AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF ORIENTAL RESEMCH ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE ASOR,711WEST40TH STREET SUITE354, BALTIMORE, MD 21211 1301)889-1383
EricM. Meyers,President lames W.Flanagan,First VicePresidentfor Publications WalterE. Rast,Second VicePresidentforArchaeologicalPolicy Gough W.Thompson,lr., Chairmanof the Boardof 7Eustees RobertH. lohnston, ViceChairmanof the Boardof 7Fustees PaulF.lacobs, VicePresidentfor the Corporation LydieShufro,VicePresidentfor Development GeorgeM. Landes,Secretary RogerS. Boraas,Assistant Secretary Holden Gibbs,7Eeasurer KateGould Assistant 7Eeasurer StephenWi;helm,ExecutiveDirector MarkGallagher,AdministrativeDirector ASORNewsletter;VictorH. Matthewsand lames C. Moyer,Editors BiblicalArchaeologist;EricM. Meyers,Editor Bulletin of the AmericanSchools of OrientalResearch; lames W.Flanagan,Editor lournalof CuneiformStudies;ErleLeichty,Editor Editorfor Books,WalterE.Aufrecht W.F.AlbrightInstitute of ArchaeologicalResearch(AIAR) P.O. Box 19096,91 190lerusalem,Israel. SeymourGitin, Director loe D. Seger,P esident Carol Meyers,Fi st VicePresident loy Ungerleider-Mayerson, Second Vice P esident; Acting BoardChair JohnSpencer,Secretary-Deasurer BaghdadCommittee forthe BaghdadSchool lerroldS. Cooper,Chairman Near EasternStudies The lohns Hopkins University Baltimore,MD 21218 AmericanCenterof OrientalResearch(ACOR) P.O. Box2470, lebel Amman, Amman, lordan. Bertde Vries,Di ector RobertCoughenour,President LawrenceT. Geraty,Vice President MariorieCooke, Secretary Anne Ogilvy,Deasurer CyprusAmericanArchaeologicalResearchInstitute {CAARI) 41 KingPaulStreet,Nicosia, Cyprus. StuartSwiny,Director CharlesU. Harris,President LydieShufro,VicePresident Ellen Herscher,Secretary AndrewOliver,lr., Tteasurer ASORAncient ManuscriptsCommittee amesC VanderKamChairman Departmentof Phiiosophyand Religion North CarolinaState University Raleigh,NC 27695-810^3 Damascus Committee GiorgioBuccellati,Chairman Center for MesopotamianStudies 405 HilgardAve. LosAngeles,CA 90024
Biblical
Arc1faeologast
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WalterE.Aufrecht EdwardF.Campbell Douglas L. Esse VolkmarFritz SeymourGitin lo Ann Hackett
EricM. Meyers LawrenceT. Geraty DavidC. Hopkins 1amesC. Moyer ToddMcGee Leslie Watkins StephenGoranson LauraHughes
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1ackSasson Neil A. Silberman MarkS. Smith StuartSwiny L. MichaelWhite
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BiblicalArchaeolo A Publicationof the AmericanSchoolsof OrientalResearch
Volume54 Number1
March1991
WomenZs Monumental Markon AncientEgypt
^
_
Page4
_ _
4
Barbara S. Lesko
Egypt'sroyalwomenleft manyremindersof theirlives, includinggrandtemples,tombsandcolossalstatues.Butcommonwomenalso left a monumental mark.This insufficiently-studiedlegacyconsists of tomb chapelswith extensivewall decoration,portraitstatues,funeraryandvotivestelae, and offeringtables,all bearingthe namesandtitles of their ownersor dedicators.
I
OfDrumsandDamsels:Women's Performance in AncientIsrael ,
Carol L. Meyers
4
The mention of drummerstodayusually conjuresup imagesof male musicians.Certainlyfemalepercussionistsexist, but whetherforrockcombos or symphonyorchestras,we tend to think of men, not women,with drumsticks in hand.Has it alwaysbeen this way?Is it that wayin othercultures?
TheLocationof theHolyHouseof Herod'slbmple: Evidencefromthe Post-Destruction Period
__
16
28
Lawrence D. Sporty
The preciselocation of the holy house of Herod'sTemplehas beenwidely discussedanddisputedduringthe pastcentury.Prevailingcurrentopinion holds that the holy house was locatedwherethe Dome of the Rocknow
Page 16
_e_
stands. Evidencefromthe periodafterthe Romansdestroyedthe templein 70 C.E. suggestsa location to the north.
__ __
Archaeological Evidenceof MilitaryOperations in SouthernJudah 36 duringthe EarlyHellenisticPeriod
_g1_
tohn
__ __ __ __
A greatdeal is knownof the LateHellenisticperiod1198to 63 B.C.E.)when the HasmoneansruledJerusalemandwhen PompeyassertedRome'sclaim to Jewishlands.Butwhat happenedin these landsjust beforeandafterthe armiesof Alexanderthe Greatlaid siege to villagesandtowns that daredto standin their way?
_ _
Surveyof theDeadSeaScrollsFragments andPhotographs at the Rockefeller Museum
Betlyon
44
Stephen A. Reed
| ..
W
|
_
= _
k J
? L
S
Page36
Whilethe Dead SeaScrollshaveprovidedmuch new informationin the areasof the text andcanonof the Bibleandthe historyof earlyJudaismand Christianity,their publicationandongoingstudyhavebeen severelyhandicappedbecausea comprehensiveinventoryof all texts andphotographsof the scrollshas neverbeen made.Suchan inventoryis now in progress.
From the Editor's Desk Arti-FACTS:News, Notes, and Reports from the Institutes Qumran Update Introducing the Authors Book Reviews
3 52 54 2 55
On the cover:A sculpturedportraitof Amenirdis I, who shared rule for at least 13 years during the Twenty-fifthDynasty. Photo courtesy of the oslyn Art Museum in Omaha, Nebraska.
Lawrence D. Sporty
StephenA. Reed
tohn
W
Betlyon
Carol L. Meyers
BarbaraS. Lesko
Introducing the
Authors
BarbaraS. Leskois a ResearchAssistantin the DepartmentofEgyptologyatBrownUniversity.Shereceivedher bachelor'sandmaster'sdegreesfromthe Departmentof OrientalLanguages andCivilizationsattheUniversityof Chicago.Herlong-timecommitmentto womeSshistory is reflectedin her book, The Remarkable Women of Ancient Egypt (1987,Providence, RI:B.C.ScribePublications), and in the volume she edited, Women's Earliest Records: From Ancient Egypt and Western Asia (1989, Atlanta:ScholarsPress).She andher husband,Egyptologist LeonardH. Lesko,are collaboratingeditorsof A Dictionary of Late Egyptian, now in fivevolumes.
stationedin the Saudi desert. He participatedin the excavationof Tellel-Hesiin the summersof 1973,1979, 1981 and 1983 as a volunteer,squaresupervisorand administrator.Dr. Betlyon has also dug at Idalionin Cyprusand has workedon coins from severalASORrelatedexcavationsin TunisiaandJordan. He receivedhis Ph.D.fromHarvardUniversityand for eight yearswas Chaplainand AssociateProfessorof Religionat Smith Collegein Northhampton,Massachusetts.
StephenA. Reedis presentlyservingas Cataloguerat the AncientBiblicalManuscriptCenter(ABMC). As a Dorot Fellowin 1989 he residedat the AlbrightInstitutein LawrenceD. Sportyis AttendingPsychiatristandSenior Jerusalemandcataloguedthe DeadSeaScrolls(DSS)fragLecturerin the Departmentof Psychiatryand Human ments andphotographsat the Roclrefeller Museum.At Behaviorat the Universityof Californiaat Irvine.He has the SBL/AAR meetingin New Orleanshe gavea report longbeeninterestedin the use of symbolsas a meansof on the DSSinventoryprojectatABMC.Dr.Reedreceived culturalexpression,stemmingin largemeasurefromhis his Ph.D.atClaremontGraduateSchool.Hehasservedas workas a psychiatristandpsychotherapist. Dr. Sporty's an adjunctprofessorat AzusaPacificUniversityandas a currentresearchconcernsthe originsof contemporary lecturerat CaliforniaStateUniversityat LongBeach. Westernpsychotherapy. He hashada long-standing interest in the inter-relationship of spirituality,religionand emotionalhealth.His interestin the SecondTemplein CarolL. Meyersis Professorof Religionandis activein particularstems fromthe profoundimpactthe Temple's the Women'sStudiesprogramat DukeUniversity.Sheis destructionhas hadon the subsequentevolutionof the alsoa Codirectorof the JointSepphorisProject,as well as three great contemporaryreligionsof Judaism,Chris- FirstVice Presidentof the W. F. AlbrightInstitute of tianityandIslam. ArchaeologicalResearch.She has excavatedfor more than 20 yearsat sites in IsraelandNorthAmerica.Her Aftera careerin academia,JohnW.Betlyonis now serv- most recent book, Discovering Eve: Ancient Israelite ing in the U.S. Armyas Chaplainto the 2nd Battalion, Women in Context (1988lwaspublishedby OxfordUni69th Armor,Fort Benning,Georgiaand is currently versityPress.
2
BiblicalArchaeologist, March 1991
From
the
Editor
's
Desk
is impossibleto publishthis issue of Biblical Archaewithoutsharingsomeof mythoughtsontheGulf Warandits impacton NearEasternscholarshipandthe archaeology of the region.As presidentof the American I amalsoacutelyawareof Schoolsof OrientalResearchIASOR), the peril of our overseasresearchcenters,which find themselvessituatedin positionsof hostility,dangeranduncertainty. Asof thiswriting,theAmericanCenterof OrientalResearchin Amman,Jordanhas temporarilysuspendedoperationsuntil thepoliticalsituationbecomesclearer,theAlbrightInstituteof is operatingon a limited Archaeological Researchin Jerusalem ResearchInstibasis,andthe CyprusAmericanArchaeological tute is movinginto new quartersin Nicosia as discretelyas possible.It is not a goodtime forAmericansandwesternersin the regionandASOR.As a societydevotedto researchinto the languagesandliteraturesof the regionandto the studyof the culturalheritageof that area,especiallyits rich heritageof archaeologicaltreasures,we must alreadybegin the task of discoveringwaysof continuingthatworkafterthe warends. We in ASORare concernedfor the wellbeingof archaeologicalsites,as well as the museumsandlibrariesthatarein dangeralso. However,the loss of human life, on all sides, remainsour overridingconcern.Let me expressmy personal hopethatwhen this warendsmanyof us who haveworkedso hardandso longto uncoverthe gloriesof the pastwill havethe opportunityto workagainwith all the peoplesof the region who havededicatedthemselvesto thattask. To that end, I have appointedan ASORTask Forceto exploreways of fulfillingour historicmission of promoting researchandconductingfieldworkin viewof the dramatically changedcircumstancesthatnowprevailin the regionandthat surelywill be thereforsometimeto come.Inthinkingthrough ourfuturerole,the changedpoliticallandscapecannotdeterus fromlookingto the diverseculturalheritageof the regionas it existed in formertimes, from the prehistoricperiodsto the modernera;ASORmust continueto do what we havebeen doingfornearlya centuryandwe mustredoubleoureffortsto do it effectively. Thereis perhapsa silverliningin the darkcloudsof war hoveringoverthe MiddleEast;at no time in historyhas the public been as interestedin or as hungryfor information pertainingto the ancientculturesof the NearEastas today.As a resultofthisenormousinterest,BA andASORhaveanobligathelevelof its publishing tionto meetthoseneedsbyupgrading betterto the generalpublic,whetherin andbycommunicating theprintmediaortelevision.I encourageeachof ourreadersto referpeopletobackissuesofBA ortheBulletin of the American individuals Schools of Oriental Research, andI alsoencourage leadership, whichliterallycoversall tobein touchwithASOR's the areasof the modernMiddleEast. EachissueofBiblicalArchaeologist is akindof microcosm of the ancientworldat a givenmomentor momentsin time. The kinds of disputesand debatesthat affectedthe past can providea helpfulperspectiveon presentrealitiesandcurrent events.The materialculturethatwas createdin formertimes, It
ologist
todayin dangerbecauseof the GulfWar,can provideus with powerfulsymbolsof religioustraditions,technicalandaesthetic achievementsthat can compelcontemporaryhumansto reflecton the importanceof historyandpropelthemto ensure a betterfuture.All of us, therefore,at ASORjoinwith menand womeneverywherein prayingfora peacethat will last anda onceagainin theglory futurethatenablesallofus toparticipate of ourNearEasternheritage. The forcedresignationof JohnStrugnellas editor-in-chief oftheDeadSeaScrollspublicationteamshouldnotbe theoccasion for anyjoy in academe.Undoubtedlyone of the threeor scholarsin the field,seriousmental fourmostknowledgeable illness anda chronicdrinkingproblemfinallygot the best of him.Wemayneverknowwhetherornot his unfortunateinterviewin the November9 issueof theIsraelinewspaperHa'aretz, in whichhe madevariousanti-Semiticremarks,wasinfluenced by these factors.In anycase,his remarks,combinedwith his his abilityto leadthe interhealth,compromised deteriorating nationalteamstudyingthe scrolls,whichareanunprecedented sourceof informationon earlyJudaismandChristianorigins. it is time to turn Ratherthandwellingon recriminations, our attention to facilitatingpublicationof the remaining scrolls. ASOR is presentlyarticulatinga policy on greater access to these documentsthat would be recommendedfor Cave4 editorialteamandthe to theinternational consideration IsraelAntiquitiesAuthorityIIAA).I am hopeful,andhaveso recommendedto ASOR'sAncient ManuscriptsCommittee, thatwithinmonthssucha policywill be adoptedbyASORand otherinfluentiallearnedbodies.Inthis issue,StephenA. Reed of the AncientBiblicalManuscriptCenterin Claremont,California,describeshis workon a detailedcatalogueof the scroll fragmentsfromQumran,whichwill greatlyassistin the study of the unpublishedscrolls. TheIAAandtheCave4 editorialteamhavetakenmeasures of late to hasten the publicationprocess.The IAA named to replace EmanuelTovof the HebrewUniversityof Jerusalem, Strugnellas the editor-in_ chief of the project,while _ the Cave 4 team named _ Tov,Emile Puech of the . _ Ecole Bibliquein Jerusa^_ lem andEugeneUlrichof , _ Notre Dame as the three X _ generaleditorsof the internationalteam. Forthe _ latest informationon the _ fragments and unpublished _ newsfromthe committees _ < involved,see the Qumran i Update section in this issue.
Eric M. Meyers Editor-in-Chief and President of ASOR
BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991
3
|_ -P9 usually are nently Even withusually female grace in figures tomb portrayed workers andscenes promi-
Womeas Monumental templesandtombs Grand chronologicalchart}offerthe rare on Mark andcolossalstatuesbear opportunityto look at a society ofEgypt's manyreminders aboutits business,not just going Ancient religiousandfuneraryritesbut aIlcientqueensandfebutevencommon agricultural,huntingandeconomic malepharaohs, Egypt mark. pursuitsas well as entertainment womenlefta monumental
andsports.The svelte,attractively Thislegacyconsistsoftombchapels porbyBarbaraS.Lesko groomedsnd fetchinglygarbed withextensivewalldecoration, Egyptianwoman traitstatues,funerary cuts a strikingfigure _ andvotivestelae,and _ _ in almostall scenes. offeringtables,all thenamesand bearing titlesoftheirowners _== (even ordedicators g dignity.The wife 1\X thoseoftheirnearest _ of the tombowner _b i,jx Thiscorpus relatives). _a iS notwellpublished a _ andis littlestudied, = buthassurvivedin as herhusband's _ R quanti- E ! unbelievable companionandsupR ! ties,oftenbecause porter.In OldKingEi s theseobjectswere dom sceneschildren |sMi madeof stone.Publiandretainersare 1sX1 typicallyrenderedon al cationandanalysisof a muchsmallerscale. | ! has thesemonuments Whenviewing I _ not unfortunately walls,it is easy tomb keptpacewiththeir by the anset trap usuallyportrayed the were into workers fall to female Even gleaned sotheinformation discoveries, female these as such gzace, and dignity with where perspective, artistic cient to subject be will far thus fromthem decoratingtheFifthDynasty farmworkers shown be to meant are that figures more as orenhancement, correction, tombof Tiat Sakkara.DrawingbyLeonard be sitto appear side by side seated Lesko. H. available. become sourcematerials Because another. one behind ting agreefirm no is there Although the wife is most oftendepictedas onthecivil mentamongEgyptologists the survivorandmourner,she is difof the levels economic and rights oftenportrayedas supportingor Reveals soArt Egyptian Xmb What ancient in classes ferent otherwiseclaspingherhusband.It Woman Average distinguish to the of how ciety-or, indeed, importantforthe Egyptianartist was throughout found are tombs common Ancient that know them-we among the entirehumanfigure, present to cliffs limestone its Valley, elite Nile the the in women as well as women providedconvenientandeasily andthis necessitatedplacingthe androyalclasseswerecommemo- harring I will cut rockthat couldbe usedas build- wife in such a waythat she appears ratedbyphysicalmonuments. on thesemonuments, ingblocksor hollowedinto,depend- to be takinga positionbehindher concentrate husbandwhen in fact,she is meant ing on the preferenceof the age. asa bothartisticandarchitectural, theindependence, Vastexpansesof wall decoration to be seen as sittingor standingbewayofillustrating positionsandself-respect datingfromthe laterOldKingdom sidehim, as in sculpturedgroups responsible that survivefromthe threemajor byvariousclassesofwomen andsubsequentMiddleandNew enjoyed Kingdomperiods{seeaccompanying earlyperiods. society. in ancientEgyptian
4
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
.@
ze-4Flw
-l
A; t
ThroughoutEgyptianhistory womenprominentin tombscenesare most oftendepictedas companions of the men beingcommemorated. Theirattainments,such as literacy, or theirmost prestigiouspublicactivities areusuallyonly subtly hintedat in theseportraits(through the ornamentstheyhold)andare mentionedverybriefly,if at all, in the accompanyinginscriptions.We canalso wonderwhy moredetailed descriptionsof a man'scareer, whetherin the military,the civil service,or the templehierarchy,are not shown,whereasin OldKingdom tombsandsome tombsdatingto laterperiodsthe supervisingof work on estatesandworkshopsis emphasized.It is likely thatreligiousmotivationwasbehindthe choiceof tombscenes.Perhapsthe perpetual abundanceof foodandwaterin the beyond,eventhe renewalof the life cycle,is beingassuredandnot the continuationof earthlyconcerns andidentities.Thustombscenesare only of limitedvaluein reconstructingpeoples'lives,offeringa partial andbiasedlook at the Egyptian familyandsociety. Neverthelessit is obviousfrom these tombscenesthat ancient Egyptianwomenwererespectedand that theyfully mingledin society, playingmanyroles,whetherin the household,the templecults,or the economicrealm.Peasantwomenare depictedas helpingwith the harvest andtrappingbirds;townswomenare shownas professionalmourners, musiciansanddancers,membersof a templestaffandpartyguests.Rare, thoughextant,arescenesof a woman commandinga boatorbuyingand sellinggoodsin the marketplace
'
if_
_
X
Thisscenefromthe tombof Nakhtat Thebes, datingto theEighteenthDynasty,shows femalemusiciansentertainingat a banquet. Scenessuchas thisindicatethatancient Egyptianwomenfullymingledin society. PhotobyLeonardH. Lesko.
Egyptian
Throughout history
women
promillent
in
scenes often
are
most
depicted
companions men
tomb as of
the
commemorated.
bearingthetitleMistressof theHouse Iyt-hotep, andChantressofAmon,is picturedin thiswall decorationfromtombnumber96 at Thebes. Noticesheis carryingan ankhandothercult implements.Photoby LeonardH. Lesko.
(Fischer1989:21).This givesus a strongindicationthatwomenwielded the family'spurchasingpower,a prestigiousanddefinitelynot universalposition.Also significantis evidencethat in the earliesthistorical periodsweavingworkshopswere filledexclusivelybywomen,whereas men didnot moveinto this importantindustryforseveralcenturies. In the OldKingdom,titles denotingpositionsof responsibility andauthoritybelongedto womenof the elite class,who generallywere closelytied bybloodor marriageto the royalfamily.Tombinscriptions of some womenprovidestartling evidenceof theirprofessionalinvolvements.Onewomantells of being an overseerof femalephysicians (Ghalioungui1975).Anotherused the importanttitles of judgeand vizier,althoughtheymayhavebeen purelyhonorific(Fischer1976:7475).Thereis, however,an abundance of titles forwomenin positionsof authority,such as Directorof the DiningHall,Overseerof Funerary PriestsandOverseerof the Weavers' House,to namea few (Fischer1976: 70-71).It wouldseem thatfewrestrictionswereplacedon womenof abilityandhighsocialstatusin the OldKingdom.It is interestingto note thatreligiouspositionswere not limitedto noblewomen,forwe havefoundpriestessesof majorgoddesseswho bearhumbletitles such as tenantfarmer. honorific Manyadministrative, andpriestlytitles forwomenhave beenrecoveredfromOldKingdom monuments;fewerhavebeenfound fromthe MiddleKingdom,which followedthe FirstIntermediate Period,a time of socialandeconomic
BiblicalArchaeologistsMarch1991
5
Throughout Egyptianhistoryprominent womenin tombscenesaremostoftendepicted as companionsof themen beingcommemorated.HereareRenutet,priestessof EIathor, andherhusband,Yuny.ThisNew Kingdom portraitdatesto theNineteenthDynasty. Photocourtesyof theMetropolitan Museum of Art,New York(15.2.1,RogersFund).
piece as beingunmistakablyfrom the OldKingdom. A moreattractivefemaleportrait is the MiddleKingdomstatueof LadySentluwy,wife of the Nomarch Hapdjefi.OriginallyfromAsslutand now in the Museumof FineArtsin Boston,this statueis a supremeexampleof lifesized Egyptianportraiturecarvedin granite.The graceof the femalefigureis enhancedbythe unknownsculptor'sdisperlsirlg with the backpillar,which too oftenmars Egyptiansculpturein the round.A veryfull coiffurelendsnecessary supportforthe head,resultingin a instability.MiddleKingdomtitles forwomenseldomreflectpositions of authority(Ward1989:34-391, which suggestspoliticalandeconomic changes.Instead,they reveal a rangeof jobsin the serviceindustries,fromscribeto hairdresser, gardenerto miller (Ward1986:8-171. Duringthe prosperousempireof the New Kingdom,the civil service andtemplehierarchiesbecameeven moreprofessionalizedt yet thereis evidencethatwomenagainservedin the cults of majoras well as minor templesandthat theyfilled some administrativepositions,such as controllingaccessto templestores (Lesko1987a:211.Numeroustexts havesurvivedfromthis period,includingcourtdocumentsandprivate lettersrevealingthatwomenhad theirown independentlegalidentity on a parwith men andthatthey couldinheritorpurchaseproperty anddisposeof it without a malecosignatoryor legalguardian.Indeedt womenwereheadsof households, testifiedin court,witnesseddocuments,actedas executorsof their familyestatesandassumedthe obligationsof a citizenvis-a-visthe State.
6
Numerousrecordsshowthis was trueof freewomenin generaltnot justthose of the gentry(Allam1985: 14-221.On a personalleveltit is clearthat womenenjoyedfreedom of movementandassociation,that they couldmarryanddivorceat will, that they engagedin commerceand that theywereableto exercise authorityoverothersin the workplaceor temple. Statuaryof women.In additionto wall scenes,tombsandtemplescontainedprivatestatuaryofbothwomen andmen. Privatemonumentsfrom ancientEgypttendto be diminutivet especiallyif carvedout of stone. Formuch of its history,the pair statueshowinga husbandandwife (sometimesa son andmother)seated side by sidewaspopular.A woman wasnot only portrayedin the companyof herhusbandor son, however, as individualportraitsof womenare foundfromthroughoutthe centuries. Oneexampleis the Mitr.t-priestess fromGizadiscoveredearlierthis centuryby an excavationteamfrom the Universityof California.The simpledress,stockybuildandbold planesof the statuecharacterizethis
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
Thepairstatuewas verypopular, but women werenot onlyportrayed in the companyof theirhusbandsorsons.Individualfemale portraitshavebeenfoundfromthroughout the centuries.Oneexampleis thisMitr.tpriestessfromGiza,discoveredearlierthis centurybyan excavationteamfromthe Universityof Californiaat Berkeley.The simpledress,stockybuildand boldplanesof thestatuecharacterize it as belongingto the OldKingdom.Photocourtesyof theLowie MuseumofAnthropology, the Universityof Californiaat Berkeley(619802).
Artin New York,wasfoundat Adana in AsiaMinor. Egypt'sempirecontinuedto expandin the New Kingdom,resulting in greatercosmopolitansophistzcation.Duringthis periodportraits of womerlwerecreatedin all media andsizes,with the womarSssocial statusor wealthgenerallyreflected in the size of the statue.The wife of a high officialmightbe commemoratedin a life-sizedsculpture,while womenof morehumblestations hadto be contentwith statuettes measuringonly a foot ortwo in height.Althougha womanwas
believed
Egyptians when
that
their it
tombs perpetuate into
put
were
depictions in
eternal
thanstatues,presumablybecause theywereeasierto produceandcost less,arestelaededicatedto preserving the memoryof individuals.These stelaedepictthe deceased,and sometimesfamilymembers,seated at a tableloadedwith foodanddrinl<. Theyareinscribedwith the names andtitles of the ownerlandusually familymembersJtogetherwith an invocationthat wasmeanteither magicallyto perpetuatethe offerings of "athousandeachof bread,beer,
would them life.
usuallypairedwith a male relative, thereareseveralstatuesin which a womanis pairedwith a femalerelative (usuallya motheranddaughter), andthereareindividualportrait sculpturesas well. Typicallyin this morevoluptuousagethe artisttook This Middle Kingdomportraitof Lady Sennuwy of Assiut, wife of the Nomarch greatcareto delineatethe curls Hapdjefisis a supremeexample of life-sized of the wigs andthe textureof the Egyptianportraiturecarvedin granite.Note that the unknown sculptorused a full coiffure dresses.Someof the most enchantinstead of the usual back pillar to support ing individualportraitsof women the head, resulting in a graceful,more lifelike are donein woodandcomefromthe portrayal.Photo courtesy of the Museum of Ramessideage.The lines of their Fine Arts) Boston (14.720). slim andalwaysyouthfulbodiesare shownthroughdiaphanouslinen morelifelikeportrayal.Still, one wishes formoreautobiographical robeswith foldsandpleatsthat are informationfromthese monuments. especiallyeasyto portrayin this this statuewasfound softermedium.Idealisticportrayals Mysteriously, wereverycommonapparentlybefarfromherhome in the Dongola causethe Egyptiansbelievedthat regionof the UpperNile, partof a when such depictionswereplacedin barbaricburial.Determininghow, when andwhy it got thereis prob- tombstheywouldperpetuatethem lematic.Similarly,a much smaller into eternallife.Afterall, who would statueof an Egyptianfemalenurse, not lilneto remainyoungforever? nowin the MetropolitanMuseumof Privatestelae.Evenmorecommon
As Egypt'sempirecontinued to expand during the New Kingdom,a greatercosmopolitan sophistication resulted. Typicallyin this more voluptuousage sculptorstook great care to delineate the curls of women's wigs and the texture of their dresses, as exemplified by this wooden statuette of Lady Teyedating to the EighteenthDynasty. Photo courtesy of the MetropolitanMuseum of Art, New York (41.2.10,RogersPund).
BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991
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oxen,andfowl"or at least-provide a text for l l passersbyto reciteand | I thus ensuresustenance | ! to the deceasedland | | family). l | The majorityof stel lae depicthusbandsand | wives,but some women l hadstelaeexclusivelyof l! theirown or shared l them with femalerelal tives.Stelaedonatedby l daughtersto commemoratetheirmothershave | beenfound.In anycase, | the namesof the women | areoftenaccompanied by theirtitles, whether | secularor religious. | Manyfemalemembers X of the OldKingdomelite borethe title of King's Acquaintance,also knownfrommonuments | of men. Later,the most | commontitle, regardless 1] of socialstatus,was 11 Mistressof the House.A womanwho couldclaim a clericaltitle wassure i to mentionit on her tomb,statue,or stela. Suchmonumentstell of the roleswomenplayedin ancient Egyptiansociety,which,when comparedwith datesof the source materials,changedovertime. For instance,morewomenheldhighrankingpriestesspositionsin the OldKingdomthanin the centuries immediatelyfollowingit (Galvin 1989:26) Up until the TwelfthDynasty (MiddleKingdom),stelaeweremade forfunerarypurposesonly,but abouthalfthe piecesdatingto the MiddleKingdomseemto havebeen dedicatedduringa persoWs life as votivesforgods.Similarly,small stoneofferingtablesbearingthe namesandtitles of the dedicators werea favoriteformof commemoration as well as an expressionof a persontspiety.A groupof 14offering
Iconographic changes in scenesdepictedon stelaehavebeenstudied, andit is interestingto note that as the Twelfth Dynastyprogressedthe motherseemsincreasingly to displacethe wife in .
prommence
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Evenmorecommonthanstatuesarestelae dedicatedtopreservingthememoryof individuals.Thesestelaedepictthe deceased, andsometimesfamilymembers,sittingat a tableloadedwith foodanddrink.Theyare inscribedwith thenamesand titlesof the ownertogetherwith an invocationdesigned to ensuresustenanceto the deceasedand family.Themajorityofstelaedepicthusbands andwives,butsomewomenhadstelaeof theirownorsharedthemwithfemalerelatives.Thispaintedlimestonestelafromthe MiddleKingdomis dedicatedto two women, InyotefanAh andMeswet-NetretteXh, byfour otherwomen,presumablyof modestmeans. Photocourtesyof theMetropolitan Museum ofArtJNew York(36.3.270).
tablesdedicatedby womenwere foundtogetherat Lisht.Theywere apparentlydedicatedby womenof modestmeans,with titles ranging fromhall keeperto housemaidand, possibly,cleaninglady(Ward1989: 33-34).
BiblicalArchaeologist, March 1991
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sceneson stelaeowned by men. Evenwhen the fatheris depicted,he is neverportrayed asprominentlyas the mother (Pfluger1947:128-29). The importanceof the motherin the Egyptian familyis reflectedin the literatureof all periods as well as in the factthat Egyptianmen,eventhose of the highestsocialclass andin highestranlQs of the civil serviceor the military,oftenplaced only theirmothers' nameson theirmonuments andotherdocuments.Familygroups predominateon stelae fromall periods.As with stelaedepictingonlymen, the numberof stelae designedexclusivelyfor womenseems to be small. Sceneson funerarystelaeusuallyshowa male figure,probablya son, performing ritesbeforehis parents,but occasionallya femalefigureofficiates. Femalevotivestelae,on which only the womendedicatoris depicted worshipingherfavoritedeities,have beenfoundin numeroustownand cemeterycontexts,such as at Deir el-MedinehandAbydos. Nineteenth-centuryarchaeologistAugusteMariettefound23 LatePeriodstelaeof womenbearing the religioustitle chantresstogether in one partof the greatnational shrineandnecropolisof Abydos, which wassacredto Osiris,a godof the dead(Mariette1880:numbers 1173-94).Ofthe 23 stelae,only five includeda husband's figureandname,
whereas18belongedto womenalone. Mostof these werechantressesof Osiris,but threeservedIsis andtwo servedAmon.This groupof stelae suggeststhat womencouldexercise freedomof choicewhen it cameto theirfunerarymonuments;it also furthersthe possibilitythatwives depictedin limitedrolesin what appearsto havebeentheirhusbands' tombchapelartmaynot alwayshave beenburiedwith theirhusbands. Theycouldhavemaintainedtheir ownreligiousfunerarymonuments at cemeteriesandholy shrinesof theirchoosing.Becausefunerary andotherreligiousmonumentscontainlittle biographicalinformation -anddo not focuson the concernsof everydaylife, it is fortunatethat Egyptiantextsin the formof personal documents lettersandadministrative abound.Fromthese documentsa muchclearerpictureof the lives led by ordinaryEgyptianscanbe reconstructed(compareJames1962,1984; Cerny1973;Bierbrier1982;Romer 1984;Lesko1987a,1987b). Monumentsof EgyptianQueens Tombsbelongingexclusivelyto womenhavesurvivedfromthe beginningof Egyptianhistory.Some queensof the earlydynastieswere commemoratedwith tombsas large as those of kings,testimonyto their all-importantheiresspositionandto theirreligioussignificanceas daughtersandwives of god-kings.However, the best preservedevidenceforthe statusof noblewomenin the initial stagesof pharaonicEgyptsurvives fromthe FourthDynasty(OldKingdom)necropolisat Giza.The wives builder andmotherof Khufu(Cheops), of the GreatPyramid,sharedwith him the royalpyramidstyle tomb, its magicalqualitiesandthe royal funeraryreligiousliteraturelEdwards 1986:189-96,296-302),a privilege not grantedevento the maleheir apparent.Laterin the dynastyother royalwomenhadtheirlarge,flattopped(mastaba)tombsintermingledwith those of theirbrothers
in the royalEasternCemetery.For instance,QueenMersyankhIII,who diedbeforeherhusbandKingKhafre andhermotherQueenHetepheresII, waslaidto restin a largemastaba chapelsinside with above-ground as andoutsidethe superstructure set well as an elaboratesubterranean evidenceforthestatusof of roomshewn in the rockandbeauThebestpreserved noblewomenin theinitialstagesofpharaonic tifully decoratedwith wall reliefs EgyptsurvivesfromtheFourthDynasty necropolisat Giza.Above:Thequeens' andsculpturehewnfromthe living picpyramidsat thepyramidof Menkaure, rock(DunhamandSimpson19741. turedhere,show thatwomensharedthe royalpyramidstyle tomb.Photoby pharaoh's LeonardH. Lesko.Below:Laterin theFourth Dynastyotherroyalwomenhad theirflattombsintermixedwith topped(mastaba) thoseof theirbrothersin theroyalEastern III,who died Cemetery.QueenMersyanAh beforeherhusbandKingKhafreandher II,waslaid to rest motherQueenHetepheres chapels in a largemastabawith above-ground as well insideandoutsidethesuperstructure as an elaborate,beautifullydecoratedsubset of roomshewnin therock. terranean in areportrayed andMersyanAh Hetepheres thispairstatue.Photocourtesyof the Museumof FineArts,Boston(30.1456).
Thisimpressivetombbuiltby QueenKhentkaweslies betweenthecausewaysof thesecondandthirdpyramidsat Giza.Livingat the is endof theFourthDynasty,KhentRawes believedto havebeenthedynasticlink to the FifthDynastybecausehermostsignificant title translatesas Motherof TwoKingsof UpperandLowerEgypt.Oneof thesons who built musthavebeenKingNeferirkare, on thesouthside of his pyramidtombat Abu Sira smallerpyramidtombforKhentkawes. PhotobyLeonardH. Lesko.
Betweenthe causewaysof the secondandthirdpyramidsat Giza lies an impressivetombbuilt by QueenKhentkawes.Livingat the endof the FourthDynasty,she is believedto havebeenthe dynastic link to the FifthDynastybecause her most significanttitle translates as Motherof TwoKingsof Upper andLowerEgypt.One of the sons musthavebeenKingNeferirkare, who built his pyramidtombat nearbyAbuSir;therehe provided,on the south side,a smallerpyramidtomb forKhentkawes,thus restoringto herthe benefitsof sucha tombstyle. Heroriginallargetombmaynot haveseemedso inferiorto the queen mother,however,becauseKing Shepseskhaf,who ruledat the end of
March1991 BiblicalArchaeologisto
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Thiscolossalfigureof QueenNefertari, flankedby thoseof herhusband}Ramesses theGreat,arecutintothefacadeof Nefertari's templeat AbuSimbel,locatedseveralhundred yardsto thenorthof themaintemple Largerthan-lifestatuesof queensappearedin the OldKingdomandcontinuedinto theMiddle Kingdom} butit wasduringtheNewKingdom thatthemost dazzlingarrayof monuments commemoratinggreat womenwasproduced. PhotobyLeonardH. Lesko.
becomewell-knownfromanother portraitthat recentlytraveledthe worldas partof the Rarnessesthe Greatexhibition. If the wife andfamilyof Ramesses IIarelilliputiansnext to his four colossi at AbuSimbel'sgreater temple,so too is the supremegod Re,depictedon his perchabovethe entrancedoor.The factthatthe king'sfamilywereoftendepictedat the levelof the legs of his colossal figureshouldnot blindus to the importanceof the greatroyalwife in Egyptianhistory.Thequeenwasoften of purerroyalbloodthanherhusband,whose claimto the throneshe legitimized.In religiousterms,the queenwasthe embodimentof the goddessesHathor(wifeof Re)and Dualityof rulershipseemsto be expressedby thispowerfulFourthDynastyportraitgroup of KingMenkaure andQueenKhamerernebty, as thefiguresareof equalsizeandstance. Photoby LeonardH. Lesko,courtesyof the Museumof FineArtsJBoston.
the FourthDynasty,hadalso elected lDuell 1938).Suchwerethe biasesof to havethis samestyle of tomb, male researchersin the 1930s. Themonumentsof ancientEgypwhichloolredlilrea giantsarcophagus tian queensor greatroyalwives las mountedon a highpodium.However,the practiceof providinga pyra- they werecalled)aretoo numerous mid tombforqueenscontinuedinto to recounthere.Manyarefamiliar the SixthDynastyandthe Twelfth to everyone,however,such as the paintedportraitbustof QueenNeferDynasty,afterwhich time royal pyramidswereabandonedin favorof titi, wife of the controversial pharaoh morehidden,rock-hewnsepulchres. Alrhenaten,or the colossalfigureof Duringthe OldKingdom,prin- Nefertari,wifeof Ramessesthe Great, cesses andwives of powerfulmen sculptedintothe facadeof the smaller wereoftenprovidedwith stelaeand templeof AbuSimbel.Larger-thanlife statuesof queensappearedin the statuaryfortheirtombsfromthe royalworkshops.In time their OldKingdomandcontinuedinto mastabatombchapels,like those of the MiddleKingdom,but it wasduring the EighteenthandNineteenth theirhusbands,becamemoreand moreelaborate.Wholesuites of Dynastiesthat the most dazzling roomsinvadedthe massof the arrayof monumentscommemoratmastaba,theirwallscoveredentire- ing greatwomenwasproduced.The ly with depictionsof the owners, colossalpairstatueof AmenhotepIII theirretinues,andactivitieson their andhis common-bornwife Queen estates.It is unfortunatethat the Tiy dominatesthe maincourtof the publlcationof one of the most sigCairoMuseum,anda colossus131 nificanttombsof the SixthDynasty, feet tall)of the daughterof Ramesses thatofPrinceMereruka, neglectedthe the Greatoncestoodbesidehis colosroomsdevotedto his wife, Princess sus that still standsat a templein Watetkhet-Hor, andconcentratedon Akhmim.The attractivefeaturesof only the husband'spartof the tomb this princess,Meryetamun,have
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Mut (wifeof Amon);in earlierages she was closelyassociatedwith the goddessNeit. The famouspairstatue in the Museumof FineArts in BostondepictingKingMenkauref builderof the thirdGizapyramid, is andhis queenfKhamerernebtyf the epitomeof equalityin size and strength.The two figuressharethe traditionalmasculinestanceof left footforward.The queensfeaturesare repeatedon statuesof the goddess Hathorfoundnearbyin this temple. Somedaughtersof the godJas full-bloodedroyalprincesseswere calledfnot only legitimizeda halfbrotheror an unrelatedcandidateJs claimto rulefthey actuallytook the reinsof government.Thebestknown exampleof this wasHatshepsutin
the EighteenthDynasty.Hermagnificentmortuarytempleat Deir elBahriis the greatestmonumentto a womansurvivingfromantiquity. Numerousstatuesof her havebeen uncoveredby excavations,most of which areon displayat the MetropolitanMuseumof Artin New York. Theyincludeleoninesphinxesand all bearing toweringOsiridestatuesZ the queenfsdelicatelyfeminineface. SomesculpturesshowHatshepsut in garbtraditionallywornbymale pharaohs;othersshowherin a dress. NewKingdompharaohswereapt to providechapelsfortheirpredecessorswithin theirownmortuary but Hatshepsut,instead templesZ of dedicatinga chapelforher late husband,turnedit overto services
forherfather.Inscriptionsin the templepurportto quoteThutmoseI as pronouncinghis daughterhis heir andaskingthe chiefmenof the realm to supporther (Naville1898:plates Not contentwith this paLXI-LXII). ternalpoliticalsupportfHatshepsut also clarifiedherdivinerightto rule byrecordingthe miracleof herbirth on the wallsof the secondterrace, northendfwith vastanddetailed scenes-ofherdivineconceptionand birth(Naville1896:platesXLVIIXLIX; LIII-LIV).Also illustratedare howAmonfking of the gods}desigmotherto be his natedHatshepsutJs bride;howshe conceivedHatshepsut; how all the greatancestralgoddesses aidedherbirthandsuckledher;andJ laterfhow the greatgodarrangedand presidedoverhercoronation.To celebrate15yearson the thronef Hatshepsuthelda jubileeanderected obeliskssheathedin goldalloy;they weretallerthanherfatherfsand loomedabovethe roofline of the Rarnaktemple.
Above: The terracedmortuarytemple of Queen Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahrion the west bank at Luxoris the greatest monument to a woman survivingfrom antiquity. Left: Thereare numerous statues of this Eighteenth Dynasty queenJwho reignedd7uringan age of prosperity,sophistication and relative peace. This sphinx emphasizes Hatshepsutts kingly role by presentingher as a lion, an ageold motif regardedas the prerogativeof kings. Photo courtesy of the MetropolitanM7useum of 24rtJNew York(31.3.94).
Ael
Hatshepsutreignedin an ageof prosperityZ sophisticationandrelative peaceZ which she claimedto havekeptherselfbyjoiningher troopsacrossEgyptZs southernboundaryill displaysof militaryforce. Hatshepsutwasfollowedon the thronebyhernephewZ the highly capablerulerThutmoseIIIIwho has been calledthe Napoleonof Egypt forhis empirebuilding(althoughhe wasreallyrepeatingexploitsof HatshepsutZs father).ThlltmoseIIIis believedto havebeenresponsiblefor the eventualdestructionof HatshepsutZsmonumexlts.If so, we must suspect that the memoryof this strong femalepharaohlingeredin the mindsof herpeopleandwasviewed as a threatbyher male successors. Hatshepsutcamefroma longline of dynamicwomen.Amongthese was QueenAhmose-Nefertaril wife ofAhmoseZ founderof theEighteenth Dynasty.Ahmose-Nefextari was givenconsiderableauthorityixlthe cult of the Kingof the Godswhexl she wasmadeGodJsWifeof AmonZ a positionthatheld a chief roleas a priestessin the nationalcult center andwasprovidedwith goodsand propertylegallydocumexlted and publishedforall to see on a monumentalstela set up in the templeof Amonat Karnak(Robins1983:7073).Thereis no questionthat Ahmose-Nefertari functionedactively as a priestessin the Amoncult andthat she wieldedconsiderable economicpowerandcontrolledbuildingprojectsat severalcult sites throughoutthe country.Evenbeyond thistherroyaltitles includedthe exceptionalFemaleChieftainof Upper andLowerEgypt,which malnesit lilrelythat afterherhusbanddied she ruledas regentforher sont AmenhotepI. New Kingdomqueens generallyhadto be contentwith havingtheirfunerarycult place within the mortuarytempleof their husbandstbut Amerlhoteperecteda mortuarytempleforher.AhmoseNefertarioutlivedAmenhotepand washonoredas well byhis picked
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successorlThutmoseIZwhen he set up a colossalstatueof the old quee.n in the courthe built at Karnak.It wasThutmose'sdaughterZ HatshepsutSwho latersucceededto the GodlsWifeposition.
Wallpaintixlgsin manyprivate tombsmemorializethe greatqueen. Majormonumentsof another EighteenthDynastyqueencameunexpectedlyto lightwhena University of Torontoexcavationteamled by DonaldB.Redfordset out to recover templesthat the heretickingAmenDuring the last hotepIV(Akhexlaten) built at Karnak anddedicatedto his new god,the 10 dynasties solardiscJAten. Suchstructures were knownto exist becauseof the private statuary thousandsof looseZsmall stone blocks(ta1atat) thathadlain unmarkedly decreased. assembledformanyyears,like misplacedpiecesof a jigsawpussleZin AfterherdeathJAhmosethe shadowsof the Karnaktemple. Nefertariwas deifiedZ andhername WhenCanadianandEgyptianarchaewasevokedin prayersalongside ologistsbeganto studythe blocks those of the Thebanholy triad.Her anduncovermoxefromthe interior cult waspopularin Egyptformany of the secondandtenthpylons(where centuriesZ particularlyamongthe the blockshadbeenreusedafter Akhenaten/stempleshadbeentorn down)the excavators wereastonished Ancient EgyptianChronology to find that the predominant royal 3100-30B.C.E. figure in the cult of the god was FirstDynasty 3100-2890 Second Dynasty 2890-2686 QueenNefertiti. The largestof the two Aten OldKtngdom temples at Karnak(theGemPaAten) Third Dynasty 26862613 PourthDynasty 2613-2494 hadmanyrowsof piexsdecorated Fifth Dynasty 2494-2345 with largescenesof Nefertitiandher Sixth DyIlasty 2345-2181 eldestdaughter,MeretatenZ sacrific1stIntermediatePeriod2181-2050 ing to the sun disk at the highaltar. Axlothertemple,the Maxlsionof the MiddleKingdom BenbenStone(theage-oldsacred EleventhDynasty 2134-1991 totemof the sun goditwasawholly given overto the use of the queenZ' 2ndIntermediatePeriod1786-1567 (Redford1984:138).ItspylonedgateNew Kingdom waysalso hadlargescenes showing EighteenthDynasty 1567-1320 the queenandhereldestdaughters Nineteenth Dynasty 1320-1200 TwentiethDynasty 1200-1085 as celebrantsin the cult. The queen appearstwice as oftenasherhusband 3rdIntexmediate Period1085-747 in the talatat scenesandsometimes in otherpharaonicroles,such as in LatePeriod Rushite (Twenty-fifih}Dynasty 747-664 the guiseof a warriorbrandishinga Saite (Twenty-sisth}Dynasty 664-52S scimitarZ readyto smite a captive PersianConquest 525 (Redford1984:78). AlexanderJsConquest 332 Egyptologistshaveyet to resolve Ptolemaic Rule 305-30 the questionof why Nefertitiis so muchmoreprominentthanAkhenatombworkersof the pharaohswho ten in scenesat Thebes.Wasshe asthoughtof herandher son as their signedto the sacredcity as a represpecialpatronsbecauseunderthem sentativeof the kingrulingfromthe old capltalof Memphisin the north? the workersZ villagein the great Sucha rolelaterfell to the daughters Thebannecropoliswasfounded.
BiblicalArchaeologistJ March 1991
of the monarchsof the ThirdInterpredemediatePeriod.Akhenaterl's cessor,AmenhotepIII,seemsto have favoredThebesas his residence,and he mayhavehada closerrelationshipwith Nefertitithanis usually thought,possiblyas the surrogate fatherof her children.If medical expertsarecorrectandAkhenaten sufferedfromFroehliclissyndrome (amalfunctionof the pituitarythat causes,amongotherconditions, sterilityl,he couldnot havefathered Nefertiti'ssix daughters(Harrisand Hussien 1988:126;Aldred1988: however, 231-321.Herfather-in-law, hadalreadysiredseveraldaughters andwouldhavebeenthe only reasonableanswerto the youngcouple's desireforheirs.Scenesdepicting AmenhotepIIIas a corpulentold manwerefoundat the site of Tell el-Amarna,whereAkhenatenand
fighthe controversial Aboveright:Nefertitiwas the wifeofAmenhotepIV(Akhenaten), teenthDynastypharaohwho worshipedthe solardisc,Aten,aboveall othergods.In this Nefertitiandherdaughterareshown scenefromoneAtentempleat Karnak(nowdestroyed), offeringsacrificesat thealtarofAten,whoseraysshinedownuponthem.Courtesyof Donald Above:OnsometalatatscenesfrornKarnak,Nefertitiis shownin pharaonicroles, B.Redford. as in thisimageof herboatthatincludesa kiosk(topblock,farlefi)in whichsheis portrayed as a warriorreadyto strikean enerny.Photocourtesyof theMuseumof FineArts,Boston (63.260,64.521).
Nefertitididnot resideuntil yearsis reign.It is possible, of Akhenaterl's as CyrilAldredhas suggested,that these andotherscenesindicate AmenhotepIIIwasstill aliveat the time (Aldred1988:176-821.Thushe couldhavefatheredNefertiti'schildrenas well as beena strongbaclrer of herleadershiproleto the disadvantageof his sickly anddeformed son. It is alsopossiblethat Nefertiti,
beingmoreobviouslyphysicallyfit thanherhusband,maysimplyhave to herselfpoliticaland arrogated religiouspower.OnceAmenhotepIII died,however,Nefertitiseems to havegraduallylost out to hereldest daughter,whosepresencein inscriptions beganto increaseandwho apparentlybecameherfather'snew favorite(Redford1984:187-88). Somescholarshavearguedfora
namechangeandevengreaterpoliticalpowerforNefertitiin the guiseof KingSmenkhkare(Sampson1985: 83-99),but recentresearchon the royalmummyfoundin tomb55 in the Valleyof the Kings(Harris1989) seemsto confirmthatanotheryoung royalman,verylikely a brotherof precededTuton the Tutankhamun, throneof the pharaohs.Possibly Nefertitihadbecomeill orblindby middleage-blindness is a distinct possibilityforanyonewho stares directlyinto the sunfsrays,especially on numerousoccasions-but, in any case,herdaysof gloryseem to have beenin heryouth Duringthe last 10dynastiesprivatestatuarynoticeablydecreased, perhapsas a resultof economicuncertainties,but numerousmonuments of varioustypes-statues, tombs,templeshrinesandmonumentalinscriptions-belongto womenof rankin Egypt'spostempire dynasties,the ThirdIntermediate Periodandthe LatePeriod.Pharaohs to Twenty-third of the Twenty-first Dynastiesruledfromthe northbut felt the needto havea familyrepresentativebasedin the south,a position which, afterthe New Kingdom, becamepoliticallyindependent underthe highpriestsof Amon. Duringthis periodpharaohsturned to theirdaughtersandnot theirsons to representtheirinterestsin the south.Thus a royalprincesswascustomarilymarriedto a Thebanhigh priestandbecamea chiefconcubine of Amon-Re.The daughterof such a unionwouldassumethe old sacerdotaltitle of God'sWifeof Amon.As previouslydiscussed,numerousbenthis title. Decrees eficesaccompanied in the nameof the R;ingof the Gods werecarvedon the walls of Karnak's seventhandtenthpylons,confirming rightsof these royal the proprietary womenandextendingdeificationto them posthumously.Withestates andofficialsto servethem,the God's Wiveslivedlike monarchsandcarriedout the officialreligiousfunctions hithertoreservedforthe king.
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Indeed,laterpharaohsinstalledtheir daughtersin this importantpost. andinsecurity Impoverishment markedthe postempireperiod,and Dynastywas the Twenty-second markedby nearcivil warbetween UpperandLowerEgypt,leavingthe dooropento invasionfromthe south. A Kushite(Nubian)invasionin the Dynastybroughtpeace Twenty-fifth
pontiffmaintainedherpresenceas the chiefsacerdotalauthorityin Thebes.Indeed,most scholarswho havewrittenaboutthis phenomenon believethat the God'sWifewas a veritablesovereignof the Theban areaandareasto the south.Certainly the royalwomenwho functionedin this officedominatedthe officialart of the period. ShepenupetI, daughterof the last nativeruler,wasforcedto adopt AmenirdisI, the daughterof the KushiterulerKashta,an ardentfollowerof Amon.AmenirdisI ruled joirltlywith ShepenupetI forat least 13years.As the God'sWife,Amenirdis I left manymonuments,including some finely sculpturedportraits of herself.Oneportrait,now in the JoslynArtMuseumin Omaha,Nebraska,is not the most flatteringof Amenirdis(althoughit playsdown herforeignfeatureslandharlnens backto much olderartistictraditions.Moreinnovativeandaliveis the faiencestatuettein Cairoof the sameGod'sWifeshownin the lapof the godAmon;theyarein a closeembrace,with theirarmsflungaround eachother.No productof Egyptian artistshas everbetterdisplayedsuch passionbetweenlovers. In additionto monumentalinAmenirdisI, daughterof the Kushiteruler scriptionsandindividualportraits, I, Kashta,ruledjointlywith Shepenupet royalwomenbearingthe title of daughterof thelast nativeruler,forat least God'sWifeleft funerarymonuments Dynasty. 13yearsduringthe Twenty-fifth As the God'sWife,Amenirdisleft many andtombs.Alongthe southeastern monuments,includingsomefinelysculpcornerof the greatouterwall of the turedportraits,suchas thispiecenowin the mortuarytempleof RamessesIIIat JoslynArtMuseumin Omaha,Nebraska (1953.80).Thestyleof the wigharkensback MedinetHabu,locatedon the southto MiddleKingdomandevenOldKingdom ernendof the west bankat Luxor,is butthe crownis moresuggestive coiffures7 a seriesof elegantfuneralchapels of theNew Kingdom.Photocourtesyof the JoslynArtMuseum. (Hoelscher1954:17-29).Amongthe bestpreservedis thesandstonechapel of AmenirdisI with its fine,raised only at the cost of manylives,and decorationandfiguresdrawn relief this peacewas once againbrokenby proportionsandpurityof in "classic attacksfromthe east.Not only did 1980:222).Amenirdis's (Aldred line" mightyAssyriainvadeEgypttwice, like those of others inscriptions, but Assyriantroopsextendedtheir of God'sWife,detitle held the who rampageas farup the riveras Thebes, of Upperand Mistress her as scribe wherethey desecratedthe great she was at death and Egypt, Lower much templesandstrippedthem of deified. treasure.Throughit all, in unbroken Lessthana centuryafterthe successionby adoption,the female
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reignof Amenirdis,a northernEgyptian leaderwhosepowerbasewas the city-ofSaisin the Nile Delta cameto the forewith Assyrianhelp andfoundedthe Twenty-sixthDynasty.This ruler,Psamtik,hadhis youngdaughter,Nitocris,adopted intotheCollegeofDivineAdoratrices at Thebes,althoughshe hadto wait herturnduringthe reignsof ShepenupetIIandher adopteddaughter (andactualniece)AmenirdisEI.A hugegranitestelaset up at Karnak's westenddocumentsPsamtik'sformal entranceinto Thebesandthe endowment to be givento Nitocrisafter the deathof those holdingthe title of God'sWife(Caminos1964:74 76). Nitocrislivedfor70 yearsbeyond the dateof her adoptioninto the priestlyhierarchy.Sheadoptedher owngreatniece,AnkhesNeferibres
In additionto monumentalinscriptionsand royalwomenbearing individualportraits, the title of God'sWifeleft funerarymonumentsandtombs.Alongthesoutheastern cornerof thegreatouterwall of themortuary templeof RamessesIIIat MedinetHabuis a pictured seriesof elegantfuneralchapelsJ is thesandhere.Amongthe bestpreserved stonechapelofAmenirdisI. Photocourtesy of TheOrientalInstituteof TheUniversityof Chicago.
who becamethe last God'sWifebut lost herpowerin 525 B.C.E. as a result of the Persianconquestof Egypt. Spacedoesnot allowfora review of the manymonumentsdatingto the PtolemaicPeriodandits famous queens(mostnotedlyArsinoeIIand CleopatraVII).Sufficeit to saythat althoughEgypt'slast independent rulerswereforeignborntheyfound
woulduse (Pomeroy 1984: 119 20).
muchto emulatefromearlierEgyptianculture,the politicalimportance of the royalwomenas well as the grandtemples.Theserulersalso rspectedthe age-oldlegaltraditions of independenceandgreaterrights forwomenbyallowingtwo lawcodes to coexistso that women-Egyptian orHellene-would not haveto suffer the constraintsof Greeklawsbut wouldhavea choiceas to which they Duringthe classicalage,wellreadauthorswerethe best publicists forthe independenceof the Egyptian woman,whichtheyfoundquiteshocking.The GreekhistorianHerodotus, forexample,commented: As the Egyptianshavea climate peculiarto themselves. . . so havetheymadeall theircustoms andlawsof a kindcontraryfor the mostpartto thoseof all other men.Amongthem,the women buy andsell, the men abideat homeandweave;andwhereas in weavingall otherspushthe woofupwards,the Egyptians pushit downwards. Mencarry burdenson theirheads,women on theirshoulders{Histozy, book2, chapter35; see Godley 1966:315-16). Conclusion As these monumentsshow,modern archaeologyhas uncoveredconcrete evidencethat ancientEgyptian womenled full lives.Although monumentsleft by commonersare not as largein scaleor as fine as those of royalwomentthey aremost eloquent,forthey speakof independenceandself-respecton the partof manywomenwho livedin Egypt morethan3,000yearsago. Bibliography Aldred,C. 1980 EgyptianArt in the Days of the Pharaohs.New York:OxfordUniversity Press. 1988 Akhenatent Kingof Egypt.New York:Thames & Hudson. Allam, S. 1985 Some Pagesfrom EverydayLife
in Ancient Egypt.Giza: Prism Publications. Bierbrier,M. 1982 TombBuildersof the Pharaohs. London:The British Museum. Caminos, R. 1964 The Nitocris AdoptionStela. Iournal of EgyptianArchaeology 50: 71-101. Cerny,J. 1973 A Community of WorAmenat Thebesin the Ramesside Period. Cairo:Institut Francaisd'Archeologie Orientale. Duell, P. 1938 The Mastaba of Mereruka,two volumes. Series:OrientalInstitute Publications 31 and 39. Chicago:University of ChicagoPress. Dunham, D., and Simpson, W.K. 1974 The Mastaba of Queen MersyanAh III. Boston:Museum of Fine Arts. Edwards,I. E. S. 1986 The Pyramidsof Egypt,new edition. New York:Viking Press. Fischer,H. G. 1976 Varia EgyptianStudies I. New York: MetropolitanMuseum of Art. 1989 Womenin the Old Kingdomand the HeracleopolitanPeriod.Pp. 5-24 in WomensEarliest Records:From Ancient Egyptand WesteznAsia, edited by B. S. Lesko.Atlanta: ScholarsPress. Galvin, M. 1989 Addendumto "Womenin the Old Kingdomand the Heracleopolitan Period,"by H. G. Fischer.Pp. 28-30 in Women'sEarliest Records:From Ancient Egyptand WesternAsia, edited by B. S. Lesko.Atlanta: ScholarsPress. Ghalioungui,P. 1975 Lesplus anciennes femmes-medecins de ltistoire. Bulletin de l tInstitut FranSaisd'ArcheologieOrientale 75: 159-64. Godley,A. D., translator 1966 HerodotusI, Books I and II. Series: LoebClassical Library.Cambridge, MA, and London:HarvardUniversity Pressand Heinemann. Harris,J.E. 1989 The Mummy of Amenhotep III (61074)and the Mummy found in Wonab 557SmenAhiare
[email protected] presentedat the Annual Meeting of the American ResearchCenter in Egypt,Philadelphia. Harris,J.E., with Hussien, F. forth- The Mummy of Amenhotep III.Abcoming stracts of Papersof the Fifth International Congressof Egyptology. Cairo, 1988. Hoelscher,U. 1954 The Excavationof Medinet Habu v
Series:Oriental Institute Publication 66. Chicago:University of Chicago Press. James,T. G. H. 1962 The HeXanakhtePapersand Other EarlyMiddle KingdomDocuments. New York:MetropolitanMuseum of Art. 1984 Pharaoh'sPeople.London:The BodleyHead. Lesko,B. S. 1987a The Remariable Womenof Ancient Egypt,second edition. Providence, RI:B.C.ScribePublications. 1987b Womenof Egyptand the Ancient Near East. Pp. 41-77 in Becoming Visible: Womenin EuropeanHistory, second edition, edited by R. Bridenthal, C. Koonzand S. Stuard.Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Mariette,A. 1880 Catalogue General des monuments d'Abydosdecouvertspendants les fouilles de cette ville. Paris: Llmprimerie nationale. Naville, E. 1896 The Templeof Deir el Bahri,PartII. London:EgyptExplorationFund. 1898 The Templeof Deir el Bahri,PartIII. London:EgyptExplorationFund. Pfluger,K. 1947 The PrivateFuneraryStelae of the Middle Kingdomand Their Importance for the Study of Ancient Egyptian History.Aourna]of the American Oriental Society 67 127-35. Pomeroy,S. 1984 Womenin Hellenistic Egyptfrom Alexander to Cleopatra.New York: Schocken Books Redford,D. B. 1984 Akhenaten the Heretic King.Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press. Robins,G. 1983 The God'sWife of Amun in the 18th Dynasty in Egypt.Pp. 65-78 in Images of Womenin Antiquity, edited by A. Cameronand A. Kuhrt. Detroit, MI:WayneState University Press. Romer,J. 1984 Ancient Lives. New York Holt, Rinehartand Winston. Sampson,J. 1985 Nefertstiand Cleopatra.London: RubiconPress. Ward,W.A. 1986 Essays on Feminine Titles. Beirut: American University of Beirut. 1989 Non-royalWomenand Their Occupations in the MiddleKingdom.Pp. 33-43 in Women'sEarliest Records: FromAncient Egyptand Western Asia, edited by B. S. Lesko.Atlanta: ScholarsPress.
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Of Drums arld DamwLs 'sP inA^lcII by CarolL.Meyss he mentionof drummers todayusuallyconjuresup imagesof malemuslcians. Certainlyfemalepercus_ sionistsexist, butwhetherf£rrock combosor symphonyorchestras,we tendto think of men,not womenE with drumsticks in hand.Hasit alwaysbeenthis way?Is it thatway in othercultures? Suchquestionsareevokedby feministconsiderationsof gender the rolesof roles.Inarestigating in womenandmen specificcultures involvesdiscerningwhich tasksbecome identifiedprimarilywith one gender,anddeterminingwhether patterus thereareanycross-cultural in such identification.It also means seekingto understandthe significnnceof genderedbehavior,andestablishingthe mearlingof specific activitiesforthe lives of thosewho performthem. Suchissues arisewhen studying the musicaltraditionof ancientIsraelbecauseof datathat conflict with ourcontemporarynotionsof percussionistsandgender.Thesedata consistof IronAgeterracottafigurinesdepictingwomendrummers, andreferencesin a numberof biblical passagesto womenplayingdnlms. Theseartifactualarldtextualmaterialshavelongbeenknownto t-
1
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figurinedepictinga A typicalterracotta femalemusicianplayingthehand-drum. Thisexample,featuringa hand-modeled headattachedto a wheel-madebase,is 8.5inchestall. Thedisc the approximately womanis holdingis a hand-drum,whichis supportedbyherleft handandstruckwith theopenfingersorpalmof hernghthand. Thisparticularexampleis in thecollection at theHarvardSemiticMuseum.
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BiblicalArchaeologistr March 1991
archaeologistsandbiblicalscholars. However, if examinedin lightof scholarshipthat exploresthe dynamicsof performancein relationshipto the genderof the performers, they are a sourceof new informationabout womenfslives in the biblicalera. XrracottaFigurines Iiongbeforepotterywas invented duringthe Neolithicperiod,clay figurineswerebeingproducedat widelyscatteredsites in the ancient NearEast.The ancientartof coroplasty{themodelingof clayfigures or statuettes)seemsto haveflourishedin Palestinein the biblical period.The traditionof fashioning terracottafigures-of animalsand humansand,probably,deities-was evidentlyso commonplacethatthe biblicalimageryof creationincludes Godforminga humanfigurefroma lifelessearthenlump.Althoughan up-to-datecatalogueof Palestinian terracottasdoesnot exist, it is well knownthat smallterracottafigures havebeendiscoveredfromvirtually everysite with IronAgesettlements. Amongthe corpusof ceramic renderingsof humansfromPalestiniansites,figuresof femalesdominate. The identityof these figuresis difficult to establish.Manyarchaeologists havebeenquickto labelthem as fertility figurines;otherssee them as deities,a view that currentfeminist adherentsof goddessworshipwould espouse.However,these statements mustbe seen as speculative.l Withinthe generalcategoryof small claystatuesof females,there Thisterracotta fromCyprusis similarto the figurinesshowinga womanholdinga handdrum,butis alsoquitedifferent.It is most likelya manholdinga disc-shapedobiectbetweenhis handswithhis fingersoutstretched. Theobject,whichis oftenmistakenlyidentifiedas a tambourine, is helddifferently thanthehand-drum andis probablya pairof cymbalsbeingstmck.Themusicianhas no hairbutis insteadwearinga headdress, perhapsa wreath.It is partof the Cesnola collectionat theMetropolitan Museumof Art in New Yorkandwasacquiredbypurchase (74.51.1675).
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andherotherhandis pressedagainst the flat sideof the disc.Manysimilar terracottasdepicta figureholdinga recognizablemusicalinstrument, such as a lyreor doubleflute.Therefore,these femalesholdingdiscscan be identifiedas musicianswith considerablecertainty. The discs representa kindof
as a typeofmem262). A frame-drum, branophone,is thus distinguished froma tubularorvesseldrum,which is madeby stretchinga skin overa hollowbodyof anyshapeor size. The hand-drumrepresentedin the terracottasshouldalsobe distinguishedfroma tambourine,which is in facta combinationmembranophoneandidiophone.(Thelatteris an instrument,lille a rattleorbell, thatproducessoundby itself when moved.)None of the hand-drums representedin these statuettesshow anyrenderingsof the smallmetal platesthatwouldindicatea tambourine.Thls is not unexpected since the tambourinehas not been authenticatedbeforethe thirteenth centuryC.E. (Sendrey1969:373).Furthermore,in these terracottasthe womanfshandis shownflat agalnst the circulardrum,indicatingthat she is strikingthe instrumentwith herpalmorfingers.A tambourineis typicallyplayedby strikingorhitting it with the knuckles.Although manyexcavatorsandarthistorians referto these terracottasas awoman such (orgoddess)with tambourine," labelsaretechnicallyincorrect. Similarly,the termtimbrel,insofar as it designatesa typeof tambourine, is also a misnomerwhen usedin is thisfigurinefromthe excavationsof Anotherexampleof a womanholdinga hand-drum to theseancientterracottas. reference with simple 9.5inchestall andis buff-colored Amathusin Cyprus.It is approximately is The handheldframe-drum in herleft handandstrikingit paintedmarkings.Again,the womanis holdingthehand-drum publishedbypermissionof theDirectorof with theflatpalmofherrighthand.Photographs quiteuniformlydepictedin these Antiquitiesandthe CyprusMuseum. figures,but the renderingsof the womenholdingthe instrumentsvary significantly.The variationsinclude earthedin Palestineandelsewhere percussioninstrument.<nownas a the waythe figureis made,the kind in the ancientworldarestill largely membranophone, the termforinof decorationthathas beenapplied struments,commonlyknownas unknown. musicians. drums,madeof stretchedhidesthat andthe style of dressor hair.In representing IErracottas producesoundwhen struck(Gorali addition,thereis a noticeablerange Oneparticulartypeof terracottais notableforits possibleconnection 1977).Becausethese statuettesshow in the levelof artistry,with some a womanholdinga smalldisc in one figuresbeingrathercrudeandunwith severalbiblicalpassagesconattractive,andothersbeingquite hand,the instrumentcanmost accerningwomen.Thesestatuettes, finelymodeled.The individualdiflike almostall of the largergroupof curatelybe calleda hand-drum, ferencesamongthe existingexamples terracottasto which theybelong,are which is a hand-heldversionof a arecriticalforquestionsof proveThe lattertermdesigframe-drum. small,rangingfrom8 to 20 centimeters(4to 8 inches)tall. Theyfea- natesa percussioninstrumentmade nance,of origin,andevenof function. However,questionsotherthanthose turea femalestandingandholdinga by stretchinga hide or skin (memareof concernhere;hencethe variadisc-shapedobjectin frontof her, brane),or two parallelhides,overa to herbody. hooporframemadeof woodormetal tions canbe set asideanda general usuallyperpendicular descriptionof the typewill suffice. The objectrestson one of herhands, (Sachs1940:31-33;Sendrey1969:
arewidevariationsof manufacture, style, decoration,pose,accompanying objectsandotheraspectsof form.Subtledifferencesin anyof these variablesmustbe considered in analyzingthese artifacts.The identities-either deities,priestesses, femalevotaries,orordinarywomenandfunctionsof the terracottasun-
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Methodsof manufacture.Most examplesof IronAgeterracottasof womenframe-drum playersareconstructedof a wheel-madebase, which formsa sortof trumpetshapedskirt/pedestal,to which is attachedeithera hand-modeled or mold-formed head.The figure'sarms, handsandmusicalinstrumentare all formedbyhand.Somesmall, rathercrudeexamplesareentirely hand-made; most featurethe rather sophisticatedcompositetechnique (whichmaybe an indicationof workshopproduction). The hand-drummer terracottas aremadeof the typicalbuff-or reddish-colored claysof the east Mediterranean. Someexamplesare undecorated; othersshowevidence of simpleblackand/orredpainted lines to indicatestripesorpatterns on the skirt,sleevesor bodiceof the woman'sdress.Herfaceis often coloredred,as is the drum.The hair, which is sometimespaintedblack, maybe braided,or it maybe loose, full andshoulder-length. Typically the bangsfall evenlyacrossthe forehead.The hairstyleis quitesimple, probablythe woman'sown locks and not a headdressorhairpiece. The simplicityof the woman's garmentis noteworthy,the few paintedstripesnotwithstanding. Thereareapparentlyno flounces, ruffles,pleats,appliques,banglesor anyotherelaboratedrapingsor embellishmentsin the renderingof the hand-drummer's dress.Similarly, thereis a markedabsenceof other decoration.Thesewomenmusicians donStwearhats,crowns,wreathsor otherheadpieces,nordo theywear bracelets,necklaces,earringsor any otherpersonalitems.The stripes paintedaroundthe necks of some examplesprobablydepictthe collar or necklineof the womanfsdress ratherthananypieceof jewelry. The ratherplaincostumeand hairstyleof the hand-drummer constitutea reasonablebasisforsupposing that these terracottasrepresent humansandnot goddesses.Further-
dicularto the body.These objects look verymuchlike frame-drums. However,the positionof the figure's handsis significantlydifferent:insteadof one handholdingthe disc/ instrumentandthe othershown strikingit, eachhandis held against the side of the disc.These discs, therefore,shouldbe identifiedas cymbals,which belongto the idiophonecategory.Sinceotherterracottafiguresholdlyres (chordophones)andflutes (aurophones), the basicfour-foldrepertoireof ancient NearEasterninstrumentswouldbe incompletewithoutthe cymbal. The figuresholdingthe cymbals arelikewiserenderedquitesimply, Among the corpus of but arenoticeablydifferentin some respectsfromthe frame-drummers. ceramlc renuerlngs Theytendto havesome sortof cap orhat, they donfthavelonghairand of humans from somehavebeards;almostcertainly, these terracottasdepictmale musiPalestine, figures cians.Yet,muchofthe archaeological literature,in not notingthe position of females dominate of the handsof these figures,lumps them togetherwith the women as a tambourine(Hillers1970; hand-drummers so that it appears Chambon1984;Rimmer1969:23). thereareterracottasof men and However,that objectis clutched womenplayingframe-drums.2 While againstthe chest or rib-cage,making it has not beenpossiblein this study it parallel,ratherthanperpendicular, to examineall excavatedexamples, to thebody.Sometimesit is decorated removingthe largelymale cymbalwith a seriesof pebble-likeimpres- playerfromthe corpusunderscores sions,painteddotsorscallopededges, the alreadycleargenderpatternof andthe womenholdingthe discs are the terracottas:a preponderance of also adornedor nudeandbejeweled. femalesas hand-drummers. It would Nothingin the woman'spose or in be goingtoo farto statecategorically the object'sdesignsuggeststhat the that all figurineswith membranowomanis playingor holdinga musi- phonesdepictwomen;but women cal instrument.Still, it is difficultto certainlydominatedthis aspectof identifythe objectin hergrasp-a musicalperformance, as preserved loafof bread,a sun disc,a plate?In in the ancientcoroplast'sart. anycase,these figurines,perhaps Provenance of the Xrracottas.As meantto depictdeities,priestesses indicatedearlier,femalefigurinesin or elite women,constitutea separate generalhavebeenwidelyfound-in categoryof terracottasandarenot to bothsacredanddomesticcontextsbe mergedwith the hand-drummers at Palestiniansites.The specific (Meyers1987:117-19;Bayer1963:36). typeunderconsiderationhere,howAnothercloselyrelatedgroup, ever,is not as ubiquitousat IronAge which alsotendsto be confusedwith sites as arethe plaquesor figuresof the groupof womenhand-drummers,nudefemales.Indeed,forthe women depictsverysimilarsimplefigures hand-drummers, it is quitedifficult holdingdisc-shapedobjectsperpen- to determineanypatternsinvolving more,the almosttotalabsenceof adornmentsuggeststhat these musicians (likemanyotherfiguresrepresentedin the smallterracottas)are ordinarypeopleandnot membersof an elite group,such as royaltyor cultic personnel,who wereaptto be renderedwith some decorationto signifytheirstatus. The simplicityof these terracottasis helpfulin identifyingvarious otherterracottas.Porexample,a veryclosely relatedgroupof figurines showsa female(sometimesa male)holdinga disc-shapedobject that is oftenerroneouslyidentified
BiblicalArchaeologist} March1991
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theirplaceof originor date.Manyof the knownexamplesin museum collectionswereacquiredthrough the antiquitiestradeandnot from legitimateexcavation,so it is not knownwheretheywereactuallydiscovered.Eventhe excavatedexamples tendto comefromthe olderfield projects-those with less reliable andchronologythan stratigraphy morerecentones.Nonetheless,it canbe suggestedthatthe Levantine examplesof femalehand-drummers come mainlyfromPhoenicianor coastalsites (suchas Tyre,Achzib, andthat, in Shiqmona,Kharayeb) theirclassicform,theybeginsome time in the IronIIperiodandcontinuewell intothe Hellenisticperiod. Thepaucityof Palestinianexamplesstandsin markedcontrastto the hundredsthat havebeenrecoveredfromtombs,sanctuariesand countryshrinesin Cyprus.Enormousgroupsof terracottasdepict bothwomenandmen in a varietyof costumesandposesholdinga rich arrayof objects.Apparentlypartof the island'sextensivenativetradition {Connolly1989),the Cypriot repertoireof terracottasflourished period(700in the Cypro-Archaic 475 B.C.E.), especiallyin the seventh andsixth centuries. Althoughsubstantiallymore havebeenfoundin Cyprus terracottas thanin the Levant,thereis reasonto believethat manyaspectsof the Cypriottraditionoriginatedin the east. Someof the Palestinianexamples{Elgavish1978:1102-3) apparentlypre-datethe flouruitof Cypriotproduction,terracottasbeing relativelyrarein the CyproGeometricperiod(1050-700).In addition,the use of a moldforparts or all of the terracottasseemsto havebeenintroducedto Cyprusby 1986). the Phoenicians(Vandenabeele
20
Theseexamplesaresomewhatsmallerthanthepreviousexamples,butdisplaymanysimilar Theexampleat left,fromtheDayancollectionof theIsraelMuseumin characteristics. is onlyabout6.5inchestall. Theexampleat right,fromthe Cesnolacollectionat Jerusalem, depicta womanholdinga Museumof Art,is slightlytaller.Bothterracottas theMetropolitan in herleit handandstrikingit with herright.In the exampleat right,the baseis hand-drum havebeenfoundin wheelmadeandtheheadwasmadein a mold.Manymoreterracottas Cyprusthanin the Levant,butmanyaspectsof the Cypriottraditionoriginatedin the east. seemsto havebeenintroduced Forexample,the useof a moldforpartsorall of the terracottas to Cyprusbythe Phoenicians.
Biblical Archaeologist} March 1991
ments(chordophones) The mold,longknownin the Near arementioned, Bible,andsince ancientNearEast East,wasnot partof the Cypriot alongwith a dozenor so windinstru- artandliteratureshowa considerable ments (aerophones), terracottaindustryuntil afterthe andfiveshakvarietyof drumswasknownin Egypt Phoeniciansfoundedcolonieson the ing,scrapingor rattlinginstruments andMesopotamia(Sendrey1969: 40, island.Also,the appearance (idiophones; this wouldinclude of new 97; Gorali1971:70; Sachs1940: 74). types-the erroneouslydesignated cymbals). The ancientmonumentsshowentire femaletambourinistone of the most However,onlyone wordfor familiesof drums,yet the Bible popularamongthem-into the membranophones, ordrums,is found. mentionsonly one type. Cypriotrepertoireapparentlycoin- The wordfordrumis the onomaThe texts in which hand-drum cidedwith, andcanbe attributedto, topoeictermtop (pluraltuppim), appearsfall into two categories Phoenicianinfluence(Vandenabeele which is relatedto otherSemitic (Poethig1985: 19-30). One set, com1989;V.Karageorghis 1987).Finally, wordsfordrum(Assyriantuppu, prising11references,mentionstop some specificstylisticfeaturesof Aramaictuppa,Arabicduff,Sualongwith oneormoreothermusical the terracottasaresaidto be of Syrian meriandupor tup)as well as to instruments,most prominentlythe or Egypto-Phoenician mode(J.Kara- Greektypanon(or,later,tympanon) lyre(Genesis31:27;Isaiah24:8;30:32) georghis1977:210;Vandenabeele but alsowith as manyas six or seven 1989:268). differentinstruments(Psalms150:3In short,despitethe voluminous 4). Thesepassagesreflecta perF( r woinerl hand quantitiesof femalehand-drummer formancetraditionthat,when exterracottasfromCyprus,this paraminedin referenceto artifactual ( rutllGlPRsnlt lS ticularformas well as the technique evidencefromSyria-Palestine, can of manufacturemaybe the resultof be called the Canaanite Orchestra quite difElcult t() Phoeniciancolonization.Although (Poethig1975: 19, 23-27). The gender it foundexceptionallyfertileground of the hand-drummers is not specified detertnine nastterns in the indigenouscoroplasticand in anyof these texts,althoughin religioustraditionof Cyprus,the severalof them the context(suchas lnvoz vlng tnelr thematicas well as technicalinthe associationwith bandsof prophspirationformanyof the Cypriot ets in 1 Samuel10:5or David'sen()rlgln ()r ( Eate. formsmayhavecome from touragein 2 Samuel6:5, 11; 1 ChronSyria-Palestine . icles 13:8)seems to indicatemale andLatintympanum. Englishvermusicians.Similarly,archaeological BiblicalReferences sions renderthe termvariouslyas evidenceshowsbothmenandwomen ThepossibleSyro-Palestinian origins timbrel,tambourine,tabret,timbre, playingthe variousinstrumentsof of these terracottasis supportedin drum.Ofthese words,the firstfour the Canaaniteensemble.Thusthe biblicalmaterialsthat link this arelexicallyrelatedto top, fromthe contention(Werner1980: 619) that instrumentwith a femalemusical perspectiveof the technicalclassifi- the hand-drumwasexclusivelya tradition.Justas virtuallyall the cationof musicalinstruments,alwoman'sinstrumentcannotbe terracottasof hand-drummers depict thoughthey arenot accuratetransla- substantiated. females,the biblicalreferencesto tlons ot top. In contrastto the unspecified membranophone -playingexhibita Drumis the best of the English genderof the drum-players in the distinctconnectionwith women.3 translations,but hand-drum firstset of references,the secondset would The HebrewBiblehas a richvo- be preferablesince all 16biblical revealsa distinctmusicaltradition cabularyformusicalterms.Dozens usagesof this nounin referenceto a in which only womenarethe instruof differentmusicalinstrumentsare musicalinstrumentalmostcertainly mentalists. Thesefive otheruses of mentionedin the Bible,andthese referto onekindof membranophone: top-Exodus 15:20, 20; Judges11:34; canreadilybe classifiedaccordingto the small,hand-heldframedrum. 1 Samuel18:6;Jeremiah31:4-not the threeorfourcategoriesof ancient This is surprising,sincethereare only indicatethat femalesareplayinstruments(Sendrey1969:262-63). considerablevarietiesof othertypes ing the drums but presentthese At leastninekindsof stringedinstru- of instrumentsmentionedin the womenin a performancecontext I
3
9
O
s
e
s
e
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reflecta distincttradition mittersof Canaaniteeconomic,sohand-drum A groupof cial andculturalforms.It wouldalso of womenfsperformance. womenaredepictedsinging,accom- accountforthe apparentdisseminapaniedby drum,with theircelebra- tion in the materialcultureof a tion expressedin movement(dance) femaledrummingtradition,via the to Cyprus. andsong.It is not certainthat all the Canaanites/Phoenicians, groups A similartraditionmayhavespread, womenin these performance alsovia the CanaaniteslPhoenicians, aredoingall threeacts-singing, dancing,drumming.However,studies to Egypt,wheredepictionsof frameof the waytraditionalsongsarecom- drumplayersfromthe New Kingdom posedandperformed(Lord1960;Fin- onwardarepredominantlyfemale (Sachs1940:97;Gradenwitz1949:40}. negan1977)suggestthatbiblical werepart Althoughthe textualandartiwomensingers/drummers tradi- factualmaterialsarecompellingin of a composition-performnnce suggestingthat this womensdrumtion in which smallgroupsof permingandsinging(anddancing) formersdidin factsing,danceand drum,usingtraditionalchorusesor musicaltraditionoriginatedin anthe evidenceis refrainsandalso developingtexts in cient Syria-Palestine, not entirelyconclusive.The flourishresponseto the specificoccasion. ing of votiveterracottasin CyproTogether,the biblicalpassages terracottas Archaicart,in which femalehandandthe Syro-Palestinian drummersarea popularsubject,may depictingwomenholdinga frameAnEgyptianmusicaltraditionfeaturing is depictedon drumreveala distinctwomanfsperwomenplayingthehand-drum indicatea separate,indigenousCypthis stelaof RamsesII (1300-1234B.C.E.) from formancetraditioninvolvingthe folk music traditionof women riot Abydos.Beneatha processionof priestsand In such a scenario,the performers. Thereareno otheranthelowerregistershowsseven hand-drumv highoffxcials7 one cient textualreferencesto sucha musicians-five femalehand-drummers, Phoenicianinfluencewouldhave femalerattleplayerandone young,perhaps womansmusicalgenre,but the disbroughttechnologicalandstylistic female,lyreplayerTheseensemblesroutinely innovationsthat capitalizedon alwould terracottas the of tribution and festivals various at public in performed celebrations,andalso wereusedto greetvic- indicatethat this genretshould readyexistingculturalforms. not frombattle toriouswarriorsreturning The difficultyin provingplace be viewedas an exclusivelyIsraelite phenomenon;perhapsit canbe called of origin,courseof developmentand that is distinctfromthe Canaanite a Canaanitewomenfsmusicaltradi- directionof disseminationshould tion (Ginsberg1938).Sucha designa- not detractfromthe factthatthese Orchestratradition.In these texts, artifactsandtexts togethercanprotion wouldaccountforthe biblical associated are drummers the women otherkindsof information vide to are, Israelites the since references, song with and with dances{meholot) ancientsociety.Therecanbe about transand inheritors the extent, some passages; the of four in {explicitly implicitlyin Judges11:34).In each casethe contextinvolvescelebration of the victoryof the Israelitewarriors and/orGodoverthe enemies. Thesefeatures,absentfromthe firstset of tOp references,areconsistent in the second.Furthermore, thereareothertexts, such as the Songof Deborahin Judges4, in which music,a womanandvictory appeartogether,andforwhich the use of a top canbe inferred,gi+ren the rhythmicformof Hebrewpoetry andsongandthe close association in folk traditionof bothdancingand singingwith a percussioninstruas depictedon a Orchestra'7 A groupof femalemusicianscommonlycaSeda "Phoenician ment to establishthe beat. silverbowlfoundon Cyprusthatis nowin theBritishMuseum.Fromleft to right,the Drawing orcymbaSs. musiciansarepJayinga douSe flute,a yre andeithera hand-drum Takentogether,the featuresof (1954:plate337number76). Behn from adapted the secondset of referencesto the
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Biblical AzchaeologistJMazch >991
no doubtthat a distinctivewomeSs performancetraditionexistedin the east Mediterranean in antiquity.For ancientIsraelat least,becauseof the survivalof severalbiblicalreferences to womeSsmusicalgroups,somethingof the natureof that performance,andits meaningforthe communityandforwomen'slives,canbe ascertained.
Biblical
passages
terracottas women
depicting holding
frame-drum a distinct performance
and
portantthanmeSs forms.The aesthetic productionsin artandmusic thathavebeen formallyandpublicly valuedhavebeenvirtuallyall works of men;it hasbeen exceedinglydifficult forwomento achievepublic recognitionforexpressiveskills (Weigle1978:2).Thus in the investigationof artformsin pre-modern, pre-industrial societies,whetherin the west or elsewhere,women'sexpressiveformswereall but ignored. Beingless visible,andbeingconsideredless legitimate,womeSs artistic endeavorswereaccordedscant attention.
a reveal
woman's tradition.
Women'sPerformance Artifactsandtexts establishthe existenceof a womeSsperformance genreof drum-dance-song. In addition, the texts referringto this genre containinformationthat allowsfor an understanding of its contextand thus of the socialdynamicsinvolved. Implicitin the biblicalpassages mentioningwomendrummers, dancersandsingersaretwo salient featuresof the performance act.First, the Israelitesexpectedthat,following a militaryvictory,the returning forceswouldbe met bywomenwho hadthe musicalskills to regale them in a specificway.Second,the ensuingperformance washeld in public,beforethe leadersof IsraelMoses,Jepthah,Saul-and probably some of the returningwarriorsready forjoyouscelebration.Thesefactstell us somethingaboutwomeSslives when consideredin light of recent trendsin folkloreresearchandin musicology. Westernvalueshavetendedto considerwomeSsexpressiveforms non-legitimate,or at least less im-
In recentdecades,however,researchthat recognizesthe existence andvalidityof women'sexperience andinvestigatesaspectsof gender bothcross-culturally andhistorically hasbegunto provideinsightsinto women'sperformanceheretofore unavailable(Robertson1987:277). Studiesof womenandmusic in variousculturesarestill not plentiful, but some pioneeringefforts haveappeared(Koskoff1987b).It is clearthatwomeSsperformance needsto be examinedas such (Jordan andKalcik1985). At the sametime, the character of ethnomusicology(thesystematic studyof all music of the world)has changedfromthat of a largelydescriptiveenterpriseto one that also examinesmusic as an expressionof socialvalues.Musicandsocietyare now recognizedas culturalphenomenathat arecomplementaryandinterdependent. Investigatingmusical forms-andespeciallywomen'sperformancegenres-shouldnotbedistinct fromanalyzingsocialstructuresand values(Seeger1977:51, 182). Thesetwo developmentsin academiahaveledto the recognitionthat the expressivespheresof womenand men aredistinctbut not necessarily separateor self-contained.Rather, they aretwo differentandequally legitimatehalvesof music culture (Koskoff1987a:1).As feministethnomusicologymovesbeyondthe purely descriptive,it thus investigatesthe
Discover 03thlical Srctmeologist Eachyearmanynew discoveries are madethatenrichourunderstanding of therootsof Western tradition. Sinceit firstreported thediscovery of theDeadSeaScrollsin 1947, BiblicalArcheologist hasbeenfirst on thescenewithfascinating reports of thelatestfieldwork.Published quarterly by The JohnsHopl
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relationshipbetweenmusicbehavior domesticlife andoperatein the In general,whenwomengroup andgenderbehavior.The natureof a publicsphereZ which clearlywasthe togetherforwhateverpurposeZ andif society'sgenderstructuresimpacts caseforthe drum-dance-song genre they arerecognizedin this activityuponwomeSsexpressiveforms,and of ancientIsrael.The opportunity as werethe womenperformersin anthose formsin turnreflectandsym- forfemalesto achieveelevatedstatus cient Israel-the statusof women -bolizegenderstructures(Koskoff 1987a:2-4). Thatis, a feministethnomusicologicalperspectiveaddresses Classification of IsraeliteMusical Instruments the questionof relationshipsbetweenmusic,genderandsocialroles In the nineteenthcentury,musicologistsworkedout a systemof classifying andstatus. musicalinstrumentsbasedon theirphysicalfeatures.Theyestablishedthree The two featuresof Israelitefemain types: stringedinstruments,wind instrumentsand percussioninstruments (includingshakingandrattlinginstruments). maleperformance alreadymentioned Modernmusicologistsuse a methodof classificationthat gives similar cannowbe consideredin light of results but dividesinstrumentsaccordingto the waytonesareproduced.Four this analyticalperspective.Thatremain categories havebeen suggestedby such eminentmusicologistsas Curt turningwarriorsand/orleadersexSacks: idiophones, membranophones, aerophonesandchordophones. pecteda musicalwelcomehas as its An idiophone is an instrument that, if beatenor scraped,producessound. concomitantthatgroupsof woman The biblical examplesof an idiophoneare cymbals (me$iltaylm;$el$ellm), performershadto be preparedto sistrum (salislm?),small bells (paCamonlm), rattles (menaCanlmlf largebells respond.Preparedness demandsa (mezillot?) . level of competencethat couldbe Formembranophones, a toneis producedbystrikinga skinorhidestretched achievedonly if the womenmet overa frame.The onlybiblicalexampleis the drum(top). (sporadically orregularly)to compose Aerophonesproducesound when air is blown throughthe instrument. A modernexamplewouldbe a clarinet,while biblicalexamplesincludewoodandrehearse,evenif suchpreparawinds ( ugab, halll, mahol,nehllot?,neqeb?,masroqlt, alamot?,sumponya?), tions wereflexibleenoughto accomhorns (sopar[shofar],qeren,yobel)andtrumpet(ha$osta). modatethe elementof spontaneity Chordophones includeall instrumentsthatproducesoundwith the aidof involvedin the celebrations.The evistrings, whether by pluckingwith the fingers,playedby a bow,or beatenwith denceforfemalepercussionistsis sticks or a hammer mechanism (asa piano).Biblicalexamplesarelyres(kinnorJ testimonyto the factthat at least 'asorJ susanJqatros)Jharps(nebelJgittlt)Jlutes (neginot?,sabbeka)andzither some womenhadreglllarcontact (pesanter). with theirfemalepeers. A fifthcategoryis addedin considerationof modernmusic:electrophonesJ Whothese womenwereor whichproducetonethroughelectricalcurrent. whetheror not theirageor marital Somemusicologists(e.g.Sendrey1969)J in discussingbiblicalmusicJprefer statusaffectedtheirabilityto be to retainthe olderschemeandputidiophonesandmembranophones togetherin the samecategory.Thepaucityof biblicalreferencesto drumsperhapsprompts partof a performancegroupcannot FIoweveI; since membranophones of manyvarietiesand be ascertained.Yet,the drum-dance- such an arrangement. sizes were part of the ancient Near Eastern repertoire of musical instrumentsJ it songgenre,like the equallysignifiis preferable to consider them as a distinct type. cantlamentgenreassociatedpromiInadditionto the termslistedaboveformusicalinstrumentsmentionedin nentlyif not exclusivelywith women, theHebrewBibleJ thenamesof 16additionalinstrumentsarefoundin theTalmud. bespeaksthe existenceof womeSs Some of these can be identifiedwith biblicalinstruments;othersaresaid to groups.Anthropological research denoteinstrumentsin use since biblicaltimes but not mentionedin the Bible; providessignificantinformation othersmayreferto instrumentsdevelopedorusedonly in post-biblicaltimes. aboutsuchgroups.Womenwith no Forfurtherreadingon musicin biblicalIsraelandthe ancientNearEast,see accessto femalegroupsoftenenjoya especiallySachs 1940,Sendrey1969JWerner1962and 1980Jand the bibliogstatuslittle betterthanservitude, raphiesin theseworks. with theirlives circumscribed by the parametersset by male authorities. Womenwho do havesocialties with also occursin termsof the internal within the societytendsto be relativelyhigh (Sanday1974:192-93). otherwomen-who workwith them dynamicsof these groups,which typicallyhavetheirown structures, Despitegeneralmaledomination,at in groups-havemuchgreaterpossibilitiesforenhancedstatus(Rosaldo valuesandhierarchies.This affords least in publicmatters,womenparticipatingin gender-specific groups prestigeto the participantsin rela1974:36-37). areableto exercisecontrolof themtionshipto theircompetenceand Thosepossibilitiescanbe reaccomplishmentswithin the group selvesandtheirworldsandthus alizedespeciallyif the womens' enjoya sense of powerratherthan itself as well as in publicactivity. groupstranscendhouseholdor
24
Biblical ArchaeologistZMarch 1991
virtueof the intrinsicappealof exdateof the terracottasof women powerlessness(Jordan andKalcik 1985:xii). This powermaynot trans- pressiveevents.A successfulperfor- drummerspointsto a traditionof late into all socialrelations,but it is mancewouldenhancethe sense of womenXs performance, with the connectionbetweenthe audience nonethelessrealandcontributes drumas a majorcomponent,that bothto the richnessof the cultural andthe performer,since the expres- continuedthroughoutthe IronAge expressionofthegroup-performance sive act arousesthe attentionand andbeyotld.InbiblicalIsraelatldthe in this case-and to the sense of thus the energyof those who witancientNearEast,music wasrhythness it. Becausethis interactionde- micalratherthanmelodiousorharworthof groupmembers. rivesfroma communicativeflow Recognizingthe interlocking monious{Flnesinger 1926:23;Werner natureof music,genderandpower fromperformersto audience,the 1968:466).The drumprovidedthe can alsobe the key to understanding performersexperiencea measureof rhythmandso was the most imporotherimplicationsof the publiccon- controloverthe audienceandcontantmusicalinstrument.Womenas text of the drum-dance-song perfor- comitantprestige.Thatis, perfordrummersthus playeda centralrole mancegenre.Currentconceptsof manceentailsa generalrhetorical in Israelitemusicaltraditionand performanceinvolveconsideration power,as ethnomusicologistshave probablythroughoutthe eastMediof performanceas a two-partentity: demonstrated(e.g.,Abrahams1968; terranean.Evidencefromartifacts an artisticaction-the creatingor Joseph1980). andtexts associatingwomenwith doingof sn aestheticproduction; Hencethe femalemusiciansof membranophones spansthe biblical andan artisticevent,that is, a com- the Israelitedrum-dance-song genre periodandrevealsthe prominenceof plexperformancecontextcompris- wouldhaveexperiencedsignificant womenin performanceandthus of ingperformerfs), expressivegenre, measuresof controlandprestige,at ongoingopportunitiesforfemale settingandaudience(Bauman1977: least temporarily, insofaras perfor- prestigeandpower. 4; Weigle1978:5).The audience,no mancehas the abilityto subvert Notes less thanthe performers, is critical existinghierarchies.The public lfamesPritchard(1943),who is to evaluatingthe meaningof the ex- momentsof powercouldonly have wisely cautiousin his studyof the figupressiveact;forperformanceis in enhancedor intensifiedthe value rines, cites numerousexamplesof the facta modeof communicationas alreadyaccordedthe performers' propensity of archaeologists to associate well as an activatedinstanceof an expressiveacts throughtheirinterthese objects with a mother-goddess. expressiveform. actionwithin the specializedmusic 2VassosKarageorghis dealswith Thenotionof performanceas groups,howeverinformalsuch Cypriotexamples,of whichthereare communicationinvolvesan acgroupsmayhavebeen. hugenumbers.Oneof the severalenorknowledgmentby the audienceof Howoftenthesepublicevents mousgroupsof terracottasfromCyprus skill andcompetenceon the partof occurredcannotbe determined.The is the Cesnolacollectionof the Metrothe performers. Byexpectingfemale biblicalpassagesdescribingthem politanMuseumof Art (MMA)in New ensemblesto validatetheirvictories clusterin texts dealingwith the pre- York.Thecataloguepreparedby SirJohn in an artisticformandbywatching monarchicperiod,a time when Myres(1914)includesa grouphe identifiesas malesplayingvariousmusical the performance, the leadersand/or womenhadconsiderablesocial communitymembersof ancientIs- power(Meyers1988:173-81).How- instruments,including"thetambourine." raelweretherebyacknowledgingthe ever,the absenceof referencesfrom Thepublicationdoesnot havephotoof all the objects;but,througha expertiseof the womenas well as laterperiodsneednot be takenas an graphs grant from Duke'sResearchCouncilJI theiressentialpartin concluding indicationthat thesewomenfsperhavebeenableto examinethe terracottas the complexseriesof eventsthat formancegroupsdisappeared during in the MMAstores.In checkingthe cataconstitutedvictoriouswarfare.The the monarchy,but ratherperhaps loguereferencesto malesplayingtamwomenperformerswouldthus have only of the increasingandrocentrism bourines,I discoveredthatthe handsof beenaccordeda highmeasureof of the biblicalwriters.Andevenif thesefigureshavedifferentposesthan status;forperformancehas the capa- the non-regular dothe womenandconcludedthatthe performances of city,at least forthe momentof the instrumentheldbymalesis a set of these ensemblesdiddiminishover cymbals.I amgratefulto Dr.Elizabeth communicativeandprofessionalac- time, thereis evidenceof other Milliker,ResearchAssociatein Greek tivity,as well as in the anticipation women'sperformance groups,such andRomanArtat the MMA,forfaciliof the event,to transformsocial as the womenkeenersmentioned tating my examinationof the objects. structure(Bauman1977:4, 16). earlierandthe groupsof women 3This connectionwasfirstpointed Womenperformerscouldexert templesingers(Ezra2:41;Nehemiah out to me byEunicePoethig,who grathis kindof controlof the audience 7:44;1 Chronicles25:5)in the late ciouslysharedwith me herdiscussion not onlybecauseof the socialfunc- biblicalperiod. of this subjectin an excursusto "The tion of the performance but alsoby However,the IronII (monarchic) Womenof Israelas OralTraditioner," her
Biblical Archaeologist} March 1991
25
unpublishedMastersin Divinitythesis from1-975at McCormickTheological Seminary,andwho alsoprovidedme with a typescrip.t versionof herdoctoral dissertationat UnionTheologicalSeminary(Poethig19851. 13ibliography
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Abrahams, R. D. 1968 Introductory Remarks to a Rhetorical Theory of Folklore. tournal of American Folklore 81: 143-48. Bauman, R. 1977 Verbal Art as Performance. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Bayer, B. 1963 The Material Relics of Music in Ancient Palestine and Its Environs. Tel Aviv: Israel Music Institute. Behn, F. 1954 MusiAleben im Alterturn und fruhen Mittelalter. Stuttgart: Hiersemann. Chambon, A. 1984 Tell el Far'ah I. LAge du Fer, Memoire 31. Paris: Editions Recherches sur les Civilizations. Connolly, J. B. 1989 Standing Before One's-God: Votive Sculpture and the Cypriot Religious Tradition. Biblical Archaeologist 52: 210-18. Dothan, M. 1977 The Musicians of Ashdod. Biblical Archaeologist 40: 38-39. Elgavish, J. 1978 Tel Shiqmona. Pp. 1101-9 in Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, volume IV {English edition). Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. Finesinger, S. B. 1926 Musical Instruments in the Old Testament. Hebrew Union College Annual, volume 3: 21-77. Finnegan, R. 1977 Oral Poetry: Its Nature, Significance, and Social Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ginsberg, H. L. 1938 Women Singers and Wailers Among Northern Canaanites. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 72: 13-15. Gorali, M. 1971 Musical Instruments in Ancient Times. Ariel 29: 68-73. 1977 Music in Ancient Israel. Haifa: Haifa Music Museum. Gradenwitz, P. 1949 The Music of Israel. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. Hillers, D. H. 1970 The Goddess with the Tambourine. Concordia TheologicalMonthly. 41: 606-19.
BiblicalArchaeologist, March 1991
Jordan, R. A., and Kalcik, S. J. 1985 Introduction. Pp. ix-xiv in Women's Folklore,Women'sCulture,edited by R. A. Jordan and S. J. Kalcik. Series: Publication of the American Folklore Society New Series, volume 8. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Joseph, T. B. 1980 Poetry as a Strategy of Power: The Case of Riffian Berber Women. SIGNS 5: 418-34. Karageorghis, J. 1977 Le GrandeDe'essede Chypreet Son Culte. Cellection de la Maison de l'Orient Mediterranean Ancient, No. 5. Serie archeologique 4. Lyons: Maison de l'Orient. Karageorghis, V. 1987 The Terracottas. Pp. 1-54 in Etudes
ChypriotesIX La Necorpole.LAmathonte. Tombes 113-367, edited by V. Karageorghis and O. Picard. Nicosia: Service des Antiquites de Chypre, Ecole Francaise d'Athenes, and Fondation A. G. Leventis. Koskoff, E. 1987a An Introduction to Women, Music, and Culture. Pp.-1-23 in Womenand
Music in Cross-CulturalPerspective. New York: Greenwood Press. Koskoff, E., editor 1987b Womenand Music in Cross-Cultural Perspective.New York: Greenwood Press. Lord, A. B. 1960 A Singerof Tales.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Meyers, C. 1987 A Terracotta at the Harvard Semitic Museum and Disc-holding Figures Reconsidered. Israel Exploration tournal37: 116-22. 1988 DiscoveringEve:Ancient Israelite Womenin Context. New York: Oxford University Press. Myres, J. 1914 Handbook of the Cesnola Collection of Antiquities from Cyprus.New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Orman, T. 1980 A Man and His Land:Highlights
from the Moshe Dayan Collection. Israel Museum Catalogue 270. Jerusalem: Israel Museum. Poethig, E. B. 1985 The VictorySong Traditionof the Womenof Israel, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Union Theological ,
.
remmary.
Pritchard, J. B. 1943 Palestinian Figurinesin Relation to
Certain Goddesses Known Through Literature.Series: American Oriental Series volume 24. New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society.
Rimmer,J. 1969 Ancient Musical Instruments of Western Asia in the Department of Western Asiatic Antiquities. London:
British Museum. Robertson,C. 1987 Powerand Genderin the Musical Experiencesof Women.Pp.225-44 in Women and Music in CrossCultural Perspective, edited by E. Koskoff.New York:Greenwood Press. Rosaldo,M. Z. 1974 Women,Culture, and Society:A Theoretical Overview.Pp. 17-42 in Women, Culture, and Society, edited by M. Z. Rosaldoand L. Lamphere. Stanford:StanfordUniversity Press. Sachs,C. 1940 The History of Musical Instruments. New York:W.W.Norton and Company. Sanday,P.R. 1974 FemaleStatue in the Public Domain. Pp. 189-206 in Womeny Culturey and Society, edited by M. Z. Rosaldoand L. Lamphere.Stanford:Stanford University Press. Seeger,C. 1977 Studies in Musicology 1935-1975. Berkeley:University of California Press. Sendrey,A. 1969 Music in Ancient Israel. New York: Philosophical Library. Vandenabeele,F. 1986 Phoenician Influence on the CyproArchaicTerracottaProductionand CypriotInfluenceAbroad.Pp. 351-60 in Acts of the International Symposium "Cyprus between the Orient and the Occident', edited by V.Kara-
georghis.Nicosia: Departmentof Antiquities. 1989 Has Phoenician influence modified Cypriotterracottaproduction?Pp. 266-71 inEarlySocietyin Cyprus, edited by E. Peltenburg.Edinburgh: EdinburghUniversity Press in association with the National Museum of Scotlandand the A. G. Leventis Foundation. Weigle,M. 1978 Womenas VerbalArtists: Reclaiming the Daughtersof Enheduanna. Frontiers 3: 1-9. Werner,E. 1962 Music. Pp. 457-69 in Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, volume 3. Nashville: Abingdon. 1980 JewishMusic, Liturgical.Pp. 614-34 in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, volume 7, edited by S. Sadis.London:Macmillan Publishers.
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Biblical Archaeologist7March 1991
27
- determine tesh-Sharif,or'NobleSanctuary.The precluded sacred ogy ont |other so t holy he farJ nature the methods precise house howeverJ the precise ofof to use location thtis examine Herod's forciIig of location comp'ound th;rnethodolthis sources of us to the preciIlcts ofrely EvidencefromAftertheDestruction has Can the be of used The other will the the byadditional similarly holy the present landmarks period Roman houseto this legions and evidence following and support the evidence literary in temple comes .., the temptationsofJesuslfor gin..0inthe from .-;In destruction this ' addition, northwest .;'' .. = t9<;+. example, =. - the Isection - ,..-4Si -iretaining !;.!,! Matthew Luke e!>! ,-of . ::<'< -;>< the !-! 4:9). walls -4:5 west5;X>..... '.. and ' .. ffliS< --9=.Q-< -
Tbe
Locatzon
-llealalMs
Templehasbeenwidely discussedanddisputed past century. Only a scithe - during ''r,;Q9 0':.entific,controlledexcavationcould t=
-
1
holyhousewithinthetempleesplanade, curr'entlycalled the Haram
furtherthealternatesiteproposed byKaufmanfortheholyhouseof the Second Temple?I believe that additionalevidenceispresent,andI article.l
^<;'.;I',,,,'i;.-<-'<--'-'''''-. >S1 >jlt wE-s''-"-j,JImIg"-<>>,;;,, 1t 'I ! ''-;¢" :; -N<: 4 l1, >'-t-Q.x,,,-. 1 '< ;'. ''+s< theGospels, <<e specifically, the three
>> ..
ern wall were discoveredto have porbe surprising to some may It C.E. 70 -a, l-tions of the outer engagedcolumns problem. from this evidence is there >
< southern this of holy house, to the north '''%.^' Dov 1985). Portions of the opinion. believed 'widely as adwell as compound. gate decorations structure within this < the second half of the nine-*s>*>outer fragments from the upper In ' conclusion this ditional ">'> He initially reached and Warren Charles i' century, >.+;.<-zwa teenth of the compound (Benby examining a combination of exConder showed that a sub- outer.walls R. Claude lnamely, 1985).werefound in strata.abAve ternal geographicfeatures portion of the outer retaining - Dov stantial literary a and Byzantine 'remains,'showiengthat the the Mount of Olives) of this compound remained in walls cerethe of destruction of thfese^Herodianstrucsource (the description corIler southeast the At 11970). situ tures occurredfollowingthe early mony of the Red Heifer in Middot, for exampleZthe compound, the of a and house holy period. HenceJBen-Dov which involved the courses of the Herodian ash- Byzantine = --original Mount flat-topped , 11985)concluded that significant high point on the approxiwithin perhaps to rose lars portions of the temple compound of Olives). I reached a similar conmately20feet oftheiroriginalheight. survived the Roman destruction and, clusionbyapplyingthismethodology Because of the impressive height of in fa'ctJmust have been deliberately again. I used the Antonia rock scarp, this remaining section of the periof corner ruinous condition northwest situated at the wall, this areahad come to be preservedsinFtheir meter referPortions of the geographical Byzantines. a the the Haram, as as the aPinnacleof the Temple' by known of in the Double Letter The decorations ence and Josephus, as the Byzantine period and ceiling survivet as well as portions early as literary as Middot still in Gate Aristeas, and was associated with events related sources lSporty 1990). i
1991 Biblical Archaeologist} March 28
Cv -'1----, 11 -,ll : 7j-3l!g,> -- of thez steps - >iials. i- !1There r--n-wasrebuild no debate the recorded templeTemple in 362was C.E.,a powerful the there symbol wasthe ..................... motivationto do so. and --94!''1'4 = -- 0
ve
It is widelybelievedthatthe holyhousewas centerof the locatedat the approximate Haramcompound,wherethe Domeof the Rockis locatedtoday.Thisdrawingshows an idealizedtemplecentrallylocatedin the templecompound.DrawingbyLeenRitmeyer.
f rom the Eridenc.e Pertlod rXuestructu >,
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yurposelylocated el in r <> rem>,'a'lnsis,ur->+ house.Enough/temp31Qe
colleaguesreachedthe TempleM (HarHabbayit)andnoticeda fox emerglngfromthe minedholy of
>
2 !i
i,J-IL}
Whenthe emperorJulianthe havebeen accurately the formersite of the holy house,lf->l3tv Apostategavepermissionto The enduringimportanceof the holy Jewishpopulationrejoicedandset aboutgatheringthebuildingmateri- house.TheholyhouseoftheSecond
leadingtothesegates. aboutwhereto buildthe holy house forcein the lives of the reewishSpa,ple5 .beforeandin the centuries'afterits Literaryevidence.Literary becauseits locationwas not lost at .' . Wor today. as.itai'sS just destruction, evidencealso supportsthe survival that time. not.th"aqll0fioj (and example!.its-image of extensiveidentifiableremainsof SecondTempleco'mpound) en't'ire wthe hnu-se Y5g Jw Z of Caesarea,a Churchhistorianof ' as a rallying second.Jewish'revolt 1 >1 Ts ' Q th the third-fourthcenturyC.E., de- 0:pointi'nthe war,andits' imageor its llR oecliim-ps,e scribedsignificantruinswithin the fE''41"[ ' equipmentwereextensivelyreprot 8-i compoundthat couldstill be seen in ducedon'subsequentworksof relipowerlu-l!a his day,as didotherchurchfathers 0 0.^vas art.Its significanceextended - -gious force and evidencfe..is---S--"-'slrmbol F.urther (Mazar19.75).beyondthe Jewishpopulation.The 2' foundiniltherepor:,o,fevarly'Christian Romans,forexample,recognizedit neonie Iewish pilgrimstotharea.ThePilgrimof : -- ' 0for as an importantsymbolof Jewish ' M r J -Jewsof'the-<---" BordSeauxl^orltsl-irthat resistance.Its captureanddestruc> - the templecompetiodstill carnte.>to poundto anoint«lth oil the founda- --' ' This evidencedemonstratesthat tion in 70 C.E. was thereforea focal point'forthe Romanlegions.Its denumerousfeaturesof the temple tion stone-ofthe sanctuary,site-of' the holy of holies of the holy house, compoundsurvivedthe destruction structionwas also interpretedto in 70 C.E.andwerestill visibleduring symbolizethe ascendancyof Chriswhichhe describedas thelapis pertutianityby the earlyChristians stone (Wilkinson1981). the Byzantineperiod.However,to sis orpie-rced ' The sacrificialcult at the temple fix the axis of the holy housewithin (Matthew24:1-2;Wilken1984). The holy house wouldnot have altarmayhavebeen reinstituteddur- the templeesplanade,we still need to identifya geographiclandmarkre- beenreadilyforgottenbyanyof these ing the briefsecondJewishrevoltin the secondcenturyC.E. This suggests latedto the holyhouseandreferenced groupsandwouldhaveremainedsignificantto them all, albeitforwidely in Byzantineliterature.Sincewe that,while in ruins,the templeesplanadecontainedmanyidentifiable now haveevidencethat substantial, disparatereasons.Hence,we may featuresevenwithin its innercourts identifiableSecondTempleremains properlyaskwhetheranystructures period, built in Jerusalemduringthis early existedin the post-destruction (Mazar1975).The Talmudalso imperiodwouldhavebeendeliberately plies that identifiablefeatureswere one possibilityis to look forstrucconstructedin alignmentwith the preserved,as when R. Akivaandhis tureserectedin the rebuildingof
Jit t-
-
BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991
29
The Dome otthe Rockis located in the approximatecenter otthe compound and is believed to be where the holy house stoodS This drawing shows how the Second Temple wo7lldlook itit were locsted north ofthe Dome otthe Rock.
WhenAsherKautman(1983)initiallypresentedhis argumentfora northerlylocation fortheholyhouse,he demonstrated thatin thislocation,theholyhousewas on a direct line with the GoldenGate.Thisled him to proposethattheDomeof the Spirits,which wasalsoon thisnxisJwas the site of theholy of holieswithintheholyhouse.Thisphotographnotonlyshowsthealignmentof the GoldenGateandthe Vomeof the Spirits, butalsoshowsthatthestructuresof the Churchof theHolySepulchreareon this sameaxis.Photograph byGaroNalbandian.
ruinsof the holy house. WhenKaufman{1983)initially presentedhis argumentfora-northerlylocationforthe holy house,he demonstratedthe alignmentof the EasternlGolden)Gateof the temple compoundwith this site. He demonstratedthat in its new alternatelocation the holy housewason a direct line with the GoldenGate.He proposedthatthe Dome of the Spirits, which wasalso on this axis,wasthe exactsite of the holy of holieswithin the holy house.If otherstructures built in the post-destruction period werealignedwith the holy house, they shouldalso lie alongthis axis. Lookingfartherwestirltothe city of Jerusalemalongthis sameline {the axisformedbythe GoldenGateand the smallDome of the Spirits),I discoveredthat the structuresof the Churchof the Holy Sepulchrewere on this verysame axis. Wasthis merecoincidence?The site andaxis of the Holy Sepulchrecouldhave
30
beendeliberatelyalignedwith the ruinsof the holy houseandpositionedto overlookit. Canthe Churchof the Holy Sepulchrebe connectedin somewaywith the holy house?I believeit can,but a reviewof the earlierhistoryof this site is necessaryfirst. The Locationof the Xmple of Aphrodite The variousstructuresthat constitutedthe Churchof the Holy Sepulchre{including,amongothers, the Anastasisandthe Martyrium) werebuilt on the site of a previous structure,the Templeof Aphrodite erectedby EmperorHadrianafter the suppressionof the secondJewish revolt.Couldthis Hadrianicstructurehavebeenbuilt on this site deliberatelyto be alignedwith the ruinsof the holy house? This site is on a hill somewhat higherthanthe TempleMount{WarrenandConder1970).Thus,any
BiblicalArchaeologist, March 1991
structureplacedon this elevated positionwouldtoweroveranyruins on the TempleMount.3{Itmustbe notedthatduringthe Romanand the Byzantineperiod,the interveningTyropoeonValleywas much deeper.Anystructuresbuilt in the valleythen wouldhavebeenmuch lowerin the valleyandwouldnot haveobstructedthe view fromthese earlybuildingson Golgotha,as they now do.) Priorto its demolition,the Templeof Aphroditewouldhave directlyoverlookedthe ruinsof the TempleMount,perhapstherebyexpressingthe triumphanddominance of Romeoverthe rebelliousJewish state.This statementwouldbe most
powerfulif the Templeof Aphrodite lookeddirectlyacrossanddown uponthe extantruinsof the holy house.A statueof Hadrianfoundin the AthenianAgoraatteststhat such symbolismwasusedin this period. Hadrianwasnotedforhis loveof Athenianculture,andthe cuirassof thisstatuewasdecoratedwithAthena standingatopthe Wolfof Rome,with RomulusandRemusbelow.This imagerydemonstratedAthenian dominanceoverRomein cultural matters.Similarly,the Templeof Aphroditedirectlyoverlookingthe ruinsof the holy housewouldhave expressedHadriaSsstatementof RomandominanceoverJudaea. This samesymbolismis also
retainingwalls of the Templeof Aphrodite'stemenos haverevealed ashlarsandpilastersindistinguishablein designto those that hadbeen usedin the constructionof the retaining wallsof Herod'sTemple,whose ruinsit facedfromaboveacrossthe TyropoeonValley(Bahat1986). Jeromestatesthat"fromthe daysof Hadrianuntil the reignof Constantine,a periodof about100 years,a likenessof Jupiterwasset up in the placeof the resurrection,and a statueof Venusup on the rockof the cross . . ."(Wilkinson1981:164). Wealso know,fromthe reportof the Pilgrimof Bordeaux,that at least one statueof Hadrianwasplacedon the ruinsof the TempleMountnear
ThetudaeaCaptacoinageof Vespa.sian and Titus,mintedaftertheysuppressedthefirst tewishrevolt,depictseithera Romansoldier orRomaninsignia,whichsymbolizeascendantRome,standingin a dominantposition overa recliningwoman,whosymbolizes vanquishedtudaea.PhotofromThe Mountain of the Lord byBenjaminMazar.
A statueof Hadrianfoundin theAthenian agorais anotherexampleof thesymbolismof AtheniandominanceoverRomein cultural matters.Hadrianwasnotedforhis loveof Athenianculture,andthecuirassof this statuewasdecoratedwithAthenastanding atopthe Wolfof Rome,with Romulusand Remusbelow.Similarly,the TempleofAphroditedirectlyoverlooking theruinsof theholy housewouldhaveexpressedHadrian's statementof Romandominanceovertudaea. PhotofromThe Athenian Agora bytohn Camp,ThamesandHudson,1986.
the altarandthe lapispertusis.As JohnWilkinsonpointedout,"Wemay thus havein the two halvesof Jerusalemstatuesof the two figureswho usedin the JudaeaCaptacoinageof providedthepagannameof Jerusalem, VespasianandTitus,mintedafter AeliaCapitolina:PubliusAelius they suppressedthe firstJewishreHadrianus,andJupiterCapitolinus" volt.Thesecoins depicteithera (Wilkinson1981:164).If these two Romansoldieror Romaninsignia, statuesfaced alongthe same axis, as which symbolizeascendantRome, wouldbethecasewith this newalignstandingin a dominantpositionover ment of the holy house,then this a recliningwoman,who symbolizes interpretation wouldcertainlymake vanquishedJudaea.This symbolism goodsense,andthe symbolismwould is also evidentin the architectureof be obviousto all:AeliaCapitolinathe Templeof Aphroditeas well, the new Romancity-and the new whichwas constructedwith stylistic RomanTemplehadarisenandreplacedthe formerJewishcity,Jeruelementsfoundin Herod'sSecond salem,andits formertemple. Temple.The scantremainsof the
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31
Below: Largeistones,or ashlars,from Hadrian's enclosure found in excavations adiacent to the Churchof the Holy Sepulchre.HerOdian .styleashlars and pilasters are visible on the wall adjoining the staircase. Photo from I1 Santo Sepolchrode Gerusalemme plate 120. Comparethese stones to those at the Cave of Machpelahin Hebronat left. The pilasters, the columns jutting OUtfrom the wall, are identical to those from the retaining wall of the temple platform. 4,.+
v
rH . ! r
The Churchof the Holy Sepulchre. Suchan interpretationwouldneatly explainthe site selectionandchoice of architecturalstyle of Hadrianfs Templeof Aphrodite,but whatexplainsthe laterselectionof the same site forthe constructionof the Churchof the Holy Sepulchre?Here thereis morethancircumstantial evidence. ThewritingsofEusebiussupport the factthat the originalbasilicaof Constantinewasdeliberatelyplaced facingthe ruinsof the holy houseof the SecondTemple.Eusebius'Lifeof Constantineis"thefirstandonly systematicdescriptionof Constantine'sbuildingson Golgotha" andthe mainsourceof informationon the constructionof the originalbasilica on the site {Wilkinson1981:164}. In this workEusebiusdescribes the letterConstantinewrotedirecting this churchto be built. Eusebius then statesthat"Oncethe Emperor hadwrittenthis letterthe work beganto takeshape,andoverthe truememorialof salvationwasbuilt the New Jerusalem,facingthe farfamedlerusalemof old time . . ." {Wilkinson1981:167;italicsadded}. The actualcity of Jerusalem,of course,wasneverlocatedfacing Golgotha.In this passage,Eusebius is referringinsteadto the spiritual erusalem,specificallythe Temple Mountandits spiritualcenter,the holy house.The New lerusalemhe refersto couldnot be the actualcity of Jerusalemof his dayeither,but its new spiritualcenter,the basilicaof Constantine.Hence,he is reallysay-
32
#^;,l i\§ f
Y
.4
ing that the new basilicaarosefacing the old holy houseruins.His statement probablyechoesthe symbolic reasonwhy the Templeof Aphrodite wasplacedon this samesite, Roman {andpagan}ascendancywasnow beingreplacedby ascendantChristianity.Eusebiusimplies,therefore, that Constantine'snew basilicawas also intendedto replacethe ruined SecondTemple.Is thereanyadditionalevidenceforthis surprising conclusion? In fact,the conceptthat the Churchof the Holy Sepulchrewas intendedto replacethe oldholyhouse andprecinctsis not a new idea.The evidenceforthis associationis clearly outlinedin Wilkinson'sbook Egeria'slEavelsin the Holy Land (1981}: The descriptionsof the early ritualsconductedin the church parallelthe liturgyin the Second Temple,andeventhe termholy of holies is borrowedfromthe Second
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
t5
Templeandappliedto the Cavein the ChurchbyEgeriaandotherearly pilgrims.In fact,the site of the crucifixionbearsthe samespacialrelationshipto the Caveof the Anastasis as the Altarof Holocaustsbearsto the holy house.This architectural parallelreinforcesthe meaningof the crucifixionas the finalandultimate sacrificein Christiansymbolism. Thealignmentofthe originalbasilica erectedalongan east-westaxiswould also echo the east-westalignmentof the Jewishholy house. Consideringall the evidence, the structureson Golgothawerebuilt directlyfacingthe ruinsof the holy houseof the SecondTemple.The parallelsin spacialarrangements, languageandliturgyweredeliberate. The churchwasintentionallylocatedon a site overlookingthe still extantruinsof the holy houseas alludedto byEusebiusto providea powerfulsymbolforthe earlyChris-
couldnot claimto supplantthe older landthereforeinherentlymoreacceptable}Judaism,which was still highlyvisible,widelydisseminated andwell establishedthroughoutthe RomanworldlWilken1984). The destructionof the Second Temple,andConstantine'sdecision to erectthe churchon Golgothain a positionthat overlookedthese ruins, reflectedthe physicalandsymbolic answerof earlyChristianityto CelThe church on sus'schallenge.Bydemolishingthe Templeof Aphrodite,andbuilding Colgotha was the churchon Golgothaon its former site, Constantine'sdecisionalso intentionally symbolizedthe ascendencyof ChristianityoverRomanpaganism. locate( on a Uponleavingthe basilicalthe exit facedeast towardthe Temple site overl()oking Mount),the Christianworshiper wouldbe remindedof Christian the stil extant ascendencyby the dramaticsightof the ruinsof the holy houselying ru1ns ot tne directlyin frontandbelow,across the TyropoeonValley.The ruinson holy house¢ the templeesplanadeweredeliberately preservedduringthe Byzantine sition fromthe Romanpaganworld, periodforjustthis reasonlBen-Dov which includeda significantchal1982).The symbolicpowerof this lengeby Romanpaganphilosophers site forthe Churchcouldnot be fully such as Celsus,who arguedthat the appreciated until the truesite of the Christianreligionwasbothnew la holy housewas determined. formidablechallengein its ownright The emphasison this alignment in the mindsof Romans)andthat it betweenthe basilicaandthe ruinsof the holyhousewouldalsoemphasize passagesin the New Testament, such as that of John2:19-22:"Jesus answeredandsaiduntothem,Destroy this templeandin threedaysI will * o o o o * M raiseit up.Thensaidthe Jews,Forty andsix yearswasthis templein buildCourt . . . I ing, andwilt thou rearit up in three * *Cross * l 1 OL> * -* @ . . . a l days?Buthe spakeof the templeof lol v lF:' 1 his body [italicsadded].4 When Martyrium thereforehe wasrisenfromthe dead, his disciplesrememberedthathe hadsaidthis unto them;andthey TheSecondTempleandthe buildingson Gol- believedthe scripture,andthe word gothawerelaidoutin similarfashion.Thesite which Jesushadsaid." of thecrucifixionbeazsthesamespacialrelaThe greatimportanceattached tionshipto the Caveof theAnastasisas the Altarof Holocaustsbearsto theholyhouse, to the relationshipbetweenthe exreinforcing themeaningof the crucifixionas thehnal andultimatesacrificein Christian isting churchandthe templezuins symbolism.DrawingfromEgeria's Travels in was especiallyrecognizedby Julian the Holy Land by[ohnWilkinson. the Apostate,who used it when he tian Church.lInfact,similararchitecturalfeaturesappearin the two structures,as the remaininglintels of Constantine'sbasilicaareidentical to the lintels of the KiponosGate in the westernretainingwall of the SecondTemple.) The significanceof this site forthe earlyChurch.In its earlyformative period,theChurchmainlyfacedoppo-
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*
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Anothersimilararchitectural featureof the templecompoundandtheChurchof theHoly Sepulchrearethesetwo doorways.Above: Thegatein the WesternWallof the Temple Mount,alsocalledBarclay'sGate.Drawing fromInthe Shadowof the TemplebyMeir Ben-Dov. Below:A doorwayin Constantine's originalconstruction of theChurchof theHoly Sepulchre.Thegatesarevirtuallythe same.
triedto undermineChristianity afterhe revertedfromChristianity to paganism(Wilken1984).Whenhe gaveapprovalforthe Jewishrebuilding of the JerusalemTemplein 362 C.E. (only30 yearsafterthe dedication of the buildingon Golgotha),he did so not out of loveforJudaismbut out of antipathyforChristianity.Had Julian'splansucceeded,the main focusof Christianworshipin Jerusalem,Constantine'sbasilica,would havefaceda newly arisenJewish Temple,ratherthanits ruins.The reversesymbolismwouldhavehada profoundnegativeimpacton the early
BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991
33
seventhcenturyC.E. the preciselocation of the holy househadbeenforgottenandthe new site was selected by error.Inthe legendaryaccountof the meetingbetweenSophronius andOmar,Omaris repeatedlymisdirectedto differentplaceswithin Jerusalemin his searchforthe "praying placeof David"(Watson1912: 137-40).This suggeststhe underlyingByzantineresistanceto the reconstructionof the templeandthe holy house.Thereis externalevidenceto suggestthat in its earliest The Dome of the Rock phasesthe new religionpreachedby Finallywe must considerwhy,dur- Mohammedembodiedwithin it a ing the Muslimperiod,the Dome of planto restorethe temple.Thereare the Rockwas locatedawayfromthe also reportsof conflictsbetween truesite of the holy of holies.It is JewsandearlyMuslimsaboutrepossible,of course,that when plans buildingthe templeafterthe Muslim to erectthe Dome of the Rockwere conquest{CroneandCook 1977). finalizedtowardthe end of the Giventhis background,it could be surmisedthat the exactlocation of the holy housewasdeliberately withheldfromOmarandhis successors.However,such a conclusion wouldbe premature.The careful analysisof earlydocumentsactually indicatesa close, collaborativerelationshipbetweenJewsandMohammedandpossiblysuggestsa joint planforconqueringJerusalemand rebuildingthe temple-a planwith Messianicovertones-that laterfell apart.Additionalsourcesindicate that Jewishgroupswho enteredwith Omartold him the locationof the sanctuary(CroneandCook 1977). Sinceit is unlikelythat as important a site as the holy housewouldbe forThisaerialviewshowstheDomeof the Rock gotten,we must thereforelook for centerof the situatedin theapproximate othermotivationsforlocatingthe Harames-Sharif,thusrestoringtheconcept of the Rockon a separatesite. of centralityto the site andmakingtheentire Dome Tounderstandwhatthese moesplanadea holyareaonceagain.Thischange would,in effect,undoHerod'stransformation tives mayhavebeen,we must review sincethe of theesplanade.Furthermore, of Herod'sTemplein light Domeof the Rockis no longerdirectlyacross the setting of the locaof ournew understanding andbeneaththechurchon Golgotha,as the ruinsof theholyhousewere,it has broken tion of the holy house {Sporty1990). thesymbolicdominanceof thechurch.Con- Herod'scontroversial reconstruction structingtheDomeof the Rockin thecenter of the SecondTemplecreateda vast of theesplanadeawayfromtheaxisof the church,andmakingtheentireareasacred platformto the southof the holy onceagain,couldhavebeena religiously house.The originalTempleMount inspiredwayto restorea sacredareathat (theHarHabbayit)wasnow located had beenviewedas corrupt.PhotobyZev fromBiblical Radovanandreproduced in the northernhalfof the enlarged Archaeology Review. esplanade.The entireesplanade,
Church,andwouldhavestrengthened Celsus'argumentsagainstChristianityin the remainingRoman paganworld.The visible impacton worshipersleavingthe basilicaand seeingthe newly arisenholy house wouldhavebeenenormous. AfterJuliandied,so didthe immediatethreatto rebuildthe temple. Althoughthe JerusalemTemplewas neverrebuilt,the symbolicthreatof a new holy housearisingon the site of the old wasnot forgotten.
34
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
alongwith the surroundingstructuresbuilt immediatelyoutsidethe templecompound,formeda Hellenistic civic centerin the spiritual heartof Jerusalem.The outercourts wereusedforsecularactivities,as attestedto in the Gospels(seeMark 11:15),andwereopento non-Jewish crowdsfromthe Hellenisticworld. The reconstructionseverelycompromisedthe traditionalconceptof the TempleMountas an isolatedand sacredmountainset apartfromthe generalpopulationanddailyactivities, andconservativeelementsof the Jewishpopulationrejectedthis of the esplanade. transformation Afterthe templeandits structures weredestroyedby the Romans,the ruinsweredominatedby the Church of the Holy Sepulchre,whichwas directlyacrossthe TyropoeonValley. Butnow when we look at the Dome of the Rockandthe surrounding courtyard,the Haramesh-Sharif, we see a complexchangethat,in e{fect,undoesHerod'stransformation. TheDomeof the Rockis in the center of the esplanade,which is againan entirelysacredarea,freeof the commercialandsecularelementsof Herod'sTemple;the sacredmountain is purifiedandrestored.The concept of the TempleMount,previously limitedto a portionof the area,now includesthe entireesplanade.This new "TempleMount,"the Haram,as a sacredenclosureis once againofflimits to nonbelievers.The Dome of the Rockrestoresthe conceptof centhe tralityto the site. Furthermore, Dome of the Rockis no longerdominatedby the churchon Golgotha since it doesnot lie directlyacross andbeneathit, as the ruinsof the holy househad,breakingthe symbolic dominanceof the church.Constructingthe Dome of the Rockin the centerof the esplanadeaway fromthe axis of the Church,and makingthe entireareasacredonce again,couldhavebeena religiously inspiredwayto restorea sacredarea that hadbeenviewedas corrupt. This actioncouldhavebeen a reflec-
tion andexpressionof the earlydoc- it, whichthereforealsofits the rather GreektermAnastasisusedforConstanambiguousdescriptionof the lapis tine'sbasilicameansresurrection. trinalconflictsbetweenIslamand Hence,the phrase"Templeof his body" JudaismandChristianity,as well as pertusis {piercedstone),which was couldalsobe appliedto the ConstantinreflectingcontinuingsectarianJewish the FoundationStonein the holy ianbuildings,againindicatingthatthese house describedby the Pilgrimof objectionsto Herod'sreconstruction structuresreplacedthe kwish temple. Bordeaux, and thus facilitatesthe project. melding of traditionsaboutthese Tobe sure,the transformation of Bibliography the templecompoundwasnot solely two separatesites. Bahat, D. The rock beneaththe Dome of reactionaryorconservativein nature. 1986 Does the Holy SepulchreChurch the Spirits, proposedbyKaufmanas Christian{or,at least,non-Jewish} Markthe Burialof Jesus?Biblical the rockof the holy of holies,also elementswerealso introduced;for ArchaeologyReview 12 13}:26-45. example,the Domeof the Rockcould appearsto havea pittedappearance Ben-Dov,M. 1985 In the Shadow of the Temple.New be enteredbyall believers,justas the andcouldalso qualifyas the lapis York:Harper& Row. Holy Sepulchre(referred pertusis. Thatthe Dome of the Rock to as the Crone,P.,and Cook, M. holy of holies by Egeria}was opento sits overa piercedstonedoesnot 1977 Hagarism:TheMakingof the Islamic proveit wasthe site of the holyhouse, all Christians.In contrast,the holy World.Cambridge:CambridgeUnias has previouslybeenthought.It of holies of the JewishTemplewas versity Press. Kaufman,A. enteredonly once a yearby the high merelyshowsthat the memoryof 1977 New Light Upon Zion: The Plan and priest.The designof the cupolain these two separatelocationshadbePrecise Locationof the Second the Dome of the Rockis similarto gunto mergeinto one tradition.The Temple.Ariel 43: 63-99. the cupolain the Churchof the fusionof thesetraditionsis, I believe, 1981 The EasternWallof the Second the sourceforthe misidentification Holy Sepulchre.{Itis interestingto Templeat JerusalemRevealed.Biblical Archeologist 44: 108-15. note that the Churchof the Holy of the truesite of the holy house. 1983 Wherethe Ancient Templeof JeruSepulchreandthe Dome of the Rock The locationof the holy house salem Stood.Biblical Archaeology arebothsituatedovercavesandthat suggestedbyKaufmanbringsa fuller Review 9: 40-59. Mohammedreceivedhis firstrevela- understanding to the symbolismof Mazar,B. tion in a caveon MountHira.}The the Churchof the Holy Sepulchreas 1975 The Mozmtainof the Lord.New York:Doubleday & Company. comparisonsandcontrastsbetween describedbyEusebius,deepensour Sporty,L. D. thethreestructuresaretoonumerous understanding of sectionsof the 1983 Identifyingthe Curving Line on the to discussin detailhere.Wecansee, New Testamentandenhancesour BarKokhbaTempleCoin. Biblical however,that the new arrangement understanding of the liturgyreported Archaeologist 46: 121-23. of the esplanadeblendsJewishand by Egeria.The symbolismof the site 1990 The Locationof the Holy House of Christianconceptstogetherin a new selectionaIldarchitecture Herod'sTemple:Evidencefrom the ofHadrianZs Pre-DestructionPeriod.Biblical way,justas thereis such a blending Templeof Aphroditeis also revealed. Archaeologist 53: 194-204. within the religionof Islamitself. Whenexaminedin light of the alter- Wansbrough, J. Therefore,the motivationforconnatelocationforthe holy houseof 1978 The SectarianMilieu. Oxford:Oxford structingthe Dome of the Rockon the SecondTemple,the consistency University Press. its presentsite, awayfromthe holy of the literarysources,togetherwith Warren,C., and Conder,C. R. house,mayhavebeenreligiousin the otherevidence,makesa compel- 1970 The Surveyof WesternPalestine, volume 5 (reprintof 1884 edition}. nature.The locationof the Dome of ling argumentin favorof Kaufmanfs Jerusalem:KedemPublishing. the Rockwasintendedto correct proposal. Watson,C. M. whatsome groupshadseen as a past 1912 The Storyof Aerusalem.New York: corruptionof the sacredspaceandto Notes E. P.Dutton & Co. eliminateanynotionsof Christian lThisis the companionpieceto my Wilken, R. 1984 The Christians as the Romans Saw article,TheLocationof the HolyHouse dominancefromthe Churchof the Them. New Haven:YaleUniversity of the SecondTemple:Evidencefromthe Holy Sepulchreacrossthe valley. Press. Conclusion It wouldbe naturalforthe Dome of the Rock,overtime, to acquirethe traditionsandlegendsassociated with the holy houseeventhoughit wasnot built on preciselythe same site. Porexample,the domeis built overa rockthathasholes drilledinto
Pre-Destruction Period,whichappeared Wilkinson, J.,translator in the December1990issue. 1981 Egeria'slEavelsintheHolyLand. 2Iam indebtedto AsherKaufman Jerusalem:Ariel Publishing. forsuggestingthis reference. 3TheAs-Sakhra rocklies at 2,440 feetabovesealevel.Thefloorof the CavalryChapellies at 2,494feetabove sea levelIWarren andConder1970: 277,282). 4Itmustbe emphasizedthatthe
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Evidence Archaeological in Southern Judah of Military Operations during the Early Hellenis;ticPeriod W.Betlyon bySohn greatdealis knownof the LateHellenisticperiod 1198to 63 B.C.E.)whenthe HasmoneansruledJerusalem andwhen Pompeyasserted Rome'sclaim to Jewishlands.But what happenedin these landsjust beforeandafterthe armiesof Alexanderthe Greatlaid siege to villages andtownsthat daredto standin theirway?Withmilitaryforcesmoving throughoutPalestine,what was happeningin southernJudahduring
A
the EarlyHellenisticperiod1332to 198s.c.E.)? These questionscameto my attentionbecauseof my involvement in the archaeologicalexcavationsat Tellel-Hesi,locatedhalfwaybetween TelAvivandBeer-sheba.These excavationsbeganunderSirWilliam M. FlindersPetriein 1890.They continueda yearlaterunderFrederick J.Bliss andwereresumedby a consortiumof AmericanarldCanadian educationalinstitutionsin 1970.
Eightseasonsof excavationsculminatedin 1983,andthe slowprocess of publicationof the new findsbegan. Petrie11891)andBliss 11894)recordedfindsof at least eight major strata,includingHellenisticremains. Sincethe renewalof excavationsat the tell in 1970,andthe improved understandingof the site'sstratigraphy,stratumIVhas been termed Hellenisticanddatedto the third throughthe firstcenturiesB.C.E. Whatwas the natureof Hellenistic
occupationin southernJudah?The archaeologicalandhistoricalcontexts of Tellel-Hesiandthe province of Judahmayprovidean interesting look at a little knownperiodin the historyof the holy land.
Telled-Duweir}.Lachishandits satellitetowns,such as Mareshah, Hesi andAzeqah,guardedthe southernpassinto the mountainstoward HebronandJerusalem. Fearingthe encirclementof Jerusalem, the Israelites fortifiedLachishandequippedthe city with an earlywarningsystemof watchtowers. Signalsof smokeorfire,
Judahin the LateIronII andPersianPeriods The historyof the late IronAge (Iron II-930 to 539 B.C.E.} in Judahis well knownfrombiblicalandextrabiblical sources.Followinga devastating campaignby the Assyriansagainst Judahlatein the eighthcenturyB.C.E., a periodof vassalageunderAssyria resultedin increasedprosperityand apostasy.Whenthe Babylonians finallydefeatedthe Assyriansand movedto claim theirempireearlyin warningof imminentattack,could the sixth centuryB.C.E., Judah,enbe sent fromthese outlyingtownsto couragedby Egypt,stoodwith other Lachish.Hesi wasone of these sites. weakerkingdomsagainstBabylon The top of the Hesi acropolis andsufferedgreatly. changedverylittle in the Persian Duringthe courseof the Hesi period(539to 332 B.C.E.}. The Iron excavationssubstantialIronIIconAgebuildingwas reused,with the structionwasuncovered,includinga additionof grainstoragepits.Caregeneralfortificationandupbuilding ful studyof the locallymadepottery of the acropolis.A greatearth-moving fromHesi'slate IronIIcitadelandits operationin which mudbrickpiers Persiansuccessorshowsa continuous andwallswereconstructedandthe developmentof ceramicforms;like spaceswerefilledwith soil was waresandmethodsof production undertakento raisethe heightof the persisted.However,while almostall tell. The resultwasa muchhigher of the IronIIpotterywaslocally acropoliswith a substantialbuilding made,43 percentof the Persian on top surroundedbya largemudperiodpotteryat the site wasimbrickwallwith glacis. ported.Neutronactivationanalyses Therecanbe little doubtthat haveshownthat some of the pottery Hesi wasfortifiedin conjunction wasimportedfromnorthernPaleswith the defenseof the royalcity of tine, some fromLebanon,anda great Lachish,located13kilometersto manypots fromGreeceandEast the northeast(nowunderstoodto be Greece(Greek-speaking kingdoms
Hesiwas fortified in conjunctionwith the defenseof the royalcity of Lachish.
A cornerof thefort'swallsystemthatdates to theIronAge.Duringtheexcavations,substantialIronII constructionwas uncovered, andit waslearnedthatthefortresswas raisedsubstantiallyduringthisperiod.Photo by TheodoreRosen.
in Anatolia}. Eitherthe functionof the site changedin the Persianperiodor the economicsituationof the Levant dramaticallyshiftedandwholesale interregionaltradebecamecommon. In all likelihoodbothreasonscame into play.Duringthe Persianperiod the Levanthadone overlord-Persepolis.In the IronAge,however, Assyria,BabylonandEgyptall vied forcontrol,andthis strifeaffected commerce.GreekandEastGreek city-stateswereexpandingtheir commercialinterestsas well during this period,resultingin the establishmentof tradingpostsat Tell DefennehandNaukratisin the Nile Delta,at al-MinaandTellSukason the Syriancoast,andat somesmaller installationsin Palestine(perhaps basesformercenarytroops}such as MesadHashavyahu(Naveh1962}. All alongthe Levantinecoast therewas intensiveoccupationfrom the lateIronIIperiodinto the Persian period.At Ashdod,MosheDothan uncovereda largepublicstructureof brickon a stonefoundationin stratum V in 1965(DothanandFreedman 1963-1965};a similarfortress
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Theories
Many pythoi like this one were found in brick-linedstoragepits dating to phase V-D, alongside many domestic wares of the Persian period and amphoraeused for international trade. Some pits were as much as 3.5 meters deep and surroundedby cobblestone surfaces. The so-called basket-handledamphoraewas apparentlydesigned to transportwheat or barley,but since Hesi was in a grain-producing region, they mayhave been used to transport oil as well. Photo courtesy T Lengnick, S. Lezonand M. Rose.
was recoveredin 1969in a salvage excavationnorthof Ashdod(Dothan 1972}.Althoughlittle Persianperiod potteryor remainswererecovered duringearlierexcavationsat Ashkelon,currentexcavationsdirected by LawrenceE. Stagerhaveuncoveredgreatquantitiesof pythoi, amphoraeandthe like attestingto the activitythat tookplacein Ashkelon'sharborin the fifthandfourth centuriesB.C.E. Nearbyandfarther inland,Persianoccupationhasbeen attestedat Telles-Safi,TelSippor andTellel-CEreini. Farthersouth,TellJemmehappearsto havebeena site similarto Hesi,with storagefacilitiesforfarm productionanda single,largebuilding,perhapsanadministrative center. Petrieestimatedthatthe granariesat TellJemmehcouldhaveheldenough grainfora garrisonof upwardsof 70,000men. Indeedtherewasa fortressat the site datingto the fifth and/orthe fourthcenturyB.C.E. Gus W.VanBeek'smorerecentworkcon-
38
about
the
Chronicler
How supportivewasthe Persiangovernmentof the Jewishcommunityafter its restorationin Judahin the late sixthcenturyB.C.E. ?Plaguedbymilitary problemswith Egypt,Persiacouldill affordtroublewith Judaheventhoughthe provincewas militarilyweak and strugglingto recoverfrom the devastation wroughtby the destructionof Jerusalemin 586 B.C.E. andthe resultingexile in Babylon. The pictureof the restorationpaintedby the chroniclerin 1 and2 Chronicles,Ezra,andNehemiahshowsmagnanimous PersianauthoritiesmovingJews back to Judahfrom Mesopotamiaand helping them rebuildthe Jerusalem Templeandthe wallsof the renewedcity.Littleis knownof this periodexcept whatis containedin thesefourbiblicalbooks,whichemphasizethe restoration ofthereligiouscultandits purificationfromoutside,non-Jewish influences.The recordis sketchyat best,however,leavinggreatgapsin this 200-yearperiodof biblicalhistory. In an attemptto dealwith someof these historicalproblems,FrankMoore Cross(1975)hasarguedthatthelistsof highpriestspreserved in thesefourbooks aretoo shortto coverthe yearsfollowing539 B.C.E., when the Jerusalem priesthoodwasrestored.He suggestedthattwofather-sonpairsof priestsweredeleted fromthe list bya scribalerrorof haplography (whenwordsorsentencesbeginor endwith the samesequenceof lettersresultingin a scribedeletingsomethingor copyingit twice)andthatthis mistakewascausedbythe use of papponymy (the namingof sonsaftertheirgrandfathers) bypriestlyfamilies.Readinglikenames as the samename,a scribemistakenlydeleteda pairof namesfromthe list. In Cross'sopinion,this wouldaccountforthe shortnessof the highpriestlist over sucha longperiodof time. Crossarguedfurtherthatapairofnamesfelloffthelist fromtheearlyperiod of Persianrule,around525to 500B.C.E., andagainaround370to 360B.C.E. Several scholarshave dismissedCross'sreconstructionof the high priest list, both becauseof his insistenceuponscribalerrorin the deletionof the priests'names andhis insistencethatthe averagelife spanin officeof a highpriestwasprobably about25 years. TheYehudcoinsprovidea newdatumforthis debate(seeBetlyon1986).An inscriptionlisting yh.nn hAhn(Yohanan hakRohen),"Yoh. ananthe priest,"was impressedon a seriesof small coins struckin about322 B.C.E. to supplement other formsof late Persianand EarlyHellenisticcoinagecirculatingin and aroundJerusalem. Persianauthoritieshadgrantedpermissionto the highpriest to strikecoins.The lastprieston Ezra'slist wouldhavetakenpoweraround400
That the fortress was used for military purposesis attested to by this iron arrowhead found in a Field I Persianpit, The largestorage facilities at Hesi indicate it could have been a place where the Persianarmies kept supplies. Similar storagefacilities have been found at Tell[emmeh and Teller-Reqeish,These three sites may have been military installations intended as forward-stagingareas to command and controlsupplyand maintenancefunctions as well as combat supportservices for the PersianArmy.Photo courtesy T.Lengnick, S. Lezonand M. Rose.
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
firmsthis datingandalso atteststo a phaseof earlyHellenisticoccupation of the samekinddatingto the early thirdcenturyB.C.E. (1972,1973, 1974,1983}. Tellel-FarCah (South}hada large settlementin this period;it covered the entiremoundandwasprotected by a fortress.Teller-Reqeishhadfive Persianperiodphasesof domestic occupation,whereasexcavationsat Tellesh-ShariCah revealeda fortress andadditionalgrainstoragefacilities verysimilarto whatis knownof JemmehandHesi.All threesites mayhavebeenmilitaryinstallations intendedas forward-staging areasto
He couldhardlyhavelivedlongenoughto strikecoinssome75 yearslater. Cross'sreconstructionbetterdealswith the elapsedtime of Persianrule, addingfournamesbackonto the high priestlist. I disagree,however,that the nameswerelost byscribalerror.Instead,Ezra'slist mayhavebeenpurposefully censoredby Persianofficialsto removethe names of rebellioushigh priests. Therewasampleopportunity forinsurrectionin theperiodsin question,andthis resultedin Judeanparticipation in severalrevolts.WhenEzraandNehemiahare laudedfor their supportof their Persianoverlords,the GreatKinghimself, Darius,is extolledas a benefactor, albeitsavior,of the IsraelitesjEzra61. Theperiodswhennamesaremissingfromthe list provideonemoreshredof evidenceforperiodsofrevoltagainstPersiandomination.TheEzralists maywell havebeen used by the Persiansfor the purposeof propaganda; only afterthe historieshadpassedcensorshipweretheydeemedacceptableanddisseminated to the loyalistJewishcommunities.This was, afterall, a time when talk of freedomor self-determination amongJewswouldhavebeen regardedas rebellion.PersianpoliticalandmilitarycontroloverJudahremainedstrongandintact throughoutthe Persianperiod.Thepresenceof militaryinstallationsinsidethe provinceat sitessuchasTellel-Hesi,TellJemmeh,andTellesh-ShariCah attestto Persianresolveto holdonto this regionandprojectits powerinto neighboring Egypt.It was certainlycommonthroughoutthe ancientworldto expungethe namesof rebelliousrulerswhen loyalistsreturnedto the throne.In Egypt,for example,Akhenaten's namewaslost,as wasthatof Hatshepsut,the queenwho reignedas a king. The annalsof the dayrecordthe greatactivitiesof Persiankingsmarching acrossthe pagesof history,but of Judahwe know little. The biblicalrecordof Persiandealingswith Judahis suspectbecausethe recordis exceptionallygood eventhoughPersiadominatedanddirectedJewishaffairsfrom539B.C.E. untilthe comingofAlexandertheGreatin 332/331B.C.E. Relationswiththe Samaritans in the centralhill countryworsenedin this period,but this couldonly havebenefittedthe Persiansby splittingthe Jewishcommunityandguaranteeing a weak responseto anyinsurrection. Thisweaknessis welldocumentedbyfailedrevolts andevidenceof militarydestructionat sites such as Hazor,Megiddo,Athlit, Lachish,andJericho.Someof Judahmusthaveparticipated in these revolts,for the Jewsof Jerichoandthe surrounding areawerepunishedwith deportationto the CaspianSea. Formore informationon these rebellioustimes, see Baragjl9661,Stern jl9821,andWidengrenjl9771. B.C.E.
commandandcontrolsupplyand maintenancefunctionsas well as combatsupportservicesforthe PersianArmyin its campaignsagainst Egyptandits allies.The sites could havebeenoccupiedby Greekor East Greekmercenariesunderthe commandof Persianofficers.Itis probable that the sites storedfoodsuppliesso that the armycouldfightin the borderregionswithouthavingto expendprecioustime foragingfor supplies.Similarlogisticalstrategies arecommonlypracticedby armies, placingsuppliesin areaswherethey maybe needed.Althoughwe cannot absolutelyconfirmthat these were militarysites, or that theywereoccupiedbyEastGreekor Greekmercenaries,we knowthey contained the facilitiesthat wouldbe required to storemassiveamountsof grain, the potentialto feedthousands.Large quantitiesof potteryfromAttic and otherGreekor EastGreekmarkets attestthe internationalflavorof the occupantsat these sites. OtherPersianperiodoccupation is knownfromsites in Benjamin aroundJerusalemandfromthe holy city itself:Gezer,Lachish,Ramat Rahel,Khirbetes-SheikhIbrahim, Beth-zur,Arad,Marisa,KhirbetBeit Lei,Beer-sheba andKadeshBarneaall attestto Persianperiodoccupation. At times Judahattemptedto free itselffromthe Persianyoke,although unsuccessfully.Thereis evidence that Persiaedited(orcensored}the chronicler'sfinalversionof 1 and2 Chronicles,EzraandNehemiah(Coggins 1976},deletingthe namesof rebellioushighpriests.Twopairsof namesseem to havebeendeleted, accordingto some scholars(see Cross1975andBetlyon1986;also see the accompanyingsidebar}.The Thetopof theHesiacropolischangedvery little duringthe Persianperiod(539to 332 B.C.E.). Theinhabitants reusedthestructure fromtheIronAge.Duringthisperiod, 43 percentof thepotterywasimportedfrom northernPalestine,LebanonandGreeceand EastGreece.DuringIronII,almostall of the potterywasmadelocally.Photoby Wilhelm Nassau.
BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991
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Thesefragmentsof core-formed glassare fromtheAegeananddateto thefifthcentury B.C.E. Theyaresmallfragments of perfume containers,luxuryitemsin theirday that mayattestfurtherto a militarypresencein thearea.Thewealthnecessarytopurchase suchobjectsmustcertainlyhavecomefrom outsidetheregionandcouldhavebeen providedbymilitaryand/orgovernmental authority.PhotocourtesyT.Lengnick, S.Lezon andM.Rose.
priestshadgiventhemselvesgreat authority,strikingcoins andreestablishinga thrivingcult in Jerusalem.Indeed,the Persiansystemof appointinglocalgovernorsmayhave failed,resultingin the highpriestin Jerusalem takingsomecivil authority uponhimselfaswell. Judaeanparticipationin severalrevoltsagainstPersia, amplyrecordedin the archaeologicalrecord,is muteevidenceof Judah's desireto escapecentralized Persiancontrol.Evidencefromthe southernreachesof the province, however,pointsto a persistentmilitarypresencethatcouldnot be easily overthrown. Hesi in the PersianandEarly HellenisticPeriods W.J.Bennett,Jr.andJeffreyBlakely arein the finalstagesof publishing findsfromthe Persianstrataat Tell el-Hesi.Builtatopthe massiveIron IIconstructionin orderto raisethe heightof the acropolisof the tell, phaseV-Dcontaineda largebuilding arounda centralcourtyard.The wallswerebuilt of sun-driedmudbricksthathadbeenmadein molds andthen coveredwith plaster.Later installationsdisturbedsurfacesrelatedto this buildinganddestroyed muchof its plan.PhaseV-Ccontinueduse of the buildingandrelated threshingfloorsto its north.A layer with striationsof darkash andgray
40
earthwith highgraincontentsuggeststhreshingwith periodicburning of the floorsto reducethe riskof vermininfestation.This activity continuedin phaseV-B. Tworoughlynorth-southlines of brick-linedstoragepits duginto the areawherethe buildinghadpreviouslystoodwererevealedin phase V-A.Somepits wereas muchas 3.5 metersdeepandsurroundedby cobblestonesurfaces.Thesepits producedmanydomesticwaresof the Persianperiodalongsidelargesherds of pythoiandamphoraeusedfor internationaltrade.The so-called basket-handled amphoraewereapparentlydesignedforthe transport of wheator barley.Manyof these amphoraewerefoundat Hesi,but why wasgrainimportedto a grainproducingregion?Bennettand Blakelyspeculatethat these jars werefilledwith oil-not grain-and werereusedat Hesi.The GreekhistorianHerodotusnotedthatempty wine amphoraewererefilledwith waterandburiedat depositsin the Sinaito providewaterforPersian armlesln tlmes ot crlsls,a practlce begunbythe PersiansafterCambyses capturedEgyptin 525 B.C.E. (Herodotus, book3, sections6 and7;see Godley1963:9-11). .
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Manysherdsof Attic andother Greekpotterywerefoundin these phasesof stratumV-more than 11 percentof the stratifiedpotterywas Attic black-glazed ware.Fragments of core-formed glassfromthe Aegean datingto the fifthcenturyB.C.E., smallfragmentsof perfumecontainers,wereluxuryitems in theirday. The wealthnecessaryto purchase such objectsmust certainlyhave come fromoutsidethe region;militaryand/orgovernmentalauthority couldhaveprovidedthat kindof wealth. Thereis no discerniblebreak betweenstratumV andstratumIV, the Hellenisticstrata.Althoughdisturbedfromabovebynumerous burialsdatingto the laterIslamic period,some wall fragmentssurvive with relatedsurfaces,apparentlyof a centralbuilding.On the southern halfof the acropolismudbrickwalls werebuilt atopstonefoundations with open-airsurfacesto the north, perhapswheremorethreshingwas done.This buildingwas superseded by constructionusingstonewalls with rubblefill andmorestorage __
Hesihasprovideda muchlargercorpusof PersianandEarlyHellenisticpotterythananyother site excavatedthusfar.Aboveleft is an attic red-figured sherdfoundin a FieldI Persianpit, whileaboverightis an atticred-figured lekythos piecedtogetherfromsherdsthatwerealso foundin a FieldI Persianpit. Manysherdsof AtticandotherGreekpotterywerefoundin variousphasesof stratumV-more thanl l percentof thestratifiedpotterywasAttic blackglazedware.Potteryoriginallydatedbyexcavators in thefieldto the thirdandsecondcenturiesB.C.E. mustnow be redatedto thefourthandearlythirdcenturiesat thelatest.Photo courtesy7:Lengnick,S. LezonandM.Rose.
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
pits.Potteryoriginallydatedbyex- dates.Bonesandfoodremainslseeds, GreekandEastGreekpottery cavatorsin the fieldto the thirdand pits andthe likelwerefoundin char- mayhavebeenbroughtbymercenary secondcenturiesB.C.E. must nowbe coal refusefromcookingfires The troopsworkingforPersiaandasredatedto the fourthandearlythird Hesi Besjarwasfoundherein pieces signedto these poststo overseethe centuriesat the latest. aswasa smallfigurinehead,probably stockpilingof suppliesandtheiruse Whenoriginallyexcavatedthere of Asherah. n tsmeot crssss.. argecomponents was little or no precisionin dating of infantryandcavalrymovingsouth EarlyHellenisticpottery.PaulLapp's Conclusions:EarlyHellenistic alongthe coastalhighwaycould studyof Hellenisticceramicsdealt Hesi andthe Provinceof Judah easilyhavebivouackednearHesi to only with second-andfirst-century- WadiHesi is an excellentplaceto the west in preparation formoveB.C.E. pots,aboutwhich muchmore growgrains.Foodproductionis enment into Egypt.The severalphases is knownlLapp1961l.Hesi provided hancednot only by the winterrains of stratumV coincidewell with the a muchlargercorpusof Persianand but also bythe watersof the wadi, knowntimes of Persian/Egyptian EarlyHellenisticpotterythanany which runsdryonly in the driestof enmity,particularlythe revoltsof othersite excavatedthusfar.Blakely's 488, 458, 411and400 B.C.E., when moreconclusivestudyof locally the Egyptiansfinallypushedthe PerIersiarl forces could mnnufactured potteryandimported siansout of theircountry.At this waresfromthese sameHellenistic time the ShephelahandNegevnear NlONretQ interdict loci revealthat stratumIVis reallya Hesi andJemmehbecamethe front continuumof stratumV'sPersian andwitnessedincreasedmilitary any offensive threat periodoccupationlBennettand activityas warringcontinuedinto Blakely19901.Indeed,the use of the the fourthcenturylrevoltsof the the southweste site foragricultureandstorageseems frotn 370s and350s B.C.E.). In the courseof to havecontinuedin a moreor less these campaignsmanycities and unbrokenwayfromthelatesixthcen- summerseasons.The site is not on townsin ludahweredestroyedbeturyinto the earlythirdcentury, anymajorroad,however,so why causeof ludaeanallianceswith the perhapsas late as 275 B.C.E. None of wouldit havebeenusedas a military Egyptiansandthe renegadePhoenithe importedpottery,uponwhichthe supplybase? ciancity-stateof Sidon,which aslocallymadewarescanbe datedmost Hesi was certainlyone of the sistedin thesefourth-century revolts. accurately,is laterthan275 B.C.E. IronAgewatchfiresaroundLachish, EphraimSternhas suggested Mostceramicformsin Judah identifyingthe site as a placeof that the attackon GazabyAlexanchangedlittle overthis period.Mor- militarysignificance.This identifi- der'sarmyin 331 B.C.E. mayalso taria,originallywith thick, heavy cationpersistedinto the Persian accountforthe fall of Melllemmeh, walls,developedinto grindingvesperiodwhen Persianand/orallied Tellesh-ShariCah andTellel-Hesi, sels with thinnerwalls,but the forcesusedthe site as a logistical which"servedas supplydepotsfor shapeis still recognizable,the ware commandcenterto controlagrithe Persianarmyin theirlatest identical.StratumIVmaybe called culturalresourcesof the wadi.Its phases"(1982:254-55).This camLatePersian/Early Hellenisticrather proximityto GazaandAshkelonand paignmayaccountforone of the thansimplyHellenistic.The occuits readyaccessto the Egyptianbor- finalphasechangesat Hesi, probably pationincludesa singlebuilding, dermadeit an obviouschoiceas a in stratumIV,but the evidenceleads remodeledatleasttwice,andperhaps forward-support centerforthe Perme to suggestthat Hesi wasnot yet threetimes,with wallsof mudbrick, sianArmy.Itprovideda baseof opera- through.Thesite mayhavecontinued thenstone,andthenmudbrickagain. tions fromwhich Persianforces to serveas a HellenisticGreekmiliTothe northof the buildingare couldmoveto interdictanyoffensive tarydepotforthe campaigninto alternateperiodsof threshingfloors threatfromthe southwest.Tellesh- Egyptin the last quarterof the fourth andseriesof deep,mudbrick-lined ShariCah andTellJemmehseem to centuryB.C.E. storagepits. Someof the pits were havefulfilledsimilarfunctions, Evidenceof Hellenisticmilitary usedas grainsilos, othersas garbage bringingto threethe numberof inoccupationat othersites in the third pits.Oneparticularpit excavated stallationsthatwerepreparedto andearlysecondcenturiesB.C.E. primarilyin 1979and 1981wasbell- supportmilitaryactionwhen andif includesthe presenceof peculiar shapedandapproximately 3.4 meters it wasneeded.Indeed,an arrayof Hellenisticbraziers(Gunnewegand deep.It containedthe remainsof weapons,includingjavelinpoints, Perlman1984).Theywereimported verylargestoragejarsfromthe fifth arrowheads, lancepoints,knivesand fromthe Aegeanandfoundat Dor, andearlyfourthcenturiesB.C.E. as piecesof bodyarmor,havebeen Akko,Ashkelon,laffa,Ashdod,Gaza well as Attic sherdsconfirmingthese foundat Hesi. andSamariaandwereprobablyhouse.
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Time Line 1b11El-Hesi StratigraphicChart ForFields I (Acropolis)and III SubCultural Stratum stratum Period
Characteristics
Date
AfterC.E. 1900 Israelimilitarytrenching C. C.E. 1600 1800 Muslimcemetery Pits,hearths,surfacesandfragmentary wallsassociatedwith agriculture LateArabic TBE) andstockraising Hellenistic 4th-3rdcent. Threesub-strata,, damagedbygravesandtrenching.
Modern Turkish
II III
IV
B.C.E.
IVa IVb IVc
Persian
v
6th-4th cent.
Culturaldecline,pit digging;pits filledin at endof period. Stone-constructed buildingandagriculturalsurfaces.IVcdrainfilledin. Somepit digging. Brickbuildingon partstone foundation.Stonedrainwith watercatchment.ManyPersianpits filledin at beginningof period. Foursub-strata.
B.C.E.
FieldI: squarebrickbuilding;manydeeppits mainlyforgrainstorage. FieldIII:Persianperiodburialsin decayedtopof brickwall. FieldI: Severalbrickstructuresin use; disappearance of Vcagricultural Vb residues;multipleresurfacing anduse of flagstonesandcobbles. vc FieldI: foundingof centralbuilding;agriculturalresiduesand outside surfaces. Vd FieldI:extensivebuildingactivitiescuttingintoearlierremains;casematelikebuildingin SEquadrant; open-airsurfacesto the NW. Relatively poor house construction on brickplatformin FieldI. Iron II 6th cent. B.C.E. VI ASH(probably the resultof BabylonianlEdomite destruc ctionof the city) VII IronII 9th 6th cent. Foursub-strata in FieldsI andIII. Va
B.C.E.
7th-6th cent.
VIIa
B.C.E.
8th-7th cent.
VIIb
B.C.E.
9th-8th cent.
VIIc
FieldI: largebuildingin extremeS; northernportionremovedVdconstruction. FieldI: brick-builthouse with pit in extremeS; FieldIII:probablyconstructionof zoneC wall. FieldI:largecourtyard buildingwith two sub-phases; smallerstructures.
B.C.E.
9th cent.B.C.E.
VIId
VIII
Iron I
11th(?)cent. B.C.E.
Pre-VIII
Iron IILBI EB III/EBII
aManasseh Wallr/ in FieldI andzonesA andB of FieldIIIwall/slopewith terracesbetween.Chamberand fill constructionon summit raisingS portionof acropolis6.0 m. Fillsbetweenchamberandfill construction andaManasseh Wall//consolidatedby stonebuilt/plaster-covered glacis. FieldI:Wallwith interiorplasterfloorandexteriorsandfloor.Plasterfloor coveredby 1.0m. deepdestructionlayer.(Petrie/s PilasterBuilding?) Sub-phases revealedin andbelowthe terracesonwhichVIIdfills andwalls werelaid/but not excavatedto anyextent.
All EarlyBronzeIIIstrataandsub-strataarewell preservedandwereexcavatedin fieldsV/VI/andIX
holdgoodsof the assignedtroops. WhenAlexander'stroopscapturedenemysuppliesandlogistical networks,theycouldeasilybe reused with few changesratherthancreat-
42
ing wholly new commandandcontrolsystemsin hostileterritories. Alexander'sstyle of command, moreover,was one of heroicpersonal example,which stressedquick,deci-
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
sive actionandreliedon the use of materialsat hand. Hesi was an outpostprobably mannedby a smallcontingentof troopstrainedto protectthemselves
but specialistsin supply.Theywere rear-echelon troopsunaccustomed to frontlinefightingbut presumably capableof carryingout theirown securityoperationsto ensurethe readinessof theirsupplydepotto meet the needsof a campaigning militaryforcewhen required.They werea kindof readyreservein place, supervisingthe accumulationof agriculturalstoresin peacetime and assistingin the disseminationof the sameto troopsin time of war.The refusepits at Hesi reflectthe use of these storesto feedthe armieswhen passingthroughtheregionintobattle. Dungandbrokenimplementsrangingfromloomweights,spindlewhorls andbonetools (froma spinningand weavingindustryforthe repairof uniforms?)to weaponsarefound sideby sidewith animalandfish bonesandcookingfireremains. StrataV andIVat Tellel-Hesi representthis militaryagricultural supplydepot.Withthe withdrawal of Alexander's armiesfromthe region,Hesi wasabandoned.Other nearbysites alsowereabandoned, includingTellJemmeh.In the Early Hellenisticperiod,only the major coastalcitiesremained,suchasGaza, AshkelonandAshdod.Renewedoccupationspreadovermuchof southernPalestinelaterin the Hellenistic periodas agriculturaldevelopment continuedandthepotentialofborderlands,such as thosewateredbyWadi Hesi,wasagainexploited.Several sites alongthe wadiwereoccupied at this time andin the Romanperiod (63B.C.E. to 324 C.E.), includingTell Sheqefto the west/northwest, althoughHesi remainedabandoned. Hesi didnot againfigureinto the life of the regionuntil earlyin the MiddleAgeswhen wanderingtribes of bedouinsbeganusingit as a cemetery. Bibliography Amiran, R., and Worrell, J. E. 1976 Hesi, Tel. Pp. 514-20 in Encyclopedia of ArchaeologicalExcavationsin the Holy Land, volume 2, edited by M. Avi-Yonah. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Barag,D. 1966 The Effectsof the TennesRebellion an Palestine.Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 183:6-12 Bennett, W.J.,Jr.,and Blakely,J.A. 1990 Tellel-Hesi: The PersianPeriod. Series:The JointArchaeological Expeditionto Tell el-Hesi, volume 3, edited by K. G. O'Connell.Baltimore:American Schools of Oriental Research. Betlyon,J.W. 1986 lEe ProvincialGovernmentof Persian PeriodJudahand the YehudCoins. tournal of Biblical Literature105: 633-42. Bliss, F.J. 1894 A Mound of Many Cities or Tellel Hesy Excavated.London:Palestine ExplorationFund. Coggins, R. J. 1976 The Books of Ezzaand Nehemiah. Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press. Coogan,M. D. 1975 A Cemetery from the PersianPeriod at Tell el-Hesi. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 220: 37-46. Cross, F.M. 1975 A Reconstructionof the Judean Restoration.ffiournal of Biblical Literature94: 4-18. 1978 The Historical Importanceof the SamariaPapyri.Biblical Archaeology Review 4(1J:25-27. Doermnnn,R. W.,and Fargo,V.M. 1985 Tell el-Hesi, 1983. Palestine Exploration Quarterly107: 1-24. Dothan, M. 1972 Ashdod. IsraelExplorationffiournal 22: 166-67, 243-44. Dothan, M., and Freedman,D. N. 1963- Ashdod II-III. Jerusalem:Israel 1965 ExplorationSociety. Fargo,V.M., and O'Connell,K. G. 1978 Five Seasonsof Excavationat Tell el-Hesi {1970-1977l.Biblical Archeologist 41: 165-82. Godley,A. D., translator 1963 Herodotus7volume 3: Books 3 and 4. Series:LoebClassical Library.Cambridge,MA, and London:Harvard University Press and Heinemann. Gunneweg,J.,and Perlman,J. 1984 Hellenistic Braziersfrom Israel: Results of PotteryAnalysis. Israel Explorationffiournal 34: 232-38. Keegan,J. 1987 The Mask of Command. New York: Viking Press. Lapp,P.W. 1961 Palestinian Ceramic Chronology: 200 B.C.-A.D.70. New Haven,CT: American Schools of Oriental Research.
Naveh, J. 1962 The Excavationsof MesadHashavyahu, PreliminaryReport.Israel Exploration ffiournal12: 88-113. O'Cormell,K. G., and Rose, D. G. 1980 Tell el-Hesi, 1979. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 112:73-91. O'Connell,K.G., Rose,D. G., andToombs,L.E. 1978 Tell el-Hesi, 1977. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 110:75-90. Petrie,W.M. F. 1891 Tell el Hesy (Lachish). London: Palestine ExplorationFund. 1928 Gerar. Series:British School of Archaeologyin Egypt,volume 43. London:British School of Archaeology in Egypt. Rose, D. G., and Toombs,L. E. 1976 Tell el-Hesi, 1973 and 1975. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 108:41-54. Rose,D.G.,Toombs,L.E.,andO'Connell,K.G. 1978 FourSeasons of Excavationat Tell el-Hesi: A PreliminaryReport.Pp. 109-49 in Preliminary Excavation Reports: Bdb edh-DhraCZSardisZ MeironZTell el-HesiZ Carthage (Punic)
edited by D. N. Freedman.Series: Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research43. Cambridge, MA:American Schools of Oriental Research. Stager,L. E. 1971 Climatic Conditions and Grain Storagein the PersianPeriod.The Biblical Archeologist 34: 86-88. Stern,E. 1982 Material Culture of the Land of the Bible in the Persian Period 538-332 B.C. Warminster,England,and Jem-
salem:Aris andPhillips andthe Israel ExplorationSociety. Toombs,L. E. 1981 Tell el-Hesi, 1981.Palestine Exploration Quarterly 115:25-46. VanBeek, G. W. 1972 Tell Jemmeh.Israel Exploration ffiournal22: 245-46. 1973 Tell Gemmeh. Revue Biblique 80: 572-76. 1974 Tell Jemmeh.Israel Exploration ournal 24: 138-39. 1983 Digging up Tell Jemmeh.Archaeology36: 12-19. Widengren,G. 1977 The PersianPeriod.Pp. 500-9 in Israelite and tudaean History edited by J.H. Hayes and J.M. Miller. Philadelphia:WestminsterPress. Worrell,J.E., and Toombs,L. E. 1971 Tell el-Hesi. Israel Exploration ournal 21: 232-33. Wright,G. E. 1971 A Problemof Ancient Topography: Lachishand Eglon. Harvard Theological Review 64: 437-48.
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DeadSeaScrolls(DSS) haveprovidedmuchnew informationthat is still beingprocessedbyscholarsandstudentsin the areasof the text andcanonof the Bibleandthe historyof earlyJudaismandChristianity.The progressin publication of thesetextsandtheirongoingstudy havebeenseverelyhandicapped becausea comprehensiveandcoordinatedinventoryof all texts and of the DSShas never photographs beenmade. Afterthe collectionof DSS was depositedin the photographs vaultof the AncientBiblicalManuscriptCenter(ABMC)in Claremont, California,it becameevidentto the staffthatthe lists of the photographs wereincompleteandin some cases inaccurate.Whilediscussingthe problemwith JohnStrugnell,theninforthepubternationaleditor-in-chief licationof the scrolls,ABMCpresidentJamesSanderssuggestedthat fundsshouldbe soughtfora scholar to updatethe olderlists. Strugnell agreed,andwhen JoyUngerleiderMayerson,presidentof the Dorot Foundation,agreedto providethe funds,the fellowshipwasadvertised. In the springof 1989I was chosento receivethis fellowship, which hasbeenadministeredbythe ABMC.Sincethat time, I havebeen workingunderthe directionof SandersandStrugnell.Mytaskhas beento reviseandupdatethe previous cataloguesof the photographs andfragmentsof the inscriptional materialfromthe JudaeanDesert housedat the RockefellerMuseum in Jerusalem.I workedwith the at actualfragmentsandphotographs the RockefellerMuseumfora year, andI havealso workedwith the at the ABMC. photographs The DSSinventoryis designed to enablescholarsto locatethe andfragmentsof manuphotographs scriptsfoundnearthe DeadSeaso they can studythem.The goalis to gatherinformationaboutthe DSS fragmentsandmanuphotographs, The
at
the
nents P Photographs and Rockefeller Museum
4Q175Testimonia.Thiswritingincludes severalquotationsfromHebrewscripture, as well as a nonsuchas Deuteronomy, canonicalwork,thePsalmsoftoshua.
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byStetbenA.Reed
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
scriptsandto put this information into a relationaldatabasethatwill aidscholarsto findrelevantinformation fortheirresearch. Whilea greatdealof information hasbeencollected,muchmorework still needsto be donebeforethe materialis readyto be published. The natureof the projectcanbestbe understoodfirstby consideringthe historyof the originsof the collections andsecondby describingthe materialsin the collections. Historyof Collections In orderto understandthe natureof the collectionsof photographs and museumplatesof DSSfragments,it is helpfulto considerthe historyof theirorigins.AfterbedouinsdiscoveredCave1 at Qumran,the first items theyofferedforsale werethe sevenscrollsthatcapturedthe world's attention:two copiesof Isaiah,a Hymnscroll,a Warscroll,a commentary(pesher}on Habakkuk,a Genesisapocryphonanda rulefor the community(serekhayahad}. Sincethen the expressionDead Sea Scrollshasbecomecommon, but it is misleadingin two respects. First,mostof the restof the materials found,exceptforthe scrollsfrom Cave11,areextremelyfragmentary, andto speakof them as scrollsmay soundimpressive,but is misleading. Second,Dead Seahasbecomeidentifiedwith the site Qumran,although inscriptionalmaterialhasbeen foundin manyplacesin the Judaean WildernessotherthanQumran. It is truethat the largestcollection of materialis fromthevicinityof KhirbetQumranandthat these initial discoveriesmotivatedbedouins andscholarsto searchmorecarefully the cavesof the JudaeanWilderness. Still, the KhirbetMirdandWadi Daliyehcollectionsparticularlyare quiteunrelatedhistoricallyandsubstantivelyto the materialsfoundat Qumran(seeCross1961;Trever1979}. Politicalfactors.Anyaccurateassessmentof the historyof the studyof the fragmentsin the Rockefellermust
takeinto accountthe changingpolitical situationin Israel/Palestine in the last 40 years.Situatedjustoutside the northeasterncornerof the OldCity wall of Jerusalem,the museumwasestablishedbya $2 million
Any
accurate of
the
study
fragments
must
consider
changing situation.
the
political
Antiquities(nowthe IsraelAntiquities Authority}. The Shrineof the Book,which is a partof the IsraelMuseumcomplex in the west partof Jerusalem, openedin 1965andexhibitedQumranmaterialsthatwereeitherbought fromprivateownersorborrowed from the Rockefellerafter1967.Forthe historyof acquisitionsof materials forthe Shrineof the Booksee Pearlman (1988}andYadin(1957;1985}. Throughoutall of these changes, the internationalteamof scholars workingon the fragmentshadto adjustto the differentpoliticalstructuresin orderto continueto have accessto the fragments(Cross1961; Trever1979}.New arrangements took time to put into effectandslowed the publicationprocess. Acquisitionsandexcavations.The earlyhistoryof the acquisitionsand excavationsrevealsa dizzyingaccumulationof fragments,particularly between1952and 1956.The seven
grantfromJohnD. RockefellerIIin 1927.The PalestineArchaeological Museum(PAM}openedin 1938.Besidesdisplayingcollections,the museumservedastheheadquarters ofthe BritishMandate-controlled Palestine DepartmentofAntiquities(Rosovsky andUngerleider-Mayerson 1989:67}. Manyof the sites wherefragmentswerefound,such as Qumran, Murabba'at andWadiDaliyeh,are locatedin what is now calledthe WestBankof the JordanRiver.Since this regionwasunderthe controlof Jordanwhen these collectionsof fragmentswerefoundandthe museumforthis regionwas the PAM, most of the collectionswereplaced there.In 1948the RockefellerMuseumwasmadea privateinstitution TheRockefeller Museumin terusalem,which by the BritishMandateof Palestine. housesthemajorityof thefragmentary Qumranmanuscripts. Formerly knownas the It wasplacedunderthe controlof PalestineArchaeological Museum,sincethe severalnationalschoolsof archaeSixDay Warin 1967it has beenadministered byIsrael. ologicalresearchandnationalconsulatesin Jerusalem.By 1966the museumandthe scrollswerenascrollsfromCave1 werediscovered tionalizedby the governmentof Jor- by the Ta'amirehbedouinsin 1947. dan(Cross1990:18}. Excavationsof this cavein 1949 In 1967Israelassumedcontrol producedmost of the remaining of the museumafterthe Six Day Cave1 fragments.In 1951fragments Warandthe namewaschangedto werefoundbybedouinsin cavesof the Rockefeller.Centralportionsof WadiMurabba'at, andlaterexcavathe largebuildingcomplexwereused tions in 1952broughtmanymore formuseumdisplaywhile otherparts fragments.In 1952QumranCaves2, wereusedforstorageareasandof3, 4, 5 and6 werefoundandlater fices of the IsraelDepartmentof excavated,yieldingmanyfragments.
BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991
45
,
-!
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-
j
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Scholars workingin the Palestine Archaeological Museum, now the Rockefeller Museum, in the 1950s.
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{ Manuscriptswerealso broughtin fromNahalHever,WadiSeiyaland KhirbetMirdin 1952. In 1953 more materialwasfoundat KhirbetMird. In 1955 fragmentswerediscovered in the newlyfoundQumranCaves7, 8,9 and 10.In 1956 QumranCave11 wasfoundwith somewell-preserved scrollsincludingthe PsalmsScroll, the Targumof Jobandthe paleoHebrewLeviticusscroll.In 1962 Samariapapyridocumentsandbullae werefoundat WadiDaliyeh,andthe site wasexcavatedthe next year (Trever1979: 195-205). Morethanhalfof the museum platescontainingfragmentsin the PAMCollectionwerefoundin Cave 4 at Qumran,puttingit in a class of its own.Cave4 wasdiscoveredin September1952, andfragmentswere subsequentlyofferedforsale.Archaeologistswho visitedthe cavethat monthfoundabout1,000fragments of nearly100manuscripts(Cross 1961:26-27; de VauxandMilik 1977:3-4}. Acquisitionsof fragmentsfromthe bedouinscontinued until 1958. Rolandde Vaux,chief editorforthe publicationof the DSS until his deathin 1971,suggested that therewereat least 15,000 fragmentsthat eventuallymadeup the Cave4 collection(deVauxandMilik 1977:5}.
Twoof thevolumesin the official seriesforthe publicationof DeadSea Scrolls,Discoveriesin the Judaean 46
Sortingthe material.The editorsof the Cave4 materialfacedthe difficulties of a largeamountof material andalso the exceedinglybadstateof preservationof the materials.Frank Cross(1961:35) wrote:"Manyfragments areso brittleor friablethat they can scarcelybe touchedwith a brush.Mostarewarped, camel's-hair crinkled,or shrunken,crustedwith soil chemicals,blackenedbymoistureandage.The problemsof cleaning, flattening,identifying,andpiecDesert (DID) containmaterialsaling them togetherareformidable." readypublishedfromCave4; they In 1956, PierreBenoitdescribed help one to graspthe fragmentary scholarsbeganthe taskof how natureof the material.MauriceBailon the scrollsandfragworking let (1982)was responsiblefor 1,659 the fragmentswere After ments. fragments.Sincehe coulddetermine andflattenedto be unfolded cleaned, that 398 also hadtext on the back plates,theywere glass under placed side he had2,057inscribedpieces activitieswere Such photographed. (1982:xi). Someof these he didnot sortingand to preliminary largely publishbecausetheywereso small. Afterexfragments. the arranging Thesefragmentsmadeup 39 manuscholars photographs, the amining scriptsin DID 7. The 29 manuscripts group and to identify to continued that JohnAllegropublishedin DID 5 same the from fragments together containa moremodest351fragments. manuscripts(Benoitandothers1956). SinceacquisitionsfromCave4 continueduntil 1958, Cave4 plates t JORDAN to make continuedto be rearranged roomfornew fragments.As new < RIVER Daliyeh fragmentswerefoundor boughtand lateridentifiedtheywereaddedto otherfragmentsof the samemanuscript.The remainingunidentified . Xerusalem wereplacedon platesto fragments Kh. Qumran andwerelater photographed be (11 caves) locations suitable more to moved j Kh. Mirdwhenthey wereidentified.Roland de Vaux(deVauxandMilik 1977:8} MurabbaCatgavea senseof the progressin identifyingdistinctmanuscripts.In 1953, less thana yearafterthe firstlot of Cave4 materialwasbought,70 manuNatal tlever- 4 scriptshadbeenidentified.ByJune WadiSeiyal- | in 1960, therewere511 manuscripts Masada- j 620 glassplateswith an additional 25 glassplatesof smallisolatedfragments.At this pointde Vauxthought that most of the sortingworkhad -
s
March1991 BiblicalArchaeologist7
'
Examplesfrommy inventorylists canillustratethe natureof the listingforthis document.HereI includethe lists of all photographs knownforthis documentwith the platenumberin Ammanandthe detailedcontentsof two of the photographs whichcontainthis documentas well as others.The photograph numbersarefromthe PAMcollectionunlesstheyhaveother prefixes. Photographs HardingExcavation Key: LH-LanlQester DAJ-Departmentof Antiquitiesin Amman,Jordan AWS-AmmanWestSemitsc *-parts of fragmentsareindicatedbyan asterisk(*) followinga number.The unit whichlaterbecame identifiedas a fragmentin the finalpublication sometimeswascomposedof morethanone actual, physicalfragmentorpiecewhichwerefittedtogether fragment. byeditorsto producea "reconstructed"
.
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frgls)-fragmentls)
plates,in plIs)-plateIs)referto publishedphotographic Discoveries in the ludaean Desert l in this case. col.-column as identifiedin DJDl
v Weg 1o
^
14 6
17
t
4
15
' W
*
Photographs of lQ27 Bookof Mysteries,whichis preservedin MuseumplateDAJJ5928frgsl-17: LH 14931496 frg 1 40.443 frg 13 40.445 frg 2 40.446 frgs 3,6,7*, 10 frg of col. II 40.495 frg 4 40.515 frgs 2,3,5-10
40.523frgs1-17 40.524-40.528frg1 40.538frg15 40.541frgs8, 9, 11,12 40.548frg2 AWS7frgsl-17
Examplesof detailedlistingof the contentsof two photographs. remainunidentified,and Sometimesfragmentson photographs this is indicatedby + frags. -40.445. lQ14pl. XVfrgsllf 12 40.443. lQl pl. VIIIfrg 2* 1Q24pl. XXfrgs1*,5 lQ5pl.Xfrg 16* 1Q25pl XXfrgs1215 1Q8pl. XIIfrg 6* lQ27 pl. XIIfrg2 lQ16pl.XVfrg8 lQ31pl XXXfrgl, 2 1Q24 pl. XX frg 7 1Q32pl. XXXIfrg23* 1Q27pl. XXIIfrg 13 1Q37pl.XXIVfrgs14 + 3 frgs {markedl, 6, 1Q42pl. XXXIVfrgs 8 on photo) 1, 5, 6*,7 1Q53pl. XX:XV 1Q54pl. XXXV + 2 frgs(marked11, 19on photo)
beencompletedandthata finalseries wasbeingtakenfor of photographs finalpublication.His announcement waspremature,anda greatdealof workstill hadto be doneon the Cave4 fragments.Todaythereare 574manuscriptsin 752platesand
of 1Q27Bookof Mysteriesillustratethedifference Thetwophotographs takenundernormallighting(top)andwith betweena photograph areeasier (bottomJ. Oftentheinfraredphotographs infrared photography in patticulattheleatherfragments, to readffianthe actualfragments, whichareverydark Seethe sidebarfora sampleof theinfotmation containedin theinventory.
arlother58 platesfull of tiny fragments.From1960to 1990the numberof platesof Cave4 increased from645 to 810,not becausethere weremorematerialsfound,but becausemanuscriptswereseparated fromone anotherandsometimes
arrangedaccordingto columns.As Strugnellinformedme, it is not clearif all the tiny unidentifiedfragments hadbeenplacedunderplates andcountedby 1960. weretaken New photographs duringthe processof sortingand
BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991
47
cludethe kind of inscribedmaterial, Materials the site fromwhicha manuscriptwas The PAM/Rockefeller collectioninfound,the title andthe language. cludesa largeportlonof the material Whentherearemultiplecopiesof a fromall 11 cavesat Qumranas well work,a letterwas printedas a super- as manuscriptsfromothersites inscriptdesignatinga particularcopy. cludingWadiMurabbaCat, Khirbet Butnot all of this informationwas Mird,WadiSeiyalandWadiDaliyeh. alwaysgiven;Hebrewmanuscripts The vastmajorityof inscriptional writtenon skin, the most common materialfoundand/orboughtby the photography Infrared type,werenot describedas such. internationaleditorialgroupbetween lQIsaarefersto thefirstcopyofIsaiah 1949and 1963fromthe region to be very proved foundat Cave1 at Qumran.One can roughlycalledthe Judaeanwilderassumethat it is Hebrewandthat it ness hasbeendepositedin the in making useful refers Rockefeller. is writtenon skin. Pap4QpIsaC to a papyrusmanuscriptfoundat Materialsfoundandorbought on leather the ink Cave4 which is the thirdcopyof a byYigaelYadinandhis associates pesherof Isaiah. arehousedat the Shrineof the Book legible. more Whenthese manuscriptswere of the IsraelMuseum.The Shrineof arrangedforpublicationa number- the Bookhousesthe-sevenscrollsof ing systemwas developedwhich Naminganddesignatingthe fragCave1 of Qumranandthe Temple ments.Presentinganotherproblem groupedmanuscriptstogether.For ScrollfromCave11,as well as YadiSs example,4Q1-127arelargelybiblical excavatedmaterialsfromMasada forthe inventoryof the fragments manuscriptsfromCave4 {seeUlrich andNahalHever.Othercollections areinconsistenciesin the labeling 1989fora detailedlisting)and process.Generallyplateswerefirst include30 platesof Greekpapyrl 4Q158-4Q186containblblicalcom- fromKhirbetMirdcurrentlyin Bellabeledandthen manuscriptswere Eachof gium,andthe CopperScrolland 15 Eachputativemanu- mentariesandparaphrases. differentiated. otherplates{11platesfromCave1, scriptreceiveda numberalongwith the manuscriptscanthen be identifiedby a numberandthe site in the initialsof the scholarworking fourplatesfromCave4)now located in the ArchaeologicalMuseumin on the manuscript.Fragmentswere which a particularmanuscriptwas wasgiventhe Amman,Jordan.Thereareabout numberedforthe finalpublication, found.Pap4QpIsaC butnot consistentlybeforethattime. number163so it canalsobe called eightplatesof Cave1 materialsat Whenthe fragmentswereplaced 4Q163.Fora moredetailedexplana- the BibliothequeNationalein Paris. The languagesrepresentedin a label tion of the siglasee the accountby on platesto be photographed, these manuscriptsincludeHebrew, wasput in the corneridentifyingthe JosephFitzmyer{1990). contentsof the plateandthe number in the editor'sseries.Unfortunately, well, these labelsdidnot photograph makingit difficultto see this inforwhen restoramation.FurthXermore, tion wasdoneon the platessome of the informationon these labelswas not preserved. Occasionallythe lettersG, for governmentpurchase,or E,for excavatedfragments,wereusedto designatethe originsof fragment collections.Theseletterswereused andin some to markphotographs, casesG was stampedon the backof fragments. In orderto differentiatemanuon displayin 1966in the Qumranartifacts,manuscriptfragmentsandphotographs scriptslMSSI,a sortof shorthand Thecaseincludestwostoragejarsusedforscrolls Museumin Amman,ffiordan. Archaeological notationcalleda siglumis usedto andtwoinAwells(lowerleft).ThesemanuscriptfragmentsaremostlyfromCave1. Thelower portioncontainsthesectionsof the CopperScroll,whichwasfoundin QumranCave3 in referto a particularmanuscript 1952andwaslatercut open.PhotobyAohnC. ISever. (MS).Informationin such siglainselection.Infraredphotography provedto be extremelyusefulin making the ink on leathermorelegible. Occasionallyfragmentswereso dark that it was necessaryto photograph bothsidesof them to see which side wasinscribed.
48
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
paleo-Hebrew, Aramaic,Latin,Greek, took place,the plateswerearranged constructedin the late 1950s. NabateanandArabic.Therearemany on longtablesupstairsin the RoclleOverthe yearssome of these varietiesof handwritingstyles,infellermuseum.In 1956duringthe plateshavebeenmovedto otherlocludingwhat aretechnicallycalled SuezCrisisthe plateswerepaclred cations.Certainplateshadbeen formal,cursiveandsemi-cursive in woodenboxesandshippedto Am- movedto the Shrineof the Bookto hands.Thesefragmentscome froma man,wheretheyremainedforseveral be cleaned,restored,or exhibited. broadrangeof centuries,froman months.A select numberof plates Overthe last yearnearly100plates eighth-seventhcenturyB.C.E. AramaicpalimpsestfromMurabba'at to Numberof Publicsation Numberof tenth centuryC.E. Arabicpapyri. Collections plates manuscripts status Museumplates.The fragmentswere published Khirbet Mird 112 100 + partly E firstplacedbetweentwo sheetsof zed MurabbaCat 98 173 publish glassaboutthe size of a standard published WadiSeiyal 45 55 partlyE sheet of paper,then the plateswere published WadiDaliyeh 110 271 partlyE published KhirbetQumran 930 801 partlyE tapedtogether.Forconservationpurzed Cave1 llQ) 30 72 publish posessome of the groupsof fragzed Cave 2 12Q) 9 33 publish mentshavebeentransferred to acidzed Cave3 13Q) 8 15 publish freecardboard plates.The fragments published Cave4 14Q) 752 574 partlyE aresandwichedfirstbetweensheets zed Cave5 15Q) 9 25 publish zed Cave6 16Q) 12 31 publish of acid-freericepaper,which looks zed Cave7 17Q) -2 19 publish lilretissue paper,then the fragments zed Cave8 18Q) 8 5 publish andricepaperareplacedbetween zed Cave9 19Q) 1 1 publish the cardboard plates. zed CavelO(lOQ) 1 1 publish Smallitems of the collectionare Cave11(llQ) 98 25 mostly Miscellaneous 41 Unknown unpubllished sometimesfoundin halfplates. Notes Othersmall items arefoundin boxes lInadditionto the manuscripts,128bullaewerefoundat WadiDaliyeh. of varioussizes,but eachnumbered item is now referredto as a plate.A platemaycontaina whole orpartial wereexhibitedin the UnitedStates, havebeenbroughtbackto the manuscriptor severalmanuscripts. CanadaandEnglandin 1964and Rockefellerfromthe Shrineof the Oneof the platesassignedto Milik 1965.Afterthe exhibition,severalof Book.Therearecurrently14plates has 16manuscriptson it. 4QSama these plateswereleft in Amman, on displayin a paleographic exhibit which Crossis editing,comprises15 while most werereturnedto Jeruat the IsraelMuseumandsix plates plates.Platerefersto an inventoried salem (Cross1965).After1967the on displayat the Shrineof the Book. item in the Roclrefeller that contains platesweretakendownstairsto the Thereare30 platesstoredat the fragmentsof papyrusor skin;this Shrineof the Bookandtwo plateson basementof the Rockefellerwhere plateshouldnot be confusedwith displayat the Roclrefeller. theywereloclredin a small room. the publishedphotographs, which Strugnellnicknamedthe room It maybe helpfulto note a precanalsobe calledplates. wherethe fragmentswerefirstplaced liminarycountof the numberof Before1967the collectionsfrom upstairsas the "scrollery." Whenthe platesandmanuscriptsrepresented varioussiteswerenumberedseparate- fragmentsweremoveddownstairs in the differentcollections.(Seethe ly, oftengroupedaccordingto the the namescrollerywastransferred accompanyingtable.)Thesefigures scholarresponsibleforthem.After to the new room.The platesarekept includethe plateslistedearlierthat 1967,the Israelauthoritiesput the in 10metalcabinets,eachof which arenow in Jordan,Belgiumand collectionstogetherandnumbered has eightdrawers.Temperature and France.A generalindicationis also the platesfrom 1 through1,263 humidityareregulatedin the room. givenof the publicationstatusof withoutreferenceto earlierorgani- Twotablesin the roomallowup to eachof the collections. zationalsystems.This sometimes Neitherthe numberof plates threescholarsto workthereat a leadsto unusualplacementsofplates time. In the backof the roomis a northe numberof manuscriptsis a within the collection.Forinstance, cabinetthat holdsvariousartifacts totallyreliableindicationof the two fragmentsof the Prayerof Nabo- fromQumranexcavationsandother amountof material,but theydo pronidusareon plate248 andtwo frag- sites. On top of the cabinetsis a con- vide someparameters. The Khirbet mentsareon plate665. Mirdplatesarepackeddenselywith cordanceof the non-biblicalCave4 In the 1950swhen muchof the fragments;this concordance,comfragments,so the numberof plates workof the sortingof fragments maybe misleading.TheCave4 plates posedof threeby five cards,was r published
BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991
49
on the otherhandsometimeshave tionalmaterialwerenot keptin a little on them.A manuscriptcanbe separatecollectionbut wereplaced collectionof photoa tinyfragmentthatcanbe designated in the museumRs as belongingto one distinctwriting, graphsof excavationsandartifacts. a collectionof fragmentsthatbelong In bothseriesphotosof inscriptional materialareinterspersed amongother to a work,or in rareinstancesa archaeological photographs from whole scroll.Therearerelatively few manuscriptsfromCave11,but varioussites. Amongthe thousands of photographsare 160of manu- ) severalof these arescrollsthat are well preservedandhavea greatdeal scriptsin the IAAseriesand2,800in
4Q109 Qoheleta, the first copy from Cavefour of Ecclesiastes, using its Hebrew name.
of inscribedmaterial,forinstance, the PAMseries. the Psalmsscrollandthe paleoThereareothersets of photoLeviticusscroll. graphsat the Shrineof the Bookand Photographs. Therearetwo sets of at the IsraelMuseum.JohnTrever photographsat the Rockefeller.The has copiesof the colorandblackfirstis the PAMseriestakenlargely and-whitephotographs of Cave1 before1967,andthe secondis the materialsthat he photographed. The IsraelAntiquitiesAuthoritylIAA) WestSemiticResearchProjecthas seriestakensince 1948.Photographs photographsof the fragmentsof the of manuscriptsin the IAAcollection Ammanmaterialandsome other weretakenlargelyafter1967.These Qumranmaterial. sets includephotographsof all of the A photographmaycontainonly museumholdingsas well as excava- one manuscript,severalgroupsof tion photographs. Photographs are fragmentsthat areseparatedas disarrangedaccordingto the orderthey tinct manuscripts,or miscellaneous weretakenor accordingto when the fragments.Generally,the earliest museumreceivedthem. Eachnew photographs wereless organizedwith photographreceiveda new inventory regardto discretemanuscripts.Later number. photographs arebetterorganizedand Contactprintsmadefromthe oftencontaina morecompletegroupnegativesweregluedto pagesof large ing of fragmentsof a particular photoalbumsso thateditorscanview manuscript.Forinstance,six different them quicklyandorderthem if they Genesismanuscriptsarefoundon wish. The PAMcollectionandthe PAM41.996,while laterphotographs IAAcollectionarestoredin two indicatethat thesemanuscriptswere separatebut adjacentofficesupstairs laterseparatedandplacedon different in the Rockefeller.Negativesare plates.Additionalfragmentswere keptin anotherroomdownthe hall. also foundforthese manuscripts. Photographs takenof inscripSomeof the earlyphotographscon-
50
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
tain a miscellanyof materialfor which a particulareditoris responsible.As new fragmentswereidentified,theywereaddedto the growing collectionof fragmentsfora manuscript. Thefirstphotographs in thePAM senes areof the Cave1 fragmentsof Isaiahb,the GenesisApocryphon andthe Manualof Disciplinethat wereboughtin Bethlehemin 1950 (Barthelemy andMilik 1955:4, 43). The latestphotographsin that series weretakenat Strugnell'srequestfor his articlethat appearedin Revue de Qumran in 1970.The newestphotographsbelongto the IAAseries Listsof museumplates,photographs andmanuscripts.Individualscholars who werepublishingthe materials lreptnotesandrecords,but no complete lists werecompiledof the platesandphotographs. Partof my workhasbeento collectinformation fromthe variouseditorspublishing the materialsandto integrateit into the lists. ElishaQimronof Beersheba Universityproducedthreelists in 1981thatprovidemuchusefulinformationforfindingmanuscripts, platesandphotographs. Extensive correctionsandadditionswerelater madeto the lists by Strugnelland Qimron.The threelists arearranged accordingto the orderof the plates, photographsandmanuscripts.These older,incompletelists needto be corrected, updatedandsupplemented. Strugnellestimatesthat a thirdof the photographs didnot appearon the olderlist. Evenwhenphotographs arelistednot all of the manuscripts on eachphotograph havebeenindicated.The lists alsoneedto be updatedbecauseof recentpublications andnew andrevisedsigla. Listsof DSSdocumentsthat havebeenpublishedandmentioned in the literaturecanbe foundin the worksof JosephFitzmyerandFlorentino GarctaMartinez.Bothof these worksareveryusefulbut they need to be supplementedandrevised. In additionto updatingthe old
lists, furtherandadditionalinforma- resourceforscholarsstudyingthe Baillet, M. tion is beingcollected.Preciseiden- fragmentsevenafterthe photographs 1982 QumranGrotte4. III (4Q482-520). Series:Discoveries in the Judaean tificationof the fragmentson plates arepublished.OftentherearemulDesert 7. Oxford:ClarendonPress. tiple andphotographs photographs of particularfrag- Barthelemy,D., and Milik, J.T. will be givenfor the publishedmaterialwherefrag- ments in the collectionthat may 1955 Qumran Cave 1. Series:Discoveries mentshavebeennumbered.Onplates help one with difficultreadings. in the JudaeanDesert, 1. Benoit, P.,and others. andphotographs with severalmanu- New contactprintsmadefromthe 1956 Editingthe ManuscriptFragments scripts,the locationandsiglaof negativesandtransparencies IdiaFromQumran.BiblicalArchaeologist majorfragmentswill be designated. positives)foruse on a lightboxare 19:75-96. A list correlatingoldersiglausedfor muchmorelegiblethanthe pubBurrows,M. a particularmanuscriptis beingcon- lishedphotographs. Sometimes,the 1955 The Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: Viking Press. structedso thatoldersiglain publi- fragmentshavedeteriorated and cationsandthe cardconcordance olderphotographs maypreservebet- Cross, F.M., Jr. 1961 TheAncient Libraryof Qumran. canbe understood.Informationon ter readingsthanthe morerecent GardenCity, New York:Doubleday. fragmentsandphotographiccollec- photographs published. 1965 Scrollsfrom the Wildernessof the tions heldoutsideof the Rockefeller Whilewe continueto call the Dead Sea. Berkeley,CA: American is beingcompiled. Schools of Oriental Researchand the inscriptionalmaterialsfromQumran University of California. Severalfactorsmakethis work the DeadSeaScrolls,in factmost of 1990 Perede VauxWasa Dead Sea Scroll particularlydifficult.First,thereis whatremainsunpublishedis exHero.Biblical Archaeology Review an immenseamountof material: tremelyfragmentary. The largest 15 (1):18, 62. some 3,000photographs, scrollsandmanyof the largestpieces Fitzmyer,J.A. nearly 1,300museumplatesandwell over fromthe Qumrancollectionsand 1990 TheDead Sea Scrolls:MajorPublications and 7bols for Study.Missoula, 1,300manuscripts.Second,overthe manyinterestingfragmentsof Cave MT:ScholarsPress. years,some fragmentsweremoved 4 havebeenpublished. GarciaMartinez,F. becauseof new identificationsand The scholarlyworkrequiredto 1989 Listade MSSprocedentesde Qumran. new joins.07arious andchanging completethis inventoryandthe Henoch 11:149-232. systemsof organizationwereusedto DeadSeaScrollpublicationprocess Pearlman,M. 1988 The Dead Sea Scrolls in the Shrine designatethese fragments.Third, involvespainstaking,methodical of the Book. Jerusalem:Israel thereis oftenno one-to-onecorlabor.The completionof this invenMuseum. respondencebetweenphotographs, torywill help scholarsmakeaccesRosovsky,N., and Ungerleider-Mayerson,J. manuscriptsandplatesof fragments. siblethe fascinatingremnantsof 1989 The Museums of Israel. New York: Reflections.The collectionsof pho- writingsfromcavesin the Judaean HarryAbrams. tographsandplateswereproduced wilderness. Strugnell,J. 1970 Notes en margedu volume V des andarranged by severalindividuals 'Discoveriesin the JudaeanDesert of with manydifferentconcerns.Sort- Acknowledgements Jordan.' Revuede Qumran7: 163-276. ing andarrangingthese fragments Editorialassistanceon earlier Trever,J. wasa verydifficultprocess.The draftsof this paperwasprovidedby 1979 The Dead Sea Scrolls:A Personal hoursanddaysspentsortingfragAccount, Revisededition. Grand JohnStrugnell,SidnieWhite,Edna Rapids:Eerdmans. mentsbythe originalteamof schol- Sachar,WalterAufrecht,Mark Ulrich, E. arsshouldnot be underestimated. It Smith,JamesSandersandBruce 1989 The Biblical Scrolls from Qumran is difficultto understandthe enorZuckerman.Muchassistancehas Cave4: A ProgressReporton their mity of this task.Indeed,the plates beenprovidedbythe editorsof the Publication.Revue de Qumran 14: andphotographsrecordthousandsof fragments,the staffat the Rockefeller 207-28. Vaux,R. de fragments. Museum,the IsraelAntiquities The writingon the papyrusfrag- Authorityandthe staffat the ABMC. 1973 Archaeologyand the Dead Sea Scrolls. London:Publishedfor the mentsis morelegiblethanthe writ- PeterPettithas developeda comBritish Academyfor the Oxford ing on the leatherfragments.In puterizeddatabaseforstoringthe University Press. manycasesthe leatherfragments datacollectedin Jerusalemand Vaux,R. de, and Milik, J.T. areverydarkanddifficultto read. 1977 QumranGrotte4. II. Series:DisClaremont. coveries in the JudaeanDesert 6. Oftenthe photographs, whichwere Oxford:ClarendonPress. usuallydonewith infraredphotog- Bibliography Yadin,Y. raphy,areeasierto readthanthe AllegroZJ. 1957 The Message of the Scrolls. London: 1968 Qumran Cave 4. I (4Q158-4Q186). originalfragments. Weidenfeldand Nicolson. Series:Discoveries in the Judaean The collectionof photographs 1985 The TempleScroll:The Hidden Law Desert of Jordan5. Oxford:Clarenof the Dead Sea Sect. New York: remainsan extremelyimportant don Press. RandomHouse.
BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991
51
AMERICAN 7
CENTER
roomsfonein the hostel and
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Director ReporS
AIAR
Activities 1na lettertoAlbrightInstitute of Archaeological Research president loe Seger sent via
since. . . services) programof lecturesoseminars theclearling and workshopsfhas been put crucialstaffmemberslive in on hold.This temporaryinter- areasunder curfew.Conse-
mailon[anuary23^ fUptlOll ln prOgramMlNg electronic Gitin true forall institutions. AIARdirectorSeymour describedwhatlife waslike in lerusalemand at the A1brightduringthefirstweekof * e the warin the PersianGulf. The following are excerpts fromthatletter.
1S
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n
quently)the hostelresidents havebeencookingforthemselvesanddoinga greatjobof it.... I bring in supplies wheneverneeded,so thereis certainly enough food and newspapers. The last week or so has been most harrowingand exhausting,as everyoneis on constant alert for the siren which announcesthe ofScudmissiles.... approach At presentwe are operating twosecure-sealedorairtight
the . . . The building infraJERusALEMAlthough Albright re- structurecontinuesto operate it is not well) inclv}dingthe heatingJ mainsoperationalJ businessas usual.Following hot water1electricaland telegiven phone systems.The roof and thegeneralinstructions by the governmentfpublic fence althoughin criticalneed gatheringsomeetirlgsJetC1 0t maor repalrs1contlnue to havebeencancelled.Thus as holdup.Thekitchenis operat- onein the DH. . . Themajorproblemis of this weeksthe AlbrightZsing on a volunteerbasis}as are r
de
Vries
fter his three-yeartenure as director of the AmericanCenterof Oriental Research (ACOR} ends in JuneJBert de Vries says he plansto doasomedeep-rooted gardening and intensive before returnbeach-sittingJB ingto a life of academiaat Calvin College in GrandRapidsJ Michigannext fall. de Vriessaidhis decision to leaveACORwas not made in reaction to the war in the Middle Easttand indeed was madelongbeforeIraqinvaded Kuwaiton August2) 1990. 'XIcame to ACOR on a maximumfouryearsleaveof absenceandthreeyearsbegan to seemust rigilt asmytenure de Vriessaid.{'I movedalongZJ) believeverystrongly/anyways scheduleshould that ACORCs be driven by internal needs A
rchaeologist}March1991
.
.
.
Reflects
ratherthan externalpolitical events.)} He saidthe turbulencein the Middle East should have little impacton ACORandits new director,PierreBikai.
Pr
f
s
-
RESEARCH OFORIENSAL
historyhas con'SACORCs stant political crisis in its so thatonemight background, saycurrentbackgroundconditionsareparforthe courseand should only have secondary impact on ACORJsplans and policies. No time is an ideal time to changedirectors)but I believethat there shouldbe a
on
Tenure
turnoverevery three to five years) de Vriessaid. Bikaiis a formermember of the Departmentof Antiquities of Lebanonandhas participated in archaeological projects in Jordan, SyriaJ EgyptJIraq and CyTurkeyB prus.He is currentlythe assistant directorand architectof the University of California excavationsat Nineveh. {/Iam very pleased with the selection of PierreBikai.I haveknownhim and(hiswife) Patriciafor some timeZlike them very much personallyJ and feel that Pierre has the right mix of theoretical and practicalskills to carryACOR forward, de Vries said. "FIis thoroughacquaintancewith Arabiclanguageandcultureis particularlyopportuneat this time not only becauseof the
on Duxing Gulf the fatigue caused by the cumulativeeffectsofthepast six monthsof localviolence andthecurrentthreatofaerial bombingandgasattacks.For is doing themomenteveryone reextremelywell. However, actingto the alarmsirenby rushingto the secureroomJ puttingonone'sgasmaskand waitingforthe othershoeto drop,a coupleof timesa day, is not the most pleasantof experiences. . . . The only incident s thusfarhasbeenthe stoning of the Albrightvehicleas it was driventhroughSheikh Jarah.The passenger-side windowwastotallyshattered, but fortunately,no one was
War seriouslyhurt. As the shops and public service faciTitiesin the immediate area remain closed, AIARresidentsspendmost of their time at the Institute. If LimestonecapitalfromtheearlyChristianbasilicaat Syios Kononas. they go out, they carrytheir On two adjoiningsidesis carveda cross;on the two others,a vaseand floralscrolls. gas masks with them. . . . Inspiteof the current crisis,the staffandFellowsare safe and soundJand the researchprojectsof the Albright go on. I am just finishing the articleon ceramicscoopsand havebegunwritingtwoarticles on altars and basalt agriculturaltools fromMiqne.All of C.E. our Fellowsare also continuing to work on their projects. Sy Gitin AIARDirector
Excavations at
Farm
ADanish
as
ACOR
D1rector
Bertde Vries
GulfCrisis,but alsobecause academiclife in Jordanrequiresthatnow." Whenaskedto assesshis at ACOR, accomplishments de Vries admittedthat he spenta greatdealot his time
Uncover
Kononas Fourth
adjustingto ACOR!sconstantly changing needs and was unableto accomplishall that he wished. "tdonstknowif I am satisfied and would not say if I is an orwere,"he said."ACOR ganizationin constantchange. Part of the director'sjob is keepingup with that without runningout of breath. "AfterACORwas established and the building was built,attentionhadto begiven to the academic nature and directionof the institute. I've tried to do that, but feel that after energy was spent just keeping.up, there was not alwayssufficienttime to thinlQ deeply. There is more to be done, and always will be as conditionschange." ToddMcGee SeniorEditor
Ayios
Century
House
archaeological
team from the University of Aarhusconductedthe second campaignat the Akamas Forest in northwestern Cypruslast fall, excavatingat AyiosKononasandsurveying the surroundingarea. Thegoalwasprimarilyto establishthe characterof the site, its extension and date, and to relate the site to the generalhabitationpatternand landuse in the westernpartof the Alramas. Excavationswerecarried outin a Romanhousestructure dating, according to coins found,to around340 C.E. Possibly part of a Roman farm house, it is the earliest architecturalremainsfoundin situ at Ayios Rononas. A copper slag depositexcavatedduring the first season also dates to the Romanperiod.However, surfacefinds of ceramicsand fragmentsof two relief steles of the Hellenistic period indicate some activity in that period,too.
This season'sworkconits firmedthatthesitereached peakin the earlyByzantine period.Severalhouse structures,datingfromthe early fifth centuryto the seventh centuryC.E., wereexcavated. Accordingto their location anddate,thesestructuresall seemtorelateto alargebuilding situated in the southeasternpartof the site. An amethystand an ex-votofemalebreastwerefoundinthis structurelastyear,indicating a religiousfunction,which wasconfirmedthis seasonby the revealing newexcavations plan of an early Christian basilicameasuring13 by 22 meters.Twolimestonecapitals carvedwith crossesand floral scrolls, architectural moldings,fragmentsof an andacolornamentedparapet, umndrumandotherartifacts allowedthe reconstruction of this basilica.Immediate parallelsto the architectural moldingsare foundin early Christianbasilicasat Cape
BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991
53
Drepanum,suggestinga date beforethe middle of the seventh centuryC.E. forthe Ayios Kononasbasilica. The survey, which covered 15 square kilometers aroundthe site, showedhigh activity in the middle to late Chalcolithicperiodanddemonstrated an important site just northwestof AyiosKononas.Findsareveryscarcefrom
Qumran
the late Chalcolithicto the surveyshowedthat the most gationof the landuse in antiqHellenisticperiod,and only extensive land use occurred uity in this partof Cyprus. the late Geometriclearly dur.ingthe early Byzantine JaneFejfer Archaicperiodis represented period.An ancientroadalong Hans ErikMathiesen by a few potterysherds,pos- the west coast of Alramascan Universityof Aarhus siblyfromtombs. also be dated to the early Potteryfindsdatingtothe Byzantineperiod. The surveyalso revealed Hellenisticperiodwerefound, mainlyin the westernfoot- thatthe sitewasalmosttotally hills of the Alramasmoun- abandonedafterthe Byzantine tains.Activitycontinuedinto period, providing optimum the Romanperiod,but the conditionsforfurtherinvesti-
Update
EditorialAppointments, Access Policy Discussed Significant changes are andEugeneUlrichof Notre AmericanSchoolsof Archaeunderway intheadminis- Dameasgeneraleditors, while ology in Jerusalem(thelatter trationof the Qumranedi- the IAAhasappointed Tovas beingASOR,nowtheAlbright torialworkwiththedismissal editor-in-chief.Discussions Institute)selectedscholarsto of HarvardprofessorJohn arecontinuingas to the pre- accomplishthis work. Strugnell as international cise configurationof duties The museumwasnationeditor-in-chief andthe eleva- andtitles. alized in 1966 by Jordan, Membersof these two which took overthe museum tion of HebrewUniversity professorEmanuelTovintoa committeeshavea working after the British Mandate relationship and frequent endedin 1948.Whenthe Britleadership role. Strugnell's termasheadof communication, although ish departed, work by Jews theteampublishingtheDead theyhavesomewhatdifferent haltedat the museumandthe Sea Scrollsendedin contro- mandates,as sketchedin the PalestineExplorationSociety versylatelastyear.Ill health Historyof Publicationsec- {nowIsraelExplorationSociis universallycited,but his tion. The followingsections ety)was excluded.Since 1967 administration wasalsocom- reportbrieflyondeliberations Israelhas administeredwhat ingunderincreasing criticism byvariousorganizations to set is now called the Rockefeller for apparent insufficient standardsfor reasonableac- Museum. The Israel Departprogress inpublishing remain- cess to ancient manuscript ment of Antiquities and Muingtexts.Additionally, Strug- findsandon the significance seums was reorganizedinto nell'santi-Semitic remarks in oftheunpublished fragments the IsraelAntiquitiesAuthorthe November 9 issue of fromQumran. ity {IAA),which appointeda Ha'aretz,anIsraeli newspaper, Scrolls AdvisoryCommittee made his continuedleaderconsisting of IAA director shipunacceptablet Historyof Publication Amir Drori, professorsJonas Tovhas been offereda AfterCave4 wasdiscovered in Greenfield and Shemaryahu leadingrolein administering 1952, an arrangementwas TalmonofHebrewUniversityt future publicationsby the reachedwherebythetrustees MagenBroshiof the Shrineof International TeamofEditors of the PalestineArchaeologi- the BookandAyalaSussmann oftheQumranCave4 Scrolls, cal Museum,with the agree- of the Rockefeller.Ofthe origiwhichStrugnellheaded,and ment of the governmentof nal Cave4 team,FranlQ Moore theScrollsAdvisory Commit- Jordan, wouldadministerthe Cross and John Strugnell of tee of the IsraelAntiquities gatheringandpublicationof Harvardand JozefT. Milik of Authority(IAA).The Cave4 these manuscripts. These Parisare the survivingmemteam has namedTov,Emile trustees,associatedwith the bers. Ulrich and Puech rePuechof the EcoleBiblique British,French,Germanand placeddeceasedseniormem-
54
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
bersPatrickSkehanandJean Starzky. AccessPolicyDiscussions At its meetingin November, the ASORAncient ManuscriptsCommitteemovedto articulatea policystatement on what would constitute reasonable standards ofscholarlyaccess,in termsofappropriatesharingof information and deadlineson exclusive editorialassignments.When approved,this policy statement will be publishedin orderto encouragecooperativescholarship. Someofficers of the Society for Biblical Literature,as-well,haveexpressedinterestin establishing andaffirminggllidelines for publicationof historic ancientmanuscripts. Inaddition, the National Endowment for the Humanities Division of ResearchProgramshasexpressed aninterestin standards, andmayalso announceapolicystatement. Ifdiscussionofstandards forsucheditorial assignments leads to generallyaccepted practice,then disputesover proprietorship of such infor-
mation could diminish and wouldbeincorrectto dismiss and others 1956:90), as well Bibliography historicalstudycouldbe aided. thehistorical usefulness ofthe as calendars that mention Benoit, P., and others. the Manuscript Fragremammgtexts. ShelamzionandHyrcanus, pre- 1956 Editing ments from Qumran. Biblical UnpublishedFragments OftheCave4 texts,work sumablyHasmoneanmlersby Archaeologist 19: 75-96. Although some Cave 11 frag- onthebiblicalmanuscripts is these names, and Aemilius, Cross, F.M. ments,assignedto scholarsin well advanced; a helpfullist- presumablythe Romangen- 1962 Excursusonpaleography.Pp.21721 in Les 'Petites Grottes' de the Netherlands,havenot yet ing of the portionspreserved eral (Milik 1959: 73). In the Qumran Discoveries in the appearedin print, most re- and of preliminarypublica- lot originally entrusted to JudaeanDesert of Jordan,volume maixiingunpublishedQumran tionsis in print{Ulrich1989). Starclry, andnowto Puech,are III.Oxford: Clarendon. texts arefromCave4. Ina few Ofthenon-tiblicaltexts, a Hebrew psalm relevant to Milik, J.T. non-scholarly publications, the unpublishedmaterialis the developmeIltof ideas on 1959 Ten Years of Discovery in the Wi7dernessof tudaea, translated twofalseclaimshaveappeared, groupedin threeallotments. resurrection{Puech1978)and JohnStmgnell. Naperville,IL: one overestimating the signifi- Here,frompreliminaryand anAramaicapseudo-historical" by Alec R. Allenson. cance of these texts and the provlslona. . reports,are two narrativethatincludesa scene Puech, E. otherunderestimatingthem. examplesofpotentiallyinter- of a Jewunrollinga scrollwith 1978 LesEsseniens et laVie Future.Le Monde de la Bible 4: 38-40. Without any evidence, a ru- esting fragmentsfrom each seven seals in the court of a E. mor persists that some texts lot.InStrugnell's assignment Persianking, a son of Darius Ulrich, Biblical Scrolls from Qumhavebeenselectivelywithheld area baptismalliturgyanda {Benoitand others 1956:94- 1989 The ranCave4: A ProgressReporton due to religiousmotivationst list of namesof personsac- 95; and accordingto Starzky, their Publication. Revue de Qumran 14: 207-28. whether Jewishor Christiant cusedof particular, specified personal communication Stephen Goranson These textsl howeverl have offenses;thesetextswerean-- 1983).Althoughthese manuAssistant Editor beenreadbyscholarsofwidely nouncedin Biblical Archae- scripts are mostly small differing religious and non- ologist {Benoitand others fragmentsandcannotnow be religiousbackgrounds, so such 1956:93-94).InMilik'sallot- aunrolled"we canewpectsome a conspiracyto withholdthem ment,thereis atleastonecon- interesting,if difficultlreading cannot exist. However, it tract(Cross1962:217;Benoit ahead. .
Book
.
. .
Reviews
Discoveries from the Time of Jesus, by Alan Mi7lard}188 pp. Oxford:Lion Publishing Corporation,1990; $22.95. The New listament Worldin Pictures, by William H. Stephens7420 p.p.Nashville: BroadmanPressf1987; $29.95.
AlanMillardandWilliamH. Stephens haveaddedtwo morebooksto a growing collectionin the emergingbut still amorphousdisciplineof New Testament Archaeology. Bothbooksarewrittenfor a popularaudiencewith nontechnical text snd an openlayoutemphasizing photographs andotherillustrations. Neitherprovidesfootnotes,although bothhaveuseil bibliographies. Stephens' bookis morecomprehensive, attempting to illustratelife throughoutthe entire Greco-Roman worldfora periodof several centuries.Millardproposesto concentrateon ancientPalestineduringathe forty-year periodof the Gospelstoryrr {page8). Discoveries from the IYmeof Jesus
is a beautifullydesignedbookwith high qualityphotographs andexcellentart-
work,typicalof the publicationsof British-based LionPublishing.MillardJ alwaysa carefulscholar,is RankinReader in HebrewandAncientSemiticLanguagesat the Universityof Liverpool. Discoveries is the sequelto his lieasures from Bible Times andis designedto introducereadersto discoveriesthatprovide background information.He saysthese discoveries"arethe stagepropertiesfor the Gospelstoryrr {page8).Thus,he wisely avoidsthe apologeticuse of archaeology, whichhas so oftencharacterized similar worksin the past. Thisbriefbookprovidesanamazingly completeaccountofthe archaeological recordin SecondTempleperiodPalestine andpleasesthe eyeas well as the mind.Therearesix majordivisions: DailyLife;Rulesof the Land;Religion; DeathandBurial;Writers; andGospel Records.Discoveriesat variousHerodian sites lincludingCaesareasnd the Temple Mount),the DeadSeaScrollsandCommunity,snd the Jerusalem Necropolis land,rathercuriously,the Shroudof Turin)areall presentedin an interesting
andaccuratemanneras theyrelateto the Gospels.Millarddoesnot drawunwarranted or sensationalistconclusions, andnotes,whennecessary,problems thatexist in reconcilingthe biblicaltext with othersourcesle.g.the identification of HerodPhilip[page631,the dateof the censusof Quirinius[page641,andothers). Therearea fewtechnicalbobbles.In view of the emphasisof the text on "St. Peter'sHouse"at Capernaum, one misses a photograph of it {page25).Thephotographof the poolsat Herod'spalacein Jerichois not veryhelpil {page53). Thereseemsto be an erroneousidentificationof the rowof vaultedhallssouth of the Crusaderwallsat CaesareaMaritimawith the vaultedplatforminside thosewalls,uponwhichHerodrs Augusteumpresumablywasbuilt {page59). JamesBarclay, discovererof "Barclay's Gate"on the TempleMountris identified as an architect.Thismistakeis made often;Barclaywassn Americanmedical mlsslonary.
Moresignificantly,onewonders whetherthe extensivediscussionof
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
55
has 884 black-and-white -
-
/
photos
Worldin Picturesplacestoo much emphasison the westernprovincesof the empire. Christianitywaslargelya phenomenonof the Eastin the firstcentury,gaininga footholdin a relativelysmall mannersimilarto James numberof cities andprimarilywithin _/ Pritchard's Ancient Near ' only certainstrataof society.It is difficult, butnecessary,to tryto determine East in Pictures. The New theselimitsbeforedecidingwhatartifacts _ Testament Worldin Pictures somehowillustratethe New Testament world.Evenin the East,the importance _ andfourcolorplates.Stephens of close datingis not alwaysobserved F tookmostof the photosin r museums.Althoughthe book'stitle (althoughthe authoris awareof the problem).Forexample,therearemany emphasizesthe pictures,thereis a picturesof synagoguesandmosaics text for ratherextensiveintroductory foundin synagoguesdatingfromthe eachsectionof illustrations. thirdcenturyandlater.It is difficultto The majorsectionsare:The Emperors;Military;People(ageographical see whatthese institutions,whichare partof a worldverydifferentfromthe New surveyof the empire);City;Business, ProfessionsandTrades;Religion;Leisure- firstcentury,haveto do with the New Testament Testament,eitherdirectlyor indirectly. time;andHomeandHearth.Thereare textualcriticism extensivesuggestionsforfurtherreading It is truethatsomeelementsof ancient (GospelRecords,pages culturepersistedthroughmanygeneraandan indexof scripturereferencesas 153-86)belongsin a book havedelike this.New Testamentmanuscripts well as subjects.Shouldthe readerwant tions,butas archaeologists velopedmoresophisticatedmethods to learnsomethingaboutthe godZeus arenot, afterall, discoveriesfromthe of dating,theyremindus thatstyles time of Jesus,butdateto a laterperiod. or a tunicor Bithynia,the bookcould rapidlyandsomeserveas a referenceandthe information changedregularly, Further,while well-writtenandwelltimes dramaticallyin the ancientworld illustrated,this sectionsimplysurveys wouldbe relativelyeasyto locate. This is a good,usefulbook,but it justas in the modernworld.A third previouslypublishedmaterialandconcenturyoil lamphaslimitedvaluein clusionsdrawna generationago.Perhaps showshowimprecisethe phraseNew a widesectiondealingwith Hellenismin TestamentArchaeologycontinuesto be. illustratinglightingin the New TestaSecondTemplePalestine,with reportson Forinstance,bothvolumesof JackFine- mentworld,justas a kerosenelantern discoveriesin the cities of the Decapolis, gan'sThe Archaeology of the New Testa- haslimitedvaluein illustratinglighting in the UnitedStatesin the 1990s. forexample,wouldhavebettersustained ment tendedto emphasizeChristian The poorqualityof manyof the the overallthemeandthrustof the book. pilgrimagesites or the archaeological is the one persistent,techAlso,this parthasa moreapologeticand historyof sites namedin the New Testa- photographs nicalproblemthatdetractsfroman mentbutexhibitedonly remainsfrom eventendentioustone 1".. . it is impossibleto provethatanyof {theGospels'l muchlaterperiods.Suchinformation, otherwiseattractiveandusefulformat. recordsof the life andteachingof Jesus althoughveryinterestingandhistorical- Someareso fuzzyas to be almostuseso poorly less andothersarereproduced ly significant,has little to do with the arewrongor misleading" page167). of New Testamenttexts. interpretation thatfeaturesdescribedin the textare Nevertheless,Discoveries from the Obviously not visiblein the photograph. Time of Zesusis a delightfulbook.It will Stephenstriedto movein a different providethegeneralpublicwithabalanced, direction,but only partiallysucceeded. Stephenstookthesewith whateverlight andwhateverangleswereavailableto accurateandinterestingintroductionto His bookwouldbe as valuableto the him in the museums.Focusingseems generalstudentof the Greco-Roman the significantadvancesin ourknowlworldas to the studentof the New Testa- to havebeena persistentproblem,and edgeof the worldin whichJesuslived. somephotosareenlargedtoo much.One Stephenswaseditorof the Southern mentbecausehe identifiesthe Grecomustoftensimplyset asideaesthetic Romanworldas the worldof the New BaptistpublicationBiblical Illustrator considerations andconcludethata poor for 10years.He exhibitsa wide-ranging Testament.Thus,the photosdepictobpictureat leastcommunicatesbetter jectsandarchitectureovera periodof knowledgeof the Greco-Roman world thanno pictureat all. andseeksto providea referenceworkfor severalcenturiesstretchingfromthe bordersof Persiato the BritishIsles.Is Despiteits faults,The New TestaNew Testamentscholarsas well as the this reallythe worldof the New Testament Worldin Pictures is a helpfulbook public.He correctlynotesthat many of Hel- thatprovidesa far-ranging lookat ancient New Testamentscholarshavenot made ment?Despitethe pervasiveness lenismin the empire,we cannotsimply times,pullingtogethermaterialthat,up use of the wealthof informationavailto now,hasbeenso scatteredas to be ablethrougharchaeology andthe larger presumethatanyobjectdatedto the centuriesbeforeandafterthe firstcenalmostunobtainable to manystudents. scholarlydisciplineof Greco-Roman studies.He hasgatheredtogethera great turysomehowthrowslighton the New IohnF.Wilson University Pepperdine dealof informationandpresentedit in a Testament.Thus,The New Testament
56
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
A llistory of the BibleLandsin the Inter- the law of Moses,a beliefamongsome andthe emergence Jewsin resurrection, biblicalPeriod,by Robert L. Cate, 176 pp. Na sh ville: Broa dm an Pres SJ 1 9 8 9; of groupssuchas the Pharisees,Esseness $10.95 (paper). HasidimandSadducees. Catehaslargelysucceededin writhistoryis a fascinatingfield inghis historyof the period,andhe is to Interbiblical of studythatis cultivatedmostlyby be thankedforhis willingnessto write scholarsof the Bible.Formanyundergenerallyaboutan importantbut comclergyandlaity/this period, graduatesJ plexsubject.Thereareshowever,poteIlso full of villains,heroesandfar-reaching tial snaresforbegiers andevenveteran politicalandreligiouseventsJremains biblicalscholarswho havenot keptup with the field. largelyunexplored. The title of the bookis misleading. Catetriesto remedythis problem guideto the histhe interbiblicalperiodis debywritinga beginnerss Generallys toryof the Jewsfrom333 B.C.E. to 135 finedas the time betweenthe writingof chapter,Cate C.E. In the introductory the lastbooksof the HebrewBibleand saysthathe is writiIlgas anEvangelical the firstwritingsof earlyChristians. Christianwho believesathatthe histori- Thusone expectsa historyof Judaism coveringroughlythe periodfromAlexcal developmentsbetweenthe testamentsserveas a bridgebetweenthem!) anderthe Greatto 30 c.E.Byextending (page13).Inthis chapterfhe identifies the meaningof interbiblicalto include andbrieflydiscussesthe literarysources not only firstcenturyChristianitybut Apoctypha,Pseudepig- alsoJudaismuntil the SecondRevoltl (suchas Josephuss DeadSeaScrolls,Philo,Daniel, Catewill confusesomereaders.After raphaJ the New Testament)andarchaeological all, interbiblicalmeans"betweenthe andbeginnersmaywell askwhat sources(e.g.coins,manuscriptfragBibles,f) ments)forJewishhist:oryin this period. Biblecameafteran interbiblicalperiod Thebookcompriseseightclearly thatincludedbothFIebrewScriptureand writtenchapters,eachexplainingone the New Testament? importantperiodin this history:HelSourcesarea problem,too.There andthe narrativedoes areno footnotesJ lenism,the Seluciddynastytthe PtolerevoltJthe not indicatewhereCateis followiIlg maicdynasty,the Maccabean primarysources,secondaryliterature Hasmoneanstate,the Romanperiod, earlyChristianity,andthe endof the orhis owninformedpointof view.This Jewishstate.Thepresentationis straight- mayleadthe readerto thinkthatthereis completeunanimityamongthe sources with essentialfactsandwellforward, establishedlearnedopinioncarryingthe on the leadingeventsandideasof the period.But 1 and2 Maccabees/forexbook'sargumentforward.Cateintenample,disagreesharplyon the roleof tionallyleavesasidelearneddebates Judasin the revolt,andscholarsare andunnecessarydetail. revolt deeplydividedoverthe extentthatHelThechapteron the Maccabean A of Cate'sapproach. lenismsubsumedJudaismin this period. is characteristic tablelistingthe Pt:olemaicJForreadersof BA,the most serious chronological mightwell be the neglect shortcomiIlg SelucidandJewishrulersopensthe chapter.Thenthe leadingJewishfigures of archaeology-despiteits appearance Mattathias amongthe list of sources.Wearetolds of the revoltareintroduced: probably andhis threesonsJudas, Jonathanand forexamplesthatasynagogues originatedduringthe time of the BabySimon.Thereaderlearnswhyeachis (page158)}but leam important;Mattathiasstartedthe revolt loniancaptivitytJ nothingaboutexcavationsthatseriously in the townof Modeinfhis son Judas tookhis fathersplaceas leaderand challengesucha sentiment.Evena wellis madethe templefit forworshipagainJ knownsite like Beth-Shan/Scythopolis andJonathansecuredthe officeof High notmentionedin Catetshistoryfalthough Priestforhis family.Simonandhis son it playedan importantrolein the MaccaJohnHyrcanusestablisheda Jewishstate beanrevoltandhasbeenextensivelyexcavatedandreconstructed. thatlasteduntil 63 B.C.E. Importanttitles aremissingfrom Majorreligiousdevelopmentsthat MartinHengelrs coincidedwith thesepoliticalandsocial the shortBibliography. changesareconsideredas well.Thesein- fudaismandHellenismis one obvious cludea newfreedomto studyandfollow Omlsslon.
Catehas Apartfroma bibliography, indicesandanappenda alsoprepared with chronologicaltables.Beging studentsandreligiousprofessionalsalike will learnfromthe book,but theymust to supplementit with be encouraged othertitles in the field. RobertHodgson,Jr. SouthwestMissouriStateUniversity
In Searchof God:TheMeaningandMesS Names,by lEyggre sageof the Everlasting N. D. Mettinget nv + 251 pp. Phi7adelphia: PortressPress, 1988; $24 95.
A Professorof Oldliestamentat the Universityof Lundin Sweden/Mettinger makesa helpfulcontributionto the 1mof Israel'sdevelopingunderderstanding narrow standingof theology lin thewordss in sense}.In Searchof God appeared Swedishin 1987andwastranslatedby PrederickH. Cryer. Mettingerattemptsto proceedas inductivelyas possibleon the basisof the majordivmenamesin the OldllestaThe ment itself:I AMequalsYahweh; TheLiving E1Shaddai; GodoftheFathers; God;melek meansYahwehas Sebaoth;Godas RedeemerJ YaEweh Savior,andCreator.Thelatterconcentratesespeciallyon Isaiah40-55. A final chapterlbeforeConcludingReflections) surveysJob. a Mettqer attemptsto writeOI1 levelthatwill be intelligiblenot only but to specialistsin the Oldl?estament also to those engagedin the pursuitof otherbranchesof religionsndtheology andto parishclergywho weeklyconfrontbiblicaltextsg(pagesxii-xiii).To thatend,the bookhasa shortglossaryof termscommonm such semi-techrlical studies.IXmy judgmenthe generally succeedsirlthatlaudableeffort. Anyonefamiliarwith the areaof studywill realizeat oncethatMettinger is enteringa fieldof divergentandcontroversialacademicopinions.IbevitablyB Mettingermustmakehis ownchoices. I thinkhe doesso fairlyandwith a reasonablycompletesllrveyanddocllmentationof otherviews.He buildscondistinction siderablyon Westermanns but andablessing,Je between{'salvatioWe mighthavedonethatpartdifferentlyhad Mitchellts he beenawareof Christopher
Biblical Azchaeologist, Mazch1991
KmgJ/
57
dissertationon The Meaning of b-z-k"to Blesstm the Old Testament (Atlanta:
textsby carefuluse of boththe archaeshipof aQosX is quiteadequateandwell ologicalevidenceso farkslownandthe done.OfparticularinterestJhoweverJ is ScholarsPress,1987;SBLDissertation literaryanddocumentaryevidence.He the discussionof whatBartlettwould SeriesNo. 95.) has succeededto a significantdegreeand considerthe earlierEdomitereligion, b contrastto the especiallyAmeripresentsa valuablesynthesisof the whichhe suggestsmayhavehada strong canaccenton J'covenantX in the OldXsevidenceto date. affinityto Yahwism. tsmentJMettingermorein lirlewith Theprimaryfocusof the bookis In sum Bartletthas succeededin Scandinavian traditions,placesfarmore containedin chapters4 through10/ writirlga thoroughJ well-documented emphasison kingshipandrelatedconwhichdescribethe historyof Edomfrom studyof Edomandthe Edomites.The cepts.He doesnot acceptMowinckel's thelatesecondmilleium B.C.E. through volumecanappropriately be classifiedas hypothesisabouta RoyalEnthronement the Persianperiod.The divisionof maa resourceworkbecauseof the extensive of Yahwehfestivalin Israelfbutbelieves terialin chapters4 and5 is awkward. bibliography andthe catalogof Edomite thatin overreaction to it/ manyother Bothdealwith Edompriorto the time inscriptionalmaterialthathasbeendisscholaxshavefailedto do justiceto the of the Hebrewmonarchy} dividedinto covered.Althoughthe volumewill be of conceptsit highlighted.Mettingeralso archaeological andEgyptianevidencein interestto studentsof the historyof bibcallsattentionto my otherScandirla- chapter4 andbiblicalevidenceirlchap- lical times andpeoples,it will be of vian contributionsof which,I thinkJ ter 5. Chapters6 through10coverthe muchgreaterinterestto the scholarand Americanscholarsarenot evenaware. historyof Edomin specificperiodsthe specialistthanto the averagereader.The Forthosewho axemoreinterestedin tlme of DavidandSolomonfthe tlme of ampledocumentationprovidedin the archaeologythanin OldlEstamentthe- the Kingdomof Edom}the endof the text valuableto the specialistfwill make °1OgYJ it shouldbe notedthat Mettmger Kingdomof Edom,andEdomin the the bookless readableforthe general alsomakesampleuse of non-biblical Persianperiod.A carefulandwell-ordered reader.Thebookis marredbya few texts andiconographical materiSsfrom synthesisof literary(biblicalandnontypos/but it is well producedandattracthe ancientNearEast.Reproduced in biblical)andarchaeological evidenceis tivelypresented.It will findits placeas the bookare15fwres fromexcavations presentedm eachchapter.Thebookcon- an importantresourceon the scholar's in the area.bentably the Ugaxitic cludeswith a summarydiscussionof shelfformanyyearsto come. sourcesareexploitedthe most.Mettqer religionin Edomanda catalogandbrief BtuceC. Cresson attemptsoftento illustrateIsrael'sadap- discussionof inscriptionalmaterial. BaylorUniversity tationsof symbols,ideasandideologies Bartlettsresearchis thoroughZ snd thatwerepromirlentirlothercontemthe volumecontainsanexcellentbibliog porarycultures. raphyforanyoneinterestedin studying HoraceD. Hllnlmel the historyof ancientEdom.OfparticuDiscoveriesand ConcordiaSemirlary larvalueis his briefhistoryof the study RecentArchaeological BiblicalResearchJ by William G. Dever7 of Edomandearlyexplorationsin the landof Edom.He confessesopenlyto x + 189 pp. Seattle: Univezsity of Washthe difficultiesinherentin anyattempt ington PzessJ 1990; $17.50. to writea bookof this sort-the irlEdomandthe EdomitesrbyJohnR. completeandnowrapidlyadvancing Deliveredoriginallyas popularlectures, Bartlett)281 pp. Sheffield:ISG Press, archaeological databaseforsucha study. the fourchaptersof this bookdealwith 1989; $28.50. A majordifficultyin this andsimilax issuesthatareat the forefrontof Syrovolumesis the irlcompletepublication Palestinianarchaeologyas it relatesto Althoughseveralimport articleson recordof excavatedsites.Baxtlettis to be biblicalstudies.In the firstchapter) Edomandthe Edomiteshaveappeaxed commendedJ however,fornot waitingfor Devertreatsthe historicaldevelopment overthe yearsJthe lastmajorworkdeal- suchpublicationsto appearbeforepreof /'biblicalarchaeologyJ" evaluatingit q with the subjectin an overallsnd paringthe currentvolume. somewhatnegatively.Toillustratehow syntheticfashionwasGeschichte der Thecarefulstudyofbiblicalmaterial archaeologycancontributeto the world EdomiterJby FrantsBuhI,publishedin relatw to Edomandthe Edomitesis an of the BibleJDeverthenpresentsthree 1893.ItwasnevertranslatedintoEnglish. importantpartof this volumeandmakes casestudlesin the followingchapters: Thus/JohnR.Bartletthasmadea siga sipificant contributionto the study. the Israelitesettlementin Canaan;the nificantcontributionwith this volume, Baxtlettshowshimself$obequitecapable monumentalartandarchitecture of the Edom and the Edomitess Ofhandlinghistoricalandliterarystudies UnitedMonarchy(1020-900B.C.E.); and Bartlettproposesto presenta brief of OldTestamenttextstandhe seeksto the religlonof Israel. historyof the studyof Edom including relatethe referencesto Edomto both Oeverdoesnot merelypresentthe geography snd topographyas well as theiroriginsandtheirpurposesin the pertinentarchaeological data,butalso evidenceof settlementandoccupation biblicaltexts.Perhapsthe weakestpart evaluatestheircontributionto biblical fromprehistorictimes throughthe of the bookis its treatmentof postexilic understanding. Quitecorrectly,he points periodof Persiandomination.Ibthe viewsof the Edomitesin biblicaltexts. out the limitationsarisingfromboththe prefaceBartlettdescribeshis workas Anotherimportantcontributionof artifactualevidenceandthe biblicaltext an attemptatoreconstructthe history the volumeis chapter11,Religionin as theyareutilizedin reconstructing the of the placecalledEdomin the ancient Edom.Bartlettvs discussionof the worlife andtimes of ancientIsrael.
58
BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991
Fewscholarsarebetterqualifiedto fits fromseveralrecentlandsomenot so tions (pagesxi-xxilfollowedbyan introdealwith the interactionof the Bible recent}archaeological discoveriesJ induction(pages1 10)in whichElliott andarchaeologythanDever.Withtrain- cludiIlgthe 'Bull SiteffJ the MountEbal explainshis choiceandenumerationof ing in biblicalstudiesE he is a veteran sanctuaryf the ahighplaceAf at Dan,the the manuscriptsincludedin his bibliogfieldarchaeologist with firsthandknow- sanctuaryat KuntillettAjrudJ the horned raphy)anddirectsus to bibliographic ledgeof the archaeological record.Here altarfromBeersheba andtheAradtemple. informationon worksof a moregeneral he presentsclearlyandcohesivelyhis Extensiveillustrationsas well as nature.Thebibliography Ipages13210) ownmaterialtsomeof whichhasalready chartsandmapsiIlterspersed throughis dividedinto fourparts:papyri)uncialst beendispersedthroughmorespecialized out the bookenhancethe clarityof the cursivesandlectionaries.The manubooksandjournals.Deverhas the ability text.Thebibliographical notesat the scriptsarelistedin numericalorderJ folto translatetechnicalsubjectsinto the endof the bookserveas an excellent lowedbypertinentbooksandarticles languageof the interestednon-specialistt gllideforfurtherreading;at the same andanyreferencesto plates.Whenthey but scholarscanalsoprofitfromthis timeJtheydemonstratehow dependent areof significancein theirownright) syntheticandup-to-date study. archaeologistsandbiblicalscholarsare reviewsof importantbookson individual Becausethe originalformatof these uponone another'sworkin the process manuscriptshavebeengiven. chapterswasoral occasionalrepetitiorls of reconstructing the worldof the Bible. Stearen W.Berneking creepin fromone chapterto the nexts Thisbookis recommended forscholUnionTheologicalSeminary but not distractingly. As one would arsandgeneralreaderso Thereis much expectfromDever}most of his examples hereforeveryone. aretakenfromrecentexcavationsand PhilipJ.King areusedwith careandaccuracy.There BostonCollege The EarlyBiblicalCommunityin Aans area fewerrorsin fact,inevitablein a jordan,by Robert G. Boling, 80pp. Shefbooki11 of data,butnot significant fieldJ England: Almond Press 1988; enoughto be enumeratedhere. $25 00 ($12. 95 paper). Devertslongdiscussionon biblical archaeologyis a topiche has returnedto Sincethe 1960ssarchaeological excavaA Bibliography of GreekNewistament oftenoverthe years,a factthatmay tion andexploration{especiallythe latby t. K. Elliottt No. 62 in accountforpresent-day ter)hasiIlcreasedin iIltensityiIlthe area archaeologistss Manuscripts/ morejudicloususe of artifactualmaterial The Society for New Testament Studies of biblicalTransjordan. As a resultsthere in biblicalstudies.However) I thirlk MonographSeries, G. N. StantonJ is a growislginterestiIlthe resultsof this Deveris a bit hardon ourpredecessors, General Editor,ix-xxi + 210 pp. New workandhowit contributesto the bibliwho didnot haveouradvantage of the York:Cambridge University Press71989; cal traditionsrelatiIlgto this area.This new archaeologys with its emphasison $49.50. essay-lengthtreatmentbyBolingJa proanthropology andsociology.Wereit not fessorof OldTestamentat McCormick forpioneerslike WilliamF.Albrightand Thiscompactyet comprehensive volume Seminary,representsan initialeffortto G.ErnestWright,modernbiblicalarchae- providesthe studentof the GreekNew pursuethis iIlterestin a clear careful ologistswouldnot achieveas muchas Testamentwith a listingof thefacsimiles) andresponsiblefashion.It goesbeyond theydo.WhereasDeveridentifieshimphotographic reproductionsfcollatioIls the recentfmorecomprehensive survey selEas a aSyro-PalestiIlian archaeologistJf andmajorstudiesof the textualcharacter of Jordanian archaeological workby (andhe is one of the best),I findno prob- of mostof the manuscriptsof the Greek LawrenceT.GeratyandLloydA. Willis lem with the termbiblicalarchaeologys New Testamerlt. Elliottnotesthatthe {The HistoryofArchaeological Research properlyunderstood. compilationof anexhaustivebibliography in Transjordan," iIl The Archaeology of TheIsraeliteemergencein Canaan on this subjectis gnotonly impossible ffiordanAnd Other Studiesf editedby is a cutting-edge topicin biblicalstudies butalsounnecessaryX Ipage1)/andso has LawrenceT.GeratyandLawrenceG. today)andat the sametLmeone iIlgreat limitedthe scopeof his work.The titles Herr[BerrienSprings,MI:AndrewsUnineedof synthesis.Inthis chapterZ Dever of booksandarticleshe has includedare versityPressJ1986]f372) byofferinga presentationof the newarchaeological predominately thosepublishedin the limitedchronologicalsynthesisof the modelsis clearandhis evaluationofthem last 150years.In addition)he has exdataandsuggestingsomecorrelations fair.ESedismissesthe classicconquest cludedreferencesto worksthattreatthe with biblicalmaterial. modelZ as well as the peacefulifiltrahistoryof a givenmanuscript; Thepresentationis organizedinto monotionmodelJandoptsforthe peasaxltsJ graphsthatareconcernedwith the arttwobriefchapters.ThefirstfocusesprinrevoltmodeldevelopedbyGeorgeE. workfminiaturesandillumlnationsof cipallyuponwhatarchaeological data MeIldenhall andNormanR. Gottwald. manuscripts; shortnotesin journalsthat revealaboutthe settlementpatternsin The chapteron monumentalartand treatonly an isolatedreadingin a single Transjordan betweenthe endof Middle architecture comprisesa comprehensive manuscript; andlibrarycatalogue BronzeII{circa1550B.C.E.} andthe besurveyof Israelitesites,includingtown descriptions. ginningof the IronAge(circa1200B.C.E.). planning,domesticbuildingsJ fortificaEvenwithoutsuchreferencesf this Chaptertwo takesanotherlook at those tions andcultic stmctures. is an invaluabletoolforresearchin biblicaltextsconcemedwith the preThe chapterdealingwith the nature GreekNew Testamentmanuscripts. The Mosaic,Mosaicandpost-Mosaiccomof earlyIsraelitereligiouspracticebene- volumebeginswith a list of abbreviamunitiesin Txansfordan andhowthey
]3iblicalArchaeologist, March1991
59
mightbe understoodagainstthe backevidence. groundof the archaeological On the basisof the archaeological surveysandfewlimitedexcavationsthat ValleyJ havebeenconductedin the Jordan Amman thenorthernhalfofTransjordan the MadabaPlains,cenandits VicinityJ ancientEdomite tralandsouthernMoabJ territorysouthof the WadiHasa,and ixlthe northernHejazof SaudiArabiaJ Bolingreachesseveralconclusions: PirstJNelsonGlueckspositingof a completegapin sedentaryoccupation betweenabout throughoutTransjordan 1900and1300B.C.E. Iexceptin the region andin Edomiteterriof the lowerZarqaJ torywhereit extendedeveninto the twelfthcentury)mustnowbe seenas Evidencepointsto a relaexaggerated. tivelylow densitysettlementduring MiddleBronzeIIin northerIlTransjordan, Valleyandin central the upperJordan whichgradually andsouthernMoabZ increasesin the LateBronzeagetparticularlyaroundancientRabbathAmmon butwith striklnglydifandirlMoabJ ferentdistributionpatterns. Second,thepaucityofMiddleBronzeLateBronzesherdsturnedupbythe WadiZiqlabsurveyandat the eastern reaTransjordan fringeof north-central sonablypointsto occupationmoreby smallcampsthanbypermanentfarming settlementsin theseareas;thereis no evidencefora nomadicincursioninto Txansjordan duringMiddleBronzeIIand norfora pervasivereversion LateBronzeJ to pastoralnomadismat the transition fromMiddleBronzeto LateBronze.EIoweverJas Bolingreadilyadmits,sincelittle workso farhas deof the archaeological votedmuchattentionto the evidenceof campsitesJ not muchcanyet be confidentlysaidaboutthe natureandextent existencein Middle of tent-dwellers' Broe andLateBronzeTransfordan. Thirdw someformof Ammonite kqdom seemsto havebeenestablished asearlyasthebeginningof the thirteenth centuryB.C.E. aroundthe lowerZarqaf but it didnot extendveryfarwestward forsometime andconstructedno system of borderfortressespriorto IronII.The Moabitekingdomcameinto existenceat aboutthe sametime,coveringevenmore territoryw butEdomdoesnot appearto havebeensettledbeforethe endof the with noneof its major twelfthcenturyJ citiesbuiltbeforeIronII. Fourth,the identificationof a dis-
potteryin the north- Miscellany tinctive'Midianitef' The Collegeville Bible St7udyAtlas ernHejazof SaudiArabissupportsthe origirlof a Midianitepoliticalentitydur- (CollegevillefMN: The LiturgicalPresss ingIronI in this area,whichspreadwest- 1990;$5.95 paper)arrivedtoo late to be wardinitiallyto the ArabahtNegevand included inaBible Atlases: Which Ones Sinai/but not towardthe northor south. are Best?tJ(BADecember 1990:220-31). In lightof all thisJwhatconnections Obvious limitations and an inexpensive canbe madebetweenthe archaeological price clearly indicate that this atlas is datatin combinationwith all the literary designed for student use; there are only evidence,andthe biblicalTransjordan tOpagesJ18griddedmaps,a chronological traditions?The resurgenceof sedentary chart and a two-pageindex. The maps occupationduringthe LateBronzeage area selection from the Collegeville Bible andIronI1oftenat sites not in continuity Commentary maps plus a few others lends and are e:ucellentlydone by Carta.There with MiddleBronzeIIprecursorsf is no-preface,and no author is indicated. supportto the biblicalpictureof new The book is similar to the Hammond formsof politicalorganizationin the ValleyIthekingdomof Sihon},in Atlas of the Bible Landsin terms of price, Jordan format and a lack of explanatorytext. lthekingdomsof Ammon Transjordan However Hammond has more than andMoab),andin northArabiaIthe retwice as many pagesJmaps and photos Midianites).Butthe archaeological sults arealsosometimesin tensionwith lincluding 30 in color}/and isZtherefore, or contradictionof the biblicalportrayal. a significantly better Bible atlas than ThusJthe positingof Edomas anearly Collegeville. The Epic of GilgameshJby Maureen to AmmonandMoab contemporary conGallery Kovacs(vi and 122 pagesJStanreceivesno strongarchaeological ford:StanfordUniversity Pressf 1989; while the excavationof lEll firmationJ $29.50J$4.95 paper)is an excellentJreadHesbanJoftenthoughtto be the site of hasturnedup able translationat a bargainprice {atleast Sihon'scapitalof HeshbonJ no evidenceof a majoroccupationthere for the paperback).There are many helpbeforethe endof IronI. Bolingthinks ful features including an introduction, morepropitious descriptivesection headings}a map and the archaeologically TellJalulmayhavebeenthe originalsite chronological chart and four appendicesZ but he cancite neitherarincluding a glossary and selective annoof HeshbonJ chaeologicalnorliteraryevidencefora tated bibliography.This is a welcome shiftm its locationduringthe earlyIron translation incorporatingthe latest datalendsomecre- scholarshipfbut any revision should AgeeArchaeological denceto assigningthe historicalcontent include inclusive languagewherever of someof Israelfsearliestpoemsto the possible. centuryIGenesis fourteenth-thirteenth The Nag Hammadi Libraryin Encentury 49) the thirteexlth-twelfth glish, edited by JamesM. Robinson (third (Esodus15)andthe twelfthcentury edition, sv and 549 pages, San Prancisco: INumbers23-24 andDeuteronomy33). Harperand Row, 1988;$24.95; 1990 the rolegivenJudahin Genesis paperbackedition, $16.95)first appeared Howevert 49 andthe presenceof Edomin Exodus in 1977. This is a thoroughrevision and l 5 andNumbers24 raisequestions definitive translation of the Gnostic aboutsuchan earlydating,whichBoling scripturesby the worldtsleading Gnostic doesnot adequatelyaddress. scholars. A revised generalintroduction of E)espitethe recentproliferation by the editor and an afterwordJaThe it has ModernRelevanceof Gnosticismf'by activityin Jordan, archaeological by a comparable RichardSmithf enhance the volume. not beenaccompanied JamesC. Moyer surgein social-scientificandecological analysisof the datasso importantfor Book Review Editor reachingmorereliableconclusionsin studies.Until historicaldemographic BOOKPUBLISHERS suchanalysisis moreavailable,concluPlease send all review copies to: sionslike thosemadebyBolinghereS Dr. JamesC. Moyer can valuable and importantZ although Department of Religious Studies onlybe suggestiveandtentative. Southwest Missouri State University GeorgeM.Landes 901 South National, Box 167 UnionTheologicalSeminary Springfield,MO 65804-0095
60
BiblicalAzchaeologistJ March 1991
threesites-Hebron, ZiphandSochoonein eachof the threesouthernmost districts of the hill
A Rejoinder to Sumerian Bats In 1Sumerian BatsJLion-headed EaglesJ andIconographic EvidenoefortheC)verIn'TheEliakimNaCar YokanSealImpressions: SixtyYearsof Confusionin BiblicalArchaeologithrowof a Female-priest Hegemony1l' in calResearchJ'Jby YosefGarfinkelin theGune issueof Biblical Archaeologist 153-74-79JZ Garfinkel the September issueof Biblical Archaeis apparently unawarethat in 1973FrankM. Crossraisedthe dateof the seal impressionsin ologist 153:14256)NaomiF.Goldsmith questionto the eighthcenturyon the basisof theirpalaeography andgrammatical form(Cross andEdwinGoulddiscussat lengththe 1983:57-58J.As forthe relationship betweenthe privatesealsandthe royalsealsoit wasclearly smalllion-headed eaglefromAiaritcomestablishedthatthe formerwereimpressedon handlesof the samejarsas thelmlk sealimpresposedof lapislazulifgold,bitumenand sionsbackwhenthe jarhandlewasfoundat RamatRahelwith a privateanda royalsealsideby copper.Their excursusinto Sumerian sideon the samehandle!WhenI elucidatedthedeep structure'of thetwo kindsof inscriptions iconographyf which derivesfrom the the privateandthe royallRainey1966lJI demonstrated thatwehaveone formulasayingzlThis is proposition that therewerelion-headed the signatureof so-and-sol' whilethe secondsays'Thewine in this jaris the kingJsproperty.'l eaglesandlioness-headed eaglesJ leadsto Althoughaccordingto the laboratory analysisthe clayof the jarscomesfromone source, several startling conclusions. Irl responseJ thereis noproofthatallthejarsweremadeat thesameplace.Goodclaymayhavebeenprocessed twobriefcommentsareofferedbelow andtransported to the respectivesiteswherethe jarsweremade,stampedandfired. In appearance, the Marifigurineis Placenameson wine jars,accordingto the precedentsof the entireeasternlVEediterraneanJ similarto the lion-headed eaglecarved indicatetheoriginof thewine(Cross1969).Themostlogicalplaceto lookforroyalwineproducin relief on the stone mace-head from ingcentersis in the hill country(Stern1975:51;Rainey1982:591.Ofall the stampedjarhandles Telloh(Girsu}, datedto theEarlyDynasfoundat KhirbetcAbbad-thebiblicalSochoin the Shephela-Iknowof nonewith the name tic period(Moortgat 1969:plate36Jpage Swkh. However, if weassumethattheSochoon thesealswastheonein the southernhill country 28). On both examplesappearthe follassuggestedbythefactthattherearemoreSwkh stampsin southerncollections1, thenwe have lowing: continuous chevron pattern on the wingsandtailJbent up slender country,accordingto Joshua15.A fourthsiteJMmstlwas evidentlysomewherein the north. limbs,largeroundholloweyes(originalI fullysupportCross'scontentionthatmilitaryoradministrative explanations forthe fourplace ly inlaid)WhatwehaveJreally,is a situnamesaresimplysilly. ationin whichtwoartisansfworkingin WilliamF.AlbrightJs mistakein historicaldatingof his uppermoststratumat Tell Beit differentmediaandprobablydifferent Mirsimwasstrengthened bythe findof theEliskimseal,buthehadalreadyassumedthathis top workshops,endeavoredto depict the stratumwasdestroyed byNebuchadrezzar. Garfinkelevidentlyis unfamiliarwithmyanalysisof same motifo resulting in some disthe mistakesmaderegarding LachishIIIandrelatedsites (Rainey1975),otherwisehe wouldnot similarityof detail. havemisunderstood the statementof minethathe doescite lRainey1985:73):athemisjudgment TheauthorscontendthatlionswithofStarkey andAlbrightregarding LachishIIIandthehistoricalconclusionstheydeducedfromthe outamanecanonlysignifylionessesffe'archaeological evidence.8I putarchaeological evidencein quotesforthe sakeof irony.Albrightts maleentities (page149J.However1 two mistakewashis hunchconcerninghis topstratum;Starkey's wasthathe thoughtthe potteryof typesof lions wereknownin MesopoLachishIIlandIIcouldonlybe 10yearsapart.HeandAlbrightpositedanhistoricalevent-a suptamiauntil theybecameextinctby the posedBabylonian campaignagainstGudaean cities like Lachishin 597 B.C.E.-that couldnot be endof lastcentury.Englishman Austen substantiated byanhonestperusalofthewrittensources.ItwastheirdistortedviewofthehistoriH. Layard!excavatorof Nimrudand calmeaningoftheirarchaeological materialsthatledto theconfusionthatreignedfortwogeneraNineveh,describesthe twotypesas the tionsin biblicalarchaeology. common maneless lion (Babylonian TheEliakimsealfoundat RamatRahelwasin mysquareI hadfounda lmlk seala fewdays lion),tallerandlargerthana St.Bernardf beforeo andanothervolunteerfoundtheEliakimsealrightbesideme.Wewerein a latefillrprobably and the lion with a darkarudshaggy fromByzantinetimes.HoweverZ whenwe reachedthe truefloorlevelof the latestIsraeliteformaneof the Africanspecies.According tress/palace, therewasa rosettesealon the floorThelmlk sealscameeitherfromsuchlatefills, to Layardll853:487):1XThe inhabitants wellabovethestratifiedlevelofthefortressr orelsetheycamefromthefill underthefloorsofthat of the countrymakea distinctionbesamefortresslAharoni1967:177).In otherwordsJthe latestIsraelitefortressdatesto a period tweenthe[African specieslandthecomwhenthe rosettesealswerein use (mostprobably lateseventhcentury}andafterthe lmlk seals monmanelesslion;theformerareKafir hadgoneoutof use (thelateeighthcentury}.Thesestratigraphic factsmakeSharoniJs suggestion orinfidels!theothersMussulmans. Bya thatthe latestfortress/palace is the onebuiltbyJehoiakim(feremiah t2) highlyreasonable. properremonstrancef and at the same timepronouncing theprofession offaith) Bibliography a true believex may induce the one to Aharoni,Y. of Sennacheriband NebuchadrezzarPages spare him but the unbelieving lion is 1967 Beth-Haccheram.Pages 171-84 in Archae47-60 in Investigations at Lachish. The inexorable.1t Itmaybe1then}thattheemology and Old TestamentStudyJedited by Sarxctuaryand the Kesidency{LachishV)* blematicmotif of the god NingirsuinD. Winton Thomas. Oxford: Clarendon edited by Y. Aharoni Tel Aviv: Gateway Press. PublishersrInc. corporates twoknowntypesof lions/the CrosstF.M. 1982 Wine from the RoyalVineyards.Szslletsn manelessone (the lioIl-headedeagle) 19G9 JudeanStamps.Eretz-lsrael9: 9-20. of the AmerwcanSchools of Oriental Reand the one with long shaggymanes 1983 The Seal of Mizneyaw Servantof Yahweh. search 245: 57-62. llionsgraspedby the wingedcreature; Pages55-63 in Ancient Seals in the Biblet 1985 OntXThe IsraeliteFortressat Arad. Bulletzn see the illustrationon page152). editedby L.GurelickandE.Williams-Forte. A Rejoinder to the Eliakim NaCarYokan Seal Impressions
J
Malibu,CA: UndenaPublications. RaineylA. F. 1966 PrivateSealImpressions:A Note on Semantics. IsraelExplorntionournal 16:187-90. 1975 The Fateof LachishDuringthe Campaigns
of the AmerscnnSchools of OrxentalResearch 258: 73-74.
SternJ E. lg75
Israel at the Close of the Monarchy:An Archaeological Survey. Biblical Archaeologist 38: 26-54. Anson Ralney Tel AY1VUniversity
Bibliography
Layard,A.H. 1853 Discoveriesin the Ruinsof Nineveh and Babylon.London:JohnMurray MoortgatsA. 1969 The Art of Ancsent Mesopotami. New York:PhaidonPress.
PaulineAlbenda Brooklyn/
NY
threesites-Hebron, ZiphandSochoonein eachof the threesouthernmost districts of the hill
A Rejoinder to Sumerian Bats In 1Sumerian BatsJLion-headed EaglesJ andIconographic EvidenoefortheC)verIn'TheEliakimNaCar YokanSealImpressions: SixtyYearsof Confusionin BiblicalArchaeologithrowof a Female-priest Hegemony1l' in calResearchJ'Jby YosefGarfinkelin theGune issueof Biblical Archaeologist 153-74-79JZ Garfinkel the September issueof Biblical Archaeis apparently unawarethat in 1973FrankM. Crossraisedthe dateof the seal impressionsin ologist 153:14256)NaomiF.Goldsmith questionto the eighthcenturyon the basisof theirpalaeography andgrammatical form(Cross andEdwinGoulddiscussat lengththe 1983:57-58J.As forthe relationship betweenthe privatesealsandthe royalsealsoit wasclearly smalllion-headed eaglefromAiaritcomestablishedthatthe formerwereimpressedon handlesof the samejarsas thelmlk sealimpresposedof lapislazulifgold,bitumenand sionsbackwhenthe jarhandlewasfoundat RamatRahelwith a privateanda royalsealsideby copper.Their excursusinto Sumerian sideon the samehandle!WhenI elucidatedthedeep structure'of thetwo kindsof inscriptions iconographyf which derivesfrom the the privateandthe royallRainey1966lJI demonstrated thatwehaveone formulasayingzlThis is proposition that therewerelion-headed the signatureof so-and-sol' whilethe secondsays'Thewine in this jaris the kingJsproperty.'l eaglesandlioness-headed eaglesJ leadsto Althoughaccordingto the laboratory analysisthe clayof the jarscomesfromone source, several startling conclusions. Irl responseJ thereis noproofthatallthejarsweremadeat thesameplace.Goodclaymayhavebeenprocessed twobriefcommentsareofferedbelow andtransported to the respectivesiteswherethe jarsweremade,stampedandfired. In appearance, the Marifigurineis Placenameson wine jars,accordingto the precedentsof the entireeasternlVEediterraneanJ similarto the lion-headed eaglecarved indicatetheoriginof thewine(Cross1969).Themostlogicalplaceto lookforroyalwineproducin relief on the stone mace-head from ingcentersis in the hill country(Stern1975:51;Rainey1982:591.Ofall the stampedjarhandles Telloh(Girsu}, datedto theEarlyDynasfoundat KhirbetcAbbad-thebiblicalSochoin the Shephela-Iknowof nonewith the name tic period(Moortgat 1969:plate36Jpage Swkh. However, if weassumethattheSochoon thesealswastheonein the southernhill country 28). On both examplesappearthe follassuggestedbythefactthattherearemoreSwkh stampsin southerncollections1, thenwe have lowing: continuous chevron pattern on the wingsandtailJbent up slender country,accordingto Joshua15.A fourthsiteJMmstlwas evidentlysomewherein the north. limbs,largeroundholloweyes(originalI fullysupportCross'scontentionthatmilitaryoradministrative explanations forthe fourplace ly inlaid)WhatwehaveJreally,is a situnamesaresimplysilly. ationin whichtwoartisansfworkingin WilliamF.AlbrightJs mistakein historicaldatingof his uppermoststratumat Tell Beit differentmediaandprobablydifferent Mirsimwasstrengthened bythe findof theEliskimseal,buthehadalreadyassumedthathis top workshops,endeavoredto depict the stratumwasdestroyed byNebuchadrezzar. Garfinkelevidentlyis unfamiliarwithmyanalysisof same motifo resulting in some disthe mistakesmaderegarding LachishIIIandrelatedsites (Rainey1975),otherwisehe wouldnot similarityof detail. havemisunderstood the statementof minethathe doescite lRainey1985:73):athemisjudgment TheauthorscontendthatlionswithofStarkey andAlbrightregarding LachishIIIandthehistoricalconclusionstheydeducedfromthe outamanecanonlysignifylionessesffe'archaeological evidence.8I putarchaeological evidencein quotesforthe sakeof irony.Albrightts maleentities (page149J.However1 two mistakewashis hunchconcerninghis topstratum;Starkey's wasthathe thoughtthe potteryof typesof lions wereknownin MesopoLachishIIlandIIcouldonlybe 10yearsapart.HeandAlbrightpositedanhistoricalevent-a suptamiauntil theybecameextinctby the posedBabylonian campaignagainstGudaean cities like Lachishin 597 B.C.E.-that couldnot be endof lastcentury.Englishman Austen substantiated byanhonestperusalofthewrittensources.ItwastheirdistortedviewofthehistoriH. Layard!excavatorof Nimrudand calmeaningoftheirarchaeological materialsthatledto theconfusionthatreignedfortwogeneraNineveh,describesthe twotypesas the tionsin biblicalarchaeology. common maneless lion (Babylonian TheEliakimsealfoundat RamatRahelwasin mysquareI hadfounda lmlk seala fewdays lion),tallerandlargerthana St.Bernardf beforeo andanothervolunteerfoundtheEliakimsealrightbesideme.Wewerein a latefillrprobably and the lion with a darkarudshaggy fromByzantinetimes.HoweverZ whenwe reachedthe truefloorlevelof the latestIsraeliteformaneof the Africanspecies.According tress/palace, therewasa rosettesealon the floorThelmlk sealscameeitherfromsuchlatefills, to Layardll853:487):1XThe inhabitants wellabovethestratifiedlevelofthefortressr orelsetheycamefromthefill underthefloorsofthat of the countrymakea distinctionbesamefortresslAharoni1967:177).In otherwordsJthe latestIsraelitefortressdatesto a period tweenthe[African specieslandthecomwhenthe rosettesealswerein use (mostprobably lateseventhcentury}andafterthe lmlk seals monmanelesslion;theformerareKafir hadgoneoutof use (thelateeighthcentury}.Thesestratigraphic factsmakeSharoniJs suggestion orinfidels!theothersMussulmans. Bya thatthe latestfortress/palace is the onebuiltbyJehoiakim(feremiah t2) highlyreasonable. properremonstrancef and at the same timepronouncing theprofession offaith) Bibliography a true believex may induce the one to Aharoni,Y. of Sennacheriband NebuchadrezzarPages spare him but the unbelieving lion is 1967 Beth-Haccheram.Pages 171-84 in Archae47-60 in Investigations at Lachish. The inexorable.1t Itmaybe1then}thattheemology and Old TestamentStudyJedited by Sarxctuaryand the Kesidency{LachishV)* blematicmotif of the god NingirsuinD. Winton Thomas. Oxford: Clarendon edited by Y. Aharoni Tel Aviv: Gateway Press. PublishersrInc. corporates twoknowntypesof lions/the CrosstF.M. 1982 Wine from the RoyalVineyards.Szslletsn manelessone (the lioIl-headedeagle) 19G9 JudeanStamps.Eretz-lsrael9: 9-20. of the AmerwcanSchools of Oriental Reand the one with long shaggymanes 1983 The Seal of Mizneyaw Servantof Yahweh. search 245: 57-62. llionsgraspedby the wingedcreature; Pages55-63 in Ancient Seals in the Biblet 1985 OntXThe IsraeliteFortressat Arad. Bulletzn see the illustrationon page152). editedby L.GurelickandE.Williams-Forte. A Rejoinder to the Eliakim NaCarYokan Seal Impressions
J
Malibu,CA: UndenaPublications. RaineylA. F. 1966 PrivateSealImpressions:A Note on Semantics. IsraelExplorntionournal 16:187-90. 1975 The Fateof LachishDuringthe Campaigns
of the AmerscnnSchools of OrxentalResearch 258: 73-74.
SternJ E. lg75
Israel at the Close of the Monarchy:An Archaeological Survey. Biblical Archaeologist 38: 26-54. Anson Ralney Tel AY1VUniversity
Bibliography
Layard,A.H. 1853 Discoveriesin the Ruinsof Nineveh and Babylon.London:JohnMurray MoortgatsA. 1969 The Art of Ancsent Mesopotami. New York:PhaidonPress.
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