No title

The

BIBLICAL

ARCHAEOLOGI

Publishedby OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH THEAMERICAN SCHOOLS 126 Inman Street, Cambridge,Mass. Vol. XXXV

Fig.

December, 1972

No. 4

1. Fragment of an ivory plaque found at Nimrud in Assyria. The surviving words contain part of a curse on anyone who destroys the object to which it belonged. "Monumental" inscription of the 8th century B.C., perhaps taken from Samaria by Sargon II. See Iraq, XXIV (1962), 45, pl. 24a; M.E.L. Mallowan, Nimrud and Its Remains (1966), II, pp. 594-5, pl. 576. Reproduced by courtesy of the British School of Archaeology in Iraq.

Contents The Practiceof Writing in Ancient Israel,.by A.R. Millard .................................

98

Excavationsat Tel Beer-sheba,by Yohanan Aharoni ................................................ 111 to Volumes XXXI-XXXV, preparedby John L. Peterson ......................... 128 Index

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is published quarterly (February, May, September, DecemThe Biblical Archaeologist ber) by the American Schools of Oriental Research. Its purpose is to provide readable, nonreliable accounts of archaeological discoveries as they relate technical, yet thoroughly to the Bible. Authors wishing to submit unsolicited articles should write the editors for style and format instructions before submitting manuscripts. Editors: Edward F. Campbell, Jr. and H. Darrell Lance, with the assistance of Floyd V. Filson in New Testament matters. Editorial correspondence should be sent to the editors at 800 West Belden Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60614. Editorial Board: G. Ernest Wright, Harvard University; Frank M. Cross, Jr., Harvard University; William G. Dever, Jerusalem. $5.00 per year, payable to the American Schools of Oriental Research, Subscriptions: 02139. Associate members of ASOR receive 126 Inman Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts the BA automatically. Ten or more subscriptions for group use, mailed and billed to one address, in are available through B. H. Blackwell, Ltd., England $3.50 per year apiece. Subscriptions Broad Street, Oxford. Back Numbers: $1.50 per issue, 1960 to present: $1.75 per issue, 1950-59; $2.00 per issue before 1950. Please remit with order, to the ASOR office. The journal is indexed in Art Index, Index to Religious Periodical Literature, Christian Periodical Index, and at the end of every fifth volume of the journal itself. Second class postage PAID at Cambridge, Massachusetts and additional offices. Copyright by American Schools of Oriental Research, 1972 PRINTED

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PETERBOROUGH, N. H.

The Practice of Writing in Ancient Israel* A. R.

MILLARD

School of Archaeology and Oriental University of Liverpool

Studies

The epigraphic discoveries of recent decades have shown beyond any doubt that writing was well-known in Palestine during the period of Israelite rule. The intention of this paper is to examine the use made of writing there at that time and the extent of its practice. Two sources are available on which any conclusions will rest: on the one hand, references in the surviving literature, mainly the Old Testament; on the other hand, extant specimens of writing or evidence for the former existence of documents now perished. In the Old Testament, so D. Diringer has informed us recently, are found "as many as 429 references to writing or written documents;"' but divergent views on the origins and dates to be attributed to many of the books containing these references lay use of their information open to question. Accordingly, we shall concentrate upon the ancient material recovered from Palestine and the neighboring lands. The total number of written documents surviving from antiquity in this area is very large, ranging from Egyptian hieroglyphs to the scribbles of Nabatean travelers. Whilst we can find occasional examples of the hieroglyphic and cuneiform scripts within the borders of ancient Israel and the time-span of the Monarchy, our interest is limited to writings in the alphabetic script inherited by the Israelites from the previous in* This paper was read to the Society for Old Testament Study in January 1972 and has benefitted from comments made by many friends. 1. Cambridge History of the Bible, I, ed. P.R. Ackroyd, C.F. Evans (1970), p. 13; some examples are given by D.J. Wiseman ibid., pp. 37f; see further H. Michaud, Sur la Pierre et I'Argile (1958), Chap. 1.

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habitants of the land. Accidents of preservation and discovery have provided far more material from ancient Israel than from her neighbors; the greater intensity of exploration and settlement in Palestine is a contributory factor, too. However, enough is known of writing in Phoenicia, Aram, Ammon, Moab, and Edom to imply that a picture could be painted for each of these states similar in many respects to the one we shall compose for Israel. The Documents

For the present purpose the known texts may be placed in three categories according to their content and destiny: monumental, professional, and occasional. While the form of script is involved to some degree in this study, it is not the basis of the division, although Old Hebrew or Phoenician does exhibit slightly divergent tendencies, formal in the "monumental" texts, cursive in the other two groups, as J. Naveh has shown.2

W w04'X 4/ X. ?~n1x wo~x *0'v

Fig.

(4

.2?iVivu

2. Two ostraca from Samaria. No. 2 (on left) is a list of amounts delivered to Gaddiyaw from a place Azzah in the tenth year, and credited or debited to four men. No. 61 (on right) states "vineyard of Hatel" (or "Kerem ha-Tell") "in year 15." From G.A. Reisner, C.S. Fisher, D.G. Lyon, Harvard Excavations at Samaria (1924), I, pp. 239, 243.

The monumental inscriptions need only brief mention here. These are texts intended for public display as enduring records. As it happens, the Siloam Tunnel Inscription alone can be counted a worthy representative of its class in Hebrew. And when admiring its calligraphy, it should be remembered that the engraver had only the light of oil lamps or torches to illumine his work some six meters from the end of the tunnel. The meager remnant of a stele from Samaria and perhaps a dedicatory plaque of ivory carried off as booty to the Assyrian arsenal at Nimrud (Fig. 1) may be adjudged "official" and placed beside the Siloam text. With these three can be associated the epitaphs from tombs in the village of Silwan in that they were written, apparently, for the king's officials.3 2. Harvard Theological Review, LXI (1968), 71. D. Diringer has a slightly different, five-fold, grouping in his essay cited above. 3. On the tombs themselves see now D. Ussishkin, BA, XXXIII (1970), 34-46 and BASOR, No. 196 (1969), 16-22.

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Most early Hebrew texts fall into the category of professional. Use of this term indicates at once that a trained class was responsible for their production. In part this remains an assumption, for no piece is signed, nor has any material such as exercises survived from a scribal school, unless the Gezer Calendar is one such product. At this juncture the literary sources help with their frequent use of the word sopher, "scribe," basically one who wrote, whatever other functions he may have had.4 A single archive testifies to the activity of scribes in the palace, the Samaria ostraca from the reign, it seems, of Jeroboam II.5 They represent only the lowest grade of secretarial duty, the noting of goods received at the palace, in this case wine and oil from the countryside around (Fig. 2). More exalted products of the Hebrew chanceries have vanished. Sad witnesses to their former presence in the excavated area of the Samaria palace are the fifty or so clay sealings bearing on the reverse the imprint of the fibers of papyrus sheets to which they were once attached, and which, we may surmise, were letters or legal deeds.6 Nine of the bullae were impressed by the matrix showing a scarab-beetle design and may be the royal seal of Judah, for Y. Yadin has recognized the scarab-beetle as the royal emblem of the southern kingdom.7 Sole survivor of the once numerous papyrus documents is the fragment from a cave in the Wadi Murabba'at. We may assume that papyrus was the preferred material for any texts of importance or length, although the re-use of the Murabba'at piece three times implies that it was not commonly available, at least not at the outposts of the'Dead Sea shore.8 Other clay sealings have been found, notably at Lachish where the two from the Wellcome-Marston Expedition are now joined by seventeen froni Y. Aharoni's excavation beneath the Persian period shrine. They were in a clay juglet where they had been put for some unknown reason after the papyri to which they were attached had been opened.9 Ostraca are our best evidence of the scrivener's work, simply by reason of their greater durability. Our division of Hebrew inscriptions into three categories leads us to narrow the use of "ostracon" to potsherds inscribed with continuous text, thus excluding those bearing a 4. My colleague, K.A. Kitchen has drawn my attention to the fact that sopher when written as a Canaanite loanword in Egyptian is accompanied by three determinatives, one specifically indicating his function as a writer; see Papyrus Anastasi I ii 7. See also M. Burchardt, Die alt-kanaaniiischer Fremdw6rter, part 2 (1911), no. 1147. 5. For the reattribution to this date in place of the reign of Menahem proposed by Y. Yadin in Scripta Hierosolymitana, VIII (1961), 17-25, see S. Yeivin, BASOR, No. 184 (1966), 13-19, who utilizes the testimony of the Arad ostraca that Egyptian numerals were employed in Hebrew writing. 6. J.W. and G.M. Crowfoot, and K.M. Kenyon, Samaria-Sebaste III (1957), pp. 2, 88. 7. Scripta Heirosolymitana, VIII (1961), pp. 13-17. For another view, that it is the royal emblem of Israel, see A.D. Tushingham, BASOR, No. 200 (1970), 71-8; No. 201 (1971), 23-35, and my response in a forthcoming issue of the Bulletin. 8. J.T. Milik in R. de Vaux, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan II (1961), pp. 93100, P1. XXVIII; F.M. Cross, BASOR, No. 165, (1962), 34-42. 9. Israel Exploration Journal, XVIII (1968), 165-8, Pl. 11.

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simple statement of ownership. Letters and accounts make up the content of the hundred or so known and published ostraca (Fig. 3). The absence of legal deeds results from the use of papyrus for these more important texts as shown by the situation at Elephantine where both papyri and ostraca survive; and the ostraca are used only for ephemeral records. Other objects falling into this class of "professional" products are the inscribed weights and the numerous seals. In each case the letters were engraved on the stone, sometimes a very hard stone, usually with considerable skill. Whether the engravers were scribes or literate lapidaries cannot be said, although the fluency of the script makes it likely that the engravers knew their letters. We shall return to this question. Occasional denotes a class of writings frequently disregarded in surveying Hebrew inscriptions. These are the pottery vessels and other objects on which the names of their owners or a note of content have been written, and a miscellany of scribblings on all sorts of stone surfaces. The Writers

and the Readers

Clearly, professional scribes were responsible for the bulk of Hebrew written documents. Some traces of their activity in Samaria have been mentioned. Had the Hebrew monarchs not employed scribes at their courts in daily tasks and in making records for the eyes of their subjects and for posterity, they would have been unique among their contemporaries. When a king is said to have written a letter, it is to be understood that a secretary performed the physical task.10Certainly this was the case in Babylonia, Assyria, and in Egypt. Israel shared so many material and cultural aspects of her life with these nations that we should give a little attention to them. Various literary texts laud the scribal art in both regions. Egypt seemingly had an even higher regard for the scribe than Babylonia, but we can rely only on the opinions of the scribes themselves for that! Schooling at all grades and the various specialties are frequently described. Afterwards many avenues were open to qualified scribes, for they were indispensable as masters of the complicated writing systems of Egypt and Babylon. The most accompished served in the imperial governments; in Egypt the most modest might accompany the gangs of laborers hewing royal sepulchres." Numerous as they may have been in the civilized centers, scribes were less common in the provinces and border lands. So in the Amarna era when Palestine lay firmly within the sphere of cuneiform writing, petty 10. Cf. H. Michaud, Sur la Pierre et I'Argile (1958), pp. 12f. 11. E.g. J. Cern , Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-first Dynasty, Cambridge Ancient History, rev. ed., Vol. II, Chap. XXXV (1965), pp.: 17ff.

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rulers there might share the services of the same scribe.12 Given the dominance of the complicated systems of hieroglyphic and cuneiform, the following words can be applied to the situation: "While the art of writing was well known . .. it was by no means universal, and was largely confined ... to a professional class."13 The question is, did the same state obtain in Israel, of which in fact the words cited were actually written? An affirmative answer would be given by many scholars. One has stated lately, "Indeed in ancient Israel it was probable that the ability to read and write did not extend outside

'00a

??

Fig.

",

3. Lachish Letter No. 2, a letter to the military commander Ya'ush from a subordinate, probably Hoshayah, ca. 590 B.C. Drawing by H. Michaud in Syria, XXXIV (1957), p, 42, reproduced by permission of A. Parrot.

the professional scribes and ruling class."14Others dissent. Forty years ago, E. Dhorme observed that writing was not confined to the upper classesin Israel.15The primaryreason for such an opinion has been well expressed by W.F. Albright: "The 22 letter alphabet could be learned in a day or two by a bright student and in a week or two by the dullest; hence it could spreadwith great rapidity. I do not doubt for a moment that there were many urchins . . . who could read and write as early as the time of the Judges, although I do not believe that the script was used for formalliteratureuntil later."'16 12. For example, Zimrida of Lachish (letter 329) and Widia of Ascalon (letters 320-6): E.F. Campbell, The Chronology of the Amarna Letters (1964), pp. 112f. 13. T.H. Robinson, A History of Israel (1932), p. 231. 14. A.J. Phillips in P.R. Ackroyd, B. Lindars, Words and Meanings (1968), p. 194. 15. Revue Biblique, XXXIX (1930), 62 = Recueil Edouard Dhorme (1951), p. 541. 16. In C.H. Kraeling, R.F. Adams, City Invincible (1960), pp. 122-3.

see

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Incomplete and unrepresentative as the epigraphic evidence already summarized may be reckoned, we will argue that it is adequate to support Albright's claim and dispose of the view maintaining a very limited use of writing in ancient Israel. Monumental inscriptions have their simple analogies in Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia: whether they could be "known and read of all men" or by the literate elite alone was immaterial to their authors so long as they could be read by someone. The class of professional products can be assigned to the same body of scribes with some confidence. Army commanders at Lachish and Arad are likely to have had personal secretaries, or at least a scribe attached to their important fortresses. Here, too, the expert would read or write as required; but how far did this system extend? Is it necessary to assume the presence of a scribe at every military outpost of the small kingdom of Judah? If so, there was a very large number of scribes in that state; if not, either military stations were without any means of written communication for sending or receiving orders or reports, or the military included some undesignated person who possessed the appropriate skills. (We cannot tell whether the Lachish letters from Hoshayah were themselves brought from him by couriers, or whether they are copies made at Lachish from other written texts or from oral messages. That five [Nos. 2, 6, 7, 8, 19] are written on parts of the same pot might favor the second alternative.) The question of the extent of literacy looms larger in the light of numerous Hebrew seals recovered. No comprehensive survey of seals the from Iron age Palestine is available for estimating a ratio of inscribed to uninscribed, but a glance through various excavation reports leaves the impression that it is higher than in Syria or in Mesopotamia. A recent catalogue, compiled by F. Vattioni, reaches a total of 252 Hebrew seals and impressions.17 (His list of Aramaic seals reaches a total of 178, of which only a few bear no design or picture beside the writing.18) Some of these are not strictly Hebrew in so far as the personal names are compounded with alien theophoric elements, or are known to be foreign, or the seals were found in a context implying a non-Hebrew source, and so should be removed from the list;19 some may date from after the end of the Monarchy; but there are others which should be 17. Biblica, L (1969), 357-88, supplemented by Augustinianum, XI (1971), pp. 447-54. 18. Augustinianum, XI (1971), 47-65. 19. Ammonite: Vattioni Nos. 98, 164, 225 on onomastic grounds; Nos. 157, 165, 166, 194 by provenance; Nos. 103, 115, 116, 117, 195, 201(?) on epigraphic and onomastic grounds; Edomite: Nos. 119, 227 on onomastic grounds, No. 118 on provenance; Moabite: Nos. 111, 112, 113, 114, 116 on onomastic grounds; Nos. 74, 209 on epigraphic grounds, perhaps No. 102, found at Kerak. On the Ammonite and Moabite seals see N. Avigad in J.A. Sanders Near Eastern Archaeology in the Twentieth Century (1970), pp. 284-95, adding five Ammonite and three Moabite seals, and J. Naveh, ibid., p. 283, n. 19. Vattioni No. 73 belonged to an officer of a Philistine city: cf. H. Tadmor, BA, XXIX (1966), 99.

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added.20 Of course, some seals can never be satisfactorily assigned, the

divine names 'El and Ba'al being common to Phoenician and Hebrew, e.g. lbyd'l bn tmk'l (Vattioni, no. 17). However, a round figure of 250 for the known number of Hebrew seals or their impressions cannot be far wrong. Noteworthy is the occurrence of the Tetragrammaton (YHWH) as an element in personal names in the forms yhw, yh, or yw some 134 times. It is clear that the seals were applied to clay in sealing letters or legal deeds and also to large jars and other objects. In the first case they served as seals, authenticating and securing documents which would contain the names of the parties and the witnesses in the text proper (cf. Jeremiah 32). In the latter case, when applied to jars and the like, they seem to have acted as marks of ownership and identification. When the seal carried a pictorial design as well as the owner's name, little difficulty would arise in recognition. However, as many as one third of the Hebrew seals are engraved solely with the owners' names and patronyms, and any attempt to identify these seals obviously demanded reading ability.21 Moreover, many of the stones are very small, down to half an inch in length, not always easy for the modern Hebraist to read! But was it necessary to read the impressions made by the seals at all? Seals were fastened to documents for security; the seals impressed on jars may have served only as guarantees of capacity. Their function is bound up with the still uncertain use of the "royal" (lammelek) stamps which have a pictorial symbol to facilitate recognition beside the relevant and often illegible inscription, "the king's: Hebron/Ziph/Socoh/Mmsht" (Fig. 4) .22 If they were simply guarantees of a fixed capacity, they may be compared with the guarantee contained in the royal bust or device stamped on coins by the issuing authority; and the rare pre-exilic and more common post-exilic seal impressions combining official and private forms23have a remote analogy in the early medieval English coins bearing the king's name on one face and the name of the responsible mint-master on the 146 (tbslm, from 'Ain Gedi); J.B. 20. B. Mazar, Israel Exploration Journal, XII (1962), Pritchard, Gibeon: Where the Sun Stood Still (1962), p. 119, Fig. 86 (l'nyhw b/ /n hryhw); F.M. ygyh); C.L. Woolley, Ur Cross, Harvard Theological Review, LV (1962), 251 (Imqnyw//'bd Excavations IX (1962), P1. 30, U. 16805 (ULb' b(?)/ /n 'lyf'); cf. A.R. Millard, Palestine Exploration Quarterly, XCV (1963), 136; L.Y. Rahmani, 'Atiqot, V (1969), 81-83 (lbk[y]/Ilm); N. Avigad, Israel Exploration Journal, XX (1970), 131, P1. 30 C (lspn.'/ /bm's, from Jerusalem); the impressions from Lachish, n. 8 above, and those on jar handles collected by D. Diringer, Le iscrizioni antico-ebraiche palestinesi (1934), pp. 119-44, Nos. 1-3, 10a; by S. Moscati, L'epigrafta 15, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 29. 30, 31; ebraica antica (1951), pp. 72-82, Nos. 2, 6, 7, 10-13 (12=7), examples are collected by M. Heltzer, Epigraphika Vostoka, XVII (1965), 23-26. 21. Cf. already A.R. Millard, Tyndale House Bulletin, XI (1962), 7, and J. Naveh, Harvard Theological Review, LXI (1968), 72f. 22. On these stamps see P.W. Lapp, BASOR, No. 158 (1960), 11-22; F.M. Cross, Eretz Israel, IX (1969), 20-22; A.D. Tushingham, BASOR, No. 200 (1970), 71-78; No. 201 (1971), 23-35; H.D. Lance, Harvard Theological Review, LXIV (1971), 315-32, has important observations on the dating P. Welten. Die Kdnigs-Stempel (1969) argues that the stamped jars brought supplies from four royal estates to various military garrisons; see further T. Mettinger, Solomonic State Officials (1971), pp. 93-97. 23. Discussed by F.M. Cross, Eretz Israel, IX (1969), 24-26.

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other as a warranty of the coin's integrity. If the seals impressed on jars were marks of identification which required to be read, they have a parallel in the roughly scratched notes on jar-handles from Gibeon which, there can be no doubt, were written to be read.24 Two seal-stones proclaim their owners "the scribe" (hspr), but both are Mobabite in origin.25 A larger number belonged to members of the royal household, yet this is still a small proportion of the whole corpus, (Vattioni, Nos. 72, 110, 209, and 252 bear the title bn hmlk "the king's son;" Nos. 69, 70, 71, and 125 'bd hmlk "the king's servant".) Are the

JZ

4JAM

......

INA,

. ...

wgm

vi 4'd.

?SW

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AW-W

Fig.

4. Judean jar-handles stamped with officials seals. The central one bears a winged scarabbeetle and the words "of the king, Hebron;" the others bear a winged sun-disc and the words "of the king, Ziph" (left hand), and "of the king, Socoh" (right hand). From F.J. Bliss and R.A.S. Macalister, Excavations in Palestine During the Years 18981900 (1902), p. 108, Fig. 43.

majority of seals to be attributed to government officials, despite the absence of titles? As an explanation of two seals known in duplicate and another in triplicate this is attractive (Fig. 5) .26 It would seem hard to assume, then, that those officers were unable to read the names on their own seals, even if they had secretaries. Illiterate nobles would surely require a design they could distinguish easily, as in Babylonia (although it may be remarked that many Babylonian stamp seals of the 7th and 6th centuries B.C. bear designs of a figure before divine emblems which are often barely distinguishable from each other), whereas the small inscriptions might be confused easily. Accordingly, the well-to-do and the royal 24. J.B. Pritchard, Hebrew Inscriptions and Stamps from Gibeon (1959), and BASOR, No. 160 (1961), 2-6. 25. Vattioni, Biblica, L (1969), Nos. 74, 113; see n. 17. 26. Diringer, Le iscrizioni antico-ebraiche palestinesi (1934), pp. 122f., No. 5a, c .bnyhw/ / 'zryhw; Vattioni, Nos. 198, 199 jhwhl/9hr and jhwhjl/9hr from Ramat Rahel; Vattioni Nos. 231, 232, see Y. Aharoni, Eretz Israel, VIII (1967), 101-03, P1. 13, and BA, XXXI (1968), 15, Fig. 10, two seals inscribed I'lyb/ /bn '*yhw, and one I'ldbn/'Iyh, fascinating variants in presumably contemporary writings.

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officials are likeliest to have owned inscribed seals - their very nature made them costly - exemplified in families like Jeremiah's. One limitation inherent in the use of inscribed seals is their particularity. Pictorial seals might be passed from generation to generation or even sold without alteration; seals only naming owners and their fathers could be less simply handed on over long periods or alienated, and therefore had a more limited lifetime. In Babylonia a seal could be employed by more than one individual or generation even when inscribed with a personal name. All, however, carry other designs, too. Dynastic seals passed on over long periods are no exception, for they name the place as well as the king who first commissioned them beside the royal device.

:

...*

..cl--i7

Fig. 5. Three seals from Arad, belonging to Eliashibson of Eshyahu.The first two read l'lyIb/bn 'Ayhw, the third reads l'lylb / n '*yh. Courtesy of Y. Aharoni.

The merchantclassmay or may not be representedamongstthe seal owners, but they are relevant when we turn to the inscribed weights. While learning simple ciphers for multiples of a shekel or other unit hardly demandsliteracy- and manyweightswere uninscribed- and the unlettered might recognise pym, and bq' by their distinctive labels, nsp, rb' the shuttle-shapedweight marked 'ql, or the bronze turtles with plg rb't sql and hm" are more demandingin that respectas are the jars inscribed "royal bath measure" (bt Imlk). Still, literate tradersneed not have been numerous;the inscribedweights are all of low denomination, thereforereservedfor the more preciousgoods sold in small quantities. In surveying Hebrew inscriptions uncertaintywas expressedabout the engravingof the stones,whether they were passed,cut and polished, by the lapidary to some scribe who incised the legend, or whether one man carried out the whole operation. The directions for making the priestly regalia in Exodus 28 imply that an engraverdid all this work.

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Scrutiny of photographs reveals comparatively few seals with a design and a name where the name is obviously later, or made with different tools.27 Of course, an engraver may have copied the writing traced for him by a scribe; but the high quality of script evident in most of these tiny inscriptions, the frequent ligature of h and w (e.g. Vattioni No. 144, contrast 161), and the rarity of error (perhaps original omission of p in Vattioni No. 150) combine to suggest that many of the engravers were familiar with their letters. Thus a very specialized class of craftsmen, "seal-cutters or engravers," can be counted among those who could read in Israel.

MR"

Fig.

6. Jug from a cave qn Ophel hill, Jerusalem, with 'Of Eliyahu' pecked on the body, ca. 7th century B.C. See Palestine Exploration Quarterly, C (1968), pl. 36c. Reproduced by courtesy of Dr. K.M. Kenyon and the Jerusalem Excavation Fund. The Evidence

of the "Occasional"

Texts

Seals and weights are small, easily transported to an engraver's bench. The objects in the third category of text are not of the same nature. Did Pekah write his name on the storage jar found at Hazor, or did he invite a scribe for the purpose?28If the same question is asked of each potsherd or vessel bearing a name the answer may be "Yes, he called in a scribe" on a few occasions (perhaps, for example, the jug from a ritual deposit at Jerusalem with l'lyhw pecked on the body (Fig. 6), and the sherds inscribed before baking from the same place29); but it is hard to accept 27. E.g. Vattioni Nos. 16 ( = Diringer no. 16), 137, 138 ( = Moscati, Nos. 17, 18). 28. Y. Yadin, Hazor II (1960), p. 72, P1. 159, 5. 29. K.M. Kenyon, Palestine Exploration Quarterly, C (1968), 108f, P1. 36c; J. Prignaud, Revue Biblique, LXXVII (1970), 50-67.

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for all of the three-score or so known to-day. Apart from plausibility, comparison with Babylonia plays a part in reaching this conclusion. There the number of potsherds or ordinary objects inscribed in cuneiform with personal names - admittedly a more difficult process - is very small indeed; and there writing was widely known but its practice limited, as noted above, to the scribe and the academic. A name written on a vessel served to distinguish it from others: if only one were inscribed, it could be identified instantly; if several bearing their owners' names were brought together, identification could be made only by someone who could read, or by each owner recognizing the form of his own name. Again, such graffiti as the partial alphabet on a palace step at Lachish,30 or the couplet on a tomb-wall nearby3' could be the work of scribes; equally they could be the idle scratchings of a waiting petitioner or mourner. The inscriptions in the tombs at Khirbet el-K6m, also near Lachish, are clearly not the work of the most expert hands either.32 However, the difficulties of a scribe accustomed to writing with pen and ink when faced with a stone surface need to be borne in mind. Of much earlier date are the copper arrowheads found near Bethlehem, generally agreed to belong to the 12th century B.C. They bear the words hs 'bdlb't, "Arrow of 'Abd-leba'at" (Fig. 7).33 Whoever wrote on these objects was not a professional engraver; many of the letters were impressed with the sharpened end of an instrument like a narrow chisel, accounting partially for their eccentric shapes. Was it a scribe called in haste to write on an unusual substance who made these marks, or the owner who used the tool most ready to hand to write in the easiest way? These are speculations, yet the motley remnants of early Hebrew writing warrant them. The tenor of the Old Testament books is to treat reading and writing ability as an ordinary accomplishment, and the surviving examples of "occasional" texts especially support that literary evidence. For a society comparable with Israel in this aspect we should turn not to Babylon or to Egypt, but to classical Greece where the same simple script was the possession of every citizen. The Antiquity

of Writing

in Ancient

Israel

A glance through the texts cited will show a great majority dating from the late 8th to the 6th centuries B.C. So it is legitimate to ask whether it may be extended backwards into earlier times. Documents 30. D. Diringer in O. Tufnell, Lachish III (1953), pp. 357-8. 31. J. Naveh, Israel Exploration Journal, XIII (1963), 74-92, Pls. 9-13. F.M. Cross in J.A. Sanders, Near Eastern Archaeology in the Twentieth Century (1970), pp. 299-306 leans to a date in the sixth century B.C. for these texts, and J.C.L. Gibson also favors a date as late or even later in his A Textbook of Syrian Semitic Inseriptions (1971), p. 57. 32. Khirbet el-Kom texts: W.G. Dever, Hebrew Union College Annual XL-XLI (1969-70), 139-204. 33. On these and similar items from Syria and Lebanon see F.M. Cross, Eretz Israel, VIII (1967), 19ff.

109

THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST

1972,. 4)

from before ca. 750 B.C. are limited to the Samaria ostraca, witnessing a very mundane use of writing, the record of names and deliveries;34 an odd seal placed in the 9th century B.C. on epigraphic grounds;35 a few scattered ostraca and graffiti such as those from Hazor Stratum VIII; and the Gezer Calendar, a lonely monument from the Solomonic era. Although merely isolated survivors, these pieces show at least some use of writing; and even were a use on the scale postulated for the subsequent period predicated for this, there could be no' assurance that many examples would be unearthed. The factor of preservation has to be taken into account, a factor very much responsible for the uneven representation of relics from ancient Palestine in modern museums. Generally, the spectacular finds are made in the ruins of cities abandoned in haste,

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7. Three arrow or javelin heads found near Bethlehem. Made of copper, each is inscribed with the words 'Arrow of 'Abd-leba'at'. Probably of the 12th century B.C. From J.B. Pritchard, The Ancient Near East: Supplementary Texts and Pictures Relating to the Old Testament (1969), 805 a, b, c.

whether the cause be a natural disaster or hostile action, or in the tombs of notable persons. Remains of earlier cities, inhabited then superseded in peace for reasons of obsolescence or fashion, yield comparatively little. This is a commonplace of archeology, and it applies equally to the recovery of ancient written documents. With few exceptions, the archives of ancient western Asia known today belong to the closing decades of the lives of the buildings in which they were found, a matter which has only rarely received mention in considering the contents of such archives.36In his recent classification of the Elephantine Aramaic papyri and ostraca J. Naveh has been able to use this fact to good effect.37 34. For the date see n. 4. The late P.W. Lapp would set them in the reign of Ahab on archaeological grounds: Vetus Testamentum, XX (1970), 255. 35. Vattioni No. 40: see F.M. Cross, BASOR, No. 168 (1962), 15, n. 12. 36. E.g. W.G. Lambert, Revue d'Assyriologie, LIII (1959), 123; A.R. Millard, Tyndale Bulletin, XVIII (1967), 17. 37. The Development of the Aramaic Script (1970), p. 37.

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(Vol. XXXV,

It follows that, even if examples are few, the employment of writing on as wide a scale in the early period of the Monarchy as in the later cannot be ruled out - "absence of evidence is not evidence of absence." The Purpose

of Writing

in Ancient

Israel

Most of the specimens of Hebrew writing now available were made for mundane and ephemeral purposes. The monumental texts and tomb inscriptions alone were intended to endure, and obviously the best professional scribes would be brought to engrave the most important of these, or to trace the characters. Was the service of writing limited otherwise to matters of daily life - accounts, letters, and legal deeds - the work of scribes in busy centers? These were surely its most common end, and the documents which it was invented to record. Next to them may be placed the dedications and memorials required by ordinary folk from time to time, a class of text comprising almost the whole of our earliest group of alphabetic material, the Proto-Sinaitic Inscriptions,38 and the recently found tomb notices of Khirbet el-K6m of the Judean monarchy, the work of craftsmen less skilled than those of Jerusalem (see n. 32). Yet Israel would be unique in the ancient world had nothing else been written down. By the same broad analogy Albright's belief, noted earlier, that the script was not used for formal literature until after the time of the Judges may be disputed. The witness of lengthy literary texts from early in the history of other scripts (e.g. the Pyramid Texts of Egypt, the Abu Salabikh and Fara tablets from southern Babylonia) suggests that the alphabet, too, could have been put to the same use soon after its invention. Ugarit has given examples of Canaanite myths, legends, and other compositions in the cuneiform alphabetic script of ca. 1400 B.C. which appears to owe its inspiration to the Canaanite alphabet. The scribal habits of Ugarit borrowed much from Babylonian models, but it is an open question whether the latter alone gave the impetus to record local literature in writing. Canaanite tales roused sufficient interest to be translated and preserved in Egyptian and Hittite,39 a process which is hard to understand as strictly pedagogic, even if Babylonian literary texts were confined to scribal schools. Moreover, once a script has established itself no bounds can be set to its use. If kings of Byblos could have funerary and dedicatory inscriptions set up in the 11th and 10th centuries B.C., there seems to be little reason against positing even longer texts written less laboriously on papyrus in the siine alphabet. (Notice the access Josephus claims to Phoenician records in Antiquities 38.

See W.F.

Albright,

The Proto-Sinaitic

Inscriptions

and Their Decipherment

(1966).

39. "Astarte and the Sea," James B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts (1955), Ashertu,

519.

and the Storm-god,"

Pritchard,

The Ancient

Near

East:

Supplementary

Texts

p. 17; "El, (1969),

p.

1972, 4)

THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST

111

VIII ii 8; Apio I 17, 18.) And as far wider circles than the professional scribes could understand the writing,40 they could read any such texts to which they had access, the last being the controlling factor. It is submitted, therefore, that the indications of ancient usage contradict any idea of writing not being used for "formal literature" at a date as early as the Judges in Israel and allow, rather, the conclusion that both Canaanites and Israelites had the means to record and read anything they wanted, from brief receipt to lengthy victory poem, from a private letter to a state treaty. Whether they actually did so is not within the power of epigraphic evidence cited to reveal, but it does allow the possibility. Here we reach the limit of our study. The questions of literacy and its extent inevitably follow from thoughts on the use of writing, but we have been concerned to show simply that writing was theoretically within the competence of any ancient Israelite, not the prerogative of an elite professional class alone, and to show that it was, in fact, quite widely practiced.

Excavations at Tel Beer-sheba YOHANAN AHARONI Tel Aviv University

Four seasons of excavation have been carried out at Tel Beer-sheba, begun in 1969 as the central educational project of the Tel Aviv University Institute of Archaeology. The tell is situated on the outskirts of modern Beer-sheba (Hebrew, Beer Sheva), surrounded by the Hebron and Beer-sheba wadis which meet to its west. Its identification with biblical Beer-sheba is generally accepted since this is the only true citymound in the vicinity; and the ancient name has been preserved in the Arabic name of the mound, Tell es-Seba'. The only scholar who doubted this identification was Albrecht Alt.' From the prominent appearance of the artificial mound he concluded that this was a place of Bronze age fortifications, and the biblical tradition preserved no remembrance of a Canaanite city at Beer-sheba. Alt's argument may be right; however, his observations were wrong. No Canaanite city existed at Tel Beer-sheba. Our excavations showed that the city was founded only in the Iron age; and one of our great surprises was an unusually strong fortification of that period, creating the imposing mound (Fig. 8) which misled the venerable scholar. 40. A warning such as that engraved in the shaft of the tomb of Ahiram would have had no meaning to an illiterate robber or a casual laborer: photograph, etc., in M. Dunand, Revue Biblique, XXXIV (1925), P1. VIII; text in H. Donner, W. RMllig, Kanaandiische und Aramdiische Inschriften (1968-69), No. 2). 1. A. Alt, Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society, XV (1935), 320ff.; reprinted in Kleine Schriften III, pp. 432ff.

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(Vol. XXXV,

The Rampart and Glacis

The defenses of the city were examined in a deep trench near the northeast corner of the tell (see No. 4 in general plan, Fig. 14). In order to give the tell its commanding view over the whole area, an artificial rampart ca. 6-7 m. high was constructed, surrounded by a moat at least 4-5 m. deep. It was constructed of layers - red wadi-material and pebbles, earth and ashes - and was covered by a steep glacis made of two layers of brick material divided by a layer of ashes (Fig. 9). Huge earthworks of this kind from the Israelite period, reminiscent of the Hyksos fortifications, have been discovered here for the first time. They attest

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to the large effort given to the fortification of the city. On the other hand, they may be a special feature used in the southern part of the country. This possibility has been suggested through the discovery of similar earthworks of the Israelite period at Tel Mallata (Tell el-Milh), during excavations carried out by Dr. M. Kochavi in the framework of our Arad and Beer-sheba expeditions. One should ask if these are not the type of fortifications called h1gr,plural hgrm, in the Shishak list. As Professor B. Mazar has shown, the meaning of hagar is probably "fort,"

Second glacis

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THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST

114

(Vol. XXXV,

derived from the root hgr - "gird oneself."2 Shishak mentions in his list "the Hagarim (forts) Great Arad and Arad of the House of Yeroham (the Jerahmeelite?)." It seems to me very probable that Tel Malhata was the Jerahmeelite Arad which figures also in the conquest traditions.3 Thus it becomes probable that the term hagarim indicated these special "girding" glacis of the large Negev fortifications. This brings us to the question of the dates of these defenses. On the floors of the earliest structures built on the rampart, 10th century B.C.E. pottery was found. The same is true at Tel Malhata, and also the first fortress at Tel Arad was erected in the 10th century. The chain of strong fortifications on the border of the desert originated evidently in the days of the United Kingdom. It is true that a settlement of the 11lth12th century B.C.E. existed at Tel Beer-sheba, but is was probably unfortified. Was this the Beer-sheba of the pre-monarchical period with its patriarchal traditions in which the sons of Samuel judged the people (I Sam. 8:2) ? This is not the only question connected with the historical topography of Beer-sheba. The Iron age city did not continue until the end of the First Temple period but was destroyed about a century earlier, probably during the campaign of Sennacherib. True, sometime later the wall was repaired for a last time by a retaining wall leaning against it; but so far no structures belonging to this latest Iron age phase have been discovered. Either a rebuilding was attempted but not completed, or - and this seems more probable - only a few structures in the center of the tell were repaired together with the wall. In any case, from this time on no true settlement existed on the tell, only fortresses surrounded by some domestic structures. Where was Beer-sheba of Josiah from which he brought the priests to Jerusalem (II Kings 23:8) and where was "Beer-sheba and its villages" mentioned among the villages of Judah in Nehemiah 11:27? There seems to be only one answer: Iron-age remains have been discovered at various sites in the vicinity of Beer-sheba and especially at the area of the "Old City" of the modern town beneath the RomanByzantine Bersabee. Most have been discovered by chance finds. Some are as early as the 12th-llth century and some have distinctive 7th century pottery. These were probably the civilian dwellings near the wells and the arable fields, and only the central royal establishment was on the prominent tell. 2. B. Mazar, Jubilee

Volume

Presented

Vetus Testamentum, Suppl. IV (1957), 3. Y. Aharoni,

BA, XXXI

(1968),

to J. N. Epstein

p. 64.

31f.

(1950),

pp. 316-319

(IHebrew);

idem,

THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST

1972, 4)

115

So far so good, but where was the sanctified well of the patriarchal traditions near which Abraham planted his tamarisk tree (Gen. 21:33)? Comparing it with the Kenite highplace at Arad, surrounded by the civilian settlement, Abraham's highplace might be on the prominent hill surrounded by the riverbeds near which the wells were located. Today, the nearest well is about one kilometer from the tell, but the course of the riverbed changes and with it the location of the dependent water level. We may assume that the royal citadel demanded a safe water provision; and indeed, evidence for this was produced by the

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excavation. At the eastern corner of the city, a shaft, ca. 17 m. square, was discovered, encircled by a flight of broad steps (Fig. 14, No. 3). So far, only one corner of it has been excavated (Fig. 10) which resembles the entrances to the water systems at Megiddo, Hazor, and other sites, which led through tunnels to a water source. This makes it very probable that in antiquity the water level of the wells was near the tell. If the venerable highplace related to Abraham was on the tell, may we perhaps assume that the new citadel of Beer-sheba was called "Fort of Abraham" and that this is the "'hgr'brm" of the Shishak list?

116

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(Vol. XXXV,

::::i::_:i~::i':::::~ :i-: .~::::::~!:--:::iri: k.::-:i:: e:"s~ii-;,;;~;, :::'::: : I~i:--. .'.

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Fig. 11. The two superimposed city walls: beneath the horizontal scale is the solid wall, above it the casemate wall. The City Walls

Two successive walls were uncovered, both built on the rampart with sun-dried bricks on stone foundations (Fig. 11). The earlier is a solid wall ca. 4 m. thick with offsets and insets. Houses and floor levels attached to it contain typical hand-burnished ware of the 10th century B.C.E. It existed during two strata (V-IV); after its final destruction, early in the 9th century, a casemate wall was built on its foundations and strengthened by a new, higher glacis made of layers of grey soil and wadi material and resting on limestone revetments. The width of the casemate walls discovered at other casemates is identical with that .ofRamat Iron age sites like Samaria, Hazor, Rahel, Tell Beit Mirsim, and Arad, i.e. 1.6 m. (three cubits) for the external wall and 1.05 m. (two cubits) for the internal wall. It also existed during two strata (III-II) and was destroyed by a conflagration dated towards the end of the 8th

1972, 4)

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117

century. Hundreds of intact pottery vessels were found in the destruction level and among them the distinctive 7th century types are absent, like the high disc-base lamp, the metallic groove-rimmed cooking pot, and the pink spiral-burnished "folded-rim" bowl. The two types of city walls found at Beer-sheba are well-known from other Iron age sites. Their succession and dating, however, shed new light on the old debate about their alternative use. At Hazor we discovered a 10th century casemate wall overlaid by a 9th century solid wall. That was the foundation of Professor Yadin's theory that in the period of the United Kingdom only casemate walls were built, and that after their collapse under the blows of the new Assyrian battering ram, solid walls became the standard fortification of the two kingdoms until their end.4 However, at Beer-sheba we now have an early solid wall and a 9th-8th century casemate wall, both in a well-planned and strongly fortified royal city. Thus it becomes clear that both types of walls were used throughout the period of the monarchy, and evidently the choice was made in accordance with local considerations.5 The Israelite

City

Apart from one deep section, our main efforts were directed towards the uncovering of the latest Judean city, i.e. the one surrounded by the casemate wall (Fig. 8). A word is appropriate here about the techniques of modern Israeli archaeology, developed over the last two decades, which we used. Its essence is to combine minute techniques of threedimensional observations with the large-scale opening of complete areas. Our excavation was done on a large scale; up to 250 people worked on the tell in eight separate areas. No modern excavation should neglect the observation of the debris with the help of the remaining balks, but these debris should not become an objective by themselves, hiding the architecture and hampering the assembly and restoration -of the complete contents of any excavated unit. Every balk, therefore, was taken off after a clear floor level had been reached, and of course only after it had been drawn with the help of photographs. Every sherd was dipped and examined for inscriptions before washing, and all sherds of any room with broken vessels were kept for restoration. The results are numerous Aramaic and some Hebrew ostraca, hundreds of complete vessels from 4. Y. Yadin, The Art of Warfare ii. Biblical Lands (1963), p. 322. 5. Actually, Yadin's hypothesis seemed doubtful from the beginning. Casemate walls continued to exist at Beth-shemesh and Tell Beit Mirsim, new casemate walls we:e constructed in the 9th century at Samaria and in the 7th century at Ramat Rahel and Arad. Notwithstanding, Yadin has suggested a complete re-stratification of Megiddo in accordance with his assumed rule. At another place I have dwelt on the impossibility of these suggestions, since the solid wall was definitely constructed with the Solomonic gate, no other wall has been detected in the vicinity of the gate, and Yadin's "casemate walls" at the east are in reality rooms of a palace and a continuous line of houses: see Eretz Israel, X (1971), 53-57 (Hebrew). Accordingly, Yadin has now partly retreated from his suggestion agreeing that the solid wall did indeed exist together with the Solomonic gate: cf. BA, XXXIII (1970), 88.

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(Vol. XXXV,

the floor levels of the various rooms and strata, and last but not least, a good part of the Iron age city-plan with its various buildings and quarters. This large-scale exposure could easily be achieved around the periphery of the mound where only a few later buildings covered the earlier city. It is more difficult at the center of the tell where fortresses were erected in the Persian-Hellenistic period and later in the Roman period. The Roman fortress, which belonged to the limes fortification of the Roman Empire, was completely uncovered during the third season (Fig. 8), and part of it was removed in the fourth season. Some destruction of the earlier levels was done by Persian and Hellenistic pits and silos dug :;:::Q:-:i: ii

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around the fortress. They too, however, yielded their harvest of some 40 Aramaic ostraca from the 4th century B.C.E. They contain dates, personal names of Jewish, Edomite, and Arabic origin and lists of various products, such as wheat and barley, probably distributed to the garrison of a Persian fortress. The Iron age city is relatively small. Its area consists of about 10 dunams, compared with about 65 dunams at Megiddo. (There are roughly four dunams in an acre.) However, its defenses were of unusual strength, and a glance at the city plan emerging from the various excavated sections leaves no doubt that this was a well-planned city from its very inception. It is true that the uncovered buildings belong to the latest 8th

1972, 4)

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119

century city; however, wherever earlier strata were exposed, they showed the same type of buildings with only minor changes. It seems that the overall plan of the city had been preserved as laid out in the days of the United Kingdom. The city plan was dominated by a circular street, starting from the gate and encircling the whole city, with rows of buildings on both its sides. The external houses leaned against the city wall, and the casemate rooms served as units of the buildings. The completely excavated houses (Fig. 14, Nos. 5, 6) have a uniform layout. They are typical "four-room houses" with one broad and three long rooms, #ON j~j~ij divided by a row of pillars. ,~i:i;::,:: Two superimposed gates were discovered, belonging to the two successive city walls (Fig. 12). Both ~ were similar in plan, containing a 4-m. broad gateway flanked on each side by two gate rooms (Fig. 14, No. 1). The earlier gate, however, was broader and more massive and was equipped with a projecting tower about 5-6 m. broad. In the open area between the tower and the gate threshold, a well-dressed round incense altar was found (Fig. 13) which probably deentrance. found at the altar Stone 13. gate Fig. rives from a bamah alongside the gate entrance. During the purification of worship by King Josiah "from Geba to Beer-sheba" he also "broke down the high places of the gates that were at the entrance of the gate" (II Kings 23:8). A most remarkable fact is that the plan of the early gate closely resembles the gate at Dan which was recently excavated; there, too, a bamah was found next to its entrance. With these discoveries it becomes probable that the two cities were similarly fortified in an early stage of the United Monarchy, whence derives the classical biblical definition "from Dan to Beer-sheba." When parts of the later gate were dismantled, one of the outstanding projects of the Israelite city was discovered, namely, the central canalization leading towards the gate. Channels covered by stone slabs were found built beneath the street surface (Fig. 12); they were fed from plas-

Irmi '-:::

120

THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST (Vol. XXXV,

t5

Fig. 14. General plan of the Israelite ty: 1, Gate; 2, Storehouses; 3, Water 5 stem; 4, Deep trench through the fortifications, 5-6, Living quar1•:11./ ters.

THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST

1972, 4)

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THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST

122

(Vol. XXXV,

tered gutters in the walls of the houses. The channels become larger as they approach the gate; beneath the gateway itself the height of the channel is 70 cm. This sophisticated and unique canalization system apparently was intended to conduct rain for storage in central cisterns. The Stores

To the right of the gate a complex of three large adjoining buildings identical-in plan was uncovered (Fig. 14, No. 2). Each is about 17 m. long and has three long halls divided by two rows of pillars with shelves in between (Fig. 15). The two external halls have a stone pavement; and the inner hall has a slightly raised mud floor laid on a deep fill of gravel, earth, and ashes.

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The contents of these buildings leave no doubt that they were royal storehouses for cereals, wine, and oil. In one of the halls alone, more that 100 intact pottery vessels were found (Fig. 16), many of them typical store-jars; but other types of domestic vessels were found as well. It seems probable that in every unit the various products from a certain district were kept and that they were also prepared here for distribution and use. A Hebrew ostracon found in one of them allows some insight into the royal administration. It reads: "15 (the date of the year or the day?); from Tolad b (ath measurements) ... ,Beth Amam . . ." These are two cities mentioned in the Bible in the region of Simon together

THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST

1972, 4)

123

with Beer-sheba (Joshua 15:26 - Amam; 15:30, 19:4 - Eltolad; I Chronicles 4:29 - Tolad). Evidently some product (probably wine) was brought to the royal store from these two localities of the Beer-sheba district. This complex of adjacent stores resembles in plan and detail the famous Megiddo "stables." Professor J.B. Pritchard's reassessment of the Megiddo stables6 has found a quick and convincing confirmation. His main argument was that no evidence of any equipment for horses was found in the Megiddo structures, and all over the ancient Near East horses were evidently kept in open enclosures. It is now clear that this

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was the typical plan of stores, and it seems that the Megiddo "stables" may be placed with the other myths created by modern archaeology. The Sanctuary

Two parallel radial streets lead from the gate to the center of the city. Though excavations in this area are still in an initial stage, it is already clear that the main public buildings stood here on raised ground. One of them is a large "four-room house," which extends from the peripheral street towards the center of the tell (Fig. 14, No. 7). A unique group of cult objects was found in its debris. Apart from beads and 6. Near Eastern Archaeology in the Twentieth Century (Glueck Vol.) ed. J.A. Sanders, (1970), pp. 268-276.

124

THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST

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(Vol. XXXV,

"r

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Fig. 17. Cult objectsof bronze, (1-4), bone (5), glass (6), and faience (7).

1972, 4)

THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST

125

amulets, it contained ostrich eggs, a faience bowl, a terracotta figurine of a bird, a head of colored glass (Fig. 17, No. 6), the lower part of a miniature sphinx, and the spout of a decorated incense-burner, made of bone. With them, various bronze objects were found, including a handle with the head of an animal, a bull, the double crown of Egypt and a goddess in Egyptian style (Fig. 17: 1-3). The most intriguing find among them is a cylinder seal of Assyrian-Babylonian style of provincial workmanship (Fig. 18). On it is depicted a deity on a raised platform with a worshiper standing in front of him. The accompanying cuneiform

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Xi~ii

:--?4,3 iiiii'A

Fig. 18. Votive cylinder seal and its impression.

inscription states that the cylinder was dedicated to a certain deity by one Rimut-ilani son of Adad-idri.7 We do not argue that this was a son of Adad-idri (Hadadezer), king of Damascus in the 9th century according to the inscriptions of Shalmaneser III; but it seems probable that the donator of this cylinder was a king of one of the Aramaic kingdoms of Syria or Trans-Jordan. A pit which had been dug into the street was found just outside the building. It resembles the refuse-concealment pits (favissae) usually found around sanctuaries. Apart from further beads and amulets, in7. The inscription will be published by Prof. A.F. Rainey.

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i-J-D

.

Y

q,\z Oii~ijcrn~:

Fig. 19. Krater with incised Hebrew inscription, reading qds'=holiness.

cluding a beautiful falcon (the image of Horus - Fig. 17:5), it contained a small stone incense altar and a decoratedfaience libation bowl (Fig. 17:7). A miniature bronze sphinx was found in another room farther east (Fig. 17:4). Mention should also be made of a large number of zoomorphic vessels and animal figurinesfound in the various houses, probablyconnected'with rituals. In one house, an Iron age kraterwas found with an inscription of three Hebrew letters: qd' meaning qodesh, "holiness" (Fig. 19). These rich and unique finds, all connected with cult and rituals, make it probable that an area in the center of the tell was dedicated to a sanctuary. May I recall the description of the Arad temple, published in The Biblical Archaeologist some years ago.8 This first temple to be 8. BA, XXXI (1968),

18-32.

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discovered in an Israelite royal establishment raised the question of the purpose and theology of temples in the period of the Monarchy, a question further pursued with the new examination of the Lachish shrine.9 The Arad temple was, in my opinion, a legitimate Israelite-Yahwistic sanctuary, not only because of its location in a prominent place in a royal Israelite fortress, but also because of its continued use from the 10th to the early 7th century and its contents which stand in remarkable agreement with Mosaic laws. My tentative suggestion was that there was an institution of border sanctuaries for which many biblical allusions can be found. This proposal deals with a most fundamental question of biblical history, i.e. the early stages of Israelite worship. I concluded my article in the hope that a similar sanctuary may have existed at Beer-sheba; and with its discovery and excavation, the various hypotheses may be put on a firmer basis. Beer-sheba already appears as a sanctified site in the patriarchal stories (Gen. 21; 26; 46). The clearest evidence is found in the words of Amos, who denounced the worship at Beer-sheba and compared it with the temples at Dan and Bethel (Amos 5:5; 8:14), the two cities on the extreme borders of the northern kingdom. It seems to me that with the discovery of the rich group of cult objects a basic fact seems certain, namely that there was a sanctuary at Beer-sheba as well. However, already with the first finds the striking differences from Arad stand out. At Arad not a single foreign and pagan cult object was found; everything pointed towards a pure, legitimate Israelite worship. At Beer-sheba the rich and unique group olf cult objects is basically pagan and shows strong Egyptian influences. How is it possible to explain this striking contrast? For the moment we may ask only questions. Was the more central and venerable shrine at Beer-sheba exposed to strong foreign influence, and was this perhaps a reason why Amos singled it out in his wrath? Or was it the other way around - was the Arad sanctuary perhaps an exception, due to its puritanic, conservative Kenite priesthood (Judg. 1:16) ? Or is this perhaps a last stage in the history of the city under the alternate Assyrian and Egyptian dominations, similar to the later history of Bethel (II Kings 17:25 ff.) ? It is our hope to continue the excavations at Tel Beer-sheba until at least some of these intriguing questions will have been clarified.

9. Y. Aharoni, Israel Exploration Journal, XVIII (1968),

157-169.

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Indices to Volumes XXXI-XXXV prepared by JOHN L. PETERSON Seabury-Western

Theological Seminary

(NOTE: Citationsthroughoutthis index will be by volume number in Arabic numerals. Immediatelyfollowingthe colon is the page referencein that volume. For example,the referenceto Aadi, Rabbi, found in Volume 35, page92 is cited as 35:92)

I. TABLEOF CONTENTS AncientGreekSynagogueInscriptions,FloydV. Filson...........................................32:41-46 AncientPalestinianDwellings,H. KeithBeebe ..................................................... 31:38-58 Arad: Its Inscriptionsand Temple, YohananAharoni................................................ 31:2-32 34:66-68 ArchaeologicalNewsand Publications,EdwardF. Campbell,Jr .................................... News and Edward F. Jr. Views, Archaeological Campbell, ............................ .31:32-35; 33:29-32 35:95-96 ......... ArchaeologicalNews,Viewsand Reviews,EdwardF. Campbell,Jr..................... The Archaeologyand Historyof Tel Aviv-Jaffa,J. Kaplan .............................................35:66-95 and Rabbinic Tradition at Khirbet Eric M. A. Thomas Shema', Kraabel, Archaeology Meyers, JamesF. Strange 35:2-31 ....................... ............................................... BronzeAge Buildings at the ShechemHigh Place, ASORExcavationsat Tananir,RobertG. Boling........32:81-103 ClimaticConditionsand GrainStoragein the PersianPeriod,LawrenceE. Stager Dead Sea ScrollsSlide and Tape Program............................................................35:64 ......................34:86-88 Endof an Era: Albright,de Vaux and Goetze, EdwardF. Campbell,Jr.................... 34:92 .......... The Excavationof Tell er-Rason Mt. Gerizim,RobertJ. Bull ............................. ..... 31:58-72 The ExcavationSouthand Westof the TempleMountin Jerusalem:The HerodianPeriod,BenjaminMazar .33:47-60 Excavationsat Tel Beer-Sheba,YohananAharoni ................................................ 35:111-127 The Fifth Seasonof Excavationsat Hazor,1968-69,YigaelYadin ................ 32:50-71 .................. FurtherExcavationsat Gezer, 1967-71,WilliamG. Dever,H. DarrellLance,ReubenG. Bullard, Dan P. Cole, Anita M. Furshpan,JohnS. Holladay,Jr.,Joe D. Seger,RobertB. Wright 34:94-132 ................ GeologicalStudiesin FieldArchaeology,ReubenG. Bullard........................................33:98-132 The "Ghassulian"Templein Ein Gediand the Orginof the Hoardfrom NahalMishmar,DavidUssishkin ... 34:23-39 34:42-66 HygieneConditionsin AncientIsrael(IronAge), EdwardNeufeld .................................. IntroducingH. DarrellLance,EdwardF. Campbell,Jr ..............................................35:63-64 Mari,AbrahamMalamat .......................... ......................................34:2-22 33:66-96 Megiddoof the Kingsof Israel,YigaelYadin .................................................. Miss Kenyon'sBookon Jerusalem,EdwardF. Campbell,Jr ....................31:99-100 .................... MosaicFloorsat Caesarea:An ArchaeologicalTrainingGround, Thomas D. Newman ................... 34:86-91 The Necropolisfromthe Time of the Kingdomof Judahat Silwan,Jerusalem,DavidUssishkin............. 33:34-46 NelsonGlueck: In Memoriam,EdwardF. Campbell,Jr........... ...................................34:39-40 NewAmericanSchoolsPublications,EdwardF. Campbell,Jr ......................................32:46-48 The NewOrganizationof ASOR,EdwardF. Campbell,Jr ................. ......................33:63-64 The 1968HeshbonExpedition,SiegfriedH. Horn ................... 32:26-41 ............................ PaulW. Lapp: In Memoriam,EdwardF. Campbell,Jr .................3........................33:60-62 The Practiceof Writingin AncientIsrael,A.R. Millard..........................................35:98-111 A Problemof AncientTopography:Lachishand Eglon,G. ErnestWright ......................... 34:76-86 Prophecyin the MariLetters,HerbertB. Huffmon................................................31:101-124 33:2-29 .............. SecondaryBurialsin Palestine,EricM. Meyers .................................... StandingStonesin AncientPalestine,CarlF. Graesser ..............................................35:34-63 and 'New' Thesis on the Bones of Peter,GraydonF. Snyder 32:2-24 ............................... Survey TribalLeagueShrinesin Ammanand Shechem,EdwardF. CampbellJr., and G. ErnestWright..........32:104-116 UrbanMithraism,SamuelLaeuchli.........................................................31:73-99 The WaterSystemsat Hazorand Gezer,WilliamG. Dever ...........................................32:71-78 WhatArchaeologyCanand CannotDo, G. ErnestWright ...........................................34:70-76

II. INDEX OF AUTHORS Aharoni,Yohanan,Arad: Its Inscriptionsand Temple ...............................................31:2-32 Excavationsat Tel Beer-sheba.............................................................35:111-127 Beebe,H. Keith,AncientPalestinianDwellings ..................... .......................31:38-58 Boling,RobertG., BronzeAge Buildingsat the ShechemHigh Place, ASORExcavationsat Tananir .......32:81-103 ................................ 31:58-72, Bull, RobertG., The Excavationof Tell er-Rason Mt. Gerizim. Bullard.ReubenG., GeologicalStudiesin Field Archaeology .................................33:98-132 William (see Dever, G.) 34:66-68 Campbell,EdwardF. Jr., ArchaeologicalNewsand Publications................................... 31:32-35;33:29-32 ArchaeologicalNewsand Views .................................................. Endof an Era: Albright,de Vaux,and Goetze.....................................................34:92 .........................35:63-64 IntroducingH. DarrellLance ....................................... Miss Kenyon'sBookon Jerusalem ......................................................... 31:99-100 NelsonGlueck: In Memoriam ..............................................................34:39-40 NewAmericanSchoolsPublications......................................................... 32:46-48

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The NewOrganizationof ASOR ....................................... 33:63-64 ................... ........ News.Viewsand Reviews................. ...................................... 35:95-96 Paul W. Lapp: In Memoriam 33:60-62 ... ............ .............................. F. and G. Tribal Shrines Edward in Amman and Jr., Ernest, Shechem Campbell, Wright, League .........32:104-116 Cole. Dan P. (see Dever,WilliamG.) Dever,WilliamG., LanceH. Darrell,Bullard,ReubenG.. Cole, Dan P., Furshpan,Anita M., Holladay,JohnS. Jr., Seger,Joe D., Wright,RobertB., FurtherExcavationsat Gezer, 1967-71 .........34:94-132 Filson. FloydV.. AncientGreekSynagogueInscriptions................ Furshpan,Anita M. (see Dever,WilliamG.) ...........................32:41-46 Graesser.CarlF., StandingStonesin AncientPalestine Holladay,JohnS. Jr.(see Dever,WilliamG.) ............................................35:34-63 Horn,SiegfriedH., The 1968 HeshbonExpedition 32:26-41 ............ Huffmon,HerbertB., Prophecyin the MariLetters..................................... ...................31:101-124 ..................... The Kaplan,J., Archaeologyand Historyof Tel Aviv-Jaffa Kraabel,A. Thomas(see Meyers,EricM.) .........................................35:66-95 Laeuchli,Samuel,UrbanMithraism ..... ...........................................31:73-99 Lance.H. Darrell(see Dever,WilliamG.) Malamat,Abraham,Mari .................................................................. 34:2-22 Mazar,Benjamin The ExcavationSouthand Westof the TempleMountin Jerusalem:The HerodianPeriod ............ 33:47-60 33:2-29 Meyers.EricM.. SecondaryBurialsin Palestine .................... ................................. JamesF., Archaeology and RabbinicTraditionat Meyers.EricM., Kraabel,A. Thomas,and Strange, KhirbetShema',1970and 1971Campaigns 35:2-31 ................................. ........................ Millard.A.R., The Practiceof Writingin Ancient Israel ................... ......................35:98-111 Neufeld,Edward,HygieneConditionsin AncientIsrael 34:42-66 Age) .................................. (Iron, Newman.ThomasD., MosaicFloorsat Caesarea: An Archaeological Ground 34:86-91 ............. Training Seger,Joe D. (see Dever,WilliamG.) and Thesis on the Bones of F., Peter 32:2-24 'New' Snyder.Graydon Survey ..................................... Stager,LawrenceE., ClimaticConditionsand GrainStoragein the PersianPeriod .......................34:86-88 Strange,JamesF. (see Meyers,EricM.) Ussishkin,David,The "Ghassulian"Templein Ein Gedi and the Originof the Hoardfrom Nahal Mishmar..34:23-39 The Necropolisfromthe Time of the Kingdomof Judahat Silwan,Jerusalem............................ 33:34-46 Wright,G. Ernest,A Problemof AncientTopography:Lachishand Eglon .................... .....34:76-86 What ArchaeologyCan and CannotDo ....................................................... 34:70-76 (see Campbell,EdwardF. Jr.) Robert B. William (see G.) Dever, Wright, Yadin,Yigael,The FifthSeasonof Excavationsat Hazor,1968-69................ 32:50-71 .................. ................. Megiddoof the Kingsof Israel ................. ....................33:66-96

III. GENERAL INDEX Aada, Rabbi 35:92 Aaron33:15,16 Abba-An 34:123 'Abd-leba'at'35:108 Abimelech 32:84,103 Abraham 31:27;32:114;33:17;34:18;35:115 Absalom 35:40 abu bTitim34:17

Abu el-Feda'32:30 Abu Kakir 35:92 Abu Kemal 34:2 Achaean 34:75 Achan 34:20 Achyrios32:45 Achzib 33:58;34:52 Adad-duri31;108,119,121 Adad-idri35:125 Adalshenni 34:13 R.Adda b.Ahabah 33:27 Ader 35:56 aedes 31:91 aedicula 32:5-9,11-13,21 Aegean 33:108,132 Aegean Islands 31:14 Aelia Capitolina 31:100;33:35,51,56 Agazaren31:58 Agnes, St. 32:17,22

Agoranomos35:93 agriculture,primitive 34:23 Agrippa I 33:57;35:28,91 Ahab 32:54,63;33:93,94,96;35:46,85 Aharoni, Y. 31:32,34;34:67;35:52,53,100 Ahatum 31:114,121 Ahaz 31:30;33:27 Ahriman31:91 Ahum 31:113,115 Ai 31:33,42 Aijalon(Ajalon).valley33:102,108,110-111,120;120; 34;81;35:86 'Ain es-Samiyeh33:8 Akhnaton 35:79 'Akiba, Rabbi 33:26 Akkad 34:3-5 Akkadian 31:105;34:15,20 Alahtum 31:106 Alalakh 34:123 Albinus,Procurator33:54 AlbrightInstituteof ArchaeologicalResearch, Jerusalem33:63 Albright,W.F. 32:46-48,114;34:70,72,79-81,8384,92,109;35:24,65,70,79,102f.,110 Aleppo (Halab) 31:103-108,111,123;34:9-10,12,20 AlexanderJanneus 33:19;35:28 Alexanderthe Great 35:88

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Alexandria33:24;35:88,92 alluph 32:115 Alt, A. 35:111 altar31:20,21,22,23,24,25,28,29,75;32:3,9,15,22,82,84, 93,105,109;34:29-30,60,124;35:34,36,44,50,54 blood 35:58 burnt offerings 31:26 earthen 34:4 horned 31:56 incense 33:55;34:111;35:52,119 stone 31:19;35:79 of Yahweh 35:38 Amalek 32:113 Amalekites31:18;35:41 Amam 35:123 Amarna 34:8,20,57 glass 34:127 letters 31:13;33:30;34:84,127 period 32:54,77;34:100,125,127;35:79 Ambrose32:22 AmenophisIII 34:83 Amenophis IV 34:83 AmericanCenterfor OrientalResearch,Amman 33:63,64 AmericanGeological Institute 33:98 AmericanInstitute for Archaeology,Beirut 33:63 AmericanSchoolsof OrientalResearch31:33,34 32:26,46-48,82,85;33:60,61,63,64;34:39,67,92;35:2,96 Aminu 34:11 Amman 32:27,28,46,47,84,116;33:11,30 Museum 32:104 Ammon 32:29,115 Ammonite33:30 border 31:29 Amnanu 34:15 Amorite31:123;32:28;34:9,12,16;35:76 Amos 31:102;35:5,127 amphictyonies32:113,115 Amurru34:12,15-16 Anatolia 31:42;35:75 Animism 35:36,49 Annunitum31:111,119;34:20 Antigonus 35:91 Antioch 32:29;35:88,91 Antiochus IV 35:89 Antiochus XII 35:89-90 Antipatris35:90 Antonines 31:74 Aphek 35:72,90 aplu, apilu, apilum, apiltum 31:105-109,121;34:20 apothecaries34:58,59 apse 32:3,17,33,34 apsidial arch 32:17 Apum 34:12 aqueduct, Herodian33:57,60 Aquileia 31:85,94-95 Arabah 31:5,32;33:99,101 Arabia 33:11 northwest32:113 Petraea 32:29 southwest34:58 Arabiandesert 32:112 Arabian peninsula 32:114,116 Arabic period 32:33;35:30,92,94 Arad 31:3,39;35:52,53,114ff. Canaanite31:30 "Arad House" 31:3 Jerahmeelite31:32;35:114 "Arad Rabbat" ("the great") 31:32 Aram 35:38,42 Aramaic 32:46,70;33:22 Aramean 34:17;35:40,62 border 31:29 tribes 32:113 34:12-13 Arapn-Nahargim 'Arqq el-Aniil 33:61 'Araq el-Menshiyeh34:80

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architecture,church 32:15 Galilean synagogue 35:12,14 Ghassulian 34:24 Arkhanes33:13 Armenia 31:74 Arnon 32:28 Arpad 35:39 Arrapha34:10 art, Ghassulian 34:24 Greek 31:76 Jewish 35:31 Synagogue35:31 artifacts arrowheads,copper 35:108 beer mugs 33:77 blades, flint 34:104 bracelets, iron 33:78 bronze 34:104 Byzantinewineglass 32:90,91 nail, iron 32:90 needle, copper 32:95 pestles, stone 34:104 Asa 31:30;34:59 asakku 31:108;34:20 Ashdod 31:34;34:80;35:41 Ashdod-Yam35:67,86 Asherah 34:120;35:36 Ashkelon 34:77,80;35:82,86 ashlar 31:33;33:51,52,54,70,72-75,82,86,88,90;35:82,85 AshmoleanMuseum 33:31;34:68 Ashtoreth31:56 Ashur (god) 31:104 Ashurbanipal31:123;32:115 Asia Minor 32:42,46 ass-foal 34:18 assinnu 31:105,110-112,114-115,121 Assur 35:41 Assyria 32:115;34:9-10,11,12,45;35:40,62,86 army 34:78,80,83 kings 35:38 period34:131 Aswan granite 31:61 Atargatis31:111 Atarsamain32:115 Athena 35:30 Augustine 32:19,22 Aurelius Crescens31:83 Avesta 31:80 Avvites 34:17 Azekah 34:80-81 Azor 33:5;35:86 ba'al (in names) 31:11 Ba'al 31:56;34:111;35:36 Ba'al Hamon 35:61 Ba'almeon 32:70 Ba'al Pe'or 31:29 Ba'al-Shamayn31:103 B 'ana 33:95 BAbedh-Dhra' 31:41;32:48;33:6-8,61;35:56 Babylon 31:109,116;34:5,10-11,45;35:38 Babylonia31:80;32:36,84;34:49,60,80-81;35:40,41 empire 35:86 language 34:7,13 period 33:85 Bacchanalis31:87,97 Bacchides 34:119 baitylion 35:47

Balatah 31:63,64;32:85,94,101,107,109;33:60,106 Balawat 35:44 Balearic islands 34:75 Balikh River 34:9,13,15 bamah see "high place" baptism 31:93 Bar Kokhba 33:31;35:96 caves 33:19,72 revolt 32:45 Barak 31:123

1972, 4)

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Bar'am35:8,26 Barclay'sGate 33:56 basilica 31:96;32:7,15,17,19,21,22;35:13 bate-nepes 34:51

Bath-rabbim32:28 baths, Mithraic 31:81,83,86 Bathsheba31:38 bathtubs, domestic 34:52 battering ram 32:63 beads 32:105;33:78;34:29 lapis lazuli 34:4 Beersheba31:16,28,29,30,32,43;33:6,99,123;34:23-24, 26,67,82,83;35:111 Museum 32:102 temples of 31:29 Beidha 31:39,40 Beit Jibrin 33:18;34:78,79 Bel 34:60 Belet-biri31:120 Belet-ekallim31:115,119 Belka 32:30 Ben-hadad I 31:7 Ben Shemen 33:5 Benjamin33:11;34:13 Bersabee, Roman-Byzantine35:114 Besan 32:84 beth 'ab 34:17

Beth Alpha 35:8,12 Beth-dagon35:86 Beth Horon, Lower 34:81;35:85,86 Upper 34:81 beth merhas 34:52

Beth-shan 31:42,48;33:101:34:60;35:41,72,83 Beth She'arim 35:12,20-21 Beth-shemesh31:46,4850;33:15,22-24,26,27; 34:116,123 Beth-yerah35:72 Beth-zur 32:46,47,48 Bethel 31:25,28,29,30,48;32:46,47,48;34:44; 35:34, 46,47,52 Bethlehem 32:19;33:62;34:78 betyl 35:48 Bi'na limestone 33:107 Bir-Matar34:24 Bir-Safadi34:24 Bishri mountains 34:15 bit hilrni 33:75

Black Sea 32:42 Blanche Garde 34:81 Bliss F.J. 34:78-81 Bnei Braq 33:5;35:72,86,90 Boaz (pillar) 31:19,22;35:46 bone 32:53,105;33:124,125,127 buttons 32:94 Peter's 33:31 BordeauxPilgrim 31:58,72 border, Israelite-Judean31:30 border, Philistine 31:32 borith 34:54

boundary,holy place 35:44 boundarymarker35:51 boundarystones 35:37,38 Braidwood,R.J. 34:72 brazier 31:56;34:60 brick-making34:108,110 BritishSchoolof Archaeology,Jerusalem 32;84,85,104;33:31;34:68 broadhouse35:12,17,31 building program, Solomon 34:116 Bullard, R.G. 32:77,78 burial 31:40,47;32:3,7,17,18,19,20,23,40,54,58; 33:28,45,126;34:49,61,106-107,130;35:68,70,73,94 cairn 33:8 caves 33:35;34:25;35:78 Chalcolithic35:72,77 chamber 33:35,37-39,40,42,43,60;35:72 child 34:121

131

cist 33:13 communal 33:6 disarticulated33:4,6 EB 35:73 gifts 35:78 infant 32:55;33:115;34:50,120,123,125 LB 34:104 MB IIA 35:74,75 ossuary 33:3 Phoeniciancustom 33:45 primary33:11,14,15;34:104 secondary33:2-28;34:25,35:18,20-21,72 shaft 33:7 Silwan 33:38 Burrows,M. 31:38-39 Byblos 31:40;34:12,123;35:47,48,50,56,58,62 Prince 31:103 Byzantine-Arabperiod 32:48 Byzantineperiod 32:34,65,92;33:35,50-53,56; 34:52,79,90;35:92,95 Cadiz 34:75 Caesarea31:40;34:66,88-91;35:91 Caius 32:2 calcite 33:111 Calendar,Gezer 31:10;35:100,109 Calendar,Jewish religious 32:45 Canaan 31:27,29;34:13,18,46;35:78-79 Canaaneantechnique 32:103 Canaanite 31:46,50,123;34:49,55,60;35:61,62 canal, Hazor 32:58,59,69 Capernaum35:8,26,31 capitals 32:37;35:16,17,31 Corinthian33:52 Cappadocia34:10,20;35:92 Carbon-1434:39,104 Carchemish35:40 Carmel, Mt. 33:101;35:41 Carmel Uplift 33:101-102 Carthage33:24;34:75;35:35,48,61 castle, Crusader34:88 catacomb 32:3,17,18;35:88 Hellenistic 35:91-92 Catacumbas32:2,3,7,9,11,19,20,23 Catal Huyuk 33:3-5,7,11 Cautes 31:76 Cautopates31:76 cave, dwelling 31:3;35:72 cemeterychurches 32:4,7,19 cenotaph 35:54 census 34:18 Cestius Gallus 35:91-92 Chalcolithicculture 33:6 Chalcolithicperiod31:41;33:5,8,13;34:23,37,95; 35:69,70,72,75 Chalcolithicsettlement 34:26,33;35:77 Chaldaean31:93 chalices 31:56 chalk 33:88,103-104,109,118-119,122,124-126;34:100, 102,107,111,116 Eocene 32:74;33:102,110 chamberlain,royal 33:42 chert 33:99,109,131-132 cherubim 34:7 Christianagape 32:22 Christianpersecution35:28 Christiansymbols 35:28 Christianity31:73,93-95;35:28 Jewish 32:46 Christians31:96-97,99;33:62;35:91 early 32:3,11,15,18,19 Chorazin35:8 Chronicler34:59 church, Byzantine32:32,33,41 Christian31:88;32:32,41 Holy Sepulchre32:19 St. John Lateran 32:8 Patristic 31:95

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St. Paul's 32:2,3 St. Peter's 32:2,3,5,7,11,13,19,20,21,22,23 St. Sebastian's 32:7,9,17,18,19,22,23,24 Theotokos 31:59,61 ciborium 32:8 Circus of Nero 32:5 cistern 31:45,68,69,72;32:34,40,68,85,93; 32:82,103,108;33:42-43,58,115-116,119;34:103, 120,126;35:9,14,18,21,24,26,84,91 LB 32:71 citadel 31:7,8,10,11,13,15,19,32;33:58;35:78,80,84 Amman 33:64 Beth-zur 32:47 Hazor 31:54 Hyksos 35:79 MB 35:91 Rameses 35:80 royal 31:30 city 34:16,45,52 administrators31:81 administrative33:95 Canaanite 35:79 Canaanite-Philistine33:95 chariot 33:95 coastal 35:81,86-87 fortified 32:54;33:66,86;34:78;35:76 of David 33:35,45,46 plan 35:118ff. Samaria 31:28 Solomon's 32:51,56,58,69 walls, Jerusalem33:47;35:87 city-states, Armana 31:100,34:79-85 clans 32:112 clay 33:102,103,105-109,111,120,124-125; 34:32,54-55,110;35:78 alluvial 33:120 bricks 34:46 mineral content 33:99 Clement 31:94-95 Cleopatra32:43 climate, desert 34:86 climate, Mediterranean34:86 clothing 34:53 coastal plain 32:101;33:6,99.101-102,108,111; 34:23,71,76,81,86,90 coastal region 35:82,84 coastal road 33:102 coastal sites 33:116 coffin rings 35:18 coffins 33:24 coffins, larnax 34:106 coins, 31:70,72;32:12,13;33:52,54,57;34:90;35:8, 20-21,26-27,29,88,92-93 Arab 35:28 Crusader35:28 Early Byzantine35:28 Hasmonean33:60 Maccabean 35:28 Nabatean 33:55 Neapolis mint 31:71 Roman 31:61;35:28 Tiberius 33:54 colonies, Phoenician 34:74;35:42 columbaria32:4,5 column bases 32:30,32,33 columns 31:61;32:17,52,109;33:51-52;35:16,17,31 commandment32:45;35:24 confederation32:113-115 Edomite 32:113 Israelite 35:58 conquest 31:39;32:28;33:30;34:13,23,70;35:96 Assyrian32:71;33:96;34:112 Babylonian32:47,48;34:18,108,112,118 Edomite 31:17,18 Israelite 35:80 Joshua 35:81-82 Moslem 31:5

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Saracen 32:8,11 Sargon 34:4 Shishak 33:125;35:112,114 Thutmoses 34:103;35:78 conscription,military 34:18 Constantine31:70;32:4-23;35:28 Constantius35:28 contracts 35:38 cooking 31:40,47 copper, Chalcolithic34:24,37 Cypriot34:12 Copper Scroll 31:59 corax (raven)31:76,78 cornice 33:38,43-46 cosmetics 34:58,106 palettes 34:51 cosmology, Mithraic 31:78 Council of Ephesus 32:29 Council of Nicea 32:29 court 31:22;33:84 Commagene31:87 David 31:124 early Israelite 34:18 Sassanide 31:87 courtyard31:38,39,40,45,50,51,52,53,54,57,71 32:34,36,38,39,108;33:76,114-115,125; 34:27-28,31,34,46,48,126,129-30; 35:72,88,91 covenant 31:102;32:103,111,114,116;33:30; 34:18,123-124;35:34,39,58,96 ceremony35:51,58 meal 34:123 renewal 32:111 Shechem 35:39 crafts, Palestinian 34:68 crania 33:10,11 cremation 34:61;35:73 Crete 31:34,42;33:13;34:52,106 Crusaderperiod 32:30;33:56,102;35:28,95 cubit 31:24 cult 32:15,17,18,23,24 amphictyoniccenters 31:35 centers 31:39 ceremony31:111 Cybele 31:74 imperial 31:99 martyr 32:22 meal, Hellenistic-Roman31:78 Mithraic31:92 mortuary35:56 mystery31:88 objects 31:19,55 of the dead 32:15,20,22 Phrygian-Persian31:95 prophets 31:114 Roman mystery 31:87 Sebastian 32:5 vessels 32:53 Yahweh 31:56 cultic installations 32:53 Cumont, F. 31:79-80,84 Cybele 31:84 Cyprus31:14,42;33:60;34:66,67,75,95,105 Cyrenaica35:92-93 Cyrus 35:77,86,93 Dacia31:80,92 Dagan 31:112,114-117,119-121 Damascus 34:12 Dan 31:25,27-30;34:12,115;35:82-83 Dan'el 35:59 Daniel 32:33 Danuna 35:83-84 Daroma 34:79 David 31:18,38,50;33:11,66,71,72,95;34:19,85;35:85 Davidic dynasty 35:46 Dead Sea Scrolls31:14;32:104,114; 33:22,31,61,101;34:25,35,82; 35:64,96%

1972, 4)

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

Debir 31:19,22-25,43-45,48,49,52,55,56; 34:44,83-84 Deborah 31:123;32:54 Decius 31:97 Dedan 32:114 Deir 'Alla 31:56,57 Delos 32:44 deodorants 34:57,58,59,62 Derashyahu31:11 Dhahr Mirzbaneh33:61 Dhorme, E. 35:102 diakon 32:43 diaspora 33:24,26;35:92 dice 31:70 Diln~n 34:10 ed-Dnm32:30 Diodorus Siculus 31:88 Dionysos31:88 Diringer, D. 35:98 disease, communicable34:45 Dishan/Dishon 32:114 divination 31:102,103,112,123 diviner-prophets,Mari 34:20 Divus Augustus 31:87 dolls, bone 32:37 dolmens 33:31 Dor 35:87 dreams 31:103,116-121,123;34:20;35:46 Dumuzi 32:79 Dura Europos 34:53 dye vats 31:55 dyeing 31:54 Ea 31:108 Eannatum 34:4;35:38 Ebal, Mt. 31:59,61,63 Ebenezer31:29;35:41 Ebionites 31:99 ecstasy, prophetic 31:103,104,11lllff. Edom 31:5,18,32;32:114,115 Eglon 34:69,76,78-82,84-85 Ein Gedi 34:25,27,33,35,37,52,57-58,62 Ekron 34:80-81,84 'El-Berit 32:109 Elagabalus32:29;35:92 Elah Valley 34:84 Elam 34:10 Eldad 31:124 Elealah 32:28,30 eleph 32:115 Elephantine31:11;35:101,109 Eleutheropolis34:78,79 Elijah 31:123 Elisha 31:17,123;33:16 Eliashib 31:11,13-15 Eliur 31:11 Elon, Elon-Allon, Elon-Moreh31:27 Eltolad 35:123 emperors, Severian31:81 Empire, Roman 31:73-74 Endor 35:40 engineers, Roman'31:71 engineers, Solomon's 33:71 Ephraim32:113 mountains33:101,111;35:90 Epiphanius31:58,72 epitaphs, Jewish 33:16 Esarhaddon31:104;34:123 Esau 32:113 Esbus (Heshbon) 32:29,30 eschatology32:44 Esdraelon33:101 Eshmunazar35:87 Eshnunna 31:115;32:111;34:10 law-code 34:92 Eshtemo'a 35:31 Eshyahu 31:11 Essenes 33:22

Eucharist, Christian 31:77,93;32:22,23 eunuch 31:111 Euphrates31:118;32:113,116;34:2,9,13,15 Eusebius 32:2;34:78 excarnation 33:4,7,8 ExecrationTexts 34:12 Exile 34:63-64 Jewish 35:86 Exodus 32:28;34:13,74 Ezekiel 31:38,57;33:16 Ezion-geber31:5,7;34:40 Ezra 35:89 Fabri, F. 34:78 faience 34:109 Fertile Crescent 33:63 fetish 32:82,89,108,109 figurine 31:56;34:24 animal 34:129 bronze 31:20;33:52 Hathor 35:81 human 34:129 zoomorphic34:105 flagstones 32:39 flasks, ointment 34:51 Flavia loppa 35:92 Flavian period 31:81 flint 32:48,103;33:131-132;34:25,72 arrow 35:68 Ghassulian 35:70 Tananir 32:102 floor, chalk 33:75 floor, mosaic 32:32;34:89-91;35:11 floor, tile 32:39 fort 33:80,84,95 of Abraham 35:115 ashlar-built35:89 Israelite 34:82;35:94 fortification32:47,70;33:47,69,84,123-124; 34:85,95,103,108 city 32:58;33:79,93;34:115 defensive 33:125 Gezer 33:67 Hyksos 35:77 MB IIC 32:48 Rehoboam 34:85 Solomon 33:67;34:111 wall, Gezer 34:101 wall, Solomonic 34:109 fortress 31:9,13,14,19;35:87 border 33:30 Hellenistic 31:5 Iron period 31:5,26 Judean 31:14;34:76,85 mud-brick 35:76 Persian 31:5 Roman 31:5 royal 31:14,26 square 34:85 town 34:80 frankincense34:60 freedmen 31:80,81,83,85 frescoes 31:75 Fretensis, Legio X 33:51 Fructus Mithraeum31:83 Gad 31:124;32:28 Gadyau 31:11 Galilee 33:101,108,111;35:3-5,8-9,31,91 southeastern33:99 upper 35:24,66 garrison, Persian 31:10 Philistine 31:30 gate 31:7,8,68,113;32:39,40,56,59,60, 61,62;33:86,87,88,89,95,115-116,120,124; 34:30,31,33,118;35:52 Arad 31:6 Assyrian34:118 Beer-sheba35:119f.

133

134

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

Bronze Period 33:85 building 34:30,116-117 citadel 31:19 city 31:50,57,66,114;32:76,77; 33:67,82,84,93;34:28,48,79 Damascus 31:100;33:47 Dan 35:119 "Double Gate" 33:50,51,54 Ein Gedi 34:27 Gezer 33:121,126;34:44,110,113-117 Hulda 33:50 Megiddo 33:86;34:44,118 Ramesside35:79 six-chambered33:67,73,85,86,87,95 Solomonic 31:6-7;32:51,53;33:70,72,73,85,86, 88,92,95,120;34:108,111-114 Gath 34:80-81,83-85;35:70,78-79 Geba 31:29,30 Gedalyahu31:11 Gemara 35:25 gemstones 33:115 Genesis 32:113;33:29 genizah 35:16,21 Gennadius, Bishop 32:29 Gentile 32:43,44 Gerizim, Mt. 31:58,59,61,63,68,72; 32:82,92,103,107,111 gerousiarchos 32:43

Geshur 35:40 Gezer 31:34;32:64,67,70-72,75,76,78; 33:6,11,14,30,67,68,71,72,96,98,101-132; 34:53,60,66-67,83-84,94,95,106-132; 35:48,56-58,62,63,72-73,81,82 Ghanim, Sheikh 31:59 Ghassul 33:13,32 Ghassulian 34:32,34-35,37,39 Beersheba34:95 cult 34:24

culture 32:103;34:23 Gibeah 31:30,48 of Saul 33:61;34:54 Gibeon 31:99;32:64,70;34:81 Gihon spring 31:100 Gilead 34:58;35:38 Gilgal31:28;34:124 Gimil-Sin 32:111 Gimtu 35:78 Gischala 35;4 Givatayim33:5;35:72,73 glacis 32:78;33:119;34:103:35:77,78,83,86; 35:112,116 glass 32:90;33:52,94,96;35:125 Amarna 34:107 Khirbet Shema' 35:29 glossokomon 33:22

Glueck, N. 32:79;34:39-40,67,92,94 Gnosticism 31:98,99 Goetze, A. 34:92 Golan 33:108 gold 35:44 Golgatha 32:19 Gottlieb, G. 32:79 Gozan 35:70 graffiti 32:3,4,6,7,9,10,11,12;33:9;35:108 grain 31:3;34:8 granary31:81,86;34:126 royal 35:79 Greece31:34;34:51,54,62 Greeks 31:11,14;32:42,107;34:75 grinder 31:40,50;33:115 stone 31:53;33:129 Guarducci. M. 32:5,6.12,13,14,15,24 Gulf of Aqaba 33:99,101 Gush Halav 35:4-5,26 Habiru 34:13. Hablet el-Amud 33:8 Hadad (Addu, Adad) 31:106-108;34:12,20

(Vol. XXXV,

Hadadezer35:125 Haderah31:40;35:72 Hadhramaut33:11,14 Hadrian 31:58;32:3 halifah 35:25 hagarim 35:113

Haifa 32:101;34:92 "hair and hem" 31:108-109,111.113,115,117, 118,120,121 Hamadia 35:67 HammathTiberias 35:8 Hammurapi31:108,116;34:5,10-11,20 Code 35:39 Hana 34:9,15,17 Hanean 34:10,15-18 Hannanyahu31:11,16 Harran(Haran) 32:113,116;34:8,13,15 Harris Papyrus35:78

hasarum 34:17

Hasmoneanperiod 33:18,24,60;35:28,88-89,91 Hatshepsut35:78 Hauran 33:108 Hazor 31:7,22,39,50,54-56;32:50-71,113; 33:67-72,80,92,96;34:12,46,56,115-116,119,123; 35:50,55,56,59-61,116 hearth 31:53;33:115 Heber 31:27 Hebrew(s)32:46;34:12,14,64;35:39 Hebron 33:54,101;34:44,77,79,81,83-84;35:31 Hedeira (Hederah)32:102;33:5 hekal 31:19,21-25 heliodromus31:76 HellenisticJudaism 32:46 Hellenistic period 31:93;32:29,34,47,65; 33:17,18,22,55;34:55,108,112,114,115,119; 35:4,88 Hellenists 34:113,118 Hermon, Mount 33:101 Herod the Great 32:29;33:47,50-51;34:78; 35:28,91 Herodianperiod33:20.47,50,52-54,55-56,60; 34:52,119;35:28 Herodium34:78 Herodotus34:60 Heshbon 31:34;32:26.27.28,29,30,36,37, 38,40,116;33:64 Hezekiah 31:26,27,30;33:27,42;34:62 Hieropolis31:111 high place 31:19,27,28,30;32:101,103;33:127-128; 34:34,57,120-122;35:34,57,119 Gezer 32:76;33:125,126;34:123-124 "Hill of Pohel" 33:46 Hittites 35:40,79 holy-of-holies31:19;32:104,112 holy place 34:61 Horite 32:114 Hormah 31:31 Horvat 'Uzza 31:18 Hosea 35:46 house(s) charnel 31:41;33:7,18,29 courtyard31:42,43.46-48 Diana 31:82-83 EB 31:41 excarnation33:5 four-room31:51,52,55;35:119 guild 31:83 Israelite 31:49-58 LB 31:48 MB 31:42,46 Omri 33:92,96 patrician 32:84 rectangular31:40,41 reed 31:40 subterranean34:24 two-room31:41,42 Huleh, Lake 34:119

1972, 4)

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

Hurrians33:29;34:8,13,20;35:78 hygiene34:45,49,58,63-64,66 Hyksos 32:94;33:118;34:105;35:76-78 Hyrcanus,John 31:58;32:29;35:89 Iblul-II34:1,3 iconography,Jewish 35:27,30 ichthus (fish) 31:95;32:3 Idalion 33:60;34:66,95 Idamaras34:18 idol 35:36,37,48 Ikrub-El 31:113,116,118,119 Iku-Shamagan34:3 Ila-kabkabu34:11 Iliad 34:75 image 35:37 implements, sacrificial 34:53 Inanna 32:79 incense 31:29;32:109;34:51,60-62 burners 31:94;35:57 stands 31:56;34:60 Innocent, Pope 32:5 inscriptions31:71,75;32:37,41-42,44-46; 33:42-44;34:71,73,75;35:34,37-38,41,45,98ff. on arrowheads35:108 Byblos 35:58 Commagene31:74 Damascus 31:95;32:7 Disc 34:9 Eannatum 34:4 Greek 31:69,70;32:46;35:93 Hebrew 33:55-56;35:97ff.,126 Hebrewsepulchral 33:39 Khirbetel-Kom 35:108,110 Latin monumental 33:51 Mesha 31:29 Mithraic 31:82,95-97 Naram-Sin34:5 North-westSemitic 35:43 ossuary 33:26 Ostian 31:85 Proto-Sinaitic35:110 Punic votive 34:49 Qorb'n 33:55 Ramses III 33:70 Samaritan35:94 Santa Prisca 31:95 Sarcophagus33:24 Sargon 34:5 Sefire treaty 34:123;35:48 sepulchral33:26,40,42-43,45 ShalmaneserIII 33:96 Siloam Tunnel 35:99 Theodotus 32:45 Yahdun-Lim34:17 insecticides 34:59-62 Iraq 31:33;33:29;34:2 irrigation32:59 Isaiah 32:28,29;33:45 Ishmael 32:114,115;34:13 Ishmaelite 32:113;34:17 Ishme-Dagan34:10-11 Ishtar 31:104,112,119;34:5,8 of Mari 34:5 Isin dynasty 34:5 isinnu (see assinnu) Isis 31:84,87 Islam 35:95 Isola Sacra 32:5 Itur-asdu 31:117;34:13 Itur-Mer31:119,120 ivory 32:105;34:37,51 carving 34:24 inlay 32:95 Jacob32:44;34:13;35:34,38,40,46,47,83 Jacob's Well 31:61 Jachin 31:19,22;35:46 Jael 31:27

135

Jaffa 34:68;35:74-88 Jamboulos31:88 Jannaeus, Alexander 32:29;33:54;35:89-90 Japho 35:82 el-Jarba35:67 Jebel Bishri 34:15 Jebel Qa'aqir 33:9 Jehoiakim31:18 Jehoshaphat31:30 Jehu 31:38,57;35:85 Jekke 35:45 Jemdet Nasr period 34:3 Jenin 33:93 Jephthah32:28 Jerahmeel31:32 Jeremiah31:102,123;32:29;35:106 Jericho31:39,40,42,48,55,99;32:63; 33:3,6-10,20,54;34:43-44,53,72;35:68-69 pre-pottery33:4 pre-potteryNeolithic A 31:40 JeroboamI 31:28,29;33:88,96 JeroboamII 35:100 Jerome34:78 Jerusalem31:16,21,25,26,27,28,29,30,39,50, 56,58,100;32:26,45-47;33:20,21,26,31,34,35,44-47,54, 60,62,66,67;34:18,44,46,52,54,67,80-83; 35:10,12,18,29,54,62-64,86,91-92 Jesus 32:22,44,46;33:62 Jethro 31:27 jewelry 32:105;35:29,48 Jews 31:99;32:42-45;33:18,62;35:4 Galilean 35:28 Jezebel 31:38;35:46,62 Jezreel Plain 35:66 el-Jib33:8,106 el-Jish 35:26 Joab 31:47 R. Johananben Nuri33:26 John of Gischala 35:4 Jonah 35:87 Jonathan(son of Saul) 32:29;33:11,16;35:89 Jonathan(Hasmonean)32:29;35:89 Joppa 35:86,90 Joram 33:60 Jordan 31:34;32:29;33:64;35:58 Valley 32:79;33:10,101;34:23,39,58;35:66 Joseph 32:113 Josephus 31:100;32:29:33:47,50,54;35:24,89,110 Joshua 31:28;32:54;34:19,70,74,84;35:39,51,82 Josiah 31:16,26,29,30;33:%;34:62;35:34,54,62,114,119 Jotham 32:103 Judah 31:7,15,28;33:35,42,46; 34:18,59,76,81,85;35:54,62,93 Judaism 31:99;32:45;35:5 rabbinical 32:41 Judea 33:60;35:86,89,91 Judean desert 33:24;34:23,25,35,86;35:25,% Judean hills 33:99 Judges 31:102;34:19 charismatic32:103 period of the 31:27,29;32:111;35:82,85 judgment in the gate 34:115 Judith 34:55 Julian the Apostate 31:97;33:56 Jupiter 31:78,91 Justin Martyr31:77,99 Justinian, Emperor31:61 Kadesh-barnea31:5,7 Kadesh. (Orontes)35:79 Kallassu 31:106,107 Kaptara/Crete34:10 Karana 34:10 Karnak 35:78 Kedar 34:17 Kedesh (Judg. 4:11) 31:27 Kenite 31:4,27,31,32 high-place, Arad 31:28,30

136

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

priesthood 35:127 theory 31:28 Kenyon. K.M. 31:52,99-100;35:54 Kerak 32:30 Keros family 31:16 ketoneth 34:53 Keturah 32:114 Kfar Gil'adi 35:67 Khabur 34:9.10,12,15 Khafajah 34:53 Khirbet Ader 31:21 Khirbet 'Ajlan 34:78-79 Khirbet el-K'm 34:115;35:108 Khirbet GhaZzeh 31:18 Khirbet Kurh 33:8 Khirbet Mar'ash 34:78 Khirbet Shema' 33:63;34:66,95;35:3-31 Khirbet Sheqef 34:79 Kibri-Dagan 31:113,116,118,119 kilns 33:110;35:76,77 lime 32:34 pottery 31:21 Kiriath-Gat 34:80 Kish 33:11 kitchen 31:53 Kiti, Kition 31:14 Kittim 31:13,14 Knossos 34:52 Kochavi, M. 35:112 Korah 32:113 Kramer, S.N. 32:79 Kronos 31:78 Kurda 31:108 Kurdistan 34:10 kudurru - stones 35:38 Kyrenia 33:60 Laban 35:38 Lachish 31:9,32,34;33:8,15,45;34:51,77-88 letters 34:80;35:103 Lagash 34:5;35:37,38 Laish 34:12 Lamgi-Mari 34:3 lamps, Herodian 33:55 Lance, H.D. 35:63,64 Landy, J.M. 35:96 laos 32:42,44 Lapp, P.W. 33:60-62 larnakes 33:13 Larsa 34:10 law 32:45;34:63 biblical 31:19 cultic 34:64 dietary 34:55 Hurrian 33:29 Levitical 33:17 ritual 34:64 Lawrence, St. (church) 32:17,22 Lazarus 32:44 leather 34:53 Lebanon 31:33;33:101;35:86 Lejjun 34:123;35:56 Levi 32:113;34:13 Leviticus 34:63 libation 35:54,59 Libnah 34:81,83-84 Lietzmann, H. 32:3,7,9 Lifshitz, B. 32:41,43,45,46 literacy 35:102ff. Little, R. 32:27 Imik stamps 35:104f. Lofreda, S. 33:35,44-45;35:26 Loud, G. 31:46,48;32:102;33:86;34:34,118 Lucian 31:111 Lux, U. 32:32 Lydda 35:67 Lydia 32:43 Macalister, R.A.S. 32:68,72-76,78;33:6,14,

(Vol. XXXV,

67,120,125,128;34:45,78,85,94,95,101-102, 104,108-109,112-114,116,118,121-125,127,132; 35:56,58.73 Maccabee 32:29;33:102;34:55,101,108,116,119; 35:4,28 McCown, C.C. 31:51;33:15;34:50 Madeba 32:27-29;33:31 magi 31:81,91 Magna Mater 31:74,87 mahhu, mahhutu 31:104,112-114,116,119,121 Maktesh 33:60 Malamat, A. 31:105,106,109,112,124;32:63,113,114; 33:30;35:65 Malik-Dagan 31:117 Mamre 32:19 Manasseh 31:30;32:113;33:60 Mari 31:101ff.;32:114;34:ff. archives 34:16-17 documents 34:19 Marinus of Neapolis 31:58,71 Marissa 33:18 martyr, martyrium 32:15,17,19,20,22;33:28 Masada 31:99;32:79;33:72;34:52;35:24,25,92,96 masonry, ashlar 34:113 masonry, cyclopean 34:127,129 masonry, Herodian 33:54 massebah. massebot 31:19,29;32:82,84,109,111,116; 34:67,122-123;35:34ft'. Matthias 35:89 mausoleum 32:1,3;35:6,17-20 Mazar, B. 31:27.30,31,49,51;33:23,24,31,95; 112 34:27,46,52,57-58,62,67,84;35:52,66,73,85-87,%, Mazur, B.D. 32:84,89 meal, funeral 32:6,15,17,19,22 Medad 31:124 mediator 31:103 Megiddo 31:3,7,30,46,48,50,51,55,56; 32:52,64,65,102;33:66ff.,101 ;34;12,34, 60,115,119;35:41,72,118 Meissner, B. 34:51;35:41 Meiron 35:2-5,8,17,24,31 Mejarkon 35:82 Mellaart, J. 33:3-5 Mendenhall, G.E. 31:102;32:115;33:30;34:2;35:96 menorah 35:27,30,31 mensa 32:15 mercenaries 31:11,14 Meremoth 31:11 Merneptah, Pharaoh 34:128;35:81,82,84 Merrhan 34:5 Mesad Hashavyahu 31:14 Mesannepada 34:4 Mesha, King 32:28,70 Micah 32:115;34:85 Milcah 32:113 Millo 33:67 mines, copper 35:56 miqwe 34:52 Mirzbaneh 33:8-10 Mishnah 33:47,50,55,60;34:52,57,64;35:25,92 Mithra and Mithraism 31:73 ff. Mizpah 31:29,51,53,56;34:46 mizbah hazzahab 34:61 Moab 32:29,70,115 Moabite stone 32:28 Molech 35:42 monarchy 31:123,124;32:48;34:63-64 divided 31:50,57;33:30,92;35:82 Moore, R.E. 34:90 Moorey, P.R.S. 33:31;34:68 Moresheth-Gath 34:85 mosaic 31:75-76,87,94-95;32:42 Moscati, S. 35:48 Moses 31:27,123;32:27,28;33:15-16;34:19;35:34,38,39 mudbrick 33:123f. muhhi7tum 34:20 Mukannishum 31:109

1972, 4)

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

Muller, V. 31:42 Munhata 33:10 Munsell Soil Color Charts 33:107,118;35:26 Muntzberg,D. 35:24 Mycene 32:77;33:13,15;34:52 Nabateans 32:29;34:40 Nabdeel 32:114 nabi" 34:20

Nablus 31:59,64,68;32:92,109 Nag Hammadi papyri 33:31 Nahal David 33:24;34:25,28 Nahal Hever 33:31;35:96 Nahal Mishmar 34:35,38-39 Nahariyah32:101 Nahor 32:113;34:13 names, Semitic 32:36;35:118 naoi 35:59

Naram-Sin34:4 Narmer34:39 nari 33:102ff. Nathan 31:124 Naveh, J. 33:45;34:26,32,53;35:99,109 naweh 34:17 nawi•m 34:16

Neapolis 31:58 Nebaioth 32:115 Mt. Nebo 31:29;32:27 Nebuchadnezzar31:13,18;32:48 necropolis32:7;33:34-35,45,58 Chalcolithic32:102 pagan 32:5,20 Silwan 33;31,43,44 Negeb 31:3-5,16,17,30,32;32:80,114;33:6,99,102; 34:23,39,79,81-84;35:90 Negev, A. 34:71,86,88,89,91 negga 34:65

Nemrud-Dagh31:80 Neolithic period 32:103;33:3;34:23;35:65,68,70,72,75 Neolithic revolution34:72 nephesh 33:15

Nerva-Trajan35:93

neter 34:54 Nethinim 31:16

New Testament 32:44;33:28,47;35:5,95 Nimrud ivory plaque 35:97,99 Nishalim 31:108 nomad 32:111;33:3;34:13,15-18;35:73 Noth, M. 31:123;32:111,113;34:47,60-61,74 nsb 35:34 n'sp 33:15

Nur-Sin 31:106,107 O'Callaghan,J. 35:95,96 offerings,burnt 31:19,21,25;34:124;35:59 funerary33:9;35:39,73 mortuary35:59 oil 31:14,15 presses 31:49 olive press 33:103,115;34:52 Olives, Mt. of 32:19 Omayyadperiod 33:51-53 Omri, House of 35:85 Onomasticonof Eusebius 34:78-79 Ophel 31:100;33:35,47,50;35:54 Ophir 35:85 Oppenheim,A.L. 31:104,105,116-118,120 Origen 31:78,94 31:123;32:113 Orlinsky, H.M. orthostat 32:51,52,53,57,61,68;34:102-103 ossilegium 33:2ff.;35:21 ossuaries 31:40;33:5ff.;34:25,37;35:72,92 Ostia 31:35,73ff. Ostiense 32:7,9,20 Ostraca 31:9,10,15,17,25;32:36,41 Arad 31:10,32;32:79 Aramaic 31:10;35:87,118 Eliashib 31:13,15,16,17,26 Hebrew31:16,26;35:100ff..118.122

137

Lachish 35:103 MesadHashavyahu32:79 Samaria 31:10;35:100 Tell Qasile 35:85 oven 31:43,45,47,50,52;33:115,125; 34:47,48,109,112,130 Pa'apu 34:84 palace 31:39;33:71,72,74-77,79,80,82,91,95;34:4,8,52 ceremonial33:75 Megiddo 33:70 Palmyra34:15 papyrus documents 35:96 Samaria 33:31 Wadi Murabba'at35:100 Zenon 35:88 PapyrusAnastasi 35:100 paradise story 34:7 parapet31:38 Parrot, A. 34:3,7 Parsees 33:5 Pashhur 31:11 Patriarchs31:102,105;32:111;33:15;34:12f.,20;35:52 stories 32:48 tribal system 34:19 Patristic 31:74,78,88,98 Paul 32:1,3,4,7,9,11,18-20,23,43,46 Pedersen,J. 32:111;34:65 perfume 34:51,61f. distilling 31:8 Perkins, J.W. 32:5,9 Perler, O. 31:94 Perrot,J. 32:102;33:10;34:23-25,37 Persia 31:80;32:65;33:5,55;34:108-109 Persian-Hellenisticperiod 32:48 Persian period 31:57;32:35,40;33:85; 34:81,86,88,112;35:86-88 Peter, St., bones 32:lff. Petra 31:39;35:48 Petrie, W.M.F. 31:42;33:12;34:33,71,78,79,81, 88,125;35:44 phallic emblems 34:129;35:36 Philippi 32:43 Philistia 32:80 Philistines32:76;33:12,95,101,102;34:83-85, 110,129-130;35:41,84-85 Phoenicia 31:103;33:18,31,45,46,58,75,95; 34:10,49,75-76;35:39,85 Photius 31:58 pilaster 32:60,61 pillar31:22,50,52,54;35:46 sacred 32:109 stone 31:55;32:82 Pinkas, Rabbi 35:92 plagues 34:59 Plato 31:102 pleroZ 32:42 pl7thos 32:42,44

Plutarch31:81,88 Polycarp,martyrdom32:20 populations,ancient 34:48,49 potter's wheel, basalt 34:129 pottery 31:47,50,66,70;32:34,35,36,39,41,47, 48,54,65,93,97,98,100,103;33:7,52,54; 33:67,68,70,77,78,84,91,92,95,96,103-105, 107,109-111,115,122,124,126,129; 34:12,23,26,30,32,55,60,71-73,85,90,110-111, 114,116,118,125,130;35:7,8,18,20-21,26, 54,68,81,83,85,94 Arab 32:36;35:27 bichrome 32:92;35:78 Byzantine31:72;32:36;35:27 Byzantine-Roman32:40 Chalcolithic35:70 Chalcolithic-EarlyEB 32:102 chronology33:61;34:71,78 Cretan 34:12 Cypriot32:92;33:106;34:104,106;35:77

138

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

EB 34:97 Early Roman 32:48 Greek 31:14;32:34;33:106;35:88

Hellenistic 31:70;32:34,75;33:60;34:112 Khirbet Kerak 32:55,56,69 LB 32:92,99;33:109;34:100,103f.,106,110 Late Helladic 32:107 making 35:72 MB 32:59,93,99ff.;34:97,99,103,122;35:75 Mycenean 32:52,74,92,107;34:75 Neolithic 35:68 Philistine 33:13,14,93,95;34:115,129;35:83 "pseudo-Nabatean" 33:55 Roman 32:36,39,75;35:27 Roman/Byzantine 35:26 Prausnitz, M. 33:58 Pre-Pottery Neolithic 35:68 Pritchard, J.B. 31:51,99;32:79,115;34:80;35:38,39, 48,59;35:123 Procopius of Gaza 31:58 prophecy 31:102,103,105,112,114,124;34:21 Akkadian 31:103 Israelite 31:123;34:21 prophet 31:28,57,102-105,107,112,117,120,121,123,124;

32:33;33:45;34:20

Asherah 31:103 cultic 31:116 false 31:38 Mari 33:30 prophetess 31:104,124 ecstatic 31:115 proseuche 32:43 prostitute, male cult 31:105,111 Proto-Urban period 33:6,7;34:34,39 psalms, thanksgiving 35:43 Ptolemaic period 35:88 Ptolemy 32:43,45 purification, ritual 34:63 Qamatum 31:115 Qarhoh 32:70 Qarqar, battle of 33:96 Qatna 32:113;34:10,12,20 Qedar 32:115 qetoreth 34:61 Qishti-Diritum 31:108 querns 31:50,53,55;33:125,131 Quirinius 32:19 Qumran 33:22,61 cave 7 35:95 Rabbeans 34:15 Rabshakeh 31:26 Rachel 35:40 ragintu 31:104 Raguel 32:114 Rahmani, L.Y. 33:1,10,18-20,22 Rahner, H. 31:73 Rainey, A.F.33:30;34:84;35:125 Rakkon 35:82 Ramat-Aviv 35:74 Ramat ha-Khayil 35:74,92,94 Ramat Rahel 31:7,9;33:20,88;35:116 Ramath-Negeb 31:17 rampart 32:61,63,75 earthen 32:60,62 glacis 32:63 Ramses II 35:41,79-81 Ramses III 33:90,93;34:5.83;35:83 Ramses VI 33:93 Ras el-'Ain 33:10 Ras Shamra 31:102;33:13 Rehoboam 31:9;33:92,95 Rehov Nisan-Beq 33:22 Reifenberg, A. 33:34,42,44 Reisner, G.A. 34:71-72 religion Canaanite 31:102 Mazdean 31:74

(Vol. XXXV,

mystery 31:73,78,87-88,97 Persian 31:74 primitive 35:49 Rephaim 32:116 Reshef 35:59 Reuel the Midianite 31:27 Reumah 32:113 Rhodian stamped jar handle 32:34 Ribar, J. 32:85 Rijil el-'Amid 31:68 Rimut-ilani 35:125 Rizpeh 33:11 Robinson, E. 34:77-78 Robinson's Arch 33:50,54,56 Romans 31:14;32:34,39,41,48:33:50-51,53,120,131;

34:35,52,90

Roman period 32:36,37;33:17,30,35,54;34:112 Roman-Byzantine period 33:40,42-43;34:66,91; 35:4,29,94 Roman empire 32:46 necropolises 32:5 Parentalis 32:18,20 procurators 35:28 residence 32:92 Rome 31 :73,75,80,84-85,97;32:17,19,20,22,42; 34:54,62;35:4,30,31.91 roof 31:38,40,42,50,52,54;33:93;34:29,46,106-107,109; 35:24,79,80 gabled 31:40;33:60 Ross, J.F. 31:33,56;34:46,84,94,127 Rothenberg, B. 33:28;34:33;35:62 Rowe, A. 32:94;34:125 royal administration 31:28;35:122f. Ruin of Shammai 35:3 Rujm el-Malfouf 33:30 sacrifice 31:26,113,117;32;109;33:126;34:53,123; 35:37,42,44,61,80 blood 34:124 child 34:49,50,120 Sagaratum 31:117,119 Sahab B 33:11 Saladin 32:30;33:102;34:77 Salih, M.M. 32:104 Samaria 31:9,11,28,52;33:54,61,88;34:72; 35:46,86,116 Samaritan 31:58;32:82;35:94-95 Samson 35:83 Samuel 31:47,123,124;35:40,41 sanctuary 31:25,30,82-85;32:43,103,108,116; 34:30,32,49,60;35:43,54,56 Amman 32:93,115 Arad 31:28,32;35:52,59 Beer-sheba 35:123ff. central 32:113,114;35:62 Ein Gedi 34:27,29 Gilgal 35:58 Israelite 35:52 movable desert 31:25 Mithraic 31:73 sangu-priest 31:120 sanitation 34:45,46,49,58,61,64,66 Sardinia 34:75 Sargon 34:5,41 Sargon II 35:86 Saul 31:30;32:44;33:11,16,79,95;34:81,85; 35:40,41 scarab 32:105;34:105;35:84,100 amethyst 32:94 Schick, C. 33:34,57 Schliemann, H. 34:75 Schneider, A.M. 31:61,62 Scott, R.B.Y. 33:31;35:24 scribes 31:10;35:101-107 scripts, alphabetic 35:98ff. sculpture 31:75,78;34:53 Assyrian 34:68

1972, 4)

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

Hellenistic 31:80 Scylax 35:87 Sdeh Dov 35:74,76 Sea Peoples 33:12-13,93;34:75,128,129;35:82-84 seals Ammonite 35:103 Aramaic 35:103 Babylonianstamp 35:105 cylinder 31:121;32:105;35:125 Hebrew 31:15;35:87,103ff. impressions35:100 Moabite 35:105 private 31:15 Roman 32:37 scarab 35:78 Sebastian, St. 32:3-4,6-8,17-19,22-24 Sebastios 31:91 Second Revolt 34:35,39 Sefire 35:39,48 Seger, J.D. 33:123;34:94-95 Seleucid 34:119;35:88-89 Seleucid-Romanperiod 34:5 Sellers, O.R. 32:46,47;33:61 Sellin, E. 31:46;32:82,89,109;35:49 semi-nomads31:42;32:111,114,116;35:70,74,75,76 Sennacherib34:80-81;35:86;35:114 Seti I 35:41 Severus, Septimius 33:51 sewers 34:43,44 Shaddai 34:13 shaft-tombs 35:74 Shakka 31:117 Shamash 31:107,108;34:5,9 Shammai 35:3-4 Shamshi-Adad34:9-12 Sharon, D. 34:86 Sharon Plain 33:101:35:95 Shebna 33:42,45 Shechem 31:27,33,39,53,55,56,58,63,64,70,99; 32:26,47,52,82,85,92,99,102,103,107,109,111; 33:60,113;34:46,60;35:39,50,51,63 Sheikh Ibreiq 33:22 shekel, Tyrian 33:54 Shelibum 31:111;115 Sheol 33:15-17;35:18,20 Shephelah 33:97-99,101-104,108,110,116,118,128,131; 34:76,78-85;35:86 Shibtu31:108,111,114,118;34:8,12 Shiloh31:25,48;32:111 Shimeon Bar-Kokhba35:%96 shipping, Roman 35:91 Shipti-Ba'lu34:83-84 Shipton, G.M. 31:51;34:51 Shishak 31:7,9,31,32;33:88,95,125;34:111,117; 35:41,112f. shrine 31:109;32:5,111,112 Ghassulian 34:26 vulture 33:4 Shusharra34:10 Sicily 32:42;34:75 Sidon 35:87,88 Sidqia 35:86 Sihon 32:28 Silas 32:44 silo 31:40,42,43,49,52,53;33:115;34:86,108,112,126; 35:79,118 Siloam 33:35 silver 34:8;35:44 Silwan 33:34,39,58 Simeon, territoryof 31:17 Simon 35:89 Simon Peter 35:91 Simon the Tanner 35:91 Sinai 31:35;33:28,31,99,101;34:23,33,88,124; 35:34,38 Sippar 31:105,107,123;34:15 skeleton, human 32:39;33:90,116;34:49

skulls, Jericho 33:3 slaves and slavery 31:80-83,87-89;33:30 Smith, G.A. 33:102;34:78 Smith, R.H. 34:49,64;35:27 soaps 34:55 Soden, W. von 31:105,112,117 Sokoh34:81 Sol Invictus 31:76,88-89 Solomon 31:5,9,24,26,28,32;32:28,63,69,76; 33:30,66-68,70-72,75,84-86,90-93,95-%; 34:8,60,101,125,130;35:52,85-86 Solomonic period 32:75;33:69:34:112,117,130 Somaliland 34:58 Sorek valley 33:108;34:81,84;35:67

s&teria 32:44 32:44 sozo Spain 32:42;33:24;34:75

Spuhler, E.H. 31:69 stables 33:67,75,76,82,86,% Megiddo 33:68-72,74-75;35:123 Stager, L.E. 34:81,86,95 standing stones see massb5ah Stekelis, M. 33:20;35:68 stele 32:53;33:95;35:40,43,46 Assyrian35:41,42,44 Bar-Hadad35:42 commemorative35:41,42 funerary,Egyptian 35:45 Israelite 35:52,99 Melqart 35:45 Merneptah35:82 Punic commemorative35:61 votive 35:42-44 vultures 35:38 Zakir 31:103 Stobi 32:45 Stockton, E.D. 33:31;35:56,59,61 stone benches, Gezer 34:115 stone commemorative35:41,50 cultic 35:44,50,52 Ezer 31:29 legal 35:50,51 Moabite 31:10 petition 35:44,46,56,61 storage pit 32:58;34:86-88 store bin 31:53 store rooms 31:50;32:35;35:122ff. Succoth 31:56 Sukenik, E.L. 34:25;35:9,31,66,72 Sumerian King List 34:4 Sumerians32:79 Sumu-Yamam34:9,11 sundials 33:52 Susiya 35:31 Sutu 34:15 suzerain-vassalrelationships34:8 Swauger,J.L. 31:34;32:48;33:31 Synagogue32:42-45,46;33:16;35:4-17,28-30 basilica 35:16-17,31 Kh. Shema' 35:3 Meiron 35:31 Galilean 35:9-10,26,30 Syria 31:21,33;32:43,46;34:2,8-9,12-13,15,123; 35:39,40,45,48,70,75-76,78-79,87-88 tabernacle31:21,25 Tabitha 35:91 table, libation 32:61 tables, offering 31:20-21 tablets Abu Salabikh 35:110 Assyrian 34:20 Fara 35:110 Mari 34:7ff. Nuzi 33:29 Ta'anach 31:13 tabn

34:109-111

139

140

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

Tadmor. H. 34:15:35:41 Talmud 33:27.47:34:52:35:4.21,28.29,92 Talmudic period 34:57 tamuitu texts 31:121 Tananir 32:82.84.90.92.93.99.101.103.107 Tanhum. Rabbi 35:92 Tannit 35:61 Tarshish 35:87 Tarsus 35:92 tauroctonos 31:76.89-90.94 r•bibrtum 34:18 Teima 32:116 Tekoa. Galilean 35:5 Tel Arad 31:30:34:82.83 Tel Aviv 31:49:33:5:35:66,68-69.72.74-75,77,83,89-90. 94-95 Tel Beer-sheba 35:111 Tel Dan 32:62.63 Tel Kisan 34:92 Tel Mallbata 35:112 Tel Negilah 34:85 Tel *ippor 34:85 Tell Abu Matar 32:102 Tell Abu Zeitun 35:86.87 Tell Anafa 34:119 Tell Arad 31:41 Tell Asmar 32:111:34:53 Tell Barukh 35:92.94 Tell Belt Mirsim 31:9,43.44:32:84;33:80;34:44,48,60, 83-84:35:116 Tell Born't 34:82.83.85 Tell ed-Duweir 34:79-80 Tell ej-Judeideh 34:85 Tell el-'Ajjul 33:8 Tell el-Amarna 34:83 tablet 34:79 Tell el-Fakhar 33:29 Tell el Far'ah 31:41;34:46 Tell el-Fd1l 33:8.61:34:54 Tell el-Hesi 33:63:34:66.71.76-79.81,82.84,85-86,95 Tell el-Milh 31:14.31.32:35:112 Tell el -Quneitirah 34:82,83 Tell en-Nasbeh 31:7.51,56;33:14-15,18:34:46,115 Tell er-Ras 31:33,59,61-64,70.72;32:92 Tell er-Rimah 34:10 Tell er-Rumeileh 31:46 Tell er-Rumeith 33:61 Tell es-Slfi 34:80.81.83-84 Tell es- Sa'idiyeh 31:39,51,52.56;34:48 Tell esh-Shari'ah 34:84 Tell Fara' 33:12,13.15.18 Tell Gat 34:81,87 Tell Grisa 35!72,74-75,77 Tell Halaf 35:61,70 Tell Hariri 31:102:34:2,5 Tell Hesban 32:26 Tell Jemmeh 34:66,88 Tell Kudadi 35:66,94 Tell Meshash 31:31,32 Tell Muleihah 34:82,83.85 Tell Nagila 31:43,44 Tell Qasile 31:39.49,51,56;33:79,95;34:84; 35:66.83-87,89,92 Tell Sandahannah 34:78,83 Tell Shari'ah 34:85 Tell Sheikh Abmed el-'Areini 34:80,81-83,87 Tell Ta'annek (Taanach) 31:33,45,46;33:61;

34:60;35:55,56,72 Tell Tainat 31:21.22 Tell Zeror 33:13 Teleilat el-Ghassul 31:41;34:23-24,26,31,33,39 tele3 32:42

Teluliyot Batashi 35:67

temple 31:19,21,25,26,28,30,50,58,83,109,111,116, 118-121;32:46,48,52,53,107;33:54,66,71;34:5,

29-30,32-33,38,57,123;35:45-47,59,72,83-84,88 Ai 31:3

(Vol. XXXV,

Amman 32:84,104,107-109,111 Arad 31:8.17.18.21,22,24;35:126f.

Ba'al 35:46 Ba'al-berith32:84:35:50

courtyard 32:109,111 Dagan 31:117;34:3,5,20

Ein-Gedi 31:3;34:26-27,34-35,37.39 El-berith 32:103

Gerizim 32:111

Hadrian 31:67 Hazor 35:56 Horon 35:86 Ishtar 34:3 Israelite 31:3.18,27 Jerusalem 31:11.16,21.22.24;32:42;33:47,50,52-53,56: 34:63:35:50,63,86

Karnak 34:127

Megiddo 31:3

Moabite 31:21 Nahariyah 32:101 Nippur 32:113 Phoenician 31:22 Samaritan 31:71 Shechem 33:31

Solomon 31:21,22-23,25,27,30;35:46 Tananir 32:89 Zeus 31:59,71,72 tent shrine 31:106 Terqa 31:113-121.123;34:9,20 terra sigillata 34:119;35:27 Tertullian 31:99 tesserae 32:91;34:90,91;35:11

tetragrammaton35:104

Theodore, Bishop 32:29 Theodotus 32:46

Thera 33:132 Thomas, D.W. 32:80 Thomson, E.H. 34:42 Thompson,J.K. 35:2-3,6,10,13,19-20 threshingfloor 31:106;32:34 Thutmosis III 34:5,103,105,127

Thutmosis IV 34:103 Tiberias 32:44;33:8

Tiglath-pileser III 32:54;33:96;34:112,118;35:85

Tigris 34:10,15 Timna 35:56,62

Tirzah 31:41,42,52,53,56;34:46;35:52 tithes 31:16 Titus 31:100 Tjekke" 33:13

Tobit 34:55 Tolad 35:122f. tombs31:39;33:119;34:103-104;35:9,17-18,20,26,73 Aegean 33:12,15 arcosolium35:17,19 Chalcolithic33:17;35:73 Dagger 33:8 First Dynasty, Egypt 31:4 Hellenistic 33:20 Hellenistic-Roman33:18 Hillel 35:3 Iron age 33:20,22,45 Jason33:18,19 Jesus 32:19;33:31 Jewish 33:17ff. LB II 33:13 Mahanayim33:21 MB I shaft 33:10 monolithic 33:39-42,45 monumental33:45,46 of the Kings 35:18 of the Pharaoh's Daughter 33:40,43,44 of the Royal Steward 33:40,42,45 Shammai 35:1 Silwan 33:38,45,46 tools 33:95,102,115 Toombs, L. 31:64;33:60;34:69

1972, 4)

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

topography33:50,99,102;34:27 tower 32:35;33:75,95;34:103 gate 32:60 Gezer 34:97,99,100 town 34:16 Philistine 34:85 plan 32:51;35:23,118f. Toynbee, J. 32:5,9 Trajan32:29;35:92-93 Transjordan32:27,29,80,104,115,116; 33:101;34:39,67;35:48,56 treaty 35:38,58 making 34:17 peace 34:18 tribe 32:111-114,116;35:38 chiefs 34:17 Arabic confederacy32:115 Israelite 34:13,18 structure, Israelite 32:112;34:15 triclia 32:4.5,9,18 Trojan War 34:74 Troy 34:75,76;35:78 Tukulti-NinurtaI 34:5 tunnel 31:69:32:59,65;34:106-107 Hezekiah's32:74,77 Tura-Dagan31:119 Tuttul 31:109,112;34:9 TyropoeanValley 33:50 Ubrabu 34:15 Ugarit31:102;33:13,30;34:5,12,20,58;35:38,42,44 epic 35:59 ulam 31:21,22 Umm el-'Ammed 35:26 Umm Laqis 34:77-79 Umma 35:37 Ur-Nammu32:79;34:4 Ur, Third Dynasty 32:113 Urartu 33:46 urbanization31:73,83,87,92,94,97;35:72 Uruk 31:103;34:15 Utica34:75 Uzziah 31:11;33:27 Valerian 32:7 Van. Armenia 33:46 Vatican32:2ff. Vattioni,F. 35:103ff. Vaux, R. de 31:51,52,56,59;33:22;34:23,46-47,50,61, 65,70,74,76,92;35:42.52 Venus Genetrix 31:87 Vermaseren,M.J.31:78-80,82-83,85,87,89,91,93,97,99 Vespasian35:91-92 Via Appia 32:3,5,19,23 Via Ostiense 32:2 Via Maris33:102 viaduct33:50,56-57 ViriClarissimi31:80 Vitruvius34:90 Volney34:78 wadi33:106,109,111 33:61 Daliyeqh el-Heki 34:77,83 Hesban 32:31 Meiron35:3 Murabba'at35:100 Qubeibeh 34:83 Rabah35:67,69,70 Waqqas32:64 Yasul33:20 el-Waleh32:30 wall 31:38,43,50,68;32:5,6,30,65,66,68, 93,94,104,105;33:95;35:49 brick32:61;33:68 casemate31:5-7,9,23,26,33;32:49,58,62,64,69, 72;33:67-69,72,79,80,82-84,87,95; 34:108,110,112-114,118;35:89,116f. Chalcolithic32:76 city 31:39;32:75,77;33:86,115;34:44,127;

141

35:41,56 EB I 32:76 Ein Gedi 34:28 enclosure31:64,66,68;32:37-39,77 Hadrianic31:75 HerodAgrippa31:100 Herodian33:52.54 Jerusalem33:50 MB II 33:119-120 mud-brick31:44,48,56,57;32:88;34:101,116; 35:77-79,83,86 offsets/insets33:68-76,79,80,82-88,90,91,96;35:116f. outerwall,Gezer32:77;33:118 paintings33:3-4;34:31,37 solid 31:7,23;32:56-58;33:82 Solomonic32:57;33:87 stone 31:3,54,69;32:35 Sukenik-Mayer31:100 ThirdJerusalem31:100 Turkish33:51 Warren,C. 33:34,47,50,57 water 32:65-68,73,77,78 canals 32:51 channels32:33,34,40;35:119f. cisterns33:35 storage31:40,42;33:125;35:24 supply31:4;33:47,99,116 system,Beer-sheba35:115 system,Gezer32:64,67,71,74-78 system,Gibeon32:64,74 system,Hazor32:63,65,71,74,75 system,Jerusalem32:74 system,Megiddo32:63,64,70,74;33:72,90,93 system,underground31:53 tunnel 31:6;32:76-78;33:115,119,132 Gibeon32:77 Hazor35:96 Megiddo32:77;33:90 weapon33:102,129 manufacture33:115 weights31:16;33:31,55,57,78;35:106 Weill, R. 33:46 Welter,G. 32:82-84,89,91,93,94,100-111 Wen-Amon31:103,123 Wenner-GrenFoundation31:2 Wheeler-KenyonMethod35:5 whorls,ivoryspindle33:78 wine34:12 press31:54;33:103,115;35:89,94 vat 34:130 Witheridge,W.N. 34:61 Worrell,J.E. 34:69,81,95 Wright,G.E. 31:46,51,54,63,99;32:26,75,84,104,109,113; 33:45,61,63,71;34:39,46,62,66,67,72,85,92.94, 95,104,112,116;35:2,15,51,52,57,63,70 Wright,G.R.H. 32:84,85,104,107,111;33:31 Wright,R.B. 34:93,95,102,107 Yabni-Ilu34:83 Yadin,Y. 31:7,33,50,55,99;32:49,57,64,71,72,75, 77-79;33:19,31,42,66;34:39,52,56-57,112-113,115-116, 118-119;35:50,55,56,59-61,83,96,100,117 Yafa35:9 Yagid-Lim34:9,11 Yahdun-Lim31:112;34:9-12 Yahruru34:15 yahu 34:11 Yamhad,Yamkhad34:10,12 Yaminite31:117;34:15-16 Yamnia35:86 Yannai,Y. 32:50 Yarihu34:15 Yarim-Lim34:9-10,20,123 Yarkon34:84;35:68-69,85-86,89-90,94-95 rivervalley33:108 Yarmuk35:68 Yashi-Lim34:9 Yasmah-Adad34:10-13

142

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

Yavneh Yam 32:79;35:67,86 Yeivin, S. 31:16;33:46;34:39,53,81,87 Zacharias 32:44 Zalmaqum 34:13 Zamzummim 32:116 Zarethan 31:51;34:48 Zenol Emperor 31:61 Zerubbabel 35:86 Zeus head 31:65 Zeus Hypsistos 31:58

(Vol. XXXV,

Zimreda 34:83-84 Zimri 33:96 Zimri-lim 31:107-109,111,113-115,117,119,124; 34:5,7-12,15,18 Zinjirli 33:75,40 Zodiac 32:44 Zorah 34:84 Zosus 32:29 Zuzim 32:116

IV. INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS ART AND SCULPTURE M ari ladies .............................. 31:101 Wall painting, Catal Hilylik..................33:4 shrine 33:5 Catal ... Polychrome wallpainting, Hiiyiik 34:16 Warrior with prisoner, Mari ................. ..........34:41 Achzib Clay figure, woman bathing, 34:105 Objects from Cave I, Gezer ................. Faience cylinder seals ......................34:109 Limestone incense altar, Gezer ..............34:109 35:119 Stone altar, Beer-sheba .................... CHURCHES AND CHURCH ART St. Sebastian, Rome .......................32:8 Triclia, St. Sebastian's.........................32:1 Graffiti wall, St. Peter's .....................32:10 Graffiti, St. Sebastian's ....................32:12 Triclia, St. Sebastian's ......................32:14 Mosaic, St. Peter's .........................32:18 Walkway, St. Peter's .......................32:20 Aedicula, Rome ..........................32:21 32:33 Byzantine church, Heshbon ................. Byzantine mosaic floor, Heshbon .............32:35 Wall plaster, Christian Church, Hesbon .......32:40 COINS Coin minted at Neapolis ....................31:59 Engraving, coin ...........................

31:60

CULT OBJECT Zeus-like figure, Tell er Ras ................. 31:65 34:1 Statue of Ur-Nina (Ur-Nanshe) ............... ........ of 35:45 Typology of the form standing stones 35:47 Obeliskoid masseba, Byblos ................. Miniature massebot, Taanach ............... 35:55 35:69 Prehistoric Venus of Tel Aviv ................ Hathor figurine, Jaffa ......................35:81 Drawing. Lion's skull, Jaffa excavation ........35:84 Cult objects, Beer-sheba ................... 35:124 GENERAL VIEWS OF SITES AND TELLS Arad .....................................31:4 Mt. Gerizim ..............................31:60 Ostia Antica ..............................31:82 31:118 Terqa (modern Asharah) ................... Tell Hesban ................................32:1 Aerial view of Hazor ........................ 32:55 Mt. Gerizim ..............................32:81 33:65, 83, 89 Megiddo ........................... Tell Gezer ................................33:97 Kiln Valley ..............................33:111 Rock-terrace on which the temple was constructed, Ein Ged~ ...............................34:25 Tell el-Hesi ..............................34:69 Tell Quneitirah ..........................34:82 Caesarea Maritima ........................34:89 Sdeh Dov ................................35:76 Tel Beer-Sheba ...........................35:112

HOUSES Shechem, reconstructed house ............... 31:37 Reconstruction of home, Old Testament times.. 31:39 MB house, Tell Beit Mirsim .................31:43 31:44 House, Tell Beit Mirsim ..................... MB IIIB house, Taanach .................... 31:45 of 31:47 houses, Ground-plan Megiddo ............. Plan of a house from about 900 B.C., Hazor .... 31:49 Ground-plan of house, Megiddo ..............31:51 Plan of "four-room" house, Shechem .........31:53 "Four-room" style house, Hazor.............31:55 INSCRIPTIONS, PAPYRI, WRITING Ostracon, Arad .............................31:1 31:9 Arad, stoneseal............................ Arad, Hebrew ostracon .....................31:14 35:106 Arad, the Eliashib seals ..............31:15, 31:17 Arad, Hebrew ostracon..................... 31:29 Arad, Hebrew ostraca er-Ras ................31:70 Greek inscription, Tell....................... 31: 104 Inscribed liver models ..................... 32:40 Latin impression, Heshbon ................. Inscription in monolithic tomb, Silwan ........33:44 33:55 Jerusalem ............... Inscription Qorban, Hebrew inscription, "Robinson's Arch" .......33:56 33:92 Mason's mark, Megiddo Shibtu to Zimri-Lim ..34:19 Cuneiform message from .................... Mosaic inscription, Caesarea ................ 34:91 Ostracon, Tell Abu Zeitun .................. 35:87 Headstone, Jewish cemetery, Jaffa ............35:92 Ivory plaque, Nimrud .......................35:97 Ostraca, Samaria ..........................35:99 Lachish Letter ..............................35:102 Judean Imlk jar-handles ................... 35:105 Inscribed jug, Jerusalem ................... 35:107 Inscribed arrow or javelin heads, near Bethlehem ..............................35:109 Votive cylinder seal, Beer-sheba ............. 35:125 Inscribed Krater, Beer-sheba ...............35:126 PLANS, MAPS AND SKETCHES Model of Arad citadel ....................... Plan, Arad's Solomonic temple ...............31:18 Plan, Arad's Temple .......................31:23 Model, Arad's temple ...................... Map, Negeb region, El age .................. Plan, the buildings, Tell er-Ras ...............31:71 Map, Tigris-Euphrates valley ...............31:115 Plan, Zimri-lim's palace, Mari ..............31:122 Plan, St. Sebastian's Church .................. Reconstruction, St. Sebastian's ................ Plan, necropolis, St. Peter's .................. Contour map, Tell Hesban .................. Plan, water system Gezer ................... Section, water system, Gezer ................. Plan, Tananir sanctuary ....................32:83

31:8 31:26 31:31

32:4 32:6 32:16 32:31 32:72 32:73

1972, 4)

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

Section, sanctuary remains, Tananir ..........32:86 Plan, sanctuary remains, Tananir .............32:87 Plan, Amman temple ......................32:106 Plan (Welter), Gerizim temple ..............32:108 32:110 Interpretation of Temenos 4, Shechem ....... Plan, palace and temple, Gimil-Sin Eshnunna .............................32:112 33:36 Plan, gabled ceiling tomb, Silwan ............. 33:49 Plan, temple area, Jerusalem ................. Plan, Megiddo ............................33:70 Plan, walls, northern palace, Megiddo ......... 33:73 33:74 Plan, palace of Zinjirli, Megiddo ............. Plan, palace and casemates, Megiddo ......... 33:79 33:85 Complex of city gates, Megiddo .............. Megiddo gates...........................33:87 33:91 Plan, gallery, Megiddo ...................... 33:100 Physiographic provinces of Israel ............ 34:3 Map, Near East in Mari period ................ Plan, Zimri-Lim's palace, Mari ................ 34:6 Gedi .................... 34:24 Ein Map, temple 34:26 Ground-plan of temple, Ein Gedi ............. Plan, entrance to the lateral chamber, Ein Gedi. 34:30 Map, Lachish-Eglon .......................34:77 Plan, Lachish ............................. 34:80 Plan, Gezer ............................... 34:96 Section of Field I, Gezer .................... 34:98 Plan Solomonic Gate, Gezer ................34:114 Plan, "Cyclopean Complex," Gezer..........34:128 Plan, Courtyard house, Gezer ...............34:130 Correlation of strata, Gezer ................. 34:132 Map, Meiron and Khirbet Shema' .............35:3 Plan, Khirbet Shema' ................... ...35:6 Plan, synagogue, Khirbet Shema'............ 35:10 Reconstruction, synagogue, Khirbet Shema'.... 35:13 Cistern, Khirbet Shema' ....................35:20 Plan, ritual bath, Khirbet Shema' . ........... 35:23 35:67 Archaeological sites, Tel Aviv area ............ Sketch, Alexander Janneus defense line ........ 35:90 Section. Iron Age Fortifications, Beer-sheba...35:113 Israelite Beer-sheba Plan, ..............35:120 city, POTTERY AND ARTIFACTS Arad, 10th cent. pottery ....................31:12 Arad, burnished bowl ................ .....31:13 Amethyst scarab, copper needle, alabaster vase, Tananir ........................32:94 Platter bowl, Tananir ......................32:97 Rim fragment, basalt bowl, Tananir .........32:102 Contents of pocket-book, Megiddo............ 33:77 Bronze weights, Megiddo ................... 33:78 Ceramic analysis: photomicrograph of Hellenistic pottery .....................33:105 33:108 Tangential ceramic section ................. Equatorial section of a Late Bronze 33:109 body sherd ............................ Ceramic section, Late Bronze body sherd .............................. ..33:110 Ceramic section, Iron I jug handle ........... 33:112 Cut section, Early Bronze potsherd ..........33:112 Ceramic sections, Iron I rim sherd ...........33:113 34:4 Lapis lazuli bead, Mari ..................... Alabaster vessel, Ein Gedi ................... 34:33 Hoard from Nahal Mishmar ................. 34:35 "Wand" or "standard," Nahal Mishmar ...............................34:36 "Crown" from the hoard of Nahal Mishmar ...............................34:38 .......... .......34:54 Pottery plate, Tell of a pot and lid ............ 34:56 Composite picture el-Fl Lid, Hazor .............................. 34:57 from the Gezer ...............34:117 Objects gate, Corner of "basin", Gezer .................. 34:122 Objects from Northwest House, Gezer ................................. 34:131 35:27 Pottery from Khirbet Shema' ................ Butter churns, ancient and modern ...........35:71 35:73 "Cup-and-saucer" lamp, Tel Aviv............

143

Samaritan amulet, Tell Barukh ..............35:94 Vessels, Beer-sheba .......................35:123 PUBLIC WORKS AND BUILDINGS Chamber, Mari ...........................31:110 Water System, Hazor .......................32:49 Water system, Hazor .......................32:64 Water system, Hazor .......................32:67 Stone-cut vat, Tananir ......................32:89 Building A, Tananir ........................32:91 Building B, Tananir ........................32:95 Building B, Tananir ........................32:96 Silo B, Tananir ............................32:98 32:100 Building A and bedrock, Tananir............ Main street, Silwan ........................33:41 33:51 Omayyad building, Jerusalem ................ 33:52 Byzantine building, Jerusalem ............... "Robinson's Arch," Jerusalem ............... 33:57 "Robinson's Arch," Jerusalem ............... 33:58 Herodian aqueduct, Jerusalem ............... 33:59 Foundation of a square pillar, Megiddo .............................. 33:76 Staircase beneath city gates, Megiddo ......... 33:94 Stepped street surfaces, Gezer ..............33:121 Multi-color wall-painting. Old 34:7 Babylonian palace ........................ Earthen altar. Pre-Sargonic palace, M ari ................................... 34:14 Stone-lined, stone-topped sewer, Jericho ................................. 34:43 Stone-lined drain, Bethel ...... 34:44 ............. Persian pit/granary, Tell el-Hesi ..............34:87 Plastered granary, Gezer ................. 34:126 Entry to ritual bath, Khirbet Shema' ..........35:22 Hazor, masseba .......................... 35:49 Steps to water system, Beer-sheba ...........35:115 35:122 Royal stores, Beer-sheba ................... SANCTUARIES AND SANCTUARY ART Arad, Holy of Holies ........................ 31:20 Arad, altar for burnt offerings ...............31:21 Hadrian temple, Tell er-Ras .................31:62 Temple platform, Tell er-Ras ................31:67 Mithraeum of Painted Walls ................. 31:75 Mithraeum of Felicissimus .................. 31:77 Mithraeum of Seven Doors .................. 31:79 Mithraeum of Animals ..................... 31:84 Mithraeum of Serpents ..................... 31:86 Mithraeum of Planta Pedis .................. 31:90 Hidden entry, Mithraeum of Fructosus .............................. 31:92 Altar in Mithraeum .......................31:96 Floor mosaic, Mithraeum of Seven Doors.................... .............31:98 Amman temple ...........................32:105 Stone pedestal, Amman temple .............32:107 High Place, Gezer ........................33:128 Temple, Ein Gedi ..........................34:27 Sanctuary, Ein Gedi ........................34:28 Round base in the altar, Ein Gedi ............. 34:29 34:31 Courtyard of temple. Ein Gedi ............... Built outlet, channel, Ein Gedi ............... 34:32 34:120 High place, Gezer ........................ Menorah, carnelian gem, Khirbet Shema' ................................35:29 35:33 Byblos, Obelisk Temple ..................... Temple with Masseba, Shechem .............35:51 Israelite sanctuary, Arad ................... 35:53 Jerusalem ...............................35:54 Gezer.................................35:57 Hazor, niche of LB Shrine ................... 35:60 TOMBS AND BURIALS Jewish ossuary, Jerusalem ................... Chamber, Bab edh-Dhra' ....................33:7 Charnel house, Bab edh-Dhra' ................ Shaft tomb, Jebel Qa'aqir ...................

33:1 33:8 33:9

144

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Terra-cotta Mycenean larnax, Crete...........33:12 Gezer tombs ............................. Skulls, Bar-Kokhba Cave ................... Tomb, Romema Quarter, Jerusalem ..........33:20 Rehov Nisan-Beq, Jerusalem ................. Catacomb, Beth She'arim ................... Wooden coffin, Nahal David ................. Charnel-house, St. Catherine's ............... Burial chambers, Silwan ................33:33 Double resting-place with "pillows, Silwan ................................ Right-angled cornice, Silwan ................ Burial-chamber, Silwan .....................33:40 Monolithic tomb, Silwan ................... Pot burial, Megiddo ........................34:50 Burial, Gezer ............................34:107 Mausoleum, Khirbet Shema' ................. Tombs, Khirbet Shema' .................... MBI tomb ................................35:74 Catacomb courtyard, Tell Barukh ............35:93

33:14 33:19 33:21 33:23 33:25 33:28 33:37 33:39 33:43 35:1 35:19

WALLS AND GATES 31:5 Arad, casemate wall ........................ Arad, zig-zag wall ...........................31:6 Persian wall, Heshbon ......................32:37 32:38 Ramp and wall, Heshbon ................... 32:57 Casemate, solid wall, Hazor ................. ...........32:60 Tower, Hazor ................ Circular wall, Tananir ......................32:89 Herodian wall, Jerusalem ................... 33:53 Casemates, Megiddo .......................33:81 Casemate, Megiddo .......................33:82 Solomonic gate, Megiddo ................... 33:86 LB wall, Gezer ........................... 33:117

(Vol. XXXV,

33:119 Glacis stratification, Gezer ................. 34:93 Solomonic Gate, Gezer ..................... 34:102 MB IIC gate, Gezer .................... Stone jambs, Rameses Gate, Jaffa ............35:80 . 35:115, 116 City walls, Beer-sheba ............... Gateway, street, water channels, 35:118 Beer-sheba ............................ MISCELLANEOUS Cisterns, Tell 32:40 Christian boneer-Ras........................31:69 doll, Heshbon ................ 32:54 Chart, stratification at Hazor ................ Bedrock spur, terra rossa blanket, Tananir ................................32:88 Outcrop of soil profile developed, Aijalon valley ..........................33:103 Photomicrograph of Middle Eocene chalk ..................................33:104 Silicified foraminiferal tests ................33:104 Section, depression-fill, Gezer ...............33:122 Balk section brick construction, ................ 33:123 Gezer............... Megascopic photo of High Place sediments, Gezer .......................33:127 Grain size scales for sediments ..............33:130 Chert blade assembly, Gezer ................33:131 33:131 Basalt saddle quern, Gezer ................. Cut section of pumice fragment, 33:132 Gezer ................................. ....... ..34:21 Mold for cakes, Mari .......... Rock with seven "cup marks," 34:34 Ein Gedi ............................... 34:47 Iron age oven. Megiddo ..................... Shema' eagle ...............................35:4

(Note: An index of biblical passages will appear in the next issue.)

New Cumulative Index for BA A New Cumulative Subject Index for the first thirty volumes of the BA has just come from the press. Edited by John R. McRay, it combines the general indices for the years 1938-67 into one handy BA-sized pamphlet. (It does not include authors, titles, or illustrations.) The price is only $1.25 postpaid. Send your order with payment to The American Schools of Oriental Research, 126 Inman Street, Cambridge, Mass. 02139.