Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination An Evidence-Based Approach 2nd Edition Joshua A. Cleland, PT, PhD Associate Professor, Physical Therapy Program Franklin Pierce University, Concord, New Hampshire Rehabilitation Services of Concord Hospital, Concord, New Hampshire
Shane Koppenhaver, PT, PhD Major, Army Medical Specialist Corps Assistant Professor, U.S. Army–Baylor University Doctoral Physical Therapy Program Fort Sam Houston, Texas
Illustrations by Frank H. Netter, MD Contributing Illustrators Carlos A. G. Machado, MD John A. Craig, MD
Suite 1800 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103
NETTER’S ORTHOPAEDIC CLINICAL EXAMINATION: AN EVIDENCEBASED APPROACH, SECOND EDITION
ISBN: 978-1-4377-1384-8
Copyright © 2011, 2005 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Permissions for Netter Art figures may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Health Science Licensing Department in Philadelphia PA, USA: phone 1-800-523-1649, ext. 3276 or (215) 239-3276; or email
[email protected]. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check the most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of administration, and contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own experience and knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cleland, Joshua. Netter’s orthopaedic clinical examination: an evidence-based approach. — 2nd ed. / Joshua A. Cleland, Shane Koppenhaver ; illustrations by Frank H. Netter ; contributing illustrators, Carlos A. G. Machado, John A. Craig. p. ; cm. Rev. ed. of: Orthopaedic clinical examination : an evidence-based approach for physical therapists / Joshua Cleland ; illustrations by Frank H. Netter. c2005. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4377-1384-8 1. Physical orthopedic tests—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Physical diagnosis—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Koppenhaver, Shane. II. Netter, Frank H. (Frank Henry), 1906-1991. III. Orthopaedic clinical examination. IV. Title. V. Title: Orthopaedic clinical examination. [DNLM: 1. Musculoskeletal Diseases—diagnosis—Handbooks. 2. Physical Examination—methods—Handbooks. 3. Evidence-Based Medicine—Handbooks. 4. Physical Therapy Modalities—Handbooks. WE 39 C624n 2011] RD 734.5P58C59 2011 616.7’075—dc22 2009039235 Acquisitions Editor: Elyse O’Grady Developmental Editor: Marybeth Thiel Publishing Services Manager: Frank Polizzano Project Manager: Lee Ann Draud Design Direction: Lou Forgione Illustrations Manager: Karen Giacomucci Printed in United States of America Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To our incredible mentors and colleagues who have fostered our passion for evidence-based practice and orthopaedics. To our photography models (Jessica Palmer and Nicole Koppenhaver) and photographers (Sara Randall, Lindsey Browne, and Jeff Hebert) for spending more hours and retakes than we’d like to admit. To Dr. Frank Netter and the Elsevier editorial staff who turned our ideas into a fantastic literary guide. And, most important, to our wonderful families, whose sacrifices and support made this considerable endeavor possible.
About the Artists
Frank H. Netter, MD Frank H. Netter was born in 1906, in New York City. He studied art at the Art Student’s League and the National Academy of Design before entering medical school at New York University, where he received his MD degree in 1931. During his student years, Dr. Netter’s notebook sketches attracted the attention of the medical faculty and other physicians, allowing him to augment his income by illustrating articles and textbooks. He continued illustrating as a sideline after establishing a surgical practice in 1933, but he ultimately opted to give up his practice in favor of a full-time commitment to art. After service in the United States Army during World War II, Dr. Netter began his long collaboration with the CIBA Pharmaceutical Company (now Novartis Pharmaceuticals). This 45-year partnership resulted in the production of the extraordinary collection of medical art so familiar to physicians and other medical professionals worldwide. In 2005, Elsevier, Inc., purchased the Netter Collection and all publications from Icon Learning Systems. There are now more than 50 publications featuring the art of Dr. Netter available through Elsevier, Inc. (in the U.S.: www.us.elsevierhealth.com/Netter and outside the U.S.: www.elsevierhealth.com). Dr. Netter’s works are among the finest examples of the use of illustration in the teaching of medical concepts. The 13-book Netter Collection of Medical Illustrations, which includes the greater part of the more than 20,000 paintings created by Dr. Netter, became and remains one of the most famous medical works ever published. The Netter Atlas of Human Anatomy, first published in 1989, presents the anatomical paintings from the Netter Collection. Now translated into 16 languages, it is the anatomy atlas of choice among medical and health professions students the world over. The Netter illustrations are appreciated not only for their aesthetic qualities, but, more important, for their intellectual content. As Dr. Netter wrote in 1949, “. . . clarification of a subject is the aim and goal of illustration. No matter how beautifully painted, how delicately and subtly rendered a subject may be, it is of little value as a medical illustration if it does not serve to make clear some medical point.” Dr. Netter’s planning, conception, point of view, and approach are what inform his paintings and what makes them so intellectually valuable. Frank H. Netter, MD, physician and artist, died in 1991. Learn more about the physician-artist whose work has inspired the Netter Reference collection: http://www.netterimages.com/artist/netter.htm.
Carlos Machado, MD Carlos Machado was chosen by Novartis to be Dr. Netter’s successor. He continues to be the main artist who contributes to the Netter collection of medical illustrations. Self-taught in medical illustration, cardiologist Carlos Machado has contributed meticulous updates to some of Dr. Netter’s original plates and has created many paintings of his own in the style of Netter as an extension of the Netter collection. Dr. Machado’s photorealistic expertise and his keen insight into the physician-patient relationship inform his vivid and unforgettable visual style. His dedication to researching each topic and subject he paints places him among the premier medical illustrators at work today. Learn more about his background and see more of his art at http://www.netterimages.com/ artist/machado.htm.
About the Authors
Joshua Cleland, PT, DPT, PhD, OCS, FAAOMPT Dr. Cleland earned a Master of Physical Therapy degree from Notre Dame College in 2000 and the Doctor of Physical Therapy degree from Creighton University in 2001. In 2006, he received a PhD from Nova Southeastern University. He received board certification from the American Physical Therapy Association as an Orthopaedic Clinical Specialist in 2002 and completed a fellowship in manual therapy through Regis University in Denver, Colorado, in 2005. Josh is presently a Professor in the Physical Therapy Program at Franklin Pierce University. He practices clinically in outpatient orthopaedics at Rehabilitation Services of Concord Hospital, Concord, New Hampshire. He is actively involved in numerous clinical research studies investigating the effectiveness of manual physical therapy and exercise in the management of spine and extremities disorders. He has published more than 85 manuscripts in peer-reviewed journals. He is on the Editorial Board for Physical Therapy and is an Editorial Review Board Member for the Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy. He is the recipient of the 2009 Eugene Michels New Investigator Award. He received the 2008 Jack Walker Award from the American Physical Therapy Association. In addition, Dr. Cleland was awarded the Excellence in Research Award from the American Academy of Orthopaedic Manual Physical Therapists on two separate occasions (2004 and 2006).
Shane Koppenhaver, PT, PhD, OCS, FAAOMPT Dr. Koppenhaver received his Masters of Physical Therapy degree from the U.S. Army/Baylor University Graduate Program in 1998, and a PhD in Exercise Physiology from the University of Utah in 2009. He became board certified in Orthopedic Physical Therapy in 2001 and completed a fellowship in manual therapy through Regis University in 2009. Dr. Koppenhaver is a Major in the U.S. Army and an Assistant Professor in the U.S. Army/Baylor University Doctoral Program in Physical Therapy. He has published numerous studies on low back pain, spinal manipulation, and the use of ultrasound imaging in the measurement of trunk muscle function. His primary research interests concern mechanistic and clinical outcomes associated with manual therapy, especially as they apply to clinical reasoning and management of patients with neuromusculoskeletal conditions.
Foreword
Diagnosis is not the end, but the beginning of practice.
—Martin H. Fischer
Physical examination and the ability to differentially diagnose accurately are critical components of orthopaedic medicine. However, the decisions that providers use to select their “preferred” evaluative tools are often based on tradition or what was learned during initial professional training rather than on science. Although some questions and examination procedures may be very helpful in establishing an accurate orthopaedic diagnosis, others may be utterly useless and serve only to distract both patients and providers. With the rapidly expanding amount of recent research investigating the diagnostic utility of tests and measures, it is essential for clinicians to use selective components of the history and physical examination that are supported by current best evidence. This textbook is unique and easy to decipher for the audience for whom it is written. The authors should be commended for compiling the evidence currently available in the literature and applying it to the regional musculoskeletal examination. First, the authors outline in detail the relevant literature and clearly describe the psychometric properties of each historical and physical examination procedure. Second, the text provides a thorough evaluation of each subarea and highlights a variety of evaluative tests for the various regions of the body. This approach helps to present the material to medical professionals in a more focused and streamlined fashion. Third, if pictures represent a thousand words, the text should be considered a million pages. The combination of hand-drawn and photographic examples of anatomy, pathoanatomy, and special tests are invaluable to the reader as they help integrate the evidence into dynamic clinical practice. Finally, the authors must be commended for organizing and presenting all the material in such a logical format that makes it highly useful in both academic environments and in those of busy orthopaedic health care professionals. As director of an accredited clinical health care program, I appreciate that this text provides a useful resource within the library regarding our professional domains: (1) Prevention, (2) Clinical Evaluation and Diagnosis, (3) Immediate Care, (4) Treatment/Rehabilitation and Reconditioning, (5) Organization and Administration, and (6) Professional Responsibility. This text is an example of the practical information we need along with the voluminous and technical literature available to us all. I believe the authors have succeeded in their objective, and our program will be using this resource now and into the future. Well done, and thank you.
Bradley Hayes, PhD, ATC/L Director, Athletic Training Education University of Utah College of Health
Preface
Over the past several years, evidence-based practice has become the standard in the medical and health care professions. As described by Sackett and colleagues (Evidence-Based Medicine: How to Practice and Teach EBM, 2nd ed, London, 2000, Harcourt Publishers Limited), evidence-based practice is a combination of three elements: the best available evidence, clinical experience, and patient values. Sackett has further reported that “when these three elements are integrated, clinicians and patients form a diagnostic and therapeutic alliance which optimizes clinical outcomes and quality of life.” Each element contributes significantly to the clinical reasoning process by helping to identify a diagnosis or prognosis or establish an effective and efficient plan of care. Unfortunately, the evidence-based approach confronts a number of barriers that may limit the clinician’s ability to utilize the best available evidence to guide decisions about patient care, most significantly a lack of time and resources. Given the increasing prevalence of new clinical tests in the orthopaedic setting and the frequent omission from textbooks of information about their diagnostic utility, the need was clear for a quick reference guide for students and busy clinicians that would enhance their ability to incorporate evidence into clinical decision making. The purpose of Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence Based Approach is twofold: to serve as a textbook for musculoskeletal evaluation courses in an academic setting and to provide a quick, user-friendly guide and reference for clinicians who want to locate the evidence related to the diagnostic utility of commonly utilized tests and measures. The first chapter is intended to introduce the reader to the essential concepts underlying evidence-based practice, including the statistical methods it employs and the critical analysis of research articles. The remainder of the book consists of chapters devoted to individual body regions. Each chapter begins with a review of the relevant osteology, arthrology, myology, and neurology and is liberally illustrated with images by the well-known medical artist Frank H. Netter, MD. The second portion of each chapter provides information related to patient complaints and physical examination findings. Reliability and diagnostic utility estimates (sensitivity, specificity, and likelihood ratios) are presented for each patient complaint and physical examination finding and are accompanied by quick access interpretation guides. Test descriptions and definitions of positive test findings are included as reported by the original study authors, both to minimize any alteration of information and to provide readers insight into difference values reported by different studies. At the end of each chapter are tables listing information on commonly used outcome measures and quality ratings for all the studies investigating tests’ diagnostic utility. We hope that clinicians will find Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination a user-friendly clinical resource for determining the relevance of findings from the orthopaedic examination. We also hope that students and educators will find this a valuable guide to incorporate into courses related to musculoskeletal evaluation and treatment.
Joshua A. Cleland, PT, PhD Shane Koppenhaver, PT, PhD
The Reliability and Diagnostic Utility of the Orthopaedic Clinical Examination
1
RELIABILITY DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY
3
22 Contingency Table Overall Accuracy Positive and Negative Predictive Values Sensitivity Specificity Likelihood Ratios
3 4 4 5 6 6
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS PRETEST AND POST-TEST PROBABILITY CALCULATING POST-TEST PROBABILITY ASSESSMENT OF STUDY QUALITY SUMMARY REFERENCES
8
2
9 9 10 11 12
The health sciences and medical professions are undergoing a paradigm shift toward evidencebased practice, defined as the integration of the best available research evidence and clinical expertise with the patient’s values.1,2 Evidence should be incorporated into all aspects of physical therapy patient and client management including examination, evaluation, diagnosis, prognosis, and intervention. Perhaps the most crucial component is a careful, succinct clinical examination that can lead to an accurate diagnosis, the selection of appropriate interventions, and determination of a prognosis. Thus, incorporating evidence on the ability of clinical tests and measures to distinguish between patients who do and do not present with specific musculoskeletal disorders is of utmost importance.1,2 The diagnostic process entails obtaining a patient history, developing a working hypothesis, and selecting specific tests and measures to confirm or refute the formulated hypothesis. The clinician must determine the pretest (before the evaluation) probability that the patient has a particular disorder. Based on this information the clinician selects appropriate tests and measures that will help determine the post-test (after the evaluation) probability of the patient having the disorder, until a degree of certainty has been reached such that patient management can begin (the treatment threshold). The purpose of clinical tests is not to obtain diagnostic certainty but rather to reduce the level of uncertainty until the treatment threshold is reached.2 The concepts of pretest and post-test probability and treatment threshold are elaborated later in this chapter. As the number of reported clinical tests and measures continues to grow, it is essential to thoroughly evaluate a test’s diagnostic properties before incorporating it into clinical practice.3 Integrating the best evidence available for the diagnostic utility of each clinical test is essential in determining an accurate diagnosis and implementing effective, efficient treatment. It seems only sensible that clinicians and students should be aware of the diagnostic properties of tests and measures and know which have clinical utility. This text assists clinicians and students in selecting tests and measures to ensure the appropriate classification of patients and to allow for quick implementation of effective management strategies. The assessment of diagnostic tests involves examining a number of properties, including reliability and diagnostic accuracy. A test is considered reliable if it produces precise and reproducible information. A test is considered to have diagnostic accuracy if it has the ability to discriminate between patients with and without a specific disorder.4 Scientific evaluation of the clinical utility of physical therapy tests and measures involves comparing the examination results to reference standards such as radiographic studies (which represent the closest measure of the truth). Using statistical methods from the field of epidemiology, the diagnostic accuracy of the test—its ability to determine which patients have the disorder and which do not—is then calculated. This chapter focuses on the characteristics that define the reliability and diagnostic accuracy of specific tests and measures. The chapter concludes with a discussion of quality assessment of studies investigating diagnostic utility.
RELIABILITY For a clinical test to provide information that can be used to guide clinical decision making, it must be reliable. Reliability is the degree of consistency to which an instrument or rater measures a particular attribute.5 When we investigate the reliability of a measurement, we are determining the proportion of that measurement that is a true representation and the proportion that is the result of measurement error.6 When discussing the clinical examination process, it is important to consider two forms of reliability: intra-examiner and inter-examiner reliability. Intra-examiner reliability is the ability of a single rater to obtain the identical measurement during separate performances of the same test. 2
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Inter-examiner reliability is a measure of the ability of two or more raters to obtain identical results with the same test. The kappa coefficient () is a measure of the proportion of potential agreement after chance is removed1,5,7; it is the reliability coefficient most often used for categorical data (positive or negative).5 The correlation coefficient commonly used to determine the reliability of data that is continuous in nature (e.g., range of motion) is the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC).7 Although interpretations of reliability vary, coefficients are often evaluated by the criteria described by Shrout8 with values less than 0.10 indicating no reliability, values between 0.11 and 0.40 indicating slight reliability, values between 0.61 and 0.80 indicating moderate reliability, and values greater than 0.81 indicating substantial reliability. “Acceptable reliability” must be decided by the clinician using the specific test or measure9 and should be based on the variable being tested, why a particular test is important, and on whom the test will be used.6 For example, 5% measurement error may be very acceptable when measuring joint range of motion, but is not nearly as acceptable when measuring pediatric core body temperature.
DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY Clinical tests and measures can never absolutely confirm or exclude the presence of a specific disease.10 However, clinical tests can be used to alter the clinician’s estimate of the probability that a patient has a specific musculoskeletal disorder. The accuracy of a test is determined by the measure of agreement between the clinical test and a reference standard.11,12 A reference standard is the criterion considered the closest representation of the truth of a disorder being present.1 The results obtained with the reference standard are compared with the results obtained with the test under investigation to determine the percentage of people correctly diagnosed, or diagnostic accuracy.13 Because the diagnostic utility statistics are completely dependent on both the reference standard used and the population studied, we have specifically listed these within this text to provide information to consider when selecting the tests and measures reported. Diagnostic accuracy is often expressed in terms of positive and negative predictive values (PPVs and NPVs), sensitivity and specificity, and likelihood ratios (LRs).1,14
22 Contingency Table To determine the clinical utility of a test or measure, the results of the reference standard are compared with the results of the test under investigation in a 22 contingency table, which provides direct comparison between the reference standard and the test under investigation.15 It allows for the calculation of the values associated with diagnostic accuracy to assist with determining the utility of the clinical test under investigation (Table 1-1). The 22 contingency table is divided into four cells (a, b, c, d) for the determination of the test’s ability to correctly identify true positives (cell a) and rule out true negatives (cell d). Cell b represents the false-positive findings wherein the diagnostic test was found to be positive yet the reference standard obtained a negative result. Cell c represents the false-negative findings wherein the diagnostic test was found to be negative yet the reference standard obtained a positive result. Once a study investigating the diagnostic utility of a clinical test has been completed and the comparison to the reference standard has been performed in the 22 contingency table, determination of the clinical utility in terms of overall accuracy, PPVs and NPVs, sensitivity and specificity, and LRs can be calculated. These statistics are useful in determining whether a diagnostic test is useful for either ruling in or ruling out a disorder.
1 THE RELIABILITY AND DIAGNOSTIC UTILITY OF THE ORTHOPAEDIC CLINICAL EXAMINATION 3
Table 1-1 22 Contingency Table Used to Compare the Results of the Reference Standard to Those of the Test Under Investigation
Clinical Test Positive Clinical Test Negative
Reference Standard Positive
Reference Standard Negative
True-positive results a
False-positive results b
False-negative results c
True-negative results d
Overall Accuracy The overall accuracy of a diagnostic test is determined by dividing the correct responses (true positives and true negatives) by the total number of patients.16 Using the 22 contingency table, the overall accuracy is determined by the following equation: Overall accuracy 100% (a d)/(a b c d) A perfect test would exhibit an overall accuracy of 100%. This is most likely unobtainable in that no clinical test is perfect, and each will always exhibit at least a small degree of uncertainty. The accuracy of a diagnostic test should not be used to determine the clinical utility of the test because the overall accuracy can be a bit misleading. The accuracy of a test can be significantly influenced by the prevalence, or total instances of a disease in the population at a given time.5,6 Positive and Negative Predictive Values Positive predictive values estimate the likelihood that a patient with a positive test actually has the disease.5,6,17 PPVs are calculated horizontally in the 22 contingency table (Table 1-2) and indicate the percentage of patients accurately identified as having the disorder (true positive) divided by all the positive results of the test under investigation. A high PPV indicates that a positive result is a strong predictor that the patient has the disorder.5,6 The formula for the PPV is: PPV 100% a/(a b) NPVs estimate the likelihood that a patient with a negative test does not have the disorder.5,6 NPVs are also calculated horizontally in the 22 contingency table (see Table 1-2) and indicate the percentage of patients accurately identified as not having the disorder (true negative) divided by all the negative results of the test under investigation.11 The formula for the NPV is as follows: NPV 100% d/(c d) Table 1-2 22 Contingency Showing the Calculation of Positive and Negative Predictive Values Horizontally and Sensitivity and Specificity Vertically Reference Standard Positive Clinical Test Positive Clinical Test Negative
4
Reference Standard Negative False positives b
PPV a/(a b)
d True negatives
NPV d/(c d)
False negatives Sensitivity a/(a c)
Specificity d/(b d)
True positives a c
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
The predictive values are significantly influenced by the prevalence of the condition.11 Hence, we have not specifically reported these in this text. Sensitivity The sensitivity of a diagnostic test indicates the test’s ability to detect those patients who actually have the disorder as indicated by the reference standard. This is also referred to as the truepositive rate.1 Tests with high sensitivity are good for ruling out a particular disorder. The acronym SnNout can be used to remember that a test with high Sensitivity and a Negative result is good for ruling out the disorder.1 Consider, for example, a clinical test that, compared with the reference standard, exhibits a high sensitivity for detecting lumbar spinal stenosis. Considering the rule above, if the test is negative it reliably rules out lumbar spinal stenosis. If the test is positive, it is likely to accurately identify a high percentage of patients presenting with stenosis. However, it also may identify as positive many of those without the disorder (false positives). Thus, although a negative result can be relied on, a positive test result does not allow us to draw any conclusions (Figs. 1-1 and 1-2). The sensitivity of a test also can be calculated from the 22 contingency tables. However, it is calculated vertically (see Table 1-2). The formula for calculating a test’s sensitivity is as follows: Sensitivity 100% a/(a c)
20 Patients with the disease
20 Patients without the disease
Figure 1-1 Sensitivity and specificity example. Twenty patients with and 20 patients without the disorder.
Figure 1-2 100% Sensitivity. One hundred percent sensitivity, inferring that if the test is positive, all those with the disease will be captured. However, although this test captured all those with the disease, it also captured many without. Yet if the test result is negative, we are confident that the disorder can be ruled out (SnNout). 1 THE RELIABILITY AND DIAGNOSTIC UTILITY OF THE ORTHOPAEDIC CLINICAL EXAMINATION 5
Specificity The specificity of a diagnostic test simply indicates the test’s ability to detect those patients who actually do not have the disorder as indicated by the reference standard. This is also referred to as the true-negative rate.1 Tests with high specificity are good for ruling in a disorder. The acronym SpPin can be used to remember that a test with high Specificity and a Positive result is good for ruling in the disorder.16,18,19 Consider a test with high specificity. It would demonstrate a strong ability to accurately identify all patients who do not have the disorder. If a highly specific clinical test is negative, it is likely to identify a high percentage of those patients who do not have the disorder. However, it is also possible that the highly specific test with a negative result will identify a number of patients who actually have the disease as being negative (false negative). Therefore, we can be fairly confident that a highly specific test with a positive finding indicates that the disorder is present (Fig. 1-3). The formula for calculating test specificity is as follows: Specificity 100% d/(b d) Sensitivity and specificity have been used for decades to determine a test’s diagnostic utility; however, they possess a few clinical limitations.11 Although sensitivity and specificity can be useful to assist clinicians in selecting tests that are good for ruling in or out a particular disorder, few clinical tests demonstrate both high sensitivity and high specificity.11 Also the sensitivity and specificity do not provide information regarding a change in the probability of a patient having a disorder if the test results are positive or negative.18,20 Instead, LRs have been advocated as the optimal statistics for determining a shift in pretest probability that a patient has a specific disorder. Likelihood Ratios A test’s result is valuable only if it alters the pretest probability of a patient having a disorder.21 LRs combine a test’s sensitivity and specificity to develop an indication in the shift of probability given the specific test result and are valuable in guiding clinical decision making.20 LRs are a powerful measure that can significantly increase or reduce the probability of a patient having a disease.22
Figure 1-3 100% Specificity. One hundred percent specificity, inferring that if the test is negative all those without the disease will be captured. However, although this test captured all those without the disease, it also captured many with. Yet if the test is positive, we are confident that the patient has the disorder (SpPin).
6
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
LRs can be either positive or negative. A positive LR indicates a shift in probability favoring the existence of a disorder, whereas a negative LR indicates a shift in probability favoring the absence of a disorder. Although LRs are often not reported in studies investigating the diagnostic utility of the clinical examination, they can be calculated easily if a test’s sensitivity and specificity are available. Throughout this text, for studies that did not report LRs but did document a test’s sensitivity and specificity, the LRs were calculated by the authors. The formula used to determine a positive LR is as follows: LR Sensitivity/(1 Specificity) The formula used to determine a negative LR is as follows: LR (1 Sensitivity)/Specificity A guide to interpreting test results can be found in Table 1-3. Positive LRs 1 increase the odds of the disorder given a positive test, and negative LRs 1 decrease the odds of the disorder given a negative test.22 However, it is the magnitude of the shifts in probability that determines the usefulness of a clinical test. Positive LRs 10 and negative LRs close to zero often represent large and conclusive shifts in probability. An LR of 1 (either positive or negative) does not alter the probability that the patient does or does not have the particular disorder and is of little clinical value.22 Once the LRs have been calculated, they can be applied to the nomogram (Fig. 1-4),23 or a mathematical equation24 can be used to determine more precisely the shifts in probability given a specific test result. Both methods are described in further detail later in the chapter. If a diagnostic test exhibits a specificity of 1, the positive LR cannot be calculated because the equation will result in a zero for the denominator. In these circumstances it has been suggested to modify the 22 contingency table by adding 0.5 to each cell in the table to allow for the calculation of LRs.25 Consider, for example, the diagnostic utility of the Crank test5,26 in detecting labral tears compared with arthroscopic examination, the reference standard. This is revealed in a 22 contingency table (Table 1-4). The inability to calculate a positive LR becomes obvious in the following: Positive LR Sensitivity/(1 Specificity) 1/(1 1) 1/0. Because zero cannot be the denominator in a fraction, the 22 contingency table is modified by adding 0.5 to each cell. Although the addition of 0.5 to each cell is the only reported method of modifying the contingency table to prevent zero in the denominator of an LR calculation, considering the changes that occur with the diagnostic properties of sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values, this technique has not been used in this text. In circumstances in which the specificity is zero and the positive LR cannot be calculated, it is documented as “undefined” (UD). In these cases, although we are not calculating the positive LR, the test is indicative of a large shift in probability.
Table 1-3 Interpretation of Likelihood Ratios Positive Likelihood Ratio
Negative Likelihood Ratio
Interpretation
10
0.1
Generate large and often conclusive shifts in probability
5 to 10
0.1 to 0.2
Generate moderate shifts in probability
2 to 5
0.2 to 0.5
Generate small but sometimes important shifts in probability
1 to 2
0.5 to 1.0
Alter probability to a small and rarely important degree
Adapted from Jaeschke R, Guyatt GH, Sackett DL III. How to use an article about a diagnostic test. B. What are the results and will they help me in caring for my patients? JAMA. 1994;271:703-707.
1 THE RELIABILITY AND DIAGNOSTIC UTILITY OF THE ORTHOPAEDIC CLINICAL EXAMINATION 7
99
.1
Figure 1-4 Fagan’s nomogram. (Adapted with permission from Fagan TJ. Nomogram for Baye’s theorem. N Engl J Med. 1975;293:257. Copyright 2005, Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.)
.2 .5
2 5 Percent (%)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
1000 500 200 100 50 20 10 5 2 1
80 90
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20
.5 .2 .1 .05 .02 .01 .005 .002 .001
Percent (%)
1
95
10 5 2 1 .5
95
.2 99 Pretest Probability
Likelihood Ratio
.1 Post-test Probability
Table 1-4 Results of the Crank Test in Detecting Labral Tears When Compared with the Reference Standard of Arthroscopic Examination Arthroscopic Examination Positive (n 12)
Arthroscopic Examination Negative (n 3) 0
10
Crank Test Positive Crank Test Negative
2 Sensitivity 100% 10/12 83%
a
b
c
d
PPV 100 10/10 100% NPV 100 3/5 60%
3 Specificity 100% 3/3 100%
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS Calculations of sensitivity, specificity, and LRs are known as point estimates. That is, they are the single best estimates of the population values.5 However, because point estimates are based on small subsets of people (samples), it is unlikely that they are a perfect representation of the larger population. It is more accurate, therefore, to include a range of values (interval estimate) in which the population value is likely to fall. A confidence interval (CI) is a range of scores around the point estimate that likely contains the population value.27 Commonly, the 95% CI is calculated for studies investigating the diagnostic utility of the clinical examination. A 95% CI indicates the spread of scores that we can be 95% confident in to contain the population value.5 In this text, 95% CI is reported for all studies that provided this information. 8
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
PRETEST AND POST-TEST PROBABILITY Pretest probability is the likelihood that a patient exhibits a specific disorder before the clinical examination. Often prevalence rates are used as an indication of pretest probability, but when prevalence rates are unknown, the pretest probability is based on a combination of the patient’s medical history, results of previous tests, and the clinician’s experience.16 Determining the pretest probability is the first step in the decision-making process for clinicians. Pretest probability is an estimate by the clinician and can be expressed as a percentage (e.g., 75%, 80%) or as a qualitative measure (e.g., somewhat likely, very likely).11,16 Once the pretest probability of a patient having a particular disorder is identified, tests and measures that have the potential to alter the probability should be selected for the physical examination. Post-test probability is the likelihood that a patient has a specific disorder after the clinical examination procedures have been performed.
CALCULATING POST-TEST PROBABILITY As previously mentioned, LRs can assist with determining the shifts in probability that would occur following a given test result and depend on the respective LR ratios of that given test. The quickest method of determining the shifts in probability once an LR is known for a specific test can be determined using the nomogram (Fig. 1-5).23 The nomogram is a diagram that illustrates the pretest probability on the right and the post-test probability on the left, and the LRs are in the middle. To determine the shift in probability, a mark is placed on the nomogram representing the pretest probability. Then a mark is made on the nomogram at the level of the LR (either negative
99
.1
Figure 1-5 Nomogram representing the change in pretest probability from 42% if the test was positive (positive likelihood ratio 4.2) to a post-test probability of 71%. (Adapted with permission from Fagan TJ. Nomogram for Baye’s theorem. N Engl J Med. 1975;293:257. Copyright 2005, Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.)
.2 .5
2 5 Percent (%)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
1000 500 200 100 50 20 10 5 2 1
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 .5 .2 .1 .05 .02 .01 .005 .002 .001
20
Percent (%)
1
95
10 5 2 1 .5
95
.2 99 Pretest Probability
Likelihood Ratio
.1 Post-test Probability
1 THE RELIABILITY AND DIAGNOSTIC UTILITY OF THE ORTHOPAEDIC CLINICAL EXAMINATION 9
Treatment Threshold
Pretest Probability
Informational Contribution
Post-test Probability
Probability of Disease 0
50%
100%
Figure 1-6 Treatment threshold. Clinicians must use the pretest probability and likelihood ratios to determine the treatment threshold as indicated in this illustration.
or positive). The two lines are connected with a straight line and the line is carried through the left of the diagram. The point at which the line crosses the post-test probability scale indicates the shift in probability. A more precise determination of the shift in probability can be calculated algebraically with the following formula16: Step 1. Pretest odds Pretest probability/1 Pretest probability Step 2. Pretest odds LR Post-test odds Step 3. Post-test odds/Post-test odds 1 Post-test probability The clinician must make a determination of when the post-test probability is either low enough to rule out the presence of a certain disease or when the post-test probability is high enough that the clinician feels confident in having established the presence of a disorder. The level at which evaluation ceases and treatment begins is known as the treatment threshold (Fig. 1-6).16
ASSESSMENT OF STUDY QUALITY Once relevant articles are retrieved, the next step is critical analysis of their content for adequate methodological rigor. It has been reported that the methodologic quality of studies investigating the diagnostic utility of the clinical examination is generally inferior to that of studies investigating the effectiveness of therapies.28,29 Unfortunately, studies with significant methodologic flaws reporting the usefulness of specific tests and measures can lead to premature incorporation of ineffective tests. This can result in inaccurate diagnoses and poor patient management. Alternatively, identification and use of rigorously appraised clinical tests can improve patient care and outcomes.29 The Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (QUADAS) was developed to assess the quality of diagnostic accuracy studies.30 A four-round Delphi panel identified 14 criteria that are used to assess a study’s methodologic quality (see tables at the end of Chapters 2 through 11). Each item is scored as “yes,” “no,” or “unclear.” The QUADAS is not intended to quantify a score for each study but rather provides a qualitative assessment of the study with the identification of weaknesses.30 The QUADAS has demonstrated adequate agreement for the individual items in the 10
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
checklist.31 We have used the QUADAS to evaluate each study referenced in this text and have included details of the quality assessments in the appendix of each chapter. Studies deemed to be of poor methodologic quality (represented by a red symbol) have not been included in the diagnostic utility tables throughout the chapters. Green symbols indicate a high level of methodologic quality and imply that readers can be confident in study results. Yellow symbols indicate fair methodologic quality and imply that readers should interpret such study results with caution.
SUMMARY It is important to consider the reliability and diagnostic utility of tests and measures before including them as components of the clinical examination. Tests and measures should demonstrate adequate reliability before they are used to guide clinical decision making. Throughout this text, the reliability of many tests and measures are reported. It is essential that clinicians consider these reported levels of reliability in the context of their own practice. Before implementing tests and measures into the orthopaedic examination, it is first essential to consider each test’s diagnostic utility. Table 1-5 summarizes the statistics related to diagnostic accuracy as well as the mathematical equations and operational definitions for each. The useful-
Table 1-5 22 Contingency Table and Statistics Used to Determine the Diagnostic Utility of a Test or Measure
Diagnostic Test Positive
Reference Standard Positive
Reference Standard Negative
True-positive results
False-positive results b
a False-negative results
d True-negative results
Statistic
Formula
Description
Overall accuracy
(a d)/(a b c d)
The percentage of individuals who are correctly diagnosed
Sensitivity
a /(a c)
The proportion of patients with the condition who have a positive test result
Specificity
d/(b d)
The proportion of patients without the condition who have a negative test result
Positive predictive value
a/(a b)
The proportion of individuals with a positive test result who have the condition
Negative predictive value
d/(c d)
The proportion of individuals with a negative test result who do not have the condition
Positive likelihood ratio
Sensitivity/(1 Specificity)
If the test is positive, the increase in odds favoring the condition
Negative likelihood ratio
(1 Sensitivity)/Specificity
If the test is positive, the decrease in odds favoring the condition
Diagnostic Test Negative
c
1 THE RELIABILITY AND DIAGNOSTIC UTILITY OF THE ORTHOPAEDIC CLINICAL EXAMINATION 11
ness of a test or measure is most commonly considered in terms of the respective test’s diagnostic properties. These can be described in terms of sensitivity, specificity, PPVs, and NPVs. However, perhaps the most useful diagnostic property is the LR, which can assist in altering the probability that a patient has a specific disorder. No clinical test or measure provides absolute certainty as to the presence or absence of disease. However, clinicians can determine when enough data have been collected to alter the probability beyond the treatment threshold where the evaluation can cease and therapeutic management can begin. Furthermore, careful methodologic assessment provides greater insight into the scientific rigor of each study and its performance, applicability, reliability, and reproducibility within a given clinical practice.
REFERENCES 1. Sackett DL, Straws SE, Richardson WS, et al. EvidenceBased Medicine: How to Practice and Teach EBM. 2nd ed. London: Harcourt Publishers Limited; 2000. 2. Kassirer JP. Our stubborn quest for diagnostic certainty a cause of excessive testing. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:1489-1491. 3. Lijmer JG, Mol BW, Heisterkamp S, et al. Empirical evidence of design-related bias in studies of diagnostic tests. JAMA. 1999;282:1061-1066. 4. Schwartz JS. Evaluating diagnostic tests: What is done–what needs to be done. J G Intern Med. 1986;1:266-267. 5. Portney LG, Watkins MP. Foundations of Clinical Research: Applications to Practice. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Health; 2000. 6. Rothstein JM, Echternach JL. Primer on Measurement: An Introductory Guide to Measurement Issues. Alexandria, VA: American Physical Therapy Association; 1999. 7. Domholdt E. Physical Therapy Research. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2000. 8. Shrout PE. Measurement reliability and agreement in psychiatry. Stat Methods Med Res. 1998;7:301-317. 9. Van Genderen F, De Bie R, Helders P, Van Meeteren N. Reliability research: towards a more clinically relevant approach. Physical Therapy Reviews. 2003;8:169-176. 10. Bossuyt PMM, Reitsma JB, Bruns DE, et al. Towards complete and accurate reporting of studies of diagnostic accuracy: the STARD initiative. Clin Chem. 2003;49:1-6. 11. Fritz JM, Wainner RS. Examining diagnostic tests: an evidence-based perspective. Phys Ther. 2001;81:15461564. 12. Jaeschke R, Guyatt GH, Sackett DL III. How to use an article about a diagnostic test A. Are the results of the study valid? JAMA. 1994;271:389-391. 13. Bossuyt PMM, Reitsma JB, Bruns DE, et al. The STARD statement for reporting studies of diagnostic accuracy: explanation and elaboration. Clin Chem. 2003;49:7-18. 14. McGinn T, Guyatt G, Wyer P, et al. Users’ guides to the medical literature XXII: how to use articles about clinical decision rules. JAMA. 2000;284:79-84. 12
15. Greenhalgh T. Papers that report diagnostic or screening tests. BMJ. 1997;315:540-543. 16. Bernstein J. Decision analysis (current concepts review). J Bone Joint Surg. 1997;79:1404-1414. 17. Potter NA, Rothstein JM. Intertester reliability for selected clinical tests of the sacroiliac joint. Phys Ther. 1985;65:1671-1675. 18. Boyko EJ. Ruling out or ruling in disease with the most sensitive or specific diagnostic test: short cut or wrong turn? Med Decis Making. 1994;14:175-180. 19. Riddle DL, Stratford PW. Interpreting validity indexes for diagnostic tests: an illustration using the Berg balance test. Phys Ther. 1999;79:939-948. 20. Hayden SR, Brown MD. Liklihood ratio: a powerful tool for incorporating the results of a diagnostic test into clinical decision making. Ann Emerg Med. 1999;33:575-580. 21. Simel DL, Samsa GP, Matchar DB. Liklihood ratios with confidence: sample size estimation for diagnostic test studies. J Clin Epidem. 1991;44:763-770. 22. Jaeschke R, Guyatt GH, Sackett DL III. How to use an article about a diagnostic test. B. What are the results and will they help me in caring for my patients? JAMA. 1994;271:703-707. 23. Fagan TJ. Nomogram for Bayes’s theorem. N Engl J Med. 1975;293:257. 24. Sackett DL, Haynes RB, Guyatt GH, Tugwell P. Clinical Epidemiology: A Basic Science for Clinical Medicine. Boston: Little, Brown; 1991. 25. Wainner RS, Fritz JM, Irrgang JJ, et al. Reliability and diagnostic accuracy of the clinical examination and patient self-report measures for cervical radiculopathy. Spine. 2003;28:52-62. 26. Mimori K, Muneta T, Nakagawa T, Shinomiya K. A new pain provocation test for superior labral tears of the shoulder. Am J Sports Med. 1999;27:137142. 27. Fidler F, Thomason N, Cumming G, et al. Editors can lead researchers to confidence intervals, but can’t make them think. Psychol Sci. 2004;15:119-126. 28. Moons KGM, Biesheuvel CJ, Grobbee DE. Test research versus diagnostic research. Clin Chem. 2004;50:473-476.
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
29. Reid MC, Lachs MS, Feinstein AR. Use of methodological standards in diagnostic test research. JAMA. 1995;274:645-651. 30. Whiting P, Harbord R, Kleijnen J. No role for quality scores in systematic reviews of diagnostic accuracy studies. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2005;5:19.
31. Whiting PF, Weswood ME, Rutjes AW, et al. Evaluation of QUADAS, a tool for the quality assessment of diagnostic accuracy studies. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2006;6:9.
1 THE RELIABILITY AND DIAGNOSTIC UTILITY OF THE ORTHOPAEDIC CLINICAL EXAMINATION 13
Temporomandibular Joint
2
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
16
Anatomy Osteology Arthrology Ligaments Muscles Nerves Patient History Initial Hypotheses Based on Patient History The Association of Oral Habits with Temporomandibular Disorders Reliability of Patient’s Reports of Pain in Temporomandibular Dysfunction Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History in Identifying Anterior Disc Displacement Self-Reported Temporomandibular Pain Research Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders Reliability and Diagnostic Utility of RDC/TMD Diagnoses Physical Examination Tests Palpation Joint Sounds Range of Motion Dynamic Movements Dynamic Movements and Range of Motion Dynamic Movements Other Tests Combinations of Tests Outcome Measures Appendix Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies for TMD Using QUADAS References
17 17 20 21 22 26 27 27 27 28 29 30 31 33 34 34 39 42 46 48 49 52 54 60 61 61 63
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Patient History Questions
Self-report of temporomandibular joint (TMJ) pain has been shown to be very good at identifying temporomandibular dysfunction (TMD) as defined by a comprehensive clinical examination (LR of 9.8). A subject complaint of “periodic restriction” (the inability to open the mouth as wide as was previously possible) has been found to be the best single history item to identify anterior disc displacement, both in patients with reducing and nonreducing discs.
Physical Examination Palpation
Reproducing pain during palpation of the TMJ and related muscles has been found to be moderately reliable and appears to demonstrate good diagnostic utility for identifying TMJ effusion by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and TMD when compared with a comprehensive physical examination. We recommend that palpation at least include the TMJ (LR 4.87 to 5.67), the temporalis muscle (LR 2.73 to 4.12), and the masseter muscle (LR 3.65 to 4.87). If clinically feasible, pressure pain threshold testing demonstrates superior diagnostic utility in identifying TMD when compared with a comprehensive physical examination.
Joint Sounds
Detecting joint sounds (clicking and crepitus) during jaw motion is generally unreliable and demonstrates poor diagnostic utility except in the detection of moderate to severe osteoarthritis (LR 4.79) and nonreducing anterior disc displacement (LR 7.1 to 15.2).
Range of Motion and Dynamic Movement
Measuring mouth range of motion appears to be highly reliable and, when restricted or deviated from midline, exhibits moderate diagnostic utility in identifying nonreducing anterior disc displacement. Detecting pain during motion is less reliable, but also demonstrates moderate to good diagnostic utility in identifying nonreducing anterior disc displacement and self-reported TMJ pain. The combination of motion restriction and pain during assisted opening has been found to be the best combination to identify nonreducing anterior disc displacement (LR 7.71). Consistent with assessment of other body regions, assessment of “joint play” and “end-feel” are highly unreliable and have unknown diagnostic utility.
Interventions
16
Patients with TMD who report symptoms 4/10 pain for 10 months’ duration may benefit from nightly wear of an occlusal stabilization splint, especially if they have nonreducing anterior disc displacement and show improvement after 2 months (LR 10.8 if all four factors present).
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ANATOMY Osteology Temporal bone Sphenoid bone Temporal fossa Zygomatic arch Condylar process of mandible Mandibular notch Coronoid process of mandible Lateral pterygoid plate (broken line) Hamulus of medial pterygoid plate (broken line) Mastoid process
Pterygomandibular raphe (broken line)
External acoustic meatus Mandible
Ramus Angle Body
Atlas (C1) Styloid process Axis (C2)
Stylohyoid lig.
Stylomandibular lig.
Body Hyoid bone Lesser horn Greater horn Epiglottis
C3 vertebra
C7 vertebra
Thyroid cartilage Cricoid cartilage Trachea
T1 vertebra
1st rib
Figure 2-1 Bony framework of head and neck. 2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 17
Osteology
Head Pterygoid fovea
Condylar process Coronoid process
Neck
Mandibular notch Mylohyoid groove
Lingula Mandibular foramen
Submandibular fossa Mylohyoid line Sublingual fossa
Oblique line Ramus
Interalveolar septa
Alveolar part (crest) Mental foramen Mental protuberance
Angle
Mental tubercle Base of mandible Body
Mandible of adult: anterolateral superior view
Coronoid process Head
Condylar process
Neck
Lingula
Mandibular notch Pterygoid fovea Mandibular foramen
Mylohyoid line
Ramus
Mylohyoid groove
Angle
y Bod
Submandibular fossa
Sublingual fossa Mental spines Digastric fossa Mandible of adult: left posterior view
Figure 2-2 Mandible.
18
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Osteology
Sphenoid bone Greater wing Frontal bone Supraorbital notch (foramen) Glabella
Parietal bone
Temporal bone
Temporal fossa Superior temporal line Inferior temporal line
Coronal suture
Squamous part Zygomatic process Articular tubercle
Pterion
Groove for posterior deep temporal a. External acoustic meatus
Ethmoid bone Orbital plate
Mastoid process Lacrimal bone Lambdoid suture
Fossa for lacrimal sac
Occipital bone
Nasal bone Maxilla
External occipital protuberance
Frontal process Infraorbital foramen Anterior nasal spine Alveolar process Zygomatic bone Zygomaticofacial foramen Temporal process Zygomatic arch
Mandible Head of condylar process Mandibular notch Coronoid process Ramus Oblique line Body Mental foramen
Figure 2-3 Lateral skull.
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 19
Arthrology Articular tubercle Jaws closed
Mandibular fossa
Articular disc
Joint capsule
Figure 2-4 Temporomandibular joint.
The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is divided by an intra-articular biconcave disc that separates the joint cavity into two distinct functional components. The upper joint is a plane-gliding joint that permits translation of the mandibular condyles. The lower joint is a hinge joint that permits rotation of the condyles. The closed pack position of the TMJ is full occlusion. A unilateral restriction pattern primarily limits contralateral excursion, but also affects mouth opening and protrusion.
Jaws slightly opened (hinge action predominates)
Jaws widely opened (hinge and gliding actions combined)
Figure 2-5 Temporomandibular joint mechanics.
During mandibular depression from a closed mouth position, the initial movement occurs at the lower joint as the condyles pivot on the intra-articular disc. This motion continues to approximately 11 mm of depression. With further mandibular depression, motion begins to occur at the upper joint and causes anterior translation of the disc on the articular eminence. Normal mandibular depression is between 40 and 50 mm. 20
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Ligaments
Lateral view Joint capsule Lateral (temporomandibular) lig. Sphenomandibular lig. Sphenomandibular lig. (phantom) Styloid process Stylomandibular lig. Medial view Mandibular n. and otic ganglion
Joint capsule Middle meningeal a. Auriculotemporal n. Maxillary a. Inferior alveolar n. Lingual n. Sphenomandibular lig. Stylomandibular lig. Mylohyoid branch of inferior alveolar a. and mylohyoid n.
Figure 2-6 Temporomandibular joint ligaments.
Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Temporomandibular
Thickening of anterior joint capsule extending from neck of mandible to zygomatic arch
Strengthen the TMJ laterally
Sphenomandibular
Sphenoid bone to mandible
Serve as a fulcrum and reinforcement to TMJ motion
Stylomandibular
Styloid process to angle of the mandible
Provide minimal support to the joint
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 21
Muscles Muscles Involved in Mastication
Temporalis m.
Temporal fascia Superficial layer Deep layer Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi m.
Zygomatic arch Articular disc of temporomandibular joint
Levator labii superioris m. Zygomaticus minor m.
Deep part Masseter m. Superficial part
Zygomaticus major m. Levator anguli oris m. Orbicularis oris m.
Parotid duct Buccinator m.
Temporalis m.
Mentalis m. Depressor labii Depressor anguli inferioris m. oris m.
Insertion of temporalis m. to coronoid process of mandible Buccinator m. Lateral pterygoid m. Orbicularis oris m.
Masseteric n. and a. Maxillary a. Insertion of masseter m. Parotid duct
Figure 2-7 Muscles involved in mastication, lateral views.
Muscle
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Temporalis
Temporal fossa
Coronoid process and anterior ramus of mandible
Deep temporal branches of mandibular nerve
Elevate mandible
Masseter
Inferior and medial aspects of zygomatic arch
Coronoid process and lateral ramus of mandible
Mandibular nerve via masseteric nerve
Elevate and protrude mandible
22
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Muscles Muscles Involved in Mastication (continued) Lateral view
Lateral pterygoid m. Sphenomandibular lig. Medial pterygoid m. Parotid duct Articular disc of temporomandibular joint
Buccinator m. Pterygomandibular raphe
Articular tubercle
Superior pharyngeal constrictor m.
Posterior view Sphenomandibular lig.
Otic ganglion
Choanae
Masseteric n.
Cartilaginous part of pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube Lateral pterygoid plate
Middle meningeal a.
Temporomandibular joint
Auriculotemporal n. Lateral pterygoid m. Masseteric a. Maxillary a.
Medial pterygoid m.
Inferior alveolar n. Lingual n. Medial pterygoid m.
Tensor veli palatini m.
Medial pterygoid plate
Levator veli palatini m.
Pterygoid hamulus
Pterygoid hamulus
N. to mylohyoid
Figure 2-8 Muscles involved in mastication, lateral and posterior views. Muscle
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Medial pterygoid
Medial surface of lateral pterygoid plate, pyramidal process of palatine bone, and tuberosity of maxilla
Medial aspect of mandibular ramus
Mandibular nerve via medial pterygoid nerve
Elevate and protrude mandible
Superior head
Lateral surface of greater wing of sphenoid bone
Neck of mandible, articular disc, and TMJ capsule
Mandibular nerve via lateral pterygoid nerve
Acting bilaterally: protrude and depress mandible
Inferior head
Lateral surface of lateral pterygoid plate
Lateral Pterygoid
Acting unilaterally: laterally deviate mandible
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 23
Muscles Floor of Mouth
Lateral, slightly inferior view
Hyoglossus m. Mylohyoid m. Fibrous loop for intermediate digastric tendon
Mastoid process Styloid process
Digastric m. (anterior belly)
Digastric m. (posterior belly)
Median raphe between mylohyoid mm.
Stylohyoid m. Greater horn Hyoid bone Lesser horn Body Thyrohyoid m. Omohyoid m. Sternohyoid m.
Figure 2-9 Floor of mouth, inferior view.
Muscle
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Mylohyoid
Mylohyoid line of mandible
Hyoid bone
Mylohyoid nerve (branch of cranial nerve [CN] V3)
Elevates hyoid bone
Stylohyoid
Styloid process of temporal bone
Hyoid bone
Cervical branch of facial nerve
Elevates and retracts hyoid bone
Geniohyoid
Inferior mental spine of mandible
Hyoid bone
C1 via the hypoglossal nerve
Elevates hyoid bone anterosuperiorly
Anterior belly
Digastric fossa of mandible
Intermediate tendon to hyoid bone
Mylohyoid nerve
Depresses mandible; raises and stabilizes hyoid bone
Posterior belly
Mastoid notch of temporal bone
Digastric
24
Facial nerve
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Muscles (continued) Floor of Mouth (continued)
Anteroinferior view
Digastric m. (anterior belly)
Mylohyoid m. Stylohyoid m. Digastric m. (posterior belly) Hyoglossus m. Fibrous loop for intermediate digastric tendon
Sublingual gland Lingual n.
Posterosuperior view
Inferior alveolar n. and a. Mylohyoid n. and a.
Submandibular gland and duct Mylohyoid m. Geniohyoid m. Lesser horn Hyoid bone
Superior mental spine for origin of genioglossus m.
Body Greater horn
Hyoglossus m. (cut)
Figure 2-10 Floor of mouth, anteroinferior and posterosuperior views.
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 25
Nerves Mandibular Nerve Medial view
Trigeminal (semilunar) ganglion
Motor root
Geniculum
Sensory root
Ophthalmic n. (V1) Maxillary n. (V2)
Tympanic cavity Chorda tympani n.
Mandibular n. (V3) Anterior division
Facial n. (VII) Tensor tympani m. and n. Lesser petrosal n. Auriculotemporal n.
Tensor veli palatini n. and m. Otic ganglion Chorda tympani n.
Maxillary a.
Medial pterygoid n. and m. (cut) Pterygoid hamulus
Mylohyoid n.
Lingual n.
Inferior alveolar n. entering mandibular foramen
Temporal fascia Anterior division and temporalis m. Posterior Posterior division Deep temporal nerves Lateral view Anterior Foramen ovale Masseteric n. Meningeal branch Foramen spinosum Middle meningeal a. Auriculotemporal n. Posterior auricular n. Facial n. (VII) Chorda tympani n. Lingual n. Inferior alveolar n. (cut) N. to mylohyoid Medial pterygoid m. (cut) Digastric m. (posterior belly) Stylohyoid m.
Lateral pterygoid n. and m.
Buccal n. and buccinator m. (cut) Submandibular ganglion Sublingual gland Mylohyoid m. (cut)
Hypoglossal n. Submandibular gland Sublingual n.
Mental n. Inferior alveolar n. (cut) Digastric m. (anterior belly)
Figure 2-11 Mandibular nerve, medial and lateral views.
Nerves
Segmental Levels
Sensory
Motor
Mandibular
CN V3
Skin of inferior third of face
Temporalis, masseter, lateral pterygoid, medial pterygoid, digastric, mylohyoid
Nerve to mylohyoid
CN V3
No sensory
Mylohyoid
Buccal
CN V3
Cheek lining and gingiva
No motor
Lingual
CN V3
Anterior tongue and floor of mouth
No motor
Maxillary
CN V2
Skin of middle third of face
No motor
Ophthalmic
CN V1
Skin of superior third of face
No motor
CN V, trigeminal nerve.
26
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
PATIENT HISTORY Initial Hypotheses Based on Patient History Patient Reports
Initial Hypothesis
Patient reports jaw crepitus and pain during mouth opening and closing. Might also report limited opening with translation of the jaw to the affected side at the end range of opening
Possible osteoarthrosis Possible capsulitis Possible internal derangement consisting of an anterior disc displacement that does not reduce1-3
Patient reports jaw clicking and pain during opening and closing of the mouth
Possible internal derangement consisting of anterior disc displacement with reduction1,4,5
Patient reports of limited motion to about 20 mm with no joint noise
Possible capsulitis Possible internal derangement consisting of an anterior disc displacement that does not reduce1
The Association of Oral Habits with Temporomandibular Disorders
Figure 2-12 Frequent leaning of head on the palm.
Gavish and colleagues6 investigated the association with oral habits and signs and symptoms of temporomandibular disorders in 248 randomly selected female high school students. Although sensitivity and specificity were not reported, the results demonstrated that chewing gum, jaw play (nonfunctional jaw movements), chewing ice, and frequent leaning of the head on the palm were associated with the presence on TMJ disorders. 2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 27
Reliability of Patient’s Reports of Pain in Temporomandibular Dysfunction ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 2-13 Temporomandibular joint pain.
Historical Finding and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Test-Retest Reliability
Visual analog scale
100-mm line with ends defined as “no pain” and “worst pain imaginable”
.38
Numerical scale7
An 11-point scale with 0 indicating “no pain” and 10 representing “worst pain”
.36
7
Behavior rating scale7
A 6-point scale ranging from “minor discomfort” to “very strong discomfort”
Verbal scale7
A 5-point scale ranging from “no pain” to “very severe pain”
28
38 consecutive patients referred with TMD
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
.68
.44
Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History in Identifying Anterior Disc Displacement
Historical Finding and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
Momentary snapping sound during opening or functioning
Clicking8
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
In presence of reducing disc .82
.19
1.01
.95
In presence of nonreducing disc .86 Sudden onset of restricted movement during opening or closing
Locking8
.24
1.13
.58
In presence of reducing disc .53
.22
.68
2.14
In presence of nonreducing disc .86 Restriction after clicking8
Inability to open as wide as was previously possible after clicking
.52
1.79
.27
In presence of reducing disc .26
.40
.43
1.85
In presence of nonreducing disc .66 Periodic restriction
8
Periodic inability to open as wide as was previously possible
.74
2.54
.46
In presence of reducing disc .60
.90
6.0
.44
In presence of nonreducing disc .12 Continuous restriction8
Continuous inability to open as wide as was previously possible
70 patients (90 TMJs) referred with complaints of craniomandibular pain
Anterior disc displacement via MRI
.95
2.4
.93
In presence of reducing disc .35
.26
.47
2.5
In presence of nonreducing disc .78
.62
2.05
.35
In presence of reducing disc
Function related to joint pain8
.82
.10
.91
1.8
In presence of nonreducing disc .96 Complaint of clicking8
.24
1.26
.17
In presence of reducing disc .28
.24
.37
3.00
In presence of nonreducing disc Not reported Complaint of movement-related pain8
.82
.69
2.65
.26
In presence of reducing disc .71
.31
1.03
.94
In presence of nonreducing disc .74 Complaint of severe restriction8
.36
1.16
.72
In presence of reducing disc .60
.65
1.71
.62
In presence of nonreducing disc .38
.93
5.43
.67
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 29
Self-Reported Temporomandibular Pain ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Historical Finding and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Self-report of TMJ pain9
See diagnostic table on following page. Participants were asked same questions 2 weeks apart.
120 adolescents: 60 with self-reported TMJ pain, and 60 age- and sex-matched controls
Test-retest .83 (.74, .93)
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Historical Finding and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Self-report of TMJ pain9
Participants were asked: (1) “Do you have pain in your temple, face, TMJ, or jaw once a week or more?” (2) “Do you have pain when you open your mouth wide or chew once a week or more?” If answer is “yes” to either question, test is positive.
120 adolescents: 60 with selfreported TMJ pain and 60 ageand sex-matched controls
RDC/TMD diagnosis of myofascial pain or arthralgia, arthritis, and arthrosis
.98
RDC/TMD, Research Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders (see next page).
30
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Spec
.90
LR
LR
9.8 (4.8, 20.0)
.02 (.00, .16)
Research Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders The Research Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders (RDC/TMD) was developed in response to a general lack of standardization in TMD assessment and diagnosis.10 The RDC/ TMD is based on a biopsychosocial model and is comprised of a comprehensive set of history questions and physical examination procedures. The examination includes measurement of the range of mandibular motion, muscle and joint palpation with defined pressure, and recording of joint sounds. The specific examination questions, procedures, and scoring instructions are available at a website created by a consortium of worldwide researchers using the RDC/TMD (http://rdc-tmdinternational.org); they are summarized here. RDC/TMD Examination Procedures Mandibular range of motion (measured in millimeters)
• • •
Unassisted opening without pain Maximum unassisted opening Maximum assisted opening
• •
Lateral excursions Protrusion
Joint sounds
• • •
Clicking or crepitus during opening Clicking or crepitus during closing Joint sounds during lateral excursion (contralateral side)
• •
Joint sounds during lateral excursion (ipsilateral side) Joint sounds during protrusion
• • • • • •
Temporalis posterior Temporalis middle Temporalis anterior Masseter superior Masseter body Masseter inferior
• • • • • •
Posterior mandibular region Submandibular region Lateral pterygoid area Tendon of temporalis TMJ lateral TMJ posterior
Masticatory muscle and TMJ palpation tenderness
Based on the findings from these tests, the RCD/TMD purports the following eight different temporomandibular diagnoses: • Ia: Myofascial pain without limited mouth opening • Ib: Myofascial pain with limited mouth opening • IIa: Disc displacement with reduction • IIb: Disc displacement without reduction and with limited mouth opening • IIc: Disc displacement without reduction and without limited mouth opening • IIIa: Arthralgia • IIIb: Osteoarthritis • IIIC: Osteoarthrosis
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 31
Research Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders
Temporal bone
Anterior displacement of TMJ meniscus
Meniscus
Pterygoid m. Mandible
Condyle
Joint capsule
Figure 2-14 Anterior disc displacement.
Adhesions forming within joint
Figure 2-15 Temporomandibular arthrosis.
32
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Rupture of meniscus causing bony surfaces to rub
Research Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders Reliability and Diagnostic Utility of RDC/TMD Diagnoses ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Diagnosis and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Inter-examiner Reliability
Myofascial pain without limited mouth opening11
ICC .51
Myofascial pain with limited mouth opening11
ICC .58
Disc displacement with reduction11
ICC .61
Disc displacement without reduction (acute)11
ICC .31
Disc displacement without reduction (chronic)11 Arthralgia11
Used RDC/TMD examination and criteria (see previous page)
ICC .06
230 patients from 10 international TMD centers
ICC .47
Osteoarthritis11
ICC .00
Osteoarthrosis11
ICC .00
Group I diagnosis11
ICC .75
Group II diagnosis11
ICC .61 ICC .54
11
Group III diagnosis
Each ICC estimate represents the median value from multiple inter-examiner comparisons.
Diagnosis and Study Quality RDC/TMD diagnosis of myofascial pain with limited mouth opening12 RDC/TMD diagnosis of myofascial pain without limited mouth opening12
Description and Positive Findings
Used RDC/TMD examination and criteria (see previous page)
Population
61 patients seeking treatment for orofacial muscle pain and/ or TMJ pain and diagnosed with myofascial pain with or without limited mouth opening
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
TMJ pathosis via MRI
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.29
.50
.57
1.43
1.0
.84
6.33
.00
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 33
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION TESTS Palpation Reliability in Determining the Presence of Pain during Muscle Palpation ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Finding and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Extraoral13
Examiner palpates the temporalis, masseter, posterior cervical, and sternocleidomastoid muscles
Intraoral13
Examiner palpates tendon of the temporalis, lateral pterygoid, masseter, and body of the tongue
.90
Masseter14
Examiner palpates the mid belly of the masseter muscle
.33
Temporalis14
Examiner palpates the mid belly of the temporalis muscle
Medial pterygoid14
Examiner palpates the insertion of the medial pterygoid
Masseter15
Examiner palpates the superficial and deep portion of the masseter muscle
Temporalis15
Examiner palpates the anterior and posterior aspects of the temporalis muscle
Medial pterygoid15 attachment
Examiner palpates the medial pterygoid muscles extraorally
.23
Masseter16
Examiner palpates the origin, body, and insertion of the masseter muscle
(Right) .78 (Left ) .56
Temporalis16
Examiner palpates the origin, body, and insertion of the temporalis muscle
Tendon of temporalis16
Examiner palpates the tendon of the temporalis muscle
34
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Inter-examiner Reliability .91
64 healthy volunteers
79 randomly selected patients referred to a craniomandibular disorder department
.42 .23 .33
79 patients referred to a TMD and orofacial pain department
27 TMD patients
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
.42
(Right) .87 (Left ) .91 (Right) .53 (Left ) .48
Palpation Reliability in Determining the Presence of Pain during TMJ Regional Palpation ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Temporalis
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
(posterior temporalis fibers retract jaw)
External pterygoid
Internal pterygoid
Tongue
Masseter
Buccinator Orbicularis orb
Mylohyoid
Geniohyoid (deep to other mm.) Digastric (anterior belly)
Figure 2-16 Musculature of the temporomandibular joint.
Finding and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Lateral palpation17
Examiner palpates anterior to the ear over the TMJ
61 patients with TMJ pain
Intra-examiner .53
Posterior palpation17
Examiner palpates TMJ through external meatus
Palpation of TMJ14
Examiner palpates the lateral and dorsal aspects of the condyle
Masseter15
Examiner palpates the superficial and deep portion of the masseter muscle
Palpation of TMJ15
Examiner palpates the lateral pole of the condyle in open and closed mouth positions. The dorsal pole is palpated posteriorly through the external auditory meatus
Intra-examiner .48 79 randomly selected patients referred to a craniomandibular disorder department
Inter-examiner .33
Inter-examiner .33 79 patients referred to a temporomandibular disorder and orofacial pain department
Inter-examiner .33
Retromandibular region16
Inter-examiner (Right) .56 (Left ) .50
Submandibular region16
Inter-examiner (Right) .73 (Left ) .68
Lateral pterygoid area16 Lateral pole and posterior attachment of TMJ16
Examiner palpation consistent with RDC/TMD guidelines
27 temporomandibular disorder patients
Inter-examiner (Right) .50 (Left ) .37 Inter-examiner (Right) .43 (Left ) .46
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 35
Palpation
Lateral palpation of the temporomandibular joint
Palpation of the temporalis
Posterior palpation of the temporomandibulor joint through external auditory meatus
Palpation of the masseter
Figure 2-17 Palpation tests. Palpation of the medial pterygoid
36
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Palpation Diagnostic Utility of Palpation in Identifying Temporomandibular Conditions Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Lateral palpation17
Examiner palpates the lateral pole of the condyle with the index finger. Positive if pain is present
Posterior palpation17
Examiner palpates the posterior portion of the condyle with the little finger in the patient’s ear. Positive if pain is present
Palpation18
Population
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.83
.69
2.68
.25
.85
.62
2.24
.24
61 patients with TMJ pain
Presence of TMJ effusion via MRI
Palpation of lateral and posterior aspects of the TMJ and assessment of pain response with active movements. Positive if patient reports pain
84 patients with symptoms of TMJ pain
TMJ synovitis via arthroscopic investigation
.92
.21
1.16
.38
Palpation19
Examiner palpates lateral and posterior aspects of the TMJ with one finger and determines the presence of tenderness
200 consecutive patients with TMJ disease
TMJ synovitis via arthroscopic investigation
.88
.36
1.38
.33
Tender joint on palpation8
Examiner palpates the lateral and posterior aspects of the joint. Positive if pain is present
70 patients (90 TMJs) referred with complaints of craniomandibular pain
Detecting anterior disc displacement via MRI
In presence of reducing disc
Palpation20
Examiner palpated the TMJ laterally and posteriorly, the temporalis muscle, and the masseter muscle. Pain recorded via visual analog scale (VAS) using a cutoff value to maximize sensitivity and specificity
147 patients referred for craniomandibular complaints and 103 asymptomatic individuals
Patient report of tenderness in the masticatory muscles, the preauricular area, or TMJ in the past month
.38
.41
.64
1.51
In presence of nonreducing disc .66
.67
2.0
.51
.75
.67
2.27
.37
2.73
.51
4.12
.36
5.67
.36
4.87
.32
4.87
.32
3.65
.34
Right side*
Palpation of temporalis muscle21
.60
.78
Left side*
Palpation of temporomandibular joint21
Palpation of masseter muscle21
Performed with index and middle fingers for 2 to 4 seconds with approximately 3 pounds of pressure on the muscle and 2 pounds of pressure on the joint. Pain recorded via VAS with cutoff values at 1 standard deviation from the mean*
.70
.83
Right side* 40 patients diagnosed with TMD and 40 asymptomatic patients
TMD diagnosis from RCD/TMD evaluation
.68
.88
Left side* .73
.85
Right side
*
.73
.85
Left side
*
.73
.80
*Gomes and colleagues21 also calculated sensitivity and specificity for cutoff values of 1.5 and 2 standard deviations. Values showed almost perfect specificity, but poor sensitivity.
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 37
Palpation Diagnostic Utility of Pressure Pain Thresholds in Identifying Temporomandibular Disorder
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
PPT temporalis muscle21
Spec
LR
LR
.88
5.67
.36
.90
6.30
.41
.95
11.20
.46
.95
15.00
.26
.90
7.50
.28
.78
.90
7.80
.24
.77
.91
8.37
.25
.73
.91
7.93
.30
.67
.91
7.28
.36
.55
.91
5.98
.50
Sens Right side .68 Left side .63
PPT temporomandibular joint21
Used pressure algometer fitted with a rubber tip. PPT defined as the lightest pressure to cause pain. Cutoff values represent 1 standard deviation from the mean*
Right side 40 patients diagnosed with TMD and 40 asymptomatic patients
PPT middle temporalis muscle22 PPT posterior temporalis muscle22 PPT masseter muscle22
Used pressure algometer pressed into relaxed muscle belly. PPT defined as the lightest pressure to cause pain. Cutoff values chosen from receiver operator curve when specificity was .91.
Left side .75 TMD diagnosis from RCD/TMD evaluation
PPT masseter muscle21
PPT anterior temporalis muscle22
.56
99 women with dental or intraarticular TMJ pain
Right side .75 Left side
PPT, pressure pain threshold. *Gomes and colleagues21 also calculated sensitivity and specificity for cutoff values of 1.5 and 2 standard deviations. Values showed almost perfect specificity, but poor sensitivity.
38
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Joint Sounds ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Reliability of Detecting Joint Sounds during Active Motion Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Click sounds during mouth opening17
During mouth opening, examiner records the presence of a click sound
Crepitus sounds during mouth opening17
During mouth opening, examiner records the presence of a grating or grinding sound
Intra-examiner .15
Clicking during active maximal mouth opening 14
Intensity of clicking and crepitation is graded on a 0- to 2-scale from “none” to “clearly audible”
Inter-examiner .70
Intra-examiner .12 61 patients with TMJ pain
Crepitation during active maximal mouth opening14 Joint noise14
Presence of joint noises are recorded by examiner
Opening15 15
Lateral excursion, right
15
Lateral excursion, left
Examiner records the presence of joint sounds during mandibular opening, lateral excursion, right and left and protrusion
79 randomly selected patients referred to a craniomandibular disorder department
Protrusion
TMJ sounds
Presence of joint noises are recorded by examiner during mouth opening
Inter-examiner .24 Inter-examiner .59
79 patients referred to a temporomandibular disorder and orofacial pain department
15 16
Inter-examiner .29
27 temporomandibular disorder patients
Inter-examiner .57 Inter-examiner .50 Inter-examiner .47 Inter-examiner (Right) .52 (Left ) .25
Reliability of Detecting Joint Sounds during Joint Play Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Joint noise during joint play14
Examiner records presence of joint noise during traction and translation
79 randomly selected patients referred to a craniomandibular disorder department
Inter-examiner .01
Traction, right15
Examiner moves the mandibular condyle in an inferior direction for traction and in a medial-lateral direction for translation. Examiner records presence of joint sound during translation and traction
15
Traction, left
15
Translation, right
15
Translation, left
Inter-examiner .02 Inter-examiner .66 79 patients referred to a TMD and orofacial pain department
Inter-examiner .07 Inter-examiner .02
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 39
Joint Sounds Diagnostic Utility of Clicking in Identifying Temporomandibular Conditions LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 2-18 Auscultation performed with a stethoscope. LR
LR
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
Clicking3
Examiner palpates the lateral aspect of the TMJ during opening and closing. Examiner records audible, palpable clicking
146 patients attending a TMJ and craniofacial pain clinic
Anterior disc displacement with reduction via MRI
.51
.83
3.0
.59
Clicking17
Examiner auscultates for sounds during joint movement. Presence of a click sound is considered positive
61 patients with TMJ pain
Presence of TMJ effusion via MRI
.69
.51
1.41
.61
Reproducible clicking8
Auscultation with a stethoscope. Considered positive if observed at least 4 times during 5 repetitions of mouth opening
Reciprocal clicking8
Auscultation with a stethoscope. Considered positive if a click on opening is followed by a click on closing
In presence of reducing disc .10
.17
2.25
In presence of nonreducing disc 70 patients (90 TMJs) referred with complaints of craniomandibular pain
Detecting anterior disc displacement via MRI
.71
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
.90
7.10
.32
In presence of reducing disc .40
.52
.83
1.15
In presence of nonreducing disc .76
40
.40
.95
15.2
.25
Joint Sounds Diagnostic Utility of Crepitus in Identifying Temporomandibular Conditions LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Presence of crepitus17
Examiner auscultates for sounds during joint movement. Presence of grating or grinding noise is considered positive
61 patients with TMJ pain
Presence of TMJ effusion via MRI
.85
.30
1.21
.50
Presence of crepitus18
Osteoarthritis based on the presence of crepitus during auscultation. Presence of crepitus is considered positive
84 patients with symptoms of TMJ pain
TMJ osteoarthritis via arthroscopic investigation
.70
.43
1.23
.70
Presence of crepitus19
Auscultation performed with stethoscope. Presence of crepitus is considered positive
200 consecutive patients with TMJ disease
Minor osteoarthritis* TMJ osteoarthritis via arthroscopic investigation
.45
.84
2.81
.65
Severe osteoarthritis* .67
.86
4.79
.38
*Minor osteoarthritis is defined as smooth, glossy white surfaces of the disc and fibrocartilage. Severe osteoarthritis is defined as one or more of the following features: (1) pronounced fibrillation of the articular cartilage and disc; (2) exposure of subchondral bone; (3) disc perforation.
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 41
Range of Motion Reliability of Mouth Opening Range of Motion Measurements of the Temporomandibular Joint ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 2-19 Measurement of mouth opening active range of motion. Test and Study Opening23
Description and Positive Findings Without TMJ disorder With TMJ disorder
Unassisted opening without pain24 Maximum unassisted opening24 Maximum assisted opening24
Patient is instructed to open mouth as much as possible without causing pain. Interincisal distance is measured to the nearest millimeter with a plastic ruler
Population
15 subjects with a TMJ disorder and 15 subjects without this disorder
In young adults In older adults
In older adults In young adults
Measured in mm with ruler consistent with RMC/TMD guidelines
43 asymptomatic older adults (age 68 to 96 years) and 44 asymptomatic young adults (age 18 to 45 years)
Maximum unassisted opening
Inter-examiner ICC .91 (.83, .95) Inter-examiner ICC .95 (.91, .97) Inter-examiner ICC .98 (.96, .99) Inter-examiner ICC .96 (.92, .98)
Inter-examiner ICC .83 27 TMD patients
16
Maximum assisted opening
42
Inter-examiner ICC .99 Intra-examiner ICC .94
Inter-examiner ICC .98 (.96, .99)
Unassisted opening without pain16 16
Inter-examiner ICC .98 Intra-examiner ICC .77-.89
Inter-examiner ICC .88 (.78, .94)
In older adults
In young adults
Reliability
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Inter-examiner ICC .89 Inter-examiner ICC .93
Range of Motion Reliability of Range of Motion Measurements of the Temporomandibular Joint ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings Without TMJ disorder
Overbite23
Excursion, left23
With TMJ disorder
Without TMJ disorder With TMJ disorder
Excursion, right23
Without TMJ disorder With TMJ disorder Without TMJ disorder
Protrusion23
Overjet23
With TMJ disorder
Without TMJ disorder With TMJ disorder
Population
Inter-examiner ICC .98 Intra-examiner ICC .90-.96
Vertical marks are made in the median plane on the anterior surface of the lower central incisors in relationship to the upper central incisors. Patient is instructed to move the jaw as far lateral as possible and the measurement is recorded
Inter-examiner ICC .95 Intra-examiner ICC .91-.92
Inter-examiner ICC .95 Intra-examiner ICC .90-.97
Inter-examiner ICC .94 Intra-examiner ICC .85-.92 15 subjects with a TMJ disorder and 15 subjects without TMJ disorder
Lateral excursion, right16
The horizontal distance between the upper and lower incisors is measured when the mouth is closed
Inter-examiner ICC 1.0 Intra-examiner ICC .98
Inter-examiner ICC .98 Intra-examiner ICC .89-.93
Inter-examiner ICC .99 Intra-examiner ICC .98-.99 Inter-examiner ICC .71 (.45, .84)
Measured in millimeters with ruler consistent with RMC/ TMD guidelines
43 older asymptomatic adults (age 68 to 96 years) and 44 young asymptomatic adults (age 18 to 45 years)
Vertical overlap16
Inter-examiner ICC .77 (.57, .88) Inter-examiner ICC .78 (.59, .88) Inter-examiner ICC .90 (.81, .95) Inter-examiner ICC .41 Inter-examiner ICC .40
Lateral excursion, left16 Horizontal overbite16
Inter-examiner ICC .96 Intra-examiner ICC .75-.82 Inter-examiner ICC .95 Intra-examiner ICC .85-.93
In young adults
In young adults
Inter-examiner ICC .90 Intra-examiner ICC .70-.87
Two vertical lines are made on the first upper and lower canine incisors. Subject is instructed to move the jaw as far forward as possible and a measurement is made between the two marks
In older adults Maximum protrusion24
Reliability
A horizontal line is made on the lower incisor at the level of the upper incisor with the TMJ closed. The vertical distance between the line and the superior aspect of the lower incisor is measured
In older adults Maximum laterotrusion24
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
27 TMD patients
Inter-examiner ICC .79 Inter-examiner ICC .70
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 43
Range of Motion ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 2-20 Translation of mandible, left.
The Reliability of Joint Play and End-Feel Assessment of the TMJ Test and Study Restriction of movement
Traction and translation14
End-feel
Traction, right15
Examiner records the presence of restriction of movement at end-feel during traction and translation of the TMJ
79 randomly selected patients referred to a craniomandibular disorder department
Inter-examiner .08 Inter-examiner .07
End-feel
Inter-examiner .05
Joint play End-feel
Translation, left15
Reliability
Inter-examiner .03
End-feel Translation, right15
Population
Joint play
Joint play
Traction, left15
Description and Positive Findings
Examiner moves the mandibular condyle in an inferior direction for traction and a medial-lateral direction for translation. The extent of joint play and end-feel are graded as “normal” or “abnormal”
Inter-examiner .08
79 patients referred to a temporomandibular disorder and orofacial pain department
Inter-examiner .20 Inter-examiner .05 Inter-examiner .05
Joint play
Inter-examiner .10
End-feel
Inter-examiner .13
Reliability of Measuring Mandibular Opening with Different Head Positions Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings 25
Forward head position
Patient is instructed to slide the jaw forward as far as possible and a measurement of vertical mandibular opening is recorded
Neutral head position25
Patient is placed in a position where a plumb line bisects the ear and a measurement of vertical mandibular opening is recorded
Retracted head position25
Patient is instructed to slide the jaw backward as far as possible and a measurement of vertical mandibular opening is recorded
44
Population
Reliability Inter-examiner ICC .92 Intra-examiner ICC .97
40 healthy subjects
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Inter-examiner ICC .93 Intra-examiner ICC .93 Inter-examiner ICC .92 Intra-examiner ICC .92
Range of Motion Diagnostic Utility of Limited Range of Motion in Identifying Anterior Disc Displacement
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Restriction of condylar translation3
Examiner asks patient to maximally open mouth while palpating condylar movement. Examiner records any limitation of condylar translation
Restriction range functional opening3
Examiner asks patient to maximally open mouth and measures the distance in millimeters. Less than 40 mm is considered a restriction
Restriction range functional opening8
Measurement is taken at the end range of active mouth opening. Definition of positive not reported
Population
146 patients attending a TMJ and craniofacial pain clinic
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
Anterior disc displacement without reduction via MRI
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.69
.81
3.63
.38
.32
.83
1.88
.82
In presence of reducing disc .38
Measurement is taken at the end range of passive mouth opening after 15 seconds. Definition of positive not reported
Restricted protrusion8
.29
Not reported
Measurement is taken at the end range of active mandibular protrusion. Definition of positive not reported
A measurement is taken at the end of contralateral movement from the midline. Definition of positive not reported
.62
2.26
.23
.29
.41
2.45
In presence of nonreducing disc
70 patients (90 TMJs) referred with complaints of craniomandibular pain
.69
2.45
.35
In presence of reducing disc Anterior disc displacement via MRI
.15
.38
.24
2.24
In presence of nonreducing disc .66
.81
3.47
.42
In presence of reducing disc .29
.38
.47
1.87
In presence of nonreducing disc .62
Restricted contralateral movement8
2.95
In presence of reducing disc
.76 Restricted translation8
.48
In presence of nonreducing disc .86
Restriction range passive opening8
.21
.64
1.72
.59
In presence of reducing disc .15
.34
.23
2.50
In presence of nonreducing disc .66
.76
2.75
.45
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 45
Dynamic Movements Diagnostic Utility of Deviations in Movement in Identifying Anterior Disc Displacement
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Deviation of mandible3
Patient is asked to maximally open the mouth. If the midline of the upper and lower incisors does not line up, then the test is considered positive
Deviation of mandible with correction8
Examiner observes active mouth opening. Test is considered positive if a deviation occurs and the mandible returns to midline
Deviation of mandible without correction8
Examiner observes active mouth opening. Test is considered positive if the mandible does not return to midline after deviation
Population
146 patients attending a TMJ and craniofacial pain clinic
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.32
.87
2.46
.78
Anterior disc displacement without reduction via MRI In presence of reducing disc .14
70 patients (90 TMJs) referred with complaints of craniomandibular pain
.33
1.51
In presence of nonreducing disc Anterior disc displacement via MRI
.44
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
.83
2.59
.67
In presence of reducing disc .18
.41
.31
2.0
In presence of nonreducing disc .66
46
.57
.83
3.88
.41
Dynamic Movements Reliability of Determining the Presence of Pain during Dynamic Movements ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 2-21 Assessment of pain during passive opening.
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Mandibular movements17
Patient is asked if pain is felt during opening, closing, lateral excursion, protrusion, and retrusion
Population
Reliability Intra-examiner .43
61 patients with TMJ pain
Maximum assisted opening17
Examiner applies overpressure to the end-range of mandibular depression
Intra-examiner .05
Pain on opening15
Patient is asked to maximally open mouth
Inter-examiner .28
Pain on lateral excursion, right15
Patient is asked to move the mandible in a lateral direction as far as possible
Pain on lateral excursion, left15 Pain on protrusion15
Patient is asked to actively protrude the jaw
Passive opening14
At the end of active opening the examiner applies a passive stretch to increase mouth opening
Active opening14
Patient is asked to open mouth as wide as possible
79 patients referred to a temporomandibular disorder and orofacial pain department
Inter-examiner .28 Inter-examiner .28 Inter-examiner .36
79 randomly selected patients referred to a craniomandibular disorder department
Inter-examiner .34
Inter-examiner .32
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 47
Dynamic Movements and Range of Motion Reliability of Detecting Pain during Resistance Tests ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 2-22 Manual resistance applied during lateral deviation. Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Dynamic tests
Patient performs opening, closing, lateral excursion, protrusion, and retrusion movements while examiner applies resistance
61 patients with TMJ pain
Intra-examiner .20
Opening15
Examiner applies isometric resistance during opening, closing, and lateral excursions to the right and left of the TMJ. The presence of pain is recorded
17
15
Closing
Lateral excursion, right15
Inter-examiner .24 79 patients referred to a TMD and orofacial pain department
48
Inter-examiner .28 Inter-examiner .26
Lateral excursion, left15 Static pain test14
Inter-examiner .30
The examiner applies resistance against the patient’s mandible in an upward, downward, and lateral direction
79 randomly selected patients referred to a craniomandibular disorder department
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Inter-examiner .15
Dynamic Movements Reliability of Determining the Presence of Pain during Joint Play ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 2-23 Temporomandibular traction. Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Joint play
Examiner performs passive traction and translation movements
61 patients with TMJ pain
Intra-examiner ICC .20
Joint play test15
Examiner applies a traction and a translation (medial/lateral) force through the TMJ
79 randomly selected patients referred to a craniomandibular disorder department
Inter-examiner ICC .46
13
Inter-examiner ICC .08
Traction, right16 Traction, left16 Translation, right16 Translation, left16
Examiner moves the mandibular condyle in an inferior direction for traction and a mediolateral direction for translation. The presence of pain is recorded
79 patients referred to a TMD and orofacial pain department
Inter-examiner ICC .25 Inter-examiner ICC .50 Inter-examiner ICC .28
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 49
Dynamic Movements Diagnostic Utility of Pain in Identifying Temporomandibular Conditions LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Patient is asked to open, close, protrude, retrude, and perform lateral excursion of the mandible. Positive if pain present
.82
.61
2.10
.30
Pain during maximum opening and overpressure17
Patient is asked to perform the movements above while examiner applies resistance. Positive if pain present
.93
.016
.95
4.38
Pain during dynamic tests17
Patient is instructed to open the mouth as wide as possible and examiner applies overpressure. Positive if pain present
.74
.44
1.32
.59
Pain during joint play17
Examiner passively performs translation and traction of the TMJ. Positive if pain present
.80
.39
1.31
.51
TMJ pain during assisted opening3
At the end of maximal mouth opening, examiner applies 2 to 3 pounds of overpressure. The presence or absence of pain is recorded
.55
.91
6.11
.49
Joint pain on opening8
Patient is asked to open mouth as wide as possible. Positive if pain present
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Pain during mandibular movements17
Pain with contralateral motion8
Patient is asked to perform lateral excursion contralateral to the side of joint involvement. Positive if pain present
Population
61 patients with TMJ pain
146 patients attending a TMJ and craniofacial pain clinic
Reference Standard
Presence of TMJ effusion via MRI
Anterior disc displacement without reduction via MRI
In presence of reducing disc .44 70 patients (90 TMJs) referred with complaints of craniomandibular pain
.64
1.81
In presence of nonreducing disc Anterior disc displacement via MRI
.74
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
.57
1.72
.46
In presence of reducing disc .60
.69
1.94
.58
In presence of nonreducing disc .34
50
.31
.93
4.86
.71
Dynamic Movements Diagnostic Utility of Pain in Identifying Temporomandibular Conditions
Mouth opening
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Mouth closing
Figure 2-24 Manual resistance applied during mouth opening and closing. Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Dynamic/ static20
Manual resistance was applied during mouth opening, closing, protrusion, and lateral deviation. Pain was recorded via VAS using a cutoff value to maximize sensitivity and specificity
Active movements20
Patient was asked to maximally depress mandible, protrude, and deviate right and left. Pain was recorded via VAS using a cutoff value to maximize sensitivity and specificity
Passive movements20
At the end of maximal mouth opening, examiner gently applied overpressure. Pain was recorded via VAS using a cutoff value to maximize sensitivity and specificity
Population
147 patients referred for craniomandibular complaints and 103 asymptomatic individuals
Reference Standard
Patient report of tenderness in the masticatory muscles, the preauricular area, or temporomandibular area in the past month
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.63
.93
.90
.40
.87
.67
2.64
.19
.80
.64
2.22
.31
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 51
Other Tests Reliability of the Compression Test ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 2-25 Bilateral temporomandibular compression.
Test and Study
Compression, right15
Description and Positive Findings
Pain Sounds Pain
14
Compression
52
Joint noises
Reliability Inter-examiner .19
Pain Sounds
Compression, left15
Population
The examiner loads the intraarticular structures by moving the mandible in a dorsocranial direction. The presence of pain and joint sounds are recorded
79 patients referred to a TMD and orofacial pain department
Not reported Inter-examiner .47 Inter-examiner 1.0
79 randomly selected patients referred to a craniomandibular disorder department
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Inter-examiner .40 Inter-examiner .66
Other Tests Diagnostic Utility of Lower Extremity Measurements ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Leg length inequality26
With patient supine, examiner visually compares the position of the medial malleoli. Considered positive if leg length inequality .5 cm
Internal foot rotation test26
With patient supine, examiner exerts forced internal rotation of the root and assesses the amount of end-play. Considered positive if difference in rotation 15 degrees
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Leg length inequality26
With patient supine, examiner visually compares the position of the medial malleoli. Considered positive if leg length inequality .5 cm
Internal foot rotation test26
With patient supine, examiner exerts forced internal rotation of the root and assesses the amount of end-play. Considered positive if difference in rotation 15 degrees
Population
41 dental students
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Reliability Inter-examiner .33 to .39
Inter-examiner .15 to .27
41 dental students
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
LR
LR
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
Jaw muscle myofascial pain from RCD/TMD evaluation
.43
.41
.73
1.39
Anterior TMJ disc displacement from RCD/TMD evaluation
.50
.41
.85
1.22
Jaw muscle myofascial pain from RCD/TMD evaluation
.43
.47
.81
1.21
Anterior TMJ disc displacement from RCD/TMD evaluation
.57
.52
1.19
.83
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 53
Combinations of Tests Diagnostic Utility of Combined Tests for Detecting Anterior Disc Displacement with Reduction
1
Closing click
6
2
Opening click
3
5
4
Figure 2-26 Anterior disc displacement with reduction.
54
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Combinations of Tests (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Combined Tests for Detecting Anterior Disc Displacement with Reduction LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
No deviation of the mandible; no pain during assisted opening3
.76
.30
1.09
.80
No deviation of the mandible; no limitation of opening3
.76
.27
1.04
.89
No deviation of the mandible; no restriction of condylar translation3
.75
.37
1.19
.68
.51
.85
3.40
.58
.71
.35
1.09
.83
No deviation of the mandible; no pain during opening; no limitation of opening; no restriction of condylar translation3
.68
.37
1.08
.86
No deviation of the mandible; no pain during opening; no limitation of opening; no restriction of condylar translation; clicking3
.44
.86
3.14
.65
Test and Study Quality
No deviation of the mandible; clicking3 No deviation of the mandible; no pain during opening; no limitation of opening3
Description and Positive Findings
See previous descriptions under single test items
Population
146 patients attending a TMJ and craniofacial pain clinic
Reference Standard
Anterior disc displacement with reduction via MRI
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 55
Combinations of Tests Diagnostic Utility of Combined Tests for Detecting Anterior Disc Displacement without Reduction
1
6
2
5
3
4
Figure 2-27 Anterior disc displacement without reduction.
56
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Combinations of Tests (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Combined Tests for Detecting Anterior Disc Displacement without Reduction LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Motion restriction; no clicking3
.61
.82
3.39
.48
Motion restriction; pain during assisted opening3
.54
.93
7.71
.49
Motion restriction; limitation of maximal mouth opening3
.31
.87
2.38
.79
Motion restriction; deviation of the mandible3
.30
.90
3.0
.78
.46
.94
7.67
.59
Motion restriction; no clicking; TMJ pain with assistive opening; limitation of maximum mouth opening3
.22
.96
5.50
.81
Motion restriction; no clicking; TMJ pain with assistive opening; limitation of maximum mouth opening; deviation of the mandible3
.11
.98
5.5
.91
.75
.83
4.41
.3
Test and Study Quality
Motion restriction; no clicking, TMJ pain with assistive opening3
Clinical diagnosis using history and combined test27
Description and Positive Findings
See previous descriptions under single test items
Examination using Clinical Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders (CDC/TMD)
Population
146 patients attending a TMJ and craniofacial pain clinic
69 patients referred with TMD
Reference Standard
Anterior disc displacement without reduction via MRI
Anterior disc displacement without reduction via MRI
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 57
Combinations of Tests Predicting Treatment Success with Nightly Wear of Occlusal Stabilization Splint LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
Figure 2-28 Occlusal stabilization splint. Population
Description and Positive Findings
Time since pain28
42 weeks
.62 (.49, .73)
.69 (.54, .80)
2.0 (1.3, 3.0)
.55
Baseline pain level28
40 mm on VAS
.48 (.35, .60)
.72 (.57, .83)
1.7 (1.0, 2.7)
.72
Change in VAS level at 2 months28
15 mm on VAS
.72 (.75, .93)
.91, (.64, .88)
3.9 (2.3, 6.5)
.31
Disc displacement without reduction28
As observed on MRI
.25 (.15, .37)
.91 (.79, .97)
2.7 (1.0, 6.8)
.82
4 positive tests28
4/4 above
.10 (.04, .20)
.99 (.90, 1.00)
10.8 (.62, 188.1)
.91
3 positive tests28
3/4 above
.23, (.14, .36)
.91 (.79, .97)
2.5 (.97, 6.4)
.85
2 positive tests28
2/4 above
.49 (.37, .62)
.85 (.72, .93)
3.3 (1.7, 6.6)
.60
119 consecutive patients referred to TMD clinic diagnosed with unilateral TMJ arthralgia
Reference Standard
LR*
Test and Study Quality
Treatment success (70% reduction in VAS) after 6 months with nightly wear of occlusal stabilization splint
*LRs not reported in study and, therefore, were calculated by authors of this book. VAS, visual analog scale.
58
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Combinations of Tests Predicting Treatment Failure with Nightly Wear of Occlusal Stabilization Splint
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Time since pain28
Population
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
LR
LR*
Sens
Spec
43 weeks
.56 (.45, .67)
.65 (.47, .79)
1.68
.68 (.52, .89)
Baseline pain level28
40 mm on VAS
.76 (.65, .84)
.68 (.50, .82)
2.38
.36 (.24, .54)
Change in VAS level at 2 months28
9 mm on VAS
.82 (.71, .89)
.97 (.84, .99)
27.33
.19 (.12, .30)
Disc displacement with reduction28
As observed on MRI
.10 (.05, .19)
.57 (.40, .73)
.23
1.59 (1.42, 1.78)
4 positive tests28
4/4 above
.96 (.67, 1.0)
.76 (.67, .84)
4.00
.05 (.00, .77)
3 positive tests28
3/4 above
.19 (.09, .36)
.96 (.89, .99)
4.75
.84 (.72, .98)
2 positive tests28
2/4 above
.38 (.23, .55)
.78 (.67, .86)
1.73
.80 (.62, 1.0)
119 consecutive patients referred to TMD clinic diagnosed with unilateral TMJ arthralgia
Reference Standard
LR
Treatment failure after 6 months with nightly wear of occlusal stabilization splint
*LRs not reported in study and, therefore, were calculated by authors of this book. VAS, visual analog scale.
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 59
OUTCOME MEASURES Outcome Measure
Scoring and Interpretation
Test-Retest Reliability
Mandibular Function Impairment Questionnaire (MFIQ)
Users rate perceived level of difficulty on a Likert scale ranging from 0 (no difficulty) to 4 (very great difficulty or impossible without help) on a series of 17 questions about jaw function. The sum item score for function impairment ranges from 0 to 68 with higher scores representing more disability
Spearman’s r .69 to .9629,30
1429
Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS)
Users rate their level of pain on an 11-point scale ranging from 0 to 10, with high scores representing more pain. Often asked as current pain, least, worst, and average pain in the past 24 hours
ICC .7231
232,33
MCID, minimum clinically important difference.
60
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
MCID
APPENDIX
Riolo 1988
Schiffman 1989
Cacchiotti 1991
Stegenga 1992
Paesani 199234
Holmund 1996
Israel 1998
Orsini 1999
Visscher 2000
Emshoff 2002
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies for TMD Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
U
U
N
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
N
N
N
Y
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
U
U
N
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
5. Did the whole sample, or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
U
U
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
U
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
Y
N
N
Y
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
Y
Y
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
U
Y
U
U
U
U
U
Y
Y
Y
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
U
U
13. Were uninterpretable/intermediate test results reported?
U
U
Y
U
U
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
U
U
Y
U
U
Y
Y
U
U
Y
Quality summary rating:
Y yes, N no, U unclear.
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14)
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9)
Poor quality (Y - N 4)
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 61
APPENDIX
Manfredini 2003
Schmitter 2004
Farella 2005
Silva 2005
Nilsson 2006
Emshoff 2008
Gomes 2008
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies for TMD Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
U
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
U
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
Y
N
U
U
Y
Y
U
5. Did the whole sample, or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
U
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
N
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
Y
Y
U
U
U
Y
Y
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
Y
Y
U
U
U
Y
Y
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
Y
U
U
U
U
Y
U
13. Were uninterpretable/intermediate test results reported?
U
Y
U
U
Y
Y
U
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
Y
Y
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Quality summary rating: Y yes, N no, U unclear.
62
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14)
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9)
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Poor quality (Y - N 4)
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14. Lobbezoo-Scholte AM, de Wijer A, Steenks MH, Bosman F. Interexaminer reliability of six orthopaedic tests in diagnostic subgroups of craniomandibular disorders. J Oral Rehabil. 1994;21:273-285. 15. de Wijer A, Lobbezoo-Scholte AM, Steenks MH, Bosman F. Reliability of clinical findings in temporomandibular disorders. J Orofac Pain. 1995;9:181-191. 16. Leher A, Graf K, PhoDuc JM, Rammelsberg P. Is there a difference in the reliable measurement of temporomandibular disorder signs between experienced and inexperienced examiners? J Orofac Pain. 2005;19:58-64. 17. Manfredini D, Tognini F, Zampa V, Bosco M. Predictive value of clinical findings for temporomandibular joint effusion. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2003;96:521-526. 18. Israel HA, Diamond B, Saed-Nejad F, Ratcliffe A. Osteoarthritis and synovitis as major pathoses of the temporomandibular joint: comparison of clinical diagnosis with arthroscopic morphology. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1998;56:1023-1027; discussion 1028. 19. Holmlund AB, Axelsson S. Temporomandibular arthropathy: correlation between clinical signs and symptoms and arthroscopic findings. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1996;25:178-181. 20. Visscher CM, Lobbezoo F, de Boer W, et al. Clinical tests in distinguishing between persons with or without craniomandibular or cervical spinal pain complaints. Eur J Oral Sci. 2000;108:475-483. 21. Gomes MB, Guimaraes JP, Guimaraes FC, Neves AC. Palpation and pressure pain threshold: reliability and validity in patients with temporomandibular disorders. Cranio. 2008;26:202-210. 22. Silva RS, Conti PC, Lauris JR, et al. Pressure pain threshold in the detection of masticatory myofascial pain: an algometer-based study. J Orofac Pain. 2005;19:318-324. 23. Walker N, Bohannon RW, Cameron D. Discriminant validity of temporomandibular joint range of motion measurements obtained with a ruler. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2000;30:484-492. 24. Hassel AJ, Rammelsberg P, Schmitter M. Inter-examiner reliability in the clinical examination of temporomandibular disorders: influence of age. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2006;34:41-46. 25. Higbie EJ, Seidel-Cobb D, Taylor LF, Cummings GS. Effect of head position on vertical mandibular opening. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1999;29:127-130. 26. Farella M, Michelotti A, Pellegrino G, et al. Interexaminer reliability and validity for diagnosis of temporomandibular disorders of visual leg measurements used in dental kinesiology. J Orofac Pain. 2005;19:285-290. 27. Emshoff R, Innerhofer K, Rudisch A, Bertram S. Clinical versus magnetic resonance imaging findings with internal derangement of the temporomandibular joint: an evaluation of anterior disc displacement
2 TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT 63
without reduction. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2002;60:3641; discussion 42-43. 28. Emshoff R, Rudisch A. Likelihood ratio methodology to identify predictors of treatment outcome in temporomandibular joint arthralgia patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2008;106: 525-533. 29. Kropmans TJ, Dijkstra PU, van Veen A, et al. The smallest detectable difference of mandibular function impairment in patients with a painfully restricted temporomandibular joint. J Dent Res. 1999;78:1445-1449. 30. Undt G, Murakami K, Clark GT, et al. Cross-cultural adaptation of the JPF-Questionnaire for German-speaking patients with functional temporomandibular joint disorders. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2006;34:226-233.
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31. Li L, Liu X, Herr K. Postoperative pain intensity assessment: a comparison of four scales in Chinese adults. Pain Med. 2007;8:223-234. 32. Farrar JT, Berlin JA, Strom BL. Clinically important changes in acute pain outcome measures: a validation study. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2003;25:406-411. 33. Farrar JT, Portenoy RK, Berlin JA, et al. Defining the clinically important difference in pain outcome measures. Pain. 2000;88:287-294. 34. Paesani D, Westesson PL, Hatala MP, et al. Accuracy of clinical diagnosis for TMJ internal derangement and arthrosis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1992;73:360-363.
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Cervical Spine
3
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Anatomy Osteology Arthrology Ligaments Muscles Nerves Patient History Initial Hypotheses Based on Patient History Cervical Zygapophyseal Pain Syndromes Reliability of the Cervical Spine Historical Examination Diagnostic Utility of Patient Complaints for Cervical Radiculopathy Physical Examination Tests Neurological Examination Screening for Cervical Spine Injury Range of Motion Cervical Strength and Endurance Passive Intervertebral Motion Palpation Postural and Muscle Length Assessment Spurling’s and Neck Compression Tests Neck Distraction and Traction Tests Shoulder Abduction Test Neural Tension Tests Sharp-Purser Test Compression of Brachial Plexus Combinations of Tests Interventions Outcome Measures Appendix Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS References
66 67 67 69 70 72 78 80 80 80 82 83 85 85 90 94 99 100 104 106 108 110 111 112 115 116 117 118 125 126 126 128
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Patient History Complaints
The utility of patient history has only been studied in identifying cervical radiculopathy. Subjective reports of symptoms were generally not helpful, with diagnoses including complaints of “weakness,” “numbness,” “tingling,” “burning,” or “arm pain.” The patient complaints most useful in diagnosing cervical radiculopathy were (1) a report of symptoms most bothersome in the scapular area (LR [likelihood ratio] 2.30) and (2) a report that symptoms improve with moving the neck (LR 2.23).
Physical Examination Screening
Traditional neurological screening (sensation, reflex, and manual muscle testing [MMT]) is of moderate utility in identifying cervical radiculopathy. Sensation testing (pin prick at any location) and MMT of the muscles in the lower arm and hand are unhelpful. Muscle stretch reflex (MSR) and MMT of the muscles in the upper arm (especially the biceps brachii), exhibit good diagnostic utility and are recommended. Both the Canadian C-Spine Rule (CCR) and the NEXUS Low-Risk Criteria are excellent at ruling out clinically important cervical spine injuries that require radiography. Because both methods are simple and have been shown to be superior to both a general clinical examination and physician judgment, we recommend use of the CCR because it has been consistently shown to have perfect sensitivity (LR 0.0).
Range of Motion and Manual Assessment
Measuring cervical range of motion is consistently reliable, but is of unknown diagnostic utility.
The results of studies assessing the reliability of passive intervertebral motion are highly variable but generally report poor reliability when assessing limitations of movement and moderate reliability when assessing for pain. Assessing for both pain and limited movement during manual assessment is highly sensitive for zygopophyseal joint pain and is recommended to rule out zygopophyseal involvement (LR .00 to .23). Special Tests
Multiple studies demonstrate high diagnostic utility of Spurling’s test to identify cervical radiculopathy, cervical disc prolapse, and neck pain (LR 1.9 to 18.6). Using a combination of Spurling’s A test, upper limb tension test A, a distraction test, and assessing for cervical rotation 60° to the ipsilateral side is very good at identifying cervical radiculopathy and is recommended (LR 30.3 if all four factors present).
Interventions
Patients with neck pain for 30 days have a high probability of rapid improvement if treated with thoracic manipulation (LR 6.4). Other factors associated with improved thoracic manipulation, especially in combination are (1) no symptoms distal to the shoulder, (2) low fear avoidance behavior,(3) patient reports that looking up does not aggravate symptoms, (4) cervical extension ROM 30°, and (5) decreased upper thoracic spine kyphosis (LR 12 if any four of six factors present). Because the risks of thoracic manipulation are minimal, we recommend such treatment be considered a first-line intervention for patients with neck pain (and no contraindications).
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ANATOMY Osteology
Temporal fossa Sphenoid bone
Temporal bone
Zygomatic arch Condylar process of mandible Mandibular notch Coronoid process of mandible Lateral pterygoid plate (broken line) Hamulus of medial pterygoid plate (broken line) Pterygomandibular raphe (broken line) Mandible
Mastoid process External acoustic meatus
Ramus Angle Body
Atlas (C1) Styloid process Axis (C2)
Stylohyoid lig.
Stylomandibular lig. Hyoid bone Spine of sphenoid bone
Body Lesser horn Greater horn
Epiglottis Thyroid cartilage Cricoid cartilage
Foramen spinosum
Trachea
Foramen ovale
C3 vertebra
C7 vertebra T1 vertebra 1st rib
Sphenopalatine foramen Pterygopalatine fossa Choanae (posterior nares) Lateral plate of pterygoid Medial plate process Hamulus
Tuberosity of maxilla Infratemporal Pyramidal process of palatine bone fossa Alveolar process of maxilla
Figure 3-1 Bony framework of the head and neck.
3 CERVICAL SPINE 67
Osteology
Tubercle for transverse lig. of atlas
Anterior articular facet (for anterior Dens arch of atlas)
Anterior Anterior tubercle arch Articular facet for dens Lateral mass
Transverse process
Superior articular facet for atlas
Pedicle Interarticular part
Vertebral foramen Posterior arch
Transverse foramen Superior articular surface of lateral mass for occipital condyle
Posterior tubercle Groove for vertebral a.
Atlas (C1): superior view
Axis (C2): anterior view
Posterior tubercle Inferior articular surface of lateral mass for axis
Transverse foramen
Dens
Posterior arch
Transverse process
Anterior arch
Superior articular facet for atlas
Vertebral foramen Interarticular part Articular facet for dens Anterior Inferior tubercle articular process
Atlas (C1): inferior view
Anterior tubercle
Transverse process
Body
Inferior articular facet for C3
Posterior articular facet (for transverse lig. of atlas) Transverse process Spinous process
Axis (C2): posterosuperior view
Transverse process Body
Posterior tubercle
Groove for spinal n. Transverse foramen Pedicle
Body Anterior tubercle
Superior articular facet Inferior articular process Lamina
Vertebral foramen Spinous process 4th cervical vertebra: superior view
Figure 3-2 Cervical vertebrae.
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Posterior tubercle Lamina
7th cervical vertebra: superior view
Arthrology
Posterior articular facet (for transverse lig. of atlas) Superior articular surface for occipital condyle
Dens
C2
Dens Atlas (C1)
Cervical curvature Intervertebral foramina for spinal nn.
Spinous processes
Axis (C2)
C3 C3 C4
Articular pillar formed by articular processes and interarticular parts
C4 Upper cervical vertebrae, assembled: posterosuperior view
C5 C6
Uncus (uncinate process) Zygapophyseal joints
C7
Intervertebral joint (symphysis) (disc removed) Costal facets (for 1st rib)
C3 C4
T1 C5 2nd cervical to 1st thoracic vertebra: right lateral view
Interarticular part Zygapophyseal joint
Intervertebral foramen for spinal n.
3rd, 4th and 5th cervical vertebrae: anterior view
Figure 3-3 Joints of the cervical spine.
Joint
Type and Classification
Closed Packed Position
Capsular Pattern
Atlanto-occipital
Synovial: plane
Not Reported
Not Reported
Atlanto-odontoid/dens
Synovial: trochoid
Extension
Not Reported
Atlantoaxial Apophyseal joints
Synovial: plane
Extension
Not Reported
C3-C7 Apophyseal joints
Synovial: plane
Full extension
Limitation in sidebending rotation extension
C3-C7 Intervertebral joints
Amphiarthrodial
Not applicable
Not applicable
3 CERVICAL SPINE 69
Ligaments
Clivus (surface feature) of basilar part of occipital bone Capsule of atlanto-occipital joint
Alar ligs.
Tectorial membrane Atlas (C1)
Superior longitudinal band Cruciate lig. Transverse lig. of atlas Inferior longitudinal band Deeper (accessory) part
Atlas (C1) Capsule of lateral atlantoaxial joint
of tectorial membrane
Axis (C2)
Posterior longitudinal lig.
Capsule of zygapophyseal joint (C2-C3)
Axis (C2)
Deeper (accessory) part of tectorial membrane
Principal part of tectorial membrane removed to expose deeper ligaments: posterior view
Upper part of vertebral canal with spinous processes and parts of vertebral arches removed to expose ligaments on posterior vertebral bodies: posterior view
Apical lig. of dens Dens Alar lig. Atlas (C1)
Anterior tubercle of atlas Alar lig.
Synovial cavities
Posterior articular facet of dens (for transverse lig. of atlas)
Axis (C2)
Cruciate ligament removed to show deepest ligaments: posterior view
Transverse lig. of atlas Median atlantoaxial joint: superior view
Figure 3-4 Ligaments of the atlanto-occipital joint.
Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Alar
Sides of dens to lateral aspects of foramen magnum
Limits ipsilateral head rotation and contralateral sidebending
Apical
Dens to posterior aspect of foramen magnum
Limits separation of dens from occiput
Tectorial membrane
Body of C2 to occiput
Limits forward flexion
Cruciform ligament • Superior longitudinal • Transverse • Inferior
• • •
Maintains contact between dens and anterior arch of atlas
70
Transverse ligament to the occiput Extends between lateral tubercles of C1 Transverse ligament to the body of C2
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Ligaments Anterior view Basilar part of occipital bone Pharyngeal tubercle Anterior atlanto-occipital membrane Capsule of atlanto-occipital joint
Atlas (C1)
Posterior atlanto-occipital membrane
Capsule of lateral atlantoaxial joint
Lateral atlantoaxial joint (opened up)
Axis (C2) Anterior longitudinal lig.
Posterior view
Posterior atlanto-occipital membrane
Capsule of zygapophyseal joint (C3-C4)
Skull
Posterior Capsule of atlanto-occipital atlanto-occipital Right lateral view membrane joint
Capsule of atlanto-occipital joint Transverse process of atlas (C1)
Suboccipital n. (dorsal ramus of C1 spinal n.)
Anterior atlanto-occipital membrane Atlas (C1)
Capsule of lateral atlantoaxial joint Axis (C2) Vertebral a.
Ligamenta flava
Body of axis (C2)
Ligamenta flava Ligamentum nuchae
Intervertebral discs (C2–C3 and C3–C4) Zygapophyseal joints (C4–C5 and C5–C6) Anterior tubercle of C6 vertebra (carotid tubercle)
Spinous process of C7 vertebra (vertebra prominens)
Vertebral a.
T1 vertebra
Figure 3-5 Spinal ligaments.
Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Anterior longitudinal
Extends from anterior sacrum to anterior tubercle of C1. Connects anterolateral vertebral bodies and discs
Maintains stability of vertebral body joints and prevents hyperextension of vertebral column
Posterior longitudinal
Extends from the sacrum to C2. Runs within the vertebral canal attaching the posterior vertebral bodies
Prevents hyperflexion of vertebral column and posterior disc protrusion
Ligamentum nuchae
An extension of the supraspinous ligament (occipital protuberance to C7)
Prevents cervical hyperflexion
Ligamenta flava
Attaches the lamina above each vertebra to the lamina below
Prevents separation of the vertebral lamina
Supraspinous
Connects apices of spinous processes C7-S1
Limits separation of spinous processes
Interspinous
Connects adjoining spinous processes C1-S1
Limits separation of spinous processes
Intertransverse
Connects adjacent transverse processes of vertebrae
Limits separation of transverse processes
3 CERVICAL SPINE 71
Muscles Anterior Muscles of the Neck
Digastric m. (anterior belly) Masseter m.
Figure 3-6
Mylohyoid m.
Parotid gland
Anterior muscles of the neck.
Submandibular gland
Platysma m. (cut away)
Fibrous loop for intermediate digastic tendon
Mastoid process
Stylohyoid m. Digastric m. (posterior belly)
Hyoid bone
External carotid a.
Carotid sheath
Internal jugular v.
Fascia of infrahyoid mm. and cut edge
Thyrohyoid m. Omohyoid m. (superior belly)
Thyroid cartilage
Sternohyoid m.
Investing layer of (deep) cervical fascia and cut edge Cricoid cartilage
Scalene mm. Trapezius m.
Deltoid m. Clavicle Pretracheal layer of (deep) cervical fascia over thyroid gland and trachea
Omohyoid m. (inferior belly) Pectoralis major m. Suprasternal space
Clavicular head Sternocleidomastoid m. Sternothyroid m. Sternal head Manubrium of sternum Jugular notch
Muscle
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Sternocleidomastoid
Lateral aspect of mastoid process and lateral superior nuchal line
Sternal head: anterior aspect of manubrium Clavicular head: superomedial aspect of clavicle
Spinal root of accessory nerve
Neck flexion, ipsilateral sidebending, and contralateral rotation
Transverse processes of vertebrae C4-C6
1st rib
C4, C5, C6
Elevates first rib, ipsilateral sidebending, and contralateral rotation
Superior aspect of 1st rib
Ventral rami of cervical spinal nerves
Elevates 1st rib, ipsilateral sidebending, contralateral rotation
External aspect of 2nd rib
Ventral rami of cervical spinal nerves C3, C4
Elevates 2nd rib, ipsilateral sidebending, contralateral rotation
Fascia of pectoralis major and deltoid
Cervical branch of facial nerve
Draws skin of neck superiorly with clenched jaw, draws corners of the mouth inferiorly
Scalenes •
Anterior
•
Middle
•
Posterior
Platysma
72
Transverse processes of vertebrae C1-C4
Inferior mandible
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Muscles Suprahyoid and Infrahyoid Muscles Hyoid bone
Digastric m. (anterior belly) Mylohyoid m.
Thyrohyoid membrane
Hyoglossus m.
External carotid a.
Stylohyoid m.
Internal jugular v.
Digastric m. (posterior belly) Fibrous loop for intermediate digastric tendon Sternohyoid and omohyoid mm. (cut) Thyrohyoid m.
Thyrohyoid m. Thyroid cartilage Omohyoid m. (superior belly) Sternohyoid m. Median cricothyroid lig.
Oblique line of thyroid cartilage Cricothyroid m.
Cricoid cartilage Scalene mm.
Sternothyroid m. Omohyoid m. (superior belly) (cut)
Trapezius m.
Thyroid gland Omohyoid m. (inferior belly)
Sternohyoid m. (cut) Trachea
Clavicle
Styloid process Mastoid process Stylohyoid muscle
Mylohyoid muscle
Digastric muscle (posterier belly)
Digastric muscle (anterior belly) Thyrohyoid muscle Geniohyoid muscle
Oblique line of thyroid cartilage
Sternohyoid muscle Omohyoid muscle (superior belly)
Infrahyoid and suprahyoid muscles and their action: schema
Omohyoid muscle (inferior belly)
Sternothyroid muscle Sternum
Scapula
Figure 3-7 Suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles. 3 CERVICAL SPINE 73
Muscles (continued) Suprahyoid and Infrahyoid Muscles Muscle
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Mylohyoid
Mandibular mylohyoid line
Hyoid bone
Mylohyoid nerve
Elevates hyoid bone, floor of mouth, and tongue
Geniohyoid
Mental spine of mandible
Body of hyoid bone
Hypoglossal nerve
Elevates hyoid bone anterosuperiorly, widens pharynx
Stylohyoid
Styloid process of temporal bone
Body of hyoid bone
Cervical branch of facial nerve
Elevates and retracts hyoid bone
Digastric
Anterior belly: digastric fossa of mandible Posterior belly: mastoid notch of temporal bone
Greater horn of hyoid bone
Anterior belly: mylohyoid nerve Posterior belly: facial nerve
Depresses mandible and raises hyoid
Sternohyoid
Manubrium and medial clavicle
Body of hyoid bone
Branch of ansa cervicalis (C1, C2, C3)
Depresses hyoid bone after it has been elevated
Omohyoid
Superior border of scapula
Inferior aspect of hyoid bone
Branch of ansa cervicalis (C1, C2, C3)
Depresses and retracts hyoid bone
Sternothyroid
Posterior aspect of manubrium
Thyroid cartilage
Branch of ansa cervicalis (C2, C3)
Depresses hyoid bone and larynx
Thyrohyoid
Thyroid cartilage
Body and greater horn of hyoid bone
Hypoglossal nerve (C1)
Depresses hyoid bone, elevates larynx
Suprahyoids
Infrahyoids
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Muscles Scalene and Prevertebral Muscles
Jugular process of occipital bone
Basilar part of occipital bone
Longus capitis m. (cut) Occipital condyle Rectus capitis anterior m. Rectus capitis lateralis m.
Mastoid process Styloid process
Transverse process of atlas (C1) Longus capitis m. Anterior Tubercles of transverse Posterior process of C3 vertebra
Posterior tubercle of transverse process of axis (C2)
Slips of origin of anterior scalene m. (cut)
Longus colli m.
Slips of origin of posterior scalene m.
Anterior Scalene Middle mm. Posterior
Middle Scalene mm. Posterior Posterior tubercle of transverse process of C7 vertebra
Phrenic n.
Anterior scalene m. (cut)
Brachial plexus
1st rib Subclavian a. Subclavian v.
Internal jugular v. Common carotid a.
Figure 3-8 Scalene and prevertebral muscles.
Muscle
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Longus capitis
Basilar aspect of occipital bone
Anterior tubercles of transverse processes C3-C6
Ventral rami of C1-C3 spinal nerves
Flexes head on neck
Longus colli
Anterior tubercle of C1, bodies of C1-C3, and transverse processes of C3-C6
Bodies of C3-T3 and transverse processes of C3-C5
Ventral rami of C2-C6 spinal nerves
Neck flexion, ipsilateral sidebending and rotation
Rectus capitis anterior
Base of skull anterior to occipital condyle
Anterior aspect of lateral mass of C1
Rectus capitis lateralis
Jugular process of occipital bone
Transverse process of C1
Flexes head on neck Branches from loop between C1 and C2 spinal nerves
Flexes head and assists in stabilizing head on neck
3 CERVICAL SPINE 75
Muscles Posterior Muscles of the Neck Muscle
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Upper trapezius
Superior nuchal line, occipital protuberance, nuchal ligament, spinous processes C7-C12
Lateral clavicle, acromion, and spine of scapula
Spinal root of accessory nerve
Elevates scapula
Levator scapulae
Transverse processes of C1-C4
Superomedial border of scapula
Dorsal scapular nerve (C3, C4, C5)
Elevates scapula and inferiorly rotates glenoid fossa
Semispinalis capitis and cervicis
Cervical and thoracic spinous processes
Superior spinous processes and occipital bone
Dorsal rami of spinal nerves
Bilaterally: extends the neck Unilaterally: ipsilateral sidebending
Splenius capitis and cervicis
Spinous processes T1T6 and ligamentum nuchae
Mastoid process and lateral superior nuchal line
Dorsal rami of middle cervical spinal nerves
Bilaterally: head and neck extension Unilaterally: ipsilateral rotation
Longissimus capitis and cervicis
Superior thoracic transverse processes and cervical transverse processes
Mastoid process of temporal bone and cervical transverse processes
Dorsal rami of cervical spinal nerves
Head extension, ipsilateral sidebending, and rotation of head and neck
Spinalis cervicis
Lower cervical spinous processes of vertebrae
Upper cervical spinous processes of vertebrae
Dorsal rami of spinal nerves
Bilaterally: extends neck Unilaterally: ipsilateral sidebending of neck
Rectus capitis posterior major
Spinous process of C2
Lateral inferior nuchal line of occipital bone
Suboccipital nerve (C1)
Head extension and ipsilateral rotation
Rectus capitis posterior minor
Posterior arch of C1
Medial inferior nuchal line
Suboccipital nerve (C1)
Head extension and ipsilateral rotation
Obliquus capitis superior
Transverse process of C1
Occipital bone
Suboccipital nerve (C1)
Head extension and sidebending
Obliquus capitis inferior
Spinous process of C2
Transverse process of C1
Suboccipital nerve (C1)
Ipsilateral neck rotation
Posterior Occipitals
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Muscles (continued) Posterior Muscles of the Neck
Rectus capitis posterior minor m. Epicranial aponeurosis (galea aponeurotica) Occipital belly (occipitalis) of occipitofrontalis m.
Rectus capitis posterior major m. Semispinalis capitis m. (cut and reflected) Vertebral a. (atlantic part) Obliquus capitis superior m.
Greater occipital n. (dorsal ramus of C2 spinal n.)
Suboccipital n. (dorsal ramus of C1 spinal n.)
Occipital a. 3rd (least) occipital n. (dorsal ramus of C3 spinal n.)
Posterior arch of atlas (C1 vertebra) Occipital a. Obliquus capitis inferior m.
Semispinalis capitis and splenius capitis mm. in posterior triangle of neck
Greater occipital n. (dorsal ramus of C2 spinal n.)
Posterior auricular a.
Splenius capitis m. (cut and reflected) 3rd (least) occipital n. (dorsal ramus of C3 spinal n.)
Great auricular n. (cervical plexus C2, C3) Lesser occipital n. (cervical plexus C2, C3) Sternocleidomastoid m.
Trapezius m.
Longissimus capitis m. Splenius cervicis m. Semispinalis cervicis m.
Semispinalis capitis m. (cut) Posterior cutaneous branches of dorsal rami of C4-C6 spinal nn.
Splenius capitis m. (cut)
Figure 3-9 Posterior muscles of the neck.
3 CERVICAL SPINE 77
Nerves Nerves
Segmental Levels
Sensory
Motor
Dorsal scapular
C4, C5
No sensory
Rhomboids, levator scapulae
Suprascapular
C4, C5, C6
No sensory
Supraspinatus, infraspinatus
Nerve to subclavius
C5, C6
No sensory
Subclavius
Lateral pectoral
C5, C6, C7
No sensory
Pectoralis major
Medial pectoral
C8, T1
No sensory
Pectoralis major Pectoralis minor
Long thoracic
C5, C6, C7
No sensory
Serratus anterior
Medial cutaneous of arm
C8, T1
Medial aspect of arm
No motor
Medial cutaneous of forearm
C8, T1
Medial aspect of forearm
No motor
Upper subscapular
C5, C6
No sensory
Subscapularis
Lower subscapular
C5, C6, C7
No sensory
Subscapularis, teres major
Thoracodorsal
C6, C7, C8
No sensory
Latissimus dorsi
Axillary
C5, C6
Lateral shoulder
Deltoid, teres minor
Radial
C5, C6, C7, C8, T1
Dorsal lateral aspect of hand including the thumb and up to the base of digits 2 and 3
Triceps brachii, brachioradialis, anconeus, extensor carpi radialis longus, extensor carpi radialis brevis
Median
C5, C6, C7, C8, T1
Palmar aspect of lateral hand including lateral half of 4th digit and dorsal distal half of digits 1-3 and lateral border of 4
Pronator teres, flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, flexor digitorum superficialis, flexor pollicis longus, flexor digitorum profundus (lateral half), pronator quadratus, lumbricals to digits 2 and 3, thenar muscles
Ulnar
C8, T1
Medial border of both palmar and dorsal hand including medial half of 4th digit
Flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor digitorum profundus (medial half), palmar interossei, adductor pollicis, palmaris brevis, dorsal interossei, lumbricals to digits 4 and 5, hypothenar muscles
Musculocutaneous
C5, C6, C7
Lateral forearm
Coracobrachialis, biceps brachii, brachialis
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Nerves
Note: Usual composition shown. Prefixed plexus has large C4 contribution but lacks T1. Postfixed plexus lacks C5 but has T2 contribution
Suprascapular n. (C5, C6) To subclavius m. (C5, C6)
Lateral pectoral n. (C5, C6, C7)
Median n. (C5, C6, C7, C8, T1) Ulnar n. (C7, C8, T1) Inconstant contribution
C7
dle
al er
C8
or
T1
eri
Inf
t La
r
erio
Axillary n. (C5, C6) Radial n. (C5, C6, C7, C8, T1)
r
Mid
t Pos
Dorsal ramus C5
erio
Sup
r co
Musculocutaneous n. (C5, C6, C7)
Contribution from C4
C6
ds
al in es rmnch e T ra b
s
unk
3 tr
ns sio ions i v i s r d ivi rio or d e t i n er 3 a post 3
3
ts 5 roorami of l a r ) t (venpinal nn. s Dorsal scapular n. (C5) To phrenic n.
Contribution from T2 To longus colli and scalene mm. (C5, C6, C7, C8)
1st rib
l
dia
Me
Medial pectoral n. (C8, T1) Medial cutaneous n. of arm (T1)
1st intercostal n. Long thoracic n. (C5, C6, C7)
Medial cutaneous n. of forearm (C8, T1) Upper subscapular n. (C5, C6) Thoracodorsal (middle subscapular) n. (C6, C7, C8) Lower subscapular n. (C5, C6)
Figure 3-10 Nerves of the neck.
3 CERVICAL SPINE 79
PATIENT HISTORY Initial Hypotheses Based on Patient History History
Initial Hypotheses
Patient reports diffuse nonspecific neck pain that is exacerbated by neck movements
Mechanical neck pain1 Cervical facet syndrome2 Cervical muscle strain or sprain
Patient reports pain in certain postures that are alleviated by positional changes
Upper crossed postural syndrome
Traumatic mechanism of injury with complaint of nonspecific cervical symptoms that are exacerbated in the vertical positions and relieved with the head supported in the supine position
Cervical instability, especially if patient reports dysesthesias of the face occurring with neck movement
Reports of nonspecific neck pain with numbness and tingling into one upper extremity
Cervical radiculopathy
Reports of neck pain with bilateral upper extremity symptoms with occasional reports of loss of balance or lack of coordination of the lower extremities
Cervical myelopathy
Cervical Zygapophyseal Pain Syndromes
C2/3 C3/4 C4/5 C5/6 C6/7
Figure 3-11 Pain referral patterns. Distribution of zygapophyseal pain referral patterns as described by Dwyer and colleagues.3
80
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Cervical Zygapophyseal Pain Syndromes (continued) C1-2: 14% C2-3: 81% C3-4: 5%
C1-2: 17% C2-3: 76% C3-4: 8%
C1-2: 2% C2-3: 92% C3-4: 6% C1-2: 5% C2-3: 92% C3-4: 3% C2-3: 89% C3-4: 11%
C5-6: 100% C4-5: 7% C5-6: 73% C6-7: 46%
C5-6: 54% C6-7: 46%
C5-6: 35% C6-7: 65%
C4-5: 1% C5-6: 77% C6-7: 22%
C5-6: 87% C6-7: 13%
Figure 3-12 Pain referral patterns. Probability of zygapophyseal joints at the segments indicated being the source of pain, as described by Cooper and colleagues.5 3 CERVICAL SPINE 81
Reliability of the Cervical Spine Historical Examination ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10 Historical Question and Study
Possible Responses
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Inter-examiner Reliability
Mode of onset
Gradual, sudden, or traumatic
.72 (.47, .96)
Nature of neck symptoms6
Constant or intermittent
.81 (.56, 1.0)
Prior episode of neck pain6
Yes or No
.90 (.70, 1.0)
Turning the head aggravates symptoms6
Yes or No
Looking up and down aggravates symptoms6
Yes or No
(Down) .79 (.51, 1.0) (Up) .80 (.55, 1.0)
Yes or No
.06 (⫺.39, .26)*
Sleeping aggravates symptoms
Yes or No
.90 (.72, 1.0)
Which of the following symptoms are most bothersome for you?7
• • •
Pain Numbness and tingling Loss of feeling
.74 (.55, .93)
Where are your symptoms most bothersome?7
• •
.83 (.68, .96)
• • •
Neck Shoulder or shoulder blade Arm above elbow Arm below elbow Hands and/or fingers
Which of the following best describes the behavior of your symptoms?7
• • •
Constant Intermittent Variable
Does your entire affected limb and/or hand feel numb?7
Yes or No
.53 (.26, .81)
Do your symptoms keep you from falling asleep?7
Yes or No
.70 (.48, .92)
Do your symptoms improve with moving your neck?7
Yes or No
.67 (.44, .90)
6
Driving aggravates symptoms6 6
22 patients with mechanical neck pain
50 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
*Question had high percent agreement but low because 95% of participants answered “yes.”
82
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
(Right) .04 (2.11, .02)* (Left) 1.0 (1.0, 1.0)
.57 (.35, .79)
Diagnostic Utility of Patient Complaints for Cervical Radiculopathy LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Herniated disc compressing n. root and associated neck and arm symptoms
Figure 3-13 Cervical radiculopathy.
Complaint and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.65
.39
1.07
.90
.79
.25
1.05
.84
.65
.26
.88
1.35
.62
.35
.95
1.09
.72
.25
.96
1.92
.33
.63
.89
1.06
Weakness8 Numbness8 Arm pain8 Neck pain8
Not specifically described
183 patients referred to electrodiagnostic laboratories
Cervical radiculopathy via electrodiagnostics
Tingling8 Burning8
3 CERVICAL SPINE 83
Diagnostic Utility of Patient Complaints for Cervical Radiculopathy (continued) LR
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Pain
.47 (.23, .71)
.52 (.41, .65)
.99 (.56, 1.7)
Numbness and tingling
.47 (.23, .71)
.56 (.42, .68)
1.1 (.6, 1.9)
Loss of feeling
.06 (.00, .17)
.92 (.85, .99)
.74 (.09, 5.9)
Neck
.19 (.00, .35)
.90 (.83, .98)
1.9 (.54, 6.9)
Shoulder or scapula
.38 (.19, .73)
.84 (.75, .93)
2.3 (1.0, 5.4)
Arm above elbow
.03 (.14, .61)
.93 (.86, .99)
.41 (.02, 7.3)
.06 (.0, .11)
.84 (.75, .93)
.39 (.05, 2.8)
.38 (.14, .48)
.48 (.36, .61)
.73 (.37, 1.4)
.12 (.00, .27)
.84 (.75, .93)
.74 (.18, 3.1)
.35 (.13, .58)
.62 (.50, .74)
.93 (.45, 1.9)
.53 (.29, .77)
.54 (.42, .66)
1.2 (.68, 1.9)
.24 (.03, .44)
.73 (.62, .84)
.87 (.34, 2.3)
1.1 (.77, 1.4)
.47 (.23, .71)
.60 (.48, .72)
1.19 (.66, 2.1)
.88 (.54, 1.4)
.65 (.42, .87)
.71 (.60, .82)
2.23 (1.3, 3.8)
.50 (.26, .97)
Hands and/ or fingers Which of the following best describes the behavior of your symptoms?7
Constant Intermittent Variable
Does your entire affected limb and/or hand feel numb?7 Do your symptoms keep you from falling asleep?7 Do your symptoms improve with moving your neck?7
84
Yes or No
Cervical radiculopathy via needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Spec
LR
Which of the following symptoms are most bothersome for you?7
82 consecutive patients referred to an electrophysiologic laboratory with suspected diagnosis of cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome.
Sens
LR
Description and Positive Findings
Arm below elbow
Reference Standard
Interpretation
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0 Complaint and Study Quality
Where are your symptoms most bothersome?7
Population
LR
Not reported
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION TESTS Neurological Examination Reliability of Sensation Testing ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
C2 C3 C6 Anterior view
C6
C7
T1
C5 T1
C8
C4
C5
C8
C2
C3 C4 C5
C6 C7
Posterior view C6
C8 C7
T1
C8
Figure 3-14 Dermatomes of the upper limb. Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Identifying sensory deficits in the extremities9
No details given
8924 adult patients who presented to the emergency department after blunt trauma to the head/neck and had a Glasgow Coma Score of 15
Inter-examiner .60
3 CERVICAL SPINE 85
Neurological Examination Diagnostic Utility of Pin Prick Sensation Testing for Cervical Radiculopathy
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
C5 Dermatome7 C6 Dermatome7 C7 Dermatome7 C8 Dermatome7
Pin prick sensation testing. Graded as “normal” or “abnormal”
T1 Dermatome7 Decreased sensation to pin prick8
86
Not specifically described
Population
82 consecutive patients referred to an electrophysiologic laboratory with suspected diagnosis of cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
183 patients referred to electrodiagnostic laboratories
Reference Standard
Cervical radiculopathy via needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
Cervical radiculopathy via electrodiagnostics
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.29 (.08, .51)
.86 (.77, .94)
2.1 (.79, 5.3)
.82 (.60, 1.1)
.24 (.03, .44)
.66 (.54, .78)
.69 (.28, 1.8)
1.16 (.84, 1.6)
.18 (.0, .36)
.77 (.66, .87)
.76 (.25, 2.3)
1.07 (.83, 1.4)
.12 (.0, .27)
.81 (.71, .90)
.61 (.15, 2.5)
1.09 (.88, 1.4)
.18 (.0, .36)
.79 (.68, .89)
.83 (.27, 2.6)
1.05 (.81, 1.4)
.49
.64
1.36
.80
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Neurological Examination Reliability of Manual Muscle Testing ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Level
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Motor signs (weakness) Deltoid
C5
Biceps brachii
C6
Triceps brachii C7
Interossei C8
Figure 3-15 Manual muscle testing of the upper limb.
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Identifying motor deficits in the extremities9
No details given
8924 adult patients who presented to the emergency department after blunt trauma to the head/neck and had a Glasgow Coma Score of 15
Inter-examiner .93
3 CERVICAL SPINE 87
Neurological Examination Diagnostic Utility of Manual Muscle Testing for Cervical Radiculopathy
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
MMT deltoid7
.24 (.03, .44)
.89 (.81, .97)
2.1 (.70, 6.4)
.86 (.65, 1.1)
MMT biceps brachii7
.24 (.03, .44)
.94 (.88, 1.0)
3.7 (1.0, 13.3)
.82 (.62, 1.1)
.12 (.00, .27)
.90 (.83, .98)
1.2 (.27, 5.6)
.98 (.81, 1.2)
.12 (.00, .27)
.94 (.88, 1.0)
1.9 (.37, 9.3)
.94 (.78, 1.1)
.06 (.00, .17)
.89 (.82, .97)
.55 (.07, 4.2)
1.05 (.91, 1.2)
.06 (.00, .17)
.84 (.75, .93)
.37 (.05, 2.7)
1.12 (.95, 1.3)
.03 (.00, .10)
.93 (.87, .99)
.40 (.02, 7.0)
1.05 (.94, 1.2)
MMT extensor carpi radialis longus/ brevis7 MMT triceps brachii7 MMT flexor carpi radialis7 MMT abductor pollicis brevis7 MMT first dorsal interosseus7
88
Standard strength testing using methods of Kendall and McCreary. Graded as “normal” or “abnormal”
82 consecutive patients referred to an electrophysiologic laboratory with suspected diagnosis of cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
Cervical radiculopathy via needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Neurological Examination Diagnostic Utility of Muscle Stretch Reflex Testing for Cervical Radiculopathy LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reflex signs Biceps brachii
Weak or absent reflex
Triceps brachii
Weak or absent reflex
Figure 3-16 Reflex testing.
Test and Study Quality Biceps brachii MSR7 Brachioradialis MSR7 Triceps MSR7
Description and Positive Findings
Tested bilaterally using a standard reflex hammer. Graded as “normal” or “abnormal”
Population
82 consecutive patients referred to an electrophysiologic laboratory with suspected diagnosis of cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
Reference Standard
Cervical radiculopathy via needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.24 (.3, .44)
.95 (.90, 1.0)
4.9 (1.2, 20.0)
.80 (.61, 1.1)
.06 (.0, .17)
.95 (.90, 1.9)
1.2 (.14, 11.1)
.99 (.87, 1.1)
.03 (.0, .10)
.93 (.87, .99)
.40 (.02, 7.0)
1.05 (.94, 1.2)
.10
.99
10.0
.91
.10
.95
2.0
.95
.08
.99
8.0
.93
Biceps8 Triceps8 Brachioradialis8
Not specifically described
183 patients referred to electrodiagnostic laboratories
Cervical radiculopathy via electrodiagnostics
3 CERVICAL SPINE 89
Screening for Cervical Spine Injury
Type III. Fracture through entire vertebral body with fragmentation of its anterior portion. Posterior cortex intact but projects into spinal canal causing damage to cord and/or nerve roots
X-ray film: Type III fracture of C5
Type IV. “Burst” fracture. Entire vertebral body crushed, with intraspinal bone fragments X-ray film: Type IV fracture of C6
Dislocated bone fragments compressing spinal cord and anterior spinal artery. Blood supply to anterior two thirds of spinal cord is impaired
Figure 3-17 Compression fracture of the cervical spine.
NEXUS Low-Risk Criteria10 Cervical spine radiography is indicated for patients with trauma unless they meet all of the following criteria: 1. No posterior midline cervical spine tenderness 2. No evidence of intoxication 3. Normal level of alertness 4. No focal neurological deficit 5. No painful distracting injuries
90
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Screening for Cervical Spine Injury Canadian C-Spine Rule10
1. Any high-risk factor that mandates radiography? a. Age ≥65 years b. Dangerous mechanisma
Yes
No 2. Any low-risk factor that allows safe assessment of range of motion? a. Simple rear-end motor vehicle collisionb No b. Sitting position in emergency department c. Paresthesias in extremities d. Ambulatory at any time
Radiography
Yes 3. Able to actively rotate neck 45° left and right?
Unable
Yes
No radiography a
A dangerous mechanism is considered to be a fall from an elevation of 3 feet or greater or three to five stairs; an axial load to the head (e.g., diving); a motor vehicle collision at high speed (>100 km/hr) or with rollover or ejection. b A simple rear-end motor vehicle collision excludes being pushed into oncoming traffic, being hit by a bus or a large truck, a rollover, or being hit by a high-speed vehicle.
3 CERVICAL SPINE 91
Screening for Cervical Spine Injury Diagnostic Utility of the Clinical Examination for Identifying Cervical Spine Injury
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
NEXUS LowRisk Criteria11
NEXUS LowRisk Criteria12
See previous page
NEXUS LowRisk Criteria10
Canadian CSpine Rule9 See previous page
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Population
Reference Standard
34,069 patients who presented to the emergency department after blunt trauma and had cervical spine radiography
Clinically important cervical spine injury demonstrated by radiography, computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
8924 alert adult patients who presented to the emergency department after blunt trauma to the head/neck 7438 alert adult patients who presented to the emergency department after blunt trauma to the head/neck
Canadian CSpine Rule10
LR
8924 alert adult patients who presented to the emergency department after blunt trauma to the head/neck
Clinically important cervical spine injury defined as any fracture, dislocation, or ligamentous instability demonstrated by radiography, CT, and/or a telephone follow-up
Canadian CSpine Rule13 Physician judgment13
92
Physicians were asked to estimate the probability that the patient would have a clinically important cervical spine injury by circling one of the following: 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%,40%, 50%, 75%, or 100%
6265 alert adult patients who presented to the emergency department after trauma to the head/ neck
Clinically important cervical spine injury demonstrated by radiography, CT, and/ or a telephone follow-up
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.99 (.98, 1.0)
.13 (.13, .13)
1.14
.08
.93 (.87, .96)
.38 (.37, .39)
1.50
.18
.91 (.85, .94)
.37 (.36, .38)
1.44
.24
.99 (.96, 1.0)
.45 (.44, .46)
1.80
.02
1.0 (.98, 1.0)
.43 (.40, .44)
1.75
.00
1.0 (.94, 1.0)
.44 (.43, .45)
1.79
.00
.92 (.82, .96)
.54 (.53, .55)
2.00
.15
Screening for Cervical Spine Injury (continued) Diagnostic Utility of the Clinical Examination for Identifying Cervical Spine Injury Test and Study Quality
Clinical examination14
Description and Positive Findings Patient history including mechanism of injury and subjective complaints of neck pain and/or neurological deficits followed by physical examination of tenderness to palpation, abnormalities to palpation, and neurological deficits Among subset of patients with a Glasgow Coma Score of 15 (i.e., alert), who were not intoxicated, and who did not have a distracting injury
Population
534 patients consulting a level I trauma center after blunt trauma to head/neck
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.77
.55
1.70
.42
.67
.62
1.76
.54
Cervical fracture via CT
3 CERVICAL SPINE 93
Range of Motion
Positioning of inclinometer to measure flexion and extension
Positioning of inclinometer to measure side bending
Measurement of extension
Measurement of side bending to the right
94
Measurement of flexion
Figure 3-18 Range of motion.
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Range of Motion Reliability of Measuring Range of Motion ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study Extension
Instrumentation
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Inter-examiner Reliability ICC .86 (.73, .93)
15
ICC .78 (.59, .89)
15
Flexion
15
Rotation in flexion
Inclinometer Lateral bending15
30 patients with neck pain
(Right) ICC .78 (.60, .89) (Left) ICC .89 (.78, .95) (Right) ICC .87 (.75, .94) (Left) ICC .85 (.70, .92)
Rotation15
(Right) ICC .86 (.74, .93) (Left) ICC .91 (.82, .96)
Flexion6
ICC .75 (.50, .89) ICC .74 (.48, .88)
6
Extension
Inclinometer 22 patients with mechanical neck pain
6
Sidebending Rotation6
(Right) ICC .78 (.55, .90) (Left) ICC .77 (.52, .90)
Goniometer
Single measurement ICC .89 (.77, .94) Mean of 2 measurements ICC .95 (.90, .98)
Flexion-Extension16 Lateral-flexion16
(Right) ICC .66 (.33, .84) (Left) ICC .69 (.40, .86)
Digital inclinometer
32 patients with neck pain referred to physical therapy
Single measurement ICC .77 (.58, .88) Mean of 2 measurements ICC .89 (.77, .94) Single measurement ICC .88 (.78, .94) Mean of 2 measurements ICC .95 (.90, .98)
Rotation16
ICC .79 (.65, .88)
Flexion7 Inclinometer
7
ICC .84 (.70, .95)
Extension
7
Left rotation
Goniometer
7
Right rotation
7
Left sidebending
7
Right sidebending
Inclinometer
50 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
ICC .75 (.59, .85) ICC .63 (.22, .82) ICC .63 (.40, .78) ICC .68 (.62, .87)
ICC, intraclass correlation coefficient.
3 CERVICAL SPINE 95
Range of Motion Reliability of Measuring Range of Motion (continued) ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Instrumentation
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability ICC .58
17
Flexion
Extension
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
ICC .97
17
Right sidebending Left sidebending Right rotation Left rotation Protraction Retraction
ICC .96
17
17
17
Cervical range-of-motion (CROM) instrument
60 patients with neck pain
ICC .94 ICC .96 ICC .98
17
ICC .49
17
ICC .35
17
Inclinometer ICC .84 CROM ICC .88
Flexion/Extension18 Sidebending18
Inclinometer and CROM
30 asymptomatic subjects
Inclinometer ICC .82 CROM ICC .84
Rotation18
Inclinometer ICC .81 CROM ICC .92
Flexion19
CROM ICC .86 Goniometer ICC .57 Visual estimation ICC .42
Extension19
CROM ICC .86 Goniometer ICC .79 Visual estimation ICC .42
Left sidebending19
CROM ICC .73 Goniometer ICC .79 Visual estimation ICC .63
19
Right sidebending
CROM, universal goniometer, and visual estimation
60 patients in whom the assessment of cervical ROM testing would be appropriate during the PT evaluation
CROM ICC .73 Goniometer ICC .79 Visual estimation ICC .63
Left rotation19
CROM ICC .82 Goniometer ICC .54 Visual estimation ICC .70
Right rotation19
CROM ICC .92 Goniometer ICC .62 Visual estimation ICC .82
Identifying ability to actively rotate neck 45° left and right9 Identifying ability to actively flex neck9
96
.67 No details given
8924 adult patients who presented to the emergency department after blunt trauma to the head/neck and had a Glasgow Coma Score of 15
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
.63
Range of Motion Reliability of Pain Responses during Active Physiologic Range of Motion ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Inter-examiner Reliability .65 (.54, .76)
15
Extension
.87 (.81, .94)
15
Flexion
Rotation in flexion
15
Lateral bending15
Symptom response recorded as “no effect,” “increases symptoms,” “decreases symptoms,” “centralizes symptoms,” or “peripheralizes symptoms”
30 patients with neck pain
(Right) .25 (.12, .39) (Left) .69 (.59, .78) (Right) .75 (.66, .84) (Left) .28 (.15, .41) (Right) .76 (.67, .84) (Left) .74 (.64, .84)
Rotation15
.55 (.23, .87)
Flexion6 Patient asked about change in symptoms during active range of motion (AROM). Answers were “no change,” “increased pain,” or “decreased pain”
6
Extension
6
Sidebending Rotation6 Flexion6
The effect of each movement on centralization (the movement caused the pain and/or paresthesias to move proximally) or peripheralization of symptoms (the movement causes the pain and/or paresthesias to move more distally) was recorded
6
Extension
6
Sidebending Rotation6
.23 (.09, .37) 22 patients with mechanical neck pain
(Right) .81 (.57, 1.0) (Left) .00 (⫺.22, .23) (Right) .40 (⫺.07, .87) (Left) .73 (.46, 1.0) 1.0 (1.0, 1.0) .44 (.17, .71)
22 patients with mechanical neck pain
(Right) ⫺.06 (⫺.15, .03) (Left) .02 (⫺.25, .66) (Right) ⫺.05 (⫺.15, .03) (Left) ⫺.10 (⫺.21, .00) .63
Flexion20 Extension20 20
Rotation, right
20
Rotation, left
20
Sidebending, right
Patient seated with back supported. Patient is asked to perform full flexion and pressure is applied by the examiner. Pain responses are recorded on an 11-point numeric pain rating scale (NPRS)
.71 .70 .66 32 patients with neck pain
Sidebending, left 20
Flexion C0-C1
20
Extension C0-C1
.36
Patient is asked to perform high cervical flexion/extension by nodding. Pain responses are recorded on an 11-point NPRS
.56 .53 (.17, .89)
Flexion21 Extension21 Rotation, right21 Rotation, left21
.65 .45
20
Patient performs AROM and pain is determined to be either present or not present
.67 (.34, .99) 24 patients with headaches
.65 (.31, .99) .46 (.10, .79)
3 CERVICAL SPINE 97
Range of Motion Diagnostic Utility of Pain Responses during Active Physiologic Range of Motion LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Testing flexion with overpressure
Testing sidebending with overpressure
Figure 3-19 Overpressure testing.
Test and Measure
Test Procedure and Determination of Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Active flexion and extension of the neck22
Active flexion and extension performed to the extremes of the range. Positive if subject reported pain with procedure
75 males (22 with neck pain)
Patient reports of neck pain
.27
.90
2.70
.81
98
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Cervical Strength and Endurance Reliability of Cervical Strength and Endurance Testing ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 3-20 Cervical flexor endurance.
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Neck flexor muscle endurance test23
With patient supine with knees flexed, examiner’s hand is placed behind occiput and the subject gently flexes the upper neck and lifts the head off the examiner’s hand while retaining the upper neck flexion. The test was timed and terminated when the subject was unable to maintain the position of the head off the examiner’s hand
21 patients with postural neck pain
Inter-examiner ICC .93 (.86, .97)
Chin tuck neck flexion test6
With patient supine, subject tucks the chin and lifts the head approximately 1 inch. The test was timed with a stopwatch and terminated when the patient’s position deviated
22 patients with mechanical neck pain
Inter-examiner ICC .57 (.14, .81)
Cervical flexor endurance24
With patient supine, knees flexed, and chin maximally retracted, subject lifts the head slightly. The test was timed with a stopwatch and terminated when the subject lost maximal retraction, flexed the neck, or could not continue
27 asymptomatic subjects
Intra-examiner ICC 0.74 (.50, .87) Inter-examiner Test #1 ICC .54 (.31, .73) Test #2 ICC .66 (.46, .81)
20 asymptomatic subjects
Intra-examiner ICC .82⫺.91 Inter-examiner ICC .67⫺.78
20 patients with neck pain
Inter-examiner ICC .67
Cervical flexor endurance25
With patient supine with knees flexed and chin maximally retracted, subject lifts the head approximately 1 inch. The test was timed with a stopwatch and terminated when the subject lost maximal retraction
Craniocervical flexion test26
With patient supine with a pressure biofeedback unit placed suboccipitally, subjects perform a gentle head-nodding action of craniocervical flexion for five 10-second incremental stages of increasing range (22, 24, 26, 28, and 30 mm Hg). Performance was measured by the highest level of pressure the individual could hold for 10 seconds
10 asymptomatic subjects
Intra-examiner .72
Cervical flexor endurance27
With patient supine with knees flexed, subject holds the tongue on the roof of the mouth and breathes normally. Subject then lifts his or her head off the table and holds it as long as possible with the neck in a neutral position. The test was timed with a stopwatch and terminated when the head moved 5° either forward or backward
30 patients with grade II whiplash-associated disorders
Inter-examiner ICC .96
3 CERVICAL SPINE 99
Passive Intervertebral Motion Reliability of Assessing Limited Passive Intervertebral Motion ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Testing rotation of C1-C2
Testing of stiffness of 1st rib
Figure 3-21 Assessing limited passive intervertebral motion. Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Rotation of C1-C2
With patient seated, C2 is stabilized while C1 is rotated on C2 until the end of passive ROM. Positive if decreased rotation on one side compared with contralateral side
.28
Lateral flexion of C2-C328
With patient supine, examiner’s left hand stabilizes the patient’s head while the right hand performs sidebending flexion of C2-C3 until the end of passive ROM. This is repeated in the contralateral direction. Positive if lateral flexion on one side is reduced compared with contralateral side
.43
28
Flexion and extension28
With patient sidelying, examiner stabilizes the patient’s neck with one hand while palpating the movement at C7-T1 with the other. Positive if flexion and extension are “stiff” compared with the vertebrae superior and inferior
First rib28
With patient supine, the cervical spine is rotated toward the side being tested. The first rib is pressed in a ventral and caudal direction. Positive if the rib is more “stiff” than the contralateral side
Identification of hypomobile segment29
With subject sitting, examiner palpates passive physiologic intervertebral motion at each cervical vertebra in rotation and lateral flexion and determines the most hypomobile segment
100
61 patients with nonspecific neck problems
.36
.35
3 asymptomatic patients with single-level congenital fusions in the cervical spine (2 at C2C3 and 1 at C5-C6)
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
.68
Passive Intervertebral Motion Reliability of Assessing Limited and Painful Passive Intervertebral Motion ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10 Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Inter-examiner Reliability Limited Movements Right
Left
Right
Left
⫺.26 (⫺.57, .07)
.46 (.06, .86)
⫺.52 (⫺.09, ⫺.14)
.08 (⫺.37, .54)
.72 (.43, .91)
.74 (.40, 1.0)
.15 (⫺.05, .36)
⫺.16 (⫺.56, .22)
With patient supine, passive flexion is performed. Motion classified as “limited” or “not limited” and patient pain response assessed on 11-point numeric pain rating (NPR) scale
.29
Not reported
ICC .73
Not reported
With patient supine, rotation is performed and classified as “limited” or “not limited.” Patient pain response assessed on 11-point NPR scale
.20
.37
ICC .56
ICC .35
.34
.63
ICC .50
ICC .78
.20
.26
ICC .62
ICC .75
.16
.09
ICC .62
ICC .55
.17
.09
ICC .66
ICC .65
.34
.03
ICC .59
ICC .22
.08
.14
ICC .45
ICC .34
.33
.46
ICC .80
ICC .54
6
C0-C1
With patient supine, examiner cradles the occiput with both hands, rotates the head 30° toward the side to be tested, and an anterior to posterior glide is performed to assess the amount of available motion compared with the contralateral side
C1-C26
With patient supine, examiner passively and maximally flexes the neck followed by passive cervical rotation to one side and then to the other. The amount of motion to each side was compared, and if one side was determined to have less motion, it was considered to be “hypomobile”
C0-C120
C1-C220
C2-C320 20
C3-C4
20
C4-C5
20
C5-C6
20
C6-C7
20
C7-T1
20
T1-T2
Pain
With patient supine, fixation of lower segment with sidebending to the right and left. Motion classified as “limited” or “not limited” and patient pain response assessed on 11-point NPR scale
22 patients with mechanical neck pain
32 patients with neck pain
3 CERVICAL SPINE 101
Passive Intervertebral Motion Reliability of Assessing Limited and Painful Passive Intervertebral Motion (continued) ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Testing side bending of C5-C6
Test and Study
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 3-22 Assessing limited and painful passive intervertebral motion.
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability Limited Movements
Pain
.01 (⫺.35, .38)
.13 (⫺.04, .31)
.10 (⫺.25, .44)
.13 (⫺.21, .47)
.10 (⫺.22, .40)
.27 (⫺.12, .67)
.10 (⫺.15, .35)
.12 (⫺.09, .42)
.01 (⫺.21, .24)
.55 (.22, .88)
C7
.54 (0.2, .88)
.90 (.72, 1.0)
C0-C1 lateral glide15
.81 (.72, .91)
32 (.15, .49)
C0-C1 lateral bend15
.35 (.08, .62)
.35 (.15, .55)
C1-C2 rotation in full flexion15
.21 (.08, .34)
.36 (.24, .49)
C1-C2- full lateral flexion15
.30 (.17, .43)
.61 (.5, .72)
.46 (.33, .59)
.42 (.28, .56)
.25 (.12, .38)
.29 (.16, .43)
C4 lateral glide15
.27 (.13, .40)
.65 (.54, .76)
C5 lateral glide15
.18 (.03, .33)
.55 (.43, .67)
C6 lateral glide15
.07 (⫺.34, .20)
.76 (.64, .87)
6
C2 C3
6
C4
6
C5
6
Posterior to anterior (PA) spring testing centrally over the spinous process of the vertebrae. Mobility judged as “normal,” “hypomobile,” or “hypermobile” and as “painful” or “not painful”
6
C6
22 patients with mechanical neck pain
6
C2 lateral glide15 C3 lateral glide15
102
Mobility was recorded as “normal” or “hypomobile” when compared with the contralateral side. Pain reproduction recorded as “pain” or “no pain”
30 patients with neck pain
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Passive Intervertebral Motion Diagnostic Utility of Assessing Limited and Painful Passive Intervertebral Motion
Posteroanterior central glides to the mid cervical spine
LR
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 3-23 Assessing limited and painful passive intervertebral motion.
Spec
LR
173 patients with cervical pain
.89 (.82, .96)
.47 (.37, .57)
1.7 (1.2, 2.5)
.23
20 patients with cervical pain
1.0 (.81, 1.0)*
1.0 (.51, 1.0)*
Undefined
.00
.98
.74
3.77
.03
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Manual examination30
Subjective examination, followed by central PA glides, followed by passive physiologic intervertebral movements of flexion, extension, sidebending, and rotation. Joint dysfunction was diagnosed if the examiner concluded that the joint demonstrated an abnormal end-feel, abnormal quality of resistance to motion, and the reproduction of pain With subject sitting, examiner palpates passive physiologic intervertebral motion at each cervical vertebra in rotation and lateral flexion and determines the most hypomobile segment
3 asymptomatic patients with single-level congenital fusions in the cervical spine (2 at C2-C3 and 1 at C5-C6).
Identification of hypomobile segment29
Interpretation
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Sens
Test and Study Quality
Manual examination31
LR
Reference Standard
LR
Level of zygapophyseal pain via radiologically controlled diagnostic nerve block
Level of congenital cervical fusion
*Confidence intervals were not originally reported by Jull and colleagues,31 but were later calculated and presented by King and colleagues.30
3 CERVICAL SPINE 103
Palpation Reliability of Assessing Pain with Palpation ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
.52
Lower cervical spinous process32 Patient supine. Graded as “no tenderness,” “moderate tenderness,” and “marked tenderness”
32
Suprascapular area
52 patients referred for cervical myelography
High cervical Middle cervical
Method of classification for high, middle, and low not described
.37 (.12, .85) .31 (.28, .90) (Right) .00 (⫺1.00, .77) (Left) .16 (⫺.31, .61)
No details
Occiput
.77 (.34, 1.00)
Mastoid process21 Insertion
SCM insertion on occiput (minor occipital nerve) 24 patients with headaches
(Right) .68 (.29, 1.00) (Left) .35 (⫺.17, .86)
Anterior
Just anterior to SCM muscle border
(Right) .35 (⫺.17, .86) (Left) .55 (.10, .99)
Middle
At SCM muscle border
(Right) .52 (.12, .92) (Left) .42 (.01, .82)
Posterior
Just posterior to SCM muscle border
(Right) .60 (.19, 1.00) (Left) .87 (.62, 1.00)
Midline neck tenderness9
No details given 9
Posterolateral neck tenderness
9
Maximal tenderness at midline
104
(Right) .42 (Left) .44
.14 (⫺.12, .39)
Low cervical 21
Sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle21
.24
(Right) .34 (Left) .56
Scapular area32 Zygapophyseal joint pressure21
Inter-examiner Reliability .47
Upper cervical spinous process32
Right side of neck32
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
8924 adult patients who presented to the emergency department after blunt trauma to the head/ neck and had a Glasgow Coma Score of 15
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
.78 .32 .72
Palpation Reliability of Assessing Pain with Palpation with and without a Patient History ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Inter-examiner Reliability Without knowledge of history
With knowledge of history
Spinous processes C2-C333
.60
.49
Spinous processes C4-C733
.42
.50
Spinous processes T1-T333
.55
.79
.32
.22
.34
.55
Paraspinal joints T1-T333
.41
.51
Neck muscles33
.32
.46
Brachial plexus
.27
.22
Paraspinal muscles33
.04
.46
Paraspinal joints C1-C333 Paraspinal joints C4-C733
No details given
100 patients with neck and/ or shoulder problems with or without radiating pain
33
Diagnostic Utility of Assessing Pain with Palpation LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Measure
Test Procedure and Determination of Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Palpation over the facet joints in the cervical spine22
Articulations were palpated 2 cm lateral to the spinous process. Positive if patient reported pain with procedure
75 males (22 with neck pain)
Patient reports of neck pain
.82
.79
3.90
.23
3 CERVICAL SPINE 105
Postural and Muscle Length Assessment Reliability of Postural Assessment ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Unlike postural defect, kyphosis of Scheuermann’s disease persists when patient is prone and thoracic spine extended or hyperextended (above) and accentuated when patient bends forward (below)
In adolescent, exaggerated thoracic kyphosis and compensatory lumbar lordosis due to Scheuermann’s disease may be mistaken for postural defect
Figure 3-24 Thoracic kyphosis.
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Forward head6
Answered “yes” if the patient’s external auditory meatus was anteriorly deviated (anterior to the lumbar spine)
⫺.1 (⫺.2, ⫺.00)
Excessive shoulder protraction6
Answered “yes” if the patient’s acromions were anteriorly deviated (anterior to the lumbar spine)
.83 (.51, 1.0)
C7-T2 excessive kyphosis6 T3-5 excessive kyphosis6 6
T3-5 decreased kyphosis T6-10 excessive kyphosis6 T6-10 decreased kyphosis6
106
Recorded as” normal” (no deviation), “excessive kyphosis,” or “diminished kyphosis.” Excessive kyphosis was defined as an increase in the convexity and a diminished kyphosis was defined as a flattening of the convexity of the thoracic spine (at each segmental group)
Population
22 patients with mechanical neck pain
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Inter-examiner Reliability
.79 (.51, 1.0) .69 (.3, 1.0) .58 (.22, .95) .9 (.74, 1.0) .9 (.73, 1.0)
Postural and Muscle Length Assessment Reliability of Muscle Length Assessment ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 3-25 Muscle length assessment. Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Latissimus dorsi6
(Right) .80 (.53, 1.0) (Left) .69 (.30, 1.0)
Pectoralis minor6
(Right) .81 (.57, 1.0) (Left) .71 (.43, 1.0)
Pectoralis major6
(Right) .90 (.72, 1.0) (Left) .50 (.01, 1.0)
Levator scapulae6
Each muscle was recorded as “normal” or “restricted length”
22 patients with mechanical neck pain
(Right) .61 (.26, .95) (Left) .54 (.19, .90)
Upper trapezius6
(Right) .79 (.52, 1.0) (Left) .63 (.31, .96)
Anterior and middle scalenes6
(Right) .81 (.57, 1.0) (Left) .62 (.29, .96)
Suboccipitals6
(Right) .63 (.26, 1.0) (Left) .58 (.15, 1.0)
3 CERVICAL SPINE 107
Spurling’s and Neck Compression Tests Reliability of Spurling’s and Neck Compression Tests ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 3-26 Cervical compression test.
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Straight compression33
Patient seated with examiner standing behind patient. Examiner exerts pressure on head. Positive if pain is provoked
100 patients with neck and/or shoulder problems with or without radiating pain
.34 without knowledge of patient history .44 with knowledge of patient history
Right shoulder/ arm pain
Neck compression with32:
Left shoulder/ arm pain Right forearm/ hand pain Left forearm/ hand pain
Spurling’s A7
Spurling’s B7
Cervical compression performed with patient sitting. Examiner passively rotates and sidebends the head to the right and/or left. A compression force of 7 kg is applied. Presence and location of pain, paresthesias, or numbness is recorded
Patient seated with neck sidebent toward ipsilateral side; 7 kg of overpressure is applied Patient seated with extension and sidebending/rotation to ipsilateral side; 7 kg of overpressure is applied
(Right) .61 (Left) Not available
52 patients referred for cervical myelography
Spurling to the left33
108
(Right) .77 (Left) .54 (Right) Not available (Left) .62 .60 (.32, .87)
50 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
Spurling to the right33 Cervical compression performed with patient seated. Examiner passively rotates and sidebends head to right or left and applies compression force of 7 kg. Presence and location of pain, paresthesias, or numbness is recorded
(Right) Not available (Left) .40
100 patients with neck and/or shoulder problems with or without radiating pain
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
.62 (.25, .99)
.37 without knowledge of patient history .28 with knowledge of patient history .37 without knowledge of patient history .46 with knowledge of patient history
Spurling’s and Neck Compression Tests Diagnostic Utility of Spurling’s Test
Spurling’s A test
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Spurling’s A7
Patient is seated, the neck is sidebent toward the ipsilateral side, and 7 kg of overpressure is applied (see Fig. 3-27). Positive if symptoms are reproduced
82 consecutive patients referred to an electrophysiologic laboratory with suspected diagnosis of cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 3-27 Spurling’s test.
Spurling’s B test
Population
LR
Reference Standard
Cervical radiculopathy via needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.50 (.27, .73)
.86 (.77, .94)
3.5 (1.6, 7.5)
.58 (.36, .94)
.50 (.27, .73)
.74 (.63, .85)
1.9 (1.0, 3.6)
.67 (.42, 1.1)
Spurling’s B7
Patient seated. Extension and sidebending/rotation to the ipsilateral side and then 7 kg of overpressure is applied (see Fig. 3-27). Positive if symptoms are reproduced
Spurling’s test34
The patient’s neck was extended and laterally flexed toward the involved side, and downward axial pressure was applied on the head. Positive if radicular pain or tingling in the upper limb was reproduced or aggravated
50 patients presenting to neurosurgery with neck and arm pain suggestive of radicular pain
Soft lateral cervical disc prolapse via MRI
.93 (.84, 1.0)
.95 (.86, 1.0)
18.6
.07
Spurling’s test35
Patient sidebends and extends the neck and examiner applies compression. Positive if pain or tingling that starts in the shoulder radiates distally to the elbow
255 consecutive patients referred to a physiatrist with upper extremity nerve disorders
Cervical radiculopathy via electrodiagnostic testing
.30
.93
4.29
.75
Spurling’s test22
Extension of the neck with rotation and sidebending to the same side. Positive if subject reported pain with procedure
75 males (22 with neck pain)
Patient reports of neck pain
.77
.92
9.63
.25
3 CERVICAL SPINE 109
Neck Distraction and Traction Tests Reliability of Neck Distraction and Traction Tests ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Neck distraction test
Traction test
Figure 3-28 Neck distraction and traction tests.
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Axial manual traction32
With patient supine, examiner applies axial distraction force of 10-15 kg. Positive if radicular symptoms decrease
52 patients referred for cervical myelography
.50
Neck distraction test7
With patient supine, examiner grasps patient under chin and occiput while slightly flexing patient’s neck while applying distraction force of 14 lb. Positive if symptoms are reduced
50 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
.88 (.64, 1.0)
Traction33
With patient seated, examiner stands behind patient with hands underneath each maxilla and thumbs on the back of the head. Positive if symptoms are reduced during traction
100 patients with neck and/or shoulder problems with or without radiating pain
.56 without knowledge of history .41 with knowledge of history
110
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Shoulder Abduction Test Reliability of Shoulder Abduction Test ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 3-29 Shoulder abduction test.
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Shoulder abduction test
Patient is seated and asked to place the symptomatic extremity on head. Positive if symptoms are reduced
50 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
.20 (.00, .59)
Shoulder abduction test32
Patient is seated and asked to raise the symptomatic extremity above the head. Positive if symptoms are reduced
52 patients referred for cervical myelography
(Right) .21 (Left) .40
7
3 CERVICAL SPINE 111
Neural Tension Tests Reliability of Neural Tension Tests ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Upper limb tension test A7
With patient supine, examiner performs the following movements: 1. Scapular depression 2. Shoulder abduction 3. Forearm supination 4. Wrist and finger extension 5. Shoulder lateral rotation 6. Elbow extension 7. Contralateral/ipsilateral cervical sidebending Positive response defined by any of the following: 1. Patient symptoms reproduced 2. Side-to-side differences in elbow extension 10° 3. Contralateral cervical sidebending increases symptoms or ipsilateral sidebending decreases symptoms
Upper limb tension test B7
With patient supine and shoulder abducted 30°, examiner performs the following movements: 1. Scapular depression 2. Shoulder medial rotation 3. Full elbow extension 4. Wrist and finger flexion 5. Contralateral/ipsilateral cervical sidebending Positive response defined by any of the following: 1. Patient symptoms reproduced 2. Side-to-side differences in wrist flexion 10° 3. Contralateral cervical sidebending increases symptoms or ipsilateral sidebending decreases symptoms
Brachial plexus test32
With patient supine, examiner abducts the humerus to the limit of pain-free motion, then adds lateral rotation of the arm and elbow flexion. If no limitation of motion is noted, the humerus is abducted to 90°. The appearance of symptoms is recorded
112
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Inter-examiner Reliability .76 (.51, 1.0)
50 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
52 patients referred for cervical myelography
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
.83 (.65, 1.0)
(Right) .35 Left not calculated because prevalence of positive findings was 10%
Neural Tension Tests Figure 3-30 Upper limb tension tests.
Test A
Test B
3 CERVICAL SPINE 113
Neural Tension Tests Diagnostic Utility of Neural Tension Tests for Cervical Radiculopathy
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Upper limb tension test A7
With patient supine, examiner performs the following movements: 1. Scapular depression 2. Shoulder abduction 3. Forearm supination 4. Wrist and finger extension 5. Shoulder lateral rotation 6. Elbow extension 7. Contralateral and ipsilateral cervical sidebending Positive response defined by any of the following: 1. Patient symptoms reproduced 2. Side-to-side differences in elbow extension 10° 3. Contralateral cervical sidebending increases symptoms or ipsilateral sidebending decreases symptoms
Upper limb tension test B7
With patient supine and patient’s shoulder abducted 30°, examiner performs the following movements: 1. Scapular depression 2. Shoulder medial rotation 3. Full elbow extension 4. Wrist and finger flexion 5. Contralateral and ipsilateral cervical sidebending Positive response defined by any of the following: 1. Patient symptoms reproduced 2. Side-to-side differences in wrist flexion 10° 3. Contralateral cervical sidebending increases symptoms or ipsilateral sidebending decreases symptoms
Upper limb tension test22
With patient seated and arm in extension, abduction and external rotation of the glenohumeral joint, extension of the elbow, the forearm in supination, and the wrist and fingers in extension. Contralateral flexion of the neck is added. Positive if patient reported pain with procedure
114
Population
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
82 consecutive patients referred to an electrophysiologic laboratory with suspected diagnosis of cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
Cervical radiculopathy via needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
75 males (22 with neck pain)
Patient reports of neck pain
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
LR
LR
Sens
Spec
.97 (.90, 1.0)
.22 (.12, .33)
1.3 (1.1, 1.5)
.12 (.01, 1.9)
.72 (.52, .93)
.33 (.21, .45)
1.1 (.77, 1.5)
.85, (.37, 1.9)
.77
.94
12.83
.25
Sharp-Purser Test Diagnostic Utility of the Sharp-Purser Test for Cervical Instability LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 3-31 Sharp-purser test. Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Sharp-Purser test36
Patient sits with neck in a semiflexed position. Examiner places palm of one hand on patient’s forehead and index finger of the other hand on the spinous process of axis. When posterior pressure is applied through the forehead, a sliding motion of the head posteriorly in relation to axis indicates a positive test for atlantoaxial instability
123 consecutive outpatients with rheumatoid arthritis
Full flexion and extension lateral radiographs. Atlantodens interval greater than 3 mm was considered abnormal
.69
.96
17.25
.32
3 CERVICAL SPINE 115
Compression of Brachial Plexus Diagnostic Utility of Brachial Plexus Compression for Cervical Cord Compression LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 3-32 Cervical disc herniation causing cord compression. Spinal cord
C5 C6 Demonstration of herniated nucleus pulposus at C3-4 interspace with compression of spinal canal
Compression by nucleus pulposus herniation Sagittal view Central cord compression by herniated nucleus pulposus
C6 Superior view
Anterior spinal artery
Nucleus pulposus
Lateral spinothalamic Upper limb Trunk tract (pain and temperature) Lower limb Lateral corticospinal tract
Posterior columns (position sense)
Upper limb Trunk Lower limb Posterolateral spinal artery
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Compression of brachial plexus37
Firm compression and squeezing of the brachial plexus with the thumb. Positive only when pain radiates to the shoulder or upper extremity
65 patients who had undergone MRI of the cervical spine as a result of radiating pain
Cervical cord compression via MRI
.69
.83
4.06
.37
116
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Combinations of Tests Diagnostic Utility of Clusters of Tests for Cervical Radiculopathy Wainner and colleagues7 identified a test item cluster, or LR 10 an optimal combination of clinical examination tests, to 5.0-10.0 determine the likelihood of the patient presenting with cer2.0-5.0 vical radiculopathy. The four predictor variables most likely 1.0-2.0 to identify patients presenting with cervical radiculopathy are the upper limb tension test A, Spurling’s A test, distraction test, and cervical rotation less than 60° to the ipsilateral side. Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Upper limb tension test A Spurling’s A test Distraction test Cervical rotation 60° to the ipsilateral side7
All 4 tests positive Any 3 tests positive Any 2 tests positive
.1
Population
82 consecutive patients referred to an electrophysiologic laboratory with suspected diagnosis of cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
99
2 5 Percent (%)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
95 1000 500 200 100 50 20 10 5 2 1
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 .5 .2 .1 .05 .02 .01 .005 .002 .001
20
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
LR
Spec
.24 (.05, .43)
.99 (.97, 1.0)
30.3 (1.7, 38.2)
.39 (.16, .61)
.94 (.88, 1.0)
6.1 (2.0, 18.6)
.39 (.16, .61)
.56 (.43, .68)
.88 (1.5, 2.5)
LR
Not reported
Percent (%)
1
Cervical radiculopathy via needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
Sens
LR
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
Figure 3-33 Fagan’s nomogram. Considering the 20% prevalence or pretest probability of cervical radiculopathy in the study by Wainner and colleagues,7 the nomogram demonstrates the major shifts in probability that occur when all four tests from the cluster are positive. (Reprinted with permission from Fagan TJ. Nomogram for Bayes’ theorem. N Engl J Med. 1975;293:257. Copyright 2005, Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.)
.2 .5
Reference Standard
Interpretation
10 5 2 1 .5
95
.2 99 Pretest Probability
Likelihood Ratio
.1 Post-test Probability
3 CERVICAL SPINE 117
Interventions Diagnostic Utility of Single and Combinations of Factors for Identifying Positive Short-term Clinical Outcome for Cervical Radiculopathy We used the baseline examination and physical therapy interventions received to investigate predictors for short-term improvement in patients with cervical radiculopathy.38 Patients were treated at the discretion of their physical therapist for a mean of 6.4 visits over an average of 28 days. In addition to identifying the single factors most strongly associated with improvement, we used logistic regression to identify the combination of factors most predictive of short-term improvement. LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
Self-report
.76 (.64, .89)
.52 (.38, .67)
1.5 (1.2, 2.1)
Dominant arm is not affected38
Self-report
.74 (.62, .86)
.52 (.38, .67)
1.5 (1.1, 2.2)
Looking down does not worsen symptoms38
Self-report
.68 (.55, .81)
.48 (.34, .62)
1.3 (.93, 1.8)
30° of cervical flexion38
Patient sitting. Used an inclinometer after two warm-up repetitions
.56 (.42, .70)
.59 (.44, .73)
1.4 (.89, 2.1)
Age 54 years Dominant arm is not affected Looking down does not worsen symptoms Provided with multimodal treatment including manual therapy, cervical traction, and deep neck flexor muscle strengthening for 50% of visits38
All 4 tests positive
.18 (.07, .29)
.98 (.94, 1.0)
8.3 (1.9, 63.9)
.68 (.55, .81)
.87 (.77, .97)
5.2 (2.4, 11.3)
Any 2 tests positive
.94 (.87, 1.0)
.37 (.23, .51)
1.5 (1.2, 1.9)
Any 1 test positive
1.0 (1.0, 1.0)
.08 (.01, .2)
1.1 (1.0, 2.0)
Test and Study Quality
Age 54 years38
118
Description and Positive Findings
Any 3 tests positive
Population
96 patients referred to physical therapy with cervical radiculopathy as defined by being positive on all 4 items in Wainner’s diagnostic test item cluster7(see previous)
Reference Standard
Improvement at physical therapy discharge as defined by surpassing the minimal detectable change in all outcome measures
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
LR
Not reported
Interventions Diagnostic Utility of Historical and Physical Examination Findings for Immediate Improvement with Cervical Manipulation LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 3-34 Cervical manipulation. Delivered by Tseng and colleagues39 at the discretion of the therapist to the most hypomobile segments. “Once a hypomobile segment was localized, the manipulator carefully flexed and sidebent the patient’s neck to lock the facet joints of other spinal segments until the barrier was reached. A specific cervical manipulation with a high-velocity, low-amplitude thrust force was then exerted on the specific, manipulable lesion to gap the facet.”39 Sens
Spec
LR
5 or 6 tests positive
.07 (.00, .13)
1.00 (1.00, 1.00)
Undefined
Any 4 tests positive
.40 (.28, .52)
.93 (.84, 1.00)
5.33 (1.72, 16.54)
.43 (.31, .56)
.78 (.65, .90)
1.93 (1.01, 3.67)
.08 (.01, .15)
.57 (.42, .73)
.20 (.08, .49)
.02 (⫺.02, .05)
.75 (.62, .88)
.07 (.01, .50)
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Initial Neck Disability Index 11.5 Bilateral involvement pattern Not performing sedentary work 5 hours/day Feeling better while moving the neck Without feeling worse while extending the neck Diagnosis of spondylosis without radiculopathy39
Population
Any 3 tests positive Any 2 tests positive Any 1 test positive
100 patients referred to physical therapy for neck pain
Reference Standard
Immediate improvement after cervical manipulation as determined by any of the following: 1. 50% decrease in numeric pain rating 2. 4 (much improved) on the global rating of change scale 3. Patient satisfaction rating of “very satisfied” after manipulation.
LR
Not reported
3 CERVICAL SPINE 119
Interventions Diagnostic Utility of Historical and Physical Examination Findings for Immediate Improvement with Thoracic Manipulation
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
Symptom duration 30 days40
Spec
LR
.36 (.22, .52)
.94 (.80, .99)
6.4 (1.60, 26.3)
Sens
No symptoms distal to the shoulder40
Self-report
.67 (.50, .80)
.53 (.36, .69)
1.4 (.94, 2.2)
FABQPA score 1240
Questionnaire to quantify a person’s beliefs about the influence of work and activity on their neck pain
.28 (.16, .45)
.91 (.76, .98)
3.4 (1.05, 11.20)
.55 (.39, .70)
.69 (.52, .83)
1.8 (1.02, 3.15)
.23 (.15, .35)
.83 (.54, .96)
1.9 (1.3, 2.7)
67 (.50, .80)
.86 (.70, .95)
4.8 (2.07, 11.03)
.65 (.50, .76)
.67 (.46, .83)
1.9 (1.1, 3.4)
FABQW score 1040 3 prior episodes of neck pain40 Patient reports that looking up does not aggravate symptoms40
Self-report
Exercises 3 times/week40
78 patients referred to physical therapy with mechanical neck pain
Improvement after several standardized thoracic manipulations and cervical ROM exercise as determined by 5 (“quite a bit better”) on the global rating of change scale on the second or third visit
Cervical extension ROM 30°40
Measured with inclinometer
.62 (.46, .76)
.75 (.57, .87)
2.5 (1.34, 4.57)
Decreased upper thoracic spine kyphosis40
Increased convexity at T3-T5
54 (.42, .65)
.64 (.48, .78)
1.1 (.77, 1.60)
Shoulders protracted40
Positive if acromion was noted to be anterior to the lumbar spine
.65 (.51, .77)
.76 (.52, .90)
2.7 (1.6, 3.0)
FABQPA, Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire physical activity subscale; FABQW: Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire work subscale. –LR not reported.
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Interventions Diagnostic Utility of a Cluster of Historical and Physical Examination Findings for Immediate Improvement with Thoracic Manipulation LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
All patients received a standardized series of 3 thrust manipulations directed at the thoracic spine. In the first technique (A), with the patient sitting, the therapist uses his or her sternum as a fulcrum on the patient’s middle thoracic spine and applies a high-velocity distraction thrust in an upward direction. The second and third techniques (B) are delivered supine. The therapist uses his or her body to push down through the patient’s arms to perform a high-velocity, low-amplitude thrust directed toward either T1 through T4 or T5 through T8.40
After the manipulations, patients were instructed in a cervical range-of-motion exercise to perform 3-4 times/day.40
Figure 3-35 Thoracic spine manipulation and active range of motion.
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Symptom duration 30 days No symptoms distal to the shoulder FABQPA score 12 Patient reports that looking up does not aggravate symptoms Cervical extension ROM 30° Decreased upper thoracic spine kyphosis (T3-T5)40
All 6 tests positive
Population
At least 5 tests positive At least 4 tests positive At least 3 tests positive At least 2 tests positive At least 1 test positive
78 patients referred to physical therapy with mechanical neck pain
Reference Standard
Improvement after several standardized thoracic manipulations and cervical ROM exercise as determined by 5 (“quite a bit better”) on the global rating of change scale on the second or third visit
Sens
Spec
LR
.05 (.00, .17)
1.0 (.97, 1.00)
Undefined
.12 (.04, .25)
1.0 (.94, 1.00)
Undefined
.33 (.26, .35)
.97 (.89, 1.00)
12 (2.28, 70.8)
.76 (.67, .82)
.86 (.75, .93)
5.49 (2.72, 12.0)
.93 (.84, .97)
.56 (.46, .61)
2.09 (1.54, 2.49)
1.00 (.95, 1.00)
.17 (.11, .24)
1.2 (1.06, 1.2)
FABQPA, Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire physical activity subscale; FABQW, Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire work subscale. –LR not reported.
3 CERVICAL SPINE 121
Interventions Diagnostic Utility of Historical and Physical Examination Findings for Improvement with 3 Weeks of Mechanical Cervical Traction
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Neck distraction test41
Patient lies supine and the neck is comfortably positioned. Examiner securely grasps the patient’s head under the occiput and chin and gradually applies an axial traction force up to approximately 30 lb. Positive response defined by reduction of symptoms
Shoulder abduction test41
While sitting, the patient is instructed to place the hand of the affected extremity on the head in order to support the extremity in the scapular plane. Positive response defined by alleviation of symptoms
Positive ULTT A41
With patient supine, examiner performs the following movements: 1. Scapular depression 2. Shoulder abduction 3. Forearm supination 4. Wrist and finger extension 5. Shoulder lateral rotation 6. Elbow extension 7. Contralateral and ipsilateral cervical sidebending Positive response defined by reproduction of symptoms
Population
68 patients referred to physical therapy with neck pain with or without upper extremity symptoms
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
Improvement after 6 treatments over 3 weeks of mechanical cervical traction and postural/deep neck flexor strengthening exercise as determined by 7 (“A very great deal better”) on the global rating of change scale
Sens
LR
LR
.83 (.66, .93)
.50 (.35, .65)
1.67 (1.18, 2.45)
.33 (.14, .73)
.33 (.19, .51)
.87 (.73, .94)
2.53 (1.01, 6.50)
.77 (.55, 1.00)
.80 (.63, .90)
.37 (.23, .53)
1.27 (.93, 1.75)
.54 (.23, 1.18)
ULTT, upper limb tension test.
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Spec
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Interventions Diagnostic Utility of Historical and Physical Examination Findings for Improvement with 3 Weeks of Mechanical Cervical Traction
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Pain with manual muscle testing41
.63 (.46, .78)
.71 (.55, .83)
2.19 (1.27, 3.92)
.52 (.30, .82)
Body mass index 28.441
.67 (.49, .81)
.68 (.53, .81)
2.11 (1.26, 3.66)
.49 (.27, .81)
Frequency of past episodes41
.70 (.48, .85)
.67 (.47, .82)
2.10 (1.15, 4.08)
.45 (.21, .87)
Symptoms distal to the shoulder41
.67 (.49, .81)
.58 (.42, .72)
1.58 (1.01, 2.53)
.58 (.32, .99)
.43 (.27, .61)
.55 (.40, .70)
.97 (.56, 1.65)
1.02 (.65, 1.57)
.43 (.27, .61)
.76 (.61, .87)
1.83 (.92, 3.69)
.74 (.50, 1.04)
.37 (.22, .54)
.82 (.67, .91)
1.99 (.90, 4.47)
.78 (.54, 1.04)
.43 (.27, .61)
.66 (.50, .79)
1.27 (.69, 2.31)
.86 (.57, 1.26)
Patient-reported neck stiffness41
.43 (.27, .61)
.34 (.21, .50)
.66 (.40, 1.02)
1.65 (.97, 2.88)
Flexion AROM 55°41
.60 (.42, .75)
.55 (.40, .70)
1.34 (.84, 2.14)
.72 (.42, 1.19)
.47 (.30, .64)
.89 (.76, .96)
4.43 (1.74, 11.89)
.60 (.40, .81)
.73 (.56, .86)
.45 (.30-.60)
1.33 (.92, 1.93)
.60 (.29, 1.14)
Headaches41 Diminished strength41
Peripheralization with PA C4-C741 Ipsilateral rotation 60°41
No details given
68 patients referred to physical therapy with neck pain with or without upper extremity symptoms
Improvement after 6 treatments over 3 weeks of mechanical cervical traction and postural/deep neck flexor strengthening exercise as determined by 7 (“A very great deal better”) on the global rating of change scale
Age 5541 Ipsilateral sidebending 40°41
PA, central posteroanterior motion testing; AROM, active range of motion.
3 CERVICAL SPINE 123
Interventions Diagnostic Utility of a Cluster of Historical and Physical Examination Findings for Improvement with 3 Weeks of Mechanical Cervical Traction
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Age 55 Positive shoulder abduction test Positive ULTT A Symptom peripheralization with PA at lower cervical (C4-7) spine Positive neck distraction test41
At least 4 tests positive At least 3 tests positive At least 2 tests positive At least 1 test positive
Population
Reference Standard
68 patients referred to physical therapy with neck pain with or without upper extremity symptoms
Improvement after 6 treatments over 3 weeks of mechanical cervical traction and postural/deep neck flexor strengthening exercise as determined by 7 (“A very great deal better”) on the global rating of change scale
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.30 (.17, .48)
1.0 (.91, 1.0)
23.1 (2.50, 227.9)
.71 (.53, .85)
.63 (.46, .78)
.87 (.73, .94)
4.81 (2.17, 11.4)
.42 (.25, .65)
.30 (.17, .48)
.97 (.87, 1.00)
1.44 (1.05, 2.03)
.40 (.16, .90)
.07 (.02, .21)
.97 (.87, 1.00)
1.15 (.97, 1.4)
.21 (.03, 1.23)
ULTT, upper limb tension test.
Figure 3-36 Cervical traction. The cervical traction in this study41 was performed with patient supine and legs supported on a stool. The neck was flexed to 24 degrees for patients with full cervical range of motion, and to 15º otherwise. The traction force was set at 10 to 12 pounds initially and adjusted upward during the first treatment session to optimally relieve symptoms. Each traction session lasted approximately 15 minutes and alternated between 60 seconds of pull and 20 seconds of release at 50% force. 124
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
OUTCOME MEASURES Outcome Measure
Scoring and Interpretation
Test-Retest Reliability
MCID
Neck Disability Index (NDI)
Users are asked to rate the difficulty of performing 10 functional tasks on a scale of 0 to 5 with different descriptors for each task. A total score out of 100 is calculated by summing each score and doubling the total. The answers provide a score between 0 and 100, with higher scores representing more disability
ICC .5042
1942
Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire (FABQ)
Users are asked to rate their level of agreement with statements concerning beliefs about the relationship between physical activity, work, and their back pain (“Neck” can be substituted for “back”). Level of agreement is answered on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (completely disagree) to 7 (completely agree). The FABQ is composed of two parts: a sevenitem work subscale (FABQW), and a four-item physical activity subscale (FABQPA). Each scale is scored separately, with higher scores representing higher fear-avoidance
FABQW: ICC .82 FABQPA: ICC .6643
Not Available
Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS)
Users rate their level of pain on an 11-point scale ranging from 0 to 10, with high scores representing more pain. Often asked as “current pain” and “least,” “worst,” and “average pain” in the past 24 hours
ICC .7642
1.342
MCID, minimum clinically important difference.
3 CERVICAL SPINE 125
APPENDIX
Jull 1988
Uitvlugt 1988
Viikari-Juntura 198944
Uchihara 1994
Sandmark 1995
Lauder 2000
Hoffman 2000
Stiell 2001
Tong 2002
Wainner 2003
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
Y
Y
N
U
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
Y
N
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
Y
Y
U
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
N
U
Y
U
U
Y
Y
U
U
U
5. Did the whole sample or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
Y
U
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
U
U
N
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
U
Y
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
U
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
13. Were uninterpretable/ intermediate test results reported?
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
U
U
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
U
Y
Quality summary rating:
Y yes, N no, U unclear.
126
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14)
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9)
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Poor quality (Y - N 4)
APPENDIX
Bandiera 2003
Stiell 2003
Dickinson 2004
Humphreys 2004
Shah 2004
Tseng 2006
Duane 2007
Cleland 2007
King 2007
Raney 2009
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
Y
U
Y
5. Did the whole sample or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
N
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
N
Y
Y
Y
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
U
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
U
Y
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
13. Were uninterpretable/intermediate test results reported?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Quality summary rating:
3 CERVICAL SPINE 127
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17. Olson SL, O’Connor DP, Birmingham G, et al. Tender point sensitivity, range of motion, and perceived disability in subjects with neck pain. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2000;30:13-20. 18. Hole DE, Cook JM, Bolton JE. Reliability and concurrent validity of two instruments for measuring cervical range of motion: effects of age and gender. Man Ther. 1995;1:36-42. 19. Youdas JW, Carey JR, Garrett TR. Reliability of measurements of cervical spine range of motion—comparison of three methods. Phys Ther. 1991;71:98-104; discussion 105-6. 20. Pool JJ, Hoving JL, de Vet HC, et al. The interexaminer reproducibility of physical examination of the cervical spine. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2004;27: 84-90. 21. Van Suijlekom HA, De Vet HC, Van Den Berg SG, Weber WE. Interobserver reliability in physical examination of the cervical spine in patients with headache. Headache. 2000;40:581-586. 22. Sandmark H, Nisell R. Validity of five common manual neck pain provoking tests. Scand J Rehabil Med. 1995;27:131-136. 23. Edmondston SJ, Wallumrod ME, Macleid F, et al. Reliability of isometric muscle endurance tests in subjects with postural neck pain. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2008;31:348-354. 24. Olson LE, Millar AL, Dunker J, et al. Reliability of a clinical test for deep cervical flexor endurance. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2006;29:134-138. 25. Harris KD, Heer DM, Roy TC, et al. Reliability of a measurement of neck flexor muscle endurance. Phys Ther. 2005;85:1349-1355. 26. Chiu TT, Law EY, Chiu TH. Performance of the craniocervical flexion test in subjects with and without chronic neck pain. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2005;35:567-571. 27. Kumbhare DA, Balsor B, Parkinson WL, et al. Measurement of cervical flexor endurance following whiplash. Disabil Rehabil. 2005;27:801-807. 28. Smedmark V, Wallin M, Arvidsson I. Inter-examiner reliability in assessing passive intervertebral motion of the cervical spine. Man Ther. 2000;5:97-101. 29. Humphreys BK, Delahaye M, Peterson CK. An investigation into the validity of cervical spine motion palpation using subjects with congenital block vertebrae as a ‘gold standard’. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2004;5:19. 30. King W, Lau P, Lees R, Bogduk N. The validity of manual examination in assessing patients with neck pain. Spine J. 2007;7:22-26. 31. Jull G, Bogduk N, Marsland A. The accuracy of manual diagnosis for cervical zygapophysial joint pain syndromes. Med J Aust. 1988;148:233-236.
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32. Viikari-Juntura E. Interexaminer reliability of observations in physical examinations of the neck. Phys Ther. 1987;67:1526-1532. 33. Bertilson BC, Grunnesjo M, Strender LE. Reliability of clinical tests in the assessment of patients with neck/shoulder problems—impact of history. Spine. 2003;28:2222-2231. 34. Shah KC, Rajshekhar V. Reliability of diagnosis of soft cervical disc prolapse using Spurling’s test. Br J Neurosurg. 2004;18:480-483. 35. Tong HC, Haig AJ, Yamakawa K. The Spurling test and cervical radiculopathy. Spine. 2002;27:156-159. 36. Uitvlugt G, Indenbaum S. Clinical assessment of atlantoaxial instability using the Sharp-Purser test. Arthritis Rheum. 1988;31:918-922. 37. Uchihara T, Furukawa T, Tsukagoshi H. Compression of brachial plexus as a diagnostic test of cervical cord lesion. Spine. 1994;19:2170-2173. 38. Cleland JA, Fritz JM, Whitman JM, Heath R. Predictors of short-term outcome in people with a clinical diagnosis of cervical radiculopathy. Phys Ther. 2007;87:1619-1632.
39. Tseng YL, Wang WT, Chen WY, et al. Predictors for the immediate responders to cervical manipulation in patients with neck pain. Man Ther. 2006;11:306-315. 40. Cleland JA, Childs JD, Fritz JM, et al. Development of a clinical prediction rule for guiding treatment of a subgroup of patients with neck pain: use of thoracic spine manipulation, exercise, and patient education. Phys Ther. 2007;87:9-23. 41. Raney NH, Petersen EJ, Smith TA, et al. Development of a clinical prediction rule to identify patients with neck pain likely to benefit from cervical traction and exercise. Eur Spine J. 2009 42. Cleland JA, Childs JD, Whitman JM. Psychometric properties of the Neck Disability Index and Numeric Pain Rating Scale in patients with mechanical neck pain. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89:69-74. 43. Grotle M, Brox JI, Vollestad NK. Reliability, validity and responsiveness of the fear-avoidance beliefs questionnaire: methodological aspects of the Norwegian version. J Rehabil Med. 2006;38:346-353. 44. Viikari-Juntura E, Porras M, Laasonen EM. Validity of clinical tests in the diagnosis of root compression in cervical disc disease. Spine. 1989;14:253-257.
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Thoracolumbar Spine
4
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
132
Anatomy Osteology Arthrology Ligaments Muscles Fascia Nerves Patient History Initial Hypotheses Based on Patient History Lumbar Zygapophyseal Joint Referral Patterns Thoracic Zygapophyseal Joint Referral Patterns Reliability of the Historical Examination Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History for Identifying Lumbar Spinal Stenosis Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History for Identifying Lumbar Radiculopathy Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History for Identifying Ankylosing Spondylitis Physical Examination Tests Neurological Examination Range of Motion Thoracolumbar Strength and Endurance Postural Assessment Passive Intervertebral Motion Palpation Centralization Phenomena Straight-Leg Raise Test Crossed Straight-Leg Raise Test Slump Test Tests for Lumbar Segmental Instability Tests for Lumbar Spinal Stenosis Tests for Radiographic Lumbar Instability Tests for Ankylosing Spondylitis Classification Methods Interventions Outcome Measures Appendix Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS References
133 133 134 137 139 144 145 149 149 149 151 152 153 154 154 156 156 159 162 163 165 172 173 175 177 178 180 182 184 186 187 189 192 193 193 195
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Patient History Complaints
A few subjective complaints appear to be useful in identifying specific spinal pathologies. A report of “no pain when seated” is the single question with the best diagnostic utility for lumbar spinal stenosis (likelihood ratio [LR] 6.6). “Pain not relieved by lying down,” “back pain at night,” and “morning stiffness 1⁄2 hour” are all somewhat helpful in identifying ankylosing spondylitis (LRs 1.51 to 1.57). Subjective complaints of weakness, numbness, tingling, and/or burning do not appear to be especially helpful, at least in identifying lumbar radiculopathy.
Physical Examination Neurological Screening
Traditional neurological screening (sensation, reflex, and manual muscle testing) is reasonably useful in identifying lumbar radiculopathy. When tested in isolation, weakness with manual muscle testing, and even more so, reduced reflexes, are suggestive of lumbar radiculopathy, especially at the L3/4 spinal levels. Sensation testing (vibration and pin prick) alone does not seem to be especially useful. However, when changes in reflexes, muscular strength, and sensation are found in conjunction with a positive straight-leg raise, lumbar radiculopathy is highly likely (LR 6.0). In addition, decreased sensation (vibration and pin prick), muscle weakness, and reflex changes are each modestly helpful in identifying lumbar spinal stenosis (LR 2.1 to 2.8).
Range of Motion, Strength, and Manual Assessment
Measuring both thoracolumbar range of motion (ROM) and trunk strength have consistently been shown to be very reliable, but are of unknown diagnostic utility. The results of studies assessing the reliability of passive intervertebral motion (PIVM) are highly variable but generally report poor reliability when assessing for limited or excessive movement and moderate reliability when assessing for pain. Diagnostic studies assessing PIVM suggest that abnormal segmental motion is moderately useful both in identifying radiographic hypomobility/hypermobility and for predicting the responses to certain conservative treatments. However, restricted PIVM may have little or no association with low back pain.
Special Tests
The centralization phenomenon (movement of symptoms from distal/lateral regions to more central regions) has been shown to be both highly reliable and decidedly useful in identifying painful lumbar discs (LR 6.9). The straight-leg raise (SLR), the crossed straight-leg raise, and the slump test have all been shown to be moderately useful in identifying disc pathologies including bulges, herniations, and extrusions. An abundance of tests purport the ability to identify lumbar segmental instability. Reliability of these tests is highly variable, and their diagnostic utility is unknown, presumably due to a lack of an established reference standard. Both the Romberg test and a two-stage treadmill test have been found to be moderately useful in identifying lumbar spinal stenosis.
Interventions
Patients with low back pain of duration less than 16 days and no symptoms distal to the knees, and/or meet at least 4 out of 5 of the Flynn and colleagues’1 criteria, should be treated with a lumbosacral manipulation. Patients with low back pain that meet at least three out of five of the Hicks’2 criteria, should be treated with lumbar stabilization exercises.
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ANATOMY Osteology
Vertebral foramen
Superior costal facet
Body
Superior articular process and facet Pedicle
Body Superior vertebral notch (forms lower margin of intervertebral foramen)
Transverse costal facet
Superior costal facet
Transverse process
Pedicle Transverse costal facet
Lamina Superior articular facet
Inferior costal facet Spinous Inferior process vertebral notch
Spinous process
Inferior articular process
T6 vertebra: lateral view
T6 vertebra: superior view
Body
Costal facet
Superior articular process and facet Transverse process
Spinous process
Inferior articular process and facet
T12 vertebra: lateral view
Figure 4-1 Thoracic vertebrae. Vertebral body Vertebral foramen
Annulus fibrosus
Pedicle
Nucleus pulposus
Transverse process
Superior articular process
Accessory process Intervertebral disc
Mammillary process Lamina
Spinous process
L2 vertebra: superior view
Figure 4-2 Lumbar vertebrae. 4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 133
Arthrology Joints of the Thoracic Spine Vertebral canal Superior articular process and facet
7th rib
Spinous process of T7 vertebra Transverse process of T9 vertebra Inferior articular process (T9)
Lamina
Spinous process (T9)
Figure 4-3 T7, T8, and T9 vertebrae, posterior view. Interclavicular lig. Articular disc
Clavicle Manubrium
Costoclavicular lig.
1 Rib
Articular cavity
Manubriosternal joint
Intra-articular sternocostal lig.
2
Articular cavities
Costal cartilages 3
Costochondral joints 4 Costal cartilages
Radiate sternocostal ligs. 5
Interchondral joints 6 7
8
Xiphoid process Costoxiphoid lig.
Figure 4-4 Sternocostal articulations, anterior view. 134
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Arthrology (continued) Joints of the Thoracic Spine
Anterior longitudinal lig.
Transverse costal facet (for tubercle of rib of same number as vertebra) Lateral costotransverse lig.
Inferior costal facet (for head of rib one number higher)
Intertransverse lig.
Superior costotransverse lig.
Interarticular lig. of head of rib
Superior costal facet (for head of rib of same number)
Radiate lig. of head of rib
Left lateral view Superior articular facet of rib head Intra-articular lig. Radiate lig. of head of rib
Synovial cavities
Superior costotransverse lig. (cut)
Lateral costotransverse lig. Costotransverse lig. Transverse section: superior view
Figure 4-5 Costovertebral joints.
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 135
Arthrology Joints of the Lumbar Spine Superior articular process
Mammillary process
Pedicle Transverse process Spinous process Vertebral body Vertebral canal
Inferior articular process
1
Intervertebral disc
Superior articular process
Vertebral body
Mammillary process
Inferior vertebral notch Intervertebral foramen
2
Transverse process
Superior vertebral notch
3 Accessory process Spinous process
4
Lamina 5
Inferior articular process
Articular facet for sacrum L3 and L4 vertebrae: posterior view
Lumbar vertebrae, assembled: left lateral view
Figure 4-6 Lumbar spine.
Thoracolumbar Joints
Type and Classification
Closed Packed Position
Capsular Pattern Lumbar: significant limitation of sidebending bilaterally and limitations of flexion and extension
Zygapophyseal joints
Synovial: plane
Extension Thoracic: limitation of extension, sidebending, and rotation, less limitation of flexion
Intervertebral joints
Amphiarthrodial
Not applicable
Not applicable
Thoracic Spine
Type and Classification
Closed Packed Position
Capsular Pattern
Costotransverse
Synovial
Not reported
Not reported
Costoverterbal
Synovial
Not reported
Not reported
Costochondral
Synchondroses
Not reported
Not reported
Interchondral
Synovial
Not reported
Not reported
Amphiarthrodial Synovial
Not applicable Not reported
Not applicable Not reported
Sternocostal 1st joint 2nd-7th joint
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Ligaments Costovertebral Ligaments Transverse costal facet (for tubercle of rib of same number as vertebra)
Anterior longitudinal lig. Inferior costal facet (for head of rib one number higher)
Lateral costotransverse lig. Intertransverse lig.
Interarticular lig. of head of rib Superior costal facet (for head of rib of same number)
Superior costotransverse lig.
Radiate lig. of head of rib
Superior articular facet of rib head Intra-articular lig.
Radiate lig. of head of rib
Synovial cavities
Left lateral view Superior costotransverse lig. (cut)
Transverse process (cut off)
Superior costal facet (for head of rib of same number) Costotransverse lig. Lateral costotransverse lig. Radiate lig. of head of rib
Transverse section: superior view
Costotransverse lig. Lateral costotransverse lig. Superior costotransverse lig.
Intertransverse lig. Right posterolateral view
Figure 4-7 Costovertebral ligaments. Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Radiate sternocostal
Costal cartilage to the anterior and posterior aspect of the sternum
Reinforces joint capsule
Interchondral ligaments
Connect adjacent borders of articulations between 6th and 7th, 7th and 8th, and 8th and 9th costal cartilages
Reinforces joint capsule
Radiate of head of rib
Lateral vertebral body to head of rib
Prevents separation of rib head from vertebra
Costotransverse
Posterior aspect of rib to anterior aspect of transverse process of vertebra
Prevents separation of rib from transverse process
Intra-articular
Crest of the rib head to intervertebral disc
Divides joint into two cavities
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 137
Ligaments Thoracolumbar Ligaments Inferior articular process
Left lateral view (partially sectioned in median plane) Anterior longitudinal lig.
Capsule of zygapophyseal joint (partially opened) Superior articular process Transverse process Spinous process
Lumbar vertebral body Intervertebral disc
Ligamentum flavum
Anterior longitudinal lig.
Supraspinous lig.
Interspinous lig.
Posterior longitudinal lig.
Anterior vertebral segments: posterior view (pedicles sectioned) Pedicle (cut surface) Posterior surface of vertebral bodies Posterior longitudinal lig.
Intervertebral foramen
Posterior vertebral segments: anterior view Pedicle (cut surface)
Ligamentum flavum Lamina Superior articular process
Intervertebral disc Transverse process Inferior articular facet
Figure 4-8 Thoracolumbar ligaments. Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Anterior longitudinal
Extends from anterior sacrum to anterior tubercle of C1. Connects anterolateral vertebral bodies and discs
Maintains stability and prevents excessive extension of spinal column
Posterior longitudinal
Extends from the sacrum to C2. Runs within the vertebral canal attaching the posterior vertebral bodies
Prevents excessive flexion of spinal column and posterior disc protrusion
Ligamenta flava
Binds the lamina above each vertebra to the lamina below
Prevents separation of the vertebral laminae
Supraspinous
Connect spinous processes C7-S1
Limits separation of spinous processes
Interspinous
Connect spinous processes C1-S1
Limits separation of spinous processes
Intertransverse
Connect adjacent transverse processes of vertebrae
Limits separation of transverse processes
Iliolumbar
Transverse processes of L5 to posterior aspect of iliac crest
Stabilizes L5 and prevents anterior shear
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Muscles Thoracolumbar Muscles: Superficial Layers Muscles
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Latissimus dorsi
Spinous processes T6-T12, thoracolumbar fascia, iliac crest, inferior four ribs
Intertubercular groove of humerus
Thoracodorsal nerve (C6, C7, C8)
Humerus extension, adduction and internal rotation
Lateral clavicle, acromion, and spine of scapula
Accessory nerve (CN XI)
Depresses scapula
Dorsal scapular nerve (C4, C5)
Retracts scapula, inferiorly rotates glenoid fossa, stabilizes scapula to thoracic wall
Trapezius Middle Lower
Superior nuchal line, occipital protuberance, nuchal ligament, spinous processes T1-T12
Retracts scapula
Rhomboids Major
Spinous processes T2-T5
Inferior medial border of scapula
Minor
Spinous processes C7-T1 and nuchal ligament
Superior medial border of scapula
Serratus posterior superior
Spinous processes C7-T3, ligamentum nuchae
Superior surface of ribs 2-4
Intercostal nerves 2-5
Elevates ribs
Serratus posterior inferior
Spinous processes T11-L2
Inferior surface of ribs 8-12
Ventral rami of thoracic spinal nerves 9-12
Depresses ribs
CN, cranial nerve.
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 139
Muscles (continued) Thoracolumbar Muscles: Superficial Layers
Superior nuchal line of skull
Spinous process of C2 vertebra Sternocleidomastoid m. Posterior triangle of neck
Semispinalis capitis m. Splenius capitis m. Spinous process of C7 vertebra Splenius cervicis m.
Trapezius m.
Levator scapulae m.
Spine of scapula
Rhomboid minor m. (cut)
Deltoid m.
Supraspinatus m. Serratus posterior superior m.
Infraspinatus fascia Teres minor m.
Rhomboid major m. (cut)
Teres major m.
Infraspinatus fascia (over infraspinatus m.)
Latissimus dorsi m.
Teres minor and major mm.
Spinous process of T12 vertebra
Latissimus dorsi m. (cut) Serratus anterior m.
Thoracolumbar fascia
Serratus posterior inferior m. External oblique m.
12th rib Erector spinae m.
Internal oblique m. in lumbar triangle
External oblique m. Iliac crest Gluteal aponeurosis (over gluteus medius m.)
Gluteus maximus m.
Figure 4-9 Muscles of back, superficial layers.
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Internal oblique m.
Muscles Thoracolumbar Muscles: Intermediate Layer Rectus capitis posterior minor m.
Superior nuchal line of skull
Obliquus capitis superior m.
Posterior tubercle of atlas (C1)
Rectus capitis posterior major m.
Longissimus capitis m.
Obliquus capitis inferior m.
Semispinalis capitis m.
Longissimus capitis m. Splenius capitis and splenius cervicis mm.
Semispinalis capitis m. (cut) Spinalis cervicis m.
Serratus posterior superior m.
Spinous process of C7 vertebra Iliocostalis m. Erector spinae muscle
Longissimus cervicis m. Iliocostalis cervicis m.
Longissimus m.
Iliocostalis thoracis m. Hook
Spinalis m.
Spinalis thoracis m. Longissimus thoracis m. Serratus posterior inferior m.
Iliocostalis lumborum m. Spinous process of T12 vertebra
Tendon of origin of transversus abdominis m.
Transversus abdominis m. and tendon of origin
Internal oblique m. External oblique m. (cut)
Thoracolumbar fascia (cut edge)
Iliac crest
Figure 4-10 Muscles of the back, intermediate layer.
Muscles
Proximal Attachment
Iliocostalis thoracis Iliocostalis lumborum Longissimus thoracis Longissimus lumborum Spinalis thoracis
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Cervical transverse processes and superior angles of lower ribs Iliac crest, posterior sacrum, spinous processes of sacrum and inferior lumbar vertebrae, supraspinous ligament
Inferior surface of ribs 4-12 Thoracic transverse processes and superior surface of ribs
Dorsal rami of spinal nerves
Transverse process of lumbar vertebrae
Bilaterally: extend spinal column Unilaterally: sidebend spinal column
Upper thoracic spinous processes
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 141
Muscles Thoracolumbar Muscles: Deep Layer Superior nuchal line of skull Mastoid process Posterior tubercle of atlas (C1 vertebra) Spinous process of axis (C2 vertebra) Semispinalis capitis m. Spinous process of C7 vertebra
Rectus capitis posterior minor m. Obliquus capitis superior m. Rectus capitis posterior major m. Transverse process of atlas (C1) Obliquus capitis inferior m. Longus Brevis Rotatores cervicis mm. Interspinalis cervicis m. Levator costae m.
External intercostal mm.
Longus Rotatores Brevis thoracis mm.
Semispinalis thoracis m.
Brevis Levatores Longus costarum mm.
Multifidi mm. Thoracolumbar fascia (anterior layer)
Interspinalis lumborum m.
Thoracolumbar fascia (posterior layer) (cut)
Lateral intertransversarius m. Quadratus lumborum m.
Transversus abdominis m. and tendon of origin
Iliac crest
Multifidi mm.
Multifidi mm. (cut)
Erector spinae m. (cut)
Figure 4-11 Muscles of the back, deep layer.
Muscles
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Rotatores
Transverse processes of vertebrae
Spinous process of vertebra 1-2 segments above origin
Dorsal rami of spinal nerves
Vertebral stabilization, assists with rotation and extension
Interspinalis
Superior aspect of cervical and lumbar spinous processes
Inferior aspect of spinous process superior to vertebrae of origin
Dorsal rami of spinal nerves
Extension and rotation of vertebral column
Intertransversarius
Cervical and lumbar transverse processes
Transverse process of adjacent vertebrae
Dorsal and ventral rami of spinal nerves
Bilaterally stabilizes vertebral column. Ipsilaterally sidebends vertebral column
Multifidi
Sacrum, ilium, transverse processes T1-T3, articular processes C4-C7
Spinous process of vertebra 2-4 segments above origin
Dorsal rami of spinal nerves
Stabilizes vertebrae
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Muscles Anterior Abdominal Wall
Extensor mm. Multifidus Longissimus Iliocostalis
Corset
Flexor mm. Psoas External oblique Internal oblique Transversus Rectus abdominis
Figure 4-12 Dynamic “corset” concept of lumbar stability.
Muscles
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Rectus abdominis
Pubic symphysis and pubic crest
Costal cartilage 5-7 and xiphoid process
Ventral rami T6-T12
Flexes trunk
Internal oblique
Thoracolumbar fascia, anterior iliac crest, and lateral inguinal ligament
Inferior border of ribs 10-12, linea alba, and pectin pubis
Ventral rami T6-L1
Flexes and rotates trunk
External oblique
External aspect of ribs 5-12
Anterior iliac crest, linea alba, and pubic tubercle
Ventral rami T6-T12 and subcostal nerve
Flexes and rotates trunk
Transversus abdominis
Internal aspect of costal cartilage 7-12, thoracolumbar fascia, iliac crest, and lateral inguinal ligament
Linea alba, pectin pubis, and pubic crest
Ventral rami T6-L1
Supports abdominal viscera and increases intraabdominal pressure
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 143
Fascia Thoracolumbar Fascia
Thoracolumbar fascia (superficial and deep laminae of posterior layer) Transversus abdominis
Figure 4-13 Transverse abdominis. The transverse abdominis exerts a force through the thoracolumbar fascia creating a stabilizing force through the lumbar spine.8
The thoracolumbar fascia is a dense layer of connective tissue running from the thoracic region to the sacrum.3 It is comprised of three separate and distinct layers: anterior, middle, and posterior. The middle and posterior layers blend together to form a dense fascia referred to as the lateral raphe.4 The posterior layer consists of two distinctly separate laminae. The superficial lamina fibers are angled downward and the deep lamina fibers are angled upward. Bergmark5 has reported that the thoracolumbar fascia serves three purposes: (1) to transfer forces from muscles to the spine, (2) to transfer forces between spinal segments, and (3) to transfer forces from the thoracolumbar spine to the retinaculum of the erector spinae. The transverse abdominis attaches to the middle layer of the thoracolumbar fascia and exerts a force through the lateral raphe resulting in a cephalad tension through the deep layer and a caudal tension through the superficial layer of the posterior lamina.3,4,6 The result is a stabilizing force exerted through the lumbar spine, which has been reported to provide stability and assist with controlling intersegmental motion of the lumbar spine.7-9
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Nerves Trapezius m. Spinal nerve trunk Ventral (anterior) ramus of spinal nerve (intercostal nerve) Erector spinae m. Meningeal branch Spinal sensory Medial branch, Collateral branch Lateral branch of (dorsal root) ganglion External intercostal m. Dorsal (posterior) Dorsal root Internal intercostal m. ramus Ventral root Innermost intercostal m. Latissimus dorsi m.
Subcostal mm.
Serratus anterior m.
Greater and lesser splanchnic nn. Sympathetic trunk
Window cut in innermost intercostal m. Communicating Internal branch intercostal m. Internal intercostal membranes anterior to Collateral branch external intercostal mm. rejoining intercostal n.
Lateral cutaneous branch Innermost intercostal m. Internal intercostal m.
Superior costotransverse ligs.
Gray and white rami communicantes Rectus abdominis m. Linea alba
Transversus abdominis m. Slip of costal part of diaphragm Costal cartilage
External intercostal m. External intercostal membrane External oblique m. Anterior cutaneous branch
Figure 4-14 Nerves of the thoracic spine.
Nerve
Segmental Level
Sensory
Motor
Ventral Rami Intercostals
T1-T11 Anterior and lateral aspect of the thorax and abdomen
Subcostals
T12
Dorsal rami
T1- T12
Intercostals, serratus posterior, levator costarum, transversus thoracis Part of external oblique
Posterior thorax and back
Splenius, iliocostalis, longissimus, spinalis, interspinales, intertransversarii, multifidi, semispinalis, rotatores
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 145
Nerves Subcostal n. (T12)
T12
White and gray rami communicantes
L1
Iliohypogastric n. L2
Ilioinguinal n. Genitofemoral n.
L3 Lateral cutaneous n. of thigh Gray rami communicantes
Ventral rami of spinal nn.
L4
Muscular branches to psoas and iliacus mm. L5
Femoral n. Accessory obturator n. (often absent)
Anterior division
Obturator n. Lumbosacral trunk
White and gray rami communicantes
Diaphragm (cut) Subcostal n. (T12) Sympathetic trunk
Subcostal n. (T12) L1
Genitofemoral n. (cut)
Iliohypogastric n. Ilioinguinal n.
Iliohypogastric n. Ilioinguinal n.
Posterior division
L2
Transversus abdominis m.
L3
Quadratus lumborum m.
L4 Lateral cutaneous n. of thigh Femoral n. Obturator n. Psoas major m. (cut) Lumbosacral trunks Inguinal lig. (Poupart)
Psoas major m. Gray rami communicantes Genitofemoral n. Iliacus m. Lateral cutaneous n. of thigh Femoral n. Genital branch and Femoral branch of genitofemoral n. Obturator n.
Figure 4-15 Nerves of the lumbar spine.
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Nerves Nerve
Segmental Level
Sensory
Motor
Subcostal nerve
T12
Lateral hip
External oblique
Iliohypogastric nerve
T12, L1
Posterolateral gluteal region
Internal oblique, transverse abdominis
Ilioinguinal
L1
Superior medial thigh
Internal oblique, transverse abdominis
Genitofemoral
L1, L2
Superior anterior thigh
No motor
Lateral cutaneous
L2, L3
Lateral thigh
No motor
No sensory
Iliacus
Branch to iliacus Femoral nerve
L2, L3, L4
Thigh via cutaneus nerves
Iliacus, sartorius, quadriceps femoris, articularis genu, pectineus
Obturator nerve
L2, L3, L4
Medial thigh
Adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magnus (adductor part), gracilis, obturator externus
Sciatic
L4, L5, S1, S2, S3
Hip joint
Knee flexors and all muscles of the lower leg and foot
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 147
Nerves
Intercostal n. (T11) T12
Subcostal n. (T12) Iliohypogastric n. (T12, L1) Ilioinguinal n. (L1) To psoas major and psoas minor mm.
Sympathetic trunk Rami communicantes
L1
Genitofemoral n. (L1, 2) Lateral cutaneous n. of thigh (L2, 3)
L2
Genital branch and Femoral branch of genitofemoral n.
Lumbar plexus
To psoas major and iliacus mm.
L3
Anterior branches and lateral branches of subcostal and iliohypogastric nn. Lumbosacral trunk
L4
N. to quadratus femoris (and inferior gemellus) (L4, 5, S1) N. to obturator internus (and superior gemellus) (L5, S1, 2)
L5
S2
N. to piriformis (S1, 2) Obturator n. (L2, 3, 4) Accessory obturator n. (L3, 4) (inconstant)
S3 S4 S5 Co
Inferior gluteal n. (L5, S1, 2) Femoral n. (L2, 3, 4) Sciatic n. Posterior cutaneous n. of thigh (S1, 2, 3) Pudendal n. (S2, 3, 4)
Posterior cutaneous n. of thigh
Coccygeal plexus Pelvic splanchnic nn. Perforating cutaneous n. (S2, 3)
N. to levator ani and coccygeus (S3, 4) Perineal branch of 4th sacral n. Anococcygeal nn. Obturator n. Inferior anal (rectal) n. Dorsal n. of penis/clitoris Perineal n. and posterior scrotal/labial branches
Figure 4-16 Nerves of the lumbar spine.
148
Sacral plexus
S1
Superior gluteal n. (L4, 5, S1)
Common fibular (peroneal) n. Sciatic n. (L4, 5, S1, 2) Tibial n. (L4, 5, S1, 2, 3)
Anterior division Posterior division
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
PATIENT HISTORY Initial Hypotheses Based on Patient History History
Initial Hypothesis
Reports of restricted motion of the lumbar spine associated with low back or buttock pain exacerbated by a pattern of movement that indicates possible opening or closing joint restriction (i.e., decreased extension, right sidebending, and right rotation)
Zygapophyseal joint pain syndromes10-12
Reports of centralization or peripheralization of symptoms during repetitive movements or prolonged periods in certain positions
Possible discogenic pain13
Reports of lower extremity pain/paresthesias, which is greater than the low back pain. May report experiencing episodes of lower extremity weakness
Possible sciatica or lumbar radiculopathy14
Pain in the lower extremities that is exacerbated by extension and quickly relieved by flexion of the spine
Possible spinal stenosis15
Patient reports of recurrent locking, catching, or giving way of the low back during active motion
Possible lumbar instability16,17
Reports of low back pain that is exacerbated by stretch of either ligament or muscles. Might also report pain with contraction of muscular tissues
Muscle/ligamentous sprain/strain
Lumbar Zygapophyseal Joint Referral Patterns Area of Pain Referral
Percentage of Patients Presenting with Pain (n 176 patients with low back pain)
Left groin
15%
Right groin
3%
Left buttock
42%
Right buttock
15%
Left thigh
38%
Right thigh
38%
Left calf
27%
Right calf
15%
Left foot
31%
Right foot
8%
Prevalence of pain referral patterns in patients with zygapophyseal joint pain syndromes as confirmed by diagnostic blocks.12 In a subsequent study,18 it was determined that in a cohort of 63 patients with chronic low back pain, the prevalence of zygapophyseal joint pain was 40%.
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 149
Lumbar Zygapophyseal Joint Referral Patterns (Continued)
Lumbar spine region
Gluteal region Trochanteric region
Lateral thigh region Posterior thigh region
Groin region
Figure 4-17 Lumbar zygapophyseal joint pain referral patterns. Zygapophyseal pain patterns of the lumbar spine as described by Fukui and colleagues.90 Lumbar zygapophyseal joints L1/2, L2/3, and L4/5 always referred pain to the lumbar spine region. Primary referral to the gluteal region was from L5/S1 (68% of the time). Levels L2/3, L3/4, L4/5, and L5/S1 occasionally referred pain to the trochanteric region (10% to 16% of the time). Primary referral to lateral thigh, posterior thigh, and groin regions were most often from L3/4, L4/5, and L5/S1 (5% to 30% of the time).
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Thoracic Zygapophyseal Joint Referral Patterns
T3-4
T4-5
T5-6
T6-7
T7-8 T8-9 T9-10 T10-11
As described by Dreyfuss et al19
T2-3
T9-10
As described by Fukui et al90
Figure 4-18 Zygapophyseal pain patterns of the thoracic spine.
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 151
Reliability of the Historical Examination ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Historical Question and Study
Population
Inter-examiner .53 - .96
Leg pain Thigh pain
2 separate groups of patients with low back pain (n1 50, n2 33).
Increased pain with23:
Inter-examiner .33 - .44
Back pain
Inter-examiner .19 - .16 Test-retest .46
Standing
53 subjects with a primary complaint of low back pain
Test-retest .70
Walking
Test-retest .67
Sitting
Inter-examiner .49
Standing Walking
A random selection of 91 patients with low back pain
24
95 patients with low back pain
24
Inter-examiner 1.0 Inter-examiner .56 Inter-examiner .41
Lying down Pain with sitting
Inter-examiner .39 - .78
Buttock pain
Sitting Increased pain with22:
Reliability Inter-examiner .12 - .73
Foot pain
Patient report of 21:
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Pain with bending
Inter-examiner .99 - 1.0 Inter-examiner .98 - .99
Pain with bending
53 subjects with a primary complaint of low back pain
Test-retest .65
Pain with bending21
2 separate groups of patients with low back pain (n1 50, n2 33).
Inter-examiner .51 - .56
Increased pain with coughing/sneezing23
A random selection of 91 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .64
22
Increased pain with coughing22 22
Pain with pushing/lifting/carrying
152
53 subjects with a primary complaint of low back pain
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Test-retest .75 Test-retest .77 - .89
Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History for Identifying Lumbar Spinal Stenosis
Historical Question
Patient Population
Reference Standard
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Age 6525
.77 (.64, .90)
.69 (.53, .85)
2.5
.33
.56 (.41, .71)
.63 (.46, .80)
1.5
.70
Pain below knees?25
.88 (.78, .98)
.34 (.18, .50)
1.3
.35
Pain below buttocks?25
.46 (.30, .62)
.93 (.84, 1.0)
6.6
.58
.65 (.51, .79)
.67 (.51, .83)
2.0
.52
.52 (.37, .67)
.83 (.70, .96)
3.1
.58
.71 (.57, .85)
.30 (.14, .46)
1.0
.97
Worse when walking?25
.63 (.49, .74)
.59 (.42, .76)
1.5
.63
Numbness25
.70 (.56, .84)
.53 (.36, .70)
1.5
.57
Poor balance25
.81 (.66, .96)
.16 (.00, .32)
.82 (.63, 1.1)
1.27
.63 (.42, .85)
.67 (.40, .93)
1.9 (.8, 4.5)
.55
.89 (.76, 1.0)
.39 (.16, .61)
1.5 (.9, 2.4)
.28
.89 (.76, 1.0)
.33 (.12, .55)
1.3 (.8, 2.2)
.33
No pain when seated?25 Severe lower extremity pain?25
93 patients with low back pain 40 years old
Symptoms improved while seated?25
Lumbar spinal stenosis per attending physician’s impression; 88% also supported by computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Do you get pain in your legs with walking that is relieved by sitting?15 Are you able to walk better when holding onto a shopping cart?15 Sitting reported as best posture with regard to symptoms15 Walk/stand reported as worst posture with regard to symptoms15
45 patients with low back and leg pain and selfreported limitations in walking tolerance
Lumbar spinal stenosis per MRI or CT imaging
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 153
Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History for Identifying Lumbar Radiculopathy
Patient Reports of
Patient Population
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
Spec
LR
LR
.70
.41
1.19
.73
.68
.34
1.03
.94
.67
.31
.97
1.06
.40
.60
1.0
1.0
LR
LR
Sens
Weakness26 Numbness26
170 patients with low back and leg symptoms
Lumbosacral radiculopathy per electrodiagnostics
Tingling26 Burning26
Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History for Identifying Ankylosing Spondylitis Clinical Symptom
Patient Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
.80
.49
1.57
.41
.71
.53
1.51
.55
.64
.59
1.56
.68
.74
.43
1.30
.60
1.0
.07
1.07
.00
Pain not relieved by lying down27 Back pain at night33 Morning stiffness ⁄2 hour 1
27
449 randomly selected patients with low back pain
The New York criteria and radiographic confirmation of ankylosing spondylitis.
Pain or stiffness relieved by exercise27 Age of onset 40 years or less27
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History for Identifying Ankylosing Spondylitis (Continued)
In early stages (sacroiliitis only), back contour may appear normal but flexion may be limited
In more advanced sacroiliac plus lower spine involvement, back is straightened with “ironed-out” appearance
Bilateral sacroiliitis is early radiographic sign. Thinning of cartilage and bone condensation on both sides of sacroiliac joints Anterior longitudinal lig.
Radiate lig. of head of rib Costotransverse ligs.
Rib
Ossification of radiate and costotransverse ligaments limits chest expansion
Characteristic posture in late stage of disease. Measurement at nipple line demonstrates diminished chest expansion
Ossification of annulus fibrosus of intervertebral discs, apophyseal joints, and anterior longitudinal and interspinal ligaments
Figure 4-19 Ankylosing spondylitis. 4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 155
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION TESTS Neurological Examination Diagnostic Utility of the Sensation, Manual Muscle Testing, and Reflexes for Lumbosacral Radiculopathy
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Sensation (vibration and pin prick)26
Considered abnormal when either vibration or pin prick was reduced on the side of lesion
Population
Gastrocsoleus Extensor hallucis longus
Weakness26
Hip flexors
Weakness was defined as any grade less than 5/5
Quadriceps Achilles Patellar Reflexes26
Reflexes Weakness Sensory26 Reflexes Weakness Sensory Straight-leg raise26
156
Considered abnormal when the reflex on the side of the lesion was reduced compared with the opposite side
All 3 abnormal
All 4 abnormal
170 patients with low back and lower extremity symptoms
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
Electrodiagnostic testing. Radiculopathy defined as the presence of positive sharp waves, fibrillation potentials, complex repetitive discharges, highamplitude, longduration motor unit potentials, reduced recruitment, or increased polyphasic motor unit potentials (30%) in two or more muscles innervated by the same nerve root level but different peripheral nerves
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.50
.62
1.32
.81
S1 .47
S1 .76
1.96
.70
L5 .61
L5 .55
1.36
.71
L3-4 .7
L3-4 .84
4.38
.36
L3-4 .40
L3-4 .89
3.64
.67
S1 .47
S1 .9
4.70
.59
L3-4 .50
L3-4 .93
7.14
.54
.12
.97
4.00
.91
.06
.99
6.00
.95
.87
.35
1.34
.37
Any of 4 abnormal
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Neurological Examination Diagnostic Utility of the Sensation, Manual Muscle Testing, and Reflexes for Lumbar Spinal Stenosis Level of Herniation
Pain
Numbness
Weakness
Atrophy
Reflexes
L3 L4 L4 L5 S
Lower back, hip, posterolateral AnteroL3-4 disc; 4th lumbar thigh, anterior leg medial thigh Quadriceps and knee nerve root
Quadriceps
Knee jerk diminished
L3 L4
Over sacroiliac L5 joint, L5 hip, S lateral thigh, L4-5 disc; and leg 5th lumbar nerve root
L4 L5 S S1 L5-S1 disc; 1st sacral nerve root
Over sacroiliac joint, hip, posterolateral thigh, and leg to heel
Dorsifexion of great toe and foot; difficulty walking on Lateral leg, heels; foot web of great drop may occur toe
Plantar flexion of foot and great toe may be affected; difficulty walking on Back of calf; toes lateral heel, foot and toe
Minor
Gastrocnemius and soleus
Changes uncommon (absent or diminished posterior tibial reflex)
Ankle jerk diminished or absent
L4 Lower back, thighs, legs, and/or L5 perineum S depending on level of S1 lesion; S2 may be S3 Massive bilateral midline S4 S5 protrusion Coccygeal L5
Thighs, legs, feet, and/or perineum; variable; may be bilateral
Variable paralysis or paresis of legs and/or bowel and bladder incontinence
May be extensive Ankle jerk diminished or absent
Figure 4-20 Clinical features of herniated lumbar nucleus pulposus. 4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 157
Neurological Examination (continued) Diagnostic Utility of the Sensation, Manual Muscle Testing, and Reflexes for Lumbar Spinal Stenosis LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Strength testing of extensor hallucis longus muscle
Pin prick test
Figure 4-21 Lumbar spinal stenosis testing.
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Vibration deficit25
Assessed at the first metatarsal head with a 128-Hz tuning fork. Considered abnormal if patient did not perceive any vibration
Pin prick deficit25
Sensation tested at the dorsomedial foot, dorsolateral foot, medial and lateral calf. Graded as “decreased” or “normal”
Weakness25
Absent Achilles reflex25
158
Strength of knee flexors, knee extensors, and hallucis longus were tested. Graded from 0 (no movement) to 5 (normal)
Population
93 patients with back pain with or without radiation to the lower extremities
Reference Standard
Diagnosis of spinal stenosis by retrospective chart review and confirmed by MRI or CT
Reflex testing of the Achilles tendon. Graded from 0 (no response) to 4 (clonus)
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.53 (.38, .68)
.81 (.67, .95)
2.8
.58
.47 (.32, .62)
.81 (.67, .95)
2.5
.65
.47 (.32, .62)
.78 (.64, .92)
2.1
.68
.46 (.31, .61)
.78 (.64, .92)
2.1
.69
Range of Motion Reliability of Range of Motion Measurements ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Measurement and Study
Instrumentation
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Reliability Intra-examiner*
Inter-examiner
Forward bending28
Measured distance from fingertips to floor
Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) .95 (.89, .99)
ICC .99 (.98, .10)
Lateral bending28
Measured distance that fingertip slid down lateral thigh
ICC (right) .99 (.95, 1.0) ICC (left) .94 (.82, .98)
ICC (right) .93 (.89, .96) ICC (left) .95 (.91, .97)
ICC (right) .92 (.76, .97) ICC (left) .96 (.87, .99)
ICC (right) .82 (.70, .89) ICC (left) .85 (.75, .91)
ICC .87 (.68, .96)
ICC .79 (.67, .88)
ICC .91 ICC .63 ICC .56 ICC .57 ICC .92 ICC .89
ICC .77 ICC .35 ICC .37 ICC .35 ICC .81 ICC .89
ICC (right) .86 (.70, .94) ICC (left) .80 (.58, .92)
ICC (right) .74 (.49, .88) ICC (left) .78 (.56, .90)
Trunk rotation28
Patients sit with horizontal bar on sternum. Plumb weight hung down to floor and angle was measured with a protractor
Modified Schober28
Distance between lumbosacral junction, 5 cm below, and 10 cm above, were measured in erect standing and while maximally bending forward
Flexion Extension Left rotation Right rotation Left sidebending Right sidebending29
Back range of motion instrument
Patients stood with a horizontal bar resting on their shoulders. A plumb weight hung from the end of the bar to the floor
Active rotation in standing30
Lumbar flexion31 Lumbar extension31 Single inclinometer Lumbar flexion
32
Lumbar extension
32
30 patients with back pain and 20 asymptomatic subjects (only asymptomatic subjects were used for intra-examiner comparisons)
47 asymptomatic students
24 asymptomatic golfers
49 patients with low back pain referred for flexion-extension radiographs
Inter-examiner ICC .60 (.33, .79)
123 patients with low back pain 90 days
Inter-examiner ICC .74 (.60, .84)
Inter-examiner ICC .61 (.37, .78)
Inter-examiner ICC .61 (.42, .75)
*
In the case of multiple examiners, intra-examiner estimates are presented for the first examiner only.
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 159
Range of Motion (continued) Reliability of Range of Motion Measurements Figure 4-22 Range of motion measurement.
Inclinometer placement at the spinous process of the 12th thoracic vertebra
Measurement of thoracolumbar flexion
Measurement of thoracolumbar extension
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Range of Motion Reliability of Pain Provocation during Range of Motion ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 4-23 Pain provocation during active movements.
Flexion-sidebending-rotation
Test and Study
Extension-sidebending-rotation
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Sidebending
Patient stands with arms at sides. Patient slides hand down the outside of the thigh
.60 (.40, .79)
Rotation33
Patient stands with arms at sided. Patient rotates the trunk
.17 (.08, .42)
Sidebend-rotation33
Patient stands with arms at sides. Patient moves the pelvis to one side, creating a sidebend rotation to the opposite side
.29 (.06, .51)
33
35 patients with low back pain
Flexion-sidebend-rotation33
Patient stands and the therapist guides the patient into lumbar flexion, then sidebending, then rotation
.39 (.18, .61)
Extension-sidebend-rotation33
Patient stands and the therapist guides the patient into lumbar extension, then sidebending, then rotation
.29 (.06, .52)
Thoracic rotation, right34
Patients places hands on the opposite shoulders and rotates the trunk as far as possible in each direction. Examiner then determines the effect of each movement on the patient’s symptoms as “no effect,” “increase symptoms,” or “decreases symptoms”
.03 (.11, .04)
Thoracic rotation, left34
22 patients with mechanical neck pain
0.7 (.4, 1.0)
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 161
Thoracolumbar Strength and Endurance Reliability of Assessing Thoracolumbar Strength and Endurance ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 4-24 Modified Biering-Sorensen. Measurement and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Abdominal endurance28
From supine hook-lying, patient curls up to touch finger tips to superior patellae and holds position for as long as possible. Time in seconds was measured with a stopwatch
Modified Biering-Sorensen28
162
Patient starts prone with pelvis and legs supported on couch and trunk hanging off the edge supported by a chair. The patient then extends the trunk and holds a neutral position for as long as possible. Time in seconds was measured with a stopwatch
Population
30 patients with back pain and 20 asymptomatic subjects (only asymptomatic subjects used for intraexaminer comparisons)
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Reliability Intra-examiner ICC .90 (.75, .97) Inter-examiner ICC .92 (.87, .96) Intra-examiner ICC .92 (.75, .97) Inter-examiner ICC .91 (.85, .95)
Postural Assessment Reliability of Postural Assessment ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10 Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement Inter-examiner Reliability
Forward head
“Yes” if the patient’s external auditory meatus was anteriorly deviated (anterior to the lumbar spine)
.10 (.20,-.00)
Excessive shoulder protraction34
“Yes” if the patient’s acromions were anteriorly deviated (anterior to the lumbar spine)
.83 (.51, 1.0)
C7-T2 excessive kyphosis34
Recorded as “normal” (no deviation), “excessive kyphosis,” or “diminished kyphosis.” Excessive kyphosis was defined as an increase in the convexity, and diminished kyphosis was defined as a flattening of the convexity of the thoracic spine (at each segmental group)
34
T3-5 excessive kyphosis
34
T3-5 decreased kyphosis
34 34
T6-10 excessive kyphosis
T6-10 decreased kyphosis Kyphosis
35
34
22 patients with mechanical neck pain
.69 (.30, 1.0) .58 (.22, .95) .90 (.74, 1.0) .90 (.73, 1.0) .21
With patient standing, examiner inspects posture from the side. Graded as “present” or “absent”
Scoliosis35
With patient standing, examiner runs finger along spinous processes. Patient bends over and examiner assesses height of paraspinal musculature. Graded as “present” or “absent”
Functional leg length discrepancy35
Compare bilateral iliac crest height with patient standing. Graded as “symmetrical” or “asymmetrical”
.79 (.51, 1.0)
111 adults age 60 with chronic low back pain and 20 asymptomatic patients
.33
.00
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 163
Postural Assessment (continued) Reliability of Postural Assessment
Ribs close together on concave side of curve, widely separated on convex side; vertebrae rotated with spinous processes and pedicles toward concavity
Gauging trunk alignment with plumb line
Spinous process deviated to concave side
Lamina thinner, vertebral canal narrower on concave side
Rib pushed posteriorly; thoracic cage narrowed
Vertebral body distorted toward convex side Rib pushed laterally and anteriorly Convex side Concave side Section through scoliotic vertebrae; decreased vertebral height and disc thickness on concave side
Characteristic distortion of vertebra and rib in thoracic scoliosis (inferior view)
Figure 4-25 Pathologic anatomy of scoliosis.
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Passive Intervertevbral Motion Reliability of Assessing Limited or Excessive Passive Intervertebral Motion ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Upper lumbar segmental mobility36
Lower lumbar segmental mobility36
Identifying the least mobile segment37 Identifying the most mobile segment37
With patient prone, examiner applies a posteroanterior force to the spinous process and lumbar facets of each lumbar vertebra. Mobility of each segment is judged as “normal” or “restricted”
39 patients with low back pain
With patient prone, examiner applies a posteroanterior force to the spinous process of each lumbar vertebra
29 patients with central low back pain
Segmental ventral flexion38
Multifidus hypertonicity38
Each level of the lumbar spine was evaluated for segmental dysfunction. With patient prone, examiner assessed PA stiffness and multifidus hypertonicity. With patient side lying, side flexion and ventral flexion were assessed by moving the patient’s legs. After performing all four examination procedures, examiners identified the level of maximal dysfunction
(Spinous) Inter-examiner .02 (.27, .32) (Left facet) Inter-examiner .17 (.14, .48) (Right facet) Inter-examiner .01 (.33, .30) (Spinous) Inter-examiner .05 (.36, .27) (Left facet) Inter-examiner .17 (.41, .06) (Right facet) Inter-examiner .12 (.41, .18) Inter-examiner .71 (.48, .94) Inter-examiner .29 (.13, .71)
Intra-examiner .57 Intra-examiner (±1 level) .69 Inter-examiner .22 Inter-examiner (±1 level) .45 60 patients with low back pain
Intra-examiner .31 Intra-examiner (±1 level) .45 Inter-examiner .22 Inter-examiner (±1 level) .44 Intra-examiner .51 Intra-examiner (±1 level) .60 Inter-examiner .12 Inter-examiner (±1 level) .57 Intra-examiner .60 Intra-examiner (±1 level) .70 Inter-examiner .21 Inter-examiner (±1 level) .57
Maximal level of segmental dysfunction38
Segmental mobility39
Reliability
Intra-examiner .54 Intra-examiner (±1 level) .64 Inter-examiner .23 Inter-examiner (±1 level) .52
Posterior to anterior (PA) stiffness38
Segmental side flexion38
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
With patient side-lying, examiner palpates adjacent spinous processes while moving the patient’s’ legs to produce passive flexion and extension of the lumbar spine. Segmental mobility was graded on a 5-point scale
20 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner ranged from .25 to .53 depending on examiners and vertebral level
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 165
Passive Intervertebral Motion (continued) Reliability of Assessing Limited or Excessive Passive Intervertebral Motion ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Determination of segmental fixations40
Passive motion palpation41
Passive motion palpation is performed and the segment is considered fixated if a hard endfeel is noted during the assessment
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Population
Reliability
60 asymptomatic volunteers
Intra-examiner ranged from .09 to .39 Inter-examiner ranged from .06 to .17
21 symptomatic and 25 asymptomatic subjects
Inter-examiner ranged from .03 to .23 with a mean of .07
Segmental mobility testing42
With patient side-lying with hips and knees flexed, examiner assesses mobility while passively moving the patient. Examiner determines whether mobility of the segment is “decreased,” “normal,” or “increased”
71 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .54
Hypermobility at any level31
With patient prone, examiner applies a posteroanterior force to the spinous process of each lumbar vertebra. Mobility of each segment is judged as “normal,” “hypermobile,” or “hypomobile”
49 patients with low back pain referred for flexion-extension radiographs
Inter-examiner .48 (.35, .61)
Determination of posteroanterior spinal stiffness43
Five raters tested lumbar spinal levels for posteroanterior mobility and graded each on an 11-point scale ranging from “markedly reduced stiffness” to “markedly increased stiffness”
40 asymptomatic individuals
Inter-examiner ICC in the first study .55 (.32, .79) Inter-examiner ICC in the second study .77 (.57, .89)
Posteroanterior mobility testing44
With the patient prone, examiner evaluates posteroanterior motion mobility. Mobility is scored on a 9-point scale ranging from “severe excess motion” to “no motion,” and the presence of pain is recorded
18 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner ICC .25 (.00, .39)
Segmental mobility testing45
With patient prone, examiner applies an anteriorly directed force over the spinous process of the segment to be tested. Examiner grades the mobility as “hypermobile,” “normal,” or “hypomobile”
63 patients with current low back pain
Inter-examiner ranged from .20 to .26 depending on level tested
Identification of a misaligned vertebra41
Static palpation is used to determine the relationship of one vertebra to the vertebra below
21 symptomatic and 25 asymptomatic subjects
Inter-examiner ranged from .04 to .03 with a mean of .00
Detection of a segmental lesion T11-L5/S146
Two clinicians used visual postural analysis, pain descriptions, leg length discrepancy, neurological examination, motion palpation, static palpation, and any special orthopaedic tests to determine the level of segmental lesion.
19 patients with chronic mechanical low back pain
Intra-examiner .08 to .43 Inter-examiner .16 to .25
Hypomobility at any level31
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Inter-examiner .38 (.22, .54)
Passive Intervertebral Motion Reliability of Assessing Painful Passive Intervertebral Motion ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 4-26 Assessment of posteroanterior segmental mobility.
Test and Study
Spring test T10-T7
Description and Positive Findings 47
Spring test L2-T1147 Spring test L5-L347
Pain with upper lumbar mobility testing36 Pain with lower lumbar mobility testing36 Pain provocation45 Pain during mobility testing31
With patients in the prone position the therapist applies a posteroanterior force to the spinous processes of T7-L5. The pressure of each force is held for 20 seconds. Considered positive if the force produces pain With patient prone, examiner applies a posteroanterior force to the spinous processes and lumbar facets of each lumbar vertebra. Response at each segment is judged as “painful” or “not painful” With patient prone, examiner applies an anteriorly directed force over the spinous processes of the segment to be tested. Considered positive if pain is reproduced
Population
84 subjects, of whom 53% reported experiencing low back symptoms within the last 12 months
39 patients with low back pain
Reliability Intra-examiner
Inter-examiner
.73 (.39-1.0)
.12 (.18 -.41)
.78 (.49-1.0)
.36 (.07- .66)
.56 (.18-.94)
.41 (.12- .70)
(Spinous) Inter-examiner .21 (.10, .53) (Left facet) Inter-examiner .46 (.17, .75) (Right facet) Inter-examiner .38 (.06, .69) (Spinous) Inter-examiner .57 (.32, .83) (Left facet) Inter-examiner .73 (.51, .95) (Right facet) Inter-examiner .52 (.25, .79)
63 patients with current low back pain
Inter-examiner ranged from .25 to .55 depending on the segmental level tested
49 patients with low back pain referred for flexion-extension radiographs
Inter-examiner .57 (.43, .71)
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 167
Passive Intervertebral Motion Reliability of Assessing Limited and Painful Passive Intervertebral Motion
Motion palpation, seated
Motion palpation of sidebending, right
Figure 4-27 Segmental mobility examination.
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Passive Intervertebral Motion Diagnostic Utility of Assessing Limited and Painful Passive Intervertebral Motion
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Active range of motion (AROM)48
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
LR
Spec
Quantity of forward bending AROM. Rated as “hypomobile,” “normal,” or “hypermobile”
.75 (36, 94)
.60 (27, 86)
1.88 (.57, 6.8)
.42 (.07, 1.90)
Abnormality of segmental motion (AbnROM) 48
Examiner judged presence of abnormal segmental motion during AROM. Rated as “hypomobile,” “normal,” or “hypermobile
.43 (19, 71)
.88 (70, 96)
3.60 (.84, 15.38)
.65 (.28, 1.06)
Passive accessory intervertebral motion (PAIVM)48
Examiner applies central posteroanterior pressure. Passive accessory intervertebral motion was rated as “hypomobile,” “normal,” or “hypermobile”
.75 (36, 94)
.35 (20, 55)
1.16 (.44, 3.03)
.71 (.12, 2.75)
Passive physiological intervertebral motion (PPIVM) 48
With patient side-lying, examiner palpates amount of PPIVM during forward bending. Rated as “hypomobile,” “normal,” or “hypermobile”
.42 (19, 71)
.89 (71, 96)
3.86 (.89, 16.31)
.64 (.28, 1.04)
Motion palpation49
Palpation of a motion segment during either passive or active motion. Examiners evaluated for limited motion (i.e., “fixation”). Patient’s pain reaction was noted after motion palpation of each segment
.42
.57
.98
1.02
.54
.77
2.35
.60
9 patients with low back pain
184 twins
Reference Standard
LR
Sens
Pain reaction49
Population
LR
Flexion and extension lateral radiographs. Segments were considered hypomobile if motion was more than 2 standard deviations from the mean of a normal population
Self-reported low back pain
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 169
Passive Intervertebral Motion Association of Limited Passive Intervertebral Motion with Low Back Pain As a part of a larger epidemiological study, Leboeuf-Yde and associates49 evaluated 184 twins as to the prevalence of restricted intervertebral motion and its relation to low back pain. As can be seen in the figure, motion restrictions were no more prevalent in people with current or recent back pain than in those who had never experienced back pain. LBP today
LBP in past week
LBP in past month
LBP in past year
LBP ever
LBP never 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Prevalence rates of “fixations” detected during motion palpation
Figure 4-28 Prevalence rates of “fixations” detected during motion palpation. (From Leboeuf-Yde C, van Dijk J, Franz C, et al. Motion palpation findings and self-reported low back pain in a population-based study sample. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2002;25:80-87.)
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Passive Intervertebral Motion Diagnostic Utility of Assessing Excessive Passive Intervertebral Motion
Lumbar flexion
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Lumbar extension
Figure 4-29 Assessing lumbar passive physiological intervertebral motion (PPIVM).
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Passive accessory intervertebral motion (PAIVM) 50
Examiner applies central posteroanterior pressure. PAIVM was rated as “hypomobile,” “normal,” or “hypermobile”
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Rotational Lumbar Segmental Instability .33 (.12, .65)
.88 (.83, .92)
2.74 (1.01, 7.42)
.76 (.48, 1.21)
Translational Lumbar Segmental Instability Flexion passive physiological intervertebral motion (PPIVM) 50
With patient side-lying, examiner palpates amount of PPIVM during forward bending. Rated as “hypomobile,” “normal,” or “hypermobile”
.29 (.14, .50)
Patients with a new episode of recurrent or chronic low back pain
Extension PPIVM 50
With patient side-lying, examiner palpates amount of PPIVM during backward bending. Rated as “hypomobile,” “normal,” or “hypermobile”
Flexion and extension lateral radiographs. Segments were considered hypermobile if motion was more than 2 standard deviations from the mean of a normal population
.89 (.83, .93)
2.52 (1.15, 5.53)
.81 (.61, 1.06)
Rotational Lumbar Segmental Instability .05 (.01, .36)
.99 (.96, 1.00)
.12 (.21, 80.3)
.96 (.83, 1.11)
Translational Lumbar Segmental Instability .05 (.01, .22)
.995 (.97, 1.00)
8.73 (.57, 134.7)
.96 (.88, 1.05)
Rotational Lumbar Segmental Instability .22 (.06, .55)
.97 (.94, .99)
8.40 (1.88, 37.55)
.80 (.56, 1.13)
Translational Lumbar Segmental Instability .16 (.06, .38)
.98 (.94, .99)
7.07 (1.71, 29.2)
.86 (.71, 1.05)
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 171
Palpation ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Reliability of Identifying Segmental Levels Procedure Performed
Description of Procedure
Patient Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Detection of segmental levels in the lumbar spine51
With patient prone, examiner identifies nominated levels of the lumbar spine. Examiner marks the specific level with a pen containing ink that can only be seen under ultraviolet light
20 patients with low back pain
.69
Examiner judgment of marked segmental level44
With the patient prone, one spinous process is arbitrarily marked on each patient. Examiners identify the level of the marked segment
18 patients with low back pain
ICC .69 (.53, .82)
Reliability of Identifying Tenderness to Palpation Procedure Performed
Description of Procedure
Patient Population
.34
Lumbar paravertebral myofascial pain35
Reports of pain with deep thumb pressure (4 kg)
Piriformis myofascial pain35
.66 .75
35
Tensor fascia lata myofascial pain 35
Fibromyalgia tender points
Inter-examiner Reliability
Reports of pain with enough pressure to blanch thumbnail at: 1. Occiput at suboccipital muscle insertions 2. Low cervical at the anterior aspects of the intertransverse spaces at C5-C7 3. Trapezius, midpoint of upper border 4. Supraspinatus at origin 5. 2nd rib at the 2nd costochondral junction 6. 2 cm distal to the epicondyle 7. Medial fat pad of the knee 8. Greater trochanter 9. Gluteal at upper outer quadrant of buttocks
.87 111 adults age 60 with chronic low back pain and 20 asymptomatic subjects
Osseous pain of each joint T11/L1 - L5/S141
With the subject prone, examiner applies pressure over the bony structures of each joint
21 symptomatic and 25 asymptomatic subjects
Mean for all levels .48
Intersegmental tenderness42
With patient prone, examiner palpates the area between the spinous processes. Increased tenderness is considered positive
71 patients with low back pain
.55
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Centralization Phenomena Reliability of Identifying the Centralization Phenomena ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Centralization and directional preference52
Two examiners with greater than 5 years of training in the McKenzie method evaluated all patients and determined whether centralization occurred during repeated movements. If centralization occurred the clinician recorded the directional preference
39 patients with low back pain
if centralization occurred .70 related to centralization and directional preference .90
Judgments of centralization53
Therapists (without formal training in McKenzie methods) and students viewed videotapes of patients undergoing a thorough examination by one therapist. All therapists and students watching the videos were asked to make an assessment regarding the change in symptoms based on movement status
12 patients receiving physical therapy for low back pain
Between physical therapists .82 (.81, .84) Between physical therapy students .76 (.76, .77)
Status change with flexion in sitting32
.55 (.28, .81)
Status change with repeated flexion in sitting 32
.46 (.23, .69)
Status change with extension32 Status change with repeated extension32 Status change with sustained prone extension32
10 different examiners assessed symptom change (centralization, peripheralization, or no change) with single or repeated movements
123 patients with low back pain 90 days
.51 (.29, .72) .15 (.06, .36) .28 (.10, .47)
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 173
Centralization Phenomena Diagnostic Utility of the Centralization Phenomena LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Centralization
Peripheralization
During specific movements, range of motion and movement of pain noted. Movement of pain from peripheral to central location (centralization) predicts outcome and appropriateness of therapy.
Figure 4-30 Centralization of pain.
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
Centralization54
Centralization present if pain in the furthermost region from midline was abolished or reduced with a McKenzie-styled repeated motion examination
69 patients with persistent low back pain with or without referred leg pain
At least 1 painful disc adjacent to a nonpainful disc with discography
.40 (.28, .54)
.94 (.73, .99)
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LR 6.9 (1.0, 47.3)
LR .63 (.49, .82)
Straight-Leg Raise Test Reliability of the Straight-Leg Raise Test ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Straight-leg raise
Straight-leg raise with sensitizing maneuver of cervical flexion
Figure 4-31 Straight-leg raise.
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Passive straight-leg raise (SLR)23
With patient supine, examiner passively flexes the hip and extends the knee. Examiner measures angle of SLR and determines if symptoms occurred in a dermatomal fashion
91 patients with low back pain randomly selected
For typical dermatomal pain, .68 For any pain in the leg, .36 For SLR 45°, .43
Passive straight-leg raise55
With patient supine, examiner maintains the knee in extension while passively flexing the hip. The hip is flexed until examiner feels resistance. A range of motion measurement is recorded.
18 physiotherapy students
ICC Right .86, Left .83
Passive straight-leg raise56
Passive elevation of the leg with knee extended. Considered positive if pain in the low back or buttock is experienced
27 patients with low back pain
.32
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 175
Straight-Leg Raise Test Diagnostic Utility of the Straight-Leg Raise for Detecting Disc Bulge or Herniation LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Deville and colleagues68 compiled the results of 15 studies investigating the accuracy of the straight-leg raise (SLR) for detecting disc herniation. Eleven of the studies included information about both the sensitivity and specificity of the SLR and were used for statistical pooling of estimates. However, numerous variations of the SLR maneuver have been reported and no consistency was noted among the studies selected for the Deville and colleagues’68 review. The results of each study, as well as, the pooled estimates by Deville and colleagues68 are listed here. SLR Study
Description and Positive Findings
Reference Standard
Albeck et al57 58
Charnley et al
59
Gurdjian et al
60
Hakelius et al 61
Hirsch et al
62
Jonsson et al 63
Kerr et al
Kosteljanetz et al64 Kosteljanetz et al65 Knutsson et al66
With the patient supine, the knee fully extended, and the ankle in neutral dorsiflexion, examiner then passively flexes the hip while maintaining the knee in extension. Positive test defined by reproduction of sciatic pain between 30° and 60°-75°
Herniated lumbar disc observed during surgery. Hernia was defined as extruded, protruded, and bulging disc, or sequestrated in most studies
67
Spangfort et al
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.82 (.70, .90)
.21 (.07, .46)
1.0
.86
.85 (.75, .92)
.57 (.30, .81)
1.98
.26
.81 (.78, .83)
.52 (.32, .72)
1.69
.37
.96 (.95, .97)
.14 (.11, .18)
1.12
.29
.91 (.85, .94)
.32 (.20, .46)
1.34
2.8
.87 (.81, .91)
.22 (.07, .48)
1.12
.59
.98 (.92, 1.00)
.44 (.28, .62)
1.75
.05
.89 (.75, .96)
.14 (.01, .58)
1.03
.79
.78 (.64, .87)
.48 (.32, .63)
1.5
.49
.95 (.91, .98)
.10 (.02, .33)
1.05
.50
.97 (.96, .97)
.11 (.08, .15)
1.09
.27
Pooled estimate of the above listed 11 studies as calculated by Deville et al68
As above
As above
.91 (.82, .94)
.26 (.16, .38)
1.23
.35
Straight-leg raise
With patient supine, examiner slowly lifts the symptomatic straight leg until maximal hip flexion is reached or the patient asks to stop. The angle between the leg and the table is measured. Positive if reproduction of familiar radicular pain
MRI findings of disc bulges, herniations, and/or extrusions in 75 patients with complaints of acute or recurrent low back and/or leg pain of 12 weeks’ duration
.52 (.42, .58)
.89 (.79, 95)
4.73
.54
69
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Crossed Straight-Leg Raise Test Diagnostic Utility of the Crossed Straight-Leg Raise for Detecting Disc Bulge or Herniation LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Deville and colleagues68 also compiled the results of eight studies investigating the accuracy of the crossed straight-leg raise (CSLR) for detecting disc herniation. Six of the studies included information about both the sensitivity and specificity of the CSLR and were used for statistical pooling of estimates. The results of each study, as well as the pooled estimates by Deville and colleagues,68 are listed here. CSLR Study
Description and Positive Findings
Reference Standard
Hakelius et al60
Performed identically to the SLR except the uninvolved lower extremity is lifted. A positive test is defined as reproducing pain in the involved lower extremity
Herniated lumbar disc observed during surgery. Hernia was defined as extruded, protruded, and bulging disc, or sequestrated in most studies
As above
As above
Jonsson et al62 Kerr et al63 Kosteljanetz et al64 Knutsson et al66 Spangfort et al67 Pooled estimate for the 6 studies listed above as calculated by Deville and colleagues68
LR
LR
Sens
Spec
.28 (.25, .30)
.88 (.84, .90)
2.33
.82
.22 (.16, .30)
.93 (.64, 1.0)
3.14
.84
.43 (.33, .53)
.93 (.80, .99)
6.14
.61
.57 (.34, .79)
1.0 (.03, 1.0)
Undefined
.43
.25 (.18, .32)
.93 (.73, 1.0)
3.57
.81
.23 (.21, .25)
.88 (.84, .91)
1.92
.88
.29 (.24, .34)
.88 (.86, .90)
2.42
.81
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Slump Test Reliability of the Slump Test ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 4-32 Slump test.
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Intra-examiner Reliability
Knee extension range of motion during the slump test70
Subject sitting maximally slumped with 1 thigh flexed 25° to the horizontal plane. Starting with the knee at 90° and maximal ankle dorsiflexion, the knee was slowly extended to maximal discomfort and measured with an electrogoniometer
20 asymptomatic subjects
With cervical flexion: ICC .95 With cervical extension: ICC .95
Diagnostic Utility of the Slump Test for Detecting Disc Bulge or Herniation LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Slump test69
Sitting with the back straight, the patient is encouraged to slump into lumbar and thoracic flexion while looking straight ahead. Then the patient fully flexes the neck and extends 1 knee. Last, the patient dorsiflexes the ipsilateral foot. Positive if reproduction of familiar radicular pain
75 patients with complaints of acute or recurrent low back and/or leg pain of 12 weeks’ duration
MRI findings of disc bulges, herniations, and/or extrusions
.84 (.74, .90)
.83 (.73, .90)
4.94
.19
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Slump Test (continued) Diagnostic Utility of the Slump Test for Detecting Disc Bulge/Herniation
Injury
Peripheral annulus fibrosus and posterior longitudinal lig. supplied with nociceptors (small unmyelinated n. fibers with free or small capsular-type n. endings). Nociceptors connect to sinuvertebral n. and/or to somatic afferent nn. carried within the sympathetic chain to the upper lumbar levels, which lead to dorsal root ganglion in spinal n. root.
Injury to disc initiates inflammatory process in nucleus pulposus. Recurrent meningeal (sinuvertebral) Dorsal root ganglion
Discogenic pain
Herniated nucleus pulposus
Neovascularization of disc Nucleus pulposus Fissure in annulus fibrosus Recurrent meningeal (sinuvertebral) Nociceptors in annulus fibrosus
Phospholipase A2 Prostaglandins Nitric oxide Metalloproteinases ? Unidentified inflammatory agents
Inflammatory cell infiltrate (chemical signal for revascularization)
Dorsal root ganglion
Chemicals may reach nociceptors via fissure to lower threshold for firing. Pain caused by mechanical forces superimposed on chemically activated nociceptors.
Nerve root–dura interface may be involved by inflammatory process. Chemical factors and compression both contribute to lumbar pain.
Figure 4-33 Role of inflammation in lumbar pain.
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 179
Tests for Lumbar Segmental Instability Reliability of Tests for Lumbar Segmental Instability
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Hip extension test71
Prone patient extends one hip at a time. Positive if lateral shift, rotation, or hyperextension of the lumbar spine
42 patients with chronic low back pain
.72 (left) .76 (right)
Painful arc in flexion45
Patient reports symptoms at a particular point in the movement but the symptoms are not present before or after the movement
.69 (.54, .84)
Painful arc on return from flexion45
Patient experiences symptoms when returning from the flexed position
.61 (.44, .78)
Instability catch45
Patient experiences a sudden acclimation of deceleration of trunk movements outside the primary plane of movement
Gower’s sign45
Patient pushes up from thighs with the hands when returning to upright from a flexed position
Reversal of lumbopelvic rhythm45
On attempting to return from the flexed position, the patient bends the knees and shifts the pelvis anteriorly
63 patients with current low back pain
Posterior shear test45
Prone instability test45 Prone instability test32
Prone instability test36
Trendelenburg72
Active straight-leg raise (ASLR) 72 Active straight-leg raise (ASLR)73
180
.00 (1.09, 1.09) .16 (.15, .46) .60 (.47, .73)
Aberrant movement pattern45 Aberrant movement pattern32
.25 (.10, .60)
If the patient demonstrates any of the above five possible movement patterns they are considered to be positive for an aberrant movement pattern.
With patient standing with arms crossed over the abdomen, examiner places one hand over the patient’s crossed arms while the other stabilizes the pelvis. Examiner uses the index finger to palpate the L5-S1 interspace. Examiner then applies a posterior force through the patient’s crossed arms. This procedure is performed at each level. A positive test is indicated by provocation of symptoms. The patient is prone with the edge of the torso on the plinth while the legs are over the edge and feet are resting on the floor. Examiner performs a posteroanterior pressure maneuver and notes the provocation of any symptoms. The patient then lifts the feet off the floor, and examiner again performs the posteroanterior pressure maneuver. Provocation of symptoms is reported. Test is considered positive if the patient experiences symptoms while feet are on the floor, but symptoms disappear when the feet are lifted off the floor. While standing, the patient flexes one hip to 30° and lifts the ipsilateral pelvis above the transiliac line. The test is positive if the patient cannot hold the position for 30 seconds or needs more than one finger for balance. The patient is supine with straight legs and feet 20 cm apart. The patient is instructed to “try to raise your legs, one after the other above the couch without bending the knee.” The patient is asked to score the maneuver on a 6-point scale ranging from “not difficult at all” to “unable to do.”
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
123 patients with low back pain 90 days
.18 (.07, .43)
.35 (.20, .51) 63 patients with current low back pain .87 (.80, .94) 123 patients with low back pain 90 days
.28 (.10, .47)
39 patients with low back pain
.46 (.15, .77)
36 patients with chronic low back pain
50 females with lumbopelvic pain
.83 (left) .75 (right)
.70 (left) .71 (right) Test-retest ICC .83
Tests for Lumbar Segmental Instability (continued) Reliability of Tests for Lumbar Segmental Instability Figure 4-34 Prone instability test.
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 181
Tests for Lumbar Spinal Stenosis Diagnostic Utility of Tests for Lumbar Spinal Stenosis
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Abnormal Rhomberg test25
Patient stands with feet together and eyes closed for 10 seconds. Considered abnormal if compensatory movements were required to keep feet planted.
Thigh pain with 30 seconds of extension25
Patient performs hip extension for 30 seconds. Positive if patient has pain in the thigh following or during extension
Two-stage treadmill test15
Subjects ambulate on a level and inclined (15°) treadmill for 10 minutes. The patient rests for 10 minutes while sitting upright in a chair after each treadmill test
Population
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
93 patients with back pain with or without radiation to the lower extremities
Diagnosis of spinal stenosis by retrospective chart review and confirmed by MRI or CT
45 subjects with low back and lower extremity pain
Diagnosis of spinal stenosis by MRI or CT scanning
LR
LR
Sens
Spec
.39 (.24, .54)
.91 (.81, 1.0)
4.3
.67
.51 (.36, .66)
.69 (.53, .85)
1.6
.71
Time to onset of symptoms .68 (.50, .86)
.83 (.66, 1.0)
4.07 (1.40, 11.8)
.39
Longer total walking time during the inclined test .50 (.38, .63)
.92 (.78, 1.0)
6.46 (3.1, 13.5)
.54
Prolonged recovery after level walking .82 (.66 - .98)
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.68 (.48, .90)
2.59 (1.3, 5.2)
.26
Tests for Lumbar Spinal Stenosis (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Tests for Lumbar Spinal Stenosis Degenerative Disc Disease
Radiograph of thoracic spine shows narrowing of intervertebral spaces and spur formation.
Figure 4-35 Degenerative disc disease and lumbar spinal stenosis.
Degeneration of lumbar intervertebral discs and hypertrophic changes at vertebral margins with spur formation. Osteophytic encroachment on intervertebral foramina compresses spinal nerves.
Lumbar Disc Herniation Schematic cross-section showing compression of nerve root.
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 183
Tests for Radiographic Lumbar Instability Diagnostic Utility of Tests for Radiographic Lumbar Instability
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Age 37 years old31
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
LR
Spec
History collected prior to physical examination
.57 (.39, (.74)
.81 (.60, .92)
3.0 (1.2, 7.7)
.53 (.33, .85)
Lumbar flexion 53°31
Range of motion demonstrated by single inclinometer
.68 (.49, .82)
.86 (.65, .94)
4.8 (1.6, 14.0)
.38 (.21, .66)
Total extension greater than 26°31
Range of motion demonstrated by single inclinometer
.50 (.33, .67)
.76 (.55, .89)
2.1 (.90, 4.9)
.66 (.42, 1.0)
Lack of hypomobility during intervertebral testing31
With patient prone, examiner applies a posteroanterior force to the spinous process of each lumbar vertebra. Mobility of each segment was judged as “normal,” “hypermobile,” or “hypomobile”
.43 (.27, .61)
.95 (.77, .99)
9.0 (1.3, 63.9)
.60 (.43, .84)
.46 (.30, .64)
.81 (.60, .92)
2.4 (.93, 6.4)
.66 (.44, .99)
.29 (.13, .46)
.98 (.91, 1.0)
12.8 (.79, 211.6)
.72 (.55, .94)
Lumbar flexion greater than 53° Lack of hypomobility during intervertebral testing31
184
49 patients with low back pain referred for flexion-extension radiographs
Reference Standard
LR
Sens
Any hypermobility during intervertebral motion testing31
Population
LR
Radiological findings revealed either 2 segments with rotational/translational instability or one segment with both rotational and translational instability.
Combination of both factors above
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Tests for Radiographic Lumbar Instability (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Tests for Radiographic Lumbar Instability Fritz and colleagues74 investigated the accuracy of the clinical examination in 49 patients with radiographically determined lumbar instability. Results revealed that two predictor variables, including lack of hypomobility of the lumbar spine and lumbar flexion greater than 53°, demonstrated a LR of 12.8 (.79, 211.6). The nomogram below represents the change in pretest probability (57% in this study) to a post-test probability of 94.3%. 99
.1 .2 .5
2 5 Percent (%)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
1000 500 200 100 50 20 10 5 2 1
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 .5 .2 .1 .05 .02 .01 .005 .002 .001
20
Percent (%)
1
95
10 5 2 1 .5
95
.2 99 Pretest Probability
Likelihood Ratio
.1 Post-test Probability
Figure 4-36 Nomogram. Nomogram representing the post-test probability of lumbar instability given the presence of hypomobility in the lumbar spine and lumbar flexion greater than 53 degrees. (Adapted with permission from Fagan TJ. Nomogram for Baye’s theorem. N Engl J Med. 1975;293-257. Copyright 2005, Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.)
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 185
Tests for Ankylosing Spondylitis Diagnostic Utility of Tests for Ankylosing Spondylitis Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
Description and Positive Findings
Measurements of chest expansion27
7 cm (procedure not reported)
.63
.53
1.34
.70
2.5 cm (procedure not reported)
.91
.99
91
.09
With patient standing, examiner marks a point 5 cm below and 10 cm above S2. This distance is then measured in the upright position and then in full flexion. The difference between the two measurements is calculated and recorded to the closest centimeter
.30
.86
2.14
.81
449 randomly selected patients with low back pain
Reference Standard
LR
Test and Study Quality
Schober test 4 cm27
Population
LR
The New York criteria and radiographic confirmation of ankylosing spondylitis
Decreased lumbar lordosis27
Visual observation individually judged by each examiner
.36
.80
1.8
.80
Direct tenderness over sacroiliac joint27
Direct pressure over the joint with the patient in an upright position. Positive if patient reports pain
.27
.68
.84
1.07
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Classification Methods Reliability of Low Back Pain Classification Systems ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
McKenzie’s classification for low back pain75
Therapists (of which only 32% had ever taken any form of McKenzie training) completed a McKenzie evaluation form and classified the patient as exhibiting a postural, dysfunction or derangement syndrome. Therapists also determined if the patient presented with a lateral shift
363 patients referred to physical therapists for the treatment of low back pain
for classification 26 for lateral shift .26
McKenzie’s classification for low back pain52
Two examiners with greater than 5 years of training in the McKenzie method evaluated all patients. Therapists completed a McKenzie evaluation form and classified the patient as exhibiting a postural, dysfunction, or derangement syndrome. Therapists also determined if the patient presented with a lateral shift
39 patients with low back pain
for classification .70 for lateral shift .20
McKenzie’s evaluation76
Examination consisted of history-taking, evaluation of spinal range of motion, and specified test movements
46 consecutive patients presenting with low back pain
Classification of syndrome .70 Derangement subsyndrome .96 Presence of lateral shift .52 Deformity of sagittal plane 1.0
Movement impairment–based classification system for lumbar spine syndromes77
Examiners used a standardized history and physical examination to assess patients and classify them into one of five lumbar spine categories
24 patients with chronic low back pain
for classification .61
Treatment-based classification32
Thirty examiners used a standardized history and physical examination to assess patients and classify them into one of three treatment-based categories
123 patients with low back pain 90 days
for classification .61 (.56, .64)
Treatment-based classification74
Examiners used a standardized history and physical examination to assess patients and classify them into one of four treatmentbased categories
120 patients with low back pain
for classification .56
Treatment-based classification78
Examiners used a standardized history and physical examination to assess patients and classify them into one of four treatmentbased categories after a 1-day training session
45 patients with low back pain
for classification .45
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 187
Classification Methods Treatment-Based Classification Method79 Subgroup Criteria
Treatment Approach
Specific Exercise Subgroup Extension • Symptoms distal to the buttock • Symptoms centralize with lumbar extension • Symptoms peripheralize with lumbar flexion • Directional preference for extension
• • •
End-range extension exercises Mobilization to promote extension Avoidance of flexion activities
Flexion • Older age (50 years) • Directional preference for flexion • Imaging evidence of lumbar spine stenosis
• •
End-range flexion exercises Mobilization or manipulation of the spine and/or lower extremities Exercise to address impairments of strength or flexibility Body weight-supported ambulation
• •
Stabilization Subgroup • • • •
Age (40 years) Average SLR (91°) Aberrant movement present Positive prone instability test
• •
Exercises to strengthen large spinal muscles (erector spinae, oblique abdominals) Exercises to promote contraction of deep spinal muscles (multifidus, transversus abdominis)
Manipulation Subgroup • • • • •
No symptoms distal to knee Duration of symptoms 16 days Lumbar hypomobility FABQW 19 Hip internal rotation ROM 35°
• •
Manipulation techniques for the lumbopelvic region Active lumbar range of motion exercises
• •
Prone mechanical traction Extension specific exercise activities
Traction Subgroup • • •
Symptoms extend distal to the buttock(s) Signs of nerve root compression are present Peripheralization occurs with extension movement or positive contralateral SLR test is present
Rather than attempt to classify low back pain based on pathoanatomy, the Treatment-Based Classification (TBC) system identifies subgroups of patients thought to respond to specific conservative treatment interventions. Although its initial proposal was based on experience and clinical reasoning,80 researchers have since systematically identified many of the historical and clinical examination factors associated with each subgroup using clinical prediction rule research methodology.1,2,81
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Interventions Diagnostic Utility of Single Factors for Identifying Patients Likely to Benefit from Spinal Manipulation
Test and Study Quality
Description and Criteria
Population
Reference Standard
Symptoms 16 days1
FABQ work subscale score 191
Self-report
No symptoms distal to the knee1 At least one hip with 35° internal rotation ROM1
With patient prone, measured with standard goniometer
Hypomobility in the lumbar spine1
With patient prone, examiner applies a posteroanterior force to the spinous process of each lumbar vertebra. Mobility of each segment was judged as “normal,” “hypermobile,” or “hypomobile”
71 patients with low back pain
50% reduction in back pain related disability within 1 week as measured by the Oswestry questionnaire
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Spec
LR
.56 (.39, .72)
.87 (.73, .94)
4.39 (1.83, 10.51)
.84 (.68, .93)
.49 (.34, .64)
1.65 (1.17, 2.31)
.88 (.72, .95)
.36 (.23, .52)
1.36 (1.04, 1.79)
.50 (.34, .66)
.85 (.70, .93)
3.25 (1.44, 7.33)
.97 (.84, .99)
.23 (.13, .38)
1.26 (1.05, 1.51)
Sens
LR
Not reported
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 189
Interventions Diagnostic Utility of Combinations of Factors for Identifying Patients Likely to Benefit from Spinal Manipulation LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 4-37 Spinal manipulation. Spinal manipulation technique used by Flynn and colleagues.1 The patient is passively sidebent toward the side to be manipulated (away from the therapist). The therapist then rotates the patient away from the side to be manipulated (toward the therapist) and delivers a quick thrust through the anterior superior iliac spine in a posteroinferior direction.
Sens
Spec
LR
All 5 tests positive
.19 (.09, .35)
1.00 (.91, 1.00)
Undefined
4 tests positive
.63 (.45-.77)
.97 (.87-1.0)
24.38 (4.63-139.41)
.94 (.80, .98)
.64 (.48, .77)
2.61 (1.78, 4.15)
1.00 (.89, 1.0)
.15 (.07, .30)
1.18 (1.09, 1.42)
1.00 (.89, 1.0)
.03 (.005, .13)
1.03 (1.01, 1.15)
.56 (.43, .67)
.92 (.84, .96)
7.2 (3.2, 16.1)
Test and Study Quality
Description and Criteria
Symptoms 16 days No symptoms distal to the knee Hypomobility in the lumbar spine FABQ work subscale score 19 At least one hip with 35° internal rotation ROM1 Symptoms 16 days No symptoms distal to the knee81
190
3 tests positive 2 tests positive
Population
71 patients with low back pain
1 test positive
Must meet both criteria
141 patients with low back pain
Reference Standard
50% reduction in back pain related disability within 1 week as measured by the Oswestry questionnaire
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
LR
Not reported
Interventions Diagnostic Utility of Single and Combinations of Factors for Identifying Patients Likely to Benefit from Lumbar Stabilization Exercises
Test and Study Quality Age 40 years2 Average straight-leg raise 91°2
Aberrant movement present2
Positive prone instability test2
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
Self-report
.61 (.39, .80)
.83 (.68, .92)
3.7 (1.6, 8.3)
.47 (.26, .85)
Measured with an inclinometer
.28 (.13, .51)
.92 (.78, .97)
3.3 (.90, 12.4)
.79 (.58, 1.1)
Presence of any of the following during flexion ROM: • Instability catch • Painful arc of motion • “Thigh climbing” (Gower’s sign) • Reversal of lumbopelvic rhythm
.78 (.55, .91)
.50 (.35, .66)
1.6 (1.0, 2.3)
.44 (.18, 1.1)
.72 (.49, .88)
.58 (.42, .73)
1.7 (1.1, 2.8)
.48 (.22, 1.1)
.56 (.34, .75)
.86 (.71, .94)
4.0 (1.6, 10.0)
.52 (.30, .88)
2 tests positive
.83 (.61, .94)
.56 (.40, .71)
1.9 (1.2, 2.9)
.30 (.10, .88)
1 test positive
.94 (.74, .99)
.28 (.16, .44)
1.3 (1.0, 1.6)
.20 (.03, 1.4)
Description and Positive Findings
See description under Tests for Lumbar Segmental Instability 3 tests positive
Combination of any 4 factors above2
LR
Population
54 patients with low back pain with or without leg pain
Reference Standard
50% reduction in back pain related disability after 8 weeks of lumbar stabilization exercises as measured by the Oswestry questionnaire
LR
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 191
OUTCOME MEASURES Outcome Measure
Scoring and Interpretation
Test-Retest Reliability
MCID
Oswestry Disability Index (ODI)
Users are asked to rate the difficulty of performing 10 functional tasks on a scale of 0 to 5 with different descriptors for each task. A total score out of 100 is calculated by summing each score and doubling the total. The answers provide a score between 0 and 100, with higher scores representing more disability
ICC .91
1183
Modified Oswestry Disability Index (modified ODI)
As above, except the modified ODI replaces the sex life question with an employment/homemaking question
ICC .9084
684
Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire (R-M)
Users are asked to answer 23 or 24 (depending on the version) questions about their back pain and related disability. The RMDQ is scored by adding the number of items checked by the patient, with higher numbers indicating more disability
ICC .9185
583
Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire (FABQ)
Users are asked to rate their level of agreement with statements concerning beliefs about the relationship between physical activity, work, and their back pain. Level of agreement is answered on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (completely disagree) to 7 (completely agree). The FABQ is made of two parts: a seven-item work subscale (FABQW) and a four-item physical activity subscale (FABQPA). Each scale is scored separately, with higher scores representing greater fear-avoidance
FABQW: ICC .82 FABQPA: ICC .6686
Not Available
Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS)
Users rate their level of pain on an 11-point scale ranging from 0 to 10, with high scores representing more pain. Often asked as “current pain” and “least,” “worst,” and “average” pain in the past 24 hours
ICC .7287
288,89
MCID, Minimum clinically important difference.
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82
APPENDIX
Russel 198191
Blower 198492
Gran 1985
Kerr 1988
Katz 1995
Phillips 199693
Fritz 1997
Lauder 2000
Leboeuf-Yde 2002
Abbott 2003
Laslett 2005
Abbott 2005
Fritz 2005
Hicks 2005
Majlesi 2008
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
U
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
N
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
Y
Y
Y
U
N
U
Y
Y
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
U
U
U
U
U
N
U
U
Y
U
Y
U
Y
N
U
5. Did the whole sample or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
Y
U
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
U
U
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
Y
N
Y
N
Y
U
U
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
N
U
Y
N
Y
N
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
U
N
Y
U
Y
N
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
U
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 193
APPENDIX (continued)
Russel 198191
Blower 198492
Gran 1985
Kerr 1988
Katz 1995
Phillips 199693
Fritz 1997
Lauder 2000
Leboeuf-Yde 2002
Abbott 2003
Laslett 2005
Abbott 2005
Fritz 2005
Hicks 2005
Majlesi 2008
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
U
Y
Y
U
Y
U
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
13. Were uninterpretable/ intermediate test results reported?
N
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Quality summary rating:
Y yes, N no, U unclear.
194
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14)
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9)
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Poor quality (Y - N 4)
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33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39. 40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
subgrouping patients with low back pain. Spine. 2006;31:77-82. Haswell K, Williams M, Hing W. Interexaminer reliability of symptom-provoking active sidebend, rotation and combined movement assessments of patients with low back pain. J Manual Manipulative Ther. 2004;12:11-20. Cleland JA, Childs JD, Fritz JM, Whitman JM. Interrater reliability of the history and physical examination in patients with mechanical neck pain. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2006;87:1388-1395. Weiner DK, Sakamoto S, Perera S, Breuer P. Chronic low back pain in older adults: prevalence, reliability, and validity of physical examination findings. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2006;54:11-20. Schneider M, Erhard R, Brach J, et al. Spinal palpation for lumbar segmental mobility and pain provocation: an interexaminer reliability study. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2008;31:465-473. Landel R, Kulig K, Fredericson M, et al. Intertester reliability and validity of motion assessments during lumbar spine accessory motion testing. Phys Ther. 2008;88:43-49. Qvistgaard E, Rasmussen J, Laetgaard J, et al. Intraobserver and inter-observer agreement of the manual examination of the lumbar spine in chronic low-back pain. Eur Spine J. 2007;16:277-282. Johansson F. Interexaminer reliability of lumbar segmental mobility tests. Man Ther. 2006;11:331-336. Mootz RD, Keating JCJ, Kontz HP, et al. Intra- and interobserver reliability of passive motion palpation of the lumbar spine. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1989;12:440-445. Keating JCJ, Bergmann TF, Jacobs GE, et al. Interexaminer reliability of eight evaluative dimensions of lumbar segmental abnormality. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1990;13:463-470. Strender LE, Sjoblom A, Sundell K, et al. Interexaminer reliability in physical examination of patients with low back pain. Spine. 1997;22:814-820. Maher CG, Latimer J, Adams R. An investigation of the reliability and validity of posteroanterior spinal stiffness judgments made using a reference-based protocol. Phys Ther. 1998;78:829-837. Binkley J, Stratford PW, Gill C. Interrater reliability of lumbar accessory motion mobility testing. Phys Ther. 1995;75:786-795. Hicks GE, Fritz JM, Delitto A, Mishock J. The reliability of clinical examination measures used for patients with suspected lumbar segmental instability. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84:1858-1864. French SD, Green S, Forbes A. Reliability of chiropractic methods commonly used to detect manipulable lesions in patients with chronic low-back pain. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2000;23:231-238. Horneij E, Hemborg B, Johnsson B, Ekdahl C. Clinical tests on impairment level related to low back pain: a study of test reliability. J Rehabil Med. 2002;34:176-182.
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48. Abbot J, Mercer S. Lumbar segmental hypomobility: criterion-related validity of clinical examination items (a pilot study). N Z J Physiother. 2003;31:3-9. 49. Leboeuf-Yde C, van Dijk J, Franz C, et al. Motion palpation findings and self-reported low back pain in a population-based study sample. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2002;25:80-87. 50. Abbott JH, McCane B, Herbison P, et al. Lumbar segmental instability: a criterion-related validity study of manual therapy assessment. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2005;6:56. 51. Downey BJ, Taylor NF, Niere KR. Manipulative physiotherapists can reliably palpate nominated lumbar spinal levels. Man Ther. 1999;4:151-156. 52. Kilpikoski S, Airaksinen O, Kankaanpaa M, et al. Interexaminer reliability of low back pain assessment using the McKenzie method. Spine. 2002;27:E207-E214. 53. Fritz JM, Delitto A, Vignovic M, Busse RG. Interrater reliability of judgments of the centralization phenomenon and status change during movement testing in patients with low back pain. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2000;81:57-61. 54. Laslett M, Oberg B, Aprill CN, McDonald B. Centralization as a predictor of provocation discography results in chronic low back pain, and the influence of disability and distress on diagnostic power. Spine J. 2005;5:370-380. 55. Rose MJ. The statistical analysis of the intra-observer repeatability of four clinical measurement techniques. Physiotherapy. 1991;77:89-91. 56. Viikari-Juntura E, Takala EP, Riihimaki H, et al. Standardized physical examination protocol for low back disorders: feasibility of use and validity of symptoms and signs. J Clin Epidemiol. 1998;51:245-255. 57. Albeck MJ. A critical assessment of clinical diagnosis of disc herniation in patients with monoradicular sciatica. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1996;138:40-44. 58. Charnley J. Orthopaedic signs in the diagnosis of disc protrusion. With special reference to the straightleg-raising test. Lancet. 1951;1:186-192. 59. Gurdjian ES, Webster Je, Ostrowski AZ, et al. Herniated lumbar intervertebral discs—an analysis of 1176 operated cases. J Trauma. 1961;1:158-176. 60. Hakelius A, Hindmarsh J. The significance of neurological signs and myelographic findings in the diagnosis of lumbar root compression. Acta Orthop Scand. 1972;43:239-246. 61. Hirsch C, Nachemson A. The reliability of lumbar disc surgery. Clin Orthop. 1963;29:189-195. 62. Jonsson B, Stromqvist B. The straight leg raising test and the severity of symptoms in lumbar disc herniation. A preoperative evaluation. Spine. 1995;20:27-30. 63. Kerr RS, Cadoux-Hudson TA, Adams CB. The value of accurate clinical assessment in the surgical management of the lumbar disc protrusion. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1988;51:169-173. 64. Kosteljanetz M, Bang F, Schmidt-Olsen S. The clinical significance of straight-leg raising (Lasegue’s sign) in
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the diagnosis of prolapsed lumbar disc. Interobserver variation and correlation with surgical finding. Spine. 1988;13:393-395. Kosteljanetz M, Espersen JO, Halaburt H, Miletic T. Predictive value of clinical and surgical findings in patients with lumbago-sciatica. A prospective study (Part I). Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1984;73:67-76. Knutsson B. Comparative value of electromyographic, myelographic and clinical-neurological examinations in diagnosis of lumbar root compression syndrome. Acta Orthop Scand Suppl. 1961;49:1-135. Spangfort EV. The lumbar disc herniation: a computer aided analysis of 2504 operations. Acta Orthop Scand. 1972;142:5-79. Deville WL, van der Windt DA, Dzaferagic A, et al. The test of Lasegue: systematic review of the accuracy in diagnosing herniated discs. Spine. 2000;25:1140-1147. Majlesi J, Togay H, Unalan H, Toprak S. The sensitivity and specificity of the slump and the straight leg raising tests in patients with lumbar disc herniation. J Clin Rheumatol. 2008;14:87-91. Tucker N, Reid D, McNair P. Reliability and measurement error of active knee extension range of motion in a modified slump test position: a pilot study. J Man Manip Ther. 2007;15:E85-E91. Murphy DR, Byfield D, McCarthy P, et al. Interexaminer reliability of the hip extension test for suspected impaired motor control of the lumbar spine. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2006;29:374-377. Roussel NA, Nijs J, Truijen S, et al. Low back pain: clinimetric properties of the Trendelenburg test, active straight leg raise test, and breathing pattern during active straight leg raising. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2007;30:270-278. Mens JM, Vleeming A, Snijders CJ, et al. Reliability and validity of the active straight leg raise test in posterior pelvic pain since pregnancy. Spine. 2001;26:1167-1171. Fritz JM, George S. The use of a classification approach to identify subgroups of patients with acute low back pain. Interrater reliability and short-term treatment outcomes. Spine. 2000;25:106-114. Riddle DL, Rothstein JM. Intertester reliability of McKenzie’s classifications of the syndrome types present in patients with low back pain. Spine. 1993;18:1333-1344. Razmjou H, Kramer JF, Yamada R. Intertester reliability of the McKenzie evaluation in assessing patients with mechanical low-back pain. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2000;30:368-89. Trudelle-Jackson E, Sarvaiya-Shah SA, Wang SS. Interrater reliability of a movement impairment-based classification system for lumbar spine syndromes in patients with chronic low back pain. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2008;38:371-376. Heiss DG, Fitch DS, Fritz JM, et al. The interrater reliability among physical therapists newly trained in a
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classification system for acute low back pain. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2004;34:430-439. Hebert J, Koppenhaver S, Fritz J, Parent E. Clinical prediction for success of interventions for managing low back pain. Clin Sports Med. 2008;27:463-479. Delitto A, Erhard RE, Bowling RW. A treatmentbased classification approach to low back syndrome: identifying and staging patients for conservative management. Phys Ther. 1995;75:470-489. Fritz JM, Childs JD, Flynn TW. Pragmatic application of a clinical prediction rule in primary care to identify patients with low back pain with a good prognosis following a brief spinal manipulation intervention. BMC Fam Pract. 2005;6:29. Lauridsen HH, Hartvigsen J, Manniche C, et al. Danish version of the Oswestry Disability Index for patients with low back pain. Part 1: Cross-cultural adaptation, reliability and validity in two different populations. Eur Spine J. 2006;15:1705-1716. Lauridsen HH, Hartvigsen J, Manniche C, et al. Responsiveness and minimal clinically important difference for pain and disability instruments in low back pain patients. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2006;7:82. Fritz JM, Irrgang JJ. A Comparison of a Modified Oswestry Disability Questionnaire and the Quebec Back Pain Disability Scale. Phys Ther. 2001;81:776-788. Brouwer S, Kuijer W, Dijkstra PU, et al. Reliability and stability of the Roland Morris Disability Questionnaire: intra class correlation and limits of agreement. Disabil Rehabil. 2004;26:162-165. Grotle M, Brox JI, Vollestad NK. Reliability, validity and responsiveness of the fear-avoidance beliefs questionnaire: methodological aspects of the Norwegian version. J Rehabil Med. 2006;38:346-353. Li L, Liu X, Herr K. Postoperative pain intensity assessment: a comparison of four scales in Chinese adults. Pain Med. 2007;8:223-234. Farrar JT, Berlin JA, Strom BL. Clinically important changes in acute pain outcome measures: a validation study. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2003;25:406-411. Farrar JT, Portenoy RK, Berlin JA, et al. Defining the clinically important difference in pain outcome measures. Pain. 2000;88:287-294. Fukui S, Ohseto K, Shiotani M, et al. Distribution of referred pain from the lumbar zygapophyseal joints and dorsal rami. Clin J Pain. 1997;13:303-307. Russel AS, Maksymowych W, LeClercq S. Clinical examination of the sacroiliac joints: a prospective study. Arthritis Rheum. 1981;24:1575-1577. Blower PW, Griffin AJ. Clinical sacroiliac tests in ankylosing spondylitits and other causes of low back pain—2 studies. Ann Rheum Dis. 1984;43:192-195. Phillips DR, Twomey LT. A comparison of manual diagnosis with a diagnosis established by a uni-level lumbar spinal block procedure. Man Ther. 1996;1:82-87.
4 THORACOLUMBAR SPINE 197
Sacroiliac Region
5
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
200
Anatomy Osteology Arthrology Ligaments Muscles Nerves Patient History Sacroiliac Pain and Sacroiliac Dysfunction Pain Location and Aggravating Factors Sacroiliac Joint Pain Referral Patterns Physical Examination Tests Palpation Pain Provocation Motion Assessment Combinations of Tests Interventions Outcome Measures Appendix Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies for the Sacroiliac Region Using QUADAS References
201 201 205 206 207 208 210 210 211 212 213 213 216 226 233 236 238 239 239 240
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Patient History Questions
“Pain relieved by standing” is the only question studied to demonstrate some diagnostic utility (LR of 3.5) for sacroiliac joint pain.
Pain Location
Recent evidence suggests that patients with sacroiliac joint pain commonly experience the most intense pain around one or both sacroiliac joints with or without referral into the lateral thigh.
Physical Examination Pain Provocation Tests
Pain provocation tests generally demonstrate fair to moderate reliability and some exhibit moderate diagnostic utility for detecting sacroiliac joint pain. Clusters of pain provocation tests consistently demonstrate good diagnostic utility for detecting sacroiliac joint pain. Using a cluster of four to five tests including distraction, thigh thrust, sacral thrust, and compression after a McKenzie-type repeated motion examination seems to exhibit the best diagnostic utility (LR of 6.97) and is recommended.
Motion Assessment and Static Palpation
Motion assessment and static palpation tests generally demonstrate very poor reliability and almost no diagnostic utility for either sacroiliac joint pain or innominate torsion and, therefore, are not recommended for use in clinical practice. Lumbar hypomobility is the one exception that, although exhibiting questionable reliability, demonstrates some diagnostic utility when used as part of a cluster to determine which patients will respond to spinal manipulation.
Interventions
200
Patients with low back pain of duration less than 16 days and no symptoms distal to the knees, and/or meet four out of five of the Flynn and colleagues1 criteria, should be treated with a lumbosacral manipulation.
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ANATOMY Osteology
4
Body of sternum
5 Xiphoid process
6
Costal cartilages
7
T11
8
T12
9
12th rib
L1
10 L2 Transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae Inner lip Iliac crest
Intermediate zone
Sacral promontory
L3
Iliac tuberosity Iliac crest
L4
Outer lip Tuberculum
Wing (ala) of ilium Greater sciatic notch
L5
Arcuate line Anterior superior iliac spine
Ischial spine Sacrum Lesser sciatic notch
Anterior inferior iliac spine Iliopubic eminence
Greater trochanter of femur
Coccyx
Pecten pubis (pectineal line)
Superior pubic ramus Obturator foramen
Pubic symphysis Ischial tuberosity
Pubic tubercle Inferior pubic ramus
Inferior pubic lig.
Pubic arch
Lesser trochanter of femur
Figure 5-1 Bony framework of abdomen.
5 SACROILIAC REGION 201
Osteology
Superior articular process Base of sacrum Lumbosacral articular surface
Ala (lateral part)
Sacral canal Superior articular process
D l sa or
Ala (wing)
c rfa su
Promontory
e
Pe lv
ic
Sacral part of pelvic brim (linea terminalis) Anterior (pelvic) sacral foramina
su
rfa
ce
Sacral hiatus
Transverse ridges
Median sagittal section
Apex of sacrum Transverse process of coccyx
Coccyx
Facets of superior articular processes
Pelvic surface Sacral tuberosity Auricular surface Lateral sacral crest
Median sacral crest Median sacral crest Intervertebral foramen
Sacral canal
Posterior sacral foramina
Posterior sacral foramen Intermediate sacral crest
Sacral cornu (horn) Sacral hiatus
Coccygeal cornu (horn)
Anterior (pelvic) sacral foramen Transverse process of coccyx
Coronal section through S2 foramina Dorsal surface
Figure 5-2 Sacrum and coccyx.
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Osteology
Intermediate zone Tuberculum Iliac crest Outer lip
Lateral view
Gluteal lines
Anterior Inferior Posterior
Wing (ala) of ilium (gluteal surface) Anterior superior iliac spine
Posterior superior iliac spine
Anterior inferior iliac spine Posterior inferior iliac spine
Acetabulum Lunate surface Margin (limbus) of acetabulum
Greater sciatic notch
Acetabular notch
Body of ilium
Superior pubic ramus
Ischial spine
Pubic tubercle
Lesser sciatic notch Body of ischium
Obturator foramen
Obturator crest Inferior pubic ramus
Ischial tuberosity
Intermediate zone Iliac crest Inner lip Iliac tuberosity
Ramus of ischium Anterior superior iliac spine
Posterior superior iliac spine
Wing (ala) of ilium (iliac fossa)
Auricular surface (for sacrum)
Anterior inferior iliac spine Arcuate line
Posterior inferior iliac spine
Iliopubic eminence
Greater sciatic notch
Superior pubic ramus
Ilium
Body of ilium
Pubic tubercle
I schium Pubis
Ischial spine
Pecten pubis (pectineal line)
Symphyseal surface
Obturator foramen
Obturator groove
Lesser sciatic notch Body of ischium Ischial tuberosity
Inferior pubic ramus
Ramus of ischium Medial view
Figure 5-3 Hip (coxal) bone.
5 SACROILIAC REGION 203
Osteology
Female pelvis/female pelvic inlet: anterior view Sacroiliac joint Sacral promontory Conjugate (~11 cm) Diameters of Transverse (~13 cm) pelvic inlet Oblique (~12.5 cm) Ischial spine Iliopubic eminence Pubic symphysis Ischial tuberosity
Pubic arch Male pelvis/male pelvic inlet: anterior view All measurements slightly shorter in relation to body size than in female Pelvic inlet oriented more anteroposteriorly than in female, where it tends to be transversely oval Pubic symphysis deeper (taller) Pubic arch (subpubic angle) narrower Ischial tuberosities less far apart Iliac wings less flared Pubic symphysis
Transverse diameter of pelvic outlet (~11 cm)
Anteroposterior diameter of pelvic outlet (varies 9.5-11.5 cm because of mobility of coccyx)
Ischial spine Tip of coccyx
Pubic symphysis
Female pelvis/female pelvic outlet: inferior view
Figure 5-4 Sex differences of pelvis.
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Pla
Ischial tuberosity
ne o
f pe
lvic
inle
t
Sacral promontory
Conjugate diameter of pelvic inlet (~11 cm)
tlet c ou elvi p Anteroposterior f eo diameter of Plan
pelvic outlet (9.5-11.5 cm) Female: sagittal section
Arthrology
Figure 5-5 Sacroiliac joint.
Sacroiliac Region
Type and Classification
Closed Packed Position
Capsular Pattern
Sacroiliac joint
Plane synovial
Has not been described
Considered a capsular pattern if pain is provoked when joints are stressed
Apophyseal joints
Plane synovial
Extension
Equal limitations of sidebending, flexion, and extension
Intervertebral joint
Amphiarthrodial
Not applicable
Not applicable
Lumbosacral
5 SACROILIAC REGION 205
Ligaments
Iliolumbar lig.
Iliac crest Supraspinous lig. Posterior superior iliac spine Posterior sacroiliac ligs. Tuberculum of iliac crest Posterior sacral foramina Greater sciatic foramen Anterior superior iliac spine Sacrospinous lig. Sacrotuberous lig. Lesser sciatic foramen Acetabular margin
Anterior longitudinal lig.
Ischial tuberosity Tendon of long head of biceps femoris m.
Iliolumbar lig. Iliac fossa
Outer lip zone Iliac crest Intermediate Tuberculum Inner lip
Deep Posterior Superficial sacrococcygeal ligs. Lateral sacrococcygeal lig. Posterior view Linea terminalis
Anterior sacroiliac lig. Sacral promontory Greater sciatic foramen Anterior superior iliac spine Sacrotuberous lig. Sacrospinous lig. Anterior inferior iliac spine Ischial spine Anterior Arcuate line sacral foramina Coccyx Lesser sciatic foramen Iliopubic eminence Iliopectineal Anterior Superior pubic ramus line sacrococcygeal Pecten pubis ligs. (pectineal line) Obturator foramen Inferior pubic ramus Pubic symphysis Pubic tubercle Anterior view
Figure 5-6 Sacroiliac region ligaments. Sacroiliac Region Ligaments
Attachment
Function
Posterior sacroiliac
Iliac crest to tubercles of S1-S4
Limits movement of sacrum on iliac bones
Anterior sacroiliac
Anterosuperior aspect of sacrum to anterior ala of ilium
Limits movement of sacrum on iliac bones
Sacrospinous
Inferior lateral border of sacrum to ischial spine
Limits gliding and rotary movement of sacrum on iliac bones
Sacrotuberous
Middle lateral border of sacrum to ischial tuberosity
Limits gliding and rotary movement of sacrum on iliac bones
Posterior sacrococcygeal
Posterior aspect of inferior sacrum to posterior aspect of coccyx
Reinforces sacrococcygeal joint
Anterior sacrococcygeal
Anterior aspect of inferior sacrum to anterior aspect of coccyx
Reinforces sacrococcygeal joint
Lateral sacrococcygeal
Lateral aspect of inferior sacrum to lateral aspect of coccyx
Reinforces sacrococcygeal joint
Anterior longitudinal
Extends from anterior sacrum to anterior tubercle of C1. Connects anterolateral vertebral bodies and discs
Maintains stability of vertebral body joints and prevents hyperextension of vertebral column
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Muscles
Multifidus
Longissimus Iliocostalis
Piriformis
Gluteus maximus
Figure 5-7 Sacroiliac region muscles. Posterior view of spine and associated musculature.
Sacroiliac Region Muscles
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Gluteus maximus
Posterior border of ilium, dorsal aspect of sacrum and coccyx, and sacrotuberous ligament
Iliotibial tract of fascia lata and gluteal tuberosity of femur
Inferior gluteal nerve (L5, S1, S1)
Extension, external rotation and some abduction of the hip joint
Piriformis
Anterior aspect of sacrum and sacrotuberous ligament
Superior greater trochanter of femur
Ventral rami S1, S2
External rotation of extended hip, abduction of flexed hip
Multifidi
Sacrum, ilium, transverse processes T1-T3, articular processes C4-C7
Spinous processes of vertebrae two to four segments above origin
Dorsal rami of spinal nerves
Stabilizes vertebrae
Longissimus Iliocostalis
Iliac crest, posterior sacrum, spinous processes of sacrum and inferior lumbar vertebrae, supraspinous ligament
Transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae Inferior surface of ribs 4-12
Dorsal rami of spinal nerves
Bilaterally extends vertebral column Unilaterally sidebends spinal column
5 SACROILIAC REGION 207
Nerves Nerve
Segmental Level
Sensory
Motor
Superior gluteal
L4, L5, S1
No sensory
Tensor fascia latae, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus
Inferior gluteal
L5, S1, S2
No sensory
Gluteus maximus
Nerve to piriformis
S1, S2
No sensory
Piriformis
Sciatic
L4, L5, S1, S2, S3
Hip joint
Knee flexors and all muscles of leg and foot
Nerve to quadratus femoris
L5, S1, S2
No sensory
Quadratus femoris, inferior gemellus
Nerve to obturator internus
L5, S1, S2
No sensory
Obturator internus, superior gemellus
Posterior cutaneous
S2, S3
Posterior thigh
No motor
Perforating cutaneous
S2, S3
Inferior gluteal region
No motor
Pudendal
S2, S3, S4
Genitals
Perineal muscles, external urethral sphincter, external anal sphincter
Nerve to levator ani
S3, S4
No sensory
Levator ani
Perineal branch
S1, S2, S3
Genitals
No motor
Anococcygeal
S4, S5, C0
Skin in the coccygeal region
No motor
Coccygeal
S3, S4
No sensory
Coccygeus
Pelvic splanchnic
S2, S3, S4
No sensory
Pelvic viscera
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Nerves
Schema L4 Anterior division
Lumbosacral trunk
L5
Posterior division
Gray rami communicantes
S1 Superior gluteal n.
Pelvic splanchnic nn. (parasympathetic to inferior hypogastric [pelvic] plexus)
S2
Inferior gluteal n. S3
Nerve to piriformis
S4 Sciatic n.
S5
Tibial n.
Coccygeal n. Anococcygeal n.
Common fibular (peroneal) n.
Nerve to quadratus femoris (and inferior gemellus) Nerve to obturator internus (and superior gemellus)
Perineal branch of 4th sacral n. Nerve to levator ani and (ischio-)coccygeus mm. Pudendal n. Perforating cutaneous n. Posterior cutaneous n. of thigh
Medial and slightly anterior view of hemisected pelvis Sympathetic trunk
Lumbosacral trunk
Gray rami communicantes
Psoas major m. Superior gluteal artery and n. Obturator n.
Pelvic splanchnic nn. (cut) (parasympathetic to inferior hypogastric [pelvic] plexus)
L5 L4 S1
Iliacus m. S2
Inferior gluteal a. Nerve to quadratus femoris
S3 S4
Internal pudendal a.
S5
Nerve to obturator internus Pudendal n.
Co
Obturator internus m. Superior pubic ramus Piriformis m. (Ischio-)coccygeus m. Nerve to levator ani m. Levator ani m.
Sacral splanchnic nn. (cut) (sympathetic to inferior hypogastric [pelvic] plexus)
Figure 5-8 Sacroiliac region nerves.
5 SACROILIAC REGION 209
PATIENT HISTORY Sacroiliac Pain and Sacroiliac Dysfunction There has been considerable controversy surrounding the contribution of the sacroiliac joint in low back pain syndromes. Recent research suggests that the sacroiliac joint can be a contributor to low back pain and disability and can certainly be a primary source of pain.2-7 The concept of “sacroiliac joint dysfunction” is distinct from “sacroiliac joint pain” and is hypothetical at best.3 Sacroiliac joint dysfunction is usually defined as altered joint mobility and/or malalignment,8-10 neither of which have been consistently linked to low back or sacroiliac joint pain.
Figure 5-9 Common cause of sacroiliac injury. Falling and landing on the buttock.
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Pain Location and Aggravating Factors Dreyfuss and colleagues2 performed a prospective study to determine the diagnostic utility of both the history and physical examination in determining pain of sacroiliac origin. The diagnostic properties for the aggravating and easing factors and patient-reported location of pain are below. LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Spec
LR
LR
.07
.98
3.5
.95
.13
.77
.57
1.13
.07
.8
.35
1.16
.53
.49
1.04
.96
.45
.47
.85
1.17
Bowel movements aggravate symptoms?2
.38
.63
1.03
.98
Wearing heels/boots aggravates symptoms?2
.26
.56
.59
1.32
Job activities aggravate symptoms?2
.20
.74
.77
1.08
Question and Study Quality
Population
Reference Standard
Pain relieved by standing?2 Pain relieved by walking?2 Pain relieved by sitting?2 Pain relieved by lying down?2 Coughing/sneezing aggravates symptoms?2
Patient Report of Pain Location and Study Quality
85 consecutive patients with low back pain referred for sacroiliac joint blocks
Population
90% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
Reference Standard
Sacroilliac joint pain2 Groin pain2 Buttock pain2
85 consecutive patients with low back pain referred for sacroiliac joint blocks
Points to of posterior-superior iliac spine (PSIS) as main area of pain2
90% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
Sens
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.82*
.12*
.93
1.5
.26*
.63*
.70
1.17
.78*
.18*
.95
1.22
.71*
.47*
1.34
.62
*Mean of chiropractor and physician sensitivity and specificity scores.
5 SACROILIAC REGION 211
Sacroiliac Joint Pain Referral Patterns Figure 5-10 Jung and associates11 determined the most common pain distribution patterns in patients with sacroiliac joint pain. They then prospectively tested the ability of the pain distribution patterns to diagnose the response to sacroiliac joint radiofrequency neurotomies in 160 patients with presumed sacroiliac joint pain. The pain distribution patterns with the best diagnostic utility are depicted in Figure 5-10.
Figure 5-11 In a similar study, van der Wurff and colleagues12 compared compiled pain distribution maps from patients that responded to double-block sacroiliac joint injections to those that didn’t respond. They found no difference in the location of pain distribution, but found differences in the pain intensity locations. Patients with sacroiliac joint pain reported the highest intensity pain overlying the sacroiliac joint as depicted in Figure 5-11.
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION TESTS Palpation Pain Provocation and Patient Identification of Location of Pain
Measurement (and Study Quality)
Population
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
Sacral sulcus tenderness only2 Sacral sulcus tenderness the patient points to the PSIS as the main site of pain2 Sacral sulcus tenderness groin pain
2
Patient points to PSIS as main site of pain complains of groin pain2
85 consecutive patients with low back pain referred for sacroiliac joint blocks
Sacral sulcus tenderness patient identifies PSIS as main site of pain groin pain2
90% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.89*
.14
1.03*
.79*
.63*
.50*
1.26*
.74*
.25*
.68*
.78*
1.10*
.16
.85
1.07
.99
.13
.86
.93
1.01
*Mean of chiropractor and physician sensitivity and specificity scores
5 SACROILIAC REGION 213
Palpation Assessment of Symmetry of Bony Landmarks ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Landmark Sitting PSIS
Description and Positive Findings 13
With patient sitting, examiner palpates right and left PSIS. Positive if one PSIS is higher than the other
Sitting PSIS9
Population
Reliability
62 women recruited from obstetrics; 42 pregnant with pelvic girdle pain, and 20 who were not pregnant and were asymptomatic
Inter-examiner .26
65 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .37 Inter-examiner .23
Sitting PSIS1 Standing PSIS
1
Same as above with patient standing 1
Iliac crest symmetry
With patient standing, examiner palpates right and left iliac crest. Positive if one crest is higher than the other
Prone PSIS14
With patient prone and examiner’s fingers or thumbs on landmark and dominant eye over the patient’s mid-sagittal plane, examiner determines if the landmarks are: • Right higher than left • Left higher than right • Equal right to left
Sacral inferior lateral angle14
Sacral sulcus14 Sacral sulcus15 Sacral inferior lateral angle15 L5 transverse process15 Medial malleoli15 Medial malleoli16
71 patients with low back pain
As above, determining if the landmarks are: • Right more posterior than left • Left more posterior than right • Equal right to left
10 asymptomatic female volunteers
Sacral base16
With patient sitting, evaluator palpates the sacral base with the patient’s trunk flexed and extended. Recorded as symmetrical, leftbase anterior or posterior, or right-base anterior or posterior
Inter-examiner .23
Intra-examiner .69 Inter-examiner .08
Intra-examiner .24 Inter-examiner .07 Inter-examiner .11 (.14, .36)
25 patients with low back or sacroiliac pain
Inter-examiner .11 (.12, .34) Inter-examiner .17 (.03, .37) Inter-examiner .28 (.01, .57)
As above, determining if the landmarks are: • Right more superior than left • Left more superior than right • Equal right to left With patient supine, evaluator palpates inferior slope ASIS. Recorded as above
Inter-examiner .13
Intra-examiner .33 Inter-examiner .04
As above, determining if the landmarks are: • Right deeper than left • Left deeper than right • Equal right to left
Anterior-superior iliac spine (ASIS)16
Inter-examiner .21 Inter-examiner .15 24 patients with low back pain
Potter and Rothstein17 also studied static palpation, but were excluded because they only reported percent agreement.
214
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Inter-examiner [Trunk flexion] .37 [Trunk extension] .05
Palpation (continued) Assessment of Symmetry of Bony Landmarks
Figure 5-12 Assessment of iliac crest symmetry in standing.
5 SACROILIAC REGION 215
Pain Provocation Patrick Test (FABER Test) ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
See Figure 5-13, page 221 Test and Study Patrick test18
Patrick test19
Patrick test20 Patrick test1 21
Patrick test
2
Patrick test
Description and Positive Findings With patient supine, examiner brings ipsilateral knee into flexion with lateral malleolus placed over the contralateral knee, fixates the contralateral ASIS, and applies a light pressure over the ipsilateral knee. Positive if familiar pain is increased or reproduced
Population
Reliability
15 patients with ankylosing spondylitis, 30 women with postpartum pelvic pain, and 16 asymptomatic subjects
Inter-examiner [Right] .60 (.39, .81) [Left] .48 (.27, .69)
25 patients with asymmetrical low back pain
Intra-examiner* [Right] .41 (.07, .78) [Left] .40 (.03, .78) Inter-examiner [Right] .44 (.06, .83) [Left] .49 (.09, .89)
40 patients with chronic low back pain
Inter-examiner [Right] .60 (.35, .85) [Left] .43 (.15, .71)
71 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .60
59 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .61 (.31, .91)
See diagnostic table
Inter-examiner .62
*Intra-examiner reliability reported for examiner #1 only.
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Patrick test20
With patient supine, examiner brings ipsilateral knee into flexion with lateral malleolus placed over the contralateral knee, fixates the contralateral ASIS, applying a light pressure over the ipsilateral knee. Positive if familiar pain is increased or reproduced
Patrick test2
Population
Reference Standard
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Spec
LR
LR
.51 (.33, .69)
1.37 (.76, 2.48)
.64 (.24, 1.72)
.54 (.24, .81)
.62 (.42, .78)
1.43 (.70, 2.93)
.73 (.36, 1.45)
.68*
.29*
.96*
1.1*
Sens
Right side 40 patients with chronic low back pain
85 consecutive patients with low back pain referred for sacroiliac joint blocks
Sacroiliitis apparent on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
90% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
.66 (.30, .90) Left side
*Mean of chiropractor and physician sensitivity and specificity scores. Broadhurst and Bond22 also investigated this test, but the study was excluded because results for all participants were positive on the test (making sensitivity 1, and specificity 0).
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Pain Provocation Thigh Thrust (or Posterior Shear Test or Posterior Pelvic Provocation Test) See Figure 5-14, page 221
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Thigh thrust20
Patient supine with hip flexed to 90°. The examiner applies posteriorly directed force through the femur. Positive if familiar pain is increased or reproduced
See diagnostic table
Inter-examiner [Right] .46 (.15, .76)
15 patients with ankylosing spondylitis, 30 women with postpartum pelvic pain, and 16 asymptomatic subjects
Inter-examiner [Right] .76 (.48, .86) [Left] .74 (.57, .91)
25 patients with asymmetrical low back pain
Intra-examiner* [Right] .44 (.06, .83) [Left] .40 (.00, .82) Inter-examiner [Right] .60 (.24, .96) [Left] .40 (.00, .82)
71 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .70
51 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .88
59 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .67 (.46, .88)
See diagnostic table
Inter-examiner .64
Thigh thrust18
Thigh thrust19
Thigh thrust1 Thigh thrust23 Thigh thrust21 Thigh thrust
Patient supine with hip flexed to 90° and slightly adducted. One of the examiner’s hands cups the sacrum and the other applies posteriorly directed force through the femur. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
2
*Intra-examiner reliability reported for examiner #1 only.
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
LR
LR
.70 (.51, .85)
1.91 (.85, 4.27)
.62 (.29, 1.33)
.45 (.18, .75)
.86 (.67, .95)
3.29 (1.07, 10.06)
.63 (.36, 1.09)
Sens
Spec
Right side
Thigh thrust20
Thigh thrust4
Thigh thrust2
With patient supine with hip flexed to 90°, examiner applies posteriorly directed force through the femur. Positive if familiar pain is increased or reproduced
With patient supine with hip flexed to 90° and slightly adducted, one of the examiner’s hands cups the sacrum and the other applies posteriorly directed force through the femur. Positive if familiar symptoms are produced or increased
40 patients with chronic low back pain
Sacroiliitis apparent on MRI
.55 (.22, .84) Left side
48 patients with chronic lumbopelvic pain referred for sacroiliac joint injection
80% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
.88 (.64, .97)
.69 (NR, .82)
2.8 (1.66, 4.98)
.18 (.05, 1.09)
85 consecutive patients with low back pain referred for sacroiliac joint blocks
90% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
.39*
.50*
.78*
1.22*
*Mean of chiropractor and physician sensitivity and specificity scores. Broadhurst and Bond22 also investigated this test, but the study was excluded because results for all participants were positive on the test (making sensitivity 1, and specificity 0).
5 SACROILIAC REGION 217
Pain Provocation Compression Test See Figure 5-15, page 221 ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Compression test18
With patient side-lying, affected side up, with hips flexed approximately 45° and knees flexed approximately 90°, examiner applies a force vertically downward on the anteriorsuperior iliac crest. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
15 patients with ankylosing spondylitis, 30 women with postpartum pelvic pain, and 16 asymptomatic subjects
Inter-examiner [Right] .48 (.18, .78) [Left] .67 (.43, .91)
40 patients with chronic low back pain
Inter-examiner [Right] .48 (.14, .81) [Left] .44 (.08, .79)
51 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .73
59 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .57 (.21, .93)
71 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .26
Compression test20
Compression test23 Compression test21 1
Compression test
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
LR
LR
.83 (.65, .93)
1.37 (.31, 5.94)
.92 (.64, 1.33)
.27 (.07, .60)
.93 (.75, .98)
3.95 (.76, 20.57)
.78 (.54, 1.12)
.69 (.44, .86)
.69 (.51, NR)
2.20 (1.18, 4.09)
.46 (.20, .87)
Right side
Compression test20
Compression test4
Spec
Sens
With patient side-lying, affected side up, with hips flexed approximately 45° and knees flexed approximately 90°, examiner applies a force vertically downward on the anterior-superior iliac crest. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
40 patients with chronic low back pain
48 patients with chronic lumbopelvic pain referred for sacroiliac joint injection
Sacroiliitis apparent on MRI
80% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
.22 (.03, .59) Left side
Russel and associates24 and Blower and Griffin25 also investigated this test, but were excluded due to poor study quality.
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Pain Provocation Sacral Thrust Test See Figure 5-16, page 222 ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Sacral thrust test20
Sacral thrust test6 Sacral thrust test23 2
Sacral thrust test
Test and Study Quality
With patient prone, examiner applies a force vertically downward to the center of the sacrum. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Population
Reliability
40 patients with chronic low back pain
Inter-examiner [Right] .87 (.70, 1.0) [Left] .69 (.40, .97)
71 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .41
51 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .56
85 patients with low back pain referred for sacroiliac joint blocks
Inter-examiner .30
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
Spec
LR
LR
.74 (.55, .87)
1.29 (.42, 3.88)
.89 (.55, 1.45)
.45 (.18, .75)
.89 (.71, .97)
4.39 (1.25, 15.36)
.60 (.35, 1.05)
Sens Right side
40 patients with chronic low back pain
Sacral thrust test20
Sacral thrust test4
Sacral thrust test2
With patient prone, examiner applies a force vertically downward to the center of the sacrum. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
Sacroiliitis apparent on MRI
.33 (.09, .69) Left side
48 patients with chronic lumbopelvic pain referred for sacroiliac joint injection
80% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
.63 (.39, .82)
.75 (.58, .87)
2.5 (1.23, 5.09)
.5 (.24, .87)
85 consecutive patients with low back pain referred for sacroiliac joint blocks
90% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
.52*
.38*
.84*
1.26*
*Mean of chiropractor and physician sensitivity and specificity scores.
5 SACROILIAC REGION 219
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Pain Provocation Gaenslen Test See Figure 5-17, page 222 Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Gaenslen test20
Gaenslen test1
Gaenslen test23
With patient supine near the edge of the table and one leg hanging over the edge of the table and the other flexed toward the patient’s chest, examiner applies firm pressure to both the hanging leg and the leg flexed toward the chest. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
Gaenslen test21
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Population
Reliability
40 patients with chronic low back pain
Inter-examiner [Right] .37 (.05, .68) [Left] .28 (0.0, .60)
71 patients referred to physical therapy with a diagnosis related to the lumbosacral spine
Inter-examiner .54
51 patients with low back pain with or without radiation into the lower limb
Inter-examiner .76
59 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .60 (.33, .88)
Reference Standard
Gaenslen test20
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Gaenslen test2
With patient supine near the edge of the table and one leg hanging over the edge of the table and the other flexed toward the patient’s chest, examiner applies firm pressure to both the hanging leg and the leg flexed toward the chest. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
40 patients with chronic low back pain
Sacroiliitis apparent on MRI
LR
LR
.80 (.61, .91)
2.29 (.82, 6.39)
.68 (.37, 1.25)
.75 (.56, .88)
1.5 (.54, 4.15)
.83 (.52, 1.33)
.71 (.53, .84)
1.84 (.87, 3.74)
.66 (.34, 1.09)
Left side .36 (.12, .68) Right side
48 patients with chronic lumbopelvic pain referred for sacroiliac joint injection
80% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
.53 (.30, .75)
.50 (.27, .73)
.77 (.60, .89)
2.21 (.95, 5.0)
.65 (.34, 1.03)
85 consecutive patients with low back pain referred for sacroiliac joint blocks
90% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
.68*
.29*
.96*
1.1*
Left side
*Mean of chiropractor and physician sensitivity and specificity scores.
220
Spec
Right side .44 (.15, .77)
Gaenslen test4
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Pain Provocation
Figure 5-13 Patrick test.
Figure 5-14 Thigh thrust.
Figure 5-15 Compression test.
5 SACROILIAC REGION 221
Pain Provocation
Figure 5-16 Sacral thrust test.
Figure 5-17 Gaenslen test.
222
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Pain Provocation Distraction Test
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 5-18 Distraction test. Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Distraction test20
With patient supine, examiner applies crossarm pressure to both anterior superior iliac spines. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
40 patients with chronic low back pain
Inter-examiner .50
51 patients with low back pain, with or without radiation into the lower limb
Inter-examiner .69
59 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .45 (.10, .78)
71 patients referred to physical therapy with a diagnosis related to the lumbosacral spine
Inter-examiner .26
Distraction test23
Distraction test21 Distraction test1
With patient supine, examiner applies a posteriorly directed force to both anterior superior iliac spines. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Distraction test20
With patient supine, examiner applies cross-arm pressure to both anterior superior iliac spines. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
40 patients with chronic low back pain
Sacroiliitis apparent on MRI
.23 (.06, .54)
.81 (.61, .92)
1.24 (.35, 4.4)
.94 (.68, 1.29)
Distraction test4
With patient supine, examiner applies a posteriorly directed force to both anterior superior iliac spines. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
48 patients with chronic lumbopelvic pain referred for sacroiliac joint injection
80% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
.60 (.36, .80)
.81 (.65, .91)
3.20 (1.42, 7.31)
.49 (.24, .83)
5 SACROILIAC REGION 223
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Pain Provocation Mennell’s Test
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 5-19 Mennell’s test. Test and Study 20
Mennell’s test
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
With patient side-lying, affected side down, with affected side hip and knee flexed toward the abdomen, examiner puts one hand over the ipsilateral buttock and iliac crest and the other hand grasps the semiflexed ipsilateral knee and lightly forces the leg into extension. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
40 patients with chronic low back pain
Inter-examiner [Right] .54 (.26, .82) [Left] .50 (.20, .80)
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Spec
LR
LR
.80 (.61, .91)
3.44 (1.49, 8.09)
.41 (.16, 1.05)
.86 (.67, .95)
3.29 (1.07, 10.06)
.63 (.36, 1.09)
Right side
Mennell’s test20
As above
40 patients with chronic low back pain
Sacroiliitis apparent on MRI
.66 (.30, .90) Left side .45 (.18, .75)
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Pain Provocation Other Pain Provocations Tests
Figure 5-20 Resisted abduction of the hip. ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study Resisted abduction test19
Resisted abduction test1
Description and Positive Findings
With patient supine with legs extended and abducted 30°, examiner holds the ankle and pushes medially while the patient pushes laterally. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
Internal rotation of the hip18
With patient prone, examiner maximally internally rotates one or both femurs. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
Drop-test18
With patient standing on one foot, patient lifts the heel from the floor and drops down on the heel again. Positive test is the production or increase of familiar symptoms
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Population
Reliability
25 patients with asymmetrical low back pain
Intra-examiner* [Right] .48 (.07, .88) [Left] .50 (.06, .95) Inter-examiner [Right] .78 (.49, 1.07) [Left] .50 (.02, 1.03)
71 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .41
15 patients with ankylosing spondylitis, 30 women with postpartum pelvic pain, and 16 asymptomatic subjects
Inter-examiner [Right] .78 (.60, .94) [Left] .88 (.75, 1.01) [Bilateral] .56 (.33, .79) Inter-examiner [Right] .84 (.61, 1.06) [Left] .47 (.11, .83)
*Intra-examiner reliability reported for examiner #1 only. Broadhurst and Bond22 investigated the diagnostic properties of the resisted abduction test, but the study was excluded because all participants were positive on the test (making sensitivity 1, and specificity 0).
5 SACROILIAC REGION 225
Motion Assessment Gillet Test (Stork Test) ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Gillet test
With patient standing, examiner palpates the following landmarks: • L5 spinous process and PSIS • S1 tubercle and PSIS • S3 tubercle and PSIS • Sacral apex and posteromedial margin of the ischium Patient is instructed to raise the ipsilateral leg of the side of palpation. Positive if the lateral landmark fails to move posteroinferiorly with respect to medial landmark
54 asymptomatic college students
Intra-examiner mean value for all tests .31 Inter-examiner mean value for all tests .02
Gillet test27
As above except using the following landmarks: • L5 spinous process and PSIS • S1 spinous process and PSIS • S3 spinous process and PSIS • Sacral hiatus and caudolateral just below the ischial spine
38 male students; 9 during the first testing procedure and 12 during the second had low back pain
Intra-examiner* .08 (.01, .14) Inter-examiner .05 (.06, .12)
Gillet test19
With patient standing, examiner palpates the PSIS and asks patient to flex the hip and knee on the side being tested. Positive if the PSIS fails to move posteroinferiorly
25 patients with asymmetrical low back pain
Intra-examiner* [Right] .42 (.01, .87) [Left] .49 (.09, .89) Inter-examiner [Right] .41 (.03, .87) [Left] .34 (.06, .70)
Gillet test28
With patient standing, examiner palpates the S2 spinous process with one thumb and the PSIS with the other and asks patient to flex the hip and knee on the side being tested. Rated intrapelvic motion as “cephalad,” “neutral,” or “caudad”
33 volunteers; 15 had pelvic-girdle pain
Inter-examiner [Right] .59 [Left] .59
24 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .27
See diagnostic table
Inter-examiner .22
71 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .59
26
Gillet test16 Gillet test2 Gillet test6
With patient standing, examiner palpates the S2 spinous process with one thumb and the PSIS with the other and asks patient to flex the hip and knee on the side being tested. Positive if the PSIS fails to move posteroinferiorly with respect to S2
*Intra-examiner reliability reported for examiner #1 only. Potter and Rothstein17 and Herzog and colleagues29 also studied this test, but were excluded because they only reported percent agreement.
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Motion Assessment Gillet Test (Stork Test) (Continued) Figure 5-21 Gillet test.
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Gillet test2
With patient standing with feet spread 12 inches apart, examiner palpates the S2 spinous process with one thumb and the posterior superior iliac spine with the other. The patient then flexes the hip and knee on the side being tested. The test is considered positive if the PSIS fails to move in a posteroinferior direction relative to S2
85 consecutive patients with low back pain referred for sacroiliac joint blocks
90% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
.47*
.64*
1.31*
.83*
274 patients being treated for low back pain or another condition not related to the low back
Innominate torsion calculated by measured differences in pelvic landmarks
.08
.93
1.14
.99
Gillet test30
*Mean of chiropractor and physician sensitivity and specificity scores.
5 SACROILIAC REGION 227
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Motion Assessment Spring Test (Joint Play Assessment)
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 5-22 Spring test.
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Spring test18
With patient prone, examiner uses one hand to lift the ilium while using the other hand to stabilize the sacrum and palpate the movement between the sacrum and ilium with the index finger
15 patients with ankylosing spondylitis, 30 women with postpartum pelvic pain, and 16 asymptomatic subjects
Inter-examiner .06
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Spring test2
Therapist’s hands are placed over the superior sacrum and a posteroanterior thrust is applied while the therapist monitors the spring at the end range of motion. The asymptomatic side is compared with the symptomatic
85 consecutive patients with low back pain referred for sacroiliac joint blocks
90% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
.66*
.42*
1.14*
.81*
*Mean of chiropractor and physician sensitivity and specificity scores.
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Motion Assessment Long-Sit Test (Supine to Sit Test)
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 5-23 Long-sit test.
Test and Study 1
Long-sit test
Long-sit test9
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
With patient supine, lengths of medial malleoli are compared. Patient is asked to long-sit and lengths of medial malleoli are again compared. Positive if one leg appears shorter in supine and then lengthens when the patient comes into long-sitting position
71 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .21
65 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .19
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Long-sit test30
With patient supine, lengths of medial malleoli are compared. Patient is asked to long-sit and lengths of medial malleoli are again compared. Positive if one leg appears shorter in supine and then lengthens when the patient comes into long-sitting position
274 patients being treated for low back pain or another condition not related to the low back
Innominate torsion calculated by measured differences in pelvic landmarks
.44
.64
1.22
.88
5 SACROILIAC REGION 229
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Motion Assessment Standing Flexion Test
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 5-24 Standing flexion test. Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Standing flexion test19
Standing flexion test16 Standing flexion test9 Standing flexion test31 Standing flexion test,10,32
With patient standing, examiner palpates inferior slope of PSIS. Patient is asked to forward bend completely. Positive for sacroiliac hypomobility if one PSIS moves more cranially than the contralateral side
Standing flexion test1
Population
Reliability
25 patients with asymmetrical low back pain
Intra-examiner* [Right] .68 (.35, 1.01) [Left] .61 (.27, .96) Inter-examiner [Right] .51 (.08, .95) [Left] .55 (.20, .90)
24 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .06
65 patients currently receiving treatment for low back pain
Inter-examiner .32
14 asymptomatic graduate students
Inter-examiner .52
480 male construction workers; 50 had low back pain the day of the examination; 236 reported experiencing low back pain within the past 12 months
Inter-examiner values ranged from .31-.67
71 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .08
*Intra-examiner reliability reported for examiner #1 only. Potter and Rothstein17 also studied this test, but were excluded because they only reported percent agreement.
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Standing flexion test30
with patient standing, examiner palpates inferior slope of PSIS. Patient is asked to forward bend completely. Positive for sacroiliac hypomobility if one PSIS moves more cranially than the contralateral side
274 patients being treated for low back pain or another condition not related to the low back
Innominate torsion calculated by measured differences in pelvic landmarks
.17
.79
.81
1.05
230
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Motion Assessment Sitting Flexion Test
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 5-25 Sitting flexion test. Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Sitting flexion test19
Sitting flexion test1
With patient sitting, examiner palpates inferior slope of PSIS. Patient is asked to forward bend completely. Positive for sacroiliac hypomobility if one PSIS moves more cranially than the contralateral side
16
Sitting flexion test
Population
Reliability
25 patients with asymmetrical low back pain
Intra-examiner* [Right] .73 (.45, 1.01) [Left] .65 (.34, .96) Inter-examiner [Right] .75 (.42, 1.08) [Left] .64 (.32, .96)
71 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .21
24 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .06
*Intra-examiner reliability reported for examiner #1 only.
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Sitting flexion test30
With patient seated, examiner palpates inferior aspect of each PSIS. Positive for sacroiliac joint dysfunction if inequality of PSIS is found
274 patients being treated for low back pain or another condition not related to the low back
Innominate torsion calculated by measured differences in pelvic landmarks
.09
.93
1.29
.98
5 SACROILIAC REGION 231
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Motion Assessment Prone Knee Bend Test
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 5-26 Prone knee bend test. Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Prone knee bend19
Prone knee bend1 Prone knee bend9
With patient prone, examiner, looking at heels, assesses leg lengths. Knees are passively flexed to 90° and leg lengths are again assessed. Considered positive if a change in leg lengths occurs between positions
Population
Reliability
25 patients with asymmetrical low back pain
Intra-examiner* [Right] .41 (.07, .78) [Left] .27 (.22, .78) Inter-examiner [Right] .58 (.25, .91) [Left] .33 (⫺.18, .85)
71 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .21
65 patients with low back pain
Inter-examiner .26
*Intra-examiner reliability reported for examiner #1 only. Potter and Rothstein17 also studied this test, but were excluded because they only reported percent agreement.
Other Motion Assessment Tests Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
13
Click-clack test
With patient sitting and examiner’s thumbs on caudal PSIS, the patient rocks pelvis forward and backward. Test is positive if one PSIS moves slower from cranial to caudal than the other
Heel-bank test13
With patient sitting and examiner’s thumbs on caudal PSIS, the patient raises one leg at a time and places the heel on the bench without using hands. Considered positive if the test required any effort
Abduction test13
With patient side-lying with hips flexed 70° and knees flexed 90°, the patient is asked to lift the top leg about 20 cm. Considered positive if the test required any effort
232
Population
Reliability Inter-examiner .03
62 women recruited from obstetrics: 42 pregnant with pelvic girdle pain and 20 who were not pregnant and were asymptomatic
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Inter-examiner [Right] .32 [Left] .16
Inter-examiner [Right] .61 [Left] .41
Combinations of Tests Spec
LR
LR
.83 (.65, .93)
3.44 (1.27, 9.29)
.52 (.25, 1.11)
.45 (.18, .75)
.86 (.67, .95)
3.29 (1.07, 10.0)
.63 (.36, 1.09)
50% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
.85 (.72, .99)
.79 (.65, .93)
4.02 (2.04, 7.89)
.19 (.07, .47)
48 patients with chronic lumbopelvic pain referred for sacroiliac joint injection
80% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
.88 (.64, .97)
.78 (.61, .89)
4.0 (2.13, 8.08)
.16 (.04, .47)
48 patients with chronic lumbopelvic pain referred for diagnostic spinal injection
80% pain relief with injection of local anesthetics into sacroiliac joint
.91 (.62, .98)
.78 (.61, .89)
4.16 (2.16, 8.39)
.12 (.02, .49)
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Mennell’s test Gaenslen’s test Thigh thrust20
Procedures all previously described in this chapter. At least 2 of 3 tests need to be positive to indicate sacroiliitis
40 patients with chronic low back pain
Distraction Thigh thrust Gaenslen’s test Patrick sign Compression33
Procedures all previously described in this chapter. At least 3 of 5 tests need to be positive to indicate sacroiliac joint pain
60 patients with chronic low back pain referred to pain clinic
Distraction Thigh thrust Sacral thrust Compression4
Procedures all previously described in this chapter. At least 2 of 4 tests need to be positive to indicate sacroiliac joint pain
Distraction Thigh thrust Gaenslen’s test Sacral thrust Compression5
Procedures all previously described in this chapter. At least 3 of 5 tests need to be positive to indicate sacroiliac joint pain
Reference Standard
Sens
Right side Sacroiliitis apparent on MRI
.55 (.22, .84) Left side
5 SACROILIAC REGION 233
Combinations of Tests
.1
99
.2 .5 1
1000 500
90
2
200 100 50
80
10
20 10 5
60 50
20
2 1
30
70
40
30 40 50 60
.5
20
.2 .1 .05
10
70 80
.02 .01 .005
90
.002 .001
P ercent (%)
5
P ercent (%)
95
5
2 1 .5
95
.2 99 Pretest Probability
.1 Likelihood Ratio
Post-test Probability
Figure 5-27 Nomogram representing the changes from pretest to post-test probability using the cluster of tests for detecting sacroiliac dysfunction. Considering a 33% pretest probability and a LR of 4.16, the post-test probability that the patient presents with sacroiliac dysfunction is 67%. (Adapted with permission from Fagan TJ. Nomogram for Bayes’ theorem. N Engl J Med. 1975;293-257. Massachusetts Medical Society, 2005.)
234
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Combinations of Tests Following the McKenzie Evaluation to Rule out Discogenic Pain 99
.1 .2 .5
2 5 Percent (%)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
1000 500 200 100 50 20 10 5 2 1
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 .5 .2 .1 .05 .02 .01 .005 .002 .001
20
Percent (%)
1
95
10 5 2 1 .5
95
.2 99 Pretest Probability
Likelihood Ratio
.1 Post-test Probability
Figure 5-28 Nomogram representing the changes from pretest to post-test probability using the above cluster of tests for detecting sacroiliac pain following the exclusion of patients determined to have pain of discogenic origin as determined by a McKenzie assessment. Considering a 33% pretest probability and a LR of 6.97, the post-test probability that the patient presents with sacroiliac pain is 77%. (Adapted with permission from Fagan TJ. Nomogram for Bayes’ theorem. N Engl J Med. 1975;293-257. Massachusetts Medical Society, 2005.)
Laslett and associates5 assessed the diagnostic utility of the McKenzie method of mechanical assessment combined with the following sacroiliac tests: distraction, thigh thrust, Gaenslen, sacral thrust, and compression. The McKenzie assessment consisted of flexion in standing, extension in standing, right and left side gliding, flexion in lying, and extension in lying. The movements were repeated in sets of 10, and centralization and peripheralization were recorded. If it was determined that repeated movements resulted in centralization, the patient was considered to have pain of discogenic origin. Following the use of the McKenzie method to rule out individuals presenting with discogenic pain, in terms of diagnostic utility, the cluster of these tests exhibited a sensitivity of .91 (95% CI .62, .98), specificity .87 (95% CI .68, .96), LR of 6.97 (95% CI 2.16, 8.39), LR .11 (95% CI .02, .44).
5 SACROILIAC REGION 235
Interventions Identifying Patients Likely to Benefit from Spinal Manipulation Figure 5-29 Spinal manipulation technique used by Flynn and colleagues. The patient is passively sidebent toward the side to be manipulated (away from the therapist). The therapist then rotates the patient away from the side to be manipulated (toward the therapist) and delivers a quick thrust through the anterior superior iliac spine in a posteroinferior direction.
Flynn and colleagues1 investigated the effects of spinal manipulation technique in a heterogeneous population of patients with low back pain. They identified a number of variables that were associated with a successful outcome following the manipulation. A logistics regression equation was used to identify a cluster of signs and symptoms leading to a clinical prediction rule that could significantly enhance the likelihood of identifying patients who will achieve a successful outcome with spinal manipulation. Five variables formed the clinical prediction rule (below). Childs and colleagues34 tested the validity of the clinical prediction rule when applied in a separate patient population and by a variety of clinicians with varying levels of clinical experience and practicing in different settings. Consecutive patients with low back pain were randomized to receive either spinal manipulation or a lumbar stabilization program. The results of the study demonstrated that patients who satisfied the clinical prediction rule and received spinal manipulation had significantly better outcomes than patients who did not meet the clinical prediction rule but still received spinal manipulation and the group who met the clinical prediction rule but received lumbar stabilization exercises. To make use of the clinical prediction rule more practical in a primary care environment, Fritz and colleagues35 tested an abbreviated version consisting of only the acuity and symptom location factors. Ninety-two percent of patients with low back pain that met both criteria had successful outcomes. The results of the Childs and colleagues34 and Fritz and associates35 studies support the findings of Flynn and colleagues1 and significantly increase clinician confidence in using the clinical prediction rule in decision-making regarding individual patients with low back pain.
236
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Interventions
Test and Study Quality
Description and Criteria
Population
Symptoms 16 days No symptoms distal to the knee Hypomobility in the lumbar spine FABQ work subscale score 19 At least 1 hip with 35° internal rotation ROM1
At least 4 of 5 tests needed to be positive
71 patients with low back pain
Symptoms 16 days No symptoms distal to the knee35
Must meet both criteria
141 patients with low back pain
99
.2 .5
5 Percent (%)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 .5 .2 .1 .05 .02 .01 .005 .002 .001
20
Percent (%)
2
95 1000 500 200 100 50 20 10 5 2 1
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
.63 (.45-.77)
.97 (.87-1.0)
24.38 (4.63-139.41)
.56 (.43, .67)
.92 (.84, .96)
7.2 (3.2, 16.1)
50% reduction in back pain related disability within 1 week as measured by the Oswestry questionnaire
.1
1
Reference Standard
LR
Figure 5-30 Nomogram representing the changes from pretest to post-test likelihood that a patient with low back pain, who satisfies four of five criteria for the rule, will have a successful outcome following spinal manipulation. The pretest likelihood that any patient with low back pain would respond favorably to sacroiliac manipulation was determined to be 45%. However, if the patient presents with four of the five predictor variables identified by Flynn and colleagues1 (LR 24), then the post-test probability that the patient will respond positively to spinal manipulation increases dramatically to 95%. (Adapted with permission from Fagan TJ. Nomogram for Bayes’ theorem. N Engl J Med. 1975;293-257. Massachusetts Medical Society, 2005.)
10 5 2 1 .5
95
.2 99 Pretest Probability
Likelihood Ratio
.1 Post-test Probability
5 SACROILIAC REGION 237
OUTCOME MEASURES Outcome Measure
Scoring and Interpretation
Test-Retest Reliability
MCID
Oswestry Disability Index (ODI)
Users are asked to rate the difficulty of performing 10 functional tasks on a scale of 0 to 5 with different descriptors for each task. A total score out of 100 is calculated by summing each score and doubling the total. The answers provide a score between 0 and 100, with higher scores representing more disability
ICC .91
1137
Modified Oswestry Disability Index (modified ODI)
As above except replaces the sex life question with an employment/homemaking question
ICC .9038
638
Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire (R-M)
Users are asked to answer 23 or 24 (depending on the version) questions about their back pain and related disability. The RMDQ is scored by adding up the number of items checked by the patient, with higher numbers indicating more disability
ICC .9139
537
Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire (FABQ)
Users are asked to rate their level of agreement with statements concerning beliefs about the relationship between physical activity, work, and their back pain. Level of agreement is answered on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (completely disagree) to 7 (completely agree). The FABQ is made of 2 parts: a 7-item work subscale (FABQW), and a 4-item physical activity subscale (FABQPA). Each scale is scored separately, with higher scores representing higher fear-avoidance
FABQW: ICC .82 FABQPA: ICC .6640
Not Available
Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS)
Users rate their level of pain on an 11-point scale ranging from 0 to 10, with high scores representing more pain. Often asked as current pain and least, worst, and average pain in the past 24 hours
ICCs .7241
242,43
MCID, Minimum clinically important difference.
238
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
36
APPENDIX
Russel 1981
Blower 1984
Dreyfuss 1996
Broadhurst 1998
Levangie 1999
Laslett 2003
Laslett 2005
van der Wurff 2006
Jung 2007
Ozgocmen 2008
Flynn 2002
Fritz 2005
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies for the Sacroiliac Region Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
N
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
U
U
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
5. Did the whole sample or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
U
U
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
N
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
U
N
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results fo the index test?
U
U
U
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
U
Y
U
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
U
Y
U
N
N
Y
Y
N
U
N
Y
Y
13. Were uninterpretable/intermediate test results reported?
N
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Quality summary rating: Y yes, N no, U unclear.
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14).
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9).
Poor quality (Y - N 4).
5 SACROILIAC REGION 239
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41.
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5 SACROILIAC REGION 241
Hip and Pelvis
6
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
244
Anatomy Osteology Arthrology Ligaments Muscles Nerves Patient History Initial Hypotheses Based on Historical Findings Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History for Identifying Intra-articular Hip Pain, Osteoarthritis, and Acetabular Labral Tears Physical Examination Tests Range of Motion Assessing Muscle Strength Assessing Muscle Length Functional Movements Palpation Special Tests Combinations of Tests Outcome Measures Appendix Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS References
245 245 246 247 248 252 254 254 255 256 256 264 268 272 273 274 278 279 280 280 281
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Patient History Complaints
Several complaints appear to be useful in identifying specific hip pathologies. A subjective complaint of “clicking in the hip” is strongly associated with acetabular labral tears. Reports of “constant low back/buttock pain” and “ipsilateral groin pain” are moderately helpful in diagnosing osteoarthritis (OA) of the hip.
Physical Examination Range of Motion
Measuring hip range of motion (ROM) has consistently been shown to be highly reliable and when limited in three planes can be fairly useful in identifying hip OA (LR 4.5 to 4.7). Assessing pain during ROM can be helpful in identifying both OA and lateral tendon pathology. Lateral hip pain during passive abduction is strongly suggestive of lateral tendon pathology (LR 8.3), whereas groin pain during active hip abduction or adduction is moderately suggestive of OA (LR 5.7). Limited hip abduction in infants can also be very helpful in identifying hip dysplasia or instability.
Strength Assessment
Assessment of hip muscle strength has been shown to be fairly reliable, but appears to be less helpful in identifying lateral tendon pathologies than reports of pain during resisted tests, especially of the gluteus minimus and medius (LR 3.27). Similarly, a report of posterior pain with a squat is also fairly useful in identifying hip OA (LR 6.1). Although less reliable than strength tests, the Trendelenburg test is also moderately useful in identifying both lateral tendon pathologies and gluteus medius tears (LR 3.2 to 3.6).
Special Tests
Generally special tests of the hip have not been demonstrated to be especially helpful in identifying specific hip pathologies. Not the Patrick’s test (FABER), the flexion-internal rotation-adduction (FADIR) test, or the scour test appear to have much diagnostic utility. One exception is the patellar-pubic-percussion test, which is very good at detecting and ruling out hip fractures (LR 6.7 to 21.6, LR .07 to .14).
Combinations of Findings
244
Patients with at least four of five signs and symptoms (squatting aggravates symptoms, lateral pain with active hip flexion, scour test with adduction causes lateral hip or groin pain, pain with active hip extension, and passive internal rotation 25°) are highly likely to have hip OA.
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ANATOMY Osteology Intermediate zone Tuberculum Iliac crest Outer lip
Pelvis: Lateral view Anterior Inferior Posterior Posterior superior iliac spine
Gluteal lines
Ilium Ischium Pubis
Wing (ala) of ilium (gluteal surface) Anterior superior iliac spine
Figure 6-1 Hip (coxal) bone.
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Posterior inferior iliac spine Greater sciatic notch Body of ilium Ischial spine Lesser sciatic notch Body of ischium
Acetabulum Lunate surface Margin (limbus) of acetabulum Acetabular notch Superior pubic ramus Pubic tubercle Obturator foramen
Ischial tuberosity Ramus of ischium
Intermediate zone Iliac Inner lip crest
Obturator crest Inferior pubic ramus
Anterior superior iliac spine Wing (ala) of ilium (iliac fossa) Anterior inferior iliac spine Arcuate line Iliopubic eminence Superior pubic ramus Pecten pubis (pectineal line) Pubic tubercle Symphyseal surface
Obturator foramen
Obturator groove Inferior pubic ramus
Femur: Anterior view Greater trochanter
Head Fovea for lig. of head Neck Lesser trochanter Intertrochanteric line
Shaft (body)
Iliac tuberosity Posterior superior iliac spine Auricular surface (for sacrum) Posterior inferior iliac spine Greater sciatic notch Ischial spine Body of ilium Lesser sciatic notch Body of ischium Ischial tuberosity
Ramus of ischium Pelvis: Medial view
Femur: Posterior view Head Trochanteric fossa Greater trochanter Fovea for lig. of head Neck Intertrochanteric crest Calcar Lesser trochanter Pectineal line Gluteal tuberosity
Figure 6-2 Femur.
Line of attachment of border of synovial membrane Line of reflection of synovial membrane Line of attachment of fibrous capsule Line of reflection of fibrous capsule (unattached)
Linea aspera Medial lip Lateral lip
Shaft (body)
6 HIP AND PELVIS 245
Arthrology
Transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae
Sacral promontory
Iliac tuberosity
L3
Iliac crest L4
Wing (ala) of ilium
Inner lip Intermediate zone
Iliac crest
L5 Greater sciatic notch
Tuberculum Outer lip
Arcuate line Ischial spine
Anterior superior iliac spine
Lesser sciatic notch
Sacrum
Anterior inferior iliac spine Iliopubic eminence
Greater trochanter of femur
Coccyx
Pecten pubis (pectineal line)
Superior pubic ramus
Pubic symphysis
Obturator foramen
Ischial tuberosity Pubic tubercle
Lesser trochanter of femur
Pubic arch Inferior pubic ramus Inferior pubic lig.
Figure 6-3 Hip and pelvis joints.
Joint
Type and Classification
Closed Packed Position
Capsular Pattern
Femoroacetabular
Synovial: Spheroidal
Full extension, some internal rotation, and abduction
Internal rotation and abduction flexion and extension
Pubic symphysis
Amphiarthrodial
Not applicable
Not applicable
Sacroiliac
Synovial: Plane
Not documented
Not documented
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Ligaments Anterior view Iliofemoral lig. (Y ligament of Bigelow)
Posterior view Iliofemoral lig. Ischiofemoral lig. Zona orbicularis Greater trochanter
Ischial spine
Anterior superior iliac spine Anterior inferior iliac spine
Iliopectineal bursa (over gap in ligs.) Pubofemoral lig. Obturator crest
Greater trochanter
Superior pubic ramus
Ischial tuberosity Intertrochanteric crest
Protrusion of synovial membrane
Intertrochanteric line
Lesser trochanter
Lesser trochanter Joint opened: lateral view Lunate (articular) surface of acetabulum Articular cartilage Greater trochanter Head of femur Neck of femur Intertrochanteric line Lig. of head of femur (cut)
Anterior superior iliac spine Anterior inferior iliac spine Iliopubic eminence Acetabular labrum (fibrocartilaginous) Fat in acetabular fossa (covered by synovial membrane) Obturator a. Anterior branch Posterior branch Acetabular branch Obturator membrane Transverse acetabular lig. Ischial tuberosity Lesser trochanter
Figure 6-4 Ligaments of the hip and pelvis.
Hip Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Iliofemoral
Anterior inferior iliac spine to intertrochanteric line of femur
Limits hip extension
Ischiofemoral
Posterior inferior acetabulum to apex of greater tubercle
Limits internal rotation, external rotation, and extension
Pubofemoral
Obturator crest of pubic bone to blend with capsule of hip and iliofemoral ligament
Limits hip hyperabduction
Ligament of head of femur
Margin of acetabular notch and transverse acetabular ligament to head of femur
Carries blood supply to head of femur
Pubic Symphysis Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Superior pubic ligament
Connects superior aspect of right and left pubic crests
Reinforces superior aspect of joint
Inferior pubic ligament
Connects inferior aspect of right and left pubic crests
Reinforces inferior aspect of joint
Posterior pubic ligament
Connects posterior aspect of right and left pubic crests
Reinforces inferior aspect of joint
6 HIP AND PELVIS 247
Muscles Posterior Muscles of Hip and Thigh Muscle
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Gluteus maximus
Posterior border of ilium, dorsal aspect of sacrum and coccyx, and sacrotuberous ligament
Iliotibial tract of fascia lata and gluteal tuberosity of femur
Inferior gluteal nerve (L5, S1, S2)
Extension, external rotation, and some abduction of the hip joint
Gluteus medius
External superior border of ilium and gluteal aponeurosis
Lateral aspect of greater trochanter of femur
Gluteus minimus
External surface of ilium and margin of greater sciatic notch
Anterior aspect of greater trochanter of femur
Piriformis
Anterior aspect of sacrum and sacrotuberous ligament
Superior greater trochanter of femur
Superior gemellus
Ischial spine
Inferior gemellus
Ischial tuberosity
Obturator internus
Internal surface of obturator membrane, border of obturator foramen
Quadratus femoris
Lateral border of ischial tuberosity
Superior gluteal nerve (L5, S1)
Ventral rami S1, S2
Nerve to obturator internus (L5, S1) Trochanteric fossa of femur
Hip abduction and internal rotation; maintains level pelvis in single limb stance
Nerve to quadratus femoris (L5, S1)
External rotation of extended hip, abduction of flexed hip, steady femoral head in acetabulum
Nerve to obturator internus (L5, S1) Quadrate tubercle of femur
Nerve to quadratus femoris (L5, S1)
Lateral rotation of hip; steadies femoral head in acetabulum
Hamstrings Semitendinosus
Superomedial aspect of tibia Ischial tuberosity
Semimembranosus Biceps femoris
248
Posterior aspect of medial condyle of tibia Long head: ischial tuberosity Short head: linea aspera and lateral supracondylar line of femur
Lateral aspect of head of fibula, lateral condyle of tibia
Tibial division of sciatic nerve (L5, S1, S2)
Long head: tibial division of sciatic nerve (L5, S1, S2) Short head: common fibular division of sciatic nerve (L5, S1, S2)
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Hip extension, knee flexion, medial rotation of knee in knee flexion
Knee flexion, hip extension, and knee external rotation when knee is flexed
Muscles (continued) Posterior Muscles of Hip and Thigh
Superficial dissection
Deeper dissection Iliac crest Gluteal aponeurosis over Gluteus medius m. Gluteus minimus m. Gluteus maximus m. Piriformis m. Sciatic n. Sacrospinous lig. Superior gemellus m. Obturator internus m. Inferior gemellus m. Sacrotuberous lig. Quadratus femoris m. Ischial tuberosity Semitendinosus m. Greater trochanter Biceps femoris m. (long head) Adductor minimus part of Adductor magnus m. Semimembranosus m. Iliotibial tract Gracilis m. Biceps femoris m. Short head Long head Semimembranosus m. Semitendinosus m. Popliteal vessels and tibial n. Common fibular (peroneal) n. Plantaris m. Gastrocnemius m. Medial head Lateral head Sartorius m. Popliteus m. Tendinous arch of Soleus m.
Plantaris tendon (cut)
Figure 6-5 Muscles of hip and thigh: posterior views.
6 HIP AND PELVIS 249
Muscles Anterior Muscles of Hip and Thigh Muscle
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Major
Lumbar transverse processes
Lesser trochanter of femur
L1-4
Flexes the hip, assists with external rotation and abduction
Minor
Lateral bodies of T12-L1
Iliopectineal eminence, and arcuate line of ileum
L1-2
Flexion of pelvis on lumbar spine
Iliacus
Superior iliac fossa, iliac crest and ala of sacrum
Lateral tendon of psoas major and distal to lesser trochanter
Femoral nerve (L1-4)
Flexes the hip, assists with external rotation and abduction
Longus
Inferior to pubic crest
Middle third of linea aspera of femur
Obturator nerve (L2, L3, L4)
Hip adduction
Brevis
Inferior ramus of pubis
Pectineal line and proximal linea aspera of femur
Obturator nerve (L2, L3, L4)
Hip adduction and assists with hip extension
Magnus
Adductor part: inferior pubic ramus, ramus of ischium Hamstring part: ischial tuberosity
Adductor part: gluteal tuberosity, linea aspera, medial supracondylar line Hamstring part: adductor tubercle of femur
Adductor part: obturator nerve (L2, L3, L4) Hamstring part: tibial part of sciatic nerve (L4)
Hip adduction Adductor part: hip flexion Hamstring part: hip extension
Gracilis
Inferior ramus of pubis
Superomedial aspect of tibia
Obturator nerve (L2, L3)
Hip adduction and flexion; assists with hip internal rotation
Pectineus
Superior ramus of pubis
Pectineal line of femur
Femoral nerve and obturator nerve (L2, L3, L4)
Hip adduction and flexion; assists with hip internal rotation
Tensor fasciae latae
Anterior superior iliac spine and anterior aspect of iliac crest
Iliotibial tract that attaches to lateral condyle of tibia
Superior gluteal nerve (L4, L5)
Hip abduction, internal rotation and flexion; aids in maintaining knee extension
Rectus femoris
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Base of patella and through patellar ligament to tibial tuberosity
Femoral nerve (L2, L3, L4)
Hip flexion and knee extension
Sartorius
Anterior superior iliac spine and notch just inferior
Superomedial aspect of tibia
Femoral nerve (L2, L3)
Flexes, abducts, and externally rotates hip, flexes knee
Obturator externus
Margin of obturator foramen and obturator membrane
Trochanteric fossa of femur
Obturator nerve (L3, L4)
Hip external rotation, steadies head of femur in acetabulum
Psoas
Adductors
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Muscles (continued) Anterior Muscles of Hip and Thigh
Anterior superior iliac spine Iliacus m.
Anterior superior iliac spine
Psoas major m.
Sartorius m. (origin)
Gluteus medius m.
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Inguinal lig. Pubic tubercle Tensor fasciae latae m. (origin)
Iliopsoas m. Tensor fasciae latae m.
Ligs. of hip joint Pectineus m.
Pectineus m. Rectus femoris m. (origin) Greater trochanter Iliopsoas m. (cut) Adductor longus m. Gracilis m.
Sartorius m.
Rectus femoris m.* Vastus lateralis m.* Vastus intermedius m.* Vastus medialis m.* Iliotibial tract Rectus femoris tendon (becoming part of quadriceps femoris tendon) Lateral patellar retinaculum Patella Medial patellar retinaculum
Anteromedial intermuscular septum
Patellar lig. Sartorius tendon Gracilis tendon Semitendinosus tendon Tibial tuberosity
Iliotibial tract (cut) Pes anserinus Rectus femoris tendon (cut) Quadriceps femoris tendon Patella Lateral patellar retinaculum Medial patellar retinaculum Head of fibula Patellar ligament
*Muscles of quadriceps femoris
Tibial tuberosity
Sartorius tendon
Figure 6-6 Muscles of thigh: anterior view.
6 HIP AND PELVIS 251
Nerves Gluteus maximus m. (cut)
Iliac crest
Gluteus medius m. (cut)
Superior gluteal n. Sciatic n. Inferior gluteal n. Posterior cutaneous n. of thigh Nerve to obturator internus (and superior gemellus) Pudendal n. Ischial spine
Gluteus minimus m. Piriformis m. Superior gemellus m.
Figure 6-7 Nerves of the hips and buttocks.
Tensor fasciae latae m. Gluteus medius m. (cut) Obturator internus m. Nerve to quadratus femoris (and inferior gemellus) supplying articular branch to hip joint Greater trochanter of femur
Sacrospinous lig. Perforating cutaneous n. Sacrotuberous lig. Inferior anal (rectal) n.
Intertrochanteric crest
Dorsal n. of penis
Inferior gemellus m.
Perineal n.
Quadratus femoris m.
Posterior scrotal n.
Gluteus maximus m. (cut) Perineal branches of posterior cutaneous n. of thigh Sciatic n. Ischial tuberosity Posterior cutaneous n. of thigh Semitendinosus m. Inferior cluneal nn. Biceps femoris m. (long head) (covers semimembranosus m.)
Nerve
Segmental Level
Sensory
Motor
Obturator
L2, L3, L4
Medial thigh
Adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magnus (adductor part), gracilis, obturator externus
Saphenous
Femoral nerve
Medial leg and foot
No motor
Femoral
L2, L3, L4
Thigh via cutaneous nerves
Iliacus, sartorius, quadriceps femoris, articularis genu, pectineus
Lateral cutaneous of thigh
L2, L3
Lateral thigh
No motor
Posterior cutaneous of thigh
S2, S3
Posterior thigh
No motor
Inferior cluneal
Dorsal rami L1, L2, L3
Buttock region
No motor
Sciatic
L4, L5, S1, S2, S3
Hip joint
Knee flexors and all muscles of lower leg and foot
Superior gluteal
L4, L5, S1
No sensory
Tensor fascia latae, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus
Inferior gluteal
L5, S1, S2
No sensory
Gluteus maximus
Nerve to quadratus femoris
L5, S1, S2
No sensory
Quadratus femoris, inferior gemellus
Pudendal
S2, S3, S4
Genitals
Perineal muscles, external urethral sphincter, external anal sphincter
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Nerves (continued)
Deep dissection Deep circumflex iliac a. External iliac a. and v. Lateral cutaneous n. of thigh Sartorius m. (cut) Iliopsoas m.
Inguinal lig. (Poupart) Femoral a. and v. (cut) Pectineus m. (cut)
Tensor fasciae latae m. (retracted)
Obturator canal
Gluteus medius and minimus mm. Femoral n. Rectus femoris m. (cut) Ascending, transverse and descending branches of Lateral circumflex femoral a. Medial circumflex femoral a. Pectineus m. (cut) Deep a. of thigh Perforating branches Adductor longus m. (cut) Vastus lateralis m. Vastus intermedius m. Rectus femoris m. (cut)
Obturator externus m. Adductor longus m. (cut) Anterior branch and Posterior branch of obturator n. Quadratus femoris m. Adductor brevis m. Branches of posterior branch of obturator n. Adductor magnus m. Gracilis m. Cutaneous branch of obturator n. Femoral a. and v. (cut) Descending genicular a. Articular branch Saphenous branch Adductor hiatus
Saphenous n. Sartorius m. (cut) Anteromedial intermuscular septum (opened) Vastus medialis m. Quadriceps femoris tendon
Adductor magnus tendon Adductor tubercle on medial epicondyle of femur Superior medial genicular a. (from popliteal a.)
Patella and patellar anastomosis Medial patellar retinaculum Patellar lig.
Infrapatellar branch of Saphenous n. Inferior medial genicular a. (from popliteal a.)
Figure 6-8 Nerves and arteries of thigh: anterior views.
6 HIP AND PELVIS 253
PATIENT HISTORY Initial Hypotheses Based on Historical Findings History
Initial Hypothesis
Reports of pain at the lateral thigh. Pain exacerbated when transferring from sitting to standing
Greater trochanteric bursitis19 Muscle strain2
Age 60. Reports of pain and stiffness in the hip with possible radiation into the groin
OA3
Reports of clicking or catching in the hip joint. Pain exacerbated by full flexion or extension
Labral tear4
Reports of a repetitive or overuse injury
Muscle sprain/strain2
Deep aching throb in the hip or groin. Possible history of prolonged steroid use
Avascular necrosis4
Sharp pain in groin. Often misdiagnosed by multiple providers
Femoroacetabular (anterior) impingement5
Pain in the gluteal region with occasional radiation into the posterior thigh and calf
Piriformis syndrome6 Hamstring strain2,4 Ischial bursitis2
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Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History for Identifying Intra-articular Hip Pain, Osteoarthritis, and Acetabular Labral Tears
Patient Complaint
Population
Reference Standard
Groin pain7 Catching
7
Pinching pain when sitting7
49 potential surgical patients with hip pain
Intra-articular hip pain as defined by 50% relief with intra-articular anesthetic-steroid injection
No lateral thigh pain7 Constant low back/ buttock pain8 Ipsilateral groin pain8 Squatting aggravates symptoms8 Patient complains of clicking in the hip9
78 patients with unilateral pain in the buttock, groin, or anterior thigh 18 patients with hip pain
Hip OA on radiographs using the Kellgren and Lawrence grading scale
Acetabular labral tear as determined by magnetic resonance arthrography
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.59 (.41, .75)
.14 (.05, .33)
.67 (.48, .98)
3.0 (.95, 9.4)
.63 (.44, .78)
.54 (.35, .73)
1.39 (.81, 2.4)
.68 (.36, 1.3)
.48 (.31, .66)
.54 (.35, .73)
1.1 (.58, 1.9)
.95 (.56, 1.6)
.78 (.59, .89)
.36 (.2, .57)
1.2 (.84, 1.8)
.61 (.25, 1.5)
.52 (.30, .74)
.92 (.80, .97)
6.4 (2.4, 17.4)
.52 (.33, .81)
.29 (.12, .52)
.92 (.80, .97)
3.6 (1.2, 11.0)
.78 (.59, 1.00)
.76 (.52, .91)
.57 (.42, .70)
1.8 (1.2, 2.6)
.42 (.19, .93)
1.0 (.48, 1.0)
.85 (.55, .98)
6.7
.00
6 HIP AND PELVIS 255
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION TESTS Range of Motion Reliability of Range of Motion Measurements
External rotation
Internal rotation
Figure 6-9 Measurement of passive range of motion. ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Measurements External rotation (sitting) Internal rotation (sitting) External rotation (supine) Internal rotation (supine) Flexion Abduction Adduction Extension10 Internal rotation External rotation Flexion Abduction Extension (knee flexed) Extension (knee unconstrained)11
Instrumentation
Goniometer
Goniometer (except rotation with inclinometer)
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
6 patients with hip OA
Pre/post standardization: ICC .55/.80 ICC .95/.94 ICC .87/.80 ICC .87/.94 ICC .91/.91 ICC .91/.88 ICC .72/.56 ICC NA/.66
22 patients with hip OA
ICC, Intraclass correlation coefficient.
256
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ICC .93 (.83, .97) ICC .96 (.91, .99) ICC .97 (.93, .99) ICC .94 (.86, .98) ICC .86 (.67, .94) ICC .89 (.72, .95)
Range of Motion (continued) Reliability of Range of Motion Measurements ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Measurements
Instrumentation
Flexion Abduction Adduction External rotation Internal rotation Extension8
Inclinometer
Passive hip flexion12
Gravity inclinometer
Flexion Extension Abduction Adduction External Rotation Internal rotation Total hip motion13 Flexion Internal rotation External rotation Abduction Extension Adduction14 Hip flexion, right Hip flexion, left15
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Population
Intra-examiner Reliability
78 patients with unilateral pain in the buttock, groin, or anterior thigh
ICC .85 (.64 to .93) ICC .85 (.68 to .93) ICC .54 (.19 to .81) ICC .77 (.53 to .89) ICC .88 (.74 to .94) ICC .68 (.32 to .85)
22 patients with knee OA and 17 asymptomatic subjects
ICC .94 (.89-.97)
25 subjects with radiologically verified OA of the hip
ICC .82 ICC .94 ICC .86 ICC .50 ICC .90 ICC .90 ICC .85
Goniometer
168 patients, 50 with no hip OA, 77 with unilateral hip OA, 40 with bilateral hip OA based on radiological reports
ICC .92 ICC .90 ICC .58 ICC .78 ICC .56 ICC .62
Goniometer
106 patients with OA of the hip or knee confirmed by a rheumatologist or orthopaedic surgeon
Goniometer
ICC .82 (.26, .95) ICC .83 (.33, .96)
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Range of Motion Reliability of Determining Capsular and Noncapsular End-Feels ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Measurements
Description and Positive Finding
Population
Internal rotation8 Scour test8 FABER test8 Hip flexion test8
Maximal passive ROM (PROM) was assessed. End-feels were dichotomized into “capsular” (early capsular, spasm, bone-to-bone) and “noncapsular” (soft tissue approximation, springy block, and empty) as defined by Cyriax
Intra-examiner Reliability .21 (.22, .64)
8
Flexion
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
78 patients with unilateral pain in the buttock, groin, or anterior thigh
.51 (.19, .83) .52 (.08, .96) .47 (.12, .81) .52 (.09, .96)
Diagnostic Utility of Cyriax’s Capsular Pattern for Detecting Osteoarthritis A few studies14,16 have investigated the diagnostic utility of Cyriax’s capsular pattern (greater limitation of flexion and internal rotation than of abduction, little if any limitation of adduction and external rotation) in detecting the presence of OA of the hip. Bijl and associates16 demonstrated that hip joints with OA had significantly lower ROM values in all planes when compared with hip joints without OA. However, the magnitude of the range limitations did not follow Cyriax’s capsular pattern. Similarly, Klässbo and colleagues14 did not detect a correlation between hip OA and Cyriax’s capsular pattern. In fact, they identified 138 patterns of PROM restrictions depending on the established norms used (either the mean for symptom-free hips or Kaltenborn’s published norms).
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Range of Motion (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Cyriax’s Capsular Pattern for Detecting Osteoarthritis
Characteristic habitus and gait
Advanced degenerative changes in acetabulum
Radiograph of hip shows typical degeneration of cartilage and secondary bone changes with spurs at margins of acetabulum
Erosion of cartilage and deformity of femoral head
Figure 6-10 Hip joint involvement in ostearthritis.
6 HIP AND PELVIS 259
Range of Motion Diagnostic Utility of Pain and Limited Range of Motion
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.43 (.23, .66)
.88 (.75, .95)
3.6 (1.5, 8.7)
.65 (.44, .94)
.76 (.52, .91)
.61 (.46, .74)
1.9 (1.3, 3.0)
.39 (.18, .86)
.52 (.30, .74)
.80 (.66, .90)
2.7 (1.3, 5.3)
.59 (.37, .94)
Groin pain with active abduction or adduction8
.33 (.15, .57)
.94 (.83, .98)
5.7 (1.7, 18.6)
.71 (.52, .96)
Decreased passive hip internal rotation ROM17
.43 (.19, .70)
.86 (.42, .99)
3.00 (.44, 20.31)
.67 (.40, 1.10)
Pain with active hip internal rotation17
.31 (.10, .61)
.86 (.42, .99)
2.15 (.29, 15.75)
.81 (.54, 1.22)
.59 (.33, .82)
.93 (.49, 1.00)
8.31 (.56, 123.88)
.44 (.24, .81)
.53 (.27, .78)
.86 (.42, .99)
3.73 (.57, 24.35)
.54 (.30, .98)
1.0
.00
1.0
NA
.86
.54
1.87
.26
.57
.77
2.48
.56
.33
.93
4.71
.72
1.0
.00
1.0
NA
1.0
.42
1.72
NA
.81
.69
2.61
.28
.54
.88
4.5
.52
.55
1.0
Undefined
.45
Test and Study Quality
Population
Reference Standard
Lateral pain with active hip flexion8 Passive internal rotation 25°8 Pain with active hip extension8
Pain with passive hip abduction17
78 patients with unilateral pain in the buttock, groin, or anterior thigh
40 patients with unilateral lateral hip pain
Hip OA on radiographs using the Kellgren and Lawrence grading scale
Lateral hip tendon pathology via MRI
Pain with passive hip internal rotation17 Number of planes with restricted movement18
0 1 2 3
Number of planes with restricted movement18
0 1
Radiographic evidence of mild-to-moderate OA 195 patients presenting with first time episodes of hip pain
2
Radiographic evidence of severe OA
3 Pain with hip PROM19
260
21 women diagnosed with pelvic girdle pain (PGP)
PGP as defined by: • Current or recent pregnancy • Daily pain • Points to the pelvic girdle joints as the painful area • Pain during one or more of the 6 selected clinical tests (active straight leg raise [ASLR], Gaenslen, sacroiliac compression, sacroiliac distraction, thigh thrust)
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Range of Motion (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Pain and Limited Range of Motion
Hip flexion
Hip extension
Figure 6-11 Passive range of motion measurement.
6 HIP AND PELVIS 261
Range of Motion Diagnostic Utility of Limited Range of Motion for Detecting Avascular Necrosis LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Artery of round lig. of femoral head Necrotized bone
Disruption of blood supply Medial Lateral
Circumflex femoral aa.
Blood supplied to femoral head mainly via medial circumflex femoral artery. Branches traverse femoral neck and may be torn by fracture, resulting in osteonecrosis of head. (Dashed line indicates normal femur head)
Figure 6-12 Osteonecrosis.
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
PROM extension 15°20
.19 (.00, .38)
.92 (.89, .95)
2.38
.88
PROM abduction 45°20
.31 (.09, .54)
.85 (.82, .89)
2.07
.81
.50 (.26, .75)
.67 (.62, .72)
1.52
.75
.38 (.14, .61)
.73 (.68, .77)
.48
.85
.13 (.00, .29)
.86 (.83, .89)
.93
1.01
Motion and Finding
PROM internal rotation 15°20
Population
176 asymptomatic HIVinfected patients
PROM external rotation 60°20
Reference Standard
MRI confirmation of avascular necrosis (AVN) of the hip. Ten had AVN
Pain with Internal rotation20 HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; MRI: magnetic resonance imaging.
262
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Range of Motion Diagnostic Utility of Limited Hip Abduction for Detecting Developmental Dysplasia in Infants LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
“Clunk”
Figure 6-13 Recognition of congenital dislocation of the hip.
Test Limited hip abduction test21
Description and Positive Findings Unilateral limitation Bilateral limitation
Limited hip abduction 22
Passive abduction of the hips performed with both hips flexed 90°. Considered positive if abduction is more than 20° greater than the contralateral side As above except considered positive if either (1) abduction 60° or (2) asymmetry in abduction of 20°
Population
1107 infants
683 infants
Reference Standard Ultrasound verification of clinical instability of the hip Hip dysplasia as detected by ultrasound
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.70 (.60, .69)
.90 (.88, .92)
7.0
.33
.43 (.50, .64)
.90 (.88, .92
4.3
.63
.69
.54
1.5
.57
6 HIP AND PELVIS 263
Assessing Muscle Strength Reliability of Detecting Pain or Weakness During Resisted Tests ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
23
Abduction strength
Adduction strength23
23
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Reliability Intra-examiner
Inter-examiner
With subject supine, patient exerts maximal isometric hip abduction force into a handheld dynamometer placed just proximal to the knee
ICC (right/left) .81/.84
ICC (right/left) .73/.58
With subject supine, patient exerts maximal isometric hip adduction force into a sphygmomanometer placed between the knees
ICC .81 to .94 (depending on knee angle)
ICC .80 to .83 (depending on knee angle)
ICC (right/left) .67/.57
ICC (right/left) .40/.54
ICC (right/left) .60/.63
29 football players
Internal rotation
With subject supine and tested knee flexed to 90°, patient exerts maximal isometric rotational force into a handheld dynamometer placed just proximal to the lateral malleolus
External rotation23
As above except with the dynamometer placed just proximal to the medial malleolus
ICC (right/left) .55/.64
Abduction strength10
With patient supine, patient abducts bilateral hips into examiner’s hands. Strength graded on scale of 0-2
Inter-examiner pre/post standardization: .90/.86
Adduction strength10
As above except patient adducts bilateral hips
Inter-examiner pre/post standardization: .87/.86
Flexion strength (sitting)10
With patient sitting, the patient lifts one knee against examiner’s hand. Strength graded on scale of 0-2
Flexion strength (supine)10
As above except supine with knees bent 90°
Inter-examiner pre/post standardization: NA/.90
Extension strength10
Patient prone with knee bent 90°. Lifts 1 leg against examiners hand. Strength graded on scale of 0-2
Inter-examiner pre/post standardization: .85/.86
264
6 patients with hip OA
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Inter-examiner pre/post standardization: .83/.95
Assessing Muscle Strength (continued) Reliability of Detecting Pain or Weakness During Resisted Tests ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Reliability Intra-examiner
Inter-examiner
Abduction strength23
With subject supine, the patient exerts maximal isometric hip abduction force into a handheld dynamometer placed just proximal to the knee
ICC (right/left) .81/.84
ICC (right/left) .73/.58
Adduction strength23
With subject supine, the patient exerts maximal isometric hip adduction force into a sphygmomanometer placed between the knees
ICC .81 to .94 (depending on knee angle)
ICC .80 to .83 (depending on knee angle)
Internal rotation23
With subject supine and tested knee flexed to 90°, the patient exerts maximal isometric rotational force into a handheld dynamometer placed just proximal to the lateral malleolus
ICC (right/left) .67/.57
ICC (right/left) .40/.54
External rotation23
As above except with the dynamometer placed just proximal to the medial malleolus
ICC (right/left) .55/.64
ICC (right/left) .60/.63
Abduction strength10
With patient supine, the patient abducts bilateral hips into examiner’s hands. Strength graded on scale of 0-2
Inter-examiner pre/post standardization: .90/.86
Adduction strength10
As above except the patient adducts bilateral hips
Inter-examiner pre/post standardization: .87/.86
Flexion strength (sitting)10
With patient sitting, the patient lifts one knee against examiner’s hand. Strength graded on scale of 0-2
Flexion strength (supine)10
As above except with patient supine and knees bent 90°
Inter-examiner pre/post standardization: NA/.90
Extension strength10
With patient prone and knee bent 90°, patient lifts one leg against examiner’s hand. Strength graded on scale of 0-2
Inter-examiner pre/post standardization: .85/.86
29 football players
6 patients with hip OA
Inter-examiner pre/post standardization: .83/.95
6 HIP AND PELVIS 265
Assessing Muscle Strength Diagnostic Utility of Pain or Weakness for Identifying Lateral Hip Tendon Pathology
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Pain with resisted gluteus minimus17
Tested isometrically as described by Kendal and colleagues. Positive if reproduction of pain
Pain with resisted gluteus minimus and medius17 Gluteus minimus and medius weakness17 Gluteus minimus weakness17 Pain with resisted abduction24
Pain with resisted internal rotation24
266
Tested isometrically as described by Kendal and colleagues. Positive if less than 5/5 With patient supine and affected hip at 45°, positive if symptoms over the greater trochanter are reproduced on resisted abduction With patient supine and affected hip at 45° and maximal external rotation, positive if symptoms over the greater trochanter are replicated on internal rotation
Population
40 patients with unilateral lateral hip pain
24 patients with lateral hip pain and tenderness over the greater trochanter
Reference Standard
Lateral hip tendon pathology via MRI
Gluteus medius tendon tear via MRI
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.47 (.22, .73)
.86 (.42, .99)
3.27 (.49, 21.70)
.62 (.37, 1.05)
.47 (.22, .73)
.86 (.42, .99)
3.27 (.49, 21.70)
.62 (.37, 1.05)
.80 (.51, .95)
.71 (.30, .95)
2.80 (.85, 9.28)
.28 (.09, .86)
.80 (.51, .95)
.57 (.20, .88)
1.87 (.76, 4.55)
.35 (.10, 1.19)
.73
.46
1.35
.59
.55
.69
1.77
.65
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Assessing Muscle Strength Reliability of the Trendelenburg Test
Left: patient demonstrates negative Trendelenburg test of normal right hip. Right: positive test of involved left hip. When weight is on affected side, normal hip drops, indicating weakness of left gluteus medius muscle. Trunk shifts left as patient attempts to decrease biomechanical stresses across involved hip and thereby maintain balance
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 6-14 Trendelenburg test.
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Intra-examiner Reliability
Positive Trendelenburg test10
Standing patient raises one foot 10 cm off the ground while examiner inspects for change in level of pelvis. Positive if pelvis drops on the unsupported side or trunk shifts to the stance side
6 patients with hip OA
.36 (pre-standardization) .06 (post-standardization)
Positive Trendelenburg test24
Assessed in two ways. Pelvic tilt was assessed in single leg stance on the affected leg. Pelvic movement was assessed during gait. A positive test was defined as clearly abnormal pelvic tilt during both stance and gait
24 patients with lateral hip pain and tenderness over the greater trochanter
.67 (.27, 1.08)
Diagnostic Utility of the Trendelenburg Test for Identifying Lateral Hip Tendon Pathology LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Positive Trendelenburg test17
Patient lifts one foot off the ground at a time while standing. Positive if the patient is unable to elevate his/her pelvis on the nonstance side and hold the position for at least 30 sec
40 patients with unilateral lateral hip pain
Lateral hip tendon pathology via MRI
.23 (.05, .57)
.94 (.53, 1.00)
3.64 (.20, 65.86)
.82 (.59, 1.15)
Positive Trendelenburg test24
Assessed in two ways. Pelvic tilt was assessed in single leg stance on the affected leg. Pelvic movement was assessed during gait. A positive test was defined as clearly abnormal pelvic tilt during both stance and gait
24 patients with lateral hip pain and tenderness over the greater trochanter
Gluteus medius tendon tear via MRI
.73
.77
3.17
.35
6 HIP AND PELVIS 267
Assessing Muscle Length Reliability of Tests for Iliotibial Band Length ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Ober test
Modified Ober test
Figure 6-15 Tests for iliotibial band length.
Measurements
Test Procedure
Population
Reliability
Ober test
With patient side-lying with examined leg up, examiner flexes patient’s knee to 90° and abducts and extends the hip until the hip is in line with the trunk. Examiner allows gravity to adduct hip as much as possible. Positive if unable to adduct to horizontal position
6 patients with hip OA
.38 (pre-standardization) .80 (post-standardization)
Ober test25
As above except an inclinometer is used on the distal lateral thigh to measure hip adduction angle
30 patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome
Inter-examiner ICC .97 (.93, .98)
61 asymptomatic individuals
Intra-examiner ICC .90
10 patients experiencing anterior knee pain
Inter-examiner ICC .73 Intra-examiner ICC .94
61 asymptomatic individuals
Intra-examiner ICC .91
10
Ober test26 Modified Ober test27 Modified Ober test27
268
As above but with test knee fully extended
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Assessing Muscle Length Reliability of the Thomas Test for Hip Flexor Contracture
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
15°
Hip flexion contracture determined with patient supine. Unaffected hip flexed only until lumbar spine is flat against examining table. Affected hip cannot be fully extended, and angle of flexion is recorded
Figure 6-16 Thomas test.
Measurements
Test Procedure
Population
Reliability
Modified Thomas test28
With the subject sitting as close to the edge of the table as possible and holding the nontested thigh, the patient rolls back into supine position and flexes the untested hip until the lumbar lordosis is flattened. The tested limb is allowed to hang into extension and is measured with an inclinometer or goniometer
42 asymptomatic individuals
ICC .92 (goniometer) ICC .89 (inclinometer)
Thomas test10
With patient supine with both hips flexed and maintaining one hip in flexion, the tested hip is extended. Positive if unable to touch posterior thigh with examination table
6 patients with hip OA
.60 (pre-standardization) .88 (post-standardization)
6 HIP AND PELVIS 269
Assessing Muscle Length Reliability of Assessing Muscle Length ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Reliability Intra-examiner
Inter-examiner
Bent knee fall out (adductors)23
With subject supine and knees flexed to 90°, the patient lets knees fall out while keeping feet together. The distance from the fibular head to the table is measured with a tape measure
ICC (right/left) .90/.89
ICC (right/left) .93/.91
External rotators of the hip23
With subject prone and knees flexed to 90°, the patient lets feet fall outward while keeping feet together. Examiner passively flexes knee 90°. Internal rotation measurement is taken with an inclinometer
ICC (right/left) .97/.96
ICC (right/left) .89/.93
ICC (right/left) .64/.77
29 football players
Internal rotators of the hip23
With subject supine with nontested hip flexed and the test leg hanging over the end of the table, passive external rotation is measured with an inclinometer
ICC (right/left) .82/.80
Short hip extensors29
With patient supine, examiner brings hip passively into flexion while palpating posterior-superior iliac spine (PSIS) on ipsilateral side. As soon as PSIS moves posteriorly, the movement is ceased and the measurement is recorded with an inclinometer
Intra-examiner ICC .87
Short hip flexors29
With patient supine, lower limbs over the plinth, and both hips flexed, examiner slowly lowers the side being tested. When limb ceases to move, measurement is recorded with an inclinometer
Intra-examiner ICC .98
11 asymptomatic individuals
External rotators of the hip29
With patient prone, examiner passively flexes knee 90°. Examiner palpates contralateral PSIS and passively internally rotates limb. When rotation of pelvis occurs, measurement is taken with an inclinometer
Intra-examiner ICC .99
Internal rotators of the hip29
Same as above except examiner takes hip into external rotation
Intra-examiner ICC .98
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Assessing Muscle Length (continued) Reliability of Assessing Muscle Length
Measurement of the length of external rotators of the hip
Measurement of the length of internal rotators of the hip
Figure 6-17 Measurement of muscle length with a bubble inclinometer.
6 HIP AND PELVIS 271
Functional Movements Diagnostic Utility of Pain with Functional Movements LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Posterior pain with squat8
Patient squats as low as possible with feet 20 cm apart, trunk upright, and hands on hips
78 patients with unilateral pain in the buttock, groin, or anterior thigh
Hip OA on x-rays using the Kellgren and Lawrence grading scale
.24 (.09, .48)
.96 (.85, .99)
6.1 (1.5, 25.6)
.79 (.62, 1.00)
PGP defined by: • Current or recent pregnancy • Daily pain • Points to the pelvic girdle joints as the painful area • Pain during one or more of the six selected clinical tests (ASLR, Gaenslen, sacroiliac compression, sacroiliac distraction, thigh thrust, palpation of pubic symphysis)
.29
1.0
Undefined
.71
.35
.67
1.1
.97
.44
.83
2.6
.68
.13
1.0
Undefined
.88
.24
1.0
Undefined
.88
Step up19 Single leg stance19 Lunge19 No details given
Sit to stand19 Deep squat19
272
21 women with pelvic girdle pain
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Palpation Reliability of Pain with Palpation ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings 10
Trochanteric tenderness
Trochanteric tenderness7
With patient supine, firm pressure is applied to the greater trochanter. Test positive if patient’s symptoms are reproduced
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
6 patients with hip OA
.40 (pre-standardization) .68 (post-standardization)
70 patients with hip pain
.66 (.48, .84)
Diagnostic Utility of Pain with Palpation for Intra-articular Hip Pain LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Patient Complaint
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Trochanteric tenderness7
With patient supine, firm pressure is applied to the greater trochanter. Test positive if patient’s symptoms are reproduced
49 potential surgical patients with hip pain
Intra-articular hip pain as defined by 50% relief with intra-articular anesthetic-steroid injection
.57 (.39, .74)
.45 (.27, .65)
1.1 (.36, 3.6)
.93 (.49, 1.8)
6 HIP AND PELVIS 273
Special Tests Reliability of Patrick’s (FABER) Test ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10 Test and Study
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Patrick’s test
With patient supine, examiner flexes, abducts, and externally rotates the involved hip so that the lateral ankle is placed just proximal to the contralateral knee. While stabilizing the anterior superior iliac spine, the involved leg is lowered toward the table to end range. Test is positive if it reproduces the patient’s symptoms
70 patients with hip pain
Intra-examiner .63 (.43, .83)
Patrick’s test10
As above except test is considered positive if the patient has inguinal pain
6 patients with hip OA
Inter-examiner .78 (pre-standardization) .75 (post-standardization)
Patrick’s test8
As above except inclinometer is used 2.5 cm proximal to the patient’s flexed knee
78 patients with unilateral pain in the buttock, groin, or anterior thigh
Intra-examiner ICC .90 (.78 to .96)
7
Diagnostic Utility of Patrick’s (FABER) Test LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Patrick’s test7
With patient supine, examiner flexes, abducts, and externally rotates the involved hip so that the lateral ankle is placed just proximal to the contralateral knee. While stabilizing the anterior superior iliac spine, the involved leg is lowered toward the table to end range. Test is positive if it reproduces the patient’s symptoms
49 potential surgical patients with hip pain
Intra-articular hip pain as defined by 50% relief with intraarticular anestheticsteroid injection
.60 (.41, .77)
.18 (.07, .39)
.73 (.5, 1.1)
2.2 (.8, 6.0)
Patrick’s test less than 60°8
As above, but also uses inclinometer 2.5 cm proximal to the patient’s flexed knee
78 patients with unilateral pain in the buttock, groin, or anterior thigh
Hip OA on radiographs using the Kellgren and Lawrence grading scale
.57 (.34, .77)
.71 (.56, .82)
1.9 (1.1, 3.4)
.61 (.36, 1.00)
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Special Tests Reliability of Special Tests for Detecting Intra-articular Pathology ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 6-18 Internal rotation-flexion-axial compression maneuver. Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Flexion-internal rotation-adduction (FADIR) impingement test7
With patient supine, examiner flexes, adducts, and internally rotates the involved hip to end range. Test is positive if it reproduces the patient’s symptoms
Log roll7
With patient supine with greater trochanters in the maximally prominent position, examiner places both hands on the patient’s mid thigh and passively externally rotates each hip maximally. Test is positive if greater external rotation is noted on the symptomatic side
Inter-examiner Reliability .58 (.29, .87)
70 patients with hip pain
.61 (.41, .81)
Diagnostic Utility of Special Tests for Detecting Intra-articular Pathology LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Scour test with adduction causes lateral hip or groin pain8
With patient supine, examiner passively flexes the symptomatic hip to 90° and then moves the knee toward the opposite shoulder and applies an axial load to the femur
78 patients with unilateral pain in the buttock, groin, or anterior thigh
Hip OA on radiographs using the Kellgren and Lawrence grading scale
.62 (.39, .81)
.75 (.60, .85)
2.4 (1.4, 4.3)
.51 (.29, .89)
FADIR impingement test7
With patient supine, examiner flexes, adducts, and internally rotates the involved hip to end range. Test is positive if it reproduces the patient’s symptoms
49 potential surgical patients with hip pain
Intra-articular hip pain as defined by 50% relief with intra-articular anesthetic-steroid injection
.78 (.59, .89)
.10 (.03, .29)
.86 (.67, 1.1)
2.3 (.52, 10.4)
Internal rotationflexion-axial compression maneuver9
With patient supine, examiner flexes and internally rotates the hip, then applies an axial compression force through the femur. Provocation of pain is considered positive
18 patients with hip pain
Acetabular labral tear as determined by magnetic resonance arthrography
.75 (.19, .99)
.43 (.18, .72)
1.32
.58
6 HIP AND PELVIS 275
Special Tests Diagnostic Utility of the Patellar-Pubic-Percussion Test for Detecting Hip Fractures LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 6-19 Percussion test.
Test and Study Quality Patellarpubic-percussion test30 Patellarpubic-percussion test31
276
Description and Positive Findings
With patient supine, examiner percusses (taps) one patella at a time while auscultating the pubic symphysis with a stethoscope. A positive test is a diminution of the percussion note on the affected side
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
290 patients with suspected radiologically occult hip fractures
Hip fracture seen on repeat radiographs, bone scintography, MRI, or computed tomography
.96 (.87, .99)
.86 (.49, .98)
6.73
.14
41 patients in the emergency department with a chief complaint of hip trauma
Hip fracture on seen on radiograph
.94
.96
21.6
.07
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests (continued) Diagnostic Utility of the Patellar-Pubic-Percussion Test for Detecting Hip Fractures
Intertrochanteric Fracture of Femur
I. Nondisplaced fracture
II. Comminuted displaced fracture Fracture of Shaft Femur
High transverse or slightly oblique fracture
Spiral fracture
Comminuted fracture
Segmental fracture
Figure 6-20 Hip fractures.
6 HIP AND PELVIS 277
Combinations of Tests Diagnostic Utility of Combinations of Tests for Osteoarthritis Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
5/5
.14 (.04, .37)
.98 (.88, 1.0)
7.3 (1.1, 49.1)
.87 (.73, 1.1)
4/5
.48 (.26, .70)
.98 (.88, 1.0)
24.3 (4.4, 142.1)
.53 (.35, .80)
.71 (.48, .88)
.86 (.73, .94)
5.2 (2.6, 10.9)
.33 (.17, .66)
.81 (.57, .94)
.61 (.46, .74)
2.1 (1.4, 3.1)
.31 (.13, .78)
.95 (.74, 1.0)
.18 (.09, .31)
1.2 (.99, 1.4)
.27 (.04, 2.0)
Test and Study Quality
Number of Variables Present
Squatting aggravates symptoms Lateral pain with active hip flexion Scour test with adduction causes lateral hip or groin pain Pain with active hip extension Passive internal rotation 25°8
278
LR
3/5 2/5 1/5
Population
78 patients with unilateral pain in the buttock, groin, or anterior thigh
Reference Standard
Hip OA on radiograph using the Kellgren and Lawrence grading scale
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
OUTCOME MEASURES Outcome Measure
Scoring and Interpretation
Test-Retest Reliability
MCID
Lower Extremity Functional Scale (LEFS)
Users are asked to rate the difficulty of performing 20 functional tasks on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (extremely difficult or unable to perform activity) to 4 (no difficulty). A total score out of 80 is calculated by summing each score. The answers provide a score between 0 and 80, with lower scores representing more disability
ICC .9232
933
Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC)
The WOMAC consists of three subscales: pain (5 items), stiffness (2 items), and physical function (17 items). Users answer the 24 condition-specific questions on a numerical rating scale ranging from 0 (no symptoms) to 10 (extreme symptoms), or alternatively on a Likert-type scale from 0 to 4. Scores from each subscale are summed with higher scores indicating more pain, stiffness, and disability
ICC .9032
6.7% for improvement and 12.9% for worsening34
Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS)
Users rate their level of pain on an 11-point scale ranging from 0 to 10, with high scores representing more pain. Often asked as “current pain” and “least,” “worst,” and “average pain” in the past 24 hours
ICC .7235
236,37
MCID, Minimum clinically important difference.
6 HIP AND PELVIS 279
APPENDIX
Altman 1991
Adams 1997
Birrell 2001
Bird 2001
Castelein 2001
Joe 2002
Jari 2002
Fishman 2002
Tiru 2002
Narvani 2003
Cook 2007
Martin 2008
Sutlive 2008
Woodley 2008
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
U
U
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
N
N
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
U
U
Y
U
U
U
U
Y
U
N
U
U
Y
Y
5. Did the whole sample or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
N
Y
Y
Y
N
U
Y
Y
Y
U
N
Y
Y
N
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
N
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
U
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
Y
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
Y
U
U
Y
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
Y
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
U
U
U
U
Y
Y
13. Were uninterpretable/intermediate test results reported?
Y
U
U
Y
U
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
Y
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Quality summary rating: Y yes, N no, U unclear.
280
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14).
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9).
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Poor quality (Y - N 4).
REFERENCES 1. Hertling D, Kessler RM. Management of Common Musculoskeletal Disorders: Physical Therapy Principles and Methods. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott; 1996. 2. Pecina MM, Bojanic I. Overuse Injuries of the Musculoskeletal System. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1993. 3. Altman R, Alarcon G, Appelrouth D, et al. The American College of Rheumatology criteria for the classification and reporting of osteoarthritis of the hip. Arthritis Rheum. 1991;34:505-514. 4. Hartley A. Practical Joint Assessment. St Louis: Mosby; 1995. 5. Clohisy JC, Knaus ER, Hunt DM, et al. Clinical presentation of patients with symptomatic anterior hip impingement. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2009;467: 638-644. 6. Fishman LM, Dombi GW, Michaelsen C, et al. Piriformis syndrome: diagnosis, treatment, and outcome—a 10-year study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83:295-301. 7. Martin RL, Irrgang JJ, Sekiya JK. The diagnostic accuracy of a clinical examination in determining intraarticular hip pain for potential hip arthroscopy candidates. Arthroscopy. 2008;24:1013-1018. 8. Sutlive TG, Lopez HP, Schnitker DE, et al. Development of a clinical prediction rule for diagnosing hip osteoarthritis in individuals with unilateral hip pain. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2008;38:542-550. 9. Narvani AA, Tsiridis E, Kendall S, et al. A preliminary report on prevalence of acetabular labrum tears in sports patients with groin pain. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2003;11:403-408. 10. Cibere J, Thorne A, Bellamy N, et al. Reliability of the hip examination in osteoarthritis: effect of standardization. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;59:373-381. 11. Pua YH, Wrigley TV, Cowan SM, Bennell KL. Intrarater test-retest reliability of hip range of motion and hip muscle strength measurements in persons with hip osteoarthritis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89: 1146-1154. 12. Cliborne AV, Wainner RS, Rhon DI, et al. Clinical hip tests and a functional squat test in patients with knee osteoarthritis: reliability, prevalence of positive test findings, and short-term response to hip mobilization. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2004;34:676-685. 13. Holm I, Bolstad B, Lutken T, et al. Reliability of goniometric measurements and visual estimates of hip ROM in patients with osteoarthrosis. Physiother Res Int. 2000;5:241-248. 14. Klässbo M, Harms-Ringdahl K, Larsson G. Examination of passive ROM and capsular patterns in the hip. Physiother Res Int. 2003;8:1-12. 15. Lin YC, Davey RC, Cochrane T. Tests for physical function of the elderly with knee and hip osteoarthritis. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2001;11:280-286.
16. Bijl D, Dekker J, van Baar ME, et al. Validity of Cyriax’s concept capsular pattern for the diagnosis of osteoarthritis of hip and/or knee. Scand J Rheumatol. 1998;27:347-351. 17. Woodley SJ, Nicholson HD, Livingstone V, et al. Lateral hip pain: findings from magnetic resonance imaging and clinical examination. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2008;38:313-328. 18. Birrell F, Croft P, Cooper C, et al. Predicting radiographic hip osteoarthritis from range of movement. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2001;40:506-512. 19. Cook C, Massa L, Harm-Ernandes I, et al. Interrater reliability and diagnostic accuracy of pelvic girdle pain classification. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2007;30:252-258. 20. Joe G, Kovacs J, Miller K, et al. Diagnosis of avascular necrosis of the hip in asymptomatic HIV-infected patients: clinical correlation of physical examination with magnetic resonance imaging. J Back Musculoskeletal Rehabil. 2002;16:135-139. 21. Jari S, Paton RW, Srinivasan MS. Unilateral limitation of abduction of the hip. A valuable clinical sign for DDH? J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2002;84:104-107. 22. Castelein RM, Korte J. Limited hip abduction in the infant. J Pediatr Orthop. 2001;21:668-670. 23. Malliaras P, Hogan A, Nawrocki A, et al. Hip flexibility and strength measures: reliability and association with athletic groin pain. Br J Sports Med. 2009 24. Bird PA, Oakley SP, Shnier R, Kirkham BW. Prospective evaluation of magnetic resonance imaging and physical examination findings in patients with greater trochanteric pain syndrome. Arthritis Rheum. 2001; 44:2138-2145. 25. Piva SR, Fitzgerald K, Irrgang JJ, et al. Reliability of measures of impairments associated with patellofemoral pain syndrome. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2006; 7:33. 26. Reese NB, Bandy WD. Use of an inclinometer to measure flexibility of the iliotibial band using the Ober test and the modified Ober test: differences in magnitude and reliability of measurements. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2003;33:326-330. 27. Melchione WE, Sullivan MS. Reliability of measurements obtained by use of an instrument designed to indirectly measure iliotibial band length. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1993;18:511-515. 28. Clapis PA, Davis SM, Davis RO. Reliability of inclinometer and goniometric measurements of hip extension flexibility using the modified Thomas test. Physiother Theory Pract. 2008;24:135-141. 29. Bullock-Saxton JE, Bullock MI. Repeatability of muscle length measures around the hip. Physiother Can. 1994;46:105-109.
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30. Tiru M, Goh SH, Low BY. Use of percussion as a screening tool in the diagnosis of occult hip fractures. Singapore Med J. 2002;43:467-469. 31. Adams SL, Yarnold PR. Clinical use of the patellarpubic percussion sign in hip trauma. Am J Emerg Med. 1997;15:173-175. 32. Pua YH, Cowan SM, Wrigley TV, Bennell KL. The Lower Extremity Functional Scale could be an alternative to the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index physical function scale. J Clin Epidemiol. 2009 33. Binkley JM, Stratford PW, Lott SA, Riddle DL. The Lower Extremity Functional Scale (LEFS): scale development, measurement properties, and clinical application. North American Orthopaedic Rehabilitation Research Network. Phys Ther. 1999;79:371-383.
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34. Angst F, Aeschlimann A, Stucki G. Smallest detectable and minimal clinically important differences of rehabilitation intervention with their implications for required sample sizes using WOMAC and SF-36 quality of life measurement instruments in patients with osteoarthritis of the lower extremities. Arthritis Rheum. 2001;45:384-391. 35. Li L, Liu X, Herr K. Postoperative pain intensity assessment: a comparison of four scales in Chinese adults. Pain Med. 2007;8:223-234. 36. Farrar JT, Berlin JA, Strom BL. Clinically important changes in acute pain outcome measures: a validation study. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2003;25:406-411. 37. Farrar JT, Portenoy RK, Berlin JA, et al. Defining the clinically important difference in pain outcome measures. Pain. 2000;88:287-294.
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Knee
7
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
284
Anatomy Osteology Arthrology Ligaments Muscles Nerves Patient History Initial Hypotheses Based on Historical Findings Reliability of Assessing Subjective Questions in Patients with Osteoarthritis of Knee Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History for Identifying Effusion, Meniscal Tears, and Medial Collateral Ligament Tears Physical Examination Tests Screening Range of Motion Assessing Strength Assessing Muscle Length Assessing Bony Alignment Palpation Special Tests Combinations of Tests Interventions Outcome Measures Appendix Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS References
285 285 286 287 289 292 295 295 296 297 298 298 301 304 305 306 312 313 322 325 327 328 328 332
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Patient History Complaints
Little is known about the utility of subjective complaints with knee pain. The lack of self-noticed swelling seems moderately helpful in ruling out knee joint effusion. Similarly, the absence of “weight bearing during trauma” may help rule out a meniscal tear (both LRs .40).
Physical Examination Screening
The Ottawa Knee Rule for Radiography is highly sensitive for knee fractures in both adults and children. When patients are younger than 55, can bear weight and flex their knee to 90°, and have no tenderness on the patella or fibular head; providers can confidently rule out a knee fracture (LR .05 to .07)
Range of Motion and Strength Assessment
Measuring knee range of motion (ROM) has consistently been shown to be highly reliable but is of unknown diagnostic utility. The assessment of “end-feel” during ROM, however, is unreliable, especially between different examiners. Assessing strength with manual muscle testing (MMT) has been shown to accurately detect side-to-side knee extension strength deficits, at least in patients in an acute rehabilitation hospital setting.
Special Tests
Several systematic reviews with meta-analysis have examined special tests of the knee. Both “joint line tenderness” and McMurray’s test consistently show moderate utility in detecting and ruling out meniscal tears. More recently, the Thessaly test has been shown to be excellent at both detecting and ruling ruling our meniscal tears (LR 9.0 to 39.3, LR .08 to .35). While the anterior drawer and the pivot shift test are good at identifying anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears (LR 2.9 to 8.5), the Lachman test is best at ruling them out (LR .10 to .20). Varus and valgus testing, while not particularly reliable, is fairly good at ruling out medial collateral ligament (MCL) tears (LR .20 to .30). The “moving patellar apprehension test” seems to show very good diagnostic utility in both identifying and ruling out patellar instability (LR 8.3, LR .00).
Combinations of Findings
Generally, the clinical examination and/or combinations of findings seem to be very good at identifying and ruling out various knee pathologies, including meniscal tears, ACL tears, and symptomatic plica. However, although the ability of several combinations of tests to identify meniscal tears have been studied, no combination seems as helpful as the Thessaly test alone.
Interventions In patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome, two factors (2° or more of forefoot valgus and 78° or less of great toe extension) seem to predict a favorable response to off-the-shelf foot orthoses and activity modification. Similarly, several factors have been identified that predict which patients with knee osteoarthritis (OA) may benefit from hip mobilizations. 284
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ANATOMY Osteology Line of attachment of border of synovial membrane Line of reflection of synovial membrane Line of attachment of fibrous capsule Line of reflection of fibrous capsule (unattached)
Shaft (body)
Shaft (body)
Popliteal surface Adductor tubercle
Lateral epicondyle
Medial epicondyle Lateral epicondyle Medial condyle Lateral condyle
Lateral condyle Patellar surface
Intercondylar fossa
Figure 7-1 Femur. Anterior view Intercondylar eminence
Anterior intercondylar area Lateral condyle Apex, Head, Neck of fibula
Lateral intercondylar tubercle
Posterior view Intercondylar eminence
Medial intercondylar tubercle
Posterior intercondylar area Medial condyle
Gerdy’s tubercle (insertion of iliotibial tract)
Lateral Medial intercondylar intercondylar Superior tubercle tubercle articular surfaces (medial and lateral facets)
Groove for Oblique line insertion of semimembranosus tendon Tibial tuberosity Lateral surface Anterior border
Lateral surface Anterior border
Soleal line
Lateral condyle Apex, Head, Neck of fibula
Nutrient foramen
Figure 7-2 Tibia and fibula. 7 KNEE 285
Arthrology
Femur Articularis genus m. Quadriceps femoris tendon Suprapatellar fat body Suprapatellar (synovial) bursa Patella
Lateral subtendinous bursa of gastrocnemius m.
Subcutaneous prepatellar bursa Articular cavity Synovial membrane Patellar lig. Synovial membrane
Infrapatellar fat pad Subcutaneous infrapatellar bursa Deep (subtendinous) infrapatellar bursa Lateral meniscus Articular cartilages
Tibial tuberosity
Tibia Sagittal section (lateral to midline of knee)
Figure 7-3 Sagittal knee.
Joints
Type and Classification
Closed Packed Position
Capsular Pattern
Tibiofemoral
Double condyloid
Full extension
Flexion restricted greater than extension
Proximal tibiofibular
Synovial: plane
Not reported
Not reported
Patellofemoral
Synovial: plane
Full flexion
Not reported
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Ligaments
Right knee in extension: posterior view Adductor tubercle on medial epicondyle of femur
Medial condyle of femur (articular surface)
Posterior cruciate lig. Anterior cruciate lig. Posterior meniscofemoral lig. Lateral condyle of femur (articular surface)
Figure 7-4 Posterior ligaments of knee.
Popliteus tendon
Medial meniscus
Fibular collateral lig.
Tibial collateral lig.
Lateral meniscus
Medial condyle of tibia
Head of fibula
Right knee: posterior view Adductor magnus tendon Medial head of gastrocnemius m. and subtendinous bursa Tibial collateral lig. Semimembranosus tendon Oblique popliteal lig. (tendinous expansion of semimembranosus m.) Semimembranosus bursa deep to tendon (broken line)
Femur (popliteal surface) Attachment of joint capsule Plantaris m. Lateral head of gastrocnemius m. and subtendinous bursa Fibular collateral lig. and its inferior subtendinous bursa Biceps femoris tendon and bursa beneath it Arcuate popliteal lig. (edge of capsule that arches over popliteus m.)
Popliteus m.
Head of fibula Posterior lig. of fibular head Attachment of joint capsule Interosseous membrane Tibia
Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Posterior meniscofemoral
Lateral meniscus to posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) and medial femoral condyle
Reinforces posterior lateral meniscal attachment
Oblique popliteal
Posterior aspect of medial tibial condyle to posterior aspect of fibrous capsule
Strengthens posterior portion of joint capsule
Arcuate popliteal
Posterior fibular head over tendon of popliteus to posterior capsule
Strengthens posterior portion of joint capsule
Posterior ligament of fibular head
Posterior fibular head to inferior lateral tibial condyle
Reinforces posterior joint capsule
7 KNEE 287
Ligaments (continued) Right knee in flexion: anterior view Anterior cruciate lig.
Posterior cruciate lig. Medial condyle of femur (articular surface)
Lateral condyle of femur (articular surface) Popliteus tendon
Medial meniscus
Fibular collateral lig.
Tibial collateral lig.
Lateral meniscus
Medial condyle of tibia
Transverse lig. of knee Head of fibula Gerdy tubercle
Tibial tuberosity
Inferior view Patellar lig.
lliotibial tract blended into lateral patellar retinaculum and capsule
Medial patellar retinaculum blended into joint capsule Suprapatellar synovial bursa Synovial membrane (cut edge) Infrapatellar synovial fold Posterior cruciate lig. Tibial collateral lig. (superficial and deep parts) Medial condyle of femur
Bursa Subpopliteal recess Popliteus tendon Fibular collateral lig. Bursa Lateral condyle of femur Anterior cruciate lig. Arcuate popliteal lig.
Oblique popliteal lig. Posterior aspect
Semimembranosus tendon
Posterior meniscofemoral lig.
Superior view
Arcuate popliteal lig. Fibular collateral lig. Bursa Popliteus tendon Subpopliteal recess Lateral meniscus Superior articular surface of tibia (lateral facet) lliotibial tract blended into capsule Infrapatellar fat pad
Oblique popliteal lig. Semimembranosus tendon Posterior cruciate lig. Tibial collateral lig. (deep part bound to medial meniscus) Medial meniscus Synovial membrane Superior articular surface of tibia (medial facet) Joint capsule Anterior cruciate lig. Patellar lig.
Anterior aspect
Figure 7-5 Inferior and anterior ligaments of knee. Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Anterior cruciate
Anterior intracondylar aspect of tibial plateau to posteromedial side of lateral femoral condyle
Prevents posterior translation of femur on tibia and anterior translation of tibia on femur
Posterior cruciate
Posterior intracondylar aspect of tibial plateau to anterolateral side of medial femoral condyle
Prevents anterior translation of femur on tibia and posterior translation of tibia on femur
Fibular collateral
Lateral epicondyle of femur to lateral aspect of fibular head
Protects joint from varus stress
Tibial collateral
Femoral medial epicondyle to medial condyle of tibia
Protects the joint from valgus stress
Transverse ligament of knee
Anterior edges of menisci
Allows menisci to move together during knee movement
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Muscles
Right knee in extension Femur Vastus intermedius m.
Articularis genus m.
Vastus lateralis m.
Vastus medialis m.
lliotibial tract Rectus femoris tendon (becoming quadriceps femoris tendon)
Lateral patellar retinaculum Lateral epicondyle of femur
Patella
Fibular collateral lig. and bursa
Medial epicondyle of femur
Biceps femoris tendon and its inferior subtendinous bursa
Medial patellar retinaculum
Broken line indicates bursa deep to iliotibial tract
Tibial collateral lig. Semitendinosus, gracilis, and sartorius tendons
Insertion of iliotibial tract to Gerdy tubercle and oblique line of tibia Common fibular (peroneal) n.
Pes anserinus
Anserine bursa
Head of fibula
Medial condyle of tibia Patellar lig. Tibial tuberosity
Fibularis (peroneus) longus m.
Gastrocnemius m. Extensor digitorum longus m. Tibialis anterior m.
Figure 7-6 Anterior muscles of knee.
Muscles
Proximal Attachments
Distal Attachments
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Quadriceps Rectus femoris
Anterior inferior iliac spine and ileum just superior to acetabulum
Vastus lateralis
Greater trochanter and linea aspera of femur
Vastus medialis
Intertrochanteric line and linea aspera
Vastus intermedius
Anterolateral aspect of shaft of femur
Articularis genu
Anteroinferior aspect of femur
Base of patella and by patellar ligament to tibial tuberosity
Femoral nerve (L2, L3, L4)
Synovial membrane of knee joint
Femoral nerve (L3, L4)
Extends knee; rectus femoris also flexes hip and stabilizes head of femur in acetabulum
Pulls synovial membrane superiorly during knee extension to prevent pinching of membrane
7 KNEE 289
Muscles (continued) Muscles
Proximal Attachments
Distal Attachments
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Semimembranosus
Ischial tuberosity
Medial aspect of superior tibia
Semitendinosus
Ischial tuberosity
Posterior aspect of medial condyle of tibia
Tibial branch of sciatic nerve (L4, L5, S1, S2)
Flexes and medially rotates knee, extends and medially rotates hip
Fibular branch of sciatic nerve (L5, S1, S2)
Flexes and laterally rotates knee
Tibial branch of sciatic nerve (L5, S1-3)
Flexes and laterally rotates knee, extends and laterally rotates hip
Hamstrings
Biceps femoris Short head
Lateral linea aspera and proximal two thirds of supracondylar line of femur
Long head
Ischial tuberosity
Lateral head of fibula and lateral tibial condyle
Gracilis
Body and inferior ramus of pubis
Medial aspect of superior tibia
Obturator nerve (L2, L3)
Adducts hip, flexes and medially rotates knee
Sartorius
Anterior superior iliac spine and anterior iliac crest
Superomedial aspect of tibia
Femoral nerve (L2, L3)
Flexes, abducts, and externally rotates hip, flexes knee
Plantarflexes ankle and flexes knee
Gastrocnemius Lateral head
Lateral femoral condyle
Medial head
Superior aspect of medial femoral condyle
Posterior calcaneus
Tibial nerve (S1, S2)
Popliteus
Lateral femoral condyle and lateral meniscus
Superior to soleal line on posterior tibia
Tibial nerve (L4, L5, S1)
Weak knee flexion and unlocking of knee joint
Plantaris
Lateral supracondylar line of femur and oblique popliteal ligament
Posterior calcaneus
Tibial nerve (S1, S2)
Weak assist in knee flexion and ankle plantarflexion
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Muscles (continued) Lateral view
Vastus lateralis m.
lliotibial tract Biceps femoris m.
Long head Short head Quadriceps femoris tendon
Bursa deep to iliotibial tract Fibular collateral lig. and bursa deep to it Plantaris m. Biceps femoris tendon and its inferior subtendinous bursa
Patella Lateral patellar retinaculum
Joint capsule of knee
Common fibular (peroneal) n. Patellar lig. Head of fibula Gastrocnemius m. Soleus m. Fibularis (peroneus) longus m.
Medial view Vastus medialis m.
Tibial tuberosity Tibialis anterior m.
Sartorius m. Gracilis m. Tendon of semitendinosus m.
Quadriceps femoris tendon Medial epicondyle of femur Patella
Semimembranosus m. and tendon Adductor magnus tendon Parallel fibers Oblique fibers
Medial patellar retinaculum
Tibial collateral lig.
Semimembranosus bursa Joint capsule Patellar lig.
Anserine bursa deep to Semitendinosus, gracilis, and sartorius tendons
Pes anserinus
Gastrocnemius m. Tibial tuberosity
Soleus m.
Figure 7-7 Lateral and medial muscles of knee.
7 KNEE 291
Nerves L1 L2 L3
Iliohypogastric n. Ilioinguinal n.
Lumbar plexus
L4
Genitofemoral n. Lateral cutaneous n. of thigh
Lumbosacral trunk
Femoral n. Obturator externus m.
Obturator n. (L2, L3, L4) Posterior branch Articular branch
Adductor brevis m.
Anterior branch
Adductor longus m. (cut)
Posterior branch
Adductor magnus m. (ischiocondylar, or “hamstrings,” part supplied by sciatic [tibial] n.)
Cutaneous branch
Gracilis m.
Articular branch to knee joint Adductor hiatus Note: Only muscles innervated by obturator nerve shown Cutaneous innervation
Figure 7-8 Obturator nerve. Nerves
Segmental Level
Sensory
Motor
Femoral
L2, L3, L4
Thigh via cutaneous nerves
Iliacus, sartorius, quadriceps femoris, articularis genu, pectineus
Obturator
L2, L3, L4
Medial thigh
Adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magnus (adductor part), gracilis, obturator externus
Saphenous
L2, L3, L4
Medial leg and foot
No motor
Tibial nerve
L4, L5, S1, S2, S3
Posterior heel and plantar surface of foot
Semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps femoris, adductor magnus, gastrocnemius, soleus, plantaris, flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus, tibialis posterior
Common fibular nerve
L4, L5, S1, S2
Lateral posterior leg
Biceps femoris
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Nerves (continued) T12 Lateral cutaneous n. of thigh (L2, L3)
L1 L2 L3
Femoral n. (L2, L3, L4)
Lumbar plexus
L4 Obturator n. Lumbosacral trunk Iliacus m. Psoas major m. (lower part) Articular branch Sartorius m. (cut and reflected)
Pectineus m.
Rectus femoris m. (cut and reflected) Vastus Quadriceps intermedius m. femoris m. Vastus medialis m. Vastus lateralis m.
Lateral cutaneous n. of thigh
Anterior cutaneous branches of femoral n. Sartorius m. (cut and reflected)
Saphenous n.
Articularis genus m. Infrapatellar branch of saphenous n.
Note: Only muscles innervated by femoral nerve shown
Medial cutaneous nn. of leg (branches of saphenous n.)
Cutaneous innervation
Figure 7-9 Femoral nerve and lateral femoral cutaneous nerves. 7 KNEE 293
Nerves (continued) Posterior cutaneous n. of thigh (S1, S2, S3)
Greater sciatic foramen
Inferior cluneal nn.
Sciatic n. (L4, L5, S1, S2, S3)
Perineal branches Tibial division of sciatic n.
Common fibular (peroneal) division of sciatic n.
Long head (cut) of biceps femoris m.
Cutaneous innervation Short head of biceps femoris m.
Adductor magnus m. (also partially supplied by obturator n.)
Long head (cut) of biceps femoris m.
Semitendinosus m.
Common fibular (peroneal) n.
Semimembranosus m. Tibial n.
Posterior cutaneous n. of thigh
Articular branch
Articular branch Plantaris m.
Medial sural cutaneous n.
Lateral sural cutaneous n.
Sural communicating branch
Gastrocnemius m. Sural n.
Common fibular (peroneal) n. via lateral sural cutaneous n. Medial sural cutaneous n.
Soleus m.
From sciatic n.
Superficial fibular (peroneal) n. Sural n.
Tibial n. Medial calcaneal branches Medial and lateral plantar nn.
Lateral calcaneal branches Lateral dorsal cutaneous n.
Figure 7-10 Sciatic nerve and posterior femoral cutaneous nerve. 294
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Tibial n. via medial calcaneal branches
PATIENT HISTORY Initial Hypotheses Based on Historical Findings
Posterior cruciate lig. Anterior cruciate lig. (ruptured)
Arthroscopic view
Usual cause is twisting of hyperextended knee, as in landing after basketball jump shot
Figure 7-11 Anterior cruciate ligament ruptures.
Patient Reports
Initial Hypothesis
Patient reports a traumatic onset of knee pain that occurred during jumping, twisting, or changing directions with foot planted
Possible ligamentous injury (anterior cruciate)1,2 Possible patella subluxation2 Possible quadriceps rupture Possible meniscal tear
Patient reports traumatic injury that resulted in a posteriorly directed force to tibia with knee flexed
Possible PCL injury (posterior cruciate)3
Patient reports traumatic injury that resulted in a varus or valgus force exerted on knee
Possible collateral ligament injury (LCL or MCL)3
Patient reports anterior knee pain with jumping and full knee flexion
Possible patellar tendonitis2,4 Possible patellofemoral pain syndrome5,6
Patient reports swelling in knee with occasional locking and clicking
Possible meniscal tear7 Possible loose body within knee joint
Patient reports pain with prolonged knee flexion, during squats, and while going up and down stairs
Possible patellofemoral pain syndrome5,6
Patient reports pain and stiffness in morning that diminishes after a few hours
Possible OA8,9
7 KNEE 295
Reliability of Assessing Subjective Questions in Patients with Osteoarthritis of Knee Progressive stages in joint pathology
Early degenerative changes with surface fraying of articular cartilages
Further erosion of cartilages, pitting, and cleft formation. Hypertrophic changes of bone at joint margins
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Cartilages almost completely destroyed and joint space narrowed. Subchondral bone irregular and eburnated; spur formation at margins. Fibrosis of joint capsule
Knee joint opened anteriorly reveals large erosion of articular cartilages of femur and patella with cartilaginous excrescences at intercondylar notch
Section of articular cartilage shows fraying of surface and deep cleft. Hyaline cartilage abnormal with clumping of chondrocytes
Figure 7-12 Osteoarthritis of the knee. History
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability .21 (.03, .39)
10
Acute injury
.33 (.17, .49)
10
Swelling
.12 (.04, .28)
10
Giving way 10
Locking
Pain, generalized10
152 patients with OA of knee
.44 (.26, .62) .03 (.15, .21)
Pain at rest10
.16 (.0, 32)
Pain rising from chair10
.25 (.05, .45)
Pain climbing stairs10
.21 (.06, .48) .90 (.74, 1.0)
Inactivity stiffness9 Pain on using stairs9
49 patients presenting to outpatient rheumatology clinics for OA of knee
Night pain9
296
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
.86 (.70, 1.0) .81 (.66, .96)
Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History for Identifying Effusion, Meniscal Tears, and Medial Collateral Ligament Tears LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Usual cause is forceful impact on posterolateral aspect of knee with foot anchored, producing valgus stress on knee joint Valgus stress may rupture tibial collateral and capsular ligaments
Figure 7-13 Medial collateral ligament rupture.
Patient Report and Study Quality
Population
Self-noticed swelling11 Trauma by external force to the leg12 Rotational trauma12 Age 40 years13 Continuation of activity impossible1 Weight bearing during trauma13
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Knee joint effusion per MRI
.80 (.68, .92)
.45 (.35, .39)
1.5 (1.1, 1.9)
.40 (.20, .90)
.21 (.07, .35)
.89 (.83, .96)
2.0 (.8, 4.8)
.90 (.70, 1.1)
.62 (.41, .83)
.63 (.51, .74)
1.7 (1.1, 2.6)
.60 (.30, 1.1)
.70 (.57, .83)
.64 (.54, .74)
2.0 (1.4, 2.8)
.50 (.30, .70)
.64 (.49, .78)
.55 (.45, .66)
1.4 (1.0, 2.0)
.70 (.40, 1.0)
.85 (.75, .96)
.35 (.24, .46)
1.3 (1.1, 1.6)
.40 (.20, .90)
MCL tear per MRI 134 patients with traumatic knee complaints Meniscal tear per MRI
7 KNEE 297
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION TESTS Screening
Medial condyle of femur
Lateral condyle of femur
Patella
Lateral condyle of tibia
Medial condyle of tibia
Head of fibula Fibula
Stiell and colleagues60,61 identified a clinical prediction rule to determine the need to order radiographs following knee trauma. If one of five variables identified were present, radiographs were required. The five variables included an age ≥55 years, isolated patellar tenderness without other bone tenderness, tenderness of the fibular head, inability to flex knee to 90°, inability to bear weight immediately after injury and in the emergency room (unable to transfer weight onto each lower extremity-regardless of limping). This rule has been validated in numerous studies in adult14,61-63 and pediatric64,65 populations. The inter-examiner agreement between clinicians for identification of predictor variables exhibited a kappa value of .77 with a 95% confidence interval of .65-.89.61
Types of distal femur fractures
Transverse supracondylar fracture
Intercondylar (T or Y) fracture
Comminuted fracture extending into shaft
Figure 7-14 Identifying the need to order radiographs following acute knee trauma.
298
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Fracture of single condyle (may occur in frontal or oblique plane)
Screening Diagnostic Utility of the Ottawa Knee Rule for Radiography
.1
99
2 5 Percent (%)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
95 1000 500 200 100 50 20 10 5 2 1
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 .5 .2 .1 .05 .02 .01 .005 .002 .001
20
LR
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Percent (%)
1
Interpretation
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Figure 7-15 Nomogram. Assuming a fracture prevalence of 7% (statistically pooled from Bachmann and colleagues14), an adult seen in the emergency department with an acute injury whose finding was negative on the Ottawa Knee Rule would have a 0.37% (95% CI, 0.15% to 1.48%) chance of having a knee fracture. (Adapted with permission from Fagan TJ. Nomogram for Bayes’ theorem. N Engl J Med. 1975;293-257. Copyright 2005, Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.)
.2 .5
LR
10 5 2 1 .5
95
.2 99 Pretest Probability
Test and Study Quality Ottawa Knee Rule for Radiography in Adults14 2004 Metaanalysis Ottawa Knee Rule for Radiography in Children15 2009 Metaanalysis
Likelihood Ratio
.1 Post-test Probability
Description and Positive Findings
Knee x-rays ordered when patients exhibited any of the following: (1) Age 55 years (2) Isolated patellar tenderness without other bone tenderness (3) Tenderness of the fibular head (4) Inability to flex knee to 90° (5) Inability to bear weight immediately after injury and in the emergency department
Population
Reference Standard
Statistically pooled data from six high-quality studies involving 4249 adults
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.99 (.93, 1.0)
.49 (.43, .51)
1.9
.05 (.02, .23)
.99 (.94, 1.0)
.46 (.43, .49)
1.9 (1.6, 2.4)
.07 (.02, .29)
X-rays Statistically pooled data from three highquality studies involving 1130 children
7 KNEE 299
Screening Reliability of Detecting Inflammation ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 7-16 Fluctuation test. Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Not described
53 patients with knee pain
Inter-examiner Reliability .02 to .65
16
Observation of swelling Palpation for warmth16
.18 .11 to .11
Palpation for swelling16 Fluctuation test17
With patient supine, examiner places thumb and finger around patella while pushing any fluid from suprapatellar pouch with other hand. Positive if finger and thumb are pushed apart
Patellar tap test17
With patient supine, examiner presses suprapatellar pouch then taps on patella. Patella remains in contact with femur if no swelling is present
Palpation for warmth17
Examiner palpates anterior aspect of knee. Results compared with uninvolved knee
Visual inspection for redness17
Examiner visually inspects involved knee for redness and compares it with uninvolved side
.37
.21
152 patients with unilateral knee dysfunction
.66 .21
Diagnostic Utility of the Ballottement Test for Identifying Knee Joint Effusion
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Ballottement test11
Examiner quickly pushes the patient’s patella posteriorly with 2 or 3 fingers. Positive if patella bounces off trochlea with a distinct impact
Self-noticed knee swelling Ballottement test11
300
Combination of two findings
Population
134 patients with traumatic knee complaints
Reference Standard
Knee joint effusion per MRI
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.83 (.71, .94)
.49 (.39, .59)
1.6 (1.3, 2.1)
.30 (.20, .70)
.67 (.52, .81)
.82 (.73, .90)
3.6 (2.2, 5.9)
.40 (.30, .60)
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Range of Motion Reliability of Range of Motion Measurements ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 7-17 Measurement of active knee flexion range of motion. Measurements
Instrumentation
Active flexion sitting
Population
Passive flexion sitting Active flexion supine
Inter-examiner ICC .88 (.69, .95)
18
18
Passive flexion supine
18
Reliability Inter-examiner ICC .86 (.64, .94)
18
Standard goniometer
30 patients 3 days after total knee arthroplasty
Inter-examiner ICC .89 (.78, .95) Inter-examiner ICC .88 (.77, .94) Inter-examiner ICC .64 (.38, .81)
18
Active extension
Inter-examiner ICC .62 (.28, .80)
18
Passive extension
Standard goniometer
53 patients with knee pain
Intra-examiner ICC .82 Inter-examiner ICC .68
Passive flexion Passive extension19
Standard goniometer
25 patients with knee osteoarthritis
Inter-examiner ICC .87 (.73, .94) Inter-examiner ICC .69 (.41, .85)
Passive flexion and extension20
3 standard goniometers (metal, large plastic, and small plastic)
24 patients referred for physical therapy
Intra-examiner ICC
Passive flexion21
Standard goniometer
30 asymptomatic subjects
Inter-examiner ICC .99
Passive flexion Passive extension22
Standard goniometer
Intra-examiner ICC
Inter-examiner ICC
Flexion Extension
Flexion Extension
Passive flexion Passive extension22
Visual estimation
43 patients referred for physical therapy where examination would normally include passive ROM (PROM) measurements of knee
Active flexion Active extension23
Standard goniometer
20 asymptomatic subjects
Intra-examiner ICC .95 Intra-examiner ICC .85
Active flexion24
Universal goniometer
60 healthy university students
Intra-examiner ICC .86-.97 Inter-examiner ICC .62-1.0
Passive flexion Passive extension25
Universal goniometer
79 patients with OA of knee
Intra-examiner ICC .95-.96 Intra-examiner ICC .71-.86
Passive flexion Passive extension17
Standard goniometer
152 patients with unilateral knee dysfunction
Inter-examiner ICC
Passive flexion
16
Flexion .97 .99 .99
Metal Large Small
.99 .98
Extension .96 .91 .97
.90 .86
Inter-examiner ICC .83 Inter-examiner ICC .82
Involved knee
Uninvolved knee
Flexion Extension
Flexion Extension
.97 .94
.80 .72
ICC, Intraclass correlation coefficient.
7 KNEE 301
Range of Motion Reliability of Determining Capsular and Noncapsular End-Feels ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 7-18 Assessment of end-feel for knee flexion.
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Flexion end-feel Extension end-feel19
End-feel is assessed at end of PROM and categorized as “normal,” “empty,” “stiff,” or “loose”
25 patients with knee osteoarthritis
Inter-examiner ICC .31 (.53, 1.15) Inter-examiner ICC .25 (.18, .68)
Flexion end-feel Extension end-feel25
End-feel is assessed at end of PROM and categorized as “capsular,” “tissue approximation,” “springy block,” “bony,” “spasm,” “empty”
79 patients with OA of knee
Intra-examiner .48 Intra-examiner .17
Flexion end-feel Extension end-feel26
End-feel is assessed at end of PROM and graded on an 11-point scale with “capsular at end of normal range,” “capsular early in range,” “capsular,” “tissue approximation,” “springy block,” “bony,” “spasm,” “empty”
40 patients with unilateral knee pain
Intra-examiner .76 (.55, .97) Inter-examiner .01 (.36, .35) Intra-examiner 1.0 (1.0, 1.0) Inter-examiner .43 (.06, .92)
End-feel assessment during Lachman test27
Examiners asked to grade end-feel during Lachman test. End-feel graded as “hard” or “soft”
35 patients referred to physical therapy clinics for rehabilitation of knee joint
Intra-examiner .33
End-feel of adduction stress applied to knee28
Examiner places knee in 0° and 30° of flexion and applies valgus force through knee. End-feel graded as “soft” or “firm”
50 patients referred to an outpatient orthopaedic clinic who would normally undergo valgus stress tests directed at knee
Inter-examiner 0° of flexion .00 30° of flexion .33
302
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Range of Motion Reliability of Assessing Pain During Range of Motion ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Test and Study
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
Pain resistance sequence: Passive flexion Passive extension25
Pain sequence is assessed during PROM of knee. Pain is graded on a 4-point scale as “no pain,” “pain occurs after resistance is felt,” “pain occurs at the same time as resistance is felt,” or “pain occurs before resistance is felt”
79 patients with OA of knee
Intra-examiner .34 Intra-examiner .36
Pain resistance sequence: Passive flexion26 Pain resistance sequence: Passive extension26
40 patients with unilateral knee pain
Intra-examiner .78 (.68, .87) Inter-examiner .51 Intra-examiner .85 (.75, .95) Inter-examiner .42
Pain resistance sequence: Passive flexion17
Examiner passively flexes knee. Subject is directed to report when pain is above baseline levels. Examiner reports if pain occurs before, during, or after PROM limitation has occurred
152 patients with unilateral knee dysfunction
Inter-examiner .28
Assessment of pain during adduction stress applied to knee28
Examiner places knee in 0° and 30° of flexion and applies valgus force through knee. Pain responses recorded
50 patients referred to outpatient orthopaedic clinic who would normally undergo valgus stress tests directed at knee
Inter-examiner 0° of flexion .40 30° of flexion .33
7 KNEE 303
Assessing Strength Reliability of Strength Assessment ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Measurements
Instrumentation
Population
Determination of 1 repetition maximum (1RM) knee extension29
With patient sitting in leg extension machine, subject performs slow knee extension from 100° to 0°. Amount of weight is systematically increased until subject can no longer complete lift. 1RM defined as the heaviest resistance that could be lifted once
27 asymptomatic adults
Against inflated sphygmomanometer cuff
53 patients with knee pain
Reliability
Isometric extensor strength16 Isometric flexor strength16
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Inter-day (same examiner) ICC .90 Inter-examiner ICC .96
Intra-examiner ICC .85 Inter-examiner ICC .83 Intra-examiner ICC .89 Inter-examiner ICC .70
Diagnostic Utility of Manual Muscle Testing for Detecting Strength Deficits LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
MMT of knee extension strength30
Patient extends knee as forcefully as possible into examiner’s hand. Strength graded on a scale of 0 to 5
107 patients from an acute rehabilitation hospital
Side-to-side difference with a handheld dynamometer of: 15% 20% 25% 30%
.63 .68 .72 .72
.89 .88 .83 .77
5.7 5.7 4.2 3.1
.42 .36 .34 .36
304
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Assessing Muscle Length Reliability of Assessing Muscle Length ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 7-19 Quadriceps length.
Test and Study Quadriceps length
19
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Assessed with Thomas test
25 patients with knee OA
Result: .18 (.17, .53) Pain: .39 (.14, .64)
Hamstring length31
Straight leg raise test with inclinometer
ICC .92 (.82, .96)
ITB/TFL complex length31
Ober’s test with inclinometer
ICC .97 (.93, .98)
31
ICC .91 (.80, .96)
Quadriceps length
Quadriceps femoris muscle angle with inclinometer
Gastrocnemius length31
Dorsiflexion with knee extended and inclinometer
ICC .92 (.83, .96)
Soleus length31
Dorsiflexion with knee flexed 90° and inclinometer
ICC .86 (.71, .94)
30 patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome
7 KNEE 305
Assessing Bony Alignment Reliability of the Assessing Mediolateral Patellar Tilt ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 7-20 Examination of mediolateral patellar tilt.
Test and Measure
Procedure
Determination of Positive Finding
Population
Reliability
Mediolateral tilt32
Examiner estimates patellar alignment while palpating medial and lateral aspects of patella
Patellar orientation graded using an ordinal scale extending from –2 to 2 with –2 representing a lateral tilt, 0 no appreciable tilt, and 2 a medial tilt
27 asymptomatic subjects
Intra-examiner .57 Inter-examiner .18
Mediolateral tilt33
Examiner palpates medial and lateral borders of patella with thumb and index finger
If digit palpating the medial border is higher than lateral border, then patella is considered laterally tilted. If digit palpating the lateral border is higher than patella, then patella is medially tilted
66 patients referred for physical therapy who would normally undergo an evaluation of patellofemoral alignment
Inter-examiner .21
Mediolateral tilt34
Examiner attempts to palpate posterior surface of medial and lateral patellar borders
Scored 0, 1 or 2. 0 if examiner palpates posterior border on both medial and lateral sides. 1 if 50% of lateral border can be palpated but posterior surface cannot. 2 if 50% of lateral border can be palpated
56 subjects, 25 of whom had symptomatic knees
Intra-examiner .28-.33 Inter-examiner .19
Patellar tilt test34
Examiner lifts lateral edge of patella from lateral femoral epicondyle
Graded as having positive, neutral, or negative angle with respect to horizontal plane
99 knees, of which 26 were symptomatic
Intra-examiner .44-.50 Inter-examiner .20-.35
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Assessing Bony Alignment Reliability of the Assessing Patellar Orientation ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 7-21 Examination of mediolateral patellar orientation. Test and Measure
Procedure
Determination of Positive Finding
Population
Reliability
Mediolateral position32
Examiner visually estimates patellar alignment while palpating sides of lateral epicondyles with index fingers and patella midline with thumbs
Patellar orientation graded using an ordinal scale extending from 2 to 2, with 2 representing a lateral displacement and 2 a medial displacement
27 asymptomatic subjects
Intra-examiner .40 Inter-examiner .03
Mediolateral orientation35
With patient’s knee supported in 20° of flexion, examiner identifies medial and lateral epicondyle of femur and midline of patella. Examiner then marks medial and lateral epicondyle and patella midline with tape
Distances between patella midline and medial and lateral condyles are measured
20 healthy physiotherapy students
Inter-examiner Medial distance: ICC .91 Lateral distance: ICC .94
Mediolateral displacement33
Examiner palpates medial and lateral epicondyles with index fingers while simultaneously palpating midline of patella with thumbs
Distance between index fingers and thumbs should be same. When distance between index finger palpating lateral epicondyle is less, patella is laterally displaced. When distance between index finger palpating medial epicondyle is less, patella is medially displaced
66 patients referred for physical therapy who would normally undergo evaluation of patellofemoral alignment
Inter-examiner .10
Mediolateral glide34
Examiner uses a tape measure to record distance from medial and lateral femoral condyles to mid patella
Scored 0 or 1. 0 if the distance from medial epicondyle to mid patella equals distance from lateral epicondyle to mid patella. 1 if the distance from medial epicondyle to mid patella is 0.5 cm greater than from lateral condyle to mid patella
56 subjects, 25 of whom had symptomatic knees
Intra-examiner .11-.35 Inter-examiner .02
7 KNEE 307
Assessing Bony Alignment Reliability of Assessing Superoinferior Patellar Tilt ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 7-22 Examination of anteroposterior patellar tilt.
Test and Measure
Procedure
Determination of Positive Finding
Population
Reliability
Superoinferior tilt32
Examiner visually estimates patellar alignment while palpating superior and inferior patellar poles
Patellar orientation graded using an ordinal scale extending from 2 to 2, with 2 representing inferior patellar pole below superior pole and 2 representing inferior patellar pole above superior pole
27 asymptomatic subjects
Intra-examiner .50 Inter-examiner .30
Anterior tilt33
Examiner palpates inferior patellar pole
If examiner easily palpates inferior pole, no anterior tilt exists. If downward pressure on superior pole is required to palpate inferior pole, it is considered to have an anterior tilt
66 patients referred for physical therapy who would normally undergo evaluation of patellofemoral alignment
Inter-examiner .24
Anteroposterior tilt component34
Examiner palpates inferior and superior patellar poles
Scored 0, 1, or 2. 0 if inferior patellar pole is as easily palpable as superior pole. 1 if inferior patellar pole is not as easily palpable as superior pole. 2 if inferior pole is not clearly palpable compared with superior pole
56 subjects, 25 of whom had symptomatic knees
Intra-examiner .03-.23 Inter-examiner .04
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Assessing Bony Alignment Reliability of Assessing Patellar Rotation ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 7-23 Examination of patellar rotation.
Test and Measure
Procedure
Determination of Positive Finding
Population
Reliability
Rotation32
Examiner positions index fingers along longitudinal axes of patella and estimates acute angle formed
Graded using ordinal scale extending from 2 to 2. 2 represents longitudinal axis of patella being more lateral than axis of femur. 2 represents patella being more medial than axis of femur
27 asymptomatic subjects
Intra-examiner .41 Inter-examiner .03
Longitudinal axis of patella should be in line with ASIS. If distal end of patella is medial, it is considered to be medially rotated. If distal end is lateral, it is considered to be laterally rotated
66 patients referred for physical therapy who would normally undergo evaluation of patellofemoral alignment
Inter-examiner .36
Scored as 1, 0, or 1. 0 when patellar long axis is parallel to long axis of femur. 1 when inferior patellar pole is lateral to axis of femur and classified as a lateral patellar rotation. 1 when inferior pole is medial to axis of femur and classified as medial patellar rotation
56 subjects, 25 of whom had symptomatic knees
Intra-examiner .06-.00 Inter-examiner .03
Patellar rotation33
Patellar rotation component34
Examiner determines relationship between longitudinal axis of patella and femur
7 KNEE 309
Assessing Bony Alignment Reliability of Assessing Quadriceps Angle Measurements ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Q-angle formed by intersection of lines from anterior superioriliac spine and from tibial tuberosity through midpoint of patella. Large Q-angle predisposes to patellar subluxation
Q
Figure 7-24 Quadriceps angle.
Test and Measure
Procedure
Q-angle31
Q-angle32
Proximal arm of goniometer is aligned with ASIS, distal arm is aligned with tibial tubercle, and fulcrum is positioned over patellar midpoint
Q-angle36 As above. Measure with knee fully extended and in 20° of flexion
Population
Reliability ICC
30 patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome
Inter-examiner ICC .70 (.46, .85)
27 asymptomatic subjects
Intra-examiner ICC .63 Inter-examiner ICC .23
50 asymptomatic knees
Inter-examiner at full extension Right ICC .14-.21
Inter-examiner at 20° of knee flexion Right ICC .04-.08
310
Left ICC .08-.11
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Left ICC .13-.16
Assessing Bony Alignment Reliability of the Assessing the Angle between the Longitudinal Axis of the Patella and the Patellar Tendon Measurements (A Angle) ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Superior patella width
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 7-25 A angle.
Inferior patella pole Inferior patella width
A-angle
Tibial tuberosity width
Test and Measure
Procedure
Population
Reliability
A angle32
Proximal and distal goniometer arms are aligned with middle of superior patellar pole and tibial tubercle. Fulcrum is positioned over midpoint of inferior patellar pole. Angle recorded in degrees
27 asymptomatic subjects
Intra-examiner ICC .61 Inter-examiner ICC .49
A angle37
Superior patellar pole, superior patellar width, inferior patellar width, inferior patellar pole and tibial tuberosity are identified. A angle is then measured with a goniometer. Angle recorded in degrees
36 asymptomatic subjects
Intra-examiner ICC .20-.32 Inter-examiner ICC ⫺.01
Reliability of the Lateral Pull Test to Assess Patellar Alignment Test and Study 38
Lateral pull test
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reliability
With patient supine and knee extended, examiner asks patient to perform isometric quadriceps contraction. Examiner observes patellar tracking during contraction. Positive if patella tracks more laterally than superiorly. Negative if superior displacement is equal to lateral displacement
99 knees, 26 of which were symptomatic
Intra-examiner .39-.47 Inter-examiner .31
7 KNEE 311
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Palpation Reliability of Pain during Palpation
Palpation of lateral joint line Physical Finding
Palpation of medial joint line
Figure 7-26 Palpation of joint lines.
Population
Reliability
Palpation for tenderness
53 patients with knee pain
Inter-examiner .10-.30
Posterior joint line tenderness39
71 patients with knee pain
Inter-examiner .48
16
Tenderness at medial joint line10 Tenderness at lateral joint line10
Inter-examiner .21 (.01, .41) 152 patients with OA of knee
Patellofemoral tenderness9 Medial tibiofemoral tenderness9
49 patients presenting to outpatient rheumatology clinics for OA of knee
Lateral tibiofemoral tenderness9
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Periarticular tenderness9
Inter-examiner .25 (.07, .43) Intra-examiner .61 (.43, .78)
Inter-examiner .27 (.05, .48)
Intra-examiner .60 (.47, .72)
Inter-examiner .35 (.24, .45)
Intra-examiner .60 (.44, .74)
Inter-examiner .29 (.14, .44)
Intra-examiner .58 (.45, .73)
Inter-examiner .22 (.09, .36)
Diagnostic Utility of Joint Line Tenderness
Test and Study Quality Joint line tenderness40 2008 Metaanalysis Joint line tenderness41 2007 Metaanalysis
Description and Positive Findings
Depended on study, but generally: Examiner palpates joint line with patient’s knee in 90° flexion. Positive if test reproduces pain
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Pooled, quality adjusted estimates from eight studies*
Meniscal tears via arthroscopy or arthrotomy
.76 (.73, .80)
.77 (.64, .87)
3.3
.31
Pooled, estimates from 14 studies*
Meniscal tears via arthroscopy, arthrotomy, or MRI
.63 (.61, .66)
.77 (.76, .79)
2.7
.48
*
Some of the included studies would not have met our QUADAS quality criterion for inclusion.
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Special Tests Reliability of the Lachman Test ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 7-27 Lachman test. Test and Measure
Lachman test27
Lachman test10
Procedure
Determination of Positive Finding
Examiners perform Lachman test as they would in practice
Results are graded as “positive” or “negative.” Examiners also grade amount of anterior tibial translation as 0, 1, 2, or 3. 0 represents no difference in tibial translation between unaffected and affected knees
Not specified
Not specified
Population
Reliability For positive or negative findings
35 patients referred to physical therapy clinics for rehabilitation of knee joint
Intra-examiner .51 Inter-examiner .19
152 patients with OA of knee
Inter-examiner .08 (.12, .04)
For grading of tibial translation Intra-examiner .44 -.60 Inter-examiner .02 -.61
Diagnostic Utility of the Lachman Test in Identifying Anterior Cruciate Ligament Tears
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Lachman test (without anesthesia)42 2006 Metaanalysis
Depended on study, but generally: With patient supine and knee joint flexed between 10° and 20°, examiner stabilizes femur with one hand. With other hand, examiner translates tibia anteriorly. Positive if lack of end point for tibial translation or subluxation is positive
Pooled estimates from 2276 patients from 21 studies*
Lachman test (with anesthesia)42 2006 Metaanalysis
Pooled estimates from 1174 patients from 15 studies*
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
ACL tears via arthroscopy, arthrotomy, or MRI
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.85 (.83, .87)
.94 (.92, .95)
1.2 (4.6, 22.7)
.2 (.1, .3)
.97 (.96, .98)
.93 (.89, .96)
12.9 (1.5, 108.5)
.1 (.0, .3)
*
Some of the included studies would not have met our QUADAS quality criterion for inclusion.
7 KNEE 313
Special Tests Reliability of the Anterior Drawer Test ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 7-28 Anterior drawer test.
Test and Study
Description and Positive Finding
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Anterior drawer test16
Not specified
53 patients with knee pain
.34
Diagnostic Utility of the Anterior Drawer Test in Identifying Anterior Cruciate Ligament Tears
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Anterior drawer test (without anesthesia)42 2006 Metaanalysis
Depended on study, but generally: With patient’s knee flexed between 60° and 90° with foot on examination table, examiner draws tibia anteriorly. Positive if there is anterior subluxation of 5 mm
Pooled estimates from 1809 patients from 20 studies*
Anterior drawer test (with anesthesia)42 2006 Metaanalysis
Pooled estimates from 1306 patients from 15 studies*
Reference Standard
ACL tears via arthroscopy, arthrotomy, or MRI
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
.55 (.52, .58)
.92 (.90, .94)
7.3 .5 (3.5, 15.2) (.4, .6)
.77 (.82, .91)
.87 (.82, .91)
5.9 (.9, 38.2)
*
Some of the included studies would not have met our QUADAS quality criterion for inclusion.
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LR
.4 (.2, .8)
Special Tests Diagnostic Utility of the Pivot Shift Test in Identifying Anterior Cruciate Ligament Tears LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Patient supine and relaxed. Examiner lifts heel of foot to flex hip 45º keeping knee fully extended; grasps knee with other hand, placing thumb beneath head of fibula. Examiner applies strong internal rotation to tibia and fibula at both knee and ankle while lifting proximal fibula. Knee permitted to flex about 20º; examiner then pushes medially with proximal hand and pulls with distal hand to produce a valgus force at knee
Degrees of sprain
Grade I. Stretching of ligament with minimal disruption of fibers
Grade II. Tearing of up to 50% of ligament fibers; small hematoma. Hemarthrosis may be present
Grade III. Complete tear of ligament and separation of ends, hematoma, and hemarthrosis
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Pivot shift test (without anesthesia)42 2006 Metaanalysis
Depended on study, but generally: Patient’s knee is placed in 10°- 20° of flexion, and tibia is rotated internally while examiner applies valgus force. Positive if lateral tibial plateau subluxes anteriorly
Pooled estimates from 1431 patients from 15 studies*
Pivot shift test (with anesthesia)42 2006 Metaanalysis *
Pooled estimates from 1077 patients from 13 studies*
Reference Standard
ACL tears via arthroscopy, arthrotomy, or MRI
Figure 7-29 Pivot shift test. Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.24 (.21, .27)
.98 (.96, .99)
8.5 (4.7, 15.5)
.9 (.8, 1.0)
.74 (.71, .77)
.99 (.96, 1.0)
2.9 (2.8, 156.2)
.3 (.1, .7)
Some of the included studies would not have met our QUADAS quality criterion for inclusion.
7 KNEE 315
Special Tests Reliability of Varus and Valgus Stress Tests ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Varus stress test
Test and Study
Valgus stress test
Description and Positive Finding
Figure 7-30 Valgus and varus stress tests.
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability (Laxity) .24 (Pain) .18
Varus test16 53 patients with knee pain
Valgus test16
(Laxity) .48 (Pain) .37
Not specified Varus test10 152 patients with OA of knee
10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Valgus test
0 (.18, .18) .05 (.13, 2.3)
Diagnostic Utility of Valgus Stress for Identifying Medial Collateral Ligament Tears
Test and Study Quality Pain with valgus stress at 30° 12 Laxity with valgus stress at 30° 12
316
Description and Positive Findings
Not specifically described
Population
134 patients with traumatic knee complaint
Reference Standard
MCL tears per MRI
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.78 (.64, .92)
.67 (.57, .76)
2.3 (1.7, .3.3)
.30 (.20, .60)
.91 (.81, 1.0)
.49 (.39, .59)
1.8 (1.4, 2.2)
.20 (.10, .60)
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Special Tests Reliability of McMurray’s Test
Test and Study 10
McMurray’s test
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Description and Positive Finding
Population
Reliability
Knee is passively flexed, externally rotated, and axially loaded while brought into extension. Test is repeated in IR. Positive if a palpable or audible click or pain occurs during rotation
152 patients with OA of knee
Inter-examiner .16 (.01, .33)
Figure 7-31 McMurray’s test.
With internal rotation of tibia
With external rotation of tibia
Diagnostic Utility of the McMurray’s Test
Test and Study Quality McMurray’s test40 2008 Metaanalysis McMurray’s test41 2007 Metaanalysis
Description and Positive Findings
Depended on study, but generally same as above
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Pooled, quality adjusted estimates from 8 studies*
Arthroscopy or arthrotomy
.55 (.50, .60)
.77 (.62, .87)
2.4
.58
Pooled, estimates from 14 studies*
Arthroscopy, arthrotomy, or MRI
.71 (.67, .73)
.71 (.69, .73)
2.5
.41
*
Some of the included studies would not have met our QUADAS quality criterion for inclusion.
7 KNEE 317
Special Tests Diagnostic Utility of Apley’s Test LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 7-32 Apley’s grinding test.
Test and Study Quality Apley’s test40 2008 Metaanalysis Apley’s test41 2007 Metaanalysis
Description and Positive Findings
Depended on study, but generally patient is prone with knee flexed to 90°. Examiner places downward pressure on foot, compressing knee, while internally and externally rotating tibia
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Pooled, qualityadjusted estimates from three studies*
Arthroscopy or arthrotomy
.22 (.17, .28)
.88 (.72, .96)
1.8
.89
Pooled, estimates from seven studies*
Arthroscopy, arthrotomy, or MRI
.61 (.56, .66)
.70 (.68, .72)
2.0
.56
*
Some of the included studies would not have met our QUADAS quality criterion for inclusion.
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Special Tests Diagnostic Utility of Other Tests for Identifying Meniscal Tears LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 7-33 Ege’s test. Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Pain with passive knee flexion13
Not described
134 patients with traumatic knee complaint
Meniscal tear per MRI
.77 (.64, .89)
.41 (.31, .52)
1.3 (1.0, 1.7)
.60 (.30, 1.0)
Ege’s test43
Patient stands with feet 30 to 40 cm apart. To detect medial meniscal tears, the patient performs a full squat with legs maximally externally rotated. To detect
150 consecutive patients with knee symptoms related to intra-articular knee pathology
Knee arthroscopy
Medial .81
3.5
.41
.90
6.4
.40
.67 Lateral .64
Special Tests Diagnostic Utility of the Thessaly Test for Identifying Meniscal Tears 7 KNEE 319
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 7-34 Thessaly test.
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Thessaly test44
Patients stand on the symptomatic leg while holding the examiner’s hands. They then rotate the body and leg internally and externally with the knee bent 5° and then 20°. Positive when the patient feels pain and/ or a click in the joint line
Thessaly test45
As above, except only at 20° knee flexion
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
LR
LR
16.5 MMT 9.0 LMT
.35 MMT .21 LMT
With knee at 5° of flexion .66 MMT .81 LMT 213 knee injury patients and 197 asymptomatic volunteers
116 consecutive patients who had knee arthroscopy for suspected meniscal pathology
.96 MMT .91 LMT
Meniscal tear per MRI
With knee at 20° of flexion .89 MMT .92 LMT
.97 MMT .96 LMT
29.7 MMT 23.0 LMT
.11 MMT .08 LMT
Meniscal tear via arthroscopy
.90
.98
39.3
.09
LMT, lateral meniscal tear; MMT, medial meniscal tear.
320
Spec
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests Diagnostic Utility of Moving Patellar Apprehension Test for Identifying Patellar Instability LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 7-35 Moving patellar apprehension test. Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Moving patellar apprehension test46
With patient supine with ankle off examination table and knee fully extended, examiner then flexes the knee to 90° and back to extension while holding the patella in lateral translation. The procedure is then repeated with medial translation. Positive if patient exhibits apprehension and/or quadriceps contraction during lateral glide and no apprehension during medial glide
51 patients who had knee surgery and in which patellar instability was suspected
Ability to dislocate the patella when examined under anesthesia
1.0
.88
8.3
.00
7 KNEE 321
Combinations of Tests Diagnostic Utility of Combinations of Tests for Diagnosing Meniscal Tears LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Both pain and laxity with valgus stress at 30° Trauma by external force to the leg or rotational trauma12
Self-reported trauma and physical examination of valgus stress
134 patients with traumatic knee complaint
MRI
.56 (.33, .79)
.91 (.85, .98)
6.4 (2.7, 15.2)
.50 (.30, .80)
Age 40 years Continuation of activity impossible Weight-bearing during trauma Pain with passive knee flexion13
All four factors positive
134 patients with traumatic knee complaint
MRI
.15 (.05, .25)
.97 (.94, 1.0)
5.8 (1.3, 26.8)
.90 (.80, 1.0)
Tenderness to palpation of joint line Bohler test Steinmann test Apley’s grinding test Payr test McMurray’s test7
If two tests are positive, then patient is considered to have meniscal lesion
36 patients scheduled to undergo arthroscopic surgery
Arthroscopic visualization
.97
.87
7.5
.03
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Combinations of Tests (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Combinations of Tests for Diagnosing Meniscal Tears
Radial tear
Longitudinal (vertical) tear May progress to
May progress to
Bucket handle tear
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Horizontal tear (probe in cleft) May progress to
Parrot beak tear
Flap tear
Figure 7-36 Types of meniscal tears. Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Combined historical and physical examination47
Physical examination includes assessment of joint effusion, joint line tenderness, McMurray’s test, hyperflexion test, and squat test. Exact procedures of each test not defined
100 consecutive patients who underwent arthroscopic surgery of knee
Arthroscopic visualization
.86
.83
5.06
.17
Patient history Joint line tenderness McMurray’s test Steinmann Modified Apley’s test48
Conclusion of examiner
50 patients with clinical diagnosis of meniscal tears and/or ACL rupture
Knee arthroscopy
Medial .68
2.7
.19
.95
15.0
.26
.87 Lateral .75
7 KNEE 323
Combinations of Tests Diagnostic Utility of Combinations of Tests for Diagnosing Other Knee Pathology LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Clinical examination49
Retrospective review of clinical examination and clinical diagnosis
698 patients who had undergone knee arthroscopy
Medial meniscal tear via arthroscopy
.92
.79
4.4
.10
OA via arthroscopy
.75
.97
25.0
.26
ACL tear via arthroscopy
.86
.98
43.0
.14
Lateral meniscal tear via arthroscopy
.54
.96
13.5
.48
Loose body via arthroscopy
.94
.98
47.0
.06
Tight lateral retinaculum via arthroscopy
1.0
1.0
UD
.00
Synovitis via arthroscopy
.57
1.0
UD
.43
Lateral meniscal cyst via arthroscopy
1.0
.99
100.0
.00
Patient History Anterior drawer Lachman test Pivot shift test48
Conclusion of examiner
50 patients with clinical diagnosis of meniscal tears and/or ACL rupture
ACL rupture via arthroscopy
1.0
1.0
UD
.00
History of anteromedial knee pain Pain primarily over the medial femoral condyle Visible or palpable plica Exclusion of other causes of anteromedial knee pain50
Meet all four criteria
48 patients with anteromedial knee pain that was clinically suspected of being caused by pathological medial plicae
Pathological medial plica via arthroscopy
1.0 (.92, 1.0)
.00
1.0
UD
UD, Undefined.
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Interventions Diagnostic Utility of History and Physical Examination Findings for Predicting Favorable Response to Foot Orthoses and Activity Modification LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sutlive and colleagues51 have developed a clinical prediction rule that identifies individuals with patellofemoral pain who are likely to improve with an off-the-shelf foot orthosis and modified activity. The study identified a number of predictor variables. Sens
Spec
LR
LR
2° or more of forefoot valgus51
.13 (.04, .24)
.97 (.90, 1.0)
4.0 (.7, 21.9)
.90
78° or less of great toe extension51
.13 (.04, .24)
.97 (.90, 1.0)
4.0 (.7, 21.9)
.90
3 mm or less of navicular drop51
.47 (.32, .61)
.80 (.67, .93)
2.4 (1.3, 4.3)
.66
.36 (.17, .55)
.81 (.71, .92)
1.9 (1.0, 3.6)
.79
.68 (.55, .80)
.56 (.37, .75)
1.5 (1.0, 2.3)
.57
.71 (.55, .86)
.48 (.33, .62)
1.4 (1.0, 1.8)
.60
Test and Study Quality
Population
5° or less valgus and any varus of relaxed calcaneal stance51
50 patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome
Tight hamstring muscles as measured by 90/90 straight-leg raise test51 Reports of difficulty walking51
.1
99
.2 .5 2
Percent (%)
5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95
95 1000 500 200 100 50 20 10 5 2 1
90
.5 .2 .1 .05 .02 .01 .005 .002 .001
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Percent (%)
1
Reference Standard
50% decreased pain after 3 weeks of wearing off-the-shelf foot orthoses and activity modification
Figure 7-37 Nomogram. Considering a pretest probability of success of 60% (as determined in the Sutlive et al51 study), 2° or more of forefoot valgus or 78° or less of great toe extension results in a post-test probability of 85%. This means that if a patient presented with one of the two aforementioned variables, the likelihood of achieving a successful outcome with off-the-shelf orthotics and activity modification would be 86%. (Adapted with permission from Fagan TJ. Nomogram for Bayes’ theorem. N Engl J Med. 1975;293-257. Copyright 2005, Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.)
5 2 1 .5 .2
99 .1 Pretest Likelihood Post-test Probability Ratio Probability
7 KNEE 325
Interventions Diagnostic Utility of History and Physical Examination Findings for Predicting Favorable Short-term Response to Hip Mobilizations LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 7-38 Hip mobilization technique used in the management of patients with knee osteoarthritis. Patients were treated with one session of four different hip mobilizations including (1) posteroanterior glide with flexion, abduction, and lateral rotation (depicted left), (2) caudal glide, (3) anteroposterior glide (depicted right), and (4) posteroanterior glide. Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Ipsilateral anterior thigh pain19
.27 (.13, .4)
.95 (.85, 1.05)
5.1 (.71, 36.7)
.77 (.62, .96)
Intermittent hip or groin pain19
.15 (.05, .26)
.98 (.91, 1.04)
6.2 (.4, 104.7)
.87 (.75, 1.00)
Strengthening exercises aggravate knee pain19
.20 (.04, .37)
.96 (.85, 1.07)
4.9 (.3, 83.7)
.83 (.65, 1.06)
Location of hip or groin pain bilaterally19
.18 (.06, .29)
.98 (.91, 1.04)
7.1 (.4, 119.0)
.84 (.72, .99)
Side-to-side difference in hip internal rotation ROM19
.98 (.93, 1.02)
.11 (⫺.03, .24)
1.1 (.9, 1.3)
.23 (.02, 2.40)
.13 (.03, .23)
.98 (.91, 1.04)
5.2 (.3, 9.2)
.89 (.78, 1.02)
.13 (.03, .23)
.98 (.91, 1.04)
5.2 (.3, 9.2)
.89 (.78, 1.02)
Pain at knee on ipsilateral hip extension ROM19
.11 (.01, .20)
.98 (.91, 1.04)
4.3 (.2, 75.8)
.92 (.81, 1.04)
Ipsilateral knee flexion PROM 122°19
.32 (.17, .46)
.95 (.85, 1.05)
6.0 (.9, 42.8)
.72 (.57, .91)
Ipsilateral hip internal rotation PROM 17°19
.32 (.17, .45)
.95 (.85, 1.05)
6.0 (.9, 42.8)
.72 (.57, .91)
Pain or paresthesia in ipsilateral hip or groin19
.20 (.08, .32)
.98 (.91, 1.04)
8.1 (.5, 133.4)
.82 (.69, .97)
Test and Study Quality
Empty end-feel on ipsilateral hip flexion ROM19 Pain with ipsilateral hip distraction19
326
Population
60 patients with knee OA
Reference Standard
30% decreased pain or Global Rating of Change rated as “moderately better” 2 days after hip mobilizations
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
OUTCOME MEASURES Outcome Measure
Scoring and Interpretation
Test-Retest Reliability
MCID
Lower Extremity Functional Scale (LEFS)
Users rate the difficulty of performing 20 functional tasks on a Likerttype scale ranging from 0 (extremely difficult or unable to perform activity) to 4 (no difficulty). A total score out of 80 is calculated by summing each score. The answers provide a score between 0 and 80, with lower scores representing more disability
ICC .9252
953
Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC)
The WOMAC consists of three subscales: pain (5 items), stiffness (2 items), and physical function (17 items). Users answer the 24 condition-specific questions on a numerical rating scale ranging from 0 (no symptoms) to 10 (extreme symptoms), or alternatively on a Likert-type scale from 0 to 4. Scores from each subscale are summed with higher scores indicating more pain, stiffness, and disability
ICC .9052
6.7% for improvement 12.9% for worsening54
Knee Outcome Survey (KOS) Activity of Daily Living Scale (ADLS)
The KOS ADLS consists of one section on symptoms and one section on functional disability. Users rate the eight symptom items on a Likert-type scale from 5 (never have) to 0 (prevent me from all daily activity) and the eight functional items from 5 (not difficult at all) to 0 (unable to do). Scores are summed and divided by 80 to get a percentage. Higher scores represent fewer symptoms and higher function
ICC .9355
7.1%56
Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS)
Users rate their level of pain on an 11-point scale ranging from 0 to 10, with high scores representing more pain. Often asked as “current pain” and “least,” “worst,” and “average” pain in the past 24 hours
ICC .7257
258,59
MCID, Minimum clinically important difference.
7 KNEE 327
APPENDIX
Braunstein 198266
Katz 198667
Bonamo 1988
Lee 198868
Fowler 1989
Cooperman 1990
Boeree 199169
Evans 199370
Rubinstein 199471
Shelbourne 199572
Stiell 1995
Stiell 1997
Muellner 1997
Khine 2001
Emparanza 2001
Ketelslegers 2002
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
N
U
U
N
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
N
N
N
N
N
Y
N
N
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
U
U
U
Y
Y
U
U
U
U
U
Y
Y
U
Y
U
Y
5. Did the whole sample or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
N
N
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
Y
U
U
Y
Y
N
U
Y
N
Y
N
N
Y
Y
Y
N
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
N
Y
Y
Y
U
N
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
U
U
U
Y
Y
U
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
U
328
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
APPENDIX (continued)
Braunstein 198266
Katz 198667
Bonamo 1988
Lee 198868
Fowler 1989
Cooperman 1990
Boeree 199169
Evans 199370
Rubinstein 199471
Shelbourne 199572
Stiell 1995
Stiell 1997
Muellner 1997
Khine 2001
Emparanza 2001
Ketelslegers 2002
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
U
U
Y
U
U
U
U
U
N
U
Y
U
U
Y
Y
U
13. Were uninterpretable/intermediate test results reported?
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
U
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Quality summary rating:
Y yes, N no, U unclear.
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14).
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9).
Poor quality (Y - N 4).
7 KNEE 329
APPENDIX (continued)
Bulloch 2003
Eren 200373
Sutlive 2004
Akseki 2004
Kocabey 2004
Bohannon 2005
Karachalios 2005
Haim 200674
Shetty 2007
Currier 2007
Doberstein 200875
Wagemakers 2008
Kastelein 2008
Kastelein 2009
Ahmad 2009
Nickinson 2009
Harrison 2009
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
Y
Y
Y
U
U
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
Y
Y
Y
N
N
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
U
N
N
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
N
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
Y
U
Y
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
U
U
U
5. Did the whole sample or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
Y
U
Y
U
U
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
N
N
U
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
N
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
(Continued)
330
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
APPENDIX (continued)
Bulloch 2003
Eren 200373
Sutlive 2004
Akseki 2004
Kocabey 2004
Bohannon 2005
Karachalios 2005
Haim 200674
Shetty 2007
Currier 2007
Doberstein 200875
Wagemakers 2008
Kastelein 2008
Kastelein 2009
Ahmad 2009
Nickinson 2009
Harrison 2009
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
Y
U
Y
U
U
U
Y
N
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
U
U
U
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
13. Were uninterpretable/intermediate test results reported?
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
U
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
Y
Y
Y
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Quality summary rating:
Y yes, N no, U unclear.
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14).
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9).
Poor quality (Y - N 4).
7 KNEE 331
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31. Piva SR, Fitzgerald K, Irrgang JJ, et al. Reliability of measures of impairments associated with patellofemoral pain syndrome. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2006;7:33. 32. Tomsich DA, Nitz AJ, Threlkeld AJ, Shapiro R. Patellofemoral alignment: reliability. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1996;23:200-208. 33. Fitzgerald GK, McClure PW. Reliability of measurements obtained with four tests for patellofemoral alignment. Phys Ther. 1995;75:84-92. 34. Watson CJ, Propps M, Galt W, et al. Reliability of McConnell’s classification of patellar orientation in symptomatic and asymptomatic subjects. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1999;29:378-393. 35. Herrington LC. The inter-tester reliability of a clinical measurement used to determine the medial-lateral orientation of the patella. Man Ther. 2002;7:163-167. 36. Greene CC, Edwards TB, Wade MR, Carson EW. Reliability of the quadriceps angle measurement. Am J Knee Surg. 2001;14:97-103. 37. Ehrat M, Edwards J, Hastings D, Worrell T. Reliability of assessing patellar alignment: the A angle. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1994;19:22-27. 38. Watson CJ, Leddy HM, Dynjan TD, Parham JL. Reliability of the lateral pull test and tilt test to assess patellar alignment in subjects with symptomatic knees: student raters. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2001;31:368-374. 39. Wadey VM, Mohtadi NG, Bray RC, Frank CB. Positive predictive value of maximal posterior joint-line tenderness in diagnosing meniscal pathology: a pilot study. Can J Surg. 2007;50:96-100. 40. Meserve BB, Cleland JA, Boucher TR. A metaanalysis examining clinical test utilities for assessing meniscal injury. Clin Rehabil. 2008;22:143-161. 41. Hegedus EJ, Cook C, Hasselblad V, et al. Physical examination tests for assessing a torn meniscus in the knee: a systematic review with meta-analysis. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2007;37:541-550. 42. Benjaminse A, Gokeler A, van der Schans CP. Clinical diagnosis of an anterior cruciate ligament rupture: a meta-analysis. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2006;36: 267-288. 43. Akseki D, Ozcan O, Boya H, Pinar H. A new weightbearing meniscal test and a comparison with McMurray’s test and joint line tenderness. Arthroscopy. 2004;20:951-958. 44. Karachalios T, Hantes M, Zibis AH, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of a new clinical test (the Thessaly test) for early detection of meniscal tears. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2005;87:955-962. 45. Harrison BK, Abell BE, Gibson TW. The Thessaly test for detection of meniscal tears: validation of a new physical examination technique for primary care medicine. Clin J Sport Med. 2009;19:9-12. 46. Ahmad CS, McCarthy M, Gomez JA,, et al. The moving patellar apprehension test for lateral patellar instability. Am J Sports Med. 2009;37:791-796.
47. Bonamo JJ, Shulman G. Double contrast arthrography of the knee. A comparison to clinical diagnosis and arthroscopic findings. Orthopedics. 1988;11:1041-1046. 48. Kocabey Y, Tetik O, Isbell WM, et al. The value of clinical examination versus magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of meniscal tears and anterior cruciate ligament rupture. Arthroscopy. 2004;20:696-700. 49. Nickinson R, Darrah C, Donell S. Accuracy of clinical diagnosis in patients undergoing knee arthroscopy. Int Orthop. 2009. 50. Shetty VD, Vowler SL, Krishnamurthy S, Halliday AE. Clinical diagnosis of medial plica syndrome of the knee: a prospective study. J Knee Surg. 2007;20:277-280. 51. Sutlive TG, Mitchell SD, Maxfield SN, et al. Identification of individuals with patellofemoral pain whose symptoms improved after a combined program of foot orthosis use and modified activity: a preliminary investigation. Phys Ther. 2004;84:49-61. 52. Pua YH, Cowan SM, Wrigley TV, Bennell KL. The Lower Extremity Functional Scale could be an alternative to the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index physical function scale. J Clin Epidemiol. 2009. 53. Binkley JM, Stratford PW, Lott SA, Riddle DL. The Lower Extremity Functional Scale (LEFS): scale development, measurement properties, and clinical application. North American Orthopaedic Rehabilitation Research Network. Phys Ther. 1999;79:371-383. 54. Angst F, Aeschlimann A, Stucki G. Smallest detectable and minimal clinically important differences of rehabilitation intervention with their implications for required sample sizes using WOMAC and SF-36 quality of life measurement instruments in patients with osteoarthritis of the lower extremities. Arthritis Rheum. 2001;45:384-391. 55. Marx RG, Jones EC, Allen AA, et al. Reliability, validity, and responsiveness of four knee outcome scales for athletic patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2001;83-A:1459-1469. 56. Piva SR, Gil AB, Moore CG, Fitzgerald GK. Responsiveness of the activities of daily living scale of the knee outcome survey and numeric pain rating scale in patients with patellofemoral pain. J Rehabil Med. 2009;41:129-135. 57. Li L, Liu X, Herr K. Postoperative pain intensity assessment: a comparison of four scales in Chinese adults. Pain Med. 2007;8:223-234. 58. Farrar JT, Berlin JA, Strom BL. Clinically important changes in acute pain outcome measures: a validation study. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2003;25:406-411. 59. Farrar JT, Portenoy RK, Berlin JA, et al. Defining the clinically important difference in pain outcome measures. Pain. 2000;88:287-294. 60. Stiell IG, Greenberg GH, Wells GA, et al. Derivation of a decision rule for the use of radiography in acute knee injuries. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;26:405-413.
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61. Stiell IG, Wells GA, Hoag RH, et al. Implementation of the Ottawa Knee Rule for the use of radiography in acute knee injuries. JAMA. 1997;278:2075-2079. 62. Emparanza JI, Aginaga JR. Validation of the Ottawa Knee Rules. Ann Emerg Med. 2001;38:364-368. 63. Ketelslegers E, Collard X, Vande Berg B, et al. Validation of the Ottawa Knee Rules in an emergency teaching centre. Eur Radiol. 2002;12:1218-1220. 64. Bulloch B, Neto G, Plint A, et al. Validation of the Ottawa Knee Rule in children: a multicenter study. Ann Emerg Med. 2003;42:48-55. 65. Khine H, Dorfman DH, Avner JR. Applicability of Ottawa Knee Rule for knee injury in children. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2001;17:401-404. 66. Braunstein EM. Anterior cruciate ligament injuries: a comparison of arthrographic and physical diagnosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1982;138:423-425. 67. Katz JW, Fingeroth RJ. The diagnostic accuracy of ruptures of the anterior cruciate ligament comparing the Lachman test, the anterior drawer sign, and the pivot shift test in acute and chronic knee injuries. Am J Sports Med. 1986;14:88-91. 68. Lee JK, Yao L, Phelps CT, et al. Anterior cruciate ligament tears: MR imaging compared with arthroscopy and clinical tests. Radiology. 1988;166:861-864.
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69. Boeree NR, Ackroyd CE. Assessment of the menisci and cruciate ligaments: an audit of clinical practice. Injury. 1991;22:291-294. 70. Evans PJ, Bell GD, Frank C. Prospective evaluation of the McMurray test. Am J Sports Med. 1993;21:604-608. 71. Rubinstein RAJ, Shelbourne KD, McCarroll JR, et al. The accuracy of the clinical examination in the setting of posterior cruciate ligament injuries. Am J Sports Med. 1994;22:550-557. 72. Shelbourne KD, Martini DJ, McCarroll JR, VanMeter CD. Correlation of joint line tenderness and meniscal lesions in patients with acute anterior cruciate ligament tears. Am J Sports Med. 1995;23:166-169. 73. Eren OT. The accuracy of joint line tenderness by physical examination in the diagnosis of meniscal tears. Arthroscopy. 2003;19:850-854. 74. Haim A, Yaniv M, Dekel S, Amir H. Patellofemoral pain syndrome: validity of clinical and radiological features. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2006;451:223-228. 75. Doberstein ST, Romeyn RL, Reineke DM. The diagnostic value of the Clarke sign in assessing chondromalacia patella. J Athl Train. 2008;43:190-196.
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Foot and Ankle
8
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
336
Anatomy Osteology Arthrology Ligaments Muscles Nerves Patient History Initial Hypotheses Based on Historical Findings Physical Examination Tests Screening Range of Motion Assessing Strength Assessing Bony Alignment Assessing Balance and Dynamic Performance Assessing Foot Motion during Gait Assessing Swelling Assessing Sensation Special Tests Outcome Measures Appendix Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS References
337 337 339 340 345 353 355 355 356 356 359 361 362 365 367 368 369 370 373 374 374 375
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Patient History Complaints
No studies of acceptable quality have assessed either the reliability or diagnostic utility of items from the subjective history in patients with foot and ankle problems.
Physical Examination Screening
The Ottawa Ankle Rule for Radiography is highly sensitive for ankle and midfoot fractures in both adults and children. When patients can bear weight and have no tenderness on the malleoli, navicular, or base of the fifth metatarsal, providers can confidently rule out foot and ankle fractures (LR .10). The addition of a tuning fork may increase the specificity of the rules, especially when placed on the distal fibula.
Range of Motion and Strength Assessment
Measuring ankle range of motion (ROM) has consistently been shown to be highly reliable when measured by the same person, but much less reliable when measured by different people. Calf strength can be reliably assessed using repeated calf raises. The paper grip test is a simple yet accurate method to measure toe plantarflexion strength.
Other Assessment
Assessments of static foot alignment, sensation, swelling, proprioception, and dynamic performance have all been shown to be adequately reliable, but are of unknown diagnostic utility. Dynamic assessments of hindfoot motion during gait are likely too unreliable to be clinically useful.
Special Tests
The “impingement sign” seems to show very good diagnostic utility in both identifying and ruling out anterolateral ankle impingement (LR 7.9, LR .06). The windlass test appears highly reliable, but is of unknown diagnostic utility in identifying plantar fasciitis. Overall there is a considerable lack of information available on diagnostic tests for the foot and ankle.
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Anatomy Osteology Transverse tarsal joint
Lateral view
Navicular Talus
Intermediate Cuneiform bones Lateral
Neck Head
Trochlea Lateral process
Tarsometatarsal joint
Posterior process Metatarsal bones Tarsal sinus Body
Calcaneus
Phalanges
2 3 4
Fibular (peroneal) trochlea Tuberosity Groove for fibularis (peroneus) longus tendon
5 Cuboid Tuberosity
Tuberosity of 5th metatarsal bone
Groove for fibularis (peroneus) longus tendon
Transverse tarsal joint
Medial view
Navicular Tuberosity Intermediate
Cuneiform bones
Medial
Neck
Talus Head Trochlea Posterior process
Tarsometatarsal joint Metatarsal bones Phalanges
2
1 Tuberosity Tuberosity of 1st metatarsal bone
Sesamoid bone
Groove for tendon of flexor hallucis longus Sustentaculum tali
Calcaneus
Figure 8-1 Bones of the foot.
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 337
Anatomy (continued) Osteology
Dorsal view
Lateral tubercle Medial tubercle Groove for tendon of flexor hallucis longus Trochlea Neck Head
Calcaneus Body Fibular (peroneal) trochlea Tarsal sinus Transverse tarsal joint Cuboid
Posterior process
Talus
Navicular Tuberosity
Tuberosity of 5th metatarsal bone
Lateral Intermediate Medial
Cuneiform bones
Tarsometatarsal joint Base
Metatarsal bones 5
4
Phalanges Proximal Middle Distal
3
2
1
Head Base Shaft (body) Head Base
Tuberosity
Calcaneus Tuberosity Medial process Lateral process Sustentaculum tali Groove for tendon of flexor hallucis longus
Plantar view
Shaft (body)
Talus
Lateral tubercle Medial tubercle Posterior process Head
Fibular (peroneal) trochlea Cuboid Tuberosity Groove for fibularis (peroneus) longus tendon
Transverse tarsal joint Navicular Tuberosity Cuneiform bones
Lateral Intermediate Medial
Tarsometatarsal joint Metatarsal bones Sesamoid bones
1
Medial Lateral
Proximal Phalanges
Middle Distal
Figure 8-2 Bones of the foot.
338
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
2
3
4
5
Tuberosity of 5th metatarsal bone Base Shaft (body) Head Base Shaft (body) Head Base Head Base Tuberosity
Arthrology
Subtalar (hinge joint)
Metatarsophalangeal (condyloid) joint
Subtalar, talocalcaneonavicular, calcaneocuboid, transverse tarsal, and tarsometatarsal (plane) joints
Figure 8-3 Talocrural (hinge) joint.
Joint
Type and Classification
Closed Packed Position
Capsular Pattern
Talocrural
Synovial: hinge
Dorsiflexion
Plantarflexion slightly more limited than dorsiflexion
Distal tibiofibular
Syndesmosis
Not available
Not available
Subtalar
Synovial: plane
Supination
Inversion greatly restricted; eversion not restricted
Talocalcaneonavicular
Synovial: plane
Supination
Calcaneocuboid
Synovial: plane
Supination
Transverse tarsal
Synovial: plane
Supination
Tarsometatarsal
Synovial: plane
Supination
Not available
Metatarsophalangeal (MTP)
Synovial: condyloid
Extension
Great toe: extension more limited than flexion MTP joints 2-5: variable
Interphalangeal (IP)
Synovial: hinge
Extension
Extension more limited than flexion
Supination more limited than pronation
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 339
Ligaments Posterior Ankle
Fibula Tibia Interosseous membrane
Posterior tibiofibular lig. Talus
Posterior talofibular lig.
Medial (deltoid) lig. of ankle
Calcaneofibular lig.
Fibular (peroneal) tendons in inferior fibular (peroneal) retinaculum
Posterior talocalcaneal lig.
Figure 8-4 Calcaneus: posterior view with ligaments.
Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Posterior talocalcaneal
Superior body of calcaneus to posterior process of talus
Limits posterior separation of talus from calcaneus
Posterior tibiofibular
Distal posterior tibia to distal posterior fibula
Maintains distal tibiofibular joint
Posterior talofibular
Posterior talus to posterior lateral malleolus
Limits separation of fibula from talus
Interosseous membrane
Continuous connection between tibia and fibula
Reinforces approximation between tibia and fibula
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Ligaments Lateral Ankle Tibia Fibula
Posterior talofibular lig. Calcaneofibular lig. Anterior talofibular lig.
Anterior and Posterior tibiofibular ligs. Superior fibular (peroneal) retinaculum Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon (cut)
Components of lateral (collateral) lig. of ankle
Interosseous talocalcaneal lig. Dorsal talonavicular lig. Calcaneonavicular lig. Calcaneocuboid lig. Bifurcate lig. Dorsal cuboideonavicular lig. Dorsal cuneonavicular ligs. Dorsal intercuneiform ligs. Dorsal tarsometatarsal ligs.
Inferior fibular (peroneal) retinaculum Lateral talocalcaneal lig. Long plantar lig. Fibularis (peroneus) longus tendon Fibularis (peroneus) brevis tendon
Dorsal metatarsal ligs. Dorsal cuneocuboid lig. Cuboid bone Dorsal calcaneocuboid lig.
Figure 8-5 Ligaments of ankle: lateral view of right foot. Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Anterior tibiofibular
Anterior aspect of lateral malleolus to inferior border of medial tibia
Reinforces anterior tibiofibular joint
Lateral Collateral Posterior talofibular
Lateral malleolus to lateral talus
Calcaneofibular
Lateral malleolus to lateral calcaneus
Anterior talofibular
Lateral malleolus to talus
Limits ankle inversion
Interosseous talocalcaneal
Inferior aspect of talus to superior aspect of calcaneus
Limits separation of talus from calcaneus
Dorsal talonavicular
Dorsal aspect of talus to dorsal aspect of navicular
Limits separation of navicular from talus
Calcaneonavicular
Distal calcaneus to proximal navicular
Calcaneocuboid
Distal calcaneus to proximal cuboid
Limits separation of navicular and cuboid from calcaneus
Bifurcate
Dorsal cubonavicular
Lateral aspect of cuboid to dorsal aspect of navicular
Limits separation of navicular from cuboid
Dorsal cuneonavicular
Navicular to three cuneiforms
Limits separation of cuneiforms from navicular
Dorsal intercuneiform
Joining of three cuneiforms
Limits separation of cuneiforms
Dorsal tarsometatarsal
Dorsal tarsal bones to corresponding metatarsal bones
Reinforces tarsometatarsal joints
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 341
Ligaments Medial Ankle
Tibia Medial (deltoid) lig. of ankle
Posterior tibiotalar part Tibiocalcaneal part Tibionavicular part Anterior tibiotalar part
Dorsal talonavicular lig. Navicular bone Dorsal cuneonavicular ligs.
Medial talocalcaneal lig. Posterior process of talus Posterior talocalcaneal lig.
Medial cuneiform bone Dorsal intercuneiform lig.
Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon (cut)
Dorsal tarsometatarsal ligs. 1st metatarsal bone
Tibialis posterior Short plantar lig. tendon Long plantar lig. Plantar Tibialis anterior calcaneonavicular tendon (spring) lig.
Tuberosity
Sustentaculum tali
Figure 8-6 Ligaments of ankle: medial view of right foot.
Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Medial (Deltoid) Posterior tibiotalar
Medial malleolus to medial talus
Tibiocalcaneal
Anterior distal medial malleolus to sustentaculum tali
Tibionavicular
Medial malleolus to proximal aspect of navicular
Anterior tibiotalar
Medial malleolus to talus
Medial talocalcaneal
Sustentaculum tali to talus
Limits posterior separation of talus on calcaneus
Plantar calcaneonavicular (spring)
Sustentaculum tali to posteroinferior navicular
Maintains longitudinal arch of foot
Limits ankle eversion
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Ligaments Plantar Foot
Phalanges Distal
Middle
Joint capsule Metatarsal bone
Proximal
Collateral ligs.
Plantar lig. (plate)
Figure 8-7 Capsules and ligaments of metatarsophalangeal and interphalangeal joints: lateral view.
Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Long plantar
Plantar of calcaneus to cuboid
Maintains arches of foot
Plantar calcaneocuboid (short plantar)
Anteroinferior aspect of calcaneus to inferior aspect of cuboid
Maintains arches of foot
Plantar calcaneonavicular (spring)
Sustentaculum tali to posteroinferior aspect of talus.
Maintains longitudinal arch of foot
Plantar cubonavicular
Inferior navicular to inferomedial cuboid
Limits separation of cuboid from navicular and supports arch
Plantar tarsometatarsal
Connects metatarsals 1-5 to corresponding tarsal on plantar aspect
Limits separation of metatarsals from corresponding tarsal bones
Collateral
Distal aspect of proximal phalanx to proximal aspect of distal phalanx
Reinforces capsule of IP joints
Plantar plate
Thickening of plantar aspect of joint capsule
Reinforces plantar aspect of IP joint
Deep transverse metatarsal
MTP joints on plantar aspect
Limits separation of MTP joints
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 343
Ligaments (continued) Plantar Foot
Flexor digitorum longus tendon to 2nd toe (cut)
Distal phalanx of great toe
Flexor digitorum brevis tendon to 2nd toe (cut) Interphalangeal (IP) joint 4th distal phalanx Flexor hallucis longus tendon (cut) 4th middle phalanx Proximal phalanx of great toe Deep transverse metatarsal ligs. Metatarsophalangeal (MP) joint
5th proximal phalanx
Sesamoid bones
4th lumbrical tendon (cut)
Abductor hallucis and medial head of flexor hallucis brevis tendons (cut)
Abductor digiti minimi and flexor digiti minimi brevis tendons (cut)
Adductor hallucis and lateral head of flexor hallucis brevis tendons (cut)
Plantar ligs. (plates) Interosseous muscles (cut) 5th metatarsal bone Plantar metatarsal ligs.
1st metatarsal bone Plantar tarsometatarsal ligs. Medial cuneiform bone
Tuberosity of 5th metatarsal bone
Tibialis anterior tendon (cut)
Fibularis (peroneus) brevis tendon
Plantar cuneonavicular lig.
Cuboid bone
Plantar cuboideonavicular lig.
Fibularis (peroneus) longus tendon Tuberosity of cuboid bone Long plantar lig. Plantar calcaneocuboid (short plantar) lig. Calcaneus Medial process and Lateral process of Tuberosity of calcaneus
Tuberosity of navicular bone Plantar calcaneonavicular (spring) lig. Tibialis posterior tendon Flexor digitorum longus tendon (cut) Sustentaculum tali Flexor hallucis longus tendon (cut) Posterior process of talus (medial and lateral tubercles)
Figure 8-8 Ligaments and tendons of foot: plantar view.
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Muscles Lateral Muscles of Leg Muscles
Proximal Attachments
Distal Attachments
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Gastrocnemius
Lateral head: lateral femoral condyle Medial head: popliteal surface of femur
Posterior aspect of calcaneus
Tibial nerve (S1, S2)
Plantarflexes ankle and flexes knee
Soleus
Posterior aspect of head of fibula, fibular soleal line and medial aspect of tibia
Posterior aspect of calcaneus
Tibial nerve (S1, S2)
Plantarflexes ankle
Fibularis longus
Superolateral surface of fibula
Base of 1st metatarsal and medial cuneiform
Superficial fibular nerve (L5, S1, S2)
Everts foot and assists in plantarflexion
Fibularis brevis
Distal aspect of fibula
Tuberosity of base of 5th metatarsal
Superficial fibular nerve (L5, S1, S2)
Everts foot and assists in plantarflexion
Fibularis tertius
Anteroinferior aspect of fibula and interosseus membrane
Base of 5th metatarsal
Deep fibular nerve (L5, S1)
Dorsiflexes ankle and everts foot
Extensor digitorum longus
Lateral condyle of tibia, medial surface of fibula
Middle and distal phalanges of digits 2-5
Deep fibular nerve (L5, S1)
Extends digits 2-5 and assists with ankle dorsiflexion
Extensor hallucis longus
Anterior fibula and interosseus membrane
Dorsal base of distal phalanx of great toe
Deep fibular nerve (L5, S1)
Extends great toe and assists with ankle dorsiflexion
Extensor digitorum brevis
Superolateral aspect of calcaneus, extensor retinaculum
Dorsal base of middle phalanx of digits 2-5
Deep fibular nerve (L5, S1)
Extends digits 2-4 at MTP joints
Tibialis anterior
Lateral condyle and anterior surface of tibia
Inferomedial aspect of medial cuneiform and base of 1st metatarsal
Deep fibular nerve (L4, L5)
Ankle dorsiflexion and foot inversion
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 345
Muscles (continued) Lateral Muscles of Leg
Vastus lateralis m. Long head Biceps femoris m. Short head Tendon
Iliotibial tract Quadriceps femoris tendon Superior lateral genicular a. Patella
Fibular collateral lig. Common fibular (peroneal) n. Inferior lateral genicular a. Head of fibula Gastrocnemius m.
Lateral patellar retinaculum Lateral condyle of tibia Patellar lig. Tibial tuberosity
Tibialis anterior m.
Soleus m. Extensor digitorum longus m. Fibularis (peroneus) longus m. and tendon Superficial fibular (peroneal) n. (cut) Extensor digitorum longus tendon Fibularis (peroneus) brevis m. and tendon
Extensor hallucis longus m. and tendon Superior extensor retinaculum
Fibula Lateral malleolus
Inferior extensor retinaculum Extensor digitorum brevis m. Extensor hallucis longus tendon
Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon (Subtendinous) bursa of tendocalcaneus
Extensor digitorum longus tendons Fibularis (peroneus) brevis tendon
Superior fibular (peroneal) retinaculum Inferior fibular (peroneal) retinaculum Fibularis (peroneus) longus tendon passing to sole of foot
5th metatarsal bone Fibularis (peroneus) tertius tendon
Figure 8-9 Muscles of foot and ankle: lateral view.
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Muscles Posterior Muscles of Leg Superior medial genicular a. Gastrocnemius m. (medial head) (cut) Sural (muscular) branches Popliteal a. and tibial n. Tibial collateral lig. Semimembranosus tendon (cut) Inferior medial genicular a. Popliteus m. Posterior tibial recurrent a.
Superior lateral genicular a. Plantaris m. (cut) Gastrocnemius m. (lateral head) (cut) Fibular collateral lig. Biceps femoris tendon (cut) Inferior lateral genicular a. Head of fibula Common fibular (peroneal) n. Soleus m. (cut and reflected)
Tendinous arch of soleus m. Anterior tibial a. Posterior tibial a. Fibular (peroneal) a. Flexor digitorum longus m. Tibial n. Tibialis posterior m.
Flexor hallucis longus m. (retracted)
Fibular (peroneal) a. Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon (cut) Flexor digitorum longus tendon Tibialis posterior tendon Medial malleolus and posterior medial malleolar branch of posterior tibial a. Flexor retinaculum Medial calcaneal branches of posterior tibial a. and tibial n. Tibialis posterior tendon
Interosseous membrane of fibular Perforating branch Communicating branch (peroneal) a. Fibularis (peroneus) longus tendon Fibularis (peroneus) brevis tendon Lateral malleolus and posterior lateral malleolar branch of fibular (peroneal) a. Superior fibular (peroneal) retinaculum Lateral calcaneal branch of fibular (peroneal) a. Lateral calcaneal branch of sural n. Inferior fibular (peroneal) retinaculum
Figure 8-10 Muscles of leg: posterior view.
Muscles
Proximal Attachments
Distal Attachments
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Tibialis posterior
Interosseus membrane, posteroinferior aspect of tibia and posterior fibula
Navicular tuberosity, cuneiform, cuboid and bases of metatarsals 2-4
Tibial nerve (L4, L5)
Plantarflexes ankle and inverts foot
Flexor hallucis longus
Posteroinferior fibula and interosseus membrane
Base of distal phalanx of great toe
Tibial nerve (S2, S3)
Flexes great toe and assists with ankle plantarflexion
Flexor digitorum longus
Posteroinferior tibia
Bases of distal phalanges 2-5
Tibial nerve (S2, S3)
Flexes lateral four digits, plantarflexes ankle, supports longitudinal arch of foot
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 347
Muscles Dorsum of Foot Soleus m.
Superficial fibular (peroneal) n. (cut)
Tibialis anterior m. and tendon
Fibularis (peroneus) longus tendon Fibularis (peroneus) brevis m. and tendon Extensor digitorum longus m. and tendon
Tibia Anterior tibial a. and deep fibular (peroneal) n. Extensor hallucis longus m. and tendon
Fibula Perforating branch of fibular (peroneal) a.
Anterior medial malleolar a. Medial malleolus
Anterior lateral malleolar a.
Dorsalis pedis a.
Lateral malleolus
Medial branch of deep fibular (peroneal) n. Medial tarsal aa.
Lateral branch of deep peroneal n. (to mm. of dorsum of foot) and lateral tarsal a. Fibularis (peroneus) longus tendon (cut) Extensor digitorum brevis and extensor hallucis brevis mm. (cut) Fibularis (peroneus) brevis tendon (cut)
Tuberosity of navicular bone Arcuate a. Posterior perforating branches from deep plantar arch
Fibularis (peroneus) tertius tendon (cut)
Deep plantar a. to deep plantar arch
Abductor digiti minimi m.
Abductor hallucis m.
Dorsal metatarsal aa.
Extensor hallucis longus tendon
Metatarsal bones
Extensor hallucis brevis tendon (cut)
Dorsal interosseous mm. Lateral dorsal cutaneous n. (continuation of sural n.) (cut) Anterior perforating branches from plantar metatarsal aa.
Extensor digitorum brevis tendons (cut) Extensor digitorum longus tendons (cut) Extensor expansions
Dorsal digital aa.
Dorsal digital branches of deep fibular (peroneal) n.
Dorsal branches of proper plantar digital aa. and nn.
Dorsal digital branches of superficial fibular (peroneal) n.
Figure 8-11 Muscles, arteries, and nerves of front of ankle and dorsum of foot: deeper dissection. Muscles
Proximal Attachments
Distal Attachments
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Extensor digitorum brevis
Superolateral aspect of calcaneus and extensor retinaculum
Dorsal base of middle phalanx of digits 2-5
Deep fibular nerve (L5, S1)
Extends digits 2-4 at MTP joints
Extensor hallucis brevis
Superolateral aspect of calcaneus and extensor retinaculum
Dorsal base of proximal phalanx of great toe
Deep fibular nerve (L5, S1)
Extends great toe at MTP joints
Dorsal interossei
Sides of metatarsals 1-5
1st: medial aspect of proximal phalanx of 2nd digit 2nd-4th: lateral aspect of digits 2-4
Lateral plantar nerve (S2, S3)
Abducts digits 24 and flexes MTP joints
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Muscles First Layer: Sole of Foot Proper plantar digital branches of medial plantar n.
Proper plantar digital branches of lateral plantar n.
Proper plantar digital aa.
Common plantar digital aa. from plantar metatarsal aa. Lumbrical mm. Fibrous sheaths of flexor tendons
Superficial branch of medial plantar a. Lateral head and Medial head of flexor hallucis brevis m.
Flexor digitorum brevis tendons overlying Flexor digitorum longus tendons
Flexor hallucis longus tendon
Plantar metatarsal branch of lateral plantar a.
Abductor hallucis m. and tendon
Flexor digiti minimi brevis m.
Flexor digitorum brevis m. Abductor digiti minimi m. (deep to lateral plantar fascia) Plantar aponeurosis (cut) Medial process and Lateral process of Tuberosity of calcaneus
Medial calcaneal branches of tibial n. and posterior tibial a.
Figure 8-12 Muscles of sole of foot: first layer.
Muscles
Proximal Attachments
Distal Attachments
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Abductor hallucis longus
Medial calcaneal tuberosity, flexor retinaculum, and plantar aponeurosis
Base of proximal phalanx of 1st digit
Medial plantar nerve (S2, S3)
Abducts and flexes great toe
Flexor digitorum brevis
Medial calcaneal tuberosity and plantar aponeurosis
Sides of middle phalanges of digits 2-5
Medial plantar nerve (S2, S3)
Flexes digits 2-5
Abductor digiti minimi
Medial and lateral calcaneal tuberosities
Lateral aspect of base of proximal phalanx of 5th metatarsal
Lateral plantar nerve (S2, S3)
Abducts and flexes 5th digit
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 349
Muscles Second Layer: Sole of Foot
Proper plantar digital branches of medial plantar n. Flexor digitorum longus tendons Proper plantar digital branches of lateral plantar n.
Flexor digitorum brevis tendons Fibrous sheaths (opened) Sesamoid bones Common plantar digital nn. and aa. Lumbrical mm. Lateral head and Medial head of flexor hallucis brevis m. Flexor hallucis longus tendon
Flexor digiti minimi brevis m.
Abductor hallucis tendon and m. (cut)
Superficial branch and Deep branch of lateral plantar n.
Flexor digitorum longus tendon Superficial and deep branches of medial plantar a.
Lateral plantar n. and a.
Medial plantar a. and n.
Quadratus plantae m.
Tibialis posterior tendon Abductor digiti minimi m. (cut)
Flexor hallucis longus tendon
N. to abductor digiti minimi m. (from lateral plantar n.)
Posterior tibial a. and tibial n. (dividing) Flexor retinaculum
Flexor digitorum brevis m. and plantar aponeurosis (cut)
Abductor hallucis m. (cut) Medial calcaneal a. and n.
Lateral calcaneal n. and a. (from sural n. and fibular [peroneal] a.)
Tuberosity of calcaneus
Figure 8-13 Muscles of sole of foot: second layer.
Muscles
Proximal Attachments
Distal Attachments
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Lumbricals
Tendons of flexor digitorum longus
Medial aspect of expansion over lateral four digits
Lateral three: lateral plantar nerve (S2, S3) Medial one: medial plantar nerve (S2, S3)
Flexes proximal phalanges and extends middle and distal phalanges of digits 2-5
Quadratus plantae
Medial and plantar aspect of calcaneus
Posterolateral aspect of tendon of flexor digitorum longus
Lateral plantar nerve (S2, S3)
Assists in flexing digits 2-5
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Muscles Third Layer: Sole of Foot Proper plantar digital branches of medial plantar n.
Proper plantar digital branches of lateral plantar n.
Proper plantar digital branch of superficial branch of medial plantar a. Anterior perforating aa. to dorsal metatarsal aa. Tendons of lumbrical mm. (cut) Sesamoid bones Transverse head and Oblique head of adductor hallucis m. Medial head and Lateral head of flexor hallucis brevis m. Superficial branches of medial plantar a. and n. Flexor hallucis longus tendon (cut) Abductor hallucis m. (cut)
Flexor digitorum longus tendons Flexor digitorum brevis tendons (cut) Flexor digiti minimi brevis m. Plantar metatarsal aa. Plantar interosseous mm. Superficial branch of lateral plantar n. Deep plantar arterial arch and deep branches of lateral plantar n.
Deep branches of medial plantar a. and n. Flexor digitorum longus tendon (cut)
Tuberosity of 5th metatarsal bone
Tibialis posterior tendon
Peroneus brevis tendon
Medial plantar a. and n.
Peroneus longus tendon and fibrous sheath Quadratus plantae m. (cut and slightly retracted)
Flexor hallucis longus tendon Flexor retinaculum Abductor hallucis m. (cut)
Lateral plantar a. and n.
Flexor digitorum brevis m. and plantar aponeurosis (cut)
Abductor digiti minimi m. (cut) Lateral calcaneal a. and n.
Medial calcaneal a. and n.
Tuberosity of calcaneus
Figure 8-14 Muscles of sole of foot: third layer. Muscles
Proximal Attachments
Distal Attachments
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Flexor digiti minimi brevis
Base of 5th metatarsal
Base of proximal phalanx of 5th metatarsal
Superficial branch of lateral plantar nerve
Flexes proximal phalanx of fifth digit
Plantar ligaments of MTP joints
Deep branch of lateral plantar nerve (S2, S3)
Adducts great toe
Medial plantar nerve (S2, S3)
Flexes proximal phalanx of great toe
Adductor Hallucis Transverse head Oblique head
Bases of metatarsals 2-4
Lateral base of proximal phalanx of great toe
Flexor hallucis brevis
Plantar cuboid and lateral cuneiforms
Sides of proximal phalanx of great toe
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Muscles Deep Interosseous Muscles: Sole of Foot Dorsal view
Fibularis (peroneus) longus tendon (cut)
Navicular bone Medial tarsal a.
Fibularis (peroneus) brevis tendon (cut)
Lateral Intermediate Cuneiform bones Medial
Cuboid bone Lateral tarsal a. Tuberosity of 5th metatarsal bone
Dorsal tarsometatarsal ligs. Dorsal metatarsal ligs.
Fibularis (peroneus) tertius tendon (cut)
Arcuate a.
Posterior perforating branches (from deep plantar arterial arch)
Deep plantar a. passes to contribute to deep plantar arch Dorsal interosseous mm.
Dorsal metatarsal aa. Extensor digitorum longus tendons (cut) Extensor expansions Anterior perforating branches (from plantar metatarsal aa.)
Metatarsal bones Extensor hallucis longus tendon (cut) Extensor digitorum brevis and extensor hallucis brevis tendons (cut)
Dorsal digital aa. Flexor hallucis longus tendon (cut) Plantar view
Anterior perforating branches (to dorsal metatarsal aa.) Sesamoid bones Insertion of adductor hallucis and lateral head of flexor hallucis brevis mm. (cut) Insertion of abductor hallucis and medial head of flexor hallucis brevis mm. (cut) Medial origin of flexor hallucis brevis m. (cut) Deep plantar a. (from dorsalis pedis a.) Posterior perforating branches (to dorsal metatarsal aa.) Plantar metatarsal ligs. (between bases of metatarsal bones) Medial cuneiform bone Tibialis anterior tendon (cut) Lateral origin of flexor hallucis brevis tendon (cut) Tuberosity of navicular bone
Proper plantar digital aa. Common plantar digital aa. Lumbrical mm. (cut)
Deep transverse metatarsal lig. and plantar ligs. (plates) Interosseous mm. Plantar Dorsal Abductor digiti minimi mm. (cut) Plantar metatarsal aa. Flexor digiti minimi brevis m. Deep plantar arch Lateral plantar a. (cut) Tuberosity of 5th metatarsal bone Fibularis (peroneus) longus tendon Fibularis (peroneus) brevis tendon (cut) Tuberosity of cuboid bone
Tibialis posterior tendon (cut)
Long plantar lig.
Plantar calcaneonavicular (spring) lig.
Calcaneocuboid (short plantar) lig.
Figure 8-15 Interosseous muscles and plantar arterial arch.
Muscles
Proximal Attachments
Distal Attachments
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Plantar interosseous
Bases of metatarsals 3-5
Medial bases of proximal phalanges 3-5
Lateral plantar nerve (S2, S3)
Adducts digits 2-4 and flexes MTP joints
Dorsal interosseous
Sides of metatarsals 1-5
1st: medial aspect of proximal phalanx of 2nd digit 2nd-4th: Lateral aspect of digits 2-4
Lateral plantar nerve (S2, S3)
Abducts digits 2-4 and flexes MTP joints
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Nerves
Common fibular (peroneal) n. (phantom)
Lateral sural cutaneous n. (phantom) Articular branches
Biceps femoris tendon Common fibular (peroneal) n. (L4, L5, S1, S2)
Recurrent articular n. Extensor digitorum longus m. (cut)
Head of fibula Deep fibular (peroneal) n.
Fibularis (peroneus) longus m. (cut) Superficial fibular (peroneal) n. Branches of lateral sural cutaneous n.
Tibialis anterior m.
Fibularis (peroneus) longus m.
Cutaneous innervation
Extensor digitorum longus m.
Fibularis (peroneus) brevis m.
Extensor hallucis longus m.
Lateral sural cutaneous n.
Medial dorsal cutaneous n.
Lateral branch of deep fibular (peroneal) n. to Extensor hallucis brevis and Extensor digitorum brevis mm.
Intermediate dorsal cutaneous n. Inferior extensor retinaculum (partially cut) Lateral dorsal cutaneous n. (branch of sural n.)
Medial branch of deep fibular (peroneal) n.
Superficial fibular (peroneal) n. Sural n. via lateral dorsal cutaneous branch
Dorsal digital nn.
Deep fibular (peroneal) n.
Figure 8-16 Tibial and fibular nerves: posterior view.
Nerves
Segmental Levels
Sensory
Motor
Sural
S1, S2
Posterior and lateral leg and lateral foot
No motor
Tibial
L4, L5, S1, S2, S3
Posterior heel and plantar surface of foot
Semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps femoris, adductor magnus, gastrocnemius, soleus, plantaris, flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus, tibialis posterior
Medial plantar
S2, S3
Medial 31⁄2 digits
Flexor hallucis brevis, abductor hallucis, flexor digitorum brevis, lumbricales
Lateral plantar
S2, S3
Lateral 11⁄2 digits
Adductor hallucis, abductor digiti minimi, quadratus plantae, lumbricales, flexor digiti minimi brevis, interossei
Saphenous
L2, L3, L4
Medial leg and foot
No motor
Deep fibular
L4, L5, S1
1st interdigital cleft
Tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis longus, fibularis tertius, extensor digitorum brevis, extensor hallucis brevis
Superficial fibular
L5, S1, S2
Distal anterior leg and dorsum of foot
Fibularis longus, fibularis brevis
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 353
Nerves (continued) Common fibular (peroneal) n. Tibial n. (L4, L5, S1, S2, S3)
Articular branch Lateral sural cutaneous n. (cut)
Medial sural cutaneous n. (cut) Articular branches
From tibial n.
Plantaris m. Gastrocnemius m. (cut)
Medial calcaneal branches (S1, S2) Medial plantar n. (L4, L5) Lateral plantar n. (S1, S2)
Saphenous n. (L3, L4) Sural n. (S1, S2) via lateral calcaneal and lateral dorsal cutaneous branches
N. to popliteus m.
Popliteus m. Interosseous n. of leg Soleus m. (cut and partly retracted)
Cutaneous innervation of sole Flexor retinaculum (cut)
Lateral calcaneal branch of sural n. Lateral plantar n.
Flexor digitorum longus m.
Tibialis posterior m. Flexor hallucis longus m.
Tibial n. Medial calcaneal branch Medial plantar n. Flexor digitorum brevis m. and n. Abductor hallucis m. and n.
Sural n. (cut) Lateral calcaneal branch Medial calcaneal branch Flexor retinaculum (cut) Lateral dorsal cutaneous n.
Flexor hallucis brevis m. and n. 1st lumbrical m. and n. Common plantar digital nn. Proper plantar digital nn.
N. to abductor digiti minimi m. Quadratus plantae m. and n. Abductor digiti minimi m. Deep branch to interosseous mm., 2nd, 3rd, and 4th lumbrical mm. and Adductor hallucis m. Superficial branch to 4th interosseous m. and Flexor digiti minimi brevis m. Common and Proper plantar digital nn.
Note: Articular branches not shown
Figure 8-17 Tibial and fibular nerves: anterior view. 354
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PATIENT HISTORY Initial Hypotheses Based on Historical Findings Patient Reports
Initial Hypothesis
Patient reports a traumatic incident resulting in either forced inversion or eversion
Possible ankle sprain1,2 Possible fracture Possible peroneal nerve involvement (if mechanism of injury is inversion)3-5
Patient reports trauma to ankle that included tibial rotation on a planted foot
Possible syndesmotic sprain1
Patient notes tenderness of anterior shin and may exhibit excessive pronation. Symptoms may be exacerbated by repetitive weight-bearing activities
Possible medial tibial stress syndrome6
Patient reports traumatic event resulting in inability to plantarflex ankle
Possible Achilles tendon rupture
Patient reports pain with stretch of calf muscles and during gait (toe push off)
Possible Achilles tendonitis7 Possible Sever’s disease1
Patient reports pain at heel with first few steps out of bed after prolonged periods of walking
Possible plantar fasciitis
Patient reports pain or paresthesias in plantar surface of foot
Possible tarsal tunnel syndrome1 Possible sciatica Possible lumbar radiculopathy
Patient reports pain on plantar surface of foot between 3rd and 4th metatarsals. Might also state that pain is worse when walking with shoes compared with barefoot
Possible Morton’s neuroma7 Possible metatarsalgia
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 355
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION TESTS Screening Evaluation Following Acute Ankle Trauma ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test
Test Procedure and Determination of Positive Finding
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Population
Interexaminer Reliability
Ability to bear weight8
.83
Bone tenderness at base of 5th metatarsal8
.78
Bone tenderness at posterior edge of lateral malleolus8
.75
Bone tenderness at tip of medial malleolus8
.66
Bone tenderness at proximal fibula8 Combinations of bone tenderness8
Tenderness calculated as tender or not. Swelling and ROM limitations dichotomized as “none-minimal” or “moderate-marked”
100 patients having sustained acute ankle trauma
.01 .76
Soft tissue tenderness8
.41
Degree of swelling in area of anterior talofibular ligament8
.18
Ecchymosis8
.39
ROM restrictions present8
.33
Palpation test9
Examiner palpates over anterior talofibular ligament. Positive if pain is reproduced
.36
ER test9
With patient sitting over edge of plinth, passive ER stress is applied to foot and ankle. Positive if pain is reproduced over syndesmotic ligaments
.75
Squeeze test9
With patient sitting over edge of plinth, examiner manually compresses fibula and tibia over calf midpoint. Positive if pain is reproduced over syndesmotic ligaments
Dorsiflexion-compression test9
With patient standing, patient actively dorsiflexes ankle while weight-bearing. Examiner applies manual compression around malleoli with patient’s foot in dorsiflexed position. Positive if significant increase in ankle dorsiflexion or reduction in pain with compression
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53 patients presenting for treatment of ankle injury
.50
.36
Screening (continued) Evaluation Following Acute Ankle Trauma
Figure 8-18 Squeeze test. Figure 8-19 Dorsiflexion-compression test.
Posterior edge or tip of lateral malleolus
Posterior edge or tip of medial malleolus
A Malleolar zone
Malleolar zone
6 cm
6 cm
Midfoot zone
B D
Midfoot zone
C
Lateral view
Base of 5th metatarsal
Medial view
Navicular
Figure 8-20 Ottawa ankle rules. 8 FOOT AND ANKLE 357
Screening Diagnostic Utility of the Ottawa Ankle Rule for Radiography
LR
Statistically pooled data from 27 highquality studies involving 15,581 adults and children
.98 (.97, .99)
.20
1.23
.10 (.06, .16)
Ankle x-ray series ordered when patients had pain with any of the following: (1) Indirect fibular stress applied by compressing the tibia and fibula proximal to the malleoli (2) Direct medial malleolar stress with examiner’s thumb (3) Compression stress of the mid and hindfoot applied simultaneously
354 patients reporting to the emergency department after a low-energy, supination-type ankle or foot injury
1.0
.91
11.11
.00
Base of a vibrating tuning fork placed on tip of lateral malleolus. Positive if patient reports discomfort or pain
49 patients reporting to emergency department after inversion ankle injury
1.0
.61
2.59
.00
1.0
.95
22.00
.00
Ottawa Ankle Rule for Radiography10 2003 Metaanalysis
Ankle x-ray series ordered when patients have bone tenderness at A or B or C or D (see Fig. 8-20) or if the patient could not bear weight immediately after the injury or during the examination (four steps regardless of limping)
Bernese ankle rules11
As above, but placed on distal fibular shaft.
99
.1 .2 .5
95
Percent (%)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
90 80
.5 .2 .1 .05 .02 .01 .005 .002 .001
70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Percent (%)
1000 500 200 100 50 20 10 5 2 1
5
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
LR
Population
2
LR
Large Moderate Small Rarely important Spec
Description and Positive Findings
1
Interpretation
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0 Sens
Test and Study Quality
Adding tuning fork to Ottawa Ankle Rule for Radiography12
LR
Reference Standard
Ankle or midfoot fracture on radiograph
Figure 8-21 Nomogram. Assuming a fracture prevalence of 15% (statistically pooled from Bachmann et al10), an adult seen in the emergency department with an acute injury whose findings were negative on the Ottawa Ankle Rule would have a 1.4% (95% CI, 0.15% to 1.48%) chance of having an ankle and/or midfoot fracture. (Adapted with permission from Fagan TJ. Nomogram for Bayes’ theorem. N Engl J Med. 1975;293-257. Copyright 2005, Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.)
5 2 1 .5
95
.2 99 Pretest Probability
358
Likelihood Ratio
.1 Post-test Probability
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Range of Motion Reliability of Range of Motion Measurements ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10 Measurements
Instrumentation
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Reliability Intra-examiner
Inter-examiner
AROM (sitting) Subtalar joint inversion Subtalar joint eversion13
Plastic goniometer
31 asymptomatic subjects
ICC .91-.96 ICC .82-.93
ICC .73 (.61, .82) ICC .62 (.49, .74)
AROM (prone) Subtalar joint inversion Subtalar joint eversion13
Plastic goniometer
31 asymptomatic subjects
ICC .94 (.91, .96) ICC .83-.94
ICC .54 (.33, .70) ICC .41 (.25, .56)
AROM Ankle dorsiflexion Ankle plantar flexion14
Plastic goniometer
38 patients with orthopaedic disorders of ankle or knee
ICC .89 ICC .91
ICC .28 ICC .25
PROM Subtalar joint neutral Subtalar joint inversion Subtalar joint eversion Plantarflexion Dorsiflexion15
Plastic goniometer
43 patients with orthopaedic or neurologic disorders wherein measurements of foot and ankle would be appropriate in a clinical setting
ICC .77 ICC .62 ICC .59 ICC .86 ICC .90
ICC .25 ICC .15 ICC .12 ICC .72 ICC .50
PROM Pronation Supination Ankle dorsiflexion First ray plantarflexion First ray dorsiflexion16
Inclinometer
30 healthy subjects
ICC .89-.97 ICC .90-.95 ICC .86-.97 ICC .72-.97 ICC .90-.98
ICC .46-.49 ICC .28-.40 ICC .26-.31 ICC .21-.91 ICC .14-.16
First ray mobility17
Manual assessment. Graded as “hypomobile,” “normal,” or “hypermobile”
30 asymptomatic subjects
Not tested
.08-.20
Dorsiflexion in a calf stretch position18
Digital inclinometer used to take measurements between the tibia and vertical when subject is standing in a calf stretch position with knee extended
30 healthy subjects
ICC .77-.91
ICC .92-.95
Dorsiflexion in a modified lunge test19
Inclinometer used to take measurements calculated during lunge between angle formed by fibular head and lateral malleolus
31 subjects 76 to 87 years of age recruited from general population
ICC .87 (.74, .94)
Not tested
Open kinetic chain: Resting subtalar joint Subtalar joint neutral20
Inclinometer
30 asymptomatic subjects
ICC .85 ICC .85
ICC .68 ICC .79
Passive dorsiflexion21
Standard goniometer
63 healthy Navy Reserve officers
ICC .74
ICC .65
AROM, Active range of motion; ICC, intraclass correlation coefficient; PROM, passive range of motion.
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 359
Range of Motion Reliability of Range of Motion Measurements Figure 8-22 Lunge measurements.
Fibular head Ankle flexibility angle
Weight-bearing lunge measurement of ankle dorsiflexion
Lateral malleolus
Measurement of dorsiflexion with modified lunge test
Reliability of Range of Motion Measurement of Calcaneal Position ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 8-23 Measurement of relaxed calcaneal stance.
Measurements
Instrumentation
Population
Reliability Intra-examiner
Inter-examiner
Relaxed calcaneal stance position22
Standard goniometer
212 healthy subjects: 88 adults, 124 children
ICC .61-.90
Not tested
Relaxed calcaneal stance Neutral calcaneal stance16
Gravity goniometer
30 healthy subjects
ICC .95-.97 ICC .87-.93
ICC .61-.62 ICC .21-.31
Rearfoot angle21
Standard goniometer
63 healthy Navy Reserve officers
ICC .88
ICC .86
360
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Assessing Strength Reliability of Strength Assessment ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Test and Measure
Test Procedure
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Ankle plantarflexion strength and endurance23
Children asked to perform as many single-leg heelrises as possible at a rate of 1 every 2 seconds while examiner counts the repetitions
95 7- to 9-yearold children
ICC .99
Diagnostic Utility of the Paper Grip Test for Detecting Toe Plantarflexion Strength Deficits LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 8-24 Paper grip test.
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Paper grip test24
With patient sitting with hips, knees, and ankles at 90° and toes on a piece of cardboard, examiner stabilizes the feet while attempting to slide cardboard away from the toes. Positive if participant cannot maintain cardboard under toes
80 asymptomatic adults
Toe plantarflexion strength as measured by a force plate system
.80
.79
3.8
.25
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 361
Assessing Bony Alignment Measurement of Navicular Height ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 8-25 Measurement of navicular height.
Test and Measure
Test Procedure
Population
Reliability Intra-examiner
Inter-examiner
Navicular height
Navicular tuberosity is marked while patient is in weight-bearing position. Distance from ground to navicular tuberosity is measured
31 subjects 76 to 87 years of age recruited from general population
ICC .64 (.38, .81)
Not tested
Navicular drop test25
Navicular tuberosity is marked. Difference between distance from navicular tuberosity with foot resting on ground with weight bearing mostly on contralateral lower extremity while examiner maintains subtalar joint neutral and during relaxed bilateral stance with full weight bearing is recorded
30 patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome
Not tested
ICC .93 (.84, .97)
30 asymptomatic subjects
ICC .83
ICC .73
20 symptomatic subjects
ICC .33-.62
ICC .31-.40
100 consecutive patients presenting to an orthopaedic foot and ankle clinic
ICC .90
ICC .74
19
Navicular height technique20 Navicular drop test26
Navicular height27
362
Height of navicular tuberosity is calculated with digital calipers
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Assessing Bony Alignment Assessment of Medial Arch Height ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 8-26 Measurement of arch angle.
Test and Measure
Arch angle
21
Arch height test27
Test Procedure
Population
Reliability Intra-examiner
Inter-examiner
Patient in weight-bearing position. Examiner measures angle formed by line connecting medial malleolus and navicular tuberosity and angle from tuberosity to medial aspect of 1st metatarsal head with standard goniometer
63 healthy Navy Reserve officers
ICC .90
ICC .81
Highest point of soft tissue margin along medial longitudinal arch recorded with a digital caliper
100 consecutive patients presenting to an orthopaedic foot and ankle clinic
ICC .91
ICC .76
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 363
Assessing Bony Alignment Measuring Forefoot Position ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 8-27 Determination of forefoot varus/valgus.
Test and Measure
Test Procedure
1
Forefoot varus
364
With patient prone with foot over edge of table, examiner palpates medial and lateral talar head then grasps 4th and 5th metatarsals, taking up slack in midtarsal joints. Subtalar neutral is position in which medial and lateral talar head is palpated equally28
Population
30 healthy subjects
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Reliability Intra-examiner
Inter-examiner
ICC .95-.99
ICC .61
Assessing Balance and Dynamic Performance Reliability of Assessing Balance and Proprioception ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Procedure
Population
Reliability
Single leg balance test
Participants stand on one foot, without shoes on, on a Polyform mat with eyes closed and the contralateral leg bent for 1 minute. Examiner counts number of errors (surface contract with contralateral foot or movement of the test foot)
24 male recreational athletes with functional ankle instability
Test-retest ICC .94
Single leg balance test30
Participants stand on one foot, without shoes on, with the contralateral leg bent and not touching the tested limb. Test is positive when patient cannot remain balanced or reports a sense of imbalance
240 healthy athletes
Inter-examiner .90
29
Threshold for perception of passive movement31
Test-retest ICC .95
Active-to-active reproduction of joint position31
Test-retest ICC .83
Reproduction of movement velocity31 Reproduction of torque31
Examiner collects measurements with potentiometer
24 healthy adult subjects
Test-retest ICC .79 Test-retest ICC (Dorsiflexion) .86 (Plantarflexion) .72
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 365
Assessing Balance and Dynamic Performance Reliability of Assessing Dynamic Performance ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 8-28 Single leg hop test.
Test and Measure
Test Procedure 29
Single leg hopping course
Course consists of 8 squares, some of which are inclined, declined, or have a lateral inclination. Patients jump on each square on one leg as quickly as possible. Performance indicated in number of seconds taken to perform task
Single leg hop for distance29
Patients asked to hop once or three times as far as possible on one leg. Performance indicated by distance covered
Triple hop for distance29 6-meter hop for time29 Cross 6-meter hop for time29
366
Population
Reliability Test-retest ICC .97
24 male recreational athletes with functional ankle instability
Patients hop in a straight line or crosswise over a line, for 6 meters on one leg as quickly as possible. Performance indicated in number of seconds taken to perform task
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Test-retest ICC .97 Test-retest ICC .98 Test-retest ICC .95 Test-retest ICC .94
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Assessing Foot Motion during Gait Reliability of Assessing Hindfoot Motion during Gait
Test and Measure
Duration of hindfoot motion32 Velocity of hindfoot motion32 Timing of hindfoot motion32 Maximum degree of hindfoot motion32 Range of hindfoot motion32
Test Procedure
Population
Each aspect of dynamic hindfoot motion is graded on a 2- or 5-point scale while observing participant walking barefoot on a treadmill. 5 point scale: (1) Less than normal (2) Normal (3) Mildly abnormal (4) Moderately abnormal (5) Severely abnormal 2 point scale: (1) Normal or less than normal (2) Greater than normal
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Inter-examiner Reliability
24 healthy participants
5-Point Scale
2-Point Scale
.03-.01
.14-.24
.04-.01
.02-.20
.15-.20
.19-.20
.13-.18
.27-.48
.06-.19
.15-.28
Accuracy of the Functional Hallux Limitus Test to Predict Abnormal Excessive Midtarsal Function During Gait LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 8-29 Functional hallux: limitus test. Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Functional hallux limitus test33
With the patient in a non–weightbearing position, the examiner used one hand to maintaining the subtalar joint in a neutral position while maintaining the first ray in dorsiflexion. The other hand was used to dorsiflex the proximal phalanx of the hallux. The test was considered positive if examiner noted immediate plantarflexion of the first metatarsal upon dorsiflexion of the proximal phalanx
46 asymptomatic students (86 feet) with no significant orthopaedic or structural deformities of the foot
Abnormal midtarsal motion by observing if the navicular moved in a plantar direction or adducted when the heel began to lift off the ground
.72
.66
2.1
.42
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 367
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Assessing Swelling Reliability of Measuring Ankle Joint Swelling
Start of figure-of-eight measurement
Completed figure-of-eight measurement
Test
Procedure
Figure-of-eight method34 Figure-of-eight method35 Figure-of-eight method36
Water volumetrics36
368
In open kinetic chain, examiner places tape measure midway between tibialis anterior tendon and lateral malleolus. Tape is then drawn medial and placed just distal to navicular tuberosity. Tape is then pulled across arch and just proximal to base of 5th metatarsal. Tape is then pulled across anterior tibialis tendon and around ankle joint just distal to medial malleolus. Tape is finally pulled across Achilles tendon and placed just distal to lateral malleolus and across start of tape
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure-of-eight measurement continued
Figure 8-30 Figure-of-eight measurement.
Population
Reliability Intra-examiner
Interexaminer
30 postoperative patients with ankle edema
ICC .99-1.0
ICC .99-1.0
50 healthy subjects
ICC .99
ICC .99
29 individuals with ankle swelling
ICC .98
ICC .98
ICC .99
ICC .99
Water displacement is measured with patient’s foot in a volumeter with toe tips touching front wall
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Assessing Sensation Reliability of Assessing Protective Sensation ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Thickening of calcaneal (Achilles) tendon Metatarsal drift Subcutaneous nodule
Corn, toe ulcer
Bunion Calcaneal erosion Metatarsal head erosion and spur formation
Hallux valgus
Callosity
Hammertoes Lateral deviation of toes
Bunion, hammertoes, nodules over interphalangeal joints and calcaneal tendon, dropped longitudinal arch (flatfoot), and ulcerations due to vasculitis
Figure 8-31 Foot involvement in rheumatoid arthritis.
Test 37
Sensation testing
Procedure
Population
Test-Retest Reliability
3 and 10 g Semmes Weinstein monofilaments are used to assess protective sensation. Monofilaments are applied perpendicular to the skin for approximately 1.5 seconds on six sites (plantar hallux and 1st through 5th MTP joints). With eyes closed, participants respond if they perceive pressure
51 patients with rheumatoid arthritis and 20 control subjects
(3 g) .73 (.64, .83) (10 g) .75 (.65, .85)
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 369
Special Tests Detecting Anterolateral Ankle Impingement
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Plantarflexion
Dorsiflexion
Figure 8-32 Impingement sign. Test
Test Procedure
Determination of Positive Finding
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Impingement sign38
With patient seated, examiner grasps calcaneus with one hand and uses other hand to grasp forefoot, bringing it into plantarflexion. Examiner uses thumb to place pressure over anterolateral ankle. Foot is then brought from plantarflexion to dorsiflexion while thumb pressure is maintained
Positive if pain provoked with pressure from examiner’s thumb is greater in dorsiflexion than plantarflexion
73 patients with ankle pain
Arthroscopic visualization
.95
.88
7.91
.06
History and clinical examination39
Examiner records aggravating factors and reports loss of motion. Examination includes observation of swelling, passive forced ankle dorsiflexion and eversion, active ROM, and double and single leg squats
Positive if five or more findings are positive: • Anterolateral ankle joint tenderness • Anterolateral ankle joint swelling • Pain with forced dorsiflexion and eversion • Pain with single leg squat • Pain with activities • Ankle instability
22 patients undergoing arthroscopic surgery for complaints of chronic ankle pain
Arthroscopic visualization
.94
.75
3.76
.08
370
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests Reliability of the Windlass Test LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Non–weight bearing
Weight bearing
Figure 8-33 Windlass test.
Test
Windlass test40
Procedure
Two methods of performing the windlass test: • With patient’s knee flexed to 90° while in a non–weight-bearing position, examiner stabilizes the ankle and extends the MTP joint while allowing the IP joint to flex, thus preventing motion limitations due to a shortened hallucis longus muscle • With patient standing on a step stool with toes over the stool’s edge, the patient’s MTP joint is extended while allowing the IP joint to flex
Population
22 patients with plantar fasciitis, 23 patients with other types of foot pain, and 30 control subjects
Reliability Intra-examiner
Inter-examiner
ICC .99
ICC .96
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 371
Special Tests Detecting Ligamentous Injury After Ankle Sprain
Anterior Drawer Test for Instability of Ankle (Test for tear of anterior talofibular ligament) Examiner applies backward pressure on lower tibia causing anterior subluxation of talus (foot firmly fixed by other hand)
Anterior subluxation of talus Anterior talofibular ligament–torn
Talar-Tilt Sign (Test for tear of calcaneofibular and anterior talofibular ligaments) Examiner firmly rotates foot in varus. Tear of calcaneofibular ligament permits excessive mobility in this direction (leg firmly fixed by other hand) Anterior talofibular ligament–torn
Calcaneofibular ligament–torn
Figure 8-34 Anterior drawer sign of ankle for test of talofibular ligaments.
No quality studies were identified that investigated the reliability or the diagnostic utility of either the talar tilt or the anterior drawer test. Their use, however, is so common in clinical practice that they are included here for completeness. 372
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
OUTCOME MEASURES Outcome Measure
Scoring and Interpretation
Test-Retest Reliability
MCID
Lower Extremity Functional Scale (LEFS)
Users are asked to rate the difficulty of performing 20 functional tasks on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (extremely difficult or unable to perform activity) to 4 (no difficulty). A total score out of 80 is calculated by summing each score. The answers provide a score between 0 and 80, with lower scores representing more disability
ICC .92
942
Foot Function Index (FFI)
A self-administered questionnaire consisting of 23 items divided into pain, disability, and activity restriction subscales. A score between 0 and 100 is derived by dividing the visual analog scale into 10 segments. Higher scores indicate more impairment
ICC .8543
Unknown
American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) scales
Each scale is clinician-administered and includes subjective and objective criteria including range of motion, gait abnormalities, stability, alignment, and callous assessment. The answers provide a score between 0 and 100, with lower scores representing more disability
Unknown
944
Unknown
1244
ICC .9543
2544
ICC .8043
1144
Users rate their level of pain on an 11-point scale ranging from 0 to 10, with high scores representing more pain. Often asked as “current pain” and “least,” “worst,” and “average” pain in the past 24 hours
ICC .7245
246,47
Ankle-hindfoot Midfoot Hallux MTP-IP joints
Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS)
41
MCID, Minimum clinically important difference.
8 FOOT AND ANKLE 373
APPENDIX
van Dijk 1996
Liu 1997
Payne 2002
De Garceau 2003
Molloy 2003
Egol 2004
Eggli 2005
Metz 2006
Dissmann 2006
Wilson 2006
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
Y
Y
N
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
Y
N
Y
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
U
Y
U
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
U
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
Y
U
U
U
U
U
Y
Y
U
U
5. Did the whole sample or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
N
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
N
Y
Y
U
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
U
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
U
Y
Y
Y
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
U
Y
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
N
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
U
Y
Y
U
Y
U
Y
U
U
U
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
U
Y
U
U
U
Y
U
U
U
Y
13. Were uninterpretable/intermediate test results reported?
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
U
U
Y
U
U
U
Y
Y
U
U
Quality summary rating:
Y yes, N no, U unclear.
374
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14).
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9).
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Poor quality (Y - N 4).
REFERENCES 1. Appling SA. Foot and Ankle. Current Concepts of Orthopaedic Physical Therapy. La Crosse: Orthopaedic Section, American Physical Therapy Association; 2001. 2. Hartley A. Practical Joint Assessment. St.. Louis: Mosby ; 1995. 3. Hunt GC. Injuries of peripheral nerves of the leg, foot and ankle: an often unrecognized consequence of ankle sprains. Foot. 2003;13:14-18. 4. Hunt GC. Ankle sprain in a 14-year-old-girl. In: Jones MA, Rivett DA, eds. Clinical Reasoning for Manual Therapists (8). Edinburgh: Butterworth Heinemann; 2004.123-134. 5. Hunt GC, Sneed T, Hamann H, et al. Biomechanical and histological considerations for development of plantar fasciitis and evaluation of arch taping as a treatment option to control associated plantar heel pain: a single-subject design. Foot. 2004. 6. Bennett JE, Reinking MF, Pluemer B, et al. Factors contributing to the development of medial tibial stress syndrome in high school runners. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2001;31:504-510. 7. Wooden MJ. Foot overuse syndromes of the foot and ankle. In: Wadsworth C, Kestel L, eds. Orthopaedic Physical Therapy Home Study Course. La Crosse: Orthopaedic Section, American Physical Therapy Association; 1995. 8. Stiell IG, McKnight RD, Greenberg GH, et al. Interobserver agreement in the examination of acute ankle injury patients. Am J Emerg Med. 1992;10:14-17. 9. Alonso A, Khoury L, Adams R. Clinical tests for ankle syndesmosis injury: reliability and prediction of return to function. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1998;27:276-284. 10. Bachmann LM, Kolb E, Koller MT, et al. Accuracy of Ottawa ankle rules to exclude fractures of the ankle and mid-foot: systematic review. BMJ. 2003;326:417. 11. Eggli S, Sclabas GM, Eggli S, et al. The Bernese ankle rules: a fast, reliable test after low-energy, supinationtype malleolar and midfoot trauma. J Trauma. 2005;59: 1268-1271. 12. Dissmann PD, Han KH. The tuning fork test—a useful tool for improving specificity in “Ottawa positive” patients after ankle inversion injury. Emerg Med J. 2006;23:788-790. 13. Menadue C, Raymond J, Kilbreath SL, et al. Reliability of two goniometric methods of measuring active inversion and eversion range of motion at the ankle. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2006;7:60. 14. Youdas JW, Bogard CL, Suman VJ. Reliability of goniometric measurements and visual estimates of ankle joint active range of motion obtained in a clinical setting. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1993;74:1113-1118. 15. Elveru RA, Rothstein JM, Lamb RL. Goniometric reliability in a clinical setting. Subtalar and ankle joint measurements. Phys Ther. 1988;68:672-677.
16. Van Gheluwe B, Kirby KA, Roosen P, Phillips RD. Reliability and accuracy of biomechanical measurements of the lower extremities. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 2002;92:317-326. 17. Cornwall MW, Fishco WD, McPoil TG, et al. Reliability and validity of clinically assessing first-ray mobility of the foot. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 2004;94:470-476. 18. Munteanu SE, Strawhorn AB, Landorf KB, et al. A weightbearing technique for the measurement of ankle joint dorsiflexion with the knee extended is reliable. J Sci Med Sport. 2009;12:54-59. 19. Menz HB, Tiedemann A, Kwan MM, et al. Reliability of clinical tests of foot and ankle characteristics in older people. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 2003;93:380-387. 20. Sell KE, Verity TM, Worrell TW, et al. Two measurement techniques for assessing subtalar joint position: a reliability study. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1994;19: 162-167. 21. Jonson SR, Gross MT. Intraexaminer reliability, interexaminer reliability, and mean values for nine lower extremity skeletal measures in healthy naval midshipmen. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1997;25:253-263. 22. Sobel E, Levitz SJ, Caselli MA, et al. Reevaluation of the relaxed calcaneal stance position. Reliability and normal values in children and adults. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1999;89:258-264. 23. Maurer C, Finley A, Martel J, et al. Ankle plantarflexor strength and endurance in 7-9 year old children as measured by the standing single leg heel-rise test. Phys Occupat Ther Pediatr. 2007;27:37-54. 24. Menz HB, Zammit GV, Munteanu SE, Scott G. Plantarflexion strength of the toes: age and gender differences and evaluation of a clinical screening test. Foot Ankle Int. 2006;27:1103-1108. 25. Piva SR, Fitzgerald K, Irrgang JJ, et al. Reliability of measures of impairments associated with patellofemoral pain syndrome. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2006;7:33. 26. Vinicombe A, Raspovic A, Menz HB. Reliability of navicular displacement measurement as a clinical indicator of foot posture. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 2001;91:262-268. 27. Saltzman CL, Nawoczenski DA, Talbot KD. Measurement of the medial longitudinal arch. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1995;76:45-49. 28. Root ML, Orien WP, Weed JH. Biomechanical Examination of the Foot. Los Angeles: Clinical Biomechanics Corp; 1971. 29. Sekir U, Yildiz Y, Hazneci B, et al. Reliability of a functional test battery evaluating functionality, proprioception, and strength in recreational athletes with functional ankle instability. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med. 2008;44:407-415. 30. Trojian TH, McKeag DB. Single leg balance test to identify risk of ankle sprains. Br J Sports Med. 2006;40:610-613.
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31. Deshpande N, Connelly DM, Culham EG, Costigan PA. Reliability and validity of ankle proprioceptive measures. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84:883-889. 32. Keenan AM, Bach TM. Clinicians’ assessment of the hindfoot: a study of reliability. Foot Ankle Int. 2006;27:451-460. 33. Payne C, Chuter V, Miller K. Sensitivity and specificity of the functional hallux limitus test to predict foot function. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 2002;92:269-271. 34. Rohner-Spengler M, Mannion AF, Babst R. Reliability and minimal detectable change for the figure-ofeight-20 method of measurement of ankle edema. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2007;37:199-205. 35. Tatro-Adams D, McGann SF, Carbone W. Reliability of the figure-of-eight method of ankle measurement. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1995;22:161-163. 36. Petersen EJ, Irish SM, Lyons CL, et al. Reliability of water volumetry and the figure of eight method on subjects with ankle joint swelling. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1999;29:609-615. 37. Wilson O, Kirwan JR. Measuring sensation in the feet of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Musculoskeletal Care. 2006;4:12-23. 38. Molloy S, Solan MC, Bendall SP. Synovial impingement in the ankle. A new physical sign. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2003;85:330-333. 39. Liu SH, Nuccion SL, Finerman G. Diagnosis of anterolateral ankle impingement. Comparison between magnetic resonance imaging and clinical examination. Am J Sports Med. 1997;25:389-393. 40. De Garceau D, Dean D, Requejo SM, Thordarson DB. The association between diagnosis of plantar fasciitis
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41.
42.
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44.
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and windlass test results. Foot Ankle Int. 2003;24: 251-255. Pua YH, Cowan SM, Wrigley TV, Bennell KL. The lower extremity functional scale could be an alternative to the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index physical function scale. J Clin Epidemiol. 2009 Binkley JM, Stratford PW, Lott SA, Riddle DL. The Lower Extremity Functional Scale (LEFS): scale development, measurement properties, and clinical application. North American Orthopaedic Rehabilitation Research Network. Phys Ther. 1999;79:371-383. Baumhauer JF, Nawoczenski DA, DiGiovanni BF, Wilding GE. Reliability and validity of the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society Clinical Rating Scale: a pilot study for the hallux and lesser toes. Foot Ankle Int. 2006;27:1014-1019. Dawson J, Doll H, Coffey J, Jenkinson C. Responsiveness and minimally important change for the Manchester-Oxford foot questionnaire (MOXFQ) compared with AOFAS and SF-36 assessments following surgery for hallux valgus. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2007;15:918-931. Li L, Liu X, Herr K. Postoperative pain intensity assessment: a comparison of four scales in Chinese adults. Pain Med. 2007;8:223-234. Farrar JT, Berlin JA, Strom BL. Clinically important changes in acute pain outcome measures: a validation study. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2003;25:406-411. Farrar JT, Portenoy RK, Berlin JA, et al. Defining the clinically important difference in pain outcome measures. Pain. 2000;88:287-294.
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Shoulder
9
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
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Anatomy Osteology Arthrology Scapulohumeral Rhythm Ligaments Muscles Nerves Patient History Initial Hypotheses Based on Historical Findings Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History for Identifying Labrum and Rotator Cuff Tears Physical Examination Tests Range of Motion Assessing Strength and Proprioception Muscle Length Palpation Assessing Alignment Classifying Shoulder Disorders Special Tests—Instability Special Tests—Labral Tears Special Tests—Subacromial Impingement Special Tests—Rotator Cuff Tears Special Tests—Brachial Plexus Palsy Special Tests—Acromioclavicular Lesions Combination of Tests Outcome Measures Appendix Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS References
379 379 380 381 382 384 387 389 389 389 390 390 392 393 394 395 397 398 402 413 418 425 426 427 429 430 430 436
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Patient History Complaints
Little is known about the utility of subjective complaints with shoulder pain. While a report of trauma does not seem clinically useful, a history of popping, clicking, or catching may be minimally helpful in diagnosing a labral tear (LRs 2.0).
Physical Examination Range of Motion, Strength, and Muscle Length Assessment
Measuring shoulder range of motion (ROM) has consistently been shown to be highly reliable but is of unknown diagnostic utility. Visual assessments and functional tests of ROM are more variable and may be adequately reliable in some instances. Assessing strength with manual muscle testing (MMT) appears to be reliable. Weak abduction and/or external rotation may be fairly useful in identifying subacromial impingement and/or full thickness rotator cuff tears. Weak internal rotation appears very helpful in identifying subscapularis tears (LR 7.5 to 20.0). Assessments of shoulder muscle tightness are moderately reliable. However, the single study1 done to test associated diagnostic utility found tight pectoralis minor muscles in all 90 participants regardless of whether they had shoulder problems or not (100% sensitivity, 0% specificity).
Special Tests
The apprehension test appears to be the most useful test in identifying shoulder instability, especially when defining a positive test by an “apprehensive response” (LR 7.1 to 20.2, LR .00 to .29) as opposed to “pain” (LR 1.1 to 3.1, LR .69 to .90). To a lesser extent, it may also be helpful in diagnosing labral tears. Results of studies examining the diagnostic utility of tests to identify labral tears are highly variable. Even though most single tests do not appear very useful, one study found both the Kim test and the Jerk test to be very good at identifying labral tears (LRs of 13.3 and 36.5, respectively). The same author also found the biceps load test I and II to be very effective at identifying superior labrum anterior posterior (SLAP) lesions (LR 30 for both). A 2008 meta-analysis found both the Hawkins-Kennedy and Neer test to be minimally helpful for both ruling in and ruling out subacromial impingement. The presence of a “painful arc” during elevation may additionally be helpful in identifying the condition (LR .39, LR .32). In addition to rotator cuff muscle weakness (above), the external and internal rotation lag signs appear to be very helpful at identifying infraspinatus and subscapularis tears respectively. Several other tests (bear-hug, belly-press, Napoleon) appear to be also very useful in diagnosing subscapularis tears. Whereas several signs and symptoms are helpful in identifying brachial plexus nerve root avulsions, the shoulder protraction test appears to be the most useful (LR 4.8, LR .05).
Combinations of Findings
Even though combinations of tests are generally better than single tests, combinations of tests are only moderately helpful in identifying labral tears. The most efficient pair seems to be the anterior apprehension and Jobe relocation tests (LR 5.4). Another study2 reported even better diagnostic utility when specific combinations of three tests were used. By selecting two highly sensitive tests (compression rotation, anterior apprehension, and O’Brien tests) and one highly specific tests (Yergason, biceps load II, and Speed’s tests), users can be fairly confident in both ruling out and ruling in SLAP lesions.
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ANATOMY Osteology Acromion Acromial angle Supraglenoid tubercle Anatomical neck
Coracoid process
Clavicle (cut) Superior angle Superior border Suprascapular notch Neck
Greater tubercle Lesser tubercle
Medial border
Surgical neck
Subscapular fossa
Intertubercular sulcus Crest of greater tubercle Crest of lesser tubercle
Glenoid cavity of scapula Head of humerus
Deltoid tuberosity
Infraglenoid tubercle Lateral border
Scapula
Humerus
Inferior angle
Lateral supracondylar ridge Condyles
Medial Lateral
Medial supracondylar ridge
Radial fossa Lateral epicondyle
Coronoid fossa Medial epicondyle Capitulum
Trochlea
Figure 9-1 Anterior humerus and scapula. Right clavicle
Superior
Post e
Acromial end
rior
Shaft body
Sternal end
Ant
erio
r
Acromial facet
Inferior Impression for costoclavicular lig.
r
Anterio
Trapezoid line
r
o Posteri
Sternal facet
Conoid tubercle Subclavian groove (for subclavius m.)
Figure 9-2 Superior and inferior surface of clavicle. 9 SHOULDER 379
Arthrology
Clavicle
Anterior sternoclavicular lig.
Articular disc of sternoclavicular joint
Interclavicular lig.
Subclavius m.
Articular cavities of sternoclavicular joint Costoclavicular lig.
Costoclavicular lig. 1st rib
Synchondrosis of 1st rib Manubrium
Costal cartilages
Sternocostal (synovial) joint
2nd rib Radiate sternocostal lig.
Manubriosternal synchondrosis
Suprascapular notch Clavicle (cut) Coracoid process Superior border Acromion Superior angle Acromial angle Supraspinous fossa Notch connecting supraspinous Spine and infraspinous fossae Infraspinous fossa
Neck
Medial border
Groove for circumflex scapular vessels Scapula Humerus
Lateral border Inferior angle
Greater tubercle Head of humerus Anatomical neck Surgical neck Infraglenoid tubercle
Deltoid tuberosity Radial groove
Lateral supracondylar ridge Medial supracondylar ridge Olecranon fossa Lateral epicondyle
Medial epicondyle Groove for ulnar n.
Trochlea
Figure 9-3 Sternoclavicular joint.
Joint
Type and Classification
Closed Packed Position
Capsular Pattern
Glenohumeral
Spheroidal
Full abduction and external rotation
ER limited more than abduction, limited more than internal rotation and flexion
Sternoclavicular
Saddle
Arm abducted to 90°
Acromioclavicular
Plane synovial
Arm abducted to 90°
Scapulothoracic
Not a true articulation
Not available
Not reported
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Scapulohumeral Rhythm Scapulohumeral rhythm consists of integrated movements of the glenohumeral, scapulothoracic, acromioclavicular (AC), and sternoclavicular joints, and occurs in sequential fashion to allow full functional motion of the shoulder complex. Scapulohumeral rhythm serves three functional purposes: It allows for greater overall shoulder ROM, it maintains optimal contact between the humeral head and glenoid fossa, and it assists with maintaining an optimal length-tension relationship of the glenohumeral muscles.3 To complete 180° of abduction, the overall ratio of glenohumeral to scapulothoracic, AC, and sternoclavicular motion is 2:1. Inman and colleagues4 were the first to explain scapulohumeral rhythm and described it as two phases that the shoulder complex completes to move through full abduction. The first phase (0°-90°) entails the scapula setting against the thorax to provide initial stability as the humerus abducts to 30°.3,4 From 30° to 90° of abduction, the glenohumeral joint contributes another 30° of ROM while the scapula upwardly rotates 30°. The upward rotation results from clavicular elevation through the sternoclavicular and AC joints. The second phase (90°-180°) entails 60° of glenohumeral abduction and 30° of scapula upward rotation. The scapula rotation is associated with 5° of elevation at the sternoclavicular joint and 25° of rotation at the AC joint.4,5
180˚
120˚ abduction of glenohumeral joint Sternoclavicular joint posterior rotation
30˚ Sternoclavicular joint elevation 30˚
AC joint upward rotation
60˚ rotation of scapulothoracic joint
Figure 9-4 Scapulohumeral rhythm.
9 SHOULDER 381
Ligaments
Acromioclavicular joint capsule (incorporating acromioclavicular lig.)
Clavicle
Acromion
Trapezoid Coracolig. clavicular lig. Conoid lig.
Coracoacromial lig. Supraspinatus tendon (cut) Coracohumeral lig.
Superior transverse scapular lig. and suprascapular notch
Greater tubercle and lesser tubercle of humerus
Coracoid process
Transverse humeral lig.
Communications of subtendinous bursa of subscapularis
Intertubercular tendon sheath (communicates with synovial cavity) Subscapularis tendon (cut)
Broken line indicates position of subtendinous bursa of subscapularis
Biceps brachii tendon (long head)
Figure 9-5 Shoulder ligaments: anterior view.
Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Glenohumeral
Glenoid labrum to neck of humerus
Reinforces anterior glenohumeral joint capsule
Coracohumeral
Coracoid process to greater tubercle of humerus
Strengthens superior glenohumeral joint capsule
Coracoclavicular Trapezoid Conoid
Superior aspect of coracoid process to inferior aspect of clavicle
Anchors clavicle to coracoid process
Coracoid process to conoid tubercle on inferior clavicle
Acromioclavicular
Acromion to clavicle
Strengthens AC joint superiorly
Coracoacromial
Coracoid process to acromion
Prevents superior displacement of humeral head
Sternoclavicular
Clavicular notch of manubrium to medial base of clavicle anteriorly and posteriorly
Reinforces sternoclavicular joint anteriorly and posteriorly
Interclavicular
Medial end of one clavicle to medial end of other clavicle
Strengthens superior sternoclavicular joint capsule
Costoclavicular
Superior aspect of costal cartilage of first rib to inferior border of medial clavicle
Anchors medial end of clavicle to first rib
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Ligaments (continued) Subdeltoid bursa fused with subacromial bursa Supraspinatus m. Anterior view
Deltoid m. (reflected)
Subscapularis m.
Capsular lig. Synovial membrane Acromion Supraspinatus tendon Acromioclavicular joint
Capsular lig.
Subdeltoid bursa
Deltoid m.
Glenoid cavity of scapula
Glenoid labrum Coracoacromial lig.
Acromion
Axillary recess Coronal section through joint
Coracoid process
Supraspinatus tendon (fused to capsule)
Coracohumeral lig.
Subdeltoid bursa
Biceps brachii tendon (long head)
Infraspinatus tendon (fused to capsule)
Superior glenohumeral lig.
Glenoid cavity (cartilage)
Subscapularis tendon (fused to capsule)
Teres minor tendon (fused to capsule) Synovial membrane (cut edge) Openings of subtendinous bursa of subscapularis
Middle glenohumeral lig. Inferior glenohumeral lig.
Joint opened: lateral view
Figure 9-6 Shoulder (glenohumeral) joint.
9 SHOULDER 383
Muscles Posterior Muscles of Shoulder
Semispinalis capitis m. Not connected to upper limb Splenius capitis m. Spinous process of C7 vertebra Levator scapulae m.
Trapezius m.
Rhomboid minor m. Rhomboid major m. Acromion Supraspinatus m.
Deltoid m.
Spine of scapula Infraspinatus m.
Infraspinatus fascia
Teres minor m. Teres major m. Latissimus dorsi m. Long head Lateral head
Triangle of auscultation
Triceps brachii m.
Spinous process of T12 vertebra
Figure 9-7 Muscles of the shoulder: posterior view.
Muscles
Origin
Insertion
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Upper trapezius
Occipital protuberance, nuchal line, ligamentum nuchae
Lateral clavicle and acromion
Cranial nerve XI and C2-C4
Rotates glenoid fossa upwardly, elevates scapular
Middle trapezius
Spinous process of T1-T5
Acromion and spine of scapula
Cranial nerve XI and C2-4
Retracts scapular
Lower trapezius
Spinous process of T6-T12
Apex of spine of scapula
Cranial nerve XI and C2-C4
Upward rotation of glenoid fossa, scapular depression
Levator scapulae
Transverse processes of C1-C4
Superior medial scapula
Dorsal scapular (C3-C5)
Elevates and adducts scapula
Rhomboids
Ligamentum nuchae and spinous processes C7-T5
Medial scapular border
Dorsal scapular (C4-C5)
Retracts scapula
Latissimus dorsi
Inferior thoracic vertebrae, thoracolumbar fascia, iliac crest, and inferior ribs 3-4
Intertubercular groove of humerus
Thoracodorsal (C6-C8)
Internally rotates, adducts, and extends humerus
Serratus anterior
Ribs 1-8
Anterior medial scapula
Long thoracic (C5-C8)
Protracts and upwardly rotates scapula
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Muscles Anterior Muscles of Shoulder
Trapezius m.
Omohyoid m. and investing layer of deep cervical fascia
Acromion Deltopectoral triangle
Sternocleidomastoid m.
Deltoid branch of thoracoacromial a.
Clavicle
Deltoid m. Cephalic v.
Biceps brachii m.
Clavicular head Sternocostal head Abdominal part
Long head Short head
Pectoralis major m.
Sternum
Triceps brachii m. (lateral head) Latissimus dorsi m. Anterior layer of rectus sheath
Serratus anterior m. External oblique m. 6th costal cartilage
Figure 9-8 Muscles of the shoulder: anterior view.
Muscles
Origin
Insertion
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Deltoid
Clavicle, acromion, spine of scapular
Deltoid tuberosity of humerus
Axillary (C5-C6)
Abducts arm
Clavicular head
Anterior medial clavicle
Sternocostal head
Lateral border of sternum, superior six costal cartilages and fascia of external oblique muscle
Intertubercular groove of humerus
Lateral and medial pectoral nerves (C5, C6, C7, C8, T1)
Adducts and internally rotates humerus
Coracoid process
Medial pectoral nerve (C8, T1)
Stabilizes scapula
Pectoralis major
Pectoralis minor
Just lateral to costal cartilage of ribs 3 to 5
9 SHOULDER 385
Muscles Rotator Cuff Muscles Superior view
Coracoclavicular lig. Trapezoid lig. Conoid lig.
Coracoid process Subscapularis tendon Coracoacromial lig. Acromioclavicular joint Supraspinatus tendon Infraspinatus tendon Teres minor tendon Acromion
Infraspinatus m. Spine of scapula Supraspinatus m. Superior border Subscapularis m. of scapula Clavicle
Coracoacromial lig. Coracoid process Acromion Superior transverse scapular lig. and suprascapular notch Supraspinatus tendon
Supraspinatus m. Spine of scapula Acromion Supraspinatus tendon
Biceps brachii tendon (long head)
Infraspinatus m. Teres minor m.
Subscapularis m.
Axillary n. Posterior view
Anterior view
Figure 9-9 Muscles of the shoulder: rotator cuff. Muscles
Origin
Insertion
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Supraspinatus
Supraspinous fossa of scapula
Greater tubercle of humerus
Suprascapular (C4-C6)
Assists deltoid in abduction of humerus
Infraspinatus
Infraspinatus fossa of scapula
Greater tubercle of humerus
Suprascapular (C5-C6)
Externally rotates humerus
Teres minor
Lateral border of scapula
Greater tubercle of humerus
Axillary (C5-C6)
Externally rotates humerus
Subscapularis
Subscapular fossa of scapula
Lesser tubercle of humerus
Upper and lower subscapular (C5-C6)
Internally rotates humerus
Teres major
Inferior angle of scapula
Intertubercular groove of humerus
Lower subscapular (C5-C6)
Internally rotates and adducts humerus
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Nerves Nerves
Segmental Levels
Sensory
Motor
Radial
C5, C6, C7, C8, T1
Posterior aspect of forearm
Triceps brachii, anconeus, brachioradialis, extensor muscles of forearm
Ulnar
C7, C8, T1
Medial hand including medial half of 4th digit
Flexor carpi ulnaris, medial half of flexor digitorum profundus, and most small muscles in hand
Musculocutaneous
C5, C6, C7
Becomes lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve
Coracobrachialis, biceps brachii, brachialis
Axillary
C5, C6
Lateral shoulder
Teres minor, deltoid
Suprascapular
C4, C5, C6
No sensory
Supraspinatus, infraspinatus
Dorsal scapular
Ventral rami C4, C5
No sensory
Rhomboids, levator scapulae
Lateral pectoral
C5, C6, C7
No sensory
Pectoralis major pectoralis minor
Medial pectoral
C8, T1
No sensory
Pectoralis minor
Long thoracic
Ventral rami C5, C6, C7
No sensory
Serratus anterior
Upper subscapular
C5, C6
No sensory
Subscapularis
Lower subscapular
C5, C6
No sensory
Teres major, subscapularis
Medial cutaneous of arm
C8, T1
Medial arm
No motor
9 SHOULDER 387
Nerves (continued)
Pectoralis minor tendon (cut) Coracoid process Acromion Cephalic v. Musculocutaneous n.
Thoracoacromial a. Suprascapular a. and n. Acromial branch Trapezius m. Dorsal scapular a. and n. Deltoid branch Clavicular branch Transverse cervical a. Pectoral branch Anterior scalene m. Axillary a.
Anterior circumflex humeral a. Axillary n. and posterior circumflex humeral a.
Sternocleidomastoid m.
Clavicle and subclavius m. (cut)
Phrenic n.
Pectoralis major m. (cut) Omohyoid m.
Coracobrachialis m. Deltoid m. Biceps brachii m. Musculocutaneous n. Brachialis m.
Ulnar n. Medial cutaneous n. of arm
Deep a. of arm
Intercostobrachial n.
Radial n. Triceps brachii m. Brachial vv. Ulnar n. Median n. Brachial a.
Medial cutaneous n. of the forearm Basilic v.
Circumflex scapular a. Lower subscapular n.
Subclavian a. and v.
Teres major m. Subscapular a.
1st rib
Latissimus dorsi m.
Brachial plexus
Thoracodorsal a. and n. Upper subscapular n. Serratus anterior m. Lateral thoracic a. and long thoracic n.
Superior thoracic a. Lateral pectoral n. Medial pectoral n.
Pectoralis minor m. (cut)
Figure 9-10 Anterior axilla.
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PATIENT HISTORY Initial Hypotheses Based on Historical Findings History
Initial Hypothesis
Patient reports lateral/anterior shoulder pain with overhead activities or exhibits a painful arc
Possible subacromial impingement6,7 Possible tendinitis8 Possible bursitis8
Patient reports of instability, apprehension, and pain with activities, most often when shoulder is abducted and externally rotated
Shoulder instability6 Possible labral tear if clicking is present9,10
Decreased ROM and pain with resistance
Possible rotator cuff or long head of the biceps tendinitis11
Patient reports of pain and weakness with muscle loading, night pain. Age 60
Possible rotator cuff tear11
Patient reports poorly located shoulder pain with occasional radiation into elbow. Pain is usually aggravated by movement and relieved by rest. Age 45. Females more often affected than males
Possible adhesive capsulitis12
Patient reports fall on shoulder followed by pain over AC joint
Possible AC sprain6
Patient reports upper extremity heaviness or numbness with prolonged postures and when laying on involved side
Possible thoracic outlet syndrome13,14 Possible cervical radiculopathy15
Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History for Identifying Labrum and Rotator Cuff Tears
Patient Report and Study Quality History of trauma16 History of pop, click, or catch16 History of trauma11 Reports of night pain11
Population
55 patients with shoulder pain scheduled for arthroscopy
448 patients with shoulder pain scheduled for arthroscopy
Reference Standard
Glenoid labral tear observed during arthroscopy
Rotator cuff tear observed during arthroscopy
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.50 (.35, .65)
.36 (.08, .65)
.79 (.46, 1.34)
1.38 (.6, 3.17)
.55 (.4, .69)
.73 (.46, .99)
2.0 (.73, 5.45)
.63 (.38, 1.02)
.36
.73
1.33
.88
.88
.20
1.10
.60
9 SHOULDER 389
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION TESTS Range of Motion Reliability of Range of Motion Measurements ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Measurment of internal rotation in 90° of abduction
Test Procedure Passive flexion
Population
Reliability Intra-examiner: ICC .98 Inter-examiner: ICC .89
17
Passive extension17
Figure 9-11 Range of motion measurements.
Measurment of external rotation in 90° of abduction
Instrumentation
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Universal goniometer
100 patients referred for physical therapy for shoulder impairments
Intra-examiner: ICC .94 Inter-examiner: ICC .27
Passive abduction17
Intra-examiner: ICC .98 Inter-examiner: ICC .87
Active elevation18
Affected side: ICC .88 (.84, .91)* Unaffected side: ICC .76 (.67, .82)*
Passive elevation18
Affected side: ICC .87 (.83, .90)* Unaffected side: ICC .73 (.66, .79)*
Passive external rotation18
Visual estimation of ROM
Passive horizontal adduction18
201 patients with shoulder pain
Affected side: ICC .73 (.22, .88)* Unaffected side: ICC .34 (.00, .65)* Affected side: ICC .36 (.22, .48)* Unaffected side: ICC .18 (.04, .32)*
*Inter-examiner only. ICC, Intraclass correlation coefficient;
390
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Range of Motion Reliability of Functional Range of Motion Tests ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 9-12 Hand behind back (functional internal rotation of shoulder test). Test and Measure
Test Procedure
Population
Hand to neck
Hand to scapula19
Inter-examiner Reliability Intra-examiner: ICC .80 (.63, .93) Inter-examiner: ICC .90 (.69, .96)
19
Visual estimation of ROM graded on a scale of 0 to 3 or 4
46 patients with shoulder pain
Intra-examiner: ICC .90 (.72, .92) Inter-examiner: ICC .90 (.69, .94)
Hand to opposite scapula19
Intra-examiner: ICC .86 (.65, .90) Inter-examiner: ICC .83 (.75, .96)
Active abduction20
ROM: ICC .96 Pain: .65
Passive abduction20
ROM: ICC .96 Pain: .69
Painful arc with active abduction20 Painful arc with passive abduction20
Hand behind back20
Springing test 1st rib20
Presence of: .52 Starting ROM: ICC .54 Ending ROM: ICC .72 91 patients with shoulder pain
Passive external rotation20
Hand in neck20
Presence of: .46 Starting ROM: ICC .72 Ending ROM: ICC .57
ROM assessed visually to nearest 5°. Pain assessed as “no pain,” “little pain,” “much pain,” and “excruciating pain”
As above except ROM graded on a scale of 0 to 7
Examiner exerts force with the 2nd metacarpophalangeal joint on the 1st rib of the patient, assessing ROM (normal or restricted), pain (present or absent), and joint stiffness (present or absent)
ROM: ICC .70 Pain: .50 ROM: .73 Pain: .35 ROM: .52 Pain: .52 ROM: .26 Stiffness: .09 Pain: .66
9 SHOULDER 391
Assessing Strength and Proprioception ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Reliability of Assessing Strength Test and Measure
Serratus anterior strength21
Test Procedure
With subject supine with arm at 90° of shoulder flexion and 105° of shoulder horizontal adduction, subject presses toward ceiling while holding weighted apparatus
Population
Test-Retest Reliability Within-Day
Between-Days
Inter-examiner ICC .90-.93
ICC .83-.89
30 asymptomatic students
Serratus anterior endurance21
As above, with patient holding weight equal to 15% of body weight
Inter-examiner ICC .71-.76
ICC .44-.62
Lower trapezius22
With patient prone and using a handheld dynamometer on the spine of the scapula, resistance is applied to scapular adduction and depression
ICC .93 (.89, .96)
ICC .89 (.68, .95)
Serratus anterior22
With patient supine with shoulder and elbow at 90° and using handheld dynamometer on the elbow, resistance is applied to scapular protraction
ICC .93 (.88, .96)
ICC .94 (.88, .97)
ICC .94 (.90, .97)
ICC .94 (.82, .97)
ICC .95 (.92, .97)
ICC .96 (.91, .98)
Middle trapezius22
With patient prone and using a handheld dynamometer on the spine of the scapula, resistance is applied to scapular retraction
Upper trapezius22
With patient sitting and using a handheld dynamometer on the superior scapula, resistance is applied to scapular elevation
40 patients with shoulder pain
Reliability of Assessing Proprioception Test and Measure
Test Procedure
Population
Test-Retest Reliability
Joint position sense23
With patient standing, examiner measures full external rotation (ER) and internal rotation (IR) of shoulder with inclinometer. Target angles are determined as 90% of IR and 90% of ER. With patient blindfolded, examiner guides patient’s arm into target angle position and holds it for 3 sec. The patient’s arm is returned to neutral. The patient is instructed to return the arm to target angle. Examiner takes measurement with inclinometer
31 asymptomatic subjects
IR ICC .98 ER ICC .98
392
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Muscle Length Reliability of Determining Length of Pectoralis Minor
Test and Measure
Test Procedure Side-lying horizontal adduction
Posterior shoulder tightness24
Population
The humerus is passively taken into horizontal adduction. The limit of posterior shoulder flexibility is considered the onset of scapula movement or humerus rotation out of neutral. An assistant using a carpenter’s square measures the distance from the top of the plinth to the medial epicondyle
Supine horizontal adduction
Degree of rotation is recorded at the palpable onset of scapular motion away from the plinth
Supine internal rotation
With an assistant preventing scapular movement, degrees of rotation are recorded at the end of passive motion
Pectoralis minor length1
With the participant supine with hands resting on the abdomen, examiner measures the linear distance from the treatment table to the posterior aspect of the acromion using a plastic right angle
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement Test-Retest Reliability Patients: ICC .40 (.09, .64) Controls: ICC .63 (.29, .83)
37 patients with shoulder impingement syndrome and 22 control subjects (measurements taken 8 to 12 weeks apart)
Patients: ICC .79 (.63, .89) Controls: ICC .74 (.47, .88) Patients: ICC .67 (.45, .82) Controls: ICC .79 (.55, .91)
45 patients with shoulder pain and 45 asymptomatic persons
Single measure: ICC .90-.93 Mean of 3 measures: ICC .92-.97
Diagnostic Utility of Tight Pectoralis Minor in Identifying Shoulder Pain LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 9-13 Measuring pectoralis minor muscle strength. Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Tight pectoralis minor1
As above with a positive test being a measurement 2.6 cm (1 inch).
45 patients with shoulder pain and 45 asymptomatic persons
Self-report of shoulder pain and/or restriction of shoulder movement
1.0*
0.0*
1.0
Undefined
*These results are due to the fact that at all 90 symptomatic and asymptomatic participants were classified as “tight” using this definition.
9 SHOULDER 393
Palpation Reliability of Palpating the Subacromial Space ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 9-14 Palpation of subacromial space. Test and Measure
Test Procedure
Population
Reliability
Palpation of subacromial space25
Examiner palpates subacromial space and estimates distance as 1⁄4, 1⁄2, 3⁄4, or whole finger’s breadth
36 patients with shoulder subluxation
Intra-examiner ICC .90-.94 Inter-examiner ICC .77-.89
Diagnostic Utility of Palpation in Identifying Labral Tears LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Bicipital groove tenderness2
Examiner gently presses the biceps groove with shoulder adducted 10°. Positive if pain
68 patients with type II SLAP lesions and 78 age-matched controls who underwent shoulder arthroscopy
Type II SLAP lesion visualized during arthroscopy
.27
.66
.80
1.11
Biceps palpation26
Point tenderness of the biceps tendon in the biceps groove 3-6 cm below anterior acromion
847 patients who underwent diagnostic arthroscopy of the shoulder
Partial biceps tendon tear visualized during arthroscopy
.53
.54
1.2
.87
Bicipital groove tenderness27
Not reported
62 shoulders scheduled to undergo arthroscopy
.44
.40
.73
1.40
Bicipital groove tenderness 28
Not described
.25
.80
1.3
.94
394
54 throwing athletes with shoulder pain
SLAP lesion visualized during arthroscopy
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Assessing Alignment Reliability of Assessing Scapular Asymmetry during Static and Dynamic Activity ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Measure
Test Procedure
Population
Position 1 Lateral scapular slide test29
Position 2 Position 3 Position 1
Lateral scapular slide test30
Position 2
Position 3
Position of posterior acromion29
With patient standing, examiner records measurement between inferior angle of scapula and spinous process of thoracic vertebra at same horizontal level in three positions. Position 1: with glenohumeral joint in neutral Position 2: 45° of shoulder abduction and IR Position 3: with upper extremity in 90° of abduction and full IR. A difference between sides 1 cm is considered scapular asymmetry
Measured from the posterior border of the acromion and the table surface with the patient supine
Position of medial scapular border29
Measured from the medial scapular border to T4 spinous process
Movement evaluation during abduction31
Examiner classifies scapular movement during shoulder abduction into categories 1-4. Category 1 inferior angle tilts dorsally compared with contralateral side Category 2 medial border tilts dorsally compared with contralateral side Category 3 shoulder shrug initiates movement Category 4 scapulae move symmetrically
29 patients with shoulder pain
46 subjects with shoulder dysfunction and 26 subjects without shoulder dysfunction
29 patients with shoulder pain
20 subjects with shoulder injuries and 6 asymptomatic subjects
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Reliability Intra-examiner
Inter-examiner
Not reported
ICC .82 (left) ICC .96 (right)
Not reported
ICC .85 (left) ICC .95 (right)
Not reported
ICC .70 (left) ICC .85 (right)
With dysfunction ICC .52 (.10, .74) Without dysfunction ICC .75 (.56, .85)
With dysfunction ICC .79 (.46, .91) Without dysfunction ICC .67 (.25, .85)
With dysfunction ICC .66 (.36, .82) Without dysfunction ICC .58 (.60, .86)
With dysfunction ICC .45 (.38, .78) Without dysfunction ICC .43 (.29, .75)
With dysfunction ICC .62 (.27, .79) Without dysfunction ICC .80 (.65, .88)
With dysfunction ICC .57 (.23, .85) Without dysfunction ICC .74 (.41, .88)
Not reported
ICC .88-.94
Not reported
ICC .50-.80
.42
Not reported
9 SHOULDER 395
Assessing Alignment (continued) Reliability of Assessing Scapular Asymmetry during Static and Dynamic Activity
Lateral slide test position 1
Lateral slide test position 2
Lateral slide test position 3
Figure 9-15 Detecting scapular asymmetry. 396
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Classifying Shoulder Disorders Reliability of Classifying Shoulder Disorders ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Markedly limited range of motion on right side compared with that on left side. Slight abduction capability largely due to elevation and rotation of scapula. All joint motions restricted and painful at extremes. Atrophy of shoulder muscles
Adhesions of peripheral capsule to distal articular cartilage
Posterior view reveals atrophy of scapular and deltoid muscles. Broken lines, indicating position of spine of scapula and axis of humerus on each side, show little or no motion in right shoulder
Coronal section of shoulder shows adhesions between capsule and periphery of humeral head
Adhesions obliterating axillary fold of capsule
Classification
Description of Procedure
32
Bursitis
Examiners use patient history combined with “selective tissue tension” examination during active movements, passive movements, and isometric strength assessments
32
Capsulitis
32
Rotator cuff lesion 32
Other diagnosis
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 9-16 Adhesive capsulitis of the shoulder.
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability .35-.58
56 painful shoulders
.63-.82 .71-.79 .69-.78 .63 (.50, .76)
Capsular syndrome33 Acute bursitis33 33
AC syndrome
33
Subacromial syndrome
Rest group (does not fit any category above)33 Mixed group (patient presents with two or more above classifications)33
Examiner obtains patient history. Physical examination consists of active, passive, and resistive movements. Determination of ROM, presence of painful arc or capsular pattern, and degree of muscle weakness are identified
.50 (.10, 1.0) .24 (.06, .53) 201 patients with shoulder pain
.56 (.45, .68) .39 (.24, .54) .14 (.03, .30)
9 SHOULDER 397
Special Tests—Instability Reliability of Tests to Identify Shoulder Instability ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Subcoracoid dislocation (most common)
Subglenoid dislocation
Subclavicular dislocation (uncommon). Very rarely, humeral head penetrates between ribs, producing intrathoracic dislocation
Figure 9-17 Shoulder instability.
Test and Measure
Test Procedure
Population
Reliability
Sulcus sign34
With patient supine, examiner applies inferior distraction to shoulder. Amount of laxity is graded on a 0-3 scale. 0 represents no laxity. 3 represents maximum laxity
43 healthy college athletes
Inter-examiner .03-.06
398
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Intra-examiner .01-.20
Special Tests—Instability Diagnostic Utility of the Apprehension Test in Identifying Shoulder Instability LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 9-18 Apprehension test.
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Bony apprehension test35
With patient standing, examiner places the arm in a position of 45° of abduction and 45° of external rotation. Positive if patient appears apprehensive
29 patients with symptoms of instability undergoing shoulder surgery
Arthroscopic evidence of significant bony lesion causing instability of the shoulder
1.0
.86
7.1
.00
Anterior apprehension test2
With patient supine, examiner passively abducts and externally rotates humerus. Positive if complaints of pain or instability
68 patients with type II SLAP lesions and 78 age-matched controls who underwent shoulder arthroscopy
Type II SLAP lesion visualized during arthroscopy
.62
.42
1.1
.90
Anterior apprehension test27
As above. Positive if pain is produced with ER
62 shoulders scheduled to undergo arthroscopy
Labral tear via arthroscopic visualization
.40
.87
3.08
.69
Either radiographic documentation of an anterior shoulder dislocation after trauma or demonstration of a Hill-Sachs lesion, a Bankart lesion, or a humeral avulsion of the glenohumeral ligament at the time of arthroscopy
.50
.56
1.1
.90
.72
.96
20.2
.29
.40
.87
3.1
.69
Apprehension test (pain)36 Apprehension test (apprehension)36
Anterior apprehension test27
With patient standing, examiner places both arms in 90°of abduction and 90° of ER. Positive if patient appears apprehensive and/or reports pain
With patient supine, examiner passively abducts and externally rotates humerus. Positive if pain is produced with ER
363 patients undergoing shoulder surgery
62 shoulders scheduled to undergo arthroscopy
Labral tear via arthroscopic visualization
9 SHOULDER 399
Special Tests—Instability Diagnostic Utility of the Apprehension and Relocation Tests in Identifying Shoulder Instability LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 9-19 Relocation test. Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Relocation test2
Relocation test (pain)36
Relocation test (apprehension)36
With patient supine with glenohumeral joint at edge of table, examiner places arm in 90° of abduction, full external rotation, and 90° of elbow flexion. Examiner then applies a posterior force on head of humerus. Positive if patient’s pain or apprehension diminishes with applied force
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
68 patients with type II SLAP lesions and 78 age-matched controls who underwent shoulder arthroscopy
Type II SLAP lesion visualized during arthroscopy
.44
.54
1.0
1.04
363 patients undergoing shoulder surgery
Either radiographic documentation of an anterior shoulder dislocation after trauma or demonstration of a Hill-Sachs lesion, a Bankart lesion, or a humeral avulsion of the glenohumeral ligament at the time of arthroscopy
.30
.90
3.0
.77
.81
.92
10.4
.20
.44
.87
3.38
.64
.30
.58
.71
1.21
.57
1.0
Undefined
.43
.54
.44
.96
1.05
.68
1.0
Undefined
.32
62 shoulders scheduled to undergo arthroscopy
Jobe relocation test (pain)27
Arthroscopic visualization
Relocation test (pain)37 Relocation test (apprehension)37 Anterior relocation test (pain)37
Relocation test performed as above. Following relocation test, examiner applies anteriorly directed force to proximal humerus
100 patients undergoing shoulder surgery
Surgical observation
Anterior relocation test (apprehension)37
400
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests—Instability Diagnostic Utility of the Anterior Drawer Test in Identifying Shoulder Instability LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 9-20 Anterior drawer test.
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Anterior drawer test (pain)36
With patient supine with glenohumeral joint at edge of table, examiner places arm in 60°-80° of abduction and neutral rotation, and then translates the humeral head anteriorly. Positive if patient reports pain or reproduction of instability symptoms
363 patients scheduled to undergo shoulder surgery
Either radiographic documentation of an anterior shoulder dislocation after trauma or demonstration of a HillSachs lesion, a Bankart lesion, or a humeral avulsion of the glenohumeral ligament at the time of arthroscopy
.28
.71
1.0
1.01
.53
.85
3.6
.56
Anterior drawer test (instability symptoms)36
9 SHOULDER 401
Special Tests—Labral Tears Reliability of the Crank Test ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 9-21 Crank test.
Test 16
Crank test
402
Description
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
See page 403
55 patients with shoulder pain scheduled for arthroscopic surgery
.20 (.05, .46)
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests—Labral Tears Diagnostic Utility of the Crank Test in Identifying Labral Tears LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Crank test26
Not described
847 patients who underwent diagnostic arthroscopy of the shoulder
Partial biceps tendon tear visualized during arthroscopy
.34
.77
1.5
.86
55 patients with shoulder pain scheduled for arthroscopic surgery
.61 (.47, .76)
.55 (.25, .84)
1.35 (.68, 2.69)
.71 (.37, 1.36)
132 patients scheduled to undergo shoulder arthroscopy
.13
.83
.8
1.05
40 athletes with shoulder pain
.35
.70
1.2
.93
.58
.72
2.1
.58
.46
.56
1.1
.96
Crank test16
Crank test38
Crank test39
Patient is supine while examiner elevates humerus 160° in scapular plane. Axial load is applied to humerus while shoulder is internally and externally rotated. Positive if pain is elicited
Crank test28
Not described
54 throwing athletes with should pain
Crank test40
Patient is supine while examiner elevates humerus 160° in scapular plane. Axial load is applied to humerus while shoulder is internally and externally rotated. Positive if pain is elicited
65 patients with symptoms of shoulder pain 62 patients scheduled to undergo arthroscopic shoulder surgery
.91
.93
13.0
.10
Patient is supine. Examiner fully abducts humerus and internally and externally rotates arm while applying axial force through glenohumeral joint. Positive if pain or clicking is elicited
62 shoulders undergoing arthroscopy
.40
.73
1.5
.82
Crank test10
Crank test27
Glenoid labral tear observed during arthroscopy
9 SHOULDER 403
Special Tests—Labral Tears Diagnostic Utility of the Compression Rotation Test in Identifying Labral Tears LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 9-22 Compression rotation test.
Test and Study Quality Compression rotation test2
Compression rotation test41 Compression rotation test28
404
Description and Positive Findings
With patient supine with arm abducted to 90° and elbow flexed to 90°, examiner applies axial force to humerus. Humerus is circumducted and rotated. Positive if pain or clicking is elicited Not described
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
68 patients with type II SLAP lesions and 78 age-matched controls who underwent shoulder arthroscopy
Type II SLAP lesion visualized during arthroscopy
.61
.54
1.3
.72
.24
.76
1.0
1.0
.25
1.0
Undefined
.75
426 patients who had undergone shoulder arthroscopy 54 throwing athletes with shoulder pain
Labral tear visualized during arthroscopy
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests—Labral Tears Diagnostic Utility of Speed’s Test in Identifying Superior Labrum Anterior Posterior Lesions LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 9-23 Speed’s test.
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Speed’s test42 2008 Meta-analysis
Pooled estimates from 4 highquality studies
.32 (.24, .42)
.61 (.54, .68)
.8
1.11
Speed’s test43
133 patients who underwent diagnostic arthroscopy of the shoulder
.60
.38
1.0
1.05
.32
.66
.9
1.03
.50
.67
1.5
.75
Speed’s test2
Speed’s test26
Patient elevates humerus to 90° with elbow flexion and forearm supination. Patient holds this position while examiner applies resistance against elevation. Positive if pain is elicited in the bicipital groove area
68 patients with type II SLAP lesions and 78 age-matched controls who underwent shoulder arthroscopy 847 patients who underwent diagnostic arthroscopy of the shoulder
SLAP lesion visualized during arthroscopy
Partial biceps tendon tear visualized during arthroscopy
Only studies published after the meta-analysis were included.
9 SHOULDER 405
Special Tests—Labral Tears Reliability of the Active Compression/O’Brien Test ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Active compression test with internal rotation
Active compression test with external rotation
Figure 9-24 Active compression test. Test
Description
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Active compression test16
See page 407
55 patients with shoulder pain scheduled for arthroscopic surgery
.24 (.02, .50)
406
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests—Labral Tears Diagnostic Utility of the Active Compression/O’Brien Test LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Active compression test16
55 patients with shoulder pain scheduled for arthroscopic surgery
Glenoid labral tear observed during arthroscopy
.55 (.4, .69)
.18 (.05, .41)
.67 (.45, .98)
2.5 (.68, 9.13)
O’Brien test43
133 patients who underwent diagnostic arthroscopy of the shoulder
.94
.28
1.3
.21
68 patients with SLAP lesions and 78 age-matched controls
.63
.53
1.3
.70
.63
.50
1.3
.74
Test and Study Quality
O’Brien test2
Active compression test38
Description and Positive Findings
Patient stands and flexes arm to 90° with elbow in full extension. Patient then adducts arm 10° internally and rotates humerus. Examiner applies downward force to arm as patient resists. Patient then fully supinates arm and repeats procedure. Positive if pain is elicited with first maneuver and reduced with second maneuver
132 patients scheduled to undergo shoulder arthroscopy
SLAP lesion visualized during arthroscopy
Active compression test39
40 athletes with shoulder pain
.78
.11
.1
2.00
Active compression test41
426 patients who had undergone shoulder arthroscopy
.47
.55
1.0
.96
Active compression test (palm down)26
847 patients who underwent diagnostic arthroscopy of the shoulder
.68
.46
1.3
.70
.40
.57
.9
1.1
.54
.31
.78
1.48
62 shoulders undergoing arthroscopy
.63
.73
2.3
.51
54 throwing athletes with shoulder pain
.54
.60
1.4
.77
Active compression test (palm up)26 O’Brien test40
As above except positive if pain is elicited in tested position
As above except patient is seated
O’Brien test27 O’Brien test28
Not described
65 patients with symptoms of shoulder pain
Partial biceps tendon tear visualized during arthroscopy
9 SHOULDER 407
Special Tests—Labral Tears Diagnostic Utility of the Yergason Test in Identifying Labral Tears LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 9-25 Yergason test.
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Yergason test2
Yergason test38
Yergason test27 Yergason test28 Yergason test44
408
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.12
.87
.9
1.01
.13
.94
2.2
.93
62 shoulders scheduled to undergo arthroscopy
.09
.93
1.29
.98
54 throwing athletes with shoulder pain
.13
1.0
Undefined
.87
.43
.79
2.05
.72
Population
Reference Standard
68 patients with type II SLAP lesions and 78 agematched controls who underwent shoulder arthroscopy With patient standing with elbow at 90°, patient supinates forearm against examiner’s resistance. During procedure, examiner palpates long head of biceps tendon. Positive if pain at biceps tendon
132 patients scheduled to undergo shoulder arthroscopy
152 subjects with shoulder pain scheduled to undergo surgery
SLAP lesion visualized during arthroscopy
Biceps tendon and/or labral tear visualized during arthroscopy
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Special Tests—Labral Tears Reliability of the Anterior Slide Test/Kibler Test
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Test
Description
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Anterior slide test16
See below
55 patients with shoulder pain scheduled for arthroscopic surgery
.21 (.05, .46)
Diagnostic Utility of the Anterior Slide Test/Kibler Test in Identifying Labral Tears LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 9-26 Anterior slide test/Kibler test. Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Anterior slide test16
Anterior slide test (Kibler test)2
Anterior slide test (Kibler test)26
Anterior slide test41
With patient standing or sitting with hands on hips, thumbs facing posteriorly, examiner stabilizes scapula with one hand and, with other hand on elbow, applies anteriorly and superiorly directed force through humerus. Patient pushes back against force. Positive if pain or click is elicited in anterior shoulder
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
55 patients with shoulder pain scheduled for arthroscopic surgery
Glenoid labral tear observed during arthroscopy
.43 (.29, .58)
.82 (.59, 1.05)
2.38 (.65, 8.7)
.69 (.48, 1.01)
68 patients with type II SLAP lesions and 78 age-matched controls who underwent shoulder arthroscopy
Type II SLAP lesion visualized during arthroscopy
.21
.70
.7
1.13
847 patients who underwent diagnostic arthroscopy of the shoulder
Partial biceps tendon tear visualized during arthroscopy
.23
.84
1.4
.92
426 patients who had undergone shoulder arthroscopy
SLAP lesion visualized during arthroscopy
.08
.84
.56
1.1
9 SHOULDER 409
Special Tests—Labral Tears Reliability of Various Tests in Identifying Labral Tears ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 9-27 Kim and jerk tests.
Test 45
Passive compression test 46
Kim test
410
Description
Population
Reliability
See page 411
61 patients undergoing arthroscopy for shoulder pain
Inter-examiner .77
See page 411
172 painful shoulders
Inter-examiner .91
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests—Labral Tears Diagnostic Utility of Various Tests in Identifying Labral Tears LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Passive compression test45
With patient side lying with affected side up, examiner places one hand over the AC joint to stabilize the shoulder and the other hand on the elbow. Examiner then externally rotates the shoulder in 30° abduction and gives axial compression while extending the arm. Positive if pain
61 patients undergoing arthroscopy for shoulder pain
SLAP lesion visualized during arthroscopy
.82
.86
5.90
.21
Kim test46
With patient sitting with arm abducted 90°, examiner holds the elbow and lateral aspect of the proximal arm and applies a strong axial loading force. Examiner then elevates the arm to 135° and adds a posterior/inferior force. Positive if sudden onset of posterior shoulder pain
.80
.94
13.3
.21
.73
.98
36.5
.28
.80
.69
2.6
.29
.83
.82
4.6
.21
172 painful shoulders
Jerk test46
With patient sitting, examiner holds scapula with one hand and internally rotates and abducts the patient’s arm to 90° with the other. Examiner then horizontally adducts the arm while applying an axial loading force. Sharp pain indicates a positive test
Supine flexion resistance test43
With patient supine with arm resting in full flexion and palm up, examiner grasps patient’s arm just distal to the elbow and asks the patient to lift the arm as if throwing. Positive if pain is felt deep inside the shoulder joint
133 patients who underwent diagnostic arthroscopy of the shoulder
With patient supine with arm abducted 90° and elbow flexed 70°, examiner supports the arm by the elbow. Examiner resists supination and gently maximally externally rotates the shoulder. Positive if shoulder pain, clicking, or catching is elicited
40 athletes with shoulder pain
Resisted supination external rotation test39
Labral tear visualized during arthroscopy
SLAP lesion visualized during arthroscopy
(Continued)
9 SHOULDER 411
Special Tests—Labral Tears (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Various Tests in Identifying Labral Tears .1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
LR
LR
68 patients with type II SLAP lesions and 78 age-matched controls who underwent shoulder arthroscopy
.65
.42
1.1
.83
68 patients with type II SLAP lesions and 78 age-matched controls who underwent shoulder arthroscopy
.30
.78
1.4
.90
.90
.97
30
.10
Population
Whipple test2
The arm is flexed 90° and adducted until the hand is opposite the other shoulder. The patient resists while examiner pushes downward on the arm. Positive if pain
Biceps load test II47
LR
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
Spec
Description and Positive Findings
With patient supine, examiner grasps wrist and elbow. Arm is elevated 120° and fully externally rotated with elbow held in 90° of flexion and forearm supinated. Examiner then resists elbow flexion by patient. Positive if resisted elbow flexion causes pain
Interpretation
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Sens
Test and Study Quality
Biceps load test II2
LR
127 patients experiencing shoulder pain scheduled to undergo arthroscopy
Reference Standard
Type II SLAP lesion visualized during arthroscopy
Posterior jerk test28
Not described
54 throwing athletes with shoulder pain
.25
.80
1.3
.72
Biceps load test48
With patient supine, examiner grasps wrist and elbow. Arm is abducted to 90° with elbow flexed to 90° and forearm supinated. Examiner externally rotates arm until patient becomes apprehensive at which time ER is stopped. Patient flexes elbow against examiner’s resistance. Positive if patient’s apprehension remains or pain is produced
75 patients with unilateral recurrent anterior shoulder dislocations
.90
.97
30
.10
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests—Subacromial Impingement Reliability of Hawkins-Kennedy Test ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 9-28 Hawkins-Kennedy test.
Test
Description
Population
Reliability
Hawkins-Kennedy test49
See below
33 patients with shoulder pain
Test-retest 1.0 Inter-examiner .91
Diagnostic Utility of Hawkins-Kennedy Test in Identifying Subacromial Impingement
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
HawkinsKennedy test4 2008 Metaanalysis HawkinsKennedy test50
HawkinsKennedy test26
Patient is standing. The affected arm is forward-flexed 90° and then forcibly medially rotated. Positive if the patient complains of pain.
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Pooled estimates from 4 high-quality studies
Impingement syndrome diagnosed from subacromial injection or surgery
.79 (.75, .82)
.59 (.53, .64)
1.9
.36
30 patients with new onset shoulder pain
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) confirmed subacromial impingement
.74
.40
1.2 (.7, 2.3)
.65
MRI confirmed subacromial bursitis
.80
.43
1.4 (.8, 2.4)
.47
Partial biceps tendon tear visualized during arthroscopy
.55
.38
.9
1.18
847 patients who underwent diagnostic arthroscopy of the shoulder
Only studies published after the meta-analysis were included.
9 SHOULDER 413
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Special Tests—Subacromial Impingement Reliability of the Neer Test
Test 49
Neer test
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Description
Population
Reliability
See below
33 patients with shoulder pain
Test-retest 1.0 Inter-examiner 1.0
Diagnostic Utility of the Neer Test in Identifying Subacromial Impingement
Figure 9-29 Neer test.
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Neer test42 2008 Metaanalysis
Neer test50
Neer test26
Examiner forces patient’s internally rotated arm into maximal elevation. Positive if pain is produced
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Pooled estimates from 4 high-quality studies
Impingement syndrome diagnosed from subacromial injection or surgery
.79 (.75, .82)
.53 (.48, .58)
1.7
.40
30 patients with new-onset shoulder pain
MRI confirmed subacromial impingement
.68
.30
1.0 (.6, 1.6)
1.07
MRI confirmed subacromial bursitis
.80
.43
1.4 (.8, 2.4)
.47
Partial biceps tendon tear visualized during arthroscopy
.64
.41
1.1
.88
847 patients who underwent diagnostic arthroscopy of the shoulder
Only studies published after the meta-analysis were included.
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests—Subacromial Impingement Diagnostic Utility of Various Tests in Identifying Subacromial Impingement LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Painful arc sign51
Patient actively elevates arm in scapular plane to full elevation. Positive if patient experiences pain between 60° and 120°
552 patients with shoulder pain
Arthroscopic visualization • All impingement • Bursitis • Partial thickness RCT • Full thickness RCT
.74 .71 .67 .76
.81 .47 .47 .72
3.9 1.3 1.3 2.7
.32 .62 .70 .33
Cross-body adduction test51
Arm at 90° of flexion. Examiner then adducts arm across the patient’s body. Positive if shoulder pain is produced
552 patients with shoulder pain
Arthroscopic visualization • All impingement • Bursitis • Partial thickness RCT • Full thickness RCT
.23 .25 .17 .23
.82 .80 .79 .81
1.3 1.3 .8 1.2
.94 .94 1.05 .95
30 patients with new-onset shoulder pain
MRI confirmed subacromial impingement
.68
.50
1.4 (.7, 2.7)
.64
MRI confirmed subacromial bursitis
.93
.71
3.3 (1.4, 7.6)
.10
Partial biceps tendon tear visualized during arthroscopy
.28
.89
2.5
.81
MRI confirmed subacromial impingement
.79
.40
1.3 (.8, 2.3)
.53
MRI confirmed subacromial bursitis
.80
.36
1.2 (.08, 2.0)
.56
Subacromial impingement via subacromial injection
.82
.28
1.14
.64
.33
.81
1.74
.83
Lift-off test (Gerber’s test)50
Lift-off test (Gerber’s test)26
Yocum test50
Patient attempts to lift the affected arm off the back. Positive if unable to lift off back
With patient seated or standing, patient places hand of involved shoulder on contralateral shoulder and raises elbow. Positive if pain is elicited
Horizontal adduction test52
Examiner forces patient’s arm into horizontal adduction while elbow is flexed. Positive if pain is elicited
The painful arc test52
Patient is instructed to perform straight plane abduction throughout full ROM. Positive if pain occurs between 60° and 100° of abduction
847 patients who underwent diagnostic arthroscopy of the shoulder
30 patients with new-onset shoulder pain
125 painful shoulders
(Continued)
9 SHOULDER 415
Special Tests—Subacromial Impingement (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Various Tests in Identifying Subacromial Impingement Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Drop arm test52
Patient is instructed to abduct shoulder to 90° and then lower it slowly to neutral position. Positive if patient is unable to do this because of pain
Population
125 painful shoulders
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.08
.97
2.67
.95
Subacromial impingement via subacromial injection
Figure 9-30 Horizontal adduction test.
Figure 9-31 Yocum test.
416
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests—Subacromial Impingement Diagnostic Utility of Internal Rotation Resistance Strength Test in Differentiating Subacromial Impingement versus Intra-articular Pathology
Resistance against external rotation
Resistance against internal rotation
Figure 9-32 Internal rotation resistance strength test.
Zaslav53 investigated the internal rotation resistance strength (IRRS) test’s ability to delineate intra-articular pathology from impingement syndrome in a group of 115 patients who underwent arthroscopic shoulder surgery. The IRRS test is performed with the patient standing. The examiner positions the patient’s arm in 90° abduction and 80° ER. The examiner applies resistance against ER and then IR in the same position. The test is considered positive for intra-articular pathology if the patient exhibits greater weakness in IR when compared with ER. If the patient demonstrated greater weakness with ER, they were considered positive for impingement syndrome. The IRRS test demonstrated a sensitivity of .88, a specificity of .96, a positive LR of 22.0, and a negative LR of .13. 9 SHOULDER 417
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Special Tests—Rotator Cuff Tears Reliability of Special Tests for Identifying Supraspinatus and/or Infraspinatus Tears
Test Supraspinatus muscle test (empty can)49 Patte maneuver49
Description
Population
Shoulder and elbow at 90° with arm internally rotated. Examiner then resists internal rotation force. Positive if patient gives way
33 patients with shoulder pain
Subscapularis m.
Biceps brachii tendon
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Reliability Test-retest 1.0 Inter-examiner .94 Test-retest 1.0 Inter-examiner 1.0
Thickened, edematous biceps brachii tendon
Humerus
Infraspinatus m. Supraspinatus m.
Acute rupture (superior view). Often associated with splitting tear parallel to tendon fibers. Further retraction results in crescentic defect as shown on right
Retracted tear, commonly found at surgery. Broken line indicates extent of debridement of degenerated tendon for repair.
Figure 9-33 Superior rotator cuff tear.
Figure 9-34 Supraspinatus muscle test (empty can).
418
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests—Rotator Cuff Tears (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Special Tests for Identifying Supraspinatus and/or Infraspinatus Tears
Patients with a positive Hornblower’s sign often have difficulty raising their hand to their mouth without abducting the shoulder
Figure 9-35 Hornblower’s sign. LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Weakness with elevation (empty can)11
With patient standing with arms elevated to shoulder level in scapular plane, thumbs pointing down, examiner applies downward force and patient resists. Positive if weakness is present
448 patients undergoing arthrography
Arthrographic confirmation of complete or partial rotator cuff tear
.64
.65
1.83
.55
30 patients with new onset shoulder pain
MRI confirmed • Subacromial impingement • Subacromial bursitis
.74
.30
1.1
.87
.73
.29
1.0
.93
Weakness with elevation (empty can)50
(Continued)
9 SHOULDER 419
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Supraspinatus muscle test50
Supraspinatus muscle test51
Drop-arm test51
Examiner resists abduction of the arm at 90° with patient’s arm neutral or internally rotated. Positive if patient gives way
Patient elevates fully and then slowly lowers arm. Positive if the arm suddenly drops or patient has severe pain
Infraspinatus muscle test (Patte test)50
Infraspinatus muscle test51
External rotation lag sign54
Drop sign54
Elbow at 90° with arm neutrally rotated and adducted to the trunk. Examiner then resists internal rotation force. Positive if patient gives way
With patient sitting, examiner holds the arm in 20° shoulder elevation (in the scapular plane), 5° from full external rotation, and 90° elbow extension. Patient maintains the position when examiner releases arm. Positive if unable to hold position
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.58
.20
.7
2.10
.73
.43
1.3
.63
Arthroscopic visualization • All impingement • Bursitis • Partial thickness RCT • Full thickness RCT
.44 .25 .32
.90 .67 .68
4.4 .80 1.0
.62 1.12 1.00
.53
.82
2.9
.57
Arthroscopic visualization • All impingement • Bursitis • Partial thickness RCT • Full thickness RCT
.27 .14 .14
.88 .77 .78
2.3 .60 .60
.83 1.12 1.10
.35
.88
2.9
.74
.58
.60
1.5
.70
.73
.71
2.5
.38
.42 .25 .19
.90 .69 .69
4.2 .80 .60
.64 1.09 1.17
.51
.84
3.2
.58
.46
.94
7.2 (1.7, 31.0)
.60 (.40, .90)
.73
.77
3.2 (1.5, 6.7)
.30 (.20, .80)
Population
Reference Standard
30 patients with new onset shoulder pain
MRI confirmed • Subacromial impingement • Subacromial bursitis
552 patients with shoulder pain
552 patients with shoulder pain
30 patients with new-onset shoulder pain
552 patients with shoulder pain
37 patients with shoulder pain
MRI confirmed • Subacromial impingement • Subacromial bursitis Arthroscopic visualization • All impingement • Bursitis • Partial thickness RCT • Full-thickness RCT
Supraspinatus or infraspinatus tear via ultrasound
With patient sitting, examiner holds the arm in 90° abduction and full external rotation. Patient is asked to maintain the position when examiner releases arm. Positive if unable to hold position
(Continued)
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
With patient supine, examiner maximally elevates shoulder
.30
.78
1.36
.90
With patient supine with arm at side, examiner externally rotates arm
.19
.84
1.19
.96
.98
.10
1.09
.20
Examiner determines atrophy through visual inspection
.56
.73
2.07
.60
.56
.73
2.07
.60
Hornblower’s signs (teres minor)55
With patient seated, examiner places patient’s arm in 90° of scaption and patient externally rotates against resistance. Positive if patient is unable to externally rotate shoulder
1.0
.93
14.29
.00
Dropping sign (infraspinatus)55
With patient seated, examiner places patient’s shoulder in 0° of abduction and 45° of ER with elbow flexed to 90°. Patient holds position when examiner releases forearm. Positive if patient is unable to hold position and arm returns to 0° of ER
1.0
1.0
Undefined
.00
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Passive elevation less than 170°11 Passive ER less than 70°11
Arc of pain sign11
Atrophy of the supraspinatus muscle11 Atrophy of the infraspinatus muscle11
With patient standing, examiner passively abducts arm to 170°. Patient then slowly lowers arm to side. Positive if patient reports pain at 120° to 70° of abduction
Population
448 patients undergoing arthrography
54 patients who underwent shoulder surgery to repair rotator cuff
Reference Standard
Arthrographic confirmation of complete or partial rotator cuff tear
Stage of fatty degeneration of infraspinatus as determined by CT scan
(Continued)
9 SHOULDER 421
Special Tests—Rotator Cuff Tears (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Special Tests for Identifying Supraspinatus and/or Infraspinatus Tears
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Supraspinatus test56
With patient standing and shoulders abducted to 90° in scapular plane and IR of humerus, examiner applies isometric resistance. Strength of involved side is compared with uninvolved side. Positive if weakness or pain
Tendinitis or partial thickness tear* Full thickness tear† Large or massive full thickness tear†
ER lag sign57
With patient seated, examiner passively flexes elbow to 90° and elevates shoulder to 20° in scapular plane. Examiner then places shoulder in near maximal rotation (5° from full). Patient maintains position of ER when examiner releases arm. Positive if patient is unable to maintain ER
Population
50 patients with shoulder pain scheduled to undergo surgery
74 patients scheduled to undergo arthroscopic shoulder surgery
Reference Standard
Supraspinatus tear via arthroscopic visualization
Supraspinatus or infraspinatus tear via arthroscopic visualization
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.62 (.49, .75)
.54 (.40, .68)
1.35
.70
.41 (.27, .55)
.70 (.57, .83)
1.37
.84
.88 (.79, .97)
.70 (.58, .82)
2.93
.17
.70
1.0
Undefined
.30
*Tendinitis defined as inflammation or fraying of supraspinatus tendon. Partial thickness defined as partial tear of supraspinatus tendon. † Full thickness tear categorized as small, moderate, large, or massive. Small indicates tear 1 cm, moderate indicates tear 1 to 3 cm that includes infraspinatus, large indicates tear 3 to 5 cm that includes infraspinatus and teres minor, and massive indicates a tear 5 cm that includes infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis.
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Special Tests—Rotator Cuff Tears Diagnostic Utility of Special Tests for Identifying Subscapularis Tears LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Internal rotation lag sign54
With patient sitting, examiner holds hand behind the lumbar region into full IR. Patient maintains the position when examiner releases arm. Positive if unable to hold position
37 patients with shoulder pain
Subscapularis tear via ultrasound
1.0
.84
6.2 (1.9, 12.0)
.00 (.00, 2.50)
Bear-hug test58
Patient places palm of involved side on opposite shoulder and fingers extended. Examiner then attempts to pull the hand off the shoulder into ER while the patient resists. Positive if unable to maintain hand on shoulder or weakness 20° compared to the other side
.60
.92
7.5
.43
Belly-press test58
With elbow at 90° and hand on belly, patient forcefully presses into a tensiometer on the belly. Positive if weak compared to other side or if patient uses elbow or shoulder extension to push
.40
.98
20.0
.61
.18
1.0
Undefined
.82
.25
.98
12.5
.77
58
Lift-off test
Patients places the hand of the affected arm on the back (at the position of the midlumbar spine) and then attempts to internally rotate the arm to lift the hand posteriorly off of the back. Positive if unable to lift the arm off the back or if patient performs the lifting maneuver by extending the elbow or the shoulder
Napoleon test58
Same as the belly-press test except without a tensiometer. Positive if patient uses wrist flexion 30° to press into belly
68 shoulders scheduled to undergo arthroscopic shoulder surgery
Subscapularis tear via arthroscopic visualization
9 SHOULDER 423
Special Tests—Rotator Cuff Tears (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Special Tests for Identifying Subscapularis Tears Figure 9-36 Lift-off test.
Negative test
Positive test
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests—Brachial Plexus Palsy Diagnostic Utility of Special Tests for Identifying Nerve Root Avulsion in People with Brachial Plexus Palsy
3
3
al
in s rm he Te anc br
LR
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Dorsal scapular n. (C5)
k trun
Dorsal ramus C5
Suprascapular n. (C5, 6)
C6
s rd co
r erio
Sup
C7
dle
Lateral pectoral n. (C5, 6, 7)
Mid
l ra
C8
r
rio
e at
L
Musculocutaneous n. (C5, 6, 7)
Interpretation
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
ts 5 roo ami of r l a r t (ven al nn.) spin
s
r rio nte ions, r a 3 vis rio di oste ns o 3 p ivisi d
LR
fe In
or
T1
eri
st Po
Long thoracic n. (C5, 6, 7)
al edi
Axillary n. (C5, 6)
1st rib
M
Medial pectoral n. (C8, T1)
Radial n. (C5, 6, 7, 8, T1)
Upper subscapular n. (C5, 6) Medial cutaneous n. of arm (T1)
Median n. (C5, 6, 7, 8, T1)
Medial cutaneous n. of forearm (C8, T1)
Ulnar n. (C7, 8, T1)
Thoracodorsal (middle subscapular) n. (C6, 7, 8) Lower subscapular n. (C5, 6)
Figure 9-37 Brachial plexus: schema. Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Gentle percussion on the supraclavicular region. Positive if painful paresthesias radiating into forearm
.85
.67
2.6
.22
Tinel sign C-659
As above except painful paresthesias radiating into hand
.50
.81
2.6
.62
Shoulder protraction test59
From supine position, patients protract their shoulder while being resisted by the examiner’s hand placed on their anterior shoulder. Positive if weaker than opposite side
.96
.80
4.8
.05
Hand pain59
Positive if reported as severe burning or crushing sensation
.86
.75
3.4
.19
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Tinel sign C-559
Population
32 patients with complete brachial plexus palsy
Reference Standard
CT myelography agreement with surgical findings
9 SHOULDER 425
Special Tests—Acromioclavicular Lesions Diagnostic Utility of Special Tests for Identifying Acromioclavicular Lesions LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Injury to acromioclavicular joint. Usually caused by fall on tip of shoulder, depressing acromion (shoulder separation)
Grade I. Acromioclavicular ligaments stretched but not torn; coracoclavicular ligaments intact
Grade II. Acromioclavicular ligaments ruptured and joint separated; coracoclavicular Grade III. Coracoclavicular and ligaments intact acromioclavicular ligaments rupture with wide separation of joint
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
O’Brien sign60
Patient is standing. Examiner asks patient to flex arm to 90° with elbow in full extension. Patient then adducts arm 10° and internally rotates humerus. Examiner applies downward force to arm as patient resists. Patient fully supinates arm and repeats procedure. Positive if pain localized to AC joint
Paxinos sign60
Patient sits with arm by side. With one hand, examiner places thumb over posterolateral aspect of acromion and index finger superior to midportion of clavicle. Examiner then applies compressive force. Positive if pain is reported in area of AC joint
Palpation of the AC joint60
Not reported
426
Population
1013 patients with pain between mid clavicle and deltoid
Reference Standard
AC joint infiltration test: patients were injected with lidocaine in AC joint. Those who experienced at least a 50% reduction in symptoms within 10 minutes were considered to have AC pathology
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Figure 9-38 Common mechanism of injury for acromioclavicular tears. Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.16
.90
1.6
.93
.79
.50
1.58
.42
.96
.10
1.07
.40
Combination of Tests Diagnostic Utility of Combinations of Tests for Identifying Glenoid Labral Tears LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.27 (.14, .4)
.91 (.74, 1.08)
3.0 (.44, 20.67)
.8 (.62, 1.04)
.16 (.05, .27)
1.0 (1.0, 1.0)
Undefined
.84 (.74, .96)
.25 (.12, .38)
.91 (.74, 1.08)
2.75 (.4, 19.09)
.83 (.64, 1.06)
Anterior slide Crank16
.34 (.2, .48)
.91 (.74, 1.08)
3.75 (.55, 25.41)
.73 (.55, .96)
Crank test Apprehension test Relocation test Load and shift test Inferior sulcus sign10
.90
.85
6.0
.12
Jobe relocation O’Brien27
.41
.91
4.56
.65
Jobe relocation Anterior apprehension27
.38
.93
5.43
.67
.38
.82
2.11
.76
.34
.91
3.78
.73
Test and Study Quality
Patient Population
Reference Standard
Pop crank16 Pop anterior slide16 Active compression Anterior slide16
O’Brien Anterior apprehension27
55 patients with shoulder pain scheduled for arthroscopic surgery
54 patients with shoulder pain
62 shoulders scheduled to undergo arthroscopy
Jobe O’Brien Apprehension27
Glenoid labral tear observed during arthroscopy
Arthroscopic visualization
As above
See test descriptions under single tests.
9 SHOULDER 427
Combination of Tests Diagnostic Utility of Combinations of Tests for Identifying SLAP Lesions Oh and colleagues2 studied the ability of combinations of two and three special tests to identify type II SLAP lesions. While no combinations of two tests substantially increased the overall diagnostic utility, several combinations of three tests did. When two tests were chosen from the group with relatively high sensitivities, and one from the group with relatively high specificities, the sensitivities of the three “or” combinations were approximately 75%, and the specificities of the three “and” combinations were approximately 90%. High Sensitivity (choose 2)
High Specificity (choose 1)
Compression rotation Anterior apprehension O’Brien
Yergason Biceps load test II Speed
Diagnostic Utility of Combinations of Tests for Identifying Subacromial Impingement LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Arthroscopic visualization • Any impingement • Full thickness RCT
.26 .33
.98 .98
10.6 15.9
.75 .69
Arthroscopic visualization • Any impingement • Full thickness RCT
.26 .35
.98 .90
10.6 3.6
.75 .72
All 7 positive
.04
.97
1.33
.99
At least 6 positive
.30
.89
2.73
.79
At least 5 positive
.38
.86
2.71
.72
.70
.67
2.12
.45
.84
.44
1.95
.28
Test and Study Quality
Test Combination
Hawkins-Kennedy impingement test Painful arc sign Infraspinatus muscle test51
All 3 tests positive
Neer test Hawkins test Horizontal adduction test Painful arc test Drop arm test Yergason test Speed’s test52
2/3 tests positive
Population
552 patients with shoulder pain
At least 4 positive At least 3 positive
125 painful shoulders
Impingement via subacromial injection test
See test descriptions under single tests.
428
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
OUTCOME MEASURES Outcome Measure
Scoring and Interpretation
Test-Retest Reliability
MCID
Upper Extremity Functional Index
Users are asked to rate the difficulty of performing 20 functional tasks on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (extremely difficult or unable to perform activity) to 4 (no difficulty). A total score out of 80 is calculated by summing each score. The answers provide a score between 0 and 80, with lower scores representing more disability
ICC .9561
Unknown (MDC 9.1)61
Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand (DASH)
Users are asked to rate the difficulty of performing 30 functional tasks on a Likert-type scale. Twenty-one items relate to physical function, 5 items relate to pain symptoms, and 4 items related to emotional and social functioning. A total score out of 100 is calculated with higher scores representing more disability
ICC .9062
10.262
Shortened Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand Questionnaire (QuickDASH)
Users are asked to rate an 11-item questionnaire that addresses symptoms and physical function. A total score out of 100 is calculated with higher scores representing more disability
ICC .9063
8.063
Shoulder Pain and Disability Index (SPADI)
Users are asked to rate their shoulder pain and disability on 13 items, each on a visual analog scale from 0 (no pain/difficulty) to 100 (worst pain imaginable/ so difficult requires help). Eight items relate to physical function and 5 items relate to pain symptoms. A total score out of 100 is calculated with higher scores representing more disability
ICC .8962
13.162
American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES) score
Users are asked to rate their shoulder pain on a 1-item and visual analog scale and functional ability on 10 items on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 to 4. Pain and function are equally weighted to create a total score out of 100. Lower scores represent more pain and disability
ICC .9162
6.462
Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS)
Users rate their level of pain on an 11-point scale ranging from 0 to 10, with high scores representing more pain. Often asked as “current pain” and “least,” “worst,” and “average” pain in the past 24 hours
ICC .7264
265,66
ICC, Intraclass correlation coefficient; MDC, minimal detectable change; MCID, minimum clinically important difference.
9 SHOULDER 429
APPENDIX
Lyons 199267
Speer 1994
Kibler 199568
Leroux 199569
Hertel 1996
Liu 1996
Gross 199770
O’Brien 199871
Walch 1998
Itoi 199972
Kim 1999
Mimori 199973
Calis 2000
Litaker 2000
Kim 2001
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
U
U
U
Y
U
Y
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
Y
U
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Y
N
N
N
Y
Y
U
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
U
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
U
Y
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
5. Did the whole sample or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
Y
Y
N
Y
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
Y
Y
N
Y
U
Y
U
N
Y
Y
Y
N
U
Y
Y
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
N
U
N
N
N
N
U
N
U
U
N
Y
Y
U
N
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
U
U
U
Y
U
U
U
Y
U
U
Y
U
U
Y
Y
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
U
U
Y
(Continued)
430
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
APPENDIX (continued)
Lyons 199267
Speer 1994
Kibler 199568
Leroux 199569
Hertel 1996
Liu 1996
Gross 199770
O’Brien 199871
Walch 1998
Itoi 199972
Kim 1999
Mimori 199973
Calis 2000
Litaker 2000
Kim 2001
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
N
13. Were uninterpretable/ intermediate test results reported?
U
U
U
Y
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
U
U
U
Y
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
Quality summary rating:
Y yes, N no, U unclear.
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14).
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9).
Poor quality (Y - N 4).
9 SHOULDER 431
APPENDIX (continued)
Murrell 200174
Wolf 200175
Zaslav 2001
McFarland 2002
Stetson 2002
Guanche 2003
Chronopoulos 2004
Holtby 200444
Holtby 200456
Lo 2004
Walton 2004
Kim 2005
Park 2005
Myers 2005
Nakagawa 2005
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
N
N
N
U
N
U
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
U
U
U
Y
U
Y
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
U
5. Did the whole sample or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
U
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
(Continued)
432
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
APPENDIX (continued)
Murrell 200174
Wolf 200175
Zaslav 2001
McFarland 2002
Stetson 2002
Guanche 2003
Chronopoulos 2004
Holtby 200444
Holtby 200456
Lo 2004
Walton 2004
Kim 2005
Park 2005
Myers 2005
Nakagawa 2005
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
U
U
Y
U
Y
Y
U
13. Were uninterpretable/ intermediate test results reported?
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
U
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
U
U
U
Y
U
Y
U
U
U
U
Y
U
Y
Y
U
Quality summary rating:
Y yes, N no, U unclear.
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14).
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9).
Poor quality (Y - N 4).
9 SHOULDER 433
APPENDIX (continued)
Barth 2006
Bertelli 2006
Parentis 2006
Farber 2006
Gill 2007
Kim 2007
Lewis 2007
Miller 2008
Bushnell 2008
Oh 2008
Silva 2008
Ebinger 2008
Walsworth 2008
Kibler 200976
Levy 200977
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
Y
U
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
U
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
U
U
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
U
U
U
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
U
U
U
5. Did the whole sample or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
U
Y
U
Y
U
U
(Continued)
434
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
APPENDIX (continued)
Barth 2006
Bertelli 2006
Parentis 2006
Farber 2006
Gill 2007
Kim 2007
Lewis 2007
Miller 2008
Bushnell 2008
Oh 2008
Silva 2008
Ebinger 2008
Walsworth 2008
Kibler 200976
Levy 200977
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
U
U
Y
Y
Y
N
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
13. Were uninterpretable/ intermediate test results reported?
U
U
Y
U
Y
Y
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
U
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
U
U
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
U
Quality summary rating:
Y yes, N no, U unclear.
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14).
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9).
Poor quality (Y - N 4).
9 SHOULDER 435
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
34. Levy AS, Lintner S, Kenter K, et al. Intra- and interobserver reproducibility of the shoulder laxity examination. Am J Sports Med. 1999;27:460-463. 35. Bushnell BD, Creighton RA, Herring MM. The bony apprehension test for instability of the shoulder: a prospective pilot analysis. Arthroscopy. 2008;24: 974-982. 36. Farber AJ, Castillo R, Clough M, et al. Clinical assessment of three common tests for traumatic anterior shoulder instability. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2006;88:1467-1474. 37. Speer KP, Hannafin JA, Altchek DW, Warren RF. An evaluation of the shoulder relocation test. Am J Sports Med. 1994;22:177-183. 38. Parentis MA, Glousman RE, Mohr KS, et al. An evaluation of the provocative tests for superior labral anterior posterior lesions. Am J Sports Med. 2006;34: 265-268. 39. Myers TH, Zemanovic JR, Andrews JR. The resisted supination external rotation test: a new test for the diagnosis of superior labral anterior posterior lesions. Am J Sports Med. 2005;33:1315-1320. 40. Stetson WB, Templin K. The crank test, the O’Brien test, and routine magnetic resonance imaging scans in the diagnosis of labral tears. Am J Sports Med. 2002;30:806-809. 41. McFarland EG, Kim TK, Savino RM. Clinical assessment of three common tests for superior labral anterior-posterior lesions. Am J Sports Med. 2002;30: 810-815. 42. Hegedus EJ, Goode A, Campbell S, et al. Physical examination tests of the shoulder: a systematic review with meta-analysis of individual tests. Br J Sports Med. 2008;42:80-92; discussion 92. 43. Ebinger N, Magosch P, Lichtenberg S, Habermeyer P. A new SLAP test: the supine flexion resistance test. Arthroscopy. 2008;24:500-505. 44. Holtby R, Razmjou H. Accuracy of the Speed’s and Yergason’s tests in detecting biceps pathology and SLAP lesions: comparison with arthroscopic findings. Arthroscopy. 2004;20:231-236. 45. Kim YS, Kim JM, Ha KY, et al. The passive compression test: a new clinical test for superior labral tears of the shoulder. Am J Sports Med. 2007;35:1489-1494. 46. Kim SH, Park JS, Jeong WK, et al. The Kim test: a novel test for posteroinferior labral lesion of the shoulder—a comparison to the jerk test. Am J Sports Med. 2005;33:1188-1192. 47. Kim SH, Ha KI, Ahn JH, et al. Biceps load test II: a clinical test for SLAP lesions of the shoulder. Arthroscopy. 2001;17:160-164. 48. Kim SH, Ha KI, Han KY. Biceps load test: a clinical test for superior labrum anterior and posterior lesions in shoulders with recurrent anterior dislocations. Am J Sports Med. 1999;27:300-303. 49. Johansson K, Ivarson S. Intra- and interexaminer reliability of four manual shoulder maneuvers used to identify subacromial pain. Man Ther. 2009;14:231-239.
50. Silva L, Andreu JL, Munoz P et al. Accuracy of physical examination in subacromial impingement syndrome. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2008;47:679-683. 51. Park HB, Yokota A, Gill HS, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of clinical tests for the different degrees of subacromial impingement syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2005;87:1446-1455. 52. Calis M, Akgun K, Birtane M, et al. Diagnostic values of clinical diagnostic tests in subacromial impingement syndrome. Ann Rheum Dis. 2000;59:44-47. 53. Zaslav KR. Internal rotation resistance strength test: a new diagnostic test to differentiate intra-articular pathology fropm outlet (Neer) impingement syndrome in the shoulder. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2001;10:23-27. 54. Miller CA, Forrester GA, Lewis JS. The validity of the lag signs in diagnosing full-thickness tears of the rotator cuff: a preliminary investigation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89:1162-1168. 55. Walch G, Boulahia A, Calderone S, et al. The “dropping” and “hornblower’s” signs in evaluation of rotator-cuff tears. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1998;80:624-628. 56. Holtby R, Razmjou H. Validity of the supraspinatus test as a single clinical test in diagnosing patients with rotator cuff pathology. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2004;34:194-200. 57. Hertel R, Ballmer FT, Lombert SM, Gerber C. Lag signs in the diagnosis of rotator cuff rupture. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 1996;5:307-313. 58. Barth JR, Burkhart SS, De Beer JF. The bear-hug test: a new and sensitive test for diagnosing a subscapularis tear. Arthroscopy. 2006;22:1076-1084. 59. Bertelli JA, Ghizoni MF. Use of clinical signs and computed tomography myelography findings in detecting and excluding nerve root avulsion in complete brachial plexus palsy. J Neurosurg. 2006;105:835-842. 60. Walton J, Mahajan S, Paxinos A, et al. Diagnostic values of tests for acromioclavicular joint pain. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004;86-A:807-812. 61. Stratford PW, Binkley JM, Stratford DM. Development and initial validation of the upper extremity functional index. Physiotherapy Canada. 2001;53:259-263. 62. Roy JS, MacDermid JC, Woodhouse LJ. Measuring shoulder function: a systematic review of four questionnaires. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;61:623-632. 63. Mintken PE, Glynn P, Cleland JA. Psychometric properties of the shortened disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand Questionnaire (QuickDASH) and Numeric Pain Rating Scale in patients with shoulder pain. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2009 64. Li L, Liu X, Herr K. Postoperative pain intensity assessment: a comparison of four scales in Chinese adults. Pain Med. 2007;8:223-234. 65. Farrar JT, Berlin JA, Strom BL. Clinically important changes in acute pain outcome measures: a validation study. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2003;25:406-411. 66. Farrar JT, Portenoy RK, Berlin JA, et al. Defining the clinically important difference in pain outcome measures. Pain. 2000;88:287-294.
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67. Lyons AR, Tomlinson JE. Clinical diagnosis of tears of the rotator cuff. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1992;74:414-415. 68. Kibler WB. Specificity and sensitivity of the anterior slide test in throwing athletes with superior glenoid labral tears. Arthroscopy. 1995;11:296-300. 69. Leroux JL, Thomas E, Bonnel F, Blotman F. Diagnostic value of clinical tests for shoulder impingement syndrome. Rev Rhum Engl Ed. 1995;62:423-428. 70. Gross ML, Distefano MC. Anterior release test. A new test for occult shoulder instability. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1997;105-108. 71. O’Brien SJ, Pagnani MJ, Fealy S, et al. The active compression test: a new and effective test for diagnosing labral tears and acromioclavicular joint abnormality. Am J Sports Med. 1998;26:610-613. 72. Itoi E, Kido T, Sano A, et al. Which is more useful, the “full can test” or the “empty can test” in detecting the torn supraspinatus tendon? Am J Sports Med. 1999;27: 65-68.
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73. Mimori K, Muneta T, Nakagawa T, Shinomiya K. A new pain provocation test for superior labral tears of the shoulder. Am J Sports Med. 1999;27:137-142. 74. Murrell GA, Walton JR. Diagnosis of rotator cuff tears. Lancet. 2001;357:769-770. 75. Wolf EM, Agrawal V. Transdeltoid palpation (the rent test) in the diagnosis of rotator cuff tears. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2001;10:470-473. 76. Kibler WB, Sciascia AD, Hester P, et al. Clinical utility of traditional and new tests in the diagnosis of biceps tendon injuries and superior labrum anterior and posterior lesions in the shoulder. Am J Sports Med. 2009;37:1840-1847. 77. Levy O, Relwani JG, Mullett H, et al. The active elevation lag sign and the triangle sign: new clinical signs of trapezius palsy. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2009;18:573-576.
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Elbow and Forearm
10
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
440
Anatomy Osteology Arthrology Ligaments Muscles Nerves Patient History Initial Hypotheses Based on History Physical Examination Tests Range of Motion End-Feel Classification Assessing Strength Special Tests Interventions Outcome Measures Appendix Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS References
441 441 442 443 445 448 449 449 450 450 452 452 453 456 457 458 458 459
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Patient History Complaints
Little is known about the utility of subjective complaints with elbow pain.
Physical Examination Range of Motion
Measuring elbow range of motion (ROM) has consistently been shown to exhibit good to high reliability for flexion, extension, supination, and pronation.
Strength Assessment
Grip strength testing in patients with lateral epicondylalgia exhibits high inter-rater reliability.
Special Tests
In general few studies have examined the diagnostic utility for special tests of the elbow. The elbow extension test has been consistently been shown to be an excellent test to rule out the presence of bony or joint injury (sensitivity values between .91 and .97 and LR values between exhibit .04 and .13). The pressure provocation test, the flexion test, and the Tinel sign at the elbow have been found to be useful tests for identifying the presence of cubital tunnel syndrome. The moving valgus stress test has been shown to exhibit superior diagnostic accuracy when compared with the valgus stress test for identifying a medial collateral tear. No studies to date have examined the utility of the varus stress test for identifying the presence of a lateral collateral tear.
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ANATOMY Osteology Humerus
Humerus
Medial Lateral
Condyle
Medial supracondylar ridge
Lateral supracondylar ridge
Coronoid fossa
Radial fossa Lateral epicondyle
Olecranon fossa
Olecranon Lateral epicondyle
Medial epicondyle Trochlea
Capitulum
Groove for ulnar n.
Coronoid process
Head Neck
Head Neck
Radial notch of ulna
Tuberosity
Tuberosity
Radius
Tuberosity Radius
Ulna
Ulna
In extension: anterior view
In extension: posterior view
Humerus
Radius
Humerus
Ulna In extension: lateral view
In extension: medial view
Humerus Medial epicondyle Capitulum Trochlea Head Neck Tuberosity
Humerus Lateral epicondyle Capitulum Head Neck Tuberosity Radius
Radial notch Coronoid process Trochlear notch Olecranon In 90° flexion: lateral view
Ulna of ulna
Tuberosity Coronoid process Trochlear notch Olecranon In 90° flexion: medial view
Figure 10-1 Bones of elbow. 10 ELBOW AND FOREARM 441
Arthrology
Joint capsule (cut edge)
Humerus Opened joint: anterior view
Humerus Opened joint: posterior view
Fat pads Synovial membrane
Articular cartilage
Ulna
Ulna
Radius
Radius
Figure 10-2 Anterior and posterior opened elbow joint.
Joint
Type and Classification
Closed Packed Position
Capsular Pattern
Humeroulnar
Synovial: hinge
Elbow extension
Flexion is limited more than extension
Humeroradial
Synovial: condyloid
0° of flexion, 5° of supination
Flexion is limited more than extension
Proximal radioulnar
Synovial: trochoid
5° of supination
Pronation supination
Distal radioulnar
Synovial: trochoid
5° of supination
Pronation supination
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Ligaments
Anterior view
Humerus
Joint capsule Medial epicondyle
Lateral epicondyle Radial collateral lig.
Ulnar collateral lig.
Annular lig. of radius Insertion of brachialis m.
Biceps brachii tendon
Oblique cord Radius
Humerus
Ulna
Joint capsule Radial collateral lig. Anular lig. of radius Biceps brachii tendon
Triceps brachii tendon
Joint capsule Ulnar collateral lig. Annular lig. of radius Biceps brachii tendon Oblique cord
Radius
Subcutaneous olecranon bursa
Humerus
Ulna In 90° flexion: lateral view
In 90° flexion: medial view
Triceps brachii tendon
Subcutaneous olecranon bursa
Figure 10-3 Ligaments of the elbow.
Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Radial collateral
Lateral epicondyle of humerus to annular ligament of radius
Resists varus stress
Annular ligament of radius
Coronoid process of ulna, around radial head to lateral border of radial notch of ulna
Holds head of radius in radial notch of ulna and allows forearm supination and pronation
Ulnar collateral
Medial epicondyle of humerus to coronoid process and olecranon of ulna
Resists valgus stress
10 ELBOW AND FOREARM 443
Ligaments (continued)
Right radius and ulna in supination: anterior view Head Neck Radial tuberosity Radius
Right radius and ulna in pronation: anterior view
Olecranon Trochlear notch Coronoid process Radial notch of ulna Ulnar tuberosity
Oblique cord Ulnar tuberosity
Oblique cord Ulna
Radius
Ulna
Anterior surface Anterior surface
Lateral surface Posterior border
Anterior border Anterior border
Posterior surface
Interosseous membrane
Interosseous border
Interosseous border
Interosseous membrane
Groove for extensor pollicis longus m. Groove for extensor digitorum and extensor indicis mm. Styloid process of ulna
Styloid process
Dorsal tubercle Groove for extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis mm. Area for extensor pollicis brevis and abductor pollicis longus mm. Styloid process
Figure 10-4 Ligaments of the forearm.
Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Oblique cord
Tuberosity of ulna to just distal to tuberosity of radius
Transfers forces from radius to ulna and reinforces proximity of ulna to radius
Interosseous membrane
Lateral border of ulna to medial border of radius
Transfers force from radius to ulna and reinforces proximity of ulna to radius
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Muscles Anterior and Posterior Muscles of Arm Middle collateral branch of deep a. of arm
Superior ulnar collateral Branches of brachial a. Inferior ulnar collateral (posterior branch)
Lateral intermuscular septum
Medial intermuscular septum
Brachioradialis m.
Ulnar n. Posterior ulnar recurrent a.
Extensor carpi radialis longus m.
Medial epicondyle of humerus
Lateral epicondyle of humerus Common extensor tendon (partially cut)
Triceps brachii tendon (cut) Olecranon of ulna
Extensor carpi radialis brevis m.
Anconeus m.
Supinator m.
Flexor carpi ulnaris m.
Deep branch of radial n.
Recurrent interosseous a.
Pronator teres m. (slip of insertion)
Posterior interosseous a.
Radius
Ulna
Posterior interosseous n.
Extensor pollicis longus m.
Abductor pollicis longus m.
Extensor indicis m.
Extensor pollicis brevis m. Extensor carpi radialis brevis tendon Extensor carpi radialis longus tendon
Anterior interosseous a. (termination) Extensor carpi ulnaris tendon (cut) Extensor digiti minimi tendon (cut) Extensor digitorum tendons (cut)
6 5
4
Extensor retinaculum (compartments numbered) 5th metacarpal bone
3
2
1
Radial a. 1st metacarpal bone 2nd metacarpal bone 1st dorsal interosseous m.
Figure 10-5 Muscles of forearm: posterior view. Muscle
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Long head
Infraglenoid tubercle of scapula
Olecranon process of ulna
Radial nerve (C6, C7, C8)
Extends elbow
Lateral head
Superior to radial groove of humerus
Medial head
Inferior to radial grove of humerus
Anconeus
Lateral epicondyle of humerus
Superoposterior aspect of ulna
Radial nerve (C7, C8, T1)
Assists in elbow extension, stabilizes elbow joint
Triceps brachii
10 ELBOW AND FOREARM 445
Muscles (continued) Anterior and Posterior Muscles of Arm
Biceps brachii m. Brachialis m. Lateral cutaneous n. of forearm (cut) (from musculocutaneous n.)
Ulnar n. Median n. Brachial a. Medial intermuscular septum Pronator teres m. (humeral head) (cut and reflected)
Radial n. Deep branch Superficial branch
Medial epicondyle Flexor carpi radialis and palmaris longus tendons (cut)
Biceps brachii tendon
Anterior ulnar recurrent a.
Radial recurrent a.
Flexor digitorum superficialis m. (humeroulnar head)
Radial a.
Ulnar a. Supinator m.
Common interosseous a. Pronator teres m. (ulnar head) (cut)
Brachioradialis m.
Anterior interosseous a.
Pronator teres m. (cut)
Flexor carpi ulnaris m.
Flexor digitorum superficialis m. (radial head)
Flexor digitorum superficialis m. Ulnar a.
Flexor pollicis longus m. Palmar carpal lig. (continuous with extensor retinaculum) with palmaris longus tendon (cut and reflected)
Ulnar n. and dorsal branch Median n. Palmar branches of median and ulnar n. (cut) Pisiform Deep palmar branch of ulnar a. and deep branch of ulnar n.
Flexor carpi radialis tendon (cut)
Superficial branch of ulnar n.
Superficial palmar branch of radial a.
Transverse carpal lig. (flexor retinaculum)
Figure 10-6 Muscles of forearm: anterior view.
Muscle
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Short head
Coronoid process of scapula
Radial tuberosity and fascia of forearm
Musculocutaneus nerve (C5, C6)
Supinates forearm and flex elbow
Long head
Supraglenoid tubercle of scapula
Brachialis
Distal aspect of humerus
Coronoid process and tuberosity of ulna
Musculocutaneus nerve (C5, C6)
Flexes elbow
Biceps brachii
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Muscles Supinators and Pronators of the Forearm
Pronated position
Supinated position
Lateral epicondyle
Medial epicondyle Lateral epicondyle
Medial epicondyle
Supinator
Pronator teres
Ulna Radius Ulna
Radius
Pronator quadratus
Figure 10-7 Individual muscles of forearm: rotators of radius.
Muscle
Proximal Attachment
Distal Attachment
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Supinator
Lateral epicondyle of humerus, supinator fossa, and crest of ulna
Proximal aspect of radius
Deep branch of radial nerve (C5, C6)
Supinates forearm
Pronator teres
Medial epicondyle of humerus and coronoid process of ulna
Lateral aspect of radius
Median nerve (C6, C7)
Pronates forearm and flexes elbow
Pronator quadratus
Distal anterior aspect of ulna
Distal anterior aspect of radius
Anterior interosseus nerve (C8, T1)
Pronates forearm
10 ELBOW AND FOREARM 447
Nerves Brachialis m.
Ulnar n.
Musculocutaneous n. (becomes) Lateral cutaneous n. of forearm Lateral intermuscular septum
Median n. Brachial a. Medial intermuscular septum
Radial n.
Figure 10-8 Nerves of forearm: anterior view.
Pronator teres m. (cut and reflected) Anterior ulnar recurrent a.
Lateral epicondyle Biceps brachii tendon (cut)
Medial epicondyle of humerus
Radial recurrent a.
Flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, flexor digitorum superficialis (humeroulnar head) and flexor carpi ulnaris mm. (cut) Posterior ulnar recurrent a.
Radial a. Supinator m. Posterior and anterior interosseous aa. Flexor digitorum superficialis m. (radial head) (cut)
Ulnar a.
Pronator teres m. (cut and reflected) Radial a. Flexor pollicis longus m. and tendon (cut)
Common interosseous a. Pronator teres m. (ulnar head) (cut) Median n. (cut) Flexor digitorum profundus m.
Radius
Anterior interosseous a. and n.
Pronator quadratus m. Brachioradialis tendon (cut) Radial a. and superficial palmar branch
Ulnar n. and dorsal branch Palmar carpal branches of radial and ulnar aa. Flexor carpi ulnaris tendon (cut)
Flexor pollicis longus tendon (cut)
Pisiform
Flexor carpi radialis tendon (cut)
Deep palmar branch of ulnar a. and deep branch of ulnar n. Hook of hamate
Abductor pollicis longus tendon Extensor pollicis brevis tendon
5th metacarpal bone
1st metacarpal bone
Nerves
Segmental Levels
Sensory
Motor
Musculocutaneus
C5, C6, C7
Lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve
Coracobrachialis, biceps brachii, brachialis
Lateral cutaneous of forearm
C5, C6, C7
Lateral forearm
No motor
Median
C6, C7, C8, T1
Palmar and distal dorsal aspects of lateral 31⁄2 digits and lateral palm
Flexor carpi radialis, flexor digitorum superficialis, lateral 1⁄2 of flexor digitorum profundus, flexor pollicis longus, pronator quadratus, pronator teres, most thenar muscles, and lateral lumbricales
Anterior interosseous
C6, C7, C8, T1
No sensory
Flexor digitorum profundus, flexor pollicis longus, pronator quadratus
Ulnar
C7, C8, T1
Medial hand including medial 1⁄2 of 4th digit
Flexor carpi ulnaris, medial 1⁄2 of flexor digitorum profundus, and most small muscles in hand
Radial
C5, C6, C7, C8, T1
Posterior aspect of forearm
Triceps brachii, anconeus, brachioradialis, extensor muscles of forearm
Posterior interosseous
C5, C6, C7, C8, T1
None
Abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis brevis and longus, extensor digitorum communis, extensor indicis, extensor digiti minimi
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
PATIENT HISTORY Initial Hypotheses Based on History History
Initial Hypothesis
Pain over lateral elbow during gripping activities
Possible lateral epicondylitis1-4 Possible radial tunnel syndrome5-7
Pain over medial elbow during wrist flexion and pronation
Possible medial epicondylitis8,9
Reports of numbness and tingling in ulnar nerve distribution distal to elbow
Possible cubital tunnel syndrome9,10
Pain in anterior aspect of elbow and forearm that is exacerbated by wrist flexion combined with elbow flexion and forearm pronation
Possible pronator syndrome11
Reports of pain during movement with sensations of catching or instability
Possible rotatory instability11
Reports of posterior elbow pain during elbow hyperextension
Possible valgus extension overload syndrome11
Epicondylalgia (tennis elbow) Exquisite tenderness over lateral or medial epicondyle of humerus
Figure 10-9 Palpation of lateral epicondyle.
10 ELBOW AND FOREARM 449
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION TESTS Range of Motion Reliability of Elbow Flexion and Extension Measurements ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 10-10 Measurement of elbow flexion.
Test and Measure
Instrumentation
Active ROM (AROM) elbow flexion12
Inter-examiner
.94
.89
.97
.96
.96
.90
.86
.96
10-inch plastic goniometer
.96
.94
6-inch plastic goniometer
.99
.93
38 patients who had undergone a surgical procedure for injury at elbow, forearm, or wrist
.55-.98
.58-.62
.45-.98
.58-.87
30 healthy subjects
Not reported
.53
Not reported
.92
12-inch metal goniometer 10-inch plastic goniometer
12-inch metal goniometer
13
AROM elbow flexion
Universal standard goniometer
AROM elbow extension13 AROM elbow flexion14
Universal plastic goniometer
24 patients referred to physical therapy in whom ROM measurements of elbow were appropriate
Fluid-filled bubble inclinometer
450
Reliability ICC Intra-examiner
6-inch plastic goniometer AROM elbow extension12
Population
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Range of Motion Reliability of Forearm Supination and Pronation Measurements
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 10-11 Forearm supination and pronation measurements.
Measurement of forearm supination
Test and Measure
Supination AROM13
Pronation
Instrumentation
Universal standard goniometer
Measurement of forearm pronation
Population
AROM15
Supination
Pronation
AROM Supination/pronation16
14.5-cm plastic goniometer
Plumb line goniometer: a 14.5-cm single arm plastic goniometer with a plumb line attached to the center of its 360° 8-inch steel goniometer
Intra-examiner
Inter-examiner
.96 -.99
.90-.93
.96-.99
.83 -.86
injured
.98
.96
non-injured
.96
.94
injured
.95-.97
.95
non-injured
.86-.98
.92
injured
.98
.96
non-injured
.94-.98
.96
injured
.96-.98
.92
non-injured
.95-.97
.91
.81-.97
Not reported
.95
Not reported
.87
Not reported
.95
Not reported
.79
Not reported
38 patients who had undergone a surgical procedure for elbow, forearm, or wrist injury
Supination
Pronation
Reliability ICC
40 subjects, 20 injured and 20 non-injured
31 asymptomatic subjects
Supination Plumb line goniometer Passive ROM (PROM)17
Pronation 30 hand therapy patients
Supination Pronation
Standard goniometer
ICC, Intraclass correlation coefficient.
10 ELBOW AND FOREARM 451
End-Feel Classification Reliability of Classification on End-Feel for Elbow Flexion and Extension ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Assessment of flexion end-feel
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Assessment of extension end-feel
Figure 10-12 End-feel for elbow flexion and extension assessment. Test and Measure
Test Procedure
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Flexion/extension18
With patient standing, examiner stabilizes humerus with one hand and maintains forearm in neutral with the other hand. Examiner extends or flexes elbow and assesses end-feel. End-feel is graded as “soft tissue approximation,” “muscular,” “cartilage,” “capsule,” or “ligament”
20 asymptomatic subjects
Flexion .40 Extension .73
Assessing Strength Reliability of Grip Strength Testing in Patients with Lateral Epicondylalgia Grip Strength
Test Procedure
Pain-free19
With patient standing with elbow extended and forearm in neutral, patient squeezes dynamometer until discomfort is felt
Maximum19
452
As above except patient is instructed to squeeze dynamometer as hard as possible
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability ICC .97
50 patients diagnosed with lateral epicondylalgia on clinical examination
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ICC .98
Special Tests Indication of Bony or Joint Injury: Elbow Extension Test LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test
Test Procedure
Determination of Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens (95% CI)
Spec (95% CI)
LR
LR
Elbow extension test22
With patient seated with arms supinated, patient flexes shoulders to 90° then extends both elbows
Positive if the involved elbow has less extension than the contralateral side
2127 adults and children presenting to the emergency department
Radiographic evaluation and/or a 7-to 10day phone call follow-up
96.8 (95.0, 98.2)
48.5 (45.6, 51.4)
1.88 (1.78, 1.99)
.06 (.04, .10)
Elbow extension test20
Supine patient fully extends elbow
Positive if patient is unable to fully extend elbow
114 patients with acute elbow injuries
Radiographic evaluation
.97
.69
3.13
.04
Elbow extension test21
As above except patient is standing
As above
100 patients presenting to an emergency department with elbow injury
As above
.91 (.81, 1.0)
.70 (.61, .78)
3.03
.13
10 ELBOW AND FOREARM 453
Special Tests Detecting Cubital Tunnel Syndrome LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 10-13 Tinel’s sign.
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Positive if patient reports symptoms in distribution of ulnar nerve
.89
.98
44.5
.11
Patient’s elbow is placed in maximum flexion with full supination of forearm and wrist in neutral. Position is held for 60 sec
As above
.75
.99
75
.25
Combined pressure and flexion provocative test23
Patient’s arm is in maximum elbow flexion and forearm supination. Examiner applies pressure on ulnar nerve just proximal to cubital tunnel. Pressure is held for 60 sec
As above
.98
.95
19.6
.02
Tinel’s sign23
Examiner applies 4 to 6 taps to patient’s ulnar nerve just proximal to cubital tunnel
Positive if tingling sensation in distribution of ulnar nerve
.70
.98
35
.31
Test and Measure
Test Procedure
Determination of Positive Findings
Pressure provocative test23
With patient’s elbow in 20° of flexion and forearm supination, examiner applies pressure to ulnar nerve just proximal to cubital tunnel for 60 sec
Flexion test23
454
Population
55 subjects, 32 with cubital tunnel syndrome and 33 asymptomatic subjects
Reference Standard
Electrodiagnostically proven cubital tunnel syndrome
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests Detecting Medial Collateral Tears LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
With the shoulder at 90 degrees of abduction and full external rotation, the clinician maximally flexes the patient’s elbow while simultaneously applying a valgus force.
The clinician quickly extends the patient’s elbow.
Figure 10-14 Moving valgus stress test. Test and Measure
Test Procedure
Determination of Positive Findings
Patient Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Moving valgus stress test24
Patient’s shoulder is abducted to 90° with maximal external rotation. Clinician maximally flexes the elbow and applies a valgus stress. The clinician quickly extends the elbow to 30°
If patient experiences maximal medial elbow pain between 120° and 70° of elbow flexion, test is considered positive
21 patients referred with chronic medial collateral ligament injuries
Surgical visualization
1.0 (81,100)
.75 (.19, .99)
4.0 (.73, 21.8)
.04 (.00, .72)
Valgus stress test at 30°, 60°, 70°, or 90° of elbow flexion24
Valgus stress is applied to the elbow at 30°, 60°, 70°, and 90° of elbow flexion
If the clinician identifies laxity or the patient reports pain, the test is considered positive
21 patients referred with chronic medial collateral ligament injuries
Surgical visualization
Pain .65 (.38, .86) Laxity .19 (.04, .46)
Pain .50 (.70, .93) Laxity 1.0 (.40, 1.0)
Pain 1.3 Laxity Undefined
Pain .70 Laxity .81
10 ELBOW AND FOREARM 455
Interventions Diagnostic Utility of History and Physical Examination Findings for Predicting Favorable ShortTerm Response to Mobilization with Movement and Exercise in Patients with Lateral Epicondylalgia LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Vicenzino and colleagues25 have developed a preliminary clinical prediction rule to identify individuals with lateral epicondylalgia who are likely to benefit from mobilization with movement and exercise. The study identified a number of predictor variables. Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
62 patients with lateral epicondylalgia
A global perceived effect of improved, much improved, or completely recovered
.61 (.46, .74)
.77 (.46, .94)
2.6 (.96, 7.3)
.53 (.38, .67)
.77 (.46, .93)
2.3 (.82, 6.4)
Unaffected pain-free grip 336 N25
.49 (.35, .63)
.77 (.46, .94)
2.1 (.76, 6.0)
Change in pain-free grip following the mobilization with movement 25%25
.75 (.58, .87)
.5 (.78, 2.9)
1.5 (.78, 2.9)
Test and Study Quality Age 49 years25 Affected pain-free grip 112 N25
The following three variables formed the clinical prediction rule: 1. 49 years 2. Affected pain free grip 112 N 3. Unaffected pain free grip 336 N Diagnostic accuracy for the clinical prediction rule is as follows: Number of variables present
Sens
Spec
LR
3
.01 (.03, .20)
1.0 (.7, 1.0)
Undefined
2
.57 (.42, .71)
.85 (.54, .97)
3.7 (1.0, 13.6)
1
.98 (.88, .99)
.46 (.20, .74)
1.8 (1.1, 3.0)
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
OUTCOME MEASURES Outcome Measure
Scoring and Interpretation
Test-Retest Reliability
MCID
Upper Extremity Functional Index
Users are asked to rate the difficulty of performing 20 functional tasks on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (extremely difficult or unable to perform activity) to 4 (no difficulty). A total score out of 80 is calculated by summing each score. The answers provide a score between 0 and 80, with lower scores representing more disability
ICC .95
Not reported; however, the MDC has been determined. MDC 9.1 points26
Patient-Rated Tennis Elbow Evaluation
Users are asked to rate their levels of pain and function on two subscales. The pain subscale includes five questions and each is scored from 0 to 10 (0 no pain, 10 worst pain imaginable). The sum of the score on the five items is recorded as the pain score with a maximum of 50 with higher scores indicating greater levels of pain. The function subscale has 10 items and each is scored from 0 to 10 (0 no difficulty, 10 unable to do). The sum of the 10 items is divided by 2 and the patient can score a maximum of 50 on the functional scale with higher scores representing greater disability. To compute a total score (out of a 100) the sum of the pain and functional scales are computed
Pain ICC .89-.9927-29 Function ICC .83-.9927-29 Total ICC .89-.9927-29
Not reported
Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS)
Users rate their level of pain on an 11-point scale ranging from 0 to 10, with high scores representing more pain. Often asked as “current pain” and “least,” “worst,” and “average” pain in the past 24 hours
ICC .7230
231,32
26
MCID, Minimum clinically important difference; MDC, minimal detectable change.
10 ELBOW AND FOREARM 457
APPENDIX
Hawksworth 1991
Novak 1994
O’Driscoll 1995
Docherty 2002
Appelboam 2008
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
N
N
Y
Y
Y
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
U
U
Y
Y
Y
5. Did the whole sample, or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
U
Y
Y
N
N
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
N
Y
Y
N
N
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
Y
U
U
Y
Y
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
Y
U
U
Y
Y
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
13. Were uninterpretable/ intermediate test results reported?
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Quality summary rating:
Y yes, N no, U unclear.
458
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14).
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9).
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Poor quality (Y - N 4).
REFERENCES 1. Baquie P. Tennis elbow. Principles of ongoing management. Aust Fam Physician. 1999;28:724-725. 2. Borkholder CD, Hill VA, Fess EE. The efficacy of splinting for lateral epicondylitis: a systematic review. J Hand Ther. 2004;17:181-199. 3. Vicenzino B. Lateral epicondylalgia: a musculoskeletal physiotherapy perspective. Man Ther. 2003;8:66-79. 4. Vicenzino B, Wright A. Lateral epicondylalgia I: epidemiology, pathophysiology, aetiology and natural history. Phys Ther Rev. 1996;1:23-34. 5. Pecina MM, Bojanic I. Overuse Injuries of the Musculoskeletal System, CRC Press. 1993. 6. Ellenbecker TS, Mattalino AJ. The Elbow in Sport, Human Kinetics. 1997. 7. Ekstrom R, Holden K. Examination of and intervention for a patient with chronic lateral elbow pain with signs of nerve entrapment. Phys Ther. 2002;82:1077-1086. 8. Pienimäki TT, Siira PT, Vanharanta H. Chronic medial and lateral epicondylitis: a comparison of pain, disability, and function. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83:317-321. 9. Hertling D, Kessler RM. The elbow and forearm. In: Management of Common Musculoskeletal Disorders: Physical Therapy Principles and Methods. (3rd ed). Lippincott; 1990:217-242. 10. Kingery WS, Park KS, Wu PB, Date ES. Electromyographic motor Tinel’s sign in ulnar mononeuropathies at the elbow. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 1995;74:419-426. 11. Ryan J. Elbow. In Current Concepts of Orthopaedic Physical Therapy, Orthopaedic Section, American Physical Therapy Association. 2001. 12. Rothstein JM, Miller PJ, Roettger RF. Goniometric reliability in a clinical setting. Elbow and knee measurements. Phys Ther. 1983;63:1611-1615. 13. Armstrong AD, MacDermid JC, Chinchalkar S, et al. Reliability of range-of-motion measurement in the elbow. J Elbow Shoulder Surg. 1998;7:573-580. 14. Petherick M, Rheault W, Kimble S, et al. Concurrent validity and intertester reliability of universal and fluid-based goniometers for active elbow range of motion. Phys Ther. 1988;68:966-969. 15. Karagiannopoulos C, Sitler M, Michlovitz S. Reliability of 2 functional goniometric methods for measuring forearm pronation and supination active range of motion. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2003;33:523-531. 16. Gajdosik RL. Comparison and reliability of three goniometric methods for measuring forearm supination and pronation. Percept Mot Skills. 2001;93:353-355. 17. Flowers KR, Stephens-Chisar J, LaStayo P, Galante BL. Intrarater reliability of a new method and instrumentation for measuring passive supination and pronation. J Hand Ther. 2001;14:30-35. 18. Patla C, Paris S. Reliability of interpretation of the Paris classification of normal end feel for elbow flexion and extension. J Man Manipulative Ther. 1993;1:60-66.
19. Smidt N, van der Windt DA, Assendelft WJ, et al. Interobserver reproducibility of the assessment of severity of complaints, grip strength, and pain pressure threshold in patients with lateral epicondylitis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83:1145-1150. 20. Docherty MA, Schwab RA, Ma OJ. Can elbow extension be used as a test of clinically significant injury? South Med J. 2002;95:539-541. 21. Hawksworth CR, Freeland P. Inability to fully extend the injured elbow: an indicator of significant injury. Arch Emerg Med. 1991;8:253-256. 22. Appelboam A, Reuben AD, Benger JR, et al. Elbow extension test to rule out elbow fracture: multicentre, prospective validation and observational study of diagnostic accuracy in adults and children. Br Med J. 2008;337:a2428. 23. Novak CB, Lee GW, Mackinnon SE, Lay L. Provocative testing for cubital tunnel syndrome. J Hand Surg Am. 1994;19:817-820. 24. O’Driscoll SW, Lawton RL, Smith AM. The “moving valgus stress test” for medial collateral ligament tears of the elbow. Am J Sports Med. 2005;33:231-239. 25. Vicenzino B, Smith D, Cleland J, Bisset L. Development of a clinical prediction rule to identify initial responders to mobilisation with movement and exercise for lateral epicondylalgia. Man Ther. 2009;14:550-554. 26. Stratford PW, et al. Development and initial validation of the upper extremity functional index. Physiotherapy Canada. 2001;259-267. 27. Leung HB, Yen CH, Tse PY. Reliability of Hong Kong Chinese version of the Patient-rated Forearm Evaluation Questionnaire for lateral epicondylitis. Hong Kong Med J. 2004;10:172-177. 28. Newcomer KL, Martinez-Silvestrini JA, Schaefer MP, et al. Sensitivity of the Patient-Rated Forearm Evaluation Questionnaire in lateral epicondylitis. J Hand Ther. 2005;18:400-406. 29. Overend TJ, Wuori-Fearn JL, Kramer JF, MacDermid JC. Reliability of a patient-rated forearm evaluation questionnaire for patients with lateral epicondylitis. J Hand Ther. 1999;12:31-37. 30. Li L, Liu X, Herr K. et al. Postoperative pain intensity assessment: a comparison of four scales in Chinese adults. Pain Med. 2007;8:223-234. 31. Farrar JT, Young JP Jr, LaMoreaux L, et al. Clinical importance of changes in chronic pain intensity measured on an 11-point numerical pain rating scale. Pain. 2001;94:149-158. 32. Farrar JT, Portenoy RK, Berlin JA, et al. Defining the clinically important difference in pain outcome measures. Pain. 2000;88:287-294.
10 ELBOW AND FOREARM 459
Wrist and Hand
11
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
462
Anatomy Osteology Arthrology Ligaments Muscles Nerves Patient History Initial Hypotheses Based on Patient History Reliability of the Historical Examination Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History in Identifying Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Physical Examination Test Screening Range of Motion Assessing Strength Assessing Wrist Anthropometry Assessing Swelling Testing Sensation Special Tests Combinations of Tests Outcome Measures Appendix Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS References
463 463 465 466 470 475 478 478 478 479 481 481 484 487 490 491 492 494 502 503 504 504 506
CLINICAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Patient History Complaints
Overall subjective complaints do not appear useful in identifying carpal tunnel syndrome. Only reports of “dropping objects” and “shaking hand improves symptoms” statistically altered the probability of diagnosis, and then only minimally (LR 1.7 to 1.9, LR .34 to .47).
Physical Examination Screening
Scaphoid fractures can effectively be both ruled in and ruled out by testing for snuff box tenderness, pain with resisted supination, and pain with longitudinal compression after an injury, suggesting possible fracture (each approximately LR 50, LR 0.0). The physical examination appears less effective at identifying other wrist fractures, at least in children.
Range of Motion, Strength, and Sensation Assessment
Measuring wrist range of motion (ROM) appears to be highly reliable but is of unknown diagnostic utility. Measuring finger and thumb ROM is less reliable even when performed by the same examiner. Assessing strength with dynamometry has consistently been shown to be highly reliable, but again, is of unknown diagnostic utility. Manual muscle testing of the abductor pollicis brevis muscle does not appear to be very helpful in identifying carpal tunnel syndrome. Sensory testing of the hand is of poor to moderate reliability. Only sensory loss at the pad of the thumb appears helpful in identifying carpal tunnel syndrome, and then only minimally (LR 2.2, LR .49).
Special Tests
Evidence on the diagnostic utility of Tinel’s sign, Phalen’s test, and carpal tunnel compression test is highly variable. The highest quality studies of each suggest that none of the three tests is particularly helpful in identifying carpal tunnel syndrome. Additionally, one study1 found all three tests to be both more sensitive and more specific in identifying tenosynovitis than carpal tunnel syndrome. A new test, the ulnar fovea sign, appears to be very good at both ruling in and ruling out foveal disruption of the distal radioulnar ligaments and ulnotriquetral ligament injuries (LR 7.1, LR - .06).
Combinations of Findings
462
Although not yet validated, a clinical prediction rule appears to be very effective at identifying carpal tunnel syndrome. The presence of 5 variables (a Hand Severity Scale score of ⬎ 1.9, a wrist ratio index ⬎ .67, a patient report of shaking the hand for symptom relief, diminished sensation on the thumb pad, and age older than 45) was found to be associated with a LR of 18.3.
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ANATOMY Osteology
Anterior (palmar) view
Radius
Ulna
Radial styloid process
Ulnar styloid process Lunate
Scaphoid
Triquetrum
Tubercle of scaphoid
Pisiform
Trapezium
Hamate
Tubercle of trapezium
Hook of hamate
Trapezoid
Capitate
5
1 2
3
4
Metacarpal bones Posterior (dorsal) view Radius
Ulna
Dorsal tubercle of radius
Ulnar styloid process
Scaphoid Lunate
Radial styloid process
Pisiform Trapezium
Triquetrum
Trapezoid Hamate Capitate
1
5 4
3
2
Metacarpal bones
Figure 11-1 Carpal bones.
11 WRIST AND HAND 463
Osteology (continued)
Carpal bones
Scaphoid and Tubercle
Lunate Triquetrum Pisiform
Trapezium and Tubercle
Trapezoid
Hamate and Hook
1
Sesamoid bones
Carpal bones
Capitate
Base Metacarpal Shafts Head bones
2 3
4
5
Base Proximal Shafts phalanges Head
Right hand: anterior (palmar) view
Base Middle Shafts phalanges Head Base Distal Shafts Tuberosity phalanges Head
Lunate Scaphoid
Capitate Trapezoid Trapezium
Pisiform Carpal bones Triquetrum Hamate Metacarpal Base bones Shafts Head
1 5
4
3
2
Proximal Base phalanges Shafts Head
Right hand: posterior (dorsal) view
Middle Base phalanges Shafts Head Base Distal Shafts phalanges Tuberosity Head
Figure 11-2 Bones of wrist and hand. 464
Carpal bones
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Arthrology
Coronal section: dorsal view Ulna
Radius Lunate
Distal radioulnar joint
Wrist (radiocarpal) joint
Articular disc of wrist joint
Scaphoid
Meniscus
Midcarpal joint
Pisiform
Trapezoid
Interosseous intercarpal ligs. Triquetrum
Trapezium Carpometacarpal joint
Hamate
Intermetacarpal joints
Capitate
5
4
3
1
2
Metacarpal bones Sagittal sections through wrist and first finger
Superficial branch of radial n. Medial branch Lateral branch Dorsal digital branches of radial n. Scaphoid Radial a. in snuffbox Trapezium Insertion of abductor pollicis longus tendon
Extensor retinaculum Dorsal carpal branch of radial a. Extensor carpi radialis brevis and Extensor carpi radialis longus tendons 1st dorsal interosseous m.
Metacarpal 1 Insertion of extensor pollicis brevis tendon
Fascia Insertion of extensor pollicis longus tendon
Figure 11-3 Wrist joint.
Joints
Type and Classification
Closed Packed Position
Capsular Pattern
Radiocarpal
Synovial: condyloid
Full extension
Limitation equal in all directions
Intercarpal
Synovial: plane
Extension
Limitation equal in all directions
Carpometacarpal (CMC)
Synovial: plane, except for 1st CMC, which is sellar
Full opposition
Limitation equal in all directions
Metacarpophalangeal (MCP)
Synovial: condyloid
Extension except for 1st digit
Limitation equal in all directions
Interphalangeal (IP)
Synovial: hinge
Extension
Flexion greater than extension
11 WRIST AND HAND 465
Ligaments Palmar Ligaments of Wrist Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Transverse carpal
Hamate and pisiform medially, and scaphoid and trapezium laterally
Prevents bowstringing of finger flexor tendons
Palmar radiocarpal (radioscapholunate and radiocapitate portions)
Distal radius to both rows of carpal bones
Reinforces fibrous capsule of wrist volarly
Palmar ulnocarpal (ulnolunate and ulnotriquetral portions)
Distal ulna to both rows of carpal bones
Reinforces fibrous capsule of wrist volarly
Palmar radioulnar
Distal radius to distal ulna
Reinforces volar aspect of distal radioulnar joint
Radial collateral
Radial styloid process to scaphoid
Reinforces fibrous capsule of wrist laterally
Ulnar collateral
Ulnar styloid process to triquetrum
Reinforces fibrous capsule of wrist medially
Pisometacarpal
Pisiform to base of 5th metacarpal
Reinforces 5th carpometacarpal joint
Pisohamate
Pisiform to hook of hamate
Maintains proximity of pisiform and hamate
Capitotriquetral
Capitate to triquetrum
Maintains proximity of capitates and triquetrum
Palmar carpometacarpal
Palmar aspect of carpals to bases of metacarpals 2-5
Reinforces volar aspect of carpometacarpal joints 2-5
Palmar metacarpal
Attaches bases of metacarpals 2-5
Maintains proximity between metacarpals
466
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Ligaments (continued) Palmar Ligaments of Wrist Carpal tunnel: palmar view Ulna
Radius Palmaris longus tendon
Interosseous membrane
Palmar carpal lig. (thickening of deep antebrachial fascia) (cut and reflected)
Ulnar a. and n. Flexor carpi ulnaris tendon Flexor digitorum profundus tendons
Radial a. and superficial palmar branch Flexor carpi radialis tendon Flexor pollicis longus tendon
Flexor digitorum superficialis tendons Pisiform
Median n. Palmar aponeurosis
Deep palmar branch of ulnar a. and deep branch of ulnar n.
Tubercle of scaphoid Tubercle of trapezium
Hook of hamate
Transverse carpal lig. (flexor retinaculum) 1
2
3
4
5
Metacarpal bones
Flexor retinaculum removed: palmar view Radius
Ulna Palmar radioulnar lig.
Interosseous membrane Palmar radiocarpal lig.
Area of articular disc
Radioscapholunate part Radiocapitate part
Ulnolunate part Palmar ulnoUlnotriquetral carpal lig. part Ulnar collateral lig.
Space (of Poirier) Radial collateral lig.
Flexor carpi ulnaris tendon (cut) Pisiform
Tubercle of scaphoid Tubercle of trapezium
Lunate
Articular capsule of carpometacarpal joint of thumb
Pisometacarpal lig. Pisohamate lig.
Capitate Capitotriquetral lig. (part of radiate capitate lig.) Palmar carpometacarpal ligs.
Hook of hamate Palmar metacarpal ligs. 1
5 2
3
4
Metacarpal bones
Figure 11-4 Palmar ligaments of wrist.
11 WRIST AND HAND 467
Ligaments (continued) Posterior Ligaments of Wrist
Posterior (dorsal) view Ulna
Radius Superficial capsular tissue (cut away)
Interosseous membrane
Dorsal radiocarpal lig.
Dorsal radioulnar lig.
Lunate (covered by lig.)
Region of articular disc
Scaphoid
Dorsal ulnocarpal lig.
Radial collateral lig.
Ulnar collateral lig.
Capitate
Triquetrum
Trapezium
Hamate
Capsule of 1st carpometacarpal joint
Dorsal carpometacarpal ligs. Dorsal metacarpal ligs.
Note: Dorsal ligs. weaker than palmar ligs.
Trapezoid
1 5
4
3
2
Metacarpal bones
Figure 11-5 Posterior ligaments of wrist.
Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Dorsal radioulnar
Distal radius to distal ulnar
Reinforces dorsal aspect of distal radioulnar joint
Dorsal radiocarpal
Distal radius to both rows of carpal bones
Reinforces fibrous capsule of wrist dorsally
Dorsal carpometacarpal
Dorsal aspect of carpals to bases of metacarpals 2-5
Reinforces dorsal aspect of carpometacarpal joint 2-5
Dorsal metacarpal
Attaches bases of metacarpals 2-5
Maintains proximity between metacarpals
468
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Ligaments (continued) Metacarpophalangeal and Interphalangeal Ligaments Pisiform
Anterior (palmar) view
Hook of hamate Trapezium Palmar carpometacarpal ligs. Joint capsule
Palmar metacarpal ligs.
Collateral ligs.
Figure 11-6 Metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal ligaments.
Deep transverse metacarpal ligs.
Palmar ligs. (plates) Cut margins of digital fibrous sheaths Flexor digitorum superficialis tendons (cut) Flexor digitorum profundus tendons
Metacarpal bone
In extension: medial view
Metacarpophalangeal (MP) joint Joint capsule Dorsal surface Collateral lig. Palmar surface Palmar lig. (plate)
In flexion: medial view
Proximal
Proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joint Distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint
Middle
Distal
Phalanges
Joint capsule Collateral lig. Palmar lig. (plate) Note: Ligaments of metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal joints are similar
Ligaments
Attachments
Function
Collateral ligaments of IP joints
Sides of distal aspect of proximal phalanx to proximal aspect of distal phalanx
Reinforces medial and lateral capsules of IP joints
Deep transverse metacarpal ligaments
Connects adjacent MCP joints
Reinforces MCP joints
Palmar ligament (volar plate)
Individual plates attach to palmar aspect of MCP and IP joints
Reinforces palmar aspect of MCP and IP joints
11 WRIST AND HAND 469
Muscles Extensor of Wrist and Digits Medial epicondyle
Medial epicondyle Olecranon Lateral epicondyle
Lateral epicondyle
Olecranon
Extensors of wrist Extensor carpi radialis longus Extensor carpi radialis brevis Extensor carpi ulnaris
Common extensor tendon Ulna
Common extensor tendon Extensor digitorum and extensor digiti minimi (cut away)
Extensors of wrist and digits.
Interosseous membrane
Extensors of digits (except thumb) Extensor digitorum
Radius Ulna
Extensor digiti minimi Extensor indicis
Note: Anconeus muscle not shown because it is extensor of elbow
Figure 11-7
Extensors of thumb Abductor pollicis longus Extensor pollicis brevis Extensor pollicis longus Extensor digitorum and extensor digiti minimi tendons (cut)
Extensor indicis tendon
Superficial Dissection
Deep Dissection
Muscles
Proximal Attachments
Distal Attachments
Nerve and Segmental level
Action
Extensor carpi radialis longus
Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus
Base of 2nd metacarpal
Radial nerve (C6, C7)
Extends and radially deviates wrist
Extensor carpi radialis brevis
Lateral epicondyle of humerus
Base of 3rd metacarpal
Deep branch of radial nerve (C7, C8)
Extends and radially deviates wrist
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Lateral epicondyle of humerus
Base of 5th metacarpal
Radial nerve (C6, C7, C8)
Extends and ulnarly deviates wrist
Extensor digitorum
Lateral epicondyle of humerus
Extensor expansions of digits 2-5
Posterior interosseous nerve (C7, C8)
Extends digits 2-5 at MCP and IP joints
Extensor digits minimi
Lateral epicondyle of humerus
Extensor expansion of 5th digit
Posterior interosseous nerve (C7, C8)
Extends 5th digit at MCP and IP joint
Extensor indicis
Posterior aspect of ulna and interosseous membrane
Extensor expansion of 2nd digit
Posterior interosseous nerve (C7, C8)
Extends 2nd digit and assists with wrist extension
Abductor pollicis longus
Posterior aspect of ulnar, radius, and interosseous membrane
Base of 1st metacarpal
Posterior interosseous nerve (C7, C8)
Abducts and extends thumb
Extensor pollicis brevis
Posterior aspect of radius and interosseous membrane
Base of proximal phalanx of thumb
Posterior interosseous nerve (C7, C8)
Extends thumb
Extensor pollicis longus
Posterior aspect of ulnar and interosseous membrane
Base of distal phalanx of thumb
Posterior interosseous nerve (C7, C8)
Extends distal phalanx of thumb at MCP and IP joints
470
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Muscles (continued) Flexors of Wrist and Digits Note: Brachioradialis muscle not shown because it is flexor of elbow Lateral epicondyle
Figure 11-8 Medial epicondyle
Flexors of wrist and digits.
Common flexor tendon
Flexor carpi radialis Palmaris longus Flexor carpi ulnaris
Radius
Ulna
Pisiform Hook of hamate Palmar aponeurosis (cut)
Right forearm: anterior (palmar) view Muscles
Proximal Attachments
Distal Attachments
Nerve and Segmental Level
Action
Flexor carpi radialis
Medial epicondyle of humerus
Base of 2nd metacarpal bone
Median nerve (C6, C7)
Flexes and radially deviates hand
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Medial epicondyle of humerus and olecranon and posterior border of ulna
Pisiform, hook of hamate and 5th metacarpal
Ulnar nerve (C7, C8)
Flexes and ulnarly deviates hand
Palmaris longus
Medial epicondyle of humerus
Distal aspect of flexor retinaculum and palmar aponeurosis
Median nerve (C7, C8)
Flexes hand and tightens palmar aponeurosis
Bodes of middle phalanges of digits 2-5
Median nerve (C7. C8, T1)
Flexes digits at proximal IP joints 2-5 and at MCP joints 2-5
Proximal anteromedial aspect of ulnar and interosseous membrane
Bases of distal phalanges of digits 2-5
Ulnar nerve (C8, T1) Median nerve (C8, T1)
Flexes digits at distal IP joints 2-5 and assists with flexion of hand
Anterior aspect of radius and interosseous membrane
Base of distal phalanx of thumb
Anterior interosseous nerve (C8, T1)
Flexes phalanges of 1st digit
Flexor digitorum superficialis Humeroulnar head
Medial epicondyle of humerus, ulnar collateral ligament, coronoid process of ulna
Radial head
Superoanterior border of radius
Flexor digitorum profundus Median portion Lateral portion Flexor pollicis longus
11 WRIST AND HAND 471
Muscles (continued) Flexors of Wrist and Digits
Medial epicondyle Lateral epicondyle Lateral epicondyle Coronoid process
Medial epicondyle Common flexor tendon
Coronoid process
Interosseous membrane Interosseous membrane
Radius
Flexor digitorum superficialis
Radius
Flexor digitorum profundus
Flexor pollicis longus
Radius
Ulna
Radius
Flexor digitorum superficialis tendons (cut away)
Right forearm: anterior (palmar) views
Figure 11-9 Flexors of wrist and digits.
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Ulna
Muscles (continued) Intrinsic Muscles of Hand
Ulna
Radius
Figure 11-10 Intrinsic muscles of hand.
Palmar interosseous mm. (unipennate) Deep transverse metacarpal ligs.
1
2
3
Note: Arrows indicate action of muscles Anterior (palmar) view
Muscles
Tendinous slips to extensor expansions (hoods)
Proximal Attachments
Opponens pollicis Abductor pollicis brevis
Flexor retinaculum, scaphoid, and trapezium
Flexor pollicis brevis
Distal Attachments
Nerve and Segmental Level
Lateral aspect of 1st metacarpal Lateral aspect of base of proximal phalanx of thumb
Action Opposes and medially rotates thumb
Median nerve (C8, T1)
Abducts thumb and assists in thumb opposition Flexes thumb
Adductor pollicis Oblique head
Bases of metacarpals 2 and 3 and capitates
Transverse head
Anterior aspect of 3rd metacarpal
Abductor digit minimi
Pisiform
Flexor digiti minimi Opponens digit minimi
Hook of hamate and flexor retinaculum
Medial aspect of base of proximal phalanx of thumb
Medial aspect of base of proximal phalanx of 5th digit
Adducts thumb
Deep branch of ulnar nerve (C8, T1)
Abducts 5th digit Flexes proximal phalanx of 5th digit
Medial aspect of 5th metacarpal
Draws 5th digit at MCP joints, and extends IP joints
Lumbricals Median nerve (C8, T1)
Lateral Tendons of flexor digitorum profundus
Lateral sides of extensor expansions 2-5
Doral interosseous
Adjacent sides of two metacarpals
Bases of proximal phalanges 2-4 and extensor expansion
Palmar interosseous
Palmar aspect of metacarpals 2, 4, and 5
Bases of proximal phalanges 2, 4, and 5 and extensor expansion
Medial
Deep branch of ulnar nerve (C8, T1)
Flexes digits at MCP joints, and extends IP joints Abducts digits and assists with action of lumbricals
Deep branch of ulnar nerve (C8, T1)
Adducts digits and assists with action of lumbricals
11 WRIST AND HAND 473
Muscles (continued) Intrinsic Muscles of Hand
Radial a. and palmar carpal branch
Pronator quadratus m. Ulnar n.
Radius
Ulnar a. and palmar carpal branch
Superficial palmar branch of radial a.
Flexor carpi ulnaris tendon
Transverse carpal lig. (flexor retinaculum) (reflected)
Palmar carpal arterial arch Pisiform Median n. Abductor digiti minimi m. (cut)
Opponens pollicis m. Branches of median n. to thenar mm. and to 1st and 2nd lumbrical mm.
Deep palmar branch of ulnar a. and deep branch of ulnar n.
Abductor pollicis brevis m. (cut)
Flexor digiti minimi brevis m. (cut) Opponens digiti minimi m.
Flexor pollicis brevis m.
Deep palmar (arterial) arch
Adductor pollicis m.
Palmar metacarpal aa. Common palmar digital aa.
1st dorsal interosseous m.
Deep transverse metacarpal ligs.
Branches from deep branch of ulnar n. to 3rd and 4th lumbrical mm. and to all interosseous mm.
Anterior (palmar) view Lumbrical mm. (reflected)
Ulna
Radius Radial a.
Abductor pollicis brevis m.
Abductor digiti minimi m.
Dorsal interosseous mm. (bipennate) 4
3
2
1
Posterior (dorsal) view Note: Arrows indicate action of muscles
Figure 11-11 Intrinsic muscles of hand.
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Nerves Median Nerve
Note: Only muscles innervated by median nerve shown
Anterior view
Musculocutaneous n. Median nerve (C5, C6, C7, C8, T1) Inconstant contribution
Medial Cords of Posterior brachial Lateral plexus Medial cutaneous n. of arm Medial cutaneous n. of forearm
Pronator teres m. (humeral head) Articular branch Flexor carpi radialis m.
Axillary n. Radial n.
Palmaris longus m. Pronator teres m. (ulnar head) Flexor digitorum superficialis m. (turned up) Flexor digitorum profundus m. (lateral part supplied by median [anterior interosseous] n.; medial part supplied by ulnar n.) Anterior interosseous n. Flexor pollicis longus m. Pronator quadratus m. Palmar branch of median n.
Thenar mm.
Abductor pollicis brevis Opponens pollicis Superficial head of flexor pollicis brevis (deep head supplied by ulnar n.)
1st and 2nd lumbrical mm.
Ulnar n.
Cutaneous innervation
Palmar view Communicating branch of median n. with ulnar n. Common palmar digital nn. Proper palmar digital n.
Dorsal branches to dorsum of middle and distal phalanges
Posterior (dorsal) view
Figure 11-12 Median nerve.
Nerves
Segmental Level
Sensory
Motor
Median nerve
C6, C7, C8, T1
Palmar and distal dorsal aspects of lateral 31⁄2 digits and lateral palm
Abductor pollicis brevis, opponens pollicis, flexor pollicis brevis, lateral lumbricals
11 WRIST AND HAND 475
Nerves (continued) Ulnar Nerve
Anterior view
Ulnar n. (C7, C8, T1) (no branches above elbow) Inconstant contribution
Note: Only muscles innervated by ulnar nerve shown
Medial epicondyle Articular branch (behind condyle) Flexor digitorum profundus m. (medial part only; lateral part supplied by anterior interosseous branch of median n.)
Cutaneous innervation
Palmar view
Flexor carpi ulnaris m. (drawn aside) Dorsal branch of ulnar n. Palmar branch
Posterior (dorsal) view
Superficial branch
Flexor pollicis brevis m. (deep head only; superficial head and other thenar mm. supplied by median n.)
Deep branch Palmaris brevis Abductor digiti minimi Flexor digiti minimi brevis Hypothenar mm. Opponens digiti minimi
Adductor pollicis m.
Common palmar digital n. Communicating branch of median n. with ulnar n. Palmar and dorsal interosseous mm. 3rd and 4th lumbrical mm. (turned down) Proper palmar digital nn. (dorsal digital nn. are from dorsal branch) Dorsal branches to dorsum of middle and distal phalanges
Figure 11-13 Ulnar nerve.
Nerves
Segmental Level
Sensory
Motor
Ulnar nerve
C7, C8, T1
Palmar and distal dorsal aspects of medial 11⁄2 digits and medial palm
Interosseous, adductor pollicis, flexor pollicis brevis, medial lumbricals, abductor digiti minimi, flexor digit minimi brevis, opponens digit minimi
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Nerves (continued) Radial Nerve
Radial n. (C5, C6, C7, C8, T1)
Inconstant contribution
Superficial (terminal) branch Deep (terminal) branch
Posterior view
Lateral epicondyle Anconeus m. Brachioradialis m. Extensor carpi radialis longus m. Supinator m. Extensor carpi radialis brevis m. Extensor carpi ulnaris m. Extensor digitorum m. and extensor digiti minimi m. Extensor indicis m.
Extensor-supinator group of mm.
Extensor pollicis longus m. Abductor pollicis longus m. Extensor pollicis brevis m. Posterior interosseous n. (continuation of deep branch of radial n. distal to supinator m.) Superficial branch of radial n.
From axillary n.
Superior lateral cutaneous n. of arm Inferior lateral cutaneous n. of arm
From radial n.
Posterior cutaneous n. of arm Posterior cutaneous n. of forearm Superficial branch of radial n. and dorsal digital branches
Dorsal digital nn. Cutaneous innervation from radial and axillary nn.
Figure 11-14 Radial nerve.
Nerves
Segmental level
Sensory
Motor
Radial nerve
C5, C6, C7, C8, T1
Dorsal aspect of lateral hand, excluding digits
No motor in hand
11 WRIST AND HAND 477
PATIENT HISTORY Initial Hypotheses Based on Patient History History
Initial Hypothesis
Pain over radial styloid process with gripping activities
Possible de Quervain’s syndrome2
Reports of an insidious onset of numbness and tingling in 1st three fingers; may complain of worse pain at night
Possible carpal tunnel syndrome3-5
Reports of paresthesias over dorsal aspect of ulnar border of hand and fingers 4-5
Possible ulnar nerve compression at canal of Guyon6-8
Patient reports inability to extend metacarpophalangeal of IP joints
Possible Dupuytren’s contracture8 Possible trigger finger9
Reports of falling on hand with wrist hyperextended; complains of pain with loading of wrist
Possible scaphoid fracture10,11 Possible carpal instability9
Reliability of the Historical Examination ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
History
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Inter-examiner Reliability
Most bothersome symptom pain, numbness, tingling, loss of sensation?12
.74 (.55, .93)
Location of most bothersome symptom?12
.82 (.68, .96)
Symptoms intermittent, variable, or constant?12
.57 (.35, .79)
Hand swollen?12 Dropping objects?12
82 patients presenting to primary care clinic, orthopaedic department, or electrophysiology laboratory with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
.85 (.68, 1.0) .95 (.85, 1.0)
Entire limb goes numb?12
.53 (.26, .81)
Nocturnal symptoms wake patient?12
.83 (.60, 1.0)
Shaking hand improves symptoms?12
.90 (.75, 1.0)
Symptoms exacerbated with activities that require gripping?12
.72 (.49, .95)
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History in Identifying Carpal Tunnel Syndrome LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.64 (.47, .82)
.59 (.47, .72)
1.58 (.46, 2.4)
.60 (.35, 1.0)
Most bothersome symptom pain, numbness, tingling, loss of sensation12
.04 (.04, .11)
.91 (.83, .98)
.42 (.05, 3.4)
1.1 (.94, 1.2)
Location of most bothersome symptom12
.35 (.16, .53)
.40 (.27, .54)
.58 (.33, 1.0)
1.6 (1.1, 2.5)
.23 (.07, .39)
.89 (.81, .97)
2.1 (.74, 5.8)
.87 (.69, 1.4)
.38 (.20, .57)
.63 (.50, .76)
1.0 (.57, 1.9)
.98 (.68, 1.4)
.73 (.56, .90)
.57 (.44, .71)
1.7 (1.2, 2.5)
.47 (.24, .92)
.38 (.20, .57)
.80 (.69, .90)
1.9 (.92, 3.9)
.77 (.55, 1.1)
Nocturnal symptoms wake patient12
.73 (.56, .90)
.31 (.19, .44)
1.1 (.79, 1.4)
.86 (.41, 1.8)
Shaking hand improves symptoms12
.81 (.66, .96)
.57 (.43, .70)
1.9 (1.3, 2.7)
.34 (.15, .77)
Symptoms exacerbated with activities that require gripping12
.77 (.61, .93)
.37 (.24, .50)
1.2 (.91, 1.6)
.62 (.28, 1.4)
.80
.42
1.38
.48
.77
.28
1.07
.82
.61
.58
1.45
.67
History
Population
Reference Standard
Age 4512
Symptoms intermittent, variable, or constant12 Reports of hand becoming swollen12 Dropping objects12 Entire limb goes numb12
82 patients presenting to a primary care clinic, orthopaedic department, or electrophysiology laboratory with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
Needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
Age 40 years13 Nocturnal symptoms13 Bilateral symptoms13
110 patients referred to laboratory for electrophysiologic examination
Nerve conduction tests
11 WRIST AND HAND 479
Diagnostic Utility of the Patient History in Identifying Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (continued)
Patient awakened by tingling and/or pain in thumb, index and middle fingers
Gradual numbness of fingers while driving Atrophy of thenar muscles due to longstanding compression of median nerve Palmaris longus tendon Median n. Flexor retinaculum
Ulnar a. and n. Flexor digitorum superficialis tendon In ulnar Flexor digitorum bursa profundus tendon
Flexor carpi radialis tendon Flexor pollicis longus tendon in radial bursa Trapezium bone Hamate bone
Trapezoid bone
Capitate bone Section through wrist at distal row of carpal bones shows carpal tunnel. Increase in size of tunnel structures caused by edema (trauma), inflammation (rheumatoid disease); ganglion, amyloid deposits, or diabetic neuropathy may compress median nerve
Figure 11-15 Carpal tunnel syndrome. 480
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Physical Examination Test Screening Diagnostic Utility of Tests to Identify Scaphoid Fractures
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Snuff box tenderness14
Examiner palpates anatomical snuff box. Positive if pain is elicited
Pain with supination against resistance14
Examiner holds patient’s hand in hand-shake position and directs patient to resist supination of forearm. Positive if pain is elicited
Pain with longitudinal compression of thumb14
Examiner holds patient’s thumb and applies long axis compression through metacarpal bone into scaphoid. Positive if pain is elicited
Anatomical snuff box tenderness15
Examiner palpates anatomical snuff box. Positive if pain is elicited
Scaphoid tubercle tenderness15
Examiner applies pressure to scaphoid tubercle. Positive if pain is elicited
Scaphoid compression tenderness15
Examiner holds patient’s thumb and applies long axis compression through metacarpal bone into scaphoid. Positive if pain is elicited
Population
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
85 patients presenting to emergency department with mechanism of injury suggesting possible scaphoid fracture
Radiographic confirmation of scaphoid fracture
221 patients with a suspected scaphoid injury
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
1.0
.98
50.0
.00
1.0
.98
50.0
.00
.98
.98
49.0
.02
1.0
.29 (.23, .35)
1.41
.00
.83 (.70, .96)
.51 (.44, .58)
1.69
.33
1.0
.80 (.74, .86)
5.0
.00
11 WRIST AND HAND 481
Screening (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Tests to Identify Scaphoid Fractures Usually caused by fall on outstretched hand with impact on thenar eminence
Figure 11-16
Lunate Scaphoid (fractured) Trapezium Trapezoid
Triquetrum Pisiform Hamulus (hook) of hamate Capitate Clinical findings. Pain, tenderness, and swelling in anatomic snuffbox.
Less common fractures
Tubercle
Distal pole
Vertical shear
Proximal pole
Fracture of middle third (waist) of scaphoid (most common)
Testing for tenderness of anatomical snuff box
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Testing for tenderness of anatomical snuff box.
Screening (continued) Acute Pediatric Wrist Fractures: Clinical Prediction Rule
Fracture of shafts of distal radius and ulna with displacement and overriding of distal fragments
Figure 11-17 Fracture of forearm bones in children.
Pershad and colleagues16 developed a clinical prediction rule to identify acute pediatric wrist injuries. Predictor variables included reduction in grip strength 20% compared with the opposite side and distal radius point tenderness. The rule exhibited a sensitivity of 79%, a specificity of 63%, a LR of 2.14, and a LR of .33. 11 WRIST AND HAND 483
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Range of Motion Reliability of Wrist Range of Motion Measurements
Figure 11-18 Wrist range of motion.
Measurement of wrist flexion
Test and Measure
Instrumentation
Population
Active ROM (AROM)17
Passive ROM (PROM)17
PROM18
8 in plastic goniometer
Alignment of plastic 6 in goniometer
48 patients in whom measurements of the wrist would normally be included in examination
140 patients in whom passive ROM of wrist would be included in standard evaluation
Reliability Intra-examiner
ICC
Inter-examiner
ICC
Wrist flexion
.96
Wrist flexion
.90
Wrist extension
.96
Wrist extension
.85
Radial deviation
.90
Radial deviation
.86
Ulnar deviation
.92
Ulnar deviation
.78
Wrist flexion
.96
Wrist flexion
.86
Wrist extension
.96
Wrist extension
.84
Radial deviation
.91
Radial deviation
.66
Ulnar deviation
.94
Ulnar deviation
.83
Radial flexion
.86
Radial flexion
.88
Ulnar flexion
.87
Ulnar flexion
.89
Dorsal flexion
.92
Dorsal flexion
.93
Radial extension
.80
Radial extension
.80
Ulnar extension
.80
Ulnar extension
.80
Dorsal extension
.84
Dorsal extension
.84
ICC, Intraclass correlation coefficient.
484
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Range of Motion (continued) Reliability of Wrist Range of Motion Measurements Figure 11-19 Wrist range of motion.
Measurement of wrist extension
Measurement of radial deviation
Measurement of ulnar deviation
11 WRIST AND HAND 485
Range of Motion (continued) Reliability of Finger and Thumb Range of Motion Measurements
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 11-20 Measurement of proximal interphalangeal joint flexion. Test and Measure
Instrumentation
Population
Flexed position .74 Extended position .83
Metacarpophalangeal joints19 Proximal interphalangeal joints19
Flexed position .80 Extended position .80
Goniometer
Distal interphalangeal joints19
20 healthy subjects 1 week apart
Metacarpophalangeal joints19 Proximal interphalangeal joints19
Flexed position .76 Extended position .83
Flexed position .73 Extended position .71 Finger goniometer
Palmar abduction21
486
Flexed position .58 Extended position .63
Flexed position .89 Extended position .90
Compangle
Distal interphalangeal joints19 Total AROM of IP flexion and extension20
Test-Retest Reliability ICC
•
Goniometer
•
Pollexograph-thumb
•
Pollexograph-metacarpal
•
American Medical Association method
•
American Society of Hand Therapists method
•
Intermetacarpal distance
30 patients with hand injuries
Intra-examiner .97-.98 Inter-examiner .97
25 healthy subjects
Intra-examiner
Inter-examiner
Active .55 (.34, .87) .71 (.62, .93) .82 (.78, .96) .72 (.63, .92) .78 (.72, .94) .95 (.95, .99)
Active .31 (ⴚ.18, .77) .66 (.53, .91) .57 (.38, .88) .24 (ⴚ.40, .73) .55 (.34, .87) .82 (.79, .96)
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Passive .76 (.69, .94) .82 (.78, .96) .81 (.76, .95) .65 (.51, .90) .72 (.63, .93) .92 (.90, .98)
Passive .37 (ⴚ.42, .79) .59 (.42, .89) .61 (.45, .89) .52 (.28, .86) .52 (.29, .86) .79 (.78, .96)
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Assessing Strength Intra-examiner Reliability of Assessing Strength
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 11-21 Measurement of grip strength. Procedure Performed
Instrumentation
Population
Test-Retest Reliability (ICCs)
Wrist extensors (mean of two efforts)22
40 patients with suspected myopathy
Dominant side .88 (.79, .94) Non-dominant side .94 (.90, .97)
Wrist extensors (max of two efforts)22
40 patients with suspected myopathy
Dominant side .87 (.76, .93) Non-dominant side .94 (.88, .97)
Grip23
21 healthy older volunteers
Left .95 (.89, .98) Right .91 (.78, .96)
Grip24
22 asymptomatic subjects
One trial: .95 (.89, .98) Mean of three trials: .85 (.67, .94) Highest of three trials: .95 (.89, .98)
22 patients after carpal tunnel decompression
One trial: .97, (.94, .99) Mean of three trials: .94 (.80, .98) Highest of three trials: .97 (.92, .99)
22 patients after carpal tunnel decompression
One trial: .96 (.91, .98) Mean of three trials: .98 (.96, .99) Highest of three trials: .97 (.90, .99)
Dynamometer
Dominant side .97 (.95, .98) Non-dominant side .95 (.92, .96)
Grip25 Vigorimeter
104 healthy primary school children
Dominant side .84 (.77, .89) Non-dominant side .86 (.80, .90)
11 WRIST AND HAND 487
Assessing Strength (continued) Figure 11-22 Measurement of pinch strength.
Measurement of tip pinch strength
Measurement of key pinch strength
Measurement of tripod pinch strength
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Assessing Strength (continued) Inter-examiner Reliability of Assessing Strength
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Procedure Performed
Instrumentation
Population
Inter-Examiner Reliability (ICCs)
Grip Palmar pinch Key pinch Tip pinch26
Pinch gauge
27 healthy volunteers
Right .99 .98 .99 .99
Left .99 .99 .98 .99
Grip Tip pinch Key pinch27
Hand and pinch grip dynamometers
33 patients with a unilateral hand injury
Injured .93-.97 .89 .94
Non-injured .92-.94 .84 .86
Grip Tip pinch Jaw pinch20
Grip dynamometer and pinch gauge
30 patients with hand injuries
Intra-examiner .96 .86-.94 .88-.93
Inter-examiner .95 .91 .89
Grip Tripod Key pinch28
Dynamometer and pinch gauge
38 patients receiving physical therapy for hand impairments
Symptomatic .93 (.86, .96) 88 (.78, .96) .94 (.88, .97)
Asymptomatic .94 (.89, .97) .87 (.74, .93) .93 (.86, .96)
Abductor pollicis strength12
Examiner performs manual muscle testing of abductor pollicis. Graded as “markedly reduced,” “reduced,” or “normal” compared with contralateral extremity
82 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
.39 (.00, .80)
Wrist extensors2
Dynamometer
30 patients presenting to a physical therapy clinic
.94
Wrist flexion Wrist extension29
Dynamometer
20 healthy subjects
Wrist flexion .85 Wrist extension .91
Diagnostic Utility of Weakness in Identifying Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Strength of abductor pollicis brevis12
Strength of abductor pollicis brevis is tested by placing thumb in a position of abduction and applying a force in direction of adduction at proximal phalanx. Positive if strength is reduced or markedly reduced compared with contralateral extremity
82 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
Needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
.19 (.04, .34)
.89 (.81, .90)
1.7 (.58, 5.2)
.91 (.74, 1.1)
Abductor pollicis brevis weakness30
Patient is instructed to touch pads of thumb and 5th digit together. Examiner applies posteriorly directed force over thumb IP joint towards palm. Positive if weakness is detected
228 hands referred for electrodiagnostic consultation with suspected carpal tunnel syndrome
Nerve conduction studies
.66
.66
1.94
.52
11 WRIST AND HAND 489
Assessing Wrist Anthropometry Reliability of Measuring Wrist Anthropometry ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Measure
Wrist anterior-posterior width12 Wrist medial-lateral width12
Test Procedure and Determination of Positive Findings
Population
Width of wrist is measured in centimeters with pair of calipers
82 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Inter-examiner Reliability ICC .77 (.62, .87) ICC .86 (.75, .92)
Diagnostic Utility of Wrist Anthropometry in Identifying Carpal Tunnel Syndrome LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Wrist-ratio index greater than .6712
Anteroposterior width of wrist is measured and divided by mediolateral width. Positive if ratio is greater than .67
82 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
Needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
.93 (.83, 1.0)
.26 (.14, .38)
1.3 (1.0, 1.5)
.29 (.07, 1.2)
The squareshaped wrist30
Anteroposterior and mediolateral dimensions of wrist are measured at distal flexor wrist crease using standard caliper. Positive if wrist ratio (anteroposterior dimension divided by mediolateral dimension) is .70
228 hands referred for electrodiagnostic consultation with suspected carpal tunnel syndrome
Nerve conduction studies
.69
.73
2.56
.42
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Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Assessing Swelling Reliability of Assessing Swelling ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 11-23 Figure-of-eight measurement. Test and Measure
31
Figure-of-eight
Volumetric31
Test Procedure
Examiner places zero mark on distal aspect of ulnar styloid process. Tape measure is then brought across ventral surface of wrist to most distal aspect of radial styloid process. Next, tape is brought diagonally across dorsum of hand and over 5th MCP joint line, brought over ventral surface of MCP joints, and wrapped diagonally across dorsum to meet start of tape Hand is placed vertically in standard volumeter
Population
Reliability Intra-examiner
Inter-examiner
ICC .99
ICC .99
ICC .99
Not reported
24 individuals (33 hands) with pathologies affecting hand
11 WRIST AND HAND 491
Testing Sensation Reliability of Sensory Testing ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Test and Measure
Test Procedure and Determination of Positive Findings
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Semmes-Weinstein monofilament test28
Sensory test is performed on pulp of thumb, index, long, and small fingertips
36 hands with carpal tunnel syndrome
.22 (.26, .42)
Median sensory field deficit of thumb pad12 Median sensory field deficit of index finger pad12
Sensation is tested with straight end of paper clip. Graded as “absent,” “reduced,” “normal,” or “hyperesthetic”
Median sensory field deficit12
82 patients presenting to a primary care clinic, orthopaedic department, or electrophysiology laboratory with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
.48 (.23, .73) .50 (.25, .75) .40 (.12, .68)
Diagnostic Utility of Diminished Sensation in Identifying Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Sensory loss at pad of thumb12 Sensory loss at pad of index finger12 Sensory loss at pad of medial finger12 Moving two-point discrimination13
492
Sensation is tested with straight end of a paper clip. Positive if sensation is absent or reduced
Examiner strokes tip of index and 5th finger five times with either one or two caliber tips. Positive if patient is unable to identify number of tips performed on at least one stroke
Population
82 patients presenting to a primary care clinic, orthopaedic department, or electrophysiology laboratory with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome 110 patients referred to laboratory for electrophysiologic examination
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Reference Standard
Needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
Nerve conduction tests
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.65 (.47, .84)
.70 (.47, .84)
2.2 (1.3, 3.6)
.49 (.28, .46)
.52 (.32, .72)
.67 (.32, .72)
1.6 (.92, 2.7)
.72 (.86, 1.1)
.44 (.26, .63)
.74 (.26, .63)
1.7 (.58, .52)
.75 (.86, 1.1)
.32
.81
1.68
.84
Testing Sensation (continued)
Semmes-Weinstein monofilament testing
Two-point discrimination Musculocutaneous nerve: Lateral cutaneous nerve of forearm
Radial nerve: Superficial branch
Radial nerve: Posterior cutaneous nerve of forearm Superficial branch and dorsal digital branches
Medial cutaneous n. of forearm Ulnar nerve: Palmar branch
Median nerve: Palmar branch
Dorsal branch and dorsal digital branches
Palmar digital branches
Palmar digital branches
Division between ulnar and radial nerve innervation on dorsum of hand is variable; it often aligns with middle or 3rd digit instead of 4th digit as shown Median nerve: Proper palmar digital branches
Anterior (palmar) view
Posterior (dorsal) view
Cutaneous innervation of the wrist and hand
Figure 11-24 Testing sensation. 11 WRIST AND HAND 493
Special Tests Reliability of Tinel’s Sign ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Figure 11-25 Tinel’s sign. Test and Measure
Test Procedure
Tinel A12
With patient seated with elbow flexed 30°, forearm supinated, and wrist in neutral, examiner allows a reflex hammer to fall from a height of 6 inches along median nerve between tendons at proximal wrist crease. Positive if patient reports a nonpainful tingling sensation along course of median nerve
Tinel B12
As Tinel A above except examiner attempts to elicit symptoms using mild-moderate force with reflex hammer. Positive if pain is exacerbated along course of median nerve
Tinel’s sign28
Examiner percusses over palm from proximal palmar crease to distal wrist crease. Positive if symptoms are elicited in distribution of median nerve
494
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability .47 (.21, .72)
82 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
36 hands with carpal tunnel syndrome
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
.35 (.10, .60)
.81 (.66, .98)
Special Tests (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Tinel’s Sign in Identifying Carpal Tunnel Syndrome LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Tinel’s sign32
Examiner taps median nerve at wrist with fingers. Positive if patient reports pain or paresthesias in distribution of median nerve
142 patients referred for electrodiagnostic testing
Electrodiagnostic testing
.27 (.18, .36)
.91 (.84, 1.0)
3.0
.80
228 hands referred for electrodiagnostic consultation with suspected carpal tunnel syndrome
Nerve conduction studies
.23
.87
1.77
.89
.41 (.22, .59)
.58 (.45, .72)
.98 (.56, 1.7)
1.0 (.69, 1.5)
.48 (.29, .67)
.67 (.54, .79)
1.4 (.84, 2.5)
.78 (.52, 1.2)
Electrodiagnostic testing*
.90
.81
4.7
.12
Carpal tunnel syndrome via clinical examination
.30 (.24, .36)
.65 (.58, .71)
.9
1.10
Tenosynovitis via ultrasonography
.46 (.41, .53)
.85 (.80, .89)
3.1
.64
Nerve conduction tests
.60
.67
1.82
.60
Tinel’s sign30
Tinel A12
Tinel B12
Tinel’s test33
Tinel’s test1
Tinel’s sign13
With patient seated with elbow flexed 30°, forearm supinated, and wrist in neutral, examiner allows reflex hammer to fall from height of 6 inches along median nerve between tendons at proximal wrist crease. Positive if patient reports nonpainful tingling sensation along course of median nerve
82 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
Needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
As Tinel A above except examiner attempts to elicit symptoms using mild-to-moderate force with reflex hammer. Positive if pain is exacerbated along course of median nerve Positive if percussion of the median nerve at the wrist caused tingling in the median nerve distribution
Percussion of the median nerve at the wrist (no other details)
Examiner drops square end of reflex hammer on distal wrist crease from height of 12 cm. Positive if patient reports pain or paresthesias in at least one finger innervated by median nerve
162 hands from 81 patients seeking treatment for carpal tunnel syndrome
232 patients with carpal tunnel syndrome manifestations and 182 controls
110 patients referred to laboratory for electrophysiologic examination
*Also used latent class analysis to define reference standard diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome, but doing so resulted in study being excluded for poor quality because the reference standard was then not independent of index tests.
11 WRIST AND HAND 495
Special Tests (continued) Reliability of Phalen’s Test ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Phalen’s test
Reverse Phalen’s test
Figure 11-26 Phalen’s test. Test and Measure
Test Procedure
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Phalen’s test28
Patient places dorsal aspects of hands together, maintaining maximal wrist flexion for 60 seconds. Positive if symptoms are elicited in distribution of median nerve
36 hands with carpal tunnel syndrome
.88 (.77-.98)
Phalen’s test12
With patient seated with elbow flexed 30° and forearm supinated, examiner places the wrists in maximal flexion for 60 sec. Positive if patient experiences exacerbation of symptoms in median nerve distribution
82 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
.79 (.59. 1.0)
Wrist extension test28
Patient places palmar aspects of hands together maintaining maximal wrist extension for 60 sec. Positive if symptoms are elicited in distribution of median nerve
36 hands with carpal tunnel syndrome
.72 (.55, .88)
496
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Phalen’s Test in Identifying Carpal Tunnel Syndrome LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Phalen’s test12
With patient seated with elbow flexed 30° and forearm supinated, examiner places wrist in maximal flexion for 60 sec. Positive if patient experiences exacerbation of symptoms in median nerve distribution
82 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
Needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
.77 (.61, .93)
.40 (.26, .53)
1.3 (.94, 1.7)
.58 (.27, 1.3)
142 patients referred for electrodiagnostic testing
Electrodiagnostic testing
.34 (.24, .43)
.74 (.62, .87)
1.31
.89
228 hands referred for electrodiagnostic consultation with suspected CTS
Nerve conduction studies
.51
.76
2.13
.64
162 hands from 81 patients seeking treatment for CTS
Electrodiagnostic testing*
.85
.79
4.0
.19
Carpal tunnel syndrome via clinical examination
.47 (.41, .54)
.17 (.13, .23)
.6
3.12
Tenosynovitis via ultrasonography
.92 (.36, .49)
.87 (.82, .91)
7.1
.09
Carpal tunnel syndrome via clinical examination
.42 (.36, .49)
.35 (.29, .42)
.6
1.66
Tenosynovitis via ultrasonography
.75 (.69, .80)
.85 (.80, .89)
5.0
.29
Phalen’s test32 Phalen’s test30
Patient maximally flexes wrist and holds position for 60 sec. Positive if symptoms are produced
Phalen’s test33 Phalen’s test1
Reverse Phalen’s test1
Complete wrist flexion for 60 sec. (no other details)
Complete wrist extension for 60 sec (no other details)
232 patients with carpal tunnel syndrome manifestations and 182 controls
Phalen’s test13
Patient flexes both wrists to 90° with dorsal aspects of hands held in opposition for 60 sec. Positive if patient reports pain or paresthesias in at least one finger innervated by median nerve
110 patients referred to laboratory for electrophysiologic examination
Nerve conduction tests
.74
.47
1.4
.55
Phalen’s test34
Patient holds forearms in pronation with elbows resting on examination table, forearms vertical, and wrists in gravity-assisted flexion. Positive if symptoms are produced
132 patients with pain of upper limb
Electrophysiologic confirmation
.79
.92
9.88
.23
*Also used latent class analysis to define reference standard diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome, but doing so resulted in study being excluded for poor quality because the reference standard was then not independent of index tests.
11 WRIST AND HAND 497
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Special Tests (continued) Reliability of Carpal Compression Test
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Test and Measure
Test Procedure
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Carpal compression test12
With patient seated with elbow flexed 30°, forearm supinated, and wrist in neutral., examiner places both thumbs over transverse carpal ligament and applies 6 lb of pressure for 30 sec maximum. Positive if patient experiences exacerbation of symptoms in median nerve distribution
36 hands with carpal tunnel syndrome
.77 (.58, .96)
Diagnostic Utility of Carpal Compression Test in Identifying Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Figure 11-27 Carpal compression test.
LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
Carpal compression test12
With patient seated with elbow flexed 30°, forearm supinated, and wrist in neutral, examiner places both thumbs over transverse carpal ligament and applies 6 lb of pressure for 30 sec maximum. Positive if patient experiences exacerbation of symptoms in median nerve distribution
82 patients presenting to a primary care clinic, orthopaedic department, or electrophysiology laboratory with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
Needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
.64 (.45, .83)
.30 (.17, .42)
.91 (.65, 1.3)
1.2 (.62, 2.4)
Carpal compression test30
Examiner applies moderate pressure over median nerve just distal to distal flexor wrist crease for 5 sec. Considered positive if pain, paresthesia, or numbness is reproduced
228 hands referred for electrodiagnostic consultation with suspected carpal tunnel syndrome
Nerve conduction studies
.28
.74
1.08
.97
Carpal tunnel syndrome via clinical examination
.46 (.40, .53)
.25 (.20, .31)
.6
2.16
Tenosynovitis via ultrasonography
.95 (.91, .97)
.97 (.94, .99)
31.7
.05
Electrophysiologic confirmation
.83
.92
10.38
.18
Carpal tunnel compression test1
Carpal compression test34
498
Examiner exerts even pressure on the space between the thenar and hypothenar eminence for 30 sec while arm is supinated. Patient is questioned regarding symptoms every 15 sec Examiner applies moderate pressure with thumbs over transverse carpal ligament with wrist in neutral for 30 sec. Considered positive if pain, paresthesia, or numbness is reproduced
232 patients with carpal tunnel syndrome manifestations and 182 controls
132 patients with pain of upper limb
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Special Tests Reliability of Upper Limb Tension Tests ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Test and Measure
Description and Positive Findings
Upper limb tension test A12 12
Upper limb tension test B
See below
Population
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Inter-examiner Reliability
82 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
.76 (.51, 1.0) .83 (.65, 1.0)
Diagnostic Utility of Upper Limb Tension Tests in Identifying Carpal Tunnel Syndrome LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 11-28 Upper limb tension test A. Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Upper limb tension test A12
Patient is supine. Examiner performs scapular depression, shoulder abduction, forearm supination, wrist and finger extension, shoulder lateral rotation, elbow extension, and contralateral/ipsilateral cervical sidebending. Positive if symptoms are reproduced, side-toside difference in elbow extension greater than 10°, contralateral neck sidebending increases symptoms or ipsilateral sidebending decreases symptoms
Upper limb tension test B12
With patient supine with shoulder abducted 30°, examiner performs scapular depression, shoulder medial rotation, full elbow extension, wrist and finger flexion, and contralateral/ipsilateral cervical sidebending. Positive if symptoms are reproduced, side-to-side difference in wrist flexion 10°, contralateral neck sidebending increases symptoms, or ipsilateral sidebending decreases symptoms
Population
82 patients with suspected cervical radiculopathy or carpal tunnel syndrome
Reference Standard
Needle electromyography and nerve conduction studies
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.75 (.58, .92)
.13 (.04, .22)
.86 (.67, 1.1)
1.9 (.72, 5.1)
.64 (.45, .83)
.30 (.17, .42)
.91 (.65, 1.3)
1.2 (.62, 2.4)
11 WRIST AND HAND 499
Special Tests (continued) Diagnostic Utility of Special Tests in Identifying Carpal Instability LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 11-29 Scaphoid shift test. Test and Measure
Test Procedure
Determination of Positive Findings
Scaphoid shift test35
With patient’s elbow stabilized on table with forearm in slight pronation, with one hand, examiner grasps radial side of patient’s wrist with thumb on palmar prominence of scaphoid. With other hand, examiner grasps patient’s hand at metacarpal level to stabilize wrist. Examiner maintains pressure on scaphoid tubercle and moves patient’s wrist into ulnar deviation with slight extension and then radial deviation with slight flexion. Examiner releases pressure on scaphoid while wrist is in radial deviation and flexion
Positive for instability of scaphoid if scaphoid shifts, test elicits a “thunk,” or patient’s symptoms are reproduced when scaphoid is released
Ballottement test35
Examiner stabilizes patient’s lunate bone between thumb and index finger of one hand while other hand moves pisotriquetral complex in a palmar and dorsal direction
Positive for instability of luno-triquetral joint if patient’s symptoms are reproduced or excessive laxity of joint is revealed
Ulnomeniscotriquetral dorsal glide35
With patient seated with elbow on table and forearm neutral, examiner places thumb over head of distal ulna. Examiner then places radial side of index PIP joint over palmar surface of patient’s pisotriquetral complex. Examiner squeezes thumb and index finger together, creating a dorsal glide of pisotriquetral complex
Considered positive for ulnomeniscotriquetral complex instability if the patient’s symptoms are reproduced or excessive laxity of the joint is revealed
500
Population
50 painful wrists undergoing arthroscopy
Reference Standard
Arthroscopic visualization
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.69
.66
2.03
.47
.64
.44
1.14
.82
.66
.64
1.69
.56
ICC or .81-1.0 .61-.80 .41-.60 .11-.40 .0-.10
Special Tests (continued) Reliability of Miscellaneous Special Tests
Interpretation Substantial agreement Moderate agreement Fair agreement Slight agreement No agreement
Test and Measure
Test Procedure and Determination of Positive Findings
Population
Inter-examiner Reliability
Tethered median nerve test28
Examiner passively extends patient’s index finger while patient’s forearm is in supination and wrist is in full extension. Position is maintained for 15 sec. Positive if symptoms are elicited in distribution of median nerve
36 hands with carpal tunnel syndrome
.49 (.26, .71)
Pinch test28
Patient actively pinches a piece of paper between tip of thumb, index, and long fingers using MP flexion and IP extension. Positive if symptoms are elicited in distribution of median nerve
36 hands with carpal tunnel syndrome
.76 (.62, .91)
Diagnostic Utility of Miscellaneous Special Tests LR
Interpretation
LR
10 5.0-10.0 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Large Moderate Small Rarely important
.1 .1-.2 .2-.5 .5-1.0
Figure 11-30 Ulnar fovea sign.
Test and Study Quality
Description and Positive Findings
Population
The flick maneuver32
Patient demonstrates hand motions or positions patient uses when pain is most severe. Positive if patient demonstrates a flicking down of hands similar to shaking a thermometer
142 patients referred for electrodiagnostic testing
Lumbrical provocation test36
Patient makes a fist for 60 sec. Considered positive if the patient reports paresthesia in the distribution of the median nerve
96 consecutive patients referred for electrodiagnostic testing
Ulnar fovea sign37
Examiner presses thumb distally and deep into the “soft spot” between the ulnar styloid process and flexor carpi ulnaris tendon. Positive if exquisite tenderness similar to experienced wrist pain
272 consecutive patients undergoing wrist arthroscopy
Reference Standard
Sens
Spec
LR
LR
.37 (.27, .46)
.74 (.62, .87)
1.42
.85
.37
.71
1.28
.89
.95 (.90, .98)
.87 (.79, .92)
7.1 (4.5, 11.0)
.06 (.03, .11)
Carpal tunnel syndrome via electrodiagnostic testing
Foveal disruption of the distal radioulnar ligaments and ulnotriquetral ligament injuries observed arthroscopy
11 WRIST AND HAND 501
Combinations of Tests Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: Clinical Prediction Rule Wainner and colleagues12 developed a clinical prediction rule for detecting carpal tunnel syndrome. The result of their study demonstrated that if 5 variables (a Brigham and Women’s Hospital Hand Severity Scale score of 1.9, a wrist ratio index .67, a patient report of shaking the hand for symptom relief, diminished sensation on the thumb pad, and age older than 45) were present, the LR was 18.3 (95% CI 1.0, 328.3). This clinical prediction rule results in a post-test probability of 90% that the patient has carpal tunnel syndrome.
.1
99
.2 .5
2 5 Percent (%)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
1000 500 200 100 50 20 10 5 2 1
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 .5 .2 .1 .05 .02 .01 .005 .002 .001
20
Percent (%)
1
95
10 5 2 1 .5
95
.2 99 Pretest Probability
Likelihood Ratio
.1 Post-test Probability
Figure 11-31 Nomogram representing the change in pretest (34% in this study) to post-test probability given the clinical prediction rule. (Adapted with permission from Fagan TJ. Nomogram for Bayes’ theorem. N Engl J Med. 1975;293:257. Copyright 2005, Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.)
502
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
OUTCOME MEASURES Outcome Measure
Scoring and Interpretation
Test-Retest Reliability
MCID
Upper Extremity Functional Index
Users are asked to rate the difficulty of performing 20 functional tasks on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (extremely difficult or unable to perform activity) to 4 (no difficulty). A total score out of 80 is calculated by summing each score. The answers provide a score between 0 and 80, with lower scores representing more disability
ICC .95
Unknown (MDC 9.1)38
Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand (DASH)
Users are asked to rate the difficulty of performing 30 functional tasks on a Likert-type scale; 21 items relate to physical function, 5 items relate to pain symptoms, and 4 items related to emotional and social functioning. A total score out of 100 is calculated with higher scores representing more disability
ICC .9039
10.239
Michigan Hand Outcomes Questionnaire (MHQ)
Consists of 37 items on 6 scales: (1) overall hand function, (2) activities of daily living (ADL), (3) work performance, (4) pain, (5) aesthetics, and (6) satisfaction with hand function. Users rate each item on a 5-point Likert-type scale. Answers provide a total score between 0 and 100 with higher score indicating better hand performance
ICC .9540
Pain 23 Function 13 ADL 11 Work 841
Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS)
Users rate their level of pain on an 11-point scale ranging from 0 to 10, with high scores representing more pain. Often asked as “current pain” and “least,” “worst,” and “average” pain in the past 24 hours
ICC .7242
243,44
38
MCID, Minimum clinically important difference; MDC, minimal detectable change.
11 WRIST AND HAND 503
APPENDIX
Heller 198645
Gellman 198646
Waeckerle 1987
Powell 198847
Katz 1990
Koris 199048
Durkan 199149
Williams 199250
LaStayo 1995
Grover 1996
Gonzalez del Pino 199751
Gunnarsson 199752
Kuhlman 1997
Fertl 1998
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
N
N
N
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
N
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
N
N
Y
N
N
N
N
U
Y
Y
N
U
Y
N
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
U
U
Y
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
U
Y
U
5. Did the whole sample or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
Y
N
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
Y
N
Y
U
Y
N
Y
N
Y
Y
U
U
Y
Y
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
Y
U
Y
N
Y
U
Y
Y
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
N
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
U
U
Y
Y
Y
U
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
U
U
N
U
Y
U
U
Y
U
Y
U
U
U
U
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
U
U
U
U
Y
U
U
U
Y
U
U
Y
U
Y
13. Were uninterpretable/ intermediate test results reported?
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
Y
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
U
U
Y
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
N
N
Y
Y
Quality summary rating: Y yes, N no, U unclear.
504
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14).
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9).
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Poor quality (Y - N 4).
APPENDIX (continued)
Tetro 199853
Szabo 1999
Pershad 2000
Ahn 200154
Karl 2001
Mondelli 200155
Hansen 2004
Lajoie 2005
Wainner 2005
Amirfeyz 200556
Tay 2007
El Miedany 2008
Cheng 200857
Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Studies Using QUADAS
1. Was the spectrum of patients representative of the patients who will receive the test in practice?
N
N
Y
N
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
N
N
2. Were selection criteria clearly described?
Y
N
Y
N
Y
U
Y
U
Y
Y
U
Y
Y
3. Is the reference standard likely to correctly classify the target condition?
Y
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
4. Is the time period between reference standard and index test short enough to be reasonably sure that the target condition did not change between the two tests?
U
U
Y
U
U
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
U
U
U
5. Did the whole sample, or a random selection of the sample, receive verification using a reference standard of diagnosis?
N
N
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
6. Did patients receive the same reference standard regardless of the index test result?
N
N
Y
U
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
N
U
Y
N
7. Was the reference standard independent of the index test (i.e., the index test did not form part of the reference standard)?
Y
U
Y
U
Y
U
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
8. Was the execution of the index test described in sufficient detail to permit replication of the test?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
9. Was the execution of the reference standard described in sufficient detail to permit its replication?
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
N
Y
N
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
10. Were the index test results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the reference test?
U
U
Y
U
Y
U
Y
U
U
Y
Y
U
U
11. Were the reference standard results interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test?
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
U
U
U
12. Were the same clinical data available when test results were interpreted as would be available when the test is used in practice?
U
Y
Y
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
Y
Y
U
13. Were uninterpretable/ intermediate test results reported?
U
U
Y
U
U
U
U
U
Y
U
U
U
U
14. Were withdrawals from the study explained?
U
U
Y
U
U
U
Y
U
Y
U
U
U
U
Quality summary rating: Y yes, N no, U unclear.
Good quality (Y - N 10 to 14).
Fair quality (Y - N 5 to 9).
Poor quality (Y - N 4).
11 WRIST AND HAND 505
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19. Stam HJ, Ardon MS, den Ouden AC, et al. The compangle: a new goniometer for joint angle measurements of the hand. A technical note. Eura Medicophys. 2006;42:37-40. 20. Brown A, Cramer LD, Eckhaus D, et al. Validity and reliability of the dexter hand evaluation and therapy system in hand-injured patients. J Hand Ther. 2000;13:37-45. 21. de Kraker M, Selles RW, Schreuders TA, et al. Palmar abduction: reliability of 6 measurement methods in healthy adults. J Hand Surg Am. 2009;34:523-530. 22. van den Beld WA, van der Sanden GA, Sengers RC, et al. Validity and reproducibility of hand-held dynamometry in children aged 4-11 years. J Rehabil Med. 2006;38:57-64. 23. Bohannon RW, Schaubert KL. Test-retest reliability of grip-strength measures obtained over a 12-week interval from community-dwelling elders. J Hand Ther. 2005;18:426-428. 24. Coldham F, Lewis J, Lee H. The reliability of one vs. three grip trials in symptomatic and asymptomatic subjects. J Hand Ther. 2006;19:318-327. 25. Molenaar HM, Zuidam JM, Selles RW, et al. Agespecific reliability of two grip-strength dynamometers when used by children. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2008;90:1053-1059. 26. Mathiowetz V, Weber K, Volland G, Kashman N. Reliability and validity of grip and pinch strength evaluations. J Hand Surg Am. 1984;9:222-226. 27. Schreuders TA, Roebroeck ME, Goumans J, et al. Measurement error in grip and pinch force measurements in patients with hand injuries. Phys Ther. 2003;83:806-815. 28. MacDermid JC, Kramer JF, Woodbury MG, et al. Interrater reliability of pinch and grip strength measurements in patients with cumulative trauma disorders. J Hand Ther. 1994;7:10-14. 29. Rheault W, Beal JL, Kubik KR, et al. Intertester reliability of the hand-held dynamometer for wrist flexion and extension. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1989;70:907-910. 30. Kuhlman KA, Hennessey WJ. Sensitivity and specificity of carpal tunnel syndrome signs. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 1997;76:451-457. 31. Leard JS, Breglio L, Fraga L, et al. Reliability and concurrent validity of the figure-of-eight method of measuring hand size in patients with hand pathology. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2004;34:335-340. 32. Hansen PA, Micklesen P, Robinson LR. Clinical utility of the flick maneuver in diagnosing carpal tunnel syndrome. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;83:363-367. 33. LaJoie AS, McCabe SJ, Thomas B, Edgell SE. Determining the sensitivity and specificity of common diagnostic tests for carpal tunnel syndrome using latent class analysis. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2005;116:502-507. 34. Fertl E, Wober C, Zeitlhofer J. The serial use of two provocative tests in the clinical diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome. Acta Neurol Scand. 1998;98:328-332.
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35. LaStayo P, Howell J. Clinical provocative tests used in evaluating wrist pain: a descriptive study. J Hand Ther. 1995;8:10-17. 36. Karl AI, Carney ML, Kaul MP. The lumbrical provocation test in subjects with median inclusive paresthesia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82:935-937. 37. Tay SC, Tomita K, Berger RA. The “ulnar fovea sign” for defining ulnar wrist pain: an analysis of sensitivity and specificity. J Hand Surg Am. 2007;32:438-444. 38. Stratford PW, Binkley JM, Riddle DL. Development and initial validation of the upper extremity functional index. Physiother Can. 2001;53:259-263. 39. Roy JS, MacDermid JC, Woodhouse LJ. Measuring shoulder function: a systematic review of four questionnaires. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;61:623-632. 40. Massy-Westropp N, Krishnan J, Ahern M. Comparing the AUSCAN Osteoarthritis Hand Index, Michigan Hand Outcomes Questionnaire, and Sequential Occupational Dexterity Assessment for patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2004;31:1996-2001. 41. Shauver MJ, Chung KC. The minimal clinically important difference of the Michigan hand outcomes questionnaire. J Hand Surg Am. 2009;34:509-514. 42. Li L, Liu X, Herr K. Postoperative pain intensity assessment: a comparison of four scales in Chinese adults. Pain Med. 2007;8:223-234. 43. Farrar JT, Berlin JA, Strom BL. Clinically important changes in acute pain outcome measures: A validation study. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2003;25:406-411. 44. Farrar JT, Portenoy RK, Berlin JA, et al. Defining the clinically important difference in pain outcome measures. Pain. 2000;88:287-294. 45. Heller L, Ring H, Costeff PS. Evaluation of Tinel’s and Phalen’s sign in diagnosis of the carpal tunnel syndrome. Eur Neurol. 1986;25:40-42. 46. Gellman H, Gelberman RH, Tan AM, Botte MJ. Carpal tunnel syndrome. An evaluation of the pro-
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11 WRIST AND HAND 507
Index
Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures; page numbers followed by t indicate tables.
A A angle, in knee, 311, 311f, 311t Abdomen, bony framework of, 201f Abdominal endurance test, 162t Abdominal wall muscles, 142f anterior, 143 Abduction/abduction tests of hand, 486t of hip. See Hip abduction/ abduction tests. of palm, 486t of sacroiliac joint, 232t of shoulder. See Shoulder abduction/abduction tests. of thumb, for carpal tunnel syndrome, 489t Abductor digiti minimi brevis tendon, 344f Abductor digiti minimi muscle in foot, 348f, 349f, 349t, 350f, 351f, 352f, 354f nerve to, 350f, 354f in hand, 473t, 474f innervation of, 476f Abductor hallucis brevis muscle, 354f Abductor hallucis brevis nerve, 354f Abductor hallucis brevis tendon, 344f Abductor hallucis longus muscle, 349f, 349t Abductor hallucis muscle, 348f, 349f, 350f, 351f insertion of, 352f Abductor hallucis tendon, 349f, 350f Abductor pollicis brevis muscle, 473t, 474f innervation of, 475f manual testing of, 462 for cervical radiculopathy, 88t, 489t strength testing of, 489t Abductor pollicis brevis tendon, 448f Abductor pollicis longus muscle, 445f, 470f, 470t area on radius for, 444f innervation of, 477f
Abductor pollicis longus tendon, insertion of, 465f AC joint. See Acromioclavicular (AC) joint. Accuracy of diagnostic test, 2, 3-7 Acetabular fossa, fat in, 247f Acetabular labrum, 247f tears of, 244 patient history in, 254t, 255, 255t Acetabular ligament, transverse, 247f Acetabular notch, 203f, 245f Acetabulum, 203f, 245f advanced degenerative changes in, 259f lunate surface of, 203f, 245f, 247f margin (limbus) of, 203f, 206f, 245f Achilles reflex, with lumbar spinal stenosis, 158t Achilles tendon, 340f, 342f, 346f, 347f neurological examination of, 156t in physical examination, 368t rheumatoid arthritis involvement of, 369f rupture of, 355t Achilles tendonitis, 355t ACL. See Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). Acoustic meatus. See External acoustic/auditory meatus. Acromial angle, of scapula, 379f, 380f Acromial branch, of thoracoacromial artery, 388f Acromial end, of clavicle, 379f Acromial facet, of clavicle, 379f Acromioclavicular (AC) joint, 136t, 383f, 386f capsule of, 382f injury mechanisms of, 426f integrated movements of, 381, 381f lesions of, tests for, 426, 426f, 426t pain syndrome of, 397t palpation of, 426t
Acromioclavicular (AC) joint (Continued) in physical examination, 411t-412t sprains of, 389t Acromioclavicular ligament, 382f, 382t tears of, 417 Acromion, 379f, 380f, 382f, 383f, 384f, 385f, 386f, 388f in AC joint lesions, 426f, 426t in physical examination, 393t, 395t Acronyms SnNout, 5, 5f SpPin, 6, 6f Activity modification, for patellofemoral pain syndrome, 284, 325, 325f, 325t Activity of Daily Living Scale (ADLS), in knee outcomes, 327t Adduction angle, of hip, 268t Adduction/adduction tests of hip. See Hip adduction/ adduction tests. of knee end-feel with, 302t pain during, 303t of shoulder. See Shoulder adduction/adduction tests. Adductor brevis muscle, 250t, 253f, 292f Adductor hallucis brevis tendon, 344f Adductor hallucis muscle, 354f insertion of, 352f oblique head of, 351f, 351t transverse head of, 351f, 351t Adductor hiatus, 253f, 292f Adductor longus muscle, 250t, 251f, 253f, 292f Adductor magnus muscle, 249f, 250t, 253f, 292f obturator nerve to, 294f sciatic nerve to ischiocondylar part of, 249f, 250t Adductor magnus tendon, 253f, 287f, 291f Adductor minimus muscle, 249f
Adductor muscles, of hip and thigh, 250t, 251f length assessment of, 270t Adductor pollicis muscle, 473t, 474f innervation of, 476f oblique head of, 473t transverse head of, 473t Adductor tubercle, of femur, 285f on medial epicondyle, 253f, 287f Adhesions in shoulder joint, 397f in temporomandibular joint arthrosis, 32f Adhesive capsulitis, of shoulder, 389t, 397f, 397t ADLS (Activity of Daily Living Scale), in knee outcomes, 327t Afferent nerves, somatic, lumbar disc herniation and, 179f Ala (wing) of ilium, 201f, 202f, 246f female vs. male, 204f gluteal surface of, 201f, 203f iliac fossa, 203f, 245f of sphenoid bone, greater, 19f Alar ligament, 70f, 70t Algometer, for TMJ pressure pain thresholds, 38t Alignment assessment of bones. See Bony alignment assessment. dynamic. See Dynamic movements. static. See Static alignment. Alveolar artery, inferior, 25f mylohyoid branch of, 21f Alveolar nerve, inferior, 21f, 23f, 25f, 26f entering mandibular foramen, 26f Alveolar process, of maxilla, 19f, 67f American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) scale, 373t American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES) score, 429t Anal (rectal) nerve, inferior, 148f, 252f Anconeus muscle, 445f, 445t innervation of, 477f Anesthetic injection, for sacroiliac pain, 211t, 213t double-block, referral patterns with, 212, 212f motion testing and, 227t, 228t, 233t provocative testing and, 216t, 217t, 218t, 219t, 220t, 223t Anesthetic-steroid injection, for intra-articular hip pain, 273t, 274t, 275t 510
Angle between longitudinal axis of patella and patellar tendon (A angle), 311, 311f, 311t Ankle, 335-376. See also Foot and ankle. anterolateral impingement in, 336 detection of, 370, 370f, 370t pain in. See Foot and ankle pain. ROM measurements of, 359-360 trauma to fractures as, 358f, 358t patient report of, 355t screening for, 356, 358 x-rays of. See Ottawa Ankle Rule for Radiography. Ankle flexibility angle, 360f Ankle-hindfoot, AOFAS scale for, 373t Ankylosing spondylitis of sacroiliac joint, 216t, 217t, 218t, 225t of thoracolumbar spine, 149, 186t patient history in, 154, 154t, 155f Annular ligament of radius, 443f, 443t Annulus fibrosus, of lumbar intervertebral disc, 133f fissure in, 179f nociceptors in, disc herniation and, 179f ossification of, in ankylosing spondylitis, 155f Anococcygeal nerve, 148f, 208t, 209f Anserine bursa, 289f, 291f Anterior apprehension test, of shoulder, 399f, 399t combined with other tests, 427t, 428t Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), 287f, 288f, 288t degrees of sprain of, 315f ruptures of, 295f, 295t tears of, 284, 313t, 314t combination of tests for, 324t pivot shift test for, 315, 315f, 315t Anterior disc displacement, in TMJ disorders deviation tests of, 46, 46t, 55t, 57t diagnostic criteria for, 31, 32f reliability and utility of, 33t, 40t, 45t patient history in, 21, 29 range of motion and, 45, 45f, 45t with reduction, 33t, 54, 58t, 59t without reduction, 33t, 56
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Anterior drawer test of ankle, 372, 372f of knee, 284, 314, 314f, 314t of shoulder, 401, 401f, 401t Anterior relocation test, of shoulder, 400t combined with other tests, 378, 427t Anterior slide test, for glenoid labral tears, 409, 409f, 409t combined with other tests, 427t Anterior view of axis, 68f of carpal bones, 463f of cervical spine arthrology, 69f of cervical spine ligaments, 71f of elbow bones, in extension, 441f of elbow joint, opened, 442f of elbow ligaments, 443f of female pelvic inlet, 204f of female pelvis, 204f of femur, 245f of fibular nerves, 353f, 353t of forearm ligaments, in supination vs. pronation, 444f of forearm nerves, 448f of hip and pelvis ligaments, 247f of humerus, 379f of knee muscles, 289f of male pelvic inlet, 204f of male pelvis, 204f of metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal ligaments, 469, 469f, 469t of rotator cuff muscles, 386f of sacroiliac region ligaments, 206f of scapula, 379f of shoulder ligaments, 382f, 383f of shoulder muscles, 385, 385f, 385t of sternocostal articulations, 134f of thigh nerves and arteries, 253f of tibia and fibula, 285f of tibial nerves, 353f, 353t of wrist and hand bones, 464f of wrist and hand muscles, 471f, 472f, 473f, 474f of wrist and hand nerves, 475f, 476f Anterior-posterior width, of wrist, 490t in carpal tunnel syndrome, 490t Anterior-superior iliac spine (ASIS) in hip testing, 274t as sacroiliac bony landmark, 214t in sacroiliac pain provocation, 216t, 218t, 223t Anteroinferior view, of mouth floor muscles, 25f
Anteroposterior diameter, of pelvic outlet, 204f Anteroposterior glide technique, for hip mobilization, 326f Anthropometry measurements, of wrist, 490, 490t carpal tunnel syndrome identification with, 490, 490f, 490t AOFAS (American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society) scale, 373t Apical ligament, 70f, 70t Apley’s grinding test, of knee, 318, 318f, 318t combined with other tests, 322t, 323t Aponeuroses epicranial, 77f gluteal, 140f, 249f palmar, 467f, 471f plantar, 349f, 350f, 351f Apophyseal joints cervical spine, 69t lumbar, ossification of, 155f lumbosacral, 205t Apprehension test(s) moving patellar, 284, 321, 321f, 321t of shoulder, 378, 399, 399f anterior, 399t combined with other tests, 378, 427t bony, 399t relocation, 400t Arc of pain sign. See Painful arc sign. Arch angle, 363f, 363t Arch drop, longitudinal, 369f Arch height test, 363f medial, 362, 363t Arcuate artery, 348f, 352f posterior perforating branches of, 348f, 352f Arcuate line, 201f, 203f, 206f, 245f, 246f Arm. See Forearm/arm. Arteries. See also Named artery, e.g., Carotid artery(ies). of foot and ankle, 346f, 347f, 348f of forearm, 445f of hip and pelvis, 247f of leg, 347f of mandible, 21f, 22f, 23f of neck, 68f, 71f, 72f, 73f, 75f, 77f of sacroiliac region, 209f of shoulder, 385f, 388f of skull, 19f of sole of foot, 349f, 350f, 351f, 352f of thigh, 253f of wrist and hand, 467f, 474f
Arthralgia, in TMJ disorders, 31, 33t Arthrography, of rotator cuff tears, 422t Arthrology of cervical spine, 69 of elbow, 442 of foot and ankle, 339 of hip and pelvis, 246 of knee, 286 of lumbar spine, 136 of sacroiliac region, 205, 205f, 205t of shoulder, 380 integrated movements in, 381, 381f of temporomandibular, 20 jaw closed, 20, 20f jaw slightly opened, 20f jaw widely opened, 20f of thoracic spine, 134 1st, 136t 2nd-7th, 136t joint classifications, 136t of wrist and hand, 465 Arthroscopic view, of ACL rupture, 295f Arthroscopy of rotator cuff tears, 422t of shoulder combination of tests vs., 427t, 428t IRRS test following, 408, 417, 417f physical examination vs., 394t, 399t, 400t, 403t, 404t, 405t, 406t, 407t, 408t, 409t, 410t, 411t-412t of wrist and hand, 500t, 501t Arthrosis. See Osteoarthrosis. Articular cartilage in elbow, 442f in hip and pelvis, 247f erosion of, 259f, 296f in knee, 286f erosion of, 296f in shoulder, 397f Articular cavities of knee, 286f of sternoclavicular joint, 380f sternocostal, 134f Articular discs of mandible, 20, 20f, 22f, 23f of sternoclavicular joint, 380f sternocostal, 134f Articular facets of atlas for dens, 68f posterior, 69f of axis
Articular facets (Continued) anterior, for atlas, 68f inferior, for C3, 68f posterior, for atlas, 68f superior, for atlas, 68f of C4, superior, 68f of C7, superior, 68f of cervical spine, tenderness with palpation of, 105t for dens, 68f of dens, posterior, 70f of lumbar vertebrae, in physical examination, 167t of rib head, superior, 135f, 137f for sacrum, 136f, 202f of thoracic vertebrae inferior, 133f, 138f superior, 133f, 134f Articular nerve, recurrent, 353f articular branches of, 353f Articular pillar, of cervical vertebrae, 69f Articular processes of axis, inferior, 68f of C4, inferior, 68f of C7, inferior, 68f of cervical vertebrae, 69f of lumbar vertebrae inferior, 136f, 138f superior, 133f, 136f, 138f of sacrum and coccyx, superior, 202f facets of, 202f of T9 vertebra, inferior, 134f of thoracic vertebrae, inferior vs. superior, 133f, 134f, 138f Articular surfaces of acetabulum, 247f of atlas, inferior vs. superior, for occipital condyle, 69f lateral mass, 68f of femur, medial vs. lateral, 287f, 288f of sacrum and coccyx, 202f lumbosacral, 202f facets of, 202f of tibia, superior, 285f, 288f Articular tubercles of mandible, 20f, 23f of radius, dorsal, 444f of temporal bone, 19f Articularis genus muscle, 286f, 289t, 293f Articulations. See Joints; specific articulation, e.g., Sternocostal articulations. ASES (American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons) score, 429t
INDEX 511
ASIS. See Anterior-superior iliac spine (ASIS). Atlantoaxial joint, 69t instability of, 115t lateral capsule of, 70f, 71f medial tubercle of, 344f median, ligaments of, 71f Atlanto-occipital joint arthrology of, 69t capsule of, 70f, 71f ligaments of, 70f, 70t Atlanto-occipital membrane, anterior vs. posterior, 71f Atlanto-odontoid/dens joint, 69t ligaments of, 70f, 70t Atlas (C1) anterior arch of, 68f arthrology of, 69f groove for vertebral artery on, 68f ligaments of, 70f, 70t, 71f, 71t nerves of, dorsal ramus of, 71f, 77f osteology of, 68f articular facet for axis anterior, 68f posterior, 68f superior, 68f inferior view of, 68f in relation to head and neck, 17f, 67f superior view of, 68f pain during flexion-extension, 97t posterior arch of, 68f, 77f rotation testing of, 100f, 100t limited and painful passive, 101t transverse process of, 68f, 71f, 75f, 142f tubercles of anterior, 68f posterior, 68f, 141f, 142f for transverse ligament, 68f in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 81f Atrophy. See Muscle atrophy. Auditory meatus. See External acoustic/auditory meatus. Auditory (pharyngotympanic) tube, cartilaginous part of, 23f Auricular artery, posterior, 77f Auricular nerve great, 77f posterior, 26f Auricular surface, of hip bone, for sacrum, 203f, 245f Auriculotemporal nerve, 21f, 23f, 26f 512
Auscultation of temporomandibular joint, 40f triangle of, in shoulder, 384t Avascular necrosis (AVN), of hip and pelvis detection with limited ROM, 262, 262f, 262t patient history in, 254t Avulsions humeral, of glenohumeral ligaments, 399t, 400t, 401t nerve root, of brachial plexus, 378, 425, 425t Axillary nerve, 72t, 78t, 79f, 386f, 386t anterior, 387t, 388f in brachial plexus schema, 425f, 475f branches to arm/forearm, 477f Axillary recess, 383f Axis (C2) arthrology of, 69f congenital fusion of, 103t interarticular parts of, 68f ligaments of, 70f, 71f, 71t nerves of, 77f, 384t dorsal ramus of, 77f osteology of, 68f anterior view of, 68f posterosuperior view of, 68f in relation to head and neck, 17f, 67f rotation testing of, 100f, 100t limited and painful passive, 101t, 102t spinous process of, 68f, 140f, 142f tenderness with palpation of, 105t transverse process of, 68f posterior tubercle of, 75f in upper limb dermatomes, 85f in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 80f, 81f
B Back muscles deep layer of, 142 intermediate layer of, 141 superficial layer of, 139 Back pain cervical. See Cervical (neck) pain. lumbar. See Low back pain. sacral. See Sacroiliac pain. thoracic. See Thoracolumbar pain. Balance assessment/tests foot and ankle in, 365, 365f, 365t hip and pelvis in, 267f, 267t, 272t single leg, 365t for pelvic pain, 272t
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Ballottement test for carpal instability, 500t for knee inflammation, 300t Bankart lesion, of shoulder, 399t, 400t, 401t Basilic vein, 388f Bear-hug test, for subscapularis tears, 378, 423t Behavior rating scale, for pain, 28t Belly-press test, for subscapularis tears, 378, 423t Bend/bending tests. See also Lateral bending; Sidebending. of cervical spine, 95t, 96t, 97t, 102t of knee, prone, 232, 232f, 232t of thoracolumbar spine, 106f, 152t forward vs. lateral, 159t Bent knee fall out test, 270t Bernese ankle rules, 358t Biceps brachii muscle, 388f, 446f, 446t long head of, 385f, 386f, 446t manual testing of, 87f for cervical radiculopathy, 88t muscle stretch reflex testing of, 89f for cervical radiculopathy, 89t palpation of, 394t short head of, 385f, 446t tendonitis of, 389t Biceps brachii tendon, 443f, 446f, 448f long head of, 382f, 383f palpation of, 408t oblique cord of, 443f, 444f, 444t in rotator cuff tears, 418f, 422t tears of, 394t, 403t, 405t, 407t, 409t, 415t-416t Biceps femoris muscle long head of, 248t, 249f, 252f, 290t, 291f, 294f, 346f tendon of, 206f, 346f short head of, 248t, 249f, 290t, 291f, 294f, 346f Biceps femoris tendon, 347f, 353f and bursa beneath it, 287f, 289f and inferior subtendinous bursa, 291f Biceps load test I/II, for glenoid labral tears, 378, 403t, 411t-412t combined with other tests, 378, 427t, 428t Bicipital groove, tenderness of, 394t, 405t Biering-Sorensen test, modified, of thoracolumbar spine, 162f, 162t
Bifurcate ligaments, 341f, 341t Bigelow, Y ligament of, 247f Biopsychosocial model, of TMJ disorders, 31 Blunt trauma, to cervical spine clinical examination for, 92t-93t, 92f Glasgow Coma Score with, 85t, 87t, 96t, 104t Bohler test, for meniscal tears, 322t Bone anatomy. See Osteology. Bone pain, in thoracolumbar spine, 172t Bone spurs on acetabulum margins, 259f on metatarsals, 369f Bone tenderness in foot and ankle impingement sign with, 370t patient report of, 355t with trauma screening, 356t, 358t in knee, with trauma screening, 298f, 299t in thoracolumbar spine, 172t Bony alignment assessment in foot and ankle, 362 forefoot position, 364, 364f, 364t medial arch height, 362, 363f, 363t navicular height, 362, 362f, 362t in knee, 306-307, 308-309, 310311 A angle measurement, 311, 311f, 311t lateral pull test, 311, 311t mediolateral patellar tilt, 306, 306f, 306t patellar orientation, 307, 307f, 307t patellar rotation, 309, 309f, 309t quadriceps angle measurement, 310, 310f, 310t superoinferior patellar tilt, 308, 308f, 308t in lumbar spine, 166t in shoulder, 395 lateral slide test positions for, 395t, 396f Bony apprehension test, of shoulder, 399t Bony landmark symmetry, in sacroiliac region motion assessment and, 226t palpation for, 214, 214f, 214t, 215f Boots, sacroiliac pain aggravated by, 211t
Bowel movements, sacroiliac pain aggravated by, 211t Brachial artery, 388f, 446f, 448f branches of, 445f Brachial plexus, 75f, 388f compression of, for cervical cord compression diagnosis, 116, 116f, 116t medial vs. posterior vs. lateral cords of, 475f nerve root avulsions of, 378, 425, 425t neural tension test of, 112t schema of, 425f tenderness with palpation of, 105t Brachial plexus palsy, 378, 425, 425t Brachial veins, 388f Brachialis muscle, 388f, 446f, 446t, 448f insertion of, 443f Brachialis tendon, oblique cord of, 443f, 444f, 444t Brachioradialis muscle, 445f, 446f innervation of, 477f muscle stretch reflex testing of, 89t Brachioradialis tendon, 448f Buccal nerve, 26f, 26t Buccinator muscle, 22f, 23f, 26f, 35f Bucket handle tear, of meniscus, 323f Bunions, 369f Bursa beneath biceps femoris tendon, 287f, 289f iliopectineal, 247f of knee. See Knee bursa. of olecranon, subcutaneous, 443f radial, in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f subacromial, 383f, 415t-416t subdeltoid, 383f subtendinous. See Subtendinous (deep) bursa. ulnar, in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f Bursitis ischial, 254t in shoulder, 389t, 397t, 415t-416t subacromial, 415t-416t, 422t Burst fracture, of cervical spine, 90f Buttocks falling and landing on, 210f nerves of, 252, 252f, 252t pain in. See Gluteal (buttock) pain.
C C0 vertebra, pain during flexionextension, 97t limited passive, 101t C1 vertebra. See Atlas (C1).
C2 vertebra. See Axis (C2). C3 vertebra arthrology of, 69f congenital fusion of, 103t disc herniation of, 116f limited and painful passive motion of, 100t, 101t nerves of, 77f, 384t dorsal ramus of, 77f osteology of, in relation to head and neck, 17f, 67f, 68f tenderness with palpation of, 105t transverse process of, of tubercles of, anterior vs. posterior, 75f in upper limb dermatomes, 85f in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 80f, 81f C4 vertebra arthrology of, 69f disc herniation of, 116f groove for spinal nerve on, 68f limited and painful passive motion of, 101t, 102t nerves of, 78t, 79f, 384t, 386t dorsal ramus of, posterior cutaneous branches of, 77f osteology of, superior view of, 68f tenderness with palpation of, 105t transverse process of, 68f tubercles of, anterior vs. posterior, 68f in upper limb dermatomes, 85f in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 80f, 81f C5 vertebra arthrology of, 69f congenital fusion of, 103t disc herniation of, 116f limited and painful passive motion of, 100t, 101t, 102t nerves of, 78t, 79f, 384t, 386t, 446t, 447t, 448t, 477t brachial plexus schema, 425f dorsal ramus of, posterior cutaneous branches of, 77f tenderness with palpation of, 105t type III fracture of, 90f in upper limb dermatomes, 85f, 86t in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 80f, 81f C6 vertebra arthrology of, 69f congenital fusion of, 103t disc herniation of, 116f limited and painful passive motion of, 100t, 101t, 102t
INDEX 513
C6 vertebra (Continued) nerves of, 78t, 79f, 384t, 386t, 445t, 446t, 447t, 448t, 470t, 471t, 477t brachial plexus schema, 425f dorsal ramus of, posterior cutaneous branches of, 77f tenderness with palpation of, 105t tubercles of, anterior, 71f type IV fracture of, 90f in upper limb dermatomes, 85f, 86t in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 80f, 81f C7 vertebra arthrology of, 69f groove for spinal nerve on, 68f limited and painful passive motion of, 100t, 101t, 102t nerves of, 78t, 79f, 384t, 445t, 447t, 448t, 470t, 471t, 476t, 477t brachial plexus schema, 425f osteology of in relation to head and neck, 17f, 67f superior view of, 68f spinous process of, 71f, 140f, 141f, 142f, 384f tenderness with palpation of, 105t in thoracic kyphosis, 106t, 163t transverse process of, 68f, 75f tubercles of, anterior vs. posterior, 68f in upper limb dermatomes, 85f, 86t in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 80f, 81f C8 vertebra nerves of, 78t, 79f, 384t, 445t, 447t, 448t, 470t, 471t, 476t, 477t brachial plexus schema, 425f in thoracic kyphosis, 106t, 163t in upper limb dermatomes, 85f, 86t Calcaneal artery, lateral vs. medial, 350f, 351f Calcaneal nerve, lateral vs. medial, 350f, 351f Calcaneal stance, relaxed vs. neutral measurement of, 360f, 360t Calcaneal tendon, 340f, 342f, 346f, 347f rheumatoid arthritis involvement of, 369f Calcaneocuboid joint, 339f, 339t Calcaneocuboid ligament, 341f, 341t, 352f dorsal, 341f plantar, 343t, 344f 514
Calcaneofibular ligament, 340f, 341f, 341t anterior, tears of, 372f Calcaneonavicular ligament, 341f, 341t plantar, 342f, 342t, 343t, 344f, 352f Calcaneus, 337f, 344f body of, 337f, 338f erosion of, 369f fibular trochlea of, 337f groove for fibularis longus tendon on, 337f groove for flexor hallucis longus tendon on, 337f, 338f lateral process of, 338f, 344f, 349f ligaments of, 340, 340f, 340t medial process of, 338f, 344f, 349f tuberosity of, 337f, 338f, 350f, 351f medial vs. lateral process of, 344f, 349f Calcar, of femur, 245f Calf pain, 149t, 157f Calf strength, 336 Calf stretch position, for ankle dorsiflexion measurement, 359t Calipers, in wrist anthropometry, 490t Callouses, on metatarsals, 369f Canadian C-Spine Rule (CCR), 66, 91, 92t-93t Canal of Guyon, ulnar nerve compression at, 478t, 480f Capitate, 463f, 464f, 465f, 467f, 468f in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f in scaphoid fractures, 482f Capitotriquetral ligament, 466t, 467f Capitulum, of humerus, 379f, 441f Capsular ligaments of knee, rupture of, 297f of shoulder, 383f Capsular syndrome, of shoulder, 397t Capsule. See Joint capsule(s). Capsulitis, adhesive, of shoulder, 389t, 397f, 397t Carotid artery(ies) common, 75f external, 72f, 73f Carotid sheath, 72f Carotid tubercle, 71f Carpal arterial arch, palmar, 474f Carpal bones in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f of hand, 464f instability of patient history in, 478t, 480f tests for, 500, 500f, 500t of wrist joint, 463f Carpal compression test, 498, 498f, 498t
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Carpal ligaments instability of. See Carpal bones. palmar, 446f, 467f transverse, 446f, 466t, 467f, 474f in physical examination, 498t Carpal tunnel syndrome carpal bones in, 480f clinical prediction rule for, 462, 502, 502f neurological examination for, 88t, 109t, 112t, 489t, 490t, 497t patient history in, 82t, 84t, 478t physical examination for cervical spine in, 95t, 110t, 111t, 117t wrist and hand in, 462, 489 thumb pad sensation testing for, 462, 492, 492t, 502 Tinel’s sign/test in, 494f, 494t, 495, 495t upper limb tension tests for, 499, 499f, 499t weakness with, testing for, 465t, 487t, 489, 489t Carpometacarpal (CMC) joint, 465f, 465t articular cascade of, 467f Carpometacarpal ligament dorsal, 468f, 468t palmar, 466t, 467f, 469f Cartilage. See specific type, e.g., Articular cartilage. Caudal glide technique, for hip mobilization, 326f CCR (Canadian C-Spine Rule), 66, 91, 92-93t Centralization phenomena in cervical pain, 97t in lumbar pain, 132, 235 diagnostic utility of, 174, 174f, 174t patient history in, 149t reliability of, 173, 173f, 173t Cephalic vein, 385f, 388f Cervical artery, transverse, 388f Cervical curvature, 69f Cervical flexor endurance tests, 99f, 99t Cervical fusion, congenital, 103t Cervical manipulation, for cervical radiculopathy, 119, 119f, 119t Cervical myelography, 104t, 110t, 111t, 112t Cervical myelopathy, 80t Cervical (neck) pain, 66, 80-83 interventions for, 118t, 119t, 120t, 121t, 122t, 123t, 124t
Cervical (neck) pain (Continued) during limited passive intervertebral motion, 101, 101t, 102f, 102t mechanical, 80t, 82t, 95t, 97t, 101t, 102t, 106t, 107t postural assessment for, 163t patient report of, 80, 80t, 82t, 83t, 84t physical examination for, 66t, 95, 95t, 96t, 97-98, 98f, 104-105, 112, 114, 114t radiculopathy and, 66, 80t, 82t, 83f, 83t, 84t during range of motion, 97t, 98f, 98t thoracic manipulation for, 66 zygapophyseal referral patterns of, 66, 80, 82t Cooper description of, 81f diagnostic nerve block for, 103t Dwyer description of, 80f Cervical plexus, 77f Cervical radiculopathy, 66 intervention(s) for, 118 cervical manipulation for immediate improvements, 119, 119f, 119t identifying factors of positive short-term outcomes, 118, 118f, 118t mechanical traction as, 124f improvement after 3 weeks, 122, 122f, 122t, 123f, 123t cluster of findings, 124, 124f, 124t summary of, 66 thoracic manipulation for immediate improvements, 120, 120f, 120t cluster of findings, 121, 121f, 121t patient history in, 66, 80t, 389t, 478t physical examination for, 66t, 86t, 87f, 87t, 88t, 89f, 89t combination of tests in, 117, 117f, 117t tension tests in. See Upper limb tension tests (ULTTs). of wrist and hand, 489t, 490t, 492t, 494t, 495t, 497t, 498t, 499t screening for, 66, 95t Cervical spine, 65-130 arthrology of, 69 clinical prediction rule for, 117, 117f, 117t
Cervical spine (Continued) clinical summary and recommendations, 66-127 diagnostic utility of examination of brachial plexus compression, 116, 116f, 116t cluster of tests, 117, 117f, 117t limited and painful passive intervertebral motion, 103, 103f, 103t manual muscle testing, 88f, 88t muscle stretch reflex testing, 89f, 89t neural tension tests, 114, 114f, 114t pain during active ROM, 98f, 98t palpation assessment of pain, 105, 105f, 105t patient history, 83f, 83t, 84f, 84t pin prick sensation testing, 86f, 86t radiculopathy intervention outcomes, 118f, 119f, 120f, 121f, 122f, 123f, 124f radiography rule for injury, 66, 91-92, 92t-93t, 92f Sharp-Purser test, 115, 115f, 115t Spurling’s test(s), 109f, 109t A and B, 109f, 109t fractures of, 66, 91, 92t-93t, 305t types of, 90f injury screening, 90-91, 92 interarticular parts of, 69f interventions for, 66, 118. See also Cervical (neck) pain; Cervical radiculopathy. ligaments of, 68f, 69f atlanto-occipital joint, 70, 70f, 70t neck, 68f, 69f, 73f spinal, 71, 71f, 71t muscles of, 72-73, 75-76 anterior, 72 deep investing layer of, 72f pretracheal layer of, 72f posterior, 76 scalene and prevertebral, 75 suprahyoid and infrahyoid, 73 nerves of, 78-79, 78t, 79f anterior vs. posterior divisions of, 79f in brachial plexus schema, 425f cords of, 79f posterior columns of, disc herniation and, 116f terminal branches of, 79f
Cervical spine (Continued) neurological examination of, 8586, 87-88, 89 osteology of, 67-68 in relation to head and neck, 67f vertebral, 68f in relation to TMJ, 17f outcome measures of, 125, 125t patient history and, 66, 80-83 initial hypotheses based on, 80, 80t report of pain, 80, 82t, 83t, 84t physical examination of, 66t, 85124 to identify radiographic needs following trauma, 66, 90t, 91, 92t-93t quality assessment of diagnostic studies, 126-127 range of motion of, 66 improvement with interventions, 118t, 120t, 121t, 122t, 123t, 124t limited passive intervertebral, 100, 100f, 100t pain during, 101, 101t, 102f, 102t measurements of, 94f, 95t, 96t pain during, 97t, 98f, 98t in slump test, 178f, 178t therapeutic, following spinal manipulation, 121f reliability of examination compression tests, 108f, 108t limited and painful passive intervertebral motion, 101, 101f, 101t, 102f, 102t limited passive intervertebral motion, 100, 100f, 100t manual muscle testing, 87f, 87t muscle length assessment, 107, 107f, 107t neck distraction test, 110, 110f, 110t neural tension tests, 112, 112f, 112t, 113f pain during active ROM, 97f, 97t palpation assessment of pain, 104, 104f, 104t without patient history, 105, 105f, 105t patient history, 82f, 82t postural assessment, 106, 106f, 106t ROM measurements, 95f, 95t, 96f, 96t
INDEX 515
Cervical spine (Continued) sensation testing, 85, 85f, 85t shoulder abduction test, 111, 111f, 111t Spurling’s A and B tests, 108f, 108t Spurling’s to the right vs. left tests, 108f, 108t strength and endurance testing, 99, 99f, 99t traction test, 110, 110f, 110t segmental mobility testing of, 100t, 101t, 102t, 103t manipulation and, 119f Cervical traction, for radiculopathy, 124f improvement after 3 weeks, 122, 122f, 122t, 123f, 123t cluster of findings, 124, 124f, 124t Cervical vertebrae. See also specific vertebra, e.g., C3 vertebra. articular facets of, 68f anterior, 68f inferior vs. superior, 68f posterior, 68f, 69f tenderness with palpation of, 105t articular processes of, 69f inferior, 68f spinous processes of, 68f, 69f, 71f, 140f, 141f, 142f tenderness with palpation of, 104t, 105t tubercles of, 68f anterior, 68f, 71f posterior, 68f, 141f, 142f Cervical range-of-motion instrument (CROM), 96t Chemical factors, of lumbar pain, 179f Chest expansion, in ankylosing spondylitis,155f, 186t Children, wrist injuries in, 483, 483f Chin, in cervical spine examination, 110f, 110t Chin tuck neck flexion test, 99t Choanae, 23f, 67f Chorda tympani nerve, 26f CI (confidence interval), 8 Circumflex artery(ies) femoral lateral, 253f ascending, transverse, and descending branches of, 253f medial, 253f 516
Circumflex artery(ies) (Continued) osteonecrosis related to disruption of, 262f humeral, anterior vs. posterior, 388f iliac, deep, 253f scapular, 388f groove on scapula for, 380f Clavicle, 72f, 73f, 134f in AC joint lesions, 426f, 426t acromial end of, 379f acromial facet of, 379f conoid tubercle of, 379f impression for costoclavicular ligament on, 379f ligaments of, 382f muscles of, 385f, 386f in shoulder joint, 379f, 380f, 388f sternal end of, 379f sternal facet of, 379f subclavian groove of, 379f surfaces of inferior vs. superior, 379f posterior and anterior, 379f trapezoid line of, 379f Clavicular branch, of thoracoacromial artery, 388f Click-clack test, of sacroiliac joint, 232t Clinical examination, 1-14 history in. See Patient history. physical. See Physical examination. reliability and diagnostic utility of. See also specific anatomy or test. confidence intervals, 8 diagnostic accuracy, 2, 3-7 likelihood ratios, 3, 6-7, 8, 910, 11-12, 11t overall accuracy, 2, 4, 11t post-test probability, 8f, 9-10, 9f predictive values, positive and negative, 3, 4-5, 4t, 11t pretest probability, 8f, 9 quality assessment of studies, 2, 10-11 reliability, 2-3 sensitivity, 3, 5-6, 5f, 8, 11t specificity, 3, 5f, 6, 6f, 8, 11t statistical significance, 8 statistics related to, 11-12, 11t summary of, 2, 11-12 2 ⫻ 2 contingency table, 3, 4t, 11t Clinical prediction rule for ankle fractures, 358f for carpal tunnel syndrome, 462, 502, 502f for cervical spine radiculopathy, 117, 117f, 117t
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Clinical prediction rule (Continued) interpretation of, 7, 8f, 9-10, 9f for knee fractures, 299f for lateral epicondylalgia, 456, 456t for lumbar spine instability, 185, 185f for sacroiliac joint/region dysfunction, 234f of spinal manipulation, for low back pain, 236, 237f for wrist fractures, in children, 483 Clitoris, dorsal nerve of, 148f Clivus of basilar part of occipital bone, 70f Cluneal nerve, inferior, 252f, 252t, 294f CMC (carpometacarpal) joint, 465f, 465t articular cascade of, 467f Coccygeal cornu (horn), 202f Coccygeal nerve, 208t, 209f herniated lumbar nucleus pulposus and, 157f Coccygeal plexus, 148f Coccygeus muscle (ischio)-, 209f nerve to, 208t, 209f nerve to, 148f Coccyx nerves of, 148f, 208t, 209f osteology of, 201f, 202f, 206f, 246f superior articular processes of, 202f facets of, 202f surfaces of, dorsal vs. pelvic, 202f tip of, in females, 204f transverse process of, 202f transverse ridges of, 202f Collateral ligaments of ankle, 341f, 341t of elbow, 443f, 443t tears of, 440 detecting, 455, 455f, 455t of fibula. See Fibular collateral ligament. of knee, tears of, 284, 295t patient history in, 295t, 297f, 297t valgus stress test for, 316t of metacarpohalangeal/interphalangeal joints, 469f, 469t of plantar foot, 343f of radius, 443f, 443t, 466t, 467f of tibia. See Tibial collateral ligament. of ulna, 443f, 443t, 466t, 467f, 468f of wrist, 466t, 467f, 468f
Comminuted fracture, of femur, 277f into shaft, 298f Common extensor tendon, of forearm, 445f, 470f Common flexor tendon, of forearm, 471f, 472f Compression of cervical cord, 116, 116f, 116t of spinal cord, with cervical fractures, 90f of spinal nerve roots with cervical disc herniation, 83f with lumbar disc herniation, 157f, 179f with thoracolumbar disc degeneration, 183f Compression fracture, of cervical spine, 90f Compression tests of brachial plexus, for cervical cord compression, 116, 116f, 116t of cervical spine with shoulder, arm, or hand pain, 108f, 108t straight, 108f, 108t of foot and ankle, for trauma screening, 356t, 357f direct vs. indirect, 358t for glenoid labral tears active, 406-407, 406f, 406t, 407t combined with other tests, 427t rotation with, 406f, 407t combined with other tests, 378, 428t passive, 410t, 411t-412t rotation, 404, 404f, 404t of sacroiliac joint/region, 200, 218, 221f combined with other tests, 233t, 235 diagnostic utility of, 218f, 218t for intra-articular hip pathology, 275t for pelvic pain, 260t, 272t reliability of, 218f, 218t of temporomandibular joint, bilateral, 52 of wrist and hand carpal, 498, 498f, 498t longitudinal, for scaphoid fractures, 481t scaphoid, 500f, 500t Computed tomography (CT) of cervical spine injury, 92t-93t of lumbar spinal stenosis, 153t, 158t, 182t of rotator cuff tears, 422t
Computed tomography (CT) myelography, of brachial plexus palsy, 425t Condylar process, of mandible, 17f, 18f, 19f, 45t, 67f Condyles in anterior disc displacement, 32f of femur lateral vs. medial, 285f, 287f, 288f in trauma screening, 298f of humerus, lateral vs. medial, 379f, 441f occipital. See Occipital condyle. of tibia lateral, 285f, 346f medial, 285f, 287f, 288f, 289f in trauma screening, 298f Confidence interval (CI), 8 Conjugate diameter, of pelvic inlet, 204f Conoid ligament, 382f, 382t, 386f Conoid tubercle, of clavicle, 379f Contingency table, 2 ⫻ 2, 3, 4t, 11t likelihood ratios and, 7, 8t Contractures, of hip flexors, Thomas test for, 269, 269f, 269t Coracoacromial ligament, 382f, 382t, 383f, 386f Coracobrachialis muscle, 388f Coracoclavicular ligaments, 382f, 382t, 386f tears of, 417 Coracohumeral ligament, 382f, 382t, 383f Coracoid process, of scapula, 379f, 380f, 383f, 386f, 388f Corns, on metatarsals, 369f Coronal section/view of shoulder joint capsule, 397f of shoulder ligaments, 383f through S2 foramina, 202f of wrist joint, 465f Coronal suture, of mandible, 19f Coronoid fossa, of humerus, 379f, 441f Coronoid process of mandible, 17f, 18f, 19f, 67f temporalis muscle insertion into, 22f of ulna, 441f, 444f, 472f Correlation coefficients, 3 “Corset” concept, dynamic, of lumbar stability, 143f Corticospinal tract, lateral, cervical disc herniation and, 116f Costal cartilage, 134f, 145f, 201f, 380f 6th, 385f
Costal facets for 1st rib, 69f, 135f, 137f costovertebral inferior vs. superior, 137f transverse, 137f of thoracic vertebrae, 133f inferior vs. superior, 133f, 135f transverse, 133f, 135f Costochondral joints, of thoracic spine, 134f, 136t Costoclavicular ligament, 134f, 380f, 382t impression on clavicle for, 379f Costotransverse joint, of thoracic spine, 136t Costotransverse ligaments, 135f, 137f, 137t lateral, 135f, 137f ossification of, 155f superior, 135f, 137f, 145f Costovertebral joints, of thoracic spine, 135f, 136t Costovertebral ligaments, 137, 137f, 137t Costoxiphoid ligament, 134f Coughing sacroiliac pain aggravated by, 211t thoracolumbar pain with, 152t Coxal bone. See Hip (coxal) bone. Cranial nerve(s) V1, 26f, 26t V2, 26f, 26t V3, 24t, 26f, 26t VII, 26f XI, 384t Craniocervical flexion test, 99t Crank test, 7, 8t for glenoid labral tears, 402-403, 402f, 402t, 403t combined with other tests, 427t Crepitus, in TMJ conditions, 41, 41f, 41t Crescentic defect, with rotator cuff tears, 418f Cricoid cartilage, 17f, 67f, 72f, 73f Cricothyroid ligament, 73f Cricothyroid muscle, 73f CROM (cervical range-of-motion instrument), 96t Cross 6-meter hop for time, 366t Cross-body adduction test, for subacromial impingement identification, 415t-416t Crossed postural syndrome, upper, 80t Crossed straight-leg raise (CSLR), for lumbar radiculopathy, 132, 177, 177f, 177t
INDEX 517
Cruciate/cruciform ligaments, 70f, 70t anterior. See Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). longitudinal band of, inferior vs. superior, 70f, 70t posterior. See Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL). CT. See Computed tomography (CT). Cubital tunnel syndrome, 449t tests for, 440, 454, 454f, 454t Cuboid bone, 337f, 338f, 341f, 352f groove for fibularis longus tendon on, 337f, 338f tuberosity of, 337f, 338f, 344f, 352f Cuboideonavicular ligament dorsal, 341f, 341t plantar, 343t, 344f Cuneiform bones, 337f, 338f intermediate, 337f, 338f, 352f lateral, 337f, 338f, 352f medial, 338f, 342f, 344f, 352f Cuneocuboid ligament, dorsal, 341f Cuneonavicular ligament dorsal, 341f, 341t, 342f plantar, 344f Cutaneous branches of axillary nerve, 477f of C4-C6 dorsal ramus, posterior, 77f of median nerve, 475f of obturator nerve, 253f of radial nerve, 477f of saphenous nerve, medial, 293f of thoracic spine nerve anterior, 145f lateral, 145f of ulnar nerve, 476f Cutaneous nerves of lower extremity dorsal intermediate, 353f lateral, 294f, 348f, 353f, 354f sural cutaneous nerve via, 353f medial, 353f femoral, lateral, 293f in foot and ankle, 348f, 353f, 354f of muscles. See Musculocutaneous nerve. perforating, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252f sural. See Sural cutaneous nerve. of thigh. See also Thigh. lateral, 146f, 147t, 148f, 252f, 252t, 253f, 292f, 293f posterior, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252f, 252t, 292f, 294f 518
Cutaneous nerves (Continued) perineal branches of, 252f, 294f of upper extremity in hand, 475f, 476f lateral, 446f, 448f, 448t, 477f, 493f inferior vs. superior, 477f medial, 78t, 79f, 387t, 388f, 475f, 493f in brachial plexus schema, 425f posterior, 477f, 493f superficial, 477f in wrist and hand, 475f, 476f, 493f Cyriax’s capsular pattern, for detecting osteoarthritis, in hip and pelvis, 258, 259f Cysts, of meniscus, 324t
D DASH. See Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand (DASH). de Quervain’s syndrome, 478t Deep artery of forearm, 388f middle collateral branch of, 445f of thigh, 253f perforating branches of, 253f Deep dissection of hip and thigh muscles, 248t of thigh nerves and arteries, 253f of wrist and hand muscles, 470f Degenerative disc disease, in thoracolumbar spine, 183f Degenerative disease of acetabulum, advanced, 259f fatty, with infraspinatus tears, 422t Deltoid branch, of thoracoacromial artery, 388f Deltoid ligament, of ankle, 340f, 342f, 342t tibiocalcaneal part of, 342f, 342t tibionavicular part of, 342f, 342t tibiotalar part of, anterior vs. posterior, 342f, 342t Deltoid muscle, 72f, 140f, 383f, 384f, 385f, 385t, 388f manual testing of, 87f for cervical radiculopathy, 88t Deltoid tuberosity, of humerus, 379f, 380f Deltopectoral triangle, 385f Dens, 68f, 69f articular facet for, 68f articular facet of, posterior, 70f ligaments of, 70f, 70t
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Depressor anguli oris muscle, 22f Depressor labii inferioris muscle, 22f Derangement syndrome, in low back pain, 187t Dermatomes, of upper limb anterior vs. posterior view of, 85f in cervical radiculopathy testing, 86f, 86t Developmental hip dysplasia, in infants, 244, 263, 263f, 263t Deviation tests of radius and ulna, 484t, 485f, 500t of temporomandibular joint anterior disc displacement and, 46, 46t, 55t, 57t lateral, 48f, 48t of toes, lateral, 369f Diagnostic utility of clinical examination, 1-14. See also Clinical examination; specific anatomy or test. Diaphragm, 146f slip of costal part of, 145f Digastric fossa, of mandible, 18f Digastric muscle anterior belly of, 24f, 24t, 25f, 26f, 35f, 73f, 74t posterior belly of, 24f, 24t, 25f, 26f, 72f, 73f, 74t Digastric tendon, intermediate, fibrous loop of, 24f, 25f, 72f, 73f Digital arteries of foot and toes common plantar, 350f, 352f from plantar metatarsal artery, 349f dorsal, 348f, 352f proper plantar, 349f, 352f dorsal branches of, 348f superficial branch from medial plantar artery, 351f of hand and fingers common palmar, 474f deep palmar arch, 474f palmar metacarpal, 474f Digital fibrous sheaths, 469f Digital nerves/branches palmar, 493f common, 475f, 476f dorsal, 476f, 477f, 493f proper, 475f, 476f, 493f plantar common, 350f, 354f communicating branches of, 349f dorsal, 353f
Digital nerves/branches (Continued) from deep fibular nerve, 348f from superficial fibular nerve, 348f proper, 354f, 475f dorsal branches of, 348f lateral vs. medial branches of, 349f, 350f, 351f Digits. See Fingers; Toes. Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand (DASH) in shoulder outcomes, 429t in wrist and hand outcomes, 503t Disc(s) articular. See Articular discs. degenerative disease of, in thoracolumbar spine, 183f displacement of, in temporomandibular joint. See Anterior disc displacement, in TMJ disorders. intervertebral. See Intervertebral discs. Disc herniation cervical cord compression with, 116f nerve root compression with, 83f lumbar clinical features of, 157f, 178t inflammation with, 179f nerve root compression with, 157f straight-leg raise test detection of, 176, 176f, 176t crossed, 132, 177, 177f, 177t Discogenic pain sacroiliac, McKenzie evaluation rule for, 200, 235, 235f thoracolumbar, 149t, 179f Discrimination test, two-point, for carpal tunnel syndrome, 492t, 493f Dislocations. See also Subluxations. of shoulder, 398f, 399t, 401t, 411t-412t Displacements of discs, in temporomandibular joint. See Anterior disc displacement, in TMJ disorders. of femur fractures, 277f of knee meniscus, anterior, 32f of patella lateral pull test for, 311t mediolateral, 307t of wrist fractures, 483f Distraction tests of hip, with knee interventions, 326t
Distraction tests (Continued) of neck, 66, 110, 110f, 110t, 122t, 124t combined with other tests, 117, 117t of sacroiliac joint/region, 200, 223, 223f combined with other tests, 233t, 235 diagnostic utility of, 223f, 223t for pelvic pain, 260t, 272t reliability of, 223f, 223t Dorsal nerve, of penis/clitoris, 148f, 252f Dorsal view of carpal bones, 463f of deep interosseous muscles of sole, 352f of foot and ankle, 338f of wrist and hand bones, 464f of wrist and hand muscles, 474f of wrist and hand nerves, 475f, 476f of wrist ligaments, 468, 468f, 468t Dorsalis pedis artery, 348f deep plantar artery from, 352f Dorsiflexion of ankle, 359t, 360f impingement sign with, 370f, 370t in slump test, 178f, 178t of knee, 305t Dorsiflexion-compression test, for ankle trauma, 356t, 357f Drawer test, of ankle. See Anterior drawer test. Drop arm test for rotator cuff tears, 422t for subacromial impingement, 415t-416t combined with other tests, 428t Drop/dropping sign, in rotator cuff tears, 422t Dropping objects, with wrist and hand disorders, 478t, 479t Drop-test, of sacroiliac joint, 225t Dupuytren’s contracture, in hand, 478t Dynamic movements. See also Functional movements. aberrant, in lumbar segmental instability, 180t, 191t of foot and ankle, assessment of, 336, 366, 366f, 366t, 367t of hip and pelvis, pain during, 272, 272t resistance tests and, 264, 264t, 265t
Dynamic movements (Continued) for lumbar stability, “corset” concept of, 143f of shoulder, scapular asymmetry during, 395, 395t, 396f of temporomandibular joint, 16t anterior disc displacement and, 46 pain during, 47 conditions identified by, 5051 joint play and, 49 resistance tests and, 48 Dynamometer, for grip strength testing, 452t, 462, 487t, 489t Dysplasia, hip, 244 developmental, in infants, 244, 263, 263f, 263t
E Ecchymosis, foot and ankle, in trauma screening, 356t Ege’s test, for meniscal tears, 319, 319f, 319t Elbow and forearm, 439-460 arthrology of, 442 clinical summary and recommendations, 440-458 diagnostic utility of examination cubital tunnel syndrome detection, 454, 454f, 454t extension test, 440, 453, 453f, 453t medial collateral tears detection, 455, 455f, 455t movement and exercise therapy, 456, 456f, 456t ligaments of, 443, 443f, 443t, 444f, 444t mobilization strategies for, 456, 456t muscles of, 445, 447 nerves of, 448, 448f, 448t in neural tension tests, 112t, 114t, 499t osteology of, 441, 441f outcome measures of, 457, 457t patient history and, 440 initial hypotheses based on, 449, 449t physical examination of, 440t, 450-455 quality assessment of diagnostic studies, 458, 458t range of motion of, 450 measurements of, 440, 450451, 450f, 451f pain during, 449t
INDEX 519
Elbow and forearm (Continued) reliability of examination end-feel classification, 452, 452f, 452t flexion and extension measurements, 450, 450f, 450t grip strength testing, 452, 452t supination and pronation measurements, 451, 451f, 451t Elbow pain epicondylar. See Tennis elbow. neuropathic. See Cubital tunnel syndrome. patient history in, 449, 449t Electrodiagnostics for cervical radiculopathy, 83t, 84t, 86t, 88t, 89t, 109t, 114t, 117t for lumbar radiculopathy, 154t, 156t for wrist and hand disorders, 478t, 479t, 489t, 490t, 492t, 495t, 497t, 498t, 501t Elevation tests, of shoulder, 390t for rotator cuff tears, 422t Empty can test, for supraspinatus tears, 418f, 418t, 422t End-feel assessment of elbow, 452, 452f, 452t of hip and pelvis, capsular and noncapsular, 258, 258f, 258t of knee, capsular and noncapsular, 284, 302 extension vs. flexion, 302f, 302t, 326t of temporomandibular joint, 44, 44f, 44t of thoracolumbar spine, 166t Endurance testing of cervical spine flexors, 99, 99f, 99t of serratus anterior muscle, 392t of thoracolumbar spine, 162, 162f, 162t Epicondylalgia. See Tennis elbow. Epicondyles of femur lateral, 285f, 289f medial, 285f, 289f, 291f adductor tubercle on, 253f, 287f in physical examination, 306t, 307t of humerus, lateral vs. medial, 379f, 380f, 441f, 443f, 445f, 446f, 447f, 448f, 470f, 471f, 472f, 476f, 477f palpation of, 449f 520
Epicondyles (Continued) tenderness over. See Tennis elbow. Epicondylitis, of elbow, lateral vs. medial, 449t Epiglottis, 17f, 67f Erector spinae muscle, 140f, 141f, 142f, 145f Ethmoid bone, 19f Eversion, subtalar joint, 359t Evidence-based practice, 2 Excursions, of temporomandibular joint, 43t, 47t, 48t Exercise therapy stabilizing, for low back pain. See Stabilization exercises. for strength. See Strengthening exercises. for tennis elbow, 456, 456t Extension view of anterior knee muscles, 289f of posterior knee ligaments, 287f Extension/extension tests of cervical spine, 94f, 95t, 96t limited passive, 100t, 103t pain during, 97t, 98t in slump test, 178f, 178t of elbow, 440, 453, 453t for carpal tunnel syndrome, 499t end-feel classification, 452, 452f, 452t ROM measurements, 450, 450f, 450t of fingers, for carpal tunnel syndrome, 499t of great toe, in predicting success of patellofemoral pain interventions, 325f, 325t of hip, 256t, 257t, 261f in flexor contracture test, 269f, 269t length assessment with, 268t, 270t for lumbar segmental instability, 180t for lumbar spinal stenosis, 182t mobilizations effect on, 326t osteonecrosis detection with, 262t pain during, 260t, 278t strength assessment with, 264t, 265t of knee measurement of active vs. passive, 301t end-feel, 302t, 326t pain during, 303t for strength, 304t
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Extension/extension tests (Continued) in pivot shift test, 315f in slump test, 178f, 178t of lumbar spine, 159t centralization phenomena and, 173t lying, 171f, 171t radiography with, for instability, 184t of sacroiliac joint lying, 235 standing, 235 of shoulder, 390t for labral tears, 407t of thoracolumbar spine, 159t, 160f in low back pain classifications, 188t pain during, 161, 161f, 161t of wrist, 484t, 485f, 487t, 489t for carpal tunnel syndrome, 496t, 497t, 499t, 501t Extensor carpi radialis brevis muscle, 445f, 470f, 470t groove on radius for, 444f innervation of, 477f manual testing of, for cervical radiculopathy, 88t Extensor carpi radialis brevis tendon, 445f, 465f Extensor carpi radialis longus muscle, 445f, 470f, 470t groove on radius for, 444f innervation of, 477f manual testing of, for cervical radiculopathy, 88t Extensor carpi radialis longus tendon, 445f, 465f Extensor carpi ulnaris muscle, 470f, 470t innervation of, 477f Extensor carpi ulnaris tendon, 445f Extensor digiti minimi muscle, 470f, 470t innervation of, 477f Extensor digiti minimi tendon, 445f, 470f, 470t Extensor digitorum brevis muscle, 345t, 346f, 347f, 348t, 353f Extensor digitorum brevis tendon, 348f, 352f Extensor digitorum longus muscle, 289f, 345t, 346f, 348f, 353f Extensor digitorum longus tendon, 346f, 348f, 352f Extensor digitorum muscle, 470f, 470t groove on radius for, 444f innervation of, 477f
Extensor digitorum tendon, 445f, 470f, 470t Extensor expansions of fingers, tendinous slips to, 473f of foot and ankle, 348f, 352f Extensor hallucis brevis muscle, 347f, 348t, 353f Extensor hallucis brevis tendon, 348f, 352f Extensor hallucis longus muscle, 345t, 346f, 348f, 353f neurological examination of, 156t, 158f Extensor hallucis longus tendon, 346f, 348f, 352f Extensor indicis muscle, 445f, 470f, 470t groove on radius for, 444f innervation of, 477f Extensor indicis tendon, 470f, 470t Extensor muscles of anterior abdominal wall, 143f, 143t of hip and thigh, length assessment of, 268t, 270t of wrist and digits, 470, 470f, 470t innervation of, 477f Extensor pollicis brevis muscle, 445f, 470f, 470t area on radius for, 444f innervation of, 477f Extensor pollicis brevis tendon, 448f insertion of, 465f Extensor pollicis longus muscle, 445f, 470f, 470t groove on radius for, 444f innervation of, 477f Extensor pollicis longus tendon, insertion of, 465f Extensor retinaculum of foot inferior, 346f, 353f superior, 346f of forearm, 445f, 446f of wrist, 465f Extensor tendon, common, of forearm, 445f, 470f External acoustic/auditory meatus, 17f, 19f, 67f posterior TMJ palpation through, 36f, 37t External rotation (ER) lag sign, in shoulder, 378, 422t External rotation (ER) test, for ankle trauma, 356t
F FABER test. See Patrick test. FABQ. See Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire (FABQ).
Facet syndrome, cervical, 80t Facets articular. See Articular facets. of clavicle acromial, 379f sternal, 379f costal. See Costal facets. of tibia, lateral vs. medial, 285f, 288f Facial nerve, 24t, 26f cervical branch of, 24t FADIR. See Flexion–internal rotation–adduction (FADIR) impingement test. Fagan’s nomogram, 8f, 117f False-negative result/rate, 3, 4t, 6, 11t False-positive result/rate, 3, 4t, 5, 11t Fascia. See specific anatomy, e.g., Thoracolumbar fascia. Fasciitis, plantar, 336, 355t, 371t Fat, in acetabular fossa, 247f Fat body, suprapatellar, 286f Fat pad in elbow joint, 442f infrapatellar, 286f, 288f Fatty degeneration, with infraspinatus tears, 422t Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire (FABQ) for cervical spine outcomes, 120t, 121t, 125t for sacroiliac region outcomes, 238t for thoracolumbar spine outcomes, 189t, 190t, 192t Female pelvic inlet, anterior view of, 204f Female pelvic outlet, inferior view of, 204f Female pelvis anterior view of, 204f inferior view of, 204f sagittal section of, 204f Femoral artery, 253f circumflex lateral, 253f ascending, transverse, and descending branches of, 253f medial, 253f osteonecrosis related to disruption of, 262f Femoral nerve, 146f, 147t, 148f, 252t, 253f, 290t, 292f, 292t, 293f articular branch of, 293f cutaneous branches of anterior, 293f lateral, 293f
Femoral vein, 253f Femoroacetabular (anterior) impingement, 254t Femoroacetabular joint, 246t Femur adductor tubercle of, 285f on medial epicondyle, 253f, 287f anterior vs. posterior view of, 245f articular cartilage of, erosion of, 259f, 296f body (shaft) of, 245f, 285f bursitis of, in greater trochanter, 254t condyles of, lateral vs. medial, 285f, 287f, 288f epicondyles of lateral, 285f, 289f medial, 285f, 289f, 291f adductor tubercle on, 253f, 287f in physical examination, 306t, 307t fibrous capsule of line of attachment of, 245f, 285f line of reflection of, 245f, 285f unattached, 285f fractures of distal, 298f intertrochanteric, 277f shaft, 277f, 298f head of, 245f, 247f erosion of cartilage and deformity of, 259f, 296f osteonecrosis of, 262f posterior ligament of, 247f, 247t fovea for, 245f intercondylar fossa of, 285f intercondylar notch of cartilaginous excrescences at, 285f fracture of, 298f in knee joint, 286f, 287f, 289f ligaments of, 247f, 247t neck of, 245f, 247f osteology of, 285f in physical examination, of knee, 306t, 307t, 309t combined with other tests, 324t trochanters of. See Trochanters, of femur. FFI (Foot Function Index), 373t Fibromyalgia, tender point palpation for, 172t Fibula in ankle joint, 340f, 341f, 346f, 348f anterior border of, 285f apex of, 285f head of, 251f, 285f, 287f, 288f, 289f, 291f, 346f, 347f, 353f
INDEX 521
Fibula (Continued) posterior ligament of, 287f, 287t lateral surface of, 285f neck of, 285f osteology of, 285f in physical examination, 298f of foot and ankle, 356t, 358t, 360f of knee, 298f, 315f Fibular artery, 347f communicating branch of, 347f lateral calcaneal artery from, 350f lateral calcaneal branch of, 347f perforating branch of, 347f, 348f posterior lateral malleolar branch of, 347f Fibular collateral ligament, 287f, 288f, 288t, 346f, 347f and bursa, 289f, 291f inferior subtendinous bursa of, 287f Fibular nerve. See Peroneal nerve. Fibular retinaculum inferior, 341f, 346f, 347f fibular tendons in, 340f superior, 341f, 346f, 347f Fibular tendon, in inferior fibular retinaculum, 340f Fibular trochlea, of calcaneus, 337f, 338f Fibularis brevis muscle. See Peroneus brevis muscle. Fibularis brevis tendon. See Peroneus brevis tendon. Fibularis longus muscle. See Peroneus longus muscle. Fibularis longus tendon. See Peroneus longus tendon. Fibularis tertius muscle. See Peroneus tertius muscle. Fibularis tertius tendon. See Peroneus tertius tendon. Figure-of-eight measurement of ankle joint swelling, 368, 368f, 368t of wrist and hand swelling, 491f, 491t Finger pad, sensation testing of index, 492t medial, 492t Fingers muscles of extensor, 470, 470f, 470t flexor, 471, 471f, 471t, 472f in neural tension tests, 112t, 114t, 499t ROM measurements of, 462, 486, 486f, 486t sensation testing of, 492, 492t, 493f 522
Fingers (Continued) for carpal tunnel syndrome, 492, 492t strength testing of, 488f, 489, 489t for carpal tunnel syndrome, 489t Fixations, segmental, of lumbar spine, 166t, 170f Flap tear, of meniscus, 323f Flatfoot, 369f Flexion view, of anterior knee ligaments, 288f Flexion/flexion tests of ankle, 359t of cervical spine, 94f, 95t, 96t limited passive, 100t, 101t, 102t, 103t pain during, 97t, 98f, 98t in slump test, 178f, 178t in straight-leg raise test, 175f strength and endurance tests of, 99f, 99t of elbow, 440 for cubital tunnel syndrome, 454f, 454t pressure provocative test combined with, 454t end-feel classification, 452, 452f, 452t ROM measurements, 450, 450f, 450t of hip and pelvis, 256t, 257t, 258t, 261f contracture test for, 269, 269f, 269t length assessment with, 268t, 270t pain during, 260t, 278t strength assessment with, 264t, 265t of interphalangeal joints, 486f, 486t of knee hip mobilization effect on, 326t measurement of active vs. passive, 301f, 301t end-feel, 302f, 302t, 326t pain during, 303t, 319t, 320t, 322t in pivot shift test, 315f in slump test, 178f, 178t of lumbar spine, 159t centralization phenomena and, 173t excessive, 171f, 171t for instability radiography with, 184t, 185, 185f segmental, 180t radiography with, 184t segmental side vs. ventral, 165t
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Flexion/flexion tests (Continued) of sacroiliac joint lying, 235 sitting, 231, 231f, 231t standing, 230, 230f, 230t, 235 of shoulder, 390t for labral tears, supine resistance with, 405t, 411t412t for muscle assessments, 392t, 393t of thoracolumbar spine, 159t, 160f in low back pain classifications, 188t pain during, 161, 161f, 161t of wrist, 484f, 484t, 489t for carpal tunnel syndrome, 496f, 496t, 497t Flexion–internal rotation–adduction (FADIR) impingement test, for hip and pelvis pathology, 244 diagnostic utility of, 275, 275f, 275t reliability of, 275, 275f, 275t Flexor carpi radialis muscle, 448f, 471f, 471t innervation of, 475f manual testing of, for cervical radiculopathy, 88t Flexor carpi radialis tendon, 446f, 448f in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, 445f, 446f, 448f, 471f, 471t innervation of, 476f Flexor carpi ulnaris tendon, 448f, 467f, 474f, 501t Flexor digiti minimi brevis muscle in foot, 349f, 350f, 351f, 351t, 352f in hand, 474f innervation of, 476f Flexor digiti minimi brevis tendon, 344f Flexor digiti minimi muscle, 473t Flexor digitorum brevis muscle, 349f, 349t, 350f, 351f, 354f Flexor digitorum brevis nerve, 354f Flexor digitorum brevis tendon, 349f, 350f, 351f to 2nd toe, 344f fibrous sheaths of, 350f Flexor digitorum longus muscle, 347f, 347t, 354f Flexor digitorum longus tendon, 344f, 347f, 349f, 350f, 351f to 2nd toe, 344f
Flexor digitorum profundus muscle, 448f, 472f medial vs. lateral part of, 471t innervation of, 476f Flexor digitorum profundus tendon, 467f, 469f in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f Flexor digitorum superficialis muscle, 446f, 471t, 472f humeroulnar head of, 446f, 448f, 471t lateral vs. medial part of, innervation of, 475f radial head of, 448f, 471t Flexor digitorum superficialis tendon, 467f, 469f in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f Flexor hallucis brevis muscle, 351f, 351t, 354f lateral vs. medial head of, 349f, 350f, 351f, 352f Flexor hallucis brevis nerve, 354f Flexor hallucis brevis tendon lateral vs. medial head of, 344f lateral vs. medial origin of, 352f Flexor hallucis longus muscle, 347f, 347t, 354f Flexor hallucis longus tendon, 344f, 349f, 350f, 351f, 352f groove for on calcaneus, 337f, 338f on talus, 338f Flexor muscles of anterior abdominal wall, 143f, 143t of hip contractures of, 269, 269f, 269t length assessment of, 268t, 270t neurological examination of, 156t of wrist and digits, 471, 471f, 471t, 472f Flexor pollicis brevis muscle, 473t, 474f superficial vs. deep head of, innervation of, 475f, 476f Flexor pollicis longus muscle, 446f, 448f, 471t, 472f innervation of, 475f Flexor pollicis longus tendon, 448f, 467f in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f Flexor pollicis radialis tendon, 467f Flexor retinaculum of foot and ankle, 347f, 350f, 351f, 354f of wrist and hand, 474f in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f
Flexor tendons of forearm, common, 471f, 472f of sole of foot, fibrous sheaths of, 349f Flick maneuver, for carpal tunnel syndrome, 501t Fluctuation test, for knee inflammation, 300f, 300t Flynn technique, for spinal manipulation, 190f, 236, 236f Foot and ankle, 335-376 arthrology of, 339 clinical summary and recommendations, 336-374 diagnostic utility of examination, 336 anterior drawer test, 372, 372f anterolateral ankle impingement detection, 370, 370f, 370t hallux function during gait, 367, 367f, 367t strength assessment, 361, 361f, 361t talar tilt test, 372, 372f trauma screening, 358, 358f, 358t Windlass test, 371, 371f, 371t fractures of, 336, 355t screening for, 336, 358f, 358t ligaments of, 340-341, 342-343 lateral, 341, 341f, 341t, 346f medial, 342, 342f, 342t plantar, 343, 343f, 343t, 344f posterior, 340, 340f, 340t of sole, 352f sprain injuries of, 355t, 372, 372f lumbar zygapophyseal joint pain referral to, 149t motion of, during gait, 367 muscles of, 348 dorsum, 348, 348f, 348t leg vs., 345, 347 in sole, 349-350, 351-352 deep interosseous, 352, 352f, 352t first layer of, 349, 349f, 349t second layer of, 350, 350f, 350t third layer of, 351, 351f, 351t nerves of, 353, 353f, 353t, 354f in sole of foot, 349f, 349t, 350f, 350t, 351f, 351t osteology of, 337 dorsal vs. plantar view of, 338f lateral vs. medial view of, 337f Ottawa rules for, 357f outcome measures of, 373, 373t paresthesias in, 355t
Foot and ankle (Continued) patient history and, 336 initial hypotheses based on, 355, 355t report of pain, 355t, 370t report of trauma, 355t physical examination of, 336t, 356-372 quality assessment of diagnostic studies, 374, 374t range of motion examination of, 359-360 reliability of examination balance and proprioception assessment, 365, 365f, 365t bony alignment assessment, 362 forefoot position, 364, 364f, 364t medial arch height, 362, 363f, 363t navicular height, 362, 362f, 362t dynamic performance assessment, 336, 366, 366f, 366t, 367t hindfoot motion during gait, 367, 367f, 367t joint swelling measurements, 368, 368f, 368t ligamentous injury detection after sprains, 372, 372f protective sensation assessment, 369, 369f, 369t range of motion measurements, 355t, 356t, 359, 359f calcaneal position, 336t, 360, 360f lunge, 338f, 360 open kinetic chain, 359 passive vs. active, 359t strength assessment, 361, 361f, 361t trauma screening, 356, 356t, 357f rheumatoid arthritis involvement of, 369f, 369t weakness in, with herniated lumbar nucleus pulposus, 157f Foot and ankle pain impingement detection with, 370t as lumbar zygapophyseal joint pain referral, 149t patient report of, 355t in trauma screening, 356t Foot Function Index (FFI), 373t Foot orthoses, for patellofemoral pain syndrome, 284, 325, 325f, 325t
INDEX 523
Foot rotation test, internal, for TMJ disorders diagnostic utility of, 53, 53f, 53t reliability of, 53, 53f, 53t Foramen. See specific anatomy, e.g., Intervertebral foramen. Foramen ovale, 26f, 67f Foramen spinosum, 26f, 67f Force high-velocity thrust, in spinal manipulation, for cervical radiculopathy, 119f, 121f mechanical, in lumbar pain, 179f posteroanterior, for lumbar pain provocation, 167t in shoulder tests for instability, 400t for labral tears, 403t, 404t, 407t, 409t, 411t-412t transfer of in knee injuries, 297f, 297t by thoracolumbar fascia, 144, 144f in wrist and hand tests, for instability, 494t, 495t Forearm/arm, 439-460. See also Elbow and forearm. bones of. See Humerus; Radius; Ulna. fractures of, in children, 483, 483f ligaments of, 443, 444f, 444t muscles of, 445 anterior vs. posterior, 445, 445f anterior view of, 446f, 446t posterior view of, 445f, 445t supinators vs. pronators, 447, 447f, 447t nerves of, 387t, 388f, 448, 448f, 448t in hand and wrist, 493f in neural tension tests, 112t, 114t, 499t pain in, with cervical compression test, 108f, 108t Forefoot alignment/position, 364, 364f, 364t Forward bending, of thoracolumbar spine, 159t Fossa. See specific anatomy, e.g., Iliac fossa. Foveal disruption, of radioulnar ligaments, 462 testing for, 501t Fractures of cervical spine screening for, 66, 91, 92t-93t, 305t types of, 90f 524
Fractures (Continued) of femur distal, 298f intertrochanteric, 277f shaft, 277f, 298f of foot and ankle, 336, 355t screening for, 336, 358f, 358t of forearm/arm, in children, 483, 483f of hip, 244 patellar-pubic percussion test for, 276, 276f, 276t types of, 277f of knee, 284, 298-299, 299t distal femur and, 298f of wrist and hand, screening for, 462, 481-483, 481t, 482f, 483f Frontal bone, 19f Functional hallux limitus test, during gait, 367, 367f, 367t Functional impairment, with TMJ disorders, 16t, 31, 31t, 60t Functional movements. See also Dynamic movements. of sacroiliac region, 200 assessment tests for, 226-227, 228-229, 230-231, 232 combinations of, 233-234, 235 dysfunction vs. pain detection with, 234-235, 234f, 235f of shoulder, assessment tests for, 391, 391f, 391t Functional outcomes. See Outcome measures.
G Gaenslen test for pelvic pain, 260t, 272t of sacroiliac joint, 220, 222f combined with other tests, 233t, 235 diagnostic utility of, 220f, 220t reliability of, 220f, 220t Gait characteristic, with hip osteoarthritis, 259f, 267t functional hallux limitus test during, 367, 367f, 367t hindfoot motion during, dynamic assessment of, 367, 367f, 367t Galea aponeurotica muscle, 77f Ganglion otic, 21f, 23f, 26f semilunar (trigeminal), 26f
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Ganglion (Continued) sensory of lumbar spine nerves, 179f of thoracic spine nerves, 145f submandibular, 26f Gastrocnemius muscle, 289f, 291f, 294f, 345t, 346f, 354f atrophy of, with herniated lumbar nucleus pulposus, 157f lateral head of, 249f, 286f, 287f, 290t, 347f length assessment of, 305t medial head of, 249f, 287f, 290t, 347f neurological examination of, 156t plantaris part of, 290t popliteus part of, 290t subtendinous bursa of lateral, 286f, 287f medial, 287f Gastroc-soleus complex, neurological examination of, 156t Gemellus muscle, inferior vs. superior, 248t, 249f, 252f nerves to, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252f Genicular arteries articular branch of, 253f descending, 253f inferior lateral vs. superior lateral, 346f, 347f inferior medial vs. superior medial, 253f, 347f Genioglossus muscle, superior mental spine for, 25f Geniohyoid muscle, 24t, 25f, 35f, 73f, 74t Genitofemoral nerve, 146f, 147t, 148f, 292f femoral branch of, 146f, 148f genital branch of, 148f Gerber’s test, for subacromial impingement, 415t-416t Gerdy’s tubercle, 285f, 288f iliotibial tract insertion to, 289f Gillet test, 226-227, 226t, 227f, 227t Glabella, of frontal bone, 19f Glasgow Coma Score, with cervical spine trauma, 85t, 87t, 96t, 104t Glenohumeral joint, 136t integrated movements of, 381, 381f in neural tension tests, 114t in physical examination, 395t, 400t, 401t Glenohumeral ligaments, 382f, 382t avulsions of, 399t, 400t, 401t inferior vs. middle vs. superior, 383f
Glenohumeral muscles, length-tension relationship of, 381 Glenoid cavity, of scapula, 379f, 383f Glenoid fossa, in scapulohumeral rhythm, 381 Glenoid labral tears. See also Superior labrum anterior posterior (SLAP) lesions. active compression/O’Brien test for, 406-407, 406f, 406t, 407t combined with other tests, 427t anterior slide/Kibler test for, 409, 409f, 409t combined with other tests, 427t combination of tests for, 427, 427t compression rotation test for, 404, 404f, 404t Crank test for, 402-403, 402f, 402t, 403t palpation of, 394, 394t patient history in, 389, 389t various tests for, 378, 399t, 410411, 410t, 411t-412t Yergason test for, 408, 408f, 408t Glenoid labrum, 383f Glide test/technique anteroposterior, for hip mobilization, 326f caudal, for hip mobilization, 326f lateral, of cervical vertebrae, 102t luno-meniscotriquetral dorsal, 500t mediolateral, of patella, 307t posterior to anterior. See Posterior to anterior (PA) glide test/technique. of sacroiliac joint, 235 Gluteal lines, of hip bone, 203f, 245f anterior vs. posterior, 203f, 245f inferior, 203f, 245f Gluteal nerve inferior, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252t superior, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252f, 252t Gluteal (buttock) pain with herniated lumbar nucleus pulposus, 157f in hip examination, 274t, 278t as lumbar zygapophyseal joint pain referral, 149t, 150f patient report of, 254t, 255t physical examination for, 257t sacroiliac pain and, 211t Gluteal tuberosity, 245f Gluteus maximus muscle, 140f, 207f, 207t, 248t, 249f, 252f
Gluteus medius muscle, 140f, 248t, 249f, 251f, 252f, 253f resisted, pain during, 266t tears of, 244 weakness of, 267f Gluteus medius tendon, tears of, 266t, 267t Gluteus minimus muscle, 248t, 249f, 252f, 253f resisted, pain with, 266t tears of, 244 Goniometer in cervical spine assessment, 95t, 96t in elbow and forearm assessment, 450f, 450t, 451f, 451t in foot and ankle assessment, 359t, 360f, 360t, 363t in hip and pelvis assessment, 256t, 257t, 269t in knee assessment, 301t, 310t, 311t, 354f in lumbar spine assessment, 189t in shoulder assessment, 390t in wrist and hand assessment, 484f, 484t, 485f, 486f, 486t Gower’s sign, of lumbar segmental instability, 180t, 191t Gracilis muscle, 249f, 250t, 251f, 253f, 290t, 291f, 292f Gracilis tendon, 251f, 289f, 291f Great toe. See also Hallux. distal vs. proximal phalanx of, 344f extension, in predicting success of patellofemoral pain interventions, 325f, 325t Grip/gripping strength testing of forearm in, 440, 452, 452t with fractures, 483 hand and fingers in, 488f, 489, 489t wrist in, 487-489, 487f, 487t wrist and hand disorders impact on, 478t, 479t carpal tunnel syndrome as, 465t, 489 in children, 483 Groin pain. See Inguinal (groin) pain.
H Habitus, characteristic, with hip osteoarthritis, 259f Hallux. See also Great toe. AOFAS scale for, 373t Hallux limitus test, functional, during gait, 367, 367f, 367t
Hamate, 463f, 464f, 465f, 468f in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f hook (hamulus) of, 463f, 464f, 467f, 469f, 471f in scaphoid fractures, 482f Hammertoes, 369f Hamstrings, 248t, 249f length assessment of, 305t sciatic nerve supply to, 249f, 250t, 292f strains of, 254t Hamulus (hook) of hamate, 448f, 463f, 464f, 467f, 469f, 471f in scaphoid fractures, 482f of medial pterygoid plate, 17f, 23f, 26f, 67f of pterygoid process, 67f Hand. See also Wrist and hand. abduction tests of, 486t fascia of, 465f thickening of deep antebrachial, 467f paresthesias of, 495t, 498t, 501t with brachial plexus palsy, 425t patient report of, 478t, 479t, 480f strength testing of, 488f, 489, 489t trauma screening for, 462, 481483, 481t, 482f, 483f Hand and wrist pain. See also Carpal tunnel syndrome. brachial plexus palsy causing, 425t with carpal compression test, 498t with cervical compression test, 108f, 108t patient report of, 478t, 479t Hand behind back test, 391f, 391t Hand in neck test, 391t Hand Severity Scale, for carpal tunnel syndrome, 462, 502 Hand to neck test, 391t Hand to scapula tests, 391t opposite, 391t Hand-shake position, for scaphoid fracture identification, 481t Hawkins-Kennedy test, for subacromial impingement, 378, 413, 413f, 413t combined with other tests, 428t Head forward test of, in postural assessment, 106t leaning on palm, and TMJ disorders, 27, 27f
INDEX 525
Head and neck. See also Neck. bony framework of in relation to cervical spine, 67f in relation to TMJ, 17f Headaches, cervical spine and, 97t, 104t Heel-bank test, of sacroiliac joint, 232t Herniation, of intervertebral discs. See Disc herniation. Hill-Sachs lesion, of shoulder, 399t, 400t, 401t Hindfoot, in physical examination, 358t Hindfoot motion, during gait, dynamic assessment of, 367, 367f, 367t Hinge joints, temporomandibular, 20, 20f Hip abduction/abduction tests, 244, 256t, 257t length assessment with, 268t limited, developmental dysplasia in infants and, 244, 263, 263f, 263t osteonecrosis detection with, 262t pain during, 260t, 266t resisted, for sacroiliac pain provocation, 225f, 225t strength assessment with, 264t, 265t Hip adduction/adduction tests, 244, 256t, 257t for impingement. See Flexion– internal rotation– adduction (FADIR) impingement test. length assessment with, 268t pain during, 260t, 278t strength assessment with, 264t, 265t Hip and pelvis, 243-282 arthritis of. See Osteoarthritis (OA). arthrology of, 246 clinical summary and recommendations, 244-280 diagnostic utility of examination avascular necrosis detection with limited ROM, 262, 262f, 262t combination of tests for osteoarthritis, 278, 278f, 278t Cyriax’s capsular pattern for detecting osteoarthritis, 258, 259f developmental dysplasia detection in infants, 244, 263, 263f, 263t 526
Hip and pelvis (Continued) hip fracture detection, 276, 276f, 276t, 277f intra-articular pathology detection, 275, 275f, 275t lateral tendon pathology identification, 266, 266f, 266t, 267f, 267t pain during limited ROM, 260, 260f, 260t, 261f pain with functional movements, 272, 272f, 272t pain with palpation, 273, 273f, 273t patellar-pubic percussion test, 276, 276f, 276t, 277f patient history, 255, 255f, 255t Patrick’s (FABER) test, 274, 274f, 274t Trendelenburg test, 267, 267f, 267t fractures of, 244, 277f patellar-pubic percussion test for, 276, 276f, 276t ligaments of, 247, 247f, 247t mobilization strategies for, for knee osteoarthritis, 284, 326, 326f, 326t muscles of, 248 anterior, 250, 250t, 251f posterior, 248, 248t, 249f nerves of, 248t, 252 and buttocks, 252, 252f, 252t and thigh, 249f, 252t, 253f osteology of, 245 femur, 245f hip (coxal) bone, 245f outcome measures of, 279, 279t palpation of, 273 patient history and, 244, 255 initial hypotheses based on, 254, 254t physical examination of, 244t, 256-278 quality assessment of diagnostic studies, 280, 280t range of motion of passive measurements of, 256, 256f, 256t, 257t, 258t, 261f physical examination of, 258, 260, 262-263 reliability of examination capsular and noncapsular endfeels, 258, 258f, 258t intra-articular pathology detection, 275, 275f, 275t
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Hip and pelvis (Continued) muscle length assessment, 268269, 270 flexion contracture in, 269, 269f, 269t iliotibial band length in, 268, 268f, 268t measurements in, 270, 270f, 270t, 271f Ober tests, 268f, 268t pain with palpation, 273, 273f, 273t Patrick’s (FABER) test, 274, 274f, 274t ROM measurements, 256, 256f, 256t, 257f, 257t Thomas test, 269, 269f, 269t Trendelenburg test, 267, 267f, 267t in straight-leg raise test, 176t Hip (coxal) bone, 203f auricular surface of, for sacrum, 203f osteology of, 245f Hip pain. See also Sacroiliac pain. combined tests for, 278t during functional movements, 272, 272t intra-articular anesthetic-steroid injection for, 273t, 274t, 275t palpation for, 273, 273t patient report of, 244t, 254t, 255, 255t special tests for, 274t, 275t diagnostic utility of, 275, 275f reliability of, 275, 275f knee interventions and, 326t lateral tendon pathology and, 266, 266t, 267t physical examination for, 244, 256-278, 268t during resistance tests, 264, 264t, 265t History, in clinical examination. See Patient history. Hook (anatomy). See Hamulus (hook). Hook (tool), in thoracolumbar muscles, 141f Horizontal adduction test, for subacromial impingement, 415t-416t, 416f combined with other tests, 428t Horizontal (cleft) tear, of meniscus, 323f Hornblower’s sign, with rotator cuff tears, 419f, 422t
Humeral artery, circumflex, anterior vs. posterior, 388f Humeroradial joint, 442t Humeroulnar joint, 442t Humerus capitulum of, 379f, 441f condyles of, lateral vs. medial, 379f, 441f deltoid tuberosity of, 379f, 380f in elbow joint, 442f, 442t, 443f extension vs. flexion, 441f epicondyles of, lateral vs. medial, 379f, 380f, 441f, 443f, 445f, 446f, 447f, 448f, 470f, 471f, 472f, 476f, 477f palpation of, 449f tenderness over. See Tennis elbow. fossae of, 379f, 441f groove for ulnar nerve on, 380f, 441f head of, 379f, 380f in scapulohumeral rhythm, 381 intertubercular sulcus of, 379f ligaments of, 443f, 443t, 444f neck of, anatomical vs. surgical, 379f, 380f in neural tension tests, 112t olecranon fossa of, 380f, 441f radial fossa of, 379f, 441f radial groove of, 380f in rotator cuff tears, 418f, 422t in shoulder examination, 393t, 397f, 399t, 403t, 404t, 405t, 407t, 409t, 422t, 426t, 452t in shoulder joint, 380f anterior view of, 379f supracondylar ridge of, medial vs. lateral, 379f, 380f, 441f trochlea of, 379f, 380f, 441f tubercles of greater vs. lesser, 379f, 380f, 382f crests of, 379f infraglenoid, 380f Hyaline cartilage, in knee, osteoarthritis of, 296f Hyoid bone, 72f, 73f body, lesser horn, and greater horn of, 17f, 24f, 25f, 67f Hyperflexion test, for meniscal tears, 323t Hypermobile segments, of lumbar spine, 166t, 184t spinal manipulation for, 189t Hypertonicity, of multifidus muscle, in lumbar spine, 165t
Hypogastric (pelvic) plexus, inferior, 209f Hypoglossal nerve, 24t, 26f Hypoglossus muscle, 24f, 25f, 73f Hypomobile segments of cervical spine, 100t, 101t, 102t, 103t manipulation and, 119f of lumbar spine, 166t, 184t clinical prediction rule for, 185, 185f spinal manipulation for, 189t Hypothenar eminence, in carpal compression test, 498t Hypothenar muscles, innervation of, 476f Hypotheses, based on patient history of cervical spine conditions, 80, 80t in diagnostic process, 2 of elbow and forearm conditions, 449, 449t of foot and ankle conditions, 355, 355t of hip and pelvis conditions, 254, 254t of knee conditions, 295, 295t of shoulder conditions, 389, 389t of temporomandibular joint conditions, 27, 27t of thoracolumbar spine conditions, 149, 149t of wrist and hand conditions, 478, 478t
I ICC (intraclass correlation coefficient), 3 Iliac artery(ies) circumflex, deep, 253f external, 253f Iliac crest, 140f, 141f, 142f, 201f, 203f, 206f, 246f, 249f, 252f inner vs. outer lip of, 201f, 203f, 206f, 245f, 246f intermediate zone of, 201f, 203f, 206f, 245f, 246f symmetry of in postural assessment, 163t as sacroiliac bony landmark, 214t, 215f tuberculum of, 201f, 203f, 206f, 245f, 246f Iliac fossa, 206f ala of ilium and, 203f, 245f Iliac spine anterior, inferior vs. superior, 201f, 203f, 206f, 245f, 246f, 247f, 251f
Iliac spine (Continued) in physical examination. See Anterior-superior iliac spine (ASIS); Posteriorsuperior iliac spine (PSIS). posterior, inferior vs. superior, 203f, 206f, 245f in sacroiliac pain provocation anterior-superior, 216t, 218t, 223t posterior-superior, 211t, 213t Iliac vein, external, 253f Iliacus muscle, 146f, 209f, 250t, 251f, 293f nerve branch to, 146f, 147t, 148f Iliocostalis cervicis muscle, 141f Iliocostalis extensor muscle, 143f Iliocostalis lumborum muscle, 141f, 141t Iliocostalis muscles sacroiliac, 207f, 207t thoracic, 141f, 141t Iliofemoral ligament, 247f, 247t Iliohypogastric nerve, 146f, 147t, 148f, 292f lateral branch of, 148f Ilioinguinal nerve, 146f, 147t, 148f, 292f Iliolumbar ligament, 138t, 206f Iliopectineal bursa, 247f Iliopsoas muscle, 251f, 253f Iliopubic eminence, 201f, 203f, 206f, 245f, 246f, 247f female, 204f Iliotibial band (ITB), length assessment of, 268, 268f, 268t TFL complex and, 305t Iliotibial tract, 249f, 251f, 289f, 291f, 346f blended into lateral patellar retinaculum, 288f bursa deep to, 289f, 291f insertion of, to Gerdy tubercle, 289f Ilium body of, 203f, 245f crest of. See Iliac crest. spine of. See Iliac spine. tuberosity of, 201f, 203f, 245f, 246f wing of. See Ala (wing). Impingement sign, in ankle, 336, 370f, 370t Impingement tests compressive. See Compression tests. FADIR. See Flexion–internal rotation–adduction (FADIR) impingement test.
INDEX 527
Inclinometer in cervical spine assessment,94f, 95t, 96t, 118t in elbow and forearm assessment, 450t in foot and ankle assessment, 359t in hip and pelvis assessment, 256t, 257t, 268t, 269t, 274t in muscle length assessment of hip, 268t, 270t, 271f of knee, 305f, 305t in shoulder assessment, 392t in thoracolumbar spine assessment, 159t, 160f, 184t, 191t Infants, limited hip abduction in, 244 with developmental dysplasia, 263, 263f, 263t Inferior view of atlas, 68f of female pelvic outlet, 204f of mouth floor muscles, 24f Inflammation. See also Swelling. of knee, 300, 300t lumbar pain and, 179f Infraglenoid tubercle of humerus, 380f of scapula, 379f Infrahyoid muscles, fascia of, 72f Infrapatellar bursa deep (subtendinous), 286f subcutaneous, 286f Infrapatellar fat pad, 286f, 288f Infrapatellar synovial fold, 288f Infraspinatus fascia, 140f, 384t Infraspinatus muscle, 140f, 384f, 386f, 386t tears of, 418, 418f, 418t, 419-422, 419f, 422t Infraspinatus tendon, 383f, 386f Infraspinatus test, for rotator cuff tears, 422t combined with other tests, 428t Infraspinous fossae, 380f notch connecting, 380f Infratemporal fossa, 67f Inguinal ligament, 146f, 251f, 253f Inguinal (groin) pain in hip examination, 274t, 275t, 278t ipsilateral, 244, 255t knee interventions and, 326t as lumbar zygapophyseal joint pain referral, 149t, 150f patient report of, 254t, 255t physical examination for, 257t sacroiliac pain and, 211t, 213t 528
Injuries. See Trauma; specific injury, e.g., Fractures. Innominate torsion, of sacroiliac region, 200, 227t, 229t, 230t, 231t Instability. See Stability/instability. Interalveolar septa, of mandible, 18f Interarticular ligament, of rib head, 135f, 137f Intercarpal joint, 465t Intercarpal ligaments, interosseous, 465f Interchondral joints, of thoracic spine, 134f, 136t Interchondral ligaments, 137t Interclavicular ligament, 134f, 380f, 382t Intercondylar area, of tibia, anterior vs. posterior, 285f Intercondylar eminence, of tibia, 285f Intercondylar fossa, of femur, 285f Intercondylar (T or Y) fracture, of femur, 298f Intercondylar notch, of femur, cartilaginous excrescences at, 285f Intercondylar tubercle, of tibia, lateral vs. medial, 285f Intercostal muscle, external, 142f Intercostal nerves/membranes 1st, 79f of thoracic spine, 145t, 148f external, 145f innermost, 145f window cut in, 145f internal, 145f anterior to external, 145f as ventral (anterior) ramus of spinal nerve, 145f Intercostobrachial nerve, 388f Intercuneiform ligaments, dorsal, 341f, 341t Intermetacarpal joints, 465f in palmar abduction, 486t Intermuscular septum of forearm, medial vs. lateral, 445f, 448f of hip and pelvis, anteromedial, 251f, 253f Internal rotation (IR) lag sign, in shoulder, 423t Internal rotation resistance strength (IRRS) test, of shoulder, 408, 417, 417f Internal rotation (IR) test, of foot, for TMJ disorders diagnostic utility of, 53, 53f, 53t reliability of, 53, 53f, 53t
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Internal rotation–flexion–axial compression maneuver, for intra-articular hip pathology, 275t Interosseous artery common, 446f, 448f posterior vs. anterior, 445f, 446f, 448f recurrent, 445f Interosseous border of radius, 444f of ulna, 444f Interosseous ligaments, intercarpal, 465f Interosseous membrane of ankle joint, 340f, 340t, 347f of forearm, 444f, 444t, 470f, 472f 1st dorsal, 445f of knee joint, 287f of wrist joint, 467f, 468f 1st dorsal, 465f Interosseous nerve of foot, 354f of forearm anterior, 448f, 448t, 471t, 475f posterior, 445f, 448t, 470t, 477f Interosseus muscles, 344f of foot and ankle 4th, superficial branch of tibial nerve to, 354f deep branch of tibial nerve to, 354f dorsal, 347f, 348t, 352f, 352t manual testing of, 87f for cervical radiculopathy, 88t plantar, 351f, 352f, 352t of wrist and hand 1st dorsal, 474f deep branch of ulnar nerve to, 474f dorsal (bipennate), 473t, 474f innervation of, 476f palmar (unipennate), 473f, 473t innervation of, 476f Interphalangeal (IP) joints, 339t, 344f, 465t AOFAS scale for, 373t capsules and ligaments of, 343, 343f, 343t, 344f distal, 469f ligaments of, 469, 469f, 469t nodules over, 369f in physical examination, 371t, 501t proximal, 500t proximal, 469f, 500t ROM measurements of, proximal vs. distal, 486f, 486t
Intersegmental tenderness, of thoracolumbar spine, 172t Interspinalis cervicis muscle, 142f, 142t Interspinalis lumborum muscle, 142f, 142t Interspinous ligaments of cervical spine, 71t of thoracolumbar spine, 138f, 138t in ankylosing spondylitis, 155f Intertransversarius muscle, 142t lateral, 142f Intertransverse ligaments of cervical spine, 71t of thoracolumbar spine, 135f, 137f, 138t Intertrochanteric crest, 245f, 247f, 252f Intertrochanteric fracture, of femur, 277f Intertrochanteric line, 245f, 247f Intertubercular sulcus, of humerus, 379f Intertubercular tendon sheath, 382f Interval estimate, 8 Intervertebral discs cervical, 71f herniation of. See Disc herniation. lumbar, 133f, 136f, 138f neovascularization of, 179f ossification of, in ankylosing spondylitis, 155f in scoliosis pathology, 164f Intervertebral foramen of lumbar vertebrae, 136f, 138f degenerative disc disease impact on, 183f of sacrum and coccyx, 202f for spinal nerve, 69f of thoracic vertebrae, 138f lower margin of, 133f Intervertebral joints cervical, 69f, 69t tenderness with palpation of, 105t lumbosacral, 205t thoracolumbar, 136t Intervertebral motion. See Passive intervertebral motion (PIVM). Intervertebral spaces, thoracolumbar, in degenerative disc disease, 183f Intra-articular ligament costovertebral, 137f, 137t of thoracic spine, 135f Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), 3
Intraorbital foramen, of maxilla, 19f Inversion, subtalar joint, 359t IP joints. See Interphalangeal (IP) joints. IRRS (internal rotation resistance strength) test, of shoulder, 408, 417, 417f Ischial spine, 201f, 203f, 206f, 245f, 246f, 247f, 252f female, 204f (Ischio)-coccygeus muscle, 209f nerve to, 208t, 209f Ischiofemoral ligament, 247f, 247t Ischium body of, 203f, 245f bursitis of, 254t ramus of, 203f, 245f spine of. See Ischial spine. tuberosity of, 201f, 203f, 206f, 245f, 246f, 247f, 249f, 252f female vs. male, 204f Isometric strength, of knee, extensor vs. flexor, 304t ITB/TFL complex, length assessment of, 305t
J Jaw pinch strength, 489t Jerk test, for glenoid labral tears, 378, 411t-412t posterior, 411t-412t Job activities, sacroiliac pain aggravated by, 211t Jobe relocation test, of shoulder, 400t combined with other tests, 378, 427t Joint anatomy. See Arthrology. Joint capsule(s) acromioclavicular, 382f in anterior disc displacement, 32f atlantoaxial, lateral, 70f, 71f atlanto-occipital, 70f, 71f of elbow, 442f, 443f of femur line of attachment of, 245f, 285f line of reflection of, 245f, 285f unattached, 285f interphalangeal, 343, 343f, 343t, 344f of knee, 288f, 291f attachment of, 287f edge arching over popliteus muscle, 287f iliotibial tract blended into, 288f medial patellar retinaculum blended into, 288f
Joint capsules (Continued) of mandible, 20, 20f ligaments of, 21f metacarpophalangeal/interphalangeal, 469f metatarsophalangeal, 343, 343f, 343t, 344f of shoulder limited ROM of, 397f, 397t pain in, 389t of wrist, 468f zygapophyseal cervical, 70f, 71f thoracolumbar, 138f Joint line tenderness, of knee, 284, 312 with meniscal tears, 322t, 323t palpation for, 312, 312f, 312t Joint play, in temporomandibular joint joint sounds during, 39, 39t pain during, 49, 49t ROM with, 44, 44t Joint play test, of temporomandibular joint, 49t Joint position sense test, of shoulder, 392t Joint sounds, in temporomandibular joint, 16t, 31t during active motion, 39, 39t conditions identified by, 40-41 during joint play, 39, 39t Joints. See also Named joint, e.g., Patellofemoral joint. of cervical spine, 69f, 69t of elbow, 442, 442f, 442t of foot and ankle, 339, 339f, 339t of hip and pelvis, 246, 246f, 246t of knee, 286, 286f, 286t of lumbar spine, 136, 136t paraspinal, tenderness with palpation of, 105t of sacroiliac region, 205, 205f, 205t of shoulder, 380, 380t integrated movements of, 381, 381f of temporomandibular, 20 of thoracic spine, 134, 134f, 135f of wrist and hand, 465, 465f, 465t Jugular notch, 72f Jugular process, of occipital bone, 75f Jugular vein, internal, 72f, 73f, 75f
K Kappa coefficient, 3 Kellgren grading scale, for hip osteoarthritis, 255t, 260t, 274t, 275t, 278t
INDEX 529
Kendall grades, of muscle strength, 88t Key pinch strength, 488f, 489t Kibler test, for glenoid labral tears, 409, 409f, 409t Kim test, for glenoid labral tears, 378, 410f, 410t, 411412t Knee, 283-334 arthritis of. See Osteoarthritis (OA). arthrology of, 286 clinical summary and recommendations, 284-331 diagnostic utility of examination anterior drawer test, 314, 314f, 314t Apley’s test, 318, 318f, 318t combination of tests, 322, 324 for meniscal tears, 322, 322f, 322t, 323f, 323t for other pathology, 324, 324f, 324t Ege’s test, 319f, 319t inflammation detection, 300, 300f, 300t Lachman test, 313, 313f, 313t McMurray’s test, 317, 317f, 317t meniscal tears identification, 319-320, 319f, 320f combination of tests, 322, 322f, 322t, 323f, 323t moving patellar apprehension test, 284, 321, 321f, 321t patient history, 297, 297f, 297t, 323f, 323t, 325 pivot shift test, 315, 315f, 315t predicting success of hip mobilizations, 326, 326f, 326t predicting success of orthoses and activity modification, 284, 325, 325f, 325t radiography rule for fractures, 299, 299f, 299t strength assessment, 304, 304f, 304t Thessaly test, 320f valgus and varus stress tests, 316, 316f, 316t fractures of, 284, 298-299, 299t distal femur and, 298f intervention(s) for, 284 groin pain and, 326t hip distraction tests with, 326t hip mobilization as, 326, 326f, 326t orthoses and activity modification as, 284, 325, 325f, 325t thigh pain and, 326t 530
Knee (Continued) ligaments of, 286f, 287 anterior, 288f, 288t inferior, 288f, 288t posterior, 287f, 287t meniscus of. See Meniscus. muscles of, 286f, 289 anterior, 289f, 289t, 290t medial vs. lateral, 290t, 291f nerves of, 292 femoral and lateral femoral cutaneous, 292t, 293f obturator, 292f, 292t sciatic and posterior femoral cutaneous, 292t, 294f osteology of, 285 femur, 285f fibula, 285f tibia, 285f outcome measures of, 303, 327t patient history and, 284, 295-297 initial hypotheses based on, 295, 295t with osteoarthritis, 295t, 296, 296t predicting success of interventions, 325-326 report of pain, 295t, 296t report of swelling, 295t, 296t, 297t, 300t report of trauma, 295f, 295t, 296t, 297t physical examination of, 284t, 298-326 combined with tests, in diagnosing pathology, 324t to identify radiographic needs following trauma, 298, 298f quality assessment of diagnostic studies, 328-331, 329t range of motion measurements of, 284 active vs. passive, 258t, 301, 301f, 301t physical examination of, 301302, 303 in slump test, 178f, 178t reliability of examination anterior drawer test, 314, 314f, 314t bony alignment assessment, 306307, 308-309, 310-311 A angle measurement, 311, 311f, 311t mediolateral patellar tilt, 306, 306f, 306t patellar orientation, 307, 307f, 307t
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Knee (Continued) patellar rotation, 309, 309f, 309t Q angle measurement, 310, 310f, 310t superoinferior patellar tilt, 308, 308f, 308t capsular and noncapsular endfeel determination, 284, 302, 302f, 302t fracture screening, 298-299, 298f inflammation detection, 300, 300f, 300t Lachman test, 302t, 313, 313f lateral pull test, 311, 311t McMurray’s test, 317, 317f, 317t muscle length assessment, 305, 305f, 305t pain during palpation, 312, 312f, 312t pain with resistance sequences, 303, 303f, 303t patient history, 296, 296f, 296t ROM measurements, 284, 301, 301f, 301t strength assessment, 284, 304, 304f, 304t valgus and varus stress tests, 316, 316f, 316t in straight-leg raise test, 176t x-rays of. See Ottawa Knee Rule for Radiography. Knee bend test, prone, 232, 232f, 232t Knee bursa, 288f anserine, 289f, 291f beneath biceps femoris tendon, 287f, 289f semimembranosus, 291f deep to tendon, 287f subcutaneous infrapatellar, 286f prepatellar, 286f subtendinous. See Subtendinous (deep) bursa. synovial, suprapatellar, 286f, 288f Knee jerk reflex, with herniated lumbar nucleus pulposus, 157f Knee Outcome Survey (KOS), 327t Knee pain anteromedial, history of, in diagnosing pathology, 324t hip mobilization interventions and, 326t during palpation, 312, 312f, 312t in patellofemoral syndrome. See Patellofemoral pain syndrome. patient report of, 295t, 296t
Knee pain (Continued) during range of motion, 303, 303f, 303t, 319t, 320t during valgus and varus stress tests, 316t, 322t Kyphosis excessive vs. diminished, 163t of thoracic spine, 119t, 121t postural assessment and, 106f, 106t, 163t
L L1 vertebra nerves of, 146f, 147t, 148f, 292f, 293f osteology of, 201f in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 150f L2 vertebra nerves of, 146f, 147t, 148f, 289t, 292f, 292t, 293f, 353t osteology of, 201f in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 150f L3 vertebra disc herniation at level of, 157f nerves of, 146f, 147t, 148f, 252t, 289t, 290t, 292f, 292t, 293f, 353t, 354f osteology of, 201f posterior view of, 136f in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 150f L4 vertebra disc herniation at level of, 157f nerves of, 146f, 147t, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252t, 289t, 290t, 292f, 292t, 293f, 294f, 345t, 347t, 353t, 354f osteology of, 201f posterior view of, 136f in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 150f L5 vertebra disc herniation at level of, 157f nerves of, 146f, 147t, 148f, 208t, 209f, 248t, 252t, 290t, 292t, 294f, 345t, 347t, 348t, 353t, 354f osteology of, 201f as sacroiliac bony landmark, 214t motion assessment and, 226t in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 150f Labia, perineal nerve of, posterior branch of, 148f Labral tears acetabular, 244 patient history in, 254t, 255, 255t
Labral tears (Continued) of shoulder. See Glenoid labral tears. Lachman test, of knee, 284, 313f diagnostic utility of, 313, 313f, 313t end-feel assessment during, 302t reliability of, 313, 313f, 313t Lacrimal bone, 19f Lacrimal sac, fossa for, 19f Lag signs, in shoulder external rotation, 378, 422t internal rotation, 423t Lambdoid suture, 19f Lamina of cervical vertebrae, 68f of lumbar vertebrae, 133f, 136f, 138f in scoliosis pathology, 164f of thoracic vertebrae, 133f, 138f Lateral bending of cervical spine, 95t, 96t pain during, 97t, 102t of thoracolumbar spine, 159t Lateral collateral ligament (LCL), tears of, 295t Lateral glide test, of cervical vertebrae, 102t Lateral hip tendon, identifying pathology of, 266-267, 266t, 267t Lateral (temporomandibular) ligament, 21f Lateral ligaments. See Collateral ligaments. Lateral mass, of atlas, 68f Lateral pull test, for patellar alignment, 311, 311t Lateral raphe, 144 Lateral slide test, for scapular asymmetry, 395t, 396f Lateral view of ankle ligaments, 340, 340f, 340t of elbow bones, in extension vs. flexion, 441f of elbow ligaments, in flexion, 443f of foot and ankle, 337f Ottawa rules in, 357f of hip and pelvis ligaments, joint opened, 247f of hip bone, 203f of knee muscles, 291f left of costovertebral joints, 135f of costovertebral ligaments, 137f of lumbar vertebrae, 136f of thoracolumbar ligaments, 138f of leg muscles, 346f
Lateral view (Continued) of mandibular nerve, 26f of muscles involved in mastication, 22f, 23f of pelvis, 245f right of cervical spine arthrology, 69f of cervical spine ligaments, 71f of shoulder ligaments, 383f of T6 vertebra, 133f of T12 vertebra, 133f of temporomandibular ligaments, 21f Latissimus dorsi muscle, 77f, 139t, 145f, 384f, 384t, 385f, 388f length assessment of, 107t Lawrence grading scale, for hip osteoarthritis,255t, 260t, 274t, 275t, 278t LCL (lateral collateral ligament), tears of, 295t Leaning head on palm, and TMJ disorders, 27, 27f LEFS. See Lower Extremity Functional Scale (LEFS). Leg. See also Lower extremity. bones of. See Femur; Fibula; Tibia. muscles of, 345, 347 lateral, 345, 345t, 346f posterior, 347f, 347t nerves of, 353f, 353t, 354f. See also Thigh. cutaneous localization of, 292f, 293f, 294f Leg length discrepancy/inequality in postural assessment, 163t in TMJ disorders diagnostic utility of, 53, 53f, 53t reliability of, 53, 53f, 53t Leg raise test. See Straight-leg raise (SLR) test. Levator anguli oris muscle, 22f Levator ani muscle, 209f nerve to, 148f, 208t, 209f Levator costae muscle, 142f Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle, 22f Levator labii superioris muscle, 22f Levator scapulae muscle, 76t, 140f, 384f, 384t length assessment of, 107t Levator veli palatini muscle, 23f Levatores costarum breves muscle, 142f
INDEX 531
Levatores costarum longi muscle, 142f Lifting/carrying, thoracolumbar pain with, 152t Lift-off test for subacromial impingement, 415t-416t for subscapularis tears, 423t, 424f Ligamenta flava of cervical spine, 71f, 71t of thoracolumbar spine, 138f, 138t, 146f Ligaments. See also Collateral ligaments. of cervical spine atlanto-occipital joint, 70, 70f, 70t neck, 68f, 69f, 73f spinal, 71, 71f, 71t of elbow, 443, 443f, 443t of foot and ankle, 340-341, 342-343 lateral, 341, 341f, 341t, 346f medial, 342, 342f, 342t plantar, 343, 343f, 343t, 344f posterior, 340, 340f, 340t of sole, 352f sprain injury of, 355t, 372, 372f of forearm, 443, 444f, 444t of hip and pelvis, 247, 247f, 247t of knee, 286f, 287 anterior, 288f, 288t inferior, 288f, 288t posterior, 287f, 287t of sacroiliac region, 206, 206f, 206t of shoulder, 380f, 382, 382t anterior view of, 382f, 383f coronal section, 383f lateral view of, 383f of temporomandibular joint, 21, 21f of thigh, 253f of thoracolumbar spine, 137-138, 138f, 138t costovertebral, 135f, 137, 137f, 137t sternocostal, 134f of wrist and hand, 466-469 metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal, 469, 469f, 469t palmar, 466, 466t, 467f posterior, 468, 468f, 468t Ligamentum nuchae, 71f, 71t Likelihood ratios (LRs), 3, 6-7 application of. See Clinical prediction rule. positive or negative, 7-8, 11t interpretation of, 7, 7t, 8f, 9-10, 9f, 11-12 532
Limbs. See Lower extremity; Upper extremity. Linea alba, 145f Linea aspera, medial vs. lateral lip of, 245f Linea terminalis, 202f Lingual nerve, 21f, 23f, 25f, 26f, 26t Lingula, 18f Lips of iliac crest, inner vs. outer, 201f, 203f, 206f, 245f, 246f of linea aspera, medial vs. lateral, 245f Load in biceps test(s) I/II, for labral tears, 378, 403t, 411t412t combined with other tests, 378, 427t, 428t valgus extension syndrome related to, 449t Load and shift test, for glenoid labral tears, 378, 403t, 411t-412t combined with other tests, 378, 427t, 428t Log roll, for intra-articular hip pathology, 275t Longissimus capitis muscle, 76t, 141f Longissimus cervicis muscle, 76t, 77f Longissimus extensor muscle, 143f Longissimus lumborum muscle, 141f, 141t Longissimus muscles sacroiliac, 207f, 207t thoracic, 141f, 141t Longitudinal ligaments of cervical spine anterior, 71f, 71t posterior, 70f, 71t costovertebral, anterior, 137, 137f, 137t of sacroiliac region, anterior, 206f, 206t of thoracolumbar spine anterior, 135f, 138f, 138t ossification of, 155f posterior, 138f, 138t nociceptors in, 179f Longitudinal (vertical) tear, of meniscus, 323f Long-sit test, of sacroiliac joint, 229, 229f, 229t Longus capitis muscle, 75f, 75t Longus colli muscle, 75f, 75t Longus colli nerve, 79f Loose body, within knee joint, 295t, 324t
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Lordosis, lumbar, in ankylosing spondylitis, 186t Low back pain. See also Thoracolumbar pain. ankylosing spondylitis causing, 186t centralization phenomenon in, 132, 235 vs. peripheralization phenomenon, 173, 173t, 174f, 174t classification systems for, 187, 187t treatment-based, 187t, 188, 188t hip and pelvis in, 244t inflammation role in, 179f motion assessment for, 228t, 229t, 230t, 231t, 232t, 233t neurological examination for, 156t, 157f, 158t palpation identification of, 172t passive intervertebral motion assessment for, 165, 167-168, 169-170, 171 patient report of, 149, 149t, 152t, 153t, 154t, 255t physical examination for, 180t, 182t provocative tests for, 216t, 217t, 218t, 219t, 220t, 223t, 224t, 225t radiographic examination for, 184t, 185 range of motion assessment for, 159t referral patterns of, zygapophyseal, 149, 149t, 150f sacroiliac joint in, 210, 211t bony landmark symmetry and, 214t spinal manipulation for, 236, 237f, 237t classification system based on, 187t, 188, 188t clinical prediction rule for, 236, 237f Flynn technique for, 190f, 236, 236f lumbosacral, 132, 188t, 189190, 189t, 200 stabilization exercise programs for, lumbar, 132, 191, 191t, 236 classifications based on, 188t straight-leg raise tests for, 175t, 176t, 177t
Lower extremity. See also specific anatomy, e.g., Foot and ankle. measurements of, in TMJ disorders diagnostic utility of, 53, 53f, 53t reliability of, 53, 53f, 53t nerves to, cervical disc herniation and, 116f pain in, with lumbar spine pathology, 157f, 182t, 191t paresthesias of, with lumbar pain, 149t, 154t, 157f Lower Extremity Functional Scale (LEFS) in foot and ankle outcomes, 373t in hip and pelvis outcomes, 279t in knee outcomes, 327t LR. See Likelihood ratios (LRs). Lumbar lordosis, in ankylosing spondylitis, 186t Lumbar paravertebral myofascial pain, 172t Lumbar plexus, 148f, 292f, 293f Lumbar radiculopathy neurological examination for, 156, 156t patient history in, 149t, 154, 154f, 154t, 355t slump test for, 132, 178t, 179f straight-leg raise test for, 132, 175f crossed, 132, 177, 177f, 177t diagnostic utility of, 176, 176f, 176t reliability of, 175, 175f, 175t Lumbar spinal stenosis clinical summary and recommendations, 132-194 neurological examination for, 157, 158f, 158t patient history in, 149t, 153, 153f, 153t physical examination tests for, 132, 182, 182t, 183f Lumbar spine arthrology of, 136 clinical summary and recommendations, 132-194 diagnostic utility of examination centralization phenomena, 174, 174f, 174t crossed straight-leg raise test, 177, 177f, 177t neurological examination, 156157, 156f, 156t, 158f, 158t
Lumbar spine (Continued) passive intervertebral motion assessment excessive, 171, 171f, 171t limited and painful, 169, 169f, 169t, 170f spinal manipulation factors, 189-190, 189f, 190f stabilization exercise factors, 191, 191f, 191t stenosis tests, 182, 182f, 182t, 183f straight-leg raise test, 176, 176f, 176t fascia of, 140f, 141f, 144 hypermobile segments of, 166t, 184t hypomobile segments of, 166t, 184t, 185f, 200 instability of, 149t clinical prediction rule for, 185, 185f dynamic “corset” concept of, 143f radiographic tests for, 184-185, 184t, 185f segmental tests for, 180, 180t, 181f muscles of, 139 nerves of, 146-147, 148 anterior vs. posterior divisions of, 146f, 148f lumbosacral trunks of, 146f, 148f, 209f, 292f, 293f osteology of, 133f pain in. See Low back pain. reliability of examination centralization phenomena identification, 173, 173f, 173t instability tests radiographic, 184-185, 184f, 184t, 185f segmental, 180, 180f, 180t palpation of segmental levels, 172, 172f, 172t palpation of tenderness, 172, 172f, 172t passive intervertebral motion assessment, 165, 165f, 165t, 166f, 166t pain during, 167, 167f, 167t straight-leg raise test, 175, 175f, 175t translation test of, 184t Lumbar stabilization program, for low back pain, 132, 191, 191t, 236 classifications based on, 188t
Lumbar triangle, internal oblique muscle in, 140f Lumbar vertebrae. See also specific vertebra, e.g., L2 vertebra. accessory process of, 133f, 136f articular processes of inferior, 136f, 138f passive motion assessment of. See Passive intervertebral motion (PIVM). superior, 133f, 136f, 138f segmental mobility of. See Segmental mobility testing. spinous processes of, 133f, 136f, 138f in palpation examination, 172t transverse processes of, 133f, 136f, 138f, 201f, 246f Lumbopelvic pain, 180t, 217t, 218t, 220t, 223t, 233t Lumbopelvic rhythm, in lumbar segmental instability, 180t, 191t Lumbosacral articular surface, 202f facets of, 202f Lumbosacral joints, 205f, 205t Lumbosacral radiculopathy, neurological examination for, 156, 156t Lumbosacral spine, pain diagnoses related to, 220t, 223t Lumbosacral/pelvic manipulation, for low back pain, 132, 200 classifications based on, 188t, 189t combined factors of likely benefits, 190, 190f, 190t single factors of likely benefits, 189, 189t Lumbrical muscles, 348f, 349f, 350t, 352f 1st, 354f 2nd, 354f 3rd, 354f 4th, 354f innervation of, 474f, 475f, 476f lateral vs. medial, 473t, 474f tendons of, 351f Lumbrical nerve, 354f Lumbrical provocation test, for carpal tunnel syndrome, 501t Lumbrical tendon, 4th, 344f Lunate, 463f, 464f, 465f, 467f, 468f in carpal instability, 500t in scaphoid fractures, 482f
INDEX 533
Lunge test for ankle ROM measurements, 359t, 360f for pelvic pain, 272t Luno-meniscotriquetral dorsal glide test, 500t Luno-meniscotriquetral joint, instability of, 500t Lying down sacroiliac pain relieved by, 211t thoracolumbar pain with, 152t, 154t, 168f, 169t Lying flexion test of lumbar spine, 171f, 171t of sacroiliac joint, 235
M Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of cervical spine injury, 92t-93t, 109t, 116t of hip and pelvis conditions, 255t, 260t, 262t, 266t, 267t, 275t, 276t of lumbar spinal stenosis, 153t, 158t, 182t of lumbar spine herniations, 176t, 178t of rotator cuff tears, 422t of sacroiliac joint conditions, 216t, 217t, 218t, 219t, 220t, 223t, 224t of shoulder conditions, 415t-416t Male pelvic inlet, anterior view of, 204f Male pelvis, anterior view of, 204f Malleolar artery, anterior, lateral vs. medial, 348f Malleolar zone, in physical examination, 357f Malleolus/malleoli lateral, 346f, 347f, 348f tuning fork test of, 358t medial, 347f, 348f direct compression stress test of, 358t as sacroiliac bony landmark, 214t in sacroiliac motion assessment, 229t in physical examination, 356t, 357f, 358t, 360f, 368t Mammillary process, of lumbar vertebrae, 133f, 136f Mandible alveolar part (crest) of, 18f in anterior disc displacement, 32f base of, 18f body of, 17f, 18f, 19f, 67f condylar process of, 67f 534
Mandible (Continued) coronoid process of, 67f digastric fossa of, 18f head of, 18f mental tubercle of, 18f neck of, 18f oblique line of, 18f, 19f opening of, measuring with different head positions, 44, 44t osteology of, 18f in relation to head and neck, 17f in relation to lateral skull, 19f ramus of, 17f, 18f, 19f, 67f ROM measurements of, 31t translation test of, 39t, 44f, 44t, 45t, 49t Mandible angle, 17f, 18f, 67f Mandibular foramen, 18f inferior alveolar nerve entering, 26f Mandibular fossa, 20f Mandibular Function Impairment Questionnaire (MFIQ), 60t Mandibular nerve, 21f, 26t anterior vs. posterior division of, 26f deep temporal branches of, 22t meningeal branch of, 26f via lateral pterygoid nerve, 23t via masseteric nerve, 22t via medial pterygoid nerve, 23t Mandibular notch, 17f, 18f, 19f, 67f Manual muscle testing (MMT) of knee, 284, 304, 304f, 304t of lumbar spine, 132 for radiculopathy, 156, 156t, 157f for spinal stenosis, 157f, 158f, 158t of shoulder, 378 of upper limb, 87f, 87t for cervical radiculopathy, 66, 88f, 88t of wrist and hand, 462 Manubriosternal joint, 134f Manubriosternal synchondrosis, 380f Manubrium, 134f, 380f of sternum, 72f Masseter muscle, 22f, 22t, 72f deep vs. superficial part of, 22f insertion of, 22f in physical examination, 34t, 35f, 35t, 36f, 37t, 38t Masseteric artery, 22f, 23f
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Masseteric nerve, 22f, 23f, 26f mandibular nerve via, 22t Mastication, muscles involved in, 22, 31t Mastoid process, 17f, 19f, 24f, 67f, 72f, 73f, 75f, 142f tenderness with palpation of, 104t Maxilla, 19f alveolar process of, 67f in cervical spine examination, 110f, 110t frontal process of, 19f tuberosity of, 67f Maxillary artery, 21f, 22f, 23f, 26f Maxillary nerve, 26f, 26t McCreary grades, of muscle strength, 88t McKenzie evaluation/classification of low back pain, 187t of lumbar spine motion, 173t, 174t of sacroiliac discogenic pain, 235, 235f of sacroiliac joint/region motion, 200, 235, 235f MCL. See Medial collateral ligament (MCL), tears of. McMurray’s test, of knee, 284 diagnostic utility of, 317, 317f, 317t combined with other tests, 322t, 323t with internal vs. external rotation, 317f reliability of, 317, 317f, 317t MCP joints. See Metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints. Measurement error, 2 determination of acceptable, 3 Medial collateral ligament (MCL), tears of in elbow, 440, 455, 455f, 455t in knee, 284, 316t patient history in, 295t, 297f, 297t Medial ligament, of ankle, 340f, 342f, 342t tibiocalcaneal part of, 342f, 342t tibionavicular part of, 342f, 342t tibiotalar part of, anterior vs. posterior, 342f, 342t Medial tibial stress syndrome, 355t Medial view of ankle ligaments, 342, 342f, 342t of elbow bones, in extension vs. flexion, 441f of elbow ligaments, in flexion, 443f of foot and ankle, 337f Ottawa rules in, 357f of hip bone, 203f of knee muscles, 291f
Medial view (Continued) of mandibular nerve, 26f of metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal ligaments, in extension vs. flexion, 469, 469f, 469t of pelvis, 245f of sacroiliac region nerves, 209f of TMJ ligaments, 21f Medial-lateral width, of wrist, 490t in carpal tunnel syndrome, 490t Median nerve, 388f, 467f, 471t, 473t, 474f, 475, 475t anterior vs. posterior view of, 475f articular branch of, 475f branches to hand muscles, 474f, 475f, 476f branches to phalanges, dorsal, 475f in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f, 501t compression test of, 498t Phalen’s test and, 496t, 497t Tinel’s sign/test and, 494t, 495t of cervical spine, 78t, 79f in brachial plexus schema, 425f communicating branch of, 475f compression of, 480f of forearm, 446f, 448f, 448t palmar branch of, 446f inconstant spinal contributions to, 475f palmar branch of, 475f, 493f from forearm, 446f palmar digital branches of, 493f proper, 475f, 493f tethered extension test of, 501t Median raphe between mylohyoid muscle, 24f Mediolateral displacement, of patella, 307t Mediolateral glide, of patella, 307t Mediolateral patellar orientation/ position, 307f, 307t Meningeal artery, middle, 21f, 23f, 26f Meningeal nerve, recurrent, lumbar disc herniation and, 179f Meniscofemoral ligament, posterior, 287f, 287t, 288f Meniscus of knee anterior displacement of, in anterior disc displacement, 32f cysts of, 324t lateral, 286f, 287f, 288f medial, 287f, 288f rupture of. See also Meniscus tears, of knee.
Meniscus (Continued) in TMJ arthrosis, 32f of wrist, 465f Meniscus tears, of knee, 284 Ege’s test for, 319f, 319t joint line tenderness with, 312f, 312t patient history in, 295t, 297t Thessaly test for, 320f, 320t types of, 323f Mennell’s test, of sacroiliac joint, 224, 224f combined with other tests, 233t diagnostic utility of, 224f, 224t reliability of, 224f, 224t Mental foramen, of mandible, 18f, 19f Mental nerve, 26f Mental protuberance, of mandible, 18f Mental spine of mandible, 18f superior, for genioglossus muscle, 25f Mentalis muscle, 22f Metacarpal arteries, common, 474f Metacarpal bones, 465f, 467f, 469f 1st, 445f, 448f, 464f, 465f, 467f, 468f 2nd, 445f, 464f, 465f, 467f, 468f 3rd, 464f, 465f, 467f, 468f 4th, 464f, 465f, 467f, 468f 5th, 445f, 448f, 464f, 465f, 467f, 468f base of, 464f compression of, for scaphoid fractures, 481t head of, 464f palmar vs. dorsal surface/view of, 463f, 469f shaft (body) of, 464f Metacarpal ligaments deep transverse, 469f, 469t, 473f, 474f dorsal, 468f, 468t palmar, 466t, 467f, 469f Metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints, 465t in hand swelling measurements, 491f, 491t ligaments of, 469, 469f, 469t ROM measurements of, 486t Metalloproteinases, in lumbar pain, 179f Metatarsal arteries dorsal, 348f, 352f anterior perforating arteries to, 351f, 352f posterior perforating branches of, 352f plantar, 348f, 351f, 352f
Metatarsal arteries (Continued) anterior perforating branches of, 348f, 352f common plantar digital arteries from, 349f Metatarsal bones, 337f, 338f, 343f, 348f, 352f 1st, 337f, 338f, 342f, 344f in physical examination, 363t, 367t tuberosity of, 337f, 342f 2nd, 337f, 338f 3rd, 337f, 338f 4th, 337f, 338f 5th, 337f, 338f, 344f, 346f in physical examination, 357f, 364t, 368t, 369t tuberosity of, 337f, 338f, 344f, 351f, 352f base of, 338f head of, 338f erosion of, 369f plantar metatarsal ligaments between bases of, 352f ROM measurements of, 359t shaft (body) of, 338f Metatarsal drift, 369f Metatarsal ligaments deep transverse, 343t, 344f, 352f dorsal, 341f, 352f plantar, 344f between bases of metatarsal bones, 352f Metatarsalgia, 355t Metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joints, 339f, 339t, 344f AOFAS scale for, 373t capsules and ligaments of, 343, 343f, 343t, 344f in physical examination, 369t, 371t MFIQ (Mandibular Function Impairment Questionnaire), 60t Michigan Hand Outcomes Questionnaire (MHQ), 503t Midcarpal joint, 465f Midfoot AOFAS scale for, 373t fractures of, 336, 358f, 358t Midfoot zone, in physical examination, 357f, 358t MMT. See Manual muscle testing (MMT). Mobilization therapy of arm, for tennis elbow, 456, 456t of hip, for knee osteoarthritis, 284, 326, 326f, 326t Morton’s neuroma, 355t
INDEX 535
Motion assessment active. See Dynamic movements; Functional movements. McKenzie-type repeated of lumbar spine, 173t, 174t of sacroiliac joint/region, 200, 235, 235f passive. See Passive intervertebral motion (PIVM). for range. See Range of motion (ROM). Motor innervation of cervical spine, 78t of elbow and forearm, 445t, 446t, 447t, 448t of foot and ankle, 353t of hip and buttocks, 252t of hip and thigh, 250t of knee, 292t of lumbar spine, 147t of sacroiliac region, 208t of shoulder, 384t, 385t, 386t, 387t of thoracic spine, 145t, 147t of wrist and hand, 470t, 471t, 473t, 475t, 476t, 477t Mouth floor, muscles of, 24 Movement therapy. See Mobilization therapy. Movement velocity, in balance assessment, 365t MRI. See Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MSR (muscle stretch reflex) testing, for cervical radiculopathy, 66, 89f, 89t MTP joints. See Metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joints. Multifidus extensor muscle, 143f Multifidus muscle, 142f, 142t in lumbar spine, hypertonicity of, 165t in sacroiliac region, 207f, 207t Muscle atrophy with herniated lumbar nucleus pulposus, 157f in shoulder, 397f, 422t in wrist and hand, 480f Muscle length, assessment of in cervical spine, 107, 107f, 107t in hip and pelvis, 268-269, 270 flexion contracture and, 269, 269f, 269t iliotibial band length in, 268, 268f, 268t reliability of, 270, 270f, 270t, 271f in knee, 305, 305f, 305t 536
Muscle strength in cervical spine endurance testing and, 99, 99f, 99t radiculopathy and, 118t, 123t, 124t testing for, 87f, 87t, 88t in elbow and forearm, 440, 452, 452t in foot and ankle, 336, 361, 361f, 361t in hip and pelvis, 244 lateral tendon pathology and, 266, 266t during resisted tests, 264, 264t, 265t Trendelenburg test for, 267, 267f, 267t in knee, 284, 304, 304t in lower extremity calf, 336 with herniated lumbar nucleus pulposus, 157f with lumbar spinal stenosis, 158f, 158t manual. See Manual muscle testing (MMT). in shoulder, 378, 392, 392t with supraspinatus tears, 418f, 418t, 422t in thoracolumbar spine, 132, 162, 162f, 162t in wrist and hand, 462, 487-489. See also Grip/gripping. with carpal tunnel syndrome, 489, 489t Muscle stretch reflex (MSR) testing, for cervical radiculopathy, 66, 89f, 89t Muscle tightness, in shoulder, 378, 393, 393t Muscles of elbow, 445, 447 of foot and ankle, 348 dorsum, 348, 348f, 348t leg vs., 345, 347 in sole, 349-350, 351-352 deep interosseous, 352, 352f, 352t first layer of, 349, 349f, 349t second layer of, 350, 350f, 350t third layer of, 351, 351f, 351t of forearm, 445 anterior vs. posterior, 445, 445f anterior view of, 446f, 446t posterior view of, 445f, 445t supinators vs. pronators, 447, 447f, 447t
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Muscles (Continued) of hip and thigh, 248 anterior, 250, 250t, 251f posterior, 248, 248t, 249f of knee, 286f, 289 anterior, 289f, 289t, 290t medial vs. lateral, 290t, 291f of leg, 345, 347 lateral, 345, 345t, 346f posterior, 347f, 347t of neck (cervical spine), 72-73, 75-76 anterior, 72 deep layers of, 72f posterior, 76 scalene and prevertebral, 75 suprahyoid and infrahyoid, 73 paraspinal, tenderness with palpation of, 105t ruptures and tears of. See specific muscle, e.g., Gluteus medius muscle. of sacroiliac region, 206f, 207, 207f, 207t of shoulder, 384 anterior, 385, 385f, 385t posterior, 384, 384f, 384t rotator cuff, 386, 386f, 386t stress injuries of. See Sprains; Strains, muscle. of temporomandibular joint, 22, 35f floor of mouth, 24 involved in mastication, 22, 23f tendons of. See Tendons. of thoracolumbar spine, 139 anterior abdominal wall, 143 deep layer of, 142 intermediate layer of, 141 superficial layers of, 139 of wrist and hand, 470-473 extensor, 470, 470f, 470t flexor, 471, 471f, 471t, 472f intrinsic, 473, 473f, 473t, 474f Musculocutaneous nerve in cervical spine, 78t, 79f brachial plexus schema, 425f in forearm, 446f, 446t, 448f, 448t innervation of, 475f in shoulder, 387t, 388f in wrist, 493f Myelography cervical, 104t, 110t, 111t, 112t CT, for brachial plexus palsy, 425t Myelopathy, cervical, 80t Mylohyoid artery, 25f Mylohyoid groove, 18f Mylohyoid line, 18f
Mylohyoid muscle, 24f, 24t, 25f, 26f, 35f, 72f, 73f, 74t median raphe between, 24f Mylohyoid nerve, 24t. See also Nerve to mylohyoid. Myofascial pain lumbar paravertebral, 172t piriformis, 172t tensor fasciae latae, 172t in thoracolumbar spine, palpation identification of, 172t in TMJ disorders, 31 diagnostic criteria for, 33t
N Napoleon test, for subscapularis tears, 378, 423t Nares, posterior, 67f Nasal bone, 19f Nasal spine, anterior, of maxilla, 19f Navicular bone, 337f, 338f, 342f, 352f in physical examination, 357f, 362t, 363t, 368t tuberosity of, 337f, 338f, 344f, 348f, 352f Navicular drop test, 362t Navicular height, 362, 362f, 362t Neck bony framework of in relation to cervical spine, 67f in relation to TMJ, 17f ligaments of, 68f, 69f, 73f muscles of, 72-73, 75-76 anterior, 72 deep layers of, 72f posterior, 76 scalene and prevertebral, 75 suprahyoid and infrahyoid, 73 tenderness with palpation of, 105t nerves of, 78-79, 78t, 79f in neural tension tests, 114t, 499t posterior triangle of, 140f range of motion of, in slump test, 178f, 178t tenderness in, 104t, 105t veins of, 72f, 75f Neck Disability Index (NDI), 119t, 125t Neck flexor muscle endurance test, 99t Neck pain. See Cervical (neck) pain. Necrosis avascular, of hip and pelvis detection with limited ROM, 262, 262f, 262t patient history in, 254t osteonecrosis, of hip and pelvis, 262f, 262t
Needle electromyography for cervical radiculopathy, 84t, 86t, 88t, 89t, 109t, 114t, 117t for wrist and hand disorders, 479t, 489t, 490t, 492t, 495t, 497t, 498t Neer test, for subacromial impingement, 378, 414, 414f, 414t combined with other tests, 428t Negative predictive values (NPV), 3, 4-5, 4t, 11t Nerve compression. See specific nerve, e.g., Ulnar nerve. impingement with. See Impingement entries; specific anatomy, e.g., Subacromial impingement. Nerve conduction studies for carpal tunnel syndrome, 489t, 490t, 492t, 495t, 497t, 498t for cervical radiculopathy, 84t, 86t, 88t, 89t, 109t, 114t, 117t, 495t Nerve fibers, unmyelinated, in lumbar spine, 179f Nerve root–dura interface, in lumbar pain, 179f Nerve roots. See also Spinal nerve roots. avulsions of, in brachial plexus, 378, 425, 425t Nerve to abductor digiti minimi muscle, 350f, 354f Nerve to coccygeus, 148f Nerve to inferior gemellus muscle, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252f Nerve to levator ani muscle, 148f, 208t, 209f Nerve to mylohyoid, 21f, 23f, 25f, 26f, 26t Nerve to obturator internus muscle, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252f Nerve to piriformis muscle, 148f, 208t, 209f Nerve to popliteus muscle, 354f Nerve to quadratus femoris muscle, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252f, 252t Nerve to subclavius, 78t, 79f Nerve to superior gemellus muscle, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252f Nerves costal. See Intercostal nerves/ membranes; Subcostal nerves. cranial. See Cranial nerves.
Nerves (Continued) digital. See Digital nerves/ branches. of elbow, 448, 448f, 448t and forearm, 445f, 446f of foot and ankle, 353, 353f, 353t, 354f. See also Plantar nerves. in sole, 349f, 349t, 350f, 350t, 351f, 351t of hip, 248t, 252 and buttocks, 252f, 252t and thigh, 249f, 252t, 253f of knee, 292 femoral and lateral femoral cutaneous, 292t, 293f obturator, 292f, 292t sciatic and posterior femoral cutaneous, 292t, 294f of leg, 353. See also Peroneal nerve; Tibial nerve. motor. See Motor innervation. of neck, 78-79, 78t, 79f of sacroiliac region, 208t, 209, 209f sensory. See Sensory innervation. of shoulder, 78t, 79f, 387 anterior axilla, 387t, 388f in brachial plexus schema, 425f of skin. See Cutaneous nerves. spinal. See Spinal nerves. of temporomandibular joint, 26 mandibular, 26, 26f of thigh, 208t, 249f cutaneous localization of, 292f, 293f, 294f lateral cutaneous, 146f, 147t, 148f, 252f, 252t, 253f, 292f, 293f posterior cutaneous, 148f, 252f, 252t, 294f perineal branches of, 291f, 294f of wrist and hand, 475-477 cutaneous, 493f median, 475, 475f, 475t palmar, 493f radial, 477, 477f, 477t ulnar, 476, 476f, 476t Neural tension tests, of upper limb. See Upper limb tension tests (ULTTs). Neurological examination/screening of cervical spine, 85-86, 87-88, 89 for radiculopathy, 66, 86-87, 88-89 of lumbar spine, 156 for radiculopathy, 132, 156, 156t, 157f
INDEX 537
Neurological examination/screening (Continued) for spinal stenosis, 157, 157f, 158f, 158t of wrist and hand for carpal tunnel syndrome, 489t, 490t, 497t for cervical radiculopathy, 489t, 490t, 492t, 494t, 495t, 497t, 498t, 499t Neurotomies, radiofrequency, for sacroiliac joint pain, 212f New York criteria, for ankylosing spondylitis, 154t, 186t NEXUS Low-Risk Criteria, for cervical spine injury, 66, 90t, 92t-93t Nipple line measurement, in ankylosing spondylitis, 155f Nitric oxide, in lumbar pain, 179f Nociceptors, in anulus fibrosis, 179f Nodding endurance test of, 99t pain during, 97t Nomograms of carpal tunnel syndrome, 502, 502f of cervical radiculopathy, 117, 117f of lumbar instability, 185, 185f of Ottawa Ankle Rule for Radiography, 358f of Ottawa Knee Rule for Radiography, 299f of probability, 7, 8f, 9-10, 9f of sacroiliac dysfunction, 234f of sacroiliac pain, discogenic, 235, 235f Notches. See specific anatomy, e.g., Vertebral notch. NPRS. See Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS). NPV (negative predictive values), 3, 4-5, 4t, 11t Nuchal line, superior, of skull, 140f, 141f, 142f Nucleus pulposus of cervical intervertebral disc, herniated, 116f of lumbar intervertebral disc, 133f herniated, 157f, 179f Numbness. See Paresthesias. Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS) for cervical spine, 101t, 119t, 125t for elbow and forearm, 457t for foot and ankle, 373t for hip and pelvis, 279t for knee, 327t for sacroiliac region, 238t 538
Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS) (Continued) for shoulder outcomes, 429t for thoracolumbar spine, 192t for TMJ pain, 28f, 28t, 60t for wrist and hand outcomes, 503t Nutrient foramen, of tibia, 285f
O OA. See Osteoarthritis (OA). Ober test, of muscle length, 268f, 268t, 305t modified, 268f, 268t Oblique diameter, of pelvic inlet, 204f Oblique fracture, of femur, 277f Oblique line of mandible, 18f, 19f of thyroid cartilage, 73f of tibia, 285f, 289f Oblique muscles external, 140f, 141f, 143f, 143t, 145f, 385f internal, 140f, 141f, 143f, 143t Obliquus capitis inferior muscle, 76t, 77f, 141f, 142f Obliquus capitis superior muscle, 76t, 77f, 141f, 142f O’Brien test, for glenoid labral tears, 406-407, 406f, 406t, 407t, 426t combined with other tests, 378, 427t, 428t Obturator artery, 247f acetabular branch of, 247f anterior vs. posterior branch of, 247f Obturator canal, 253f Obturator crest, 203f, 245f, 247f Obturator externus muscle, 250t, 253f, 292f Obturator foramen, 201f, 203f, 206f, 245f, 246f Obturator groove, 203f, 245f Obturator internus muscle, 209f, 248t, 249f nerve to, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252f Obturator membrane, 247f Obturator nerve, 146f, 147t, 148f, 209f, 252f, 252t, 290t, 292f, 292t, 293f accessory, 146f, 148f, 292f to adductor magnus muscle, 294f anterior branch of, 253f, 292f articular branch of, 292f to knee joint, 292f cutaneous branch of, 253f, 292f posterior branch of, 253f, 292f branches of, 253f
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Occipital artery, 77f Occipital bone, 19f basilar part of, 71f, 75f clivus of, 70f jugular process of, 75f Occipital condyle, 75f atlas lateral mass articular surface for inferior, 68f superior, 68f, 69f Occipital nerves 3rd (least), 77f greater vs. lesser, 77f Occipital protuberance, external, 19f Occipitofrontalis muscle, occipital belly of, 77f Occiput in cervical spine examination, 110f, 110t tenderness with palpation of, 104t Occlusal stabilization splint, nightly wear of, for TMJ disorders, 58f predicting failure with, 59, 59f, 59t predicting success with, 58, 58f, 58t ODI. See Oswestry Disability Index (ODI). Olecranon, 441f, 444f, 445f, 470f Olecranon bursa, subcutaneous, 443f Olecranon fossa, 380f, 441f Omaticofacial foramen, of zygomatic bone, 19f Omohyoid muscle, 24f, 385f, 388f inferior belly of, 72f, 73f investing layer of deep cervical fascia, 385f superior belly of, 72f, 73f, 74t 1 Repetition maximum (1RM), in knee assessment, 304t Open kinetic chain, in foot and ankle assessments, 359, 368t Ophthalmic nerve, 26f, 26t Opponens digit minimi muscle, 473t, 474f innervation of, 476f Opponens pollicis muscle, 473t, 474f innervation of, 475f Oral habits, association with TMJ disorders, 27 Orbicularis orb muscle, 35f Orbicularis oris muscle, 22f Orbital plate, of ethmoid bone, 19f Orthoses, foot, for patellofemoral pain syndrome, 284, 325, 325f, 325t Ossification, of thoracolumbar spine, in ankylosing spondylitis, 155f
Osteoarthritis (OA) of hip and pelvis clinical summary and recommendations, 244t combination of tests for, 278, 278f, 278t Cyriax’s capsular pattern for detecting, 258, 259f grading scales for, 255t, 260t, 274t, 275t, 278t, 279t patient history in, 254t, 255, 255t radiography of, 257t, 259f, 260t ROM measurements in, 256t, 257t testing for, 267f, 267t, 268t, 272t, 273t special tests, 274t, 275t of knee hip mobilization for, 284, 326 outcome measures of, 327t progressive stages of, 296f subjective questions for assessing, 296, 296f, 296t testing for, 312t, 316t, 317t, 324t in TMJ disorders, 31, 33t, 41t Osteoarthrosis, in TMJ disorders, 31, 32f, 33t Osteology of cervical spine, 67-68 head and neck, 67f vertebrae, 68f in relation to TMJ, 17f of elbow, 441, 441f of foot and ankle, 337 dorsal vs. plantar view of, 338f medial vs. lateral view of, 337f Ottawa rules for, 357f of hip and pelvis, 245 femur, 245f hip (coxal) bone, 245f of knee, 285 femur, 285f fibula, 285f tibia, 285f of sacroiliac region abdominal framework, 201, 201f coccyx, 202, 202f hip (coxal), 202, 203f sacrum, 202f, 203 sex differences in, 204, 204f of shoulder, 379 anterior humerus and scapula, 379f superior and inferior clavicle surface, 379f of temporomandibular joint, 17 head and neck, 17f
Osteology (Continued) mandible, 18f skull, 19f of thoracolumbar spine, 133 lumbar vertebrae, 133f thoracic vertebrae, 133f of wrist and hand, 463, 464f carpal bones, 463f Osteonecrosis, of hip and pelvis, 262f, 262t Osteophytes, in degenerative disc disease, 183f Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) for sacroiliac region outcomes, 237t, 238t Modified, 238t for thoracolumbar spine outcomes, 189t, 190t, 191t, 192t Modified, 192t Otic ganglion, 21f, 23f, 26f Ottawa Ankle Rule for Radiography, 336, 357f, 358 diagnostic utility of, 358, 358f, 358t Ottawa Knee Rule for Radiography, 284 diagnostic utility of, 299, 299f, 299t Outcome measures of cervical spine, 125, 125t of elbow and forearm, 457, 457t of foot and ankle, 373, 373t of hip and pelvis, 279, 279t of knee, 303, 327t of sacroiliac region, 238t of shoulder, 429, 429t of temporomandibular joint (TMJ), 60 of thoracolumbar spine, 192, 192t of wrist and hand, 503, 503t Overbite, 43t Overjet, of temporomandibular joint, 43t Overlap, of temporomandibular joint, 43t Overuse injury, of hip and pelvis, 254t
P PA. See Posterior to anterior (PA) glide test/technique. Pain ankle. See Foot and ankle pain. back (spinal) cervical. See Cervical (neck) pain. lumbar. See Low back pain. sacral. See Sacroiliac pain. thoracic. See Thoracolumbar pain.
Pain (Continued) bone, in thoracolumbar spine, 172t buttock. See Gluteal (buttock) pain. calf, 149t, 157f discogenic sacroiliac, McKenzie evaluation rule for, 200, 235, 235f thoracolumbar, 149t, 179f elbow. See Elbow pain. extremity. See Lower extremity; Upper extremity. foot. See Foot and ankle pain. forearm, with cervical compression test, 108f, 108t groin. See Inguinal (groin) pain. hand. See Hand and wrist pain. hip. See Hip pain. knee. See Knee pain. lumbopelvic, 217t, 218t, 220t, 223t myofascial. See Myofascial pain. neck. See Cervical (neck) pain. patellar syndrome. See Patellofemoral pain syndrome. pelvic. See Pelvic pain. sciatic, 149t, 176t, 355t shoulder. See Shoulder pain. snuff box, with scaphoid fractures, 481t, 482f thigh. See Thigh pain. with TMJ disorders. See Temporomandibular pain. wrist. See Hand and wrist pain. Pain provocation tests. See specific anatomy or test, e.g., Compression tests. Pain rating scales behavioral, 28t numerical. See Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS). Pain referral patterns in cervical spine, zygapophyseal syndromes of, 80, 82t Cooper description, 81f diagnostic nerve block for, 103t Dwyer description, 80f in lumbar spine, zygapophyseal, 149, 149t, 150f in sacroiliac joint, 212 with double-block injections, 212, 212f with radiofrequency neurotomies, 212, 212f in thoracic spine, zygapophyseal, 149, 149t, 151, 151f
INDEX 539
Painful arc sign, in shoulder, 378, 389t, 391t, 397t, 415t416t combined with other tests, 428t with rotator cuff tears, 422t Painful arc test, for subacromial impingement, 415t-416t combined with other tests, 428t Palatine bone, pyramidal process of, 67f Palmar abduction, 486t Palmar (arterial) arch, carpal, 474f Palmar ligaments, volar plate of, 469f, 469t Palmar nerves digital. See Digital nerves/ branches. median, 493f Palmar pinch strength, 489t Palmar view of carpal bones, 463f of wrist and hand bones, 464f of wrist and hand muscles, 471f, 472f, 473f, 474f of wrist ligaments, carpal tunnel vs. flexor retinaculum removed, 466, 466t, 467f Palmaris brevis muscle, innervation of, 476f Palmaris longus muscle, 448f, 471f, 471t innervation of, 475f Palmaris longus tendon, 446f, 467f in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f Palpation of cervical spine, pain during, 104-105, 104t, 105t without patient history, 105, 105t of foot and ankle, for trauma screening, 356t of hip, 273 diagnostic utility for intra-articular pain, 273, 273f, 273t reliability of, 273, 273f, 273t of humerus, lateral epicondyle, 449f of knee for inflammation detection, 300f, 300t lateral vs. medial joint line, 312f, 312t pain during, 312, 312t, 322t of sacroiliac region, 213 bony landmark symmetry assessment, 214, 214f, 214t, 215f 540
Palpation (Continued) pain location identification with, 213, 213f, 213t static, 200 of shoulder labral tears identification with, 394, 394t subacromial space in, 394, 394f, 394t of temporomandibular joint, 16t, 31t, 34 conditions identified by, 37 extraoral, 34t intraoral, 34t lateral, 35t, 36f, 37t muscle, 34, 35t posterior, 35t, 36f, 37t pressure pain thresholds, 38 regional, 35 tests, 36f of thoracolumbar spine, 172 segmental level identification with, 172, 172f, 172t segmental mobility identification with, 166t, 168f, 169t, 170f, 171f, 171t tenderness identification with, 172, 172t Paper grip test, for toe strength, 336, 361, 361f, 361t Paraspinal joints, tenderness with palpation of, 105t Paraspinal muscles, tenderness with palpation of, 105t Parasympathetic nerves, of sacroiliac region, 209f Paresthesias. See also Radiculopathy. in foot and ankle, 355t in lower extremity, with lumbar pain, 149t, 154t, 157f in upper extremity with brachial plexus palsy, 425t with neck pain, 66, 80t, 82t, 83f, 83t, 84t patient report of, 66, 80t, 82t, 83f, 83t, 84t during ROM, 97t in wrist and hand, 495t, 498t, 501t with brachial plexus palsy, 425t patient report of, 478t, 479t, 480f Parietal bone, 19f temporal lines of, inferior vs. superior, 19f Parotid duct, 22f, 23f Parotid gland, 72f Parrot beak tear, of meniscus, 323f Passive intervertebral motion (PIVM) of cervical spine, limited, 100, 100f, 100t
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Passive intervertebral motion (PIVM) (Continued) pain during, 101, 101t, 102f, 102t of lumbar spine accessory, 169t, 171t limited vs. excessive, 165, 165t, 166t, 171, 171t pain with, 132, 167, 167t, 169t, 170f physiological, 169t flexion vs. extension, 171t radiography with, for instability, 184t Patella, 251f, 253f, 286f, 289f, 291f, 346f alignment of. See also Patellar tilt. A angle in, 311, 311f, 311t lateral pull test for, 311, 311t Q-angle in, 310, 310f, 310t angle between longitudinal axis of, and patellar tendon, 311, 311f, 311t articular cartilage of, erosion of, 296f displacement of lateral pull test for, 311t mediolateral, 307t instability of, 284 bony assessment of, 306-307, 308-309, 310-311 in physical examination, 298f, 299t, 300t subluxation of, 295t, 310f tenderness of, in trauma screening, 298f, 299t Patella poles, inferior vs. superior, in alignment assessment, 308t, 309t, 311f, 311t Patellar anastomosis, 253f Patellar apprehension test, moving, 284, 321, 321f, 321t Patellar ligament, 251f, 253f, 286f, 288f, 289f, 291f, 346f Patellar orientation/position assessment of, 307, 307f, 307t mediolateral, 307f, 307t Patellar retinaculum lateral, 251f, 289f, 291f, 346f iliotibial tract blended into, 288f tight, 324t medial, 251f, 253f, 289f, 291f blended into joint capsule, 288f Patellar rotation, 309, 309f, 309t Patellar surface, of femur, 285f
Patellar tap test, for knee inflammation, 300t Patellar tendon, angle between longitudinal axis of patella and, 311, 311f, 311t Patellar tendonitis, 295t Patellar tilt, 306t anterior, 308t anteroposterior, 308, 308f, 308t mediolateral, 306, 306f, 306t superoinferior, 308, 308t Patellar-pubic percussion test, for hip fractures, 244, 276, 276f, 276t, 277f Patellofemoral joint, 286t tenderness of, 312t Patellofemoral pain syndrome, 284, 295t, 310t activity modification for, 284, 325, 325f, 325t foot orthoses for, 284, 325, 325f, 325t forefoot valgus and, in predicting intervention success, 325f, 325t great toe extension and, in predicting intervention success, 325f, 325t iliotibial band length in, 268t Patient history cervical spine and, 66, 80-83 elbow and forearm and, 440 foot and ankle and, 336, 355 hip and pelvis and, 244, 254-255, 254t, 255t knee and, 284, 295-297 combined with tests, in diagnosing pathology, 324t in meniscal tear diagnosis, 323t reliability and diagnostic utility of, 2. See also specific anatomy or pathology. sacroiliac joint/region and, 200, 210-212 shoulder and, 378 temporomandibular joint and, 16, 27-30 thoracolumbar spine and, 132, 149-154 in diagnosing pathology, 149, 151, 153-154, 184t in low back pain classifications, 187t wrist and hand and, 462, 478-479, 478t Patient populations, statistical sample of, 8 Patient-Rated Tennis Elbow Evaluation, 457t
Patrick test of hip and pelvis, 244, 258t diagnostic utility of, 274, 274f, 274t reliability of, 274, 274f, 274t of sacroiliac joint, 201-209, 221f combined with other tests, 233t diagnostic utility of, 216f, 216t, 221f reliability of, 216f, 216t, 221f Patte maneuver/test for infraspinatus tears, 422t for supraspinatus tears, 418t Paxinos sign, in shoulder, 426t Payr test, for meniscal tears, 322t PCL. See Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL). Pecten pubis, 201f, 203f, 206f, 245f, 246f Pectineal line, 201f, 203f, 206f, 245f, 246f Pectineus muscle, 250t, 251f, 253f, 293f Pectoral branch, of thoracoacromial artery, 388f Pectoral nerve, lateral vs. medial, 72t, 78t, 79f, 387t, 388f in brachial plexus schema, 425f Pectoralis major muscle, 72f, 385f, 385t, 388f abdominal part of, 385f clavicular head of, 385f, 385t length assessment of, 107t sternocostal head of, 385f, 385t Pectoralis minor muscle, 385t, 388f length assessment of, 107t, 393, 393f, 393t tightness identification of, 393, 393t Pectoralis minor tendon, 388f Pedicles of cervical vertebrae, 68f of lumbar vertebrae, 133f, 136f, 138f of thoracic vertebrae, 133f, 138f Pelvic brim, sacral part of, 202f Pelvic dysfunction, 210, 235, 235f Pelvic inlet diameters of, female vs. male, 204f female anterior view of, 204f plane of, 204f male, anterior view of, 204f Pelvic outlet, female anteroposterior diameter of, 204f inferior view of, 204f plane of, 204f
Pelvic pain. See also Sacroiliac pain. girdle, 214t, 260t, 272t. See also Sacroiliac pain. motion assessment for, 226t, 232t postpartum, 216t, 217t, 218t, 225t, 228t Pelvic (hypogastric) plexus, inferior, 209f Pelvic provocation test, posterior, 217 diagnostic utility of, 217f, 217t reliability of, 217f, 217t Pelvic tilt, in Trendelenburg test, 267t Pelvis. See also Hip and pelvis. lateral vs. medial view of, 245f sex differences in, 204, 204f Penis, dorsal nerve of, 148f, 252f Percussion test patellar-pubic, for hip fractures, 276, 276f, 276t, 277f of wrist and hand, for carpal tunnel syndrome, 494t, 495t Perforating branches anterior to dorsal metatarsal artery, 351f, 352f of plantar metatarsal arteries, 348f, 352f of arcuate artery, posterior, 348f, 352f of deep artery, of thigh, 253f of fibular artery, 347f, 348f posterior, to dorsal metatarsal artery, 352f Perineal nerve, 148f, 252f posterior scrotal/labial branches of, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252f, 294f Peripheralization phenomena in cervical pain, 97t in lumbar pain, 149t, 173t, 174f Peroneal artery, 347f communicating branch of, 347f lateral calcaneal branch of, 347f, 350f perforating branch of, 347f, 348f Peroneal nerve, 353 anterior view of, 353t, 354f common, 148f, 209f, 249f, 289f, 291f, 294f, 346f, 347f, 353f, 354f articular branch of, 294f, 354f division of sciatic nerve, 294f phantom, 353f deep, 345t, 348f, 348t, 353f dorsal digital branches of, 348f lateral branch of, 348f, 353f medial branch of, 348f, 353f in foot and ankle injury, 355t
INDEX 541
Peroneal nerve (Continued) phantom, 353f posterior view of, 353f, 353t superficial, 345t, 346f, 348f, 353f division of sciatic nerve, 294f dorsal digital branches of, 348f Peroneal retinaculum inferior, 341f, 346f, 347f fibular tendons in, 340f superior, 341f, 346f, 347f Peroneal tendons, in inferior fibular retinaculum, 340f Peroneal trochlea, of calcaneus, 337f, 338f Peroneus brevis muscle, 348f, 353f Peroneus brevis tendon, 341f, 346f, 347f, 348f, 351f, 352f Peroneus longus muscle, 289f, 291f, 353f groove for on calcaneus, 337f on cuboid, 337f, 338f Peroneus longus tendon, 341f, 344f, 347f, 348f, 351f, 352f fibrous sheath of, 351f groove for on calcaneus, 337f on cuboid, 337f, 338f passing to sole, 346f Peroneus tertius muscle, 345t Peroneus tertius tendon, 346f, 348f, 352f Pes anserinus tendon, 251f, 289f, 291f Petrosal nerve, lesser, 26f Phalanx (phalanges), 337f, 338f base of, 338f distal, 338f, 343f, 464f, 469f 4th, 344f base of, 464f head of, 464f median nerve branches to, 475f shafts of, 464f ulnar nerve branches to, 476f great toe, distal vs. proximal, 344f head of, 338f middle, 338f, 343f, 464f, 469f 4th, 344f base of, 464f head of, 464f median nerve branches to, 475f shafts of, 464f ulnar nerve branches to, 476f proximal, 338f, 343f, 464f, 469f 5th, 344f base of, 464f head of, 464f shafts of, 464f shaft (body) of, 338f tuberosity of, 338f 542
Phalen’s test, 462, 496-497, 496t, 497t reverse, 496f, 497t Pharyngeal tubercle, 71f Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube, cartilaginous part of, 23f Phospholipase A2, in lumbar pain, 179f Phrenic nerve, 75f, 79f, 388f Physical examination of cervical spine, 66t, 85-124 to identify radiographic needs following trauma, 66, 90t, 91, 92t-93t of elbow and forearm, 440t, 450455 of foot and ankle, 336t, 356-372 of hip and pelvis, 244t, 256-278 of knee, 284t, 298-326 combined with tests, in diagnosing pathology, 324t to identify radiographic needs following trauma, 298, 298f reliability and diagnostic utility of, 1-14. See also Clinical examination; specific anatomy or test. of sacroiliac region, 200t, 213-237 of shoulder, 378t, 390-428 of temporomandibular joint, 16t, 34-59 of thoracolumbar spine, 132t, 156-191 of wrist and hand, 462t, 481-502 Physical therapy referral, for shoulder impairments, 390t Physician judgment, on cervical spine injury, 92-93t Pin prick testing for lumbar spinal stenosis, 158f, 158t for radiculopathy cervical, 66, 86f, 86t lumbar, 132, 156t Pinch test for carpal tunnel syndrome, 501t for strength measurement, 488f, 489t Piriformis muscle, 207f, 207t, 209f, 248t, 249f, 252f nerve to, 148f, 208t, 209f Piriformis myofascial pain, 172t Piriformis syndrome, 254t Pisiform, 446f, 448f, 463f, 464f, 465f, 467f, 469f, 471f, 474f in scaphoid fractures, 482f Pisometacarpal ligament, 466t, 467f
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Pisotriquetral complex, in carpal instability, 500t PIVM. See Passive intervertebral motion (PIVM). Pivot shift test, for ACL tears, 284, 315, 315f, 315t Plane-gliding joints, temporomandibular, 20, 20f Plantar (arterial) arch, deep, 352f deep plantar artery to, 348f, 352f posterior perforating branches of arcuate artery to, 348f, 352f Plantar arteries deep to deep plantar arch, 348f, 352f from dorsalis pedis artery, 352f digital. See Digital arteries. lateral, 350f, 351f, 352f medial, 350f, 351f deep branch of, 350f, 351f superficial branch of, 349f, 350f, 351f proper plantar digital branch of, 351f metatarsal, 348f, 351f, 352f Plantar fasciitis, 336, 355t, 371t Plantar foot, ROM measurements of, 359t Plantar ligaments, 352f long, 341f, 342f, 343t, 344f, 352f metatarsal, 344f between bases of metatarsal bones, 352f plate of, 343f, 343t, 344f short, 342f, 343t, 344f, 352f tarsometatarsal, 343t, 344f Plantar nerves digital. See Digital nerves/branches. dorsal branches of, 348f lateral, 294f, 348t, 349t, 350f, 350t, 351f, 352t, 354f deep branch of, 350f, 351f, 351t deep plantar arterial branch of, 351f plantar metatarsal branch of, 349f proper plantar digital branches of, 349f, 350f, 351f superficial branch of, 350f, 351f, 351t from tibial nerve, 354f medial, 294f, 349t, 350f, 350t, 351f, 351t, 354f deep branch of, 351f proper plantar digital branches of, 349f, 350f, 351f superficial branch of, 351f from tibial nerve, 354f
Plantar view of deep interosseous muscles of sole, 352f of foot and ankle, 338f Plantarflexion, ankle, 359t, 361f, 361t impingement sign with, 370f, 370t Plantaris muscle, 249f, 287f, 291f, 294f, 347f, 354f Plantaris tendon, 249f Plate. See specific anatomy, e.g., Pterygoid plate. Platysma muscle, 72f, 72t Plicae, medial, in knee pathology, 284, 324t Point estimates, 8 Pop test, for glenoid labral tears, 427t Popliteal artery, 249f, 253f, 347f Popliteal ligaments arcuate, 287f, 287t, 288f oblique, 287f, 287t, 288f Popliteal surface, of femur, 285f, 287f Popliteus muscle, 249f, 287f, 347f, 354f capsule edge arching over, 287f nerve to, 354f Popliteus tendon, 287f, 288f Population characteristics, diagnostic statistics of, 3, 8 Positive predictive values (PPV), 3, 4-5, 4t, 11t Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL), 287f, 288f, 288t, 295f ruptures of, 295t Posterior shear test for lumbar segmental instability, 180t of sacroiliac region, 217 diagnostic utility of, 217f, 217t reliability of, 217f, 217t Posterior tibial reflex, with herniated lumbar nucleus pulposus, 157f Posterior to anterior (PA) glide test/ technique central, of cervical spine, 102t, 103f, 103t for hip mobilization, 326f with flexion, abduction, and lateral rotation, 326f Posterior triangle of neck, 140f Posterior view of ankle ligaments, 340, 340f, 340t of carpal bones, 463f of cervical spine ligaments, 70f, 71f of elbow bones, in extension, 441f of elbow joint, opened, 442f
Posterior view (Continued) of femur, 245f of fibular nerves, 353t, 354f of hip and pelvis ligaments, 247f of leg muscles, 347f of lumbar vertebrae, 136f of mandible osteology, left, 18f of muscles involved in mastication, 23f of rotator cuff muscles, 386f of sacroiliac region ligaments, 206f of shoulder muscles, 384, 384f, 384t of thoracic vertebrae, 134f of tibia and fibula, 285f of tibial nerves, 353t, 354f of wrist and hand bones, 464f of wrist and hand muscles, 474f of wrist and hand nerves, 475f, 476f, 477f of wrist ligaments, 468, 468f, 468t Posterior-superior iliac spine (PSIS) in hip muscle length assessment, 270t as sacroiliac bony landmark prone, 214t sitting vs. standing, 214t in sacroiliac motion assessment, 226t, 227t, 230t, 231t in sacroiliac pain provocation, 211t, 213t Posterolateral view, of costovertebral ligaments, right, 137f Posterosuperior view of axis, 68f of mouth floor muscles, 25f Post-test probability, 8f, 9 calculating, 9-10, 9f Postural assessment of cervical spine head vs. shoulder in, 106t muscle length assessment in, 107f, 107t thoracic kyphosis in, 106f, 106t of thoracolumbar spine, 163, 163t, 164f for ankylosing spondylitis, 155f in low back pain classifications, 187t Postural syndrome, upper crossed, 80t Potentiometer, in foot and ankle assessment, 365t Poupart ligament, 146f, 253f PPV (positive predictive values), 3, 4-5, 4t, 11t Predictive values, positive and negative, 3, 4-5, 4t, 11t likelihood ratios and, 7, 8t
Pregnancy sacroiliac bony landmarks and, 214t sacroiliac motion assessment and, 232t Prepatellar bursa, subcutaneous, 286f Pressure pain threshold (PPT), in TMJ disorders, 38, 38f, 38t Pressure provocation test for carpal tunnel syndrome, 498f, 498t of elbow, 440, 454t flexion test combined with, 454t Pretest probability, 8f, 9 Prevalence rates, 5, 9 Probability determination of shifts in, 7, 7t, 9-10 post-test calculation, 9-10, 9f pretest and post-test, 8f, 9 Processes. See specific anatomy, e.g., Styloid process. articular. See Articular processes. spinous. See Spinous processes. transverse. See Transverse process(es). Pronation measurements, of elbow, 451, 451f, 451t Pronator muscles, of forearm, 445f, 447, 447f, 447t Pronator quadratus muscle of foot, 447f, 447t, 448f of hand, 447f, 447t, 474f innervation of, 475f Pronator syndrome, 449t Pronator teres muscle, 445f, 446f, 447f, 447t, 448f humeral head of, 446f innervation of, 475f ulnar head of, 446f, 448f innervation of, 475f Prone instability test, of lumbar spine,180t, 181f, 191t Prone knee bend test, 232, 232f, 232t Proprioception assessment foot and ankle in, 336, 365, 366, 366f, 366t shoulder in, 392, 392t Prostaglandins, in lumbar pain, 179f Protraction test, shoulder for brachial plexus palsy, 425t in postural assessment, 96t, 106t Protractor, for ROM measurements, of thoracolumbar spine, 159t Protrusions, of temporomandibular joint, 43t, 45t, 47t
INDEX 543
PSIS. See Posterior-superior iliac spine (PSIS). Psoas major muscle, 146f, 148f, 209f, 250t, 251f lower part of, 293f Psoas minor muscle, 148f, 250t, 251f Psoas muscles, 143f nerve branch to, 146f, 148f Pterion, 19f Pterygoid fovea, 18f Pterygoid muscle in anterior disc displacement, 32f internal vs. external, 35f lateral, 22f, 23f, 23t, 26f in physical examination, 35t medial, 23f, 23t, 26f in physical examination, 34t, 36f Pterygoid nerve lateral, 26f mandibular nerve via, 23t medial, mandibular nerve via, 23t Pterygoid plate lateral, 17f, 23f, 67f medial, 17f, 23f hamulus of, 17f, 23f, 26f, 67f Pterygoid process hamulus of, 67f lateral vs. medial plate of, 67f. See also Pterygoid plate. Pterygomandibular raphe, 17f, 23f, 67f Pterygopalatine fossa, 67f Pubic arch, 201f, 246f female vs. male, 204f Pubic ligaments inferior, 246f, 247t posterior, 247t superior, 247t Pubic ramus inferior, 201f, 203f, 206f, 245f, 246f superior, 201f, 203f, 206f, 209f, 245f, 246f, 247f Pubic symphysis, 201f, 206f, 246f female vs. male, 204f as joint, 246t Pubic tubercle, 201f, 203f, 206f, 245f, 246f, 251f Pubofemoral ligament, 247f, 247t Pudendal artery, internal, 209f Pudendal nerve, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252f, 252t Pushing, thoracolumbar pain with, 152t Pyramidal process, of palatine bone, 67f
Q Q angle, 310, 310f, 310t QUADAS. See Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (QUADAS). 544
Quadratus femoris muscle, 252f, 253f anterior muscles of, 251f nerves to, 252f, 252t, 293f posterior view of, 248t, 249f nerve to, 148f, 208t, 209f Quadratus femoris tendon, 346f Quadratus lumborum muscle, 142f, 146f Quadratus plantae muscle, 348f, 350t, 351f, 354f Quadratus plantae nerve, 354f Quadriceps (Q) angle, 310, 310f, 310t Quadriceps femoris muscles/tendons, 251f, 253f, 286f, 291f atrophy of, with herniated lumbar nucleus pulposus, 157f isometric contraction of, for patellar alignment, 311t length assessment of, 305f, 305t neurological examination of, 156t rectus femoris tendon becoming, 289f rupture of, 295t Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (QUADAS), 2, 10-11 of cervical spine, 126-127 of elbow and forearm, 458, 458t of foot and ankle, 374, 374t of hip and pelvis, 280, 280t of knee, 328-331, 329t of sacroiliac region, 239, 239t of shoulder, 430-435, 431t, 433t, 435t of temporomandibular joint, 6162, 61t, 62t of thoracolumbar spine, 193-194, 194t of wrist and hand, 504-505, 504t, 505t QuickDASH (Shortened Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand), in shoulder outcomes, 429t
R Radial artery, 445f, 446f, 448f, 474f dorsal carpal branch of, 465f palmar carpal branch of, 448f, 474f recurrent, 446f, 448f in snuffbox, 465f superficial palmar branch of, 446f, 467f, 474f Radial bursa, in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f Radial collateral ligament, 443f, 443t, 466t, 467f Radial fossa, 379f, 441f
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Radial nerve, 78t, 79f, 387t, 388f, 445t, 446f, 448f, 448t, 470t, 477, 477t in brachial plexus schema, 425f, 475f branches to arm/forearm, 477f cutaneous branches of, 477f deep branch of, 445f, 446f, 470t continuation to supinator muscle, 493f terminal, 493f division between ulnar nerve on dorsal hand, 493f dorsal digital branches of, 465f, 477f, 493f inconstant spinal contributions to, 477f lateral vs. medial branch of, 465f posterior view of, 477f superficial branch of, 446f, 465f, 477f terminal, 493f Radial notch, of ulna, 441f, 444f Radial tear, of meniscus, 323f Radial tunnel syndrome, 449t Radiate ligament, of rib head, 135f, 137f, 137t ossification of, 155f Radiculopathy. See also Paresthesias. cervical. See Cervical radiculopathy. lumbar. See Lumbar radiculopathy. thoracolumbar, 132 screening for, 132, 175-176, 177 Radiocapitate portion, of palmar radiocarpal ligament, 466t, 467f Radiocarpal joint, 465f, 465t Radiocarpal ligament dorsal, 468f, 468t palmar, 466t, 467f radiocapitate portion of, 466t, 467f radioscapholunate portion of, 466t, 467f Radiography of ankle, Ottawa Rule for, 336, 357f, 358 diagnostic utility of, 358f, 358t of cervical spine, for injury screening, 66, 91-92, 92t-93t, 92f of elbow, for injuries, 453t of hip joint for fractures, 276t for osteoarthritis, 257t, 259f, 260t of knee, Ottawa Rule for, 284, 299, 299f, 299t
Radiography (Continued) of shoulder, for instability identification, 399t, 400t, 401t of thoracolumbar spine for degenerative disc disease, 183f flexion-extension, 159t, 167t, 169t, 171t, 184t for instability, 184-185, 184t, 185f of wrist and hand, for fractures, 481t Radioscapholunate portion, of palmar radiocarpal ligament, 466t, 467f Radioulnar joint distal, 442t, 465f proximal, 442t Radioulnar ligament dorsal, 468f, 468t foveal disruption of, 462 testing for, 501f, 501t palmar, 466t, 467f Radius anterior vs. posterior border of, 444f area for abductor pollicis longus muscle on, 444f area for extensor pollicis brevis muscle on, 444f deviation tests of, 484t, 485f, 500t distal, fractures of, in children, 483f dorsal tubercle of, 463f in elbow joint, 441f, 442f, 442t, 443f extension vs. flexion, 441f groove for extensor carpi radialis brevis muscle on, 444f groove for extensor carpi radialis longus muscle on, 444f groove for extensor digitorum muscle on, 444f groove for extensor indicis muscle on, 444f groove for extensor pollicis longus muscle on, 444f head of, 441f, 444f interosseous border of, 444f ligaments of, 443f, 443t, 444f muscles of, 445f, 446f, 470f, 471f, 472f, 473f, 474f in supination vs. pronation, 447, 447f, 447t neck of, 441f, 444f nerves of, 448f, 448t styloid process of, 444f, 463f surfaces of anterior vs. posterior, 444f lateral, 444f
Radius (Continued) tuberosity of, 441f, 444f in wrist joint, 463f, 465f, 467f, 468f Rami communicantes of cervical nerves dorsal, 71f, 77f, 79f in brachial plexus schema, 425f ventral, 79f in brachial plexus schema, 425f of sacral nerves, gray vs. white, 209f of thoracolumbar nerves, 148f dorsal, 141t, 142t, 145f, 145t, 252t lateral vs. medial branch of, 145f posterior, 145f gray vs. white, 145f, 146f ventral, 139t, 143t, 145f, 146f Ramus of ischium, 203f, 245f of mandible, 17f, 18f, 19f, 67f of pubis. See Pubic ramus. of spinal nerves. See Rami communicantes. Range of motion (ROM) of cervical spine, 66 improvement of, with interventions, 118t, 120t, 121t, 122t, 123t, 124t limited passive intervertebral, 100, 100f, 100t pain during, 101, 101t, 102f, 102t measurements of, 94f, 95t, 96t pain during, 97t, 98f, 98t therapeutic, following spinal manipulation, 121f of elbow and forearm, 450 measurements of, 440, 450451, 450f, 451f pain during, 449t of foot and ankle, 336, 359, 359f calcaneal position, 336t, 360, 360f lunge, 338f, 360 open kinetic chain, 359 passive vs. active, 359t patient history in, 355t, 370t in trauma screening, 356t of hip and pelvis, 244 capsular and noncapsular endfeels, 258, 258f, 258t limited abduction, developmental dysplasia in infants with, 244, 263, 263f, 263t
Range of motion (ROM) (Continued) avascular necrosis detection with, 262, 262f, 262t pain during, 260, 260f, 260t measurements of, 256, 256f, 256t, 257f, 257t mobilizations effect on, 326t passive external vs. internal rotation, 256f, 256t, 257t flexion vs. extension, 260t, 261f maximal, 258t intervertebral. See Passive intervertebral motion (PIVM). of knee, 284 active vs. passive, 301, 301f, 301t, 319t capsular and noncapsular endfeels, 302, 302f, 302t, 326t hip mobilizations effect on, 326t pain during resistance sequences, 303, 303f, 303t of sacroiliac region, 200 assessment tests for, 226-227, 228-229, 230-231, 232 combinations of, 233-234, 235 dysfunction vs. pain detection with, 234-235, 234f, 235f of shoulder disorders classification based on, 397f, 397t functional tests of, 391, 391f, 391t integrated movements during, 381, 381f measurements of, 378, 390, 390f, 390t pain during, 390t, 391t, 415t416t of temporomandibular joint, 16t, 31t anterior disc displacement and, 45 joint play and end-feel assessment in, 44 mandibular opening in, 31t, 44 measurements of, 43, 43t mouth opening in, 42, 42t, 57t of thoracolumbar spine, 132 in low back pain classifications, 187t in lumbar instability tests, 184t, 191t
INDEX 545
Range of motion (ROM) (Continued) measurements of, 159, 159t, 160f pain during, 149t, 161, 161f, 161t of wrist and hand, 462 measurements of, 484, 484f, 484t, 485f finger and thumb, 486, 486f, 486t Rays. See Metatarsal bones. RDC (Research Diagnostic Criteria), for TMJ disorders, 31-32, 33 Rearfoot angle, 360f, 360t Rectal (anal) nerve, inferior, 148f, 252f Rectus abdominis muscle, 143f, 143t, 145f Rectus capitis anterior muscle, 75f, 75t Rectus capitis lateralis muscle, 75f, 75t Rectus capitis posterior major muscle, 76t, 77f, 141f, 142f Rectus capitis posterior minor muscle, 76t, 77f, 141f, 142f Rectus femoris muscle, 250t, 251f, 253f, 289f, 289t, 293f Rectus femoris tendon, 251f becoming quadriceps femoris tendon, 289f Rectus sheath, anterior layer of, 385f Reference standard, 3 test results compared to, 3 Reflex hammer, in wrist and hand examination, 494t, 495t Reflex tests of lumbar spine, 132 for radiculopathy, 156, 156t, 157f for spinal stenosis, 94, 158f, 158t of upper limb, for cervical radiculopathy, 66, 89f, 89t Reliability of clinical examination, 1-14. See also Clinical examination; specific anatomy or test. intra-examiner vs. interexaminer, 2-3 Relocation tests, of shoulder, 400, 400f, 400t anterior, 400t apprehension, 400t combined with other tests, 378, 427t Jobe, 400t pain, 400t 546
1 Repetition maximum (1RM), in knee assessment, 304t Repetitive use injury, of hip and pelvis, 254t Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC), for TMJ disorders, 31-32, 33 Resistance tests of hip and pelvis, 244 lateral tendon pathology and, 266, 266t pain or weakness during, 264, 264t, 265t of knee, pain during, 303, 303f, 303t of shoulder for labral tears, 407t, 408t supine flexion with, 405t, 411t-412t for subacromial impingement, internal rotation with, 417, 417f of temporomandibular joint, pain during diagnostic utility of, 50, 50f, 51f, 51t lateral deviation, 48f, 48t mouth opening and closing, 51f reliability of, 48, 48f, 48t of wrist and hand, for scaphoid fractures, 481t Rheumatoid arthritis cervical spine involvement in, 115t foot involvement in, 369f, 369t Rhomberg test, for lumbar spinal stenosis, 182t Rhomboid major muscle, 77f, 139t, 384f, 384t Rhomboid minor muscle, 77f, 139t, 384f, 384t Rib head in ankylosing spondylitis, 155f articular facets of, superior, 135f, 137f ligaments of, 135f, 137f, 137t Ribs 1st, 17f, 67f, 75f, 380f, 388f in brachial plexus schema, 425f costal facets for, 69f, 135f, 137f springing test of, 391t sternocostal articulation, 134f synchondrosis of, 380f testing stiffness of, 100f, 100t 2nd, 380f 7th, 134f 12th, 140f, 201f
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Ribs (Continued) in ankylosing spondylitis, of thoracolumbar spine, 155f in scoliosis pathology, 164f tubercle of, transverse costal facet for, 137f Roland-Morris (R-M) Disability Questionnaire for sacroiliac region outcomes, 238t for thoracolumbar spine outcomes, 192t ROM. See Range of motion (ROM). Romberg test, for lumbar spinal stenosis, 132 Rotation lag signs, in shoulder external, 378, 422t internal, 423t Rotation tests of cervical spine, 95t, 96t C1, 100f, 100t C2, 100f, 100t combined with other tests, 117, 117t pain during, 97t, 101t, 102t of foot, for TMJ disorders diagnostic utility of, 53, 53f, 53t reliability of, 53, 53f, 53t of hip and pelvis, 244 internal vs. external, 256f, 256t, 257t, 258t muscle length measurements, 270t, 271f muscle strength assessment, 264, 264t, 265t pain during, 260t, 262t, 264, 266t, 278t for sacroiliac pain provocation, 225t strength assessment with, 264t, 265t mobilization effect on, 326t osteonecrosis detection with, 262t of knee with internal vs. external rotation, 317f, 322t patellar, 309, 309f, 309t of shoulder, 378 functional, 391f, 391t for instability, 399t, 400t, 401t for labral tears, 403t, 407t active compression with, 404, 404f, 404t, 406f, 407t combined with other tests, 428t passive compression with, 411t-412t
Rotation tests (Continued) resisted supination with, 411t-412t measurement of, 390f, 390t for muscle length determination, 393t in proprioception testing, 392t with resistance for subacromial impingement, 417, 417f during supination, 411t-412t for rotator cuff tears, 422t of thoracolumbar spine, 159t, 184t pain during, 161, 161f, 161t Rotator cuff lesions of, 397t muscles of, 386, 386f, 386t tears of, 378 patient history in, 389, 389t retracted, 418f subscapularis tests for, 423, 423t, 424f superior, 418f supraspinatus/infraspinatus tests for, 418, 418f, 418t, 419-422, 419f, 422t Rotator muscles, of forearm instability of, 449t in supination vs. pronation, 447, 447f, 447t Rotatores cervicis breves muscle, 142f Rotatores cervicis longi muscle, 142f Rotatores thoracis breves muscle, 142f, 142t Rotatores thoracis longi muscle, 142f, 142t Ruptures. See specific anatomy, e.g., Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL).
S S1 vertebra disc herniation at level of, 157f nerves of, 147t, 148f, 208t, 209f, 248t, 252t, 290t, 292t, 294f, 345t, 348t, 353t, 354f in sacroiliac motion assessment, 226t in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 150f S2 vertebra foramina of, coronal section through, 202f nerves of, 147t, 148f, 208t, 209f, 248t, 252t, 290t, 292t, 294f, 345t, 347t, 348t, 349t, 350t, 351t, 352t, 353t, 354f
S2 vertebra (Continued) in sacroiliac motion assessment, 226t, 227t S3 vertebra nerves of, 147t, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252t, 290t, 292t, 294f, 347t, 348t, 349t, 350t, 351t, 352t, 353t, 354f in sacroiliac motion assessment, 226t S4 vertebra, nerves of, 148f, 208t, 209f, 252t perineal branch of, 148f, 208t, 209f perineal branches of, 148f, 208t, 209f S5 vertebra, nerves of, 148f, 208t, 209f Sacral canal, 202f Sacral cornu (horn), 202f Sacral crest intermediate, 202f lateral, 202f median, 202f Sacral foramen anterior (pelvic), 202f, 206f posterior, 202f, 206f Sacral hiatus, 202f Sacral plexus, 148f Sacral promontory, 201f, 202f, 206f, 246f female, 204f Sacral sulcus as sacroiliac bony landmark, 214t tenderness of, 213t Sacral thrust test, 200, 219, 222f combined with other tests, 233t, 235 diagnostic utility of, 219f, 219t reliability of, 219f, 219t Sacrococcygeal ligaments anterior vs. posterior, 206f, 206t lateral, 206f, 206t Sacroiliac joint, 205, 205f, 205t Sacroiliac ligaments, anterior vs. posterior, 206f, 206t Sacroiliac pain. See also Hip pain; Pelvic pain. aggravating factors of, 211, 211t discogenic, McKenzie evaluation rule for, 200, 235, 235f dysfunction vs., 210, 235, 235f with herniated lumbar nucleus pulposus, 157f intensity locations of, 212, 212f intervention(s) for, 200 anesthetic injection as, 211t, 213t double-block, 212, 212f
Sacroiliac pain (Continued) motion testing and, 227t, 228t, 233t provocative testing and, 216t, 217t, 218t, 219t, 220t, 223t radiofrequency neurotomies as, 212, 212f spinal manipulation as, 236, 236f, 237f, 237t location of, 211, 211t palpation for location identification, 213, 213t patient report of, 211, 211t physical examination for, 200, 213 provocative tests for, 216-217, 218-219, 220-221, 222223, 224-225 anesthetic injection with, 216t, 217t, 218t, 219t, 220t, 223t diagnostic utility of, 200, 216f, 217f, 218f, 219f, 220f, 223f, 224f reliability of, 216f, 217f, 218f, 219f, 220f, 223f, 224f, 225f referral patterns of, 212 with double-block injections, 212, 212f with radiofrequency neurotomies, 212, 212f Sacroiliac region, 199-242 arthrology of, 205, 205f, 205t clinical summary and recommendations, 200-239 diagnostic utility of examination compression test, 200, 218f, 218t, 221f distraction tests, 223f, 223t Gaenslen test, 220f, 220t, 222f Gillet test, 226-227, 227f, 227t history of pain, 211, 211f, 211t long-sit test, 229, 229f, 229t motion assessment, 200 pain provocation tests, 200, 216f, 217f, 218f, 219f, 220f, 223f, 224f pain referral patterns of, 212 palpation for pain location, 213, 213f, 213t Patrick’s (FABER) test, 216f, 216t, 221f sacral thrust test, 219f, 219t, 222f sitting flexion test, 231, 231f, 231t
INDEX 547
Sacroiliac region (Continued) spring test, 228, 228f, 228t standing flexion test, 230, 230f, 230t static palpation, 200 thigh thrust test, 217f, 217t, 221f dysfunction of clinical prediction rule for, 234f pain vs., 210, 235, 235f female vs. male, 204f injury, common causes of, 210f ligaments of, 206, 206f, 206t motion assessment tests for, 226227, 228-229, 230-231, 232 combinations of, 233-234, 235 dysfunction vs. pain detection with, 234-235, 234f, 235f muscles of, 206f, 207, 207f, 207t nerves of, 208t, 209, 209f osteology of abdominal framework, 201, 201f coccyx, 202, 202f hip (coxal), 202, 203f sacrum, 202f, 203 sex differences in, 204, 204f outcome measures of, 238t palpation of, 200, 213 patient history and, 200, 210-212 report of pain, 211, 211t physical examination of, 200t, 213-237 quality assessment of diagnostic studies, 239, 239t reliability of examination compression test, 218f, 218t, 221f distraction tests, 223f, 223t drop-test, 225t Gaenslen test, 220f, 220t, 222f Gillet test, 226-227, 226f, 226t, 227f internal rotation of hip, 225t long-sit test, 229, 229f, 229t Mennell’s test, 224f, 224t pain provocation tests, 216f, 217f, 218f, 219f, 220f, 223f, 224f, 225f palpation for bony landmark symmetry, 214, 214f, 214t, 215f Patrick (FABER) test, 216f, 216t, 221f prone knee bend test, 232, 232f, 232t resisted hip abduction, 225f, 225t 548
Sacroiliac region (Continued) sacral thrust test, 219f, 219t, 222f sitting flexion test, 231, 231f, 231t spring test, 228, 228f, 228t standing flexion test, 230, 230f, 230t thigh thrust test, 217f, 217t, 221f tenderness over, with ankylosing spondylitis, 186t Sacroiliitis, 216t, 217t, 218t, 219t, 220t, 223t, 224t, 233t bilateral, 155f lower spine involvement in, 155f Sacrospinous ligament, 206f, 206t, 249f, 252f Sacrotuberous ligament, 206f, 206t, 249f, 252f Sacrum. See also Sacral entries. apex of, 202f articular facets for, 136f, 202f articular processes of, superior, 202f auricular surface of hip bone for, 203f, 245f base of, 202f as sacroiliac bony landmark, 214t inferior lateral angle of, 214t nerve roots of, in herniated lumbar nucleus pulposus, 157f osteology of, 201f, 202f, 246f surfaces of, dorsal vs. pelvic, 202f transverse ridges of, 202f tuberosity of, 202f Sagittal section/view of cervical disc herniation, 116f of female pelvis, 204f of knee, 286f of sacrum and coccyx, median, 202f of wrist joint, 465f Sample populations, 8 Saphenous nerve, 252t, 253f, 293f, 354f infrapatellar branch of, 253f, 293f medial cutaneous branches to leg, 293f Sartorius muscle, 249f, 250t, 251f, 253f, 290t, 291f, 293f Sartorius tendon, 251f, 289f, 291f Scalene muscles, 72f, 73f, 75, 79f anterior, 72, 75f, 388f length assessment of, 107t slips of origin of, 75f
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Scalene muscles (Continued) middle, 72, 75f posterior, 72, 75f length assessment of, 107t slips of origin of, 75f Scaphoid, 463f, 464f, 465f, 468f fractures of, 462, 478t common vs. uncommon sites of, 482f screening for, 481, 481t palmar prominence of, 500t tubercle of, 463f, 464f, 467f compression test of, 481t, 500t Scaphoid shift test, 500f, 500t Scapula, 73f acromion of, 379f, 380f, 382f, 383f, 384f, 385f, 386f, 388f in physical examination, 393t, 395t angles of acromial, 379f, 380f inferior vs. superior, 379f, 380f asymmetry of, during static and dynamic activity, 395, 395t, 396f borders of lateral vs. medial, 379f, 380f superior, 379f, 380f, 386f coracoid process of, 379f, 380f, 383f, 386f, 388f fossae of infraspinous vs. supraspinous, 380f notch connecting, 380f subscapular, 379f glenoid cavity of, 379f, 383f groove for circumflex scapular vessels on, 380f ligaments of, 382f neck of, 379f, 380f in neural tension tests, 112t, 114t, 499t osteology of, 379f in physical examination, 392t, 393t, 397f, 409t, 499t spine of, 140f, 380f, 384f, 386f suprascapular notch of, 379f, 380f, 382f, 386f tubercles of, infraglenoid vs. supraglenoid, 379f Scapular area, tenderness with palpation of, 104t Scapular circumflex artery, 388f groove on scapula for, 380f Scapular ligament, superior transverse, 382f, 386f Scapular nerve, dorsal, 78t, 79f, 384t, 387t, 388f in brachial plexus schema, 425f
Scapular slide test, lateral, 395t, 396f Scapulohumeral rhythm, 381, 381f Scapulothoracic joint, 136t integrated movements of, 381, 381f Scheuermann’s disease, 106f Schober test, of thoracolumbar spine for ankylosing spondylitis, 186t modified, 159t Sciatic foramen, lesser vs. greater, 206f, 294f Sciatic nerve, 147t, 148f, 208t, 209f, 249f, 252f, 252t, 294f fibular branch of, 290t common (peroneal), 294f superficial, 294f to hamstrings, 249f, 250t, 292f medial sural cutaneous nerve from, 294f tibial branch of, 290t, 294f Sciatic notches, lesser vs. greater, 201f, 203f, 245f, 246f Sciatic pain, 149t, 176t, 355t SCM. See Sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle. Scoliosis, 163t, 164f Scour test, of hip and pelvis, 244, 258t combined with other tests, 278t for intra-articular pathology, 275t Screening tests for ankle trauma, 336, 356, 358 for cervical spine trauma, 90-91, 92 fractures, 66, 90f to identify radiographic needs, 90t, 91, 92t-93t for knee trauma fractures, 284 to identify radiographic needs, 298-299 inflammation, 300 neurological. See Neurological examination/screening. for wrist and hand fractures, 462, 481-483, 481t, 482f, 483f Scrotal nerve, posterior, 148f, 252f Segmental fixations, of lumbar spine, 166t, 170f Segmental fracture, of femur, 277f Segmental instability test, of lumbar spine, 180, 180t, 181f Segmental lesions, in thoracolumbar spine, 166t Segmental mobility testing of cervical spine, 100t, 101t, 102t, 103t manipulation and, 119f
Segmental mobility testing (Continued) of lumbar vertebrae, 168f, 169t, 171t pain during, 167t posteroanterior, 165t, 166t, 167f, 167t radiographic findings vs., 184t, 185, 185f spinal manipulation as, 189t, 190t Semilunar (trigeminal) ganglion, 26f Semimembranosus bursa, 291f deep to tendon, 287f Semimembranosus muscle, 248t, 249f, 290t, 291f, 294f tendinous expansion of, 287f Semimembranous tendon, 287f, 288f, 347f groove for insertion of, on tibia, 285f Semispinalis capitis muscle, 76t, 77f, 140f, 141f, 142f, 384f Semispinalis cervicis muscle, 76t, 77f Semispinalis thoracis muscle, 142f Semitendinosus muscle, 248t, 249f, 252f, 289f, 290t, 291f, 294f Semitendinosus tendon, 251f, 291f Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments, in sensation testing of fingers and thumb, 492t, 493f of foot and ankle, 369t Sensation testing of cervical spine, 85, 85f, 85t pin prick, for radiculopathy, 66, 86f, 86t of fingers and thumb, 492, 492t, 493f carpal tunnel syndrome identification with, 462, 492, 492t, 502 of foot and ankle, 336 anterolateral ankle impingement detection, 370, 370f, 370t protective, 369, 369f, 369t of lumbosacral spine for radiculopathy, 156, 156t, 157f for spinal stenosis, 157, 158f, 158t of thoracolumbar spine, 132 Sensitivity of diagnostic test, 3, 5-6, 5f, 8, 11t likelihood ratios and, 7, 8t
Sensory ganglion of lumbar spine nerves, 179f of thoracic spine nerves, 145f Sensory innervation of cervical spine, 78t of elbow and forearm, 448t of foot and ankle, 353t of hip and buttocks, 252t of knee, 292t of lumbar spine, 147t of sacroiliac region, 208t of shoulder, 387t of temporomandibular joint, 26t of thoracic spine, 145f, 145t, 147t of wrist and hand, 475t, 476t, 477t Serratus anterior muscle, 145f, 384t, 385f, 388f endurance testing of, 392t strength testing of, 392t Serratus posterior anterior muscle, 140f Serratus posterior inferior muscle, 77f, 139t, 141f Serratus posterior superior muscle, 77f, 139t, 141f Sesamoid bones, 337f, 338f, 344f, 350f, 351f, 352f, 464f lateral, 338f medial, 338f Sever’s disease, 355t Shaking, in wrist and hand, 461-462 patient report of, 478t, 479t Sharp-Purser test, 115, 115f, 115t Shear test. See Posterior shear test. Shoes, heeled, sacroiliac pain aggravated by, 211t Shortened Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand (QuickDASH), in shoulder outcomes, 429t Shoulder, 377-438 arthrology of, 380 integrated movements in, 381, 381f bursitis in, 389t, 397t, 415t-416t subacromial, 415t-416t, 422t clinical summary and recommendations, 378-435 diagnostic utility of examination acromioclavicular lesion tests, 426, 426f, 426t active compression/O’Brien test, 407, 407f, 407t combined with other tests, 427t anterior drawer test, 401, 401f, 401t anterior slide/Kibler test, 409, 409f, 409t
INDEX 549
Shoulder (Continued) apprehension tests, 399-400, 399f, 399t combined with other tests, 378, 427t brachial plexus palsy identification, 425, 425f, 425t combination of tests for labral tears, 427, 427f, 427t for SLAP lesions, 428, 428t for subacromial impingement, 428, 428f, 428t compression rotation test, 404, 404f, 404t Crank test, 403, 403f, 403t Hawkins-Kennedy test, 413, 413f, 413t labral tear tests, 411, 411t-412t, 411f, 427-428 labral tear palpation, 394, 394f, 394t Neer test, 414, 414f, 414t patient history, 389, 389f, 389t pectoralis minor tightness identification, 393, 393f, 393t relocation test, 400, 400f, 400t combined with other tests, 427t Speeds test, 405, 405f, 405t subacromial impingement tests, 415, 415t-416t, 415f, 417, 428 subscapularis muscle tear tests, 423, 423f, 423t supraspinatus/infraspinatus muscle tear tests, 419422, 419f, 422t Yergason test, 408, 408f, 408t dislocations of, 398f, 399t, 401t, 411t-412t disorders of, classification of, 397, 397f, 397t impingement syndrome of, 393t. See also Subacromial impingement. intra-articular pathology of, subacromial impingement vs., 417, 417f ligaments of, 380f, 382, 382t anterior view of, 382f, 383f coronal section, 383f lateral view of, 383f muscle tightness in, 378, 393, 393t muscles of, 384 anterior, 385, 385f, 385t posterior, 384, 384f, 384t 550
Shoulder (Continued) rotator cuff, 386, 386f, 386t nerves of, 387 anterior axilla, 387t, 388f in brachial plexus schema, 425f in neural tension tests, 112t, 114t, 499t osteology of, 379 anterior humerus and scapula, 379f superior and inferior clavicle surface, 379f outcome measures of, 429, 429t palpation of, 394, 394f, 394t patient history and, 378 initial hypotheses based on, 389, 389t physical examination of, 378t protraction of for brachial plexus palsy, 425t in postural assessment, 96t, 106t quality assessment of diagnostic studies of, 430-435, 431t, 433t, 435t range of motion of disorders of, classification based on, 397f, 397t functional tests of, 391, 391f, 391t integrated movements during, 381, 381f measurements of, 378, 390, 390f, 390t pain during, 390t, 391t, 415t416t reliability of examination active compression/O’Brien test, 406, 406f, 406t anterior slide/Kibler test, 409, 409f, 409t classifying disorders of, 397, 397f, 397t Crank test, 402, 402f, 402t Hawkins-Kennedy test, 413, 413f, 413t instability tests, 398, 398f, 398t labral tear tests, 410, 410f, 410t Neer test, 414, 414f, 414t pectoralis minor length determination, 393, 393f, 393t proprioception assessment, 392, 392t ROM functional tests, 391, 391f, 391t ROM measurements, 390, 390f, 390t scapular asymmetry during activity, 395, 395f, 395t
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Shoulder (Continued) strength assessment, 392, 392f, 392t subacromial space palpation, 394, 394f, 394t supraspinatus/infraspinatus muscle tear tests, 418, 418f, 418t scapulohumeral rhythm of, 381, 381f Shoulder abduction/abduction tests for asymmetry assessment, 395t, 396f for carpal tunnel syndrome, 499t for cervical spine pathology, 111, 111f, 111t following cervical traction, 122t, 124t functional assessment of, 391t for instability, 399t, 400t, 401t for labral tear identification, 403t, 404t, 411-412t measurement with, 390f, 390t in scapulohumeral rhythm, 381, 381f Shoulder adduction/adduction tests cross-body, for subacromial impingement identification, 415t-416t horizontal, for subacromial impingement identification, 415t-416t, 416f combined with other tests, 428t for labral tear identification, 394t, 411t-412t measurement with, 390t for muscle assessments, 392t, 393t Shoulder pain during cervical compression test, 108f, 108t disorders classification based on, 397f, 397t with impingement. See Subacromial impingement. with instability, 399t, 400t during muscle length determination, 393t patient history in, 378, 389t during range of motion, 390t, 391t, 415t-416t with scapular asymmetry, 395t during strength assessment, 392t with tears. See Glenoid labral tears; Rotator cuff. Shoulder Pain and Disability Index (SPADI), 429t Shoulder protraction test for brachial plexus palsy, 425t in postural assessment, 96t, 106t
Shoulder separation, 426f Sidebending of cervical spine in carpal tunnel tests, 499t left vs. right, 102f measurements of, 94f, 95t, 96t pain during, 97t, 98f, 102t, 103t in neural tension tests, 112t, 114t, 499t of thoracolumbar spine, 159t, 168f pain during, 161, 161f, 161t Single leg hop for distance, 366t Single leg hop test, 366f, 366t Sinuvertebral nerve, lumbar disc herniation and, 179f Sit to stand test, for pelvic pain, 272t Sitting sacroiliac bony landmarks with, 214t sacroiliac pain relieved by, 211t for slump test, 178f, 178t thoracolumbar pain with, 152t, 153t thoracolumbar spine ROM with, 159t, 168f Sitting flexion test, of sacroiliac joint, 231, 231f, 231t 6-Meter hop for time, 366t Skull lateral, osteology of, 19f posterior, ligaments of, 71f superior nuchal line of, 140f, 141f, 142f temporal lines of, inferior vs. superior, 19f SLAP lesions. See Superior labrum anterior posterior (SLAP) lesions. Slide tests anterior, for glenoid labral tears, 409, 409f, 409t combined with other tests, 427t lateral, for scapular asymmetry, 395t, 396f SLR. See Straight-leg raise (SLR) test. Slump test, 178, 178f, 178t radicular pain with, 132, 178t, 179f Sneezing sacroiliac pain aggravated by, 211t thoracolumbar pain with, 152t Snuff box, tenderness of, 481t, 482f
Soft tissue tenderness, in foot and ankle trauma, 356t Sole cutaneous innervation of, 354f fibularis longus tendon passing to, 346f muscles of, 349-350, 351-352 deep interosseous, 352, 352f, 352t first layer of, 349, 349f, 349t second layer of, 350, 350f, 350t third layer of, 351, 351f, 351t Soleal line, of tibia, 285f Soleus muscle, 291f, 294f, 345t, 346f, 347f, 348f, 354f atrophy of, with herniated lumbar nucleus pulposus, 157f length assessment of, 305t neurological examination of, 156t tendinous arch of, 249f, 347f Space of Poirier, 467f SPADI (Shoulder Pain and Disability Index), 429t Specificity of diagnostic test, 3, 5f, 6, 6f, 8, 11t likelihood ratios and, 7, 8t Speed test for SLAP lesions, 405, 405f, 405t combined with other tests, 428t for subacromial impingement, combined with other tests, 378, 428t Sphenoid bone, 17f, 19f, 67f spine of, 67f Sphenomandibular ligament, 21, 21f Sphenopalatine foramen, 67f Sphygmomanometer cuff, in knee assessment, 304t Spinal artery anterior vs. posterolateral, cervical disc herniation and, 116f compression of, with cervical fractures, 90f Spinal canal. See Vertebral canal. Spinal column. See also Vertebrae; specific segment, e.g., Lumbar spine. nerves of. See Spinal nerves; Spinal nerve entries. pain in. See specific location, e.g., Low back pain. posterior view of, with associated musculature, 207f Spinal cord compression, cervical with disc herniation, 116, 116f, 116t with fractures, 90f
Spinal manipulation cervical, for radiculopathy, 119, 119f, 119t for low back pain, 236, 237f, 237t clinical prediction rule for, 236, 237f Flynn technique for, 190f, 236, 236f lumbosacral, 132, 188t, 189190, 189t, 200 lumbosacral/pelvic, for low back pain, 132, 200 classifications based on, 188t, 189t combined factors of likely benefits, 190, 190f, 190t single factors of likely benefits, 189, 189t sacroiliac joint/region, as pain intervention, 236, 236f, 237f, 237t thoracic, for cervical radiculopathy, 120, 120f, 120t cluster of findings, 121, 121f, 121t neck pain and, 66 Spinal nerve roots avulsions of, in brachial plexus, 378, 425, 425t compression of with cervical disc herniation, 83f with lumbar disc herniation, 157f dorsal ganglion and, 179f with thoracolumbar disc degeneration, 183f rami of. See Rami communicantes. thoracic, dorsal vs. ventral, 145f Spinal nerve trunks in brachial plexus schema, 425f cervical disc herniation and, 116f lumbar, 146f, 148f lumbosacral, 146f, 148f, 209f, 292f, 293f sacroiliac region, 209f thoracic, 145f, 145t, 147t Spinal nerves cervical, 78-79, 78t, 79f anterior vs. posterior divisions of, 79f in brachial plexus schema, 425f cords of, 79f posterior columns of, disc herniation and, 116f terminal branches of, 79f cranial. See Cranial nerve(s).
INDEX 551
Spinal nerves (Continued) groove for on C4, 68f on C7, 68f intervertebral foramina for, 69f lumbar, 146-147, 148 anterior vs. posterior divisions of, 146f, 148f motor. See Motor innervation. sacroiliac region, 207, 208t, 209, 209f anterior vs. posterior divisions of, 209f sensory. See Sensory innervation. thoracic, 145. See also Thoracic nerve. Spinal stenosis. See Lumbar spinal stenosis. Spinalis cervicis muscle, 141f Spinalis thoracis muscle, 141f, 141t Spine. See specific anatomy e.g., Ischial spine. Spinothalamic tract, lateral, cervical disc herniation and, 116f Spinous processes of cervical vertebrae, 69f axis, 68f, 140f, 142f C4, 68f C7, 68f, 71f, 140f, 141f, 142f, 384f tenderness with palpation of, 104t, 105t of lumbar vertebrae, 133f, 136f, 138f in sacroiliac motion assessment, 226t in scoliosis pathology, 164f of thoracic vertebrae, 133f, 138f in shoulder asymmetry assessment, 395t T7, 134f T9, 134f T12, 140f, 141f, 384f in ROM assessment, 160f tenderness with palpation of, 105t of thoracolumbar vertebrae in palpation examination, 172t in passive intervertebral motion examination, 165t, 166t, 167t Spiral fracture, of femur, 277f Splanchnic nerve greater vs. lesser, 145f pelvic, 148f, 208t, 209f sacral, 209f Splenius capitis muscle, 76t, 77f, 140f, 141f, 384f 552
Splenius cervicis muscle, 76t, 77f, 140f, 141f Spondylosis, of cervical spine, 119t Sprains of ACL, degrees of, 315f acromioclavicular joint, 389t cervical, 80t foot and ankle, 355t, 372, 372f hip and pelvis, 254t Spring ligament, 342f, 342t, 343t, 344f, 352f Spring test of cervical spine, posteroanterior, 102t, 103f, 103t of sacroiliac joint, 228, 228f, 228t of thoracolumbar spine, 167t Springing test, of 1st rib, for shoulder ROM, 391t Spur formation, in degenerative disc disease, 183f Spurling’s test(s), 66 combined with other tests, 117, 117t diagnostic utility of, 109f, 109t A and B, 109f, 109t reliability of A and B, 108f, 108t to the right vs. left, 108f, 108t Square-shaped wrist, in carpal tunnel syndrome, 490t Squat test double leg, 370t for hip and pelvis, 244, 255t combined with other tests, 278t pain, 272t deep, 272t for meniscal tears, 323t single leg, 370t Squeeze test, for ankle trauma, 356t, 357f Stability/instability of cervical spine, 80t, 115, 115f, 115t of elbow and forearm, 449t of foot and ankle, 365-366, 365f, 365t, 366f, 366t after sprains, 355t, 372, 372f of hip, 244 of knee, with valgus stress, 316t, 322t of lumbar spine, 149t clinical prediction rule for, 185, 185f dynamic “corset” concept of, 143f radiographic tests for, 184-185, 184t, 185f
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Stability/instability (Continued) segmental tests for, 180, 180t, 181f of patella, 284, 321, 321f, 321t scapulohumeral rhythm and, 381, 381f of shoulder, 389t testing for, 378, 398-399, 400401 of wrist and hand carpal tests for, 500, 500f, 500t patient history in, 478t, 480f Stabilization exercises, lumbar, for low back pain, 132, 191, 191t, 236 classifications based on, 188t Stance calcaneal, relaxed vs. neutral measurement of, 360f, 360t characteristic with hip osteoarthritis, 267f, 267t with pelvic pain, 272t Standing sacroiliac bony landmarks with, 214t, 215f sacroiliac pain relieved by, 211t thoracolumbar pain with, 152t, 153t, 161f, 161t thoracolumbar spine ROM with, 159t, 160f Standing flexion test, of sacroiliac joint, 230, 230f, 230t, 235 Static alignment of foot and ankle, 336 of shoulder, 395, 395t, 396f of thoracolumbar spine, 166t Static pain test, of temporomandibular joint, 48t Statistics, related to diagnostic accuracy, 11-12, 11t population characteristics in, 3, 8 statistical significance, 8 Steinmann test, for meniscal tears, 322t, 323t Stenosis, spinal. See Lumbar spinal stenosis. Step up test, for pelvic pain, 272t Sternal end, of clavicle, 379f Sternal facet, of clavicle, 379f Sternoclavicular joint, 136t, 380f articular cavities of, 380f articular discs of, 380f integrated movements of, 381, 381f Sternoclavicular ligament, 382t anterior, 380f
Sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle, 72f, 72t, 77f, 140f, 385f, 388f clavicular head of, 72f sternal head of, 72f tenderness with palpation of, 104t Sternocostal articulations, 136t anterior view of, 134f Sternocostal joint, 380f Sternocostal ligaments intraclavicular, 134f radiate, 134f, 137t, 380f Sternohyoid muscle, 24f, 72f median, 73f, 74t Sternothyroid muscle, 72f, 73f, 74t Sternum, 73f, 385f body of, 201f manubrium of, 72f Stethoscope, for auscultation, of TMJ, 40f Straight-leg raise (SLR) test for lumbar radiculopathy, 132, 175f cervical flexion for sensitizing, 175f crossed, 132, 177, 177f, 177t diagnostic utility of, 176, 176f, 176t reliability of, 175, 175f, 175t for lumbar segmental instability, 180t, 191t for muscle length assessment, 305t for pelvic pain assessment, 260t, 272t for sciatic pain, 176t Strains, muscle cervical, 80t hamstring, 254t in hip and pelvis, 254t Strength testing. See Muscle strength. Strengthening exercises for cervical spine, 118t, 123t, 124t knee pain and, 326t Stress test adduction, of knee end-feel with, 302t pain during, 303t compression, of foot and ankle, 358f, 358t Stylohyoid ligament, 17f, 67f Stylohyoid muscle, 24f, 24t, 25f, 26f, 72f, 73f, 74t Styloid process, 24f, 67f, 73f, 75f of mandible, 21f of radius, 444f, 463f of ulna, 444f, 463f Stylomandibular ligament, 17f, 21, 21f, 67f Subacromial bursa, 383f, 415t-416t
Subacromial bursitis, 415t-416t, 422t Subacromial impingement combination of tests for, 428, 428t Hawkins-Kennedy test for, 378, 413, 413f intra-articular pathology vs., 417, 417f Neer test for, 378, 414, 414f, 414t patient history in, 389t rotator cuff tears and, 422t testing for, 378 various tests for, 415, 415-416t Subacromial space pain syndrome of, 397t palpation of, 394, 394f, 394t Subclavian artery, 75f, 388f Subclavian groove, of clavicle, 379f Subclavian muscle, groove on clavicle for, 379f Subclavian vein, 75f, 388f Subclavicular dislocation, of shoulder, 398f Subclavius muscle, 380f, 388f nerve to, 78t, 79f Subcoracoid dislocation, of shoulder, 398f Subcostal nerves of lumbar spine, lateral branch of, 148f of thoracic spine, 145f, 145t, 146f, 147t, 148f Subcutaneous bursa infrapatellar, 286f prepatellar, 286f Subdeltoid bursa, 383f Subglenoid dislocation, of shoulder, 398f Sublingual fossa, 18f Sublingual gland, 25f, 26f Sublingual nerve, 26f Subluxations of patella, 295t, 310f of talus, anterior, 372f Submandibular fossa, 18f Submandibular ganglion, 26f Submandibular gland, 72f and duct, 25f, 26f Suboccipital muscles, length assessment of, 107t Suboccipital nerve, 71f, 77f Subpopliteal recess, 288f Subscapular artery, 388f Subscapular fossa, 379f Subscapular nerve lower vs. upper, 78t, 79f, 387t, 388f in brachial plexus schema, 425f middle, 71t, 78t, 79f, 388f in brachial plexus schema, 425f
Subscapularis muscle, 383f, 386f, 386t tears of, 378, 418f, 423, 423t, 424f Subscapularis tendon, 382f, 383f, 386f subtendinous bursa of, openings of, 383f Subtalar joint, 339f, 339t in alignment assessment, 362t, 364t in motion assessment, 367t ROM measurements of, 359t, 360f Subtendinous (deep) bursa of gastrocnemius muscle lateral, 286f, 287f medial, 287f inferior, 289f biceps femoris tendon and, 291f infrapatellar, 286f medial head of, 287f of subscapularis tendon, 383f openings of, 383f of supraspinatus tendon, 382f communications of, 382f of tendocalcaneus, 346f Sulcus sign, of shoulder instability, 398t combined with other tests, 427t Superficial dissection of hip and thigh muscles, 248t of wrist and hand muscles, 470f Superior labrum anterior posterior (SLAP) lesions active compression/O’Brien test for, 406-407, 406f, 406t, 407t combined with other tests, 427t anterior slide/Kibler test for, 409, 409f, 409t combination of tests for, 428, 428t compression rotation test for, 404t palpation of, 394t Speeds test for, 405, 405f, 405t various tests for, 378, 410-411, 410t, 411t-412t Yergason test for, 408, 408f, 408t Superior view of atlas, 68f of C4 vertebra, 68f of C7 vertebra, 68f of cervical disc herniation, 116f of cervical spine ligaments, 70f of costovertebral joints, transverse section, 135f of costovertebral ligaments, transverse section, 137f of mandible, anterolateral, 18f of rotator cuff muscles, 386f of T6 vertebra, 133f
INDEX 553
Supination measurement/tests of elbow, 451, 451f, 451t for cubital tunnel syndrome, 454f, 454t of forearm, for carpal tunnel syndrome, 499t of shoulder, for labral tears, 407t, 408t, 411t-412t of wrist and hand for carpal tunnel syndrome, 498f, 498t median nerve and, 501t for scaphoid fractures, 481t Supinator muscle, 445f, 446f, 447, 447f, 447t, 448f innervation of, 477f Supracondylar fracture, of femur, transverse, 298f Supracondylar ridge, of humerus, medial vs. lateral, 379f, 380f, 441f Supraglenoid tubercle, of scapula, 379f Supraorbital notch (foramen), of frontal bone, 19f Suprapatellar fat body, 286f Suprapatellar synovial bursa, 286f, 288f Suprascapular nerve, 78t, 79f, 386t, 387t, 388f upper vs. lower, 386t Suprascapular notch, 379f, 380f, 382f, 386f Suprascapular tenderness, with palpation, 104t Supraspinatus muscle, 140f, 383f, 384f, 386f, 386t tears of, 418, 418f, 418t, 419-422, 419f, 422t Supraspinatus tendon, 382f, 383f, 386f subtendinous bursa of, 382f communications of, 382f Supraspinatus tests, of rotator cuff tears, 422t Supraspinous fossa, 380f notch connecting, 380f Supraspinous ligament, 206f of cervical spine, 71t of thoracolumbar spine, 138f, 138t Suprasternal space, 72f Sural cutaneous nerve lateral, 294f, 353f, 354f branches of, 348f, 353f, 354f phantom, 353f lateral calcaneal nerve from, 350f medial, 294f, 354f from sciatic nerve, 294f via lateral dorsal cutaneous branch, 353f 554
Sural nerve, 294f, 353t, 354f communicating branches of, 294f cutaneous. See Sural cutaneous nerve. lateral calcaneal branches of, 294f, 347f, 354f muscular branches of, 347f Sustentaculum tali, 337f, 338f, 342f, 344f Swelling in foot and ankle impingement sign with, 370t measurement of, 368, 368f, 368t in trauma screening, 356t in knee patient report of, 295t, 296t, 297t, 300t in trauma screening, 300, 300t in wrist and hand measurement of, 491, 491f, 491t patient report of, 478t, 479t in trauma screening, 482f Sympathetic nerves of lumbar spine, 146f, 148f of sacroiliac region, 209f of thoracic spine, 145f Symphyseal surface, of hip bone, 203f, 245f Synchondrosis of 1st rib, 380f manubriosternal, 380f Syndesmotic ligaments, 356t Synovial bursa, suprapatellar, 286f, 288f Synovial cavities costovertebral, 137f, 380f of thoracic vertebrae, 135f Synovial fold, infrapatellar, 288f Synovial joint, of sternum, 380f Synovial membrane of acetabular fossa, 247f of elbow, 442f of femur line of attachment of, 245f, 285f line of reflection of, 245f, 285f of knee, 286f, 288f protrusion of, in hip, 247t of shoulder, 383f Synovitis, of knee, 324t
T T1 vertebra arthrology of, 69f, 71f in kyphosis, 106t, 163t limited and painful passive motion of, 100t, 101t nerves of, 78t, 79f, 445t, 447t, 471t, 473t, 476t, 477t brachial plexus schema, 425f
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
T1 vertebra (Continued) osteology of, 17f, 67f tenderness with palpation of, 105t in upper limb dermatomes, 85f, 86t T2 vertebra in kyphosis, 106t, 163t nerves of, 79f tenderness with palpation of, 105t in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 151f T3 vertebra in kyphosis, 106t, 163t tenderness with palpation of, 105t in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 151f T4 vertebra in kyphosis, 106t, 163t in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 151f T5 vertebra in kyphosis, 106t, 163t in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 151f T6 vertebra in kyphosis, 106t, 163t osteology of lateral view of, 133f superior view of, 133f in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 151f T7 vertebra arthrology of, 134f in kyphosis, 106t, 163t spinous processes of, 134f in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 151f T8 vertebra arthrology of, 134f in kyphosis, 106t, 163t in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 151f T9 vertebra arthrology of, 134f in kyphosis, 106t, 163t transverse process of, 134f in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 151f T10 vertebra in kyphosis, 106t, 163t in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 151f T11 vertebra osteology of, 201f in zygapophyseal pain referral pattern, 151f T12 vertebra nerves of, 146f, 147t, 148f, 293f osteology of, 201f lateral view of, 133f
T12 vertebra (Continued) spinous process of, 140f, 141f, 384f in ROM assessment, 160f Talar tilt test, for ankle instability, 372, 372f Talocalcaneal ligaments interosseous, 341f, 341t lateral, 341f medial, 342f, 342t posterior, 340f, 340t, 342f Talocalcaneonavicular joint, 339f, 339t Talocrural joint, 339f, 339t Talofibular ligaments anterior, 341f, 341t in physical examination, 356t tears of, 372f posterior, 340f, 340t, 341f, 341t Talonavicular ligament, dorsal, 341f, 341t, 342f Talus, 337f, 340f anterior subluxation of, 372f groove for flexor hallucis longus tendon on, 338f head of, 337f, 338f lateral process of, 337f neck of, 337f, 338f in physical examination, 364t, 372f posterior process of, 337f, 338f, 342f medial and lateral tubercles, 344f trochlea of, 337f, 338f tubercles of, lateral vs. medial, 338f, 344f Tarsal arteries, lateral vs. medial, 348f, 352f Tarsal joint, transverse, 337f, 338f, 339f, 339t Tarsal sinus, 337f, 338f Tarsal tunnel syndrome, 355t Tarsometatarsal joints, 337f, 338f, 339f, 339t Tarsometatarsal ligaments dorsal, 341f, 341t, 342f, 352f plantar, 343t, 344f Tears. See specific anatomy, e.g., Meniscus tears. Tectorial membrane, 70f, 70t deeper (accessory) part of, 70f Temporal artery, posterior deep, groove on temporal bone for, 19f Temporal bone, 17f, 19f, 67f in anterior disc displacement, 32f squamous part of, 19f Temporal fascia, 22f, 26f deep vs. superficial layer of, 22f Temporal fossa, 17f, 67f of parietal bone, 19f
Temporal lines, of parietal bone, inferior vs. superior, 19f Temporal nerve, deep anterior vs. posterior, 26f from mandibular nerve, 22t Temporalis muscle, 22f, 22t, 26f insertion into coronoid process of mandible, 22f in physical examination, 34t, 35f, 36f, 37t, 38t pressure pain threshold of, 38t Temporomandibular joint (TMJ), 15-64 arthrology of, 20 jaw closed, 20, 20f jaw slightly opened, 20f jaw widely opened, 20f clinical summary and recommendations, 16-62 diagnostic utility of examination anterior disc displacement, 4546, 45f, 45t, 46f, 46t with reduction, 54, 54f, 55f, 55t without reduction, 56, 56f, 57f, 57t conditions with clicking, 40, 40f, 40t conditions with crepitus, 41, 41f, 41t conditions with pain during dynamic movements, 50-51, 50f, 50t, 51f, 51t conditions with palpation, 37, 37f, 37t lower extremity measurements, 53, 53f, 53t patient history, 21, 29-30, 29f, 30f pressure pain thresholds, 38, 38f, 38t RDC/TMD diagnoses, 33f, 33t disorders of, diagnostic criteria for, 31-32, 33 dynamic movements of, 16t examination of, 46-47, 48-49, 50-51 interventions for, 16 occlusal stabilization splint as, 58-59, 58f joint sounds in, 16t, 31t examination of, 39-40, 41 ligaments of, 21, 21f muscles of, 22, 35f floor of mouth, 24 involved in mastication, 22, 23f nerves of, 26 mandibular, 26, 26f
Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) (Continued) night occlusal stabilization splint for, 58f predicting failure with, 59, 59f, 59t predicting success with, 58, 58f, 58t osteoarthritis in, 31, 33t, 41t osteology of, 17 head and neck, 17f mandible, 18f skull, 19f outcome measures of, 60 palpation of, 16t, 31t, 34, 36f conditions identified by, 37, 37t extraoral, 34t intraoral, 34t lateral, 35t, 36f, 37t muscle, 34 posterior, 35t, 36f, 37t pressure pain thresholds, 38, 38t regional, 35 tests, 36f patient history and, 16, 27-30 anterior disc displacement, 21, 29 initial hypotheses based on, 27, 27t oral habits, 27 report of pain, 28, 28f, 28t, 30, 30t physical examination of, 16t, 34-59 quality assessment of diagnostic studies, 61-62, 61t, 62t range of motion of, 16t, 31t examination of, 42-43, 43t, 4445 reliability of examination compression test, 52, 52f, 52t joint play and end-feel assessment, 44, 44f, 44t joint sounds during active motion, 39, 39f, 39t joint sounds during joint play, 39, 39t lower extremity measurements, 53, 53f, 53t mandibular opening with different head positions, 44, 44f, 44t mouth opening measurements, 34-59, 42f, 42t, 57t pain during dynamic movements, 47, 47f pain during joint play, 49, 49f, 49t pain during muscle palpation, 34, 34f, 34t
INDEX 555
Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) (Continued) pain during regional palpation, 35, 35f, 35t pain during resistance tests, 48, 48f, 48t patient history, 27-28, 28f, 28t, 30 RDC/TMD diagnoses, 33f, 33t ROM measurements, 43, 43f, 43t Research Diagnostic Criteria for, 31-32, 33 anterior disc displacement, 32f arthrosis, 32f diagnoses list, 31 diagnostic utility of, 33f, 33t examination procedures, 31t reliability of, 33f, 33t Temporomandibular ligament, 21, 21f Temporomandibular pain diagnostic criteria for, 31 during dynamic movements, 47 conditions identified by, 50-51 joint play and, 49 resistance tests, 48 myofascial, 31 diagnostic criteria for, 33t during palpation, 34 patient report of, 28, 30, 30t rating scales for, 28f, 28t, 60t Tenderness. See Pain; specific anatomy, e.g., Joint line tenderness. Tendocalcaneus, subtendinous bursa of, 346f Tendonitis, of shoulder, 389t, 422t Tendons of foot and ankle, 337f, 340f, 341f, 342f, 344f, 346f, 347f ruptures of, 355t in sole, 348f, 349f, 350f, 351f of knee, 249f, 285f, 286f, 287f, 288f, 289f, 291f of lateral hip, identifying pathology of, 266-267, 266t, 267t of leg, 347f of neck, 24f, 25f, 72f, 73f of sacroiliac region, 206f of shoulder, 382f, 383f, 388f of temporomandibular joint, 24f, 24t, 25f, 34t of thigh, 251f of thoracolumbar spine, 141f, 142f of wrist and hand, 448f, 465f, 467f, 469f, 470f, 471f, 472f, 473f, 474f, 501t 556
Tennis elbow grip strength with, 452, 452t mobilization interventions for, 456, 456t patient history in, 449t patient-rated evaluation of, 457t Tenosynovitis, in wrist and hand, 462, 495t, 497t, 498t Tension tests, neural. See Upper limb tension tests (ULTTs). Tensor fasciae latae muscle, 250t, 251f, 252f, 253f Tensor fasciae latae myofascial pain, 172t Tensor tympani muscle, 26f Tensor tympani nerve, 26f Tensor veli palatini muscle, 23f, 26f Tensor veli palatini nerve, 26f Teres major muscle, 140f, 384f, 386t, 388f Teres minor muscle, 140f, 384f, 386f, 386t tears of, 422t Teres minor tendon, 383f, 386f Test(s)/testing. See specific test or under specific anatomy, disorder, or component. Tethered median nerve test, 501t Thenar eminence in carpal compression test, 498t impact of fall on, 482f Thenar muscles, innervation of, 474f, 475f, 476f Thessaly test, of knee, 284 for meniscal tears, 320, 320f Thigh ligaments of, 253f muscles of, 248 anterior, 250, 250t, 251f posterior, 248, 248t, 249f nerves of, 208t, 249f cutaneous localization of, 292f, 293f, 294f lateral cutaneous, 146f, 147t, 148f, 252f, 252t, 253f, 292f, 293f posterior cutaneous, 148f, 252f, 252t, 294f perineal branches of, 294f Thigh pain with herniated lumbar nucleus pulposus, 157f in hip examination, 274t knee interventions and, 326t as lumbar zygapophyseal joint pain referral, 149t, 150f patient report of, 254t, 255t
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Thigh thrust test, 200, 217, 221f combined with other tests, 233t, 235 diagnostic utility of, 217f, 217t for pelvic pain, 260t, 272t reliability of, 217f, 217t Thomas test, 305t for hip flexor contracture, 269, 269f, 269t modified, 269t Thoracic artery, superior, 388f Thoracic manipulation, for cervical radiculopathy, 120, 120f, 120t cluster of findings, 121, 121f, 121t neck pain and, 66 Thoracic nerve collateral branch of, 145f rejoining intercostal nerve, 145f communicating branch of, 145f cutaneous branches of anterior, 145f lateral, 145f dorsal vs. ventral root of, 145f long, 71t, 78t, 79f, 387t, 388f in brachial plexus schema, 425f meningeal branch of, 145f sensory ganglion of, 145f subcostal branches of, 145f, 145t, 146f, 147t, 148f Thoracic outlet syndrome, 389t Thoracic spine arthrology of, 134 1st, 136t 2nd-7th, 136t joint classifications, 136t fascia of, 140f, 141f, 144 kyphosis of, 163t postural assessment for, 106f, 106t, 163t ligaments of, 134f, 135f, 137 costovertebral, 137, 137f, 137t thoracolumbar, 138, 138f, 138t muscles of, 139 nerves of, 145. See also Thoracic nerve. osteology of, 133f in relation to temporomandibular joint, 17f pain in. See Thoracolumbar pain. scoliosis of, 163t, 164f Thoracic vertebrae. See also specific vertebra, e.g., T4 vertebra. articular facets of inferior, 133f, 138f superior, 133f, 134f articular processes of, inferior vs. superior, 133f, 134f, 138f
Thoracic vertebrae (Continued) spinous processes of, 133f, 138f in palpation examination, 172t in shoulder asymmetry assessment, 395t of T7, 134f of T9, 134f of T12, 140f, 141f tenderness with palpation of, 105t transverse process of, 133f, 134f, 137f, 138f Thoracoacromial artery, 388f acromial branch of, 388f clavicular branch of, 388f deltoid branch of, 385f, 388f pectoral branch of, 388f Thoracodorsal artery, 388f Thoracodorsal nerve, 71t, 78t, 79f, 388f in brachial plexus schema, 425f Thoracolumbar fascia, 140f, 141f, 144 anterior layer of, 142f, 144 middle layer of, 144 pain in, palpation identification of, 172t posterior layer of, 142f, 144, 144f stabilizing force of, 144, 144f superficial, 144, 144f Thoracolumbar joints, 136t Thoracolumbar pain, 132 discogenic, 149t, 179f interventions for, 132 during motion/mobility assessments, 161, 161f, 161t, 167t patient report of, 149, 149t, 150f, 151f, 152t physical examination for, 132, 161, 161f, 161t provocative tests for, 161, 161f, 161t, 167t zygapophyseal syndromes of, 149, 149t, 151 Dreyfuss description of, 151f Fukui description of, 150f, 151f Thoracolumbar spine, 131-208 arthrology of, 134, 136 clinical summary and recommendations, 132-194 degenerative disc disease in, 183f diagnostic utility of examination ankylosing spondylitis tests, 149, 186f, 186t instability tests, 184-185, 184f, 184t, 185f neurological examination, 156157, 156f, 156t, 158f, 158t
Thoracolumbar spine (Continued) passive intervertebral motion assessment, 169, 169f, 171, 171f patient history, 153-154, 153f, 154f, 184t slump test, 178, 178f, 178t, 179f stenosis tests, 182, 182f, 182t fascia of. See Thoracolumbar fascia. interventions for, 132 low back pain classification based on, 187t, 188, 188t spinal manipulation as, 00013#, 189-190. See also Lumbosacral/pelvic manipulation; Thoracic manipulation. stabilization exercises as, 132, 188t, 191, 191t, 236 ligaments of, 137-138, 138f, 138t costovertebral, 135f, 137, 137f, 137t sternocostal, 134f muscles of, 139 anterior abdominal wall, 143 deep layer of, 142 intermediate layer of, 141 superficial layers of, 139 nerves of lumbar, 146-147, 148 thoracic, 145. See also Thoracic nerve. ossification of, in ankylosing spondylitis, 155f osteology of, 133 lumbar vertebrae, 133f thoracic vertebrae, 133f outcome measures of, 192, 192t patient history and, 132, 149-154, 152t, 184t ankylosing spondylitis identification with, 154, 154t, 155f initial hypotheses based on, 149, 149t radiculopathy identification with, 154, 154t report of pain, 149, 149t, 150f, 151f spinal stenosis identification with, 153, 153t physical examination of, 132t, 156-191 quality assessment of diagnostic studies, 193-194, 194t range of motion of, 132 in low back pain classifications, 187t
Thoracolumbar spine (Continued) measurements of, 159, 159f, 159t, 160f pain during, 149t, 152t, 161, 161f, 161t reliability of examination instability tests, 180, 180f, 180t low back pain classifications, 187, 187f, 187t pain provocation, 161, 161f, 161t palpation of segmental levels, 172, 172f, 172t palpation of tenderness, 172, 172f, 172t passive intervertebral motion assessment, 165, 165f, 166f, 167, 167f patient history, 152, 152f, 152t postural assessment, 163, 163f, 163t ROM measurements, 159, 159f, 159t, 160f slump test, 178, 178f, 178t strength and endurance assessment, 162, 162f, 162t Thoracolumbar vertebrae. See also Lumbar vertebrae; Thoracic vertebrae. anterior segments of, posterior view of, 138f posterior segments of, anterior view of, 138f segmental level identification in, palpation for, 172, 172f, 172t segmental mobility identification in, palpation for, 166t, 168f, 169t, 170f, 171f, 171t Thrust tests. See Sacral thrust test; Thigh thrust test. Thumb articular cascade of, 467f compression tests of for carpal tunnel syndrome, 501t for scaphoid fractures, 481t extensor muscles of, 470f ROM measurements of, 462, 486, 486f, 486t strength testing of, 488f, 489, 489t Thumb pad, sensation testing of, 492, 492t, 493f carpal tunnel syndrome identification with, 462, 492, 492t, 502 Thyrohyoid membrane, 73f Thyrohyoid muscle, 24f, 72f, 73f, 74t
INDEX 557
Thyroid cartilage, 17f, 67f, 72f, 73f oblique line of, 73f Thyroid gland, 72f, 73f Tibia in ankle joint, 340f, 341f, 342f, 348f anterior border of, 285f condyles of lateral, 285f, 346f medial, 285f, 287f, 288f, 289f groove for semimembranous tendon insertion on, 285f intercondylar area of, anterior vs. posterior, 285f intercondylar eminence of, 285f intercondylar tubercle of, lateral vs. medial, 285f in knee joint, 286f, 287f lateral surface of, 285f oblique line of, 285f, 289f osteology of, 285f in physical examination of foot and ankle, 356t, 358t, 372f of knee, 310f, 310t, 311f, 311t, 315f, 317f, 318f, 318t tuberosity of, 251f, 285f, 286f, 288f, 289f, 291f, 346f Tibial arteries anterior, 347f, 348f posterior, 347f, 350f medial calcaneal branches of, 347f, 349f posterior medial malleolar branch of, 347f recurrent, 347f Tibial collateral ligament, 287f, 288f, 288t, 289f, 347f deep part bound to medial meniscus, 288f oblique fibers, 291f parallel fibers, 291f rupture of, 297f superficial vs. deep parts, 288f Tibial nerve, 148f, 209f, 249f, 290t, 294f, 345t, 347f, 347t, 353, 354f anterior view of, 353t, 354f articular branch of, 294f, 354f deep branch to interosseous muscles, 354f dividing, 350f lateral plantar nerve from, 354f medial calcaneal branches of, 294f, 347f, 349f, 354f medial plantar nerve from, 354f posterior view of, 353f, 353t superficial branch to 4th interosseous muscle, 354f 558
Tibialis anterior muscle, 289f, 291f, 345t, 346f, 348f, 353f Tibialis anterior tendon, 342f, 344f, 348f, 352f in physical examination, 368t Tibialis posterior muscle, 347f, 347t, 354f Tibialis posterior tendon, 342f, 344f, 347f, 350f, 351f, 352f Tibiofemoral joint, 286t tenderness of, medial vs. lateral, 312t Tibiofibular joint distal, 339t proximal, 286t Tibiofibular ligaments anterior, 341f, 341t posterior, 340f, 340t, 341f Tinel’s sign in elbow and forearm, 440, 454f, 454t in shoulder, 425t in wrist and hand, 462, 494-495, 494t, 495t Tinel’s tests, A and B, for carpal tunnel syndrome, 494t, 495t Tingling. See Paresthesias. Tip pinch strength, 488f, 489t TMJ. See Temporomandibular joint (TMJ). Toe strength, plantarflexion, 336, 361, 361f, 361t Toes lateral deviation of, 369f ulcer on, 369f Tongue, 35f Torque, reproduction of, in balance assessment, 365t Torsion, innominate, of sacroiliac region, 200, 227t, 229t, 230t, 231t Trachea, 17f, 67f, 72f, 73f Traction, mechanical for cervical radiculopathy. See Cervical traction, for radiculopathy. for low back pain, classifications based on, 188t Traction tests of cervical spine, 110, 110f, 110t of temporomandibular joint, 39t, 44t, 49f, 49t Translation test of lumbar spine, 184t of mandible, 39t, 44f, 44t, 45t, 49t Transverse diameter, of pelvic inlet, 204f Transverse fracture, of femur, 277f
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Transverse ligaments of acetabulum, 247f of atlas, 68f, 70f, 70t posterior articular facet for, 69f posterior articular facet of axis for, 68f of knee, 288f, 288t of metatarsal, deep, 343t, 344f, 352f Transverse process(es) of cervical vertebrae, 68f, 71f, 75f, 142f of coccyx, 202f of lumbar vertebra(e), 133f, 136f, 138f, 201f, 246f L5, as sacroiliac bony landmark, 214t of thoracic vertebrae, 133f, 134f, 137f, 138f Transverse section of costovertebral joints, superior view of, 135f of costovertebral ligaments, superior view of, 137f Transversus abdominis muscle, 143f, 143t, 145f, 146f tendon of origin of, 141f, 142f thoracolumbar fascia attachment to, 144, 144f Trapezium, 463f, 464f, 465f, 468f, 469f in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f in scaphoid fractures, 482f tubercle of, 463f, 464f, 467f Trapezius muscles, 72f, 73f, 77f, 145f, 384f, 384t, 385f, 388f lower, 139t, 384f, 384t middle, 139t, 140f, 384f, 384t strength testing of, 392t upper, 76t, 77f, 140f, 384f, 384t, 385f length assessment of, 107t Trapezoid, 463f, 464f, 465f, 468f in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f in scaphoid fractures, 482f Trapezoid ligament, 382f, 382t, 386f Trapezoid line, of clavicle, 379f Trauma. See also specific injury, e.g., Fractures. cervical spine, 80t testing for, 85t elbow and forearm, 451t, 453t foot and ankle ligament sprains as, 355t, 372, 372f patient report of, 355t screening for, 356, 358
Trauma (Continued) knee patient report of, 295f, 295t, 296t, 297t, 300t screening for, 298-299, 322t sacroiliac, 210f shoulder, 389t, 395t, 399t, 401t acromioclavicular mechanisms of, 426f wrist and hand grip strength and, 489t screening for, 481-483, 481t, 482f, 483f Treadmill test, two-stage, for lumbar spinal stenosis, 132, 182t Treatment threshold, 2, 10, 10f Trendelenburg test diagnostic utility of, 267, 267f, 267t for hip and pelvis pathology, 244 for lumbar segmental instability, 180t reliability of, 267, 267f, 267t Triangle of auscultation, in shoulder, 384t Triceps brachii muscle, 388f lateral head of, 384f, 385f, 445t long head of, 384f, 445t manual testing of, 87f for cervical radiculopathy, 88t medial head of, 445t muscle stretch reflex testing of, 89f for cervical radiculopathy, 89t Triceps brachii tendon, 443f, 445f Trigeminal (semilunar) ganglion, 26f Trigger finger, 478t Triple hop for distance, 366t Tripod pinch strength, 488f, 489t Triquetrum, 463f, 464f, 465f, 468f in scaphoid fractures, 482f Trochanteric fossa, 245f Trochanteric region, lumbar zygapophyseal joint pain and, 150f Trochanters, of femur greater, 201f, 245f, 246f, 247f, 249f, 251f, 252f bursitis of, 254t pathology of, 254t, 267t, 275t tenderness over, 267t lesser, 201f, 245f, 246f, 247f tenderness with palpation, 273t Trochlea of humerus, 379f, 380f, 441f of talus, 337f, 338f Trochlear notch, of ulna, 441f, 444f True-negative result/rate, 3-4, 4t, 6, 11t
True-positive result/rate, 3-4, 4t, 5, 11t Trunk alignment of, in scoliosis, 164f neural. See Spinal nerve trunks. Tubercles. See also specific anatomy, e.g., Gerdy’s tubercle. articular. See Articular tubercles. of cervical vertebrae, 68f. See also specific vertebra. anterior, 68f, 71f posterior, 68f, 141f, 142f Tuberosities. See specific anatomy, e.g., Ischial spine. Tuning fork test, for foot and ankle injury, 336, 358t 2 ⫻ 2 contingency table, 3, 4t, 11t likelihood ratios and, 7, 8t Two-point discrimination test, moving, for carpal tunnel syndrome, 492t, 493f Tympanic cavity, 26f
U UEFS. See Upper Extremity Functional Scale (UEFS). Ulcers/ulcerations due to vasculitis, 369f on toes, 369f Ulna anterior border of, 444f anterior surface of, 444f coronoid process of, 441f, 444f, 472f deviation tests of, 484t, 485f, 500t distal, fractures of, in children, 483f in elbow joint, 441f, 442f, 442t, 443f extension vs. flexion, 441f interosseous border of, 444f ligaments of, 443f, 443t, 444f muscles of, 445f, 446f, 447f, 470f, 471f, 472f, 473f, 474f nerves of, 448f, 448t olecranon of, 441f, 445f, 470f subcutaneous bursa of, 443f radial notch of, 441f styloid process of, 444f, 463f, 501t trochlear notch of, 441f, 444f tuberosity of, 441f, 444f in wrist joint, 463f, 465f, 467f, 468f Ulnar artery, 446f, 448f, 467f, 474f anterior recurrent, 446f, 448f in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f deep palmar branch of, 446f, 448f, 467f, 474f palmar carpal branch of, 448f, 474f posterior recurrent, 445f, 448f
Ulnar bursa, in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f Ulnar collateral branches, of brachial artery, superior vs. inferior (posterior), 445f Ulnar collateral ligament, 443f, 443t, 466t, 467f, 468f Ulnar fovea sign, 462, 501f, 501t Ulnar nerve, 78t, 79f, 387t, 388f, 445f, 446f, 448f, 448t, 467f, 471t, 474f, 476, 476t anterior vs. posterior view of, 476f articular branch of, 476f in brachial plexus schema, 425f, 475f in carpal tunnel syndrome, 480f communicating branch of, 475f, 476f compression at canal of Guyon, 478t, 480f in cubital tunnel syndrome, 454t deep branch of, 446f, 448f, 467f, 473t, 476f palmar, 474f division between radial nerve on dorsal hand, 493f dorsal branch of, 446f, 448f, 476f, 493f dorsal digital branches of, 476f, 493f to flexor digitorum profundus muscle, 475f groove on humerus for, 380f, 441f inconstant spinal contributions to, 476f palmar branch of, 446f, 476f palmar digital branches of, 493f superficial branch of, 446f, 476f Ulnocarpal ligament dorsal, 468f palmar, 466t, 467f ulnolunate vs. ulnotriquetral portion of, 466t, 467f Ulnolunate portion, of palmar ulnocarpal ligament, 466t, 467f Ulnotriquetral ligament, 466t, 467f foveal disruption of, 462, 501f, 501t Ultrasound of rotator cuff tears, 422t, 423t of tenosynovitis, in wrist and hand, 495t, 497t, 498t ULTT. See Upper limb tension tests (ULTTs). Uncus (uncinate process), 69f Upper crossed postural syndrome, 80t
INDEX 559
Upper extremity. See also specific anatomy, e.g., Forearm/ arm. dermatomes of anterior vs. posterior view of, 85f in cervical radiculopathy testing, 86f, 86t manual muscle testing of, 87f, 87t for cervical radiculopathy, 66, 88f, 88t nerves to, cervical disc herniation and, 116f pain in, with cervical compression test, 108f, 108t paresthesias of with brachial plexus palsy, 425t with neck pain, 66, 80t, 82t, 83f, 83t, 84t patient report of, 66, 80t, 82t, 83f, 83t, 84t during ROM, 97t reflex tests of, 66 for cervical radiculopathy, 66, 89f, 89t Upper Extremity Functional Scale (UEFS) in elbow and forearm outcomes, 457t in shoulder outcomes, 429t in wrist and hand outcomes, 503t Upper limb tension tests (ULTTs) for carpal tunnel syndrome A, 499, 499f, 499t B, 499, 499t for cervical radiculopathy A, 66, 112t, 113f, 114t combined with other tests, 117, 117t following cervical traction, 122t, 124t B, 112t, 113f, 114t diagnostic utility of, 114, 114f, 114t reliability of, 112, 112f, 112t
V Valgus alignment, forefoot, in predicting success of patellofemoral pain interventions, 325f, 325t Valgus extension overload syndrome, 449t Valgus stress test of elbow, 440, 455t moving, 440, 455f, 455t of forefoot, 364, 364f of knee, 284, 316f 560
Valgus stress test (Continued) diagnostic utility of, 316, 316f, 316t, 322t reliability of, 316, 316t MCL ruptures/tears and, 297f, 316t, 322t Varus stress test of elbow, 440 of forefoot, 364, 364f, 364t of knee, 284, 316f diagnostic utility of, 316, 316f, 316t reliability of, 316 Vasculitis, foot ulcerations due to, 369f Vastus intermedius muscle, 251f, 253f, 289f, 289t, 293f Vastus lateralis muscle, 251f, 253f, 289f, 289t, 291f, 293f, 346f Vastus medialis muscle, 251f, 253f, 289f, 289t, 291f, 293f Veins. See also Named vein, e.g., Jugular vein. of hip and pelvis, 249f, 253f of neck, 72f, 73f, 75f of shoulder, 385f, 388f Verbal scale, for rating pain, 28t Vertebra prominens, 71f Vertebrae. See also specific segment, e.g., Thoracic vertebrae. bony framework of cervical, 17f lumbar, 133f sacral, 201f, 202f, 246f thoracic, 17f facets of. See Articular facets; Costal facets. in kyphosis pathology, 119t, 121t, 163t processes of. See Articular processes; Spinous processes; Transverse process(es). in scoliosis pathology, 164f Vertebral artery, 71f atlantic part of, 77f groove on atlas for, 68f Vertebral body(ies) cervical, 68f, 71f fractures of, 90f lumbar, 133f, 136f, 138f in scoliosis pathology, 164f thoracic, 133f posterior surface of, 138f Vertebral canal lumbar, 136f in scoliosis pathology, 164f thoracic, 134f
Netter’s Orthopaedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence-Based Approach
Vertebral foramen of cervical vertebrae, transverse, 68f of lumbar vertebrae, 133f of thoracic vertebrae, 133f Vertebral notch of lumbar vertebrae, inferior vs. superior, 136f of thoracic vertebrae, inferior vs. superior, 133f Vibration testing of lumbar spine, 156t, 158t of thoracolumbar spine, 132 Vigorimeter, for grip strength testing, 487t Visual analog scale, for rating pain, 28f, 28t Visual estimation of cervical spine ROM, 96t of knee ROM, 301t of lumbar lordosis, 186t of shoulder ROM, 390t Visual inspection, of knee combined with other tests, in diagnosing pathology, 324t for inflammation, 300t Volar plate, of palmar ligament, 469f, 469t Volumetric assessment of ankle joint swelling, 368t of wrist and hand swelling, 491t
W Wainner’s diagnostic test item cluster, for cervical radiculopathy interventions, 118t Walking. See also Gait. sacroiliac pain relieved by, 211t thoracolumbar pain with, 152t, 153t Water volumetrics. See Volumetric assessment. Weakness. See Muscle strength. Weight-bearing activities foot and ankle disorders with alignment measurements for, 362t, 363t dynamic motion in, 367t patient report of, 355t ROM measurements for, 360f trauma screening of, 356t, 358t windlass test in, 371, 371f, 371t knee disorders with patient report of, 297t trauma screening of, 298f, 299t, 322t in Windlass test, vs. non–weight bearing, 371, 371f, 371t
Weight-bearing activities (Continued) Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC), 327t in hip and pelvis outcomes, 279t Whipple test, for glenoid labral tears, 411t-412t Windlass test, weight bearing vs. non–weight bearing, 371, 371f, 371t Wing. See Ala (wing). Wrist and hand, 461-507 arthrology of, 465 clinical summary and recommendations, 462-505 diagnostic utility of examination carpal instability identification, 500, 500f, 500t carpal tunnel syndrome identification, 489, 489f, 489t anthropometry measurements, 490, 490f, 490t compression test, 498, 498f, 498t Phalen’s test, 497, 497f, 497t sensation testing, 492, 492f, 492t special tests, 501, 501f, 501t Tinel’s sign, 495, 495f, 495t upper limb tension tests, 499, 499f, 499t fracture screening, 481-483, 481f, 481t patient history, 479, 479f, 479t fractures of in children, 483, 483f screening for, 462, 481-483, 481t, 482f ligaments of, 466-469 metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal, 469, 469f, 469t palmar, 466, 466t, 467f posterior, 468, 468f, 468t muscles of, 470-473 extensor, 470, 470f, 470t flexor, 471, 471f, 471t, 472f intrinsic, 473, 473f, 473t, 474f
Wrist and hand (Continued) nerves of, 475-477 cutaneous, 493f median, 475, 475f, 475t radial, 477, 477f, 477t ulnar, 476, 476f, 476t in neural tension tests, for cervical radiculopathy, 112t, 114t, 499t osteology of, 463, 464f carpal bones, 463f outcome measures of, 503, 503t pain in. See Hand and wrist pain. patient history and, 462, 478-479 initial hypotheses based on, 478, 478t physical examination of, 462t, 481-502 quality assessment of diagnostic accuracy studies, 504505, 504t, 505t reliability of examination anthropometry measurements, 490, 490f, 490t carpal compression test, 498, 498f, 498t patient history, 478, 478f, 478t Phalen’s test, 496, 496f, 496t ROM measurements, 462 finger and thumb, 486, 486f, 486t wrist, 484, 484f, 484t sensory testing, 492, 492f, 492t special tests for carpal tunnel, 501, 501f, 501t strength testing fingers and thumb, 489, 489f, 489t wrist, 487-489, 487f, 487t swelling assessment, 491, 491f, 491t Tinel’s sign, 494, 494f, 494t upper limb tension tests, 499, 499f, 499t Wrist joint, 465, 465f, 465t anthropometry measurements of, 490, 490t carpal tunnel syndrome identification with, 490, 490f, 490t
Wrist joint (Continued) articular disc of, 465f, 467f meniscus of, 465f ROM measurements of, 484, 484f, 484t, 485f strength testing of, 487-489, 487f, 487t superficial capsular tissue of, 468f Wrist ratio index, in carpal tunnel syndrome, 490t, 502
X Xiphoid process, 134f, 201f X-rays. See Radiography.
Y Y ligament of Bigelow, 247f Yergason test, for shoulder pain, 408, 408f, 408t combined with other tests, 378, 428t Yocum test, for subacromial impingement, 415-416t, 416f
Z Zona orbicularis, 247f Zygapophyseal joints capsule of cervical, 70f, 71f, 138f thoracolumbar, 138f cervical spine, 69f, 71f limited movement in, 66 tenderness with palpation of, 104t thoracolumbar, 136t Zygapophyseal pain referral pattern/ syndrome in cervical spine, 66, 80, 82t Cooper description of, 81f diagnostic nerve block for, 103t Dwyer description of, 80f in thoracolumbar spine, 149, 149t, 151 Dreyfuss description of, 151f Fukui description of, 150f, 151f Zygomatic arch, 17f, 19f, 22f, 67f Zygomatic bone, 19f Zygomatic process, of temporal bone, 19f Zygomaticus major muscle, 22f Zygomaticus minor muscle, 22f
INDEX 561
