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A Publicationof the AmericanSchools of OrientalResearch

Volume48 Number 2

st June1985

AMERICAN

SCHOOLS OF

ORIENTAL RESEARCH

PA 19104 (215)222-4643 ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE,ASOR,4243 SPRUCESTREET,PHILADELPHIA,

JamesA. Sauer,President Eric M. Meyers,First Vice Presidentfor Publications William G. Dever, Second Vice President for Archaeological Policy GeorgeM. Landes,Secretary Charles U. Harris,Treasurer ElizabethB. Moynihan, Chairmanof the Boardof Trustees Mitchell S. Rothman,Administrative Director SusanWing, Bookkeeper Annette Seidenglanz,Production Manager,ASOR Newsletter

ASORNewsletter; JamesA. Sauer,Editor BiblicalArchaeologist;Eric M. Meyers, Editor Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research;WalterE. Rast, Editor Journalof Cuneiform Studies;Erle Leichty,Editor

W.E AlbrightInstitute of ArchaeologicalResearch(AIAR). P. O. Box 19096, 91 190 JerusalemIsrael. SeymourGitin, Director JosephA. Callaway,President JoyUngerleider-Mayerson,First Vice President Carol Meyers,Second VicePresident EdgarKrentz,Secretary-Treasurer BaghdadCommittee for the Baghdad School. McGuireGibson, Chairman Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, 1155East 58th Street,Chicago, IL60637. American Center of Oriental Research (ACOR). P. O. Box 2470, JebelAmman, Amman Jordan. David W.McCreery,Director Gough W Thompson, Jr.,President LawrenceT. Geraty,Vice President Nancy Lapp,Secretary Anne Cabot Ogilvy, Treasurer

Biblical

OV S

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CyprusAmericanArchaeological ResearchInstitute (CAARI). 41 KingPaul Street, Nicosia Cyprus. StuartSwiny,Director CharlesU. Harris,President AndrewOliver,Jr.,Vice President Ellen Herscher,Secretary Norma Kershaw,Treasurer Damascus AdvisoryCommittee. GiorgioBuccellati, Chairman Center for MesopotamianStudies, University of California,405 Hilgard Avenue,LosAngeles, CA 90024.

Archaeologist

P.O. BOXH.M., DUKESTATION,DURHAM,NC 27706 (919)684-3075

Biblical Archaeologist (ISSN0006-0895)is published quarterly(March,June,September, December)by the American Schools of Oriental Research(ASOR),a nonprofit, nonsectarianeducational organization with administrativeoffices at 4243 Spruce Street, Philadelphia,PA 19104. Subscriptions.Annual subscriptionrates are $16 for individuals and $25 for institutions. There is a special annual rate of $14 for students and retirees.Subscriptionorders and correspondenceshould be sent to ASOR SubscriptionServices, Department BB,P.O.Box 3000, Denville, NJ 07834. Single issues are $6; these should be orderedfrom Eisenbrauns,P. O. Box 275, Winona Lake,IN 46590. Outside the U.S., U.S. possessions, and Canada,add $2 for annual subscriptions and $1 for single issues. Second-classpostagepaid at Philadelphia, PA 19104and additionaloffices. Postmaster:Send addresschangesto ASOR SubscriptionServices,Department BB, P.O.Box 3000, Denville, NJ 07834.

Editor Associate Editor ExecutiveEditor Assistant Editor Book Review Editor Art Director Layout AdvertisingDirector

EricM. Meyers LawrenceT Geraty MartinWilcox KarenS. Hoglund PeterB. Machinist LindaHuff West Side Studio KennethG. Hoglund

EditorialAssistants Melanie A. Arrowood Thomas Grey Nephi W.Bushman II Anne Hauerwas JuliaO'Brien StaceyFlur Paul Swain EditorialCommittee A. T Kraabel LloydR. Bailey BaruchLevine JamesFlanagan Carole Fontaine David W.McCreery VolkmarFritz Carol L.Meyers JackSasson SeymourGitin David M. Gunn JohnWilkinson Composition by LiberatedTypes,Ltd., Durham, NC. Printedby PBMGraphics, Inc., Raleigh,NC. Copyright? 1985 by the American Schools of Oriental Research.

Advertising.Correspondenceshould be addressedto the ASORPublications Office, P.O.Box H.M., Duke Station, Durham, NC 27706 (telephone:919-684-3075). Biblical Archaeologist is not responsible for errorsin copy preparedby the advertiser. The editor reservesthe right to refuse any ad. Ads for the sale of antiquities will not be accepted. EditorialCorrespondence.Article proposals, manuscripts,and editorial correspondence should be sent to the ASOR Publications Office, P.O.Box H.M., Duke Station, Durham, NC 27706. Unsolicited manuscriptsmust be accompaniedby a self-addressed,stampedenvelope.Foreign contributorsshould furnish international reply coupons. Manuscriptsmust conformto the format used in Biblical Archaeologist,with full bibliographicreferencesand a minimum of endnotes. See recent issues for examples of the properstyle. Manuscriptsmust also include appropriate illustrations and legends.Authors are responsiblefor obtainingpermission to use illustrations.

Frontcover:A silver coin of the province of Judeadating to the Persianperiod. Courtesyof PictorialArchive.Back cover:Detail of the recently published paleo-HebrewLeviticus Scroll.

Biblical Archaeolo A Publication of the American Schools of Oriental Research

Volume 48 Number 2

WhoHid the Dead SeaScrolls? NormanGolb

June 1985

68

This paperoffers a thought-provokingchallenge to the

scholarlyconsensusthatthe scrollswerewrittenat Qumran by the Jewish sect of the Essenes.

AncientScribesandScriptsandthe CluesTheyLeave 83 Richard Simon Hanson The paleographerwho worked on the just-published paleo-HebrewLeviticus Scroll presents the basic proceduresfor determining the date of ancient writing.

Page 68

The Book of Daniel and the Origin of the Qumran Community John C. Trever One of the pioneers in the study of the Dead Sea Scrolls points out the numerous parallels between the Right Teacherof the Qumran Community and the author of the book of Daniel. Werethey the same person?

P ,e.

i1C

Page89

89

BA Portrait MaxLeopoldMargolis:A Scholar'sScholar

103

Leonard Greenspoon Admiredby W.E Albright, he was the teacher of such scholars as Cyrus Gordonand HarryM. Orlinsky.Max Margolisdedicated his life to the study of the Septuagintalbook of Joshua.

Ancient JewishCoins in the Correspondence

BetweenJohnLockeandNicolasToinard

108

Henryk Minc

This paperoffers a translation of and notes on selected parts of letters exchangedby the seventeenth-century English philosopher and the French scholar.

Departments

Page108

Introducingthe Authors Fromthe Editor'sDesk BookReviews

66 67 122

Biblical Archaeologist is published with the financial assistance of the Endowment for Biblical Research,Boston, a nonsectarian foundation for the study of the Bible and the history of the Christian Church. BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

65

RichardSimon Hanson Norman Golb

John C. Trever

Introducing the

Authors

NormanGolb is Professorof HebrewandJudaeo-ArabicStudies at the University of Chicago. He is best known for his paleographicaldetective work leading to the identification of numerous historical documents from the Cairo Genizah and for his books and articles on the Jewsof the Near East,medieval France, and Khazaria.A student in the Oriental Seminary at JohnsHopkins University duringthe heydayof Qumranscroll discoveries,he receivedhis Ph.D. from that university in 1954. Since then, he has regularly held graduate seminars on the scrolls and has published several studies examining their historic importance. Richard Simon Hanson is Professor of Religion at LutherCollege. He has published numerous books and articles and has recently contributed to the publications

HenrykMinc

The Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll (11QpaleoLev) (by D. N.

Freedman and K. A. Mathews, Winona Lake, IN: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1985)and The Coins of Ancient Meiron, volume 4 of the Meiron ExcavationProject Series (by JoyceRaynorand YacakovMeshorer,Winona Lake,IN: Eisenbrauns, 1985).JohnC. 'Iever was a young Ph.D. from Yaleand one of the three fellows at the American school in Jerusalem (now the W. E Albright Institute of Archaeological Research) when the first four Dead Sea Scrolls were brought there for evaluationin February1948by a SyrianOrthodoxmonk. Acting as Director pro tem in the absence of Miller Burrows,he was thus the first American to be consulted about them. Immediately recognizing their antiquity he sought, and received, permission to repairand photographthe three scrolls that had already been opened, thus providing an invaluable service to future scholarship.During the interveningyears,as a professor of Bible, he has been absorbedin the analysis of publication of the scrolls. He is now retiredbut serves as volunteer Directorof the Dead Sea Scrolls Projectat the School of Theology at Claremont in Southern California. LeonardGreenspoon teaches a wide variety of courses in religion and history at Clemson

66

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

LeonardGreenspoon

University. While a graduate student at Harvard,he first became interested in Max L. Margolis, the subject of his BA Portraitin this issue, as a result of a seminar on the book of Joshuaconducted by G. Ernest Wright. Over the years Greenspoon has published severalstudies on Joshuaand on Margolis, and at present he is working on a full-length biographyof him. Henryk Mine was born in Poland and he has a Ph.D. in mathematics from Edinburgh (1959). Presently Professor of Mathematics at the University of California,SantaBarbara,he also serves on the AdvisoryBoardof the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity at Claremont Graduate School. Professor Minc has spent a great deal of time in Israel, and his annual visits havetaken him to most of its archaeologicalsites. Fluent in Hebrew, he reads all kinds of Hebrew scripts, as well as Aramaic and Phoenician. He has a special study collection of 560 Hasmonean coins.

the American Schools of Oriental Researchand Biblical Archaeologist. We are proud of the part that BA has playedin what is one of the most importantareasof study in biblical archaeology. Because BA is committed to coveringthe full range of current ideas about the scrolls-as these ideas are subjected to the best scholarly analysis-we present in this issue articles written from a variety of perspectives. Our two feature articles, for example, take very different approachesto the material. Norman Golb challenges the BIBLICAL prevailing scholarly opinion about the origin of the ARCAAEOLOIST scrolls and the nature of the community at Qumran, offeringan alternativeview, while JohnC. Trever,one of published By the pioneers of scroll study,works within this consensus in an attempt to define more fully its view of the comof Oriental Research The American (Jerusalem andBaghdad)Co. Schools New Haven i munity's leader,the Teacherof Righteousness. Even our 409 Conn. cNo. ProspectSt., 194S section of book reviews, which focusses on the work on VoAN, XI the Temple Scroll done by the late Yigael Yadin, is V'Vol. indicative of multiple perspectives. Yadin's work-as A DISCOVERY A Et po Lcc 11e in Old \ Tcstfann"'t manupH1ENOMENAL by Dr ilar contained in his Hebrew edition of the scroll and in the td announced o April of Te sllv C urroof the n the Director year entire subsequent Spanish, French, and German translations spast r ase"beenThe .... d on \scrits wa•shmoct I. during eserved scroll of amazing, Boo-is the source of numerous ideas that have generated pachmen; sea rch ofOietlrowsi This is o.whoa of rcnaes says of any in llebredvwas Yame Isaiah t of Oie found the much agreement and disagreement among scholars. In forI aal t cbrswt century B.. says•h, or for that matter manuscriptsulO ate and the unknon the course of an evaluation of the recently published luknownbefore wv .,sa -to ,,,ken 1); of the eeltre partOhitherto Tsetamet ye know asbeen apvrus (Fig. thewly the Nash English translation and commentary, Lawrence H. of the A.D. DeuterOnOTmy the date t of itscatiny fragot isa tiny rag t.newly Schiffman surveys these reactions. Among these reacwhich gave the clue and it was this fragment.to may the what and of from 'thanasius According to th the news release Dr.7, urrows tions is the book The Dawn of Qumran, by Ben Zion new wmy 'Metropolitan S the rian Orthoaox Dl a uhis New etter Wacholder, which has many ideas in common with f eouangdtanus aofMarch of s r.ch ,f the Sy-rican School f lnan ancient Acordi four them with Se m Y be hue Yhe ieSame Sntte l and Father Butros Yadin'swork but which also diverges radically from in of thete two " and o end of in carehment t the two Fellows urro of them. This book is considered by Dr. Schiffman and is . but Flthe Ire Felows metie twardn thschto1 soonastey rom Februairy, S man leathr, also reviewed separately by James C. VanderKam.The them, tha e in least at ia excitement, more r School, D the Isaiah subject of our concluding review by Stephen Goransonis ardm ientie asnt *aever that of the ridnt the in What they found aused far as scrollthe the book on the Temple Scroll that Yadin wrote for a the i of its scriptsecon ''a Jerusalem-Dr.. cclt... of to eappeas similarity entified a hird m aom Brownilee meanwhie manuscri anu Dr. ci ptngsn to refaizedg on the Book.,hile kkukAA t.n little sect or general audience. Finally, we offer a paper by Richard of 1abakkuk tmhboring metarY Papyrust Nash acol .d of a comparatively ukow parteo macomnu ("sPlile o f Simon Hanson that, at the same time it is introducingthe nual of dtscipline the be readerto the concepts and techniques of dating general . ancient manuscripts, gives our specialist readersa summary of the evidence used in dating the paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll-which, by the way, David Noel Freedman, a former editor of BA, and Kenneth A. Mathews have just published with the American Schools of Oriental Research. on the Dead Sea Scrolls and The cause of scholarship awareness of its accomplishments can only a public in Church Orthodox Metropolitan of the Syrian be furtheredby an open discussion of ideas, and we offer Jerusalem sent four scrolls he had recently ac- this range of papers, which are informative, thoughtquired from the Tacamirehbedouin to the Jeruin the spirit of salem school for evaluation, the American Schools of provoking,and sometimes controversial, Oriental Researchhas been closely associated with the such a discussion. Dead Sea Scrolls.ASOR scholars,of course,photographed three of those first scrolls, verified their authenticity and antiquity, announced their discovery to the world, and published them. Subsequently ASOR has also participated in the search for and publication of additional Eric M. Meyers scrolls, as well as disseminating much of the best scholarEditor evaluation of them the of the Bulletin ly through pages of

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One of the first scrolls discoveredat Qumran was the Manual of Discipline (also known as the Rule of the Community),shown here opened to columns 4 and 5. This text engenderedthe idea that the scrolls belonged to Essenes who inhabited the settlement at Qumran.It is typical of the scribal copies of literary texts found at Qumran.

Who Hid Dead Sea

the

Scrolls?

that the main home of the Essenes the site known as Khirbet was BYNORMAN GOLB Qumran (lying below the caves),that members of the sect had written the N o more than several Dead Sea Scrolls, and that in approxmonths after the first imately A.D. 69, duringthe period of Hebrew scrolls from the ment of Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23- 79) the First JewishRevolt against the to the effect that a groupof Essenes Romans,they had hidden them in Qumran caves were discoveredin 1947, a theory of great dwelling "amongthe palm trees"was the caves where they were later located somewhere along the western found. importance was formulated to Over the subsequent decades, shore of the Dead Sea to the north of account for them. Accordingto it, these scrolls belonged to the Jewish En-gedi,it was theorized, after study however,certain remarkabledevelsect of the Essenes, a groupdescribed of one of the seven original scrolls, opments occurredwith respect to at some length in the first century by the religious philosopher Philo and the historian Josephus,who place their number at approximately four thousand souls spreadthroughout Palestine. On the basis of a state-

68

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

this theory. In the English-speaking world, the eminent literary critic EdmundWilson supportedit in a series of articles, first published in the New Yorkerand later in book form, whose effect was to transmute this theory into an object of popular belief. This was accomplished also in the French milieu, particularlyby Andre Dupont-Sommer of the Institut de France.Numerous articles in which the theory was stated as a fact thereaftermade their way into referenceworks. The study of early Christian relations to Judaismtook a new turn, with historians now indicating that the relationship of the younger religion was much closer to Essenic sectarianism than to rabbinicor normative Judaism. Throughout this period, many new manuscript and archaeologicaldiscoveries were made in the Judean desert, and it graduallybecame a contention of scholarly interpreters, encouragedby the public's overwhelmingly positive reception of the original theory, that some of these new discoveries in fact supported and vindicated it. It is in this crucial arenaof present interpretationthat I find myself compelled to differwith the consensus of opinion. The discoveries of the 1950s and 1960s now make evident that the theory's formulation resulted primarily from the sequence in which the finds were made, and that there is, in fact, a more reasonableexplanation of the origin of the scrolls. It is necessary to follow the finds in more or less chronological orderto see why this

ThefirstQumran weremade discoveries by bedouinduringthe springof 1947in what is nowknownas QumranCave1. of Habakkuk;the so-called Genesis Apocryphon, an embellished retelling of Genesis stories; an imaginative description of a war to take place in apocalyptic times between the good and evil forces of mankind; and a work of eleven surviving columns that in part portray an initiation ceremony to be undergone by individuals endowedwith the power to choose and follow a life of virtue. This latter text is known as the Manual (or Scroll)of Discipline because in several columns of the text following the description of the initiation ceremony the procedure for gaining admission to the group is

given and the mode of behavior for full-fledgedmembers is described. The members are said to eschew personal wealth, to lead a communal life of radical spiritual and physical purity in which ceremonial meals are taken together, and to participate both in study sessions on the "secrets" of the Pentateuch and in meetings where the laws of the group and behavior of members are discussed. Severalmonths after the discovery of the scrolls they were examined in Jerusalemby the late archaeologist Eliezer Sukenik. In his first publication dealing with these texts he stated: The question,to whom this cache of manuscriptsoriginallybelonged, still requirespreciseinvestigation. However,I havefoundone indication which has encouragedme to offer an hypothesisregardingthis matter.WhenI examinedthescrolls ... I foundin one of thema kindof bookof regulationsforthe conduct of membersof a brotherhoodor sect. I incline to hypothesizethat this cacheof manuscriptsbelonged originallyto the sectofthe Essenes, for,asis knownfromdifferentliterarysources,the placeof settlement of this sectariangroupwas on the westernsideof the DeadSea,in the

is so. From Discovery to Hypothesis The first Qumran discoveries were made by bedouin during the spring of 1947 in what is now known as Qumran Cave 1, located approximately one kilometer north of Khirbet Qumran. These scrolls included two texts of Isaiah; a work of religious hymns in eighteen columns; a commentary on the book

Aerial view of KhirbetQumran.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

69

vicinity of En-gedi.(Sukenik1948: byGolb) 16)(translated The book of regulations that Sukenik referredto was the Manual of Discipline. With his statement was born the idea that has become so notable in the history of modern scholarship, that this work, and the other scrolls, all came from a community of Essenes living- as Pliny had said -near the western shore of the Dead Sea north of En-gedi. Sukenik'sview was soon echoed by Europeanand American scholars, but all who wrote about the scrolls in those early days of discovery thought only in terms of seven texts emanating from a small groupof pious believers.It was a fair supposition- indeed supportedby a statement of Josephus-that the ancient Essenes had had books, even secret writings, of their own. Since a number of ideas akin to Essenism could be discerned in the Manual of Discipline, there was little reason to refrainfrom concluding that this was indeed an Essene work which had emanated, along with some biblical texts and a few other previously unknown writings, from the community referredto by Pliny.1

writings, including two from Jubilees and one from the Testament of Levi, were identified. Some were pieces of apocryphaland apocalyptic writings previously unknown. Among the discoveries made in this cave were additional columns both of the WarScroll and the Manual of Discipline. Archaeological soundings began there in 1951,and the excavation of the site continued in four seasons from 1953 to 1956. What was revealed- somewhat in contrast with the statement of Pliny that the Essenes lived among the palm trees -was a ratherfully developed site with many interesting architectural features. There were storageareas for grain and provisions as well as stables. A considerablenumber of well-built water cisterns were dispersed throughout the settlement. The remains of elegant stonework from the original buildings lay scattered about. Remnants of a fortification system could be observed. At the perimeter of the northern quadrantof the settlement was a well-constructed watchtower that commanded an excellent view of the Dead Sea in the distance and the roadbelow.

New Texts and an Ancient Site In orderto locate the cave where the bedouin had made their discovery, an expedition was mounted in late Januaryof 1949. After a few days the unexcavatedcave was found to the north of the Qumran site. When the cave was explored (duringFebruary and early March of 1949),it was found to contain over seventy fragments of many more ancient Hebrew manuscripts. Some of these were remnants of biblical texts; a few fragments of Leviticus were even preservedin paleo-Hebrewscript, attesting to the great age of these texts. Among the nonbiblical texts were fragments of commentaries on Micah, Zephaniah, and the Psalms. In general style they are similar to the commentary on Habakkukfound earlier. Fragmentsof apocryphal

70

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

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Plan of the period-Ibruins at Qumran.Note the tower(1), so-called scriptorium(2), the kitchen (3), the assembly and dining hall (4), the potter'sworkshop(5), the water cisterns (6), the aqueduct (7),and the stable (8). Courtesyof Revue

Biblique

63 (1956),

plateI.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

71

Longbeforethe excavationswere undertaken, the site was considered a fortress of the Judeanwilderness. Rejectingthis identification, and stating instead that it was the Essenes ratherthan a military garrison which occupied the site in the decades before the First Revolt, the archaeologists adducedas evidence the discovery of a rectangularroom where three inkwells and two tables that had fallen from a now destroyed second floor were found. Although no manuscripts or parchment were discoveredin the ruins, the archaeologists claimed that the second story had housed a type of "scriptorium"where the monks of Qumran wrote the manuscripts that were later deposited in haste in the caves abovethe settlement. The cisterns were claimed to be, at least in part, ritual baths. The older identification of the settlement as a fortress of the Judean wilderness was rejecteddespite the discoverythat the community buildings of Qumran were destroyed under armed attack during the Jewish Revolt.The walls ... are mined through;the building ruins are sealedin layersof ash froma great andin the blackened conflagration; debrisof the mainfortificationare the telltalearrowheads usedbythe Romanlegionnaires.(Cross1961:

of 1952. Over two hundred caves in the vicinity of Qumran were explored that month and pottery was discoveredin a score of them. On March 14 the cave now known as 3Q was entered and a search of it brought to light fifteen parchment fragments plus two sections of a copper scroll. The bedouin then began to explore the marl caves just to the south of Qumran and in the summer of 1952 penetratedinto what became known as Cave 4. Here they made a sensational discovery:Approximately one meter beneath the surface

one Approximately meterbeneaththe surfaceof Cave 4 were numerous fragments fromseveralhundred manuscripts.

were numerous fragments from what had been severalhundred manuscripts. When word of this find reachedJerusalem,another expedi61) tion was mounted and in September of 1952 archaeologists were able to A Hoardof Ancient Manuscripts find This entire period of archaeological fragments of at least a hundred additional manuscripts in that cave. activity was characterizedby The finds of Cave 4 remain the startling new manuscript discoveries in other caves in the vicinity of high-watermark of manuscript disQumran.In 1952 the bedouin recovery in the Judeanwilderness. The turned to the site, and in Februaryof thousands of fragments were sorted and classified in Jerusalemand porthat year they found additional Hebrew manuscript fragments in a cave tions of the material were assigned less than two hundred meters to the to a team of scholars for eventual south of Qumran Cave 1. It then publication. Three volumes containbegan to dawn upon scholars in Jeru- ing fragments of Cave-4manuscripts have so far been published. From salem that the Qumran areamight them it is possible to gain an imprescontain many more manuscriptsion of the dizzying variety of texts laden caves, so an expedition of in this cave:commentaries found severalteams was immediately and paraphraseson many books of organizedand set to work in March

72

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

the Bible, apocalyptic visions, liturgical works, both known and previously unknown apocryphal writings, "wisdom"texts, interpretations of Pentateuchal laws, messianic speculations, and even horoscopes and puzzles. They include every type and genre of literature that one would have expected to be in the hands of the Palestinian Jewsduring the periodbefore the First Revolt- and much more, of course, that was unexpected. Archaeologists working at the site of Cave 4 in Septemberof 1952 soon found another manuscript cave close by (Cave5), and yet another one (Cave6) nearbywas also identified at approximatelythat time. Later,in the spring of 1955, four more caves were discoveredin the area (Caves7, 8, 9, and 10).In Februaryof 1956 the bedouin located another manuscript cache north of KhirbetQumran. This cave (11Q) held some of the most important treasures discoveredat Qumran including complete scrolls like those found in Qumran Cave 1. The Temple Scroll, one of the latest of the Qumran texts to be found and published, may originally have come from this cave, but its true provenience continues to be cloaked in secrecy.The longest of the scrolls so far discovered,it is sixty-six columns in length and contains a description of a future Temple in Jerusalemwhose anonymous author has the Lordrenderthe imaginative descriptions in the first person. The work is the product of the fertile mind of an apocalypticist who attempted to give a description of ritual and group conduct in Jerusalemduring the days of the envisioned Temple. [Editor'snote: A review of the English version of the Temple Scroll, edited by the late Yigael Yadin,can be found in the book review section of this issue of BA.] It is remarkablethat when the contents of Caves 4 through 11 became known, the theory of Essene

origin did not suffer.Instead scholars used the new texts - containing fragments from approximatelyeight hundred scrolls, not just seven-to claim that Essenism had been a much more comprehensive movement than had been supposed before and just after the discovery of the first Qumran cave. If there were conflicts in the ideas representedin the texts, these were the result of internal developments in Essenism over a long span of time. At the end of the process of discovery,Andr6 Dupont-Sommer (whose fame came

The remains of a scriptorium have been discovered,and of a very long narrowtable ..., and pieces of one or two shorter tables. These were doubtless writing tables, since two inkpots were found in the same place .... It therefore seems that this was the place in which the scrolls from the caves were copied. The copyists who bent over these tables and dipped their pens in these inkpots were not . . . just ordinarysecular scribes .... No, the copyingof the Essene books, which were holy and secret, required

to be based primarily on his Qumran writings and who became, after their publication, Perpetual Secretary of the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres) summed up the prevalent opinion. "All of the discovered manuscripts," he said, proceed from an Essene community settled in the Qumranarea,from the Essene community mentioned by Pliny... ; the community which he [the Teacher of Righteousness] founded hid its books in the neighbouring caves and left Qumran at the time of the great Jewish War. (Dupont-Sommer1961:18)

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BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

73

scribesrecruitedfrom amongthe membersofthe sectitself.(DupontSommer1961:63) Andin the solemnquietnessof the bareandtorriddesertit is possibleto imaginethe people... who led such a hard and exceedingly austerelife there.(Dupont-Sommer 1961:66) "Itwas my privilege,"wrote another scholar, to visit Qumranseveraltimes during this period [of excavationsin 1953and1954]andto be conducted aroundthe excavationsby Perede Vaux[theexcavationdirector]himself. So vivid was his description thatI couldalmostseethemembers of the communityeatingtogether in the largediningroom,orcopying manuscriptsin the scriptorium,or scurryingto the caves with their preciouslibraryastheRomanTenth LegionmarcheddownfromJericho to destroythe community.(Fritsch 1956:5)

Furtherfinds, primarily of coins and artifacts,were made by archaeologists who were led to the four caves of Murabbacatin Januaryof 1952. Forthe most part the manuscripts were not of the same period as those found at Qumran,but dated from the Second Revolt against Rome (A.D. The First Seeds of Doubt While the Qumran discoveries were 132-135). They included personal and administrative letters -that is, being made other manuscript finds in progressin the Judeandesert genuine autographtexts - of the leaders of that revolt, including should have given exponents of the Qumran-Essenetheory serious pause Simeon ben Koziba (BarKokhba) and grounds for a radicalrevision of himself, and cast important new their view. The first of these finds light on the conduct of the war,parwas located in a gorge called Wadi ticularly in the areaof the Judean Murabbacat,located approximately wilderness. These texts were hailed for the 18 kilometers south of Qumran further From October 1951 testimony they offeredof the (Benoit 1961). hitherto both 1952 unsuspected literary fertilJanuary through papyrus and parchment texts were brought ity of the Judeandesert but, because in small lots from this site to Jeruthey had little to do with firstsalem, where they were purchased century Judaismand the Essenes, on behalf of the RockefellerMuseum. they failed to arouse the same universal enthusiasm that the Qumran discoveries had. The bearing of the Murabbacatfinds on the question of the physical nature of the Qumran texts was hardly ever publicly discussed and apparentlydid not disturb the investigatorsseeking the lost history of the Essenes of the Dead Sea coast. Then in 1960 and 1961 Israeli archaeologists conducted a search of the caves in the wadis lying between Masadaand En-gedi.In caves of the Nahal Hever they discoveredstill more autographdocuments of the BarKokhbaperiod as well as other manuscripts-both legal documents and literary texts - of the late first and early second centuries A.D.(Yadin 1971). These excerpts reflect the present views and sentiments of the great preponderanceof scholars which, not surprisingly,have metastasized into an article of faith among the general public.

As at Murabbacat - and in con-

One of the narrow,plastered tables from a room in the southwest quadrantof Khirbet Qumran. These tables, along with two inkwells found in the same room, have generated much debate because some scholars have interpretedthem as remnants of an ancient scriptorium.

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BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

trast to Qumran-one finds genuine place-names of the Judeandesert in the Nahal Hever texts, as well as a considerablevariety of personal names. The discoveryof these manuscripts provedthat the Jewshad taken care to preservetheir personal documents in antiquity and that these were capable of survival in the Judeanwilderness. Once again, how-

";i

IN

Drawing of a manuscriptfragment from Wadi Murabbacat.Taken from Yadin1971,

7courtesy

ofWeiden-

feld and Nicolson.

ever,no connection was made between this fact and the nature of the vast preponderanceof Qumran texts. None of the parchment or papyrus Qumran scrolls -with one possible exception (Golb 1980: 18, note 39)are documentary autographs;they are all scribal copies of literary writings. Severalquestions relative to the Qumran-Essenetheory should have been raised at this time. First, if the scrolls were originally located at the Qumran settlement, and if they were all gatheredup in haste from the socalled scriptorium and elsewhere at the site when the Essenes learned of the Romans'approach,how could original documents such as letters and legal deeds have been so meticulously excluded from storage in the caves?Is it reasonableto believe that those leading the "motherhouse"of the Essenes (as Qumran has been called by responsible scholars)would have left the deeds and recordsof the sect, accumulated overperhaps a hundredyears or more, to perish totally in the ruins while taking care to hide hundreds of literary scrolls? Second, accordingto the theory the scrolls were completely or partially composed at Qumran;they were not merely copied there. Where, then, are any of the authors'originals of these texts? It is hardly conceivable that every single literary autograph of the claimed Qumran authors-

composed, as the theory holds, during at least severalgenerations-was utterly destroyedbefore or during the process of hiding the texts. Another problem posed by the characterof the Qumran finds may be illustrated by arrangingvarious genres of manuscripts in a list based on their relative value and importance for historical investigation. Under the rubricof historical texts one finds: (1)autographdocuments (personaland business correspondence, court records,legal instruments, official charters,epigraphic

Above:Manuscriptfragmentfrom Nahal Hever.Below: Letterswritten by Simeon ben Koziba(orBarKokhba- the leader of the second Jewish revolt against the Romansin A.D.132-135) were discoveredin a cave at Nahal HIever.These texts, as opposed to those discoveredat Qumran,are original autographs that contain documentarymaterial. Both drawings are taken from Yadin1971, courtesy of Weidenfeldand Nicolson.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

75

texts); (2)scribal copies of autograph documents; (3)autographchronicles by eyewitness authors; (4) scribal copies of eyewitness authors'chronicles; (5)autographretrospective chronicles; (6) scribal copies of retrospective chronicles; (7) scribal copies of scribal copies of retrospective chronicles; and finally (8)printed books containing such texts, often with many errors.Then under literary texts (forexample, philosophy,poetry,and imaginative or inspirational literature)may be listed: (9)autographliterarytexts; (10)scribal copies of literary texts; (11)scribal copies with marginal annotations (glosses);(12)scribal copies with glosses blended into the texts; and (13)printed books. For purposes of historical reconstruction, autographhistorical documents are the most precious and usually the raresttype of manuscript source, while scribal copies of literarytexts are generally the least important and the most abundanttype of such sources. The BarKokhbatexts fall into the first category,and the Qumran parchment scrolls into the last few. Is it legitimate to reconstruct, as has been done for more than thirty years, a specific history of Essenes at Qumran on the basis of such literary texts, without the benefit of a single documentary source? The Questions Multiply The difficulties with the QumranEssene hypothesis do not end with questions relating to the physical nature or literary genres of the scrolls. For instance absolutely none of the Qumran scrolls either espouses or mentions celibacy, yet Pliny states that the Essenes inhabiting the western shore of the Dead Sea were celibate. The solution to this difficulty offered by various writers - either that the group living at Qumran were not Essenes but rather another sect, or else that there were two kinds of Essenes at Qumran, the marrying kind and the

76

nonmarryingkind, living separately but near one another-only makes this problem more confusing. Furthermore,the conflicts in the doctrines and beliefs found in the Qumran scrolls are so severe that the explanation offeredby writers-to the effect that the hypothesized sect's ideas merely developedand changed slowly through the yearsreadsvery much like a panacea. In the so-called Damascus Covenant (orZadokite Fragments), first discoveredin the Cairo Genizah and now representedas well by several fragments found at Qumran, the heterodox groupdescribed in its pages is said to have once migrated to the "landof Damascus"(for example, folio 3 verso, lines 2-5). Troubledby the discovery of fragments of this work at Qumran, some scholars have felt obliged to propose that Damascus here connotes nothing else than the Qumran area itself- although Damascus lies well over200 kilometers to the northeast of Jerusalemand Qumran less than 25 kilometers to its east. The problem of the Khirbet Qumran site is in a class by itself. When the Romansstormedthe settlement of Qumranthey clearly had to contend with an armed camp in a heavily fortified location. During the past decade Israeli archaeologists have detected in the now-ruinedfortresses and encampments of Judeaa system of concentric defenses of Jerusalem,as shown, for example, in a quite recent map on the cover of Biblical Archaeologist (Winter1981, volume 44 number 1).Khirbet Qumran is designated there as a fortress of the fifth concentric circle. Moreover,a good Roman roadhas recently been discoveredleading directly towardthe capital from the plateau just north of Qumran (HarEl 1978).The site was thus not an isolated locale of desert monks. On the contrary,it emerges as a fortress of strategic importance in the Judean wilderness and, judgingby the indications of military attack on it in

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

approximately A.D.69 or 70, it was

still a fortress at that time. The cisterns discoveredwithin the site providedthe water essential to withstanding a prolongedsiege. Philo, by contrast, states of the Essenes in his excursus "EveryMan Should be Free"that "asfor darts, javelins,daggersor the helmet, breastplateor shield, you could not find a single manufacturerof them, nor, in general, any person making weapons or engines or plying any industry concerned with war" (Colson 1967: 55). Even duringthe revolt against Rome, when all the stirringevents involving QumranEssenes were supposed to have taken place, Josephusknows of only one warrior-a certain general named Johnthe Essene -who was of that sect, and he was a commander in a region far awayfrom the Judean desert. Masada,the Enigmatic Scroll, and some Ancient Discoveries These emerging problems do not appearto have deeply concerned investigatorsearlier on; instead, they began searching elsewhere in the Judeanwilderness for more evidence of salient events in the history of first-centuryPalestine. In this way archaeologists turned their attention in 1965 to Masada,the great rockfortress in the desert south of Engedi and 50 kilometers from Qumran. In two seasons of digging, Yigael Yadinand his team uncoveredthe entire areaof Masada,including the part used by the zealots and other refugees from Jerusalemduringthe final years of resistance against the Romans (A.D. 70- 73). Fragments of fourteen more scrolls were found in the ruins, including biblical texts, part of Ecclesiasticus, a fragment of Jubilees and, most remarkably, a fragment of the Songs of the Sabbath Day (known also as the Angelic Liturgy, a work of a somewhat mystical nature) that overlaps portions of the same composition that were found in Qumran Cave 4 a decade earlier.

Jericho.

Jericho

e

Jerusalem.

:

-:

Jerusalem Qumran

N

WadiMurabbacat

Wa

urabbacat

DEAD

jSEA Masada

/

AD SEA

y

*

Masada*

)/

On the left the Qumran-Essenehypothesis is illustrated. This theoryholds that the discoveries of manuscripts at Masada and in the caves at Qumran,as well as the reporteddiscoveries of manuscriptsnear Jerichoin the third and eighth centuries A.D.,Canall be traced back to KhirbetQumran where the manuscripts were written or copied. On the right the hypothesis that the scrolls originatedin Jerusalemis shown. In this case the manuscriptsfrom Qumran,Masada, and near Jericho,were hidden by defenders of the capital beforeand during the Roman siege (A.D.68/70) or were taken southward during the flight from Jerusalemupon the conquest of the city.

Thus manuscripts of the same character as those found at Qumran were now known elsewhere, in this case at Masada. Beforerelating how writers explained the presence of such texts at Masada,I must focus on two much earlier discoveries of Hebrew manuscripts in the Judeandesert. In the middle of the third century the Christian author Origen put together his Hexapla (orsix-columned Old Testament Bible containing the Hebrew text, its transcription into Greek, and four Greek translations). He wrote that the Greek Bible translation that he used for the sixth column "wasfound together with other Hebrew and Greek books in a jarnear Jericho"(Englishtranslation in Kahle 1959: 242). Later,just after A.D. 800, the Nestorianpatriarch Timotheus I stated that a few years earlier Hebrew manuscripts had been found by a huntsman in a cave

"nearJericho."The huntsman "found a dwelling within the rocks, in which were many books. The huntsman went to Jerusalemand informed the Jews.They came in throngs and found books of the Bible and others in Hebrew script."(Seethe English translation of a letter by Timotheus in Driver 1951:25). As far as I can determine, these ancient statements were always understood to mean that ancient Hebrew manuscripts had on at least two occasions been found near Jericho,evidently in nearbycaves. When these notices were broughtto the attention of scholars working on the Qumrantexts, however,they proposedthat the statements in fact referredto antecedent discoveries of Hebrew manuscripts made nowhere else than in the caves aboveKhirbet Qumran- some fifteen kilometers distant from Jericho.

The Theory Burgeons With this explanation we observe how the Qumran-Essenetheory, alreadyexpandedin the wake of the discovery of many additional scrolls after 1948 and their assimilation into its structure,had begun to reach out in still new directions by the early 1950s. One need only consider the many caves in the immediate vicinity of Jerichoitself, let alone throughout the surroundingregion, to see how arbitrarythe offered explanation was. And yet, as might have been expected, in 1966 an explanation along similar lines was propoundedto account for the presence of Hebrew texts at Masada.As Yigael Yadinput it at the time, "It seems to me that the [Masadadiscovery]serves as proof indeed that the Essenes also participatedin the great revolt against the Romans" (Yadin1966: 174). Or,as Edmund Wilson wrote: "[TheMasadascrolls]

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77

Abbreviations for

Scrolls

the

found at

abbreviationsused to designate Qumran manuscripts Thefollow a system utilized in the series Discoveries in the JudaeanDesert

(see the first volume of that series-number 4 below-for a full listing of these). Briefly,the system identifies the following elements: (A) where the document was found, indicated by 1Q-11Q (Caves 1 through 11);(B)when appropriate,the nature of the work, indicated for instance by p (meaning a pesher-or commentary-on a biblical book) or t (meaning a targum-or Aramaic translation-of a biblical book); (C)the title of the work, indicated forbiblical or apocryphalbooks by the customaryabbreviations,andfor other works by the first letter of the Hebrewtitle (knownor supposed),such as S for Serek, indicating the Rule of the Community (also known as the Manual of Discipline); and (D)when appropriate,the specific manuscript if more than one copy of the same work has been found in the same cave, indicated by a lowercase,superscripta forthe first manuscriptfound, b forthe second, and so on. Worksreferredto in this issue: 1QS-the sectarian Rule of the Community, exemplar from Cave 1;published in 6 and 7. 1QSaand 1QSb- an adjunctto 1Qs;published in 4 as 1Q28aand 1Q28b.1QM-the WarScroll;published in 11. 1QIsaa-the Great Isaiah Scroll, exemplar a; published in 5 and 7. 1QpHab.-the HabakkukCommentary;published in 5 and 7. 1QApoc.-the Genesis Apocryphon;publishedin 2. 4Q Testimonia-the sheet of testimonia from Cave 4; published in 1. 4Q T. Levi-the Testament of Levi; partially publishedin 9. 11QpaleoLev-the paleo-HebrewLeviticusScroll;publishedin 8. 11QT--theTempleScroll;published in 12. CD-the Damascus Document foundin the genizahof a temple in Cairo,Egypt;published in 10. 6QD- a copy of the Damascus Document found in Cave 6 at Qumran;published in 3. Scroll publication: (1) Allegro, J. M., "FurtherMessianic References in Qumran Literature,"Journal of Biblical Literature 75: 174-87, 1956. (2) Avigad,N., and Yadin,Y.,A Genesis Apocryphon.A Scroll from the Wilderness of Judaea, Jerusalem:Hebrew University, 1956. (3) Baillet, M., "Fragments du document de Damas:Qumran,grotte6,"RevueBiblique 63: 513-23, 1956. (4)Barthelemy,D., and Milik, J.T., Qumran Cave I. Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, volume 1, Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1955. (5) Burrows,M., Trever,J. C., and Brownlee, W. H., The Dead Sea Scrolls of St. Mark's Monastery,volume 1, New Haven, CT: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1950. (6)Burrows,M., Trever,J.C., and Brownlee,W.H., The Dead Sea Scrolls of St. Mark's Monastery, volume 2, fascicle 2, New Haven, CT: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1951. (7) Cross, E M., Freedman, D. N., andSanders,J.A., Scrollsfrom Qumran CaveI, Jerusalem:The Albright Institute of Archaeological Researchand The Shrine of the Book, 1974. (8) Freedman,D. N., and Mathews, K. A., The Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll (llQpaleoLev), Winona Lake, IN: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1985. (9)Milik, J.T., "LeTestamentde Levi en arameen.Fragmentde la grotte 4 de Qumran,"Revue Biblique 62: 398-406, 1955. (10) Rabin, C., The Zadokite Documents, Oxford:ClarendonPress, 1954. (11)Sukenik,E. L., and Avigad,N., Otsar ham-Megill6t hag-Geniizzbt("Treasuryof Stored-upDocuments"),Jerusalem:HebrewUniversity, 1954 (in Hebrew).(12)Yadin,Y., The TempleScroll, Jerusalem:IsraelExplorationSociety, the Institute of Archaeology of the HebrewUniversity, and The Shrine of the Book, 1983.

must have been broughtthere by someone from the Sect, who ... wanted to keep to his [sectarian] schedule.... Is it not possible that some of the Essenes, still clinging to the schedule of their dissident calendar,had come up from the vulnerable Qumran on the shore to the formidableheights of Masadah" (Wilson 1969:210 and following). Here we have, beginning in 1966, the fullest efflorescence of the Qumran-Essenetheory, which in effect became what can only be termed a pan-Qumrantheory. (For the most recent book defendingthe standardview, see Vermesand Vermes 1978.)Accordingto it, all the scrolls found at Qumranwere written by Essenes living there, while those discoveredin earlier periods "nearJericho"and the Masadatexts as well were nothing other than Qumran scrolls. This, it must be emphasized, accounts for virtually all finds of first-centuryHebrew texts in Palestine. By this theory the manuscripts underlying Hebrew literature of all other first-centuryPalestinian Jews (who could not have numbered less than approximatelytwo million individuals),have virtually disappeared,while those of the claimed Qumran-Essenes(partof a group that accordingto both Philo and Josephusnumbered only around four thousand souls) are represented through the centuries by at least four discoveries of at least one thousand manuscripts. We also observe in this theory that Jerusalem,the spiritual and political capital of the Jewsin the first century and the main center where the refugees who fled to Masadaoriginated,plays no part whatsoever. It is as though it were not there. The theory does not take into account the majorhistorical events of the period of the First Revolt,but instead bases itself almost exclusively on scribal copies of literary

texts. There is no sign that any

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BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

the area of Jerusalem.The size and writer during the 1950s and 1960s saw that the reports of Origen and complexity of the treasures,and taken with the when their location in areas readily acTimotheus, actual discoveries at Qumran and cessible through the wadi-system Masada,pointed to a much wider reaching out from the capital, inconcealof phenomenon manuscript eluctably leads one back to Jerusalem in seeking the source of these great ment in the JudeanDesert during the period of the war with Rome. deposits. Moreover,once seen in the This phenomenon, moreover,is light of the statements in the Copper in the described Scroll, the discoveries of manuexplicitly Copper Scroll found in Qumran Cave 3. scripts reportedby Origen and The CopperScroll: An AutographRejected The Copper Scroll contains descriptions of treasures and artifactshidden throughout the Judeandesert. Variousplaces in the desert are named in the text; for example it is said that an item was buried at a certain place "onthe way from Jerichoto Sekhakha"(column 5, lines 12-14). At the end it is said that at a certain locale "acopy of this writing"may be found (column 12, lines 9-12). The scroll is made up of twelve columns of text and is inscribed in (possibly) severalnonliterary hands. The handwriting characteristics,the reference to a copy of the text, and the frequent occurrence of place-names all point to the fact that the Copper Scroll is a genuine autographdocument that was considered important enough to be recopied and then concealed. It is thus in a prime category of manuscripts. Perhapsthe most notable fact about the contents of the Copper Scroll is that in at least eight passages referenceis made to the concealment of written texts along with artifacts and sums of silver. (The scroll uses either the term sefer or ketab for the texts in question.) The treasures are described as being hidden in cisterns, aqueducts, and many places in wadis. We find, for example, referenceto a deposit "in Harobah,in the valley of Achor" (column 1, line 1),and to another "in the dam [yeger]in the canyon of Qidron"(column 8, line 8). Both of these areas were part of a complex system of wadis that led out from

Belles-Lettres. (Dupont-Sommer 1961:381) [The extracts from it] certainly give the impression that we are

facedwith real deposits,carefully described and scrupulously indicated.But the reportof June1st expressly dismisses this interpretation:the inscription, it says, is

nothingbut a collection of traditions relating to places where ancient treasure was supposed to

havebeen hidden.It continuesas follows:"Itis difficultto understand

TheCopperScroll, foundin Qumran Cave3, contains descriptions of treasures andartifacts hiddenthroughout the Judeandesert. Timotheus, as well as the actual manuscript finds of the Qumran caves, point to a large-scalephenomenon whose cause must be sought in significant events of the war with Rome. As one may imagine, the discovery of the Copper Scroll was greeted with mixed feelings by writers prominently connected with the Qumran-Essenetheory, for the dangerto that theory posed by the discoverywas manifest. Thus the genuineness of the Copper Scroll was simply rejectedby the fraternity of scholars working on the scrolls in Jerusalem.Andr6Dupont-Sommer succinctly describedthe event that then took place: An officialannouncement[of the discoveryof the CopperScroll]was madeby G. LankesterHardingand Fr. de Vaux on June 1st, 1956,

simultaneouslyin Jordan,France, GreatBritainandtheUnitedStates; it was readon the samedaybefore the Academiedes Inscriptionset

why the Essenes of Qumranwere so

muchconcernedwith thesestories of hiddentreasure,and especially whytheysawfit to engravethemon copper, which at that time was a

costlymetal.... At all events,this guideto hiddentreasureis the most ancient documentof its kind to havebeenfound,andis ofinterestto the historianof folk-lore." (DupontSommer 1961:382-83)

Dupont-Sommeralso quotes de Vauxas having stated that the CopperScroll was the "whimsical productof a derangedmind."3 The actions and statements describedby Dupont-Sommer show a concerted effort on the part of the groupprimarily involved in the discoveryof the Copper Scroll, even prior to its publication, to convince the public that its revelation did not disturb the Qumran-Essenetheory with its emphasis on the sectarian origin of the texts and the singularity of the finds in the Qumran caves. The spring of 1956 thus marks a turning point in the history of that theory. It was at this juncture that what may in retrospectbe termed a notable blunder of scholarship was transmuted into an article of faith to be defended at all costs against the rising tide of contradictory evidence.

JerusalemFaces its Downfall The discovery of the Copper Scroll," as well as of numerous Hebrew texts at Masada, Qumran, and elsewhere in the Judean desert, is in effect striking testimony to events that occurred in Jerusalem after the fall of Galilee to the Romans in the late

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

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autumn of A.D. 67. Josephusdescribes these events at some length: "Galileewas now wholly subdued, after affordingthe Romans a strenuous training for the impending Jerusalemcampaign" (Thackeray1961:37). He then tells of the entrance of the fugitives from Galilee, led by Johnof Gischala, into the capital: Thewholepopulationpouredforth and each of the fugitiveswas surroundedby a vast crowd,eagerly askingwhathadbefallenoutside.... Theycasuallymentionedthe fallof Gischala.... When, however,the story of the prisonerscame out, profoundconsternationtook possession of the people, who drew thereuponplainindicationsoftheir ownimpendingcapture.ButJohn... went roundthe severalgroups,instigatingthem to warby the hopes he raised,makingout the Romans to be weak, extolling their own power,andridiculingthe ignorance of the inexperienced; evenhadthey he wings, remarked,the Romans wouldneversurmountthe wallsof Jerusalem....By these harangues mostoftheyouthwereseducedinto his serviceandincitedto war;butof the soberandeldermen therewas not one who did not foreseethe futureandmournforthe city asif it had alreadymet its doom.(Thackeray1961:37-39) Under these circumstances the inhabitants of Jerusalemwould have had little choice but to hide their objects of wealth and precious scrolls. This process may have started shortly after the fall of Galilee and the entrance of the refugees into the city, but it probablycontinued for a number of months after the siege had begun in the summer of A.D.68. Some of the objects were hidden, as Josephus tells us, beneath the city itself. As conditions within the city worsened many deposits were evidently made outside the walls. Josephus explicitly states that the Jews knew of many secret passages leading out of Jerusalem and into the Judean wilderness-the one remaining area under their control as the

80

Reconstructedceramic jarsfrom Cave 1. The scrolls discoveredin the caves at Qumranwere sometimes found in or near such vessels while others were apparentlyplaced in the caves without containers.

siege proceeded. (SeeThackeray 1961:355 and 567.) Once the manuscript finds of Qumran are seen in this light, there is no longer any need to question the absence of documentary materials, such as letters and legal texts, at the Qumran caves: One would not normally expect to find such documents among collections of literary scrolls - that is, libraries- removedfarfrom their original home. Furthermore,as Josephusinforms us, the archives of Jerusalemwere burnedby a faction of Jewishzealots in August of A.D.66 (see Thackeray 1967:491). Since no indication exists of either original literaryworks among the cave deposits or of intense scribal activity at the Qumran fortressitself, and since neither letters nor documents have ever been identified as coming from the latter, it is unwarrantedto continue believing either that it was a "motherhouse"of Essenes or that an organic,bona fide connection

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

existed between it and the manuscripts stored in the caves abovethe fortress.The most that may be ventured is that the Jewishinhabitants of the site and surroundingarea might well have contributed to the sequestration by supplying storage vessels to those who, in an evidently well-organizedeffort, had brought the bundles or sackfuls of texts from the capital to the desert caves for hiding. FromEnd to Beginning: Retracingthe Route to the Capital In retrospectit is not difficult to see that the chronological sequence in which the discoveries were made contributed decisively to the formulation and development of the standardQumran-Essenetheory. What might reasonablyhave happened had the orderof discoveries been reversed? In this hypothetical process, the first manuscript finds would have

occurredat Masada,a site known to have been the last stronghold of the Jewishrevolutionaries,many of whom had fled the capital after its fall. The interesting literary fragments discoveredwould quite obviously have been attributedto those Jews,and before long writers would have justifiably claimed that the new fragments,howevermeager, cast new light on Jewishthought and literary creativity in Jerusalemin the years before the First Revolt. If the Masadadiscoveries had come before the others, there would have been no reason to say anything at the time about the Essenes. In this reverseorder,the next discovery would have been of nonliterary,documentary texts in the wadis near En-gediand then at Murabbacat.Fromthese texts interpreterswould have perceived that genuine Hebrew autographletters and legal deeds of the period of the Second Revolt had miraculously survived and could help to elucidate significant aspects of this period of history. Some scholars would then very likely have asked whether autographsof the First Revolt as well were hidden away somewhere in the Judeanwilderness. A search of the caves to the north of WadiMurabbacatmight then have resulted in the revelation of Qumran Cave 4 with its thousands of literary fragments. Scholars would obviously have called to mind the testimony of ancient writers regardingthe discovery of still other Hebrew manuscripts in caves near Jerichoduring the third and eighth or early ninth centuries. They would

have begun to see that a large-scale phenomenon of sequestration of hundreds and perhapsthousands of Hebrew scrolls had taken place at approximatelythe time of the First Revolt. Any disappointment in not finding letters or other autographs among the literary texts would have been assuagedby the words of Josephusabout the burning of the archives of Jerusalemin A.D.66. They would have arrivedat the conclusion that the literary texts revealedmany new aspects of thought, including heterodox ideas, that could be attributed, along with views already known from the apocryphaland apocalyptic literature, to the Palestinian Jewsof that time. The subsequent discovery of the Copper Scroll, with its referencesto the burial of precious metals and artifacts as well as texts, and its strong geographicalhints, would have at once supplied investigators with the final clue needed to solve the mystery of the massive concealment of Hebrew scrolls. Finally, arrivingat what is now called QumranCave 1,those continuing the search would have discovered a number of additional scrolls -a few biblical texts, others showing affinities with the apocryphalliterature, and at least one that appeared to contain some ideas similar to certain ones held by the Essenes. These would have confirmed the earlier finding, based on the Cave-4discoveries, that a wide spectrum of doctrines and ideas were representedby the discoveries of the Judeandesert. It is only because the discoveries did not occur in this hypothetical

orderthat a theory of entirely different characterwas formulated and then developedinto the colossal structure that now imprisons its builders through countless articles, books, and theses. What can be fairly inferred about the scrolls from facts now available-but, I emphasize, not known in 1948- is that these manuscripts stem not merely from sectarians but from first-century Palestinian Jewsin general, and are remnants of a literature showing a largevariety of practices and beliefs. These manuscripts, and no doubt many more that have since perished, were removedfrom Jerusalemby inhabitants of the city before and during the siege on the city, were brought down to the Judeanwilderness and adjacentareas,and there, with the aid of inhabitants of the region, were hidden awayfor long periods of time. To judgeby their contents, they show that much of the Jewishsociety alreadyat the beginning of the first century was in spiritual turmoil and doctrinally divided among itself. Furtherdetermination of the individual concepts and practices describedin the scrolls can be best achieved not by forcing them to fit into the single sectarian bed of Essenism but by separating them out from one another,through internal analysis of their contents, into the various spiritual currents that characterizedPalestinian Judaismof the intertestamental period. Much of this investigation lies in the future. What is now understood of the contents of the scrolls,

Thecontentsof manuscripts foundin theJudean desertsuggestdoctrinaldiversityinJewishsocietyat the beginningof thefirstcenturyA.D.

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81

however, is more than sufficient to show the mentality and religious outlook of various groups within Palestinian Judaism prior to A.D.70. This has already and will no doubt in the future cast important new light on aspects of that period's history, particularly on the question of the influence of the beliefs and practices then current in Palestine on both the nascent rabbinic Judaism and the earliest forms of Palestinian Christianity.

with their differences.I must emphasize Cross, F.M., Jr. 1961 TheAncient Libraryof Qumranand that it was only through the study of ModernBiblical Studies, revised these various types of texts in the Cairo edition. GardenCity, NY:Doubleday Genizah duringthe 1960s and 1970s that & Company,Inc. I slowly became awareof the problems G. R. Driver, posed by the particularnature of the 1951 The Hebrew Scrollsfrom the NeighQumrantexts. bourhoodof Jerichoand the Dead 3SeeDupont-Sommer1961:385. He Sea. London:OxfordUniversity never explicitly acknowledgesin his Press. writings that he was disturbedby the Dupont-Sommer,A. evidence of the CopperScroll. That he 1961 The Essene Writingsfrom Qumran. Translatedby G. Vermes.Oxford: sensed the possible new implications of Basil Blackwell. the find is shown, however,by his deC. T Fritsch, of some he had scription correspondence 1956 The QumranCommunity,Its with JohnAllegro, who at the time was a History and Scrolls. New York: Manchesterscholar prominently assoMacmillan. Notes ciated with the discoveryand decipherGolb, N. ment of the text. Allegro,he wrote, "has The text of this article is based on two 1980 The Problemof OriginandIdentificalectures delivered,respectively,on kindly let me know that he resolutely tion of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Pp. 1March2, 1983, at the Oriental Institute 24 in Proceedingsof the American maintains ... the theory of a genuine in Chicago,and on November 25, 1984, Philosophical Society 124,February inventory,and also that the particular 1980. Philadelphia:The American at the RockefellerMuseum in Jerusalem. interpretationwhich he suggests ... is Philosophical Society. in no way opposed to the general thesis See also my earlier study of the subject Har-El,M. of an Essene origin of the ... writings (Golb 1980). 1978 The Routeof Salt, Sugarand Balsam from Qumran"(italics added)(Dupont'During the interveningdecades, Caravansin the JudeanDesert. some writers have observedanti-Essenic Sommer 1961:383). GeoJournal2.6: 549- 56. What happenedto Allegro for not traits in the Manual of Discipline. In my Kahle,P. adheringto the official view of the opinion, this work is the composite 1959 The CairoGenizah, second edition. scroll'scharacterformulatedby PRrede Oxford:Basil Blackwell. productof writings by two or more Vauxand his colleagues in Jerusalemis mystical apocalypticistswhose ideas, Milik, J.T describedat painful length by Edmund 1962 Lerouleau de cuivre provenantde la although somewhat influenced by Wilson 170do not reflect grotte3Q (3Q15).Pp.201-99 in Les actual (1969: 75). Essenism, practices 'PetitesGrottes'de Qumran,by 4In a doctoraldissertation on the so much as those of a future-envisioned M. Baillet, J.T Milik, andR. de society. The "thousands"and "hundreds" CopperScroll completed in 1985 aftera Vaux.Series:Discoveries in the decade of painstakinginvestigation, of initiates describedas participantsin JudaeanDesert of Jordan3. Oxford: the sacerdotalceremonies of columns 1 David Wilmot of the University of ClarendonPress. Chicago brilliantly demonstratesthe through 3 of this scroll could hardly Sukenik,E. have fit into, let alone be sustained by, documentary,bookkeepingcharacterof 1948 Megilloth Genuzoth (Hebrew).Jeruthis text. The thesis includes a comthe Qumranareawhich is where, acsalem: MosadBialik. parison of this document with other cordingto the standardview, these Thackeray,H. St. J.,translator 1967 JosephusII: The Jewish War,Books ceremonies were actually supposed to be such archivalrecordsof Near Eastern I-III. Series:LoebClassical Library. as well as a new edition and It is a provenience, only by taking place year by year. translation of the text that renders Cambridge,MA, and London: forcedinterpretationof two other HarvardUniversity Press and Manualpassages (column 8, lines intelligible many of its hitherto obscure Heinemann. lines column that passages. 9, 12-15; 18-20) de Vaux,R. contemporarywriters can claim that 1973 Archaeologyand the Dead Sea this work espoused actual living in a Scrolls. London:Publishedfor the wilderness. (See Golb 1980: 16, last Bibliography British Academyby the Oxford paragraphof note 26.) Allegro,J. University Press. 1960 The Treasureof the CopperScrolls. 2This classification could actually Vermbs,G., and Vermbs,P GardenCity, NY: Doubleday& 1978 The Dead Sea Scrolls:Qumranin have been workedout by students of any Company,Inc. Perspective.Cleveland:Collins. branchof manuscript investigationin Benoit, P.,and others Wilson, E. whateverlanguage;if I am perhapsthe 1961 Les Grottesde Murabbacat.Series: 1969 The Dead Sea Scrolls: 1947-1969. first to express it this way,that is only in the 2. Discoveries Desert New York:OxfordUniversity Press. Judaean because the multitude of texts in the Oxford:The ClarendonPress. Y Yadin, Cairo Genizah-that other famous 1966 Masada:Herod'sFortressand the Colson, E H., translator hoardof manuscripts from the Near 1967 Philo IX. Series:LoebClassical Zealot'sLast Stand. London:WeidenEast, albeit of later date-has examples feld and Nicolson. Library.Cambridge,MA, and of all of these genres of texts, forcing,as London:HarvardUniversity Press 1971 Bar-Kokhba.Londonand Jerusalem: it were, the genizah researcherto deal and Heinemann. Weidenfeldand Nicolson.

82

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

A first-centuryinkwell from a tomb at Meirop. Courtesyof EricM. Meyers.

Ancient

and

the

Scribes and Clues They

Scripts Leave

by RichardSimonHanson egular readersof this magazine are well aware

us to determine when it was produced,especially when

produced a set of most valuable clues to the I dating of the various levels of ancient ruins we now excavate."Potteryreading"is one of the most important daily features of a modern dig. Even small sherds, particularlyfrom certain partsof vessels, can serveas key resources for the dating of a crucial layer,while a survey of unexcavatedsites relies heavily on what one discovers from the pieces of pottery that are found on the surface and on the slopes. What is less well known among lay circles is that ancient handwriting providesus with a similar set of clues. Materials that feature any amount of script-be it a message on a potsherd, an inscription on a stone monument, a missive on a piece of papyrus,an epitaph on an ossuary, or a literary work done on a scroll-leave their own evidence of dating. Handwriting, like the shape or ware of a pot, evolves over time, and this evolution helps

The scholar most responsible for establishing the proceduresthat became a paleographicalmethod was the renownedWilliam E Albright. The leader in that field of study today is Albright'sstudent, FrankMoore Cross of Harvard.Others who have done important work in it include Solomon A. Birnbaum, Yigael Yadin, Nahman Avigad,andYohananAharoni;currentlythe second most prolific scholar in the field is Yoseph Naveh. My bibliography lists some of the important works of these scholars. The dating technique that has developed out of the work of the people mentioned above consists of the following steps: 1.Tracingout the letterformsfroma givencorpusof material,payingheednot only to the shapeof each letterbutalsoto relativesizeandtotheangleatwhich eachone is "hung" fromthe line. (Thealphabetused

that the pottersof old quiteunintentionally no other dating clues are available.

1985 BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE

83

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by the Judeansand Israelites and some of their neighbors was typically written beneath a line ratherthan atop it.)

2. The laying out of similar lines of script from other materials-of known date if possible-from both prior to and after the time of the script concerned in order to see where that script best fits in the evolutionary scheme.

84

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

3. Payingmost careful attention to letter forms that were obviously in transition at the time of the material concerned in order to calculate as precisely as possible where it is to be placed chronologically. To illustrate the process, I reproduce here a table of scripts I drew up to use in determining the date of the paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll and its fragments from

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Qumran Cave 11 (see Freedman and Mathews 1985). Referringto the table, the readerwill note that the two lines of script at the top (lines 1 and 2) are taken from materials that were executed just before the Exile, from late in the seventh century B.C.At the bottom of the table (line 8) we see script from other materials of a known date, namely, the Hasmonean coins of the first century

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

85

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18:27-19:4. Thesefragmentsarewrittenon tannedleather.

B.C. In between arefive lines from the Leviticus Scrolland

its fragments. Four of them (lines 3-6) are traced from letter specimens that actually occur;the fourth (line 7) is a reconstruction drawn to represent what was in the mind of the scribe as he did his work with a somewhat less than consistent hand. Certain letters appear to be crucial. The letter he (fifth from the right) is especially so. One can readily see that the older form, that in the preexilic scripts, is made as a nearly vertical shaft with three roughly horizontal lines parallel to each other at the left. The same letter takes on a somewhat different shape in the coin scripts that are illustrated at the bottom. It is a shape in which the three parallel lines at the left have become a zigzag stroke that can be describedas a "z-shape." The letter has evolved. How? The script on the scrolls gives us the answer. The scribe who producedthe Leviticus script seems to have been trying to make the older form- the form (in line 7)that I haveproposedwas in his mind- but his hand was more often inclined to make the newer form because of a natural, cursive tendency on his part-that is, his hand quite unconsciously sought the "lazierway"to do it. This tells us that the Leviticus script comes well after the late preexilic forms but sometime before the coins, whose engraverswere generallycopyingthe newer, cursive form. The date of our material is, therefore, earlier than the time of the coins. Other letters give us similar clues to help us determine the date of our material. Each letter is examined in this way and the total evidence is considered in orderto calculate a fitting date.A numberof factorscome into the

86

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

process:the relative formality of the script versus cursive tendencies, the effect of the material itself on the resulting inscription (for example, engraved work was done more slowly than script on sherds), and the idiosyncrasies of a particular scribe. One can even observe, as Yoseph Naveh has done, how a certain scribe produced older forms than those of the current style because he was older than other scribes. In the case of the Leviticus materials, the author has set the latest date of around 100 B.C. on the hunch that only a few scribes were still using the paleo-Hebrewforms while the majoritywere turning to the use of Aramaic letters. An interesting development in the history of the Jewishpeople is their adoption of the Aramaic script and the gradual loss of the paleo-Hebrew; this happened, accordingto Naveh, in the Hellenistic periodfor the most part. It occurred in conjunction with their switch to speaking Aramaic,which servedas a lingua francain the Middle Eastduringthe PersianPeriodandeven after.This illustrates the fact that the script itself, as well as language, can tell us something about general cultural changes. The scribes,as a class, were of unusual importancein Judeanculture. When Solomon set up an administrative bureaucracy,based partly on Egyptian models, they became important as governmentservants. The work they did has been largelylost, though portions of it arecited in the Books of Kings,where we arereferredto "theannals of The Book of Proverbsactually the kings of Judah/Israel." two collections that are attributed to them contains and 25:1-29:27). Their greatest age of im(10:1-22:16 the was age in which the Scriptures were asportance

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A portion of Leviticus 26:17-26, from column 5 of the paleo-HebrewLeviticus Scroll. Strikingfeatures of the scroll are its uniform spacing of words and its straighthorizontal lines, created with the help of rules on which the scribe "hung"his letters.

sembled, and the founding figure of that movement was, of course, Ezrathe Scribe. By no means all the inscriptional materials unearthed are the work of professional scribes. While such recordsas the SamaritanOstracawere likely the work of governmental accountants, many graffiti found here and there areclearly the work of untrainedhands.Akin to the scribes, however,were the engraverswho often produced elegant forms on signet seals. At what stagescrolls came into use is hardto say.The bulk of these perished in time and weather. Only those that were protectedby unusual conditions have survived at all. The Hebrew term for scroll (megillah) only begins to occur in sources that arelate preexilic (seeJeremiah36) and continue into the exilic andpostexilic periods (Ezra2 and 3, Zechariah 5). Yet in the latter sources we already see the scroll serving as a significant symbol that is at once cultural and religious. With the loss of political independence and the temporaryloss of the Temple,the sacred scrolls took on enormous importance. So also did the profession of the scribe. In a culture that did not tolerate the presence of artifactsin a human burial, we do find notable exceptions in the case of scribes, for their writing tools could be buried with them. Examples of this have been found at Meiron and at Qumran. Such scrolls as those found in the Dead SeaCaves are artifactsof extreme religious and cultural importance, of course - so much importance that they gavestatus to the very workmen who producedthem. These workmen, in turn, left us more clues than they intended when their handwriting provedto be our most helpful clue for the dating of those materials.

Selected Bibliography Albright,W F.E 1926 Notes on EarlyHebrewandAramaicEpigraphy.Journalof the Palestine Oriental Society 6: 91-102. Avigad,N.

oftheDeadSeaScrolls. 1957 ThePaleography Scripta Hierosolymitana4:56-87. 1979 Baruchthe ScribeandJerahmeel the King'sSon.Biblical 42:114-21. Archeologist S. Birnbaum, 1950 The LeviticusFragments fromthe Cave.Bulletinof the American SchoolsofOriental Research 118:20- 27. 1952 TheDateoftheHymnsScroll. Palestine QuarterExploration ly 84:94-103. London: 1954- TheHebrew Scripts. Palaeographia. 1957 J.H. Charlesworth, ofSt.Catherine's Biblical Arche1980 TheManuscripts Monastery. ologist43:26-34. Cross, E M. 1954a The Evolution of the Proto-CanaaniteAlphabet. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 134: 15-24. 1954b The Manuscriptsof the Dead Sea Caves.The Biblical Archaeologist 17:2-21. 1960 The Development of the Jewish Scripts.Pp. 133-202 in The Bible and the Ancient Near East:Essaysin Honor of William Foxwell Albright, edited by G. E. Wright.New York:Doubleday. 1961a The Ancient Libraryof Qumran. GardenCity, NY: Doubleday. 1961b EpigraphicNotes on HebrewDocuments of the Eighth-Sixth Centuries B.C.:I. A New Reading of a Place Name in the SamariaOstraca.Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 163: 12-14. 1962a EpigraphicNotes on HebrewDocuments of the Eighth-Sixth Centuries B.C.:II. The MurabbacatPapyrusand the Letter FoundNear Yabneh-yam.Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 165:34-46.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

87

1962b EpigraphicalNotes on Hebrew Documents of the EighthSixth Centuries B.C.: III. The Inscribed Jar Handles from Gibeon. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 168: 18- 23. 1967 The OriginandEarlyEvolutionof the Alphabet.Eretz-Israel8: 8*- 27*. 1970 The Dead Sea Scrolls. Pp. 117-19 in EncyclopaediaBritannica. Chicago:Benton. 1972 Scrolls from Qumran Cave I, edited with J. C. Trever,D. N. Freedman,and J.A. Sanders.Jerusalem:AlbrightInstitute of ArchaeologicalResearchand Shrine of the Book. 1975 Qumran and the History of the Biblical Text,edited with S. Talmon. Cambridge,MA: HarvardUniversity Press. (In the same volume see his own contribution on pages 147-76, entitled The Oldest Manuscriptsfrom Qumran.) Freedman,D. N., and Mathews,K. A., editors 1985 The Paleo-HebrewLeviticus Scroll (11QpaleoLev).Winona Lake,IN: American Schools of OrientalResearch. Goshen-Gottstein,M. 1979 The Aleppo Codex and the Rise of the MassoreticBible Text. Biblical Archeologist 42: 145- 64. Hanson, R. S. 1964 Paleo-HebrewScriptsin the Hasmonean Age. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 175:26 - 42. 1976 Jewish Paleographyand its Bearingon Critical Studies. Text Pp. 561- 76 in Magnalia Dei: TheMightyActs of God:Essays on the Bible and Archaeologyin Memoryof G. ErnestWright, edited by F.M. Cross,W.E. Lemke,and P.D. Miller, Jr.Garden City, NY:Doubleday. Kaufman,I. T. 1982 The SamariaOstraca:An EarlyWitness to Hebrew Writing.

Biblical Archeologist 45: 229-39. Meyers,E. M., Strange,J.E, and Meyers,C. L. 1981 Excavationsat Ancient Meiron, UpperGalilee, Israel, 19712, 1974- 5, 1977.Cambridge,MA:AmericanSchoolsof Oriental Research.(Seeespecially pages 118and 119.) Milgrom,J. 1978 The TempleScroll.Biblical Archeologist 41: 105- 20. Naveh, J. 1965 CanaaniteandHebrewInscriptions(1960- 1964).Leshonenu 30: 65-80. 1970 The Scripts in Palestine and Transjordanin the Iron Age. In Near EasternArchaeologyin the Iwentieth Century:Essays in Honor of Nelson Glueck. GardenCity, NY:Doubleday. 1971 HebrewTexts in Aramaic Scriptin the PersianPeriod?Bulletin of the American Schools of OrientalResearch203:27 - 32. 1975 Origins of the Alphabet. London:Cassell's IntroducingArchaeology Series 6. 1980 The GreekAlphabet:New Evidence.BiblicalArcheologist43: 22- 24. Porten,B. 1979 AramaicPapyriandParchments:A New Look.Biblical Archeologist 42: 74-104. Vaux,R. de 1954 Fouilles au KherbetQumran.Revue Biblique 61: 206 -36. Yadin,Y. 1961- The Expeditionto the JudeanDesert, 1960-1. IsraelExplora1962 tion Journal11and 12. 1963 The Finds from the Bar-KokhbaPeriod in the Cave of the Letters.Jerusalem:JudeanStudies I. 1965 The Excavationsat Masada 1963-4. Israel ExplorationJournal 15: 1-120.

New from the American Schools of Oriental Research

88

The Paleo-Hebrew LeviticusScroll (11QpaleoLev)

Excavations and Surveys in Israel

D. N. Freedman K. A. Mathews

English edition of Hadashot Arkheologiyot, Archaeological Newsletter of the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums.

This volume is the definitive publication of the 1lQpaleoLev materials, a scroll and fragments of Leviticus written in paleo-Hebrew script, of the Rockefeller collection in Jerusalem. They were among the finds from Qumran Cave 11 discovered in 1956. Photographs of the scroll and fragments, transcriptions, commentary, and a paleographical study by R. S. Hanson make this book essential for anyone interested in the study of these remarkable finds and the history of the Hebrew text.

Each issue provides an overview of archaeological activities in Israel in a given year. This publication provides a complete list of reports of both large scale and salvage projects as well as surveys and other research activities. Arranged alphabetically. Illustrated. Distributed in North America by ASOR/ Eisenbrauns.

Pp. 95 + 19 Plates

Paper

$19.95

Subscriptions/standing series are accepted.

orders to the

Vol. 1 Numbers 78-81, 1982 Pp. viii + 116. Vol. 2 Numbers 82-83, 1983 Pp. vii + 120.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

$9.00 each

OF

To Order: Send your order and payment to: Eisenbrauns P.O.B. 275 Winona Lake, IN 46590 Mastercardand Visa are accepted; please supply your card number and the expiration date. If prepaying, add $1.00 per book to your prepayment.

C. TREVER BYJOHN

T

book

he

of

Daniel-that

masterpiece of Old Testament apocalyptic

literature-hassparked a

multitude of commentaries and occasionally some intense controversies.Not the least of these has been the debate overwhen the book was written and by whom. I believe that the Qumran documents shed some light on the identity of the author, as well as on the period of his work-leaving aside for the moment the question of whether there were multiple authors. This article has been written to illustrate how the Qumran scrolls do this, and to investigate what I take to be the to investigatewhat I take to be the the book of Daniel relation between

Eight scrolls of Daniel have been found at Qumran.The earliest, which has not yet been published, is believed to have been copied during the last quarterof the second centuryB.c.The latest-probably one of the

last scrollscopiedthere-is preservedonly

and the origin of the Qumran

Identifying the Author of Daniel In a sidebaraccompanyingthis article I point out that most scholars now put the date of the composition

~-

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3M ,

71

-

0

of Danielat about168B.C.,around the time of the terriblepersecutions

of Antiochus IV.But what happened to the author of Daniel? Nothing has been written about that in ancient

V

in the fragments(lQDana) shown here, which coverDaniel 1:10-2:6.Line 4 of the left column (Daniel 2:4b) begins the Aramaic portion of the book.

Community.

r

byAntiochus' dim)asphyxiated

i

T

PbVi.

.

timesormodem.Washe a martyr under Antiochus? He certainly was not one of the thousand devout Jews(Hasi-

T

,

menin theirdesertrefugecaves

ofJerusalem, asrecounted east in

1 Maccabees2:29- 42 and 2 Maccabees 6:11 (see book 12 of Jewish Antiquities by Josephus;Marcus 1966);it is certain that the book of Daniel was not yet completed when that tragedyoccurredabout 168 B.c. In fact, that event may have been an important stimulus for its author's

andspiritual efforts literary odyssey, a later martyr under Antiochus, it seems likely that his If he had been

true identity would have been re-

vealed by his admirersin memory of his noble effort.

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BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

89

My own study has brought me to believe that the author of Daniel was precisely the person who went beyond his faith-savingbook to become the founder of the Qumran j i3x Y iVi Community of the Dead Sea Scrolls. His followers retainedhis anonymity under the title "Teacherof Righteousness"(or,preferably,"Right Teacher'-see Gaster 1956: 5 and AiV3?? MIbMIJAP4yltl note 2), whose prophetic writing had served the exact purpose for which he wrote Daniel about two decades before;its hero tales and visions had Ali inspired at least a small coterie of faithful Jewsto put their faith in him and follow him (1QpHab8:1-3, on ion LoY l lip-AV ml I 4-* v Habakkuk 2:4b): 1~ vk Its propheticmeaningconcernsall the doersof the Lawin the houseof Judahwhom/Godwill deliverfrom the houseof damnation,becauseof their patient sufferingand their L steadfastfaith/in the Teacherof W,?ivl ~ Right.(Brownlee1979:125) IPA\ 146 He provedalso to be one who was able to resolve the twenty-year b. 14 j* w" confusion of some faithful Hasidic Jewswho were "likeblind men gropingfor the way"(CD 1:10;see note 3 below), and he led them into the wilderness to fulfill Isaiah 40:3: Column 8 of the commentary on Habakkuk (1QpHab)found in Qumran Cave 1. The fragment, A voicecries: commenting on Habakkuk 2:4b,includes in its top line a mention of the "doersof the Law." "Inthe wildernesspreparethe way of the Lord,/makestraightin the I will not grapplewith the men of deserta highwayforourGod."' authority.The Teacherwas indeed a men The of Qumran apparently special person. perdition until the Dayof Revenge. believed him to be (at least at first) I would like to suggest that it Vermes1975:90 and91) the prophet like Moses for whom 10:17-19; (1QS was the author of the book of Daniel the Jewshad longed for over four These who was that special person who pacifist Jews,believing that centuries (Deuteronomy 18:15-20; divine became the leader of a pacifist powerwould solve the in see 4Q Again 5-88) faction of the Hasidim who refused dilemma, fled into the safety of the 'Testimonia 1QpHab7:3-5 we read: wilderness of Judeaaway from the to follow Mattathias and the other This is what it says," ... in order wrath of the Greeks. Ben Koseba(Bar militant Jewsto carryout the thathe who readsin it mayrun"[or MaccabeanRevoltbeginning in 167 Kokhba)and his followers fled in the perhaps,"readit quickly"-a porsame way 250 years later to escape B.C.The Teacher'shymn that contion of Habakkuk2:2]. the wrath of the Romans. cludes the Rule Community clearly this concernsthe Right Interpreted Since most recent scholarship reveals the Qumran position against Teacherto whomGodmadeknown has violence: emphasized a plurality of all the mysteriesof the wordsof his authors for Daniel, it is important at I will payno manthe rewardof evil; servantsthe prophets. will I him with this pursue point to discuss the matter in From this passage it is clear that the relation to our thesis. (Fora good goodness. men of Qumran who were writing For of all is the judgement living summary of this problem of multiple this in the late first century B.C. with God authors for Daniel see Di Lella in believed that the founder of the andit is Hewhowill renderto Hartman and Di Lella 1978:9-18 community had been inspired by manhis reward. and 238 God to handle Scripturewith 54.) My own study opts for

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90

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

IYd

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no more than three sources for the book of Daniel. The position taken here could be supported even if Daniel 7:25, 8:14, 9:1-3 and 20-27 (the prayer in verses 4- 20 is considered by many scholars to be a later insertion), and 12:5-10 were the only pieces of original composition by "this final editor of the book of Daniel," as some hold. Perhaps the better approach would be to speak of the "author-compiler of Daniel." It is logical to assume that several of the Hasidim were involved in the attempt to preserve the Torah-faith during those crucial years of struggle. If the visions of Daniel 2 and 7 through 12, therefore, were written by several devout Jews, one of them pulled all these writings together, thus producing our book, and later became the founder and the teacher of the Qumran Community. It would be preferable, it seems to me, to include also 10:1-12:4, 11, and 12 as original with the "final editor." Transition to a New Vision A careful scrutiny of the book of Daniel in the light of both the Qumran Scrolls and the historical context of that terrifying period when Antiochus IV attempted to Hellenize the Jews by destroying all their religious faith and customs (175-166 B.C.)produces many points of contact. These give persuasive support to the conclusion that it was the author-compiler of Daniel who, during that period of struggle within Judaism after the early Maccabean successes against the Greeks, sustained the purity of the Torahfocused faith of that portion of the Hasidim who refused to join in the guerrilla warfare practiced by the Maccabees. The "twenty years" referred to in the Damascus Document (CD 1:10) as a period when theywere like "blind men groping for the way"3 may be construed to include the spiritual dilemma through which the author-compiler of Daniel

Prophecy and

Book A

the

of

s earlyas the thirdcenturyA.D.,the Neoplatonist author Porphyry challenged the traditionalChristian interpretationof Daniel as a prophetic book that was written by an otherwise unknown author named Daniel in the sixth century B.C.(see Casey 1976). Porphyrypresented strong evidence that it was written pseudonymously shortly after 168 B.c.The early Christian scholar Jerome(A.D.347-420) rigorouslydisagreedwith this in his Commentary on Daniel (see Archer 1958).Jerome's defense of the traditionalview, however, has graduallycrumbled in the face of the accumulated evidence - although some modern scholars continue to defend it (see Young 1949 and the cautious summary of LaSor;see also Hartman and Di Lella 1978:46 - 54, and Braverman1978). The controversyhas primarily concentratedon the historical and the literary implications behind the cryptic recounting of the various dreamsand visions found in Daniel 2, 7, 8, 9, and 10 through 12, and their significance for the date of their composition. The important question is: Do all five of those passagesreferto events during the period of the Diadochi (the "successors"to Alexander,301-163 B.c.),especially that tragic three-yearperiodfrom 168-165 B.c.-or 167-164 B.c.-when Antiochus and his cohorts were IV,"Epiphanes," persecuting the Jews?Or do some of the passages,especially 9:24-27 and 11:3645, referto imperial Rome or the "Antichrist"at an indefinite time in the future? When the literary and historical facts are carefully examined, they strongly supportthe view that most of the visions of the author of the book of

Daniel Daniel reflect the period of Antiochus IV,when the Jewswere sufferingwhat must have appearedto them as the worst persecutions in their history (see 1 Maccabees,with its grim account of those months of struggle,and 2 Maccabees,which may be somewhat exaggeratedbut which punctuates the horrorsof the tragedy;see also Josephus in book 1 of The Jewish War-Thackeray 1967:31-37-and book 12 of Jewish Antiquities-Marcus 1966:246-56; 272-77). The author of Daniel, therefore,to offer compassion and hope to his suffering compatriots,employed the literary device of a pseudonym (afamous name from earlier history), and he set his urgent message in the Babylonianand Persianperiods four centuries earlier. Thus he producedwhat is called prophetia ex eventu-that is, prophecyfrom (or after) the event.

Although traditional scholars have over the past 100 yearsgraduallycome to accept that at least some of the visions in Daniel show the influence of the persecutions of Antiochus IV (see, for example, Gaebelein 1911and Young 1949),they have often viewed the use of such literarydevices as "aforgery"that must thereforediscredit the "revelation" (see Young 1949:5). Gaebelein (1911: 209) calls it "willfully confirming and sanctioning an unpardonablefraud." The use of pseudonyms, however, was a common practice in the GrecoRomantimes, to lend authority to a writing and thus to help it reach a wider audience, and the device of prophetia ex eventu was not without precedent in Scripture.Genesis 49:1- 27 (where Jacob,from his deathbed,speaks to his

1985 BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE

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would addweight to his message and periods.It is thereforeapparentthat duringthe postexilic period the meaning obscure his identity from the Hellenistic of nbbi' graduallyshifted from "forthpersecutors.But he knew he would be understoodby those whose faith he was teller"to "foreteller"-or "proclaimer"to seeking to sustain in the presence of "predictor." such dire odds. This is precisely what The author of Daniel must have was done by the early prophetsbefore been acutely awareof this change as he felt his propheticcall about 168 B.c. when him through their use of poetry and his literary strategywas developed. other literary devices. One might say,in Clearly our author consideredhimself to fact, that in 168 B.C.to be a prophetto his people, the author of Daniel was be a prophet,perhapsinspiredby Amos forcedto use a new literary idiom to 3:7: and Foretelling" "Forthtelling communicate his urgent message. Amos A semantic change occurredin the use Surelythe LordGoddoesnothing, withoutrevealinghis secret(swdw) needed only to say,"Thussays the of the word for "prophet"some time after to his servantsthe prophets. the Exile. This change was especially LORD,"in the eighth century B.C.;but Since he lived in a time when most Jews our author had to have a different stimulated by the severalcenturies of believed propheticvoices no longer approachin the second century. Judea'sbeing dominatedby foreignpoexisted (see 1 Maccabees4:46, 9:27, and Fromthe aboveit should be clear litical powers.Forthe present, Jewish he chose, therefore, apocalyptic that it is very importantthat the book of of God's for the fulfillment 14:41), hopes or Ezekiel devices 38-48, be understoodin terms of the Daniel clouded was literary forefathers to their (like promises Isaiah 24- 27) to supporthis efforts to historical-literaryethos of the second by the disillusioning vicissitudes of century B.C.ratherthan in the usual history,and it became the custom to look save the faith of his brethren.He caresense. to the literary past for guidance, even for fully gatheredand composed two kinds eschatological ("end-time") of resources,hero tales (chapters1-6) clues to the future. By the time of Ezra JohnC. Trever and visions (chapters7-12), which and Nehemiah (orby 400 B.c.), the Jews had come to believe that revelation had ceased. In the midst of the Hellenistic pressures,especially in the late third century B.C.,the messages of the early prophetswere lifted almost to the level of Torah(which had been canonized about 400 B.C.)and finally became canonical Scripture. In this context the meaning of the Column 27 of the Psalms word "prophet"changed.In the unique Scroll (ll QPsa).In lines Scroll the Psalms of W"* twJV!I ?Obws. twa YIMit passage prose 9;9~ 2-11, a prosepassage tells YIU (27:2-11) from QumranCave 11 the that David composed change is graphicallyportrayed.There 4,050 psalms for various David's4,050 poetic compositions (!)are liturgical purposes.Line yn3V.J4) 49 A 6MA i9,'% Ovi WyViOVAW?V blipi~\3 btti rmb flW it 11reveals that "allof said to have been composed bannebi~ah, these David composed by means of be translated which might "by means of prophecywhich 1 itmlr $4AJ Iwo4 'vuWi' This is revelation" prophetic (line 11). Vv pmv0itsv1A 0 was given to him from "W1 mpil movL, V105 w Wo 1A the oldest extant manuscript evidence of the presence of the One on High."Alsoin this the semantic change of that key Old column the first manuIt is Testamentword, ndbi' ("prophet"). script recordof the word often forcefully translatedby scholars as nebu'ah(shown high"forthteller"(see Knopf 1938: 19)-meaneb tl SIHV wAsrv iutns lighted) appears.The word pvil"4!r occursin a prose passage ing one who proclaims, or speaksfor, referringto David. PhotoV%?VA'g God-to emphasize its sense from the graphis from The Psalms tenth to the sixth centuries s.c. The '1"' Vt '% t5II"JA '31 it t*4tlWYW'%I? Scrollof QumranCave11 4 Na WV4W 3 t u i t l $ 1 3 14p ym~p~ $1'tif oldest known occurrences of nebti'h, by J.A. Sanders(Series: ' i; n ~L~Y1'5t Nyps Ti 1 $4u in with the new meaning of "prophecy" Discoveriesin the 4ttL the sense of predictingthe future JudaeanDesert 4, Oxford, q 4,4gtfy U1 ~~~~u 44 ClarendonPress, 1965). 2 in those are (throughrevelation), Chronicles 9:29 (whereboth ndbi' and nebi'dihareused) and 15:8 (whereboth forms may have been used, although the Hebrew is uncertain)and in Nehemiah 6:12;most scholars date these books in the late Persianor early Hellenistic

sons about the future)reveals a similar literary device used in much earlier biblical times. In addition, the use of these devices does not in my view preclude the author'sbeing a prophetlike Amos, Micah, or Isaiah, writing in the true sense of the early meaning of ndbil with a specific and con"prophet," temporarypurpose.

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92

1985 BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE

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struggledalong with some other Hasidim. The figure of "twenty years"may be a round number but it is sufficient to include the necessary time-adjustment to the delay requiredby our author for his expectation that the Kingdomwould appearin the midst of Antiochus' persecutions or at his death, as is perfectly clear from Daniel 11:40-45 when seen in relation to Daniel 11:21-39. Antiochus died, however,under circumstances quite differentfrom those our author had predicted.His own faith in his prophetic mission must have been severely shaken as a result; and he too needed some time to recover, while he sought to sustain those whose faith had been held steady through his pseudonymous book. In fact, the extensions in time in Daniel 12:11and 12 might even be interpretedas his own first attempts to cope with the problem of the delay of God'sinvasion of human history. The death of Antiochus Epiphanesin Persia,far awayfrom "theglorious holy mountain"(Daniel 11:45),as well as other events, had surely convinced our author that "thetime of the end"(Daniel 11:40 and 12:1)was not to be as soon as he had anticipated. Like many devout

men of God before him, and thousands since, the author-compilerof Daniel no doubt turned to the writings of the canonical Hebrew Prophets for answers.His own literary efforts were set aside, apparently,as he gropedfor help for his own faith. The well-known passage in Habakkuk(2:1and 2) about that prophet's late-seventh-century-B.C, similar dilemma may very well have promptedour author'ssearch for a new vision, as the well-preserved commentary on Habakkuk (1QpHab)from Qumran implies on column 7. Note the words of Habakkuk2:3: Forstill the visionawaitsits time; it hastensto the end-it will not lie.

when he says: Interpreted,this means that the final age shall be prolonged,and shall exceedall that the Prophets havesaid;forthe mysteriesof God are astounding.(1QpHab7:5-8; Vermes 1975:234)

On the other hand, the interpretation of the last two lines of Habakkuk 2:3 seems to reflect the Teacher'sinstructions to his followers: this concernsthe men Interpreted, of truthwho keepthe Law,whose hands shall not slacken in the serviceoftruthwhenthefinalageis prolonged.Forall the ages of God reach their appointedend as He determinesfor them in the mysteries of His wisdom. (lQpHab 7:10-14; Verms 1975:239)

Perhapsmore important, it seems to me, was the book of Isaiah, it will surelycome,it will not which providedour author the chaldelay. lenge and inspiration to modify and If, indeed, the Qumran commentary enlarge the visions of the Kingdom on Habakkukrepresentsthe Qumran he had written in his own book. The Teacher'sinterpretation,which he fact that 18 copies of Isaiah have taught his followers, as many scholbeen found in the eleven Qumran ars have concluded, his comments caves (only Psalms and Deuteronomy about the first two lines of this verse have been found more frequentlyprovidea clear indication of his 30 and 23 copies respectively) is an altered concept about end-time, indication of the prime importance of Isaiah to the Teacherand the men of Qumran.Isaiah 40:1-11 may well have providedthe answer for the owidt delay of Divine action and thus restoredour author'sfaith as he experienced a new vision that was a The PrayerScrollfrom Cave 1. This scroll contains call to go into the wilderness to the used The If it seems slow, wait for it;

-MOW

for special holy days. prayers part preservedhere probably comes from the prayerfor the Day ofAtonement. Thehighlighted wordsread: "ForThou hast renewed Thy Covenant with them in a glorious vision."

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thewayof .... [fourdotsusedforthe doubt;for sometime later their Rule the Name],makestraightin the desert Community quoted passage a pathforourGod."(1QS8: 10-13; as though it were a part of the inVermes1975:85 and86, with some structions given to everyonewho minorchanges) sought to join their fellowship: Then that rule book adds the very Andwhen these becomemembers days in 168-167 B.C.There the words purpose for going into the wilderof the Communityin Israelaccordof Isaiah preparedhim for another ness -that is, to study Torah: ing to all these rules, they shall "gloriousvision,"as the Qumran This (path)is the studyof the Law separate from the habitation of Prayer scroll (1Q34bis) implies: "and whichHe commandedbythe hand men and shall into the ungodly go thou didst renew thy covenant for of Moses,that theymaydo accordto the there wilderness prepare way them in a glorious vision."4 of the LORD[acryptogram is used ing to all that has been revealed That Isaiah 40:3 played an fromageto age,andas the Prophets for the Sacred Name]; as it is important part in the founding of the have revealedby His Holy Spirit. in the wilderness written,"Prepare Qumran Community, there is little (1QS8:14and15;Vermes1975:86) On column 6 of the same manuscript we learn that this intense study continued daily, round the A 1 clock: spy as bO "'al b9ri son AYls**N su r9e can say~~b v's*-s?:IV; Andwherethe ten are,thereshall .,~~~~~~~~y I~ t;Y \I - lo mfn95 .. neverlacka manamongthemwho ?I Y Y shallstudytheLawcontinually,day LYasJr#* ort ateSt4147~-( n14was~ massVW andnight,concerningtherightcon~?l 8 ?*7~I~ # sen?~m ductof a manwith his companion. wayne di ev;~unynvno W 5 Man qq ss y543 ju?I*ur~h >crF',lwr (lines 6 and 7;Vermes 1975:81) To keep Torahperfectly was their 959 wm a eYW7 way scrany3 fty'j Nnrmt a obligation, if they were to fulfill the purposefor which God was preparing them. Eventhe location of the Qumran t. wwlrcr ??ta \moss(~3irsnaSrIssy jlYlears~ Itr Community supports this point of focus of the community. It seems likely that the Teacherchose the ni w lq^,C dW sillyto J omu 41 S.n1 place he did in the wilderness (that is, KhirbetQumran, the ruins of the outpost built by Uzziah there on the sys*,sanLn*u ntr~ '1as)t, 7()Y?. t .Lrl tCfn( plateau overlookingthe Dead Sea, and destroyedby Nebuchadnezzar's v~p usIL .rrmies9h n was qupnassstrand ws army in 586 B.c.) not just for convenience but also because it was swassY1vesse*;rs 9 e Us )rn')ns r(m an<*'LSf within clear view of Mount Nebo, -10-L^( 4 w ri va * tistw" wa X where tradition had placed the site r S 1J of Moses' composition of the Torah. Each morning as the men of Qumran "preparethe way of the Lord."It is easy to imagine our author fleeing with a scroll of Isaiah into that ruggedwilderness of Judeaeast of Jerusalemduring the tumultuous

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94

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

entered the community center, whether it was from one of the hermit caves up in the cliffs to the west, or from the barren plateau to the south where many of them probably spent the night, their eyes could not help but see that mountain that was symbolic of Torah, their primary objective. The visions of the book of Daniel were given a new dimension by the book of Isaiah, which could

have enabled the author-compiler himself to overcome the spiritual crisis through which he was struggling. As faith conquereddoubt did he "hear"God calling him to larger responsibilities as a prophet?He must have come to feel God needed him to prepareothers for a very special part in the final dramaof human history for which God'splans were not yet complete. Another indication of the importance of Isaiah 40:3 for the Teacherand his followers is the special markings and spacing on columns 32 and 33 of the Great Isaiah Scroll. That the passage was very frequently read in the community is also apparentfrom the degree of darkeningof the back of the sheepskins, which is especially prominent aroundthese columns, from the oil of the hands of the many who readfrom the scroll over almost a century. In columns 32 and 33 of the Isaiah "'A" Scroll the darkening had penetratedto the front surface. That scroll must have been copied around 125-100 B.c.,not long before the death of the Teacher; and it is not difficult to imagine that some of the oil was from the hands of the author of Daniel himself, as he readfrom the scroll many times before he died. Without a doubt this special passage in the scroll helped to keep alive the vision of the community's raison d'etrefor its members. After the death of their beloved Teacher, that same scroll must have played an important part in maintaining the spiritual vision of the men of Qumran throughout the prime period of the life of the community (period Ib-around

100-31 B.c.). It

was obviously a favoritescroll at Qumran. The abundantuse of vowel letters, the wide paleographicspan of time indicated by the corrections made on it, and other unique features of its "localPalestinian"text, add further evidence to this thesis. This scroll must have been used for almost a hundredyears, to judge

An aerial photo of KhirbetQumran.This photographappearscourtesy of PictorialArchive.

The following twelve points are presented here briefly but will be elaboratedand documented in an article in a festschrift volume in honor of Dr. William H. Brownlee, whose untimely death on July 16, 1983, has silenced one of the most articulate scholars of the Dead Sea Scrolls? B.C.or the earthquake in 31 B.C. Origins among the Hasidim. In the There it awaited discoveryfor almost first place, both the author of Daniel and the Qumran Community had 2,000 years. their origins among the Hasidim, that early-second-century-B.c. the Evidence piGathering etistic movement of Judaismthat Almost all scholars studying the arose from the pressure of Greek scrolls have pointed to the imporHellenization. Both revealfrom their tance of the book of Daniel for literature that they were pacifist in not Qumran studies; one, however, has suggested its direct link with the point of view; they firmly believed Right Teacher.Ample evidence now that the solution to evil in the world was a matter not for human military indicates such an approachshould be seriously considered. prowessbut for God'sactions in His

by the paleographicevidence alone, before it was considered too worn for further use. Then it was rolled up in its cover and placed in a tall jarin the back of the community geniza, which is now called Qumran Cave 1. This probablyoccurredwhen the men of Qumran left the areaafter the Parthianinvasion of about 40

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

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Columns 32 and 33 of the Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa).The breakin line 2 of column 33 suggests a pause in reading to emphasize the sacredpassage that follows (verse3). The darkeningof the leather across the middle and on the rolls indicates the importance of Isaiah 40:1-3 for the Qumrancommunity; the scroll has absorbed the oil from the many hands that held it. The markings at the lower right and the three scripts used indicate that correctionswere made at a later date.

massacre of one thousand pious Jews early in the Maccabeanrevolt, the number of Hasidim would hardly have been large;and the number of those whose dedication would be sufficient to practice pacifism in the face of such odds must have been indeed very small. If the Right December of 167 B.C. (see Maccabees Teacherwas from the Hasidim, therefore,he seems most likely to 1:57-2:43, especially 2:42 and 43). It would haverequireda personof have been one of their leaders who tremendous spiritual qualities and was most committed, even in the vision - a giant of faith and loyalty face of martyrdom,to strict observance of the Torah- or none other to Torah,such as was exhibited by than the author-compilerof Daniel, the author-compilerof Daniel -to lead such a split among the Hasidim. who fitted precisely these qualities. Thus he is a natural candidate for Similarity of method. Second, in the the Right Teacherat the right time Aramaic portions of Daniel in history. Furthermore,after the (2:4b- 7:28),the Aramaic word own time. The Hasidim apparently became divided over this issue when the problem of defendingthemselves on the Sabbathbecame acute at the time of Antiochus IV'sdesecration of the Temple and the persecutions that followed, even before they reachedan intolerable peak in

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peshar, meaning "interpretation"(of dreams, and so on), appearsthirtytwo times. As early as March 1948, Dr. William Brownlee noticed the frequent occurrences of the Hebrew term pesher in one of the scrolls we were working on at the Jerusalem school. Each time the word introduced the interpretationof a passage from Habakkuk. Soon the document came to be called the Habakkuk Commentary (see Brownlee 1979). With more discoveries from other caves almost fifteen such similar manuscripts were identified (partsof Genesis, Isaiah, Hosea, Psalms, Micah, Zephaniah, a long one of Nahum, and so on), and they soon became known as the peshafrim

manuscripts from Qumran. All of these pesharim manuscripts exhibited the same method of interpretationwhich showed the meaning of each passagefor the "end-time"in which the men of Qumran believed that they were living. In other words, all the interpretations were eschatological in nature. It is believed that this method representedthe instruction of the Right Teacher,copied down some time after his death. The close parallels between Daniel and these Qumran documents, therefore,suggest a possible direct relation. When we read in lines 4 and 5 of column 7 of the pesher to (orcommentary on) Habakkuk that the meaning of Habakkuk 2:2 refersto "theRight Teacherto whom God made known all the secrets of the words of His servants the prophets,"it seems logical to assume that it was the author-compilerof Daniel who, as the Right Teacher,communicated his eschatological method directly to the men of Qumran.It was consistently used throughout the community's 200 years of history. Since that same method was used by the first-century-A.D. Christians, it be may assumed, therefore,that both Daniel and the Essenes were the source of that influence upon Christians, as revealedin the New Testament. Use of word maskilim. Third, many scholars have noted the word maskilim, translated "wise men,"in Daniel 11:33-35 and 12:3as a title for a class of leaders among the Hasidim. In the Qumran Rule of the Community ma~kil appearsthree times (1QS3:13;9:12 and 21; see 1QSb 1:1and 3:23) as a title for a community leader,perhapsother than the Hasidic founder of the community. Could it be that mdreh in later Qumran manuscripts referring to the founderwas an honorific title for a specific madkil, or the Right Teacher,who clearly fits the title magkil? Given the nature of the

Chronological Chart QumranPeriods

JewishHistory 781-740 B.C. Uzziah, king of Judah, "built towers in the wilderness and hewed out many cisterns" (2 Chronicles 26:10).

Israelite

175-164 B.C. Antiochus IV (Epiphanes). He sells the High Priesthood, makes Jerusalem a

Qumran History Enclosure, rooms, cistern and boundary wall built at the same time as similar installations on the Buqeica? The "ageof wrath"in which a "shoot"emerges to "inherit the Land" (CD 1:4-5).

Greekpolis, desecrates

the Temple, and proscribes Judaism. 167 B.C. Outbreak of the Jewish revolt led by the family of Mattathias or Mattatiya (Maccabees).

Twenty years of "groping for the way"by the early Essenes (orHasidim) (CD 1:10).

164 B.C. JudasMaccabaeus restores the Jewish cult to the Tbmple. The proscription decree is revoked. 160-142 B.C. Jonathan, successor to his brother Judas.He assumes the office of High Priest in 152 B.C.

Period Ia

Around 150-142 B.C.(?) the "Teacherof Righteousness" sets up at Qumran a community.

Period Ib

About 100 B.c. Qumran is enlarged. Many new members join the community and the site is expanded.

143-134 B.C. Simon, brother of Jonathan, is High Priest and Ethnarch of the Jews. 134-104 B.C. John Hyrcanus I. He quarrels with the Pharisees. 104-103 B.C. Aristobulus I. He apparently was the first Hasmonean ruler to assume the title "king." 103-76 B.C. Alexander Jannaeus.

76-67 B.c.

Alexandra,Alexander's widow, reigns. Hyrcanus II isHigh Priest.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

97

QumranPeriods

JewishHistory

QumranHistory

PeriodIb

67-63 B.C.

Aristobulus,brotherof HyrcanusII,usurpsthe kingship. 63 B.C.

StrugglebetweenHyrcanus IIandAristobulus II.RomangeneralPompey intervenesandenters Jerusalem. 63-40 B.C.

HyrcanusIIis appointed High Priestonly at first. He is appointedEthnarch later. 40-37 B.C.

Antigonusis HighPriest andking. Parthianinvasion 40-38 B.C.Both are

opposedbyHerodandthe Romans. Around 31 B.C.Qumran is

37-4 B.C.

Herod,with Romansupport,reigns.Commences rebuildingthe Temple. 4 B.C.-A.D.6 Archelausis made Ethnarchof Judeaand Samariaonly.

destroyedby fire,caused by militaryaction or earthquake. PeriodII

Essenesreturnto Qumran andrebuildbut on a more modestscale.

A.D.6-41

Judeais ruledby Roman prefects/procurators. A.D.41-44

HerodAgrippaI is king. (seeActs 12). A.D.44-66

Judeais againruledby Romanprocurators.From A.D.50 onwards Agrippa II is king of the areasto the north andeast.

A.D.70, Masada (probably) in A.D.74. A.D.

132-135

SecondJewishwaragainst the Romans,led byBar Kokhba/Koseba.

98

[m6reka]. This could thereforebe another indication of the continuing importance of Isaiah to the men of Qumran late in periods Ib and II of the community. It also gives evidence of their great respect for their founder-teacher. One might go a step further,at this point, to suggest that it may have been a devout leader of the some(umran Community who, beloved of their the death after time to his final tribute a added Teacher, of Daniel words with the memory 12:13: Butgoyourwaytill the end;andyou shall rest, and shall standin your allotted place at the end of the days.

Paleographicevidence affirmsall but one of the eight Daniel scrolls from Qumran Caves 1, 4, and 6 date from period II of the community (see Cross 1961:43). This indicates that interestin that book was revivedthere at that time as the covenanters'apocalyptic hopes became intensified. The use of Kitti'im. The name Kitti'im occurs fifteen times in the pishiirim manuscripts, nine of

Qumranis capturedby

A.D.67-74

The firstJewishwar againstthe Romans. Jerusalemis capturedin

method of interpretation used at Qumran perhaps this title mbreh was drawn from the community's familiarity with Isaiah 30:20: And though the Lordgive you the breadof adversity and the water of affliction, yet your Teacher [mbrtka] will not hide himself anymore, but your eyes shall see yourTeacher

Roman soldiers in A.D.68.

PeriodmI

Until shortlyafter A.D. 74 (?)Qumran is used

as a Romanfort.

SomeJewishfighters brieflyoccupyQumranas a fortor shelter.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

which occur in the first nine columns of the pesher to Habakkuk, plus eighteen times in the WarScroll (1QM).It occurs but once in Daniel (11:30),but that once is very important to the thesis presented here. There is now no doubt that for the men of Qumran the meaning of Kitti'im in all occurrences in their scrolls was clearly concerned with the Romans during the imperial period about the time of Pompey's capture of Jerusalem in 63 B.c. In Daniel 11:30 also there is no doubt that "ships of Kittim" (the abbreviated spelling is usually used in the

Old Testament)refersto the Romans,but in this case it was long before the Romans controlled the eastern Mediterranean.Most scholars are agreedthat this referenceis to a minor event that occurredin 168 B.C.when the Roman consul,

Gaius Popilius Laenas,interfered with Antiochus Epiphanes'intentions to conquer Egypt. Sent out in "shipsof Kittim,"with the authority of the Roman Senate, Popilius forced Antiochus to turn back and give up his plan of conquest. It should be noted that Rome playedno adversarialrole in this event from the perspective of the Jewsof Jerusalem. Instead it was the wrath of Antiochus in response to that rebuffthat was a majorfactor in the Greek persecutions of the Jewsin that illfated year that producedthe "abominationof desolation"(Daniel 8:13, 9:27, 11:31,and 12:11;see Matthew 24:15)and promptedthe final compilation of Daniel. It is clear that our author's predictions about end-time in 11:40-12:3 were to be related to the Jewish struggle with Greek domination of Palestine, not Roman. But it was the devotedfollowers of the Right Teacherat Qumran perhapsa century after his death, using the same methods they had learned from him, who interpretedDaniel to referto the Romans, 11:40-.12:3 in the meantime had gained who suzerainty over Palestine. That interpretation,having once been made in the first century B.C. by orthodox Judaism, followed in

the next century by orthodox Christianity, has been maintained by many interpreters for 2,000 years (see Archer 1958: 133 and 134). It might be said, therefore, that the proper interpretation of Daniel 11:30 could be the key for unraveling a sound approach to eschatology. It was probably that particular misinterpretation of Scripture, which may have been first introduced by the Essenes, that did more to affect the growth of apocalyptic literature in

Visionsplayedan important part in thebookof Danielas wellas in theoriginof theQumran community. the particulardirection it took than any other that might be pointed out. Similarity in wording.From a broaderlinguistic perspective, scholars have been pointing for many years to parallels between the wording of Daniel and various Qumran documents. More recently Alexander Di Lella suggests that certainlinguisticaffinitiesbetween some of the Qumranliteratureon the one hand and Daniel and 1 Maccabeeson the other are not accidentalbut point to a certain continuity between the Hasidim duringthe ageof AntiochusIVand the laterEssenes.(HartmanandDi Lella1978:45) Here he comes very close to my thesis. He and several other scholars have illustrated this point from a number of Qumran documents. Such linguistic evidence placed beside the historical and ideological implications adds significantly to the overallimpression of the validity of the thesis. Historical sequence. The last article written by Yigael Yadinjust before his untimely death on June 28, 1984, provides a fine summary for lay readersof his work on the Temple Scroll (Yadin1984).In it he makes a statement that relates directly to our thesis: "Moreover,I believe the scroll was composed by the founder of the sect, the veneratedTeacherof Righteousness."He bases this conclusion on the fact that fragments of two other copies of the same manuscript have been discoveredin Qumran Cave 4, both of which he dates paleographicallyto around 125-100 B.C.But he adds:"Ibelieve I can detect historical allusions in the text that would confirm a dating of

for its composition 150-125 B.C." (see also Yadin 1983:volume 1). Since he also believed that "this scroll contains nothing less than the basic torah or law of the Essenes who lived at Qumran on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea" (Yadin1984),it fits perfectly into the historical sequence that would imply the Teacheras its author. If all this is true, then it would appearfrom the thesis presented here that the "Essenetorah"was the magnum opus of none other than the author-compiler of Daniel. We might addby way of a parallel that the "sectarianTorah"(as some scholars call the Temple Scroll)of the Teacherwas to the Essenes what the "New Torah"(or"New Covenant")of the author of the Gospel of Matthew was to the early Christians. Apocalyptic chronology.The dating of events in the structure of Daniel is immediately apparentto any reader.It is similar to the practice of many of the Old Testament Prophets7 In the visions of Daniel 2 and 7 through 12, however,the introduction of a long-rangeapocalyptic chronology appearsas a feature that is not so common to the early prophets.8In Daniel it serves the special literaryfunction of predicting the distant future from the perspective of the Babylonianand Persian periods- such as, for example, in 8:14 and 9:2 and 24-27. Forthis largerpurpose, our author drew upon Scripture,especially Jeremiah 25:11 and 12 and 29:10 ("seventy years"of exile), mingling them in such a way as to fulfill his literary purpose (see Daniel 9:24, "seventy weeks of years").

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Archaeology.Finally,it is possible that archaeologycould add even more evidence to the proposalmade here. Since it is probablethat the Teacherwas buried in the Qumran cemetery to the east of the community center duringperiod Ia (around140-100 B.C.),one of the 1,200 austere gravesjust might yield evidence to identify it as the graveof the beloved founder-teacher.Admittedly the Qumran practice of the simplest form of burial has been Jerusalem in 63 B.C.It has been repeatedwithout exception in all shown that this shift was made the more than forty gravesexcavated so far,and the chances carrybut a possible by the casual referenceto the Kittim in Daniel 11:30. thread of hope for the Teacher'sgrave A devotion to Scripture.The author- having something special and revealcompiler of Daniel was devotedto ing; but the men of Qumran might have made that one exception. If, Scriptureand had an intimate indeed, the Teacherwas the authorknowledge of its contents, as many scholars have pointed out. The compiler of Daniel, such a discovery would providethe first direct founder of the community at Qumranwas also a master of Scrip- physical link with a biblical figure that would be more than just traditure and trained his followers to devote their attention to it contion- a thought worth considering stantly. Again this ideological paral- and perhapspursuing at Khirbet lel suggests that the author-compiler Qumran. of Daniel was, in fact, the Right Conclusion Teacher. In summary, it should now be clear beyond any question of doubt that the name "Daniel"was a pseudonym deliberately chosen by the authors of the book to place the stories in an earlier century and thereby obscure the writers'identities, which was a common practice in the second century B.C.Furthermore,it was done to lend more authority and a wider circulation to the writings. From the earliest treatments of the Qumran documents, it has been noticed that those writings were done anonymously. It is possible, therefore,to assume that the influence on the community came not through the book of Daniel as a literary source but directly from its author-compilerwho was the Teacher,who chose to retain his anonymity. In this case, perhaps,it was a testimony of his dedication The cemetery of the Qumran Community,looking south overseveralof the 1,200 identical and humility that motivated his graves.All photos, unless otherwise noted, are by JohnRTever. literaryprocedure.

This latter method of apocalyptic chronology is exactly what is also found at Qumran (see, for example, the Damascus Document 1:3-10; 1QM 1 and 15;and 1QpHab 2 through 4). In fact, it is so clearly carriedover into the community's writings that it seems almost necessary to assume that it was the authorcompiler of Daniel himself who providedthis kind of literary leadership for the community. Use of visions. It has alreadybeen pointed out that visions played an importantpart in the book of Daniel, as well as in the origin of the Qumran Community. The authorcompiler of Daniel, therefore,and the Right Teachershow an affinity in this regardthat suggests another piece of support for my thesis. That they were both spiritually oriented persons suggests that they may well have been the same person. Use of angelology. Some scholars have shown that Daniel was a major source of developingangelology in the Judaismof the second century B.C., and the Qumran documents reflect a similar influence. Again

100

this point of view may suggest one and the same person. Belief that the end-time was at hand. The author-compilerof Daniel believed he was living in end-time, as did the teacher who foundedthe Qumran Community. This belief is another ideological parallel that brings the two together, even though the later men of Qumran, who wrote most of the scrolls, would shift the timing of that end-time to the Roman period after Pompey'sconquest of

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

From the historical, literary, linguistic, and ideological parallels between Daniel and the Qumran documents that I give above,it seems to me that the evidence reaches a significant level of probability that the author-compilerof Daniel was indeed the founder and Right Teacherof the Qumran-Essene community. Notes I am gratefulto my student assistant, Puthuvail T. Philip, for reminding me about the passage from Amos (3:7) quoted in my sidebarand its link with 1QpHab7:4 and 5, where the Aramaic rzy, "secretsof,"appearsin the Hebrew. See Daniel 2:18 and 19, 27-30, and 47, and 4:6 where the Aramaicrz ("secret," "mystery")occurs. 'This and all other Bible quotations used in this article are from the Revised StandardVersion. 2From1QS9:11 it is apparentthat that association became shifted to the future later in the history of the men of Qumran. Could it be that they expected the return of the Teacher? 3This document was discoveredin the old synagogueof Cairo in 1897 and is now identified among the Qumranfragments, which reveal its ancient source. 4See 1Q Prayers2:6 (1Q34bis).The parallel to the recordsabout the baptism of Jesusis immediately apparent(Mark 1:3-13), where in verse 3, however,it is the Greek text-"A voice crying in the wilderness, 'Preparethe way'" that underlies the story;but the Hebrew-"A voice cries: 'In the wilderness prepare the way'" is what promptedthe thinking of the QumranTeacher. 5Editedby CraigA. Evans,the volume, entitled EarlyJewish and Christian Exegesis:Studies in Memory of William Hugh Brownlee, will be published by ScholarsPress, probablyin the latter part of 1985. 6Sincethe men of Qumranbelieved that the Teacher'smethods of interpretationwere inspiredby God (1QpHab 7:4 and 5), they doubtless would have believed the same about the "Essene torah"scroll. Yadingives other reasons from the 11QTemple Scroll itself. 7See,for example, Isaiah 1:1and 7:1, Amos 1:1,Micah 1:1,Jeremiah1:1-3 and 24:1,and Ezekiel 1:1and 2. It was natural

Who

is

an

Essene?

Thile many scholarshave concluded that some of the scrolls from

Qumran are Essene writings, because they parallel the descriptions of Essene life given by Philo, Josephus,and others, a similar consensus has not developedconcerning what the name "Essene"means. Morethan forty differentexplanations of the name have been offeredin publications which appearedboth before and after the initial Qumrandiscoveries.The majority of scholars who have dealt with this issue fall into three groups.The first group advocatesthe Aramaic root hs' as the source of the name. In this case the name Essene would mean "thepious ones,"as does the Hebrewterm Hasidim. The second groupprefersthe Aramaicroot 'sythat can be translated to mean "thehealers,"which resembles one interpretationof the name "therapeutai"-agroupof Jewishcontemplatives in Egyptdescribedby Philo of Alexandria (13B.C.-A.D. 45/50). Those who find none of the proposals the third convincing comprise group.Neither of the Aramaicroots mentioned abovecan be found in the Qumranwritings - or in any ancient writings - used in clear referenceto the Essenes. In my opinion, however, we do have sufficient information- including several referencesin the Qumran scrolls themselves-to clarify the origin of the name Essene. Philo is the earliest writer known to have used the Greek form of the name Essaioi. The other Greek form of the same name used by Josephus and others, Essenoi, is the source of our English term. Another writer, Epiphanius(A.D.315-403), used a spelling which begins with the letter omicron- Ossaioi and Ossenoi. In his essay "EveryGood Man is Free," Philo introduces virtuous groupswho study but emphasize deeds rather than words (section 74). Then (section 75) he writes of the Essenes'name: "thisname, in my opinion, is a variation, though the form of the Greek is not exact, of hosiotes (meaningdisposition to observe divine law) ... because they have shown themselves especially devout servants of God (therapeutaitheou)."Philo'saccount tells us- and this is confirmedby many other ancient writers- that the Essenes were particularlydedicated to observing divine law, namely their interpretationof Torah.There is a Hebrew term used in some of the Qumranwritings as a self-descriptionof their group,which, in my opinion, providesthe origin of the name Essene. The phrase"doersof the Torah"(cwdyhtwrh) and variants such as "doersof God'swill" are used severaltimes in the Qumranliterature. ProfessorTreverhas quoted one of the relevantpassagesfrom a Qumran scroll. In this interpretation(orpesher)on Habakkuk2:4b,"therighteous shall live by faith,"the writer of this scroll, found in QumranCave 1, of the Torah-the considers the verse a referenceto this group,the "doers" Essenes. Fora more detailed discussion of this topic, see my article "'Essenes': Etymology from c h,"in Revue de Qumran 44: 483-98. Stephen Goranson

for our author to do the same: for instance, Daniel 1:1and 21, 2:1 and 7:1.It is, in fact, one of many indications that he was writing as a prophet,even though anonymously. 8Butsee Genesis 49:1-27. I am aware,of course, that many interpreters

of the Old Testamentconsider several passagesas long-rangepredictions (for instance, Isaiah 7, 9, and 11 and Ezekiel 38), even though their authors did not intend their messages to be used that way.

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Bibliography Archer,G. L., Jr.,translator 1958 Jerome'sCommentaryon Daniel. GrandRapids,MI:BakerBook House. Beegle, D. M. 1978 Prophecyand Prediction.Ann Arbor,MI:PryorPettengill. Braverman,Jay 1978 Jerome'sCommentaryon Daniel, A Study of ComparativeJewish and Christian Interpretationsof the Hebrew Bible. Series:Catholic Biblical QuarterlyMonograph Series 7. Brownlee,W.H. 1979 The MidrashPesherof Habakkuk. Baltimore,MD: ScholarsPress. Bruce,E E 1969 The Book of Daniel and the Qumran Community. In Neotestamentica et Semitica: Studies in Honourof Matthew Black, edited by E. E. Ellis and M. Wilcox. Edinburgh:T. & T. Clark. Casey,P.M. 1976 Porphyryand the Origin of the Book of Daniel. Journalof Theological Studies n.s. 27: 25-33.

Collins,J.J.

1977 Apocalyptic Visions of the Book of Daniel. Baltimore,MD: Scholars Press. Cross, E M. 1961 TheAncient Libraryof Qumran. GardenCity, NY:Doubleday. Gaebelein,A. C. 1911 The ProphetDaniel. New York:Our Hope. Gaster,T. 1956 The Dead Sea Scriptures.New York: Doubleday. Hartman,L. E, and Di Lella,A. A. 1978 The Book of Daniel. Series:Anchor Bible 23. GardenCity, NY: Doubleday. Knopf,C. S. 1938 Ask the Prophets.A Bible Study Manual. New York,Cincinnati, Chicago:Abingdon. LaSor,W.S. 1982 The TruthAbout Armageddon.San Francisco:Harperand Row. Marcus,R., translator 1966 JosephusVII:JewishAntiquities, Books XII-XIV Cambridge,MA, and London:HarvardUniversity Press and Heinemann. Montgomery,J.A. 1927 A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on The Book of Daniel.

Series:The InternationalCritical Commentary.New York:Scribner's and Sons. Thackeray,H. St. J.,translator 1967 JosephusII: TheJewish War,Books I-Ill. Cambridge,MA, and London: HarvardUniversity Press and Heinemann. Vermes,G. 1975 The Dead Sea Scrollsin English, Baltimore,MD: PenguinBooksLtd. 1977 The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumranin Perspective.London:Collins. Yadin,Y 1983 The TempleScroll,three volumes. Jerusalem:IsraelExplorationSociety, The Institute of Archaeologyof the HebrewUniversity,The Shrineof the Book. 1984 The TempleScroll:The Longestand Most Recently DiscoveredDead Sea Scroll. Biblical ArchaeologyReview 10(5):32-49. 1985 The TempleScroll:The Hidden Law of the Dead Sea Sect. New York: RandomHouse. Young,E. J. 1949 The Prophecyof Daniel, A Commentary.GrandRapids,MI: Eerdmans.

American Schools of Oriental Research FELLOWSHIPSAT CYPRUS AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGICALRESEARCH INSTITUTE The AmericanSchoolsof OrientalResearch(ASOR)is offeringover$170,000in researchfellowships,professorships, scholarships,andtravelgrantsfor the academicyear1986-87. ASOR'sawardprogramis availableto studentsat alllevels,fromundergraduate to postdoctoralscholars,andqualifiedindividualsare invitedto apply.The awardsare designedto offer opportunitiesfor studyin humanisticdisciplinessuch as anthropology,archaeology,biblicalstudies, literature,philology,prehistory,andtopography.Theprogramencouragesstudyof the MiddleEast,from epigraphy, history,historyof artandarchitecture, prehistorictimesto the modernera. The followingawardsarebeingofferedat CAARI: of 1986),threepositionsareavailable:(1)a research FulbrightFellowships.Forthe1986-87 academicyear(beginningin eitherJulyorSeptember fellowshipforpostdoctoralresearchrelatedto thegrantee'sdoctoraldissertation;(2) a seniorresearchfellowshipforresearchin anyfieldof the fellow'schoosing;and(3) a studentfellowshipfordoctoralresearch.ItshouldbenotedthattheFulbrightpostdoctoralfellowships(1)and(2) may be heldfor a minimumtermof six monthsto a maximumtermof ten months.Further,two six-monthfellowshipsmaybe awardedforeachof the postdoctoralfellowshipsif two qualifiedcandidatesapplyfor six-monthterms.The applicationdeadlinefor (1)and (2) is September15, 1985. For (3) it is October31, 1985. Interestedpersonsshould contactthe FulbrightProgramAdvisorat their institutions.Additional informationcanbehadfromtheCouncilforInternational D.C.20036 orphone Exchangeof Scholars,11DupontCircle,Suite300, Washington, (202) 833-4968, with regardto the two postdoctoralawards.Informationaboutthe predoctoralawardcan be obtainedfromthe Institutefor International Education,809 UnitedNationsPlaza,New York,N.Y. 10017,or phone(212)883-8200. Pleasenote thatthesefellowshipsare intendedforthe purposesof genuinescholarlyexchange.Americannationalsworkingat foreignuniversities,for example,arenot eligible. A nine-to twelve-month,postdoctoralprofessorship is available.It providesfreeroomat CAARIfor the professorand AnnualProfessorship. spouse,butCAARIcannotaccommodatedependentchildren.No stipendis included.Theseawardsareopento qualifiedstudentsandscholars fromanycountry.To qualifyone musthavebeenan individualmemberof ASORfor at leasttwo yearspreviousto makingapplicationor be affiliatedwith an institutionthatis a memberof ASOR.Primeconsiderationis givento applicationswhoseprojectsareaffiliatedwith ASOR. Thedeadlineis November15, 1985;notificationwill be madebyJanuary15, 1986.Applicationis madedirectlyto ASORusingtheapplication guidelinesavailablefromASOR. honoraryfellowshipsatCAARI.Theyprovideno stipendandno room-and-board HonoraryFellowships.Alsoavailablearesix-to twelve-month benefits.Theyarehonorarypositionsonly,in one of the followingcategories:SeniorFellow(forthose holdingthe Ph.D.fiveyearsor more); Scholar(undergraduate). PostdoctoralFellow(forthose holdingthe Ph.D.less than fiveyears);ResearchFellow(predoctoral); Applicationis madedirectlyto the Directorof CAARIat anytime.

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BA

PORTRAIT

Courtesyof DropsieCollege forHebrewand CognateLearning

Max A

Leopold Margolis Scholar's

Scholar

by LeonardGreenspoon

was surprised when I first read that Max Leopold Margolishadbeen annualprofessorat the American School in Jerusalem (today known as the Albright Institute of Archaeological Research) for the year 1924-1925. Although I knew of his well-deservedreputation as a biblical translator,linguist, grammarian,and textual critic, I did not at first see the connection between these accomplishments andthe primarilyarchaeological orientation of the Jerusalemschool. Upon further reflection I saw what is, in fact, a very natural connection: Margolis'work on the book of Joshua,to which he had initially been attracted by its large number of placenames, gave him unsurpassed mastery over a mass of topographical data relating to the land of Israel. Such knowledge was bound to benefit practicing archaeologists like W.E Albrightwho spoke of becoming Margolis' "enthusiasticdisciple"after "sittingat his feet." Beforedawn on October21, 1924, Max Margolisrose to begin an eight-day trek from Jerusalemto Gaza that was to provide both archaeological and equestrian adventure. As annual professor at the American School, Margolis was to accompany Albright and eight other individuals. What concerned the 58-year-oldMargolis was not his lack of field experience in archaeology,but the fact that, as he wrote in a letter, "thiswill be my first experience in ridinga horse."Margolisrequestedthat the recipient "pleasecommiserate with me." As Margolisdescribes it, the first day out from Jerusalem providedseveralincidents overwhich commiseration seems appropriate.No sooner had they set out on the Jaffaroad than Margolis'horse shied at an approaching motorcar,landing both Margolisand the horse in a ditch on the side of the road.FortunatelyMargolismanagedto stick to the saddle, and soon a muleteer, the only Arab who spoke enough Hebrewto guide Margolis,appearedto lead him and his horse back onto the road. Albright, so Margolisreasoned,had mappedout the first day's itinerary on the basis of his own excellent horsemanship. Twelve full hours in the saddle, covering thirty miles across the mountains, was quite an initiation forMargolis.No wonderhe was allowedto spend the first night in the sole field bed the expedition possessed. Albright was "merciful"on the following dayswhen they moved at a more leisurely pace. But Margolis may have felt the need for a little good-naturedrevenge;at Tell elHesi he hastily scratched"Lachish"inancient scriptupon

BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE

1985

103

a piece of pottery, which he later slipped in front of Albright. (The identification of Tell el-Hesi as ancient Lachish was only then going out of favor.)Forabout two seconds he had Albright stumped and then, of course, Albright recognized it for the hoax it was. Jerusalemin the 1920s was a fascinating place, and Margolis chronicled its atmosphere with the same keen observation of details that characterized his scholarly work. Among the fellow scholars he mentions are Herbert Danby, Joseph Klausner, Binyamin Kosovski, Eliezer Sukenik, Gershom Scholem, Albrecht Alt, John Garstang, Edouard Dhorme, and Pbre Louis Vincent. Margolis'decision to acceptAlbright'sinvitation to spend the 1924-1925 academicyearin Jerusalem,however,was motivated by more than strictly academic considerations. An active and ardent Zionist for two decades, Margolismust have jumped at the opportunity to come, along with his family, for an extended stay in the Holy Land.He was equally eager to accept another invitation he received for that year: Margolis was among the first scholars appointed to Hebrew University where he taught even before that institution's official opening in April 1925. Among other honors that came to Margolis during this period was his election to the presidency of the Palestine Oriental Society. He presidedover severalof its meetings beforehis returnto America. In his presidential addressto that groupin January1925 he came up with a characteristicallyingenious, if uncharacteristicallybold, solution to a textual problem in Joshua15:9and 18:15by proposingthat the original text in both verses spoke of a hitherto unknown locality-Ai of Mount Ephron, located on the borderbetween Benjamin and Judah.

Albright.This is partly a result of his teaching at Dropsie College (from 1909 to his death in 1932),where many of his students wererabbisratherthan individuals predominantly interested in pursuing academic careers.And yet his scholarly legacy lives on in such eminent former students as Robert Gordis, Cyrus Gordon, Simon Greenberg,Louis Kaplan,and HarryOrlinsky. For the last twenty or so years of his life Margolis immersed himself in his work on the Greek textual traditions of the book of Joshua.His publications in this field are of unsurpassed quality. Unfortunately they are also technical and tend to be difficult for the uninitiated to penetrate. Many of his former students bemoan the fact that he concentratedso single-mindedlyon this task that he did not bringto completion more generalworks of the sort he continually planned. Margolis revealed his own ambivalence towardsthis concentration of effort by speaking somewhat bitterly of "mydamned Joshua"and yet referringto his daughter lightheartedly as "the contemporaryof my work on Joshua." In assessing Margolis'enormous contribution to the field of textual and Septuagintalstudies, one notices how clearly he grasped the importance of grouping manuscripts as the indispensable means of cutting through masses of variants to arrive at the original reading. His magnum opus, The Book of Joshuain Greek (Paris:Paul Geuthner, 1931), in which he reconstructed the Old Greek of that biblical book, has never been equalled for industry and insight. The principles that guided him, which he describedin a number of articles on particular passagesandproblemsin Joshuaand other portions of the Bible, revealedboth the orderly,fertile mind of Margolis and the path successful textual studies would take in the

theatmosphere MaxMargolischronicled offerusalem in the1920swiththesamekeenobservation of detailsthatmarkedhisscholarlywork. Unfortunately the year in Israel was tragic for Margolis: Early in 1925 one of his twin sons, Max Jr.,developed a mastoid condition from which he did not recover. Mrs. Margolis and their other two children returned immediately to America, andMargoliscut his stay short. Those who knew him best observedthat Margolis,who visited his son'sgravein Philadelphiaalmost every Shabbat evening, never fully recoveredfrom the grief of losing a son. Max Margolisis not as well known today as some of his contemporaries,for example JamesA. Montgomery, George E Moore, Charles C. Torrey, and William E

104

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future.In only one respect has Margolis'work in this area been rightly criticized: He insisted that the Old Greek translatorof Joshuahad beforehim a Hebrewtext almost identical to our Masoretic text, which this translator frequentlymodified, generallyin the direction of curtailment. In contrast, most scholars today judge that in generalthe Greek translatordid accurately representhis Hebrew Vorlage(theunderlyingtextual tradition),which in the case of Joshuawas shorterthan our Masoretictext. Significantly, the first scholar in recent times to make this case was one of Margolis'own disciples, Harry M. Orlinsky.

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While Margolis'fame in the scholarly world rests on his contributions to the field of textual criticism, the general renown he achievedis for two projectsin other fields. From 1908- 1917he was editor in chief of the JewishPublication Society's translation of the Hebrew Bible. It is a sign of the high esteem in which he was held that Margolis, an immigrant from eastern Europe,was entrusted with the primaryresponsibility for choosing appropriate English idioms to express the Hebrew text. In matters of interpretationMargolisnaturally drewheavily on Jewish exegetical traditions of which he had thorough firsthand knowledge. (His earliest scholarly works, including his Columbia University doctoral dissertation written in Latin, dealt with the Talmud.)When it came to decisions on English equivalents, however,his chief source was the King James Version, especially in the form of the 1885 Revised Version. So impressed was Margolis with the cadence and style of King Jamesthat prior to beginning this project he and his wife Evelyn, who acted as his secretary,steeped themselves in Shakespeareand other Elizabethanwriters.Frequentlythey readproposedtrans-

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lations aloud to each other and to Margolis'students to make sure that the nuance of the Hebrew was precisely and artfully capturedin English. Margolishoped that the JewishPublication Society translation, the result of years of laboron the part of himself and others, would not only serve as a theologically secure basis for Jewishreadersof the Bible but would also provideexamples of the type of elevated, dignified English that the largely immigrant Jewish population of America should be exposed to as they strove to educate themselves and their children in their newly adoptedland. Margolis'other well-known project is A History of the Jewish People which he coauthored with Alexander Marx of the JewishTheological Seminary (Philadelphia, 1927). In fact, Margolis did all of the writing, primarily during his year in Jerusalem. It is a masterpiece of compression, erudition, and synthesis, and it is still serviceable in spite of the more than fifty years that has elapsed since its publication. Prominent among those aspects of Margolis'professional life that stand out in the minds of all of his former

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students is his manner in the classroom. Cyrus Gordon has described Margolis as a martinet; there is no doubt that Margolis did expect a great deal from his students, but he worked them no harderthan he worked himself. For example, Margolis disdained reliance on secondary sources where primaryones were available.At the end of a typical seminar class dozens of heavy volumes in a half dozen or more languageslay on the table where they had been consulted by teacher and students alike. It is not surprising that in his teaching Margolis put a premium on the in-depth study of a few passages rather than surveysof vast amounts of material. His formerstudents describe as typical a yearlong seminar on the book of Nahum in which Margolistook the class no furtherthan the first two chapters- twenty-eight verses in all. Anecdotes abound regarding Margolis. When one student was assignedmaterial in Syriac,a languagehe did not know, Margolis'response was blunt: "Wheredo you think you are? In a kindergarten?Go home and learn Syriac."And when a student queriedMargolison the best way to familiarize himself with the Hebrew Bible, the reply was equally to the point-begin with Genesis and read it through. Upon completion the student was instructed to begin the process all over again. Wearetold Margoliswas so familiarwith the biblical text that he could identify any passage in the Old Testament simply by knowing its vowels. Such expertise did not come easily for student or professor. On occasion Margolis made fun of poorly preparedand unmotivated students. He had little patience for pretense and lost no opportunityto expose it. Nevertheless, for those relatively few students who could take the heat, study with Margolis was a memorable experience, and those who penetrated his shell of aloofness found Margolis to be supportivein academic and personal matters. Disinterested scholarship, meticulous research, clarity of thought and expression, and absolute personal and professional integrity are the hallmarks of Max L. Margolis. For his Jewish students he was also a role model, for he was one of the first individuals to combine the rigorous traditional Jewish education of eastern Europe with the critical techniques that dominated in

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Author's Note I am presently writing a biography of Margolis for the Society of Biblical Literature's"Biblical Scholarship in North America"series. In preparationforthat book I have had the privilege of conducting oral interviews with several illustrious scholars who were students of Margolis. I have also made use of unpublished documents, primarily from Dropsie College in Philadelphia and the American Jewish Archives in Cincinnati. The material contained in this profile comes from those sources in addition to published articles by and about Margolis. I like to think that the publication of my biography of Margolis,probablyin 1986,will allow the public to know him and his work better than was previously possible. In the meantime we are well served by a volume edited by Robert Gordis, Max Leopold Margolis: Scholar and Teacher (Philadelphia:Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate Learning, 1952), which assesses Margolis' accomplishments in several fields. That volume also contains a full bibliographyof Margolis'work with helpful annotations by JosephReider. Severalof Margolis'most significant works were never published. Included in this group are Andreas Masius and his Commentary on the Book of Joshua,the last portion of The Book of Joshuain Greek, and his introduction to The Book of Joshua in Greek. An Israeli scholar, Emanuel Tov,is in the process of publishing the last chapters of The Book of Joshuain Greek and upon completion of the MargolisbiographyI will edit and publish the other material. I thought it appropriate to begin this article on October 21, 1984, exactly sixty years to the day after the start of the school's fall trip describedin the beginning of this essay.

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western Europeand the United States.Margolisregretted that he was not able to bring to fruition many of the important scholarly projectshe initiated. And yet, in his chosen areas of research,he was deservedlypreeminent. It is said that we all stand on the shoulders of the scholars who precedeus. In the case of Margolismany of us should avail ourselves of that opportunity,for more sturdy and solid support will rarelybe found.

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John

by HenrykMinc

This

Courtesy Pictorial Archive

is an accountof a remarkable exchange

of letters between John Locke, the great seventeenth-century English philosopher, and Nicolas Toinard,a contemporaryFrenchscholar. In their correspondence the two scholars discuss at length, inter alia, ancient Jewish coins, especially the legends on the coins and the ancient Hebrew (paleoHebrew) script in which the legends were written. My account here concerns the parts of their extensive correspondence dealing with this topic. John Locke was born in 1632. After attending the Westminster school, where he studied the classics, Hebrew, and Arabic, he obtained a B.A. and M.A. from OxfordUniversity (in 1656 and 1658 respectively). Later he also studied medicine, in 1667 becoming a physician and an advisor to the English statesman LordAshley. An expert in many fields including epistemology, politics, education, medicine, and linguistics, Locke'sinfluence was wide and profound. Of his publications, the best known is his masterpiece An Essay ConcerningHuman Understanding, originally published in 1689 (see Locke 1979).Lockewas deeply interested in science and in 1668 joined the RoyalSociety of Londonfor the Improvement of Natural Knowledge.In addition, Lockehad diplomatic experience in 1668 and spent a great deal of time living outside of England. He resided in France from 1675 to 1678, and from 1683 to 1689 he was forced by political circumstances to live in Holland. On his return to England he spent most of his time preparinghis main works for publication. Locke retired in Essex and died there in 1704. His varied interests and many friendships with prominent people in Englandand abroadare reflected in his extensive correspondence. The monumental work, The Correspondence of John Locke (edited by E. S. De Beer and published by the Oxford University Press), projectedfor eight volumes, seven of which have already appeared,is to contain over 1,000letters written by Locke and over 2,600 letters written to him. The correspondence covers half a century of his life. One of Locke's 350 correspondents was Nicolas Toinard(orThoynard).Bornin 1628, he was a scholar, an antiquarian, and an expert numismatist. Toinard was proficient in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and his varied interests included the Gospels, the Old Testament, the Apocrypha, the writings of Flavius Josephus, and the Talmud. Apart from articles on coins, Toinardleft very few publications.His magnum opus, on which he worked most of his life, was his "harmony"of the four Gospels. (An evangelical harmony is a collection of passages from the four Gospels showing their correspondencesand the chronology of the events recordedin them.) In 1678 he

Correspondence and

Nicolas

Toinard

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Left:A silver coin of the provinceof Judea,struck in Jerusalem It imitates Athenian coins by during the fourth century B.C•.E. birdof the goddess Athena. The depicting an owl, the sacred Hebrewinscription reads "Yehezqiyahthe satrap[governor]." Courtesyof PictorialArchive.Above:A silver Yehudcoin with the head of Athena depicted on the obverseand the owl and paleo-Hebrewinscription "YHD"on the reverse.The coin is 7 millimeters in diameter and weighs 0.50 grams.

printeda preliminaryversionof EvangeliorumHarmonia which was eventually published posthumously in 1707 under the title EvangeliorumHarmonia Graeco-Latina. The correspondence between Locke and Toinard dates to the last quarterof the seventeenth century. The first seven volumes of The Correspondenceof JohnLocke contain 70 letters from Locke to Toinardand 129 letters written by Toinard;most of these are in French, but several letters and parts of others are written in Latin. They deal with a variety of topics: personal and financial items, news and comments about prominent people, and much scholarly discussion about science and inventions, the Gospels, translations of the Talmud, and ancient Jewishcoins. Although Toinard'sinterpretation of legends and dates on ancient Jewish coins and his attributions of these coins are mostly wrong, they show a remarkable level of knowledge for his time, centuries before archaeological discoveries produced evidence that invalidated many plausible conjectures of early numismatists. Indeed Toinard'snumismatic theories are virtually the same as those propounded by F61icien de Saulcy, the celebratedFrenchnumismatist of the middle of the last century, and some of his wrong assertions were still believed to be true as recently as fifty years ago. Ancient Jewishcoins consist of five groups of coins. The first are the so-called Yehud coins, the tiny silver coins struck in the fourth and the third centuries B.C.E. under the Persian rule, during the Macedonian occupation, and under the Ptolemaic rule. It is not known whether these coins were issued by occupation authorities in Judeaor by some appointedJewishofficial or body (see Rappaport 1981; Meshorer 1982a: chapter 1). The second group is the Hasmonean coinage struck between the last part of the second century and 37 B.C.E. Most of these coins are small bronze prutot, measuring ap-

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proximately 14 millimeters in diameter and weighing about 2 grams.Nearly all of them areinscribed in ancient Hebrew and bear the name of the ruler who issued them -the high priests Yehohanan, Yehuda, Yehonatan (or Yonatan),and Mattitya. In addition the latter two struck coins with Greek legends with the designation of king. The Herodian coinage comprises the third group and includes those issued by Herod the Great (40/37 to 4 B.C.E.), Herod Archelaus (4 B.C.E.to 6 C.E.), Herod Antipas (4 B.C.E.to 39 C.E.),Herod Philip(4 B.C.E.to34 C.E.),Herod AgrippaI (37 to 44 C.E.),and AgrippaII (56 to 96 C.E.).All of these coins were struck in bronze and inscribed with Greek legends. The fourth groupof Jewishcoins is made of those dating to the first revolt against the Romans (66 to 70 C.E.).The coins are beautiful silver shekels, halfshekels, and quarter-shekels,as well as numerous bronze coins. And the last groupis comprised of coins of the Bar Kokhbawaragainstthe Romans(132to 135C.E.);these are silver tetradrachms and denarii, and bronze coins in various denominations. Most of them bear the name Shimcon (Simon). It is customary to include in the ancient Jewish coinage also coins issued by Roman procurators(6 to 62 C.E.),and the JudeaCapta coins struck by Vespasianand Titus, although these coins most certainly were not issued by Jewishauthorities. Toinard was not aware of the existence of Yehud coins, since they were not discovereduntil this century. In his letters to Locke he discusses coins of Mattitya Antigonus (the last Hasmonean ruler), Herodian coins, coins of the first Jewish-Romanwar (which he attributes to JudasMaccabeus), and coins of the Bar Kokhbawar (most of which he attributesto Simon, a brotherof Judas). Undoubtedly Toinard,like many of his successors, based his attributions of Jewish coins on an assumption that Simon (who was grantedby Antiochus VIIthe priv-

The namesinscribedonHasmoneancoinsreferto the

following rulers: YehohananHyrcanus I (134-104 Yehonatan YehudaAristobulus I (104-103 B.C.E.), B.C.E.), Alexander (or Alexander Yannai; 103-76 B.C.E.),and MattityaAntigonus (40-37 B.C.E.).Some scholarsbelieve that partof the coinagebearingthe names Yehohananand Yehuda was issued by the sons of Alexander Yannai, Hyrcanus II (63-40 B.C.E.),and Aristobulus II (67-64 B.C.E.),whose Hebrew names are not known. Meshorer (1982) asserts that all Hasmonean coins bearing the names YehohananandYehudawere struck byHyrcanusII and AristobulusII.Forpoints of view contraryto Meshorer's see Ben-David(1972),Rappaport(1976),Minc (1977), and Baragand Qedar (1980). According to Josephus (in Jewish Antiquities, book 13, chapter 11,paragraph1, and The Jewish War,book 1, chapter 3, paragraph1), Aristobulus was the first Hasmonean ruler to proclaim himself king, whereas Strabo (in The Geographyof Strabo, book 16, chapter 2, paragraph40) states that Yehuda'syoungerbrotherAlexander Yannai,who succeeded him, was the first Hasmonean to be a king. The fact that no Yehudacoin bears the kingly title seems to support Strabo'sversion.

FourbronzeHasmonean coins. The threeprutot, each measuring approximately14 millimeters in diameter and weighing 2 grams, were struck by the high priests Yehohanan (top),Yehuda(second from the top), and Yehonatan(thirdfrom the top).Each coin carries the design of a double cornucopia with a pomegranatebetween. Accordingto YacakovMeshorer, the differentstyles of the cornucopiasrepresentedon the variousHasmonean coins are the result of the personal touch of each die cutter.A trainednumismatist can distinguish between the coins of Yehohananand Yehonatanjust by examining the cornucopiadesigns. The coin on the top is used courtesy of PictorialArchive. The fourth coin (on the bottom) was struck by Mattitya Antigonus, and is possibly the type of coin discussed by Lockeand Toinardin letters 2497, 2550, and 2571. It is approximately24 millimeters in diameter and weighs 14.25 grams. (Note:Coins are not shown proportionatelysized.)

ilege of coining money--1 Maccabees 14:6)was the first Hasmonean to strike coins. This was generally believed to be true until the beginning of the twentieth century, and even later some numismatists continued to ascribe all coins bearing the name Shimcon to Simon the Hasmonean. Only recently has it been definitely established that the Shimcon coins were issued in the years 132 to

135 C.E. by Shimcon Bar Kokhba. In fact, today it is generally agreed that Antiochus VII withdrew the privileges granted to Simon after his victory over Tryphon. Nevertheless, since Toinardbelieved that the Shimcon coins were struck by Simon the Hasmonean, it was naturalfor him to ascribe other coins to Simon'sbrother, the legendary Judas Maccabeus. Toinard attributed all

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shekels, half-shekels, and all other coins struck during the first Jewish-Romanwar to Judas.Although most of Toinard'sattributions arewrong, his knowledge of Jewish coins and paleo-Hebrew inscriptions, his familiarity with the Hebrew language and Jewish history, and his general scholarship arevery impressive, especially if it is remembered that his letters were written nearly three centuries ago. Toinard'sletters show that he had a good knowledge of Hebrew and of the paleo-Hebrewand square Hebrew scripts. Neither he nor Locke, however, seem to have understood the principles underlying Hebrew scripts, in particularthe use of matres lectionis (that is, the use of additionalletters to expressthe vocalization of the word). They were also unawarethat the Hebrew letters ayin and aleph are actually consonants (see note 24 below). They may have been influenced by the pronunciation of contemporary EuropeanJews who did not pronounce ayin

Six bronzecoins of the Herodianperiod. Upper right: Coin of Herod the Great depicting two ceremonial cult objects. On one side is a tripod with a basin used for ritual bathing (lebes).A thymiaterion (ortype of incense shovel)is representedon the other side. The coin measures 23 millimeters in diameter and weighs 6.59 grams.Middle right: Coin struck by HerodArchelaus measuring 18 millimeters in diameter and weighing 3.1 grams.Meshorer notes that the most striking feature of the Archelaus coins is the emphasi' on maritime imagery.In this case the galley depicted on one side of the coin representsthe voyageArchelausmade to Rome at the beginning of his reign.Below right: HerodAntipas issued this coin which is 24 millimeters in diameter and weighs 17.76 grams. Upper far right: Coin of Philip depictinghis portraiton one side and on the other side, as Meshorersuggests, the temple to Augustus built in CaesareaPaneas by Herod the Great. The coin has a diameter of 18 millimeters and weighs 3.82 grams. Middle far right: Coin of AgrippaI struck in Caesareain 43 c.E.portrayingthe bust of Agrippaand, on the other side, the city goddess of Caesarea.Around the portraitis the Greekinscription "TheGreatKingAgrippa,Loverof Caesar,"and circling the image of the city goddess are the following words: "Caesareanear the harbornamed afterAugustus:year 7." Below far right: Coin struck byAgrippaII measuring 24 millimeters in diameter and weighing 11.72grams. It carriesthe date LIA.The two coins shown in the middle are used courtesy of PictorialArchive. (Note: Coins arenot shown proportionatelysized.)

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and aleph at all, treating them as silent letters or apostrophes (diaereticsigns). We also note Toinard'sanachronistic use of paleo-Hebrewcharactersof the first and second centuries C.E. (which he dated to the second century for his conjecturedderivationsof Greek characters B.C.E.) from the Phoenician script. The Correspondence Letter 1782 Writtenin French by Toinardto Locke, September 7/17, 1694 I had a large number of Jewish medals1engraved,which are improperlycalled Samaritanbecause their characters are the same as those used by the Samaritans.I arranged them on differentplates accordingto the date of striking. I used the same system for all of the Herodian coins that I could find in various collections in Europe.Some of the plates, for example those with shekels and half-shekels,

Letter 1828 Writtenin French by Toinardto Locke, December 19/24, 1694 I can send you some specimens of my Samaritanmedals when our communications are established. I have some that are very rare, well engraved, and have never been published. I shall include in the notes a plate of shekels with a reference to Matthew 17:24-27; page 64 of harmony. In my opinion, these were struck by Judas Maccabeus, and all others, both silver and bronze, by Simon Maccabeus, his brother and successor? I have indicated the date of each of them. With respect to the characterson these medals, a view was imputed to me in a journal or in the Biblioteque d'Hollandewith which I completely disagree,for I am convinced that they are the same as those with which Moses wrote the Law.4 3Todayit is generally accepted that neither Judas Maccabeus nor his brother Simon issued any coins. 4Toinardmay have just meant that the characterson the coins are ancient Hebrew letters. If Moses had written the Law,it is likely that he would have written it in an Egyptianscript.

will be included in the notes of the harmony,because the didrachma and the stater [are mentioned] in Matthew 17:24-27? I will send you sample pieces, if you wish. 'Both Toinardand Locke referredto Jewish coins as medals (medailles), even though exact equivalents of the word "coin"exist in French as well as in Latin. The probablereason for using the term medal is that in Latin (andItalian)a small copperor bronze coin is referredto as a medal. 2"Whenthey came to Caper'na-um, the collectors of the half-shekel tax went up to Peter .... Jesus spoke to [Peter]..., saying, ... 'go to the sea and cast a hook, and take the first fish that comes up, and when you open its mouth you will find a shekel; take that andgive it to them for me and for yourself'" (Matthew 17:24-27; Revised StandardVersion).This story refersto the half-shekeltax that every adult male Jew had to pay each year to the Temple in Jerusalem.

Letter2355 Writtenin French by Toinardto Locke, November 26/December 6, 1697 Youshall also have all the engravingsthat I have made of medals improperly called Samaritan and of those of the Herodians with their chronology.

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Letter2412 Writtenin Latin by Locke to Toinard,March 25, 1698 Unless I am mistaken, I have received all of the so-called Samaritanand Herodian coins that you have published, and I am indebted to you for them.

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Letter 2497 Writtenin French by Toinardto Locke, October 16/26, 1698 Mr. Du Bos brought me three very raremedals with socalled Samaritan characters. On one of them there appears the legible inscription BACIAEOCANTIPON, who could only be the last king of the Jews of the Hasmonean dynastyPThe only reason that I can give for Samaritancharactersstill being used in such a late period is that it is an archaism, similar to our coins that bear Latin legends. I will have them accurately engraved.He also brought me two other small [medals]struck in the time of Simon Maccabeus of which I have clearer [specimens]. These were together with another [medal] of HPQGAON BALIAEUE6on which Mr. Du Bos read LPI which would indicate "year13."This would greatlyupset the chronology of the Herodians7I made him see, however,that the "I"is the monogramof Tyre8slightly effaced, and I showed him a similar medal on which it is very

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clear, so that this [date]comes to "year3"on this medal which is of Agrippathe Great? 5Thelast Hasmonean ruler was Mattitya Antigonus (40-37 B.C.E.). The complete Greek inscription on coins ANTIFONOY. of Antigonus readsBACIAEOC on coins to the period of Herod dating 6Inscriptions the Great readHPQAOYBALIAEU2E. 7Infact, no known coins of Herodbear the date "year 13."It is, nevertheless, unclear why Toinardbelieved that this date would "greatlyupset the chronology of the Herodians." 8Thereis absolutely no reasonwhy the monogramof Tyreshould appearon coins of Herodthe Greator those of AgrippaI. 9The coin was undoubtedly struck by Herod the Great in year 3, that is, either in 38 B.C.E. (see Rappaport 1968) or in 37 B.C.E.

Letter2550 Predominantly written in French with some Latin by Locke to Toinard,January14, 1699 With regard to the medal with [the inscription] BACIAEVCANTIFON, I am surprised as much by the language as by the characters used in this inscription. Isaac Vossius maintained that the common language of the Jewsin the time of our Lordwas Greek. I could never agree. If, however, Antigonus inscribed his coins with Samaritan characters in order to give them an archaic appearance,he could not have used the Greek language for [the purpose of generating]goodwill or [forpersonal] ambition, since the Jewswere made to suffer so much by the Seleucids, and both [peoples]were already ruled by the powerful Romans. [The letters] LPI on the medal of Herodcould not indicate "year13"because in that case, it seems to me, it should have been LIP. Letter2571 Predominantly written in Frenchand partly in Latin by Toinardto Locke,April 18/28, 1699 Yourobjection concerning the Greek inscription on the medal of Antigonus is very legitimate. Nevertheless it is there, andthat is what constitutes the rarityof the medal which also bears the Samaritan letters. It is not for goodwill or ambition, as you say, that Antigonus used this Greek legend, since the Jews were made to suffer so much by the Seleucids. This was all over with, and the Seleucids did not matter anymore;but it was because the Jewswere bound by commerce with their neighborswho spoke Greek.'oThe Jewseven had names similar to those of the Greeks, such as Antigonus, Alexandra,Alexander, and Aristobulus. As to what you said that LPIcould not indicate "year 13"on the medal of Herodbecause it seems to you that it should havebeen LIP,you will forgiveme if I tell you that you have not taken into consideration that in Syria and

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elsewhere numeral letters are put in reverse order.11I know only of the towns Sebaste and Nablus in Samaria that put dates in the natural order. is not likely that bronze coins issued by Mattitya 1OIt Antigonus and his grandfatherAlexander Yannai were inscribed in Greek for the purposeof facilitating external commerce. "1Asa matter of fact, dates on coins struck by the Herodians, namely, Herod Antipas, Herod Philip, and Agrippa II (coins of other Herodian rulers are either undated or bear a one-digit date), are nearly always written left to right. Forexample, the date "year14"(or74 c.E.) on a coin issued by AgrippaII (B.M.C.16)is indicated by LIA,and not by LAI. Letter2580 in French Written by Locke to Toinard,May 1, 1699 28 Yoursof April taught me about the medals of which you spoke in your preceding [letter].You clearly see my ignorance in this kind of study from the questions that I ask you, but as we have lighted upon this matter permit me to ask you:Whydid the Jewsandthe Syriansretainthe Syrianorderin the arrangementof numeral letters when they used Greek inscriptions and Greek characters to indicate time? Letter 2727 Writtenin French by Toinardto Locke, May 25/June5, 1700 A French gentleman born in Aleppo entrusted me with three or four beautiful so-called Samaritan medals, which I had carefully engraved. You will see with pleasure all of the collection that I have made of them. Letter 2732 Writtenin French by Locke to Toinard,June 5, 1700 Youneverwork uselessly on medals, and the community of letters benefits greatly from your knowledge. ... With respect to Hebrew medals I would be very glad to know your opinion concerning Hebrew shekels, whether there exist any genuinely ancient ones where ancient Hebrew characterscan be determined. Letter2736 in Frenchand partly in Latin written Predominantly Toinard to Locke,June30, 1700 by Since you have not received the last edition of "The Education of Children,"I shall instruct Mr. Halma to Five silver shekels minted during the first Jewishrevolt against the Romans. Each bears the images of a chalice used in the services of the Templeand a stem with threepomegranates.The averagesize of a shekel is 14.17grams and its diameter is approximately22 millimeters. Fromtop to bottom: Coin from year I or 66 c.E.; year II or 67 C.E.;year III or 68 c.E.; year IV or 69 c.E.; year V or 70 .E.

Shekels from years I throughIV are described in letter number 2736. The shekel issued in year V was unknown in Toinard'stime. (Note: Coins arenot proportionatelysized.)

send it to me with a certain new book by Otho Sperlingius entitled Dissertation on Unstruck Coins, or Unstamped Money (Sperling 1700), in which he denies that the Samaritansand the Jewsever used stamped money [and asserts that] all coins of either people are fake. These are the expressions used by Mr. Graevius12in one of his letters, of the tenth inst., that he honored me by writing me, where it can be seen that this Sperlingius does not understandthe nature of the question, or else he is very ignorant in understandingantiquity as regardsmedals. With respect to the nature of the question, the query whether the Samaritanshad stamped money or not had never been raised because they were a wretched people who neverhad the right to strike coins, let alone to put a legend on them. As for the Jews,however,I have seen and carefully inspected more than a hundred of their medals-both in silver and in bronze, of various sizes, types, and legends. No antiquarian would fail to recognize them as ancient, at least without losing his reputation and showing his ignorance.This makes me say with confidence that either the author has never seen any [Jewishmedals] or he has not the least discernment of antiquities. But to come to the point and to answer accurately [the question] that you honoredme in asking me, what is my opinion regarding Hebrew shekels, and whether ancient Hebrew characterscan be determined, I can tell you that I think that all silver shekels and half-shekels with Aaron'srod as a symbol13and the legend Jerusalem the Holy in Hebrew,in so-called Samaritancharacters,on one side and with the Shekel of Israel or Half a Shekel of Israel with an urn as a symbol on the reversewere struck in the time of JudasMaccabeus,14and that the letters that are abovethe urn indicate the years from the cleansing of the Templeby Judas.15Fourof these [dates]appearon the shekels and half-shekels, the first of which is simply indicated by an aleph, which means "I,"that is, the first, and correspondsto year 165 preceding the Common Era of J.Ch.[JesusChrist];andthe second has abovethe urn an additional letter with a bet (that is, shin and bet): this signifies year II, since shin is the initial letter of shenat, which means "year."The last is AW,namely, shin dalet, year IV because dalet being the fourth [letter] of the and consequently the year of this alphabet denotes "IV," medal correspondsto 162 before the Eraof J.Ch. With respect to all other Jewish medals, whether large,medium, or small bronzes,as well as the silver ones that weigh only one drachma,which is a quarterof the weight of a shekel, they all belong to the period of Simon,16the brother and successor of JudasMaccabeus. Most of them bear his name very distinctly, and the rest must also be his because they all are of similar types and they date back to the same period. I have also four [medals]on which there appearsSimon Prince of Israel, and these are the rarest.

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Coins dating to the BarKokhba War.Tbp:Silver tetradrachmstruck in the year 135 c.E.depicting the facade of the Templeon one side and four items used in the feast of Tabernacles(the lulav orpalm branch,tied togetherwith the willow and myrtle branches,plus the ethrog)on the other side. Accordingto Meshorerthe lulav came to symbolize the Jewish desire to rebuild the Temple.Second from top: Silverdenarius measuring 19 millimeters in diameter and weighing 3.4 grams. Second from bottom and bottom: Twolarge bronzecoins illustrated in Toinard'sletter number 2736. One has a diameter of 30 millimeters and weighs 27.16 grams. The other (shown on the bottom)has a 32-millimeter diameter and weighs 17.38 grams. (Note: Coins are not proportionatelysized.)

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The latest of these medals was struck 139 years before the Era of J.Ch.and in the fifth [year]of Simon's Pontificate. Somedaythey may find such medals bearing a largernumber,because Simon did not die until the year 135 before the Eraof J.Ch. Apartfrom that I have recently receivedthree medals of Antigonus, the last king of the Jewsof the Hasmonean dynasty,on which there arecharacterssimilar to those on [medals]of Judasand Simon. They could not have been struck earlier than in the year 40 before our Common Era,at which time, afterthe Pentecost, Antigonus seized Judea,having dismissed his paternal uncle Hyrcan. It is an astonishing thing that Antigonus would use characters of this type, which were quite surprisingon medals of of this Antigonus.17I Simon, the great-great-grandfather have indicated to you on a previous occasion that this must have been done in orderto preserve [an appearance of] antiquity,in the same way that coin legends in Europe are written in Latin, although the Latin language is no longer in use in countries where coins are struck with such legends. After that you will understand that in my opinion the so-called Samaritancharactersthat appearon Jewish medals are the genuine ancient [characters]with which the Lawof Moses was written,"8and which were changed by Esdrasso that the Jewswould havenothing in common with the Samaritans,'9who were using these ancient charactersthat had been given to this people when they were sent to inhabit Palestine and there to serve God of the country through a cult that suited them. I believe that I have discovered through a certain passage in a strange place what the charactersare that Esdras introduced and with which Hebrew Bibles of today are written.2? Herewith you have two prints of medals hitherto unpublished-the same as several others in my collection which contains thirty-four.... I have markedfor you with two small dashes the places from which one should start reading the circular legends on the reverse .... The dotted letters were inserted by me and they are no longer visible on these two medals, although they appeardistinctly on others. On the medal on the left (sic),21below which there is an abbreviatedexplanatory line, the field is inscribed in three lines SiMOUN. NaSIA.ISRAeL.These three words mean Simon Princeof Israel;...the i in SiMOUN, the a in NaSIA, and the e in ISRAeLare addedto supplement the pronunciation. On the reverse side, where the vase appears, there is: SeNAT. ECHaT. LeGALaT ISRAeL. The rest YEAR.ONE. OF THEFREEDOM.OFISRAEL.22 for another occasion. I haveto tell you also that the wordECHaTin Hebrew has only three letters although in Latin you would count four capital [letters] in it. This is because the "CH" correspondsto a single Hebrew letter.23

1.

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29 3

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12Johann Georg Graevius, Grafe, or Greffe (1632-

1703) was one of the great classical scholars of the seventeenth century.From 1662 he occupied the chair in rhetoric andthen in history andpolitics at the University of Utrecht. He published many critical editions of classical authors, and other important philological works. Graevius also made significant contributions to historical studies through his scholarly research of antiquity. His teaching attractedmany students from all partsof the civilized world. He was honoredby Louis XIVand also by other monarchs. Lockecorrespondedwith Graevius,and Toinardexchangedletters with him as well. 13Thesymbol does not depict Aaron'srod but probably a stem with three half-ripepomegranates. 14Seenote 3 above. 1STheletters actually represent the years from the beginning of the first Jewish-Romanwar (66 C.E.). 16See note 3 above. 17Theyare even more surprisingthan Toinardimagined, since many of the coins that he ascribed to Simon the Hasmonean were struck nearly three centuries later during the BarKokhbawar. 18Seenote 4 above. 19Althoughthe Talmud ascribes the adoption of the Aramaic script to Ezra (Esdras),Toinard'sscenario is not very likely. The Aramaic languageand script had already been introduced in the eighth century B.C.E.by the Assyrians;it became a lingua francain their empire, as it did later in the Babylonianand Persian empires, both of which included Judea. The spread of Aramaic is evidenced by a papyrusletter found in Saqqara(around600 B.C.E.) that was sent from Palestine,possibly by the king of Ascalon, to the pharaoh of Egypt appealing for his aid. The letter was not written in Egyptianor in Hebrewor in some Canaanite dialect but in Aramaic. In Judea the ancient Hebrew script was gradually superseded by the Aramaicscript. Bythe fifth century,Aramaicbecame the official language of the Persian empire. Undoubtedly it was widely used in Judeaand the neighboring countries by the time Ezra arrived there. Indeed a large hoard of Aramaicpapyriof the Jewishcolony at Elephantinedates to the fifth century B.C.E. A distinct Hebrewsquarescript

Prints

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letter2736.

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(the Jewish script) developed from the Aramaic script only in the third and second centuries. (See Naveh 1970 and Cross 1961.) 20Toinardwrites in Latin-in loco peregrino. He probably refers to the Talmud (Sanhedrin 21b; see Shachterand Freedman 1935). 21Toinard clearly refersto the coin on the right not on the left. 22Theinscriptions can be transliterated as SMcWN NSY' YSRL and SNT 'HT LGIT YSRL, where c and' denote the letters ayin and aleph, respectively (see note 24 below), and H denotes the letter het. The latter inscription should be vocalized SeNaT 'aHaT LiG'uLaT YiSRa'eL,and not as stated by Toinard. Also, G'uLaH (G'uLaTis in the construct state) means redemption or deliverance or liberation, not freedom. 23This paragraphwas added in the margin of the letter. Letter2737 Writtenin French by Toinardto Locke, June 22/July3, 1700 In view of what I had the honor to write you by the last mail, you would be quite amazed to see SiMOUN denoting the name of Simon, and NaSIA indicating his title of Prince. The short time that I had before the departureof the courier did not allow me to tell you that the letter "O" which appearsin the name of Simon is not a properletter but an aspirate corresponding to the character called ayin,24which precedes the pe in the Hebrew alphabet, same as the O called precedes the II in the tK[pov Hebrew (sic) alphabet.5 Now there is no doubt that the ancients renderedthis ayin by the omicron, and because of that and for other reasons it should be acknowledged that the Ionic alphabetcomes from the Phoenicians who [also]createdthe so-called Samaritanletters that areseen on ancient Jewish medals. If we were to dwell upon the meaning of the name given to this letter ayin, we would discover that it is [so named] because of its resemblance to an eye, since the "0"on medals is oval, the same as the apertureof an eye, which in Hebrew is called ayin. The

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Glossary of

Terms Numismatic bullion: Precious metal, usually gold, in an unalloyed state and ordinarilyin the form of ingots. Bullion is the basis for most of the world'scurrencies. decadrachm:A large Greek silver coin equal in value to ten drachms and issued sparinglyin the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. denarius:The basic Romansilver coin from the late third century B.C.E.until the early third century C.E.The first denarii weighed some 4.5 grams and were 18-19 millimeters in diameter.The denarius decreasedin size over time. didrachm:A Greek, and later Roman,silver coin equal to two drachms.The Greek version is commonly known as a stater and its weight and size varied with its place of mintage. die:A piece of hardmetal with a design in reverse,used for coining metal. Two dies are needed to strike a coin-an upper die that is driven into the piece of metal to be turned into money, and a lower die into which that piece of metal is driven.In ancient times, the lower die was the more important of the two. Originally adaptedfrom an official seal, this lower or pile die was fixed in an anvil, hence it is sometimes referredto as an anvil die. Metal was driven into it by hand with a sledgehammer,but the hammer did not strike the metal directly. A punch was placed between them, ensuring greater accuracy and clarity of striking. This punch was the ancestor of the second die, also called a trussell die. Its initial function was merely to help produce one clear image, but eventually it became obvious that the punch could simultaneously impress two images, one on the disk's upper side and another on the lower. This practicewas adopted in time but, in contrastto modern coinage,when we refer to an obverse on an ancient coin we mean that image createdby the lower die. drachm:A small silver coin which circulated widely in the Greek world and the areas adjacentto it. It was the basic unit of much Greek coinage. The coin's weight averagedfour grams or slightly above, and the coin was approximately16 millimeters in diameter. flan: A blank metallic disk preparedfor the coin die. It is also such a disk afterminting. obol: A small Greek silver coin valued at one-sixth of a drachm. obverse:The side of the coin bearingthe more important legends or types. Its opposite side is the reverse.

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octadrachm: A large Greek silver coin equal to eight drachms. prutah (pluralprutot):A Hebrew weight or coin equivalent to one one-thousandthof a pound. punch:A tool, usually a cylindricalrodof steel, shapedat one end to impart designs on dies or coins. reverse: The opposite side of a coin from the obverse. Generally,the reverseholds a coin's subordinatedesigns -that is, the designs deemed subordinateby the people who struck the coin. ForGreek and Roman coins, seated or standingfigures are common on the reversesides. sestertius: A small silver coin of the Roman Republic; later, a largeorichalcum coin of the early Roman empire. The sestertius is one of the most impressive coins in the Roman series. It is also the one most laden with propaganda. shekel: An ancient measure of weight subsequentlyused as a coin designation.The weight variedwith the coins of Tyreand Sidon based on a shekel weighing some 7 grams, and the Hebrew issue, struck at a much later date, weighing about twice that. The Jewishshekel was a late development and was struck for only a short period of time duringboth of the Jewishrevolts against Rome. The shekels were struck over earlier silver coins, indicating the emergency conditions under which they were created. Dated examples areknown from the first two years of the Second Revolt. stater: The principal denomination of a coinage in the eastern Greek world, first struck in electrum, later in silver or gold. tetradrachm:The most famous ancient Greeksilver coin, equal in value to four drachms. Different cities used different weight standards.The tetradrachmwas large enough to permit experimentingwith new concepts and types, and artists, vying with one another to create exquisite designs reached heights equalled only on the commemorative decadrachm. Portraits in astounding relief were particularlyfancied for obverses. type: The dominant design on each side of a coin or related object. The term also refersto a class or groupof coins united or relatedto one another by their design. Many of the terms in this glossary were based on those in RichardG. Doty's The Macmillan Encyclopedic Dictionary of Numismatics (New York:Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1982).

letter U, the vowel that follows the "0" in this name of Simon, correspondsto Y &tA'v,which is the U in Latin, placed in both [Latin and Greek alphabets] after the T, although it ought to be afterthe E since it correspondsto the Hebrew vav.If you invert the figure * that you see on the medals,26 it becomes *; that is, not a *I but an T without the small inside stroke that was discarded by those who adoptedthe letter so that it would be quicker to write. Now, since the Greek T and the Latin U are the same thing, we see on many Greek medals a well-shaped V instead of T, because it would appearto be easier to drawtwo straightlines than two [lines]curving at the top. Forthe same reason the figuretz, which forms the letter M in the name SiMON, becomes Mwhen inverted,from which, having removed the tail at the top, you will have the letter M of the Greeks and the Latins?7On the other hand, without leaving anything of the lamed, both [alphabets]adoptedits shape L,as it appearson inscriptions that I have seen, which are about two thousand years old, and on ancient Roman money. In later generations the shape Lwas consideredeasier to form, andbecause of that it was preferredto that of L.I would wanderawayfrommy subject if I were to tell you more about it at present. There remains the word NaSIA, about which I should observe that the last letter A is aleph, which is silent after a yod: [Theword]is readsimply NaSI, as if the aleph were an H, the eighth letter of the Latinalphabet,which would make NaSIH.In orderthat you can readthese two words,Simon and Nasi, in Samaritan characters, here they are in Hebrew NHIM71117. I shall addhere that 71•i7 can be renderedletter by letter in Latin as SiMHON, using the H for the ayin. 24The letter ayin is not an aspirate but a fricative pharyngeal consonant, transliterated as c. Similarly, aleph is a plosive laryngealconsonant, transliteratedas '. Although in modern Hebrew Ashkenazi pronunciation (originating in eastern and central Europe)both consonants are either silent or used as diaeretic signs, they are very distinctive sounds (particularly the ayin) in the Sephardipronunciation of Hebrew (which was spoken in Spain, Turkey,and the Near East). 25Clearlythis is a slip: Toinardmeant here the Greek alphabet.Lockeunderlinedthe word"Hebrew"andwrote "Greek"above it. 26This form of the letter vav appearson coins of the BarKokhbawar.One of the two forms of this letter in the early Phoenician script is Y (or possibly ?) from which the Greek T has directly evolved,without any inversions or deletions. 27TheGreek and Latin M is probably derived from the Proto-Canaanitepictograph " rather than from the eighth century Phoenician "Ymem (SeeNaveh 1982: 175-86). Toinard's form t resembles the Samaritan mem, from which the Greek M could not possibly have evolved.

Portraitof JohnLockemade in 1698 by Sir GodfreyKneller.Taken from Maurice Cranston'sJohnLocke:A Biography(New York: Macmillan, 1957).

Letter2741 Writtenin Frenchand Latin by Locke to Toinard, July 8, 1700 Since you honored me by writing to me about the ayin and the other letters that appearon the medals in question, I find myself strongly inclined to draw a conclusion in support of what I surmised for a long time; namely, that in the past the silent letters of the Hebrew alphabetwere vowels.8 I would like very much to know your opinion on this since you are the teacher in Israel.' In truth I know absolutely nothing of Samaritanletters, and with regard to reading Hebrew I entertain doubts whether the use of the vowel points before the [time of the] Masoretes is to be accepted or rejected0o 28Theywere consonants. 29"Esenim Magister [in]Israele." 30TheMasoretes were scholars who worked during the Middle Ages on the preservationof the vocalization and literal text of the Bible. The ancient biblical text omits vowels, and during the ninth century C.E. the Masoretes in Tiberias perfected a system of points to indicate vowels and thus the propervocalization of the

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Minting Jewish

Ancient Coins

methods of striking coins in ancient Judeahave changed remarkablylittle, except, of course, those methods influenced by metallurgical and technological improvements.The blanks,or flans,for the Judeanbronze coins were made by casting metal in molds consisting of shallow,roundsockets connectedby channels.Afterpouring molten metal into the molds and letting it cool, strips of coins connected by short metal ribbonswere removed. These arecalledflan strips.An assistantwould reheateach strip and then place the first blank flan between two striking dies on a sturdy base, perhapsa tree trunk. The moneyerhit the top die with a hammer,thus striking the coin, and then the assistant pulled the strip one coin further,and the procedurewas repeated. This processwas obviously carriedout fairlyquickly, and the resultant coins were frequentlystruck off-center. After striking, the flan strip was cut apartinto coins and the remainingmetal scrapswere melted down once again. Sometimesthe man in chargeof cutting the coins apartdid not do a very good job,resulting in coins with long projections from one or both sides. Occasionally the flan strip broke when one flan became stuck in the lower die (orvice versa)after striking. Whenthe next flanwas insertedandstruck,it receivedthe full strike from the top die, but instead of receiving the impression from the bottom die, it receivedthe face of a coin that had already been struck by the top die. This caused the design of the top die to be impressed on the reverseof the coin. Other minting errorscommon in antiquity include doublestrikinga coin andstrikinga coin with a crackedor broken die. Since many errors are apparent in ancient Jewishbronze coins, the original methods for producing the coins can easily be reconstructed. David Hendin The

text. This system has been in use ever since in texts in which vowels are indicated. Vowel points do not appear in any ancient inscriptions. Notes and Acknowledgments I am grateful to Mr. Garry J. Tee of the University of Auckland for drawing my attention to letters in which Toinard and Locke discuss these coins. I would like to thank the Oxford University Press for their kind permission to use the material in The Correspondence of John Locke and to reproduce the figure in letter number 2736 (volume 7, page 95). The numeration of the letters is taken from the Correspondence. In all cases the translations are not of complete letters but of the parts which relate to ancient Jewish coins. Unless otherwise indicated the photographs of coins are reproduced from

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Ancient Jewish Coins by YacakovMeshorer with the kind permission of the publishers, AmphoraBooks. I am also indebted to my colleagues ProfessorsWilliam J. Ashby and Robert E Renehan for their expert advice with respect to some obscure passages in the correspondence. Editor's Note The transcriptions and transliterations used in this article are in some cases those used in the original correspondence and in others were supplied by the author. They do not in either case express the system preferred by

BA. Bibliography Avi-Yonah,M., and Baras,Z., editors 1975 The WorldHistory of the JewishPeople,first series, volume 7. Jerusalem:MassadaPress Ltd. Barag,D., and Qedar,S. 1980 The Beginning of Hasmonean Coinage. Israel Numismatic Journal4: 8-21. Ben-David,A. 1972 When Did The MaccabeesBegin to StrikeTheir FirstCoins? Palestine ExplorationQuarterly104:93-103. Cranston,M. 1957 JohnLocke:A Biography.New York:Macmillan. Cross,E.M. Jr. 1961 The Development of the Jewish Scripts.Pp. 133-202 in The Bible and the Ancient Near East:Essaysin Honorof William Foxwell Albright, edited by G. Ernest Wright.GardenCity, NY: Doubleday& Company,Inc. Josephus,Flavius 1966 JosephusVII:JewishAntiquities, BooksXII-XIV Translated by R. Marcus.Series:LoebClassical Library.Cambridge,MA, andLondon:HarvardUniversity PressandHeinemann.P.379. 1967 JosephusII: TheJewish War,Books I- III.Translatedby H. St. J.Thackeray.Series:LoebClassical Library.Cambridge,MA, and London:HarvardUniversity Press and Heinemann. P.35. Kadman,L. 1958a The Coins of the Jewish-RomanWar.Pp.42-61 in TheDating and Meaningof Ancient Jewish Coins and Symbols, editedby L. Kadman and others. Jerusalem: Schocken Publishing House. 1958b The Development of Jewish Coinage. Pp. 98-104 in The Dating and Meaning of Ancient Jewish Coins and Symbols, editedby L.Kadmanandothers.Jerusalem:SchockenPublishing House. Kindler,A. 1958a The Coinage of the HasmonaeanDynasty.Pp. 10-28 in The Dating and Meaning of Ancient Jewish Coins and Symbols, editedby L.Kadmanandothers.Jerusalem:SchockenPublishing House. War.Pp.62- 80 in TheDating 1958b The Coinageof the Bar-Kokhba and Meaningof Ancient Jewish Coins and Symbols,editedby L. Kadman and others. Jerusalem: Schocken Publishing House. 1974 Coins of the Land of Israel: Collection of the Bank of Israel. Translatedby R. Grafman.Jerusalem:KeterPublishingHouse. Klimowsky,E. W. 1958 Symbols on Ancient JewishCoins. Pp. 81-97 in The Dating and Meaningof Ancient Jewish Coins and Symbols,editedby L. Kadman and others. Jerusalem: Schocken Publishing House.

Locke,J. 1976- The Correspondenceof JohnLockevolumes I-VII, edited by 1982 E. S. De Beer.Oxford:ClarendonPress. 1979 An Essay ConcerningHuman Understanding,edited by P.H. Nidditch. Originallypublishedin 1689by G. Routledge.New York:OxfordUniversity Press. McLean,M. D. 1981 The InitialCoinageof AlexanderJannaeus.MuseumNotes 26: 153-61. Meshorer,Y. 1967 Jewish Coins of the Second TemplePeriod.Translatedby I. H. Levine.TIl Aviv:Am Hassefer. 1982a Ancient Jewish Coinage. Volume I: Persian Period through Hasmonaeans. New York:AmphoraBooks. 1982b Ancient Jewish Coinage. VolumeII:Herodthe Great through Bar Cochba. New York:AmphoraBooks. Meyshan,J. 1958 The Coins of the HerodianDynasty.Pp.29-41 in The Dating and Meaningof Ancient Jewish Coins and Symbols, editedby L. Kadman and others. Jerusalem: Schocken Publishing House. 1968 The Periods of JerusalemCoining. Pp. 45-47 in Essays in Jewish Numismatics, edited by A. Kindler and others. Jerusalem: IsraelNumismatic Society. Minc, H. 1977 Yehohananthe High Priest. SAN, Journalof the Society for Ancient Numismatics 13:30-33. 1981 Coins of Alexander Yannai.SAN, Journalof the Society for Ancient Numismatics 12:49-52, 55, 57, 64-67. 1984 Hasmonaean Coinage. SAN, Journalof the Society for Ancient Numismatics 15:26 -32.

Naveh, J. 1970 The Development of the Aramaic Script. Jerusalem:Israel Academyof Sciences and Humanities. 1982 EarlyHistory of the Alphabet. Jerusalem:MagnesPress,The HebrewUniversity. Raphael,C. 1968 The Walls of Jerusalem:An Excursion into Jewish History. New York:AlfredA. Knopf. Rappaport,U. 1968 Note sur la chronologie des monnaieq Herodiennes. Revue Numismatique 10:64- 75. 1976 The Emergence of Hasmonaean Coinage. Association for Jewish Studies Review 1: 171-86. 1981 The FirstJudaeanCoinage.Journalof JewishStudies 32: 1-17. Schalit, A., editor 1972 The WorldHistoryof the JewishPeople,first series, volume 6. Jerusalem:MassadaPress Ltd. Shachter,J.,and Freedman,H., translators 1935 Seder Nezikin, VolumeIII, Sanhedrin, The Babylonian Talmud, edited by I. Epstein.London:Soncino. Sperling,O. 1700 Otthonis Sperlingii Dissertatio de nummis non cusis tam veterum quam recentiorum. Amstelaedami: Apud Franciscum Halmam. Strabo 1966 The Geographyof StraboVIIBooksXVand XVI.Translatedby H. L. Jones.Series: Loeb Classical Library.Cambridge,MA, andLondon:HarvardUniversityPressandHeinemann.P.289. Toinard,N. 1707 EvangeliorumHarmonia Graeco-Latina.Paris:Typographica AndreaCramoisy.

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English edition contains a small number of corrections,especially in light of the paleographicstudy of the manuscript by E. Qimron (1978aand 1978c),as well as "Addendaet Corrigenda"(volume 3, The Temple Scroll, by Yigael Yadin. pages 403-19) in which Yadintakes note of some of the contributions of others Volume 1, 408 pp.; volume 2, 468 pp.; and answershis critics. In view of the six volume 3, 220 pp.; supplementary years that elapsed between the Hebrew plates. Jerusalem:Israel Exploration and English editions, it is regrettable Society, The Institute of Archaeology of that the English edition was not substanthe Hebrew University,The Shrine of the Book, 1983; $240 (Hardcover, tially revised. Indeed,it appearsthat very little was actually changed in the boxed). body of the work. Yadinmaintains that the author and The recent publication of the English the members of the sect regardedthe translation and commentary on the Temple Scroll will no doubt sparka great Temple Scroll as "averitableTorahof the Lord"(volume 1, page 392). He finds deal of new researchby scholars of the Dead Sea Scrolls, early Judaism,and supportfor this assertion in the fact that divine name is written in the same the who For Professor Yadin, Christianity. it his was soon square script in which the rest of the afterwards, passed away last great scholarly achievement, one for scroll is written, something characteristic of the "canonical"books at Qumran. which he will long be remembered. The text of the Temple Scroll certainly The Hebrew edition of the Temple Scroll was alreadypublished under the representsan attempt to write a new title Megillat Ha-Miqdashin 1977. Even Torah,as Yadinsuggested.It must be beforepublication of the scroll, Professor stated at the outset that this is not a Yadin'slectures and articles had whetted Messianic Torah.The author tells us the appetites of scholars and students explicitly that the scroll describes the in which Israelwill worship Temple 1971, 1972, 1968, 1969, 1967, (Yadin beforethe end of days (TempleScroll 1976, and 1978).After all, this scroll, at 29:2-10). It is an ideal Temple,built sixty-six columns long, was the longest nonbiblical scroll to emerge from the upon the principles of ScripturalexeQumrancaves.We alreadyknew that it gesis and the beliefs of the author or authors. held treasuresfor our researchand we The author of the scroll beganwith awaitedits publication with great Exodus,where the command to build a eagerness. When the Hebrew edition was pubsanctuaryappears,and ended with Deuteronomy.In so doing, he followed the lished, scholars greetedwith joy a work orderof the Torahitself. The scroll of scholarshipthat indeed set the standardfor the editing of Qumrantexts. In basically discusses the structure,furthe three-volumeset, Yadinhad provided nishings, and equipment of the Temple a detailed introduction to the text, an accordingto the orderof the Torahbut edition with scholarly commentary as constantly digresses to discuss the well as notes on the readings,diplomatic relevantofferingsthat utilized these transcriptionand concordance,indexes, structuresor equipment, only to return and a volume of plates (andsupplemento the Scripturalorder.In the process, tary plates) to make possible verification the architectureof the Temple and its of all readings.The technical achieveprecincts, laws of sacrifice, priestly dues ment in unrolling and readingthe badly and tithes, the ritual calendar,festival offerings,ritual purity and impurity, damagedportions of the scroll was sanctity of the Temple,laws of the king unparalleled. The Hebrew edition servedas the and the army,prophecy,foreignworship, witnesses, laws of war,and various marbasis for Spanish, French,and German translations which appearedeven before riage and sex laws are treated.The cult and ritual are dealt with first, and only Yadin'sEnglish edition (Garcia1977, then are the various prescriptionsculled Caquot 1978, Maier 1978).Many other from Deuteronomy 18- 22 discussed. In important studies, some of which will be discussed below, were published writing the scroll, the author apparently workedthrough the Pentateuchin order, before the English edition. The new

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at the same time bringingin the relevant materials from the rest of the biblical corpus,and so creatinghis composition (see Milgrom 1978d). Yadindevotes considerableattention to the all-importantquestion of the manner in which the scroll was composed and edited in antiquity.He states that the editing took severalforms:drafting the text in the first person to indicate that God himself gives these commands, unifying duplicate commands including those that are contradictory,modifying and addingto commands to indicate halakhic rulings, and addingentirely new sections. Yadinnotes the author's modification of Pentateuchalverses to dispel any doubt that it was God who is speaking. On the other hand, entire sections retain the Torah'sphrasingwith no such adaptations.Yadinmaintains that the author sought to claim that the law had been handed down directly by God without the intermediacy of Moses. Hence, the author of the Temple Scroll modified the commands of Deuteronomy, while preservingthe languageof Exodus,Leviticus, and Numbers in which God is mentioned explicitly in the Pentateuchaltext. The author gatheredtogether all material on each subject from the Five Books of Moses, and merged them into a unitary text. Wheneverthe various Pentateuchal texts on one subjectpresented apparentcontradictions,the author harmonized these in accordancewith his own brandof halakhic interpretation and draftedhis version of the law of the Pentateuchto indicate his ruling. Often words are inserted or passagesare otherwise modified to clarify matters ambiguous in the Torah,in accordwith the views of the author of our scroll. The author'suse of the first person, according to Yadin,also marks the additional material not based on the Pentateuchas the word of God. Yadinnotes that the existence of a Templeplan is referredto in 1 Chronicles 28:11and following, and that this servedthe author as the "startingpoint for his composition of the scroll."This passageprovidedthe basis for the supplementary sections, putting the "authority for their existence in the biblical text itself."Forthe Statutes of the King (TempleScroll 56- 59), the author based himself on an exegesis of Deuteronomy 17:18and 1 Samuel 10:25,from which he

inferredthe existence of a compilation of statutes relating to the king. The detailed laws of festivals stem from the allusions to such prescriptionsin the incomplete codes of the Torah.The laws of purity derive from the need to adapt the Pentateuchallegislation written to referto the desert Tabernacleto the circumstances of the Templein Jerusalem. The first hints regardingthe dating of the scroll came, of course, from the paleography.The scroll itself is written by two hands, both dated to the Herodian period. Nonetheless, of two manuscripts in the RockefellerMuseum that are identified by Yadinas fragmentsof the Temple Scroll, one is Herodianand one is Hasmonean. This Hasmonean fragment must be dated to the end of the Yadinconcludes second century B.C.E. that the text must be dated no later than the reign of JohnHyrcanus (135/4-104 B.C.E.) or the beginningof thatof Alexander Janneus(103-76 B.C.E.). The languageof the scroll indicated to Yadinthat the text could not have been composed before the Hasmonean period. ForYadin,"theblatantly Qumran-sectariannature of severallaws" (volume 1, page 387) was further evidence for this dating. Indeed, in Yadin'sview the contents of the scroll, emphasizing the sacrificial Temple and ritual, the laws of the king, and the death penalty regulations,would call for a Hasmonean dating. Basedon the law describingthe use of rings for holding sacrificial animals, Yadinconcludes that "thescroll - or its doctrine-was already known in the time of JohnHyrcanus" (volume 1, page 388) and that this view influenced him to install such rings, as related in rabbinicsources. He further arguesthat the Statutes of the King and laws of conscription (TempleScroll 56- 59) are most appropriateto the reign of JohnHyrcanus,against whose practices the scroll polemicizes. Yadin concludes that the scroll must have been composed aroundthe time of John Hyrcanus.This, he notes, accordswith the archaeologicalfinds at Qumramthat indicate that the sectarian settlement there was founded in the second half of the second century B.C.E. The existence of multiple copies of this text among the fragmentsfrom Qumranconvinced Yadinof the importance of this scroll to the sect. He therefore attempted to find referenceto the

scroll in other Qumranwritings. He tentatively suggestedthat this scroll may be identical with the Book of Hagu (or Hagi), which was mentioned in the sectarian corpus and which was, apparently, a source of law or interpretation.He also examined the referenceto the Sealed Book of the Law in the Damascus Document (also known as the Zadokite Fragments) 5:1-5 (see Schiffman 1975:30 and following), and ingeniously suggests that this also might be a referenceto the Temple Scroll. If so, he concludes, based on the passage in question, that "thesect ascribedthe 'discovery'of that scroll to Zadok, who may be none other than its founder"(volume 1, page 395). Further,it is posdiblein his view to identify the Temple Scroll with the "SecondLaw" describedin a fragmentary"Chainof Peshers"(4Q 177 Catena A) and the book of the Lawthat the Teacherof Righteousness sent to the Wicked Priest according to the Pesher on Psalms 37:32-33 [4Q 171 Commentary on Psalms (A)].On the other hand, he wisely concludes, "Areall these names differenttitles for the same book? Or,perhaps,is the TempleScroll not to be identified with any of these books at all? I do not doubt that this puzzle will occupy scholars for some time" (volume 1, page 397). Yadincalls attention to passagesin rabbinicliterature that mention a scroll such as ours. Yadinsaw evidence of the connection of the Temple Scroll to the other sectariandocuments in the nature of the laws contained in it and the use of terminology characteristicof the sect. This text, in his view, representsa stage in the history of the sect beforeit had developed its various substitutions for Temple worship,from which it had withdrawn. The members of the sect could not participate in the sacrificial cult of the Jerusalem Temple since they had different views from those of the established priesthood regardingthe Templeplan, laws of sacrifices, purity and impurity, calendar,and so on. Yadinsees the scroll's"inspiration" in the Damascus Document and finds a definite relationship between the prescriptions of the Temple Scroll and the laws of purity in the WarScroll. He also takes note of the parallelsbetween the Temple Scroll and the Book of Jubilees. It is important to note his caveat that "onecannot rule out the possibility that the scroll also embodies- to a greateror

lesser extent - the teachings of a wider movement, which is not (strictly speaking) a sect, one from which the Qumran sect developedin the course of time" (volume 1, page 398). Yadinidentified the sect of this and the other scrolls with the Essenes and found evidence for this view in the scroll itself. He saw the Temple Scroll as representing"aformative stage"in the development of the beliefs and practices of the sect. Yadinalso exploredthe relationship of the prescriptionsof the Temple Scroll to early Pharisaiclaw. To him the Temple Scroll is "acodex of laws absolutely contraryto the rabbinicstatutes" (volume 1, page 400). While some agreement exists with Sadduceanviews (see Baumgarten1980),there is also unquestionable contradiction.Yadin suggests that some Talmudicdiscussions evidence a polemic against the views of this scroll, indicating that the sagesknew the views of the scroll but preferrednot to mention the dissidents by name. Immediately upon publication of the Hebrewedition, a vigorous debate ensued regardingthe provenanceand nature of the scroll. B. A. Levine,in a review article (1978),maintained that the scroll could not be provento be a document originating in the same sect that producedthe sectariantexts from Qumran.In a careful study, Levine arguedthat passagesabout the Temple and the calendarthat Yadinhad taken to conform with the views of the Dead Sea sect as known from the other scrolls were not, in fact, necessarily sectarian. Levine disputed Yadin'sclaim that the calendarunderlying the Temple Scroll was that of solar years and solar months generallyagreedto be that of the sect. Further,he disagreedwith Yadin'sclaim that the author of the scroll widened laws of Temple sanctity to include the entire city of Jerusalem.The Hebrew cir ha-miqdash, taken by Yadinas "Templecity,"that is, Jerusalem,was understood by Levine,following L. Ginzberg'sinterpretationof the Damascus Document, to referonly to the Temple Mount and its sacredprecincts. JacobMilgrom (1978b),and later Yadinhimself (1980), arguedvigorously against Levine'sposition. To them, there was no question of the provenanceof this scroll and its place in the sectariancorpus. Milgrom, at the same time, contributeda number of important studies on the sacrificial

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laws in the scroll (1978a, 1978c, 1980, and 1981).These studies have helped to illumine numerous passages dealing with technical matters pertainingto the Temple,sacrifice, and ritual purity and impurity. A number of studies appearedafter the publication of the Hebrew edition of the TempleScroll which, as noted in et many cases in Yadin's'"Addenda to the Corrigenda" English edition, have contributedsubstantially to our understandingof the scroll. Studies of the languageof the scroll by Qimron (1978b, 1978c, 1980),Brin (1978),and Thorion (1983)have confirmedYadin'sbasic conclusion that the languageof the scroll has many affinities to the biblical Hebrew of the SecondTempleperiod, and that it has certain parallelswith Mishnaic Hebrew.I have maintained (Schiffman1980),however,that the affinities to Mishnaic usage in legal terminology are much more prominent than are the similarities to Qumran usage, and that even in the areasof orthographyand morphology,important differencesseparatethe Temple Scroll from the texts authoredby the Qumran sectarians themselves. These circumstances call into question the assumption that the TempleScroll was authored by the same group that authoredthe sectarian scrolls. My hesitation in accepting Yadin's views on this subject is further strengthened by a comparison of the manner in which law is understoodto be derivedin the TempleScroll and in the texts of the Qumransect.,Whereasthe author of the TempleScroll sees the laws and interpretations of his scroll as having been part of the original revelation to Moses, the previously known sectariandocuments see the sect's law as resulting from inspiredbiblical exegesis occurring on an ongoing basis in the life of the group (Schiffman1983: 13-17). Severalscholars have probedthe importance of the scroll for the study of the HebrewBible. E. Tov (1982)comparedthe biblical readingsof the Temple Scroll with those of the three text types previously known from Qumran.He saw this scroll as presenting a text type differentfrom those that underlie the Masoretictext, the Septuaginttranslation, and the SamaritanPentateuch.We should note, however,that the same effect would be producedif the author of

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the Temple Scroll had access to these three text types and used them eclectically or inconsistently. Brin (1980)has investigatedthe ways in which the author of the scroll adaptedand combined biblical texts to create his text. It was suggestedby S. Kaufman(1982)that this process of editing and adaptation provideda model upon which the redaction of the Pentateuchitself might be understood.Indeed,Wilson and Mills have arguedthat severalsources dealing with the festival calendar,the collection of purity laws, and the "Torahof the King,"along with the book of Deuteronomy, were used in the "composition"of the final work (Wilsonand Mills 1982:

Pentateuchalsection in the scroll. Yadin listed the themes discussed in this section as the royalguard,the king's judicial council, the ban on the king's marrying more than one wife or divorcingher, laws of the "warof duty,"booty, "warof choice,"blessing and curse, and invocation to follow the ways of the Lord(volume 1, page 345). The subject matter of this section indicated to Yadinthat it had been composed in the Hasmonean period. M. Weinfeld(1978-1979, 1980)saw the entire scroll as a "King'sLaw,"basing his argumenton ancient Near Eastern and Hellenistic parallels.He suggested that the scroll was equivalent to the Mishnaic parashat ha-melekh, the king's 288). Yadindevotedconsiderablespace to portion, to be readon the Feastof the analysis of the architecturalplan of Booths. I must agreewith Yadin'sevaluathe Templedescribedin the scroll. tion that despite the many important J.Maier (1978)took issue with Yadinon parallels cited by Weinfeld,this scroll, many points in this regard,and this is a concentratingso much on priestly and sacrificial matters, cannot be taken as a subject that awaits further researchby experts. The impressive gold-platedstair- king's handbookor treaty (volume 1, case leading to the roof of the Temple page417).The Statutes of the King served was interpretedby M. Smith (1982)as a as the basis of the study of D. Mendels structureintended to facilitate sun (1979)in which he comparedthe pattern the evidence Smith of worship.Although kingship that emerges from the Letter has marshalled shows that sun worship of Aristeas with that of our scroll and did indeed exist in ancient Palestine, it concluded that the material in Aristeas seems to run counter to the entire tone could be a Hellenistic renderingof Jewish and content of the Temple Scroll for the ideas with which the author was only author to have legislated to providefor generally familiar. what he must have regardedas an offense The scroll'sprohibition of polygamy, at least for the king, has given rise to againstthe Torah'slaw (see Yadin, volume 1, pages 412 and following). some discussion. Yadinmaintained that A question that has received conthe Temple Scroll, like the Damascus siderableattention is that of crucifixion. Document, prohibitedpolygamy(1972; Yadin(1971;see also volume 1, pages see volume 1, pages 355-57). J.Murphy373-79 and Halperin 1981)has mainO'Connor(1970)arguedthat the text of tained that this scroll as well as Pesher the Zadokite Fragmentsmeant only to Nahum describe a penalty of crucifixion prohibit a man from marryingmore for certain offenses, understoodto derive than once, even if his wife died or he from Deuteronomy 21:22.Although this divorcedher. Murphy-O'Connoradhas been disputed by J.M. Baumgarten mitted, however,that the Temple Scroll contradictedhis view, but maintained (1977and 1982),Yadinhas cited much evidence to the effect that such a penalty that either we are dealing with historical was known in Jewishcircles. Indeed,it development or differencesof opinion does seem, as Yadinexplains, that our within the sect. J.R. Mueller (1980)has scroll prescribesthis punishment for taken the Temple Scroll to prohibitboth treason against the Jewishpeople. The polygamyand divorce,following J.A. importance of this material for an under- Fitzmyer'sviews on the Zadokite Fragstandingof the New Testamenthas been ments passage (1976and 1980). discussed in detail by J.A. Fitzmyer In 1983B. Z. Wacholderpublished a volume on the Temple Scroll entitled (1978). The Statutes of the King found in The Dawn of Qumran:The Sectarian the Temple Scroll were immediately Torahand the Teacherof Righteousness. subjectedto considerablestudy because [Editor'snote: see the review following this one for another considerationof this they constitute the longest non-

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

identify the author of any given scroll book.] WacholderadoptedYadin'sbasic theory that the scroll was a second definitively. Such precision is beyond Torah.Arguingthat the scroll ought to the limits of the evidence availableto us. be named 11QTorah,WacholderproIf so, Yadin'sdating and basic exegesis of the text must stand. He correctly pounded the extremely unlikely thesis that this text was part of what was inunderstoodit as a Torahfor the immetended to be a Messianic, second Torah diate pre-Messianicage. Whether it was written by none other than the Teacher actually written by members of the sect of Righteousness. Wacholdertook the who authoredthe sectarianscrolls is a in accord with matter still open to inquiry.Professor Yadin's view, suggestion, that the teacher was named Zadok as Yadinhas set the stage for this debate, describedin the Zadokite Fragments;he and it will continue for many years. went further in claiming that this is the same Zadok whose graveis mentioned Note in the CopperScroll. Wacholderclaimed that the Temple Scroll is the second part This review was almost completed when ProfessorYadinpassed away.His own of a two-parttext of which the first part influence on my careeras a scholar is the Book of Jubilees.This second whose primaryresearchis devotedto the Torahis the Messianic Torahthat is to Dead Sea Scrolls was immeasurable. replace the current Torahat the dawn of Both his works and throughperthrough the eschaton. He claimed that these are sonal contact, he helped and encouraged the two Torahsgiven to Israel at Sinai, me, even while recognizingmy disagreeand found allusions to this tradition in ments with him. It was this spirit of other Jewishworks. Accordingto collegiality, coupled with his profound Wacholder,the TempleScroll is to be scholarshipand organizationalability, dated to approximately200 B.C.E. that makes his work so important. In Wacholder'sviews, where they ways, the work under review here many divergefrom those advancedearlierby is his achievement. In it he crowning Yadin,are highly speculative. On most combines technical expertise, archaethe work Yadin of withmatters, easily stands his challenge. Wacholder'sdate of ological scholarship,and textual exegesis of a level never beforefound in a first 196 B.C.E. is simply too early if the edition of a Qumran scroll. The Temple Temple Scroll indeed emanates from the in the revised English Scroll, especially Qumran sect. Both archaeologicaland edition, will remain a memorial to Prohistorical evidence arguefor the foundfessor Yigael Yadin.YehiZikhro Barukh, ing of the sect in the mid-second century B.C.E. The Temple Scroll explicitly states may his memory be for a blessing! that it describes the laws of the sacrificial ritual to be practiceduntil the Bibliography time of the Messianic era (cadyom haJ.M. Baumgarten, 1972 Does TLHin the TempleScrollRefer berakhah,or, in the readingof Qimron, to Crucifixion? Journalof Biblical cad yom ha-beri'ah).The scroll is in Literature 91: 472-81 (reprinted certainly not a description of an eschatohis Studiesin QumranLaw,Leiden: and its ritual. It is logical temple preE. J.Brill, 1977, 172-82). Messianic. Jubilees,while sharingcer1980 ThePharisaic-Sadducean Controvertain motifs with the Qumran scrolls, as sies aboutPurityandthe Qumran observedby Yadin,and although manuTexts.Journalof Jewish Studies 31: scripts of it were found in the Dead Sea 157-70. caves, is not part of the same text. Its 1982 HangingandTreasonin Qumranand RomanLaw.Eretz-Israel16:7-16. style, its Hebrew orthography,and its theme are completely differentfrom Brin,G. 1978 LinguisticCommentson the Temple that of the Temple Scroll. Zadok is most Scroll. Leshonenu43: 20-28 a name and not that probably symbolic (Hebrew). of the Teacherof Righteousness (even 1980 TheBibleas Reflectedin the Temple Yadinwas very tentative on this point), Scroll. Shnaton 4:182-225 and I do not even know for sure if the (Hebrew). Copper Scroll is part of the sect's literaCaquot,A. ture. In my view, it is unrealistic for any 1978 LeRouleauduTemplede Qoumran. scholar to expect to determine the name Etudes Thdologiqueset Religieuses 53:443-500. of the teacher or his exact dates, or to

Fitzmyer,J.A. 1976 TheMattheanDivorceTextsand SomeNew PalestinianEvidence. TheologicalStudies37: 197-226. 1978 Crucifixionin AncientPalestine, andthe New QumranLiterature Testament.CatholicBiblicalQuarterly 40: 493-513.

1980 DivorceamongFirst-Century

PalestinianJews.Eretz-Israel14:

103- 120. Garcia,E 1977 Elrollodeltemple.Estudios Biblicos 36: 247- 92.

Halperin,D. J. 1981 Crucifixion,the NahumPesher,and the RabbinicPenaltyof Strangulation. Journalof Jewish Studies 32:

32-46. S.A. Kaufman, 1982 TheTempleScrollandHigher

Criticism. Hebrew Union College Annual 53: 29-43.

Levine,B.A. 1978 TheTempleScroll:Aspectsof Its HistoricalProvenance andLiterary Character.Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research232: 5-23.

Maier,J.

1978 Die Tempelrollevom TbtenMeer.

Munich:Uni-Taschenbticher. Mendels,M. in the "Temple 1979 "OnKingship" Scroll" andthe IdeologicalVorlage of the SevenBanquetsin the"Letter of Aristeasto Philocrates." Aegyptus 59:127andfollowing. Milgrom,J. 1978a CommentsconcerningtheTemple Scroll. Beth Miqra 23: 494- 507, 24:

205-11 (Hebrew). 1978b "Sabbath" and"Temple City"in the

TempleScroll. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research232: 25-27. 1978c Studies in the TempleScroll. Journal of Biblical Literature97: 501-23. 1978d The Temple Scroll.Biblical Archeologist 41: 105- 20.

1980 FurtherStudiesin the TempleScroll. Jewish QuarterlyReview 71: 1-17, 89-106.

1981 TheParadox of the RedCow.Vetus Testamentum31: 62-72.

Mueller,J.R. 1980 TheTempleScrollandthe Gospel Divorce Texts.Revue de Qumran 10:

247-56. J. Murphy-O'Connor,

surl'exposeduProfessor 1972 Remarques Y.Yadin.Revue Biblique 79:99 and

following. Qimron,E. 1978a Frointhe Workon the Historical Dictionary:TheTextof theTemple

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Scroll.Leshonenu42: 136- 45 (Hebrew). 1978b The Languageof the TempleScroll.

TempleScroll.Pp.90- 91in Jeru-

document- the longest of the scrolls- is a legal text that treats many Pentateuchal laws, arrangesthem accordingto Leshonenu42: 83-98. IsraelExploration Society. subject, expands some and omits others. 1978c NewReadingsin theTempleScroll. 1977 The TempleScroll,three volumes Yadindatedthe scroll to the time of John Israel ExplorationJournal28: andsupplement.Jerusalem Hyrcanus (134-104 B.C.)or a little 161- 72. (Hebrew). earlier.The text was undoubtedlymeant of the TempleScroll. 1980 TheVocabulary 1978 LeRouleauduTemple.Pp.115-19 Shnaton4:239-67 (Hebrew). in Qumran:Sa pietd, sa theologie et by its author to be regardedas authoriL.H. tative because the context is the Sinai sonmilieu,editedbyM. Delcor. Schiffman, 1975 The Halakhah at Qumran,Leiden: Louvain. revelationand the deity speaks to Moses E.J.Brill. 1980 Is theTempleScrolla Sectarian in the first person. 1980 TheTempleScrollin Literary and Document? Society of Biblical In The Dawn of Qumran Ben Zion LiteratureCentenaryAddresses. PhilologicalPerspective. Pp.143-58 Wacholderhas made the Temple Scroll in Approachesto Ancient Judaism: 1983 The TempleScroll,three volumes. (which he names the QumranicTorah) VolumeII,editedbyW.S.Green, IsraelExploration Jerusalem: the basis for an impressivenew thesis of Chico,CA:ScholarsPress. Society,Instituteof Archaeology 1983 SectarianLaw in the Dead Sea the HebrewUniversity,Shrineof the about the scroll, Qumranorigins, and the identity of the Teacherof RighteousScrolls:Courts, Testimonyand the Book. ness. He maintains that the Qumranic PenalCode.Chico,CA:Scholars Torahwas not merely an edited version Press. LawrenceH. Schiffman of the Mosaic law but a new Torahthat Smith,M. New YorkUniversity 1982 Heliosin Palestine.Eretz-Israel 16: was intended for the last days.It was 199-214. superiorto Moses'Torah,which had Thorion,Y. failed to achieve its purpose. evidently 1983 Die SprachederTempelrolle unddie The Dawnof Qumran: The Sectarian This eschatological Torah,though it had Chronikbiicher.Revue de Qumran andthe 'ITeacher of Righteousness been revealedto Moses at Sinai, was ITorah 11:423-26. of the Hebrew Union (Monographs being published in the author'sday Tov,E. College, 8), by Ben Zion Wacholder. because the last times were at hand. 1982 The"Temple Scroll"andOld Wacholderconsiders it to be earlierthan Testament TextualCriticism.Eretz- xviii + 310 pp. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College, 1983; $25. all other literaturefrom Qumranand Israel16:100-11 (Hebrew). B.Z. older than pre-Qumranbooks such as Wacholder, 1982 The Dawn of Qumran.Cincinnati: Perhapsmore than any other subjects Jubileesand the Zadokite Fragments HebrewUnionCollegePress. related to the Dead Sea Scrolls, scholars (DamascusDocument). His most surM. Weinfeld, have been intriguedby the questions of assertions, however,are his preprising or"King's 1978- "Temple Law." Scroll" the origin of the community that wrote cise date for the Temple Scroll and the 1979 Shnaton3: 214-37 (Hebrew). them and the identity of the man who identity of the author.He holds that the 1980 TheRoyalGuardaccording to the In founded the the of writer was none other than the Righgroup. years early TempleScroll. Revue Biblique 87: teous Teacherand that he composed his Qumranresearchmany theories about 394-96. these issues were advanced,but experts Torahjust priorto 196 B.c.The dating is Wilson,A. M.,Wills,L. 1982 Literary Sourcesin the TempleScroll. have been in generalagreementfor some based on the numbers in CD 1:5-10 HarvardTheologicalReview 75: time now that the community began its where one readsabout the beginning of a 275-88. exile in the second half of the second movement that occurred390 yearsafter Yadin,Y. B.C. as a an Nebuchadnezzar'sconquest of Jerusalem century protest against early 1967 Un nouveaumanuscritde la Mer member of the Maccabeanhigh priestly (587/86 - 390 = 197/6).The Teacher Morte:"LeRouleauduTemple." the WickedPriest in the attractedfollowerswho believed that he dynasty (called Acadimie des Inscriptionset Bellessectarian Some scholars have would become high priest and, upon literature). Lettres:ComptesRendus. 607-19. 1968 TheTempleScroll.Pp.72-82, plate also been arguingthat the original leader gaining control in Jerusalem,would of the group-the Teacherof Righteous- reconstruct the city in accordwith the 12, in Jerusalemthroughthe Ages, ness-was either an acting or full high scroll'sspecifications. editedbyJ.Aviram.Jerusalem Who was the Teacher?Wacholder priest whom Jonathan,the first Has(Hebrew). monean high priest, ousted from office. 1969 TheTempleScroll.Pp.139-48 in arguesthat he is the Zadok who is menNew Directions in Biblical tioned severaltimes in the scrolls and Among the majorproblems that such Archaeology,edited by D. N. reconstructions have encounteredare whose name providesconvenient wordFreedman andJ.C. Greenfield. the facts that so little relevantevidence plays (sdwq/sdq).This Zadok figures in GardenCity. has survivedand that the Teacher,who rabbinicand Karaitetexts, accordingto 1971 PesherNahum(4QpNahum) seems to have been a forceful and gifted which he was a disciple of Antigonus of Reconsidered.Israel Exploration has left no in other trace personality, Soko,had written a largebook, and was Journal21: 1-12. the founderof a Zadokite sect. If he is history. 1972 Iattitudeess~nienneenversla Yigael Yadin'spublication of the correct,Wacholderhas found nonpolygamieet la divorce.Revue Qumranreferencesto the Teacherand Temple Scroll in 1977 has introduceda Biblique 79: 98 - 99. new era in researchon the scrolls. This 1976 TheGateof the Essenesandthe thus solved an old problem.

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salem Revealed:Archaeologyin the Holy City 1968-1974. Jerusalem:

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

the scroll in Bethlehem. He recounts the rest of the story,including the long negotiations and the delicate job of unrolling the scroll, though even here some details are left out-for example, the name of the "Virginianclergyman"who attempted to serve as middleman for the sale of the scroll. Yadinproceeds,assisted by attractive illustrations, to set forth the subjects of this ancient writing found in a Qumran cave. These include: the design for a new temple to be built in Jerusalem(which the text presents as a divine command) an orderlyannual cycle of festivals (includingsome previously unknown), strict purity laws, and rules for the king. Although it is understandablethat the Hebrew text is not included in this general-readershipvolume, perhapsa full English translation of the scroll should have been included as an appendix.At any rate Yadingives an excellent account of the content of the scroll. With his remarkablywide-rangingmind, Yadin illustrates severalof the issues that arise in an attempt to answerthe questions: Who would write such a book?When? And for what audience?Yadin'sscenario includes authorshipby the Essene Teacherof Righteousness duringthe While Yadin's period 150-125 B.C.E. description of the content of the scroll is quite reliable, his reconstructionof its origin is necessarily speculative. If there were some other scholar more appropriatethan ProfessorYadinto coordinatethe varioustasks of obtaining, JamesC. VanderKam unrolling, translating, and presenting a North Carolina State University first edition of this text, the name does not readily come to mind. Yet it should be clear that no scholar,howeverbrilliant, can expect to have the last word on Scroll: The Hidden of Law any majorQumrantext for some time to TheT'Imple the Dead Sea Sect, by Yigael Yadin. come. Everymajor Qumrantext edition 261 pp. New York:Random House, 1985; is improvedafter it becomes availablefor $24.95 (Hardcover). open scholarly discussion. Some of the not-yet-publishedQumran scroll fragThe late ProfessorYadin,whose talent ments will directly relate to such unfor presenting history in a lively and resolved issues as the context of the clear manner is well known, providesin Temple Scroll;let us hope that they will this popularbook the fullest account in all be made availablesoon. of the of the Formost scholars, including Yadin, print acquisition Temple Scroll. Yadinservedas advisor to the the question is not whether the Qumran Prime Minister of Israelduringthe 1967 ruins, the cave scrolls, and the Essenes war."Ihad just stretchedout for a nap," are related;ratherthe question is prehe writes, (page40), "whenI was struck cisely how they are related. Several scholars assume there was only one by the thought that dealerX ... might well now be within Israel'sjurisdiction." Teacherof Righteousness and attempt to Yadinarrangedfor an officer to obtain place him at the founding of the Qumran

Wacholder'sunderstandingof the Temple Scroll and its relationship with books such as Jubileesis a fascinating one, and one that will, it is hoped, elicit more studies that will evaluate it and its implications. The dating of the scroll and the identification of the Teacheras Zadok cannot, however,be sustained because the textual foundation is insufficient. CD 1:5-10 does assign the origin of a community to a time that was 390 years after Nebuchadnezzartook Jerusalem, but the text places the teacher's rise 20 years later. It may be that the Teacherwrote the Temple Scroll, but it seems unlikely that he was the Zadok whose memory survives in rabbinicand Karaiteliterature.The crucial passage for the identification is CD 5:2- 5, which may relate a Zadok to "thesealed book of the Torah"that contained marital regulations that resemble those in 11QT56 and 57. Nevertheless, a careful readingof these lines revealsthat the Zadok in question was the more famous Zadok who was David'spriest. The Dawn of Qumran offersmuch more than can be summarized here, but perhapsenough has been said to show that Wacholder'stheses are extremely important and that to bolster his case he has fully exploited the wide rangeof literaturethat he controls. It would come as no surprise if the book should proveto be one of the most important and widely discussed publications on the Dead Sea Scrolls.

settlement. These attempts lack a vital bit of information:the date Qumranwas settled. The distinguished scholar Roland de Vaux,excavatorof Qumran,was unable to specify a clear beginning of period Ia. Unless his field notes and photographs,which he did not live to see into a final excavationreport,would suffice for a decisive independent assessment, perhapsa limited additional excavation of Qumran,with the purposeof determining the onset of occupation (within second century B.C.E.),should be

considered.Another approachfor finding a context for Essene writings would consider a longer periodof development for this movement, including portions of Enochic literatureof the third century B.C.E.,through the pesha-rim (commen-

taries), and including the CopperScroll (perhaps of the decade of the sixties C.E.).

ProfessorYadinhas had a remarkably productiverecordof intuitions in relating far-flungsources. This book includes many sidelights of such proposals. An advantageof this approachis that it gives the readera good sense of the detective work on this scroll, which is really still in progress.It also means that severalof these possible connections will eventually be abandoned,particularly some of the suggestedreferencesto this scroll and its author in other Qumrantexts. The relevanceof the Temple Scroll to a difficult passagein Mark (page80 and following) may also be questioned. Some readerswill find that Yadin overestimatesthe extent of Josephus' personalknowledge of the Essenes. However,Josephusmentions an "oracle" temple concerning a "four-square" characteristicof the temple description in this scroll - as a concern to those defendingJerusalemagainst the Romans (page169);this is a very interesting connection, and the sort of insight for which Yadinis known. Overall,this volume is very well done. ProfessorYadindied beforehe could proofreadthis manuscript, but there are relatively few errorsin the book. (The names of ProfessorsFitzmyer and Orlinsky are misspelled.) Students of the history of this period will long be turning to the works of Yigael Yadin with gratitude. Stephen Goranson Duke University

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

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S THEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Edited by Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich

Abridged in One Volume by Geoffrey W. Bromiley "ProfessorBromiley has succeeded admirablyin the enormously ambitious task of condensing and simplifying the TDNT into a single attractiveand eminently readable volume without sacrificingthe scholarlyrintegrity of the original ....The little Kittel" belongs on the shelf of every student of the New Testament." -David E. Aune "Avaluablecompendium...that will have a two-fold usefulness: as a ready-referencetool it will provide an overview of New Testament theological usage, and as a preliminary guide it will facilitate detailed study of the lengthy articlesin the unabridged volumes of KittelFriedrich." -Bruce M. Metzger "Now a much greater number of readerswill profit by the unsurpassed value of the Dictionary as, an aid to theological exposition." -F.F. Bruce "An epoch-making work of New Testamentscholarship....An excellent instrument of work for professors, preachersand students." -Hans King Cloth, $44.95

CREATION REGAINED

Biblical Basics for a Reformational Worldview

Albert M. Wolters Wolters believes that evil is not a necessary condition for the createdworld, and that, therefore, the world can be restoredto a state of perfection. In this book he examinesthe natureand scope ofworldviews-in particular Christianworldviews, and concludes that the reformationalworldview is uniquely suited to the task of reformingthe world to biblically prescribedpatterns. Paper, $7.95 128

THE APOSTOLIC CHURCH Everett F. Harrison A full-length college or seminarylevel textbook survey of the church during the New Testament period following Pentecost. Harrison includes a brief description of the church'ssociopolitical milieu, an assessmentof the validityof the biblicalrecord, an examinationof the majoraspectsof churchdevelopment, and sketchesof individualchurches.Extensively documented;thorough bibliography. Paper, $12.95t

C.S. LEWIS AND THE SEARCH FOR RATIONAL RELIGION John Beversluis "The first systematic and radical critique of C.S. Lewis's theological arguments." -Antony Flew "A landmarkbook in C.S. Lewis studies. Certainlythere has been no lack of books in which Lewis figures as a saintly and all-wise thinker. But reallyscholarly approacheshave been rarelyapplied to Lewis's theological and philosophical work. This book takes up Lewis's challenge to present the evidence for Christianityand it operates with full rigour.... Henceforth the person who wants to study Lewis's theology and philosophy will be well advised to read Lewis first, then Beversluis." ---Chad Walsh Paper, $9.95

THE

CHRISTIAN HOPE Brian Hebblethwaite Hebblethwaite examinesthe basis of Christianhope in the Old and New Testamentsand goes on to give an account of the history of Christian attitudes toward the future, focusing in particularon the modern period. Solid scholarshipmade accessibleto a general audience. Paper, $9.95

1985 BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE

"THE 'SON OF MAN' " AS THE SON OF GOD Seyoon Kim A concise, clearlyorganized survey of the much-debated Son of Man problem. After an introductory review of the relevantpassagesand the pertinent scholarship, Kim focuses on his main thesis: that with the self-designation "the'Son of Man,'" Jesus intended to revealhimself as the Son of God who createsthe new people of God at the eschaton, so that they may call God the Creator "Our Father and live in his love and wealth. Paper, $12.95s

THE RESPONSIBILITY OF HERMENEUTICS Clarence Walhbout,Roger Lundin andAnthony C. Thiselton A cooperative venture of literaryand biblical scholars-fellows at the Calvin (College) Center for Christian Scholarshi -this book presents a new approach to hermeneutical theory based on a philosophy of action. Rather than seeing language as the locus of meaning, the authors argue that textual meaning arisesout of the diverse interrelatedactions performed by authors and readersin producing and using texts. The book will be of interest to literary and biblical scholars as well as philosophers. Paper, $Iz.95s

ENLIGHTENMENT AND ALIENATION Colin Gunton Focusing on the concepts of truth, freedom, and faith, Gunton argues that in these areasthe effect of the Enlightenment has been to alienate man from reality, from himself, and from God. But the trinitarianstructure of Christian belief, says Gunton, contains within itself the resources to overcome this alienation and to achieve an integrated perspective. Paper, $9.95

Outstand Books-1985 RAISED IMMORTAL

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in the Perspective of the Kingdom

Emilio Castro The new General Secretaryof the World Council of Churches argues that the perspective of the kingdom can foster unity in mission. "Missionary freedom," says Castro, "meansasking what we shall do and being perpetually preparedto do w at God asks ofus." Paper, $5.95

MISSION BETWEEN THE TIMES Essays by C. Rene Padilla

These nine essays by a prominent Latin American evangelical address the issues of evangelization and social justice. Padilla is critical of evangelistic techniques of the West and of North American consumerism. Although he shares the concerns of liberation theologians, he rejectsliberation theology as a secular ideology. Paper,

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JOY IN THE NEW TESTAMENT William G. Morrice Foreword byA.M. Hunter Morrice focuses on the various words used in the New Testamentto express the joy that comes from belief in Jesus Christ. The first half of the book consists of an examination of the various groups of Greek words for joy; the last part of the book discusses the joy in the life and teachings of Jesus and in New Testamentwritings. Paper, $8.95

THE PAULINE CIRCLE F.F. Bruce Bruce discusses the men and women who surrounded Paul-including Barnabas,Silas, Timothy, Luke, Priscilla and Aquila, Onesimus and Mark-minterms of both their relationship to Paul and their relationship to the early church, looking at the biblihcalevidence and placing it against its first-centurybackground. Paper, $4.95

MurrayJ. Harris Arguing that western Christianity has naturalizedthe Platonic rather than the Pauline sense of the word "immortality,"Murray Harris examines the New Testamentdata on resurrectionand immortality and concludes that the two ideas are complementary and inseparable. Paper,

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THE PERSON IN PSYCHOLOGY

A Contemporary Christian Appraisal

Studiesin a ChristianWorldView Mary Stewart Van Leeuwen "A rich, challengingbook... one that, in particular,every Christianwho is a serious student of psychology should read and reflecton. The author addressesvarious topics bearing on social psychology, personality theory, researchmethods, etc., but her most general concern is to show the need or a majorparadigmshift, one that will greatly change our present understandingofwhat is called 'scientific'psychology. The exciting thing is that this book helps bring about this very shift-one that will provide a more humane, realistic,and valid understandingof the person."Paper, $9.95t

THE SEEDS OF SECULARIZATION

Calvinism, Culture, and

THE HUMILIATION OF THE WORD

Jacques Ellul Translated byJoyce Hanks "At last a book that penetrates the glamor and confusion of the information age....This is vintage Ellul, intense, fresh, dramatic." -Cliford Christians "Anyone interested in promoting or communicating the truth in our frantic society will be challenged and assisted by TheHumiliatzonof the Word.Pastors, teachers, parents, and thoughtful people in virtually any vocation will find their work illuminated by an analysisthat is both deep and broad-rangingin its scope. The translation,preface, and index by Joyce Main Ianks are a superb contribution from one who is expert in Ellul's thought and in the French language." -David Gill Paper, $I4.95

NAHUM, OBADIAH, ESTHER

Israel Among the Nations

International Theological 6 Commentary and EIL RichardJ. Cogqins S. Paul Re'ems This latest addition to the ITC series of Old Testamentcommentaries follows the aim of the entire series in developing the theological significance of the books under consideration, and emphasizing the relevance of each book for the life of the church. Moving beyond the parochialism of Westerncivilization, the authors are sensitive to issues that are the special problems of those who live outside the ChristianWest. Paper $6.95

Pluralism in America, 1870-1915 Gary Scott Smith Smith looks backto the late 19thand early 20th centuries and traces the developments during these years which preparedthe way for the increasing secularization of American life. The contours of American culture might have been quite different, says Smith, if the earlyAmerican Calvinists had not overlooked the approach that Smith argues for-cultural pluralism.A Christian UniversityPressbook.

Formoreinformationon theseand otherrecentEerdmanstitles,writefor a copyof ourlatestcatalog.Examination copiesof mostpublicationsareavailable to qualifiedprofessors.

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