciplinesandthat theirrelationshipmustbe carefully cultivatedif we areto unravelthe puzzlesof the past.In the following pagesI will discussthe underlying elementsof the Hittite literarytradition andpresentseveralpassages fromvarioustexts to showboththe developmentof thattraditionand -thepowerof its prose. The
This is certainlynot the correct a impressionto give.The Hittites ; built no institutionthat approached the functioningof a library.Wecannot evenbe surethat the structures in whichtabletshavebeenfound wereactuallyintendedto be tablet houses,or archives,in the physical senseof the word.Thus,in this article, the wordarchiveis usedto denotethe collectionsof tabletsthat havebeenfoundthroughoutthe Hittite capital.Relativelyfew tablets havebeenfoundin the provinces compareOzguvc 1978:57-58). ThetabletsunearthedatHattusa werescatteredin buildingsthroughout the site. In the LowerCity,tablets werefoundin severalroomsof Temple1,the greattempleof the Weather-God (Otten1955:72;Bittel 1970:13-14;Naumann1971:430; Akurgal1978:302).Onthe acropolis, site ofthegreatfortressofBuyukkale, tabletswerefoundin threestructures-BuildingsA, E,andK lBittel 1970:84-85, 163).Manytabletswere also foundin the so-calledHouseon the SlopelSchirmer1969:20),perhapsthe scribalschool lMacqueen The HittiteArchives 1986:116,note 71).Moretabletsare The obviousplaceto beginanydisbeingunearthedin the UpperCity cussionof Hittite literatureis the (Otten1984:50, 1987:21;Neve archivesat the Hittite capitalof Hat- 1985:334, 344, 1987a:405, 1987b: district tusanearthe modern-day 311),amongthem a sensationaltabBogazkalelsee townof Bogazkoy/ let madeof bronzethat wasfound Akurgal1978:300-01).Although underneaththe pavingstonesalong- particularsystemof distribution. little has beenwrittenaboutthe ar- sidethe innercity wallsnearYerkap lAnoverviewof findspotsaccording chives(Laroche1949;Otten 1955, Neve 1987a:405;Otten 1988,1989). to CTHnumberscanbe foundin 1984,1986),it is fromthese written Cornil1987.) Wecan sayverylittle about sourcesthat we get ourinitial imWehavedeterminedhowthe the physicalstructuresin which pressionsof the roleliteratureplayed the Hittiteskeptandstoredtheir tabletswereorganizedfromthe in the Hittite state. structuresin whichthey were tablets.At Hattusatabletswere Wemustbe cautious,however, foundcollectedin temples,houses, housedas well as fromthe so-called when speakingof the Hittite armagazines,andperhapsspecialtab- shelf lists lLaroche1971:154).It is chives.The wordarchiveconnotes let houses.Otherswerediscovered presumedthat these shelf lists were a buildingor structureandimplies in widelyscatteredareasanddumps. placedas indicesin frontof the tabthe notionof a libraryor the like. Theredoesnot seem to havebeena lets forquickreference.Someof the :oW
---S
c -
vt
1989 fune/September 130 BiblicalArchaeologistJ
0z
i v---*-
<
',
- 1Z
Q
*bs-s
e-96W
Ws
tos--a
Y
ws
iv Hittite Lite>t>reby
*
Ahmet
-
Unal
Tabletshavebeenfoundscatteredthroughout theHittitecapitalof Hattusa,includingthe greattempleof the Weather-God, shown here,locatedin the LowerCity.Theentire complex,includingthe centralcourtyard and surrounding storerooms, measuresabout525 feetat its longestpoint.Visiblein therearof thephoto,attachedto thecentralcourtyard, is an annexwith ritualchamber(adyton). PhotobyRonaldL.Gorny.
additionto the landgrants,HurroHittitebilingualliterarytexts, rituals,letters,anddivinationtexts havebeenfoundas well as the previously mentionedbronzetablet that detailsthe treatybetweenHattusili IIIandhis nephew,Kurunta, the vassalkingof Tarhuntassa (Ottenin Neve 1987a:405;Otten 1988,1989).
-
!-
-o
-+
;_S:7-r
A- t r:b4-* structures,especiallyBuildingsA andK in Buyukkale,hadroomswith parallelrowsof stonepillarsthat mighthavesupportedwoodenracks or shelvesforthe tabletsratherthan a secondstory(Neve1982:106,108, andplans41, 45).At one time the tabletsmayhaveresidedin a few speciallyestablishedtablethouses, but it is possiblethat some tablets weremovedto secondarylocations duringthe rebuildingandreorgani-
Hittite Scribesandthe Pursuit of Writing It appearsthat writingwasbrought to Anatoliabythe OldAssyrian merchantswho establishedtrading centersin importantcities across the centralplateauduringthe early partof the secondmillenniumB.C.E. The Assyriansbroughttheirown systemof writing,calledOldAssyrianscript,the use of which is thoughtto havediedout with the t demiseof the karumsystemaround 1750B.C.E. The OldBabylonian script,on which Hittitewasbased, zationof the city in the finalphase is generallythoughtto havebeen firstused somewhatlaterby Old of the empirelLaroche1975:57; Babylonianscribeswho aresaidto Bittel 1970:85).This maybe illushavebeenbroughtty Hattiduring tratedby the discoveryof Oldand MiddleHittite landgrantsdatingto the campaignsof the firstHittite the sixteenthandfifteenthcenturies kingsinto northernSyrialBeckman B.C.E. in the newly excavated temples 1983:100,note 17). It has alwaysbeenthoughtthat in the UpperCity lOtten1987), the use of these two scriptswas which dateto the thirteenth mutuallyexclusivebecausethey centuryB.C.E. Othertypesof tabletshavealso pertainedto differenterasthat were severalhundredyearsapart.Sucha beenfoundin the UpperCity.In
Biblical ArchaeologistZTune/September1989
131
clay tabletsin the Hittitearchiveswerefoundin thisstructure Mostof the best-preserved thefortresslocatedsoutheastof thegreattempleat Hattusa.About BuildingA in BuyuRkale, Picturedin anda longlateralcorridor. 105feetlong,BuildingA consistedof fourstorerooms parallel limestonebasesthatoncesupported aretheremainingrectangular thestorerooms rowsofpillars,whichmighthavesupportedwoodenracksorshelvesforthe tabletsrather thana secondstoryof the building.Stonebaseswerenot foundin thelong,outerroomto the Institute. eastof thestorerooms.Courtesyof PeterNeveandtheGermanArchaeological
l l
l l
The AnittaText(CTH11,one scenariowouldleavea literarygap of the oldestHittitetexts,maybe the of betweenone andtwo centuries of a text originallywrittranslation in centralAnatolia.In the view of Assyrian, then the only ten in Old HansGuterbock(1983a:24-251,it is Anatolia. in central literary language possiblethat the princesof the early however, that suggest, Some scholars city-statesemployedAssyrian-trained of the qualidisplays none the piece scribesto documenttheirdealings ties generallyfoundin a translation with the Assyrianmerchantsand (Neu 1974:132;see overviewin scribes or Syrian-trained BabylonianUnal 1983blandthat it mayhave fordocumentswrittenin Hittite. Examplesto supportthis idea,how- beenoriginallywrittenin Hittiteby scribes Anitta'sBabylonian-trained ever,havenot turnedup in any (Guterbock1983a:24-251.As the excavation.
132
Biblical Archaeologist, June/September1989
bullaefromAcemhoyuksuggest lN. Ozgujc1986:48),non-Assyrian scribescouldhavebeenplyingtheir tradein the centralAnatolianHighlandslongbeforethe allegedimportationof the OldBabylonianscript duringthe reignof HattusiliI. This wouldsuggestthatthe originsof Hittiteliteraturecouldgo somewhat fartherbackthanoriginallythought, possiblypullingthe dateof Anitta's reigncloserto the supposedoriginsof Hittitehistory.This theoryremains vague,however,andstill offersno clue as to Anitta'sethnicorigin. ContactsbetweencentralAnatolia andnorthernSyriaareknown to havealreadytakenplacein the last halfof the thirdmillennium 1986:311.The city of B.C.E. |T.Ozgucs Kaneswasprobablya principal partnerin this trade,so it is not unreasonableto think that the cradle of Anatolianliterarydevelopment couldbe foundthere.The factthat the languageof the Hittitesis called the languageof nesumnili-"in Nesa"-lends credibilityto this suggestion.Couldit be that the Hittites werealreadydevelopingthe rudiments of a writtenlanguageduring the periodof the Assyrianmerchants?Thereis no evidenceto substantiatethis suggestionat present, but excavationsin the non-Assyrian partsof Kultepemayeventuallybear it out. The heydayof the Babylonian scribesin Anatoliaseemsnot to have occurreduntil afterthe periodof the Assyriantradesettlements,however. evidence Thereis well-documented forsuch a presencein the late fourteenthandthe thirteenthcenturies probablydates B.C.E., butthe tradition evenearliersince a Babylonianscribal schoolhadapparentlybeenestablishedat Hattusaby the late fif..
The
of
heyday
to
seems
scribes
have
occurred settlements.
Assyrian
the
after
Babylonian
the
Tabletsmayhaveonceresidedin speciallyestablishedtablethouses,butit is possiblethat somemighthavebeenmovedto secondarylocationsduringtherebuildingandreorganization of Hattusain thefinalphaseof theempire.Thediscoveryoflandgrantsdatingto thepre-Empire period,like the twopicturedhere,mayillustratethispossibility.Thecuneiformseal in the centerof theclay tabletto thelek identifiesit as belongingto Zidanta,an OldKingdomruler, whereasthelandgrantto therightis identifiedbyits centercuneiformseal as belongingto ArnuwandaI, a MiddleKingdomruler.Bothtabletswerediscoveredat thesite of ancient Institute. Hattusa.Photoscourtesyof PeterNeveandthe GermanArchaeological
teenthor earlyfourteenthcentury (Beckman1983:106).It is important to addthat the Hurrianscribaltraditzonwas zav1ngan 1mmense1mpact at the time (Mascheroni1984),and manyof the Mesopotamianinfluences notedin laterHattusamay haveoriginallybeentransmitted throughthis medium. Onetype of Hittite scribewas calledthe scribeof the wooden tablets,which maybe a referenceto scribeswho wroteon foldingwooden .
.
.
.
tabletsconstructedwith a recessed areato holda waxsubstanceon which dailynotices andreceipts werewritten.No tracesof this highly perishablematerialhavebeen foundpreservedin Anatolia,but one examplewas recentlyexcavated about150feet underwaterat the site of an ancientshipwreckoff the coast of Turkeyat Ulu BurunnearKas.The tablethas been calledthe world's (Bass1987:730). oldestknown"book" Anotherwritingsystemthat
waspracticedbythe Hittites is the Scribes so-calledLuwianhieroglyphs. who usedwoodentabletsmighthave usedthis style of writinginsteadof records. cuneiformfortheirday-to-day AlthoughLuwianhieroglyphsseem to havebeenpopularin the middle of the secondmillenniumB.C.E., some effortshavebeenmadeto push the originsof this writingsystem backas faras the thirdmillennium or the firsthalfof the secondmillennium,but without fonvincingproof (overviewbyAlp 1968:281). The EarliestLiterarySources Hittiteliteratureappearedon the scenein an alreadywell-established style soon afterthe foundationof the OldKingdomandthe adoption of the OldBabylonianwritingsys-
Biblical Archaeologist, June/September1989
133
tem. It seems clearthat some sort of developmentalstagemust have transpiredpriorto its full-blown as the literarymedium appearance in centralAnatolia.Whetherthis mediumwasthe resultof an earlier developmentin the so-calledDark involvement Age,of Syro-Babylonian duringthe reignof HattusiliI, or evenof Hurrianscribesremains debatable,but futureresearchwill certainlyrevealan enormousHurrianimpacton Hittiteliteracy.A greatdealof new evidencewill eventuallycomefromHattusaas well as southeasternAnatolianandnorth Syriansites, andthese texts may enlightenus aboutthe originsof the Hittite script.The factremains, however,that we now see no obvious preliminaryor experimentalstageof development.This is the casein manyHittitegenres,but especially in the literaturethatdisplaysa complexnarrationof eventsandprocedures,examplesof which arefound in the earliestwrittensources. The PoliticalTestamentof Hattusili I (CTH6), forinstance,givesa verbatimrecordof a speechgivenby the kingto an assembledcourtfor the purposeof dismissinghis son fromsuccessionto the throne.Especiallypoignantarethe following passages: "I,the king,calledhim my son, embracedhim, exaltedhim, and caredforhim continually.But he showedhimselfa youthnot fit to be seen:He shedno tears, he showedno pity,he wascold andheartless." The forceof the narrativeleadsone to anticipatethe conclusion: He is my son no more!" "Enough! (Gurney1981). Throughoutthe text thereis no traceof scribalalteration;it seems
envelopeof an OldAssyriantabletwasfoundin Levellb at Kultepe, Thistwice-impressed Abovethe wide areguidedbya God-King. site of ancientKanes.In thescene,worshippers guillochearetwo sphinxeswith an ankhsignbetweenthem;belowthemis a bullscratching thegroundandan eagleseatedupright.MosttabletsfromKultepelb havethis typeof impression.Photocourtesyof TahsinOzguc.
to havebeenrecordeddirectlyfrom the king'smouth. The so-calledPalaceChronicle (CTH8),a seriesof anecdotaladmonitions,illustratesa distinct genrethat seems to haveemerged duringthe OldHittitekingdom. This collection,which hasbeenpreservedon manytabletsdatingto differentperiodsof Hittitehistory,is not simplypartof an oraltradition. As reflectionsof realevents,these role storiesplayeda propagandistic in the Hittitesubjugationof the Anatolianpopulation,revealinga wayof life thatwasvital anddynamicon the one handandharshandbrutal
134 BiblicalArchaeologist,lune/September1989
on the other.The personsmentioned in these storiesseem to be partly historical,partlyfictional.The collectioncanbe considereda literary achievementbecauseof its unique style of narration.The languageis cryptic,but the author'seffortis lleenlyfelt as he tries to impresshis messagewith wordscalculatedto Taken instill fearin wrongdoers. fromdifferentaspectsof dailylife, the anecdotesseem to encourage loyaltyandgoodconductbyillustratingthat evil will be punished andthatgoodwill be rewarded: (Oncetherewas)a highfunctionarynamedPappa.He was found
eaglewithina Left:Alsofoundat Levellb at Kultepe(ancientKanes)is this OldAssyriantabletwith a sealimpressionof a double-headed Right:SomeHittitescribeswroteon guillocheborderwith a staron eachside betweenthe tail andwings.Photocourtesyof TahsinOzguc,. foldingwoodentabletsconstructedwith a recessedareato holda waxsubstanceon whichdailynoticesandreceiptswerewritten.No traces of thishighlyperishablematerialhavebeenfoundin Anatolia,butthis woodentablet,shownvertically,wasrecentlyfoundabout150feet in an ancientshipwreckexcavatedovthecoastof 7hrkeyat UluBurun,nearKas,.Thetablet,ordiptych,has beencalledthe underwater TexasA & M University. Photocourtesyof GeorgeE BassandtheInstituteof NauticalArchaeology, world'soldestknown"book."
to be fraudulentlydistributing andmarnuwan-drink army-bread (amongthe people)in the city of (Theauthorities) [Tameni]nka. the breadandsmeared [squashed] the upperpartof his body(with theypouredout it). (Further} and salt into [marnuwan-]cup madehim drinkit. Theybroke the cupon his head.(Because) he (also)wasdistributingin Hattusa(illegally)walhi-drink to the soldiers,theytooka saggavessel andbrokeit (too)on his
"Letthe whole countrybe inhead(KBo3.34 I 5-g}. clinedtowardHattusabehind OtherOldHittite authorsalsoused his back.The kinghimselfis the powerof narrativeto maketheir vigorous.He is (also}ableto points.In contrastto laterliterature keepthe countryvigorous.The Wlt.z ltSemp.zaslson clvlne lnsplraking'shouse is (full)of rejoicing tion andempowerment,this power It is set on andgrandchildren. wasoftenrootedin the omnipotence (solid}ground"(KUB36.110 andwisdomof the king.Thuswe rev.9'-16'). shouldnot be surprisedto findexampleswherethe kingis presented Similarlythereis a royaladmonition to: as ma.rlngwlse pronouncements "givehim (thatis, a sick person} that implygreatroyalpower.In the breadandwater.If somebodyis forexample, BenedictionforLabarna, struckbyheat,let him be taken the king commands: .
*
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1989 135 BiblicalArchaeologisttTune/September
Thelongesthieroglyphic monumentdatingto theHittiteEmpireperiodis this weathered 11-lineinscriptionlocatedon a slopinghill at Nis,antepe in the UpperCityat Hattusa. About28 feetlong,theinscriptionapparently datesto thereignof Suppiluliuma I. Photoby RonaldL.Gorny.
to a cool place;if the coldchills somebody,let him be takento a warmplace.Letthe king'ssubjectsnot be oppressed!" (Archi 1979:37). Thesepassageshavebeen compared with a storydetailedin a HurroHittitebilingualfromHattusain whichthe Storm-GodTesubhas gotteninto debt(KBo32.15i-ii;Neu 1988a:16,1988b,1988c,1988d). WhileTesubtriesto extricatehimself fromthe situation,othergodsassist him as a tokenof solidarity,supplyinghim with silver,gold,food,garments,andrefinedoil, all of which he needs.Suchacts symbolizeliber-
ationor releasing(para tarnumar), whichis the maintheme of OldHittite stories.In light of Hittite interactionwith nearbyHurrianprincipalities,we shouldaskto whatextent these genresareto be considered strictlyHittite since thereis strong evidencethat manytypicallyHittite ideaswereactuallyborrowedfrom the Hurriansandthe Babylonians. Oneof ourfirstexamplesof HattusiliI'sinvolvementin military affairsis the Akkadiantext describingthe Siegeof Ursu,an important Hurriancity in southeastern Anatolia (Beckman,forthcoming).The text describesthe toils andfrustrations
136 Biblical Archaeologist, [une/September1989
felt bythe kingduringthis bitter siegein whichHittiteforceswere evidentlyinferiorto the Hurriansin bothmanpowerandequipment.In addition,the Hittite militarycommandersaredescribed(ina surprisinglyfrankmanner)as weak,slack, andineffective.Thusit is left to the tirelessandcourageouseffortsof the Hittitekingto overcomethe Hurrian forceswho areproppingup the city ofUrsu.The king'sfrustrationis evidentin his animatedresponseto findingout that the batteringram hasbeenbroken: The kingwaxedwrathandhis facewasgrim(ashe yelled},
Old Kingdom literature tried to involve the reader so that the conclusion was seen as inevitable "Theyconstantlybringme evil tidings;maythe Weather-God carryyou awayin flood!Benot idle!Makea batteringramin the Hurrianmannerandlet it be broughtinto place.Makea mountain(thatis, siegemachinel andlet it (alsolbe set in its place. in its place.Hew a greatbattering ramfromthe mountainsof Hassuandlet it be broughtinto place.Beginto heapup earth. Whenyouhavefinishedlet every one takepost"(KBo1.10obv.! 13'-17t, translatedby Gurney 1981:180-811. It is almostas if the kingweresaying,"DoI haveto tell you howto do everything?" Thesedescriptionsareas much a literarydeviceas a historicalnarrationof the facts.Theyset the stage fora statementof the king'swise andcourageousdecisions,the purpose of which is to emphasizehis roleandleadthe readerto the obvious conclusionthat withoutthe kingall wouldbe lost. Unfortunately, the endof the storyis missing (butcomparethe Annalsof Hattusili I in KBo10.1i 15andfollowingl. The OldHittite culminationof this literarypatternis foundin the TelipinuEdict(CTH191.The powerful narrationof the tragicevents leadingup to this decreepresents the readerwith whatamountsto an apologeticdiscourse.In contrastto the passionatepronouncementof HattusiliI, this decreeis formulated in a veryunemotionalwayandwith an objectivitypeculiarto legaltexts. It is, however,a veryidealizedaccountof the remotepastpresented in a schematizedformthat leaves one with a strongimpressionof the forceof law.Likethe PoliticalTestament of HattusiliI, the Telipinu
Edicthas a sense of growinganticipationandfulfilledexpectation, which inevitablyarisewith the final stipulationsof the decree.Telipinu thus succeedsin presentinghis reforms,not as merestipulationsbut as a well-structured literarycomposition (Sturtevant andBechtel1935: 175;Hardy1941:190;Liverani1977: 105;Hoffmann1984:131. The Developmentof an Emphasis on the Divine The literatureof the OldHittite Kingdompresentsus with a basic outlinein which the Hittites couchedmuch of theirlaterliterature.Basicto this style is an attempt to involvethe readerin the events beingdescribedso that the conclusionis seen as inevitable.The outcomeis determinedby the wise actionsof the kingon one handand the leadingheroeson the other. Othergenresborrowedheavily fromthis style,forexample,the annalistictradition.Althoughthe most fully developedexampleof this veryHittitegenredatesto the reign of MursiliII,forerunnerscanbe foundin texts datingto boththe Old andthe EarlyNew Kingdoms,suchas the annalsof HattusiliI, Tudhaliya III,andArnuwandaI. Thesetexts are not merelyrecordsof events;they arerealisticnarrativesof campaign strategythat attemptto involvethe readerin the developmentof various ideasto theirexpectedconclusions (Cancik19761.Precedingeventsand simultaneousactionsandcircumstancesaredescribedperfectly,and the underlyingreasonsforthe decisions areaptlygiven.In the Annals of MursiliII,forexample,we read: ''lBecause the whole enemy populationfledto MountArinnandalI, my majesty,went talso
to MountArinnanda.Now this MountArinnandais verysteep andextendsinto the sea lthatis, it is on a peninsulal.It is also veryhigh,difficultof access, rocky,andimpossibleforchariots to driveup.... Sinceit was impossibleto drivewith chariots, I, my majesty,wentguiding my armyin fronton footand clamberedup MountArinnanda on foot"(Goetze1933:541. The factsareclearlyorganized,but the presentationis farfromobjective. The descriptionis constructedto makethe readersympathizewith the kingandhis difficultiesat the sametime commendinghis courage andwisdomin makingtacticaland strategicdecisions.It is also notable forthe gratitudethat the kingaccordshis patrondeitywhomhe believessupportshim throughouthis lifetime.In fact,this deitymayhave beenthoughtto be the sole readerof the text. Thatis, the kingpresents an accountof his reignto his divine overlordforwhomhe governsthe Hattilandsas a proxy.This maybe the precursorof depictingkingship in termsrelatednot so muchto wisdomandcourageas to divine providenceandempowerment.It foreshadowsthe "orientalizing" of Hittite kingship,which cameto fruitionunderthe last kingsof the empire. The best exampleof this new trendcanbe seen in the Apology of HattusiliIII(CTH811,a highly sophisticatedanduniquecomposition whosepurposewasto justify his seizingthe throne.Hattusilitells abouthis childhood,describinghow he wasdedicatedto the goddessIstar andhowhe, alwaysan innocent babe,wassurrounded by jealous enemies.Exceptforthe deity,almost
Biblical Archaeologist, June/September1989
137
Hurro-Hittitebilinguals are rare examples of what in Mesopotamia was called wisdont literature everybodyis presentedas enviousof this childprodigy.The storygoeson to tell how IstarenabledHattusilito prevailagainstthe continuousevil deedsandplots concoctedby these enemies.This document,which has fewparallelsin pre-Classicalantiquity,suggestsa highlydeveloped politicalconsciousnessthat relies on reasonedargumentationto make a point lGoetze1925;Sturtevantand Bechtel1935:64;Wolf1967;Unal 1974:29;Otten 1981).As with its predecessors,this trendis dependent on the reader'sinvolvement:Its success relieson the powerof the narrativeto leadthe readersubconsciouslyto a desiredconclusion,in this case,that Hattusilihaddoneno wrongbut sat on the throneonly as a resultof his naturalrightof successionanddivineselection. Narrationin Legallkxts Narrationwasjustas powerfulin the legalsphere,especiallyin putting forwardspecificcases.Hittite legal processusedoratoryandcomplex reasoningin the pleadingof cases. Amongthe officialdocumentswe havefoundaredepositions,that is, testimoniesfromthe proceedingsof legalinquests.Thereare,forexample, speechesmadein self-defenseby men accusedof havingstolenor lost items forwhich they hadbeengiven responsibility.Thesetestimonies, which arepreservedin the recordsof Hittite courtclerks,deservespecial treatmentherebecausethey arethe literaryforerunnersof pre-Socratic apologeticsthat use oratoryas a meansof self-defense. The best exampleof these testimoniesis the caseof Istar-ziti,who wasapparentlyindictedfora scandalousaffairof unknownnature.In his defenseIstar-zitiuses metaphors
138
suchas "Iam castdownlike a reedon The Roleof the Hurrians roleof the Hurrians the darkearth"and"asa livingperson Theintermediary I am deadin the eyesof my siblings." is one of the most importantoccurA fewmoreof his well-turnedphrases rencesin Hittite historybecauseit help illustratethis style: of broughtaboutthe incorporation "HaveI not alwaysbeena (truel Hurriancustomsandbeliefsinto the indigenousHittite culture. servantof that deity?. . . Once Hurriansfirstappearin the hiswhenI wastakenill, I prayedto toricaltexts as enemiesof the Hitthe gods,saying:'Do not you tites. Convincingevidenceis lacksee, o gods,who has ruinedme ing,but directinfluencemayalready like this (asI am rightnow)?' havebegunin the OldKingdom. Insteadyou haveweighedon Visibleinfluencesaremorereadily me! (Isit becauselyou do not observedfromthe EarlyEmpireperiwantto harm(literallydefeatl od underTudhaliyaIIIandArnuwanthe king,his majesty?Ifyou daI. Bythe time of HattusiliIIIand alwaysappreciatethe absolute truth,why is it that mattersare his Hurrianwife Puduhepa,the still concealed?. . . Whensome- Hurrianculturalinvasionwaswell thingevil happenedto the royal underway.Fromthe EarlyEmpire heirin the city of Kummanna, on the Hurrianinfluencebeganto be felt so stronglythat some scholars Ali-Sarrumma revealedto me that they intendedto kill me believethe dynastyto be of Hurrian origin.Indeedmuchevidencepoints (becausetheythoughtI was to this conclusion.A casein pointis guiltyin that matterl.(Onmy the largenumberof Hurriantexts or the wayto MountSahhupiddal queenintendedto havesomeone theirtranslationsfoundat Hattusa. Theseincludethe Kingshipin Heavlie in ambushbehindthe road andkill me! . . . (Frommy eyesl en storyandthe Songof Ullikummi. Of specialinterestarethe newlydisthe tearsflow [likewaterin the bilinguals coveredHurro-Hittite mountains;.ThesetearsI will giveto the priestof the Sun-God fromthe UpperCity,which will certainlychangeourviewsof Hittite andhe shallpourthem out secretlyforthe Sun-God.... One intellectuallife duringthe last two centuriesbeforethe downfallof the dayin the city of SulamaI was empire.It wouldbe appropriate, honoringthe godTarupsani. therefore,to takea closerlook at the (Amanbythe nameofl Muti contentsof these newlydiscovered walkedin andstartedto gossip texts,so farasdetailsareyet available. aboutmy person.I seizedhim The Hurro-Hittitebilinguals by the collar(and)broughthim to [thesacredplace;.I madehim Otten 1986;Neu 1988a,1988b, takean oathandwarnedhim (at 1988clarerareexamplesof what in the sametime),saying:'(Behold!) Mesopotamiawas calledwisdom literaturein whichgoodandbad, Whoevertakesa (falseloathin representedas humans,animals,and the presenceof this deity,he variousobjects,appearas activefigdoesnot surviveanymore!"' (KUB54.1;my translationdiffers uresopposingeachother.Animals in manycasesfromthat of andinanimateobjectsaredepicted ArchiandKlengel1985l. in the formof a clerihewas imbecilic
Biblical Archaeologist, June/September1989
beings,shortof wit, andlackingthe abilityto reason.Theycanonly use theirinstinct,whereashumansare endowedwith wisdomandinsight (Hittite,hattatar;Hurrian,madi-).A greedydeer,forexample,is compared to an ambitiousgovernor.The literarytheme in these piecesis, again, liberation,releasefromevil (para tatnumar;Neu 1988a:10),andperhapsthe reestablishmentof primary divineorderon earth.Whetherthey playeda partin magicalritualsorfestivals (perhapsnot unlikeIlluyanka in the purulli-festival) is not clear. BothHittite andHurrianversions revealmeticulouseffortsto structurethe composition,which indicatesthat they arenot mere scribalexercisesbut first-classliteraryexemplars.Theyaredesignated as "song,poetry"(SIR),andbothcontain tracesof well-organized verse, which canbe observedin Hattic texts as well (KUB38 p. ivf., "Gruppe II";HaasandThiel 1978:66-90). Groupsof storiesall seem to havea singleauthor,as the narratorintroducessuccessivestorieswith the words,"Iwill put asidethis story (literally,words)andwill tell you another." This is importantin regard to the individualauthorshipof literaryworks,although,unfortunately, in generalthe authorsdidnot sign theirnames(seeGuterbock1978: 213).Evidently,as with the later Homericepics,the literarydevices usedby these authorswerenot of theirown inventionbut weretaken fromthe vastresourcesof an evergrowingfolkloretradition. The followingpassage,in which an analogyis madebetweenan ungratefulcoppercupanda man'sson, will illustratethis point: (Oncela coppersmithcasta splendidcup.Bycastingit he
gaveit a (beautiful)shape.He embossedit with platesand engravedit. He madeit brilliant in everydetail.However,the simple (-minded)copperbegan to curseits creator,saying: "Whoever has castme-;mayhis handbreak,maythe sinewof his rightarmbe paralyzed!" As the coppersmithheardthis he wasgrievedin his heart.The coppersmithbeganto speakto himself:"Iformedthat copper (intoa beautifulcup).Whydoes it (now)curseme?"The coppersmithuttereda curseoverthe cup: "Maythe Storm-Godsmite it, the cup,mayhe removeits plates. Maythe cupfall downthe water drainageditch,may (its)plates fall downinto the river!" The analogousstoryrunsas follows: (Thistime it is) not a cup,but a human.Itis a sonwhoaftergrowing up becamean adversaryto his ownfather.He paysno attentionto his father.As a result the paternaldeitiescursedhim! Perhapsalso connectedto Hurrianinfluenceis the commonmotif of childexposurefoundin three texts fromancientAnatoliathat tell the storiesof childrenfromhumble beginningswho endup achieving astonishingpowerandsuccess. Thesestoriesarethe oldestexamples of a motifthat canbe seen in such famouslaterexamplesas Sargonof Akkad,Moses,RomulusandRemus, andDarius.It seemsthatthis literary motiffoundits wayinto Hittite AnatoliathroughHurrianintermediaries.Its originis probablyto be foundin the Hurrianregionsof the upperTigrisandEuphratesrivers (Unal1985:1351. Oneof the Hittite storiesthat
fallsinto this categoryis the Queen of Kanes(Nesal/ThirtySonsand Daughters/Zalpa Text(CTH3; Otten 1973;see glossarylisting).This text hasbeenevaluatedin termsof a preHittite matriarchalstructureevidentin the Hatto-Hittiteworldthat completelyrejectedincest.Because of the roleof the riverandthe dismissalof the maleprogeny,some laymenhaveconnectedthis text to the legendaryAmazonsof Greek mythologywho wouldmeet men in the rivervalleysfororgiasticceremonies.This view maynot be as farfetchedas it once seemedin light of festivaltext recordsthat describea northernAnatoliancustomin which younggirlsweretakenfromtheir towns,strippedin the rivervalley, andevidentlyraped(unpublished text is discussedin Forlanini1984: 256 andfollowingl.The storyof the Queenof Kanesmayalso indicatea processof politicalintegrationin centralAnatolia,a suggestionthat has recentlyled to the notionof a kindof amphictyonicleaguein the region(Dieterle19871. Perhapsthe best exampleof the motifof childexposureis the story of Anum-Hirbe,a princeof the city of Mamawho seemsto haveestablisheda relativelylargekingdom somewhereon the peripheryof the realmof Kanes.Anum-Hirbe's prominencegaverise to the storyof a legendarybirthandchildhood: Apparentlybornout of wedlock,he wascarriedoff by the peopleof Mamaandprobablythrowninto a river.A shepherdor a sheepfound him andcarriedhim to a meadow wherehe was suckledby animals. The remainderof the storyhasbeen lost, but we can imaginethe gist of it-Anum-Hirbeovercameall odds andreturnedto Mamaas its king
Biblical Archaeologist, June/September1989
139
Continued development of Hittite culture led to more complex ideas concerning the afterlife IUnal1985:132-351.Onceagain,the readeris captivatedby the incredible eventsandcanonly concludethat it wasdivinelyordainedthat AnumHirberise to suchheights.
tournalof theAncientNearEastern Society14: 11-25. 1983 Mesopotamiansand Mesopotamian Learningat Hattusa. tournalof Cuneiform Studies35: 97-114. 1986 Proverbsand ProverbialAllusions in Hittite. tournalof NearEastern Studies45: 19-30. forth- The Siege of Ursu Text (CTH7) and coming Old Hittite Historiography.In
Conclusion Duringthe thirteenthcenturyB.C.E., MemorialVolumeforCharlesCarter Hattusawasan importantcrossroads edited by Y.Arbeitman. Bernabe,A. and,consequently,was opento a 1987 Textosliterarioshetitas.Madrid: varietyof influences.In it residedan elite composedof aristocrats,bureau- Bittel, K.Alianza Editorial. Literatureas a Conveyor crats,scribes,andartisans,manyof 1970 Hattusha:TheCapitalof theHittites. of HittiteThought whom representeddifferentethnic New York:OxfordUniversity Press. Contactswith the restof the ancient backgrounds. Bryce,T. R. This complexdemo1982 TheMajorHistoricalTextsof Early NearEastandthe continueddevel- graphicmix led to the development HittiteHistory.Series:Historical opmentof Hittite cultureled to of new trends,concepts,andideas. and Social Documents of the Hittite morecomplexideasconcerningthe Simpleliteraryformsno longersatisWorld.Queensland:University of afterlife.A preoccupationwith fiedthis urbancaste.As a result,in Queensland. these ideaseliciteddeepfeelingsand this periodtherewasan increasing Cancik, C. intangible,abstractideas;it also influxof new literarymaterialsfrom 1976 Grundzugederhethitischenund alttestamentlichen Geschichtsschreibroughtaboutthe stoic recognition the south,materialsthat weremore bung.Wiesbaden:Otto Harrassowitz. that"lifeis boundup with death, sophisticatedandabstractin style. Cornil, P. anddeathis boundup with life" Wecanonly speculatehow farthis 1987 Textesde Boghazkoy.Liste des lieux de trouvaille.HethiticaVII:5-72. (Goetze1969b:400).Thesefeelings developmentwouldhavegoneif the musthavetestedthe capabilityof Hittiteshadnot met an unfortunate Dieterle, R. L. 1987 The Thirty Brothers.tournalof Hittite literatureto conveycomplex endshortlyafter1200B.C.E. Indo-European Studies15: 169-214. ideas.Whereasthe earlierliterature Edel,E. usedvividaccountsandtensenarBibliography 1952 Die Rolle der Koniginnenin der rativeto conveyits message,this Akurgal,E. Agyptisch-hethitischenKorrespon1978 Ancient Civilizations and ,Ruinsof denz aus Bogazkoy.Indogermanische laterliteratureemphasizedcontent Turkey from Prehistoric Times Forschungen 60: 72-85. until overstyle,oftenattemptingto give 1953 WeitereBriefeaus der Heiratskorthe End of the RomanEmpire,transa theologicalreasonforeventsand respondenzRamses'II:KUBIII37 + latedbyJ.Whybrow andM.Emre. expressinga newunderstanding of Istanbul:HasjetKitabevi. KBoI 17 und KUBIII57. Pp.31-63 in AkurgalE.,andHirmer,M. the relationshipbetweenthe king GeschichteundAltesTestament. 1962 TheArt of the Hittites. London: Tubingen:J.C. B.Mohr{PaulSiebeck}. andthe world.This emphasis,mirThamesandHudson. 1976 AgyptischeArtzeundagyptische roredin the workof Hittite artists Medizinamhethitischen Konigsh of Alp, S. fromthe sameperiod,expressed NeueFundevonKeilschriftbriefen Zylinder-und Stempelsiegelaus 1968 itself in an overallartisticstyle RamsesJ II aus Bogazkoy. Opladen: Karahoyukbei Konya.Series: Turk calculatedto enhancethe position WestdeutscherVerlag. Tarih Kurumu Yayinlarindan, Series ForlaniniM. V, Number 26. Ankara. of the king.Wefindsomethingsimi1984 Die "Gottervon Zalpa."Hethitische Archi, A. larin the Hurro-Hittite bilinguals Gotter und Stadteam Schwarzen 1968 Lastoriografiaittita. Athenaeum 47: andtheirattemptto interpretwisMeer.ZeitschriftffirAssyriologie 7-20. domas well as in the attemptto undVorderasiatische Archaologie 1979 L'humanitedes hittites. Pp.37-48 in definea religioushierarchyin the 74: 245-66. Florilegium Anatolium: Melanges FriedrichF. offerts a E ,mmanuel Laroche. Paris. Kingshipin Heavenstory(CTH3445. 1926 Staatsvertrdge desHatti-Reiches in Archi, A., and Klengel, H. The factthat so muchof this lithethitischerSpracheI. Series: 1985 The Selbstrechtfertigungeines hethieraturecanbe attributedto Hurrian Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischtischen Beamten.Archiv fur Orientinfluencesuggeststhatthis philoAgyptischenGesellschaft 31.1. forschung 12:52-64. sophicaldevelopmentoccurred Leipzig:J.C. Hinrichs. Bass,G. F. 1930 Staatsvertrage des Hatti-Reiches 1987 Oldest KnownShipwreckReveals in partlyas a resultof Anatolia'sinterhethitischer Sprache II. Series: Splendors of the Bronze Age. Nationactionwith the moreadvancedciviMitteilungen der Vorderasiatischal Geographic 172{6):693-732. lizationsto the southeast,that is, Beckman,G. AgyptischenGesellschaft 34. 1. Mesopotamia. 1982 The Anatolian Myth of Illuyanka. Leipzig:J.C. Hinrichs.
140
Biblical Archaeologist, fune/September 1989
sity Press. 1952 The Song of Ullikummi: Revised 1980 HistoriesandHistoriansof the Textof the Hittite Versionof a HurAncientNearEast:TheHittites. rian Myth. New Haven,CT:AmeriOrientalia 49:283-332. can Schools of Oriental Research. 1981 TheHurrianStoryof the Sungod, 1954 The HurrianElement in the Hittite the Cowandthe Fisherman. Pp.189Empire Cahiersd Histoire Mondiale 94 in Studies on the Civilization and dAssyriologie et d'archeologie (ournal of WorldHistory)II:383-94. Cultureof Nuzi and the Hurriansin orientale 79: 115-26. 1956 The Deeds of Suppiluliumaas Told Honor of E. R. Lacheman,editedby Goetze,A. by His Son Mursilis II.tournal of M.A. MorrisonandD. I. Owen. 1925 Hattusilis, der Bericht uber seine CuneiformStudies 10:41-130. 1987 HittiteReligion.Pp.408-14in The Thronbesteigungnebst den Parallel1961 Hittite Mythology.Pp. 139-79 in Encyclopediaof Religion, editedby texten. Series:Mitteilungen der Mythologies of the Ancient World, M.Eliade. Vorderasiatisch-Agyptischen Geselledited by S. N. Kramer.GardenCity, 1988 TheSongof Silver.A Memberof the schaft38. Leipzig:J.C. Hinrichs. NY:Doubleday. Kumarbi Cycleof"Songs." Pp.143-65 1928 Madduwattas. Series:Mitteilungen 1964 A View of Hittite Literature.tournal in Documentum Asiae Minoris derVorderasiatisch-Agyptischen of the American Oriental Society Antiquae: Festschriftfur Heinrich Gesellschaft32.1.Leipzig:J.C. 84: 107-15. Otten zum 75. Geburtstag. Hinrichs. 1969 Sargon,Konigder Schlacht.MitHrozny,B. 1930 Die Pestgebete desMursilis.Kleinasiateilungen der Deutschen OrientdesIndo-Europeens en 1929 L'Invasion tische Forschungen1: 161-251. gesellschaft 101:14-26. AsieMineureverse2000av.J.-C. 1933 Die Annalen des Mursilis. Series: 1978 Hethitische Literatur.Pp. 211-53 in Archiv Orientalni 1:273-99. MitteilungenderVorderasiatischNeues Handbuch der LiteraturF.,andSaporetti,C. Imparati, AgyptischenGesellschaft38. wissenschaft, edited by W.Rollig. di HattusiliI. Studi 1965 L'Autobiografia 1983a Hittite Historiography:A Survey. Leipzig:J.C. Hinrichs. classici e orientali 14:40-85. Pp. 21-35 in History,Historiography, 1957 Kleinasien. 2. Auflage. Series:HandA. Kammenhuber and Interpretation,edited by H. buchderOrientalistik III.1.3.3.1. 1955 Die hethitischeGeschichtsschreiTadmorand M. Weinfeld.Jerusalem: Munich:C. H. Beck. bung.Saeculum 9: 135-55. 1969a HittiteMyths,EpicsandLegends. MagnesPress. 1967 HethitischeGebete,Hethitische 1983b A Hurro-HittiteHymn to Ishtar. Pp.120-26in Ancient Near Eastern Geschichtsschreibung, Hethitische TextsRelating to the Old Testament, tournal of the American Oriental Gesetze,HethitischeMythen, thirdedition,editedbyJ.B.Pritchard. Society 103: 155-64. HethitischePferdetexte, Hethitische Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversity 1986 A Religious Textfrom Ma,sat. Rituale,HurritischeMythen.Sp. Press. tahrbuchfur Kleinasiatische For1731-52,2267-74in KindlersLitera1969b Rituals,Incantations andDescripschungen 10:205-14. turlexikon,volume3. tionsof Festivals.Pp.393-400in Guterbock,H. G., and Civil, M., editors A. S. Kapelrud, Ancient Near Eastern TextsRelating 1985 Erim-husBoghazkoy.Series:MatebetweenReligion 1959 TheInterrelation rials for the SumerianLexiconXVII: to the Old Testament,thirdedition, andMagicin HittiteReligion. 97-128. Rome:Pontificum InstitueditedbyJ.B.Pritchard. Princeton, Numen 6:32-50. {Reprinted on pp. tum Biblicum. NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress. 165-83in God and His Friendsin Haas,V. Goetze,A., andPedersen,H. the Old Testament, 1979,Oslo: 1980 Betrachtungenzum ursprunglichen 1934 Mursilis Sprachlahmung.Series:Det UniversitetsForlaget Schauplatzder Mythen vom Gott Kgl.DanskeVidenskabernes Selskab, A. Kempinski, Kumarbi.Studi Micenei ed EgeoHistorisk-filologiske Meddehelser in der 1983 SyrienundPalastina{Kanaan} Anatolici 22: 97-105. 21.2.Copenhagen. letztenPhasederMittelbronze IIBHaas,V.,and Thiel, H. J. Grottanelli,C. Zeit {1650-1570). Series:Agypten 1978 Die Beschworungsritualeder 1978 Observations surl'histoired'Appou. und Altes Testament4: 14-53. Allaiturah(h)iund verwandte Texte. RevueHittite etAsianique 36:49-57. Series:Alter Orient und Altes Testa- Kuhne,C. Gurney,O.R. 1978 HittiteTexts.Pp.146-84in Near ment 31. Neukirchen:Neukirchener 1940 HittitePrayersof MursiliII.Annals EasternReligious TextsRelating to Verlag. of Archaeology and Anthropology the Old Testament,editedbyW. Hardy,R. S. 27:3-163. Beyerlin.Philadelphia: Westminster 1941 The Old Hittite Kingdom:A Politi1977 Some Aspects of Hittite Religion. Press. cal History.American tournal of Series:TheSchweichLectures1976. E. Laroche, Semitic Languagesand Literature Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress. 1949 LabibliothequedeHattusa.Archiv 58: 177-216. 1981 The Hittites. NewYork:Penguin Orientalni 17:7-23. Hoffmann,I. Books. 1969 Textesmythologiques hittite en 1984 Der Erlaf Telipinus.Series:Texteder Guterbock, H. G. transcription.Paris:Klincksieck. Hethiter 11.Heidelberg:Carl Winter. 1938 Die historischeTradition undihre 1971 Catalogue des textes hittites. Paris: literarischeGestaltungbeiBabylo- Hoffner,H. A. EditionsKlincksieck.{Supplement 1968 A-Hittite Text in Epic Style about niernundHethiternbis 1200.Zeitin Revue Hittite et Asianique 30: Merchants.tournal of Cuneiform schrift furAssyriologie, NeueFolge 94-133) Studies 22: 34-45. 10:45-149. 1975 Lesecrituresd'AsieMineure:etat 1975 Hittite MythologicalTexts:A Survey. 1948 TheHittiteVersionof the Hurrian desdechiffrements. Pp.57-60 in Le Pp. 136-45 in Unity and Diversity, Kumarbi Myths:OrientalForerunners Dechiffrement des ecritureset des editedby H. GoedickeandJ.J.Roberts. of Hesiod.American tournal of langues. Baltimore:JohnsHopkins UniverArchaeology 52: 123-34.
Gaster,T H. 1958 Thespis. Ritual, Myth and Drama in the Ancient Near East. NewYork: Schuman. Glassner,J.J. 1985 Sargon"roiducombat." Revue
..
1989 141 BiblicalArchaeologist,[une/September
Berlin:Walter deGruyter. der 1987b Hattuscha,Haupt-undKultstadt derAusgrabunHethiter-Ergebnisse Hethitica VIII: genin derOberstadt.
hittite;litteraturehour1977 Litterature Pp.119-36in riteet ourarteenne.
ologischer Anzeiger.
Histoire des litteraturesJEncyc. Pleiade, volume2.
Lebrun,R. 297-318. 1980 Hymnes et priereshittites. Series: H. L. HomoReligiosus4. Louvain-la-neuve:Oppenheim, 1956 The Interpretation of Dreams in the desReligions. Centred'Histoire Ancient Near East. Philadelphia: Liverani, M. Society. AmericanPhilosophical politicahittita-II Telipinu, 1977 Storiografia Otten,H. owero:dellasolidarita.Oriens im AltenOrient.Das 1955 Bibliotheken antiquus XVI:105-31. Altertum 1: 67-81. Macqueen, J.G. Schreiber in ihrenBriefen. 1956 Hethitische 1986 The Hittites and their ContemMitteilungen des Instituts fur Orientporariesin Asia Minor,revisedand forschung4: 179-89. Thames enlargededition.London: 1958 Die ersteTafeldeshethitischen andHudson. Istanbul MitteiGilgamesch-Epos. Mascheroni, L.M. lungen 8: 93-125. unaverifica 1984 ScribihurritiaBogazkoy: Studi Micenei ed Egeoprosografica. InKulturge1961 DasHethiterreich. Anatolici 24: 151-73. schichte des Alten Orients, editedby A. Krohner. Melchert,H. C. H. Schmokel.Stuttgart: Indovonder 1986 Hittiteuwas andCongeners. 1963 AitiologischeErzahlung desTaurus.Zeitschrift Uberquerung germanischeForschungen91: 102-15. Naumann,R. furAssyriologie, NeueFolge21: 156-68. 1971 ArchitekturKleinasiens. Tubingen: ErnstWasmuth. der undLiteratur 1964 Schrift,Sprache Neu,E. Hethiter.Pp.11-22 in Neuere Hethi* terforschung, editedbyG. Walser. 1974 Der Anitta-Text.Series:Studienzu 7. Series:Historia, Einzelschriften 18.Wiesbaden: denBogazkoy-Texten FranzSteiner. Wiesbaden: OttoHarrassowitz. 1988a Das Hurritische:Einealtorientalische 1973 Eine althethitische Erzdhlung um die Stadt Zalpa. Series:Studienzu Sprachein neuem Licht. Series: 17. Wiesbaden: denBogazkoy-Texten und AkademiederWissenschaften OttoHarrassowitz. Abhandlungen der derLiteratur. Geistes-undSozialwissenschaftlichen 1981 Die Apologie Hattusilis III: Das Bild 1988,Number3. Klasse.Jahrgang der Uberlieferung. Series:Studienzu 24. Wiesbaden: denBogazkoy-Texten FranzSteiner. Stuttgart: OttoHarrassowitz. desHurritischen 1988b ZurGrammatik Geistes1984 Blickin diealtorientalische derhurritischaufdergrundlage welt:Neufundeinerhethitischen hethitischenBilingueausder tahrbuch der Tempelbibliothek. 1983. Bogazkoy-grabungskampagne Akademie der Wissenschaften in Pp.95-115in XeniaJHurriterund Gottingen: 50-60. in Hattusa. 1986 ArchiveundBibliotheken Pp. 184-90 in Cuneiform Archives
Hurritisch.KonstanzerAlthistorische Vortrdgeund Forschungen,heft21,
UnivereditedbyV.Haas.Konstanz: Konstanz. sitatsverlag 1988c VariaHurritica.Sprachliche anderhurritischBeobachtungen hethitischenBilingueausHattusa. Pp.235-54in Documentum Asiae
and Libraries, editedbyK.R.VeenHistorischhof.Leiden:Nederlands Instituutte Istanbul. Archaeologisch im 15. 1987 DashethitischeKonigshaus v.Chr.Anzeiger der Jahrhundert phil.-hist. Klasse der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
MinorisAntiquae: Festschriftfur Heinrich Otten zum 75. Geburtstag.
123:21-34. 'Essiv'in der 1988d Zumhurritischen 1988 Die Bronzetafel aus Bogazkoy. WiesBilingue hurritische-hethitischen baden:OttoHarrassowitz. ausHattusa.Hethitica IX: 157-70. gefundene 1989 Die 1986 in Bogazkoy Neve,P. ZweiVortrage. 1.Ein Bronzetafel 1982 BuyuRkale.Die Bauwerke.Berlin: des 13. hethitischenStaatsvertrag Gebr.Mann. v.Chr.Innsbrucker Jahrhundert in Bogazkoy-Hat1985 Die Ausgrabungen Beitrage zur Sprachwissenschaft. tusa 1984.Pp.323-52in ArchaVortrage und Kleine Schriften 42: ologischerAnzeiger.Berlin:Walter 7-20. deGruyter. in Bogazkoy-Hat- Ozguc,N. 1987a Die Ausgrabungen 1986 Sealsof the OldAssyrianColony tusa 1986.Pp.381-410in Archd.
142
.
Biblical Archaeologist, tune/September 1989
Periodand Some Observationson the Seal Impressions.Pp.48-53 in AncientAnatolia: Aspects of Change and CulturalDevelopment:Essays in Honor of Machteld t. Mellink, edited by J.V.Canbyand others. Madison,WI:University of Wisconsin Press. OzguZ,T. 1978 Excavationsat Ma,satHoyuk and Investigationsin its Vicinity.Series: Turk TarihKurumuYayinlarindan, SeriesV,Number 38. Ankara. 1986 New Observationson the Relationship of Kultepewith SoutheastAnatolia and North SyriaDuring the ThirdMillennium B.C.Pp.31-47 in Ancient Anatolia:Aspects of Change and CulturalDevelopment:Essays in Honor of Machteld t. Mellink, edited by J.V.Canbyand others. Madison,WI:University of Wisconsin Press. Salvini, M. 1977 Sui testi mitologici in lingua hurrica. Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici18: 73-91. Schirmer,W. 1969 Die Bebauungam unterenBuyukkale-Nordwesthang in Bogazkoy. Berlin:Gebr.Mann. Schuler,E. von 1987 Literaturbei den Hethitern. Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archdologie7: 66-75. Seters,J.van 1983 Hittite Historiography.Pp. 100-26 in In Searchof History.New Haven, CT:YaleUniversity Press. Siegelova,J. 1971 Appu-Marchenund HedammuMythus. Series:Studien zu den 14. Wiesbaden:Otto Bogazkoy-Texten Harrassowitz. Soysal,O. 1987 KUBXXXI4 + KBoIII41 und 40 (Die Puhanu-Chronik}.Zum Thronstreit Hattusilis. Hethitica VII: 173-253. Steiner,G. 1984 Strukturund Bedeutungdes sog. Anitta-Textes.Oriens antiquus 23: 53-73. SturtevantE. H., and Bechtel, B. 1935 A Hittite Chrestomathy.Philadelphia: Linguistic Society of America, University of Pennsylvania. Unal, A. 1974 Hattusili III. Series:Texteder Hethiter 3. Heidelberg:Carl Winter. 1977 Naturkatastrophenin Anatolien im 2. Jahrtausendv. Chr. Belleten 163: 447-72. 1978 Ein Wahrsagetextuber die Intrigen am hethitischen Hof. Series:Texte
der Hethiter 6. Heidelberg:Carl Winter. 1980 Kessi. ReallexikonderAssyriologie
undvorderasiatischen Archaologie Acemhoyuk. Largetell nearAksarayin
5:578. centralTurkey, probablyto be identified 1983a Untersuchungenzur Terminologie with ancientPurushanda. Duringthe der hethitischen KriegsfuhrungI: nineteenth century B.C.E. the townwas "Verbrennen,in Brandstecken"als the site of anAssyriantradingcolony,or Kriegstechnik.Orientalia52: 164-80. karum. Since1962it hasbeenexcavated 1983b Kussara.Reallexikon derAssyriologie
undvorderasiatischen Archaologie by a Turkishteamunderthe directionof ..
Nimet Ozguc. Akkadian. A Semiticlanguagespokenin Mesopotamia fromthe thirdthroughthe firstmillenniumB.C.E.; also,the people turen:AusgewahlteVortrage der who spokethe language. XXXII.Rencontre Assyriologique Alaca Hoyuk. A site located15miles Internationale, edited by H. Hecker northof modern-day Bogazkoythatis and W.Sommerfeld.Berlin:Dietrich famous for its royal tombs datingto the Reimer. thirdmillenniumB.C.E. in the Early 1988 The Role of Magic in the Ancient Anatolianperiod,whichroughlycorAnatolian ReligionsAccordingto the CuneiformTextsfrom Bogazkoy- respondsto the EarlyBronzeAge.Metal artifactsfoundat the site-in particular, Hattusa. Pp. 52-85 in Essayson AnatolianStudiesin theSecond mirrors,swords,anddaggers-tendto be MillenniumB.C.,edited by Prince of highquality,andseveralfindshave T. Mikasa.Wiesbaden:Otto parallelsin AegeanandSovietsites.The Harrassowitz. royaltombsandgravegoodsareoften de Vries,B. used to connectanIndo-European origin 1967 TheStyleotHittiteEpicand forthe Hittites.The site alsohas several Mythology. Ph.D. dissertation. Waltham,MA:BrandeisUniversity. significantmonumentalsculpturesthat dateto the HittiteEmpire. (AnnArbor,MI:University Anitta Text (CTH 1). An OldHittitetext Microfilms} in whichAnitta,kingof Kussara,deWeidner,E. F. 1923 Politische DokumenteausKleinasien:scribeshis conquestof severalAnatolian die Staatsvertrage in akkadischer cities andthe subsequentbuildingof his SpracheausdemArchivvon newlycreatedempire.Writtenin Hittite, Boghazkoi.Leipzig:J.C. Hinrichs. the textwasdiscoveredat the Hittite Werner,R. capitalofHattusa,oneof thecitiesAnitta 1967 HethitischeGerichtsprotokolle. claims to haveconquered.Becauseit Series:Studien zu den Bogazkoydescribes eventsthattookplaceimmeTexten4. Wiesbaden:Otto diatelypriorto the formationof the Harrassowitz. Hittitestate,the AnittaTextis one of Wolf,H. H. 1967 TheApologyof HattusiliCompared the mostimportanthistoricalsources with OtherPoliticalSelf-tustificationsforthe studyof pre-Hittiteandvery of theAncientNearEast.Ph.D. earlyHittitehistory. dissertation. (AnnArbor,MI:UniAnnals of Hattusili I (CTH 4). Textfrom versity Microfilms} the Hattusaarchivesthatdescribes Xella, P. someof the campaignsof HattusiliI, the 1978 Remarquescomparativessur le first Hittitekingto builda substantial "romande Kessi."RevueHittiteet empireandleaveextensiverecordsof his Asianique36: 215-24. reign.The text existsin bothAkkadian andHittiteversions. Anum-Hirbe. A princeof the city of Mamaduringthe ColonyAgewhen Anatoliawasthe site of numerousAssyriantradingcolonies.Anum-Hirbe wasa contemporary of Warsama, a princeof Kanes.Bothareknownfrom the letterwrittenbyAnum-Hirbe to Warsama thatwasdiscoveredin the excavationof thepalaceatKanes.Written 5: 379-82. 1985 Das Motiv der Kindesaussetzungin den altanatolischenLiteraturen.Pp. 129-36 in Keilschriftliche Litera-
in OldAssyrian,the letteradvocatesthe establishmentof regulardiplomaticrelationsbetweenthe twoprinces. Arinna.(seeSun-Goddess of Arinna} Bogazkoy. (seeHattusa) CatalHoyuk.A Neolithicsite datingto the seventhmillenniumB.C.E. Situated in the Konyaplain,southeastof the moderncity of Konya,(;atalHoyukgrew to a considerablesize andwascharacterizedby severalsignificantcultural innovations.Its inhabitantsapparently developedan irrigationsystemandhybridgrainsthatproducedhighyields. Theywereinvolvedin, andmayhave controlled,widespreadtradelobsidian fromcentralAnatoliahasbeenfoundin excavationsas farawayas Jericho),and theyhada well-developed chippedstone industry.Potteryandartisticremains alsoattestto the highlydevelopedcultureof this significantsite. CentralPlaceTheory.A geographic model usingadjacenthexagonsto explainthe distributionof cities andtheirsurroundingvillages.The centralplaceis defined as the focusof a seriesof hexagonsthat containtowns,villages,andhamlets.A service-oriented reciprocalrelationship existsbetweenthe centralplaceandits satellitesettlements. Chthonic.Fromthe Greekchthon l"earth"}, a termreferringto deitiesand religiousconceptsandpracticesconcernedwith the soil, fertility,the underworld,death,andthe afterlife. ColonyAge.A periodof Anatolianhistorythatlastedforabouttwo centuries (fromaround1925to 1725B.C.E. according to the middlechronologyor 1925to 1650B.C.E. accordingto the low chronology}andwasmarkedbythe establishmentof Assyriantradingcolonies (Akkadian karumandwabartum)in centralAnatolia.Tin,whichwasusedin the productionof bronze,andtextiles werebroughtto AnatoliafromAssyria in exchangeforgold,silver,andsemipreciousstones.Amongthe sites that functionedas tradingoutpostswereHattusa,Kanes,andKarahoyuk. Extispicy.Divinationby"reading" the entrailsof sacrificialanimals,a common ritualpracticedin ancientMesopotamia andAnatolia.Perhapsthe bestknown collectionof omentextsis the Akkadian summaizbumseries,whichlists anomaliesin entrailsandabortedor miscarriedanimalfetusesandtheir appropriate interpretation.
Biblical Archaeologist, fune/September1989
143
Faslllar.A site in southcentralAnatolia neitherof whichcanbe locatedwith certainty. wherea large,unnearLakeBeys,ehir Kanes.(seeKultepe,Nesa} finishedstelalabout24 feethigh}was site near Archaeological foundon a hillside.Onthe stelais a carv- Karahoyuk. Konyain southernAnatolia.Periodic ingof a deitywearinga conicalcapand standingon the headof a mountaingod. Turkishexcavationsconductedby Sedat GatewayCommunities.Communities Alpsince 1953haveuncoveredsignifithatcontrolaccessto trade,communica- cantremainsdatingto the ColonyAge, routesfora par- includingthoseof a largepalace.The tion, andtransporation ticularhinterland.As opposedto central ancientidentityof the city is unknown. Ancientcity (Carchemish). placecommunities,gatewaycommuni- Karkamis occupyingthe site of the contemporary ties arelocatedto one sideof theirhinon the Syrianvillageof Jarabulus/Jerabis terlandratherthanin the center. Euphrates Rivernearthe Turkishborder. of the pre-HittiteinHattic.Language habitantsof centralAnatoliausuallyre- Controllinga strategicrivercrossing, ferredto as Hattians.Withinthe Hittite this city wasimportantthroughoutthe historyof ancientSyria,fromthe third statearchives,Hatticis foundin many namesin the OldHittitetextsas well as millenniumB.C.E. throughRomantimes. Duringthe HittiteEmpirea collateral in somebilingualHittite-Hattictexts,a fewtextswrittencompletelyin Hattic, branchof the Hittiteroyalfamily,inrulednorthernSyria stalledin Karkamis, andpassagesin Hatticincludedin Hitas viceroysof the greatkingsof Hattusa. tite ritualtextsmeantforrecitation. Karum. (seeColonyAge) Hattusa.Capitalof the HittiteEmpire A ausBoghazkoi). KBo(Keilschrifttexte until it wasdestroyedaround1200B.C.E. Situatedat the presentTurkishvillageof continuingseriesof volumesin which about125miles the tabletsfromHattusahavebeenpubBogazkoy/Bogazkale, lished.Earlyvolumespresentedtablets eastof Ankara,HattusahostedanAsWarI the endof discoveredduringthe pre-World syriantradingcolony.Toward theColonyAge,duringthereignofAnitta campaigns.WhenexcavationworkresumedafterWorldWarII,all of the tabof Kussara,Hattusawasdestroyedand until it wasrebuiltunder lets thendiscoveredat Hattusawere lay abandoned exploration depositedin the tabletcollectionof the HattusiliI. Archaeological hasbeenconductedthroughoutthis cen- AnkaraMuseum,andthe KBoserieswas revivedto publishthem. turybythe GermanOrientSociety Kingshipin Heaven(CTH344).A underthe successivedirectionof Hugo mythologicaltext of Hurrianorigin, Winkler,KurtBittel,andPeterNeve. Hebat.Chieffemaledeityof the western datingto the HittiteEmpireperiod,that Hurrianpantheon.Hebatwasthe spouse tells the storyof the struggleforcontrol Tesub,a positionheld of heavenbyfourgenerationsof gods. of the Storm-God in the eastbyIstar.Inthirteenth-century Therecountingofthebattlesforkingship in heavencloselyresemblesHesiod's Hatti,Hebatwassyncretizedwith the Theogonyandthusmayindicatea Near of Arinna. Sun-Goddess Easternoriginalforthe Greekpoet'sstory. Semiticgoddess Istar.Many-faceted versionincludes TheHurrian/Hittite whosesphereof activityincludedboth gods,suchas Anu, sexualityandarmedcombat.At anearly bothMesopotamian dateIstarwasconflatedwith the Sumer- andHurriangods,suchas Kumarbiand iangoddessInanna.Althoughtherearea Tesub,the eventualrulerof heaven. ausBoghazKUB(Keilschrifturkunden fewattestationsof Istarin OldHittite texts,she appearsmuchmorefrequently koi).A seriesof 58 volumesto datepubin textsdatingto the MiddleHittiteand lishedin Berlinbeginningin 1921.This seriespublishedtabletsfromthe Hittite Empireperiods,concomitantwith the and archivesthatwereexcavatedin camgrowinginfluenceof Kizzuwatnaean paignsconductedbeforeWorldWarI and religionsin Hatti.It is Mesopotamian Museum werehousedin the Pergamon not alwayspossibleto determineif the of the ideogramforthis god- in Berlin.Thesetabletshavesincebeen appearance returnedeitherto IstanbulorAnkara. dessin a particularcontextrefersto the Kultepe.Siteof an ancientAnatolian deityor a nativefigure Mesopotamian townknownas Kanesduringthe Colony identifiedwith her. AgeandNesaduringthe HittiteEmpire, worshipedin Iyaya.A Mother-Goddess Kayseriin centhe Anatoliantownsof LapanaandTiura, locatednearmodern-day
144
1989 Biblical Archaeologist, Talne/September
tralTurkey. Turkishexcavationsdirected byTahsinOzguchavesince 1948brought to lightextensiveremainsof theAssyrian tradingcolony,orkarum, including manyprivatehousestogetherwith their furnishingsandthe businessarchivesof theirinhabitants. Kummanni. Mostprominentcity of the southernAnatolianregionofKizzuwatna ICilicia},probablyto be identifiedwith classicalComanaCataoniaenearpresentdaybahr.Kizzuwatnawasthe homeof a culture,andafter mixedHurro-Luwian the Hittitesannexedthis areain the earlyfourteenthcenturyB.C.E., itS hybrid civilizationexertedgreatinfluenceupon Hatti. language Luwian. An Indo-European closelyrelatedto Hittite.Luwianwritten in cuneiformexistsin manyritualtexts fromthe Hittitearchivesat Hattusathat to recitethistongue. requiretheperformer Luwianis alsothe languagepresentedby the Hittitehieroglyphicwritingsystem, the scriptusedin all monumentalinscriptionsof the Hittites,andthe only scriptattestedforthe Neo-Hittitekingdoms.Hittitehieroglyphsseemto be an Anatolianinvention;theyarenot directly relatedto otherhieroglyphicsystems, suchas the one in Egypt. deityof pestiNergal. Mesopotamian In lence,warfare,andthe underworld. Anatoliathis figurewasidentifiedwith Sulinkatte. the HatticWar-God Nerik. City situatedsomewhereto the northof Hattusaon the borderof the areaoccupiedbythe unrulyKaskatribes duringthe Empireperiod.Thecity's regarded as the child HatticStorm-God, of Arinnaandthe of the Sun-Goddess Storm-God of Hatti,wasan important memberof the Hittitepantheon.Consequently,Nerikwasa majorcult center. As a youngman,the futurekingHattusili IIImadea nameforhimselfby recapturing Nerikfromthe Kaska. Nesa. Oneformof the ancientnameof the city at the modernsite of Kultepe nearKayserito whichthe Hittitestraced theirorigins.The otherformis Kanes, whichappearsin the ZalpaTextin early, Hittitehistory. perhapslegendary, Nesite. Termusedbythe Hittitesto refer to theirownlanguagejnesumnili). Palace Chronicle (CTH 8). A seriesof anecdotesaboutlife in the Hittitepalace assembledfromseveraldifferenttablets thatseemto be partof one text.They dateto the earlyOldHittiteperiod,
perhapsto the reignof HattusiliI. There areextantcopiesin bothOldScriptand New Script,butunfortunatelymost of the anecdotesarein brokencontextand, therefore,difficultto understand. Pamba King of Hatti. Pambais mentioned only once,as the kingof Hattiin the Old Hittitetext narratingthe Anatolian exploitsof Naram-Sin,an OldAkkadian king.Livingat the time of Naram-Sinin the twenty-thirdcenturyB.C.E., Pamba thus antedatesby about600 yearsthe establishmentof the Hittitestateat -Hattusa. Piyusti. Kingof Hattiwho twice battled
againstAnitta,kingof Kussara,according to the AnittaText.Piyustiwas apparentlyovercomebyAnittaearlyin the secondmillenniumB.C.E. Political Testament of Hattusili I (CTH 6).
An Akkadian-Hittite bilingualtext that is one of the earliestdocumentsfoundin the Hittitestatearchivesat Hattusa.In it, the dyingKingHattusiliI relatesto an assemblyof nobleshis provisionsfor a successor.Alludingto problemswith his ownson,who triedto takeover beforeHattusilihaddied,he choosesa new heir,MursiliI, andformallyadopts him. Thepurposeof the text seemsto be to justifyto the noblesHattusili'schoice of Mursiliandto ensuretheiracceptance of him as the properheirto the throne. Thetext thus demonstratesthe early problemsof dynasticsuccessionin the Hittitestate,partlyattributableto the lackof a definiteruleforsuccession. Puduhepa. Hittitequeenin thethirteenth centuryB.C.E. Thedaughterofaprominent priestin Kizzuwatna(Cilicia),Puduhepa usedherroyalpositionaswifeofHattusili IIIto promotehernativereligionwithin the cultureof the HittiteEmpire. Purushanda. (see Acemhoyuk) Queen of Kanes (Nesa)/Thirty Sons and Daughters/Zalpa Text (CTH 3). A series
of text fragmentsthatmentionthe city of Zalpaon the BlackSeaandtell the legendaryhistoryof relationsbetween Kanes(Nesa),Zalpa,andthe Hittite kings.The tabletsarebrokenanddifficult to piecetogether,but the beginning of the storyis clear.In it the queenof Kanesgivesbirthto 30 sons in oneyear whomshe sets afloatin the river;when theyreachthe BlackSeathe godspull themout andraisethem.The queen latergivesbirthto 30 daughtersin one year,but this time she raisesthemherself. Eventuallythe sons maketheirway
backto Kanesand,unwittingly,wed their30 sisters.The remainderof the text,whichis less clear,has to dowith relationsbetweenZalpaandthe Hittite kings. Samuha.An importantcult centerin southeasternAnatoliathat servedas a pointof transmissionof Hurriandeities andreligiousconceptsinto Hatti.It was probablylocatedon the upperEuphrates Riverin the generalareaof present-day Malatya.The mostprominentdeityof Samuhawasan Istar-type, Sawusga. Sarruma. A SyrianStorm-CDod takeninto the Hurrianreligionof Kizzuwatna. Storm-God. Themaledivinitycontrollingthe fructifyingwatersandone of the mostprominentdeitiesof ancientAnatolia.In the tabletsfoundat Hattusa,the ideogramforthis typeof godcouldrepresent severaldifferentfigures,depending on the tablet'slanguageandculturalcontext:Tarhunt(a}, Hittite;Datta,Luwian; Tesub,Hurrian;Adad,Akkadian;even Iskur,Sumerian;andBaCal, northwest Semitic. Sun-Goddess of Arinna.Deity of Hattic originassociatedwith the centralAnatoliantownof Arinna.In spiteof hername, the goddess'scharacterwaschthonic,or infernal,ratherthancelestial.Shewas the tutelarygoddessof the Hittitestate, andthe kingof Hattiwasherchiefpriest. Duringthe Empireperiodthe native triadof the Sun-Goddess of Arinna,the Storm-God of Hatti,andthe Storm-God of Nerikwasidentifiedwith the Hurrian divinitiesHebat,Tesub,andSarruma. TabalAn IronAge(Neo-Hittite)confederationof 12city-stateslocatedin the TaurusMountains,possiblyfoundedby Luwianremnantsof the HittiteEmpire afterit collapsedaround1200B.C.E. This confederation wasa majorpowerin Anatoliaduringthe earlypartof the first millenniumB.C.E. andremainedso until the eighthcenturyB.C.E. whenit became anAssyrlanprovlnce. ilipinu Edict(CTH19).Theproclamation of Telipinu,last majorkingof the OldHittiteperiod.The text chronicles the dynasticwoesbesettingthe Hittites sincethe murderof MursiliI afterhis campaigninto Babylon,andit attempts to solvetheproblembysettingnewguidelines fordeterminingthe properrulesof successionto the Hittitethrone. IblipinuMyth(CTH324).Oneof the best-knownof the "Hittite" disappearing deitymyths.Thedisappearing deity *
.
.
motifbelongsto the pre-HittiteHattian eultureof Anatolia,andthis particular typeof mythwasadoptedandpreserved by the Hittitesin theirtranslationsof the Hattianmyths.Muchof the mythologyfromthe Hattusaarchivesis Hattian in origin;most of the remainderwasborrowedfromHurrianprototypesduring the Empireperiod.Inthe TelipinuMyth the HattiangodTelipinudesertsthe land in anger,andthe resultinginfertilityof the peopleandthe landbringsHattito the brinkof collapse.In severalextant versions,a bee eventuallyfindsthe sulkinggod;in all versionsa magicalritual, performedin conjunctionwitk the tellingof the myth,mustbe completedin orderto enticethe godbackto his home andrestorethe naturalfertilityof the land.An Englishtranslationof the myth canbe foundon pages126-28in JamesB. Pritchard's Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton, NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1969). Ibsub.IseeStorm-God) ThirtySonsandDaughters.(seeQueen of Kanes) Ullikummi.Stonegiant,or monster, aroundwhoma portionof the Kumarbi cycleof mythsof Hurrianbackground revolves.This minordeitywascreated bythe agricultural godKumarbito wrest backfromthe Storm-God Tesubkingshipof the divineworldanddevastate Tesub'sholy city of Kumme.Although initiallysuccessful,it seemsthatUllikummifailedin this mission.In origin, Ullikummiwasprobablythe godof the mountainUlliggamain the centralarea of Hurriansettlementnorthandeastof Mesopotamia. His nameseemsto have beenalteredandreinterpreted as a Hurrianphraseindicatinghis mythological role,"destroyer of Kumme." Yazlllkaya. Rocksanctuaryof the Hittite Empireperiod,locatedjustoutsidethe wallsof the Hittitecapitalof Hattusa. Its Turkishnamemaybe translatedas "inscribed rock."Inthe mainchamberof this open-airtemple,whichwasprobably the site of the newyear'sfestival,were carvedtwo converging processionsof divinefiguresrepresenting theassembled pantheonof Hatti.An adjacentportion of the shrineseemsto haveservedas a royalmortuarychapel. ZalpaText.IseeQueenof Kanes) EntriessuppliedbyGaryBeckman, GregoryMcMahon,andC. E.Carter.
Biblical Archaeologist, fune/September 1989
145
conflictwith amateurandprofessional A History of Israel from Alexanderthe Greatto BarKochba,by H. tagersma, andalmostall instituarchaeologists tions,with whichhe hadlittle patience; translated bylohn Bowden,xiv + 223pp. andan obsessionwith accuraterecord- Philadelphia:FortressPress,1986;$12.95. ingandpromptpublication.Always This sequel to H. Jagersma'sA History of with him wasfaithfulHilda,who kept Israel in Old TestamentTimes takesthe the greatgeniusfunctioningin the real by world InEgypt,Petriedugmorethan60 readerfrom333 B.C.E., the dateof AlexFlindersPetrie:A Lifein Archaeology, anderthe Great'sconquestof the Persites,aboutwhichhe publishednearly MargaretS. Drower,xxii + 500 pp. sians,to 135C.E., the "yearIsraelceased 100books. London:VictorGollancz, 1985; $55.00. to existas a state"(page1).Jagersma's Mostreadersof Biblical Archaeof SirWilliam ologist will be mostfamiliarwith Petrie's statedaim is to writesomethingmore This splendidbiography of events: narrative" MatthewFlindersPetrie-whomWilliam workduringtwointerludesin Palestine- thana "consecutive "wemustnot limit ourselvesto political Nestor" at Tellel-Hesiin 1890andagainat Tell F.Albrightdubbedthe "beloved (South),andTell history,butpayjustas muchattention ofNearEasternarchaeology-willdelight Jemmeh,Tellel-FarCah to religiouslife, the varioustrendsin from1926to 1934(whenhe el-CAjjul buff,the professional the archaeology this period,culturalandliteraryaspects, scholar,andintellectualhistoriansevery- wasin his 70sand80s}.Eventhough andsocialquestions.Especialattention wasperipheralto his "poorPalestine" wherewho wantto knowwhatmade to be paidto the economicbackneeds el-Hesi Tell at work his one of the discipline'sfoundingfathers interests,and (pages1 and2).The resultof ground" (Peggy)Droweris already almostincidental,he foundedmodern tick. Margaret with a brilliant this widefocusis a bookthatfailsnot Palestinianarchaeology well knownto manyreadersforher of the workingof its two juston one front,but on many;its hisdemonstration chapterson Syriain the authoritative principles-stratigraphy toricalstatementsareoverlylaconicand fundamental CambridgeAncient History.Hereshe oftenconfused,andits descriptionsof ceramictypology,the hasturnedherhandto a differentgenre, andcomparative religious,political,andeconomictrends andwith notablesuccess.FlindersPetrie latterPetrie's"essentialalphabet." Despitehis toweringachievements, aresometimesperplexing. candidandenteris at oncea remarkably Theworkbeginswith a reviewof Petriewasnot withoutfault.Alwaysthe tainingportraitof aneccentricgenius availableforthe period(the sources the later in he failed pioneer, independent a crittree), family entire (andnearlyhis OldTestament,ApocryphaandPseudeyearsto learnfromadvancesmadeby ical assessmentof a great,pioneering variousGreek Philo,Josephus, He dugandpub- pigrapha, scholar'slife work,andevena shorthis- youngerarchaeologists. andLatinauthors,the DeadSeaScrolls, andPalestinian lishedso muchthatnot evenhe could toryofBritishEgyptology keepall his recordsstraight,andothers the New Testament,the rabbinicliteraarchaeologyin the earlydays. remains)and Mostof us havelongbeenfascinated havemadecareerssimplybyreworking ture,andarchaeological Petrie'smaterialsandrecords,whichare thentracesthe historyof the periodin byPetrie,the manandthe institution, scatteredall overthe world.He hadlittle the subsequentchapters.The sources,as butwe knowlittle abouthim, savefor is quickto admit,aregenerally forancientlanguagesor someof the Jagersma flair the technicalaspectsof his work.Margaandoftencontendentious,fragmentary, trappingsof academiclearning. retDrowerbringshim alive,indeed, Suchan admission,however, tradictory. FromSirFlinder'sretirementat showshim largerthanlife.It is all here, hardlypreparesthe readerforthe surprisUniversityCollegein 1933until his researcheddetailand in painstakingly reaches ingconclusionsthatJagersma Jeruin resided Petries the 1942, in death his with marvelousoldphotographs: salem,firstnearSaintGeorge'sCollege, basedon thesesources.Forexample, father,William,a layfundamentalist statesthatthe birthnarratives thenat the AmericanSchoolof Oriental Jagersma young preacherandPyramidologist; in MatthewandLukeandthe gospelacResearch(nowthe W.F.AlbrightInstiFlinders,a sicklyboyeducatedalmost Many countsthatJesusdiedduringthe time of Research). tute of Archaeological entirelyat homebut mechanicallyinPontiusPilatecombineto "giveus a basis Glueck Nelson late the heard have us of surveyor and explorer avid an and clined the historyof Israelin forreconstructing recountPetrie'slastrequestthathis monuof countrysidearchaeological this period"(page6).At otherpointsit is ments;the fledglingscholarembarking headbe removedandsent to the Royal difficultto tell if the problemsaredueto Collegeof Surgeonsso thattheycould in 1890on his firstfieldworkin Egypt orthe proofauthor,the translator, the and of study, worthy object an have tenure 41-year be a to andwhatproved readers.Forexample,the decreesof by Drowerbringsthe storyup-to-date ChairandChairmanof of the Edwards firstDepartmentof Egyptology notingthatthe unlabelledandlong-lost AntiochusIIIandSeleucusIVaresaidto England's suggest"thatAntiochusII wasnot just headhas recentlyturnedup.As she at UniversityCollege,London. concernedto securethe sympathyof Petriewouldhave Alreadyin the firstphaseof Petrie's remarks,"Flinders frownedon yet one moreexampleof the leadinggroups,like thosein Jerusalem; his work careerin Egypt(1880-1911) neglectof scientificevidence"(page424). he alsotriedto win the favourof the exhibitedthosespecialqualitiesthat madehim a legend:physicalfearlessness Wecanonlyconcurwith herthat,despite countrypeople"(page39}but shouldread AntiochusIII;the censusof Quiriniusis his peccadillos,"Itis as the pioneerof frugalityof andstamina;extraordinary saidto havetakenplacein "6or 7 B C." personalhabits;attentionto the humble scientificarchaeologyin the NearEast (page435). (page117}but shouldreadA.D.; and remainsof dailyliferatherthanheadline- thathe will alwaysbe revered" WilliamG. De+zer Tiberias (acity namedforthe emperor makingmonuments;unswervingprinUniversityof Arizona Tiberiuslis presentedas leadingthe ciples,whichoftenbroughthim into
_l
146
Biblical Atchaeologist, tune/Septembet 1989
raisedthe dataandcommensurately professionaldemandsincumbentupon the authorof sucha synthesis.W.Harold Mareof CovenantTheologicalSociety, presidentof the NearEastArchaeological Society,anddirectorof excavationsat Abilaof the Decapolis,has gallantly,if attemptedto meet not ill-advisedly, thesedemandsin this book. Marehasorganizedhis material into 11chapters,includinga historical overviewanddiscussionsof eacharchaeologicalperiod.Inan effortto achieve his expressedhopethat"thisstudy. . . will be of spiritualandinspirational help"(page9) Mareemphasizesa numsubjectssuch berof nonarchaeological as David'sconquest,Solomon'stemple, Liberally andJesus'presencein Jerusalem. illustratedwith plansandphotographs, by a glossaryof the text is accompanied andan technicalterms,a bibliography, a lapseof seven index.Unfortunately, yearsseparatedMare'scompletionof mostof the text in 1980andits publication in 1987.
andhis lackof archaewith Jerusalem ologicalexpertise. Thetoneof Mare'stext is set in a sweeping17-pageoverviewof the entire historyof Jerusalemin whichMare concludrawsthe followingunwarranted sions:he intimatesthatthe Tyropoeon Valleywasalwayslocatedwithinthe boundsof the ancientcity (page22);he suggeststhatin MiddleBronzeIIJerusalemwaseitherweakordocile,proofof this beingthe city'sfailureto resist Abraham's entry(page24);andhe concludesthatduringthe MiddleandLate BronzeAgesthe Mountof Oliveswas wassubjectto the settledandJerusalem influenceof foreignpowerssimplybecauseimportedpotteryfromthoseperiodswasfoundin a tombat Dominus Flevit(pages25 and26). Marebetrayshis lackof expertiseon the subjectof ancientpotterybyrelying on R.A. S. MacalisterandJ.G. Duncan's identificationof MiddleBronzeIIcookingpotsas neolithic(page36>;bymaintainingthatCypriotmilkbowlsappeared in the MiddleBronzeI (page39),although theydidnot appearbeforethe endof MiddleBronzeIIandflourishedonly duringthe LateBronzeAge;andbyrepeatedlyreferringto CypriotBase-Ring wareas ring-basewarewithoutnoting thatit wasimportedfromCyprusor that the distinctionbetweengenuineand imitationexamplesis one of provenance, not chronology(pages50 and51). Mare'sfundamentalmisunderstandremainsof Jeruingof the archaeological salemis evidentin everychapter.His discussionof the BronzeAgeincludes referencesto EarlyBronzeAgeretaining walls (pages37 and38),whichactually dateto the LateBronzeAge;descriptions of two MiddleBronzeAgewallsfoundby Kenyon(pages39, 41),whichareactually two descriptionsof the samewall;anda to depict (page38)purporting photograph Kenyon's MiddleBronzeAgecity wall, whichactuallyportraysstonefills from DespiteMare'snobleintentions,the the LateBronzeAge. TheArchaeologyof the JerusalemArea, workis intrinsicallyflawedbyhis failure Onthe IronAge,Mare'sdescription by W HaroldMare,323 pp.,GrandRapids, to analyze,synthesize,or interpretpriwatersystemsis parof the underground MI:Baker Book House, 1987; $19.95. marysources.Mare'sbookis little more ticularlyincoherent.IntreatingWarren's volumeuncritically Shaft,forexample,Maredatesit variousthana cut-and-paste Aftermorethan 120yearsof archaecompiledfromsecondarysources,prily to the MiddleBronzeAge(page42) a ologicalexplorationin Jerusalem, marily:KathleenKenyon(1967),J.Finegan andto the tenthcenturyB.C.E. (page991. synthesisof the city's comprehensive (1969),andBenjaminMazar(1975). Inaddition,his wholesaleadoptionof remainsis longoverdue. Mare'srelianceon the interpretations archaeological of Kenyon's opinionthat"theIsraelites. . . Intensiveexcavationthereduringthe othershasresultedin a bookrifewith lackedanyskillasmasonsandcraftsmen" last 20 yearshas,however,bothgreatly factualerrorsandinternalcontradictions (page79)indicateshis lackof familiarity increasedthe availablearchaeological thatreflectthe author'sunfamiliarity with studies,suchas YigalShiloh's
Romanadvanceinto Galileeduringthe FirstJewishRevolt(page141)but should readVespasian.Whateverthe causeof theseerrors,theymakethe bookan unreliableresourceforthe generalreader. in the historicalreconInterspersed structionaresectionsandchapterson relevantliteraryworks(forexample,Ben Sirais discussedin the chapteron the beginningof Seleucidrulel,religious groupslachapteris devotedto the Sadducees,Pharisees,Essenes,andthe the lattertwo are Qumrancovenanters; andeconomicconditreatedseparately), tions (forexample,heavytaxationunder Herodthe Great).Manyof these discussionsarehelpfullespeciallythe repeated admonitionsto keepin mindthatvery little wenton in Palestineafterthe midsecondcenturyB.C.E. withoutthe acquiescenceof Romel,but somecommentsarepuzzling.Inhis consideration has of the ministryof Jesus,Jagersma only the followingto sayaboutthe parables:"Ofcoursethe parableshavea veryimportantplacein Jesus'proclamation of the comingkingdomof God. Anyonewho takesthemseriouslywill alsounderstandtheirmeaning"(page 128).Whatdoesthis mean?Moreto the point,howdoesthis commenthelpthe generalreaderunderstandthe historical periodor the preachingof Jesus? In additionto the 161pagesof text, the bookcontainsextensivenotesand indexesas well as helpfulchronological tablesandmaps. Scholarswill recognizemanyinaccuraciesin the bookand,unfortunately, learnverylittle fromit. Thatis to be expectedin a bookaimedat informingthe reader," but those sameinaccu"general racies(perhapsdueto the copyediting) will not be so evidentto the nonscholar. Thusthe bookfailsto meet its objective of providinga reliableguideforthe interestednonspecialist. JamesR. Mueller Universityof Florida
1989 147 BiblicalArchaeologist,fune/September
(1979),on Israelitearchitecture. His chapterson the Persian,HelBibliography lenistic,andRomanperiodsnot onlyfail Avigad,N. to presentluciddiscussionsof questions, 1983 Discoveringterusalem. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. suchas the lines of the city'sfortificaBroshi,M. tion wallsor its watersupplysystem; 1977 Along Jerusalem'sWalls.Biblical theyalsoincludereferencesto suchnonArchaeologist40: 11-17. existentitems as "potteryrepresenting Burgoyne, M. H. Maccabean-Hasmonean motifs"(page1351 1971 Some Mameluke Doorwaysin the and"Rhodian (Hellenistic)jarhandles Old City of Jerusalem.Levant3: 1-30. with Hebrewinscriptionsstampedon 1973 T.anq BabA1-Hadld,A Mamluk Street thernX' (page1595. in the Old City of Jerusalem.Levant Inhis chapteron the Byzantineperi5: 12-35. od,Maredismissesthe "Garden Tomb" 1974 The Continued Surveyof the Ribat. Kurd/Madrasa JawhariwaComplex as the tombof Jesuson the groundthat in T.arlqBabA1-H. adld, Jerusalem. it is a Byzantinetomb,withoutmentionLevant6: 51-64. ingthatit wasoriginallycut in the Iron 1979 Twenty-FourMedievalArabicInAgeas partof the northernnecropolisof scriptions from Jerusalem.Levant the FirstTempleperiod. 11:112-37. Tothe periodbetweenthe Islamic 1982 A Recently DiscoveredMarwanid conquestin 638 C.E. andthe endof Inscriptionin Jerusalem.Levant14: Turkishrulein 1918,Maredevotesa 118-21. scant30 pagesof text.The shortshrift Finegan,J. giventheseperiodsflies in the faceof his 1969 TheArchaeologyof the New Testament. Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniexpressedbeliefthat,of the culturalinversity Press. fluencesexertedon Jerusalem, "greatest of all, perhaps,wasthe culturalimpact Kenyon,K. M. 1967 terusalem:Excavating3000 Yearsof of ChristianityandIslam"(page18).In History.London:Thames and describingCrusaderJerusalemMareasHudson. sertsthatthe modernchurchof Saint Mazar,B. Anneis builton the samesite as the 1975 The Mountain of the Lord.New Crusader churchof SaintAnne(page283), York:Praeger. apparently failingto realizethatthe Shiloh, Y. modernchurchis one of the finest 1979 TheProto-AeolicCapitaland Israelite Ashlar Masonry.Series:Qedem 11. examplesof Crusaderarchitecturein ferusalem:The HebrewUniversity. Israel.Similarly,Marewritesthatthe Turkishwallsof the city followed"the JaneM. Cahill samecourseseen today"(page290)withDavid Tarler out notingthatthe Turkishwallsarethe HebrewUniversity of Jerusalem wallsseentoday!Mare'scursorytreatDiscoveringthe BiblicalWorld,byHarry ment of Islamicarchitecture failsto mentioneitherthe surveyof Mameluke Thomas Frank,Revised Edition by buildingspublishedbyM.H. Burgoyne TamesF.Strange}280 pp. Maplewood, (1971,1973,1974,1979,1982Jorthe NT:Hammond Incorporated,1987; Ayyubidtowerandinscriptionpublished $16.95 (paper). byMagenBroshi(1977:13-17). Inadditionto the factualandinter- Discovering the Biblical World,first pretativeinadequacies, thebookis fraught publishedin 1975,wasdesignedas an introductory volumeforstudentsinwith technicaldeficiencies:Mapsinterestedin gainingan overviewof the tendedto illustratethe city'splanin varioushistoricalperiodslackexplana- worldandeventsthatprovidedthe torydescriptions; mosttechnicalterms background forthe biblicalstory.Harry appearing in the glossarydonotappearin ThomasFrankusedthe biblicalstoryas the focalpointforthe bookanddrew the text;andmanysignificantbibliographicalreferencesareomitted,forex- uponotherresourcesto helpbringnew to biblicalhistory.These ample,NahmanAvigad(1983)andothers. understanding Mare's linearapproach to archaeology resourcesincludedcolormaps,numerous andhis uncriticaladoptionof oftencon- colorphotosof sites,structuresorartitradictoryinterpretations proposedby facts,archaeological informationgained otherauthorsin largelyoutdatedtexts throughexcavations,andinformation areboundto confusethe generalreader fromancientsourcessuchas the Jewish historian,Josephus. Inotherwords, as well as bewilder the professional.
148
Biblical Archaeologist, tune/September 1989
Frankattemptedto integratearchaeologicaldata,ancientsources,andattractivevisualaidswith biblicalhistory in a story-telling format.Although Frank's goalwassomewhatambitious, the continuedcirculationof the book reflectsits continuingvalue. Inthe revisededition,JamesF. Strangehasattemptedto retainFrank's masteryat communicatingthe biblical storywhile improvingandupdatingthe book'sstyleandinformation.Revisions canbe seenin severalareas:the prosaic style andreadabilityof the book,archaeologicalinformation,maps,photos,and the selectedbibliography. Strangehasimprovedthe proseand flowof the text bydeleting,abbreviating, or completelyrewritingsomeparts.His revisionsusuallyinvolveone ortwo sentencesorparagraphs. Themostextensive revisionof this natureis seen in chapter 14,whereinformationabouteventsrelatedto the discoveryof the DeadSea Scrollsis reducedfromapproximately twopagesto oneparagraph. Changesof this typehavegreatlyimprovedthe readabilityof the textbyremovingcumbersomeandunnecessarydetails.However, the vastmajorityof the text remainsthe same.In someplaces,additionalinformationhasbeenincorporated in the text.Thesechanges,whetherdueto the revisionof oldmaterialorthe incorporation of newmaterial,weremadebyusing a slightlysmallerprint.This technique allowsthe informationandpagenumberingof the revisedtext to correspond with thatof the originaltext in most places.Thenumberof chaptersand chaptertitles remainsthe same. Themostsignificantchangeinvolves archaeological informationin the text. Correctionshavebeenmadein places whereold conclusionshavegivenwayto newones,suchasTellBeitMirsim'sassociationwith Debir.Inthe revisededition, Debiris deletedfromthe text (page11). Mostimportantis the new information fromrecentexcavations, datacovering the discoveriesat Ebla(pages16,33),the altarfoundat MountEbal(page70),an excellentaccountof the historyof the Qumrancommunitybasedon the archaeologicalevidence(pages186-89), informationaboutNazarethin the time of Jesus(page203),the archaeological discoveriesat Sepphoris(page205),and newinformationaboutCapernaum based on recentexcavations(page207).Some of the abovearetreatedverybrieflyand
othersmoreextensively,but all provide importantinformationandenhancethe valueof the text. Boththe mapsandphotosof the Franktext werehelpfulvisualaids.Most of the mapsandphotosremainthe same in the revisededition,althoughsomeare moreappropriately located.Thereare severalnew or revisedmaps,including anupdatedmapof archaeological sites in IsraelandJordan(page14J,a mapof the meanannualrainfallof the land (page26J,a humiditychart(page26J,a mapofTheLastYearsof Judah(page126J, anda mapof The SevenChurchesof AsiaMinor(page238J.Also,severalnew city planshavebeenadded.Theyinclude the plansof Nineveh(page124J,Lachish (page128J,the Qumrancommunity(page 187J,the agoraof Corinth(page229J,and Rome(page236J.Therevisededitionalso containssomenew andimprovedphotos, includingphotosof a claytabletfrom Ebla(page33J,rampartsandhousesat Jericho(page66J,the remainsof Saul's fortress-palace at Gibeah(page78J, animalfigureson the wallof the Isthar Gatein Babylon(page130J,the ruinsof Qumran(page178J,the OldCity of Jerusalem(page209J,the LionGatein Jerusalem(page219J,the TaurusMountains andthe CilicianGates(page222J,andan Inscriptionto AntoniusFelix(page233J. Althoughmanyof thesephotosareadditions,someweretakenfromthe oldtext buthavebeenimprovedorprovidea new andbetterview of the sites.Unfortunatelysomephotosin the revisededition areof a muchpoorerqualitythanin the firstedition,suchas the photosof the Ophelridgein Jerusalem (page87Jandthe ivorycarvingfromMegiddo(page106J. Changeshavealsobeenmadein the selectedbibliography. Manysourcesin the originalbibliography havebeendeleted,and14newentriesappearin the revisededition.Abouthalfof the new entriesarebooksthathavebeenpublishedsincethe firsteditionappeared. Mostof the new sourcesrelateinformation aboutarchaeological discoveriesor providediscussionaboutthe natureof the discipline.Sincethe greaterpartof the text remainsthe same,the revised editionmustbe classifiedas a minor ratherthana majorrevision. The most importantcontributionof the neweditionis updatedarchaeological informationthatStrangebringsto the text.Unfortunately, the greatestdisappointment of the revision also lies in
this area.It seemsthatthe valueof the bookwouldbe enhancedif morearchaeologicalinformationhadbeenincorporatedin the text.Inorderto do that,however,HarryThomasFrank'sstory-telling stylewouldhavehadto be sacrificed. The revisededitionperhapsshowssigns of one otherweakness.Strangeincorporatednewmaterialthroughoutthe text, but it seemsthatmoreattentionwas givento someof the laterchaptersof the book,especiallychapter14,Scrollsfrom the Wildernessof Judea,andchapter15, Jesus,areasof studyin whichStrange specializes.The revisionwouldhave beenmoreextensiveandvaluablehad Strangebeenaccompaniedin the project bysomeonewho specializesin the study of the earlierperiodsof biblicalhistory andarchaeology. Nonetheless,the revisededitionof Discoveringthe Biblical Worldstill stands as a tributeto HarryThomasFrank,and JamesStrange's appreciation of Frank's style andtalentsis to be commended. Withthe revisionsmadeby Strange,this volumecontinuesto be a valuableresourceforstudentsinterestedin gaining an overviewof the worldandthe events thatprovidedthe background forthe biblicalstory. LaMoineDeVries SouthwestMissouriStateUniversity BiblicalArchaeology: the World,the Mediterranean, the Bible,by Henry 0. Thompson,xxviii + 467 pp. New York: ParagonHouse, 1987; $25.95 (hardcover), $14.95 (paper).
Thisvolumecontainsthe basicingredientseveryintroductionto biblical
archaeology needs.The chaptersare short,andtheycoverthe rightsubjects. ArchaeologyItself(pages3-42Jintroducesthe goalsandmethodsof biblical archaeology. TheHistoryof Archaeology (pages43-158Jtracesthe fieldfromits humbleanddisorganized origins-in the workof graverobbers,the journalsof pilgrims,the diariesof wealthytravelers, thehobbiesofmerchantsanddiplomatsto the highlyspecializedandinterdisciplinarystudythatit is today.ArchaeologyandScience(pages159-212Jshows howthe artof biblicalarchaeologyinheritedsophisticatedtechnologyfrom scienceslike WorldWarIIaerialreconnaissanceandthe spaceprogram. ArchaeologyIlluminatesthe Bible(pages281418Jreviewsthe discipline'scontributions to the interpretation of biblical literaturefromancientIsraelandearly Christianity.Therearealso chapters calledDailyLifein BiblicalTimes(pages 213-80JandArchaeologyandReligion (pages419-50J. Eachchapterhaslengthydocumentation,a list of additionalreadings,and is generouslyillustratedwith black-andwhitephotographs on matpaper.There areseveralhand-drawn mapsanddiagrams,a glossaryof technicalterms,and a subjectindex. Anyonewho teachesanintroductory coursein biblicalarchaeology will find this bookto be a good,disciplinedreview of the manynames,dates,places, andtechnicaltermsanystudentneedsto know.Thompsonalsoincludessome fine anecdotes,whichwill addto any classpresentation.Finally,his documentatiorsprovidesan easybibliography to the standardarticlesfromwhichto composea classreadinglist. I mustadd,however,thatalthough the bookcontainsthe necessaryelementsof a goodintroductionto biblical archaeology, theirqualityandpresentation wouldnot givethe beginningstudenta solidstart.Consideringthe scope of the taskthatThompsonhasundertaken,no singlelimitationis necessarily significant,but,takentogether,I think theymightdiscourage,ratherthanencourage,a beginningstudent.I think beginnerswill findthe bookto be very disconnected.The chaptersandparagraphsneedclearertopicparagraphs and sentences,illustratedbyparticulardiscoveries.I thinktoo muchof the data wererecited,ratherthanorganized.I wasalsodistractedwhenfigures,terms,
Biblical Archaeologist, June/September1989
149
chapter(page3) concernsthe physical topics,anddiscoveriesthathadalready Mannersand Customs in The Bible. An of the Semiticpeoplein the appearance IllustratedGuide to Daily Life in Bible beenintroduced,defined,or discussed millenniumB.C.E. ldlhatdid second early + xxvi Matthews, H. reor Times, by Victor weresubsequentlyreintroduced thepatriarchsand theirwiveslook like: 283 pp. Hendrickson, 1988; $14.95. defined,on the one hand,or simply The answer?Theywereshort,dark referencedon the other;forexample, haired,andhadprominent,flatnoses! This lucidvolumewaswrittenbyan "Itwascitedearlier...." expertin the fieldof cul- As evidence,Matthewsbothrefersto of newevidence acknowledged The interpretation turalanalysisandancientNearEastern andvisuallydepictsthe famousBeni in the fieldis takingplaceat a veryfast Hasantombpaintingsdatingto Egypt's texts.VictorMatthewswritesforan pacethesedays,so I wassurprisedthat Thompsonreiteratedsomeoutdatedas- audienceseekinggreaterunderstanding MiddleKingdomthatshowsomeSemitic pastoralistsin Egypt. sumptionsthathavebeenrefinedin the of the customsof the biblicalperiod. Inanothercontext,Matthewsdisthe covering chapters five theories has the book The example, For years. past25 cussesmarriagecustomsof the periodby on slalrelimeplasterandthe settlement periodsfromthe ancestralstoriesin firstcitinga coupleof accountsfrom Genesis,whichMatthewscautiously in the hill countrybyIsrael(page218J, Genesisandthenplacingthemin a the seminomadicoriginsof Israel(page putsin the earlysecondmillennium culturalcontext.He notes,for wider revolt (KochbaJ chariot the Cochba of use Bar the to Hyksos' B.C.E., the 223J, and in the secondcenturyC.E. Thesechapters example,thatthereareexamplesof con(page242J, whichwerestaplesof the worldof Period;Exodusand tractsfromthe Mesopotamian are:ThePatriarchal WilliamF.Albright,G. ErnestWright, press doesn't He wife. a for working men SettlementPeriod;MonarchyPeriod; andJohnBrightera,arecitedwithout a seeking of or confirmation of issue the Intertestamental and Return; seem and also Exile There adequatemodification. to be someinaccurateinterpretations. andNew TestamentPeriod.Eachchapter dateforthe ancestralstorieson the basis Forexample,firedamagein the cemetery hasa briefhistoricaloverviewfollowed of suchcontracts;he doesn'tevenname bya moreextensiveseriesof entriesthat the cities in question.Inthe sameconat BabedhDhrawasmorelikelythe funeral fit the title andsubtitleof text,he mentionsbrieflythe accountof appropriately resultof tombdesecrationthan sendingJacobto Labanto get a wifeand the book. cremation(pagellJ;the GardenTomb thatthis playsan importantrolein the In the preface(pagexxJthe author cemeteryis generallydatedto the first storyline of the ancestors,particularly writesthatthe bookhas somethingto centuryratherthanthe IronAge(page sinceEsauhadmarriedHittitewomen. alike. person lay and offerthe scholar 394J, andthe JaffaGate,not the New Esau's Thenhe makesthis observation: Gate,wasremodeledforKaiserWilhelm's Whiletrue,the volumeis heavily his parents.It also stu- action"disappointed weightedtowardthe undergraduate visit (page394J. dentorotheradultsengagedin personal fits into a literaryandtheologicalmotif Findingthe rightillustrationsfor studyof the Bible.Twoobservationsare designedto showhowEsaudisqualified a text or a classis nevereasy.A lot of himselfas Isaac'sheir"(pages22-23). availand available, not offeredbywayof explanation. is material good This sectionseemsto me to be quite One,the bookdoesnot havefootablematerialis not alwaysgood.Highhelpfulandbalanced;it providesa miniandmaps notes,so thatno discussionof a topic resolutioncolorphotographs mumof detail,is clearlywritten,and interinvolvesan assessmentof differing arealmostas mandatoryforbookson is sensitiveto culturalandliteraryconbiblicalarchaeologyas theirproduction pretationsor theoriesputforwardby cerns.I wouldsaysimilarthingsabout Theblack-and-whiteotherscholars.Hencescholarscannot costsareprohibitive. the brieftreatmentof the accountof andline drawingsusedin use the volumeto findout the latest photography ofIsaacin Genenear-sacrifice Abraham's prethis bookareeffective,althoughthe pho- theoriesof socialstratificationin the story that notes Matthews 22. sis in customs burial done. how poorly or was Israel exilic reproduction tographic musthavebeenpartof the reasonwhy Somephotoslackgoodcontrast,andsome earlyJudaismmayormaynot depict fromthe dead. Israeldidnot offerchildsacrificeas well ideason the resurrection arenot croppedto focusthe viewer'satasholdupAbrahamas the modelofpiety. This commentis an observation,not a tentionon the importantitems. Thereis a helpfulsummaryof vilTheglossaryis anexcellentfeature complaint,forthe volumeis well-written lagelife in the secondchapter,which andengagingforits primaryaudience. in booksof this kind,but Thompson's Two,whenthe authorstatesthathe coversearlyIronAgesettlementsin the glossaryneedsmoreterms.It omitsboth centralhill countryof Palestine.It is takesup topicsin chronologicalorder, widelyusedtechnicaltermsandterms andinformative,integratinginforbrief up taken are topics that there means example, For really he text. the definedin mationfromseveralanglesthattogether in the orderof the canonicalstoryline. areno glossarydefinitionsforburnish assistone in depictingearliesttribal Informedreadersof the Bibleknow,for (page270J, dolmen(page149J,robber in the promisedlandof Canaan. Israel example,thatscholarsassigndiffering trench(page254J, orslip (page216J, commentin this chapteron the One that so Genesis, in accounts the to text. the dates in defined is each although settlementperiodis deceptivelybrief, Finally,morecarefuleditingwouldhave anyworkthattakesup accountsin the in the canoni- however,andraisesperhapsthe most orderof theirappearance preventeddefinitionsin the textfrom an analysis intriguingissuerelatedto dailylife and providing not is cal storyline conflictingwith thosein the glossary. biblicalculture:popularreligion(page82). Forexample,ostracais clearlydefinedin of customsaccordingto theirchronologicaldevelopmentbut is actuallypro- The contextforthe commentis the the text (page236J but ambiguouslydevidinga topicalapproachthatis arranged author'sreferenceto the storyin Judges finedin the glossary(page455J. 17of the Levitewho hada household Don C. Benjamin bythe orderof the booksin the Bible. agravenimage. shrineandwhofabricated Theopeningquestionof the first RiceUniversity
150
Biblical Archaeologist, tune/September 1989
Why,Matthews asks, would a Levite, responsible for the teaching of the law, do such things? The answer,he writes, "almostcertainly is that 'popularreligion,'the religion of the local villages, was not the pure monotheism required by the law at Sinai."Leavingaside the issue of whether early Israelhad a pure monotheism like that mentioned by Matthews, he is right to point to the considerablevariety of religious practices that must have characterizedvillage life in IronI Palestine. He quite correctly refersto excavationsfrom the period in question that show some household cul-
descriptionhas manypointsof contact with EgyptianandPhoenicianelements. Behindthe buildingof the templelie manyfascinatingstoriesabouta tribal societythatdevelopsinto a statewith a kinganda royalty-supported chapelin the capitalcity.Now is this also an exampleof popularreligion?Thatis, is the templean exampleof a typeof widespreadpopularpietythatwasmoreurban based?Matthewsagaintakesup the questionof popularreligionin the context of the monarchicalperiodandin thatsectionseemsto suggestthat,by definition,popularreligionwasnot whatwaspracticedin the "officialreligionof Jerusalemandthe temple"(page 1381.Muchdepends,therefore,on the definitionof popularreligion.A related questionthatis not discussedconcerns whethertherearetypesof Yahwistic popularreligionthatarenot particularly syncretic.Or,is it not possiblethat whenhe describessomeof the basepractices of the Canaanitefertilitycult he is reallydescribinga typeof Canaanite popularreligionthatwouldhaveembarrassedotherpractitioners of Canaanite religion? Withregardto the book'slongestsection,whichdealswith the monarchical periodsin IsraelandJudah,it is instructive to compareits treatmentof daily life with thatof the recentlypublished workbyPhilipJ.King,AmosJ Hosea, Micah-An Archaeological Commentary {Philadelphia: Westminster,1988).
The booksshareseveralelements.First amongthemis a lucidandorganized prose.King'sbookis morearchaeologicallyfocused,however,andmoreprofuselyillustrated.The strengthof Matthews'booklies in the description of patterns.He will takeup a topictic vesselsandthe remainsof sheep weaponryandsiegepractices,forexbonesfromsacrificialceremonies.Yet ample-and weavetogetherbiblical his remarkaboutthe villagesis too references,anthropology, andmilitary brief,sincethe issue of popularreligion strategyin an illuminatingway. is extremelyimportantto the question Overall,this is a helphllbookand of whatkindsof literatureandtestioneI wouldrecommendto a Biblesurvey moniesthe Bibleactuallycontains. classin a churchor anundergraduate Whatneedsdiscussionin this con- program.Ifthe readerconcentrateson text is the relatedissue of syncretism. the basiccontentsof the scripturesin Thatis a phenomenonamplyillustrated theirhistoricalcontext,this bookcanbe in the pagesof the Bibleandfromthe a helpfulintroductionto the cultures fromwhichthe scripturesemerged.Furexcavator's work.Definedneutrally, syncretismmightmeannothingmore thermore,thereareseveralindexesthat thana combinationof ideasandpracaddto the volume'susefulness. tices with differentculturalorigins. J.AndrewDearman Thus,elsewherethe authorcanrightly AustinPresbyterian Theological pointto the templein Jerusalem, whose Seminary
Akhenaten:Kingof Egypt,by Cyril Aldred,320pp.,107illustrations.New York:ThamesandHudson,1988;$35.00. CyrilAldredis generallyregarded as the leadingauthorityon the Eighteenth DynastypharaohAkhenaten(Amenophis IVIandthe Amarnaperiod.Aldred's latestworkis a welcomeadditionto the studyof one of Egypt'smost interesting personalities.Manysuperbblack-andwhitepicturesandveryfewtechnical termsmakethis bookattractiveto generalreaders,but scholarswill benefit fromit as well. Inthefirstsection,Aldredintroduces the readerto the archaeological evidence andliterarytestimonyrelatingto Akhenaten.The readeris takenstepbystep fromthe earliestdiscoveriesandinterpretationsto currentproblemsthatremainunsolved.Inthis way,the readeris introducedto the Amarnaperiodas well as to the scienceof Egyptology. Thenext sectionreviewsthe historical milieuof Egyptin the Eighteenth Dynasty.Afteran analysisof foreignand internalaffairs,Aldredexploresthe role of the "God's Wife,"the ChiefQueen. The powerandimportanceof the Chief Queen'sroleis demonstrated, especially with regardto the legitimizationof the succeedingpharaoh. The thirdsectionof the bookis devotedto the enigmasthatveil the reign of Akhenaten.Aldredtakesreaderson a detectivehuntandallowsthem to form theirownjudgmentaboutthe meritof eachclue.A casein pointis the complex questionof a coregencybetweenAkhenatenandhis father,AmenophisIII, whichhasbeenthe subjectof an ongoing debate.Aftera reviewof the evidence andthe opinionsofotherscholars,Aldred offershis ownpersuasiveopinion.The sameapproachis usedto examinethe intriguingproblemsconcerningthe Amarnaletters,the physicalpathology of Akhenaten,andhis religiousheresy. WasthenewreligionthatAkhenaten introducedto Egypttrulymonotheism? Aldreddemonstratesthatalreadyin the EighteenthDynastytherewasa syncretism of religiousbeliefsthatembraceda monotheisticconceptionof a supreme solardeity.Whereasbeforehim the existenceof othergodswassometimesunderstoodas the emanationsof one deity, Akhenatenabolishedall godsexceptfor his one god,the Aten (solardisc). Theconstructionof Akhenaten's
BiblicalArchaeologist,fune/September 1989 151
new city is of considerableinterest. NamedAkhetaten,"theHorizonof the Aten,"it wassituatedon the eastbankof the Nile River,midwaybetweenMemphisandThebes.Aldredoffersa novel explanationforthe selectionof the city's site.The configuration of a rockformation on the eastbankcorresponds to the hieroglyphakhet, meaninghorizon. Akhenatenstatedthatthis wasthe place wherethe Atenrevealeditself to him. Aldred'sreasonableconclusionis that Akhenatensawthe Aten (solardisc) risingthroughtwohills andinterpreted the spectacleas the manifestationof the sacredsymbolforhorizon.Akhetaten wastrulythe centerof the universefor Akhenaten. It is to Aldred'screditthathe does not tryto interpretproblemswhenhe is on insecureground.Tothe readerwho has occasionalpangsof frustrationin this regard,I bidyouwelcometo the disciplineof Egyptology. GarthAlford SouthwestMissouriStateUniversity The First Historians: The Hebrew Bible and History, by BaruchHalpern, xv +
285 pp. San Francisco:Harper@ Row, 1988;$22.95.
Somebooksareso refreshing,so innovative,thattheygivethe readermorethan whatis expected.The FirstHistorians is thatkindof book.BaruchHalpern's thesis, "todeterminewhatancientIsraelite historiansthoughthistorydemanded,to illuminatethe disciplineto whichthey subjectedthemselves," is masterfully presented.Afterdetailinga briefhistory of historical-critical andliterary-critical examinationsof the HebrewBiblein the last fewcenturies,Halperndevelops,in a seriesof chaptersdealingwith specific narratives, the followingcriterionfor historywritingin the biblicaltext: ".. . doesthe workparlaythe available evidence(sources1 into coherentnarrative about eventssusceptibleto reconstructionfromthe sources?. . . didthe narratorhavereasonto believewhathe or she wrote,or didthe narratordepart at will fromthe sources,concoctingfreely aboutmattersconcerningwhichhe or she hadno, or contradictory, evidence?" (page125. Thebulkof this volume,chapters 5-11 (comprising his partsIIandIII),is a reexamination of the historicalandliterarycharacterof the DeuteronomicHis-
152
torian(MartinNoth'sDtr}.Although Halpernaddsto the "alphabet soup"so commonlyusedby scholarswho deal with this material,his use of H{Dtr)and E-Dtr-xto denotethe historianandthe exilic editorhelpsharmonizethese modelsand,if adopted,will providemore logicto the studyof the FormerProphets. Inhis studyof the Judgesframework,Solomon'sreign,andthe beginningsof the monarchy(1Samuel8-12), Halperndemonstrates thatH(Dtr),while inconsistentin placesdueto conflicting sourcematerials,uses an"antiquarian logic"in dealingwith theseconflictsto createa masterfulreconstruction of Israelitehistorythatinjectsthemeand vocabularyonlywherecontentandcontext demand.Halpernrejectsthe idea thatthe historianwasin anyway"apatheticaboutaccuracy" or"indifferent to dissonance." Tracingthe "inventions" or stylistictrailof H{Dtr)is, as he says,like lookingfor"aneedlein a haystack." It is the use of sourcesthatmost oftenindicatethe presenceof this historian. Readersof BiblicalArchaeologist will findthis bookuseful.Theywill probablygainthe mostfromHalpern's examinationof EhudandDeborahin chapters3 and4. Chapter3 dealswith the storyof Ehudin Judges3. Whatis particularlyinterestinghereis the meticulousreconstruction of events-but not throughspeculationon whatcouldhave happened.Halpernconstantlyreiterates the pointthatnothingneedbe addedto the text,thata closerreadingof the text, plusthe use of archaeological andsociopoliticalcluesgivenin the text,will allowforproperreconstruction. Bycitingcomparisonsof the architecturalstyleusedin the secondmillenniumandthatusedlaterbytheAssyrians, the blt hilani,Halpernis ableto ascertainthe movementsof the characters withinthe Moabitepalace.Inaddition, Ehud'sadherenceto protocolis demonstrated,anda logicalsuggestionis made forthe meaningof the misdaron,which waswhatEhudusedto escapefroma lockedroom,leavinghis victim'sbodyto be discoveredlongafterhe hadwalked rightpastthe guardsandcourtiers.The conclusionis then drawnthatthe writer drewuponearlieroraltraditionsanda personalknowledgeof the Jordan Valley andarchitectural stylesto createan economical,realistic,"antiquarian reconstruction" of Israelitehistory. In chapter4, SiseraandOldLace,
Biblical Archaeologist, fune/September 1989
Halpernsystematicallyshowshow Judges4 is dependenton the lyricalversion of the storyin Judges5, The Songof Deborah.Goingpointbypoint,he exposesthe logicusedbythe ancienthistorianin the proseaccount.Forinstance, Siserais not describedas lyingdownat the time of his assassinationin Judges5. Halpernpositsthatthe historianplaced himin apronepositionin chapter4:19-21 to completethe logicof gravity,aim,and stealthneededto completethe act. Halpern's use of geography in determiningSisera'srouteof flight,the placementof Heber'scamp,andthe battlesite nearMountTaborareall drawnfrom archaeological insightandthe use of sourcesbythe historian.Theonlyfault thatcanbe foundwith this is the impressionof a ratherwoodenor mechanicalborrowing bythe historianfromthe poem.It doesnot allowfor,or at least doesnot touchon, the veryimportant themeof hospitalitythatis foundin bothversions.CertainlyHalpernhas createda modelfromwhichto expand the studyof this text,but it shouldnot excludeall of the factorsrelevantto the scenesbeingdepicted. Halpern's use of humoris refreshing.He lightenswhatat times is an extremelytechnicaldiscussionbyhis injectionof punsandmodernallusions {forexample,"Ehudcalling").Unfortunately,his frequentuse of technical terminologywill obscurehis meaning formanygeneralreaders. The FirstHistorians shouldbe added to everyacademiclibrarythathasa collectionon biblicalstudiesandIsraelite history.It challengesthe scholarlyestablishmentto rethinkthe characterof historiography in ancientIsraelandsuggests thatold standardsof literarycriticism shouldbe reevaluated. VictorMatthews SouthwestMissouriStateUniversity
BOOKPUBLISHERS Please send all review copies tc>: Dr. JamesMoyer Department of Religious Studies Southwest Missouri State University 901 South Nationsl, Box 167 Springfield,MO 64804 0095
