MTEL Middle School 50
Humanities
Teacher Certification Exam
By: Sharon Wynne, M.S Southern Connecticut State University
XAMonline, INC. Boston
Copyright © 2007 XAMonline, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrievable system, without written permission from the copyright holder. To obtain permission(s) to use the material from this work for any purpose including workshops or seminars, please submit a written request to:
XAMonline, Inc. 21 Orient Ave. Melrose, MA 02176 Toll Free 1-800-509-4128 Email:
[email protected] Web www.xamonline.com Fax: 1-781-662-9268 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wynne, Sharon A. Middle School Humanities 50: Teacher Certification / Sharon A. Wynne. -2nd ed. ISBN 978-1-60787-842-1 1. Middle School Humanities 50. 2. Study Guides. 3. MTEL 4. Teachers’ Certification & Licensure. 5. Careers
Disclaimer: The opinions expressed in this publication are the sole works of XAMonline and were created independently from the National Education Association, Educational Testing Service, or any State Department of Education, National Evaluation Systems or other testing affiliates. Between the time of publication and printing, state specific standards as well as testing formats and website information may change that is not included in part or in whole within this product. Sample test questions are developed by XAMonline and reflect similar content as on real tests; however, they are not former tests. XAMonline assembles content that aligns with state standards but makes no claims nor guarantees teacher candidates a passing score. Numerical scores are determined by testing companies such as NES or ETS and then are compared with individual state standards. A passing score varies from state to state. Printed in the United States of America
MTEL: Middle School Humanities 50
ISBN: 978-1-60787-842-1
œ-1
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE
Table of Contents DOMAIN I.
LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE
COMPETENCY 1.0
UNDERSTAND THE CHARACTERISTICS AND ELEMENTS OF VARIOUS GENRES AND TYPES OF LITERATURE, INCLUDING LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN AND YOUNG ADULTS ................................ 1
Skill 1.1
Identify characteristics of major literary genres ............................. 1
Skill 1.2
Identify elements of fiction .............................................................. 2
Skill 1.3
Identify genres of fiction .................................................................. 6
Skill 1.4
Identify types of fiction and their characteristics ............................. 7
Skill 1.5
Identify genres of nonfiction and their characteristic elements and structures ........................................................................................ 9
Skill 1.6
Distinguish genres of drama and their characteristic elements and structures ...................................................................................... 10
Skill 1.7
Identify genres of poetry and their characteristic elements and structures ...................................................................................... 11
Skill 1.8
Distinguish types of patterned lyric poetry .................................... 16
Skill 1.9
Understand characteristics of literature for children and young adults ........................................................................................... 18
Skill 1.10
Identify literary devices and ways in which they contribute to meaning and style ...................................................................... 25
COMPETENCY 2.0
UNDERSTAND AMERICAN LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE FROM THE PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD TO THE PRESENT .............................................................. 29
Skill 2.1
Understand myths and legends of indigenous peoples of North America ....................................................................................... 29
Skill 2.2
Identify characteristics of major movements, periods, and various ethnic literary traditions in American literature .............................. 31
Skill 2.3
Identify significant genres and themes in American literature ....... 37
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
i
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 2.4
Identify changes in literary forms and styles ................................ 43
Skill 2.5
Identify major American authors and representative works, and the significance of these works in the development of American literature from the colonial period to the present ......................................... 45
Skill 2.6
Understand how the structure and use of American English have changed ........................................................................................ 46
COMPETENCY 3.0
UNDERSTAND WORLD LITERATURE FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE PRESENT, INCLUDING BRITISH LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE ................................... 48
Skill 3.1
Identify characteristics and significance of world mythology, folk literature, and traditional narratives .............................................. 48
Skill 3.2
Identify major literary forms, works, and movements in British and other world literature .................................................................... 50
Skill 3.3
Identify significant genres and themes in world literature ............. 57
Skill 3.4
Identify major authors and representative works and their significance in the development of British and other world literature ...................................................................................................... 58
Skill 3.5
Understand the evolution of English language structure and use ...................................................................................................... 62
DOMAIN II.
READING, RHETORIC, AND COMPOSITION
COMPETENCY 4.0
UNDERSTAND RESEARCH-BASED THEORIES OF THE READING PROCESS AND EFFECTIVE METHODS OF READING INSTRUCTION AND ASSESSMENT ........... 65
Skill 4.1
Understand structural features of language ................................. 65
Skill 4.2
Identify research-based theories relating to the reading process ...................................................................................................... 67
Skill 4.3
Utilize vocabulary skills and strategies ......................................... 71
Skill 4.4
Assess a reader's literal, inferential, and evaluative comprehension of literary and expository texts ...................................................... 72
Skill 4.5
Assess a reader's use of metacognitive techniques to monitor reading comprehension ............................................................... 76
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
ii
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 4.6
Assess a reader's application of comprehension strategies before, during, and after reading .............................................................. 77
Skill 4.7
Apply research-based instructional strategies to promote development of particular reading skills ........................................ 80
Skill 4.8
Apply principles for planning, managing, and differentiating reading instruction to support students' reading development ................... 82
Skill 4.9
Understand the adjustment of reading instruction based on ongoing assessment .................................................................................. 83
Skill 4.10
Utilize instructional technologies to promote students' reading development ................................................................................. 84
COMPETENCY 5.0 UNDERSTAND PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC AND USES OF LANGUAGE AS THEY APPLY TO VARIOUS FORMS AND PURPOSES OF ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION ............................................................ 86 Skill 5.1
Understand general principles of classical rhetoric ...................... 86
Skill 5.2
Identify structural devices ............................................................. 88
Skill 5.3
Understand application of modern rhetorical principles ................ 89
Skill 5.4
Apply strategies for writing or speaking effectively for a variety of audiences, purposes, and contexts .............................................. 90
Skill 5.5
Identify use of appropriate arrangement and organization, style and tone, and form of delivery ............................................................. 93
COMPETENCY 6.0 UNDERSTAND THE COMPOSITION PROCESS AND THE CONVENTIONS OF STANDARD, WRITTEN AMERICAN ENGLISH ........................................................................... 95 Skill 6.1
Identify distinguishing features of various forms of writing ............ 95
Skill 6.2
Identify processes for generating and developing written texts .. 102
Skill 6.3
Identify techniques for gathering, analyzing, and evaluating information .................................................................................. 109
Skill 6.4
Understand effective sentence, paragraph, and essay development .................................................................................................... 110
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
iii
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 6.5
Apply techniques for improving text organization ....................... 112
Skill 6.6
Understand selection of appropriate details to support an argument or opinion .................................................................................... 115
Skill 6.7
Apply use of appropriate rhetorical, logical, and stylistic criteria for assessing written work; revising written texts to improve clarity and economy of expression ............................................................... 117
Skill 6.8
Understand accurate use and effective application of written language conventions ................................................................. 121
Skill 6.9
Understand techniques for editing written texts to achieve conformity with conventions of standard American English usage .................................................................................................... 130
Sample Test: English Middle Level .............................................................. 133 Answer Key: English Middle Level ................................................................ 144 Rationales with Sample Questions: English Middle Level .......................... 145 DOMAIN III.
HISTORY
COMPETENCY 7.0
UNDERSTAND THE CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY HUMAN SOCIETIES AND MAJOR ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS FROM PREHISTORY TO A.D. 500 ........................................................................ 170
Skill 7.1
Understand human origins and prehistory .................................. 170
Skill 7.2
Identify political, economic, religious, and cultural characteristics of the early civilizations of Egypt, the Middle East, India, and China .................................................................................................... 172
Skill 7.3
Understand fundamental ideas and beliefs of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism ....................................................................... 176
Skill 7.4
Examine origins, central teachings, and legacies of Judaism ..... 178
Skill 7.5
Understand institutions, culture, and legacies of Greek civilization .................................................................................................... 179
Skill 7.6
Have knowledge of Alexander the Great and the spread of Greek culture ......................................................................................... 180
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
iv
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 7.7
Examine institutions, culture, and legacies of the Roman Republic and Empire ................................................................................. 181
Skill 7.8
Understand origins, central teachings, and spread of Christianity .................................................................................................... 182
Skill 7.9
Understand the decline and fall of the Roman Empire ............... 182
Skill 7.10
Identify the rise and achievements of Byzantine civilization ....... 184
Skill 7.11
Understand the relationship of Greek and Roman political concepts to modern government ............................................................... 185
COMPETENCY 8.0
UNDERSTAND MAJOR POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS THAT SHAPED THE COURSE OF WORLD HISTORY DURING THE GROWTH OF AGRICULTURAL AND COMMERCIAL CIVILIZATIONS FROM 500 - 1500 ..... 187
Skill 8.1
Examine the emergence, central teachings, and expansion of Islam .................................................................................................... 187
Skill 8.2
Identify characteristics of the trans-African slave trade to the Middle East ................................................................................. 191
Skill 8.3
Identify characteristics, components, central figures, and events of early European civilization .......................................................... 192
Skill 8.4
Have knowledge of European feudalism and manorialism ......... 193
Skill 8.5
Understand European government, society, and culture in the High Middle Ages ................................................................................ 194
Skill 8.6
Identify origins, course, and consequences of the Crusades ..... 195
Skill 8.7
Understand the rise of the Ottoman Empire ............................... 196
Skill 8.8
Understand the decline of Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula .................................................................................................... 196
Skill 8.9
Identify political, economic, and cultural developments in the major civilizations of Asia, Africa, and the Americas ............................ 197
Skill 8.10
Examine interactions among European, Islamic, and Asian societies...................................................................... 202
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
v
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 9.0
UNDERSTAND MAJOR POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS THAT SHAPED THE COURSE OF WORLD HISTORY FROM 1500 TO THE PRESENT .............................................. 205
Skill 9.1
Have knowledge of the European Renaissance and Reformation .................................................................................................... 205
Skill 9.2
Identify causes and consequences of European expansion and exploration .................................................................................. 208
Skill 9.3
Identify characteristics of the transatlantic slave trade ............... 210
Skill 9.4
Understand the rise and decline of the Ottoman Empire ............ 211
Skill 9.5
Identify absolute monarchies and constitutional governments in Europe .................................................................................... 213
Skill 9.6
Understand the scientific revolution and the Enlightenment ....... 214
Skill 9.7
Understand the origins, stages, and consequences of the American and French Revolutions .............................................................. 216
Skill 9.8
Understand causes and consequences of the agricultural and industrial revolutions ................................................................... 217
Skill 9.9
Have knowledge of European nationalism and the new imperialism .................................................................................................... 220
Skill 9.10
Identify causes, course, and consequences of World War I ....... 221
Skill 9.11
Have knowledge of the Russian Revolution ............................... 223
Skill 9.12
Examine the Great Depression and the rise of fascism ............... 225
Skill 9.13
Identify origins, events, and results of World War II .................... 226
Skill 9.14
Identify characteristics of contemporary Islamic societies .......... 228
Skill 9.15
Understand the collapse of the Soviet Union .............................. 229
Skill 9.16
Understand globalization ............................................................ 231
Skill 9.17
Examine the emergence of world terrorism ................................ 233
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
vi
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 10.0 UNDERSTAND THE CAUSES AND COURSE OF EUROPEAN EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA; THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLONIAL SOCIETIES; AND MAJOR POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, CULTURAL, AND DIPLOMATIC DEVELOPMENTS IN US SOCIETY THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 ........................................................................ 234 Skill 10.1
Identify political, economic, and cultural features of Native American societies ..................................................................... 234
Skill 10.2
Identify political, religious, and economic motives of European explorers and colonizers ............................................................. 236
Skill 10.3
Examine coexistence and conflict between Europeans and Native Americans .................................................................................. 238
Skill 10.4
Have knowledge of early settlements in North America ............. 238
Skill 10.5
Understand early Massachusetts settlement .............................. 240
Skill 10.6
Examine importation of Africans and the emergence of slavery .................................................................................................... 241
Skill 10.7
Understand labor and family life across classes, races, and regions of colonial America ..................................................................... 242
Skill 10.8
Identify major causes, events, and turning points of the American Revolution .................................................................................. 243
Skill 10.9
Examine debates over the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution ................................................................................ 245
Skill 10.10
Understand politics and government in the new nation .............. 247
Skill 10.11
Have knowledge of expansion and conflict in the early Republic .................................................................................................... 249
COMPETENCY 11.0 UNDERSTAND MAJOR POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, CULTURAL, AND DIPLOMATIC DEVELOPMENTS IN US SOCIETY FROM 1815 THROUGH THE CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION .................. 253 Skill 11.1
Understand Jacksonian democracy and the rise of popular politics .................................................................................................... 253
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
vii
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 11.2
Examine social and political change in antebellum America ...... 254
Skill 11.3
Understand developments in transportation and industry ........... 255
Skill 11.4
Understand differences between the northern and southern economic systems ...................................................................... 258
Skill 11.5
Examine Irish immigration and nativist hostility .......................... 259
Skill 11.6
Identify key events and issues related to westward migration .... 260
Skill 11.7
Have knowledge of slave life and resistance in the American South ......................................................................... 261
Skill 11.8
Identify issues and events leading to the secession crisis .......... 262
Skill 11.9
Identify significant leaders, turning points, and consequences of the Civil War, North and South ......................................................... 263
Skill 11.10
Identify achievements and failures of Reconstruction ................. 266
Skill 11.11
Have knowledge of the Compromise of 1877 ............................. 268
COMPETENCY 12.0 UNDERSTAND MAJOR POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, CULTURAL, AND DIPLOMATIC DEVELOPMENTS IN US SOCIETY FROM 1877 TO THE PRESENT ........................................................................ 269 Skill 12.1
Identify causes and consequences of industrial expansion ........ 269
Skill 12.2
Understand Populism and Progressivism ................................... 272
Skill 12.3
Examine the emergence of the United States as a world power .................................................................................................... 273
Skill 12.4
Identify major cultural, social, and economic developments of the 1920s .......................................................................................... 276
Skill 12.5
Identify causes of the Great Depression ..................................... 279
Skill 12.6
Examine Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal ..................... 279
Skill 12.7
Identify key events and consequences of U.S. participation in World War II ............................................................................... 283
Skill 12.8
Have knowledge of the Cold War at home and abroad .............. 284
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
viii
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 12.9
Examine the revival of political liberalism ................................... 285
Skill 12.10
Have knowledge of the civil rights and women's movements ..... 286
Skill 12.11
Examine Ronald Reagan and the growth of conservatism ......... 289
Skill 12.12
Understand the changing face of America .................................. 290
DOMAIN IV.
GEOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT, AND ECONOMICS
COMPETENCY 13.0 UNDERSTAND MAJOR PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL FEATURES OF THE WORLD AND THE EFFECTS OF GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN SOCIETIES ............................................... 291 Skill 13.1
Distinguish the shape, location, and relationships among major land masses and bodies of water ....................................................... 291
Skill 13.2
Identify major political units and divisions ................................... 297
Skill 13.3
Utilize application of basic geographic terms and concepts ....... 298
Skill 13.4
Identify characteristics and uses of basic geographic sources .... 302
Skill 13.5
Apply the use of maps to obtain data for solving locational problems and to answer questions, infer relationships, and analyze spatial change .................................................................................................... 304
Skill 13.6
Identify the influence of geographic factors on patterns of human settlement, major historical events, and patterns of economic activity ........................................................................................ 310
COMPETENCY 14.0 UNDERSTAND THE CHARACTERISTICS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT, AND THE STRUCTURE AND OPERATION OF THE US POLITICAL SYSTEM ............ 316 Skill 14.1
Identify central concepts and purposes of the Declaration of Independence and the US Constitution ...................................... 316
Skill 14.2
Identify other key documents of US government ........................ 319
Skill 14.3
Understand the structure and functions of government at the local, state, and national levels ............................................................ 319
Skill 14.4
Identify elements and operation of the US electoral system ....... 325
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
ix
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 14.5
Distinguish the role of political parties and interest groups ......... 328
Skill 14.6
Understand ways citizens participate in and influence the political process ....................................................................................... 331
Skill 14.7
Understand the rights and responsibilities of US citizenship ...... 332
COMPETENCY 15.0 UNDERSTAND FUNDAMENTAL ECONOMIC CONCEPTS, THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR ECONOMIC SYSTEMS, AND THE ORGANIZATION AND OPERATION OF THE US ECONOMIC SYSTEM ........ 333 Skill 15.1
Understand basic economic concepts ........................................ 333
Skill 15.2
Distinguish types of economic systems ...................................... 334
Skill 15.3
Understand historical development of the US economy ............. 335
Skill 15.4
Identify fundamental principles and characteristics of the US economic system ........................................................................ 336
Skill 15.5
Identify components of the US economy .................................... 338
Skill 15.6
Understand the role of government in the US economy ............. 340
Skill 15.7
Identify factors influencing the activities of American producers and consumers in international markets ............................................ 341
DOMAIN V.
INTEGRATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF ENGLISH
COMPETENCY 16.0 PREPARE AN ORGANIZED, DEVELOPED ANALYSIS ON A TOPIC RELATED TO LITERATURE, LANGUAGE, READING, RHETORIC, AND/OR COMPOSITION ...... 344 Sample Essay ................................................................................................. 344
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
x
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE DOMAIN VI.
INTEGRATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF HISTORY
COMPETENCY 17.0 PREPARE AN ORGANIZED, DEVELOPED ANALYSIS ON A TOPIC RELATED TO HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT, AND/OR ECONOMICS ..................... 348 Sample Essay ................................................................................................. 348 Bibliography ................................................................................................... 350 Sample Test: Social Studies .......................................................................... 352 Answer Key: Social Studies ........................................................................... 361 Rationales with Sample Questions: Social Studies ..................................... 362
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
xi
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Great Study and Testing Tips! What to study in order to prepare for the subject assessments is the focus of this study guide but equally important is how you study. You can increase your chances of truly mastering the information by taking some simple, but effective steps. Study Tips: 1. Some foods aid the learning process. Foods such as milk, nuts, seeds, rice, and oats help your study efforts by releasing natural memory enhancers called CCKs (cholecystokinin) composed of tryptophan, choline, and phenylalanine. All of these chemicals enhance the neurotransmitters associated with memory. Before studying, try a light, protein-rich meal of eggs, turkey, and fish. All of these foods release the memory enhancing chemicals. The better the connections, the more you comprehend. Likewise, before you take a test, stick to a light snack of energy boosting and relaxing foods. A glass of milk, a piece of fruit, or some peanuts all release various memory-boosting chemicals and help you to relax and focus on the subject at hand. 2. Learn to take great notes. A by-product of our modern culture is that we have grown accustomed to getting our information in short doses (i.e. TV news sound bites or USA Today style newspaper articles.) Consequently, we’ve subconsciously trained ourselves to assimilate information better in neat little packages. If your notes are scrawled all over the paper, it fragments the flow of the information. Strive for clarity. Newspapers use a standard format to achieve clarity. Your notes can be much clearer through use of proper formatting. A very effective format is called the “Cornell Method.” Take a sheet of loose-leaf lined notebook paper and draw a line all the way down the paper about 1-2” from the left-hand edge. Draw another line across the width of the paper about 1-2” up from the bottom. Repeat this process on the reverse side of the page. Look at the highly effective result. You have ample room for notes, a left hand margin for special emphasis items or inserting supplementary data from the textbook, a large area at the bottom for a brief summary, and a little rectangular space for just about anything you want. 3. Get the concept then the details. Too often we focus on the details and don’t gather an understanding of the concept. However, if you simply memorize only dates, places, or names, you may well miss the whole point of the subject.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
xii
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE A key way to understand things is to put them in your own words. If you are working from a textbook, automatically summarize each paragraph in your mind. If you are outlining text, don’t simply copy the author’s words. Rephrase them in your own words. You remember your own thoughts and words much better than someone else’s, and subconsciously tend to associate the important details to the core concepts. 4. Ask Why? Pull apart written material paragraph by paragraph and don’t forget the captions under the illustrations. Example: If the heading is “Stream Erosion”, flip it around to read “Why do streams erode?” Then answer the questions. If you train your mind to think in a series of questions and answers, not only will you learn more, but it also helps to lessen the test anxiety because you are used to answering questions. 5. Read for reinforcement and future needs. Even if you only have 10 minutes, put your notes or a book in your hand. Your mind is similar to a computer; you have to input data in order to have it processed. By reading, you are creating the neural connections for future retrieval. The more times you read something, the more you reinforce the learning of ideas. Even if you don’t fully understand something on the first pass, your mind stores much of the material for later recall. 6. Relax to learn so go into exile. Our bodies respond to an inner clock called biorhythms. Burning the midnight oil works well for some people, but not everyone. If possible, set aside a particular place to study that is free of distractions. Shut off the television, cell phone, and pager, and exile your friends and family during your study period. If you really are bothered by silence, try background music. Light classical music at a low volume has been shown to aid in concentration over other types. Music that evokes pleasant emotions without lyrics are highly suggested. Try just about anything by Mozart. It relaxes you. 7. Use arrows not highlighters. At best, it’s difficult to read a page full of yellow, pink, blue, and green streaks. Try staring at a neon sign for a while and you’ll soon see my point, the horde of colors obscure the message.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
xiii
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE A quick note, a brief dash of color, an underline, and an arrow pointing to a particular passage is much clearer than a horde of highlighted words. 8. Budget your study time. Although you shouldn’t ignore any of the material, allocate your available study time in the same ratio that topics may appear on the test.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
xiv
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Testing Tips: 1. Get smart, play dumb. Don’t read anything into the question. Don’t make an assumption that the test writer is looking for something else than what is asked. Stick to the question as written and don’t read extra things into it. 2. Read the question and all the choices twice before answering the question. You may miss something by not carefully reading, and then rereading both the question and the answers. If you really don’t have a clue as to the right answer, leave it blank on the first time through. Go on to the other questions, as they may provide a clue as to how to answer the skipped questions. If later on, you still can’t answer the skipped ones . . . Guess. The only penalty for guessing is that you might get it wrong. Only one thing is certain; if you don’t put anything down, you will get it wrong! 3. Turn the question into a statement. Look at the way the questions are worded. The syntax of the question usually provides a clue. Does it seem more familiar as a statement rather than as a question? Does it sound strange? By turning a question into a statement, you may be able to spot if an answer sounds right, and it may also trigger memories of material you have read. 4. Look for hidden clues. It’s actually very difficult to compose multiple-foil (choice) questions without giving away part of the answer in the options presented. In most multiple-choice questions you can often readily eliminate one or two of the potential answers. This leaves you with only two real possibilities and automatically your odds go to Fifty-Fifty for very little work. 5. Trust your instincts. For every fact that you have read, you subconsciously retain something of that knowledge. On questions that you aren’t really certain about, go with your basic instincts. Your first impression on how to answer a question is usually correct. 6. Mark your answers directly on the test booklet. Don’t bother trying to fill in the optical scan sheet on the first pass through the test. Just be very careful not to miss-mark your answers when you eventually transcribe them to the scan sheet. 7. Watch the clock! You have a set amount of time to answer the questions. Don’t get bogged down trying to answer a single question at the expense of 10 questions you can more readily answer.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
xv
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE DOMAIN I.
LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE
COMPETENCY 1.0
Skill 1.1
UNDERSTAND THE CHARACTERISTICS AND ELEMENTS OF VARIOUS GENRES AND TYPES OF LITERATURE, INCLUDING LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN AND YOUNG ADULTS
Identify characteristics of major literary genres.
The major literary genres include allegory, ballad, drama, epic, epistle, essay, fable, novel, poem, romance, and the short story. Allegory: A story in verse or prose with characters representing virtues and vices. There are two meanings, symbolic and literal. John Bunyan's The Pilgrim’s Progress is the most renowned of this genre. Ballad: An in medias res story told or sung, usually in verse and accompanied by music. Literary devices found in ballads include the refrain, or repeated section, and incremental repetition, or anaphora, for effect. Earliest forms were anonymous folk ballads. Later forms include Coleridge's Romantic masterpiece, “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.” Drama: Plays – comedy, modern, or tragedy - typically in five acts. Traditionalists and neoclassicists adhere to Aristotle's unities of time, place and action. Plot development is advanced via dialogue. Literary devices include asides, soliloquies and the chorus representing public opinion. Greatest of all dramatists/playwrights is William Shakespeare. Other dramaturges include Ibsen, Williams, Miller, Shaw, Stoppard, Racine, Moliére, Sophocles, Aeschylus, Euripides, and Aristophanes. Epic: Long poem usually of book length reflecting values inherent in the generative society. Epic devices include an invocation to a Muse for inspiration, purpose for writing, universal setting, protagonist and antagonist who possess supernatural strength and acumen, and interventions of a God or the gods. Understandably, there are very few epics: Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Virgil's Aeneid, Milton's Paradise Lost, Spenser's The Fairie Queene, Barrett Browning's Aurora Leigh, and Pope's mock-epic, The Rape of the Lock. Epistle: A letter that is not always originally intended for public distribution, but due to the fame of the sender and/or recipient, becomes public domain. Paul wrote epistles that were later placed in the Bible. Essay: Typically a limited length prose work focusing on a topic and propounding a definite point of view and authoritative tone. Great essayists include Carlyle, Lamb, DeQuincy, Emerson, and Montaigne, who is credited with defining this genre.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
1
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Fable: Terse tale offering up a moral or exemplum. Chaucer's “The Nun’s Priest’s Tale” is a fine example of a bete fabliau or beast fable in which animals speak and act characteristically human, illustrating human foibles. Legend: A traditional narrative or collection of related narratives, popularly regarded as historically factual but actually a mixture of fact and fiction. Myth: Stories that are more or less universally shared within a culture to explain its history and traditions. Novel: The longest form of fictional prose containing a variety of characterizations, settings, local color and regionalism. Most have complex plots, expanded description, and attention to detail. Some of the great novelists include Austin, the Brontes, Twain, Tolstoy, Hugo, Hardy, Dickens, Hawthorne, Forster, and Flaubert. Poem: The only requirement is rhythm. Sub-genres include fixed types of literature such as the sonnet, elegy, ode, pastoral, and villanelle. Unfixed types of literature include blank verse and dramatic monologue. Romance: A highly imaginative tale set in a fantastical realm dealing with the conflicts between heroes, villains and/or monsters. “The Knight’s Tale” from Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and Keats’ “The Eve of St. Agnes” are prime representatives. Short Story: Typically a terse narrative, with less developmental background about characters which may include description, author's point of view, and tone. Poe emphasized that a successful short story should create one focused impact. Considered to be great short story writers are Hemingway, Faulkner, Twain, Joyce, Shirley Jackson, Flannery O'Connor, de Maupasssant, Saki, Edgar Allen Poe, and Pushkin. Skill 1.2
Identify elements of fiction.
Essential terminology and literary devices germane to literary analysis include alliteration, allusion, antithesis, aphorism, apostrophe, assonance, blank verse, caesura, conceit, connotation, consonance, couplet, denotation, diction, epiphany, exposition, figurative language, free verse, hyperbole, iambic pentameter, inversion, irony, kenning, metaphor, metaphysical poetry, metonymy, motif, onomatopoeia, octava rima, oxymoron, paradox, parallelism personification, quatrain, scansion, simile, soliloquy, Spenserian stanza, synecdoche, terza rima, tone, and wit. The more basic terms and devices, such as alliteration, allusion, analogy, aside, assonance, atmosphere, climax, consonance, denouement, elegy, foil, foreshadowing, metaphor, simile, setting, symbol, and theme are defined and exemplified in the English 5-9 Study Guide.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
2
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Antithesis: Balanced writing about conflicting ideas, usually expressed in sentence form. Some examples are expanding from the center, shedding old habits, and searching never finding. Aphorism: A focused, succinct expression about life from a sagacious viewpoint. Writings by Ben Franklin, Sir Francis Bacon, and Alexander Pope contain many aphorisms. “Whatever is begun in anger ends in shame” is an aphorism. Apostrophe: Literary device of addressing an absent or dead person, an abstract idea, or an inanimate object. Sonneteers, such as Sir Thomas Wyatt, John Keats, and William Wordsworth, address the moon, stars, and the dead Milton. For example, in William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Mark Antony addresses the corpse of Caesar in the speech that begins: “O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth, That I am meek and gentle with these butchers! Thou art the ruins of the noblest man That ever lived in the tide of times. Woe to the hand that shed this costly blood!” Blank Verse: Poetry written in iambic pentameter but unrhymed. Works by Shakespeare and Milton are epitomes of blank verse. Milton’s Paradise Lost states, “Illumine, what is low raise and support, That to the highth of this great argument I may assert Eternal Providence And justify the ways of God to men.” Caesura: A pause, usually signaled by punctuation, in a line of poetry. The earliest usage occurs in Beowulf, the first English epic dating from the Anglo-Saxon era. 'To err is human, // to forgive, divine' (Pope). Conceit: A comparison, usually in verse, between seemingly disparate objects or concepts. John Donne's metaphysical poetry contains many clever conceits. For instance, Donne's "The Flea" (1633) compares a flea bite to the act of love; and in "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning" (1633) separated lovers are likened to the legs of a compass, the leg drawing the circle eventually returning home to "the fixed foot." Connotation: The ripple effect surrounding the implications and associations of a given word, distinct from the denotative, or literal meaning. For example, “Good night, sweet prince, and flights of angels sing thee to thy rest,” refers to a burial. Consonance: The repeated usage of similar consonant sounds, most often used in poetry. “Sally sat sifting seashells by the seashore” is a familiar example. Couplet: Two rhyming lines of poetry. Shakespeare's sonnets end in heroic couplets written in iambic pentameter. Pope is also a master of the couplet. His Rape of the Lock is written entirely in heroic couplets.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
3
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Denotation: What a word literally means, as opposed to its connotative meaning. For example, “Good night, sweet prince, and flights of angels sing thee to thy rest” refers to sleep. Diction: The right word in the right spot for the right purpose. The hallmark of a great writer is precise, unusual, and memorable diction. Epiphany: The moment when the proverbial light bulb goes off in one's head and comprehension sets in. Exposition: Fill-in or background information about characters meant to clarify and add to the narrative; the initial plot element which precedes the buildup of conflict. Figurative Language: Not meant in a literal sense, but to be interpreted through symbolism. Figurative language is made up of such literary devices as hyperbole, metonymy, synecdoche, and oxymoron. A synecdoche is a figure of speech in which the word for part of something is used to mean the whole; for example, "sail" for "boat," or vice versa. Free Verse: Poetry that does not have any predictable meter or patterning. Margaret Atwood, E. E. Cummings, and Ted Hughes write in this form. Hyperbole: Exaggeration for a specific effect. For example, "I’m so hungry that I could eat a million of these." Iambic Pentameter: The two elements in a set five-foot line of poetry. An iamb is two syllables, unaccented and accented, per foot or measure. Pentameter means five feet of these iambs per line or ten syllables. Inversion: A typical sentence order to create a given effect or interest. Bacon’s and Milton's work use inversion successfully. Emily Dickinson was fond of arranging words outside of their familiar order. For example in "Chartless" she writes "Yet know I how the heather looks" and "Yet certain am I of the spot." Instead of saying "Yet I know" and "Yet I am certain" she reverses the usual order and shifts the emphasis to the more important words. Irony: An unexpected disparity between what is written or stated and what is really meant or implied by the author. Verbal, situational, and dramatic are the three literary ironies. Verbal irony is when an author says one thing and means something else. Dramatic irony is when an audience perceives something that a character in the literature does not know. Irony of situation is a discrepancy between the expected result and actual results. Shakespeare's plays contain numerous and highly effective use of irony. O. Henry’s short stories have ironic endings.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
4
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Kenning: Another way to describe a person, place, or thing so as to avoid prosaic repetition. The earliest examples can be found in Anglo-Saxon literature such as Beowulf and "The Seafarer." Instead of writing King Hrothgar, the anonymous monk wrote, great Ring-Giver, or Father of his people. A lake becomes the swans' way, and the ocean or sea becomes the great whale's way. In ancient Greek literature, this device was called an “epithet.” Metaphysical Poetry: Verse characterization by ingenious wit, unparalleled imagery, and clever conceits. The greatest metaphysical poet is John Donne. Henry Vaughn and other 17th century British poets contributed to this movement as in Words, “I saw eternity the other night, like a great being of pure and endless light.” Metonymy: Use of an object or idea closely identified with another object or idea to represent the second. "Hit the books" means "go study." Washington, D.C. means the U.S. government and the White House means the U.S. President. Motif: A key, oft-repeated phrase, name, or idea in a literary work. Dorset/Wessex in Hardy's novels and the moors and the harsh weather in the Bronte sisters’ novels are effective use of motifs. Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet represents the illfated young lovers’ motif. Onomatopoeia: Word used to evoke the sound in its meaning. The early Batman series used pow, zap, whop, zonk and eek in an onomatopoetic way. Octavo rima: A specific eight-line stanza of poetry whose rhyme scheme is abababcc. Lord Byron's mock epic, Don Juan, is written in this poetic way. Oxymoron: A contradictory form of speech, such as jumbo shrimp, unkindly kind, or singer John Mellencamp's "It hurts so good." Paradox: Seemingly untrue statement, which when examined more closely proves to be true. John Donne's sonnet "Death Be Not Proud" postulates that death shall die and humans will triumph over death, at first thought not true, but ultimately explained and proven in this sonnet. Parallelism: A type of close repetition of clauses or phrases that emphasize key topics or ideas in writing. The psalms in the King James Version of the Bible contain many examples. Personification: Giving human characteristics to inanimate objects or concepts. Great writers, with few exceptions, are masters of this literary device. Quatrain: A poetic stanza composed of four lines. A Shakespearean or Elizabethan sonnet is made up of three quatrains and ends with a heroic couplet.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
5
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Scansion: The two-part analysis of a poetic line. Count the number of syllables per line and determine where the accents fall. Divide the line into metric feet. Name the meter by the type and number of feet. Much is written about scanning poetry. Try not to inundate your students with this jargon; rather allow them to feel the power of the poets’ words, ideas, and images instead. Soliloquy: A highlighted speech, in drama, usually delivered by a major character expounding on the author's philosophy or expressing, at times, universal truths. This is done with the character alone on the stage. Spenserian Stanza: Invented by Sir Edmund Spenser for usage in The Fairie Queene, his epic poem honoring Queen Elizabeth I. Each stanza consists of nine lines, eight in iambic parameter. The ninth line, called an alexandrine, has two extra syllables or one additional foot. Sprung Rhythm: Invented and used extensively by the poet, Gerard Manley Hopkins, consisting of variable meter which combines stressed and unstressed syllables fashioned by the author. See "Pied Beauty" or "God's Grandeur." Stream of Consciousness: A style of writing which reflects the mental processes of the characters expressing, at times, memories, feelings, and dreams. "Big time players" in this type of expression are James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and William Faulkner. Terza Rima: A series of poetic stanzas utilizing the recurrent rhyme scheme of aba, bcb, cdc, ded, and so forth. The second-generation Romantic poets - Keats, Byron, Shelley, and, to a lesser degree, Yeats - used this Italian verse form, especially in their odes. Dante used this stanza in The Divine Comedy. Tone: The discernible attitude inherent in an author's work regarding the subject, readership, or characters. Swift's or Pope's tone is satirical. Boswell's tone toward Johnson is admiring. Wit: Writing of genius, keenness, and sagacity expressed through clever use of language. Alexander Pope and the Augustans wrote about and were themselves said to possess wit. Skill 1.3
Identify genres of fiction.
See Skill 1.1.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
6
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 1.4
Identify types of fiction and their characteristics.
Fiction is the opposite of fact, and, simple as that may seem, it’s the major distinction between fictional works and nonfictional works. The earliest nonfiction came in the form of cave-paintings, the record of what prehistoric man caught on hunting trips. On the other hand, we don’t know that some of it might be fiction— that is, what they would like to catch on future hunting trips. Cuneiform inscriptions, which hold the earliest writings are probably nonfiction, conveying goods such as oxen and barley and dealing with the buying and selling of these items. It’s easy to assume that nonfiction, then, is pretty boring, since it simply serves the purpose of recording everyday facts. Fiction, on the other hand, is the result of imagination and is recorded for the purpose of entertainment. If a work of nonfiction endures beyond its original time, it tends to be viewed as either exceptionally well made or perfectly embodying the ideas, manners, and attitudes of the time when it was produced. Some (not all) types of nonfiction: • Almanac • Autobiography • Biography • Blueprint • Book report • Diary • Dictionary • Documentary film • Encyclopedia • Essay • History • Journal • Letter • Philosophy • Science book • Textbook • User manual These can also be called genres of nonfiction—divisions of a particular art according to criteria particular to that form. How these divisions are formed is vague. There are actually no fixed boundaries for either fiction or nonfiction. They are formed by sets of conventions and many works cross into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
7
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Some genres of fiction (not all): • • • • • • • • • • •
Action-adventure Crime Detective Erotica Fantasy Horror Mystery Romance Science fiction Thriller Western
A bildungsroman (from the German) means “novel of education” or “novel of formation” and is a novel that traces the spiritual, moral, psychological, or social development and growth of the main character from childhood to maturity. Dickens’ David Copperfield (1850) represents this genre as does Thomas Wolfe’s Look Homeward Angel (1929). A work of fiction typically has a central character, called the protagonist, and a character that stands in opposition, called the antagonist. The antagonist might be something other than a person. In Stephen Crane’s short story, The Open Boat, for example, the antagonist is a hostile environment, a stormy sea. Conflicts between protagonist and antagonist are typical of a work of fiction, and climax is the point at which those conflicts are resolved. The plot has to do with the form or shape that the conflicts take as they move toward resolution. A fiction writer artistically uses devices labeled characterization to reveal character. Characterization can depend on dialogue, description, or the attitude or attitudes of one or more characters toward another. Enjoying fiction depends upon the ability of the reader to suspend belief, to some extent. The reader makes a deal with the writer that for the time it takes to read the story, his/her own belief will be put aside, replaced by the convictions and reality that the writer has written into the story. This is not true in nonfiction. The writer of nonfiction declares in the choice of that genre that the work is reliably based upon reality. The MLA Style Manual, for instance, can be relied upon because it is not the result of someone’s imagination.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
8
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 1.5
Identify genres of nonfiction and their characteristic elements and structures.
Biography: A form of nonfictional literature, the subject of which is the life of an individual. The earliest biographical writings were probably funeral speeches and inscriptions, usually praising the life and example of the deceased. Early biographies evolved from these and were almost invariably uncritical, even distorted, and always laudatory. Beginning in the 18th century, this form of literature saw major development; an eminent example is James Boswell’s Life of Johnson, which is very detailed and even records conversations. Eventually, the antithesis of the grossly exaggerated tomes praising an individual, usually a person of circumstance, developed. This form is denunciatory, debunking, and often inflammatory. A famous modern example is Lytton Strachey’s Eminent Victorians (1918). Autobiography: A form of biography, but it is written by the subject himself or herself. Autobiographies can range from the very formal to intimate writings made during one’s life that were not intended for publication. These include letters, diaries, journals, memoirs, and reminiscences. Autobiography, generally speaking, began in the 15th century; one of the first examples is one written in England by Margery Kempe. There are four kinds of autobiography: thematic, religious, intellectual, and fictionalized. Some “novels” may be thinly disguised autobiographies, such as the novels of Thomas Wolfe. Informational books and articles: Make up much of the reading of modern Americans. Magazines began to be popular in the 19th century in this country, and while many of the contributors to those publications intended to influence the political/social/religious convictions of their readers, many also simply intended to pass on information. A book or article whose purpose is simply to be informative, that is, not to persuade, is called exposition (adjectival form: expository). An example of an expository book is the MLA Style Manual. The writers do not intend to persuade their readers to use the recommended stylistic features in their writing; they are simply making them available in case a reader needs such a guide. Articles in magazines such as Time may be persuasive in purpose, such as Joe Klein’s regular column, but for the most part they are expository, giving information that television coverage of a news story might not have time to include.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
9
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Newspaper accounts of events: Expository in nature, of course, a reporting of a happening. That happening might be a school board meeting, an automobile accident that sent several people to a hospital and accounted for the death of a passenger, or the election of the mayor. They are not intended to be persuasive although the bias of a reporter or of an editor must be factored in. A newspapers’ editorial stance is often openly declared, and it may be reflected in such things as news reports. Reporters are expected to be unbiased in their coverage and most of them will defend their disinterest fiercely, but what a writer sees in an event is inevitably shaped to some extent by the writer’s beliefs and experiences. Skill 1.6
Distinguish genres of drama and their characteristic elements and structures.
Comedy: The comedic form of dramatic literature is meant to amuse, and often ends happily. It uses techniques such as satire or parody, and can take many forms, from farce to burlesque. Examples include Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy, Noel Coward’s play Private Lives, and some of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and William Shakespeare's plays. Tragedy: Tragedy is comedy’s other half. It is defined as a work of drama written in either prose or poetry, telling the story of a brave, noble hero who, because of some tragic character flaw, brings ruin upon himself. It is characterized by serious, poetic language that evokes pity and fear. In modern times, dramatists have tried to update its image by drawing its main characters from the middle class and showing their nobility through their nature instead of their standing. The classic example of tragedy is Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, while Henrik Ibsen and Arthur Miller epitomize modern tragedy. Drama: In its most general sense, a drama is any work that is designed to be performed by actors onstage. It can also refer to the broad literary genre that includes comedy and tragedy. Contemporary usage, however, denotes drama as a work that treats serious subjects and themes but does not aim for the same grandeur as tragedy. Drama usually deals with characters of a less stately nature than tragedy. A classical example is Sophocles' tragedy Oedipus Rex, while Eugene O'Neill's The Iceman Cometh represents modern drama. Dramatic Monologue: A dramatic monologue is a speech given by an actor, usually intended for themselves, but with the intended audience in mind. It reveals key aspects of the character’s psyche and sheds insight on the situation at hand. The audience takes the part of the silent listener, passing judgment and giving sympathy at the same time. This form was invented and used predominantly by Victorian poet Robert Browning.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
10
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE
Tempo Interpretation of dialogue must be connected to motivation and detail. During this time, the director is also concerned with pace and seeks a variation of tempo. If the overall pace is too slow, then the action becomes dull and dragging. If the overall pace is too fast, then the audience will not be able to understand what is going on, for they are being hit with too much information to process. Dramatic Arc Good drama is built on conflict of some kind — an opposition of forces or desires that must be resolved by the end of the story. The conflict can be internal, involving emotional and psychological pressures, or it can be external, drawing the characters into tumultuous events. These themes are presented to the audience in a narrative arc that looks roughly like this:
Following the Arc Although any performance may have a series of rising and falling levels of intensity, in general the opening should set in motion the events which will generate an emotional high toward the middle or end of the story. Then, regardless of whether the ending is happy, sad, bittersweet, or despairing, the resolution eases the audience down from those heights and establishes some sense of closure. Reaching the climax too soon undermines the dramatic impact of the remaining portion of the performance, whereas reaching it too late rushes the ending and creates a jarringly abrupt end to events. Skill 1.7
Identify genres of poetry and their characteristic elements and structures.
When we speak of form with regard to poetry, we usually mean one of three things: 1. The pattern of the sound and rhythm 2. The visible shape it takes 3. Rhyme or free verse
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
11
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 1.
The pattern of the sound and rhythm
It helps to know the history of this peculiarity of poetry. History was passed down in oral form almost exclusively until the invention of the printing press and was often set to music. A rhymed story is much easier to commit to memory. Adding a tune makes it even easier to remember, so it’s not a surprise that much of the earliest literature—epics, odes, etc., are rhymed and were probably sung. When we speak of the pattern of sound and rhythm, we are referring to two things: verse form and stanza form. The verse form is the rhythmic pattern of a single verse. An example would be any meter: blank verse, for instance, is iambic pentameter. A stanza is a group of a certain number of verses (lines), having a rhyme scheme. If the poem is written, there is usually white space between the verses although a short poem may be only one stanza. If the poem is spoken, there will be a pause between stanzas. 2.
The visible shape it takes
In the seventeenth century, some poets shaped their poems to reflect the theme. A good example is George Herbert’s Easter Wings. Since that time, poets have occasionally played with this device; it is, however, generally viewed as nothing more than a demonstration of ingenuity. The rhythm, effect, and meaning are often sacrificed to the forcing of the shape. 3.
Rhyme and free verse
Poets also use devices to establish form that will underscore the meanings of their poems. A very common one is alliteration. When the poem is read (which poetry is usually intended to be), the repetition of a sound may not only underscore the meaning, it may also pleasure to the reading. Following a strict rhyming pattern can add intensity to the meaning of the poem in the hands of a skilled and creative poet. On the other hand, the meaning can be drowned out by the steady beat-beat-beat of it. Shakespeare very skillfully used the regularity of rhyme in his poetry, breaking the rhythm at certain points to very effectively underscore a point. For example, in Sonnet #130, “My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun,” the rhythm is primarily iambic pentameter. It lulls the reader (or listener) to accept that this poet is following the standard conventions for love poetry, which in that day reliably used rhyme and more often than not iambic pentameter to express feelings of romantic love along conventional lines. However, in Sonnet #130, the last two lines sharply break from the monotonous pattern, forcing reader or speaker to pause: And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare As any she belied with false compare Shakespeare’s purpose is clear: he is not writing a conventional love poem; the object of his love is not the red-and-white conventional woman written about in other poems of the period. This is a good example where a poet uses form to underscore meaning. MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
12
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Poets eventually began to feel constricted by the rhyming conventions and began to break away and make new rules for poetry. When poetry was only rhymed, it was easy to define it. When free verse, or poetry written in a flexible form, came upon the scene in France in the 1880s, it quickly began to influence Englishlanguage poets such as T. S. Eliot, whose memorable poem, The Wasteland, had an alarming but desolate message for the modern world. It’s impossible to imagine that it could have been written in the soothing, lulling rhymed verse of previous periods. Those who first began writing in free verse in English were responding to the influence of the French vers libre. However, it should be noted that it could be loosely applied to the poetry of Walt Whitman, writing in the midnineteenth century, as can be seen in the first stanza of Son of Myself: I celebrate myself, and sing myself, And what I assume you shall assume, For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you. When poetry was no longer defined as a piece of writing arranged in verses that had a rhyme-scheme of some sort, distinguishing poetry from prose became a point of discussion. Merriam Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature defines poetry as follows: “Writing that formulates a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience in language chosen and arranged to create a specific emotional response through its meaning, sound and rhythm.” A poet chooses the form of his poetry deliberately, based upon the emotional response he hopes to evoke and the meaning he wishes to convey. Robert Frost, a twentieth-century poet who chose to use conventional rhyming verse to make his point is a memorable and often-quoted modern poet. Who can forget his closing lines in “Stopping by Woods”? And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep. Would they be as memorable if the poem had been written in free verse? Slant Rhyme: Occurs when the final consonant sounds are the same, but the vowels are different, occurring frequently in Irish, Welsh, and Icelandic verse. Examples include: green and gone, that and hit, ill and shell. Alliteration: Alliteration occurs when the initial sounds of a word, beginning either with a consonant or a vowel, are repeated in close succession. Examples include: Athena and Apollo, Nate never knows, People who pen poetry. Note that the words only have to be close to one another: Alliteration that repeats and attempts to connect a number of words is little more than a tongue-twister.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
13
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The function of alliteration, like rhyme, might be to accentuate the beauty of language in a given context, or to unite words or concepts through a kind of repetition. Alliteration, like rhyme, can follow specific patterns. Sometimes the consonants aren't always the initial ones, but they are generally the stressed syllables. Alliteration is less common than rhyme, but because it is less common, it can call our attention to a word or line in a poem that might not have the same emphasis otherwise. Assonance: If alliteration occurs at the beginning of a word and rhyme at the end, assonance takes the middle territory. Assonance occurs when the vowel sound within a word matches the same sound in a nearby word, but the surrounding consonant sounds are different. "Tune" and "June" are rhymes; "tune" and "food" are assonant. The function of assonance is frequently the same as end rhyme or alliteration; all serve to give a sense of continuity or fluidity to the verse. Assonance might be especially effective when rhyme is absent: It gives the poet more flexibility, and it is not typically used as part of a predetermined pattern. Like alliteration, it does not so much determine the structure or form of a poem; rather, it is more ornamental. Onomatopoeia: Word used to evoke the sound in its meaning. The early Batman series used pow, zap, whop, zonk and eek in an onomatopoetic way. Rhythm in poetry refers to the recurrence of stresses at equal intervals. A stress (accent) is a greater amount of force given to one syllable in speaking than is given to another. For example, we put the stress on the first syllable of such words as father, mother, daughter, and children. The unstressed or unaccented syllable is sometimes called a slack syllable. All English words carry at least one stress except articles and some prepositions such as by, from, at, etc. Indicating where stresses occur is to scan; doing this is called scansion. Very little is gained in understanding a poem or making a statement about it by merely scanning it. The pattern of the rhythm—the meter—should be analyzed in terms of its overall relationship to the message and impression of the poem. Slack syllables, when they recur in pairs cause rhythmic trippings and bouncings; on the other hand, recurrent pairs of stresses will create a heavier rocking effect. The rhythm is dependent on words to convey meaning. Alone, they communicate nothing. When examining the rhythm and meaning of a poem, a good question to ask is whether the rhythm is appropriate to the theme. A bouncing rhythm, for example, might be dissonant in a solemn elegy. Stops are those places in a poem where the punctuation requires a pause. An end-stopped line is one that ends in a pause, whereas one that has no punctuation at its end is therefore read with only a slight pause after. It is said to be run-on, and the running on of its thought into the next line is called enjambment. These are used by a poet to underscore, intensify, communicate meaning.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
14
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Rhythm, then, is a pattern of recurrence and in poetry is made up of stressed and relatively unstressed syllables. The poet can manipulate the rhythm by making the intervals between his stresses regular or varied, by making his lines short or long, by end-stopping his lines or running them over, by choosing words that are easier or less easy to say, or by choosing polysyllabic words or monosyllables. The most important thing to remember about rhythm is that it conveys meaning. The basic unit of rhythm is called a foot and is usually one stressed syllable with one or two unstressed ones, or two stressed syllables with one unstressed one. A foot made up of one unstressed syllable and one stressed one is called an iamb. If a line is made of five iambs, it is iambic pentameter. A rhymed poem typically establishes a pattern such as iambic pentameter, and even though there will be syllables that don’t fit the pattern, the poem, nevertheless, will be said to be in iambic pentameter. In fact, a poem may be considered weak if the rhythm is too monotonous. The most common kinds of feet in English poetry: iamb: -′ anapest: --′ trochee: ′dactyl: ′-Monosyllabic: ′ Spondee: ′′ Pyrrhic foot: -Iambic and anapestic are said to be rising because the movement is from slack to stressed syllables. Trochaic and dactylic are said to be falling. Meters are named as follows: Monometer: a line of one foot Dimeter: a line of two feet Trimeter: a line of three feet Tetrameter: a line of four feet Pentameter: a line of five feet Hexameter: a line of six feet Heptameter: a line of seven feet Octameter: a line of eight feet Longer lines are possible, but a reader will tend to break it up into shorter lengths. A caesura is a definite pause within a line, in scansion indicated by a double line: ||
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
15
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE A stanza is a group of a certain number of lines with a rhyme scheme or a particular rhythm or both, typically set off by white space. Some typical patterns of English poetry: Blank verse: unrhymed iambic pentameter. Couplet: two-line stanza, usually rhymed and typically not separated by white space. Heroic couplet or closed couplet: two rhymed lines of iambic pentameter, the first ending in a light pause, the second more heavily end-stopped. Tercet: a three-line stanza, which, if rhymed, usually keeps to one rhyme sound. Terza rima: the middle line of the tercet rhymes with the first and third lines of the next tercet. The quatrain: four-line stanza, the most popular in English. The ballad stanza: four iambic feet in lines 1 and 3, three in lines 2 and 4. Rhyming is abcb. The refrain: a line or lines repeated in a ballad as a chorus. Terminal refrain: follows a stanza in a ballad. Five-line stanzas occur, but not frequently. Six-line stanzas, more frequent than five-line ones. The sestina: six six-line stanzas and a tercet. Repeats in each stanza the same six end-words in a different order. Rime royal: seven-line stanza in iambic pentameter with rhyme ababbcc. Ottava rima: eight-line stanza of iambic pentameter rhyming abababcc. Spenserian stanza: nine lines, rhyming ababbcbcc for eight lines then concludes with an Alexandrine. The Alexandrine: a line of iambic hexameter. Free verse: no conventional patterns of rhyme, stanza, or meter. Sonnet: a fourteen-line poem in iambic pentameter. 1) English sonnet: sometimes called a Shakespearean sonnet. Rhymes cohere in four clusters: abab cdcd efef gg 2) Italian or Petrarchan sonnet: first eight lines (the octave), abbaabba; then the sestet, the last six lines add new rhyme sounds in almost any variation; does not end in a couplet. Skill 1.8
Distinguish types of patterned lyric poetry.
The sonnet is a fixed-verse form of Italian origin, which consists of 14 lines that are typically five-foot iambics rhyming according to a prescribed scheme. Popular since its creation in the thirteenth century in Sicily, it spread at first to Tuscany, where it was adopted by Petrarch. The Petrarchan sonnet generally has a twopart theme. The first eight lines, the octave, state a problem, ask a question, or express an emotional tension. The last six lines, the sestet, resolve the problem, answer the question, or relieve the tension. The rhyme scheme of the octave is abbaabba; that of the sestet varies.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
16
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, introduced this form into England in the sixteenth century. It played an important role in the development of Elizabethan lyric poetry, and a distinctive English sonnet developed, which was composed of three quatrains, each with an independent rhyme-scheme, and it ended with a rhymed couplet. A form of the English sonnet created by Edmond Spenser combines the English form and the Italian. The Spenserian sonnet follows the English quatrain and couplet pattern but resembles the Italian in its rhyme scheme, which is linked: abab bcbc cdcd ee. Many poets wrote sonnet sequences, where several sonnets were linked together, usually to tell a story. Considered to be the greatest of all sonnet sequences is one of Shakespeare’s, which are addressed to a young man and a “dark lady” wherein the love story is overshadowed by the underlying reflections on time and art, growth and decay, and fame and fortune. The sonnet continued to develop, more in topics than in form. When John Donne in the seventeenth century used the form for religious themes, some of which are almost sermons, or on personal reflections (“When I consider how my light is spent”), there were no longer any boundaries on the themes it could take. That it is a flexible form is demonstrated in the wide range of themes and purposes it has been used for—all the way from more frivolous concerns to statements about time and death. Wordsworth, Keats, and Elizabeth Barrett Browning used the Petrarchan form of the sonnet. A well-known example is Wordsworth’s “The World Is Too Much With Us.” Rainer Maria Rilke's Sonnette an Orpheus (1922) is a well-known twentieth-century sonnet. Analysis of a sonnet should focus on the form—does it fit a traditional pattern or does it break from tradition? If so, why did the poet choose to make that break? Does it reflect the purpose of the poem? What is the theme? What is the purpose? Is it narrative? If so, what story does it tell and is there an underlying meaning? Is the sonnet appropriate for the subject matter? The limerick probably originated in County Limerick, Ireland, in the 18th century. It is a form of short, humorous verse, often nonsensical, and often ribald. Its five lines rhyme aabbaa with three feet in all lines except the third and fourth, which have only two. Rarely presented as serious poetry, this form is popular because almost anyone can write it. Analysis of a limerick should focus on its form. Does it conform to a traditional pattern or does it break from the tradition? If so, what impact does that have on the meaning? Is the poem serious or frivolous? Is it funny? Does it try to be funny but does not achieve its purpose? Is there a serious meaning underlying the frivolity?
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
17
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE A cinquain is a poem with a five-line stanza. Adelaide Crapsey (1878-1914) called a five-line verse form a cinquain and invented a particular meter for it. Similar to the haiku, there are two syllables in the first and last lines and four, six, and eight in the middle three lines. It has a mostly iambic cadence. Her poem, “November Night,” is an example: Listen… With faint dry sound Like steps of passing ghosts, the leaves, frost-crisp'd, break from the trees And fall. Haiku is a very popular unrhymed form that is limited to seventeen syllables arranged in three lines thus: five, seven, and five syllables. This verse form originated in Japan in the seventeenth century where it is accepted as serious poetry and is Japan’s most popular form. Originally, it was to deal with the season, the time of day, and the landscape although as it has come into more common use, the subjects have become less restricted. The imagist poets and other English writers used the form or imitated it. It’s a form much used in classrooms to introduce students to the writing of poetry. Analysis of a cinquain and a haiku poem should focus on form first. Does the haiku poem conform to the seventeen-syllables requirement and are they arranged in a five, seven, and five pattern? For a cinquain, does it have only five lines? Does the poem distill the words so as much meaning as possible can be conveyed? Does it treat a serious subject? Is the theme discernable? Short forms like these seem simple to dash off; however, they are not effective unless the words are chosen and pared so the meaning intended is conveyed. The impact should be forceful, and that often takes more effort, skill, and creativity than longer forms. This should be taken into account in their analysis. Skill 1.9
Understand characteristics of literature for children and young adults.
Prior to twentieth century research on child development and child/adolescent literature’s relationship to that development, books for adolescents were primarily didactic. They were designed to be instructive of history, manners, and morals. Middle Ages As early as the eleventh century, Anselm, the Archbishop of Canterbury, wrote an encyclopedia designed to instill in children the beliefs and principles of conduct acceptable to adults in medieval society. Early monastic translations of the Bible and other religious writings were written in Latin, for the edification of the upper class. Fifteenth century hornbooks were designed to teach reading and religious lessons. William Caxton printed English versions of Aesop’s Fables, Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur and stories from Greek and Roman mythology.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
18
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Though printed for adults, tales of adventures of Odysseus and the Arthurian knights were also popular with literate adolescents. Renaissance The Renaissance saw the introduction of the inexpensive chapbooks, small in size and 16-64 pages in length. Chapbooks were condensed versions of mythology and fairy tales. Designed for the common people, chapbooks were imperfect grammatically but were immensely popular because of their adventurous contents. Though most of the serious, educated adults frowned on the sometimes-vulgar little books, they received praise from Richard Steele of Tatler fame for inspiring his grandson’s interest in reading and pursuing his other studies. Meanwhile, the Puritans’ three most popular reads were the Bible, John Foxe’s Book of Martyrs, and John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress. Though venerating religious martyrs and preaching the moral propriety which was to lead to eternal happiness, the stories of the Book of Martyrs were often lurid in their descriptions of the fate of the damned. Not written for children and difficult reading even for adults, Pilgrim’s Progress was as attractive to adolescents for its adventurous plot as for its moral outcome. In Puritan America, the New England Primer set forth the prayers, catechisms, Bible verses, and illustrations meant to instruct children in the Puritan ethic. The seventeenth-century French used fables and fairy tales to entertain adults, but children found them enjoyable as well. Seventeenth century The late seventeenth century brought the first concern with providing literature that specifically targeted the young. Pierre Perrault’s Fairy Tales, Jean de la Fontaine’s retellings of famous fables, Mme. d’Aulnoy’s novels based on old folktales, and Mme. de Beaumont’s “Beauty and the Beast” were written to delight as well as instruct young people. In England, publisher John Newbury was the first to publish a line for children. These include a translation of Perrault’s Tales of Mother Goose; A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, “intended for instruction and amusement” but decidedly moralistic and bland in comparison to the previous century’s chapbooks; and The Renowned History of Little Goody Two Shoes, allegedly written by Oliver Goldsmith for a juvenile audience. Eighteenth century By and large, however, into the eighteenth century adolescents were finding their reading pleasure in adult books: Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels, and Johann Wyss’s Swiss Family Robinson. More books were being written for children, but the moral didacticism, though less religious, was nevertheless ever present. The short stories of Maria Edgeworth, the four-volume The History of Sandford and Merton by Thomas Day, and
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
19
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Martha Farquharson’s twenty-six volume Elsie Dinsmore series dealt with pious protagonists who learned restraint, repentance, and rehabilitation from sin. Two bright spots in this period of didacticism were Jean Jacques Rousseau’s Emile and The Tales of Shakespear, Charles and Mary Lamb’s simplified versions of Shakespeare’s plays. Rousseau believed that a child’s abilities were enhanced by a free, happy life, and the Lambs subscribed to the notion that children were entitled to more entertaining literature in language comprehensible to them. Nineteenth century Child/adolescent literature truly began its modern rise in nineteenth century Europe. Hans Christian Andersen’s Fairy Tales were fanciful adaptations of the somber revisions of the Grimm brothers in the previous century. Andrew Lang’s series of colorful fairy books contain the folklores of many nations and are still part of the collections of many modern libraries. Clement Moore’s “A Visit from St. Nicholas” is a cheery, non-threatening child’s view of the “night before Christmas.” The humor of Lewis Carroll’s books about Alice’s adventures, Edward Lear’s poems with caricatures, Lucretia Nole’s stories of the Philadelphia Peterkin family, were full of fancy and not a smidgen of morality. Other popular Victorian novels introduced the modern fantasy and science fiction genres: William Makepeace Thackeray’s The Rose and the Ring, Charles Dickens’ The Magic Fishbone, and Jules Verne’s Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea. Adventure to exotic places became a popular topic: Rudyard Kipling’s Jungle Books, Verne’s Around the World in Eighty Days, and Robert Louis Stevenson’s Treasure Island and Kidnapped. In 1884, the first English translation Johanna Spyre’s Heidi appeared. North America was also finding its voices for adolescent readers. American Louisa May Alcott’s Little Women and Canadian L.M. Montgomery’s Anne of Green Gables ushered in the modern age of realistic fiction. American youth were enjoying the articles of Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn. For the first time children were able to read books about real people just like themselves. Twentieth century The literature of the twentieth century is extensive and diverse, and as in previous centuries much influenced by the adults who write, edit, and select books for youth consumption. In the first third of the century, suitable adolescent literature dealt with children from good homes with large families. These books projected an image of a peaceful, rural existence. Though the characters and plots were more realistic, the stories maintained focus on topics that were considered emotionally and intellectually proper. Popular at this time were Laura Ingalls Wilder’s Little House on the Prairie Series and Carl Sandburg’s biography Abe Lincoln Grows Up. English author J.R.R. Tolkein’s fantasy The Hobbit prefaced modern adolescent readers’ fascination with the works of Piers Antony, Madelaine L’Engle, and Anne McCaffery.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
20
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The social changes of post-World War II significantly affected adolescent literature. The Civil Rights movement, feminism, the protest of the Vietnam Conflict; and issues surrounding homelessness, neglect, teen pregnancy, drugs, and violence have bred a new vein of contemporary fiction that helps adolescents understand and cope with the world they live in. Popular books for preadolescents deal more with establishing relationships with members of the opposite sex (Sweet Valley High series) and learning to cope with their changing bodies, personalities, or life situations, as in Judy Blume’s Are You There, God? It’s Me, Margaret. Adolescents are still interested in the fantasy and science fiction genres as well as popular juvenile fiction. Middle school students still read the Little House on the Prairie series and the mysteries of the Hardy boys and Nancy Drew. Teens value the works of Emily and Charlotte Bronte, Willa Cather, Jack London, William Shakespeare, and Mark Twain as much as those of Piers Anthony, S.E. Hinton, Madeleine L’Engle, Stephen King, and J.R.R. Tolkein, because they’re fun to read whatever their underlying worth may be. Older adolescents enjoy the writers in these genres. 1. Fantasy: Piers Anthony, Ursula LeGuin, Ann McCaffrey 2. Horror: V.C. Andrews, Stephen King 3. Juvenile fiction: Judy Blume, Robert Cormier, Rosa Guy, Virginia Hamilton, S.E. Hinton, M.E. Kerr, Harry Mazer, Norma Fox Mazer, Richard Newton Peck, Cynthia Voight, and Paul Zindel. 4. Science fiction: Isaac Asimov, Ray Bradbury, Arthur C. Clarke, Frank Herbert, Larry Niven, H.G. Wells. These classic and contemporary works combine the characteristics of multiple theories. Functioning at the concrete operations stage (Piaget), being of the “good person,” orientation (Kohlberg), still highly dependent on external rewards (Bandura), and exhibiting all five needs previously discussed from Maslow’s hierarchy, these eleven to twelve year olds should appreciate the following titles, grouped by reading level. These titles are also cited for interest at that grade level and do not reflect high-interest titles for older readers who do not read at grade level. Some high interest titles will be cited later.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
21
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Reading level 6.0 to 6.9 Barrett, William. Lilies of the Field Cormier, Robert. Other Bells for Us to Ring Dahl, Roald. Danny, Champion of the World; Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Lindgren, Astrid. Pippi Longstocking Lindbergh, Anne. Three Lives to Live Lowry, Lois. Rabble Starkey Naylor, Phyllis. The Year of the Gopher, Reluctantly Alice Peck, Robert Newton. Arly Speare, Elizabeth. The Witch of Blackbird Pond Sleator, William. The Boy Who Reversed Himself For seventh and eighth grades Most seventh and eight grade students, according to learning theory, are still functioning cognitively, psychologically, and morally as sixth graders. As these are not inflexible standards, there are some twelve and thirteen year olds who are much more mature socially, intellectually, and physically than the younger children who share the same school. They are becoming concerned with establishing individual and peer group identities that presents conflicts with breaking from authority and the rigidity of rules. Some at this age are still tied firmly to the family and its expectations while others identify more with those their own age or older. Enrichment reading for this group must help them cope with life’s rapid changes or provide escape and thus must be either realistic or fantastic depending on the child’s needs. Adventures and mysteries (the Hardy Boys and Nancy Drew series) are still popular today. These preteens also become more interested in biographies of contemporary figures rather than legendary figures of the past. Reading level 7.0 to 7.9 Armstrong, William. Sounder Bagnold, Enid. National Velvet Barrie, James. Peter Pan London, Jack. White Fang, Call of the Wild Lowry, Lois. Taking Care of Terrific McCaffrey, Anne. The Dragonsinger series Montgomery, L. M. Anne of Green Gables and sequels Steinbeck, John. The Pearl Tolkien, J. R. R. The Hobbit Zindel, Paul. The Pigman
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
22
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Reading level 8.0 to 8.9 Cormier, Robert. I Am the Cheese McCullers, Carson. The Member of the Wedding North, Sterling. Rascal Twain, Mark. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer Zindel, Paul. My Darling , My Hamburger For ninth grade Depending upon the school environment, a ninth grader may be top-dog in a junior high school or underdog in a high school. Much of his social development and thus his reading interests become motivated by his peer associations. He is technically an adolescent operating at the early stages of formal operations in cognitive development. His perception of his own identity is becoming welldefined and he is fully aware of the ethics required by society. He is more receptive to the challenges of classic literature but still enjoys popular teen novels. Reading level 9.0 to 9.9 Brown, Dee. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee Defoe, Daniel. Robinson Crusoe Dickens, Charles. David Copperfield Greenberg, Joanne. I Never Promised You a Rose Garden Kipling, Rudyard. Captains Courageous Mathabane, Mark. Kaffir Boy Nordhoff, Charles. Mutiny on the Bounty Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein Washington, Booker T. Up From Slavery For tenth - twelfth grades All high school sophomores, juniors and seniors can handle most other literature except for a few of the very most difficult titles like Moby Dick or Vanity Fair. However, since many high school students do not progress to the eleventh or twelfth grade reading level, they will still have their favorites among authors whose writings they can understand. Many will struggle with assigned novels but still read high interest books for pleasure. A few high interest titles are listed below without reading level designations, though most are 6.0 to 7.9.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
23
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Bauer, Joan. Squashed Borland, Hal. When the Legends Die Danzinger, Paula. Remember Me to Herald Square Duncan, Lois. Stranger with my Face Hamilton, Virginia. The Planet of Junior Brown Hinton, S. E. The Outsiders Paterson, Katherine. The Great Gilly Hopkins Teachers of students at all levels must be familiar with the materials offered by the libraries in their own schools. Only then can teachers guide their students into appropriate selections for their social age and reading level development. Adolescent literature, because of the age range of readers, is extremely diverse. Fiction for the middle group, usually ages ten/eleven to fourteen/fifteen, deals with issues of coping with internal and external changes in their lives. Because children’s writers in the twentieth century have produced increasingly realistic fiction, adolescents can now find problems dealt with honestly in novels. Teachers of middle/junior high school students see the greatest change in interests and reading abilities. Fifth and sixth graders, included in elementary grades in many schools, are viewed as older children while seventh and eighth graders are preadolescent. Ninth graders included sometimes as top dogs in junior high school and sometimes as underlings in high school, definitely view themselves as teenagers. Their literature choices will often be governed more by interest than by ability; thus, the wealth of high-interest, low readability books that have flooded the market in recent years. Tenth through twelfth graders will still select high-interest books for pleasure reading but are also easily encouraged to stretch their literature muscles by reading more classics. Because of the rapid social changes, topics that once did not interest young people until they reached their teens - suicide, gangs, and homosexuality - are now subjects of books for even younger readers. The plethora of high-interest books reveals how desperately schools have failed to produce on-level readers and how the market has adapted to that need. However, these high-interest books are now readable for younger children whose reading levels are at or above normal. No matter how tastefully written, some contents are inappropriate for younger readers. The problem becomes not so much steering them toward books that they have the reading ability to handle but encouraging them toward books whose content is appropriate to their levels of cognitive and social development. A fifth-grader may be able to read V.C. Andrews book Flowers in the Attic but not possess the social/moral development to handle the deviant behavior of the characters. At the same time, because of the complex changes affecting adolescents, the teacher must be well versed in learning theory and child development as well as competent to teach the subject matter of language and literature.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
24
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 1.10
Identify literary devices and ways in which they contribute to meaning and style.
Imagery can be described as a word or sequence of words that refers to any sensory experience—that is, anything that can be seen, tasted, smelled, heard, or felt on the skin or fingers. While writers of prose may also use these devices, it is most distinctive of poetry. The poet intends to make an experience available to the reader. In order to do that, he/she must appeal to one of the senses. The most-often-used one, of course, is the visual sense. The poet will deliberately paint a scene in such a way that the reader can see it. However, the purpose is not simply to stir the visceral feeling but also to stir the emotions. A good example is “The Piercing Chill” by Taniguchi Buson (1715-1783): The piercing chill I feel: My dead wife’s comb, in our bedroom, Under my heel . . . In only a few short words, the reader can feel many things: the shock that might come from touching the corpse, a literal sense of death, the contrast between her death and the memories he has of her when she was alive. Imagery might be defined as speaking of the abstract in concrete terms, a powerful device in the hands of a skillful poet. A symbol is an object or action that can be observed with the senses in addition to its suggesting many other things. The lion is a symbol of courage; the cross a symbol of Christianity; the color green a symbol of envy. These can almost be defined as metaphors because society pretty much agrees on the one-to-one meaning of them. Symbols used in literature are usually of a different sort. They tend to be private and personal; their significance is only evident in the context of the work where they are used. A good example is the huge pair of spectacles on a sign board in Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby. They are interesting as a part of the landscape, but they also symbolize divine myopia. A symbol can certainly have more than one meaning, and the meaning may be as personal as the memories and experiences of the particular reader. In analyzing a poem or a story, it is important to identify the symbols and their possible meanings. Looking for symbols is often challenging, especially for novice poetry readers. However, these suggestions may be useful: first, pick out all the references to concrete objects such as a newspaper, black cats, etc. Note any that the poet emphasizes by describing in detail, by repeating, or by placing at the very beginning or ending of a poem. Ask yourself, what is the poem about? What does it add up to? Paraphrase the poem and determine whether or not the meaning depends upon certain concrete objects. Then ponder what the concrete object symbolizes in this particular poem. Look for a character with the name of a prophet who does little but utter prophecy or a trio of women who resemble the Three Fates. A symbol may be a part of a person’s body such as the eye of the murder victim in Poe’s story The Tell-Tale Heart or a look, a voice, or a mannerism.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
25
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Some things a symbol is not: an abstraction such as truth, death, and love; in narrative, a well-developed character who is not at all mysterious; the second term in a metaphor. In Emily Dickenson’s The Lightning is a yellow Fork, the symbol is the lightning, not the fork. An allusion is very much like a symbol, and the two sometimes tend to run together. An allusion is defined by Merriam Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature as “an implied reference to a person, event, thing, or a part of another text.” Allusions are based on the assumption that there is a common body of knowledge shared by poet and reader and that a reference to that body of knowledge will be immediately understood. Allusions to the Bible and classical mythology are common in western literature on the assumption that they will be immediately understood. This is not always the case, of course. T. S. Eliot’s The Wasteland requires research and annotation for understanding. He assumed more background on the part of the average reader than actually exists. However, when Michael Moore on his web page headlines an article on the war in Iraq: “Déjà Fallouja: Ramadi surrounded, thousands of families trapped, no electricity or water, onslaught impending,” we understand immediately that he is referring first of all to a repeat of the human disaster in New Orleans although the “onslaught” is not a storm but an invasion by American and Iraqi troops. The use of allusion is a sort of shortcut for poets. They can use an economy of words and count on meaning to come from the reader’s own experience. Figurative language is also called figures of speech. If all figures of speech that have ever been identified were listed, it would be a very long list. However, for purposes of analyzing poetry, a few are sufficient. 1. Simile: Direct comparison between two things. “My love is like a red-red rose.” 2. Metaphor: Indirect comparison between two things. The use of a word or phrase denoting one kind of object or action in place of another to suggest a comparison between them. While poets use them extensively, they are also integral to everyday speech. For example, chairs are said to have “legs” and “arms” although we know that it’s humans and other animals that have these appendages. 3. Parallelism: The arrangement of ideas in phrases, sentences, and paragraphs that balance one element with another of equal importance and similar wording. An example from Francis Bacon’s Of Studies: “Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man.” 4. Personification: Human characteristics are attributed to an inanimate object, an abstract quality, or animal. Examples: John Bunyan wrote characters named Death, Knowledge, Giant Despair, Sloth, and Piety in his Pilgrim’s Progress. The metaphor of an arm of a chair is a form of personification.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
26
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 5. Euphemism: The substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive term for one that might offend or suggest something unpleasant. Many euphemisms are used to refer to death to avoid using the real word such as “passed away,” “crossed over,” or nowadays “passed.” 6. Hyperbole: Deliberate exaggeration for effect or comic effect. An example from Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice: Why, if two gods should play some heavenly match And on the wager lay two earthly women, And Portia one, there must be something else Pawned with the other, for the poor rude world Hath not her fellow. 7. Climax: A number of phrases or sentences are arranged in ascending order of rhetorical forcefulness. Example from Melville’s Moby Dick: All that most maddens and torments; all that stirs up the lees of things; all truth with malice in it; all that cracks the sinews and cakes the brain; all the subtle demonisms of life and thought; all evil, to crazy Ahab, were visibly personified and made practically assailable in Moby Dick. 8. Bathos: A ludicrous attempt to portray pathos—that is, to evoke pity, sympathy, or sorrow. It may result from inappropriately dignifying the commonplace, elevated language to describe something trivial, or greatly exaggerated pathos. 9. Oxymoron: A contradiction in terms deliberately employed for effect. It is usually seen in a qualifying adjective whose meaning is contrary to that of the noun it modifies such as wise folly. 10. Irony: Expressing something other than and particularly opposite the literal meaning such as words of praise when blame is intended. In poetry, it is often used as a sophisticated or resigned awareness of contrast between what is and what ought to be and expresses a controlled pathos without sentimentality. It is a form of indirection that avoids overt praise or censure. An early example: the Greek comic character Eiron, a clever underdog who by his wit repeatedly triumphs over the boastful character Alazon. 11. Alliteration: The repetition of consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words or syllables. In its simplest form, it reinforces one or two consonant sounds. Example: Shakespeare’s Sonnet #12: When I do count the clock that tells the time. Some poets have used more complex patterns of alliteration by creating consonants both at the beginning of words and at the beginning of stressed syllables within words. Example: Shelley’s “Stanzas Written in Dejection Near Naples” The City’s voice itself is soft like Solitude’s
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
27
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 12. Onomatopoeia: The naming of a thing or action by a vocal imitation of the sound associated with it such as buzz or hiss or the use of words whose sound suggests the sense. A good example: from “The Brook” by Tennyson: I chatter over stony ways, In little sharps and trebles, I bubble into eddying bays, I babble on the pebbles. 13. Malapropism: A verbal blunder in which one word is replaced by another similar in sound but different in meaning. Comes from Sheridan’s Mrs. Malaprop in The Rivals (1775). Thinking of the geography of contiguous countries, she spoke of the “geometry” of “contagious countries.” Poets use figures of speech to sharpen the effect and meaning of their poems and to help readers see things in ways they have never seen them before. Marianne Moore observed that a fir tree has “an emerald turkey-foot at the top.” Her poem makes us aware of something we probably had never noticed before. The sudden recognition of the likeness yields pleasure in the reading. Figurative language allows for the statement of truths that more literal language cannot. Skillfully used, a figure of speech will help the reader see more clearly and to focus upon particulars. Figures of speech add many dimensions of richness to our reading and understanding of a poem; they also allow many opportunities for worthwhile analysis. The approach to take in analyzing a poem on the basis of its figures of speech is to ask the question: What does it do for the poem? Does it underscore meaning? Does it intensify understanding? Does it increase the intensity of our response?
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
28
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 2.0
Skill 2.1
UNDERSTAND AMERICAN LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE FROM THE PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD TO THE PRESENT
Understand myths and legends of indigenous peoples of North America.
In order to understand and put these myths and legends into relevant contexts, one must first become familiar with the histories, religions, philosophies, ceremonies, and lifestyles of the peoples involved. Because as many as 700 distinct Native American cultures, or tribes once existed on the continent, this task can seem, at least initially, overwhelming. Fortunately, a vast amount of scholarly works—much of it suitable for middle school instruction—is readily available to teachers in this field. Knowledge of this material will enable teacher and student alike to understand and respond intelligently to the facts, themes and questions that animate Native American experience as a living part of American history. Several matters that instructors should be able to address are: • What ethical principles or intellectual standards ought to apply when designating one ancient story as “myth” or legend,” and another similar and ancient story as “truth” or “history”? Often these words are used in ways that indicate nothing more than a person’s ethnic or religious background i.e., “My group’s ancient stories are true; those of other groups are myths.” • How have ideas about Native Americans been formed and/or influenced by non-Native American myths, legends, and history? Comparative studies of what Western and Native American commentators have said about figures such as Pocahontas and Hiawatha, for instance, reveal great differences based on cultural assumptions, group values, politics, and perceptions of history. Knowledge of this is essential. • In a similar vein, instructors may wish to address the variety of stereotypes—both Western and Native American—that either lionize or vilify (or simply distort) Native American beliefs or persons. • How can instructors strike a balance between providing a broad framework for understanding Native American culture in general and providing materials—stories, poems, songs, films, artwork, etc.—that vividly illuminate the cultural specifics of a distinct people or tribe? Just as students of Western religion would not want to mistake Druids for Catholics, students of Native American religion should not confuse Sioux beliefs with those of the Iroquois—even though these respective groups may share some things in common.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
29
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE •
In order to “bring home” the relevance and proximity of Native American life and history to students, teachers may wish to provide special emphasis on tribes that lived or live in Massachusetts. Field trips to historical sites, reservations, or museums would likely be well-received by students. Such activities can also be designed to counter the common perception that Native American culture is basically a relic from a distant past, rather than an integral part of the American present.
Resources The Native Americans. VHS, 1994. TBS Productions, Inc. This six-part series (50 min. each) offers an excellent introduction to its subject, with each episode dedicated to tribes from one region of North America. The series covers people, events, and issues up to the present day; many contemporary Native American leaders, teachers, historians, and artists are featured. Suitable for screening to middle school students. Coming To Light: Contemporary Translations of the Native Literatures of North America. Edited by Brian Swann. Random House, 1994. 801 pp. Comprehensive anthology presents poems and stories from all regions of North America. Features a fine introduction and Suggested Reading list. Folk Tales of the North American Indians. Selected and annotated by Stith Thompson. JG Press, 1995. 386 pp. This anthology’s chapters are determined by theme and genre: “Hero Tales,” “Trickster Tales,” etc. Especially interesting are “Tales Borrowed from Europeans” and “Bible Stories,” each offering compelling examples of crosscultural influence and difference. Forgotten Founders: Benjamin Franklin, the Iroquois, and the Rationale for the American Revolution. By Bruce E. Johansen. Gambit Incorporated, 1982. 167 pp. Revisionist history arguing that the colonies were united along principles first used by the Iroquois nation. Thesis is a bit shaky, but Johansen gives a comprehensive account of the Iroquois’ “Great Law of Peace” and how it derived from their myths and legends. This book may be available for free on the internet. Search for it under title and author. Indians. By William Brandon. The American Heritage Library, 1961. 419 pp. 20,000 years of Native American history—from the Ice Age crossing of the Bering Strait, to Machu Pichu, to the 20th century. Illustrated. Teachings from the American Earth: Indian Religion and Philosophy. Edited by Dennis and Barbara Tedlock. Liveright, 1975. 279 pp. Anthology of essays covering distinct ceremonies, stories and beliefs from a variety of Native American tribes.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
30
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 2.2
Identify characteristics of major movements, periods, and various ethnic literary traditions in American literature.
The Colonial Period William Bradford’s excerpts from The Mayflower Compact relate vividly the hardships of crossing the Atlantic in such a tiny vessel, the misery and suffering of the first winter, the approaches of the American Indians, the decimation of their ranks, and the establishment of the Bay Colony of Massachusetts. Anne Bradstreet’s poetry relates much concerning colonial New England life. From her journals, modern readers learn of the everyday life of the early settlers, the hardships of travel, and the responsibilities of different groups and individuals in the community, Early American literature also reveals the commercial and political adventures of the Cavaliers who came to the New World with King George’s blessing. William Byrd’s journal, A History of the Dividing Line, concerning his trek into the Dismal Swamp separating the Carolinian territories from Virginia and Maryland makes quite lively reading. A privileged insider to the English Royal Court, Byrd, like other Southern Cavaliers was given grants to pursue business ventures. The Revolutionary Period There were great orations such as Patrick Henry’s Speech to the Virginia House of Burgesses -- the “Give me liberty or give me death” speech - and George Washington’s Farewell to the Army of the Potomac. Less memorable and thought rambling by modern readers are Washington’s inaugural addresses. The Declaration of Independence, the brainchild predominantly of Thomas Jefferson, with some prudent editing by Ben Franklin, is a prime example of neoclassical writing -- balanced, well crafted, and focused. Epistles include the exquisitely written, moving correspondence between John Adams and Abigail Adams. The poignancy of their separation - she in Boston, he in Philadelphia - is palpable and real.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
31
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Romantic Period Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville are the preeminent early American novelists, writing on subjects definitely regional, specific and American, yet sharing insights about human foibles, fears, loves, doubts, and triumphs. Hawthorne’s writings range from children’s stories, like the Cricket on the Hearth series, to adult fare of dark, brooding short stories such as “Dr. Heidegger’s Experiment,” “The Devil and Tom Walker,” and “Rapuccini’s Daughter.” His masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter, takes on the society of hypocritical Puritan New Englanders, who ostensibly left England to establish religious freedom, but who have been entrenched in judgmental finger wagging. They ostracize Hester and condemn her child, Pearl, as a child of Satan. Great love, sacrifice, loyalty, suffering, and related epiphanies add universality to this tale. The House of the Seven Gables also deals with kept secrets, loneliness, societal pariahs, and love ultimately triumphing over horrible wrong. Herman Melville’s great opus, Moby Dick, follows a crazed Captain Ahab on his Homeric odyssey to conquer the great white whale that has outwitted him and his whaling crews time and again. The whale has even taken Arab’s leg and according to Ahab, wants all of him. Melville recreates in painstaking detail, and with insider knowledge of the harsh life of a whaler out of New Bedford, by way of Nantucket. For those who don’t want to learn about every guy rope or all parts of the whaler’s rigging, Melville offers up the succinct tale of Billy Budd and his Christlike sacrifice to the black and white maritime laws on the high seas. An accident results in the death of one of the ship’s officers, a slug of a fellow, who had taken a dislike to the young, affable, and shy Billy. Captain Vere must hang Billy for the death of Claggert, but knows that this is not right. However, an example must be given to the rest of the crew so that discipline can be maintained. Edgar Allan Poe creates a distinctly American version of romanticism with his 16 syllable line in “The Raven,” the classical “To Helen,” and his Gothic “Annabelle Lee.” The horror short story can be said to originate from Poe’s pen. “The Tell Tale Heart,” “The Cask of Amontillado,” “The Fall of the House of Usher,” and “The Masque of the Red Death” are exemplary short stories. The new genre of detective story also emerges with Poe’s “Murders in the Rue Morgue.” American Romanticism has its own offshoot in the Transcendentalism of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. One wrote about transcending the complexities of life; the other, who wanted to get to the marrow of life, pitted himself against nature at Walden Pond and wrote an inspiring autobiographical account of his sojourn, aptly titled On Walden Pond. He also wrote passionately on his objections to the interference of government on the individual in “On the Duty of Civil Disobedience.”
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
32
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Emerson’s elegantly crafted essays and war poetry still gives validation to several important universal truths. Probably most remembered for his address to Thoreau’s Harvard graduating class, “The American Scholar,” he defined the qualities of hard work and intellectual spirit required of Americans in their growing nation. The Transition between Romanticism and Realism The Civil War period ushers in the poignant poetry of Walt Whitman and his homage to all who suffer from the ripple effects of war and presidential assassination. His “Come up from the Fields, Father” about a Civil War soldier’s death and his family’s reaction and “When Lilacs Last in the Courtyard Bloom’d” about the effects of Abraham Lincoln’s death on the poet and the nation should be required readings in any American literature course. Further, his Leaves of Grass gave America its first poetry truly unique in form, structure, and subject matter. Emily Dickinson, like Walt Whitman, leaves her literary fingerprints on a vast array of poems, all but three of which were never published in her lifetime. Her themes of introspection and attention to nature’s details and wonders are, by any measurement, world-class works. Her posthumous recognition reveals the timeliness of her work. American writing had most certainly arrived! Mark Twain also left giant footprints with his unique blend of tall tale and fable. “The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County” and “The Man who Stole Hadleyburg” are epitomes of short story writing. Move to novel creation, and Twain again rises head and shoulders above others by his bold, still disputed, oft-banned The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, which examines such taboo subjects as a white person’s love of a slave, the issue of leaving children with abusive parents, and the outcomes of family feuds. Written partly in dialect and southern vernacular, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is touted by some as the greatest of all American novels. Contemporary American Literature America Drama The greatest and most prolific of American playwrights include: Eugene O’Neill -- Long Day’s Journey into Night, Mourning Becomes Electra, and Desire Under the Elms Arthur Miller -- The Crucible, All My Sons, and Death of a Salesman Tennessee Williams -- Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, The Glass Menagerie, and A Street Car Named Desire
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
33
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Edward Albee -- Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf, Three Tall Women, and A Delicate Balance American Fiction The renowned American novelists of this century include John Updike -- Rabbit Run and Rabbit Redux Sinclair Lewis -- Babbit and Elmer Gantry F. Scott Fitzgerald -- The Great Gatsby and Tender is the Night Ernest Hemingway -- A Farewell to Arms and For Whom the Bell Tolls William Faulkner -- The Sound and the Fury and Absalom, Absalom Bernard Malamud -- The Fixer and The Natural American Poetry The poetry of the twentieth century is multifaceted, as represented by Edna St. Vincent Millay, Marianne Moore, Richard Wilbur, Langston Hughes, Maya Angelou, and Rita Lone. Head and shoulders above all others are the manylayered poems of Robert Frost. His New England motifs of snowy evenings, birches, apple picking, stone wall mending, hired hands, and detailed nature studies relate universal truths in exquisite diction, polysyllabic words, and rare allusions to either mythology or the Bible. American Indian Literature The foundation of American Indian writing is found in story-telling, oratory, autobiographical and historical accounts of tribal village life, reverence for the environment, and the postulation that the earth with all of its beauty was given in trust, to be cared for and passed on to future generations. Early American Indian writings Barland, Hal. When The Legends Die Barrett, S.M. Editor: Geronimo: His Own Story - Apache Eastman, C. & Eastman E. Wigwam Evenings: Sioux Folktales Retold Riggs, L. Cherokee Night - drama
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
34
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Twentieth Century Writers Deloria, V. Custer Died for your Sins (Sioux) Dorris, M. The Broken Cord: A Family’s on-going struggle with fetal alcohol syndrome (Modoc) Hogan, L. Mean Spirited (Chickasaw) Taylor, C.F. Native American Myths and Legends Afro-American Literature The three phases of Afro-American Literature can be broken down as follows: •
Oppression, slavery, and the re-construction of the post-Civil War/rural South
•
Inner city strife/single parenting, drug abuse, lack of educational opportunities and work advancement etc.; controlled by biased and disinterested factions of society.
•
Post-Civil Rights and the emergence of the BLACK movement; focusing on biographical and autobiographical Black heroes, and their contribution to Black and American culture.
Resources: 1. Pre-Civil War Bethune, Mary McLoed. Voice of Black Hope Fast, Howard. Freedom Ride Haskins, James. Black Music in America - A History through its People Huggins, Nathan Irving. Black Odyssey Lemann, Nicolas. The Promised Land Stowe, Harriet Beecher. Uncle Tom’s Cabin Wheatley, Phyllis. Memoirs and Poems 2. Post-Civil War and Reconstruction Armstrong, William. Sounder Bonham, Frank. Durango Street Childress, Alice. A Hero Ain’t Nothin’ But a Sandwich Gaines, Ernest. The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
35
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 3. Post Civil War - Present Angelou, Maya. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings Baldwin, James. Go Tell It on the Mountain Haley, Alex. Roots Hansberry, Lorraine. A Raisin in the Sun Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird Hughes, Langston. I, Too, Sing America Wright, Richard. White Man Listen! and Native Son Latino/a Literature In the field of literature, we have two new expanding areas, Latino/a and feminist writers. These authors write to retain cultural heritage, share their people’s struggle for recognition, independence, and survival, and express their hopes for the future. Latino/Latina Writers De Cervantes, Lora (Chicana). Starfish Cisneros, Sandra (Hispanic). Red Sweater and other short story collections Marquez, Gabriel Garcia (Colombian). Hundred Years of Solitude Nunoz, A. Lopez (Spanish). Programas Para Dias Especiales Neruda, Pablo (Chile). Nobel Prize Winner- Collections of Poetry Silko, Leslie Marmon (Mexican). The Time We Climbed Snake Mountain Soto, Gary (Mexican). The Tales of Sunlight Feminist / gender concern literature written by women in the United States Edith Wharton’s Ethan Frome is a heartbreaking tale of lack of communication, lack of funds, the unrelenting cold of the Massachusetts winter, and a toboggan ride which gnarls Ethan and Mattie just like the old tree which they smash into. The Age of Innocence, in contrast to Ethan Frome, is set in the upper echelons of fin-de-siècle New York and explores marriage without stifling social protocols.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
36
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Willa Cather’s work moves the reader to the prairies of Nebraska and the harsh eking out of existence by the immigrant families who choose to stay there and farm. Her most acclaimed works include My Antonia and Death Comes for the Archbishop. Kate Chopin’s regionalism and local color takes her readers to the upper-crust Creole society of New Orleans and resort isles off the Louisiana coast. “The Story of an Hour” is lauded as one of the greatest of all short stories. Her feminist liberation novel, The Awakening, is still hotly debated. Eudora Welty’s regionalism and dialect shine in her short stories of rural Mississippi, especially in “The Worn Path.” Modern black female writers who explore the world of feminist/gender issues as well as class prohibitions are Alice Walker -- (The Color Purple), Zora Neale Hurston (Their Eyes Were Watching God), and Toni Morrison (Beloved, Jazz, and Song of Solomon). Feminists Alcott, Louisa May. Little Women Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique: The Second Stage Bronte, Charlotte. Jane Eyre Hurston, Zora Neale. Their Eyes Were Watching God Janeway, Elizabeth. Woman’s World, Woman’s Place: A Study in Social Mythology Chopin, Kate. The Awakening Rich, Adrienne. Arienne Rich’s Poetry: Motherhood As Experience and Driving into the Wreck Woolf, Virginia. A Room of One’s Own Skill 2.3
Identify significant genres and themes in American literature.
Herman Melville was born in 1819 and grew up in upper-class New York neighborhoods. His mother was a strict Calvinist Presbyterian and had strong views regarding proper behavior. Herman tended to be a rebellious sort, and to some extent his conflicts regarding his mother’s viewpoints were never resolved. When Herman was eleven years old, his father’s business failed, and he died shortly afterward. Herman tried working in business for awhile but soon decided he wanted to go to sea.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
37
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Working on ships and traveling, he began to write non-fictional pieces about his experiences. In July of 1851, he wrote his most famous work, Moby Dick. Before he died, he wrote poems and another well-known novel, Billy Budd, which was not published until 1924. Just as he began to write Moby Dick, he became friends with Nathaniel Hawthorne, who happened to be his neighbor. Hawthorne’s works and friendship became an important influence on his writing. In Moby Dick, the style is indicative of the reportorial writing of the earlier period; however, it is far more than that. It is seen as a great American epic, even though it is not poetry. It was not successful while its author was alive. Its success came much later. Some Themes: • • • • • •
Man in conflict with the natural world Religion and God’s role in the universe Good and evil Cause and effect Duty Conscience
Richard Wright was the grandson of slaves and grew up in a time when the lives of African-Americans tended to be very grim. His response to life and living so close to those who had so recently risen from bondage permeates his writing. His writing went through many changes just as his response to the special reality of life as a black person in a white-dominated world went through many changes. In order to understand his work, the date of the writing—the stage he was undergoing at the time—is very important. He was influenced early by Maxim Gorky, whose own life experience had similarities to Wright’s own. Later, he was heavily influenced by Dostoevsky and that writer’s themes can be identified in the work from his last period. Survival for many blacks and black communities required conformity to whatever white people demanded, and Wright rejected that. He felt profoundly alienated and felt that his individuality had been wounded. He became a proletarian revolutionary artist in the earliest years of his career. The American Communist Party nabbed him as their most illustrious recruit to the newly-established literary standards of proletarian realism. He rejected the “conspicuous ornamentation” of institutions imposed by segregation such as the Harlem Renaissance. At the same time, he felt that consciousness must draw its strength from the lore of a great people, his own. He sought, in the early years of the 20th century, to integrate the progressive aspects of the folk culture of the African-Americans into a collective myth that would promote a revolutionary approach to reality.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
38
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE He left the Communist Party in 1944, largely as a result of his own evolution. Black Boy, an autobiographical account of his childhood and young manhood, appeared in 1945. He settled in Paris as a permanent expatriate shortly after its publication. His first stories—Uncle Tom’s Children—are a re-conception of negro spirituals and black Christianity in which the hero chooses to risk martyrdom in progressively more elevated stages of class consciousness. Some themes: • • • • • • •
The environment of the South is too small to nourish human beings, especially African-Americans Rejection of black militancy Violent, battered childhood and victorious adulthood Suffocation of instinct and stifling of potential Mature reminiscences of a battered childhood Black mother’s protective nurture and the trauma of an absent or impotent father Each is responsible for everyone and everything (later works)
His technique and style are not as important as the impact his ideas and attitudes have had on American life. He set out to portray African-Americans to white readers in such a way that the myth of the uncomplaining, comic, and obsequious black man might be replaced. Willa Cather grew up on the western plains in Nebraska, and much of her best fiction focuses on the pioneering period in that part of the country. She was born in Virginia in 1873 on her family’s farm; but in 1884, the family moved to Nebraska where other relatives had settled. Much of the lore that is the basis of her stories came from her visits with immigrant farm women around Red Cloud, where the family eventually made their home. When she was sixteen, she enrolled at the University of Nebraska in Lincoln where an essay in her English class was favorably accepted and she began to support herself as a journalist. She moved to Pittsburgh and was working as a writer and editor when she decided that she wanted to teach school. Even so, she continued to develop her writing career. On a trip back to Nebraska, she witnessed a wheat harvest, which triggered her motive for writing about the pioneer period of American history. Some Themes: • • • •
The American Dream Prejudice Coming of Age Nostalgia
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
39
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Maxine Hong Kingston’s parents were Chinese immigrants who lived in Stockton, California. Her fiction is highly autobiographical, and she weaves Chinese myths and fictionalized history with the aim of exploring the conflicts between cultures faced by Chinese-Americans. Her writing exposes the ordeals of the Chinese immigrants who were so exploited by American companies, particularly railroad and agriculture industries. She also explores relationships within the Chinese families, particularly between parents who were born in China and children who were born in America. In a 1980 New York Times Book Review interview, she said “What I am doing in this new book [China Men] is churning America.” Some Themes: • • • • • • •
Discovery The American Dream Male/Female Roles Metamorphosis Enforced Muteness Vocal Expression Family
Poets: Walt Whitman’s poetry was more often than not inspired by the Civil War. He is America’s greatest romantic poet and many of his poems are related to and come directly from the conflict between the northern and southern states. This is not to say that the war was the only influence; he wrote many poems on topics that are not directly related to it. His major work, Leaves of Grass, was revised nine times, the last in 1892 shortly before he died. He used sophisticated linguistic devices much ahead of his time. Even though he dealt with a vast, panoramic vision, his style has a personal and immediate effect on the reader. When he was born in 1819 on Long Island in New York, it was a time of great patriotism for the new nation; however, he experienced the conflict that presented a serious threat to its survival in the war between the states, and it is no wonder that the conflict became the subject matter for most of his creative output. His father was a carpenter and then a farmer. Walt was the second-born of eight, the first son. He had six years of public education before he went to work for Brooklyn lawyers and began to educate himself in the library. He began his writing career with newspaper articles and eventually wrote short stories that were published in newspapers. His unconventional techniques were his own creation and in Leaves of Grass he intended to speak for all Americans.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
40
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE He worked as a volunteer in hospitals to help care for soldiers, and was deeply affected by the horrors of war that he saw first-hand. His poetry was considered to be indecent by some, and he was both praised and vilified during his lifetime. He died in 1892 of tuberculosis. Some Themes: • Imagination vs. Scientific Process • Individualism Emily Dickinson has been called the “myth of Amherst” because so little is known of her. She was born in 1830, the second child of Edward and Emily Dickinson. Her family was prominent in Massachusetts and played a major role in the founding of Amherst College. Her father’s stern, puritanical control of his family played a pivotal role in the poetry that his daughter eventually wrote. Although he was severe and controlling, he saw that his daughters got a good education. Emily attended Amherst Academy and then Mount Holyoke Female Seminary. She obtained a copy of Emerson’s poems in 1850 and began to develop her own beliefs regarding religion and the severe God that her father represented. Only a few of her poems were published during her lifetime, and she was unknown until after her death. After she withdrew from school, she became more and more reclusive and after the death of her father in 1874, she never again left her home. She died of Bright’s disease in 1886. Her sister Lavinia found roughly 2,000 poems on small pieces of paper, which were published in several editions. The first full three-volume edition was released in 1955. She has come to be known for her superb use of concrete language and imagery to express and evoke abstract issues. Most people have a favorite Dickinson poem. Her themes range widely, but following are a few: • • • • • •
Sanity/insanity Doubt Death Individuality Defiance Feminism
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
41
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Gwendolyn Brooks was the first African American to receive a Pulitzer Prize for Poetry with her acute images of African Americans in the cities of America. Born in 1917 to a schoolteacher and a janitor, she grew up in Chicago. She was named poet laureate of Illinois in 1978 and was the first black woman honorary fellow of the Modern Language Association. Her family was close-knit, and she tended to spend her time reading when she was a child. She began writing poems when she was very young. She has also had a successful teaching career at several universities including City University of New York where she was Distinguished Professor. Gwendolyn was writing about the experience of being black long before it became main-stream. She underwent an evolution in subject matter and thinking about being black as a result of the movement of the sixties toward the validity of African Americans. She died of cancer in 2000. She was eighty-three years old. Themes: • • • • • • • • •
Poverty and Racism Self-respect Heritage Community Family Black Unity The Basic Humanness in Everyone Black Solidarity Pride
Leslie Marmon Silko is a Laguna Indian of mixed ancestry that includes Cherokee, German, English, Mexican, and Pueblo. There were several remarkable women in her life, grandmothers and aunts, who taught her the traditions and stories of the Pueblo. At the same time, her father’s role in his tribe also made her aware of the abuses her people had experienced at the hands of the government. The major issue was the land that had been stolen from her people. She believed that she could change things by writing about them. Some themes: • • • • • • • • •
Evil Reciprocity Individual/Community Native American Traditions Native American Religion Mixed Breeds Scapegoats Racism Prejudice
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
42
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 2.4
Identify changes in literary forms and styles.
American Literature is defined by a number of clearly identifiable periods. 1. Native American works from various tribes These were originally part of a vast oral tradition that spanned most of continental America from as far back as before the 15th century. •
Characteristics of native Indian literature include - Reverence for and awe of nature. - The interconnectedness of the elements in the life cycle.
•
Themes of Indian literature often reflect - The hardiness of the native body and soul. - Remorse for the destruction of their way of life. - The genocide of many tribes by the encroaching settlement and Manifest Destiny policies of the U. S. government.
2. The Colonial Period in both New England and the South Stylistically, early colonists’ writings were neo-classical, emphasizing order, balance, clarity, and reason. Schooled in England, their writing and speaking was still decidedly British even as their thinking became entirely American. Early American literature reveals the lives and experiences of the New England expatriates who left England to find religious freedom. The Revolutionary Period contains non-fiction genres: essay, pamphlet, speech, famous document, and epistle. Thomas Paine’s pamphlet, Common Sense, though written by a recently transplanted Englishman, spoke to the American patriots’ common sense in dealing with the issues in the cause of freedom. Other contributions are Benjamin Franklin’s essays from Poor Richard’s Almanac and satires such as “How to Reduce a Great Empire to a Small One” and “A Letter to Madame Gout.” 3. The Romantic Period Early American folktales, and the emergence of a distinctly American writing, not just a stepchild to English forms, constitute the next period.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
43
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Washington Irving’s characters, Icabod Crane and Rip Van Winkle, create a uniquely American folklore devoid of English influences. The characters are indelibly marked by their environment and the superstitions of the New Englander. The early American writings of James Fenimore Cooper and his Leatherstocking Tales with their stirring accounts of drums along the Mohawk and the French and Indian Wars, the futile British defense of Fort William Henry and the brutalities of this time frame allow readers a window into their uniquely American world. Natty Bumppo, Chingachgook, Uncas, and Magua are unforgettable characters that reflect the American spirit in thought and action. The poetry of Fireside Poets - James Russell Lowell, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and John Greenleaf Whittier - was recited by American families and read in the long New England winters. In “The Courtin’,” Lowell used Yankee dialect to tell a narrative. Spellbinding epics by Longfellow such as Hiawatha, The Courtship of Miles Standish, and Evangeline told of adversity, sorrow, and ultimate happiness in an uniquely American warp. “Snowbound” by Whittier relates the story of a captive family isolated by a blizzard, stressing family closeness. Holmes’ “The Chambered Nautilus” and his famous line, “Fired the shot heard round the world,” put American poetry on a firm footing with other world writers. 4. The Transition between Romanticism and Realism During this period such legendary figures as Paul Bunyan and Pecos Bill rose from the oral tradition. Anonymous storytellers around campfires told tales of a huge lumberman and his giant blue ox, Babe, whose adventures were explanations of natural phenomena like those of footprints filled with rainwater becoming the Great Lakes. Or the whirling-dervish speed of Pecos Bill explained the tornadoes of the Southwest. Like ancient peoples, finding reasons for the happenings in their lives, these American pioneer storytellers created a mythology appropriate to the vast reaches of the unsettled frontier. 5. The Realistic Period The late nineteenth century saw a reaction against the tendency of romantic writers to look at the world through rose-colored glasses. Writers like Frank Norris (The Pit) and Upton Sinclair (The Jungle) used their novels to decry conditions for workers in slaughterhouses and wheat mills. In The Red Badge of Courage, Stephen Crane wrote of the daily sufferings of the common soldier in the Civil War. Realistic writers wrote of common, ordinary people and events using detail that would reveal the harsh realities of life. They broached taboos by creating protagonists whose environments often destroyed them. Romantic writers would have only protagonists whose indomitable wills helped them rise above adversity. Crane’s Maggie: A Girl of the Streets deals with a young woman forced into prostitution to survive. In “The Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge,” Ambrose Bierce relates the unfortunate hanging of a Confederate soldier.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
44
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE
Upton Sinclair Short stories, like Bret Harte’s “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” and Jack London’s “To Build a Fire,” deal with unfortunate people whose luck in life has run out. Many writers, sub-classified as naturalists, believed that man was subject to a fate over which he had no control. 6. The Modern Era The twentieth century American writing can be classified into three basic genres: • • •
Drama Fiction Poetry
Skill 2.5
Identify major American authors and representative works and the significance of these works in the development of American literature from the colonial period to the present.
See Skill 2.2.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
45
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 2.6
Understand how the structure and use of American English have changed.
English is an Indo-European language that evolved through several periods. The origin of English dates to the settlement of the British Isles in the fifth and sixth centuries by Germanic tribes called the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The original Britons spoke a Celtic tongue while the Angles spoke a Germanic dialect. Modern English derives from the speech of the Anglo-Saxons who imposed not only their language but also their social customs and laws on their new land. From the fifth to the tenth century, Britain’s language was the tongue we now refer to as Old English. During the next four centuries, the many French attempts at English conquest introduced many French words to English. However, the grammar and syntax of the language remained Germanic. Middle English, most evident in the writings of Geoffrey Chaucer, dates loosely from 1066 to 1509. William Caxton brought the printing press to England in 1474 and increased literacy. Old English words required numerous inflections to indicate noun cases and plurals as well as verb conjugations. Middle English continued the use of many inflections and pronunciations that treated these inflections as separately pronounced syllables. English in 1300 would have been written “Olde Anglishe” with the e’s at the ends of the words pronounced as our short a vowel. Even adjectives had plural inflections: “long dai” became “longe daies” pronounced “long-a day-as.” Spelling was phonetic, thus every vowel had multiple pronunciations, a fact that continues to affect the language. Modern English dates from the introduction of The Great Vowels Shift because it created guidelines for spelling and pronunciation. Before the printing press, books were copied laboriously by hand; the language was subject to the individual interpretation of the scribes. Printers and subsequently lexicographers like Samuel Johnson and America’s Noah Webster influenced the guidelines. As reading matter was mass produced, the reading public was forced to adopt the speech and writing habits developed by those who wrote and printed books. Despite many students’ insistence to the contrary, Shakespeare’s writings are in Modern English. It is important to stress to students that language, like customs, morals, and other social factors, is constantly subject to change. Immigration, inventions, and cataclysmic events change language as much as any other facet of life affected by these changes. The domination of one race or nation over others can change a language significantly. Beginning with the colonization of the New World, English and Spanish became dominant languages in the Western hemisphere. American English today is somewhat different in pronunciation and sometimes vocabulary from British English. The British call a truck a “lorry;” baby carriages a “pram,” short for “perambulator;” and an elevator a “lift.” There are very few syntactical differences, and even the tonal qualities that were once so clearly different are converging.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
46
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Though Modern English is less complex than Middle English, having lost many unnecessary inflections, it is still considered difficult to learn because of its many exceptions to the rules. It has, however, become the world’s dominant language by reason of the great political, military, and social power of England from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century and of America in the twentieth century. Modern inventions - the telephone, phonograph, radio, television, and motion pictures - have especially affected English pronunciation. Regional dialects, once a hindrance to clear understanding, have fewer distinct characteristics. The speakers from different parts of the United States of America can be identified by their accents, but more and more as educators and media personalities stress uniform pronunciations and proper grammar, the differences are diminishing. The English language has a more extensive vocabulary than any other language. Ours is a language of synonyms, words borrowed from other languages, and coined words - many of them introduced by the rapid expansion of technology. It is important for students to understand that language is in constant flux. Emphasis should be placed on learning and using language for specific purposes and audiences. Negative criticism of a student’s errors in word choice or sentence structures will inhibit creativity. Positive criticism that suggests ways to enhance communication skills will encourage exploration.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
47
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 3.0 UNDERSTAND WORLD LITERATURE FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE PRESENT, INCLUDING BRITISH LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE Skill 3.1
Identify characteristics and significance of world mythology, folk literature, and traditional narratives.
Literary allusions are drawn from classic mythology, national folklore, and religious writings that are supposed to have such familiarity to the reader that he can recognize the comparison between the subject of the allusion and the person, place, or event in the current reading. Children and adolescents who have knowledge of proverbs, fables, myths, epics, and the Bible can understand these allusions and thereby appreciate their reading to a greater degree than those who cannot recognize them. Fables and folktales This literary group of stories and legends was originally orally transmitted to the common populace to provide models of exemplary behavior or deeds worthy of recognition and homage. In fables, animals talk, feel, and behave like human beings. The fable always has a moral and the animals illustrate specific people or groups without directly identifying them. For example, in Aesop’s Fables, the lion is the “King” and the wolf is the cruel, often unfeeling, “noble class.” In the fable of “The Lion and the Mouse” the moral is that “Little friends may prove to be great friends.” In “The Lion’s Share” it is “Might makes right.” Many British folktales - How Robin Became an Outlaw and St. George - Slaying of the Dragon - stress the correlation between power and right. Classical mythology Much of the mythology that produces allusions in modern English writings is a product of ancient Greece and Rome because these myths have been more liberally translated. Some Norse myths are also well known. Children are fond of myths because those ancient people were seeking explanations for those elements in their lives that predated scientific knowledge just as children seek explanations for the occurrences in their lives. These stories provide insight into the order and ethics of life as ancient heroes overcome the terrors of the unknown and bring meaning to the thunder and lightning, to the changing of the seasons, to the magical creatures of the forests and seas, and to the myriad of natural phenomena that can frighten mankind. There is often a childlike quality in the emotions of supernatural beings with which children can identify. Many good translations of myths exist for readers of varying abilities, but Edith Hamilton’s Mythology is the most definitive reading for adolescents.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
48
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Fairy tales Fairy tales are lively fictional stories involving children or animals that come in contact with super-beings via magic. They provide happy solutions to human dilemmas. The fairy tales of many nations are peopled by trolls, elves, dwarfs, and pixies, child-sized beings capable of fantastic accomplishments. Among the most famous are “Beauty and the Beast,” “Cinderella,” “Hansel and Gretel,” “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs,” “Rumplestiltskin,” and “Tom Thumb.” In each tale, the protagonist survives prejudice, imprisonment, ridicule, and even death to receive justice in a cruel world. Older readers encounter a kind of fairy tale world in Shakespeare’s The Tempest and A Midsummer Night’s Dream, which use pixies and fairies as characters. Adolescent readers today are as fascinated by the creations of fantasy realms in the works of Piers Anthony, Ursula LeGuin, and Anne McCaffrey. An extension of interest in the supernatural is the popularity of science fiction that allows us to use current knowledge to predict the possible course of the future. Angels (or sometimes fairy godmothers) play a role in some fairy tales, and Milton in Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained also used symbolic angels and devils. Biblical stories provide many allusions. Parables, moralistic like fables but having human characters, include the stories of the Good Samaritan and the Prodigal Son. References to the treachery of Cain and the betrayal of Christ by Judas Iscariot are oft-cited examples. American folk tales American folktales are divided into two categories. Imaginary tales, also called tall tales (humorous tales based on non-existent, fictional characters developed through blatant exaggeration) John Henry is a two-fisted steel driver who beats out a steam drill in competition. Rip Van Winkle sleeps for twenty years in the Catskill Mountains and upon awakening cannot understand why no one recognizes him. Paul Bunyan, a giant lumberjack, owns a great blue ox named Babe and has extraordinary physical strength. He is said to have plowed the Mississippi River while the impression of Babe’s hoof prints created the Great Lakes.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
49
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Real tales, also called legends (based on real persons who accomplished the feats that are attributed to them even if they are slightly exaggerated) For more than forty years, Johnny Appleseed (John Chapman) roamed Ohio and Indiana planting apple seeds. Daniel Boone - scout, adventurer, and pioneer - blazed the Wilderness Trail and made Kentucky safe for settlers. Paul Revere, an colonial patriot, rode through the New England countryside warning of the approach of British troops. George Washington cut down a cherry tree, which he could not deny, or did he? Skill 3.2
Identify major literary forms, works, and movements in British and other world literature.
There are four major time periods of writings. They are neoclassicism, romanticism, realism, and naturalism. Certain authors, among these Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Donne, though writing during a particular literary period, are considered to have a style all their own. Neoclassicism: Patterned after the greatest writings of classical Greece and Rome, this type of writing is characterized by balanced, graceful, well-crafted, refined, elevated style. Major proponents of this style are poet laureates, John Dryden and Alexander Pope. The eras in which they wrote are called the Ages of Dryden and Pope. The self is not exalted and focus is on the group, not the individual, in neoclassic writing.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
50
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Romanticism: Writings emphasizing the individual. Emotions and feelings are validated. Nature acts as an inspiration for creativity; it is a balm of the spirit. Romantics hearken back to medieval, chivalric themes and ambiance. They also emphasize supernatural, Gothic themes and settings, which are characterized by gloom and darkness. Imagination is stressed. New types of writings include detective and horror stories and autobiographical introspection (Wordsworth). There are two generations in British Literature: First Generation includes William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge whose collaboration, Lyrical Ballads, defines romanticism and its exponents. Wordsworth maintained that the scenes and events of everyday life and the speech of ordinary people were the raw material of which poetry could and should be made. Romanticism spread to the United States, where Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau adopted it in their transcendental romanticism, emphasizing reasoning. Further extensions of this style are found in Edgar Allan Poe's Gothic writings. Second Generation romantics include the ill-fated Englishmen Lord Byron, John Keats, and Percy Bysshe Shelley. Byron and Shelley, who for some most epitomize the romantic poet (in their personal lives as well as in their work), wrote resoundingly in protest against social and political wrongs and in defense of the struggles for liberty in Italy and Greece. The Second Generation romantics stressed personal introspection and the love of beauty and nature as requisites of inspiration. Realism: Unlike classical and neoclassical writing which, often deal with aristocracies and nobility or the gods, realistic writers deal with the common man and his socio/economic problems in a non-sentimental way. Muckraking, social injustice, domestic abuse, and inner city conflicts are examples of writings by writers of realism. Realistic writers include Thomas Hardy, George Bernard Shaw, and Henrik Ibsen. Naturalism: This is realism pushed to the maximum, writing which exposes the underbelly of society, usually the lower class struggles. This is the world of penury, injustice, abuse, ghetto survival, hungry children, single parenting, and substance abuse. Émile Zola was inspired by his readings in history and medicine and attempted to apply methods of scientific observation to the depiction of pathological human character, notably in his series of novels devoted to several generations of one French family.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
51
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Germany German poet and playwright, Friedrich von Schiller, is best known for his history plays, William Tell and The Maid of Orleans. He is a leading literary figure in Germany's Golden Age of Literature. Also from Germany, Rainer Maria Rilke, the great lyric poet, is one of the poets of the unconscious, or stream of consciousness. Germany also has given the world Herman Hesse, (Siddartha), Gunter Grass (The Tin Drum), and the greatest of all German writers, Goethe. Scandinavia Scandinavia has encouraged the work of Hans Christian Andersen in Denmark, who advanced the fairy tale genre with such wistful tales as “The Little Mermaid” and “Thumbelina.” The social commentary of Henrik Ibsen in Norway startled the world of drama with such issues as feminism (The Doll's House and Hedda Gabler) and the effects of sexually transmitted diseases (The Wild Duck and Ghosts). Sweden's Selma Lagerlof is the first woman to ever win the Nobel Prize for literature. Her novels include Gosta Berling's Saga and the world-renowned The Wonderful Adventures of Nils, a children's work. Russia Russian literature is vast and monumental. Who has not heard of Fyodor Dostoyevski’s Crime and Punishment, or The Brothers Karamazov, or Count Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace? These are examples of psychological realism. Dostoyevski’s influence on modern writers cannot be overly stressed. Tolstoy's War and Peace is the sweeping account of the invasion of Russia and Napoleon’s taking of Moscow, abandoned by the Russians. This novel is called the national novel of Russia. Further advancing Tolstoy's greatness is his ability to create believable, unforgettable female characters, especially Natasha in War and Peace and the heroine of Anna Karenina. Pushkin is famous for great short stories; Anton Chekhov for drama, (Uncle Vanya, The Three Sisters, The Cherry Orchard); Yvteshenko for poetry (Babi Yar).
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
52
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE France France has a multifaceted canon of great literature that is universal in scope, almost always championing some social cause: the poignant short stories of Guy de Maupassant; the fantastic poetry of Charles Baudelaire (Fleurs du Mal); and the groundbreaking lyrical poetry of Rimbaud and Verlaine. Drama in France is best represented by Rostand's Cyrano de Bergerac, and the neo-classical dramas of Racine and Corneille (El Cid). The great French novelists include Andre Gide, Honore de Balzac (Cousin Bette), Stendel (The Red and the Black), the father/son duo of Alexandre Dumas (The Three Musketeers and The Man in the Iron Mask. Victor Hugo is the Charles Dickens of French literature, having penned the masterpieces, The Hunchback of Notre Dame and the French national novel, Les Miserables. The stream of consciousness of Proust's Remembrance of Things Past, and the Absurdist theatre of Samuel Beckett and Eugene Ionesco (The Rhinoceros) attest to the groundbreaking genius of the French writers.
Spain Spain's great writers include Miguel de Cervantes (Don Quixote) and Juan Ramon Jimenez. The anonymous national epic, El Cid, has been translated into many languages. Italy Italy’s greatest writers include Virgil, who wrote the great epic, The Aeneid; Giovanni Boccaccio (The Decameron); and Dante Alighieri (The Divine Comedy).
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
53
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Ancient Greece Greece will always be foremost in literary assessments due to Homer’s epics, The Iliad and The Odyssey. No one, except Shakespeare, is more often cited. Add to these the works of Plato and Aristotle for philosophy; the dramatists Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles for tragedy, and Aristophanes for comedy. Greece is the cradle not only of democracy, but of literature as well. Far East The classical Age of Japanese literary achievement includes the father Kiyotsugu Kanami and the son Motokkiyo Zeami who developed the theatrical experience known as No drama to its highest aesthetic degree. The son is said to have authored over 200 plays, of which 100 still are extant. Katai Tayama (The Quilt) is touted as the father of the genre known as the Japanese confessional novel. He also wrote in the “ism” of naturalism. His works are definitely not for the squeamish. The “slice of life” psychological writings of Ryunosuke Akutagawa gained him acclaim in the western world. His short stories, especially “Rashamon” and “In a Grove,” are greatly praised for style as well as content. China, too, has given to the literary world. Li Po, the T’ang dynasty poet from the Chinese Golden Age, revealed his interest in folklore by preserving the folk songs and mythology of China. Po further allows his reader to enter into the Chinese philosophy of Taoism and to know this feeling against expansionism during the T’ang dynastic rule. Back to the T’ang dynasty, which was one of great diversity in the arts, the Chinese version of a short story was created with the help of Jiang Fang. His themes often express love between a man and a woman. North American Literature North American literature is divided between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. The American writers have been amply discussed in 22.1. Canadian writers of note include feminist Margaret Atwood, (The Hand Maiden’s Tale); Alice Munro, a remarkable short story writer; and W. P. Kinsella, another short story writer whose two major subjects are North American Indians and baseball. Mexican writers include 1990 Nobel Prize winning poet, Octavio Paz, (The Labyrinth of Solitude) and feminist Rosarian Castillanos (The Nine Guardians).
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
54
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Africa African literary greats include South Africans Nadine Gordimer (Nobel Prize for literature) and Peter Abrahams (Tell Freedom: Memories of Africa), an autobiography of life in Johannesburg. Chinua Achebe (Things Fall Apart) and the poet, Wole Soyinka, hail from Nigeria. Mark Mathabane wrote an autobiography Kaffir Boy about growing up in South Africa. Egyptian writer, Naguib Mahfouz, and Doris Lessing from Rhodesia, now Zimbabwe, write about race relations in their respective countries. Because of her radical politics, Lessing was banned from her homeland and The Union of South Africa, as was Alan Paton who’s seemingly simple story, Cry, the Beloved Country, brought the plight of blacks and the whites’ fear of blacks under apartheid to the rest of the world.
Central American/Caribbean Literature The Caribbean and Central America encompass a vast area and cultures that reflect oppression and colonialism by England, Spain, Portugal, France, and The Netherlands. The Caribbean writers include Samuel Selvon from Trinidad and Armado Valladres of Cuba. Central American authors include dramatist Carlos Solorzano, from Guatemala, whose plays include Dona Beatriz, The Hapless, The Magician, and The Hands of God.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
55
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE South American Literature Chilean Gabriela Mistral was the first Latin American writer to win the Nobel Prize for literature. She is best known for her collections of poetry, Desolation and Feeling. Chile was also home to Pablo Neruda, who, in 1971, also won the Nobel Prize for literature for his poetry. His 29 volumes of poetry have been translated into more than 60 languages, attesting to his universal appeal. Twenty Love Poems and Song of Despair are justly famous. Isabel Allende is carrying on the Chilean literary standards with her acclaimed novel, House of Spirits. Argentine Jorge Luis Borges is considered by many literary critics to be the most important writer of his century from South America. His collections of short stories, Ficciones, brought him universal recognition. Also from Argentina, Silvina Ocampo, a collaborator with Borges on a collection of poetry, is famed for her poetry and short story collections, which include The Fury and The Days of the Night. Noncontinental European Literature Horacio Quiroga represents Uruguay, and Brazil has Joao Guimaraes Rosa, whose novel, The Devil to Pay, is considered first-rank world literature. Russian Literature Boris Pasternak won the Nobel Prize (Dr. Zhivago). Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (The Gulag Archipelago) is only recently back in Russia after years of expatriation in Vermont. Ilya Varshavsky, who creates fictional societies that are dystopias, or the opposite of utopias, represents the genre of science fiction. French Literature French literature is defined by the existentialism of Jean-Paul Sartre (No Exit, The Flies, Nausea), Andre Malraux, (The Fall), and Albert Camus (The Stranger, The Plague), the recipient of the 1957 Nobel Prize for literature. Feminist writings include those of Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette, known for her short stories and novels, as well as Simone de Beauvoir. Slavic nations Austrian writer Franz Kafka (The Metamorphosis, The Trial, and The Castle) is considered by many to be the literary voice of the first-half of the twentieth century. Representing the Czech Republic is the poet Vaclav Havel. Slovakia has dramatist Karel Capek (R.U.R.) Romania is represented by Elie Weisel (Night), a Nobel Prize winner.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
56
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Far East Literature Asia has many modern writers who are being translated for the western reading public. India’s Krishan Chandar has authored more than 300 stories. Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913 (Song Offerings). Narayan, India’s most famous writer (The Guide), is highly interested in mythology and legends of India. Santha Rama Rau’s work, Gifts of Passage, is her true story of life in a British school where she tries to preserve her Indian culture and traditional home. Revered as Japan’s most famous female author, Fumiko Hayashi (Drifting Clouds) by the time of her death had written more than 270 literary works. In 1968 the Nobel Prize for literature was awarded to Yasunari Kawabata (The Sound of the Mountain, The Snow Country) considered to be his masterpieces. His Palm-of-the-Hand Stories take the essentials of Haiku poetry and transform them into the short story genre. Modern feminist and political concerns are written eloquently by Ting Ling, who used the pseudonym Chiang Ping-Chih. Her stories reflect her concerns about social injustice and her commitment to the women’s movement. Skill 3.3
Identify significant genres and themes in world literature.
An archetype is an idealized model of a person, object, or concept from which similar instances are derived, copied, patterned, or emulated. In psychology, an archetype is a model of a person, personality or behavior. Archetypes often appear in literature. William Shakespeare, for example, is known for popularizing many archetypal characters. Although he based many of his characters on existing archetypes from fables and myths, Shakespeare's characters stand out as original by their contrast against a complex, social literary landscape. An image, character, or pattern of circumstances that reoccurs frequently in literature can be considered an archetype. For example, Oedipus Rex has a structure that appears to be repeated in the lives of all men in the sense that all sons are replacements for their fathers. Faulkner, in “Barn Burning” provides an original example that calls forth this archetype.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
57
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE There are many archetypes, and skillful and creative writers often rely on them to create successful fiction. Some examples of action archetypes: • • • •
The search for the killer The search for salvation (or the holy grail) The search for the hero The descent into hell
Some examples of character archetypes: • The double • The scapegoat • The prodigal son • The Madonna and the Magdalene The family has often been used as a recurring archetypal theme in literature including the Greek play Oedipus Rex and other Greek literature such as the Medea. Many of Shakespeare’s plays also used this archetype: Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, and King Lear, for example. Modern writers also use the family archetype, such as Desire Under the Elms by Eugene O'Neill and A Streetcar Named Desire by Tennessee Williams. Toni Morrison in her popular novel Beloved uses the archetype of family by chronicling the difficulties the protagonist Sethe and her family face before the Civil War as well as during the conflict and afterward. The result is a compelling picture of a family’s response to the devastation brought on by slavery. Skill 3.4
Identify major authors and representative works and their significance in the development of British and other world literature.
Anglo-Saxon The Anglo-Saxon period spans six centuries but produced only a smattering of literature. The first British epic is Beowulf, anonymously written by Christian monks many years after the events in the narrative supposedly occurred. This Teutonic saga relates the triumph three times over monsters by the hero, Beowulf. “The Seafarer,” a shorter poem, some history, and some riddles are the rest of the Anglo-Saxon canon.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
58
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Medieval The Medieval period introduces Geoffrey Chaucer, the father of English literature, whose Canterbury Tales are written in the vernacular, or street language of England, not in Latin. Thus, the tales are said to be the first work of British literature. Next, Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur calls together the extant tales from Europe as well as England concerning the legendary King Arthur, Merlin, Guenevere, and the Knights of the Round Table. This work is the generative work that gave rise to the many Arthurian legends that stir the chivalric imagination. Renaissance and Elizabethan The Renaissance, the most important period since it is synonymous with William Shakespeare, begins with importing the idea of the Petrarchan or Italian sonnet into England. Sir Thomas Wyatt and Sir Philip Sydney wrote English versions. Next, Sir Edmund Spenser invented a variation on this Italian sonnet form, aptly called the Spenserian sonnet. His masterpiece is the epic, The Fairie Queene, honoring Queen Elizabeth I’s reign. He also wrote books on the Red Cross Knight, St. George and the Dragon, and a series of Arthurian adventures. Spencer was dubbed the Poet’s Poet. He created a nine-line stanza, eight lines iambic pentameter and an extra-footed ninth line, an alexandrine. Thus, he invented the Spencerian stanza as well. William Shakespeare, the Bard of Avon, wrote 154 sonnets, 39 plays, and two long narrative poems. The sonnets are justifiably called the greatest sonnet sequence in all literature. Shakespeare dispensed with the octave/sestet format of the Italian sonnet and invented his three quatrains, one heroic couplet format. His plays are divided into comedies, history plays, and tragedies. Great lines from these plays are more often quoted than from any other author. The Big Four tragedies, Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, and King Lear are acknowledged to be the most brilliant examples of this genre. Seventeenth century John Milton’s devout Puritanism was the wellspring of his creative genius that closes the remarkable productivity of the English Renaissance. His social commentary in such works as Aereopagitica, Samson Agonistes, and his elegant sonnets would be enough to solidify his stature as a great writer. It is his masterpiece based in part on the Book of Genesis that places Milton very near the top of the rung of a handful of the most renowned of all writers. Paradise Lost, written in balanced, elegant Neoclassic form, truly does justify the ways of God to man. The greatest allegory about man’s journey to the Celestial City (Heaven) was written at the end of the English Renaissance, as was John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress, which describes virtues and vices personified.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
59
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE This work is, or was for a long time, second only to the Bible in numbers of copies printed and sold. The Jacobean Age gave us the marvelously witty and cleverly constructed conceits of John Donne’s metaphysical sonnets, as well as his insightful meditations, and his version of sermons or homilies. “Ask not for whom the bell tolls”, and “No man is an island unto himself” are famous epigrams from Donne’s Meditations. His most famous conceit is that which compares lovers to a footed compass traveling seemingly separate, but always leaning towards one another and conjoined in “A Valediction Forbidding Mourning.” Eighteenth century Ben Johnson, author of the wickedly droll play, Volpone, and the Cavalier carpe diem poets Robert Herrick, Sir John Suckling, and Richard Lovelace also wrote during King James I’s reign. The Restoration and Enlightenment reflect the political turmoil of the regicide of Charles I, the Interregnum Puritan government of Oliver Cromwell, and the restoring of the monarchy to England by the coronation of Charles II, who had been given refuge by the French King Louis. Neoclassicism became the preferred writing style, especially for Alexander Pope. New genres, such as The Diary of Samuel Pepys, the novels of Daniel Defoe, the periodical essays and editorials of Joseph Addison and Richard Steele, and Alexander Pope’s mock epic, The Rape of the Lock, demonstrate the diversity of expression during this time. Writers who followed were contemporaries of Dr. Samuel Johnson, the lexicographer of The Dictionary of the English Language. Fittingly, this Age of Johnson, which encompasses James Boswell’s biography of Dr. Johnson, Robert Burns’ Scottish dialect and regionalism in his evocative poetry and the mystical pre-Romantic poetry of William Blake usher in the Romantic Age and its revolution against Neoclassicism. Romantic period The Romantic Age encompasses what is known as the First Generation Romantics, William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who collaborated on Lyrical Ballads, which defines and exemplifies the tenets of this style of writing. The Second Generation includes George Gordon, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats. These poets wrote sonnets, odes, epics, and narrative poems, most dealing with homage to nature. Wordsworth’s most famous other works are “Intimations on Immortality” and “The Prelude.” Byron’s satirical epic, Don Juan, and his autobiographical Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage are irreverent, witty, self-deprecating and, in part, cuttingly critical of other writers and critics. Shelley’s odes and sonnets are remarkable for sensory imagery.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
60
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Keats’ sonnets, odes, and longer narrative poem, The Eve of St. Agnes, are remarkable for their introspection and the tender age of the poet, who died when he was only twenty-five. In fact, all of the Second Generation died before their times. Wordsworth, who lived to be eighty, outlived them all, as well as his friend and collaborator, Coleridge. Others who wrote during the Romantic Age are the essayist, Charles Lamb, and the novelist, Jane Austin. The Bronte sisters, Charlotte and Emily, wrote one novel each, which are noted as two of the finest ever written, Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights. Marianne Evans, also known as George Eliot, wrote several important novels: her masterpiece, Middlemarch, Silas Marner, Adam Bede, and Mill on the Floss. Nineteenth century The Victorian Period is remarkable for the diversity and proliferation of work in three major areas. Poets who are typified as Victorians include Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who wrote Idylls of the King, twelve narrative poems about the Arthurian legend, and Robert Browning, who wrote chilling, dramatic monologues, such as “My Last Duchess,” as well as long poetic narratives such as The Pied Piper of Hamlin. His wife Elizabeth wrote two major works, the epic feminist poem, Aurora Leigh, and her deeply moving and provocative Sonnets from the Portuguese, in which she details her deep love for Robert and his startling, to her, reciprocation. Gerard Manley Hopkins, a Catholic priest, wrote poetry with sprung rhythm. (See Glossary of Literary Terms in 2.2). A. E. Housman, Matthew Arnold, and the Pre-Raphaelites, especially the brother and sister duo, Dante Gabriel Rosetti and Christina Rosetti, contributed much to round out the Victorian Era poetic scene. The Pre-Raphaelites, a group of 19thcentury English painters, poets, and critics, reacted against Victorian materialism and the neoclassical conventions of academic art by producing earnest, quasireligious works. Medieval and early Renaissance painters up to the time of the Italian painter Raphael inspired the group. Robert Louis Stevenson, the great Scottish novelist, wrote his adventure/history lessons for young adults. Victorian prose ranges from the incomparable, keenly woven plot structures of Charles Dickens to the deeply moving Dorset/Wessex novels of Thomas Hardy, in which women are repressed and life is more struggle than euphoria. Rudyard Kipling wrote about Colonialism in India in works like Kim and The Jungle Book, that create exotic locales and a distinct main point concerning the Raj, the British Colonial government during Queen Victoria’s reign. Victorian drama is a product mainly of Oscar Wilde, whose satirical masterpiece, The Importance of Being Earnest, farcically details and lampoons Victorian social mores.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
61
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Twentieth century The early twentieth century is represented mainly by the towering achievement of George Bernard Shaw’s dramas: St. Joan, Man and Superman, Major Barbara, and Arms and the Man, to name a few. Novelists are too numerous to list, but Joseph Conrad, E. M. Forster, Virginia Woolf, James Joyce, Nadine Gordimer, Graham Greene, George Orwell, and D. H. Lawrence comprise some of the century’s very best. Twentieth century poets of renown and merit include W. H. Auden, Robert Graves, T. S. Eliot, Edith Sitwell, Stephen Spender, Dylan Thomas, Philip Larkin, Ted Hughes, Sylvia Plath, and Hugh MacDarmid. This list is by no means complete. Skill 3.5
Understand the evolution of English language structure and use.
Perhaps the most basic principle about language in understanding its changes and variations is a simple one: language inevitably changes over time. If a community that speaks a homogeneous language and dialect are for some reason separated with no contact between the two resulting communities, over a few generations, they will be speaking different dialects and eventually will have difficulty understanding each other. Language changes in all its manifestations: At the phonetic level, the sounds of a language will change as will its orthography. The vocabulary level will probably manifest the greatest changes. Changes in syntax are slower and less likely to occur. For example, English has changed in response to the influences of many other languages and cultures as well as internal cultural changes such as the development of the railroad and the computer; however, its syntax still relies on word order—it has not shifted to an inflected system even though many of the cultures that have impacted it do, in fact, have an inflected language, such as Spanish. The most significance influence on a language is the blending of cultures. The Norman Conquest that brought the English speakers in the British Isles under the rule of French speakers impacted the language, but it’s significant that English speakers did not adopt the language of the ruling class—they did not become speakers of French. Even so, many vocabulary items entered the language in that period. The Great Vowel Shift that occurred between the 14th and 16th centuries is somewhat of a mystery although it’s generally attributed to the migration to Southeast England following the plague of the Black Death. The Great Vowel Shift largely accounts for the discrepancy between orthography and speech—the difficult spelling system in modern English.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
62
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Colonization of other countries has also brought new vocabulary items into the language. Indian English not only has its own easily recognizable attributes as does Australian and North American, those cultural interactions have added to items in the usages of each other and in the language at large. The fact that English is the most widely spoken and understood language all over the world in the 21st century, implies that it is constantly being changed by the globalized world. Other influences, of course, impact language. The introduction of television and its domination by the United States has had great influence on the English that is spoken and understood all over the world. The same is true of the computerizing of the world (Tom Friedman called it “flattening” in his The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century). New terms have been added, old terms have changed meaning (“mouse,” for instance), and nouns have been verbalized. Evolution of Slang Use Just as countries and families have histories, so do words. Knowing and understanding the origin of a word, where it has been used down through the years, and the history of its meaning as it has changed is an important component of the writing and language teacher’s tool kit. Never in the history of the English language or any other language for that matter have the forms and meanings of words changed so rapidly. When America was settled originally, immigration from many countries made it a “melting pot.” Immigration accelerated rapidly within the first hundred years, resulting in pockets of language throughout the country. When trains began to make transportation available and affordable, individuals from those various pockets came in contact with each other, shared vocabularies, and attempted to converse. From that time forward, every generation brought the introduction of a technology that made language interchange not only more possible but more important. Radio began the trend to standardize dialects. A Bostonian might not be understood by a native of Louisiana, who might not be interested in turning the dial to hear the news or a drama or the advertisements of the vendors that had a vested interest in being heard and understood. Soap and soup producers knew a goldmine when they saw it and created a market for radio announcers and actors who spoke without a pronounced dialect. In return, listeners began to hear the English language in a dialect very different from the one they spoke, and as it settled into their thinking processes, it eventually made its way to their tongues, and spoken English began to lose some of its local peculiarities. It has been a slow process, but most Americans can easily understand other Americans, no matter where they come from. They can even converse with a native of Great Britain with little difficulty. The introduction of television carried the evolution further as did the explosion of electronic communicating devices over the past fifty years.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
63
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE An excellent example of the changes that have occurred in English is a comparison of Shakespeare’s original works with modern translations. Without help, twenty-first-century Americans are unable to read the Folio. On the other hand, teachers must constantly be mindful of the vocabularies and etymologies of their students, who are on the receiving end of the escalation brought about by technology and increased global influence and contact.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
64
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE DOMAIN II.
READING, RHETORIC, AND COMPOSITION
COMPETENCY 4.0 UNDERSTAND RESEARCH-BASED THEORIES OF THE READING PROCESS AND EFFECTIVE METHODS OF READING INSTRUCTION AND ASSESSMENT Skill 4.1
Understand structural features of language.
Phonological Awareness Phonological awareness means the ability of the reader to recognize the sound of spoken language. This recognition includes how these sounds can be blended together, segmented (divided up), and manipulated (switched around). This awareness then leads to phonics, a method for teaching students to read. It helps them “sound out words.” Instructional methods to teach phonological awareness may include any or all of the following: Auditory games and drills during which students recognize and manipulate the sounds of words, separate or segment the sounds of words, take out sounds, blend sounds, add in new sounds, or take apart sound to recombine them in new formations are good way to foster phonological awareness. Identification of common morphemes, prefixes, and suffixes This aspect of vocabulary development is to help students look for structural elements within words which they can use independently to help them determine meaning. The terms listed below are generally recognized as the key structural analysis components. Root words: A root word is a word from which another word is developed. The second word can be said to have its “root” in the first. This structural component nicely lends itself to a tree with roots illustration which can concretize the meaning for students. Students may also want to literally construct root words using cardboard trees and/or actual roots from plants to create word family models. This is a lovely way to help students own their root words. Base words: A stand-alone linguistic unit which can not be deconstructed or broken down into smaller words. For example, in the word “re-tell,” the base word is “tell.” Contractions: These are shortened forms of two words in which a letter or letters have been deleted. These deleted letters have been replaced by an apostrophe.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
65
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Prefixes: These are beginning units of meaning which can be added (the vocabulary word for this type of structural adding is “affixed”) to a base word or root word. They can not stand alone. They are also sometimes known as “bound morphemes,” meaning that they can not stand alone as a base word. Suffixes: These are ending units of meaning which can be “affixed” or added on to the ends of root or base words. Suffixes transform the original meanings of base and root words. Like prefixes, they are also known as “bound morphemes,” because they can not stand alone as words. Compound words: Occur when two or more base words are connected to form a new word. The meaning of the new word is in some way connected with that of the base word. Inflectional endings: Are types are suffixes that impart a new meaning to the base or root word. These endings in particular change the gender, number, tense, or form of the base or root words. Just like other suffixes, these are also termed “bound morphemes.” Syntax Sentence completeness Avoid fragments and run-on sentences. Recognition of sentence elements necessary to make a complete thought, proper use of independent and dependent clauses (see Use correct coordination and subordination), and proper punctuation will correct such errors. Sentence structure Recognize simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences. Use dependent (subordinate) and independent clauses correctly to create these sentence structures. Simple Joyce wrote a letter. Compound Joyce wrote a letter, and Dot drew a picture. Complex While Joyce wrote a letter, Dot drew a picture. Compound/Complex When Mother asked the girls to demonstrate their new-found skills, Joyce wrote a letter, and Dot drew a picture. Note: Do not confuse compound sentence elements with compound sentences. Simple sentence with compound subject Joyce and Dot wrote letters. The girl in row three and the boy next to her were passing notes across the aisle.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
66
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Simple sentence with compound predicate Joyce wrote letters and drew pictures. The captain of the high school debate team graduated with honors and studied broadcast journalism in college. Simple sentence with compound object of preposition Coleen graded the students’ essays for style and mechanical accuracy. Skill 4.2
Identify research-based theories relating to the reading process.
Learning approach Early theories of language development were formulated from learning theory research. The assumption was that language development evolved from learning the rules of language structures and applying them through imitation and reinforcement. This approach also assumed that language, cognitive, and social developments were independent of each other. Thus, children were expected to learn language from patterning after adults who spoke and wrote Standard English. No allowance was made for communication through child jargon, idiomatic expressions, or grammatical and mechanical errors resulting from too strict adherence to the rules of inflection (childs instead of children) or conjugation (runned instead of ran). No association was made between physical and operational development and language mastery. Linguistic approach Studies spearheaded by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s formulated the theory that language ability is innate and develops through natural human maturation as environmental stimuli trigger acquisition of syntactical structures appropriate to each exposure level. The assumption of a hierarchy of syntax downplayed the significance of semantics. Because of the complexity of syntax and the relative speed with which children acquire language, linguists attributed language development to biological rather than cognitive or social influences.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
67
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Cognitive approach Researchers in the 1970s proposed that language knowledge derives from both syntactic and semantic structures. Drawing on the studies of Piaget and other cognitive learning theorists, supporters of the cognitive approach maintained that children acquire knowledge of linguistic structures after they have acquired the cognitive structures necessary to process language. For example, joining words for specific meaning necessitates sensory motor intelligence. The child must be able to coordinate movement and recognize objects before she can identify words to name the objects or word groups to describe the actions performed with those objects. Adolescents must have developed the mental abilities for organizing concepts as well as concrete operations, predicting outcomes, and theorizing before they can assimilate and verbalize complex sentence structures, choose vocabulary for particular nuances of meaning, and examine semantic structures for tone and manipulative effect. Sociocognitive approach Other theorists in the 1970s proposed that language development results from sociolinguistic competence. Language, cognitive, and social knowledge are interactive elements of total human development. Emphasis on verbal communication as the medium for language expression resulted in the inclusion of speech activities in most language arts curricula. Unlike previous approaches, the sociocognitive allowed that determining the appropriateness of language in given situations for specific listeners is as important as understanding semantic and syntactic structures. By engaging in conversation, children at all stages of development have opportunities to test their language skills, receive feedback, and make modifications. As a social activity, conversation is as structured by social order as grammar is structured by the rules of syntax. Conversation satisfies the learner’s need to be heard and understood and to influence others. Thus, his choices of vocabulary, tone, and content are dictated by his ability to assess the language knowledge of his listeners. He is constantly applying his cognitive skills to using language in a social interaction. If the capacity to acquire language is inborn, without an environment in which to practice language, a child would not pass beyond grunts and gestures as did primitive man.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
68
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Of course, the varying degrees of environmental stimuli to which children are exposed at all age levels creates a slower or faster development of language. Some children are prepared to articulate concepts and recognize symbolism by the time they enter fifth grade because they have been exposed to challenging reading and conversations with well-spoken adults at home or in their social groups. Others are still trying to master the sight recognition skills and are not yet ready to combine words in complex patterns. Concerns for the teacher Because teachers must, by virtue of tradition and the dictates of the curriculum, teach grammar, usage, and writing as well as reading and later literature, the problem becomes when to teach what to whom. The profusion of approaches to teaching grammar alone are mind-boggling. In the universities, we learn about transformational grammar, stratificational grammar, sectoral grammar, etc. But in practice, most teachers, supported by presentations in textbooks and by the methods they learned themselves, keep coming back to the same traditional prescriptive approach - read and imitate - or structural approach - learn the parts of speech, the parts of sentence, punctuation rules, sentence patterns. After enough of the terminology and rules are stored in the brain, then we learn to write and speak. For some educators, the best solution is the worst - don’t teach grammar at all. The same problems occur in teaching usage. How much can we demand students to communicate in only Standard English? Different schools of thought suggest that a study of dialect and idiom and recognition of various jargons is a vital part of language development. Social pressures, especially on students in middle and junior high schools, to be accepted within their peer groups and to speak the non-standard language spoken outside the school make adolescents resistant to the corrective, remedial approach. In many communities where the immigrant populations are high, new words are entering English from other languages even as words and expressions that were common when we were children have become rare or obsolete. Regardless of differences of opinion concerning language development, it is safe to say that language arts teachers will be most effective using the styles and approaches with which they are most comfortable. And, if they subscribe to a student-centered approach, the teacher may find that the students have a lot to teach her/him, and each other. Moffett and Wagner in the Fourth Edition of Student-centered Language Arts K-12 stress the three I’s: individualization, interaction, and integration. Essentially, they are supporting the socio-cognitive approach to language development. By providing an opportunity for the student to select his own activities and resources, his instruction is individualized. By centering on and teaching each other, students are interactive. Finally, by allowing students to synthesize a variety of knowledge structures, they integrate them. The teacher’s role becomes that of a facilitator.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
69
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Benefits of the socio-cognitive approach This approach has tended to guide the whole language movement, currently in fashion. Most basal readers utilize an integrated, cross-curricular approach to successful grammar, language, and usage. Reinforcement becomes an intradepartmental responsibility. Language incorporates diction and terminology across the curriculum. Standard usage is encouraged and supported by both the core classroom textbooks and current software for technology. Teachers need to acquaint themselves with the computer capabilities in their school district and at their individual school sites. Advances in new technologies require the teacher to familiarize herself with programs that would serve her students’ needs. Students respond enthusiastically to technology. Several highly effective programs are available in various formats to assist students with initial instruction or remediation. Grammar texts, such as the Warriner’s series, employ various methods to reach individual learning styles. The school library media center should become a focal point for individual exploration. Second Language Learners Students who are raised in homes where English is not the first language and/or where standard English is not spoken, may have difficulty with hearing the difference between similar sounding words like “send” and “sent.” Any student, who is not in an environment where English phonology operates, may have difficulty perceiving and demonstrating the differences between English language phonemes. If students can not hear the difference between words that “sound the same” like “grow” and “glow,” they will be confused when these words appear in a print context. This confusion will of course, sadly, impact their comprehension. Considerations for teaching to English Language Learners include recognition by the teacher that what works for the English language speaking student from an English language speaking family, does not necessarily work in other languages. Research recommends that ELL students learn to read initially in their first language. It has been found that a priority for ELL should be learning to speak English before being taught to read English. Research supports oral language development, since it lays the foundation for phonological awareness.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
70
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 4.3
Utilize vocabulary skills and strategies.
A planned, effective vocabulary program is not an “extra” but an across-thecurriculum necessity. The four-step process in such a program includes 1. Evaluate to determine what the students know. 2. Devise a plan to teach the students what they must learn as part of a continuum. 3. Determine if students have heard the words to be studied and in what context. 4. Teach vocabulary for MASTERY. To reach mastery, clear-cut objectives and pacing are important since some students will need more practice than others. Building in time for practice, review, and testing is an integral component of a successful program. Re-teaching words missed on tests or misused in writing is essential until mastery is achieved. The learning of vocabulary through visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactical experiences in a systematic order will enhance the learning process. Methods of presentation, for a well-balanced program at all levels, include: •
Recognizing and using words in context.
•
Giving attention to varying definitions of the same word.
•
Studying word families (synonyms, antonyms, and homonyms).
•
Locating etymologies (word origins).
•
Analyzing word parts (roots, prefixes, suffixes).
•
Locating phonetic spellings and identifying correct pronunciation.
•
Spelling words properly.
•
Using words semantically.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
71
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Countless enrichment materials are available and include computer software, CD ROM, board games, flashcards, and puzzles, etc. The more varied the experience, the easier and quicker students will commit the words to memory and mastery will be achieved. The Shostak Vocabulary Series that spans middle school through grade 13, including SAT/ACT preparation is recommended by the authors for use in grades 9-12. Within the literature series, vocabulary lists and practices are included. Classroom teachers should also review content area texts to add technical and specialized words to the weekly vocabulary study. Skill 4.4
Assess a reader's literal, inferential, and evaluative comprehension of literary and expository texts.
Reading literature involves a reciprocal interaction between the reader and the text. Types of responses Emotional The reader can identify with the characters and situations so as to project himself into the story. The reader feels a sense of satisfaction by associating aspects of his own life with the people, places, and events in the literature. Emotional responses are observed in a reader’s verbal and non-verbal reactions - laughter, comments on its effects, and retelling or dramatizing the action. Interpretive Interpretive responses result in inferences about character development, setting, or plot; analysis of style elements - metaphor, simile, allusion, rhythm, tone and outcomes derivable from information provided in the narrative; and assessment of the author’s intent. Interpretive responses are made verbally or in writing. Critical Critical responses involve making value judgments about the quality of a piece of literature. Reactions to the effectiveness of the writer’s style and language use are observed through discussion and written reactions.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
72
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Evaluative Some reading response theory researchers also add a response that considers the readers considerations of such factors as how well the piece of literature represents its genre, how well it reflects the social/ethical mores of society, and how well the author has approached the subject for freshness and slant. Middle school readers will exhibit both emotional and interpretive responses. Naturally, making interpretive responses depends on the degree of knowledge the student has of literary elements. A child’s being able to say why a particular book was boring or why a particular poem made him sad evidences critical reactions on a fundamental level. Adolescents in ninth and tenth grades should begin to make critical responses by addressing the specific language and genre characteristics of literature. Evaluative responses are harder to detect and are rarely made by any but a few advanced high school students. However, if the teacher knows what to listen for, she can recognize evaluative responses and incorporate them into discussions. For example, if a student says, “I don't understand why that character is doing that,” he is making an interpretive response to character motivation. However, if he goes on to say, “What good is that action?” he is giving an evaluative response that should be explored in terms of “What good should it do and why isn’t that positive action happening?” At the emotional level, the student says, “I almost broke into a sweat when he was describing the heat in the burning house.” An interpretive response says, “The author used descriptive adjectives to bring his setting to life.” Critically, the student adds, “The author’s use of descriptive language contributes to the success of the narrative and maintains reader interest through the whole story.” If he goes on to wonder why the author allowed the grandmother in the story to die in the fire, he is making an evaluative response. Levels of response The levels of reader response will depend largely on the reader’s level of social, psychological, and intellectual development. Most middle school students have progressed beyond merely involving themselves in the story enough to be able to retell the events in some logical sequence or describe the feeling that the story evoked. They are aware to some degree that the feeling evoked was the result of a careful manipulation of good elements of fiction writing. They may not explain that awareness as successfully as a high school student, but they are beginning to grasp the concepts and not just the personal reactions. They are beginning to differentiate between responding to the story itself and responding to a literary creation.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
73
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Fostering self-esteem and empathy for others and the world in which one lives All-important is the use of literature as bibliotherapy that allows the reader to identify with others and become aware of alternatives, yet not feeling directly betrayed or threatened. For the high school student the ability to empathize is an evaluative response, a much desired outcome of literature studies. Use of these books either individually or as a thematic unit of study allows for discussion or writing. The titles are grouped by theme, not by reading level. ABUSE: Blair, Maury and Brendel, Doug. Maury, Wednesday's Child Dizenzo, Patricia. Why Me? Parrot, Andrea. Coping with Date Rape and Acquaintance Rape NATURAL WORLD CONCERNS: Caduto, M. and Bruchac, J. Keeper's of Earth Gay, Kathlyn. Greenhouse Effect Johnson, Daenis. Fiskadaro Madison, Arnold. It Can't Happen to Me
EATING DISORDERS: Arnold, Caroline. Too Fat, Too Thin, Do I Have a Choice? DeClements, Barthe. Nothing's Fair in Fifth Grade Snyder, Anne. Goodbye, Paper Doll FAMILY: Chopin, Kate. The Runner Cormier, Robert. Tunes for Bears to Dance to Danzinger, Paula. The Divorce Express Neufield, John. Sunday Father Okimoto, Jean Davies. Molly by any Other Name Peck, Richard. Don't Look and It Won't Hurt Zindel, Paul. I Never Loved Your Mind
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
74
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE STEREOTYPING: Baklanov, Grigory. (Trans. by Antonina W. Bouis) Forever Nineteen Kerr, M.E. Gentle Hands Greene, Betty. Summer of My German Soldier Reiss, Johanna. The Upstairs Room Taylor, Mildred D. Roll of Thunder, Hear Me Cry Wakatsuki-Houston, Jeanne and Houston, James D. Farewell to Manzanar SUICIDE AND DEATH: Blume, Judy. Tiger Eyes Bunting, Eve. If I Asked You, Would You Stay? Gunther, John. Death Be Not Proud Mazer, Harry. When the Phone Rings Peck, Richard. Remembering the Good Times Richter, Elizabeth. Losing Someone You Love Strasser, Todd. Friends Till the End Cautions There is always a caution when reading materials of a sensitive or controversial nature. The teacher must be cognizant of the happenings in the school and outside community to spare students undue suffering. A child who has known a recent death in his family or circle of friends may need to distance himself from classroom discussion. Whenever open discussion of a topic brings pain or embarrassment, the child should not be further subjected. Older children and young adults will be able to discuss issues with greater objectivity and without making blurted, insensitive comments. The teacher must be able to gauge the level of emotional development of her students when selecting subject matter and the strategies for studying it. The student or his parents may consider some material objectionable. Should a student choose not to read an assigned material, it is the teacher’s responsibility to allow the student to select an alternate title. It is always advisable to notify parents if a particularly sensitive piece is to be studied.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
75
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 4.5
Assess a reader's use of metacognitive techniques to monitor reading comprehension.
Reading emphasis in middle school Reading for comprehension of factual material - content area textbooks, reference books, and newspapers - is closely related to study strategies in the middle/junior high. Organized study models, such as the SQ3R method, a technique that makes it possible and feasible to learn the content of even large amounts of text (Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review Studying), teach students to locate main ideas and supporting details, to recognize sequential order, to distinguish fact from opinion, and to determine cause/ effect relationships. Strategies 1. Teacher-guided activities that require students to organize and to summarize information based on the author’s explicit intent are pertinent strategies in middle grades. Evaluation techniques include oral and written responses to standardized or teacher-made worksheets. 2. Reading of fiction introduces and reinforces skills in inferring meaning from narration and description. Teaching-guided activities in the process of reading for meaning should be followed by cooperative planning of the skills to be studied and of the selection of reading resources. Many printed reading for comprehension instruments as well as individualized computer software programs exist to monitor the progress of acquiring comprehension skills. 3. Older middle school students should be given opportunities for more studentcentered activities - individual and collaborative selection of reading choices based on student interest, small group discussions of selected works, and greater written expression. Evaluation techniques include teacher monitoring and observation of discussions and written work samples. 4. Certain students may begin some fundamental critical interpretation recognizing fallacious reasoning in news media, examining the accuracy of news reports and advertising, explaining their reasons for preferring one author’s writing to another’s. Development of these skills may require a more learning-centered approach in which the teacher identifies a number of objectives and suggested resources from which the student may choose his course of study. Self-evaluation through a reading diary should be stressed. Teacher and peer evaluation of creative projects resulting from such study is encouraged.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
76
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 5. Reading aloud before the entire class as a formal means of teacher evaluation should be phased out in favor of one-to-one tutoring or peerassisted reading. Occasional sharing of favored selections by both teacher and willing students is a good oral interpretation basic. Reading emphasis in high school Students in high school literature classes should focus on interpretive and critical reading. Teachers should guide the study of the elements of inferential (interpretive) reading - drawing conclusions, predicting outcomes, and recognizing examples of specific genre characteristics, for example - and critical reading to judge the quality of the writer’s work against recognized standards. At this level students should understand the skills of language and reading that they are expected to master and be able to evaluate their own progress. Strategies 1. The teacher becomes more facilitator than instructor - helping the student to make a diagnosis of his own strengths and weaknesses, keeping a record of progress, and interacting with other students and the teacher in practicing skills. 2. Despite the requisites and prerequisites of most literature courses, students should be encouraged to pursue independent study and enrichment reading. 3. Ample opportunities should be provided for oral interpretation of literature, special projects in creative dramatics, writing for publication in school literary magazines or newspapers, and speech/debate activities. A student portfolio provides for teacher and peer evaluation. Skill 4.6
Assess a reader's application of comprehension strategies before, during, and after reading.
Children who learn to read on schedule and who are avid readers have been seen to have superior vocabularies compared to other children their age. The reason for this is that in order to understand what they read, they often must determine the meaning for a word based on its context. Children who constantly turn to a dictionary for the meaning of a word they don’t know will not have this advantage.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
77
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE This is an important clue for providing students the kinds of exercises and helps they need in order to develop their vocabularies. Learning vocabulary lists is useful, of course, but much less efficient than exercises in determining meaning on the basis of context. It requires an entirely different kind of thinking and learning. Poetry is also useful for developing vocabulary exercises for children, especially rhymed poetry, where the pronunciation of a term may be deduced by what the poet intended for it to rhyme with. In some poets of earlier periods, the teacher may need to intervene because some of the words that would have rhymed when the poem was written do not rhyme in today’s English. Even so, this is a good opportunity to help children understand some of the important principles about their constantly-changing language. Another good exercise for developing vocabulary is the crossword puzzle. A child’s ability to think in terms of analogy is a step upward toward mature language understanding and use. The teacher may construct crossword puzzles using items from the class such as students’ names or the terms from their literature or language lessons. Students frequently encounter problems with homonyms—words that are spelled and pronounced the same as another but that have different meanings such as mean, a verb, “to intend”; mean an adjective, “unkind”; and mean a noun or adjective, “average.” These words are actually both homonyms and homographs (written the same way). A similar phenomenon that causes trouble is heteronyms (also sometimes called heterophones), words that are spelled the same but have different pronunciations and meanings (in other words, they are homographs that differ in pronunciation or, technically, homographs that are not homophones). For example, the homographs desert (abandon) and desert (arid region) are heteronyms (pronounced differently); but mean (intend) and mean (average) are not. They are pronounced the same, or are homonyms. Another similar occurrence in English is the capitonym, a word that is spelled the same but has different meanings when it is capitalized and may or may not have different pronunciations. Example: polish (to make shiny) and Polish (from Poland). Some of the most troubling homonyms are those that are spelled differently but sound the same. Examples: its (3d person singular neuter pronoun) and it’s (“it is”); there, their (3d person plural pronoun) and they’re (“they are”). Others: to, too, two; Some homonyms/homographs are particularly complicated and troubling. Fluke, for instance is a fish, a flatworm, the end parts of an anchor, the fins on a whale’s tail, and a stroke of luck.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
78
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Common ones that are troubling to student writers: accept: tolerate; except: everything but. add: put together with; ad: short for advertisement. allowed: permitted; aloud: audibly. allot: to distribute, allocate; a lot (often "alot"): much, many (a lot of). allusion: indirect reference; illusion: a distortion of sensory perception. bare: naked, exposed or very little (bare necessities); bear: as a noun, a large mammal and as a verb, to carry. boy: a male adolescent or child; buoy: (noun) a floating marker in the sea. bridal: pertaining to a bride (bridal gown, bridal suite); bridle: (noun) part of a horse's tack. capital: punishable by death, with an upper-case letter, principal town or city, or wealth and money; Capitol: the home of the Congress of the United States and some other legislatures. chord: group of musical notes; cord: rope, long electrical line. compliment: a praising or flattering remark; complement: something that completes. discreet: tactful or diplomatic; discrete: separate or distinct. dyeing: artificially coloring; dying: passing away. effect: outcome; affect: have an effect on. gorilla: the largest of the great apes; guerrilla: a small combat group. hair: an outgrowth of the epidermis in mammals; hare: rabbit. hoard: to accumulate and store up; horde: large group of warriors, mob. lam: US slang, "on the lam" means "on the run"; lamb: a young sheep. lead: pronounced to rhyme with "seed", to guide or serve as the head of; lead: pronounced to rhyme with "head," a heavy metal; led: the past tense of "lead." medal: an award to be strung around the neck; meddle: stick one's nose into others' affairs; metal: shiny, malleable element or alloy like silver or gold; mettle: toughness, guts. morning: the time between midnight and midday; mourning: period of grieving after a death. past: time before now (past, present and future); passed: past tense of "to pass." piece: portion; peace: opposite of war. peak: tip, height, to reach its highest point; peek: to take a brief look; pique: fit of anger; to incite (pique one's interest). Strategies to help students conquer these demons: Practice using them in sentences. Context is useful in understanding the difference. Drill is necessary to overcome the misuses.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
79
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 4.7
Apply research-based instructional strategies to promote development of particular reading skills.
Tracing an idea through a passage goes much better if a strategy if developed for doing so. Good readers usually have these strategies even though they might not be aware of them. A good way to start is by looking for words or phrases that appear more than once or even many times. Following those key words and phrases will make it possible to observe a picture of the idea as it appears in the piece of writing. Also, most published writers avoid repetition. For that reason, key words in a piece of writing will probably have several synonyms or even more. In strategizing for reading materials for comprehension, this device can be very useful. By focusing on the key words and thinking about their meanings, following the idea will be expedited. Transitional words and phrases are designed to lead the reader forward and through a piece of writing. Such words as therefore, however, even so, although, etc. are clues to connections between one part of the writing and another and the nature of the connection. Phrases sometimes substitute for words. Some examples: as a matter of fact, in the long run, and looking back, etc. In the past, the Oxford English Dictionary has been the most reliable source for etymologies. Some of the collegiate dictionaries are also useful. MerriamWebster’s 3rd Unabridged Dictionary is useful in tracing the sources of words in American English. Merriam-Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary may be out of date, so a teacher should also have a Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, which is updated regularly. However, there are many up-to-date sources for keeping up and keeping track of the changes that have occurred and are occurring constantly. Google “etymology,” for instance, or even the word you’re unsure of, and you can find a multitude of sources. Don’t trust a single one. The information should be validated by at least three sources. Wikipedia is very useful, but it can be changed by anyone who chooses, so any information on it should be backed up by other sources. If you go to http://www.etymonline.com/sources.php, you will find a long list of resources on etymology. In order to know when to label a usage “jargon” or “colloquial” nowadays, the teacher must be aware of the possibility that it’s a word that is now accepted as standard. In order to be on top of this, the teacher must continually keep up with the etymological aids that are available, particularly online.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
80
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Spelling in English is complicated by the fact that it is not phonetic—that is, it is not based on the one-sound/one letter formula used by many other languages. The reason for this is that it is based on the Latin alphabet, which originally had twenty letters, consisting of the present English alphabet minus J, K, V, W, Y, and Z. The Romans added K to be used in abbreviations and Y and Z in words that came from the Greek. This 23-letter alphabet was adopted by the English, who developed W as a ligatured doubling of U and later J and V as consonantal variants of I and U. The result was our alphabet of 26 letters with upper case (capital) and lower case forms. Spelling is based primarily on 15th century English. The problem is that pronunciation has changed drastically since then, especially long vowels and diphthongs. This Great Vowel Shift affected the seven long vowels. For a long time, spelling was erratic—there were no standards. As long as the meaning was clear, spelling was not considered very important. Samuel Johnson tackled this problem, and his Dictionary of the English Language (1755) brought standards to spelling, so important once printing presses were invented. There have been some changes, of course, through the years; but spelling is still not strictly phonetic. There have been many attempts to nudge the spelling into a more phonetic representation of the sounds, but for the most part, all have failed. A good example is Noah Webster’s Spelling Book (1783), which was a precursor to the first edition (1828) of his American Dictionary of the English Language. While there are rules for spelling, and it’s important that students learn the rules, there are many exceptions; and memorizing exceptions and giving plenty of opportunities for practicing them seems the only solution for the teacher of English.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
81
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 4.8
Apply principles for planning, managing, and differentiating reading instruction to support students' reading development.
The question to be asked first when approaching a reading task is what is my objective? What do I want to achieve from this reading? How will I use the information I gain from this reading? Do I only need to grasp the gist of the piece? Do I need to know the line of reasoning—not only the thesis but the subpoints? Will I be reporting important and significant details orally or in a written document? A written document can be expected to have a thesis—either expressed or derived. To discover the thesis, the reader needs to ask what point the writer intended to make? The writing can also be expected to be organized in some logical way and to have subpoints that support or establish that the thesis is valid. It is also reasonable to expect that there will be details or examples that will support the subpoints. Knowing this, the reader can make a decision about reading techniques required for the purpose that has already been established. If the reader only needs to know the gist of a written document, speed-reading skimming techniques may be sufficient by using the forefinger, moving the eyes down the page, picking up the important statements in each paragraph and deducing mentally that this piece is about such-and-such. If the reader needs to a little better grasp of how the writer achieved his/her purpose in the document, a quick and cursory glance—a skimming―of each paragraph will yield what the subpoints are, the topic sentences of the paragraphs, and how the thesis is developed, yielding a greater understanding of the author’s purpose and method of development. In-depth reading requires the scrutiny of each phrase and sentence with care, looking for the thesis first of all and then the topic sentences in the paragraphs that provide the development of the thesis, also looking for connections such as transitional devices that provide clues to the direction the reasoning is taking. Sometimes rereading is necessary in order to make use of a piece of writing for an oral or written report upon a document. If this is the purpose of reading it, the first reading should provide a map for the rereading or second reading. The second time through should follow this map, and those points that are going to be used in a report or analysis will be focused upon on more carefully. Some new understandings may occur in this rereading, and it may become apparent that the “map” that was derived from the first reading will need to be adjusted. If this rereading is for the purpose of writing an analysis or using material for a report, either highlighting or note-taking is advisable.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
82
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 4.9
Understand the adjustment of reading instruction based on ongoing assessment.
Skills to Evaluate: •
•
•
•
• • • •
Ability to use syntactic cues when encountering an unknown word. A good reader will expect the word to fit the syntax he/she is familiar with. A poor reader may substitute a word that does not fit the syntax, and will not correct him/herself. Ability to use semantic cues to determine the meaning of an unknown word. A good reader will consider the meanings of all the known words in the sentence. A poor reader may read one word at a time with no regard for the other words. Ability to use schematic cues to connect words read with prior knowledge. A good reader will incorporate what he/she knows with what the text says or implies. A poor reader may think only of the word he/she is reading without associating it with prior knowledge. Ability to use phonics cues to improve ease and efficiency in reading. A good reader will apply letter and sound associations almost subconsciously. A poor reader may have one of two kinds of problems. He/she may have underdeveloped phonics/skills, and use only an initial clue without analyzing vowel patterns before quickly guessing the word. Or he/she may use phonics skills in isolation, becoming so absorbed in the word “noises” that he/she ignores or forgets the message of the text. Ability to process information from text. A student should be able to get information from the text, as well as store, retrieve and integrate it for later use. Ability to use interpretive thinking to make logical predictions and inferences. Ability to use critical thinking to make decisions and insights about the text. Ability to use appreciative thinking to respond to the text, whether emotionally, mentally, ideologically, etc.
Methods of Evaluation: • • • •
Assess students at the beginning of each year to determine grouping for instruction. Judge whether a student recognizes when a word does not make sense. Monitor whether the student corrects him/herself, if they know when to ignore and read on or when to reread a sentence. Looks for skill such as recognizing cause and effect, finding main ideas, and using comparison and contrast techniques.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
83
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE •
•
•
Use oral reading to assess reading skills. Pay attention to word recognition skills rather than the reader’s ability to communicate the author’s message. Strong oral reading sounds like natural speech, utilizes phrasing and pace that match the meaning of the text, and uses pitch and tone to interpret the text. Keep dated records to follow individual progress. Focus on a few students each day. Grade them on a scale of 1-5 according to how well they perform certain reading abilities (e.g. logically predicts coming events). Also include informal observations, such as “Ed was able to determine the meaning of the word ‘immigrant’ by examining the other words in the sentence.” Remember that evaluation is important, but enjoyment of reading is the most important thing to emphasize. Keep reading as a pressure-free, fun activity so students do not become intimidated by reading. Even if the student is not meeting excellent standards, if they continue wanting to read each day, that is a success!
Skill 4.10
Utilize instructional technologies to promote students' reading development.
Media’s impact on today’s society is immense and ever-increasing. As children, we watch programs on television that are amazingly fast-paced and visually rich. Parent’s roles as verbal and moral teachers are diminishing in response to the much more stimulating guidance of the television set. Adolescence, which used to be the time for going out and exploring the world first hand, is now consumed by the allure of MTV, popular music, and video games. Young adults are exposed to uncensored sex and violence. But media’s affect on society is beneficial and progressive at the same time. Its affect on education in particular provides special challenges and opportunities for teachers and students. Thanks to satellite technology, instructional radio and television programs can be received by urban classrooms and rural villages. CD-roms can allow students to learn information through a virtual reality experience. The internet allows instant access to unlimited data and connects people across all cultures through shared interests. Educational media, when used in a productive way, enriches instruction and makes it more individualized, accessible, and economical.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
84
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Tips for using print media and visual aids • Use pictures over words whenever possible. • Present one key point per visual. • Use no more than 3-4 colors per visual to avoid clutter and confusion. • Use contrasting colors such as dark blue and bright yellow. • Use a maximum of 25-35 numbers per visual aid. • Use bullets instead of paragraphs when possible. • Make sure it is student-centered, not media-centered. Delivery is just as important as the media presented. Tips for using film and television • Study programs in advance. • Obtain supplementary materials such as printed transcripts of the narrative or study guides. • Provide you students with background information, explain unfamiliar concepts, and anticipate outcomes. • Assign outside readings based on their viewing. • Ask cuing questions. • Watch along with students. • Observe students’ reactions. • Follow up viewing with discussions and related activities.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
85
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 5.0 UNDERSTAND PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC AND USES OF LANGUAGE AS THEY APPLY TO VARIOUS FORMS AND PURPOSES OF ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION Skill 5.1 Understand general principles of classical rhetoric. Types of Appeal • •
•
Ethos- Refers to the credibility of the speaker. It utilizes the credentials of the speaker as a reliable and trustworthy authority. Pathos- Refers to the emotional appeal made by the speaker to the listeners. It emphasizes the fact that the audience responds to ideas with emotion. For example, when the government is trying to persuade citizens to go to war for the sake of “the fatherland,” it is using the appeal to pathos to target their love of their country. Logos- Refers to the logic of the speaker’s argument. It utilizes the idea that facts, statistics and other forms of evidence can convince an audience to accept a speaker’s argument. Remember that information can be just as, if not more, persuasive than appeal tactics.
Types of Persuasive Speech 1. Fact: Similar to an informative speech, a persuasive speech on a question of fact seeks to find an answer where there isn’t a clear one. The speaker evaluates evidence and attempts to convince the audience that their conclusion is correct. The challenge is to accept a certain carefully crafted view of the facts presented. 2. Value: This kind of persuasion tries to convince the audience that a certain thing is good or bad, moral or immoral, valuable or worthless. It focuses less on knowledge and more on beliefs and values. 3. Policy: This speech is a call to action, arguing that something should be done, improved or changed. Its goal is action from the audience, but it also seeks passive agreement with the proposition proposed. It appeals to both reason and emotion, and tells listeners what they can do and how to do it. Logical Fallacies A fallacy is, essentially, an error in reasoning. In persuasive speech, logical fallacies are instances of reasoning flaws that make an argument invalid. For example, a premature generalization occurs when you form a general rule based on only one or a few specific cases, which do not represent all possible cases. An illustration of this is the statement, “Bob Marley was a Rastafarian singer. Therefore, all Rastafarians sing.”
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
86
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Logical Argument A logical argument consists of three stages. First of all, the propositions which are necessary for the argument to continue are stated. These are called the premises of the argument. They are the evidence or reasons for accepting the argument and its conclusions. Premises (or assertions) are often indicated by phrases such as "because", "since", "obviously" and so on. (The phrase "obviously" is often viewed with suspicion, as it can be used to intimidate others into accepting suspicious premises. If something doesn't seem obvious to you, don't be afraid to question it. You can always say "Oh, yes, you're right, it is obvious" when you've heard the explanation.) Next, the premises are used to derive further propositions by a process known as inference. In inference, one proposition is arrived at on the basis of one or more other propositions already accepted. There are various forms of valid inference. The propositions arrived at by inference may then be used in further inference. Inference is often denoted by phrases such as "implies that" or "therefore". Finally, we arrive at the conclusion of the argument -- the proposition which is affirmed on the basis of the premises and inference. Conclusions are often indicated by phrases such as "therefore", "it follows that", "we conclude" and so on. The conclusion is often stated as the final stage of inference. Classical Argument In its simplest form, the classical argument has five main parts: The introduction, which warms up the audience, establishes goodwill and rapport with the readers, and announces the general theme or thesis of the argument. The narration, which summarizes relevant background material, provides any information the audience needs to know about the environment and circumstances that produce the argument, and set up the stakes–what’s at risk in this question. The confirmation, which lays out in a logical order (usually strongest to weakest or most obvious to most subtle) the claims that support the thesis, providing evidence for each claim. The refutation and concession, which looks at opposing viewpoints to the writer’s claims, anticipating objections from the audience, and allowing as much of the opposing viewpoints as possible without weakening the thesis. The summation, which provides a strong conclusion, amplifies the force of the argument, and shows the readers that this solution is the best at meeting the circumstances. MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
87
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 5.2
Identify structural devices.
Voice: Many people fall into one of two traps when speaking: using a monotone, or talking too fast. These are both caused by anxiety. A monotone restricts your natural inflection, but can be remedied by releasing tension in upper and lower body muscles. Subtle movement will keep you loose and natural. Talking too fast on the other hand, is not necessarily a bad thing if the speaker is exceptionally articulate. If not though, or if the speaker is talking about very technical things, it becomes far too easy for the audience to become lost. When you talk too fast and begin tripping over your words, consciously pause after every sentence you say. Don’t be afraid of brief silences. The audience needs time to absorb what you are saying. Volume: Problems with volume, whether too soft or too loud, can usually be combated with practice. If you tend to speak too softly, have someone stand in the back of the room and give you a signal when your volume is strong enough. If possible, have someone in the front of the room as well to make sure you’re not overcompensating with excessive volume. Conversely, if you have a problem with speaking too loud, have the person in the front of the room signal you when your voice is soft enough and check with the person in the back to make sure it is still loud enough to be heard. In both cases, note your volume level for future reference. Don’t be shy about asking your audience, “Can you hear me in the back?” Suitable volume is beneficial for both you and the audience. Pitch: Pitch refers to the length, tension and thickness of a person’s vocal cords. As your voice gets higher, the pitch gets higher. In oral performance, pitch reflects upon the emotional arousal level. More variation in pitch typically corresponds to more emotional arousal, but can also be used to convey sarcasm or highlight specific words. Posture: Maintain a straight, but not stiff posture. Instead of shifting weight from hip to hip, point your feet directly at the audience and distribute your weight evenly. Keep shoulders orientated towards the audience. If you have to turn your body to use a visual aid, turn 45 degrees and continue speaking towards the audience. Movement: Instead of staying glued to one spot or pacing back and forth, stay within four to eight feet of the front row of your audience, and take maybe a step or half-step to the side every once in a while. If you are using a lectern, feel free to move to the front or side of it to engage your audience more. Avoid distancing yourself from the audience, you want them to feel involved and connected.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
88
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Gestures: Gestures are a great way to keep a natural atmosphere when speaking publicly. Use them just as you would when speaking to a friend. They shouldn’t be exaggerated, but they should be utilized for added emphasis. Avoid keeping your hands in your pockets or locked behind your back, wringing your hands and fidgeting nervously, or keeping your arms crossed. Eye Contact: Many people are intimidated by using eye contact when speaking to large groups. Interestingly, eye contact usually helps the speaker overcome speech anxiety by connecting with their attentive audience and easing feelings of isolation. Instead of looking at a spot on the back wall or at your notes, scan the room and make eye contact for one to three seconds per person. Skill 5.3
Understand application of modern rhetorical principles.
Oral use of communication forms Different from the basic writing forms of discourse is the art of debating, discussion, and conversation. The ability to use language and logic to convince the audience to accept your reasoning and to side with you is an art. This form of writing/speaking is extremely confined/structured, logically sequenced, with supporting reasons and evidence. At its best, it is the highest form of propaganda. A position statement, evidence, reason, evaluation and refutation are integral parts of this writing schema. Interviewing provides opportunities for students to apply expository and informative communication. It teaches them how to structure questions to evoke fact-filled responses. Compiling the information from an interview into a biographical essay or speech helps students to list, sort, and arrange details in an orderly fashion. Speeches that encourage them to describe persons, places, or events in their own lives or oral interpretations of literature help them sense the creativity and effort used by professional writers. Useful resources Price, Brent - Basic Composition Activities Kit - provides practical suggestions and student guide sheets for use in the development of student writing. Simmons, John S., R.E. Shafer, and Gail B. West. (1976). Decisions About The Teaching of English - "Advertising, or Buy It, You'll Like It." Allyn & Bacon. Additional resources may be found in the library, social studies, economic, debate and journalism textbooks and locally published newspapers.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
89
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The successful conversationalist is a person who keeps up with what’s going on in the world both far and near and ponders the meanings of events and developments. That person also usually reads about the topics that are of the most interest to him, both in printed materials and online. In addition, the effective conversationalist has certain areas that are of particular interest that have been probed in some depth. An interest in human behavior is usually one of this person’s most particular interests. Why do people behave as they do? Why do some succeed and some fail? This person will also be interested in and concerned about social issues, particularly in the immediate community but also on a wider scale and will have ideas for solving some of those problems. With all of this, the most important thing a good conversationalist can do is to listen, not just wait until the other person quits speaking so he or she can take the floor again but actually listening to learn what the other person has to say and also to learn more about that other person. Following a gathering, the best thing a person can think about another is that a person was interested enough to listen to the other’s ideas and opinions, and that is the person who will be remembered the longest and with the most regard. It’s acceptable to be passionate about one’s convictions in polite conversation; it is not acceptable to be overbearing or unwilling to hear and consider another’s point of view. It’s important to keep one’s emotions under control in these circumstances even if the other person does not. Skill 5.4
Apply strategies for writing or speaking effectively for a variety of audiences, purposes, and contexts.
The more information a speaker has about an audience, the more likely he/she is to communicate effectively with them. Several factors figure into the speaker/audience equation: age, ethnic background, educational level, knowledge of the subject, and interest in the subject. Speaking about computers to senior citizens who have, at best, rudimentary knowledge about the way computers work must take that into account. Perhaps handing out a glossary would be useful for this audience. Speaking to firstgraders about computers presents its own challenges. On the other hand, the average high-school student has more experience with computers than most adults and that should be taken into account. Speaking to a room full of computer systems engineers requires a rather thorough understanding of the jargon related to the field. In considering the age of the audience, it’s best not to make assumptions. The gathering of senior citizens might include retired systems engineers or people who have made their livings using computers, so research about the audience is important. It might not be wise to assume that high-school students have a certain level of understanding, either.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
90
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE With an audience that is primarily Hispanic with varying levels of competence in English, the speaker is obligated to adjust the presentation to fit that audience. The same would be true when the audience is composed of people who may have been in the country for a long time but whose families speak their first language at home. Black English presents its own peculiarities, and if the audience is composed primarily of African-Americans whose contacts in the larger community are not great, some efforts need to be made to acquaint oneself with the specific peculiarities of the community those listeners come from. It’s unwise to “speak down” to an audience; they will almost certainly be insulted. On the other hand, speaking to an audience of college graduates will require different skills than speaking to an audience of people who have never attended college. Finally, has the audience come because of an interest in the topic or because they have been influenced or forced to come to the presentation? If the audience comes with an interest in the subject already, efforts to motivate or draw them into the discussion might not be needed. On the other hand, if the speaker knows the audience does not have a high level of interest in the topic, it would be wise to use devices to draw them into it, to motivate them to listen. Dramatic Performance Shifting into a new character calls for an analysis of that character’s ways of talking, moving, and relating to others in the world. Everything a student does to give themselves the appearance—both physically and emotionally—of a character, involves an interpretation of that character’s motivations, intentions and passions. Characterization is the basic decisions a student makes regarding the why and how of his or her character. They may justify their decisions based on details they notice in illustration or word, on understanding they have about similar characters in real life, and on their own motivations and intentions. Basic frame sentence for character analysis: “Since my character is _________, then he/she would act like _________.” This may result in a student employing a goofy, clumsy shuffle when acting in their role, or addressing everyone as “baby.” The student must evolve from a child into an actor, and finally, into a specific character. It is your job to facilitate this transformation. Child > Actor > Character To further the immersion in their role, encourage students to call each other by their characters’ names. Emphasize the “as if” nature of a play, in which the students treat characters as if they were real, with real emotions and motivations driving them to act the way they do. Do not give students your own interpretation of a character’s personality. Let them create their own interpretation, and follow along with their reading of the character. MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
91
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Vocal Techniques Voice is perhaps the most important tool of interpretation in classroom theater. It can portray anger, sadness, jealousy, happiness, fear and excitement. Vocal techniques integrate word choice, emphasis, and attitude, accentuating or deemphasizing them as the student sees fit. The voice puts life into the words of the play, with intonation, pitch, loudness or softness and even accent reflecting or obscuring the intent of the speaker. Just look at the phrase, “It’s all right,” as an example of the impact of voice and tone. Said with a soothing voice, it implies patience and understanding. Said with a sarcastic, cynical voice, it gives off a dismissive feeling. A host of a party might say the same phrase with suppressed frustration to a guest who has broken a favorite vase. In each case, the vocal choices made either highlight or shadow the inner thoughts of the speaker. Encourage students to try on different vocal roles. Explain to students that while you must use the words in the script, how you say them is up to individual interpretation. A simple explanation is to simply tell them to “read something and then say it in your own way.” Have students decide on words they want to stress by highlighting or underlining them in their scripts. Circle words that should be spoken louder and draw a line lightly through words that should be whispered. Allow students to transform vocal inflection to match with their vision of their character. They will soon combine their own attitudes and analyses with attitudinal hints the text supplies to create an effective emotional portrayal. Storytelling Techniques • • • •
It’s important to try to have complete silence before you begin, so that the students are concentrating and focused on the story and the person reading it. Turn off any background music. Make eye contact with everyone. At least you should be able to see all the students from where you are sitting or standing. Move them around if necessary. Make sure that there are no distractions behind you – stand in front of a wall, not an interesting bookshelf or a window. Think about yourself telling a favorite anecdote to your friends. “Did I tell you about the time when I…” How do you tell it? What gestures and effects do you use? At what points are you sure of getting a laugh? What are you doing with your body language and how are you telling the story? Is there a particular pause before the punch-line that works wonders? Apply your style to the story you’re telling.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
92
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 5.5
Identify use of appropriate arrangement and organization, style and tone, and form of delivery.
Preparing to speak on a topic should be seen as a process that has stages: Discovery, Organization, and Editing. Discovery: There are many possible sources for the information that will be used to create an oral presentation. The first step in the discovery process is to settle on a topic or subject. Answer the question, what is the speech going to be about? For example, the topic or subject could be immigration. In the discovery stage, one’s own knowledge, experience, and beliefs should be the first source, and notes should be taken as the speaker probes this source. The second source can very well be interviews with friends and possibly experts. The third source will be research: what has been written or said publicly on this topic. This stage can get out of hand very quickly, so a plan for the collecting of source information should be well-organized with time limits set for each part. Organization: At this point, several decisions need to be made. The first is what the purpose of the speech is. Does the speaker want to persuade the audience to believe something or to act on something, or does the speaker simply want to present information that the audience might not have? Once that decision is made, a thesis should be developed. What point does the speaker want to make? And what are the points that will support that point? And in what order will those points be arranged? Introductions and conclusions should be written last. The purpose of the introduction is to draw the audience into the topic. The purpose of the conclusion is to polish off the speech, making sure the thesis is clear, reinforcing the thesis, or summarizing the points that have been made. Editing: This is the most important stage in preparing a speech. Once decisions have been made in the discovery and organization stages, it’s good to allow time to let the speech rest for awhile and to go back to it with “fresh eyes.” Objectivity is extremely important, and the speaker should be willing to make drastic changes if they are needed. It’s difficult to turn loose of one’s own composition, but good speech-makers are able to do that. On the other hand, this can also get out of hand, and it should be limited. The speaker must recognize that at some point, the decisions must be made, the die must be cast, and commitment to the speech as it stands must be made if the speaker is to deliver the message with conviction. The concept of recursiveness is very useful to one who writes speeches. That is, everything must be written at the outset with full knowledge that it can be changed, and the willingness to go backward, even to the discovery stage, is what makes a good speech-writer.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
93
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Things to Consider The content in material to be presented orally plays a big role in how it is organized and delivered. For example, a literary analysis or a book report will be organized inductively, laying out the details and then presenting a conclusion, which will usually be what the author’s purpose, message, and intent are. If the analysis is focusing on multiple layers in a story that will probably follow the preliminary conclusion. On the other hand, keeping in mind that the speaker will want to keep the audience’s attention, if the content has to do with difficult-tofollow facts and statistics, slides (or PowerPoint) may be used as a guide to the presentation, and the speaker will intersperse interesting anecdotes, jokes, or humor from time to time so the listeners don’t fall asleep. It’s also important to take the consistency of the audience into account when organizing a presentation. If the audience can be counted on to have a high level of interest in what is being presented, little would need to be done in the way of organizing and presenting to hold interest. On the other hand, if many of those in the audience are there because they have to be, or if the level of interest can be counted on not to be very high, something like a PowerPoint presentation can be very helpful. Also the lead-in and introduction need to be structured not only to be entertaining and interest-grabbing, it should create an interest in the topic. If the audience is senior citizens, it’s important to keep the presentation lively and to be careful not to “speak down” to them. Carefully written introductions aimed specifically at this audience will go a long way to attract their interest in the topic. No speaker should stand up to make a presentation if the purpose has not been carefully determined ahead of time. If the speaker is not focused on the purpose, the audience will quickly lose interest. As to organizing for a particular purpose, some of the decisions to be made are where it will occur in the presentation— beginning, middle, or end—and whether displaying the purpose on a chart, PowerPoint, or banner will enhance the presentation. The purpose might be the lead-in for a presentation if it can be counted on to grab the interest of the listeners, in which case, the organization will be deductive. If it seems better to save the purpose until the end, the organization, of course, will be inductive. The occasion, of course, plays an important role in the development and delivery of a presentation. A celebration speech when the company has achieved an important accomplishment will be organized around congratulating those who were most responsible for the accomplishment and giving some details about how it was achieved and probably something about the competition for the achievement. The presentation will be upbeat and not too long. On the other hand, if bad news is being presented, it will probably be the CEO who is making the presentation and the bad-news announcement will come first followed with details about the news itself and how it came about, and probably end with a pep talk and encouragement to do better the next time.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
94
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 6.0 UNDERSTAND THE COMPOSITION PROCESS AND THE CONVENTIONS OF STANDARD, WRITTEN AMERICAN ENGLISH Skill 6.1
Identify distinguishing features of various forms of writing.
News reporters generally become excellent writers because they get a lot of practice, which is a principle most writing teachers try to employ with their students. Also, news writing is instructive in skills for writing clearly and coherently. Reporters generally write in two modes: straight reporting and feature writing. In both modes, the writer must be concerned with accuracy and objectivity. The reporter does not write his opinions. He/she does not write persuasive discourse. The topic is typically assigned, although some experienced reporters have the opportunity to seek out and develop their own stories. Investigative reporting is sometimes seen as a distinct class although, technically, all reporters are “investigative.” That is, they research the background of the story they’re reporting, using as many means as are available. For example, the wife of a conservative, model minister murders him premeditatively and in cold blood. The reporter reports the murder and the arrest of the wife, but the story is far from complete until some questions are answered, the most obvious one being “why?” The reporter is obligated to try to answer that question and to do so will interview as many people as will talk to him about the lives of minister and wife, their parents, members of the church, and their neighbors, etc. The reporter will also look at newspaper archives in the town where the murder took place as well as in newspapers in any town the husband and/or wife has lived in previously. High-school yearbooks are sources that are often explored in these cases. When Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, reporters for The Washington Post, began to break the Watergate story in 1972 and 1973, they set new standards for investigative reporting and had a strong influence on journalistic writing. Most reporters wanted to be Woodward and Bernstein and became more aggressive than reporters had been in the past. Even so, the basic techniques and principles still apply. The reporting of these two talented journalists demonstrated that while newspapers keep communities aware of what’s going on; they also have the power to influence it.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
95
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE A good news story is written as an “inverted pyramid.” That is, the reasoning is deductive. The “thesis” or point is stated first and is supported with details. It reasons from general to specific. The lead sentence might be, “The body of John Smith was found in the street in front of his home with a bullet wound through his skull.” The headline will be a trimmed-down version of that sentence and shaped to grab attention. It might read: “Murdered man found on Spruce Street.” The news article might fill several columns, the first details having to do with the finding of the body, the next the role of the police; the third will spread out and include details about the victim’s life, then the scope will broaden to details about his family, friends, neighbors, etc. If he held a position of prominence in the community, those details will broaden further and include information about his relationships to fellow-workers and his day-to-day contacts in the community. The successful reporter’s skills include the ability to do thorough research, to maintain an objective stance (not to become involved personally in the story), and to write an effective “inverted pyramid.” Feature writing is more like an informative essay although it may also follow the inverted pyramid model. This form of reporting focuses on a topic designed to be interesting to at least one segment of the readership—possible sports enthusiasts, travelers, vacationers, families, women, food lovers, etc. The article will focus on one aspect of the area of interest such as a particular experience for the vacationing family. The first sentence might read something like this: “Lake Lure offers a close-to-home relaxing weekend getaway for families in East Tennessee.” The development can be an ever-widening pyramid of details focused particularly on what the family can experience at Lake Lure but also directions for how to get there. While the headline is intended to contain in capsule form the point that an article makes, it is rarely written by the reporter. This can sometimes result in a disconnection between headline and article. Well-written headlines will provide a guide for the reader as to what is in the article; they will also be attentiongrabbers. This requires a special kind of writing, quite different from the inverted pyramid that distinguishes these writers from the investigative or feature reporter. Business Letters It may seem sometimes that the business letter is a thing of the past. Although much business-letter writing has been relegated to email communications, letters are still a valuable and potentially valuable form of communication. A carefullywritten letter can be powerful. It can alienate, convince, persuade, entice, motivate, and/or create good-will.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
96
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE As with any other communication, it’s worthwhile to learn as much as possible about the receiver. This may be complicated if there will be more than one receiver of the message; in these cases, it’s best to aim for the lowest common denominator if that can be achieved without “writing down” to any of those who will read and be affected or influenced by the letter. It may be better to send more than one form of the letter to the various receivers in some cases. Purpose is the most powerful factor in writing a business letter. What is the letter expected to accomplish? Is it intended to get the receiver to act or to act in a specific manner? Are you hoping to see some action take place as the result of the letter? If so, you should clearly define for yourself what the purpose is before you craft the letter and it is good to include a time deadline for the response. Reasons for choosing the letter as the channel of communication include the following: 1. It’s easy to keep a record of the transaction. 2. The message can be edited and perfected before it is transmitted. 3. It facilitates the handling of details. 4. It’s ideal for communicating complex information. 5. It’s a good way to disseminate mass messages at a relatively low cost. The parts of a business letter are as follow: date line, inside address, salutation, subject line*, body, complimentary close, company name*, signature block, reference initials*, enclosure notation*, copy notation*, and postscript*. Business letters typically use formal language. They should be straightforward and courteous. The writing should be concise, and special care should be taken to leave no important information out. Clarity is very important; otherwise, it may take more than one exchange of letters or phone calls to get the message across. A complaint is a different kind of business letter. It can come under the classification of a “bad news” business letter, and there are some guidelines that are helpful when writing this kind of letter. A positive writing style can overcome much of the inherent negativity of a letter of complaint. No matter how much in the right you may be, maintaining self-control and courtesy and avoiding demeaning or blaming language is more likely to be effective. Abruptness, condescension, or harshness of tone will not help achieve your purpose, particularly if you are requesting a positive response such as reimbursement for a bad product or some help in righting a wrong that may have been done to you. It’s important to remember that you want to solve the specific problem and to retain the good will of the receiver if possible.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
97
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Induction is better than deduction for this type of communication. Beginning with the details and building to the statement of the problem generally has the effect of softening the bad news. It’s also useful to begin with an opening that will serve as a buffer. The same is true for the closing. It’s good to leave the reader with a favorable impression by writing a closing paragraph that will generate good will rather than bad. News articles are written in the “inverted pyramid” format—they are deductive in nature: the opening statement is the point of the article; everything else is details. “Who, what, why, when, and where” are usually the questions to be answered in a news article. A formal essay, on the other hand, may be persuasive, informative, descriptive, or narrative in nature. The purpose should be clearly defined, and development must be coherent and easy to follow. Email has revolutionized business communications. It has most of the advantages of business letters and the added ones of immediacy, lower costs, and convenience. Even very long reports can be attached to an email. On the other hand, a two-line message can be sent and a response received immediately bringing together the features of a postal system and the telephone. Instant messaging goes even one step further. It can do all of the above—send messages, attach reports, etc.—and still have many of the advantages of a telephone conversation. Email has an unwritten code of behavior that includes restrictions on how informal the writing can be. The level of accepted business conversation is usually also acceptable in emails. Capital letters and bolding are considered shouting and are usually frowned on. *not required but sometimes useful. Stories It seems simplistic, yet it’s an often-overlooked truism: the first and most important measure of a story is the story itself. The story’s the thing. However, a good story must have certain characteristics. Without conflict there is no story, so determining what the conflicts are should be a priority for the writer. Once the conflicts are determined, the outcome of the story must be decided. Who wins? Who loses? And what factors go into making one side of the equation win out over the other one? The pattern of the plot is also an important consideration. Where is the climax going to occur? Is denouement necessary? Does the reader need to see the unwinding of all the strands? Many stories fail because a denouement is needed but not supplied.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
98
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Characterization, the choice the writer makes about the devices he/she will use to reveal character, requires an understanding of human nature and the artistic skill to convey a personality to the reader. This is usually accomplished subtly through dialogue, interior monologue, description, and the character’s actions and behavior. In some successful stories, the writer comes right out and tells the reader what this character is like. However, sometimes there will be discrepancies between what the narrator tells the reader about the character and what is revealed to be actual, in which case the narrator is unreliable, and that unreliability of the voice the reader must depend on becomes an important and significant device for understanding the story. Point of view is a powerful tool not only for the writer but for the enjoyment and understanding of the reader. The writer must choose among several possibilities: first-person narrator objective, first-person narrator omniscient, third-person objective, third-person omniscient, and third-person limited omniscient. The most successful story-writers use point of view very creatively to accomplish their purposes. If a writer wishes to be successful, he/she must develop point-of-view skills. Style—the unique way a writer uses language—is often the writer’s signature. The reader does not need to be told that William Faulkner wrote a story to know it because his style is so distinctive that it is immediately recognizable. Even the writing of Toni Morrison, which could be said to be Faulknerian, cannot be mistaken for the work of Faulkner, himself. The writer must be cognizant of his/her own strengths and weaknesses and continually work to hone the way sentences are written, words are chosen, and descriptions are crafted until they are razor-sharp. The best advice to the aspiring writer: read the works of successful writers. If a writer wants to write a best-seller, then that writer needs to be reading best-sellers. Poetry Writing poetry in the 21st century is quite a different thing from writing it in earlier periods. There was a time when a poem was required to fit a certain pattern or scheme. Poetry was once defined as a piece of writing that was made up of endrhymes. No more. The rhymed poem makes up only a small percentage of worthwhile and successful poems nowadays.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
99
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The first skill to work on for the budding poet is descriptive writing, defined as language that appeals to one or more of the five senses. A good poem makes it possible for the reader to experience an emotional event—seeing a mountain range as the sun dawns, watching small children on a playground, smelling the fragrance of a rose, hearing a carillon peal a religious tune at sunset, feeling fine silk under one’s fingers. Creating language that makes that experience available to the readers is only the first step, however, because the ultimate goal is to evoke an emotional response. Feeling the horror of the battleground, weeping with the mother whose child was drowned, exulting with a winning soccer team. It’s not enough to tell the reader what it’s like. It’s the showing that is necessary. The aspiring poet should know the possibilities as well as the limitations of this genre. A poem can tell a story, for instance, but the emotional response is more important than the story itself. Edgar Allen Poe, in an 1842 review of Hawthorne’s Twice-Told Tales in Graham’s Magazine had important advice for the writer of poetry: “ . . . the unity of effect or impression is a point of the greatest importance.” Even though he considered the tale or short story the best way to achieve this, he wrote several memorable poems and much of his prose writing is considered to be as close to poetry as to prose by most critics. He also wrote in 1847, in an expansion of his critique of Hawthorne’s works, that “. . .true originality . . .is that which, in bringing out the half-formed, the reluctant, or the unexpressed fancies of mankind, or in exciting the more delicate pulses of the heart’s passion, or in giving birth to some universal sentiment or instinct in embryo, thus combines with the pleasurable effect of apparent novelty, a real egoistic delight.” Play writing Play writing uses many of the same skills that are necessary to successful story writing. However, in addition to those skills, there are many more required of the writer who wishes his/her story to be told on stage or on film. The point of view, of course, is always objective unless the writers uses the Shakespearean device of the soliloquy, where a player steps forward and gives information about what’s going on. The audience must figure out the meaning of the play on the basis of the actions and speeches of the actors. A successful playwright is expert in characterization as described above under Story. What a character is like is determined by dialogue, appearance (costume, etc.), behavior, actions. A successful playwright also understands motivation. If a character’s behavior cannot be traced to motivating circumstances, the audience will probably find the action incoherent—a major barrier to positive reception of the play.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
100
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The writing must be very carefully honed. Absolutely no excess of words can be found in a successful play. It takes very little time to lose an audience; every word counts. The playwright should concentrate on saying the most possible with the fewest words possible. Setting is an important feature of the play. Most plays have only one because changing settings in the middle is difficult and disrupting. This calls for a very special kind of writing. The entire action of the play must either take place within the setting or be brought forth in that setting by the reporting or recounting of what is going on outside of the setting by one or more of the characters. The writer must determine what the setting will be. The actual building and creation of the set is in the hands of another kind of artist—one who specializes in settings. The plot of most plays is rising; that is, the conflicts are introduced early in the play and continue to develop and intensify over the life of the play. As a general rule, the climax is the last thing that happens before the final curtain falls, but not necessarily. Plots of plays demonstrate the same breadth of patterns that are true of stories. For example, a play may end with nothing resolved. Denouement is less likely to follow a climax in a play than in a story, but epilogues do sometimes occur. Personal Letters When writing personal notes or letters, the writer needs to keep the following key matters in mind: •
•
• •
Once the topic is determined, the writer must determine the appropriate tone to introduce and express it. Is humor appropriate? Seriousness? Bluntness or subtlety? Does the situation call for formal or informal language? The answers to these questions will depend, in good part, on the writer’s relationship to the reader. Plan appropriately regarding situation and audience. Does the writer’s introduction clearly explain the topic/situation to a reader who doesn’t know or feel everything that the reader knows or feels? Don’t assume that the writer and reader are “on the same page.” Make a checklist to make sure that all key information is clearly and concisely expressed. If a note or letter involves a request, what type of response/result does the writer desire? Devise a strategy or strategies for achieving a desired outcome. If a note or letter involves a complaint about the reader, the writer will need to decide whether to ask for particular amends or to let the reader decide what, if anything, to do. If no amends are requested, the writer may wish to suggest ideas that would help to avoid similar conflicts in the future. Asking the reader for his or her opinions is also a possibility.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
101
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE •
If a timely response to any note or letter is needed, the writer must mention this.
Give students in-class opportunities to write a variety of personal notes and letters, whether involving “real life” or hypothetical situations. Invitations, thankyou notes, complaints, requests for favors, or personal updates are a few of the options available. Have students experiment with a variety of tones and strategies on a particular piece of personal correspondence, e.g., write a complaint letter in a blunt tone, then write the same complaint in a humorous tone; compare and contrast the drafts. Structure in-class activities to allow for peer feedback. A final note: Remind students that e-mail messages, even if intended for just one reader, may eventually reach a much wider audience. In recent years there have been numerous instances of writers finding themselves in embarrassing situations or legal troubles due to their personal e-mails being circulated on the internet. If a writer is addressing a sensitive, unpleasant or controversial matter, he or she should consult state laws to determine whether or not personal correspondence is protected by privacy laws. If the law does protect such correspondence from being circulated by the addressee, then the writer may wish to mention this in his or her message. Otherwise, clarity, concision, and civility in written works provide a writer all the protection that he or she will likely need. Skill 6.2
Identify processes for generating and developing written texts.
Prior to writing, you will need to prewrite for ideas and details as well as decide how the essay will be organized. In the hour you have to write you should spend no more than 5-10 minutes prewriting and organizing your ideas. As you prewrite, it might be helpful to remember you should have at least three main points and at least two to three details to support your main ideas. There are several types of graphic organizers that you should practice using as you prepare for the essay portion of the test.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
102
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE PRACTICE - Choose one topic from the chart on page and complete the cluster. PREWRITE TO EXPLAIN HOW OR WHY Reread a question from the chart on the previous page that asks you to explain how a poet creates tone and mood use imagery and word choice. Then fill out the organizer on the following page that identifies how the poet effectively creates tone and mood. Support with examples from the poem.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
103
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE VISUAL ORGANIZER: GIVING REASONS
MAIN IDEA
Reason 1
Reason 2
Reason 3
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
104
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE STEP 3: PREWRITE TO ORGANIZE IDEAS After you have completed a graphic organizer, you need to decide how you will organize your essay. To organize your essay, you might consider one of the following patterns to structure your essay. 1. Examine individual elements such as plot, setting, theme, character, point of view, tone, mood, or style. SINGLE ELEMENT OUTLINE Intro - main idea statement Main point 1 with at least two supporting details Main point 2 with at least two supporting details Main point 3 with at least two supporting details Conclusion (restates main ideas and summary of main pts) 2. Compare and contrast two elements. POINT-BY-POINT
BLOCK
Introduction Statement of main idea about A and B
Introduction Statement of main idea about A and B
Main Point 1 Discussion of A Discussion of B
Discussion of A Main Point 1 Main Point 2 Main point 3
Main Point 2 Discussion of A Discussion of B
Discussion of B Main Point 1 Main Point 2 Main Point 3
Main Point 3 Discussion of A Discussion of B
Conclusion Restate main idea
Conclusion Restatement or summary of main idea PRACTICE: Using the cluster on the next page, choose an organizing chart and complete for your topic.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
105
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE VISUAL ORGANIZER: GIVING INFORMATION
Detail
Detail
Detail
Main Point
Detail
Main Point
Detail
Detail
TOPIC
Main Point
Detail
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
Detail
106
Detail
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Seeing writing as a process is very helpful in saving preparation time, particularly in the taking of notes and the development of drafts. Once a decision is made about the topic to be developed, some preliminary review of literature is helpful in thinking about the next step, which is to determine what the purpose of the written document will be. For example, if the topic is immigration, a cursory review of the various points of view in the debate going on in the country will help the writer decide what this particular written piece will try to accomplish. The purpose could just be a review of the various points of view, which would be an informative purpose. On the other hand, the writer might want to take a point of view and provide proof and support with the purpose of changing the reader’s mind. The writer might even want the reader to take some action as the result of reading. Another possible purpose might be simply to write a description of a family of immigrants. Once that cursory review has been completed, it’s time to begin research in earnest and to prepare to take notes. If the thesis has been clearly defined, and some thought has been given to what will be used to prove or support it, a tentative outline can be developed. A thesis plus three points is typical. Decisions about introduction and conclusion should be deferred until the body of the paper is written. Note-taking is much more effective if the notes are being taken to provide information for an outline. There is much less danger that the writer will go off on time-consuming tangents. Formal outlines inhibit effective writing. However, a loosely constructed outline can be an effective device for note-taking that will yield the information for a worthwhile statement about a topic. Sentence outlines are better than topic outlines because they require the writer to do some thinking about the direction a subtopic will take. Once this preliminary note-taking phase is over, the first draft can be developed. The writing at this stage is likely to be highly individualistic. However, successful writers tend to just write, keeping in mind the purpose of the paper, the point that is going to be made in it, and the information that has been turned up in the research. Student writers need to understand that this first draft is just that—the first one. It takes more than one draft to write a worthwhile statement about a topic. This is what successful writers do. It’s sometimes helpful to have students read the various drafts of a story by a well-known writer. Once the draft is on paper, a stage that is sometimes called editing occurs. With word processors, this is much more easily achieved than in the past. Sections can be deleted, words can be changed, and additions can be made without doing the entire project over a second time.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
107
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE What to look for: mechanics, of course, spelling, punctuation, etc., but it’s important that student writers not mistake that for editing. Editing is rereading objectively, testing the effectiveness on a reader of the arrangement and the line of reasoning. The kinds of changes that will need to be made are: rearranging the parts, adding information that is missing and needed; and deleting information that doesn’t fit or contribute to the accomplishment of the purpose. Once the body of the paper has been shaped to the writer’s satisfaction, the introduction and conclusion should be fashioned. An introduction should grab the reader’s interest and, perhaps, announce the purpose and thesis of the paper unless the reasoning is inductive, in which case, purpose and thesis may come later in the paper. The conclusion is to reaffirm the purpose in some way. More on the Writing Process Once a topic is assigned or chosen, the next step is to begin to gather supporting materials. Those materials may come from the writer’s own experience, and the best way to collect them is in prewriting—simply putting on paper whatever is there by way of past experience relevant to the topic; observations concerning it; newspaper articles or books that have been read on the topic; and television or radio presentations that have to do with the topic. The writer needs to keep in mind the need to make a statement about the topic—to declare something about it. Very often, once the writer has gone through this exercise, getting his/her own ideas and thoughts down on paper, a thesis or several theses may emerge. If not, then it is time to do active research on the topic. It’s better to write more than one thesis statement before research begins if possible. However, a successful writer will set a point when a single one must be chosen so the development of the paper may proceed. Once that decision has been made, the narrowing process begins. The writer should be asking such questions as “Is the scope too broad to cover in a 500-word paper?” For example, if the thesis statement is “Democracy is the best form of government,” it will take a book or even several books to develop. However, if the thesis statement is “Democracy is the best form of government for Iraq,” then it begins to become more doable. Even so, some narrowing of the predicate may still be in order. “The development of a democratic government will solve the problems of cultural and religious divisions in Iraq” may be a thesis that could be developed in one classroom assignment. Remembering that the introduction and conclusion should be written after the paper is developed so the writer will know what is being introduced and concluded. A decision should be made as to whether the reasoning will be inductive, from particular to general or deductive, general to particular. Will the pattern be inductive―evidence presented first and the thesis stated at the end? Will the thesis—the generalization—be presented first and then the proofs and evidence?
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
108
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Will the introduction offer background information or be an anecdote or other device that will help lead the reader into the thesis and proofs? Or will it simply be designed to grab the reader’s interest? It can also be used to establish the credibility of the writer. In the conclusion, will the reasoning be restated briefly with emphasis on the point of the paper, or will it also be anecdotal in nature? Whatever form it takes, it should reinforce the point the paper makes and leave the reader with a favorable impression. Skill 6.3
Identify techniques for gathering, analyzing, and evaluating information.
The best place to start research is usually at your local library. Not only does it have numerous books, videos, and periodicals to use for references, the librarian is always a valuable resource for information, or where to get that information. “Those who declared librarians obsolete when the internet rage first appeared are now red-faced. We need them more than ever. The internet is full of ‘stuff’ but its value and readability is often questionable. ‘Stuff’ doesn’t give you a competitive edge, high-quality related information does.” -Patricia Schroeder, President of the Association of American Publishers The internet is a multi-faceted goldmine of information, but you must be careful to discriminate between reliable and unreliable sources. Stick to sites that are associated with an academic institution; whether it be a college or university or a scholarly organization. Keep content and context in mind when researching. Don’t be so wrapped up how you are going to apply your resource to your project that you miss the author’s entire purpose or message. Remember that there are multiple ways to get the information you need. Read an encyclopedia article about your topic to get a general overview, and then focus in from there. Note important names of people associated with your subject, time periods, and geographic areas. Make a list of key words and their synonyms to use while searching for information. And finally, don’t forget about articles in magazines and newspapers, or even personal interviews with experts related to your field of interest! When evaluating sources, first go through this checklist to make sure the source is even worth reading: • Title (How relevant is it to your topic?) • Date (How current is the source?) • Organization (What institution is this source coming from?) • Length (How in depth does it go?)
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
109
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Check for signs of bias: • Does the author or publisher have political ties or religious views that could affect their objectivity? • Is the author or publisher associated with any special-interest groups that might only see one side of an issue, such as Greenpeace or the National Rifle Association? • How fairly does the author treat opposing views? • Does the language of the piece show signs of bias? Keep an open mind while reading, and don’t let opposing viewpoints prevent you from absorbing the text. Remember that you are not judging the author’s work; you are examining its assumptions, assessing its evidence and weighing its conclusions. Skill 6.4
Understand effective sentence, paragraph, and essay development.
Techniques to Maintain Focus: • •
•
Focus on a main point. The point should be clear to readers, and all sentences in the paragraph should relate to it. Start the paragraph with a topic sentence. This should be a general, one-sentence summary of the paragraph’s main point, relating both back towards the thesis and toward the content of the paragraph. (A topic sentence is sometimes unnecessary if the paragraph continues a developing idea clearly introduced in a preceding paragraph, or if the paragraph appears in a narrative of events where generalizations might interrupt the flow of the story.) Stick to the point. Eliminate sentences that do not support the topic sentence.
Be flexible. If there is not enough evidence to support the claim your topic sentence is making, do not fall into the trap of wandering or introducing new ideas within the paragraph. Either find more evidence, or adjust the topic sentence to collaborate with the evidence that is available A mark of maturity in writing is the effective use of transitional devices at all levels. For example, a topic sentence can be used to establish continuity, especially if it is positioned at the beginning of a paragraph. The most common use would be to refer to what has preceded, repeat it, or summarize it and then go on to introduce a new topic. An essay by W. H. Hudson uses this device: “Although the potato was very much to me in those early years, it grew to be more when I heard its history.” It summarizes what has proceeded, makes a comment on the author’s interest, and introduces a new topic: the history of the potato.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
110
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Another example of a transitional sentence could be, “Not all matters end so happily.” This refers to the previous information and prepares for the next paragraph, which will be about matters that do not end happily. This transitional sentence is a little more forthright: “The increase in drug use in our community leads us to another general question.” Another fairly simple and straightforward transitional device is the use of numbers or their approximation: “First, I want to talk about the dangers of immigration; second, I will discuss the enormity of the problem; third, I will propose a reasonable solution.” An entire paragraph may be transitional in purpose and form. In “Darwiniana,” Thomas Huxley used a transitional paragraph: So much, then, by way of proof that the method of establishing laws in science is exactly the same as that pursued in common life. Let us now turn to another matter (though really it is but another phase of the same question), and that is, the method by which, from the relations of certain phenomena, we prove that some stand in the position of causes toward the others. The most common transitional device is a single word. Some examples: and, furthermore, next, moreover, in addition, again, also, likewise, similarly, finally, second, etc. There are many. In marking student papers, a teacher can encourage a student to think in terms of moving coherently from one idea to the next by making transitions between the two. If the shift from one thought to another is too abrupt, the student can be asked to provide a transitional paragraph. Lists of possible transitions can be put on a handout and students can be encouraged to have the list at hand when composing essays. These are good tools for nudging students to more mature writing styles.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
111
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 6.5
Apply techniques for improving text organization.
Organizational Structures Authors use a particular organization to best present the concepts which they are writing about. Teaching students to recognize organizational structures helps them to understand authors’ literary intentions, and helps them in deciding which structure to use in their own writing. Cause and Effect: When writing about why things happen, as well as what happens, authors commonly use the cause and effect structure. For example, when writing about how he became so successful, a CEO might talk about how he excelled in math in high school, moved to New York after college, and stuck to his goals even after multiple failures. These are all causes that lead to the effect, or result, of him becoming a wealthy and powerful businessman. Compare and Contrast: When examining the merits of multiple concepts or products, compare and contrast lends itself easily to organization of ideas. For example, a person writing about foreign policy in different countries will put them against each other to point out differences and similarities, easily highlighting the concepts the author wishes to emphasize. Problem and Solution: This structure is used in a lot of handbooks and manuals. Anything organized around procedure-oriented tasks, such as a computer repair manual, gravitates toward a problem and solution format, because it offers such clear, sequential text organization. Introductions: It’s important to remember that in the writing process, the introduction should be written last. Until the body of the paper has been determined—thesis, development—it’s difficult to make strategic decisions regarding the introduction. The Greek rhetoricians called this part of a discourse exordium, a “leading into.” The basic purpose of the introduction, then, is to lead the audience into the discourse. It can let the reader know what the purpose of the discourse is and it can condition the audience to be receptive to what the writer wants to say. It can be very brief or it can take up a large percentage of the total word count. Aristotle said that the introduction could be compared to the flourishes that flute players make before their performance—an overture in which the musicians display what they can play best in order to gain the favor and attention of the audience for the main performance.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
112
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In order to do this, we must first of all know what we are going to say; who the readership is likely to be; what the social, political, economic, etc., climate is; what preconceived notions the audience is likely to have regarding the subject; and how long the discourse is going to be. There are many ways to do this: • Show that the subject is important. • Show that although the points we are presenting may seem improbable, they are true. • Show that the subject has been neglected, misunderstood, or misrepresented. • Explain an unusual mode of development. • Forestall any misconception of the purpose. • Apologize for a deficiency. • Arouse interest in the subject with an anecdotal lead-in. • Ingratiate oneself with the readership. • Establish one’s own credibility. The introduction often ends with the thesis, the point or purpose of the paper. However, this is not set in stone. The thesis may open the body of the discussion, or it may conclude the discourse. The most important thing to remember is that the purpose and structure of the introduction should be deliberate if it is to serve the purpose of “leading the reader into the discussion.” Conclusions: It’s easier to write a conclusion after the decisions regarding the introduction have been made. Aristotle taught that the conclusion should strive to do five things: 1. Inspire the reader with a favorable opinion of the writer. 2. Amplify the force of the points made in the body of the paper. 3. Reinforce the points made in the body. 4. Rouse appropriate emotions in the reader. 5. Restate in a summary way what has been said. The conclusion may be short or it may be long depending on its purpose in the paper. Recapitulation, a brief restatement of the main points or certainly of the thesis is the most common form of effective conclusions. A good example is the closing argument in a court trial.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
113
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Text Organization: In studies of professional writers and how they produce their successful works, it has been revealed that writing is a process that can be clearly defined although in practice it must have enough flexibility to allow for creativity. The teacher must be able to define the various stages that a successful writer goes through in order to make a statement that has value. There must be a discovery stage when ideas, materials, supporting details, etc., are deliberately collected. These may come from many possible sources: the writer’s own experience and observations, deliberate research of written sources, interviews of live persons, television presentations, or the internet. The next stage is organization where the purpose, thesis, and supporting points are determined. Most writers will put forth more than one possible thesis and in the next stage, the writing of the paper, settle on one as the result of trial and error. Once the paper is written, the editing stage is necessary and is probably the most important stage. This is not just the polishing stage. At this point, decisions must be made regarding whether the reasoning is cohesive—does it hold together? Is the arrangement the best possible one or should the points be rearranged? Are there holes that need to be filled in? What form will the introduction take? Does the conclusion lead the reader out of the discourse or is it inadequate or too abrupt, etc. It’s important to remember that the best writers engage in all of these stages recursively. They may go back to discovery at any point in the process. They may go back and rethink the organization, etc. To help students become effective writers, the teacher needs to give them adequate practice in the various stages and encourage them to engage deliberately in the creative thinking that makes writers successful.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
114
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 6.6
Understand selection of appropriate details to support an argument or opinion.
Once a thesis is put forth, there are various ways to support it. The most obvious one is reasons. Usually a reason will answer the question why. Another technique is to give examples. A third is to give details. The presentation of a prosecutor in a court trial is a good example of an argument that uses all of these. The thesis of the prosecutor may be: John O’Hara stole construction materials from a house being built at 223 Hudson Ave. by the Jones Construction Company. As a reason, he might cite the following: He is building his own home on Green Street and needs materials and tools. This will answer the question why. He might give examples: 20 bags of concrete disappeared the night before Mr. O’Hara poured the basement for his house on Green Street. The electronic nail-setter disappeared from the building site on Hudson Ave. the day before Mr. O’Hara began to erect the frame of his house on Green Street. He might fill in the details: Mr. O’Hara’s truck was observed by a witness on Hudson Ave. in the vicinity of the Jones Construction Company site the night the concrete disappeared. Mr. O’Hara’s truck was observed again on that street by a witness the night the nail-setter disappeared. Another example of a trial might be: Thesis, Adam Andrews murdered Joan Rogers in cold blood on the night of December 20. Reason #1: She was about to reveal their affair to his wife. Reason #2: Andrews’ wife would inherit half of his sizeable estate in case of a divorce since there is no prenuptial agreement. Example #1: Rogers has demonstrated that he is capable of violence in an incident with a partner in his firm. Example #2: Rogers has had previous affairs where he was accused of violence. Detail #1: Andrews’ wife once called the police and signed a warrant. Detail #2: A previous lover sought police protection from Andrews. An opinion is a thesis and requires support. It can also use reasons, examples, and details. For example: Opinion: Our borders must be protected.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
115
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Reason #1: Terrorists can get into the country undetected. Example #1: An Iranian national was able to cross the Mexican border and live in this country for years before being detected. Detail: The Iranian national came up through Central America to Mexico then followed the route that Mexican illegal immigrants regularly took. Example #2: a group of Middle Eastern terrorists were arrested in Oregon after they had crossed the Canadian border. Detail: There was no screening at that border. Reason #2: Illegal aliens are an enormous drain on resources such as health care. Example: The states of California and Texas bear enormous burdens for health care and education for illegal immigrants. Detail: Legal citizens are often denied care in those states because resources are stretched so thin. The old adage that a picture is worth a thousand words is never more evident than in the use of charts, graphs, and tables into expository writing. It’s one thing to say that the GDP of the United States rose fifteen percentage points in the last five years, it’s an entirely different thing to show a graph that depicts that rapid rise. If the point being made is that the increase in the GDP is better than it has ever been in the past fifty years, then a graph showing that growth cinches the point. If the point being made is that the growth in the GDP corresponds to the growth of the stock market for the same period, then that also can be graphed. It’s important that data in charts and graphs be simple and comprehensive. Also, it should only be used if it does, in fact, display the information more effectively than words alone can. However, it should also be able to stand alone. It should make the point by itself. If two or more charts or tables are used within a work, they should be consistent in style. Whatever graphic is used, elements of the same kind must always be represented in the same way. This is not a time to be artistic graphically; visual effects should be used only for the purpose of making the point, not for variety. In graphs, both the horizontal and vertical axes should be labeled. In a column, both column heads and stubs should be labeled. In a graph, the vertical axis is always read from the bottom up and curves or bars should be graphically distinct (color or dotted lines, for example) and all elements should be clearly identified in a key. The title appears in a caption rather than as a title and is lowercased except for names that would normally be capitalized in the text. If abbreviations are used, care should be taken to make them easily recognizable unless they are explained in the key or in the caption. A table can often give information that would take several paragraphs to present and can do so more clearly. Tables should be as simple as the material allows and should be understandable without explanation even to a reader who might be unfamiliar with the subject matter. Only necessary explanations should be presented in the text; the table should be able to stand alone.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
116
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The advent of word processing makes the creation and insertion of charts, graphs, and tables much more practical than ever before. It takes very little knowledge or skill to create these illustrative devices and helping students develop those skills is a valuable enhancement to a writing course. Skill 6.7
Apply use of appropriate rhetorical, logical, and stylistic criteria for assessing written work; revising written texts to improve clarity and economy of expression.
Viewing writing as a process allows teachers and students to see the writing classroom as a cooperative workshop where students and teachers encourage and support each other in each writing endeavor. Listed below are some techniques that help teachers to facilitate and create a supportive classroom environment. 1.
Create peer response/support groups that are working on similar writing assignments. The members help each other in all stages of the writing process-from prewriting, writing, revising, editing, and publishing.
2.
Provide several prompts to give students the freedom to write on a topic of their own. Writing should be generated out of personal experience and students should be introduced to in-class journals. One effective way to get into writing is to let them write often and freely about their own lives, without having to worry about grades or evaluation.
3.
Respond in the form of a question whenever possible. Teacher/facilitator should respond noncritically and use positive, supportive language.
4.
Respond to formal writing acknowledging the student's strengths and focusing on the composition skills demonstrated by the writing. A response should encourage the student by offering praise for what the student has done well. Give the student a focus for revision and demonstrate that the process of revision has applications in many other writing situations.
5.
Provide students with readers' checklists so that students can write observational critiques of others' drafts, and then they can revise their own papers at home using the checklists as a guide.
6.
Pair students so that they can give and receive responses. Pairing students keeps them aware of the role of an audience in the composing process and in evaluating stylistic effects.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
117
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 7.
Focus critical comments on aspects of the writing that can be observed in the writing. Comments like "I noticed you use the word ‘is’ frequently” will be more helpful than "Your introduction is dull" and will not demoralize the writer.
8.
Provide the group with a series of questions to guide them through the group writing sessions.
Sometimes this exercise is seen by students as simply catching errors in spelling or word use. Students need to reframe their thinking about revising and editing. Some questions that need to be asked: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Is the reasoning coherent? Is the point established? Does the introduction make the reader want to read this discourse? What is the thesis? Is it proven? What is the purpose? Is it clear? Is it useful, valuable, and interesting? Is the style of writing so wordy that it exhausts the reader and interferes with engagement? Is the writing so spare that it is boring? Are the sentences too uniform in structure? Are there too many simple sentences? Are too many of the complex sentences the same structure? Are the compounds truly compounds or are they unbalanced? Are parallel structures truly parallel? If there are characters, are they believable? If there is dialogue, is it natural or stilted? Is the title appropriate? Does the writing show creativity or is it boring? Is the language appropriate? Is it too formal? Too informal? If jargon is used, is it appropriate?
Studies have clearly demonstrated that the most fertile area in teaching writing is this one. If students can learn to revise their own work effectively, they are well on their way to becoming effective, mature writers. Word processing is an important tool for teaching this stage in the writing process. Microsoft Word has tracking features that make the revision exchanges between teachers and students more effective than ever before.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
118
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Enhancing Interest: • • •
Start out with an attention-grabbing introduction. This sets an engaging tone for the entire piece and will be more likely to pull the reader in. Use dynamic vocabulary and varied sentence beginnings. Keep the reader on their toes. If they can predict what you are going to say next, switch it up. Avoid using clichés (as cold as ice, the best thing since sliced bread, nip it in the bud). These are easy shortcuts, but they are not interesting, memorable, or convincing.
Ensuring Understanding: •
• •
Avoid using the words, “clearly,” “obviously,” and “undoubtedly.” Often, things that are clear or obvious to the author are not as apparent to the reader. Instead of using these words, make your point so strongly that it is clear on its own. Use the word that best fits the meaning you intend for, even if they are longer or a little less common. Try to find a balance, a go with a familiar yet precise word. When in doubt, explain further.
Some people say that God is in the details; others say that the devil is in the details. Either way, the message is the same with regards to vivid, informative writing: details are the key. Before assigning other written work, ask students to evaluate and analyze sentences such as the following for clarity and comprehensiveness. • • •
While walking I saw an accident. While walking to the store I saw a car accident. While walking to the drugstore last night, I saw a bad three-car accident in front of the gas station.
Each of these sentences report on the same event but only the last one meets the informative standard—the “journalistic guidelines”—explained in Skill 6.1. This sentence provides information that answers the: who, what, where, and when aspects of the writer’s chosen subject. Review the significance of this with students, and then assign homework/class work accordingly. Students also need to be aware of the pitfalls of providing too much information, especially redundant, marginal or irrelevant information, as in the following examples or ones like them. Have students point out, in writing, whatever is wrong with each example. Then have them revise each one. •
Last night 30 cm of cold white snow fell from the clouds in the sky above us.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
119
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE • •
Before you swallow your food down into your stomach, you should chew it with your teeth. The great novelist hand-wrote his masterpiece novel on paper.
Students must also be made aware of how to “manage topic and time” in their writings. For example, in a 400-word essay assignment a topic such as “my year as a foreign exchange student in Germany” cannot likely be done justice: the timeframe is too long and the topic too broad for 400 words. Instead, encourage students to focus on smaller, more manageable topics. For example: “one big difference between German and American life,” “a memorable day in my German neighborhood,” etc. Less can be more. Emphasize this prior to assigning any written work. Encourage students to write about what they know: the people in their lives, their personal experiences, opinions, their hobbies and interests, favorite literary works or music, sports, the future, etc. Assign written work accordingly. Students who show an aptitude or interest for longer, even book-length writing, should be encouraged to take on larger topics and timeframes, perhaps as extra credit assignments. Emphasize to students the importance of avoiding certain words and expressions that can either overstate a case, or leave no room for exceptions to it. Avoid readily falsifiable statements such as: • • •
“No-one thinks the way you do.” “That’s the way it’s always been.” “Everyone has always loved this song.”
Have students revise all of the above into readily defensible statements. Teachers may also wish to provide students with a list of words to be especially careful with, lest a statement become an overstatement: • • • •
always, never, forever, every time, any time no-one, nobody, none, all, every, everyone, everybody anywhere, everywhere, nowhere without exception, without a doubt
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
120
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 6.8
Understand accurate use and effective application of written language conventions.
Types of Clauses Clauses are connected word groups that are composed of at least one subject and one verb. (A subject is the doer of an action or the element that is being joined. A verb conveys either the action or the link.) Students are waiting for the start of the assembly. Subject Verb At the end of the play, students wait for the curtain to come down. Subject Verb Clauses can be independent or dependent. Independent clauses can stand alone or can be joined to other clauses. Independent clause
for and nor
Independent clause,
but or yet so
Independent clause
Independent clause
;
Independent clause
Dependent clause
,
Independent clause
Independent clause
Dependent clause
Dependent clauses, by definition, contain at least one subject and one verb. However, they cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. They are structurally dependent on the main clause. There are two types of dependent clauses: (1) those with a subordinating conjunction, and (2) those with a relative pronoun Sample coordinating conjunctions: Although When If Unless
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
121
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Because Unless a cure is discovered, many more people will die of the disease. Dependent clause + Independent clause Sample relative pronouns: Who Whom Which That The White House has an official website, which contains press releases, news updates, and biographies of the President and Vice-President. (Independent clause + relative pronoun + relative dependent clause) Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers Particular phrases that are not placed near the one word they modify often result in misplaced modifiers. Particular phrases that do not relate to the subject being modified result in dangling modifiers. Error: Weighing the options carefully, a decision was made regarding the punishment of the convicted murderer. Problem: Who is weighing the options? No one capable of weighing is named in the sentence; thus, the participle phrase weighing the options carefully dangles. This problem can be corrected by adding a subject of the sentence capable of doing the action. Correction: Weighing the options carefully, the judge made a decision regarding the punishment of the convicted murderer. Error: Returning to my favorite watering hole, brought back many fond memories. Problem: The person who returned is never indicated, and the participle phrase dangles. This problem can be corrected by creating a dependent clause from the modifying phrase. Correction: When I returned to my favorite watering hole, many fond memories came back to me. Error: One damaged house stood only to remind townspeople of the hurricane.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
122
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Problem: The placement of the misplaced modifier only suggests that the sole reason the house remained was to serve as a reminder. The faulty modifier creates ambiguity. Correction: Only one damaged house stood, reminding townspeople of the hurricane. Spelling Concentration in this section will be on spelling plurals and possessives. The multiplicity and complexity of spelling rules based on phonics, letter doubling, and exceptions to rules - not mastered by adulthood - should be replaced by a good dictionary. As spelling mastery is also difficult for adolescents, our recommendation is the same. Learning the use of a dictionary and thesaurus will be a more rewarding use of time. Most plurals of nouns that end in hard consonants or hard consonant sounds followed by a silent e are made by adding s. Some words ending in vowels only add s. fingers, numerals, banks, bugs, riots, homes, gates, radios, bananas Nouns that end in soft consonant sounds s, j, x, z, ch, and sh, add es. Some nouns ending in o add es. dresses, waxes, churches, brushes, tomatoes, potatoes Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel just add s. boys, alleys Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change the y to i and add es. babies, corollaries, frugalities, poppies Some nouns plurals are formed irregularly or remain the same. sheep, deer, children, leaves, oxen Some nouns derived from foreign words, especially Latin, may make their plurals in two different ways - one of them Anglicized. Sometimes, the meanings are the same; other times, the two plurals are used in slightly different contexts. It is always wise to consult the dictionary. appendices, appendixes indexes, indices
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
criterion, criteria crisis, crises
123
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Make the plurals of closed (solid) compound words in the usual way except for words ending in ful which make their plurals on the root word. timelines, hairpins, cupfuls Make the plurals of open or hyphenated compounds by adding the change in inflection to the word that changes in number. fathers-in-law, courts-martial, masters of art, doctors of medicine Make the plurals of letters, numbers, and abbreviations by adding s. fives and tens, IBMs, 1990s, ps and qs (Note that letters are italicized.) Capitalization Capitalize all proper names of persons (including specific organizations or agencies of government); places (countries, states, cities, parks, and specific geographical areas); and things (political parties, structures, historical and cultural terms, and calendar and time designations); and religious terms (any deity, revered person or group, sacred writings). Percy Bysshe Shelley, Argentina, Mount Rainier National Park, Grand Canyon, League of Nations, the Sears Tower, Birmingham, Lyric Theater, Americans, Midwesterners, Democrats, Renaissance, Boy Scouts of America, Easter, God, Bible, Dead Sea Scrolls, Koran Capitalize proper adjectives and titles used with proper names. California gold rush, President John Adams, French fries, Homeric epic, Romanesque architecture, Senator John Glenn Note: Some words that represent titles and offices are not capitalized unless used with a proper name. Capitalized Congressman McKay Commander Alger Queen Elizabeth
Not Capitalized the congressman from Florida commander of the Pacific Fleet the queen of England
Capitalize all main words in titles of works of literature, art, and music. (See “Using Italics” in the Punctuation section.)
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
124
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The candidate should be cognizant of proper rules and conventions of punctuation, capitalization, and spelling. Competency exams will generally test the ability to apply the more advanced skills; thus, a limited number of more frustrating rules is presented here. Rules should be applied according to the American style of English, i.e. spelling theater instead of theatre and placing terminal marks of punctuation almost exclusively within other marks of punctuation. Punctuation Using terminal punctuation in relation to quotation marks In a quoted statement that is either declarative or imperative, place the period inside the closing quotation marks. “The airplane crashed on the runway during takeoff.” If the quotation is followed by other words in the sentence, place a comma inside the closing quotations marks and a period at the end of the sentence. “The airplane crashed on the runway during takeoff,” said the announcer. In most instances in which a quoted title or expression occurs at the end of a sentence, the period is placed before either the single or double quotation marks. “The middle school readers were unprepared to understand Bryant’s poem ‘Thanatopsis.’“ Early book-length adventure stories like Don Quixote and The Three Musketeers were known as “picaresque novels.” There is an instance in which the final quotation mark would precede the period if the content of the sentence were about a speech or quote so that the understanding of the meaning would be confused by the placement of the period. The first thing out of his mouth was “Hi, I’m home.” but The first line of his speech began “I arrived home to an empty house”. In sentences that are interrogatory or exclamatory, the question mark or exclamation point should be positioned outside the closing quotation marks if the quote itself is a statement or command or cited title. Who decided to lead us in the recitation of the “Pledge of Allegiance”?
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
125
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Why was Tillie shaking as she began her recitation, “Once upon a midnight dreary...”? I was embarrassed when Mrs. White said, “Your slip is showing“! In sentences that are declarative but the quotation is a question or an exclamation, place the question mark or exclamation point inside the quotation marks. The hall monitor yelled, “Fire! Fire!” “Fire! Fire!” yelled the hall monitor. Cory shrieked, “Is there a mouse in the room?” (In this instance, the question supersedes the exclamation.) Using periods with parentheses or brackets Place the period inside the parentheses or brackets if they enclose a complete sentence, independent of the other sentences around it. Stephen Crane was a confirmed alcohol and drug addict. (He admitted as much to other journalists in Cuba.) If the parenthetical expression is a statement inserted within another statement, the period in the enclosure is omitted. Mark Twain used the character Indian Joe (He also appeared in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer) as a foil for Jim in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. When enclosed matter comes at the end of a sentence requiring quotation marks; place the period outside the parentheses or brackets. “The secretary of state consulted with the ambassador [Albright].”
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
126
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Using commas Separate two or more coordinate adjectives, modifying the same word and three or more nouns, phrases, or clauses in a list. Maggie’s hair was dull, dirty, and lice-ridden. Dickens portrayed the Artful Dodger as skillful pickpocket, loyal follower of Fagin, and defendant of Oliver Twist. Ellen daydreamed about getting out of the rain, taking a shower, and eating a hot dinner. In Elizabethan England, Ben Johnson wrote comedy, Christopher Marlowe wrote tragedies, and William Shakespeare composed both. Use commas to separate antithetical or complimentary expressions from the rest of the sentence. The veterinarian, not his assistant, would perform the delicate surgery. The more he knew about her, the less he wished he had known. Randy hopes to, and probably will, get an appointment to the Naval Academy. His thorough, though esoteric, scientific research could not easily be understood by high school students. Using double quotation marks with other punctuation Quotations - whether words, phrases, or clauses - should be punctuated according to the rules of the grammatical function they serve in the sentence. The works of Shakespeare, “the bard of Avon,” have been contested as originating with other authors. “You’ll get my money,” the old man warned, “when ‘Hell freezes over’.” Sheila cited the passage that began “Four score and seven years ago....” (Note the ellipsis followed by an enclosed period.) “Old Ironsides” inspired the preservation of the U.S.S. Constitution.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
127
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Use quotation marks to enclose the titles of shorter works: songs, short poems, short stories, essays, and chapters of books. (See “Using Italics” for punctuating longer titles.) “The Tell-Tale Heart”
“Casey at the Bat”
“America the Beautiful”
Using semicolons Use semicolons to separate independent clauses when the second clause is introduced by a transitional adverb. (These clauses may also be written as separate sentences, preferably by placing the adverb within the second sentence.) The Elizabethans modified the rhyme scheme of the sonnet; thus, it was called the English sonnet. or The Elizabethans modified the rhyme scheme of the sonnet. It thus was called the English sonnet. Use semicolons to separate items in a series that are long and complex or have internal punctuation. The Italian Renaissance produced masters in the fine arts: Dante Alighieri, author of the Divine Comedy; Leonardo da Vinci, painter of The Last Supper; and Donatello, sculptor of the Quattro Coronati, the four saints. The leading scorers in the WNBA were: Haizhaw Zheng, averaging 23.9 points per game, Lisa Leslie, 22, and Cynthia Cooper, 19.5. Using colons Place a colon at the beginning of a list of items. (Note its use in the sentence about Renaissance Italians on the previous page.) The teacher directed us to compare Faulkner’s three symbolic novels: Absalom, Absalom; As I Lay Dying; and Light in August. Do not use a comma if the list is preceded by a verb. Three of Faulkner’s symbolic novels are Absalom, Absalom; As I Lay Dying, and Light in August.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
128
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE
Using dashes Place dashes to denote sudden breaks in thought. Some periods in literature - the Romantic Age, for example spanned different time periods in different countries. Use dashes instead of commas if commas are already used elsewhere in the sentence for amplification or explanation. The Fireside Poets included three Brahmans - James Russell Lowell, Henry David Wadsworth, Oliver Wendell Holmes and John Greenleaf Whittier. Use italics to punctuate the titles of long works of literature, names of periodical publications, musical scores, works of art and motion picture television, and radio programs. (When unable to write in italics, students should be instructed to underline in their own writing where italics would be appropriate.) The Idylls of the King Mary Poppins
Hiawatha Newsweek
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
129
The Sound and the Fury The Nutcracker Suite
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 6.9
Understand techniques for editing written texts to achieve conformity with conventions of standard American English usage.
Sentence completeness Avoid fragments and run-on sentences. Recognition of sentence elements necessary to make a complete thought, proper use of independent and dependent clauses (see Use correct coordination and subordination), and proper punctuation will correct such errors. Sentence structure Recognize simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences. Use dependent (subordinate) and independent clauses correctly to create these sentence structures. Simple Joyce wrote a letter. Compound Joyce wrote a letter, and Dot drew a picture. Complex While Joyce wrote a letter, Dot drew a picture. Compound/Complex When Mother asked the girls to demonstrate their new-found skills, Joyce wrote a letter, and Dot drew a picture. Note: Do not confuse compound sentence elements with compound sentences. Simple sentence with compound subject Joyce and Dot wrote letters. The girl in row three and the boy next to her were passing notes across the aisle. Simple sentence with compound predicate Joyce wrote letters and drew pictures. The captain of the high school debate team graduated with honors and studied broadcast journalism in college. Simple sentence with compound object of preposition Coleen graded the students’ essays for style and mechanical accuracy.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
130
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Parallelism Recognize parallel structures using phrases (prepositional, gerund, participial, and infinitive) and omissions from sentences that create the lack of parallelism. Prepositional phrase/single modifier Incorrect: Coleen ate the ice cream with enthusiasm and hurriedly. Correct: Coleen ate the ice cream with enthusiasm and in a hurry. Correct: Coleen ate the ice cream enthusiastically and hurriedly. Participial phrase/infinitive phrase Incorrect: After hiking for hours and to sweat profusely, Joe sat down to rest and drinking water. Correct: After hiking for hours and sweating profusely, Joe sat down to rest and drink water. Recognition of dangling modifiers Dangling phrases are attached to sentence parts in such a way they create ambiguity and incorrectness of meaning. Participial phrase Incorrect: Hanging from her skirt, Dot tugged at a loose thread. Correct: Dot tugged at a loose thread hanging from her skirt. Incorrect: Relaxing in the bathtub, the telephone rang. Correct: While I was relaxing in the bathtub, the telephone rang. Infinitive phrase Incorrect: To improve his behavior, the dean warned Fred. Correct: The dean warned Fred to improve his behavior. Prepositional phrase Incorrect: Correct:
On the floor, Father saw the dog eating table scraps. Father saw the dog eating table scraps on the floor.
Recognition of syntactical redundancy or omission These errors occur when superfluous words have been added to a sentence or key words have been omitted from a sentence.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
131
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Redundancy Incorrect: Joyce made sure that when her plane arrived that she retrieved all of her luggage. Correct: Joyce made sure that when her plane arrived she retrieved all of her luggage. Incorrect: He was a mere skeleton of his former self. Correct: He was a skeleton of his former self. Omission Incorrect: Dot opened her book, recited her textbook, and answered the teacher’s subsequent question. Correct: Dot opened her book, recited from the textbook, and answered the teacher’s subsequent question. Avoidance of double negatives This error occurs from positioning two negatives that, in fact, cancel each other in meaning. Incorrect: Harold couldn’t care less whether he passes this class. Correct: Harold could care less whether he passes this class. Incorrect: Dot didn’t have no double negatives in her paper. Correct: Dot didn’t have any double negatives in her paper. In learning to write and in improving one’s writing, the most useful exercise is editing/revising. Extensive revision is the hallmark of most successful writers. In the past, writers, student writers in particular, have been reluctant to revise because it meant beginning over to prepare the document for final presentation. However, that time is long gone. The writing of graduate dissertations took on a whole new dimension after the creation of the word processor and before long, classroom writing teachers were able to use this function to help students improve their writing. Requiring extensive revision in writing classrooms nowadays is not unreasonable and can be an important stage in the production of papers. Microsoft Word has had a “tracking” capability in its last several upgrades, which carries revision a step further. Now the teacher and student can carry on a dialogue on the paper itself. The teacher’s deletions and additions can be tracked, the student can respond, and the tracking will be facilitated by automatically putting the changes in a different color. The “comment” function makes it possible for both teacher and student to write notes at the exactly relevant point in the manuscript.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
132
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Sample Test: English Middle Level Part A Directions: In sentences 1 - 15, four words or phrases have been underlined. If you determine that any underlined word or phrase has an error in grammar, usage, or mechanics, circle the letter underneath the underlining. If there are no errors, circle the letter E at the end of the sentence. There is no more than one error in any sentence. 1. The volcanic eruption in Montserrat displaced residents of Plymouth which A felt that the English government was responsible for their evacuation. E B C D 2. When the school district privatized the school cafeteria, us students were A B C thrilled to purchase more than soggy French fries. E D 3. The homecoming Queen and King were chosen by the student body for A B C their popularity. E D 4. If the practical joke was Cullen’s idea, then he must suffer the A B C consequences. E D 5. She, not her sister, is the one who the librarian has questioned about the A B C missing books, Butterfly’s Ball and the Bears’ House. E D 6. Jack told a credulous story about his trip up the beanstalk because each A B child in the room was convinced by his reasoning. E C D 7. There are fewer students in school this year despite the principal’s A B C prediction of increasing enrollment. E D
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
133
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 8. My mother is a Methodist. She married a Southern Baptist and took us A B C children to the First Baptist church in Stuart. E D 9. When we moved from Jacksonville, Florida, to Little Rock, Arkansas, my A B Dad was promoted to store manager. E C D 10. “One of the burglar’s had been already apprehended before his colleagues A B C left the building,” bragged the officer. E D 11. Walter said that his calculator has been missing since last Monday A B C responding to my question. E D 12. Why was the girl that had plenty of money arrested for shoplifting some A B C trinkets of two dollar’s worth? E D 13. The future will be because of the past; by changing the past would alter A B C D the future. E 14. Mr. Thomas’ daughter-in-law encouraged her husband’s boss to host a A B fund-raiser for the United Way, a charity that Mr. Thomas supports. E B D 15. Miriam decided to remain stationery since to move would startle the horses, A B C one of which might bolt. E D
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
134
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Part B Directions: Each underlined portion of sentences 16 - 25 contains one or more errors in grammar, usage, mechanics, or sentence structure. Circle the choice which best corrects the error without changing the meaning of the original sentence. Choice D or E repeats the underlined portion. Select the identical phrase if you find no errors. 18. Mr. Brown is a school 16. Joe didn’t hardly know his volunteer with a reputation cousin Fred, who’d had a and twenty years service. surgery. A. with a reputation for twenty A. hardly did know his cousin years’ service Fred B. with a reputation for twenty B. didn’t know his cousin Fred year’s service hardly C. who has served twenty C. hardly knew his cousin Fred years D. didn’t know his cousin Fred
D. with a service reputation of twenty years
E. didn’t hardly know his cousin Fred
E. with a reputation and twenty years service
17. Mixing the batter for cookies, the cat licked the Crisco from the cookie sheet. A. While mixing the batter for cookies B. While the batter for cookies was mixing C. While I mixed the batter for cookies D. While I mixed the cookies E. Mixing the batter for cookies
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
135
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 20. A teacher must know not only her subject matter but also the strategies of content teaching.
19. Walt Whitman was famous for his composition, Leaves of Grass, serving as a nurse during the Civil War, and a devoted son. A. Leaves of Grass, his service as a nurse during the Civil War, and a devoted son
A. must not only know her subject matter but also the strategies of content teaching
B. composing Leaves of Grass, serving as a nurse during the Civil War, and being a \ devoted son
B. not only must know her subject matter but also the strategies of content teaching
C. his composition, Leaves of Grass, his nursing during the Civil War, and his devotion as a son
C. must not know only her subject matter but also the strategies of content teaching
D. having authored Leaves of Grass, served as a nurse during the Civil War, and as a devoted son
D. must know not only her subject matter but also the strategies of content teaching
E. his composition, Leaves of Grass, serving as a nurse during the Civil War, and a devoted son.
21. My English teacher, Mrs. Hunt, is nicer than any teacher at school and is the most helpful. A. is as nice as any teacher at school and is B. is nicer than any other teacher at school and is C. is as nice as any other teacher at school and is D. is nicer than any teacher at school and is
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
136
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 22. The teacher implied from our angry words that there was conflict between you and me.
25. Wally groaned, “Why do I have to do an oral interpretation of “The Raven.”
A. implied ... between you and I B. inferred... between you and I
A. groaned, “Why ... of ‘The Raven’ ?”
C. inferred...between you and me
B. groaned “Why ... of “The Raven” ?
D. implied ... between you and me
C. groaned “,Why ... of “The Raven?”
23. There were fewer pieces of evidence presented during the second trial.
D. groaned, “Why ... of “The Raven.”
A. fewer peaces B. less peaces C. less pieces D. fewer pieces 24. Mr. Smith respectfully submitted his resignation and had a new job. A. respectively submitted his resignation and has B. respectively submitted his resignation before accepting C. respectfully submitted his resignation because of D. respectfully submitted his resignation and ha
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
137
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Part C Directions: Select the best answer in each group of multiple choices. 28. The literary device of personification is used in which example below?
26. The synonyms “gyro,” “hero,” and “submarine” reflect which influence on language usage?
A. “Beg me no beggary by soul or parents, whining dog!”
A. social
B. “Happiness sped through the halls cajoling as it went.”
B. geographical C. historical
C. “O wind thy horn, thou proud fellow.”
D. personal
D. “And that one talent which is death to hide.”
27. The following passage is written from which point of view?
29. Which of the writers below is a renowned Black poet?
As she mused the pitiful vision of her mother’s life laid its spell on the very quick of her being - that life of commonplace sacrifices closing in final craziness. She trembled as she heard again her mother’s voice saying constantly with foolish insistence: Derevaun Seraun! Derevaun Seraun !* * “The end of pleasure is pain!” (Gaelic)
A. Maya Angelou B. Sandra Cisneros C. Richard Wilbur D. Richard Wright 30. Which of the following is not one of the four forms of discourse?
A. First person, narrator A. exposition B. Second person, direct address
B. description
C. Third person, omniscient
C. rhetoric
D. First person, omniscient
D. persuasion
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
138
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 31. Among junior-high school students of low-to-average readability levels which work would most likely stir reading interest?
33. Which teaching method would be most effective for interesting underachievers in the required senior English class?
A. Elmer Gantry, Sinclair Lewis
A. Assign use of glossary work and extensively footnoted excerpts of great works.
B. Smiley’s People, John LeCarre
B. Have students take turns reading aloud the anthology selection.
C. The Outsiders, S. E. Hinton D. And Then There Were None, Agatha Christie
C. Let students choose which readings they’ll study and write about.
32. “Every one must pass through Vanity Fair to get to the celestial city” is an allusion from a
D. Use a chronologically arranged, traditional text, but assigning group work, panel presentations, and portfolio management.
A. Chinese folk tale. B. Norse saga.
34. Which poem is typified as a villanelle?
C. British allegory.
A. “Do not Go Gentle into That Good Night”
D. German fairy tale.
B. “Dover Beach” C. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight D. Pilgrim’s Progress
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
139
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 36. Which poet was a major figure in the Harlem Renaissance?
35. Which term best describes the form of the following poetic excerpts?
A. e. e. cummings
And more to lulle him in his slumber soft, A trickling streame from high rock tumbling downe, And ever-drizzling raine upon the loft. Mixt with a murmuring winde, much like a swowne No other noyse, nor peoples troubles cryes. As still we wont t’annoy the walle’d towne, Might there be heard: but careless Quiet lyes, Wrapt in eternall silence farre from enemyes.
B. Rita Dove C. Margaret Atwood D. Langston Hughes 37. To understand the origins of a word, one must study the A. synonyms. B. inflections. C. phonetics. D. etymology.
A. Ballad B. Elegy C. Spenserian stanza D. Octava rima
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
140
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 39. What is the salient literary feature of this excerpt from an epic?
38. Which sonnet form describes the following? My galley charg’ed with forgetfulness Through sharp seas, in winter night doth pass ‘Tween rock and rock; and eke mine enemy, alas, That is my lord steereth with cruelness. And every oar a thought in readiness, As though that death were light in such a case. An endless wind doth tear the sail apace Or forc’ed sighs and trusty fearfulness. A rain of tears, a cloud of dark disdain, Hath done the wearied cords great hinderance, Wreathed with error and eke with ignorance. The stars be hid that led me to this pain Drowned is reason that should me consort, And I remain despairing of the poet.
Hither the heroes and the nymphs resort, To taste awhile the pleasures of a court; In various talk th’instructive hours they passed, Who gave the ball, or paid the visit last; One speaks the glory of the English Queen, And another describes a charming Indian screen; A third interprets motion, looks and eyes; At every word a reputation dies. A. Sprung rhythm B. Onomatopoeia C. Heroic couplets D. Motif 40. What were two major characteristics of the first American literature? A. Vengefulness and arrogance
A. Petrarchan or Italian sonnet B. Shakespearean or Elizabethan sonnet
B. Bellicosity and derision C. Oral delivery and reverence for the land
C. Romantic sonnet D. Spenserian sonnet
D. Maudlin and self-pitying egocentricism
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
141
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 44. Which of the following is not an example of the subject of a tall-tale?
41. Arthur Miller wrote The Crucible as a parallel to what twentieth century event? A. Sen. McCarthy’s House unAmerican Activities Committee Hearing
A. John Henry.
B. The Cold War
C. George Washington.
C. The fall of the Berlin Wall
D. Rip Van Winkle.
B. Paul Bunyan.
45. If a student has a poor vocabulary the teacher should recommend that
D. The Persian Gulf War 42. Latin words that entered the English language during the Elizabethan Age include
A. the student read newspapers, magazines and books on a regular basis.
A. allusion, education, and esteem.
B. the student enroll in a Latin class.
B. vogue and mustache. C. canoe and cannibal.
C. the student write the words repetitively after looking them up in the dictionary.
D. alligator, cocoa, and armadillo.
D. the student use a thesaurus to locate synonyms and incorporate them into his/her vocabulary.
43. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a fable? A. animals that feel and talk like humans.
46. Which author did not write satire?
B. happy solutions to human dilemmas.
A. Joseph Addison C. teaches a moral or standard for behavior.
B. Richard Steele C. Alexander Pope
D. illustrates specific people or groups without directly naming them.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
D. John Bunyan
142
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 50. Which is the best definition of free verse, or vers libre?
47. Which of the following was not written by Jonathan Swift?
A. Poetry which consists of an unaccented syllable followed by an unaccented sound.
A. “A Voyage to Lilliput” B. “A Modest Proposal”
D. “A Tale of a Tub”
B. Short lyrical poetry written to entertain but with an instructive purpose.
48. Which is not a Biblical allusion?
C. Poetry which does not have a uniform pattern of rhythm.
C. “Samson Agonistes”
D. A poem which tells a story and has a plot.
A. The patience of Job B. Thirty pieces of silver C. “Man proposes; God disposes” D. “Suffer not yourself to be betrayed by a kiss” 49. Which definition below is the best for defining diction? A. The specific word choices of an author to create a particular mood or feeling in the reader. B. Writing which explains something thoroughly. C. The background, or exposition, for a short story or drama. D. Word choices which help teach a truth or moral.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
143
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Answer Key: English Middle Level 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
A B A A B A E D C A D D C
14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.
E A C C A B D C C D C A B
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.
144
C C A C C C C A D D D A C
40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50.
D A A D B A D C C A C
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Rationales with Sample Questions: English Middle Level PART A Directions: In sentences 1-15, four words or phrases have been underlined. If you determine that any underlined word or phrase has an error in grammar, usage, or mechanics, circle the letter underneath the underlining. If there are no errors, circle the letter E at the end of the sentence. There is no more than one error in any sentence. 1.
The volcanic eruption in Montserrat displaced residents of Plymouth which A felt that the English government was responsible for their evacuation E B C D The error is A. “Which” is a relative pronoun whose antecedent is “residents of Plymouth.” This antecedent represents persons, not things. If the antecedent were a thing or things, then “which” would be correct. The correct pronoun would be “who.”
2. When the school district privatized the school cafeteria, us students were A B C thrilled to purchase more than soggy French fries E D The error is B. “Us” is not a subject pronoun, and this is what is needed here: “We” is the right pronoun.
3. The homecoming Queen and King were chosen by the student body for their A B C D popularity E The error is A. “Queen and King” are used as nouns here, and not as names, or as the title of a real sovereign: for example, Queen Elizabeth. Since the words “king and queen” are nouns, they are not capitalized.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
145
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 4. If the practical joke was Cullen’s idea, then he must suffer the consequences E A B C D The error is A. In a sentence beginning with “If” and expressing a condition, it is necessary to use the correct subjunctive forms: “If I were, if you were, if he/she/it were, if we were, if you were, if they were”. The sentence here should read: “If the practical joke were Cullen’s idea…” 5. She, not her sister, is the one who the librarian has questioned about the A B C missing books, Butterfly’s Ball and the Bear’s House E D The error is B. The relative pronoun “who” is not correct here: “who” is the subject of a verb, not the object. In this sentence, the subject is “the librarian.” The correct relative pronoun here is “whom,” which is the object of the verb “has questioned.”
6. Jack told a credulous story about his trip up the beanstalk because each A B child in the room was convinced by his reasoning C D
E
The error is A: Only a person can be credulous, not a thing. It should read: “Jack told an incredible story about his trip…”
7. There are fewer students in school this year despite the principal’s prediction A B C of increasing enrollment E D The answer is E: There are no grammatical or syntactical errors in this sentence.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
146
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 8. My mother is a Methodist. She married a Southern Baptist and took us A B C children to the First Baptist church in Stuart E D The error is D: The name of the church should be completely capitalized. It should read: “… the First Baptist Church.”
9. When we moved from Jacksonville, Florida, to Little Rock, Arkansas, my A B Dad was promoted to store manager. E C D The error is C: “dad” is a noun, which is indicated by the possessive “my.” Only name gets capitalized.
10. “One of the burglar’s was already apprehended before his colleagues left A B C the building,” bragged the officer. E D The error is A: “burglar” should be in the plural: “burglars.” In this sentence, it is written as a possessive, which is incorrect here. If we had the possessive, we should have a sentence such as: “the burglar’s mistake caused him to be arrested.”
11. Walter said that his calculator has been missing since last Monday A B C responding to my question E D The error is D: the gerund and its object (“responding to my question”), are not where they should be. The sentence should read: “Walter, responding to my question, said that his calculator has been missing since last Monday.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
147
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 12.
Why was the girl that had plenty of money arrested for shoplifting some A B C trinkets of two dollar’s worth? E D The error is D. The sentence should read: “… trinkets of two dollars’ worth.” As it is, “two dollar’s worth” is in the singular possessive, which is wrong here.
13.
The future will be because of the past: by changing the past would alter the A B C D future. E The answer is C: “by” is not necessary here. The sentence should read: “… because of the past: changing the past would alter the future.”
14.
Mr Thomas’ daughter-in-law encouraged her husband’s boss to host a A B fund-raiser for the United Way, a charity that Mr Thomas supports. E C D The answer is E. There are no errors in this sentence.
15.
Miriam decided to remain stationary since to move would startle the A B C horses, one of which might bolt. E D The error is A: “stationary” is not an adjective used for persons.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
148
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Part B Each underlined portion of sentences 16-25 contains one or more errors in grammar, usage, mechanics, or sentence structure. Circle the choice which best corrects the error without changing the meaning of the original sentence. Choice D or E repeats the underlined portion. Select the identical phrase if you find no error. 16. Joe didn’t hardly know his cousin Fred who’d had a rhinoplasty. A. hardly did know his cousin Fred B. didn’t know his cousin Fred hardly C. hardly knew his cousin Fred D. didn’t know his cousin Fred The answer is C: when using the adverb “hardly” to modify the verb, one should not use the verb in the negative, since “hardly” already restricts the sense so much that it is almost a negative. . 17. Mixing the batter for cookies, the cat licked the Crisco from the cookie sheet. A. While mixing the batter for cookies B. While the batter for cookies was mixing C. While I mixed the batter for cookies D. While I mixed the cookies The answer is C. A gives the impression that the cat was mixing the batter (it is a “dangling modifier”), B that the batter was mixing itself, and D lacks precision: it is the batter that was being mixed, not the cookies themselves.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
149
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 18. Mr. Brown is a school volunteer with a reputation and twenty years service A.
with a reputation for twenty years’ service
B.
with a reputation for twenty year’s service
C.
who has served twenty years
D.
with a reputation and twenty years service
The answer is A. B is a singular genitive (‘s), C lacks the reputation part, and D and E lack the genitive plural (s’) that is necessary here.
19. Walt Whitman was famous for his composition, Leaves of Grass, serving as a nurse during the Civil War, and a devoted son A. Leaves of Grass, his service as a nurse during the Civil War, and a devoted son B. composing Leaves of Grass, serving as a nurse during the Civil War, and being a devoted son C. his composition, Leaves of Grass, his nursing during the Civil War, and his devotion as a son D. his composition, Leaves of Grass, serving as a nurse during the Civil War, and a devoted son The answer is B: in order to be parallel, the sentence needs three gerunds. The other sentences use both gerunds and nouns, which is a lack of parallelism.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
150
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 20. A teacher must know not only her subject matter but also the strategies of content teaching A.
must not only know her subject matter but also the strategies of content teaching
B.
not only must know her subject matter but also the strategies of content teaching
C.
must not know only her subject matter but also the strategies of content teaching
D.
must know not only her subject matter but also the strategies of content teaching
The answer is D: “not only” must come directly before the verb it modifies. 21. My English teacher, Mrs. Hunt, is nicer than any teacher at school and is the most helpful A. is as nice as any teacher at school and is B. is nicer than any other teacher at school and is C. is as nice as any other teacher at school and is
D. is nicer than any teacher at school and is
The answer is C. When comparing one thing to others in a group, you need to exclude the thing under comparison from the rest of the group. Thus, you need the word “other” in the sentence.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
151
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 22. The teacher implied from our angry words that there was conflict between you and me A.
Implied… between you and I
B.
Inferred… between you and I
C. Inferred… between you and me D.
Implied… between you and me
The answer is C: the difference between the verb “to imply” and the verb “to infer” is that implying is directing an interpretation toward other people; to infer is to deduce an interpretation from someone else’s discourse. Moreover, “between you and I” is grammatically incorrect: after a preposition here “and”), a disjunctive pronoun (me, you, him, her, us, you, them) is needed. 23. There were fewer pieces of evidence presented during the second trial A.
fewer peaces
B.
less peaces
C.
less pieces
D.
fewer pieces
The answer is D. “Less” is impossible is the plural, and “peace” is the opposite of war, not a “piece” of evidence.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
152
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 24. Mr. Smith respectfully submitted his resignation and had a new job. A.
respectfully submitted his resignation and has
B.
respectfully submitted his resignation before accepting
C.
respectfully submitted his resignation because of
D.
respectfully submitted his resignation and had
The answer is C. A eliminates any relationship of causality between submitting the resignation and having the new job. B just changes the sentence and does not indicate the fact that Mr. Smith had a new job before submitting his resignation. D means that Mr. Smith first submitted his resignation, and then got a new job. 25. Wally groaned, “Why do I have to do an oral interpretation of “The Raven.” A.
groaned “Why… of ‘The Raven’?”
B.
groaned “Why… of “The Raven”?
C.
groaned “, Why… of “The Raven?”
D.
groaned, “Why… of “The Raven.”
The answer is A. The question mark in a quotation that is an interrogation should be within the quotation marks. Also, when quoting a work of literature within another quotation, one should use single quotation marks (‘…’) for the title of this work, and they should close before the final quotation mark.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
153
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 26. The synonyms “gyro,” “hero,” and “submarine” reflect which influence on language usage? A. social B. geographical C. historical D. personal The answer is B. They are interchangeable but their use depends on the region of the United States, not on the social class of the speaker. Nor is there any historical context around any of them. The usage can be personal, but will most often vary with the region. 27. The following passage is written from which point of view? As she mused the pitiful vision of her mother’s life laid its spell on the very quick of her being –that life of commonplace sacrifices closing in final craziness. She trembled as she heard again her mother’s voice saying constantly with foolish insistence: Dearevaun Seraun! Dearevaun Seraun!* * “The end of pleasure is pain!” (Gaelic) A. First person, narrator B. Second person, direct address C. Third person, omniscient D. First person, omniscient The answer is C. The passage is clearly in the third person (the subject is “she”), and it is omniscient since it gives the characters’ inner thoughts.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
154
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 28. The literary device of personification is used in which example below? A. “Beg me no beggary by soul or parents, whining dog!” B. “Happiness sped through the halls cajoling as it went.” C. “O wind thy horn, thou proud fellow.” D. “And that one talent which is death to hide.” The answer is C. It gives human characteristics to an inanimate object. 29. Which of the writers below is a renowned Black poet? A.
Maya Angelou
B.
Sandra Cisneros
C.
Richard Wilbur
D.
Richard Wright
The answer is A. Among her most famous work are I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1970), And Still I Rise (1978), and All God’s Children Need Traveling Shoes (1986). Richard Wilbur is a poet and a translator of French dramatists Racine et Moliere, but he is not African American. Richard Wright is a very important African American author of novels such as Native Son and Black Boy or The Outsider. However, he was not a poet. Sandra Cisneros is a Latina author who is very important in developing Latina Women’s literature.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
155
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 30. Which of the following is not one of the four forms of discourse? A. exposition B. description C. rhetoric D. persuasion The answer is C. Exposition, description and persuasion are styles of writing and ways of influencing a reader or a listener. Rhetoric, on the other hand, is theoretical. It is the theory of expressive and effective speech. Rhetorical figures are ornaments of speech such as anaphora, antithesis, metaphor, etc. 31. Among junior-high school Students of low-to-average readability levels which work would most likely stir reading interest? A. Elmer Gantry, Sinclair Lewis B. Smiley’s People, John Le Carre C. The Outsiders, S.E. Hinton D. And Then There Were None, Agatha Christie. The answer is C. The students can easily identify with the characters and the gangs in the book. S.E. Hinton has actually said about this book: “The Outsiders is definitely my best-selling book; but what I like most about it is how it has taught a lot of kids to enjoy reading.”
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
156
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 32. “Every one must pass through Vanity Fair to get to the celestial city” is an allusion from a A. Chinese folk tale. B. Norse saga. C. British allegory. D. German fairy tale. The answer is C. This is a reference to John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress from this World to That Which Is to Come (Part I, 1678; Part II, 1684), in which the hero Christian flees the City of Destruction and must undergo different trials tests to get to The Celestial City. 33. Which teaching method would be most effective for interesting underachievers in the required senior English class? A. Assign use of glossary work and extensively footnoted excerpts of great works. B. Have students take turns reading aloud the anthology selection C. Let students choose which readings they’ll study and write about. D. Use a chronologically arranged, traditional text, but assigning group work, panel presentations, and portfolio management The answer is C. It will encourage students to react honestly to literature. Students should take notes on what they’re reading so they will be able to discuss the material. They should not only react to literature, but also experience it. Small-group work is a good way to encourage them. The other answers are not fit for junior-high or high school students. They should be encouraged, however, to read critics of works in order to understand criteria work.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
157
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 34. Which poem is typified as a villanelle? A. “Do not go gentle into that Good Night” B. “Dover Beach” C. Sir Gawain and the GreenKnight D. Pilgrim’s Progress The answer is A. This poem by Dylan Thomas typifies the villanelle because it was written as such. A villanelle is a form which was invented in France in the XVIth century, and used mostly for pastoral songs. It has an uneven number (usually five) of tercets rhyming aba, with a final quatrain rhyming abaa. This poem is the most famous villanelle written in English. “Dover Beach” by Matthew Arnold is not a villanelle, while Sir Gawain and The Green Knight was written in alliterative verse by an unknown author usually referred to as The Pearl Poet around 1370. The Pilgrim’s Progress is a prose allegory by John Bunyan.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
158
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 35. Which term best describes the form of the following poetic excerpt? And more to lulle him in his slumber soft, A trickling streake from high rock tumbling downe, And ever-drizzling raine upon the loft. Mixt with a murmuring winde, much like a swowne No other noyse, nor peoples troubles cryes. As still we wont t’annoy the walle’d towne, Might there be heard: but careless Quiet lyes, Wrapt in eternall silence farre from enemyes. A. Ballad B. Elegy C. Spenserian stanza D. Octava rima The answer is D. The Octava Rima is a specific eight-line stanza whose rhyme scheme is abababcc.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
159
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 36. Which poet was a major figure in the Harlem Renaissance? A. E.E. Cummings B. Rita Dove C. Margaret Atwood D. Langston Hughes The answer is D. Hughes’ collection of verse includes The Weary Blues (1926), Shakespeare in Harlem (1942), and The Panther and the Lash (1967). E. E. Cummings referred the lower case in the spelling of his name until the 1930’s. He is also a celebrated poet, but is not a part of the Harlem Renaissance. Rita Dove is a very famous African American poet, but she was born in 1952 and therefore is not a part of the Harlem Renaissance. Margaret Atwood is a Canadian novelist. 37. To understand the origins of a word, one must study the A. synonyms B. inflections C. phonetics D. etymology The answer is D. A synonym is an equivalent of another word and can substitute for it in certain contexts. Inflection is a modification of words according to their grammatical functions, usually by employing variant word-endings to indicate such qualities as tense, gender, case, and number. Phonetics is the science devoted to the physical analysis of the sounds of human speech, including their production, transmission, and perception.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
160
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 38. Which sonnet form describes the following? My galley charg’d with forgetfulness, Through sharp seas, in winter night doth pass ‘Tween rock and rock; and eke mine enemy, alas, That is my lord steereth with cruelness. And every oar a thought with readiness, As though that death were light in such a case. An endless wind doth tear the sail apace Or forc’ed sighs and trusty fearfulness. A rain of tears, a cloud of dark disdain, Hath done the wearied cords great hinderance, Wreathed with error and eke with ignorance. The stars be hid that led me to this pain Drowned is reason that should me consort, And I remain despairing of the poet
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
161
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE A. Petrarchan or Italian sonnet B.
Shakespearian or Elizabethan sonnet
C. Romantic sonnet E. Spenserian sonnet The answer is A. The Petrarchan Sonnet, also known as Italian sonnet, is named after the Italian poet Petrarch (1304-74). It is divided into an octave rhyming abbaabba and a sestet normally rhyming cdecde.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
162
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 39. What is the salient literature feature of this excerpt from an epic? Hither the heroes and the nymphs resorts, To taste awhile the pleasures of a court; In various talk th’instructive hours they passed, Who gave the ball, or paid the visit last; One speaks the glory of the English Queen, And another describes a charming Indian screen; A third interprets motion, looks and eyes; At every word a reputation dies. A. Sprung rhythm B. Onomatopoeia C. Heroic couplets D. Motif The answer is C. A couplet is a pair of rhyming verse lines, usually of the same length. It is one of the most widely used verse-forms in European poetry. Chaucer established the use of couplets in English, notably in the Canterbury Tales, using rhymed iambic pentameters (a metrical unit of verse having one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable) later known as heroic couplets. Other authors who used heroic couplets include Ben Jonson, Dryden, and especially Alexander Pope, who became the master of them.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
163
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 40. What were two major characteristics of the first American literature? A. Vengefulness and arrogance B. Bellicosity and derision C. Oral delivery and reverence for the land D. Maudlin and self-pitying egocentricism The answer is D. This characteristic can be seen in Captain John Smith’s work, as well as William Bradford’s, and Michael Wigglesworth’s works.
41. Arthur Miller wrote The Crucible as a parallel to what twentieth century event? A. Sen. McCarthy’s House un-American Activities Committee Hearing? B. The Cold War C. The fall of the Berlin wall D. The Persian Gulf War The answer is A. The episode of the seventeenth century witch hunt in Salem, Mass., gave Miller a storyline that was very comparable to what was happening to persons suspected of communist beliefs in the 1950’s.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
164
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 42. Latin words that entered the English language during the Elizabethan age include A. allusion, education, and esteem B. vogue and mustache C. canoe and cannibal D. alligator, cocoa, and armadillo The answer is A. self explanatory.
43. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a fable? A. animals that feel and talk like humans. B. happy solutions to human dilemmas. C. teaches a moral or standard for behavior. D. illustrates specific people or groups without directly naming them. The answer is D. A fable is a short tale with animals, humans, gods, or even inanimate objects as characters. Fables often conclude with a moral, delivered in the form of an epigram (a short, witty, and ingenious statement in verse). Fables are among the oldest forms of writing in human history: it appears in Egyptian papyri of c1,500 BC. The most famous fables are those of Aesop, a Greek slave living in about 600 BC. In India, the Pantchatantra appeared in the third century. The most famous modern fables are those of seventeenth century French poet Jean de La Fontaine.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
165
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 44. An example of the subject of a tall tale is A. John Henry B. Paul Bunyan C. George Washington D. Rip Van Winkle The answer is B. A tall tale is a Folklore genre, originating on the American frontier, in which the physical attributes, capabilities, and exploits of characters are wildly exaggerated. This is the case of giant logger Paul Bunyan of the American Northwestern forests. James Stevens traced Paul Bunyan to a French Canadian logger named Paul Bunyan. He won a reputation as a great fighter in the Papineau Rebellion against England in 1837 and later became famous as the boss of a logging camp. Paul Bunyan’s first appearance in print seems to be in an advertising pamphlet, Paul Bunyan and His Big Blue Ox, published by the Red River Company. It immediately became very popular and was reissued many times. 45. If a student has a poor vocabulary the teacher should Recommend that A. the student read newspapers, magazines and books on a regular basis. B. the student enroll in a Latin class. C. the student write the words repetitively after looking them up in the dictionary. D. the student use a thesaurus to locate synonyms and incorporate them into his/her vocabulary The answer is A. It is up to the teacher to help the student choose reading material, but the student must be able to choose where s/he will search for the reading pleasure indispensable for enriching vocabulary.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
166
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 46. Which author did not write satire? A. Joseph Addison B. Richard Steele C. Alexander Pope D. John Bunyan The answer is D. John Bunyan was a religious writer, known for his autobiography, Grace Abounding To The Chief of Sinners, as well as other books, all religious in their inspiration, such as The Holy City, or the New Jerusalem (1665), A Confession of my Faith, and a Reason of my Practice (1672), or The Holy War (1682).
47. Which of the following was not written by Jonathan Swift? A. “A Voyage to Lilliput” B. “A Modest proposal” C. Samson Agonistes” D. “A Tale of a Tub” The answer is C. Samson Agonistes is a poem by John Milton. It was published in 1671 in the same volume as Paradise regain’d.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
167
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 48. Which is not a Biblical allusion? A. The patience of Job B. Thirty pieces of silver C. “Man proposes; God disposes” D. “Suffer not yourself to be betrayed by a kiss” C is the answer. This saying is attributed to Thomas à Kempis (1379-1471) in his Imitation of Christ, Book 1, chapter 19. 49. Which definition is the best for defining diction? A. The specific word choices of an author to create a particular mood or feeling in the reader. B. Writing which explains something thoroughly. C. The background, or exposition, for a short story or drama. D. Word choices which help teach a truth or moral. The answer is A. Diction refers to an author’s choice of words, expressions and style to convey his/her meaning.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
168
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 50. Which is the best definition of free verse, or vers libre? A. Poetry which consists of an unaccented syllable followed by an unaccented sound. B. Short lyrical poetry written to entertain but with an instructive purpose. C. Poetry which does not have a uniform pattern of rhythm. D. A poem which tells the story and has a plot C is the answer. Free verse has lines of irregular length (but it does not run on like prose). In addition there is often no rhyme scheme or only a few rhymes.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
169
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE DOMAIN III.
HISTORY
COMPETENCY 7.0 UNDERSTAND THE CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY HUMAN SOCIETIES AND MAJOR ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS FROM PREHISTORY TO A.D. 500 Skill 7.1
Understand human origins and prehistory.
ANTHROPOLOGY is the scientific study of human culture and humanity, the relationship between man and his culture. Anthropologists study different groups, how they relate to other cultures, and patterns of behavior, similarities and differences. Their research is two-fold: cross-cultural and comparative. The major method of study is referred to as "participant observation." The anthropologist studies and learns about the people being studied by living among them and participating with them in their daily lives. Other methods may be used but this is the most characteristic method used. ARCHAEOLOGY is the scientific study of past human cultures by studying the remains they left behind--objects such as pottery, bones, buildings, tools, and artwork. Archaeologists locate and examine any evidence to help explain the way people lived in past times. They use special equipment and techniques to gather the evidence and make special effort to keep detailed records of their findings because a lot of their research results in destruction of the remains being studied. The first step is to locate an archaeological site using various methods. Next, surveying the site takes place starting with a detailed description of the site with notes, maps, photographs, and collecting artifacts from the surface. Excavating follows either by digging for buried objects or by diving and working in submersible decompression chambers, when underwater. They record and preserve the evidence for eventual classification, dating, and evaluating their find. Sources of knowledge about early humans: • • • •
Fossils derived from burial pits Occasional bones found in rock deposits Archaeological excavations of tools, pottery, well paintings Study of living primitives
Although written records go back about 4,500 years, scientists have pieced together evidence that documents the existence of humans (or “man-apes) as much as 600,000 years ago. The first manlike creatures arose in many parts of the world about 1 million years ago. By slow stages, these creatures developed into types of men who discovered fire and tools. These creatures had humansized brains and inbred to produce Cro-Magnon type creatures (25,000 years ago), from which homo sapiens descended.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
170
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE These primitive humans demonstrated wide behavior patterns and great adaptability. Little is known in the way of details, including when language began to develop. They are believed to have lived in small communities that developed on the basis of the need to hunt. Cave paintings reveal a belief that magic pictures of animals could conjure up real ones. Some figurines seem to indicate belief in fertility gods and goddesses. Belief in some form of afterlife is indicated by burial formalities. Fire and weapons were in use quite early. Archaeological evidence points to the use of hatchets, awls, needles and cutting tools in the Old Stone Age (one million years ago). Artifacts of the New Stone Age (6,000-8,000 BCE) include indications of polished tools, domesticated animals, the wheel, and some agriculture. Pottery and textiles have been found dating to the end of the New Stone Age (Neolithic period). The discovery of metals in the Bronze Age (3,000 BCE) is concurrent with the establishment of what are believed to be the first civilizations. The Iron Age, followed quickly on the heels of the Bronze Age. By 4,000 BCE humans lived in villages, engaged in animal husbandry, grew grains, sailed in boats, and practiced religions. Civilizations arose earliest in the fertile river valleys of the Nile, Mesopotamia, the Indus, and the Hwang Ho. Prerequisites of civilization: • • • •
Use of metals rather than stone for tools and weapons A system of writing A calendar A territorial state organized on the basis of residence in the geographic region
The earliest known civilizations developed in the Tigris-Euphrates valley of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and the Nile valley of Egypt between 4000 BCE and 3000 BCE. Because these civilizations arose in river valleys, they are known as fluvial civilizations. Geography and the physical environment played a critical role in the rise and the survival of both of these civilizations. The Fertile Crescent was bounded on the West by the Mediterranean, on the South by the Arabian Desert, on the north by the Taurus Mountains, and on the east by the Zagros Mountains.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
171
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE First, the rivers provided a source of water that would sustain life, including animal life. The hunters of the society had ample access to a variety of animals, initially for hunting to provide food, as well as hides, bones, antlers, etc. from which clothing, tools and art could be made. Second, the proximity to water provided a natural attraction to animals that could be herded and husbanded to provide a stable supply of food and animal products. Third, the rivers of these regions overflowed their banks each year, leaving behind a deposit of very rich soil. As these early people began to experiment with growing crops rather than gathering food, the soil was fertile and water was readily available to produce sizeable harvests. In time, the people developed systems of irrigation that channeled water to the crops without significant human effort on a continuing basis. The designation “Fertile Crescent” was applied by the famous historian and Egyptologist James Breasted to the part of the Near East that extended from the Persian Gulf to the Sinai Peninsula. It included Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine. This region was marked by almost constant invasions and migrations. These invaders and migrants seemed to have destroyed the culture and civilization that existed. Upon taking a longer view, however, it becomes apparent that they actually absorbed and supplemented the civilization that existed before their arrival. This is one of the reasons the civilization developed so quickly and created so such an advanced culture. Skill 7.2
Identify political, economic, religious, and cultural characteristics of the early civilizations of Egypt, the Middle East, India, and China.
Ancient civilizations were those cultures that developed to a greater degree and were considered advanced. These included the following with their major accomplishments. The culture of Mesopotamia was definitely autocratic in nature. The various civilizations that criss-crossed the Fertile Crescent were very much top-heavy, with a single ruler at the head of the government and, in many cases, also the head of the religion. The people followed his strict instructions or faced the consequences, which were usually dire and often life-threatening. The civilizations of the Sumerians, Amorites, Hittites, Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Persians controlled various areas of the land we call Mesopotamia. With few exceptions, tyrants and military leaders controlled the vast majority of aspects of society, including trade, religions, and the laws. Each Sumerian city-state (and there were a few) had its own god, with the city-state’s leader doubling as the high priest of worship of that local god. Subsequent cultures had a handful of gods as well, although they had more of a national worship structure, with high priests centered in the capital city as advisers to the tyrant.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
172
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Trade was vastly important to these civilizations, since they had access to some but not all of the things that they needed to survive. Some trading agreements led to occupation, as was the case with the Sumerians, who didn’t bother to build walls to protect their wealth of knowledge. Egypt and the Phoenician cities were powerful and regular trading partners of the various Mesopotamian cultures. Legacies handed down to us from these people include: • • • • •
The first use of writing, the wheel, and banking (Sumeria); The first written set of laws (Code of Hammurabi); The first epic story (Gilgamesh); The first library dedicated to preserving knowledge (instituted by the Assyrian leader Ashurbanipal); The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (built by the Chaldean Nebuchadnezzar)
The ancient civilization of the Sumerians invented the wheel; developed irrigation through use of canals, dikes, and devices for raising water; devised the system of cuneiform writing; learned to divide time; and built large boats for trade. The Babylonians devised the famous Code of Hammurabi, a code of laws. Egypt made numerous significant contributions including construction of the great pyramids; development of hieroglyphic writing; preservation of bodies after death; making paper from papyrus; contributing to developments in arithmetic and geometry; the invention of the method of counting in groups of 110 (the decimal system); completion of a solar calendar; and laying the foundation for science and astronomy. The earliest historical record of Kush is in Egyptian sources. They describe a region upstream from the first cataract of the Nile as “wretched.” This civilization was characterized by a settled way of life in fortified mud-brick villages. They subsisted on hunting and fishing, herding cattle, and gathering grain. Skeletal remains suggest that the people were a blend of Negroid and Mediterranean peoples. This civilization appears to be the second oldest in Africa (after Egypt). Either the people were Egyptian or heavily influenced by Egyptians at a very early period in the development of the society. They appear to have spoken NiloSaharan languages. The area in which they lived is called Nubia. The capital city was Kerma, a major trading center between the northern and southern parts of Africa. During the period of Egypt’s Old Kingdom (ca. 2700-2180 BCE), this civilization was essentially a diffused version of Egyptian culture and religion. When Egypt came under the domination of the Hyksos, Kush reached its greatest power and cultural energy (1700-1500 BCE). When the Hyksos were eventually expelled from Egypt, the New Kingdom brought Kush back under Egyptian colonial control.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
173
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The collapse of the New Kingdom in Egypt (circa 1000 BCE) provided the second opportunity for Kush to develop independently of Egyptian control and to conquer all the Nubian region. The capital was then moved to Napata. For the most part, the Kushites apparently considered themselves Egyptian and inheritors of the pharoanic tradition. Their society was organized on the Egyptian model, adopting Egyptian royal titles, etc. Even their art and architecture was based on Egyptian models. But their pyramids were smaller and steeper. In what has been called “a magnificent irony of history” the Kushites conquered Egypt in the 8th century, creating the 25th dynasty. The dynasty ended in the seventh century when Egypt was defeated by the Assyrians. The Kushites were gradually pushed farther south by the Assyrians and later by the Persians. This essentially cut off contact with Egypt, the Middle East and Europe. They moved their capital to Meroe in about 591 BC, when Napata was conquered. Their attention then turned to sub-Saharan Africa. Free of Egyptian dominance, they developed innovations in government and other areas. In government, the king ruled through a law of custom that was interpreted by priests. The king was elected from the royal family. Descent was determined through the mother’s line (as in Egypt). But in an unparalleled innovation, the Kushites were ruled by a series of female monarchs. The Kushite religion was polytheistic, including all of the primary Egyptian gods. There were, however, regional gods which were the principal gods in their regions. Derived from other African cultures, there was also a lion warrior god. This civilization was vital through the last half of the first millennium BC, but it suffered about 300 years of gradual decline until it was eventually conquered by the Nuba people. The ancient Assyrians were warlike and aggressive due to a highly organized military and used horse drawn chariots. The Hebrews, also known as the ancient Israelites instituted "monotheism," which is the worship of one God, Yahweh, and combined the 66 books of the Hebrew and Christian Greek scriptures into the Bible we have today. The Minoans had a system of writing using symbols to represent syllables in words. They built palaces with multiple levels containing many rooms, water and sewage systems with flush toilets, bathtubs, hot and cold running water, and bright paintings on the walls. The Mycenaeans changed the Minoan writing system to aid their own language and used symbols to represent syllables.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
174
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Phoenicians were sea traders well known for their manufacturing skills in glass and metals and the development of their famous purple dye. They became so very proficient in the skill of navigation that they were able to sail by the stars at night. Further, they devised an alphabet using symbols to represent single sounds, which was an improved extension of the Egyptian principle and writing system. In India, the caste system was developed, the principle of zero in mathematics was discovered, and the major religion of Hinduism was begun. China is considered by some historians to be the oldest, uninterrupted civilization in the world and was in existence around the same time as the ancient civilizations founded in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley. The Chinese studied nature and weather; stressed the importance of education, family, and a strong central government; followed the religions of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism; and invented such things as gunpowder, paper, printing, and the magnetic compass. China began building the Great Wall; practiced crop rotation and terrace farming; increased the importance of the silk industry, and developed caravan routes across Central Asia for extensive trade. Also, they increased proficiency in rice cultivation and developed a written language based on drawings or pictographs (no alphabet symbolizing sounds as each word or character had a form different from all others). The ancient Persians developed an alphabet; contributed the religions/philosophies of Zoroastrianism, Mithraism, and Gnosticism; and allowed conquered peoples to retain their own customs, laws, and religions.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
175
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 7.3
Understand fundamental ideas and beliefs of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism.
In India, Vedic Hinduism as practiced by the Aryans, evolved into its now recognizable form, as Dravidian states, south of the Indus River, were conquered and local deities and heroes (such as Krishna, Naga and Hanuman) were incorporated into the Hindu belief system of multiple aspects of a single godhead. Industry and commerce developed along with extensive trading with the Near East. Outstanding advances in the fields of science and medicine were made along with being one of the first in navigation and maritime enterprises during this time. Buddhism is an offshoot of Brahmanical Hindu thought, which arose during the fifth century BCE. However, unlike traditional Hinduism, Buddhism was founded by Gautama Siddartha Shakyamuni, a crown prince who renounced the material world after observing suffering in the form of illness, old age and death, much to the dismay of his father, the maharajah, and to seek enlightenment. After years of asceticism and austerities, the prince achieved enlightenment after meditating under a tree for 49 days. He was called the “Buddha” (a Sanskrit word meaning “Awakened One”) after his enlightenment and told his followers that life was suffering, suffering was caused by desire, desire was caused by delusion of the mind, which leads to death and rebirth which lead to another cycle of suffering. To avoid suffering, one must get rid of the delusions that cause desire and break the cycle of life, death and rebirth, called “samsara” a concept from Hindu theology. Other concepts adapted from Hindu theology are “karma”, which is the balance of action versus later effect, which will trigger samsara and “dharma”, which can mean “fate”, “destiny”, or “unbreakable rules that govern all phenomena”, depending on its context. Escape from the cycles of samsara was called “nirvana”, or “extinguishment”. Buddhism later split off into two main schools: Theravada (“Older Way”) or Southern Buddhism and Mahayana (“Great Vehicle”). Theravada Buddhism teaches that individuals can gain enough merit over countless cycles of rebirth and eventually attain enlightenment. This branch of Buddhism is the original one as practiced shortly after the Buddha’s death. It is the form that spread south to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana Buddhism is a later school that revises the Theravada and teaches that certain individuals, who had achieved enlightenment, but rather than passing into Nirvana, they declined and stayed behind to assist other, less enlightened individuals attain enlightenment and all beings pass completely into Nirvana. This is the form that spread to Tibet and eastward to China, Korea and Japan.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
176
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE One tremendous bit of legacy that we can trace to the Aryans was the caste system, which permeates nearly all aspects of Indian society today. The prohibitions might be less these days, but the castes are still there. The twin great religions of Hinduism and Buddhism had their genesis in India; both are still very much alive today, emphasizing their doctrines of rebirth, enlightenment, nirvana, and more. The Hindu doctrine of reincarnation especially went hand-inhand with the caste system, making it nearly impossible for the disadvantaged to ever improve their fortunes. Confucianism: is a Chinese religion based on the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius. There is no clergy, no organization, and no belief in a deity or in life after death. It emphasizes political and moral ideas with respect for authority and ancestors. Rulers were expected to govern according to high moral standards. In the aftermath of the fall of Qin, Confucianism became the official political philosophy of the Han. Scholarship and the criterion for appointment to the imperial bureaucracy were based on the Five Classics: Odes, History, Rites (Etiquette), Change (Yi Jing), and the Spring and Autumn Annals (a history of a portion of the Zhou Dynasty edited by Confucius). Additionally, scholars were expected to have a thorough knowledge of the Analects of Confucius (a collection of his teachings) and Mencius (Meng Zi was a Confucian scholar who expanded on the themes espoused by Confucius and his most esteemed students). The accomplishments of the Han Dynasty were so unprecedented and profound, that later Chinese refer to themselves as “People of the Han” and Chinese characters have been called “Han Words” (literal translation of the two characters that make up the word for “Chinese characters”) ever since.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
177
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 7.4
Examine origins, central teachings, and legacies of Judaism.
The Hebrews, also known as the ancient Israelites instituted "monotheism," which is the worship of one God, Yahweh, and combined the 66 books of the Hebrew and Christian Greek scriptures into the Bible we have today. The ancient Israelites created a powerful legacy of political and philosophical traditions, much of which survives to this day. In law and religion, especially, we can draw a more or less straight line from then to now. Israel was not the first ancient civilization to have a series of laws for its people to follow. However, thanks to the staggering popularity of the Ten Commandments, we think of the Israelites in this way. This simple set of laws, some of which are not laws at all but societal instructions, maintains to this day a central role in societies the world over. Such commandments as the ones that prohibit stealing and killing were revolutionary in their day because they applied to everyone, not just the disadvantaged. In many ancient cultures, the rich and powerful were above the law because they could buy their way out of trouble and because it wasn’t always clear what the laws were. Echoing the Code of Hammurabi and preceding Rome’s Twelve Tables, the Ten Commandments provided a written record of laws, so all knew what was prohibited. The civilization of Israel is also known as the first to assume a worship of just one god. The Christian communities built on this tradition, and both faiths exist and are expanding today, especially in western countries. Rather than a series of gods, each of which was in charge of a different aspect of nature or society, the ancient Israelites and Christians believed in just one god, called Yahweh or God, depending on which religion you look at. This divine being was, these peoples believed, the “one, true God,” lord over all. This worship of just one god had more of a personal nature to it, and the result was that the believers thought themselves able to talk (or, more properly, pray) directly to their god, whereas the peoples of Mesopotamia and Egypt thought the gods distant and unapproachable. Modern western societies owe a tremendous debt to both the legal and religious aspects of these ancient societies.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
178
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 7.5
Understand institutions, culture, and legacies of Greek civilization.
Ancient Greece is often called the "Cradle of Western Civilization" because of the enormous influence it had not only on the time in which it flourished, but on western culture ever since. Early Greek institutions have survived for thousands of years, and have influenced the entire world. The Athenian form of democracy, with each citizen having an equal vote in his own government, is a philosophy upon which all modern democracies are based. In the United States, the Greek tradition of democracy was honored in the choice of Greek architectural styles for the nation's government buildings. The modern Olympic Games are a revival of an ancient Greek tradition and many of the events are recreations of original contests. The works of the Greek epic poet Homer are considered the earliest in western literature, and are still read and taught today. The tradition of the theater was born in Greece, with the plays of Aristophanes and others. In philosophy, Aristotle developed an approach to learning that emphasized observation and thought, and Socrates and Plato contemplated the nature of being and the origins and ideals of government and political relations. Greek mythology has been the source of inspiration for literature into the present day. In the field of mathematics, Pythagoras and Euclid laid the foundation of geometry and Archimedes calculated the value of pi. Herodotus and Thucydides were the first to apply research and interpretation to written history. In the arts, Greek sensibilities were held as perfect forms to which others might strive. In sculpture, the Greeks achieved an idealistic aesthetic that had not been perfected before that time. The Greek civilization served as an inspiration to the Roman Republic, which followed in its tradition of democracy, and was directly influenced by its achievements in art and science. Later, during the Renaissance, European scholars and artists would rediscover ancient Greece's love for dedicated inquiry and artistic expression, leading to a surge in scientific discoveries and advancements in the arts.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
179
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 7.6
Have knowledge of Alexander the Great and the spread of Greek culture.
Alexander was a Macedonian who was tutored by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, and who became one of the greatest conquerors of history. Alexander lived in the fourth century BC. Alexander was the son of Philip II of Macedon, who had united the various citystates of Greece into one kingdom. Upon Philip's death, these states again sought independence, but were conquered and reunited by Alexander. From there, Alexander expanded his empire to the east and south, reaching as far as Egypt and India. At its peak, Alexander's empire covered most of the known world. As Alexander conquered and moved through foreign regions, he increased his forces by absorbing foreign officers and soldiers into his own army. He also encouraged his own soldiers to marry into local populations. This policy of inclusion and expansion had the effect of bringing Greek culture to the east with its ideals of learning and inquiry. Alexander founded the city of Alexandria in Egypt, which became a major center of learning. Alexander was apparently very affected by Persian culture after conquering a part of that region, and for a time took to wearing Persian style clothing and adopting some of their customs. His example exemplified the spread of eastern culture to the west. Alexander died mysteriously after a sudden illness at the age of 33 in 323 BC. Having left no heir, his empire was split into four kingdoms. His reputation did not die, however, and Greek culture in general and Alexander in particular served as the inspiration for the Roman leaders who would eventually recreate much of his empire in the following centuries.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
180
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 7.7
Examine institutions, culture, and legacies of the Roman Republic and Empire.
The ancient civilization of Rome owed much to the Greeks. Romans admired Greek architecture and arts, and built upon these traditions to create a distinct tradition of their own that would influence the western world for centuries. In government, the Romans took the Athenian concept of democracy and built it into a complex system of representative government that included executive, legislative and judicial functions. In the arts, Romans created a realistic approach to portraiture, in contrast to the more idealized form of the Greeks. In architecture, Rome borrowed directly from the Greek tradition, but also developed the dome and the arch, allowing for larger and more dramatic forms. The Romans continued the Greek tradition of learning, often employing Greeks to educate their children. The Roman Republic flourished in the centuries leading up to the advent of the Christian era. An organized bureaucracy and active political population provided elite Roman citizens with the means to ascend to positions of considerable authority. During the first century BC, Gaius Julius Caesar ambitiously began to gather support among the ruling authorities of the Republic, eventually being named one of the two Consuls who were elected annually. Caesar was ultimately named dictator for life, and was the transitional leader between the Roman Republic and what would become the Roman Empire. Like the Republic, the Roman Empire also looked to the east to Greece for inspiration. Now it was the Macedonian conqueror Alexander, who had unified Greece and introduced the culture throughout the eastern world who provided Roman emperors with a role model. The Roman Empire extended through much of Europe and Roman culture extended with it. Everywhere the Romans went, they built roads, established cities, and left their mark on the local population. The Roman language, Latin, spread as well and was transformed into the Romance languages of French and Spanish. The Roman alphabet, which was based on the Greek transformation of Phoenician letters, was adopted throughout the empire and is still used today. The empire itself has served as a model for modern government, especially in federal systems such as that found in the United States. The eventual decline and fall of the empire has been a subject that has occupied historians for centuries.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
181
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 7.8
Understand origins, central teachings, and spread of Christianity.
The rise of Christianity in early modern Europe was due as much to the iron hand of feudalism as it was to the Church itself. Feudalism, more than any other element, helped the Church get its grip on Europe. That grip, some would argue, has yet to be relinquished. Like the caste system in India, feudalism kept people in strict control according to their social class. If you were a peasant, you had been born that way and you had an excellent chance of staying that way for your entire life. The rich and powerful were also the highest class in society, and the friends of the rich and powerful were the clergy. The Church also, through its warnings of death and damnation without salvation, had rigid control of the belief systems of most of the people throughout Europe. In this way, the Church was able to assume more than just traditionally religious roles in people’s lives. Clergy were respected and trusted members of society, and people consulted them on secular matters as well as religious ones. Also at this time, a desire to travel to the Holy Land, to Palestine and what is now Israel, grew in a big way. The Church encouraged this, and pilgrimage routes sprang up. In a way that governments never could, Christianity unified Europe. Especially with the pope at the head of the religion, the peoples of Europe could correctly be called Christendom because they all had the same beliefs, the same worries, and the same tasks to perform in order to achieve the salvation that they so desperately sought. The Church was only too happy to capitalize on this power, which increased throughout the Middle Ages until it met a stalwart from Germany named Martin Luther. Skill 7.9
Understand the decline and fall of the Roman Empire.
The causes of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire are widely debated even today. What is referred to as the fall of the empire is more properly described as the fall of the Western Roman Empire, as the eastern empire based in Constantinople continued on for a thousand years after Rome fell. The Roman Empire had gained dominion over the largest number of people of any empire in history at that time, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Persia in the east, and from North Africa to the island of Britain. This vast empire stood for centuries, beginning in the first decades AD, ruled by a series of emperors.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
182
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In the third century, the empire began experiencing an increase in civil unrest as well as increased invasions from outside. Internally, civil war became an almost constant factor as there were no clear rules for accession to the position of Emperor. Military factions battled for the position with Diocletian ascending to the role in 285 AD. Diocletian realized that the vast empire was spread too wide to be governed effectively by one person in Rome. He divided the empire in half along a northsouth line east of Italy and named his friend, Maximian, emperor of the eastern portion. Each emperor, who held the title Augustus, also named a kind of junior emperor, entitled Caesar. Thus the empire now had four emperors. This system worked well for some time, as the four men were able to cooperate effectively. When Diocletian and Maximian withdrew, Augustus elevated their Caesars to the posts, and conflict soon followed. Constantius, who was Maximian's Caesar, died while in office and once again the issue of succession was hotly contested with Constantius military backers installing his son, Constantine as Augustus in opposition to Severus, who had been Constantius' Caesar. Several years of conflict ensued, with many pretenders to the position of Augustus. In the end, it was Constantine who won out as the sole Augustus. In 330 AD, he proclaimed the empire unified again and moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium, which was subsequently known as Constantinople. Constantine eventually converted to Christianity, and the Roman Empire was thenceforth officially a Christian state. Constantine divided the rule of the empire among his sons, but conflict over control of the empire continued for decades, with several emperors ascending the throne, all Christian. The invasions by Germanic tribes, which had begun in the third century continued to increase in their force and frequency. With power divided and the capital of the empire moved to the east, Rome became a prime target for these invading forces. The traditional "fall" of the Roman Empire is widely recognized as the defeat of Rome in 476 by Germanic invaders who deposed the western emperor and took control of the government. The eastern empire would continue to flourish for another thousand years, even regaining the Italian region from the Ostrogoths’ various campaigns of conquest. It stood until it was conquered in 1453 by the Ottomans.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
183
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 7.10
Identify the rise and achievements of Byzantine civilization.
The Byzantines (Christians) made important contributions in art and the preservation of Greek and Roman achievements including architecture (especially in eastern Europe and Russia), the Code of Justinian and Roman law. Byzantium was known for its exquisite artwork (including the famous church Hagia Sophia), something for which the West was never known. Bordering the east of Europe was the Byzantine Empire, which was the Eastern Roman Empire, after it was split into two by Emperor Diocletian. Diocletian’s successor, Emperor Constantine renamed the capital Byzantium to Constantinople, after himself. With the fall of Western Rome in 476 CE, the Byzantine emperors, starting with Justinian, attempted to regain the lost western territories. Due to ineffective rulers between the seventh and ninth centuries CE, any gains were completely lost, reverting the territorial limits to the eastern Balkans of Ancient Greece and Asia Minor. The late ninth through eleventh centuries were considered the Golden Age of Byzantium. Although Constantine had earlier made Christianity the official state religion of Rome, it left an unresolved conflict between Christian and Classical (Greek and Roman) ideals for the Byzantines. There were points of contention between the Pope in Rome and the Patriarch of Constantinople including celibacy of priests, language of the Liturgy (Latin in the west, Greek in the east), religious doctrine, and other unreconciled issues. These issues led to the Great Schism which permanently split the church into the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches. Perhaps the most wide-ranging success of the Byzantine Empire was in the area of trade. Uniquely situated at the gateway to both West and East, Byzantium could control trade going in both directions. Indeed, the Eastern Empire was much more centralized and rigid in its enforcement of its policies than the feudal West.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
184
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 7.11
Understand the relationship of Greek and Roman political concepts to modern government.
Athenian democracy was a direct form of democracy, with every male citizen above the age of 20 able to vote in the legislative assembly. The assembly was made up of a minimum of 6,000 and voted on proposals made by a council of 500 citizens who were chosen by lot. Within the council of 500, one person was chosen each day to serve as the head of state. Trials were held by jury, without judges, with jurors being chosen from the pool of citizens. Athenian democracy differed from representative democracy in that each voter had the right to vote directly on public issues and no formal leaders were elected. The concept of "one person, one vote," that was the basis of Greek democracy is still the primary ideal behind all modern democracies. Direct democracy after the Greek method has not survived as a national form of government, although smaller groups such as town meetings still practice a form of direct democracy over some matters. The Greeks provided the philosophy of democracy, but the modern form of national democratic government owes much to the Romans. Democracy in the Roman Republic was an indirect form. Citizens were classified into groups based on economic status or tribal affiliation and were allowed to vote within that group. The majority vote of the group then determined how the group would vote in an assembly. There were three voting assemblies: The Curiate Assembly, made up of elite Romans, the Centuriate Assembly, made up of elite and common citizens, and the Tribal Assembly, which represented all citizens and conducted most trials. The Roman Republic also had a Senate made up of appointees who served for life. The Senate had no direct legislative power, but was nonetheless influential in its ability to recommend or oppose action by the assemblies. The highest elected office in the Roman Republic was consul. Two consuls were elected by the Centuriate Assembly annually, each with veto power over the other's actions. The consuls held considerable administrative power, and were also expected to act as military leaders in times of war. Nearly all modern democracies are formed in some fashion after the Roman model, with the legislative, executive and judicial functions placed in separate bodies. The framers of the US Constitution were well versed in the Roman system, and created counterparts in the new American government.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
185
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Like the Roman Republic, the US system has an indirect form of democratic government with representative assemblies, including a Senate with six-year terms and the more "common" House of Representatives with two-year terms. Instead of consuls, the US has a President who oversees the executive function of the country and represents the nation to the world. The president is elected in a national election; however it is the Electoral College, overseen by the Senate, which formally elects the national leader. Unlike the early Roman Republic, the US has established a permanent independent court system. The complex Roman system also had conflicting powers among the various political bodies, making it difficult for one body to gain complete control over the others. This was also built into the American system as a series of "checks and balances" that ensure that no one branch of the government becomes too dominant.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
186
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 8.0 UNDERSTAND MAJOR POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS THAT SHAPED THE COURSE OF WORLD HISTORY DURING THE GROWTH OF AGRICULTURAL AND COMMERCIAL CIVILIZATIONS FROM 500 TO 1500 Skill 8.1
Examine the emergence, central teachings, and expansion of Islam.
A few years after the death of the Emperor Justinian, Mohammed was born (570 CE) in a small Arabian town near the Red Sea. Before this time, Arabians played only an occasional role in history. Arabia was a vast desert of rock and sand, except the coastal areas on the Red Sea. It was populated by nomadic wanderers called Bedouin, who lived in scattered tribes near oases where they watered their herds. Tribal leaders engaged in frequent war with one another. The family or tribe was the social and political unit, under the authority of the head of the family, within which there was cruelty, infanticide, and suppression of women. Their religion was a crude and superstitious paganism and idolatry. Although there was regular contact with Christians and Jews through trading interactions, the idea of monotheism was foreign. What vague unity there was within the religion was based upon common veneration of certain sanctuaries. The most important of these was a small square temple called the Kaaba (cube), located in the town of Mecca. Arabs came from all parts of the country in annual pilgrimages to Mecca during the sacred months when warfare was prohibited. For this reason, Mecca was considered the center of Arab religion. In about 610 a prophet named Mohammed came to some prominence. He called his new religion Islam (submission [to the will of God]) and his followers were called Moslems – those who had surrendered themselves. His first converts were members of his family and his friends. As the new faith began to grow, it remained a secret society. But when they began to make their faith public, they met with opposition and persecution from the pagan Arabians who feared the new religion and the possible loss of the profitable trade with the pilgrims who came to the Kaaba every year. Islam slowly gained ground, and the persecutions became more severe around Mecca. In 622, Mohammed and his close followers fled the city and found refuge in Medina to the North. His flight is called the Hegira. This event marks the beginning of the Moslem calendar. Mohammed took advantage of the ongoing feuds between Jews and Arabs in the city and became the rulers of Medina, making it the capital of a rapidly growing state.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
187
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In the years that followed, Islam changed significantly. It became a fighting religion and Mohammed became a political leader. The group survived by raiding caravans on the road to Mecca and plundering nearby Jewish tribes. This was a victorious religion that promised plunder and profit in this world and the blessings of paradise after death. It attracted many converts from the Bedouin tribes. By 630, Mohammed was strong enough to conquer Mecca and make it the religious center of Islam, toward which all Moslems turned to pray, and the Kaaba the most sacred Mosque or temple. Medina remained the political capital. By taking over the pilgrimage, the sacred city and the sanctuary from paganism, Mohammed made it easier for converts to join the religion. By the time of his death in 632, most of the people of Arabia had become at least nominal adherents of Islam. Mohammed left behind a collection of divine revelations (surahs) he believed were delivered by the angel Gabriel. These were collected and published in a book called the Koran (reading), which has since been the Holy Scriptures of Islam. The revelations were never dated or kept in any kind of chronological order. After the prophet’s death they were organized by length (in diminishing order). The Koran contains Mohammed’s teachings on moral and theological questions, his legislation on political matters, and his comments on current events. Islam has five basic principles: 1. The oneness and omnipotence of God – Allah. • Mohammed is the prophet of Allah to whom all truth has been revealed by God. • To each of the previous prophets (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus) a part of the truth was revealed. 2. One should pray five times a day at prescribed intervals, facing Mecca, 3. Charity – for the welfare of the community. 4. Fasting from sunrise to sunset every day during the holy month of Ramadan to cleanse the spirit. 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca should be made if possible and if no one suffers thereby. The moral principles of Islam are: • • • •
The practice of the virtues of charity, humility and patience, Enemies are to be forgiven, Avarice, lying and malice are condemned, and Drinking (alcohol), eating pork, and gambling are prohibited.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
188
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Mohammed believed that on the Day of Judgment all souls will be judged. The infidel would be condemned to a hell (gehennem) of perpetual fire; the good/faithful would go to Paradise, a beautiful place of cool waters, sensual delights, and ease. He emphasized a strong sense of predestination. The Koran elevated the level of women. A man could marry as many as four wives if he loved them equally. Divorce was easy, but the wife had to be given a dowry. Mohammed drew freely upon Christianity, Judaism, and Arab paganism. His knowledge of the first two was limited to what he learned through casual conversation. The resulting doctrine was a mixture of ideas that is original when taken as a whole. It appealed to both the simple Arab of the prophet’s day and to the faith of more civilized people. Mohammed died without either a political or a religious succession plan. His cousin, Ali, who had married Mohammed’s daughter Fatima, believed his kinship and his heroism as a warrior gave him a natural claim to leadership. But Moslems in Medina thought one of their own should succeed Mohammed. Abu Bakr was finally chosen. He took the title of Caliph. The title was retained throughout the duration of the Moslem Empire. These Moslem Arabians immediately launched an amazing series of conquests that in time extended the empire from the Indus to Spain. It has often been said that these conquests were motivated by religious fanaticism and the determination to force Islam upon the infidel. In fact, however, the motives were economic and political. During the period of expansion there was a brief civil war that occurred because Ali was proclaimed Caliph at Medina. He was opposed by an aristocratic family of Mecca called the Umayyad. Ali was assassinated in 661, and the Umayyads emerged supreme, handing the caliphate down in their family for nearly a century. Because their strongest support was in Syria, they moved the capital from Medina to Damascus. Despite political divisions, the Moslem world maintained strong economic, religious and cultural unity throughout this period. Mohammed had taught that all Moslems are brothers, equal in the sight of God. Conversion to Islam erased the differences between peoples of different ethnic origin. The converts to Islam, who brought their cultural traditions, probably contributed more to this emerging synthetic civilization than the Arabs. This blending of cultures, facilitated by a common language, a common religion, and a strong economy, created learning, literature, science, technology and art that surpassed anything found in the Western Christian world during the Early Middle Ages. Interestingly, the most brilliant period of Moslem culture was from the eighth century through the eleventh, coinciding with the West’s darkest cultural period.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
189
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Reading and writing in Arabic, the study of the Koran, arithmetic and other elementary subjects were taught to children in schools attached to the mosques. In larger and wealthier cities, the mosques offered more advanced education in literature, logic, philosophy, law, algebra, astronomy, medicine, science, theology and the tradition of Islam. Books were produced for the large reading public. The wealthy collected private libraries, and public libraries arose in large cities. The most popular subjects were theology and the law. But the more important field of study was philosophy. The works of the Greek and Hellenistic philosophers were translated into Arabic and interpreted with commentaries. These were later passed on to the Western Christian societies and schools in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The basis of Moslem philosophy was Aristotelian and Neo-platonic ideas, which were essentially transmitted without creative modification. The Moslems were also interested in natural science. They translated the works on Galen and Hippocrates into Arabic and added the results of their own experience in medicine. Avicenna was regarded in Western Europe as one of the great masters of medicine. They also adopted the work of the Greeks in the other sciences and modified and supplemented them with their own discoveries. Much of their work in chemistry was focused on alchemy (the attempt to transmute base metals into gold). The Muslim culture outdistanced the Western world in the field of medicine, primarily because the people weren’t constrained by the sort of superstitious fervor that had so embraced the West at this time. The Muslim doctor Al-Razi was one of the most well-known physicians in the world and was the author of a medical encyclopedia and a handbook for smallpox and measles Adopting the heritage of Greek mathematics, the Moslems also borrowed a system of numerals from India. This laid the foundation for modern arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry and algebra. Moslem art and architecture tended to be mostly uniform in style, allowing for some regional modification. They borrowed from Byzantine, Persian and other sources. The floor plan of the mosques was generally based on Mohammed’s house at Medina. The notable unique elements were the tall minarets from which the faithful were called to prayer. Interior decoration was the style now called arabesque. Mohammed had banned paintings or other images of living creatures. These continued to be absent from mosques, although they occasionally appeared in book illustration and secular contexts. But their skilled craftsmen produced the finest art in jewelry, ceramics, carpets, and carved ivory. The Moslems also produced sophisticated literature in both prose and poetry. Little, however, of their poetry or prose was carried down by Western culture. The best-known works of this period are the short stories known as the Arabian Nights and the poems of Omar Khayyam.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
190
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 8.2
Identify characteristics of the trans-African slave trade to the Middle East.
The trans-African slave trade refers to the movement of black African slaves over trade routes through the deserts of northern Africa to slave trading posts on the eastern and northern coasts of the continent. From these posts, slaves were transported to markets in Muslim cities such as Morocco, Cairo, Algiers and Tripoli. The practice began sometime in the ninth century, and continued into the early years of the twentieth century, predating and outlasting the trans-Atlantic slave trade by Europeans. The slaves themselves were sometimes captured by Arab traders on raiding missions, or were enslaved by other black groups as a result of war and subsequently traded into the slave market. These people came largely from subSaharan Africa, and once captured were moved across the deserts by caravan routes. These routes stretched from oasis to oasis from the interior to the coastal trading posts. Slaves were exchanged for a variety of goods, including gold, horses, dye, jewels and cloth. They were sold mainly to become servants, or to join harems if they were female. Some male slaves were castrated and served as eunuchs who acted as guards for the harems of wealthy Muslims. Arabs dominated the sea routes of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean during the Middle Ages and the slave trade expanded to bring laborers from posts on the eastern coast of Africa to the agricultural areas of India. Little primary evidence remains of the Arab slave trade in Africa, and exact figures on the number of Africans who were sold into slavery are unknown. The trade was significant, however, not only in the widespread area it affected but in the number of people upon which slavery was inflicted.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
191
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 8.3
Identify characteristics, components, central figures, and events of early European civilization.
As civilizations progressed through the Middle Ages and on into early modern times, the ways in which people communicated, explored, fought, and traded expanded. Methods of transportation were being updated all the time, with landbased vehicles growing ever larger and ships increasing in size and purpose as well. Ways to build, as in cities and towns, were increasing technologically as well. At the same time that an emphasis was being put on connecting to the outside world, people were increasingly looking inward, both in their pursuit of “the next life,” as most religions would style it, and in their desire to protect what they had earned. The same groups of people that worked together to build ships to sail the high seas also worked together to build tall castles to watch over their houses and towns. Advances in technology extended to warfare as well, with powerful new weapons like gunpowder making old ways of fighting obsolete. It was a turbulent time throughout the world. Mountains and rivers still formed formidable boundaries for countries and civilizations, of course. The ways that men killed other men had advanced, but the ways in which men crossed rivers and mountains hadn’t kept pace. Mountains still had to be marched over, and rivers still had to be ferried or rafted across. If the defender was at the top of the mountain or on the other side of the river, it didn’t matter how many advanced weapons the attackers had; the defender still had the edge. This was true in the high mountains of Asia and South America. It was true in the delta-dotted plains of India and Central Asia. It was even true in Europe, which boasted more than its fair share of high mountains (Alps and Pyrenees) and wide rivers (like the Rhine and the Rhone). This was the case everywhere around the world, except, of course, in the sands of sub-Saharan Africa, where struggles took the form of wars of attrition, the victors being those who weathered the sandstorms and lack of water the best. The Middle East; with its preponderance of flat lands interrupted by only a few hills, rivers, and isolated mountains, saw more than its fair share of combat, as was the case in the earliest days and as continues to be the case even today. Especially in Europe during this period, the castle was a dominant feature on the landscape of many a town, village, or country. Castles housed kings, soldiers, retinues, and plain old peasants. They also served as watchtowers, guardhouses, and barracks. If you wanted to take over a country, you had better take over the castles, so your enemy can’t stockpile soldiers and resources and make a counterstrike when you least expect it. Some conquerors made a habit of targeting castles, taking them over, and then razing them, in order to eliminate the enemy’s ability to fight back. Other conquerors felt compelled to build castles every few miles, as guard towers or, more likely, as symbols of the newfound authority. In a way, the castle was the new “high ground.”
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
192
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In battles of old, the army that held the high ground held the advantage because its opponents would have to tire themselves out running uphill just to engage, while the high ground holders could pepper them with rocks, arrows, and other airborne weapons. Walled cities were certainly popular as defensible positions throughout history, but they weren’t as easy to create as castles were and they couldn’t be as easily defended. By building castles, the people of these periods changed their landscape in their favor, in effect creating a huge advantage where none had been before. This was perhaps the way that the landscapes of the world changed the most— the way that people changed it. Where broad plains had been before, towns and villages, castles and fortifications, ports and trade centers dotted the landscape. Despite such episodes as the devastating Black Plague and a seemingly endless series of wars, the populations of the world continued to expand, with people always seeking to expand their living spaces. More people meant not only more living space but also more demand for basic and exotic goods Skill 8.4
Have knowledge of European feudalism and manorialism.
During the Middle Ages, the system of feudalism became a dominant feature of the economic and social system in Europe. Feudalism began as a way to ensure that a king or nobleman could raise an army when needed. In exchange for the promise of loyalty and military service, lords would grant a section of land, called a fief to a vassal, as those who took this oath of loyalty were called. The vassal was then entitled to work the land and benefit from its proceeds or to grant it in turn as a fief to another. At the bottom of this ladder were peasants who actually worked the land. At the top was the king to whom all lands might legally belong. The king could ensure loyalty among his advisors by giving them use of large sections of land which they in turn could grant as fiefs. Manorialism, which also arose during the Middle Ages is similar to feudalism in structure, but consisted of self-contained manors that were often owned outright by a nobleman. Some manors were granted conditionally to their lords, and some were linked to the military service and oaths of loyalty found in feudalism, meaning that the two terms overlap somewhat. Manors usually consisted of a large house for the lord and his family, surrounded by fields and a small village that supported the activities of the manor. The lord of the manor was expected to provide certain services for the villagers and laborers associated with the manor including the support of a church. Land is a finite resource, however, and as the population grew in the middle centuries of the Middle Ages, the manorial/feudal system became less and less effective as a system of economic organization.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
193
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The end of the system was sealed by the outbreak and spread of the Black Death, which killed over one-third of the total population of Europe. Those who survived and were skilled in any job or occupation were in demand and many serfs and peasants found freedom and, for that time, a decidedly improved standard of living Skill 8.5
Understand European government, society, and culture in the High Middle Ages.
The High Middle Ages refers to the period in Europe between the Early and Late Middle Ages, spanning approximately the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The period is noted for a rapid increase in population that contributed to dramatic changes in society, culture, and political organization. During this period, the concept of the nation state took hold as populations became more stable and people began to think of themselves as belonging to a larger group of ethnically similar cultures. In Italy, the independent nation states such as Venice, Pisa and Florence were established, providing a basis for the Renaissance. The concept of inherited nobility gained wide acceptance and knighthood and chivalry developed as virtuous codes of conduct. The crusades took place during the High Middle Ages, further strengthening the importance of these orders of knights, and solidifying the strength of the western Church throughout Europe. As the power and influence of the Church grew, it contributed to the growth of art and architecture, particularly in the development of the great gothic cathedrals, most of which were constructed during this era. The routes opened by Crusaders marching to Jerusalem opened the way for an increase in trade, and contributed to the growth of many cities based on this trade. A merchant class developed and began to exert its’ influence on political and economic affairs. Crucial advances in thinking and technology occurred during the High Middle Ages. Improvements in shipbuilding and clock-making led to advances in navigation and cartography, setting the stage for the Age of Exploration. The field of printing, while not yet to the stage that Gutenberg was to take it in the fifteenth century, expanded the availability of texts, serving a growing educated class of people. The philosophy of Scholasticism, which emphasized empiricism and opposed mysticism in Christian education, was espoused by Thomas Aquinas. The population increase that had brought these significant developments to Europe in the High Middle Ages was suddenly reversed in the mid-fourteenth century by the Black Plague, which decimated the region. As the concept of the nation state arose, so did the idea of national borders and national sovereignty, leading to numerous wars, which in turn had deleterious effects on the economy.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
194
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE These events are now used to mark the period of transition between the High Middle Ages and the Late Middle Ages. Skill 8.6
Identify origins, course, and consequences of the Crusades.
The Crusades were a series of military campaigns beginning in the eleventh century against the encroaching Muslim Empire, particularly in the holy land of Palestine and the city of Jerusalem. The Christian Byzantine Empire was centered in Constantinople. The empire was under attack from Seljuk Turk forces who had taken Palestine. The eastern emperor, Alexius I called on his western counterpart, Pope Urban II for assistance. Urban saw the situation as an opportunity to reunite Christendom, which was still in the throes of schism between the Eastern Orthodox and the Western Catholic sects, and to invest the papacy with religious authority. In 1095, Urban called on all Christians to rally behind the campaign to drive the Turks out of the Holy Land. Participation in the crusade, Urban said, would count as full penance for sin in the eyes of the Church. A force of crusaders marched to Jerusalem and captured it, massacring the inhabitants. Along the way, several small Crusader states were established. A second crusade was led against Damascus in 1145, but was unsuccessful. In 1187, the Sultan of Egypt recaptured Jerusalem, and a third Crusade was called for by Pope Gregory VIII. This Crusade was joined by the combined forces of France, England and the Holy Roman Empire, but fell short of its goal to recapture Jerusalem. The fourth Crusade took place in 1202, under Pope Innocent III. The intention of the fourth Crusade was to enter the Holy Land through Egypt. The plan was changed, however, and forces diverted to Constantinople. Crusades continued into the thirteenth century as Jerusalem and other holy cities changed hands between Christian and Muslim forces. Several crusades took place within Europe, as well, such as the efforts to re-conquer portions of the Muslim-occupied Iberian Peninsula. One result of the crusades was to establish and reinforce the political and military authority of the Catholic Church and the Roman pope. The religious fervor spurred on by the Crusades would eventually culminate in such movements as the Inquisition in Spain and the expulsion of the Moors from Europe. The marches of the crusaders also opened new routes between Europe and the East along which culture, learning and trade could travel.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
195
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 8.7
Understand the rise of the Ottoman Empire.
The Ottoman Empire is to be noted for its ability to unite a highly varied population as it grew through conquest and treaty arrangement. This ability is to be attributed to military strength, a policy of strict control of recently invaded territories, and an Islamic-inspired philosophy that stated that all Muslims, Christians and Jews were related because they were all “People of the Book.” The major religious groups were permitted to construct their own semiautonomous communities. Conquering armies immediately repaired buildings, roads, bridges, and aqueducts or built them where needed. They also built modern sanitary facilities and linked the city to a supply structure that was able to provide for the needs of the people. This religious and ethnic tolerance was the basis upon which a heterogeneous culture was built. It quickly transformed a Turkish empire into the Ottoman Empire. The attitude of tolerant blending and respect for diverse ethnic and cultural groups, in time produced a rich mix of people that was reflected in multi-cultural and multi-religious policies that were based on recognition and respect for different perspectives. Ottoman architecture, although influenced by Seljuk, Byzantine and Arab styles, developed a unique style of its own. Music was important to the elites of the empire. Two primary styles of music that developed were Ottoman classical music and folk music. Again, both styles reflect a basis in the diversity of influences that came together in the unified empire. Skill 8.8
Understand the decline of Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula
By the time of the Crusades, Spain was largely controlled by the Islamic empire. Muslims in Spain were generally called “Moors.” The culture of the region was significantly advanced. When the caliphate of Cordova collapsed in 1034, due to internal strife, the door of opportunity opened for the small Christian kingdoms in the north of Spain to expand. They struggled with varying degrees of success for more than 200 years, often with the help of crusaders from France and from other parts of Europe. By 1249, the Christians had been almost completely successful in driving out the Moors and taking control of Spain. The only remaining pocket of Islamic control was the tiny kingdom of Granada. The rest of the Spanish territory was divided between four Christian kingdoms: Castile, which included most of the central and western part of the Iberian peninsula; Aragon, which covered a triangle along the Pyrenees from the east and the stretched down the eastern coast below Valencia; Navarre, between Castile and Aragon on the northern border; and the new kingdom of Portugal in the southwest. The kings of Aragon had become vassals of the Pope and of the Roman Catholic Church. They also rule the Balearic Islands and some territory in southern France. In 1282 they gained control of the island of Sicily.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
196
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE With the conflict for control of the Spanish territory accomplished, Spain began to claim a place in the mainstream of European history. In the fifteenth century Castile and Aragon united and the kingdom of Granada was defeated. Spain was able to unify and strengthen the country and become one of the great powers of the age. Skill 8.9
Identify political, economic, and cultural developments in the major civilizations of Asia, Africa, and the Americas
The Mongol Empire, founded by Genghis Khan, included the majority of the territory from Southeast Asia to central Europe during the height of the empire. One of the primary military tactics of conquest was to annihilate any cities that refused to surrender. Government was by decree on the basis on a code of laws developed by Genghis Khan. It is interesting that one of the tenets of this code was that the nobility and the commoners shared the same hardship. The society, and the opportunity to advance within the society, was based on a system of meritocracy. The carefully structured and controlled society was efficient and safe for the people. Religious tolerance was guaranteed. Theft and vandalism were strictly forbidden. Trade routes and an extensive postal system were created linking the various parts of the empire. Taxes were quite onerous, but teachers, artists and lawyers were exempted from the taxes. Mongol rule, however, was absolute. The response to all resistance was collective punishment in the form of destruction of cities and slaughter of the inhabitants. The lasting achievements of the Mongol Empire include: • Reunification of China and expansions of its borders, • Unification of the Central Asian Republics that later formed part of the USSR, • Expansion of Europe’s knowledge of the world. The Ming Dynasty in China followed the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. In addition to its expansion of trade and exploration of surrounding regions, the period is well known for its highly talented artists and craftsmen. The Hongwu emperor rose from peasant origins. He distributed land to small farmers in an effort to help them support their families. To further protect these family farms, he proclaimed title of the land non-transferable. He also issued an edict by which anyone who cultivated wasteland could keep the land as their property and would never be taxed. One of the major developments of the time was the development of systems of irrigation for farms throughout the empire. Hongwu maintained a strong army by creating military settlements. During peacetime, each soldier was given land to farm and, if he could not afford to purchase equipment, it was provided by the government.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
197
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The legal code created during the period is generally considered one of the greatest achievements of the dynasty. The laws were written in understandable language and in enough detail to prevent misinterpretation. The law reversed previous policy toward slaves, and promised them the same protection as free citizens. Great emphasis was placed on family relations. It was clearly based on Confucian ideas. The other major accomplishment of this dynasty was the decision to begin building the Great Wall of China to provide protection from northern horsemen. The Mogul Empire reached its height during the reign of Akbar. In the administration of the empire, Akbar initiated two approaches that are notable. First, he studied local revenue statistics for the various provinces within the empire. He then developed a revenue plan that matched the revenue needs of the empire with the ability of the people to pay the taxes. Although the taxes were heavy (one third to one half of the crop), it was possible to collect the taxes and meet the financial needs of the empire. Second, he created a rank and pay structure for the warrior aristocracy that was based on number of troops and obligations. He introduced a policy of acceptance and assimilation of Hindus, allowed temples to be built, and abolished the poll tax on non-Muslims. He devised a theory of “rulership as a divine illumination” and accepted all religions and sects. He encouraged widows to remarry, discouraged marriage of children, outlawed the practice of sati, and persuaded the merchants in Delhi to recognize special market days for women who were otherwise required to remain secluded at home. The empire supported a strong cultural and intellectual life. He sponsored regular debates among religious and scholarly individuals with different points of view. The unique style of architecture of the Mogul Empire was its primary contribution to South Asia. The Taj Mahal was one of many monuments built during this period. The cultural was a blend of Indian, Iranian and Central Asian traditions. Other major accomplishments were: • • • • • • •
Centralized government, Blending of traditions in art and culture, Development of new trade routs to Arab and Turkish lands, A unique style of architecture, Landscape gardening, A unique cuisine, And the creation of to languages (Urdu and Hindi) for the common people.
The conquest of Ghana by Muslim Berbers in 1076 permitted rule to devolve to a series of lesser successor states. By the thirteenth century, the successor state of Kangaba established the Kingdom of Mali. This vast trading state extended from the Atlantic coast of Africa to beyond Gao on the Niger River in the east.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
198
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Much of the history of Mali was preserved by Islamic scholars because the Mali rulers converted to Islam and were responsible for the spread of Islam throughout Africa. The expansion of the Mali kingdom began from the city of Timbuktu and gradually moved downstream along the Niger River. This provided increasing control of the river and the cities along its banks, which were critical for both travel and trade. The Niger River was a central link in trade for both west and north African trade routes. The government of the Mali kingdom was held together by military power and trade. The kingdom was organized into a series of feudal states that were ruled by a king. Most of the kings used the surname “Mansa” (meaning, “sultan”). The most powerful and effective of the kings was Mansa Musa. The religion and culture of the kingdom of Mali was a blend of Islamic faith and traditional African belief. The influence of the Islamic Empire provided the basis of a large and very structured government which allowed the king to expand both territory and influence. The people, however, did not follow strict Islamic law. The king was thought of in traditional African fashion as a divine ruler removed from the people. A strong military and control of the Niger River and the trade that flourished along the river, enabled Mali to build a strong feudal empire. Farther to the east, the king of the Songhai people had earlier converted to Islam in the eleventh century. Songhai was at one time a province of Mali. By the fifteenth century, Songhai was stronger than Mali and it emerged as the next great power in western Africa. Songhai was situated on the great bend of the Niger River. From the early fifteenth to the late sixteenth centuries, the Songhai Empire stood, one of the largest empires in the history of Africa. The first king Sonni Ali conquered many neighboring states, including the Mali Empire. This gave him control of the trade routes and cities like Timbuktu. He was succeeded by Askia Mohammad who initiated political reform and revitalization. He also created religious schools, built mosques, and opened his court to scholars and poets from all parts of the Muslim world. During the same period, the Zimbabwe kingdom was built. “Great Zimbabwe” was the largest of about 300 stone structures in the area. This capital city and trading center of the Kingdom of Makaranga was built between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries. It was believed to have housed as many as 20,000 people. The structures are built entirely of stone, without mortar. The scanty evidence that is available suggests that the kingdom was a trading center that was believed to be part of a trading network that reached as far as China.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
199
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The area known today as the Republic of Benin was the site of an early African kingdom known as Dahomey. By the seventeenth century, the kingdom included a large part of West Africa. The kingdom was economically prosperous because of slave trading relations with Europeans, primarily the Dutch and Portuguese, who arrived in the fifteenth century. The coastal part of the kingdom was known as “the Slave Coast.” This kingdom was known for a very distinct culture and some very unusual traditions. In 1729 the kingdom started a female army system. A law was passed stating that females would be inspected at the age of 15. Those thought beautiful were sent to the Palace to become wives of the king. Those who were sick or were considered unattractive were executed. The rest were trained as soldiers for two years. Human sacrifice was practiced on holidays and special occasions. Slaves and prisoners of war were sacrificed to gods and ancestors. The slave trade provided economic stability for the kingdom for almost three hundred years. The continuing need for human sacrifices caused a decrease in the number of slaves available for export. As many colonial countries declared the trade of slaves illegal, demand for slaves subsided steadily until 1885 when the last Portuguese slave ship left the coast. With the decline of the slave trade, the kingdom began a slow disintegration. The French took over in 1892. The North American and South American Native Americans could not have been more different, yet in some ways they were the same as well. Differences in geography, economic focus, and the preponderance of visitors from overseas produced differing patterns of occupation, survival, and success. In North America, the landscape was much more hospitable to settlement and exploration. The North American continent, especially in what is now the United States, had a few mountain ranges and a handful of wide rivers but nothing near the dense jungles and staggeringly high mountains that South America did. The area that is now Canada was cold but otherwise conducive to settlement. As a result, the Native Americans in the northern areas of the Americas were more spread out and their cultures more diverse than their South American counterparts. One of the best known of the North American tribes were the Pueblo, who lived in what is now the American Southwest. They are perhaps best known for the challenging vista-based villages that they constructed from the sheer faces of cliffs and rocks and for their adobes, mud-brick buildings that housed their living and meeting quarters. The Pueblos chose their own chiefs. This was perhaps one of the oldest representative governments in the world. Known also for their organized government were the Iroquoi, who lived in the American Northeast. The famous Five Nations of the Iroquois made treaties among themselves and shared leadership of their peoples.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
200
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE For the North Americans, life was all about finding and growing food. The people were great farmers and hunters. They grew such famous crops as maize, or corn, and potatoes and squash and pumpkins and beans; and they hunted all manner of animals for food, including deer, bears, and buffalo. Despite the preponderance of crop-growing areas, many Native Americans, however, did not domesticate animals except for dogs. They might have killed pigs and chickens for food, but they certainly made it easy on themselves by growing them in pens right outside their houses. The Native Americans who lived in the wilds of Canada and in the Pacific Northwest lived off the land as well and, in this case, the nearby water. Fishing was a big business in these places. The people used fish to eat and for trade, exchanging the much-needed food for beads and other trinkets from neighboring tribes. Religion was a personal affair for nearly all of these tribes, with beliefs in higher powers extending to Spirits in the sky and elsewhere in Nature. Native Americans had none of the one-god-only mentality that developed in Europe and the Middle East, nor did they have the wars associated with the conflict that those monotheistic religions had with one another. Those people who lived in North America had large concentrations of people and houses, but they didn’t have the kind of large civilization centers like the cities of elsewhere in the world. These people didn’t have an exact system of writing, either. These were two technological advances that were found in many other places in the world, including, to varying degrees, South America. We know the most about the empires of South America, the Aztec, Inca, and Maya. People lived in South America before the advent of these empires, of course. One of the earliest people of record were the Olmecs, who left behind little to prove their existence except a series of huge carved figures. The Aztecs dominated Mexico and Central America. They weren’t the only people living in these areas, just the most powerful ones. The Aztecs had many enemies, some of whom were only too happy to help Hernan Cortes precipitate the downfall of the Aztec society. The Aztecs had access to large numbers of metals and jewels, and they used these metals to make weapons and these jewels to trade for items they didn’t already possess. Actually, the Aztecs didn’t do a whole lot of trading; rather, they conquered neighboring tribes and demanded tribute from them; this is the source of so much of the Aztec riches. They also believed in a handful of gods and believed that these gods demanded human sacrifice in order to continue to smile on the Aztecs. The center of Aztec society was the great city of Tenochtitlan, which was built on an island so as to be easier to defend and boasted a population of 300,000 at the time of the arrival of the conquistadors. Tenochtitlan was known for its canals and its pyramids, none of which survive today.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
201
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Inca Empire stretched across a vast period of territory down the western coast of South America and was connected by a series of roads. A series of messengers ran along these roads, carrying news and instructions from the capital, Cusco, another large city along the lines of but not as spectacular as Tenochtitlan. The Incas are known for inventing the quipu, a string-based device that provided them with a method of keeping records. The Inca Empire, like the Aztec Empire, was very much a centralized state, with all income going to the state coffers and all trade going through the emperor as well. The Incas worshiped the dead, their ancestors, and nature and often took part in what we could consider strange rituals. The most advanced Native American civilization were the Maya, who lived primarily in Central America. They were the only Native American civilization to develop writing, which consisted of a series of symbols that has still not been deciphered. The Mayas also built huge pyramids and other stone figures and sculptures, mostly of the gods they worshiped. The Mayas are most famous, however, for their calendars and for their mathematics. The Mayan calendars were the most accurate on the planet until the 16th Century. The Mayas also invented the idea of zero, which might sound like a small thing except that no other culture had thought of such a thing. Maya worship resembled the practices of the Aztec and Inca, although human sacrifices were rare. The Mayas also traded heavily with their neighbors. Skill 8.10
Examine interactions among European, Islamic, and Asian societies.
The Islamic contributions to Europe, Africa, and Asia are many and varied, in the areas of religion, economics, and culture. The area that benefited most was Africa. The Muslim religion began in the Middle East, in the Arabian Peninsula, with the Hegira of Muhammad to Medina and then his triumphant return to Mecca. The religion’s message of equality for all (at least, all men) was a powerful draw for the poor residents of Arabia and northern Africa, who were starving and had little hope of a better life. So was the idea of immortality, which you could achieve by following the precepts of Islam and otherwise live a good life. In less than 100 years, Islam had spread across the whole of northern Africa and into Spain.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
202
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE These areas of northern African are mainly desert. In the seventh and eighth centuries, the sands were a bit different and maybe a bit less. But they were still prevalent. One major contribution that the Muslim culture made to these areas was to perfect methods of irrigation that brought water and, as a result, food at levels that hadn’t been available to these people before. The existing canals of the Middle East were extended as well, bringing much-needed resources to people living in the arid areas of the Arabian Peninsula. These advancements were especially welcome because, despite the harsh conditions, populations in these areas were growing all the time. The breadth of territory in the lands controlled by the Muslim peoples at this time encompassed a correspondingly large variety of crops, including wheat, fruits, sugar, olives, wines, cotton, and flax. The trade routes and trade centers that had developed made distribution of these crops easier than it might have been otherwise, and the goods were distributed not only within the Muslim lands but elsewhere, to Europe and to Asia. The main vehicles of distribution of all of these goods were boats; Arabian horses; and camels, the “ships of the desert.” In the same way that Asian and European goods influenced the business and society in Muslim trade centers and towns, goods and practices from the Muslim world made themselves known in other parts of the world. In the trade centers of the Muslim world and of Europe, merchants made a name for themselves with their shrewd business practices. They were some of the first businessmen to take checks and give receipts. We can trace the terms bazaar, tariff, and caravan to them as well. Not surprisingly, many merchants in the Muslim world had rather large incomes. Like their European counterparts, these merchants lived in large homes, with servants and other benefits that that income allowed. As in Russia and in Europe, many Muslim merchant estates had serfs, or slaves. Even though the Muslim doctrine of equality before Allah was in full force, the practice of slavery was allowed, under the same sort of logic that allowed men to disallow women basic rights. (It should be noted here that women enjoyed extended rights in very few places in the world at this time. Their treatment at the hands of their men in the Muslim world was harsher on average than in Europe, however.) In science, especially, the Muslim world often outshone the European world at this time. One of the main Muslim contributions to mathematics was the introduction of the number zero. It seems difficult to comprehend using our modern way of thinking that the number zero did not always exist; yet neither the Greeks nor the early Romans had the idea to assign a number to the mathematical equivalent of nothing. Much more so than Europeans in the early years, Muslim explorers made their way to the Far East, both over land and on the high seas, bringing back with them not only goods but also knowledge. Muslim explorers also had versions of the compass and the astrolabe long before their European counterparts did.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
203
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Muslim doctors were diagnosing diseases, prescribing cures, and even performing advanced surgeries in modernized hospitals, things that European countries certainly could not boast of. The Muslim doctor Al-Razi was one of the most well known physicians in the world and was the author of a medical encyclopedia and a handbook for smallpox and measles. Most of the civilizations of Asia at this time were too far to be influenced by Muslim armies. Europe was a different story. Lured by the promise of greener pastures and greater opportunity, Muslim armies repeatedly marched north, in an effort to spread their religion and influence into Europe. Spain was about as far as they got, thanks to a concerted European effort that resulted in a smashing victory at Tours in 732. Muslim armies, however, controlled Palestine and Jerusalem, considered by most of Christendom, as Europe was known in those days, as the Holy Land. In a series of campaigns and battles that have been collectively called the Crusades, European armies sailed and marched to the Holy Land in an attempt to return it to European hands, in which it rested as recently as the sixth and seventh centuries, in the waning days of the Roman Empire. Muslim military leaders, especially the gallant Saladin, were able to unite their armies in a way that European leaders never did. The battles of the Crusades as well, especially the epic struggles for control of Jerusalem, involved new weapons and new tactics.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
204
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 9.0 UNDERSTAND MAJOR POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS THAT SHAPED THE COURSE OF WORLD HISTORY FROM 1500 TO THE PRESENT Skill 9.1
Have knowledge of the European Renaissance and Reformation.
The word "Renaissance" literally means "rebirth", and signaled the rekindling of interest in the glory of ancient classical Greek and Roman civilizations. It was the period in human history marking the start of many ideas and innovations leading to our modern age. The Renaissance began in Italy with many of its ideas starting in Florence, controlled by the infamous Medici family. Education, especially for some of the merchants, required reading, writing, math, the study of law, and the writings of classical Greek and Roman writers. A combination of a renewed fascination with the classical world and new infusion of money into the hands of those so fascinated brought on the Renaissance. In the areas of art, literature, music, and science, the world changed for the better. The Renaissance ushered in a time of curiosity, learning, and incredible energy sparking the desire for trade to procure these new, exotic products and to find better, faster, cheaper trade routes to get to them. The work of geographers, astronomers and mapmakers made important contributions and many studied and applied the work of such men as Hipparchus of Greece, Ptolemy of Egypt, Tycho Brahe of Denmark, and Fra Mauro of Italy. Most famous are the Renaissance artists, first and foremost Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael but also Titian, Donatello, and Rembrandt. All of these men pioneered a new method of painting and sculpture—that of portraying real events and real people as they really looked, not as the artists imagined them to be. One need look no further than Michelangelo’s David to illustrate this. Literature was a focus as well during the Renaissance. Humanists Petrarch, Boccaccio, Erasmus, and Sir Thomas More advanced the idea of being interested in life here on earth and the opportunities it can bring, rather than constantly focusing on heaven and its rewards. The monumental works of Shakespeare, Dante, and Cervantes found their origins in these ideas as well as the ones that drove the painters and sculptors. All of these works, of course, owe much of their existence to the invention of the printing press, which occurred during the Renaissance.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
205
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Renaissance changed music as well. No longer just a religious experience, music could be fun and composed for its own sake, to be enjoyed in fuller and more humanistic ways than in the Middle Ages. Musicians worked for themselves, rather than for the churches, as before, and so could command good money for their work, increasing their prestige. Science advanced considerably during the Renaissance, especially in the area of physics and astronomy. Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo led a Scientific Revolution in proving that the earth was round and certainly not perfect, an earthshattering revelation to those who clung to medieval ideals of a geocentric, church-centered existence. All of these things encouraged people to see the world in a new way, more real, more realized, and more realistic than ever before. Contributions of the Italian Renaissance period were in: art - the more important artists were Giotto and his development of perspective in paintings; Leonardo da Vinci was not only an artist but also a scientist and inventor; Michelangelo was a sculptor, painter, and architect; and others including Raphael, Donatello, Titian, and Tintoretto political philosophy - the writings of Machiavelli literature - the writings of Petrarch and Boccaccio science - Galileo medicine - the work of Brussels-born Andrea Vesalius earned him the title of "father of anatomy" and had a profound influence on the Spaniard Michael Servetus and the Englishman William Harvey In Germany, Gutenberg's invention of the printing press with movable type facilitated the rapid spread of Renaissance ideas, writings and innovations, thus ensuring the enlightenment of most of Western Europe. Contributions were also made by Durer and Holbein in art and by Paracelsus in science and medicine. The effects of the Renaissance in the Low Countries can be seen in the literature and philosophy of Erasmus and the art of van Eyck and Breughel the Elder. Rabelais and de Montaigne in France also contributed to literature and philosophy. In Spain, the art of El Greco and de Morales flourished, as did the writings of Cervantes and De Vega. In England, Sir Thomas More and Sir Francis Bacon wrote and taught philosophy and inspired by Vesalius. William Harvey made important contributions in medicine. The greatest talent was found in literature and drama and given to mankind by Chaucer, Spenser, Marlowe, Jonson, and the incomparable Shakespeare.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
206
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Renaissance ushered in a time of curiosity, learning, and incredible energy sparking the desire for trade to procure these new, exotic products and to find better, faster, cheaper trade routes to get to them. The work of geographers, astronomers and mapmakers made important contributions and many studied and applied the work of such men as Hipparchus of Greece, Ptolemy of Egypt, Tycho Brahe of Denmark, and Fra Mauro of Italy. The Reformation period consisted of two phases: the Protestant Revolution and the Catholic Reformation. The Protestant Revolution came about because of religious, political, and economic reasons. The religious reasons stemmed from abuses in the Catholic Church including fraudulent clergy with their scandalous immoral lifestyles; the sale of religious offices, indulgences, and dispensations; different theologies within the Church; and frauds involving sacred relics. The political reasons for the Protestant Revolution involved the increase in the power of rulers who were considered "absolute monarchs", who desired all power and control, especially over the Church. The growth of "nationalism" or patriotic pride in one's own country was another contributing factor. Economic reasons included the greed of ruling monarchs to possess and control all lands and wealth of the Church, the deep animosity against the burdensome papal taxation, the rise of the affluent middle class and its clash with medieval Church ideals, and the increase of an active system of "intense" capitalism. The Protestant Revolution began in Germany with the revolt of Martin Luther against Church abuses. It spread to Switzerland where it was led by Calvin. It began in England with the efforts of King Henry VIII to have his marriage to Catherine of Aragon annulled so he could wed another and have a male heir. The results were the increasing support given not only by the people but also by nobles and some rulers, and of course, the attempts of the Church to stop it. The Catholic Reformation was undertaken by the Church to "clean up its act" and to slow or stop the Protestant Revolution. The major efforts to this end were supplied by the Council of Trent and the Jesuits. Six major results of the Reformation included: • • • • • •
Religious freedom, Religious tolerance, More opportunities for education, Power and control of rulers limited, Increase in religious wars, and An increase in fanaticism and persecution.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
207
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 9.2
Identify causes and consequences of European expansion and exploration.
The Age of Exploration actually had its beginnings centuries before exploration actually took place. The rise and spread of Islam in the seventh century and its subsequent control over the holy city of Jerusalem led to the European so-called holy wars, the Crusades, to free Jerusalem and the Holy Land from this control. Even though the Crusades were not a success, those who survived and returned to their homes and countries in Western Europe brought back with them new products such as silks, spices, perfumes, new and different foods. Luxuries that were unheard of that gave new meaning to colorless, drab, dull lives. New ideas, new inventions, and new methods also went to Western Europe with the returning Crusaders and from these new influences was the intellectual stimulation which led to the period known as the Renaissance. The revival of interest in classical Greek art, architecture, literature, science, astronomy, medicine and increased trade between Europe and Asia and the invention of the printing press helped to push the spread of knowledge and start exploring. For many centuries, various mapmakers made many maps and charts, which in turn stimulated curiosity and the seeking of more knowledge. At the same time, the Chinese were using the magnetic compass in their ships. Pacific islanders were going from island to island, covering thousands of miles in open canoes navigating by sun and stars. Arab traders were sailing all over the Indian Ocean in their dhows. The trade routes between Europe and Asia were slow, difficult, dangerous, and very expensive. Between sea voyages on the Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea and the camel caravans in central Asia and the Arabian Desert, the trade was still controlled by the Italian merchants in Genoa and Venice. It would take months and even years for the exotic luxuries of Asia to reach the markets of Western Europe. A faster, cheaper way had to be found. A way had to be found which would bypass traditional routes and end the control of the Italian merchants. Prince Henry of Portugal (also called the Navigator) encouraged, supported, and financed the Portuguese seamen who led in the search for an all-water route to Asia. A shipyard was built along with a school teaching navigation. New types of sailing ships were built which would carry the seamen safely through the ocean waters. Experiments were conducted in newer maps, newer navigational methods, and newer instruments. These included the astrolabe and the compass enabling sailors to determine direction as well as latitude and longitude for exact location. Although Prince Henry died in 1460, the Portuguese kept on, sailing along and exploring Africa's west coastline.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
208
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In 1488, Bartholomew Diaz and his men sailed around Africa's southern tip and headed toward Asia. Diaz wanted to push on but turned back because his men were discouraged and weary from the long months at sea, extremely fearful of the unknown, and just refusing to travel any further. However, the Portuguese were finally successful ten years later in 1498 when Vasco da Gama and his men, continuing the route of Diaz, rounded Africa's Cape of Good Hope, sailing across the Indian Ocean, reaching India's port of Calicut (Calcutta). Although, six years earlier, Columbus had reached the New World and an entire hemisphere, da Gama had proved Asia could be reached from Europe by sea. Of course, everyone knows that Columbus' first transatlantic voyage was to try to prove his theory or idea that Asia could be reached by sailing west. To a certain extent, his idea was true. It could be done but only after figuring how to go around or across or through the landmass in between. Long after Spain dispatched explorers and her famed conquistadors to gather the wealth for the Spanish monarchs and their coffers, the British were searching valiantly for the "Northwest Passage," a land-sea route across North America and open sea to the wealth of Asia. It wasn't until after the Lewis and Clark Expedition when Captains Meriwether Lewis and William Clark proved conclusively that there simply was no Northwest Passage. It did not exist. However, this did not deter exploration and settlement. Spain, France, and England along with some participation by the Dutch led the way with expanding Western European civilization in the New World. These three nations had strong monarchial governments and were struggling for dominance and power in Europe. With the defeat of Spain's mighty Armada in 1588, England became undisputed mistress of the seas. Spain lost its power and influence in Europe and it was left to France and England to carry on the rivalry, leading to eventual British control in Asia as well. The importance of the Age of Exploration was not just the discovery and colonization of the New World, but better maps and charts, newer, more accurate navigational instruments, increased knowledge, and great wealth; furthermore, new and different foods, items unknown in Europe; and a new hemisphere as a refuge from poverty, persecution; and a place to start a new and better life. The proof that Asia could be reached by sea and that the earth was round; ships and sailors would not sail off the edge of a flat earth and disappear forever into nothingness.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
209
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE With the increase in trade and travel, cities sprang up and began to grow. Craft workers in the cities developed their skills to a high degree, eventually organizing guilds to protect the quality of the work and to regulate the buying and selling of their products. City government developed and flourished centered on strong town councils. Active in city government and the town councils were the wealthy businessmen who made up the growing middle class. In addition, there were a number of individuals and events during the time of exploration and discoveries. The Vivaldo brothers and Marco Polo wrote of their travels and experiences, which signaled the early beginnings. From the Crusades, the survivors made their way home to different places in Europe bringing with them fascinating, new information about exotic lands, people, customs, and desired foods and goods such as spices and silks. For France, claims to various parts of North America were the result of the efforts of such men as Verrazano, Champlain, Cartier, LaSalle, Father Marquette and Joliet. Dutch claims were based on the work of one Henry Hudson. John Cabot gave England its stake in North America along with John Hawkins, Sir Francis Drake, and the half-brothers Sir Walter Raleigh and Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Actually the first Europeans in the New World were Norsemen led by Eric the Red and later, his son Leif the Lucky. However, before any of these, the ancestors of today's Native Americans and Latin American Indians crossed the Bering Strait from Asia to Alaska, eventually settling in all parts of the Americas. Skill 9.3
Identify characteristics of the transatlantic slave trade.
The transatlantic slave trade refers to the purchase and transportation of people from West and Central Africa to the New World for slavery and other forms of bondage. The slaves were the middle element of a very prosperous three-part trade cycle. The trade in slaves began in response to a labor shortage in the New World. There was a great need for cheap labor in mining and in agriculture. Particularly in the predominantly agricultural South, harvesting of many of the major cash crops – sugar, rice, tobacco, cotton – were labor-intensive. Europeans bought slaves who were generally captured in wars between African kingdoms. In some cases, Europeans even tried to instigate wars to create a supply of slaves. The prices were modest. African labor came to be considered to be in abundant supply and not very valuable. The slaves were then transported to the coast and sold at European trading posts in exchange for muskets and manufactured goods. Slaves were generally war captives or criminals.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
210
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Most estimates place the number of Africans involved in the slave trade in the area of 30 million. Half of them died in Africa from combat wounds. They were loaded into ships as tightly as they could be “packed in” and they were given minimal food and water. Most estimates place the number who died on the ships from torture, disease and malnutrition at about three million. The ships delivered them to “seasoning camps” in the Caribbean where they were tortured into submission. Approximately two million more died there. The slave trade was the second leg in the triangular Atlantic trade route. Ships would leave Europe with manufactured goods that were sold or traded in Africa for slaves. The slaves would be sold in the Americas for agricultural products, which would be delivered back to Europe. Although some religious leaders decried slavery from the beginning, most supported the slave trade by church teaching and by introducing the idea of the black man’s and the white man’s separate roles. Some taught that blacks should labor in exchange for the blessings of European civilization, including Christianity. Seventy percent of the slaves brought to the U.S. were used in the production of sugar, which was the most labor-intensive crop. Others were used to harvest coffee, cotton, tobacco and other crop. The economy of the Southern states was almost entirely dependent upon slave labor to plant, tend and harvest the crops that were in demand throughout the rest of the world. Skill 9.4
Understand the rise and decline of the Ottoman Empire.
The Ottoman Empire began in 1299, when Osman I declared independence for the Turkish principalities that he had gathered under his name. The Ottoman state followed a policy of steady expansion, and was soon encroaching on the borders of the Byzantine Empire. In 1453, under the leader Mehmed II, the Ottomans captured Istanbul, which was to become the capital of the growing empire. The Ottoman Empire continued its remarkable expansion in the early sixteenth century under the Sultan Selim I. Selim expanded his borders to the east and south, taking control of Persia and Egypt and establishing a naval foothold in the Red Sea. This naval strength was built upon by Selim's successors until the empire controlled not only the Red Sea, but the Black Sea, the Persian Gulf, and a large section of the Mediterranean. By the late sixteenth century, the empire had also expanded inland to control all of southeast Europe, and took advantage of its location between Europe and the Orient to control access to the spice and silk trade routes.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
211
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Maintaining such a large frontier far from its capital proved to be difficult, and beginning in the early seventeenth century, Europeans made successful inroads along the western Ottoman borders. The technological advantages that the Ottomans had once held over Europe disappeared as the West made significant advances of its own, and gained access to ancient learning from China and other regions to which the Ottomans had restricted access. In the early nineteenth century, under Mahmud II, the Ottoman Empire adopted a policy of modernization based on European customs, architecture and legislation. The rise of nationalism throughout Europe affected the empire as well, as former sovereign states that had been conquered began to express nationalistic goals. These developments marked the beginning of the end for the empire. Despite several attempts to reform the government, economic depression and political unrest plagued the declining state. The Ottomans fought in WWI in alliance with Germany, and were defeated in 1918, when the army was disbanded. The harsh peace terms led to an upsurge in Turkish nationalism and revolution. The Ottoman sultanate was abolished by Turkish revolutionaries in 1922, and members of the family were expelled from Turkey.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
212
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 9.5
Identify absolute monarchies and constitutional governments in Europe.
An absolute monarchy is a form of government where a king or queen rules with complete authority with no legal opposition. In theory an absolute monarch has total power over his subjects. In practice, absolute monarchs were expected to act wisely and to seek counsel on important decisions from advisors and church leaders, and in some cases were restricted by public agreements. The absolute monarch arose out of the concept of the divine right of kings. This ideal held that monarchs received authority to rule from God. It arose during the late Middle Ages as feudalism increased the relative wealth and power of kings compared to other nobles. This increased power of monarchy combined with the relative weakness of the Church during the Reformation in the sixteenth century led to monarchs exercising influence over religious matters. This was the case of Henry VIII of England, who seized all Catholic Church property in his dominion, claiming responsibility only to God. Louis XIV of France was another absolute monarch who believed that the monarch was the embodiment of the state. In Russia, Peter the Great and his successors ruled as absolute monarchs until the early twentieth century. In contrast to absolute monarchy based on religious right, constitutional governments derive their authority from written documents that lay out a form of government and define its powers and limitations. Beginning with the Magna Carta in England, the practice in many European countries has been to mix the two forms into a "constitutional monarchy." This form of government recognizes a monarch as leader, but invests most of the legal authority in a legislative body such as a Parliament. Great Britain still operates as a constitutional monarchy, as do many other European countries. European monarchs have been reduced to mainly ceremonial figures in modern government, however. The most familiar form of government throughout history was the monarchy. We can include dictatorships or authoritarian governments in this description because the basic idea—that one person was in charge of the government— applies to all. In this kind of government, the head of state was responsible for governing his or her subjects. In earlier times, this meant laws that weren’t exactly written down; written laws have increasingly been the standard as the centuries have progressed. Monarchies and one-person governments still exist today, although they are rare. In these states, the emphasis is on keeping the monarch in power, and many laws of the country have been written with that purpose in mind.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
213
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 9.6
Understand the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment.
The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment were two of the most important movements in the history of civilization, resulting in a new sense of selfexamination and a wider view of the world than ever before. The Scientific Revolution was, above all, a shift in focus from belief to evidence. Scientists and philosophers wanted to see proof not just believe what other people told them. It was an exciting time, if you were a forward-looking thinker. A Polish astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus, began the Scientific Revolution. He crystallized a lifetime of observations into a book that was published about the time of his death; in this book, Copernicus argued that the Sun, not the Earth, was the center of a solar system and that other planets revolved around the Sun, not the Earth. This flew in the face of established (read: Church-mandated) doctrine. The Church still wielded tremendous power at this time, including the power to banish people or sentence them to prison or even death. The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe was the first to catalog his observations of the night sky, of which he made thousands. Building on Brahe’s data, German scientist Johannes Kepler instituted his theory of planetary movement, embodied in his famous Laws of Planetary Movement. Using Brahe’s data, Kepler also confirmed Copernicus’s observations and argument that the Earth revolved around the Sun. The most famous defender of this idea was Galileo Galilei, an Italian scientist who conducted many famous experiments in the pursuit of science. He is most well known, however, for his defense of the heliocentric (sun-centered) idea. He wrote a book comparing the two theories, but most readers could tell easily that he favored the new one. He was convinced of this mainly because of what he had seen with his own eyes. He had used the relatively new invention of the telescope to see four moons of Jupiter. They certainly did not revolve around the Earth, so why should everything else? His ideas were not at all favored with the Church, which continued to assert its authority in this and many other matters. The Church was still powerful enough at this time, especially in Italy, to order Galileo to be placed under house arrest. Galileo died under house arrest, but his ideas didn’t die with him. Picking up the baton was an English scientist named Isaac Newton, who became perhaps the most famous scientist of all. He is known as the discoverer of gravity and a pioneering voice in the study of optics (light), calculus, and physics.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
214
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE More than any other scientist, Newton argued for (and proved) the idea of a mechanistic view of the world: You can see how the world works and prove how the world works through observation. Up to this time, people believed what other people told them. Newton, following in the footsteps of Copernicus and Galileo, changed all that. This naturally led to the Enlightenment, a period of intense self-study that focused on ethics and logic. More so than at any time before, scientists and philosophers questioned cherished truths, widely held beliefs, and their own sanity in an attempt to discover why the world worked—from within. “I think, therefore I am” was one of the famous sayings of that or any day, uttered by Rene Descartes, a French scientist-philosopher whose dedication to logic and the rigid rules of observation were a blueprint for the thinkers who came after him. One of the giants of the era was England’s David Hume, a pioneer of the doctrine of empiricism (believing things only when you’ve seen the proof for yourself). Hume was a prime believer in the value of skepticism; in other words, he was naturally suspicious of things that other people told him to be true and constantly set out to discover the truth for himself. These two related ideas influenced many great thinkers after Hume, and his writings (of which there are many) continue to inspire philosophers to this day. The Enlightenment thinker who might be the most famous is Immanuel Kant of Germany. He was both a philosopher and a scientist, and he took a definite scientific view of the world. He wrote the movement’s most famous essay, “Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?” and he answered his famous question with the motto “Dare to Know.” For Kant, the human being was a rational being capable of hugely creative thought and intense self-evaluation. He encouraged all to examine themselves and the world around them. He believed that the source of morality lay not in nature or in the grace of God but in the human soul itself. He believed that man believed in God for practical, not religious or mystical, reasons. During the Enlightenment, the idea of the “social contract” confirmed the belief that government existed because people wanted it to, that the people had an agreement with the government that they would submit to it as long as it protected them and didn’t encroach on their basic human rights. This idea was first made famous by the Frenchman Jean-Jacques Rousseau but was also adopted by England’s John Locke and America’s Thomas Jefferson. John Locke was one of the most influential political writers of the 17th century who put great emphasis on human rights and put forth the belief that when governments violate those rights people should rebel. He wrote the book "Two Treatises of Government" in 1690, which had tremendous influence on political thought in the American colonies and helped shaped the U.S. Constitution and Declaration of Independence
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
215
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 9.7
Understand the origins, stages, and consequences of the American and French Revolutions.
The period from the 1700s to the 1800s was characterized in Western countries by opposing political ideas of democracy and nationalism. This resulted in strong nationalistic feelings and people of common cultures asserting their belief in the right to have a part in their government. The American Revolution resulted in the successful efforts of the English colonists in America to win their freedom from Great Britain. After more than one hundred years of mostly self-government, the colonists resented the increased British meddling and control, they declared their freedom, won the Revolutionary War with aid from France, and formed a new independent nation. The French Revolution was the revolt of the middle and lower classes against the gross political and economic excesses of the rulers and the supporting nobility. It ended with the establishment of the First in a series of French Republics. Conditions leading to revolt included extreme taxation, inflation, lack of food, and the total disregard for the impossible, degrading, and unacceptable condition of the people on the part of the rulers, nobility, and the Church. The American Revolution and the French Revolution were similar yet different, liberating their people from unwanted government interference and installing a different kind of government. They were both fought for the liberty of the common people, and they both were built on writings and ideas that embraced such an outcome; yet there is where the similarities end. Both Revolutions proved that people could expect more from their government and that such rights as selfdetermination were worth fighting—and dying—for. Several important differences need to be emphasized: The British colonists were striking back against unwanted taxation and other sorts of “government interference.” The French people were starving and, in many cases, destitute and were striking back against an autocratic regime that cared more for high fashion and courtly love than bread and circuses. • The American Revolution involved a years-long campaign, of often bloody battles, skirmishes, and stalemates. The French Revolution was bloody to a degree but mainly an overthrow of society and its outdated traditions. • The American Revolution resulted in a representative government, which marketed itself as a beacon of democracy for the rest of the world. The French Revolution resulted in a consulship, a generalship, and then an emperor—probably not what the perpetrators of the Revolution had in mind when they first struck back at the king and queen. Still, both Revolutions are looked back on as turning points in history, as times when the governed stood up to the governors and said, “Enough.”
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
216
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 9.8
Understand causes and consequences of the agricultural and industrial revolutions.
The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain and spread elsewhere, was the development of power-driven machinery (fueled by coal and steam) leading to the accelerated growth of industry with large factories replacing homes and small workshops as work centers. The lives of people changed drastically and a largely agricultural society changed to an industrial one. In Western Europe, the period of empire and colonialism began. The industrialized nations seized and claimed parts of Africa and Asia in an effort to control and provide the raw materials needed to feed the industries and machines in the "mother country". Later developments included power based on electricity and internal combustion, replacing coal and steam. There was a marked degree of industrialization before and during the Civil War, but at war's end, industry in America was small. After the war, dramatic changes took place. Machines replaced hand labor, extensive nationwide railroad service made possible the wider distribution of goods, invention of new products made available in large quantities, and large amounts of money from bankers and investors for expansion of business operations. American life was definitely affected by this phenomenal industrial growth. Cities became the centers of these new business activities resulting in mass population movements there and also tremendous growth. This new boom in business resulted in huge fortunes for some Americans and extreme poverty for many others. The discontent this caused resulted in a number of new reform movements from which came measures controlling the power and size of big business and helping the poor. Of course, industry before, during, and after the Civil War was centered mainly in the North, especially the tremendous industrial growth after. The late 1800s and early 1900s saw the increasing buildup of military strength and the U.S. becoming a world power. The use of machines in industry enabled workers to produce a large quantity of goods much faster than by hand. With the increase in business, hundreds of workers were hired, assigned to perform a certain job in the production process. This was a method of organization called "division of labor" and by its increasing the rate of production, businesses lowered prices for their products making the products affordable for more people. As a result, sales and businesses were increasingly successful and profitable. A great variety of new products or inventions became available such as: the typewriter, the telephone, barbed wire, the electric light, the phonograph, and the gasoline automobile. From this list, the one that had the greatest effect on America's economy was the automobile.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
217
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The increase in business and industry was greatly affected by the many rich natural resources that were found throughout the nation. The industrial machines were powered by the abundant water supply. The construction industry as well as products made from wood depended heavily on lumber from the forests. Coal and iron ore in abundance were needed for the steel industry, which profited and increased from the use of steel in such things as skyscrapers, automobiles, bridges, railroad tracks, and machines. Other minerals such as silver, copper, and petroleum played a large role in industrial growth, especially petroleum, from which gasoline was refined as fuel for the increasingly popular automobile. Between 1870 and 1916, more than 25 million immigrants came into the United States adding to the phenomenal population growth taking place. This tremendous growth aided business and industry in two ways: (1) The number of consumers increased creating a greater demand for products thus enlarging the markets for the products, and (2) with increased production and expanding business, more workers were available for newly created jobs. The completion of the nation's transcontinental railroad in 1869 contributed greatly to the nation's economic and industrial growth. Some examples of the benefits of using the railroads include raw materials were shipped quickly by the mining companies and finished products were sent to all parts of the country. Many wealthy industrialists and railroad owners saw tremendous profits steadily increasing due to this improved method of transportation. As business grew, methods of sales and promotion were developed. Salespersons went to all parts of the country promoting the various products, opening large department stores in the growing cities, offering the varied products at reasonable affordable prices. People who lived too far from the cities, making it impossible to shop there, had the advantage of using a mail order service, buying what they needed from catalogs furnished by the companies. The developments in communication, such as the telephone and telegraph, increased the efficiency and prosperity of big business. Investments in corporate stocks and bonds resulted from business prosperity. As individuals began investing heavily, in an eager desire to share in the profits, their investments made available the needed capital for companies to expand their operations. From this, banks increased in number throughout the country, making loans to businesses and significant contributions to economic growth. At the same time, during the 1880s, government made little effort to regulate businesses. This gave rise to monopolies where larger businesses were rid of their smaller competitors and assumed complete control of their industries.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
218
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Some owners in the same business would join or merge to form one company. Others formed what were called "trusts," a type of monopoly in which rival businesses were controlled but not formally owned. Monopolies had some good effects on the economy. Out of them grew the large, efficient corporations, which made important contributions to the growth of the nation's economy. Also, the monopolies enabled businesses to keep their sales steady and avoid sharp fluctuations in price and production. At the same time, the downside of monopolies was the unfair business practices of the business leaders. Some acquired so much power that they took unfair advantage of others. Those who had little or no competition would require their suppliers to supply goods at a low cost, sell the finished products at high prices, and reduce the quality of the product to save money. The late 1800s and early 1900s were a period of the efforts of many to make significant reforms and changes in the areas of politics, society, and the economy. There was a need to reduce the levels of poverty and to improve the living conditions of those affected by it. Regulations of big business, ridding governmental corruption and making it more responsive to the needs of the people were also on the list of reforms to be accomplished. Until 1890, there was very little success, but from 1890 on, the reformers gained increased public support and were able to achieve some influence in government. Since some of these individuals referred to themselves as "progressives," the period of 1890 to 1917 is referred to by historians as the Progressive Era. Skilled laborers were organized into a labor union called the American Federation of Labor, in an effort to gain better working conditions and wages for its members. Farmers joined organizations such as the National Grange and Farmers Alliances. Farmers were producing more food than people could afford to buy. This was the result of (1) new farmlands rapidly sprouting on the plains and prairies, and (2) development and availability of new farm machinery and newer and better methods of farming. They tried selling their surplus abroad but faced stiff competition from other nations selling the same farm products. Other problems contributed significantly to their situation. Items they needed for daily life were priced exorbitantly high. Having to borrow money to carry on farming activities kept them constantly in debt. Higher interest rates, shortage of money, falling farm prices, dealing with the so-called middlemen, and the increasingly high charges by the railroads to haul farm products to large markets all contributed to the desperate need for reform to relieve the plight of American farmers.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
219
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 9.9
Have knowledge of European nationalism and the new imperialism.
In Europe, Italy and Germany each were totally united into one nation from many smaller states. There were revolutions in Austria and Hungary, the Franco-Prussian War, the dividing of Africa among the strong European nations, interference and intervention of Western nations in Asia, and the breakup of Turkish dominance in the Balkans. In Africa, France, Great Britain, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Germany, and Belgium controlled the entire continent except Liberia and Ethiopia. In Asia and the Pacific Islands, only China, Japan, and present-day Thailand (Siam) kept their independence. The others were controlled by the strong European nations. An additional reason for European imperialism was the harsh, urgent demand for the raw materials needed to fuel and feed the great Industrial Revolution. These resources were not available in the huge quantity so desperately needed which necessitated (and rationalized) the partitioning of the continent of Africa and parts of Asia. In turn, these colonial areas would purchase the finished manufactured goods. Europe in the 19th Century was a crowded place. Populations were growing but resources were not. The peoples of many European countries were also agitating for rights as never before. To address these concerns, European powers began to look elsewhere for relief. One of the main places for European imperialist expansion was Africa. Britain, France, Germany, and Belgium took over countries in Africa and claimed them as their own. The resources (including people) were then shipped back to the mainland and claimed as colonial gains. The Europeans made a big deal about “civilizing the savages,” reasoning that their technological superiority gave them the right to rule and “educate” the peoples of Africa. Southeast Asia was another area of European expansion at this time, mainly by France. So, too, was India, colonized by Great Britain. These two nations combined with Spain to occupy countries in Latin America. Spain also seized the rich lands of the Philippines. As a result of all this activity, a whole new flood of goods, people, and ideas began to come back to Europe and a whole group of people began to travel to these colonies, to oversee the colonization and to “help bring the people up” to the European level. European leaders could also assert their authority in these colonies as they could not back home.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
220
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In the United States, territorial expansion occurred in the expansion westward under the banner of "Manifest Destiny." In addition, the U.S. was involved in the War with Mexico, the Spanish-American War, and support of the Latin American colonies of Spain in their revolt for independence. In Latin America, the Spanish colonies were successful in their fight for independence and selfgovernment. The time from 1830 to 1914 is characterized by the extraordinary growth and spread of patriotic pride in a nation along with intense, widespread imperialism. Loyalty to one's nation included national pride; extension and maintenance of sovereign political boundaries; unification of smaller states with common language, history, and culture into a more powerful nation; or smaller national groups who, as part of a larger multi-cultural empire, wished to separate into smaller, political, cultural nations. Skill 9.10
Identify causes, course, and consequences of World War I.
World War I 1914 to 1918 Emotions ran high and minor disputes magnified into major ones and sometimes quickly led to threats of war. Especially sensitive to these conditions was the area of the states on the Balkan Peninsula. Along with the imperialistic colonization for industrial raw materials, military build-up (especially by Germany), and diplomatic and military alliances, the conditions for one tiny spark to set off the explosion were in place. In July 1914, a Serbian national assassinated the Austrian heir to the throne and his wife and war began a few weeks later. The initial spark, which started the conflagration, was the assassination of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo. Causes were the surge of nationalism, the increasing strength of military capabilities, massive colonization for raw materials needed for industrialization and manufacturing, and military and diplomatic alliances. In Europe, Italy and Germany were each totally united into one nation from many smaller states. There were revolutions in Austria and Hungary, the FrancoPrussian War, the dividing of Africa among the strong European nations, interference and intervention of Western nations in Asia, and the breakup of Turkish dominance in the Balkans. In Africa, France, Great Britain, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Germany, and Belgium controlled the entire continent except Liberia and Ethiopia. In Asia and the Pacific Islands, only China, Japan, and present-day Thailand (Siam) kept their independence. The others were controlled by the strong European nations.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
221
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE This success enlarged and expanded the U.S. role in foreign affairs. Under the administration of Theodore Roosevelt, the U.S. armed forces were built up, greatly increasing its strength. Roosevelt's foreign policy was summed up in the slogan of "Speak softly and carry a big stick," backing up the efforts in diplomacy with a strong military. During the years before the outbreak of World War I, evidence of U.S. emergence as a world power could be seen in a number of actions. Based on the Monroe Doctrine of non-involvement of Europeans in Western Hemisphere affairs, President Roosevelt forced Italy, Germany, and Great Britain to remove their blockade of Venezuela. Roosevelt gained the rights to construct the Panama Canal by threatening force and assumed the finances of the Dominican Republic to stabilize it and prevented any intervention by Europeans. Furthermore, in 1916 under President Woodrow Wilson, to keep order, U.S. troops were sent to the Dominican Republic. War broke out in 1914, eventually involving nearly 30 nations, and ended in 1918. One of the major causes of the war was the tremendous surge of nationalism during the 1800s and early 1900s. People of the same nationality or ethnic group sharing a common history, language or culture began uniting or demanding the right of unification, especially in the empires of Eastern Europe, such as Russian Ottoman and Austrian-Hungarian Empires. Getting stronger and more intense were the beliefs of these peoples in loyalty to common political, social, and economic goals considered to be before any loyalty to the controlling nation or empire. World War I saw the introduction of such warfare as use of tanks, airplanes, machine guns, submarines, poison gas, and flame throwers. Fighting on the Western front was characterized by a series of trenches that were used throughout the war until 1918. U.S. involvement in the war did not occur until 1916. When it began in 1914, President Woodrow Wilson declared that the U.S. was neutral and most Americans were opposed to any involvement anyway. In 1916, Wilson was re-elected to a second term based on the slogan proclaiming his efforts at keeping America out of the war. For a few months afterwards, he put forth most of his efforts to stopping the war but German submarines began unlimited warfare against American merchant shipping. At the same time, Great Britain intercepted and decoded a secret message from Germany to Mexico urging Mexico to go to war against the U.S. The publishing of this information along with continued German destruction of American ships resulted in the eventual entry of the U.S. into the conflict, the first time the country prepared to fight in a conflict not on American soil. Though unprepared for war, governmental efforts and activities resulted in massive defense mobilization with America's economy directed to the war effort. Though America made important contributions of war materials, its greatest contribution to the war was manpower, soldiers desperately needed by the Allies.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
222
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Some ten months before the war ended, President Wilson had proposed a program called the Fourteen Points as a method of bringing the war to an end with an equitable peace settlement. In these Points he had five points setting out general ideals; there were eight pertaining to immediately working to resolve territorial and political problems; and the fourteenth point counseled establishing an organization of nations to help keep world peace. When Germany agreed in 1918 to an armistice, it assumed that the peace settlement would be drawn up on the basis of these Fourteen Points. However, the peace conference in Paris ignored these points and Wilson had to be content with efforts at establishing the League of Nations. Italy, France, and Great Britain, having suffered and sacrificed far more in the war than America, wanted retribution. The treaties punished the Central Powers severely, taking away arms and territories and requiring payment of reparations. Germany was punished more than the others and, according to one clause in the treaty, was forced to assume the responsibility for causing the war. Skill 9.11
Have knowledge of the Russian Revolution.
Until the early years of the twentieth century Russia was ruled by a succession of Czars. The Czars ruled as autocrats or, sometimes, despots. Society was essentially feudalistic and was structured in three levels. The top level was held by the Czar. The second level was composed of the rich nobles who held government positions and owned vast tracts of land. The third level of the society was composed of the remaining people who lived in poverty as peasants or serfs. There was discontent among the peasants. There were several unsuccessful attempts to revolt during the nineteenth century, but they were quickly suppressed. The revolutions of 1905 and 1917, however, were quite different. The causes of the 1905 Revolution were: • • • • • • •
Discontent with the social structure Discontent with the living conditions of the peasants Discontent with working conditions despite industrialization The general discontent was aggravated by the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) with inflation, rising prices, etc. Peasants who had been able to eke out a living began to starve. Many of the fighting troops were killed in battles Russia lost to Japan because of poor leadership, lack of training, and inferior weaponry. Czar Nicholas II refused to end the war despite setbacks In January 1905 Port Arthur fell.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
223
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE A trade union leader (Father Gapon) organized a protest to demand an end to the war, industrial reform, more civil liberties, and a constituent assembly. Over 150,000 peasants joined a demonstration outside the Czar’s Winter Palace. Before the demonstrators even spoke, the palace guard opened fire on the crowd. This destroyed the people’s trust in the Czar. Illegal trade unions and political parties formed and organized strikes to gain power. The strikes eventually brought the Russian economy to a halt. This led Czar Nicholas II to sign the October Manifesto which created a constitutional monarchy, extended some civil rights, and gave the parliament limited legislative power. In a very short period of time, the Czar disbanded the parliament and violated the promised civil liberties. This violation contributed to the rise of the 1917 Revolution. The causes of the 1917 Revolution were: • • • • •
The violation of the October Manifesto Defeats on the battlefields during WWI caused discontent, loss of life, and a popular desire to withdraw from the war. The Czar continued to appoint unqualified people to government posts and handle the situation with general incompetence. The Czar also listened to his wife’s (Alexandra) advice. She was strongly influenced by Rasputin. This caused increased discontent among all level of the social structure. WWI had caused another surge in prices and scarcity of many items. Most of the peasants could not afford to buy bread.
Workers in Petrograd went on strike in 1917 over the need for food. The Czar again ordered troops to suppress the strike. This time, however, the troops sided with the workers. The revolution then took a unique direction. The parliament created a provisional government to rule the country. The military and the workers also created their own governments called soviets (popularly elected local councils). The parliament was composed of nobles who soon lost control of the country when they failed to comply with the wishes of the populace. The result was chaos. The political leaders who had previously been driven into exile returned. Lenin, Stalin and Trotsky won the support of the peasants with the promise of “Peace, Land, and Bread”. The parliament, on the other hand, continued the country’s involvement in the war. Lenin and the Bolshevik party gained the support of the Red Guard and together overthrew the provisional government. In short order they had complete control of Russia and established a new communist state. The most significant differences between the 1905 and 1917 revolutions were the formation of political parties and their use of propaganda and the support of the military and some of the nobles in 1917.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
224
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 9.12
Examine the Great Depression and the rise of fascism.
The 1929 Stock Market Crash was the most powerful event that is generally interpreted as the beginning of the Great Depression in America. Although the crash of the Stock Market was unexpected, it was not without identifiable causes. The 1920s had been a decade of social and economic growth and hope. But the attitudes and actions of the 1920s regarding wealth, production, and investment created several trends that quietly set the stage for the 1929 disaster. Overextension of credit and a surplus of goods hit American businesses and banks hard, contributing to a loss of confidence in the economy. Another factor contributing to the Great Depression was the economic condition of Europe. The US was lending money to European nations to rebuild after World War I. Many of these countries used this money to purchase US food and manufactured goods. They were not able to pay off their debt, however, for while the US was providing money, food, and goods to Europe, the US was not willing to buy European goods. In the immediate aftermath of the stock market crash, many urged President Herbert Hoover to provide government relief. Hoover responded by urging the nation to be patient. By the time he signed relief bills in 1932, it was too late. The sudden hit to business resulted in a slowdown in manufacturing and new construction, which in turn caused widespread unemployment in US cities. In the American Midwest, years of agricultural overproduction during the war, coupled with drought effects on the overworked soil caused giant dust storms which ruined large stretches of farmland, uprooting families. The effects of the Depression were also very strong throughout Europe, which was still rebuilding after the devastation of World War I. Germany was especially hard hit, as US reconstruction loans dried up. Unemployment skyrocketed in Germany, leaving millions out of work. In the US, Franklin Roosevelt was elected President in 1932. Roosevelt proposed a series of legislation that would empower labor unions and farmers, allowing them to gain better access to the market economy and improve conditions for labor. This "New Deal" as it was called, is widely considered to have put the US back on the road to recovery from the Great Depression. Gains were made, but it was World War II and the industrial boom that it brought that fully pulled America out. During the Depression in Germany, large numbers of urban workers found themselves unemployed and dissatisfied with the government. Communist and Fascist paramilitary organizations arose, promising dramatic action and economic restructuring. These organizations found a receptive audience among the disgruntled German workers. It was out of this climate that the Nazi Party emerged.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
225
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE After a failed attempt at a coup, many of the Nazi leaders, including Adolf Hitler, were jailed. Upon his release, Hitler was able to take leadership again and built the fascist Nazi party into a political organization with seats in the German parliament. Hitler was eventually named Chancellor of Germany, from which position he implemented his policies of military expansion and aggression which culminated in the Second World War. Skill 9.13
Identify origins, events, and results of World War II.
Pre-war empires lost tremendous amounts of territories as well as the wealth of natural resources in them. New, independent nations were formed and some predominately ethnic areas came under control of nations of different cultural backgrounds. Some national boundary changes overlapped and created tensions and hard feelings as well as political and economic confusion. The wishes and desires of every national or cultural group could not possibly be realized and satisfied, resulting in disappointments for both; those who were victorious and those who were defeated. Germany received harsher terms than expected from the treaty which weakened its post-war government and, along with the world-wide depression of the 1930s, set the stage for the rise of Adolf Hitler and his Nationalist Socialist Party and World War II. The world after World War II was a complicated place. The Axis powers were defeated, but the Cold War had sprung up in its place. Many countries struggled to get out of the debt and devastation that their Nazi occupiers had wrought. The American Marshall Plan helped the nations of Western Europe get back on their feet. The Soviet Union helped the Eastern European nations return to greatness, with Communist governments at the helm. The nations of Asia were rebuilt as well, with Communism taking over China and Americanization taking over Japan and Taiwan. East and West struggled for control in this arena, especially in Korea and Southeast Asia. When Communism fell in the USSR and Eastern Europe, it remained in China, North Korea, and Vietnam; Vietnam’s neighbors, however set their own path to government. The United Nations, a more successful successor to the League of Nations (which couldn’t prevent World War II), began in the waning days of the war. It brought the nations of the world together to discuss their problems, rather than fight about them. Another successful method of keeping the peace since the war has been the atomic bomb. On a more pacific note, UNICEF, a worldwide children’s fund, has been able to achieve great things in just a few decades of existence. Other peace-based organizations like the Red Cross and Doctors Without Borders have seen their membership and their efficacy rise during this time as well.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
226
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In America, President Wilson lost in his efforts to get the U.S. Senate to approve the peace treaty. The Senate at the time was a reflection of American public opinion and its rejection of the treaty was a rejection of Wilson. The approval of the treaty would have made the U.S. a member of the League of Nations but Americans had just come off a bloody war to ensure that democracy would exist throughout the world. Americans just did not want to accept any responsibility that resulted from its new position of power and were afraid that membership in the League of Nations would embroil the U.S. in future disputes in Europe. The kind of nationalism that Europe saw in the nineteenth century spilled over into the mid-twentieth century, with former colonies of European powers declaring themselves independent all the time, especially in Africa. India, a longtime British protectorate, also achieved independence at this time. With independence, these countries continued to grow. Some of these nations now experience severe overcrowding and dearth of precious resources. Some who can escape do; others have no way to escape. The Middle East has been an especially violent part of the world since the war and the inception of the State of Israel. The struggle for supremacy in the Persian Gulf area has brought about a handful of wars as well. Oil, needed to power the world’s devastatingly large transportation and manufacturing engines, is king of all resources. There were 28 nations involved in the war, not including colonies and territories. It began July 28, 1914 and ended November 11, 1918 with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. Economically, the war cost a total of $337 billion; increased inflation and huge war debts; and caused a loss of markets, goods, jobs, and factories. Politically, old empires collapsed; many monarchies disappeared; smaller countries gained temporary independence; Communists seized power in Russia; and, in some cases, nationalism increased. Socially, total populations decreased because of war casualties and low birth rates. There were millions of displaced persons and villages and farms were destroyed. Cities grew while women made significant gains in the work force and the ballot box. There was less social distinction and classes. Attitudes completely changed and old beliefs and values were questioned. The peace settlement established the League of Nations to ensure peace, but it failed to do so.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
227
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 9.14
Identify characteristics of contemporary Islamic societies.
The Middle East is defined by its name and its geographic position. It is in the middle of the globe, a position that enables it to exert tremendous influence on not only the trade that passes through its realm of influence but also the political relations between its countries and those of different parts of the world. From the beginnings of civilization, the Middle East has been a destination—for attackers, for adventure-seekers, for those starving for food and a progressively more technologically advanced series of other resources, from iron to oil. Now, as then, the countries of the Middle East play an important role in the economics of the world. First and foremost is the importance of oil. Saudi Arabia most notably but also Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Dubai, and the United Arab Emirates are huge exporters of oil. In some cases; the amount of oil that one of these countries exports, exceeds 90 percent of its total economic outflow. Most of the world requires oil in huge numbers, to run its machines and especially its transportation vehicles—cars, trucks, airplanes, and buses. The vast majority of the world’s developed nations would be helpless without this oil, and so the governments of these nations will pay nearly any price to keep that oil flowing from the Middle East into their countries. The oil-rich exporters of the Middle East can hold the rest of the world hostage by increasing the price of oil even slightly, since the consumption for even a small, developed nation numbers in the billions of gallons every month. (The Middle East is not the only place to get oil by any means; Russia, for example, is another excellent source of oil. The appeal of the Middle East countries as sources of oil is that it is much easier to get at and put on tankers than it is to procure from the wilds of central Russia.) It can be argued that whoever controls a country in the Middle East controls the oil. With few exceptions, all of these countries have strong central governments, which control the collection and export of oil. If a country were to take over one of these big exporters, the infrastructure would already be in place to control the flow of oil. The recent American occupation of Iraq illustrates this, since the existing oil companies were taken over by American operations. The countries of the Middle East, despite their economic similarities, have important differences in their government, belief systems, and global outlooks. Iran and Iraq fought a devastating war in the 1980s. Iraq invaded Kuwait in the late 1990s. It is not outside the realm of possibility that other conflicts will arise in the future.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
228
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Another large factor of the instability in the Middle East is ethnic strife. It’s not just Muslims who occupy these countries. Each country has its own ethnic mix. A good example of this is Iraq, which has a huge minority of Kurdish people. Saddam Hussein, the former dictator of Iraq, made a habit of persecuting Kurds just because of who they were. Iraq is also an example of a religious conflict, with the minority Shiites now in power and Hussein’s Sunnis out of power. These two people agree on next to nothing except that “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his Prophet.” The prospect of a civil war in Iraq looms large, as it does in other neighboring countries, which have their own ethnic problems. Religious conflict is the name of the game in Israel as well, as Israelis and Palestinians continue a centuries-old fight over religion and geography. This conflict goes back to the beginnings of Islam, in the seventh century. Muslims claimed Jerusalem, capital of the ancient civilization of Israel, as a holy city, in the same way that Jews and Christians did. Muslims seized control of Palestine and Jerusalem and held it for a great many years, prompting Christian armies from Europe to muster for the Crusades, in a series of attempts to “regain the Holy Land.” For hundreds of years after Christendom’s failure these lands were ruled by Muslim leaders and armies. In recent centuries, Palestine was made a British colony and then eliminated in favor of the modern state of Israel. Since that last event, in 1948, the conflict has escalated to varying degrees. The addition of Israel to the Middle East equation presents a religious conflict not only with the Palestinians but also with the Arab peoples of neighboring Egypt and Syria. The armed forces of all of these countries have so many advanced weapons that they would seem to be a deterrent to further bloodshed, yet the attacks continue. In the last 40 years, Israel has won two major wars with its neighbors. Nearly daily conflict continues, much as it has for thousands of years. This conflict is not so much an economic one, but a full-blown war in this region would certainly involve Israel’s neighbors and, by extension, other large countries in the world, most notably the United States. Skill 9.15
Understand the collapse of the Soviet Union.
The Cold War was, more than anything else, an ideological struggle between proponents of democracy and those of communism. The two major players were the United States and the Soviet Union, but other countries were involved as well. It was a “cold” war because no large-scale fighting took place directly between the two big protagonists. It wasn’t just form of government that was driving this war, either. Economics were a main concern as well. A concern in both countries was that the precious resources (such as oil and food) from other like-minded countries wouldn’t be allowed to flow to “the other side.” These resources didn’t much flow between the U.S. and Soviet Union, either.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
229
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Soviet Union kept much more of a tight leash on its supporting countries, including all of Eastern Europe, which made up a military organization called the Warsaw Pact. The Western nations responded with a military organization of their own, NATO. Another prime battleground was Asia, where the Soviet Union had allies in China, North Korea, and North Vietnam and the U.S. had allies in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and South Vietnam. The Korean War and Vietnam War were major conflicts in which both big protagonists played big roles but didn’t directly fight each other. The main symbol of the Cold War was the arms race, a continual buildup of missiles, tanks, and other weapons that became ever more technologically advanced and increasingly more deadly. The ultimate weapon, which both sides had in abundance, was the nuclear bomb. Spending on weapons and defensive systems eventually occupied great percentages of the budgets of the U.S. and the USSR, and some historians argue that this high level of spending played a large part in the end of the latter. The war was a cultural struggle as well. Adults brought up their children to hate “the Americans” or “the Communists.” Cold War tensions spilled over into many parts of life in countries around the world. The ways of life in countries on either side of the divide were so different that they served entirely foreign to outside observers. The Cold War continued to varying degrees from 1947 to 1991, when the Soviet Union collapsed. Other Eastern European countries had seen their communist governments overthrown by this time as well, marking the shredding of the “Iron Curtain.” The major thrust of U.S. foreign policy from the end of World War II to 1990 was the post-war struggle between non-Communist nations, led by the United States, and the Soviet Union and the Communist nations who were its allies. It was referred to as a "Cold War" because its conflicts did not lead to a major war of fighting, or a "hot war." Both the Soviet Union and the United States embarked on an arsenal buildup of atomic and hydrogen bombs as well as other nuclear weapons. Both nations had the capability of destroying each other but because of the continuous threat of nuclear war and accidents, extreme caution was practiced on both sides. The efforts of both sides to serve and protect their political philosophies and to support and assist their allies resulted in a number of events during this 45-year period.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
230
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 9.16
Understand globalization.
Globalization is defined as the principle of the interdependence of all the world's nations and their peoples. Within this global community, every nation, in some way to a certain degree, is dependent on other nations. Since no one nation has all of the resources needed for production, trade with other nations is required to obtain what is needed for production, to sell what is produced or to buy finished products, to earn money to maintain and strengthen the nation's economic system. Developing nations receive technical assistance and financial aid from developed nations. Many international organizations have been set up to promote and encourage cooperation and economic progress among member nations. Through the elimination of such barriers to trade as tariffs, trade is stimulated resulting in increased productivity, economic progress, increased cooperation and understanding on diplomatic levels. Those nations not part of an international trade organization not only must make those economic decisions of what to produce, how and for whom, but must also deal with the problem of tariffs and quotas on imports. Regardless of international trade memberships, economic growth and development are vital and affect all trading nations. Businesses, labor, and governments share common interests and goals in a nation's economic status. International systems of banking and finance have been devised to assist governments and businesses in setting the policy and guidelines for the exchange of currencies. The global economy had its origins in the early 20th Century, with the advent of the airplane, which made travel and trade easier and less time-consuming than ever. With the recent advent of the Internet, the world might be better termed a global neighborhood. An incredible increase in demand for something is not always a good thing, however, especially if what is being demanded has a limited supply. A good example is wood, paper, and other goods that are made from trees. The demand for paper especially these days is staggering. In order fulfill that demand, companies are cutting down more and more trees. Forests around the world are disappearing at an alarming rate, especially in the precious rainforests of South America. Recycling of paper is very much a focus for many people today, but it can’t keep up with clear-cutting. An example of nonrenewable resources like coal and oil are in worldwide demand these days, and the supplies won’t last forever. Making it easier to ship goods all over the world has made demand grow at an unbelievable rate, raising concerns about supply. Because resources like this have a limited supply (even though the day when that limit is reached seems far away still), they are in danger of becoming extinct without being replaced.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
231
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Globalization has also brought about welcome and unwelcome developments in the field of epidemiology. Vaccines and other cures for diseases can be shipped relatively quickly all around the world. This has made it possible for HIV vaccines to reach the remotest areas of the world, for example. Unfortunately, the preponderance of global travel has also meant that the threat of spreading a disease to the world by an infected person traveling on an international flight is quite real. The most recent example of technology contributing to globalization is the development of the Internet. Instant communication between people millions of miles apart is possible just by plugging in a computer and connecting to the Net. The Internet is an extension of the telephone and cell phone revolutions; all three are developments that have brought faraway places closer together. All three allow people to communicate no matter the distance. This communication can facilitate friendly chatter and, of course, trade. A huge number of businesses use cell phones and the Internet to do business these days, also using computers to track goods and receipts quickly and efficiently. Globalization has also brought financial and cultural exchange on a worldwide scale. A large number of businesses have investments in countries around the world. Financial transactions are conducted using a variety of currencies. The cultures of the countries of the world are increasingly viewed by people elsewhere in the world, through the wonders of television and the Internet. Not only goods but also belief systems, customs, and practices are being exchanged. With this exchange of money, goods, and culture has come an increase in immigration. Many people who live in less-developed nations see what is available in other places and want to move there, in order to fully take advantage of all that those more-developed nations have to offer. This can conceivably create an increase in immigration. Depending on the numbers of people who want to immigrate and the resources available, this could become a problem. The technological advances in transportation and communications have made such immigration easier than ever.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
232
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 9.17
Examine the emergence of world terrorism.
Modern global terrorism can trace its roots to 1967 when Israel defeated Arab forces in Palestine. Palestinian fighters, realizing they could not win a military battle against Israel, turned to urban terror tactics to attack Israel's population centers. Taking advantage of modern communications and technology, radical Palestinian organizations undertook a series of airline hijackings, bombings and kidnappings to draw attention to their demands and to terrorize and demoralize their enemies, specifically Israel. In 1972, at the Olympic Games in Munich, radical Palestinians kidnapped nine Israeli athletes who were all killed in a subsequent gun battle. Supported by some Arab states and criminal organizations, the radical Palestinians developed a network of connections through which their techniques and training could flow to other parts of the world. Terrorist activity continued throughout the 1970s. In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan and an Islamic Revolution took place in Iran, two events that were to provide opportunities for terrorist tactics to advance as radical organizations gained valuable military experience and state support from the leadership in Iran. During the 1980s, the use of suicide bombers became an effective technique to strike deeply. Anti-Israeli sentiments grew, as well as anti-US feelings over America's support of Israel. Radical terrorists began to choose western targets, as in the bombing of US Marine barracks in Lebanon in 1983 and the 1988 bombing of a Pan Am airliner over Scotland. With the withdrawal of the Soviet Union from Afghanistan, and its subsequent collapse, the region of Afghanistan became a safe haven for radical groups to organize and train followers in terror tactics. The Taliban, a strict religious sect, took control in Afghanistan and harbored these groups, including Al-Qaeda. Al-Qaeda is led by Saudi millionaire Osama Bin Laden and claims opposition to US military presence in Saudi Arabia and elsewhere in the Middle East. In 1993, Al-Qaeda operatives struck at the United States by bombing the World Trade Center in New York City. On September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda followers hijacked four commercial airliners, flying two of them into the World Trade Center towers, and one into the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. The fourth airliner crashed in Pennsylvania. It was the largest single terrorist attack the world had seen, killing thousands of people. The United States reacted by launching an attack on Afghanistan, driving Bin Laden and his followers into the hills. Since that attack the prospect of global terrorism has become a reality in the modern world, driving much of the world's foreign policy toward Middle Eastern states, as well as domestic security policies.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
233
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 10.0 UNDERSTAND THE CAUSES AND COURSE OF EUROPEAN EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA; THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLONIAL SOCIETIES; AND MAJOR POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, CULTURAL, AND DIPLOMATIC DEVELOPMENTS IN U.S. SOCIETY THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 Skill 10.1
Identify political, economic, and cultural features of Native American societies.
Native American tribes lived throughout what we now call the United States in varying degrees of togetherness. They adopted different customs, pursued different avenues of agriculture and food gathering, and used different weapons. They fought among themselves and with other peoples. To varying degrees, they had established cultures long before Columbus or any other European explorer arrived on the scene. Perhaps the most famous of the Native American tribes is the Algonquians. We know so much about this tribe because they were one of the first to interact with the newly arrived English settlers in Plymouth and elsewhere. The Algonquians lived in wigwams and wore clothing made from animal skins. They were proficient hunters, gatherers, and trappers who also knew quite a bit about farming. Beginning with a brave man named Squanto, they shared this agricultural knowledge with the English settlers, including how to plant and cultivate corn, pumpkins, and squash. Other famous Algonquians included Pocahontas and her father, Powhatan, both of whom are immortalized in English literature, and Tecumseh and Black Hawk, known foremost for their fierce fighting ability. To the overall Native American culture, they contributed wampum and dream catchers. Another group of tribes who lived in the Northeast were the Iroquois, who were fierce fighters but also forward thinkers. They lived in long houses and wore clothes made of buckskin. They, too, were expert farmers, growing the “Three Sisters” (corn, squash, and beans). Five of the Iroquois tribes formed a Confederacy that was a shared form of government. The Iroquois also formed the False Face Society, a group of medicine men who shared their medical knowledge with others but kept their identities secret while doing so. These masks are one of the enduring symbols of the Native American era. Living in the Southeast were the Seminoles and Creeks, a huge collection of people who lived in chickees (open, bark-covered houses) and wore clothes made from plant fibers. They were expert planters and hunters and were proficient at paddling dugout canoes, which they made. The bead necklaces they created were some of the most beautiful on the continent. They are best known, however, for their struggle against Spanish and English settlers, especially led by the great Osceola.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
234
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Cherokee also lived in the Southeast. They were one of the most advanced tribes, living in domed houses and wearing deerskin and rabbit fur. Accomplished hunters, farmers, and fishermen, the Cherokee were known the continent over for their intricate and beautiful basketry and clay pottery. They also played a game called lacrosse, which survives to this day in countries around the world. In the middle of the continent lived the Plains tribes, such as the Sioux, Cheyenne, Blackfeet, Comanche, and Pawnee. These peoples lived in teepees and wore buffalo skins and feather headdresses. (It is this image of the Native American that has made its way into most American movies depicting the period.) They hunted wild animals on the Plains, especially the buffalo. They were well known for their many ceremonies, including the Sun Dance, and for the peace pipes that they smoked. Famous Plains people include Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull, authors of the Custer Disaster; Sacagawea, leader of the Lewis & Clark expedition; and Chief Joseph, the famous Nez Perce leader. Dotting the deserts of the Southwest were a handful of tribes, including the famous Pueblo, who lived in houses that bear their tribe’s name. They wore clothes made of wool and woven cotton, farmed crops in the middle of desert land, created exquisite pottery and Kachina dolls, and had one of the most complex religions of all the tribes. They are perhaps best known for the challenging vista-based villages that they constructed from the sheer faces of cliffs and rocks and for their adobes, mud-brick buildings that housed their living and meeting quarters. The Pueblos chose their own chiefs. This was perhaps one of the oldest representative governments in the world. Another well-known Southwestern tribe was the Apache, with their famous leader Geronimo. The Apache lived in homes called wickiups, which were made of bark, grass, and branches. They wore cotton clothing and were excellent hunters and gatherers. Adept at basketry, the Apache believed that everything in Nature had special powers and that they were honored just to be part of it all. The Navajo, also residents of the Southwest, lived in hogans (round homes built with forked sticks) and wore clothes of rabbit skin. Their major contribution to the overall culture of the continent was in sand painting, weapon making, silversmithing, and weaving. Some of the most beautiful woven rugs ever were crafted by Navajo hands. Living in the Northwest were the Inuit, who lived in tents made from animal skins or, in some cases, igloos. They wore clothes made of animal skins, usually seals or caribou. They were excellent fishermen and hunters and crafted efficient kayaks and umiaks to take them through waterways and harpoons with which to hunt animals. The Inuit are perhaps best known for the great carvings that they left behind. Among these are ivory figures and tall totem poles.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
235
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 10.2
Identify political, religious, and economic motives of European explorers and colonizers.
By the 1750s in Europe, Spain was "out of the picture," no longer the most powerful nation and not even a contender. The remaining rivalry was between Britain and France. For nearly 25 years, between 1689 and 1748, a series of "armed conflicts" involving these two powers had been taking place. These conflicts had spilled over into North America. The War of the League of Augsburg in Europe, 1689 to 1697, had been King William's War. The War of the Spanish Succession, 1702 to 1713, had been Queen Anne's War. The War of the Austrian Succession, 1740 to 1748, was called King George's War in the colonies. The two nations fought for possession of colonies, especially in Asia and North America, and for control of the seas, but none of these conflicts was decisive. The final conflict, which decided once and for all who was the most powerful, began in North America in 1754, in the Ohio River Valley. It was known in America as the French and Indian War and in Europe as the Seven Years War, since it began there in 1756. In America, both sides had advantages and disadvantages. The British colonies were well established and consolidated in a smaller area. British colonists outnumbered French colonists 23 to 1. Except for a small area in Canada, French settlements were scattered over a much larger area (roughly half of the continent) and were smaller. However, the French settlements were united under one government and were quick to act and cooperate when necessary. In addition, the French had many more Indian allies than the British. The British colonies had separate, individual governments and very seldom cooperated, even when needed. In Europe, at that time, France was the more powerful of the two nations. Both sides had stunning victories and humiliating defeats. If there was one person who could be given the credit for British victory, it would have to be William Pitt. He was a strong leader, enormously energetic, supremely selfconfident, and determined on a complete British victory. Despite the advantages and military victories of the French, Pitt succeeded. In the army he got rid of the incompetents and replaced them with men who could do the job. He sent more troops to America, strengthened the British navy, gave to the officers of the colonial militia equal rank to the British officers - in short, he saw to it that Britain took the offensive and kept it to victory. Of all the British victories, perhaps the most crucial and important was winning Canada.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
236
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The French depended on the St. Lawrence River for transporting supplies, soldiers, and messages-the link between New France and the Mother Country. Tied into this waterway system were the connecting links of the Great Lakes, Mississippi River and its tributaries along which were scattered French forts, trading posts, and small settlements. When, in 1758, the British captured Louisburg on Cape Breton Island, New France was doomed. Louisburg gave the British navy a base of operations preventing French reinforcements and supplies getting to their troops. Other forts fell to the British: Frontenac, Duquesne, Crown Point, Ticonderoga, Niagara, those in the upper Ohio Valley, and, most importantly, Quebec and finally Montreal. Spain entered the war in 1762 to aid France but it was too late. British victories occurred all around the world: in India, in the Mediterranean, and in Europe. In 1763 in Paris, Spain, France, and Britain met to draw up the Treaty. Great Britain got most of India and all of North America east of the Mississippi River, except for New Orleans. Britain received from Spain control of Florida and returned to Spain Cuba and the islands of the Philippines, taken during the war. France lost nearly all of its possessions in America and India and was allowed to keep four islands: Guadeloupe, Martinique, Haiti on Hispaniola, and Miquelon and St. Pierre. France gave Spain New Orleans and the vast territory of Louisiana, west of the Mississippi River. Britain was now the most powerful nation--period. Where did all of this leave the British colonies? Their colonial militia had fought with the British and they too benefited. The militias and their officers gained much experience in fighting which was very valuable later. The thirteen colonies began to realize that cooperating with each other was the only way to defend themselves. They didn't really understand that, until the war for independence and setting up a national government, but a start had been made. At the start of the war in 1754, Benjamin Franklin proposed to the thirteen colonies that they unite permanently to be able to defend themselves. This was after the French and their Indian allies had defeated Major George Washington and his militia at Fort Necessity. This left the entire northern frontier of the British colonies vulnerable and open to attack.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
237
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 10.3
Examine coexistence and conflict between Europeans and Native Americans.
Colonists from England, France, Holland, Sweden, and Spain all settled in North America, on lands once frequented by Native Americans. Spanish colonies were mainly in the south, French colonies were mainly in the extreme north and in the middle of the continent, and the rest of the European colonies were in the northeast and along the Atlantic coast. These colonists got along with their new neighbors with varying degrees of success. Of all of them, the French colonists seemed the most willing to work with the Native Americans. Even though their pursuit of animals to fill the growing demand for the fur trade was overpowering, they managed to find a way to keep their new neighbors happy. The French and Native Americans even fought on the same side of a war against England. The Dutch and Swedish colonists were interested mainly in surviving in their new homes. They didn’t last long in their struggles against England, however. The English and Spanish colonists had the worst relations with the Native Americans, mainly because the Europeans made a habit of taking land, signing and then breaking treaties, massacring, and otherwise abusing their new neighbors. The Native Americans were only too happy to share their agriculture and jewel-making secrets with the Europeans; what they got in return was grief and deceit. The term “Manifest Destiny” meant nothing to the Native Americans, who believed that they lived on land granted access to them by the gods above. Skill 10.4
Have knowledge of early settlements in North America.
The colonies were divided generally into the three regions of New England, Middle Atlantic, and Southern. The culture of each was distinct and affected attitudes, ideas towards politics, religion, and economic activities. The geography of each region also contributed to its unique characteristics. The New England colonies consisted of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. Life in these colonies was centered on the towns. What farming was done was by each family on its own plot of land but a short summer growing season and limited amount of good soil gave rise to other economic activities such as manufacturing, fishing, shipbuilding, and trade. The vast majority of the settlers shared similar origins, coming from England and Scotland. Towns were carefully planned and laid out the same way. The form of government was the town meeting where all adult males met to make the laws. The legislative body, the General Court, consisted of an upper and lower house.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
238
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Middle or Middle Atlantic colonies included New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. New York and New Jersey were at one time the Dutch colony of New Netherland and Delaware at one time was New Sweden. These five colonies, from their beginnings were considered "melting pots" with settlers from many different nations and backgrounds. The main economic activity was farming with the settlers scattered over the countryside cultivating rather large farms. The Indians were not as much of a threat as in New England so they did not have to settle in small farming villages. The soil was very fertile, the land was gently rolling, and a milder climate provided a longer growing season. These farms produced a large surplus of food, not only for the colonists themselves but also for sale. This colonial region became known as the "breadbasket" of the New World and the New York and Philadelphia seaports were constantly filled with ships being loaded with meat, flour, and other foodstuffs for the West Indies and England. There were other economic activities such as shipbuilding, iron mines, and factories producing paper, glass, and textiles. The legislative body in Pennsylvania was unicameral or consisted of one house. In the other four colonies, the legislative body had two houses. Also units of local government were in counties and towns. The Southern colonies were Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia. Virginia was the first permanent successful English colony and Georgia was the last. The year 1619 was a very important year in the history of Virginia and the United States with three very significant events. First, sixty women were sent to Virginia to marry and establish families; second, twenty Africans, the first of thousands, arrived; and third, most importantly, the Virginia colonists were granted the right to self-government and they began by electing their own representatives to the House of Burgesses, their own legislative body. The major economic activity in this region was farming. Here too the soil was very fertile and the climate was very mild with an even longer growing season. The large plantations eventually requiring large numbers of slaves were found in the coastal or tidewater areas. Although the wealthy slave-owning planters set the pattern of life in this region, most of the people lived inland away from coastal areas. They were small farmers and very few, it any, owned slaves. The settlers in these four colonies came from diverse backgrounds and cultures. Virginia was colonized mostly by people from England while Georgia was started as a haven for debtors from English prisons. Pioneers from Virginia settled in North Carolina while South Carolina welcomed people from England and Scotland, French Protestants, Germans, and emigrants from islands in the West Indies. Products from farms and plantations included rice, tobacco, indigo, cotton, some corn and wheat. Other economic activities included lumber and naval stores (tar, pitch, rosin, and turpentine) from the pine forests and fur trade on the frontier. Cities such as Savannah and Charleston were important seaports and trading centers.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
239
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In the colonies, the daily life of the colonists differed greatly between the coastal settlements and the inland or interior. The Southern planters and the people living in the coastal cities and towns had a way of life similar to that in towns in England. The influence was seen and heard in the way people dressed and talked; the architectural styles of houses and public buildings; and the social divisions or levels of society. Both the planters and city dwellers enjoyed an active social life and had strong emotional ties to England. On the other hand, life inland on the frontier had marked differences. All facets of daily living--clothing, food, housing, economic and social activities--were all connected to what was needed to sustain life and survive in the wilderness. Everything was produced practically themselves. They were self-sufficient and extremely individualistic and independent. There were little, if any, levels of society or class distinctions as they considered themselves to be the equal to all others, regardless of station in life. The roots of equality, independence, individual rights and freedoms were extremely strong and well developed. Skill 10.5
Understand early Massachusetts settlement.
The first permanent European settlement in what is present day Massachusetts was Plymouth Colony, founded in 1620 by a group of English people who sailed from Holland on the Mayflower. These Pilgrims, as they are now called, were escaping religious persecution in England and hoping to build a community in the New World where they might observe their beliefs undisturbed. The Pilgrims were sponsored by private individuals in England called “adventurers," who financed the journey and initial settlement in exchange for a share in future profits from farming, fishing or trade. The Pilgrims did not have an official charter from King James I of England, and so did not have any official authority from the crown to govern themselves. The Pilgrims did receive land patents from the King, but not an actual charter that would have given them official authority to govern and form courts. As a result, the adult men in the Mayflower party gathered on board before landing and drafted a compact that affirmed their loyalty to the King, and stated their combined commitment to establish a settlement and to agree to self governance. This document is now called the Mayflower Compact, and served as the basis for the colonial government for several years. The Dorchester Company attempted to establish a settlement at present day Gloucester, Massachusetts in 1623, but was unsuccessful. The New England Company came soon afterwards and was granted a land patent that encompassed much of present day Massachusetts north of the Plymouth Colony. In 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Company converted the land patents of these previous companies into a Royal Charter, and formed the Massachusetts Bay Colony, with the authority to establish an official government and court system. Four hundred Puritan settlers arrived in 1629 under this new charter.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
240
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Plymouth Colony continued to govern itself, but was soon overshadowed by its northern neighbors in the Massachusetts Colony. In 1691, still lacking a royal charter, Plymouth Colony was officially absorbed into the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The Puritans intended to create a homogenous colony based on their own conservative sect of the English Church, and were intolerant of those of other denominations, such as Quakers, and subsequently driving them out of the colony. One of the tenets of the Puritan sect was a congregational approach to church affairs, with no hierarchy of church leaders as in the English and Catholic churches. Church decisions were settled at meetings of the church members themselves. This congregational approach to church affairs was readily applied to civic matters, leading to the development of the town meeting as the basic body of local government. The town meeting is still used throughout New England to make local decisions. Even in larger cities that have adopted a more representative form of government, the terminology and some of the traditions of the town meeting have been retained. Skill 10.6
Examine importation of Africans and the emergence of slavery.
Slavery in the English colonies began in 1619 when 20 Africans arrived in the colony of Virginia at Jamestown. From then on, slavery had a foothold, especially in the agricultural South, where a large amount of slave labor was needed for the extensive plantations. Free men refused to work for wages on the plantations when land was available for settling on the frontier. Therefore, slave labor was the only recourse left. If it had been profitable to use slaves in New England and the Middle Colonies, then without doubt slavery would have been more widespread. However, it came down to whether or not slavery was profitable. It was in the South, but not in the other two colonial regions. Slavery began in the Western Hemisphere in 1619 and ended in 1865. In between that time, thousands and thousands of African people were brought against their will from their homes to America and elsewhere, as property of other people. The practice of slavery in America ended only after the South’s final defeat in the Civil War and the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment, which outlawed slavery. America’s Caribbean neighbor, Haiti, had ended slavery a halfcentury before, thanks to the heroics of Toussaint L’Ouverture.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
241
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The effect of this Western Hemisphere slavery on sub-Saharan Africa was traumatic. First and foremost, a tremendous number of people were forcibly removed from their homes. In some cases, entirely families were taken prisoner; in other cases, only the adults or only the men were taken. In the latter cases, families were split asunder, with those left behind struggling to make a new life for themselves, often without those who could work the hardest to do so. A decrease in population might have meant less people to consume the natural resources, but it also meant fewer hands to do the work that needed to be done to produce goods that could be traded for food and money. Some people in Africa made quite a good living selling others to be enslaved in America. They were not always popular with their fellow Africans, but they did make a lot of money. When the Civil War ended and slavery was outlawed in America, this lucrative practice was no longer available. A money-making practice that had endured for more than 200 years had suddenly ended. Skill 10.7
Understand labor and family life across classes, races, and regions of colonial America.
Residents of the New England Colonies were primarily small farmers. Each family had its own subsistence farm with supporting livestock. Women were expected to care for the children and take care of the household, while men tended to the farming and livestock. Families encouraged their sons to continue to farm, and provided them with land and livestock to establish them. Women were expected to marry. New England settlers were primarily from England. Several inland New England towns arose to support the local farming communities. Blacksmiths and millers and other associated tradesmen found a living in these towns. In towns along the seacoast, trading and fishing were the dominant occupations. The middle colonies had a more diverse population that New England, with immigrants from Holland, Scotland, Ireland and Germany making up the largest groups. These peoples were also largely farmers, each group bringing its own methods and techniques. Family structure was similar to that in New England, but unlike their Puritan counterparts, German and Dutch women were allowed to hold property and could often be found working in the fields. Middle colony seaport towns became major centers of trade, and laborers could find work on the docks and as sailors. Many of these workers were African American. As these towns grew, so did the merchant class and some colonists began to build real fortunes.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
242
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Social and economic organization was different in the southern colonies, where instead of several small farms large expanses of agricultural land were collected into plantations centered around large, palatial houses. These plantations were owned by wealthy families who took their social cues from Britain. Labor to work the plantations came from slaves who were owned along with the land. Poor whites in the southern colonies might also find work on plantations or sharecrop on borrowed farmland. Skill 10.8
Identify major causes, events, and turning points of the American Revolution.
Causes for the War for Independence: •
•
•
With the end of the French and Indian War (The Seven Years’ War), England decided to reassert control over the colonies in America. They particularly needed the revenue from the control of trade to pay for the recent war and to defend the new territory obtained as a result of the war. English leaders decided to impose a tax that would pay for the military defense of the American lands. The colonists rejected this idea for two reasons: (1) they were undergoing an economic recession, and (2) they believed it unjust to be taxed unless they had representation in the Parliament. England passed a series of laws that provoked fierce opposition: o The Proclamation Act prohibited English settlement beyond the Appalachian Mountains to appease the Native Americans. o The Sugar Act imposed a tax on foreign molasses, sugar, and other goods imported into the colonies. o The Currency Act prohibited colonial governments from issuing paper money.
Opposition melded in Massachusetts. Leaders denounced “taxation without representation” and a boycott was organized against imported English goods. The movement spread to other colonies rapidly. The Stamp Act placed a tax on newspapers, legal documents, licenses, almanacs and playing cards. This was the first instance of an “internal” tax on the colonies. In response the colonists formed secret groups called “the Sons of Liberty” and staged riots against the agents collecting the taxes and marking items with a special stamp. In October of 1765, representatives of 9 colonies met in the Stamp Act Congress. They drafted resolutions stating their reasons for opposing the act and sent them to England. Merchants throughout the colonies applied pressure with a large boycott of imported English Goods. The Stamp Act was repealed three months later.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
243
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE England then had a dual concern: to generate revenue and to regain control of the colonists. They passed the Townshend Acts in 1767. These acts placed taxes on lead, glass, paint, paper and tea. This led to another very successful boycott of English goods. England responded by limiting the tax to tea. This ended the boycotts of everything except tea. The situation in the colonies between colonists and British troops was becoming increasingly strained. Despite a skirmish in New York and the “Boston Massacre” in 1770, tensions abated over the next few years. The Tea Act of 1773 gave the British East India Company a monopoly on sales of tea. The colonists responded with the “Boston Tea Party. England responded with the “Coercive Acts (called the “Intolerable Acts” by the colonists) in 1774. This closed the port of Boston, changed the charter of the Massachusetts colony, and suppressed town meetings. Eleven colonies sent delegates to the first Continental Congress in 1774. The group issued the “Declaration of Rights and Grievances” which vowed allegiance to the king but protested the right of Parliament to tax the colonies. The boycotts resumed at the same time. Massachusetts mobilized its colonial militia in anticipation of difficulties with England. The British troops attempted to seize their weapons and ammunition. The result was two clashes with “minute men” at Lexington and Concord. The Second Continental Congress met a month later. Many of the delegates recommended a declaration of independence from Britain. The group established an army and commissioned George Washington as its commander. British forces attacked patriot strongholds at Breed’s Hill and Bunker Hill. Although the colonists withdrew, the loss of life for the British was nearly 50% of the army. The next month King George III declared the American colonies to be in a state of rebellion. The war quickly began in earnest. On July 3, 1776, British General Howe arrived in New York harbor with 10,000 troops to prepare for an attack on the city. The following day, the Second Continental Congress accepted the final draft of the Declaration of Independence by unanimous vote. Although the colonial army was quite small in comparison to the British army, and although it was lacking in formal military training, the colonists had learned a new method of warfare from the Indians. To be sure, many battles were fought in the traditional style of two lines of soldiers facing off and firing weapons. But the advantage the patriots had was the understanding of guerilla warfare – fighting from behind trees and other defenses. When the war began, the colonies began to establish state governments. To a significant extent, the government that was defined for the new nation was intentionally weak. The colonies/states feared centralized government. But the lack of continuity between the individual governments was confusing and economically damaging.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
244
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Constitutional Convention in 1787 devised an entirely new form of government and outlined it in the Constitution of the United States. The Constitution was ratified quickly and took effect in 1789. Concerns that had been raised in or by the states regarding civil liberties and states rights led to the immediate adoption of 12 amendments to the constitution, the first 10 known as the Bill of Rights. Skill 10.9
Examine debates over the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution.
The Articles of Confederation outlined the political system under which the newly independent colonies tried to organize themselves. It was passed by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, ratified by the thirteen states, and took effect on March 1, 1781, after over two years of interstate quarrels and debates. The newly independent states were unwilling to give too much power to a national government. They were already fighting Great Britain and feared the prospect of replacing one tyrannical government with another. The role of the newly created federal government was hotly debated. In addition, some states were engaged in border disputes with one another, and used ratification as a lever to resolve these disputes. The Articles formed a loose alliance among the thirteen states. Each state agreed to send delegates to the unicameral Congress, where each delegation was granted one vote. The Articles gave Congress the power to declare war, appoint military officers, and coin money. The Congress was also responsible for foreign affairs. The Articles of Confederation limited the powers of Congress by giving the states final authority. Although Congress could pass laws, at least nine of the thirteen states had to approve a law before it went into effect. Congress could not pass any laws regarding taxes. To get money, Congress had to ask each state for it. No state could be forced to pay, however, as no authority to enforce taxation was granted to Congress. This lack of executive power proved a crucial drawback to the Articles of Confederation. Even after the nation emerged victorious after the Revolutionary War, the adoption of the peace terms drafted in Paris in 1783 was delayed because state delegations to Congress only showed up sporadically. George Washington himself complained that there was no compelling authority to require the states to participate in the federal government. A stronger form of government was needed, and in 1787, a Constitutional Convention approved a Constitution that outlined a robust, authoritative federal government.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
245
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Ratification of the U.S. Constitution was by no means a foregone conclusion. The representative government had powerful opponents, especially those who had seen firsthand the failure of the Articles of Confederation. The strong central government had influential opponents as well, including some of the guiding lights of the American Revolution. Regional differences also came into play. The new Constitution allotted representation based partly on population, giving voters in the South an apparent advantage owing to the large number of non-voting slaves and Native Americans living in the region. A compromise was reached which counted these people at a rate of three-fifths of their actual numbers for the purpose of apportioning Congressional representation in the House of Representatives. Those who wanted to see a strong central government were called Federalists. Among the leaders of the Federalists were Alexander Hamilton and John Jay. These two, along with James Madison, wrote a series of letters to New York newspapers, urging that the people of the state ratify the new Constitution. These essays became known as the Federalist Papers. In the Anti-Federalist camp were Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry. These men and many others like them were worried that a strong national government would descend into the kind of tyranny that they had just worked so hard to abolish. They wrote a series of arguments against the Constitution called the Anti-Federalist Papers. Again, a compromise was reached. If the hold-out states which were worried about the strength of the new government would ratify the constitution, then it was promised that the new Congress would immediately propose a Bill of Rights which placed specific restrictions on the new government. The Constitution and Bill of Rights were ratified in 1789, and have served as the primary document in American history, with several significant amendments, for over 200 years.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
246
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 10.10
Understand politics and government in the new nation.
In regards to the American political system, it is important to realize that political parties are never mentioned in the United States Constitution. In fact, George Washington himself warned against the creation of “factions” in American politics that cause “jealousies and false alarms” and the damage they could cause to the body politic. Thomas Jefferson echoed this warning, yet he would come to lead a party himself. Americans had good reason to fear the emergence of political parties. They had witnessed how parties worked in Great Britain. Parties, called “factions” in Britain, thus Washington’s warning, were made up of a few people who schemed to win favors from the government. They were more interested in their own personal profit and advantage than in the public good. Thus, the new American leaders were very interested in keeping factions from forming. It was, ironically, disagreements between two of Washington’s chief advisors, Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton, that spurred the formation of the first political parties in the newly formed United States of America. The two parties that developed through the early 1790s were led by Jefferson as the Secretary of State and Alexander Hamilton as the Secretary of the Treasury. Jefferson and Hamilton were different in many ways. Not the least was their views on what should be the proper form of government of the United States. This difference helped to shape the parties that formed around them. Hamilton wanted the federal government to be stronger than the state governments. Jefferson believed that the state governments should be stronger. Hamilton supported the creation of the first Bank of the United States, Jefferson opposed it because he felt that it gave too much power to wealthy investors who would help run it. Jefferson interpreted the Constitution strictly; he argued that nowhere did the Constitution give the federal government the power to create a national bank. Hamilton interpreted the Constitution much more loosely. He pointed out that the Constitution gave Congress the power to make all laws “necessary and proper” to carry out its duties. He reasoned that since Congress had the right to collect taxes, then Congress had the right to create the bank. Hamilton wanted the government to encourage economic growth. He favored the growth of trade, manufacturing, and the rise of cities as the necessary parts of economic growth. He favored the business leaders and mistrusted the common people. Jefferson believed that the common people, especially the farmers, were the backbone of the nation. He thought that the rise of big cities and manufacturing would corrupt American life.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
247
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Finally, Hamilton and Jefferson had their disagreements only in private. But when Congress began to pass many of Hamilton’s ideas and programs, Jefferson and his friend, James Madison, decided to organize support for their own views. They moved quietly and very cautiously in the beginning. In 1791, they went to New York telling people that they were going to just study its wildlife. Actually, Jefferson was more interested in meeting with several important New York politicians such as its governor George Clinton and Aaron Burr, a strong critic of Hamilton. Jefferson asked Clinton and Burr to help defeat Hamilton’s program by getting New Yorkers to vote for Jefferson’s supporters in the next election. Before long, leaders in other states began to organize support for either Jefferson or Hamilton. Jefferson’s supporters called themselves DemocraticRepublicans (often this was shortened just to Republicans, though in actuality it was the forerunner of today’s Democratic Party, not the Republican). Hamilton and his supporters were known as Federalists, because they favored a strong federal government. The Federalists had the support of the merchants and ship owners in the Northeast and some planters in the South. Small farmers, craft workers, and some of the wealthier landowners supported Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans. By the time Washington retired from office in 1796, the new political parties would come to play an important role in choosing his successor. Each party would put up its own candidates for office. The election of 1796 was the first one in which political parties played a role. A role that, for better or worse, they have continued to play in various forms for all of American history. By the beginning of the 1800s, the Federalist Party, torn by internal divisions, began suffering a decline. The election in 1800 of Thomas Jefferson as President, Hamilton’s bitter rival, and after its leader Alexander Hamilton was killed in 1804 in a duel with Aaron Burr, the Federalist Party began to collapse. By 1816, after losing a string of important elections, (Jefferson was reelected in 1804, and James Madison, a Democratic-Republican was elected in 1808), the Federalist Party ceased to be an effective political force, and soon passed off the national stage. By the late 1820s, new political parties had grown up. The DemocraticRepublican Party, or simply the Republican Party, had been the major party for many years, but differences within it about the direction the country was headed in caused a split after 1824. Those who favored strong national growth took the name Whigs after a similar party in Great Britain and united around then President John Quincy Adams. Many business people in the Northeast as well as some wealthy planters in the South supported it. Those who favored slower growth and were more worker and small farmer oriented went on to form the new Democratic Party, with Andrew Jackson being its first leader as well as becoming the first President from it. It is the forerunner of today’s present party of the same name.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
248
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In the mid-1850s, the slavery issue was beginning to heat up and in 1854, those opposed to slavery, the Whigs, and some Northern Democrats opposed to slavery, united to form the Republican Party. Before the Civil War, the Democratic Party was more heavily represented in the South and was thus proslavery for the most part. Thus, by the time of the Civil War, the present form of the major political parties had been formed. Though there would sometimes be drastic changes in ideology and platforms over the years, no other political parties would manage to gain enough strength to seriously challenge the “Big Two” parties. In fact, they have shown themselves adaptable to changing times. In many instances, they have managed to shut out other parties by simply adapting their platforms, such as in the 1930s during the Great Depression and in the years immediately preceding it. The Democratic Party adapted much of the Socialist Party platform and, under Franklin Roosevelt, put much of it into effect thus managing to eliminate it as any serious threat. Since the Civil War, no other political party has managed to gain enough support to either elect substantial members to Congress or elect a President. Some have come closer than others, but barring any unforeseen circumstances, the absolute monopoly on national political debate seems very secure in the hands of the Republican and Democratic parties. Time will tell if this is to remain so. For history and political science both teach us that the American people are quite willing to change their support from one area or group to another, especially if it means a better way of doing things or will give them more opportunity and freedoms. As conservative as some might think Americans have become, there has always been and always will be something of the revolutionary spirit about them. Skill 10.11
Have knowledge of expansion and conflict in the early Republic.
Regionalism can be defined as the political division of an area into partially autonomous regions or to loyalty to the interests of a particular region. Sectionalism is generally defined as excessive devotion to local interests and customs. When the United States declared independence from England, the founding fathers created a political point of view that created a national unity while respecting the uniqueness and individual rights of each of the thirteen colonies or states. The colonies had been populated and governed by England and other countries. Some came to America in search of religious freedom, others for a fresh start, and others for economic opportunity. Each colony had a particular culture and identity.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
249
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE As the young nation grew, territories came to be defined as states. The states began to acquire their own particular cultures and identities. In time regional interests and cultures also began to take shape. Religious interests, economic life, and geography began to be understood as definitive of particular regions. The northeast tended toward industrial development. The south tended to rely upon agriculture. The west was an area of untamed open spaces where people settled and practiced agriculture and animal husbandry. Each of these regions came to be defined, at least to some extent, on the basis of the way people made their living and the economic and social institutions that supported them. In the industrialized north, the factory system tended to create a division between the tycoons of business and industry and the poor industrial workers. The conditions in which the labor force worked were far from ideal – the hours were long, the conditions bad, and the pay was small. The South was characterized by cities that were centers of social and commercial life. The agriculture that supported the region was practiced on “plantations” that were owned by the wealthy and worked by slaves or indentured servants. The West was a vast expanse to be explored and tamed. Life on a western ranch was distinctly different from either life in the industrial north or the agricultural south. The challenges of each region were also distinctly different. The role of children in the economy was different; the role of women was different; the importance of trade was different. And religion was called upon to support each unique regional lifestyle. The regional differences between North and South came to a head over the issue of slavery. The rise of the abolitionist movement in the North, the publication of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, and issues of trade and efforts by the national government to control trade for the regions coalesced around the issue of slavery in a nation that was founded on the principle of the inalienable right of every person to be free. As the South defended its lifestyle and its economy and the right of the states to be self-determining, the North became stronger in its criticism of slavery. The result was a growing sectionalism. As the nation extended its borders into the lands west of the Mississippi, thousands of settlers streamed into this part of the country bringing with them ideas and concepts adapting them to the development of the unique characteristics of the region. Equality for everyone, as stated in the Declaration of Independence, did not yet apply to minority groups, black Americans or American Indians. Voting rights and the right to hold public office were restricted in varying degrees in each state. All of these factors decidedly affected the political, economic, and social life of the country and all three were focused in the attitudes of the three sections of the country on slavery.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
250
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In the United States, territorial expansion occurred in the expansion westward under the banner of "Manifest Destiny." In addition, the U.S. was involved in the War with Mexico, the Spanish-American War, and support of the Latin American colonies of Spain in their revolt for independence. In Latin America, the Spanish colonies were successful in their fight for independence and selfgovernment After the U.S. purchased the Louisiana Territory, Jefferson appointed Captains Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore it, to find out exactly what had been bought. The expedition went all the way to the Pacific Ocean, returning two years later with maps, journals, and artifacts. This led the way for future explorers to make available more knowledge about the territory and resulted in the Westward Movement and the later belief in the doctrine of Manifest Destiny. It was the belief of many that the United States was destined to control all of the land between the two oceans or as one newspaper editor termed it, "Manifest Destiny." This mass migration westward put the U.S. government on a collision course with the Indians, Great Britain, Spain, and Mexico. The fur traders and missionaries ran up against the Indians in the northwest and the claims of Great Britain for the Oregon country. The U.S. and Britain had shared the Oregon country. By the 1840s, with the increase in the free and slave populations and the demand of the settlers for control and government by the U.S., the conflict had to be resolved. In a treaty, signed in 1846, by both nations, a peaceful resolution occurred with Britain giving up its claims south of the 49th parallel. In the American southwest, the results were exactly the opposite. Spain had claimed this area since the 1540s, had spread northward from Mexico City, and, in the 1700s, had established missions, forts, villages, towns, and very large ranches. After the purchase of the Louisiana Territory in 1803, Americans began moving into Spanish territory. A few hundred American families in what is now Texas were allowed to live there but had to agree to become loyal subjects to Spain. In 1821, Mexico successfully revolted against Spanish rule, won independence, and chose to be more tolerant towards the American settlers and traders. The Mexican government encouraged and allowed extensive trade and settlement, especially in Texas. Many of the new settlers were southerners and brought with them their slaves. Slavery was outlawed in Mexico and technically illegal in Texas, although the Mexican government rather looked the other way.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
251
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Friction increased between land-hungry Americans swarming into western lands and the Mexican government, which controlled these lands. The clash was not only political but also cultural and economic. The Spanish influence permeated all parts of southwestern life: law, language, architecture, and customs. By this time, the doctrine of Manifest Destiny was in the hearts and on the lips of those seeking new areas of settlement and a new life. Americans were demanding U.S. control of not only the Mexican Territory but also Oregon. Peaceful negotiations with Great Britain secured Oregon but it took two years of war to gain control of the southwestern U.S. In addition, the Mexican government owed debts to U.S. citizens whose property was damaged or destroyed during its struggle for independence from Spain. By the time war broke out in 1845, Mexico had not paid its war debts. The government was weak, corrupt, irresponsible, tom by revolutions, and not in decent financial shape. Mexico was also bitter over American expansion into Texas and the 1836 revolution, which resulted in Texas independence. In the 1844 Presidential Election, the Democrats pushed for annexation of Texas and Oregon and after winning, they started the procedure to admit Texas to the Union. When statehood occurred, diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Mexico was ended. President Polk wanted U.S. control of the entire southwest, from Texas to the Pacific Ocean. He sent a diplomatic mission with an offer to purchase New Mexico and Upper California but the Mexican government refused to even receive the diplomat. Consequently, in 1846, each nation claimed aggression on the part of the other and war was declared. The treaty signed in 1848 and a subsequent one in 1853 completed the southwestern boundary of the United States, reaching to the Pacific Ocean, as President Polk wished. With the influx of so many Americans and the liberal policies of the Mexican government, there came to be concern over the possible growth and development of an American state within Mexico. Settlement restrictions, cancellation of land grants, the forbidding of slavery and increased military activity brought everything to a head. The order of events included the fight for Texas independence, the brief Republic of Texas, eventual annexation of Texas, statehood, and finally war with Mexico. The Texas controversy was not the sole reason for war. Since American settlers had begun, pouring into the Southwest the cultural differences played a prominent part. Language, religion, law, customs, and government were totally different and opposite between the two groups. A clash was bound to occur. The impact of the entire westward movement resulted in the completion of the borders of the present-day conterminous United States. Contributing factors include the bloody war with Mexico, the ever-growing controversy over slave versus free states affecting the balance of power or influence in the U.S. Congress, especially the Senate and finally to the Civil War itself.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
252
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 11.0 UNDERSTAND MAJOR POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, CULTURAL, AND DIPLOMATIC DEVELOPMENTS IN U.S. SOCIETY FROM 1815 THROUGH THE CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION Skill 11.1
Understand Jacksonian democracy and the rise of popular politics.
The election of Andrew Jackson as President signaled a swing of the political pendulum from government influence of the wealthy, aristocratic Easterners to the interests of the Western farmers and pioneers and the era of the "common man." Jacksonian democracy was a policy of equal political power for all. After the War of 1812, Henry Clay and supporters favored economic measures that came to be known as the American System. This involved tariffs protecting American farmers and manufacturers from having to compete with foreign products, stimulating industrial growth and employment. With more people working, more farm products would be consumed, prosperous farmers would be able to buy more manufactured goods, and the additional monies from tariffs would make it possible for the government to make the needed internal improvements. To get this going, in 1816, Congress not only passed a high tariff, but also chartered a second Bank of the United States. Upon becoming President, Jackson fought to get rid of the bank. One of the many duties of the bank was to regulate the supply of money for the nation. The President believed that the bank was a monopoly that favored the wealthy. Congress voted in 1832 to renew the bank's charter but Jackson vetoed the bill, withdrew the government's money, and the bank finally collapsed. Jackson also faced the "null and void," or nullification issue from South Carolina. Congress, in 1828, passed a law placing high tariffs on goods imported into the United States. Southerners, led by South Carolina's then Vice-President of the United States, John C. Calhoun, felt that the tariff favored the manufacturing interests of New England. Calhoun denounced it as an abomination, and claimed that any state could nullify any of the federal laws it considered unconstitutional.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
253
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 11.2
Examine social and political change in antebellum America.
As the young nation grew, territories came to be defined as states. The states began to acquire their own particular cultures and identities. In time regional interests and cultures also began to take shape. Religious interests, economic life, and geography began to be understood as definitive of particular regions. The northeast tended toward industrial development. The south tended to rely upon agriculture. The west was an area of untamed open spaces where people settled and practiced agriculture and animal husbandry. Each of these regions came to be defined, at least to some extent, on the basis of the way people made their living and the economic and social institutions that supported them. In the industrialized north, the factory system tended to create a division between the tycoons of business and industry and the poor industrial workers. The conditions in which the labor force worked were far from ideal – the hours were long, the conditions bad, and the pay was small. The South was characterized by cities that were centers of social and commercial life. The agriculture that supported the region was practiced on “plantations” that were owned by the wealthy and worked by slaves or indentured servants. The West was a vast expanse to be explored and tamed. Life on a western ranch was distinctly different from either life in the industrial north or the agricultural south. The challenges of each region were also distinctly different. The role of children in the economy was different; the role of women was different; the importance of trade was different. And religion was called upon to support each unique regional lifestyle.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
254
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 11.3
Understand developments in transportation and industry.
Westward expansion occurred for a number of reasons, most important being economic. Cotton had become most important to most of the people who lived in the southern states. The effects of the Industrial Revolution, which began in England, were now being felt in the United States. With the invention of powerdriven machines, the demand for cotton fiber greatly increased for the yarn needed in spinning and weaving. Eli Whitney's cotton gin made the separation of the seeds from the cotton much more efficient and faster. This, in turn, increased the demand and more and more farmers became involved in the raising and selling of cotton. The innovations and developments of better methods of long-distance transportation moved the cotton in greater quantities to textile mills in England as well as the areas of New England and Middle Atlantic States in the U.S. As prices increased along with increased demand, southern farmers began expanding by clearing increasingly more land to grow more cotton. Movement, settlement, and farming headed west to utilize the fertile soils. This, in turn, demanded increased need for a large supply of cheap labor. The system of slavery expanded, both in numbers and in the movement to lands "west" of the South. Robert Fulton's "Clermont," the first commercially successful steamboat, led the way in the fastest way to ship goods, making it the most important way to do so. Later, steam-powered railroads soon became the biggest rival of the steamboat as a means of shipping, eventually being the most important transportation method opening the West. With expansion into the interior of the country, the United States became the leading agricultural nation in the world. The hardy pioneer farmers produced a vast surplus and emphasis went to producing products with a high-sale value, implements as the cotton gin and reaper aided in this. Travel and shipping were greatly assisted in areas not yet touched by railroad or, by improved or new roads, such as the National Road in the East and in the West the Oregon and Santa Fe Trails. More industries and factories required more and more labor. Women, children, and, at times, entire families worked the long hours and days, until the 1830s. By that time, the factories were getting even larger and employers began hiring immigrants who were coming to America in huge numbers. Before then, efforts were made to organize a labor movement to improve working conditions and increase wages. It never really caught on until after the Civil War, but the seed had been sown.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
255
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE There was a marked degree of industrialization before and during the Civil War, but at war's end, industry in America was small. After the war, dramatic changes took place. Machines replaced hand labor, extensive nationwide railroad service made possible the wider distribution of goods, invention of new products made available in large quantities, and large amounts of money from bankers and investors for expansion of business operations. American life was definitely affected by this phenomenal industrial growth. Cities became the centers of this new business activity resulting in mass population movements there and tremendous growth. This new boom in business resulted in huge fortunes for some Americans and extreme poverty for many others. The discontent this caused resulted in a number of new reform movements from which came measures controlling the power and size of big business and helping the poor. The use of machines in industry enabled workers to produce a large quantity of goods much faster than by hand. With the increase in business, hundreds of workers were hired, assigned to perform a certain job in the production process. This was a method of organization called "division of labor" and by its increasing the rate of production, businesses lowered prices for their products making the products affordable for more people. As a result, sales and businesses were increasingly successful and profitable. A great variety of new products or inventions became available such as: the typewriter, the telephone, barbed wire, the electric light, the phonograph, and the gasoline automobile. From this list, the one that had the greatest effect on America's economy was the automobile. The increase in business and industry was greatly affected by the many rich natural resources that were found throughout the nation. The industrial machines were powered by the abundant water supply. The construction industry as well as products made from wood depended heavily on lumber from the forests. Coal and iron ore in abundance were needed for the steel industry, which profited and increased from the use of steel in such things as skyscrapers, automobiles, bridges, railroad tracks, and machines. Other minerals such as silver, copper, and petroleum played a large role in industrial growth, especially petroleum, from which gasoline was refined as fuel for the increasingly popular automobile. Airplanes travel the fastest of any mode of transportation on the planet. They can reduce days long trips to hours long adventures, resulting in not only shorter tourist trips but also shorter trade trips, meaning that goods (especially perishable foods) can travel farther and wider than ever before. Being able to ship goods quickly and efficiently means that businesses can do business overseas much more than they ever could.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
256
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Trucks, trains, and ships carry cargo all over the world. Trains travel faster than ever, as do ships. Roads are more prevalent and usually in better repair than they have ever been, making truck and even car travel not the dead-end option that it once was. With all of this capability has come increasing demand. People traditionally had acquired their goods using their own means or from traders who lived nearby. As technology improved, trade routes became longer and demand for goods from overseas grew. This demand feeds the economic imperative of creating more supply, and vice versa. As more people discovered goods from overseas, the demand for those foreign goods increased. In more recent times, new technologies have made production faster, easier, and more efficient. People found their skills and their abilities replaced by machines that were faster and more accurate. To some degree, machines and humans have entered an age of competition. Yet these advances have facilitated greater control over nature, lightened the burden of labor, and extended human life span. These advances in science, knowledge and technology have also called into question many of the assumptions and beliefs that have provided meaning for human existence. The myths that provided meaning in the past have been exposed and there are no new structures of belief to replace them. Without the foundational belief structures that have given meaning to life, an emptiness and aimlessness has arisen. Technology and science have extended life and made life easier. They have provided power and knowledge, but not the wisdom to know how to use it effectively. The extraordinary advances in science and technology opened new frontiers and pushed back an ever-growing number of boundaries. These influences have had a profound effect in shaping modern civilization. Each discovery or machine or insight built upon other new discoveries or insights or machines. By the twentieth century the rate of discovery and invention became literally uncontrollable. The results have, in many cases, been beneficial. But others have been horrifying. Advances in biology and medicine have decreased infant mortality and increased life expectancy dramatically. Antibiotics and new surgical techniques have saved countless lives. Inoculations have essentially erased many dreadful diseases. Yet others have resulted from the careless disposal of by-products and the effects of industrialization upon the environment and the individual. Tremendous progress in communication and transportation has tied all parts of the earth and drawn them closer. There are still vast areas of the former Soviet Union that have unproductive land, extreme poverty, food shortages, rampant diseases, violent friction between cultures, the ever-present nuclear threat, environmental pollution, rapid reduction of natural resources, urban overcrowding, acceleration in global terrorism and violent crimes, and a diminishing middle class.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
257
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE New technologies have changed the way of life for many. This is the computer age and in many places, computers are even in the grade schools. Technology makes the world seem a much smaller place. Even children have cell phones today. The existence of television and modern technology has us watching a war while it is in progress. Outsourcing is now popular because of technological advances. Call centers for European, American and other large countries are now located in India, Pakistan, etc. Multinational corporations located plants in foreign countries to lower costs. In many places technology has resulted in a mobile population. Popular culture has been shaped by mass production and the mass media. Mass production and technology has made electronic goods affordable to most. This is the day of the cell phone and the PDA. The Internet and email allow people anywhere in the world to be in touch and allows people to learn about world events. In the industrial countries and in many others, the popular culture is oriented towards the electronic era. Skill 11.4
Understand differences between the northern and southern economic systems.
By 1815, the Industrial Revolution had fully reached the United States, and the largely urban northern section of the country gained the most advantage. The northern coastal regions were never blessed with large agricultural areas, and industry took hold in the urban centers, primarily in the production of cotton and woolen cloth, shoes, and machinery. With the development of industry came capital and banking, and northern cities like New York became centers of investment and trade. Labor in the growing industrial centers was supplied mainly by European immigrants. By contrast, the South was still largely rural and relied on agriculture supported by slave labor. Cotton and tobacco were the mainstays of the southern economy, which relied on the North for capital and manufactured goods, as well as a market for its raw materials. The southern system, reliant upon slavery as it was, also required significant political influence to protect the institution from northern anti-slavery interests. The south had enjoyed a prominent presence in the federal government during the decades since independence. The industrial North was gaining in political activity, however, and in 1856 the Republican Party was founded to represent northern economic interests. The Republican presidential candidate in 1860 was Abraham Lincoln, who would preside over the coming Civil War, in which the agrarian southern economy was devastated by war and the loss of its supply of slave labor. The war would also prove a boon to northern industry during and after the fighting. .
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
258
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 11.5
Examine Irish immigration and nativist hostility.
The Irish Famine of 1845-1849 is alternately referred to as the Irish Potato Famine, The Great Famine or the Great Hunger. The immediate cause of the famine was the appearance of “the blight.” This was the destruction of the potato crops due to a fungus. The potato was the primary food source for much of the population of Ireland at the time. Deaths were not officially recorded, but are believed to be in the 500,000 to 1,000,000 range during the five years from 1846 to 1851. Although estimates vary, the number of people who emigrated from Ireland is in the neighborhood of two million. The famine was more than potato blight. It was the culmination of a biological, political, social and economic catastrophe that can be attributed to contributing factors on the parts of both the British and the Irish. The famine essentially changed Irish culture and tradition forever. The food value of the potato made it the single staple in the Irish food system. British laws (the Popery Act) prohibited Irish Catholics from passing family landholdings to a single son. This meant that land was subdivided among the male descendents in the family. The number of surviving male heirs was increasing, combining with the opportunity to own land, this led to sons marrying earlier and producing large families. With the legal restrictions on inheritance of land, this eventually meant that at the time when family size was increasing, the size of the land available to them was decreasing. Ireland’s economic/social vehicle for assistance to the poor was inadequate to meet the needs of the starving thousands. The program was funded by taxes charged to landholders on the basis of the number of tenants on the estate. As poverty and starvation increased, so did the financial need. This resulted in increasing tax rates on the landholders. To remain solvent, many landowners evicted tenants in an effort to reduce the tax bill. But this left more people poor and in need of assistance, which led to another increase in tax rates. In an effort to find an escape route from this vicious circle, some landowners paid passage to other countries rather than evict tenants. The ships on which they took passage came to be called “coffin ships.” Many of these emigrants died during the voyage to North America. Many of the landowners who attempted to care for their tenants went bankrupt in the process. Ten percent of the estates were bankrupt by 1850. There were many charitable donations from around the world, but they were not adequate to solve such a large problem. The responses of those leading the government of the United Kingdom were completely inadequate. It is believed that in 1851 the actual population of Ireland was 6.6 million. By 1911, it was only 4.4 million. The Irish who emigrated to the U.S. for the most part became residents of cities. With no money, they were forced to remain in the port cities at which they arrived. By 1850, the Irish accounted for a quarter of the population of Boston, New York City, Philadelphia and Baltimore.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
259
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 11.6
Identify key events and issues related to westward migration.
After the purchase of the Louisiana Territory in 1803, Americans began moving into Spanish territory. A few hundred American families in what is now Texas were allowed to live there but had to agree to become loyal subjects to Spain. In 1821, Mexico successfully revolted against Spanish rule, won independence, and chose to be more tolerant towards the American settlers and traders. The Mexican government encouraged and allowed extensive trade and settlement, especially in Texas. Many of the new settlers were southerners and brought with them their slaves. Slavery was outlawed in Mexico and technically illegal in Texas, although the Mexican government rather looked the other way. Friction increased between land-hungry Americans swarming into western lands and the Mexican government, which controlled these lands. The clash was not only political but also cultural and economic. The Spanish influence permeated all parts of southwestern life: law, language, architecture, and customs. By this time, the doctrine of Manifest Destiny was in the hearts and on the lips of those seeking new areas of settlement and a new life. Americans were demanding U.S. control of not only the Mexican Territory but also Oregon. Peaceful negotiations with Great Britain secured Oregon but it took two years of war to gain control of the southwestern U.S. In addition, the Mexican government owed debts to U.S. citizens whose property was damaged or destroyed during its struggle for independence from Spain. By the time war broke out in 1845, Mexico had not paid its war debts. The government was weak, corrupt, irresponsible, tom by revolutions, and not in decent financial shape. Mexico was also bitter over American expansion into Texas and the 1836 revolution, which resulted in Texas independence. In the 1844 Presidential election, the Democrats pushed for annexation of Texas and Oregon and after winning, they started the procedure to admit Texas to the Union. When statehood occurred, diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Mexico was ended. President Polk wanted U.S. control of the entire southwest, from Texas to the Pacific Ocean. He sent a diplomatic mission with an offer to purchase New Mexico and Upper California but the Mexican government refused to even receive the diplomat. Consequently, in 1846, each nation claimed aggression on the part of the other and war was declared. The treaty signed in 1848 and a subsequent one in 1853 completed the southwestern boundary of the United States, reaching to the Pacific Ocean, as President Polk wished.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
260
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE With the influx of so many Americans and the liberal policies of the Mexican government, there came to be concern over the possible growth and development of an American state within Mexico. Settlement restrictions, cancellation of land grants, the forbidding of slavery and increased military activity brought everything to a head. The order of events included the fight for Texas independence, the brief Republic of Texas, eventual annexation of Texas, statehood, and finally war with Mexico. The Texas controversy was not the sole reason for war. Since American settlers had begun, pouring into the Southwest the cultural differences played a prominent part. Language, religion, law, customs, and government were totally different and opposite between the two groups. A clash was bound to occur. The impact of the entire westward movement resulted in the completion of the borders of the present-day conterminous United States. Contributing factors include the bloody war with Mexico, the ever-growing controversy over slave versus free states affecting the balance of power or influence in the U.S. Congress, especially the Senate and finally to the Civil War itself. Skill 11.7
Have knowledge of slave life and resistance in the American South.
While conditions for slaves varied widely, all were considered property that could be bought, sold or traded at the pleasure of the owner. Living conditions might vary from the crudest shelter for slaves who worked in the agricultural fields to relative comfort for those who worked as servants in large plantation houses. Physical punishment could be legally inflicted on disobedient or runaway slaves, and it was sometimes severe. Slaves could be whipped or even have body parts amputated in punishment. As legal property, slaves received very limited protection under the law. They were not allowed to vote. Slaves that could escape to non-slave states could find freedom, but rewards could be placed on their heads by their owners, and they could be returned to face severe punishment. The sometimes deplorable living conditions and the general condition of servitude led to occasional organized revolts by slaves. Small uprisings took place throughout the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, none of them leading to the widespread freedom for which they had aimed. Gabriel's Rebellion was a plot in 1800 by a Virginia slave named Gabriel to free the slaves of the state. Gabriel and his conspirators intended to make their way to the capital, Richmond, and take Governor James Monroe captive until an end to slavery could be negotiated. The government got word of the plans before they could be carried out, however, and took Gabriel and his followers into custody. Gabriel was tried and hanged.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
261
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In 1822, former slave and freeman Denmark Vesey planned a similar uprising to take over the city of Charleston, South Carolina. His plans were leaked, however, and he and 130 others were arrested and tried. Vesey and 34 of his alleged followers were convicted and hanged. Nat Turner's Rebellion took place in 1831 in Virginia, and was the most significant slave revolt in terms of its strength and subsequent effect on the culture. Turner was a self-taught, charismatic slave who convinced several other slaves and free blacks to join him in revolt against white Virginian slave owners. In a gruesome two-day raid, Turner and some 50 others killed dozens of whites, including children. The revolt was stopped by a Virginia militia within 48 hours, but Turner escaped and evaded capture for several months. Once caught, he was quickly tried, convicted and executed. As a result of Turner's revolt, the Virginia legislature hardened its stance on slavery. The revolt was held up by abolitionists as an example of the extreme desperation and dehumanizing that the condition of slavery was capable of producing. In 1859, white abolitionist John Brown and his followers seized the federal arsenal at Harper’s Ferry in what is now West Virginia. His purpose was to take the guns stored in the arsenal, give them to slaves nearby, and lead them in a widespread rebellion. He and his men were captured and after a trial with a guilty verdict, he was hanged. Brown became a rallying point for northern abolitionists and a symbol for northern aggression in the South. John Brown's raid and subsequent execution were just over a year before the start of the Civil War, and served to further alienate the two regions of the country during their eventual descent into war. Skill 11.8
Identify issues and events leading to the secession crisis.
The doctrine of nullification states that the states have the right to “nullify” – declare invalid – any act of Congress they believed to be unjust or unconstitutional. The nullification crisis of the mid-nineteenth century climaxed over a new tariff on imported manufactured goods that was enacted by the Congress in 1828. While this tariff protected the manufacturing and industrial interests of the North, it placed an additional burden of cost on the South, which was only affected by the tariff as consumers of manufactured goods. The north had become increasingly economically dependent on industry and manufacturing, while the south had become increasingly agricultural. Despite the fact that the tariff was primarily intended to protect Northern manufacturing interests in the face of imports from other countries, the effect on the south was to simply raise the prices of needed goods.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
262
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE This issue of disagreement reached its climax when John C. Calhoun, Jackson’s vice president, led South Carolina to adopt the Ordinance of Nullification which declared the tariff null and void within state borders. Although this issue came to the brink of military action, it was resolved by the enactment of a new tariff in 1832. The question of a state’s right to nullify any law of the nation which was contrary to local interests was based on the assumption that the United States was a union of independent commonwealths, and that the general government was merely their agent. This was the Southern view. The North, however, assumed the Federal government to be supreme and that the Union was inseparable. When economic issues and the issue of slavery came to a head, the North declared slavery illegal. The South acted on the principles of the doctrine of nullification, declared the new laws null, and acted upon their presumed right as states to secede from the union and form their own government. The North saw secession as a violation of the national unity and contract Skill 11.9
Identify significant leaders, turning points, and consequences of the Civil War, North and South.
The war strategies for both sides were relatively clear and simple. The South planned a defensive war, wearing down the North until it agreed to peace on Southern terms. The only exception was to gain control of Washington, D.C., go north through the Shenandoah Valley into Maryland and Pennsylvania in order to drive a wedge between the Northeast and mid-West, interrupt the lines of communication, and end the war quickly. The North had three basic strategies: 1. blockade the Confederate coastline in order to cripple the South; 2. seize control of the Mississippi River and interior railroad lines to split the Confederacy in two; 3. seize the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, driving southward joining up with Union forces coming east from the Mississippi Valley.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
263
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The South won decisively until the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1 - 3, 1863. Until Gettysburg, Lincoln's commanders, McDowell and McClellan, were less than desirable, Burnside and Hooker, not what was needed. Lee, on the other hand, had many able officers, Jackson and Stuart depended on heavily by him. Jackson died at ChancellorsviIle and was replaced by Longstreet. Lee decided to invade the North and depended on J.E.B. Stuart and his cavalry to keep him informed of the location of Union troops and their strengths. Four things worked against Lee at Gettysburg: 1)
The Union troops gained the best positions and the best ground first, making it easier to make a stand there.
2)
Lee's move into Northern territory put him and his army a long way from food and supply lines. They were more or less on their own.
3)
Lee thought that his Army of Northern Virginia was invincible and could fight and win under any conditions or circumstances.
4)
Stuart and his men did not arrive at Gettysburg until the end of the second day of fighting and by then, it was too little too late. He and the men had had to detour around Union soldiers and he was delayed getting the information Lee needed.
Consequently, he made the mistake of failing to listen to Longstreet and following the strategy of regrouping back into Southern territory to the supply lines. Lee felt that regrouping was retreating and almost an admission of defeat. He was convinced the army would be victorious. Longstreet was concerned about the Union troops occupying the best positions and felt that regrouping to a better position would be an advantage. He was also very concerned about the distance from supply lines. It was not the intention of either side to fight there, but the fighting began when a Confederate brigade, who was looking for shoes, stumbled into a Union cavalry unit. The third and last day Lee launched the final attempt to break Union lines. General George Pickett sent his division of three brigades under Generals Garnet, Kemper, and Armistead against Union troops on Cemetery Ridge under command of General Winfield Scott Hancock. Union lines held and Lee and the defeated Army of Northern Virginia made their way back to Virginia. Although Lincoln's commander George Meade successfully turned back a Confederate charge, he and the Union troops failed to pursue Lee and the Confederates. This battle was the turning point for the North. After this, Lee never again had the troop strength to launch a major offensive.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
264
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The day after Gettysburg, on July 4, Vicksburg, Mississippi surrendered to Union General Ulysses Grant, thus severing the western Confederacy from the eastern part. In September 1863, the Confederacy won its last important victory at Chickamauga. In November, the Union victory at Chattanooga made it possible for Union troops to go into Alabama and Georgia, splitting the eastern Confederacy in two. Lincoln gave Grant command of all Northern armies in March of 1864. Grant led his armies into battles in Virginia while Phil Sheridan and his cavalry did as much damage as possible. In a skirmish at a place called Yellow Tavern, Virginia, Sheridan's and Stuart's forces met, with Stuart being fatally wounded. The Union won the Battle of Mobile Bay and in May 1864, William Tecumseh Sherman began his march to successfully demolish Atlanta, then on to Savannah. He and his troops turned northward through the Carolinas to Grant in Virginia. On April 9, 1865, Lee formally surrendered to Grant at Appamattox Courthouse, Virginia. The Civil War took more American lives than any other war in history, the South losing one-third of its’ soldiers in battle compared to about one-sixth for the North. More than half of the total deaths were caused by disease and the horrendous conditions of field hospitals. Both sides paid a tremendous economic price but the South suffered more severely from direct damages. Destruction was pervasive with towns, farms, trade, industry, lives and homes of men, women, children all destroyed and an entire Southern way of life was lost. The South had no voice in the political, social, and cultural affairs of the nation, lessening to a great degree the influence of the more traditional Southern ideals. The Northern Yankee Protestant ideals of hard work, education, and economic freedom became the standard of the United States and helped influence the development of the nation into a modem, industrial power. The effects of the Civil War were tremendous. It changed the methods of waging war and has been called the first modern war. It introduced weapons and tactics that, when improved later, were used extensively in wars of the late 1800s and 1900s. Civil War soldiers were the first to fight in trenches, first to fight under a unified command, first to wage a defense called "major cordon defense", a strategy of advance on all fronts. They were also the first to use repeating and breech loading weapons. Observation balloons were first used during the war along with submarines, ironclad ships, and mines. Telegraphy and railroads were put to use first in the Civil War. It was considered a modern war because of the vast destruction and was "total war", involving the use of all resources of the opposing sides. There was no way it could have ended other than total defeat and unconditional surrender of one side or the other.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
265
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 11.10
Identify achievements and failures of Reconstruction.
Following the Civil War, the nation was faced with repairing the torn Union and readmitting the Confederate states. Reconstruction refers to this period between 1865 and 1877 when the federal and state governments debated and implemented plans to provide civil rights to freed slaves and to set the terms under which the former Confederate states might once again join the Union. Planning for Reconstruction began early in the war, in 1861. Abraham Lincoln's Republican Party in Washington favored the extension of voting rights to black men, but was divided as to how far to extend the right. Moderates, such as Lincoln, wanted only literate blacks and those who had fought for the Union to be allowed to vote. Radical Republicans wanted to extend the vote to all black men. Conservative Democrats did not want to give black men the vote at all. In the case of former Confederate soldiers, moderates wanted to allow all but former leaders to vote, while the radicals wanted to require an oath from all eligible voters that they had never borne arms against the US, which would have excluded all former rebels. On the issue of readmission into the Union, moderates favored a much lower standard, with the radicals demanding nearly impossible conditions for rebel states to return. Lincoln's moderate plan for Reconstruction was actually part of his effort to win the war. Lincoln and the moderates felt that if it remained easy for states to return to the Union, and if moderate proposals on black suffrage were made, that Confederate states involved in the hostilities might be swayed to re-join the Union rather than continue fighting. The radical plan was to ensure that reconstruction did not actually start until after the war was over. In 1863 Abraham Lincoln was assassinated leaving his Vice President Andrew Johnson to oversee the beginning of the actual implementation of Reconstruction. Johnson struck a moderate pose, and was willing to allow former confederates to keep control of their state governments. These governments quickly enacted Black Codes that denied the vote to blacks and granted them only limited civil rights. The radical Republicans in Congress responded to the Black Codes by continuing their hard line on allowing former rebel states back into the Union. In addition, they sought to override the Black Codes by granting US Citizenship to blacks by passing a civil rights bill. Johnson, supported by Democrats, vetoed the bill, but Congress had the necessary votes to override it, and the bill became law.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
266
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In 1866, the radical Republicans won control of Congress and passed the Reconstruction Acts, which placed the governments of the southern states under the control of the federal military. With this backing, the Republicans began to implement their radical policies such as granting all black men the vote, and denying the vote to former confederate soldiers. Congress had passed the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments granting citizenship and civil rights to blacks, and made ratification of these amendments a condition of readmission into the Union by the rebel states. The Republicans found support in the south among Freedmen, as former slaves were called, white southerners who had not supported the Confederacy, called Scalawags, and northerners who had moved to the south, known as Carpetbaggers. Military control continued throughout Grant’s administration, despite growing conflict both inside and outside the Republican Party. Conservatives in Congress and in the states opposed the liberal policies of the Republicans. Some Republicans became concerned over corruption issues among Grant's appointees and dropped support for him. Under President Rutherford B. Hayes, the federal troops were removed from the south. Without this support, the Republican governments were replaced by socalled Redeemer governments, who promised the restoration of the vote those whites who had been denied it and limitations on civil rights for blacks. The rise of the Redeemer governments marked the beginning of the Jim Crow laws and official segregation. Blacks were still allowed to vote, but ways were found to make it difficult for them to do so, such as literacy tests and poll taxes. Reconstruction, which had set as its goal the reunification of the south with the north and the granting of civil rights to freed slaves was a limited success, at best, and in the eyes of blacks was considered a failure. Federal troops were stationed throughout the South and protected Republicans who took control of Southern governments. Bitterly resentful, white Southerners fought the new political system by joining a secret society called the Ku Klux Klan, using violence to keep black Americans from voting and getting equality. However, before being allowed to rejoin the Union, the Confederate states were required to agree to all federal laws. Between 1866 and 1870, all of them had returned to the Union, but Northern interest in Reconstruction was fading. Reconstruction officially ended when the last Federal troops left the South in 1877. It can be said that Reconstruction had a limited success as it set up public school systems and expanded legal rights of black Americans. Nevertheless, white supremacy came to be in control again and its bitter fruitage is still with us today.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
267
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 11.11
Have knowledge of the Compromise of 1877.
The Compromise of 1877 was a series of agreements between Congressional Republicans and Democrats concerning the contested presidential election of 1876 and role of the federal government in Reconstruction in the South. Samuel Tilden, a Democrat, and Rutherford Hayes, a Republican, had run very close in the 1876 election. Tilden had apparently won the popular vote, but the votes in four states were contested, tying up 20 electoral votes. With no precedent for resolving contested elections, Congress appointed a commission to make a decision. The commission, made up of an equal number of Republicans and Democrats, awarded the contested votes to Hayes. The Democrats were unhappy with the decision, however, and threatened to filibuster the report of the commission thereby preventing any final action by Congress. To prevent the filibuster, the Republicans agreed to several concessions demanded by the Democrats. Among them were the withdrawal of federal troops from the southern states where they were still stationed, legislation that would spur economic development in the South, the appointment of Democrats to certain positions in the South, and the appointment of a Democrat to the presidential cabinet. These agreements make up what is now called the Compromise of 1877. With the Republican promise to make these compromises, the Democrats withdrew the threat of filibuster and Hayes was awarded the electoral votes just days before the inauguration. The compromise effectively ended Reconstruction in the South. Prior to 1877, President Grant had been removing the federal troops that were propping up the Republican state governments in the South; however troops still remained in three states. They were removed by Hayes, as promised in the compromise, making way for Democratic "redeemer" governments to take charge. Civil rights legislation enacted by the Republicans during Reconstruction was reversed or ignored by the new governments. Jim Crow laws, creating a racially segregated society throughout the South and in other areas, took hold and were not removed for nearly 100 years.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
268
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 12.0 UNDERSTAND MAJOR POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, CULTURAL, AND DIPLOMATIC DEVELOPMENTS IN U.S. SOCIETY FROM 1877 TO THE PRESENT Skill 12.1
Identify causes and consequences of industrial expansion.
There was a marked degree of industrialization before and during the Civil War, but at war's end, industry in America was small. After the war, dramatic changes took place: machines replacing hand labor, extensive nationwide railroad service making possible the wider distribution of goods, invention of new products made available in large quantities, large amounts of money from bankers and investors for expansion of business operations. American life was definitely affected by this phenomenal industrial growth. Cities became the centers of this new business activity resulting in mass population movements there and tremendous growth. This new boom in business resulted in huge fortunes for some Americans and extreme poverty for many others. The discontent this caused resulted in a number of new reform movements from which came measures controlling the power and size of big business and helping the poor. The use of machines in industry enabled workers to produce a large quantity of goods much faster than by hand. With the increase in business, hundreds of workers were hired, assigned to perform a certain job in the production process. This was a method of organization called "division of labor" and by its increasing the rate of production, businesses lowered prices for their products making the products affordable for more people. As a result, sales and businesses were increasingly successful and profitable. A great variety of new products or inventions became available such as: the typewriter, the telephone, barbed wire, the electric light, the phonograph, and the gasoline automobile. From this list, the one that had the greatest effect on America's economy was the automobile. The increase in business and industry was greatly affected by the many rich natural resources that were found throughout the nation. The industrial machines were powered by the abundant water supply. The construction industry as well as products made from wood depended heavily on lumber from the forests. Coal and iron ore in abundance were needed for the steel industry, which profited and increased from the use of steel in such things as skyscrapers, automobiles, bridges, railroad tracks, and machines. Other minerals such as silver, copper, and petroleum played a large role in industrial growth, especially petroleum, from which gasoline was refined as fuel for the increasingly popular automobile.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
269
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Between 1870 and 1916, more than 25 million immigrants came into the United States adding to the phenomenal population growth taking place. This tremendous growth aided business and industry in two ways: (1) the number of consumers increased creating a greater demand for products thus enlarging the markets for the products. And (2) with increased production and expanding business, more workers were available for newly created jobs. The completion of the nation's transcontinental railroad in 1869 contributed greatly to the nation's economic and industrial growth. Some examples of the benefits of using the railroads include: raw materials were shipped quickly by the mining companies and finished products were sent to all parts of the country. Many wealthy industrialists and railroad owners saw tremendous profits steadily increasing due to this improved method of transportation. As business grew, methods of sales and promotion were developed. Salespersons went to all parts of the country, promoting the varied products, opening large department stores in the growing cities, offering the varied products at reasonable affordable prices. People who lived too far from the cities, making it impossible to shop there, had the advantage of using a mail order service, buying what they needed from catalogs furnished by the companies. The developments in communication, such as the telephone and telegraph, increased the efficiency and prosperity of big business. Investments in corporate stocks and bonds resulted from business prosperity. As individuals began investing heavily in an eager desire to share in the profits, their investments made available the needed capital for companies to expand their operations. From this, banks increased in number throughout the country, making loans to businesses and significant contributions to economic growth. At the same time, during the 1880s, government made little effort to regulate businesses. This gave rise to monopolies where larger businesses were rid of their smaller competitors and assumed complete control of their industries. Some owners in the same business would join or merge to form one company. Others formed what were called "trusts," a type of monopoly in which rival businesses were controlled but not formally owned. Monopolies had some good effects on the economy. Out of them grew the large, efficient corporations, which made important contributions to the growth of the nation's economy. Also, the monopolies enabled businesses to keep their sales steady and avoid sharp fluctuations in price and production. At the same time, the downside of monopolies was the unfair business practices of the business leaders. Some acquired so much power that they took unfair advantage of others. Those who had little or no competition would require their suppliers to supply goods at a low cost, sell the finished products at high prices, and reduce the quality of the product to save money.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
270
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Steam power generation, sophisticated manufacturing equipment, the ability to move about the country quickly by railroad, and the invention of the steam powered tractor, resulted in a phenomenal growth in industrial output. The new steel and oil industries provided a significant impetus to industrial growth and added thousands of new jobs. The “inventive spirit” of the time was a major force propelling the industrial revolution forward. This spirit led to improvement in products, development of new production processes and equipment, and even to the creation of entirely new industries. During the last 40 years of the nineteenth century inventors registered almost 700,000 new patents. The industrial boom produced several very wealthy and powerful “captains of industry” (Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, Jay Gould, J.P Morgan and Philip Armour). While they were envied and respected for their business acumen and success, they were condemned for exploitation of workers and questionable business practices and they were feared because of their power. While these “captains of industry” were becoming wealthy, the average worker enjoyed some increase in the standard of living. Most workers were required to put in long hours in dangerous conditions doing monotonous work for low wages. Most were not able to afford to participate in the new comforts and forms of entertainment that were becoming available. Farmers believed they were being exploited by the bankers, suppliers and the railroads. This produced enough instability to fuel several recessions and two severe depressions. One result of industrialization was the growth of the Labor Movement. There were numerous boycotts and strikes that often became violent when the police or the militia was called in to stop the strikes. Labor and farmer organizations were created and became a political force. Industrialization also brought an influx of immigrants from Asia (particularly Chinese and Japanese) and from Europe (particularly European Jews, the Irish, and Russians). High rates of immigration led to the creation of communities in various cities like “little Russia” or “little Italy.” Industrialization also led to overwhelming growth of cities as workers moved closer to their places of work. The economy was booming, but that economy was based on basic needs and luxury goods, for which there was to be only limited demand, especially during times of economic recession or depression.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
271
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 12.2
Understand Populism and Progressivism.
Populism is the philosophy that is concerned with the common sense needs of average people. Populism often finds expression as a reaction against perceived oppression of the average people by the wealthy elite in society. The prevalent claim of populist movements is that they will put the people first. Populism is often connected with religious fundamentalism, racism, or nationalism. Populist movements claim to represent the majority of the people and call them to stand up to institutions or practices that seem detrimental to their well being. Populism flourished in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Several political parties were formed out of this philosophy, including: the Greenback Party, the Populist Party, the Farmer-Labor Party, the Single Tax movement of Henry George, the Share Our Wealth movement of Huey Long, the Progressive Party, and the Union Party. In the 1890s, the People’s Party won the support of millions of farmers and other working people. This party challenged the social ills of the monopolists of the “Gilded Age.” The tremendous change that resulted from the industrial revolution led to a demand for reform that would control the power wielded by big corporations. The gap between the industrial moguls and the working people was growing. This disparity between rich and poor resulted in a public outcry for reform at the same time that there was an outcry for governmental reform that would end the political corruption and elitism of the day. This fire was fueled by the writings on investigative journalists – the “muckrakers” – who published scathing exposes of political and business wrongdoing and corruption. The result was the rise of a group of politicians and reformers who supported a wide array of populist causes. The period 1900 to 1917 came to be known as the Progressive Era. Although these leaders came from many different backgrounds and were driven by different ideologies, they shared a common fundamental belief that government should be eradicating social ills and promoting the common good and the equality guaranteed by the Constitution. The reforms initiated by these leaders and the spirit of Progressivism were farreaching. Politically, many states enacted the initiative and the referendum. The adoption of the recall occurred in many states. Several states enacted legislation that would undermine the power of political machines. On a national level the two most significant political changes were (1) the ratification of the 19th amendment, which required that all U.S. Senators be chosen by popular election, and (2) the ratification of the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
272
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Major economic reforms of the period included aggressive enforcement of the Sherman Antitrust Act; passage of the Elkins Act and the Hepburn Act, which gave the Interstate Commerce Commission greater power to regulate the railroads; the Pure Food and Drug Act prohibited the use of harmful chemicals in food; The Meat Inspection Act regulated the meat industry to protect the public against tainted meat; over 2/3 of the states passed laws prohibiting child labor; workmen’s compensation was mandated; and the Department of Commerce and Labor was created. Responding to concern over the environmental effects of the timber, ranching, and mining industries, Roosevelt set aside 238 million acres of federal lands to protect them from development. Wildlife preserves were established, the national park system was expanded, and the National Conservation Commission was created. The Newlands Reclamation Act also provided federal funding for the construction of irrigation projects and dams in semi-arid areas of the country. The Wilson Administration carried out additional reforms. The Federal Reserve Act created a national banking system, providing a stable money supply. The Sherman Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act defined unfair competition, made corporate officers liable for the illegal actions of employees, and exempted labor unions from antitrust lawsuits. The Federal Trade Commission was established to enforce these measures. Finally, the 16th amendment was ratified, establishing an income tax. This measure was designed to relieve the poor of a disproportionate burden in funding the federal government and make the wealthy pay a greater share of the nation’s tax burden. Skill 12.3
Examine the emergence of the United States as a world power.
Although the idea of a canal in Panama goes back to the early 16th century, work did not begin until 1880 by the French. The effort collapsed and the U.S. completed the task, opening the Panama Canal in 1914. Construction was an enormous task of complex engineering. The significance of the canal is that it connects the Gulf of Panama in the Pacific Ocean with the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. It eliminated the need for ships to skirt the southern boundary of South America, effectively reducing the sailing distance from New York to San Francisco by 8,000 miles (over half of the distance). The Canal results in a shorter and faster voyage, thus reducing shipping time and cost. The U.S. helped Panama win independence from Colombia in exchange for control of the Panama Canal Zone. A large investment was made in eliminating disease from the area, particularly yellow fever and malaria. After WWII, control of the canal became an issue of contention between the U.S. and Panama. Negotiations toward a settlement began in 1974, resulting in the Torrijos-Carter Treaties of 1977. Thus began the process of handing the canal over to Panama. On December 31, 1999, control of the canal was handed over to the Panama Canal Authority. Tolls for the use of the canal have ranged from $0.36, when Richard Halliburton swam the canal, to about $226,000.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
273
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Open Door Policy refers to maintaining equal commercial and industrial rights for the people of all countries in a particular territory. The Open Door policy generally refers to China, but it has also been used in application to the Congo basin. The policy was first suggested by the U.S., but its basis is the typical nation clause of the treaties made with China after the Opium War (1829-1842). The essential purpose of the policy was to permit equal access to trade for all nations with treaties with China while protecting the integrity of the Chinese empire. This policy was in effect from about 1900 until the end of WWII. After the war, China was recognized as a sovereign state. There was no longer opportunity for other nation to attempt to carve out regions of influence or control. When the communist party came to power in China, the policy was rejected. This continued until the late 1970s, when China began to adopt a policy of again encouraging foreign trade. Big Stick Diplomacy was a term adopted from an African proverb, “speak softly and carry a big stick,” to describe President Theodore Roosevelt’s policy of the U.S. assuming international police power in the Western Hemisphere. The phrase implied the power to retaliate if necessary. The intention was to safeguard American economic interests in Latin America. The policy led to the expansion of the U.S. Navy and to greater involvement in world affairs. Should any nation in the Western Hemisphere become vulnerable to European control because of political or economic instability, the U.S. had both the right and the obligation to intervene. Dollar Diplomacy describes U.S. efforts under President Taft to extend its foreign policy goals in Latin America and East Asia via economic power. The designation derives from Taft’s claim that U.S. interests in Latin America had changed from “warlike and political” to “peaceful and economic.” Taft justified this policy in terms of protecting the Panama Canal. The practice of dollar diplomacy was from time to time anything but peaceful, particularly in Nicaragua. When revolts or revolutions occurred, the U.S. sent troops to resolve the situation. Immediately upon resolution, bankers were sent in to loan money to the new regimes. The policy persisted until the election of Woodrow Wilson to the Presidency in 1913. Wilson repudiated the dollar diplomacy approach to foreign policy within weeks of his inauguration. Wilson’s “moral diplomacy” became the model for American foreign policy to this day. Wilson envisioned a federation of democratic nations, believing that democracy and representative government were the foundation stones of world stability. Specifically, he saw Great Britain and the United States as the champions of self-government and the promoters of world peace. Wilson’s beliefs and actions set in motion an American foreign policy that was dedicated to the interests of all humanity rather than merely American national interests.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
274
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Wilson promoted the power of free trade and international commerce as the key to enlarging the national economy into world markets as a means of acquiring a voice in world events. This approach to foreign policy was based on three elements: (1) maintain a combat-ready military to meet the needs of the nation, (2) promote democracy abroad, and (3) improve the U.S. economy through international trade. Wilson believed that democratic states would be less inclined to threaten U.S. interests. After the war President Woodrow Wilson announced the willingness of the United States to become a partner in international alliances that were committed to peace and national self-determination and prevention of violation of those principles by the forcible intervention of other nations. Wilson’s unwillingness to compromise at home on the issue of limiting U.S. sovereignty resulted in a failure to lead the U.S. into the League of Nations. Franklin Roosevelt learned from this experience and was able to ensure that the United Nations charter incorporated a mechanism by which a nation could refuse to accede to the will of the majority in the Security Council. The United States’ war effort included over four million who served in the military in some capacity, over two million of whom served overseas. The cost of the war up to April 30, 1919 was over 22.5 billion dollars. Nearly 50,000 Americans were killed in battle and an additional 221,000 were wounded. On the home front, people energetically supported the war effort in every way necessary. The menace of German submarines was causing the loss of ships faster than new ships could be built. At the beginning of the war, the U.S. had little overseas shipping. Scores of shipyards were quickly constructed to build both wooden and steel ships. At the end of the war the United States had more than 2,000 ships. Herbert Hoover had chaired the Belgian Relief Commission previously. He was named “food commissioner,” later called the U.S. Food Administration Board. His function was to manage conservation and distribution of the food supply to ensure that there was adequate food to supply every American both at home and overseas, as well as providing additional food to people who were suffering in Europe. In December of 1917, the government assumed control of all of the railroads in the nation and consolidated them into a single system with regional directors. The goal of this action was to increase efficiency and enable the rail system to meet the needs of both commerce and military transportation. This was done with the understanding that private ownership would be restored after the war. The restoration occurred in 1920. In 1918 telegraph, telephone and cable services were also taken over by the federal government; they were returned to original management and ownership in 1919.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
275
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The American Red Cross and the volunteers who supported their effort knitted garments for both the Army and the Navy. In addition, they prepared surgical dressings, hospital garments and refugee garments. More than eight million people participated in this effort. To secure the huge sums of money needed to finance the war, the government sold “Liberty Bonds” to the people. Nearly $25 billion worth of bonds were sold in four issues of bonds. After the war “Victory Bonds” were sold. The first Liberty loan was issues at 3.5%, the second at 4%, the remaining ones at 4.25%. A strong appeal was made to the people to buy bonds. The total response meant that more than 1/5 of the inhabitants of the U.S. bought bonds. For the first time in their lives, millions of people had begun saving money. The war effort required massive production of weapons, ammunition, radios, and other equipment of war and the support of war. During wartime, work hours were shortened, wages were increased, and working conditions improved. But when the war ended, and business and industrial owners and managers attempted a return to pre-war conditions, the workers revolted. These conditions contributed to the Red Scare and the establishment of new labor laws. Skill 12.4
Identify major cultural, social, and economic developments of the 1920s.
The end of World War I and the decade of the 1920s saw tremendous changes in the United States, signifying the beginning of its development into its modern society today. The shift from farm to city life was occurring in tremendous numbers. Social changes and problems were occurring at such a fast pace that it was extremely difficult and perplexing for many Americans to adjust to them. Politically the 18th Amendment to the Constitution, the so-called Prohibition Amendment, prohibited selling alcoholic beverages throughout the U.S. resulting in problems affecting all aspects of society. The passage of the 19th Amendment gave to women the right to vote in all elections. The decade of the 1920s also showed a marked change in roles and opportunities for women with more and more of them seeking and finding careers outside the home. They began to think of themselves as the equal of men and not as much as housewives and mothers. The influence of the automobile, the entertainment industry, and the rejection of the morals and values of pre-World War I life, resulted in the fast-paced "Roaring Twenties". There were significant effects on events leading to the depressionera 1930s and another world war. Many Americans greatly desired the pre-war life and supported political policies and candidates in favor of the return to what was considered normal. It was desired to end government's strong role and adopt a policy of isolating the country from world affairs, a result of the war.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
276
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Prohibition of the sale of alcohol had caused the increased activities of bootlegging and the rise of underworld gangs and the illegal speakeasies, the jazz music and dances they promoted. The customers of these clubs were considered "modern," reflected by extremes in clothing, hairstyles, and attitudes towards authority and life. Movies and, to a certain degree, other types of entertainment, along with increased interest in sports figures and the accomplishments of national heroes, such as Lindbergh, influenced Americans to admire, emulate, and support individual accomplishments. As wild and uninhibited modern behavior became, this decade witnessed an increase in a religious tradition known as "revivalism," emotional preaching. Although law and order were demanded by many Americans, the administration of President Warren G. Harding was marked by widespread corruption and scandal, not unlike the administration of Ulysses S. Grant, except Grant was honest and innocent. The decade of the 20s also saw the resurgence of such racist organizations as the Ku Klux Klan. Although the British patent for the radio was awarded in 1896, it was not until WWI that the equipment and capability of the use of radio was recognized. The first radio program was broadcast August 31, 1920. The first entertainment broadcasts began in 1922 from England. One of the first developments in the twentieth century was the use of commercial AM radio stations for aircraft navigation. In addition, radio was used to communicate orders and information between army and navy units on both sides of the war during WWI. Broadcasting became practical in the 1920s. Radio receivers were introduced on a wide scale. The relative economic boom of the 1920s made it possible for many households to own a radio. The beginning of broadcasting and the proliferation of receivers revolutionized communication. The news was transmitted into every home with a radio. In addition, news and information could be transmitted very quickly. Rather than the newsreels at movie theaters or awaiting the printing of stories sent to newspapers by mail, the news was now immediate. With the beginning of entertainment broadcasting, people were able to remain in their homes for entertainment. Rather than obtaining filtered information, people were able to hear the actual speeches and information that became news. By the time of the Stock Market Crash in 1929, approximately 40% of households had a radio. Another innovation of the 1920s was the introduction of mass production. This is the production of large amounts of standardized products on production lines. The method became very popular when Henry Ford used mass production to build the Model T Ford. The process facilitates high production rates per worker. Thus, it created very inexpensive products. The process is, however, capital intensive. It requires expensive machinery in high proportion to the number of workers needed to operate it.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
277
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE From an economic perspective, mass production decreases labor costs, increases the rate of production, and thus increases profit. The equipment and start-up costs of implementing mass production techniques are very high. Mass production reduces the amount of non-productive effort. It also reduces the chance of human error and variation. The downside of mass production is its inflexibility. Once a process is established, it is difficult to modify a design or a production process. From the viewpoint of labor, however, mass production can create job shortages. During the period before and after 1900, a large number of people migrated to the cities of America. Throughout the nineteenth century, city populations grew faster than rural populations. The new immigrants were not farmers. Polish immigrants became steelworkers in Pittsburgh; Serbian immigrants became meatpackers in Chicago; Russian Jewish immigrants became tailors in New York City; Slovaks assembled cars in Detroit; Italians worked in the factories of Baltimore. Several factors promoted urbanization during the decade of the 1920s. 1. The decline of agriculture, the drop in prices for grain and produce, and the end of financial support for farming after WWI caused many farmers to go under during the 1920s. Many sold or lost their farms and migrated to cities to find work. 2. Continuing industrialization drew increasing numbers of workers to the areas near or surrounding industrial or manufacturing centers. 3. Cities were becoming the locus of political, cultural, financial and economic life. 4. Transportation to the place of work or of shopping for necessities facilitates the growth of cities. As the population grew in cities, the demographic composition of those areas began to change. Workers flocked to the cities to be closer to the factories that employed them. As the populations of poorer workers increased, the wealthy moved from the city into the suburbs. The availability of automobiles and the extension of public transportation beyond the city limits enabled the middle and upper classes to leave city centers. Urbanization brings certain needs in its wake, including: adequate water supply, management of sewage and garbage, the need for public services, such as fire and police, road construction and maintenance, building of bridges to connect parts of cities, and taller buildings were needed. This last led to the invention of steel-framed buildings and of the elevator. In addition, electricity and telephone lines were needed, department stores and supermarkets grew, and the need for additional schools were related to urbanization. With the large migration and low wages came overcrowding, often in old buildings. Slums began to appear. Soon public health issues began to arise.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
278
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 12.5
Identify causes of the Great Depression.
Refer to Skill 9.12. Skill 12.6
Examine Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal.
The new president, Franklin D. Roosevelt won the White House on his promise to the American people of a “new deal.” Upon assuming the office, Roosevelt and his advisers immediately launched a massive program of innovation and experimentation to try to bring the Depression to an end and get the nation back on track. Congress gave the President unprecedented power to act to save the nation. During the next eight years, the most extensive and broadly based legislation in the nation’s history was enacted. The legislation was intended to accomplish three goals: relief, recovery, and reform. The first step in the “New Deal” was to relieve suffering. This was accomplished through a number of job-creation projects. The second step, the recovery aspect, was to stimulate the economy. The third step was to create social and economic change through innovative legislation. The National Recovery Administration attempted to accomplish several goals: • • • • • • • • • • •
Restore employment Increase general purchasing power Provide character-building activity for unemployed youth Encourage decentralization of industry and thus divert population from crowded cities to rural or semi-rural communities To develop river resources in the interest of navigation and cheap power and light To complete flood control on a permanent basis To enlarge the national program of forest protection and to develop forest resources To control farm production and improve farm prices To assist home builders and home owners To restore public faith in banking and trust operations To recapture the value of physical assets, whether in real property, securities, or other investments.
These objectives and their accomplishment implied a restoration of public confidence and courage.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
279
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Among the “alphabet organizations” set up to work out the details of the recovery plan, the most prominent were: • • • •
Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA), designed to readjust agricultural production and prices thereby boosting farm income Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), designed to give wholesome, useful activity in the forestry service to unemployed young men Civil Works Administration (CWA) and the Public Works Administration (PWA), designed to give employment in the construction and repair of public buildings, parks, and highways Works Progress Administration (WPA), whose task was to move individuals from relief rolls to work projects or private employment
The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was of a more permanent nature, designed to improve the navigability of the Tennessee River and increase productivity of the timber and farm lands in its valley, this program built 16 dams that provided water control and hydroelectric generation. The Public Works Administration employed Americans on over 34,000 public works projects at a cost of more than $4 billion. Among these projects was the construction of a highway that linked the Florida Keys and Miami, the Boulder Dam (now the Hoover Dam) and numerous highway projects. The charter of the National Recovery Administration included a statement defending the right of labor unions to exist and to negotiate with employers. This was interpreted by thousands as support for unions. But the Supreme Court declared this unconstitutional. There were several major events or actions that are particularly important to the history of organized labor during this decade: • • • • • • •
The Supreme Court upheld the Railway Labor Act, including its prohibition of employer interference or coercion in the choice of bargaining representatives (1930). The Davis-Bacon Act provided that employers of contractors and subcontractors on public construction should be paid the prevailing wages (1931). The Anti-Injunction Act prohibited Federal injunctions in most labor disputes (1932). Wisconsin created the first unemployment insurance act in the country (1932). The Wagner-Peyser Act created the United States Employment Service within the Department of Labor (1933). Half a million Southern millworkers walked off the job in the Great Uprising of 1934. The Secretary of Labor called the first National Labor Legislation Conference to get better cooperation between the Federal Government and the States in defining a national labor legislation program (1934).
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
280
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE • •
• • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • •
The U.S. joined the International Labor Organization (1934). The Wagner Act (The National Labor Relations Act) established a legal basis for unions, set collective bargaining as a matter of national policy required by the law, provided for secret ballot elections for choosing unions, and protected union members from employer intimidation and coercion. This law was later amended by the Taft-Hartley Act (1947) and by the Landrum Griffin Act (1959). The Guffey Act stabilized the coal industry and improved labor conditions (1935). It was later declared unconstitutional (1936). The Social Security Act was approved (1935). The Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO) was formed within the AFL to carry unionism to the industrial sector. (1935). The United Rubber Workers staged the first sit-down strike (1936). The United Auto Workers used the sit-down strike against General Motors (1936). The Anti-Strikebreaker Act (the Byrnes Act) made it illegal to transport or aid strikebreakers in interstate or foreign trade (1936). The Public Contracts Act (the Walsh-Healey Act) of 1936 established labor standards, including minimum wages, overtime pay, child and convict labor provisions and safety standards on federal contracts. General Motors recognized the United Auto Workers in 1937. US Steel recognized the Steel Workers Organizing Committee in 1937. The Wagner Act was upheld by the Supreme Court (1937). During a strike of the Steel Workers Organizing Committee against Republic Steel, police attacked a crowd gathered in support of the strike, killing ten and injuring eighty. This came to be called The Memorial Day Massacre (1937). The CIO was expelled from the AFL over charges of dual unionism or competition (1937). The National Apprenticeship Act established the Bureau of Apprenticeship within the Department of Labor (1937). The Merchant Marine Act created a Federal Maritime Labor Board (1938). The Fair Labor Standards Act created a $0.25 minimum wage, stipulated time-and-a-half pay for hours over 40 per week. The CIO becomes the Congress of Industrial Organizations.
To provide economic stability and prevent another crash, Congress passed the Glass-Steagall Act, which separated banking and investing. The Securities and Exchange Commission was created to regulate dangerous speculative practices on Wall Street. The Wagner Act guaranteed a number of rights to workers and unions in an effort to improve worker-employer relations. The Social Security Act of 1935 established pensions for the aged and infirm as well as a system of unemployment insurance.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
281
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Much of the recovery program was emergency, but certain permanent national policies emerged. The intention of the public through its government was to supervise and, to an extent, regulate business operations, from corporate activities to labor problems. This included protecting bank depositors and the credit system of the country, employing gold resources and currency adjustments to aid permanent restoration of normal living, and, if possible, establishing a line of subsistence below which no useful citizen would be permitted to sink. Many of the steps taken by the Roosevelt administration have had far-reaching effects. They alleviated the economic disaster of the Great Depression, they enacted controls that would mitigate the risk of another stock market crash, and they provided greater security for workers. The nation’s economy, however, did not fully recover until America entered World War II. To be sure, there were negative reactions to some of the measures taken to pull the country out of the Depression. There was a major reaction to the deaths of the WWI veterans in the Labor Day Hurricane, ultimately resulting in a Congressional investigation into possible negligence. The Central Valley Project ruffled feathers of farmers who lost tillable land and some water supply to the construction of the aqueduct and the Hoover Dam. Tennesseans were initially unhappy with the changes in river flow and navigation when the Tennessee Valley Authority began its construction of dams and the directing of water to form reservoirs and to power hydroelectric plants. Some businesses and business leaders were not happy with the introduction of minimum wage laws and restrictions and controls on working conditions and limitations of work hours for laborers. The numerous import/export tariffs of the period were the subject of controversy. In the long view, however, much that was accomplished under the New Deal had positive long-term effects on economic, ecological, social and political issues for the next several decades. The Tennessee Valley Authority and the Central Valley Project in California provided a reliable source and supply of water to major cities, as well as electrical power to meet the needs of an increasingly electricity-dependent society. For the middle class and the poor, the labor regulations, the establishment of the Social Security Administration, and the separation of investment and banking have served the nation admirably for more than six decades.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
282
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 12.7
Identify key events and consequences of U.S. participation in World War II.
World War II 1939 to 1945 Ironically, the Treaty of Paris, the peace treaty ending World War I, ultimately led to the Second World War. Countries that fought in the first war were either dissatisfied over the "spoils" of war, or were punished so harshly that resentment continued building to an eruption twenty years later. The economic problems of both winners and losers of the first war were never resolved and the worldwide Great Depression of the 1930s dealt the final blow to any immediate rapid recovery. Democratic governments in Europe were severely strained and weakened which in turn gave strength and encouragement to those political movements that were extreme and made promises to end the economic chaos in their countries. Nationalism, which was a major cause of World War I, grew even stronger and seemed to feed the feelings of discontent, which became increasingly rampant. a) Because of unstable economic conditions and political unrest, harsh dictatorships arose in several of the countries, especially where there was no history of experience in democratic government. b) Countries such as Germany, Japan, and Italy began to aggressively expand their borders and acquire additional territory. In all, 59 nations became embroiled in World War II, which began September 1, 1939 and ended September 2, 1945. These dates include both the European and Pacific Theaters of war. The horrible tragic results of this second global conflagration were more deaths and more destruction than in any other armed conflict. It completely uprooted and displaced millions of people. The end of the war brought renewed power struggles, especially in Europe and China, with many Eastern European nations as well as China coming under complete control and domination of the Communists, supported and backed by the Soviet Union. With the development of and two-time deployment of an atomic bomb against two Japanese cities, the world found itself in the nuclear age. The peace settlement established the United Nations Organization, still existing and operating today.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
283
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 12.8
Have knowledge of the Cold War at home and abroad.
The major thrust of U.S. foreign policy from the end of World War II to 1990 was the post-war struggle between non-Communist nations, led by the United States, and the Soviet Union and the Communist nations who were its allies. It was referred to as a "Cold War" because its conflicts did not lead to a major war of fighting, or a "hot war." Both the Soviet Union and the United States embarked on an arsenal buildup of atomic and hydrogen bombs as well as other nuclear weapons. Both nations had the capability of destroying each other but because of the continuous threat of nuclear war and accidents, extreme caution was practiced on both sides. The efforts of both sides to serve and protect their political philosophies and to support and assist their allies resulted in a number of events during this 45-year period. In 1946, Josef Stalin stated publicly that the presence of capitalism and its development of the world's economy made international peace impossible. This resulted in an American diplomat in Moscow named George F. Kennan to propose in response to Stalin, a statement of U.S. foreign policy. The idea and goal of the U.S. was to contain or limit the extension or expansion of Soviet Communist policies and activities. After Soviet efforts to make trouble in Iran, Greece, and Turkey, U.S. President Harry Truman stated what is known as the Truman Doctrine which committed the U.S. to a policy of intervention in order to contain or stop the spread of communism throughout the world. In the aftermath of the Second World War, with the Soviet Union having emerged as the second strongest power on Earth, the United States embarked on a policy known as "Containment” of the Communist menace. This involved what came to be known as the "Marshall Plan" and the "Truman Doctrine". The Marshall Plan involved the economic aid that was sent to Europe in the aftermath of the Second World War aimed at preventing the spread of communism. After 1945, social and economic chaos continued in Western Europe, especially in Germany. Secretary of State George C. Marshall came to realize that the U.S. had greatly serious problems and to assist in the recovery, he proposed a program known as the European Recovery Program or the Marshall Plan. Although the Soviet Union withdrew from any participation, the U.S. continued the work of assisting Europe in regaining economic stability. In Germany, the situation was critical with the American Army shouldering the staggering burden of relieving the serious problems of the German economy. In February 1948, Britain and the U.S. combined their two zones, with France joining in June.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
284
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Truman Doctrine offered military aid to those countries that were in danger of communist upheaval. This led to the era known as the Cold War in which the United States took the lead along with the Western European nations against the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc countries. It was also at this time that the United States finally gave up on George Washington's' advice against "European entanglements" and joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO. This was formed in 1949 and was comprised of the United States and several Western European nations for the purpose of opposing communist aggression. Skill 12.9
Examine the revival of political liberalism.
The revival of political liberalism in the twentieth century can be traced to the policies of Franklin Roosevelt beginning in the Great Depression of the 1930s. Roosevelt's "New Deal" programs aimed in part to provide relief to hard-hit workers by providing government sponsored work programs such as the Civilian Conservation Corps. This step was in stark contrast to prior administrations, particularly that of President Herbert Hoover, who believed that the government should not provide direct aid to citizens or be directly involved in the economy. Many of Roosevelt's policies faced strong opposition, and some programs were struck down by the Supreme Court. Roosevelt was a tremendously popular president, however, and was elected to four terms. Numerous like-minded Democrats were swept into office in the wake of Roosevelt's popularity. The economic boom following the war led to prosperity for many Americans in the 1950s. This prosperity did not extend to the poor blacks of the south, however, and the economic disparities between the races became more pronounced. Taking inspiration from similar struggles in India at the time led by Mahatma Ghandi, a burgeoning civil rights movement began to gain momentum under such leaders as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. In 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected President. Kennedy espoused an ethic of national service, establishing the Peace Corps and similar programs in the mold of Roosevelt. He fostered the growing civil rights movement, and introduced a bill in Congress that proposed the end to legal discrimination against blacks, and the abolition of Jim Crow segregation laws. Kennedy was assassinated before the bill was completely through Congress. His Vice President, Lyndon Johnson, carried on Kennedy's support for the bill. The bill was enacted as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which President Johnson signed. Johnson was elected to his own full term as President in 1964, defeating the very conservative Barry Goldwater. Johnson had been a Roosevelt democrat during the 1930s, and proposed legislation and programs that were based on the principles of the New Deal.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
285
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Once again, war interrupted domestic business as the United States became more fully involved in Vietnam. Controversy over the war led to a splintering of the Democratic Party during the run up to the presidential election of 1968, and several viable candidates emerged, including Robert Kennedy. Johnson decided not to run for re-election. Republican Richard Nixon won the election against Democratic nominee Hubert Humphrey. Nixon was more moderate than Goldwater, and indeed many of the liberal policies implemented by Kennedy and Johnson found their way into Nixon's administration. Skill 12.10
Have knowledge of the civil rights and women's movements.
Since 1941 a number of anti-discrimination laws have been passed by Congress. These acts have protected the civil rights of several groups of Americans. These laws include: • • • • • • • • • • •
Fair Employment Act of 1941 Civil Rights Act of 1964 Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 Voting Rights Act of 1965 Civil Rights Act of 1968 Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 Age Discrimination Act of 1975 Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 Civil Rights Act of 1991 Employment Non-Discrimination Act
Numerous groups have used various forms of protest, attempts to sway public opinion, legal action, and congressional lobbying to obtain full protection of their civil rights under the Constitution. “Minority rights” encompasses two ideas: the first is the normal individual rights of members of ethnic, racial, class, religious or sexual minorities; the second is collective rights of minority groups. Various civil rights movements have sought to guarantee that the individual rights of persons are not denied on the basis of being part of a minority group. The effects of these movements may be seen in guarantees of minority representation, affirmative action quotas, etc.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
286
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The disability rights movement was a successful effort to guarantee access to public buildings and transportation, equal access to education and employment, and equal protection under the law in terms of access to insurance, and other basic rights of American citizens. As a result of these efforts, public buildings and public transportation must be accessible to persons with disabilities, discrimination in hiring or housing on the basis of disability is also illegal. A “prisoners’ rights” movement has been working for many years to ensure the basic human rights of persons incarcerated for crimes. Immigrant rights movements have provided for employment and housing rights, as well as preventing abuse of immigrants through hate crimes. In some states, immigrant rights movements have led to bi-lingual education and public information access. Another group movement to obtain equal rights is the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender social movement. This movement seeks equal housing, freedom from social and employment discrimination, and equal recognition of relationships under the law. The women’s rights movement is concerned with the freedoms of women as differentiated from broader ideas of human rights. These issues are generally different from those that affect men and boys because of biological conditions or social constructs. The rights the movement has sought to protect throughout history include: • • • • • • • • • • • •
The right to vote The right to work The right to fair wages The right to bodily integrity and autonomy The right to own property The right to an education The right to hold public office Marital rights Parental rights Religious rights The right to serve in the military The right to enter into legal contracts
The movement for women’s rights has resulted in many social and political changes. Many of the ideas that seemed very radical merely 100 years ago are now normative.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
287
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Some of the most famous leaders in the women’s movement throughout American history are: • • • • • • • • • •
Abigail Adams Susan B. Anthony Gloria E. Anzaldua Betty Friedan Olympe de Gouges Gloria Steinem Harriet Tubman Mary Wollstonecraft Virginia Woolf Germaine Greer
Many within the women’s movement are primarily committed to justice and the natural rights of all people. This has led many members of the women’s movement to be involved in the Black Civil Rights Movement, the gay rights movement, and the recent social movement to protect the rights of fathers. After WWII, women were expected to return to the life of homebound docility of the pre-war years. But during the war they were actively recruited into the workplace, indeed into traditionally male jobs in heavy industry. The freedoms they enjoyed and the opportunity to explore their full potential were not things they were willing to give up so easily. The post-war years were a time of hope and great prosperity. Women, like minorities, began to demand their legal rights and freedoms. The women’s movement, like the Civil Rights Movement and other efforts to accomplish social reform and human rights, grew from the opportunities that arose from the same periods of struggle and hardship that led others to demand their rights and freedoms.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
288
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 12.11
Examine Ronald Reagan and the growth of conservatism.
In the decade preceding the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980, the United States had experienced increased inflation, an upswing in the crime rate, and a fuel shortage crisis. These factors contributed to a general dissatisfaction with the federal government, and a lack of confidence in the ability of the government to prevent or solve the nation's problems. It was a time of social division, as well. The 1973 Supreme Court decision in Roe vs. Wade upheld the legality of abortion, which angered many conservatives and became a rallying point for the right wing of the Republican Party, which had been out of favor for many years. This conservative branch of the party had enjoyed prominence in 1964, when Barry Goldwater was selected to run for President on the Republican ticket. Goldwater was defeated, and the Republicans found more success four years later with the more moderate Richard Nixon. Nixon's presidency ended in disgrace with his resignation, however, and in the meantime the Democrats retained their strong hold in both houses of Congress. In 1976, Democrat Jimmy Carter was elected President, and it was on his watch that public dissatisfaction was to reach its peak. This dissatisfaction was to provide the conservative Republicans an opportunity to offer a new direction, and the American public was receptive. Bolstering the more conservative Republicans were large numbers of religious activists who gathered behind television evangelists Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson. This large bloc not only opposed abortion but pressed for a conservative agenda that invoked religious doctrine in interpreting and proposing social legislation. In Ronald Reagan, the rising conservative movement found an eloquent and charismatic representative. Reagan was a former movie star who was comfortable in front of a camera. He had entered politics in California, eventually becoming governor. He had supported the conservative Goldwater in 1964, and had delivered a speech on his behalf at the nominating convention. Reagan was confident, and carried a positive message of American strength that resonated with many voters. He won the presidential election of 1980 against Jimmy Carter in a landslide. He was elected to a second term against Walter Mondale in 1984.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
289
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Reagan brought with him a cabinet of conservative advisors who believed in a conservative social agenda, limited government involvement in the economy, and American strength abroad. In 1988, Reagan's vice president, George H.W. Bush, was elected president and continued many of the conservative policies implemented by Reagan. The religious groups that had gained a foothold in the years surrounding Reagan’s first election continued to grow and still maintain political influence, particularly in the Republican Party. In 2000, conservative George W. Bush, the son of President George H.W. Bush, was elected President. George W. Bush populated his cabinet with many of the same people who had advised President Reagan 20 years earlier, thereby building on the conservative base that Ronald Reagan had laid. Skill 12.12
Understand the changing face of America.
The United States has always been a destination for people from other countries looking to improve their lot. Through most of its history, the majority of newcomers to the US were whites from Europe, particularly in the period between 1890 and 1930, when there was a comparatively liberal immigration policy. Before the Civil War, African slaves who had been brought to the US were primarily in the southern states. Following emancipation, many blacks moved to urban areas where employment was more easily found. Beginning around 1980, a shift in the nationality of new immigrants began, with an increase in the number of immigrants from Asian and Latin American countries. Political unrest and economic downturns led to surges in immigrants from troubled countries such as the Dominican Republic and Cambodia. The disparity between the US and Mexican economies created a situation where laborers from Mexico could find ample work in America. Initially, the increase in Latin American and Asian immigration affected the few traditional "gateway" states such as New York, Florida, Texas and California. In the decades since, immigration has moved increasingly into interior areas of the US such as the midwestern states of Iowa and Nebraska, where agricultural and meatpacking industries provided a source of employment for immigrant labor. This movement of immigrants from the border states has had the effect of spreading ethnic and cultural diversity into small, previously homogenous towns, making a permanent impact on American culture.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
290
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE DOMAIN IV.
GEOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT, AND ECONOMICS
COMPETENCY 13.0 UNDERSTAND MAJOR PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL FEATURES OF THE WORLD AND THE EFFECTS OF GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN SOCIETIES Skill 13.1
Distinguish the shape, location, and relationships among major land masses and bodies of water.
The earth's surface is made up of 70% water and 30% land. Physical features of the land surface include mountains, hills, plateaus, valleys, and plains. Other minor landforms include deserts, deltas, canyons, mesas, basins, foothills, marshes and swamps. Earth's water features include oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and canals. Mountains are landforms with rather steep slopes at least 2,000 feet or more above sea level. Mountains are found in groups called mountain chains or mountain ranges. At least one range can be found on six of the earth's seven continents. North America has the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains; South America the Andes; Asia the Himalayas; Australia the Great Dividing Range; Europe the Alps; and Africa the Atlas, Ahaggar, and Drakensburg Mountains. Hills are elevated landforms rising to an elevation of about 500 to 2000 feet. They are found everywhere on earth including Antarctica where they are covered by ice. Plateaus are elevated landforms usually level on top. Depending on location, they range from being an area that is very cold to one that is cool and healthful. Some plateaus are dry because they are surrounded by mountains that keep out any moisture. Some examples include the Kenya Plateau in East Africa, which is very cool. The plateau extending north from the Himalayas is extremely dry while those in Antarctica and Greenland are covered with ice and snow. Plains are described as areas of flat or slightly rolling land, usually lower than the landforms next to them. Sometimes called lowlands (and sometimes located along seacoasts) they support the majority of the world's people. Some are found inland and many have been formed by large rivers. This resulted in extremely fertile soil for successful cultivation of crops and numerous large settlements of people. In North America, the vast plains areas extend from the Gulf of Mexico north to the Arctic Ocean and between the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains. In Europe, rich plains extend east from Great Britain into central Europe on into the Siberian region of Russia. Plains in river valleys are found in China (the Yangtze River valley), India (the Ganges River valley), and Southeast Asia (the Mekong River valley).
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
291
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Valleys are land areas that are found between hills and mountains. Some have gentle slopes containing trees and plants; others have very steep walls and are referred to as canyons. One famous example is Arizona's Grand Canyon of the Colorado River. Deserts are large dry areas of land receiving ten inches or less of rainfall each year. Among the better known deserts are Africa's large Sahara Desert, the Arabian Desert on the Arabian Peninsula, and the desert Outback covering roughly one third of Australia. Deltas are areas of lowlands formed by soil and sediment deposited at the mouths of rivers. The soil is generally very fertile and most fertile river deltas are important crop-growing areas. One well-known example is the delta of Egypt's Nile River, known for its production of cotton. Mesas are the flat tops of hills or mountains usually with steep sides. Sometimes plateaus are also called mesas. Basins are considered to be low areas drained by rivers or low spots in mountains. Foothills are generally considered a low series of hills found between a plain and a mountain range. Marshes and swamps are wet lowlands providing growth of such plants as rushes and reeds. Oceans are the largest bodies of water on the planet. The four oceans of the earth are the Atlantic Ocean, one-half the size of the Pacific and separating North and South America from Africa and Europe; the Pacific Ocean, covering almost one-third of the entire surface of the earth and separating North and South America from Asia and Australia; the Indian Ocean, touching Africa, Asia, and Australia; and the ice-filled Arctic Ocean, extending from North America and Europe to the North Pole. The waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans also touch the shores of Antarctica. Seas are smaller than oceans and are surrounded by land. Some examples include the Mediterranean Sea found between Europe, Asia, and Africa; and the Caribbean Sea, touching the West Indies, South and Central America. A lake is a body of water surrounded by land. The Great Lakes in North America are a good example. Rivers, considered a nation's lifeblood, usually begin as very small streams, formed by melting snow and rainfall, flowing from higher to lower land, emptying into a larger body of water, usually a sea or an ocean. Examples of important rivers for the people and countries affected by and/or dependent on them include the Nile, Niger, and Zaire Rivers of Africa; the Rhine, Danube, and Thames Rivers of Europe; the Yangtze, Ganges, Mekong, Hwang He, and Irrawaddy Rivers of Asia; the Murray-Darling in Australia; and the Orinoco in South America. River systems are made up of large rivers and numerous smaller rivers or tributaries flowing into them. Examples include the vast Amazon Rivers system in South America and the Mississippi River system in the United States.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
292
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Canals are man-made water passages constructed to connect two larger bodies of water. Famous examples include the Panama Canal across Panama's isthmus connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and the Suez Canal in the Middle East between Africa and the Arabian Peninsula connecting the Red and Mediterranean Seas. Physical locations of the earth's surface features include the four major hemispheres and the parts of the earth's continents in them. Political locations are the political divisions, if any, within each continent. Both physical and political locations are precisely determined in two ways: (1) Surveying is done to determine boundary lines and distance from other features. (2) Exact locations are precisely determined by imaginary lines of latitude (parallels) and longitude (meridians). The intersection of these lines at right angles forms a grid, making it impossible to pinpoint an exact location of any place using any two grip coordinates. The Eastern Hemisphere, located between the North and South Poles and between the Prime Meridian (0 degrees longitude) east to the International Date Line at 180 degrees longitude, consists of most of Europe, all of Australia, most of Africa, and all of Asia, except for a tiny piece of the easternmost part of Russia that extends east of 180 degrees longitude. The Western Hemisphere, located between the North and South Poles and between the Prime Meridian (0 degrees longitude) west to the International Date Line at 180 degrees longitude, consists of all of North and South America, a tiny part of the easternmost part of Russia that extends east of 180 degrees longitude, and a part of Europe that extends west of the Prime Meridian (0 degrees longitude). The Northern Hemisphere, located between the North Pole and the Equator, contains all of the continents of Europe and North America and parts of South America, Africa, and most of Asia. The Southern Hemisphere, located between the South Pole and the Equator, contains all of Australia, a small part of Asia, about one-third of Africa, most of South America, and all of Antarctica. Of the seven continents, only one contains just one entire country and is the only island continent, Australia. Its political divisions consist of six states and one territory: Western Australia, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, and Northern Territory. Africa is made up of 54 separate countries, the major ones being Egypt, Nigeria, South Africa, Zaire, Kenya, Algeria, Morocco, and the large island of Madagascar.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
293
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Asia consists of 49 separate countries, some of which include China, Japan, India, Turkey, Israel, Iraq, Iran, Indonesia, Jordan, Vietnam, Thailand, and the Philippines. Europe's 43 separate nations include France, Russia, Malta, Denmark, Hungary, Greece, Bosnia and Herzegovina. North America consists of Canada and the United States of America and the island nations of the West Indies and the "land bridge" of Middle America, including Cuba, Jamaica, Mexico, Panama, and others. Thirteen separate nations together occupy the continent of South America, among them such nations as Brazil, Paraguay, Ecuador, and Suriname. The continent of Antarctica has no political boundaries or divisions but is the location of a number of science and research stations managed by nations such as Russia, Japan, France, Australia, and India. A landform comprises a geomorphological unit. Landforms are categorized by characteristics such as elevation, slope, orientation, stratification, rock exposure, and soil type. Landforms by name include berms, mounds, hills, cliffs, valleys, and others. Oceans and continents exemplify highest-order landforms. Landform elements are parts of a landform that can be further identified. The generic landform elements are: pits, peaks, channels, ridges, passes, pools, planes etc, and can be often extracted from a digital elevation model using some automated or semi-automated techniques. Elementary landforms (segments, facets, relief units) are the smallest homogeneous divisions of the land surface, at the given scale/resolution. A plateau or a hill can be observed at various scales ranging from few hundred meters to hundreds of kilometers. Hence, the spatial distribution of landforms is often fuzzy and scale-dependent as is the case for soils and geological strata. A number of factors, ranging from plate tectonics to erosion and deposition can generate and affect landforms. Biological factors can also influence landforms— see for example the role of plants in the development of dune systems and salt marshes, and the work of corals and algae in the formation of coral reefs. Weather is the condition of the air which surrounds the day-to-day atmospheric conditions including temperature, air pressure, wind and moisture or precipitation which includes rain, snow, hail, or sleet. Climate is average weather or daily weather conditions for a specific region or location over a long or extended period of time. Studying the climate of an area includes information gathered on the area's monthly and yearly temperatures and its monthly and yearly amounts of precipitation. In addition, a characteristic of an area's climate is the length of its growing season.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
294
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In northern and central United States, northern China, south central and southeastern Canada, and the western and southeastern parts of the former Soviet Union is found the "climate of four seasons," the humid continental climate--spring, summer, fall, and winter. Cold winters, hot summers, and enough rainfall to grow a variety of crops are the major characteristics of this climate. In areas where the humid continental climate is found are some of the world's best farmlands as well as important activities such as trading and mining. Differences in temperatures throughout the year are determined by the distance a place is inland, away from the coasts. The steppe or prairie climate is located in the interiors of the large continents like Asia and North America. These dry flatlands are far from ocean breezes and are called prairies or the Great Plains in Canada and the United States and steppes in Asia. Although the summers are hot and the winters are cold, the big difference is rainfall. In the steppe climate, rainfall is light and uncertain, 10 to 20 inches a year. Where rain is more plentiful, grass grows; in areas of less, the steppes or prairies gradually become deserts. These are found in the Gobi Desert of Asia, central and western Australia, southwestern United States, and in the smaller deserts found in Pakistan, Argentina, and Africa south of the Equator. The two major climates found in the high latitudes are tundra and taiga. The word tundra meaning marshy plain is a Russian word and aptly describes the climatic conditions in the northern areas of Russia, Europe, and Canada. Winters are extremely cold and very long. Most of the year the ground is frozen but becomes rather mushy during the very short summer months. Surprisingly less snow falls in the area of the tundra than in the eastern part of the United States. However, due to the harshness of the extreme cold, very few people live there and no crops can be raised. Despite having a small human population, many plants and animals are found there. The taiga is the northern forest region and is located south of the tundra. The world's largest forestlands are found here along with vast mineral wealth and fur bearing animals. The climate is extreme that very few people live here, not being able to raise crops due to the extremely short growing season. The winter temperatures are colder and the summer temperatures are hotter than those in the tundra are because the taiga climate region is farther from the waters of the Arctic Ocean. The taiga is found in the northern parts of Russia, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Canada, and Alaska with most of their lands covered with marshes and swamps.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
295
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The humid subtropical climate is found north and south of the tropics and is moist indeed. The areas having this type of climate are found on the eastern side of their continents and include Japan, mainland China, Australia, Africa, South America, and the United States--the southeastern coasts of these areas. An interesting feature of their locations is that warm ocean currents are found there. The winds that blow across these currents bring in warm moist air all year round. Long, warm summers; short, mild winters; a long growing season allow for different crops to be grown several times a year. All contribute to the productivity of this climate type that supports more people than any of the other climates. The marine climate is found in Western Europe, the British Isles, the U.S. Pacific Northwest, the western coast of Canada and southern Chile, southern New Zealand and southeastern Australia. A common characteristic of these lands is that they are either near water or surrounded by it. The ocean winds are wet and warm bringing a mild rainy climate to these areas. In the summer, the daily temperatures average at or below 70 degrees F. During the winter, because of the warming effect of the ocean waters, the temperatures rarely fall below freezing. In northern and central United States, northern China, south central and southeastern Canada, and the western and southeastern parts of the former Soviet Union is found the "climate of four seasons," the humid continental climate--spring, summer, fall, and winter. Cold winters, hot summers, and enough rainfall to grow a variety of crops are the major characteristics of this climate. In areas where the humid continental climate is found are some of the world's best farmlands as well as important activities such as trading and mining. Differences in temperatures throughout the year are determined by the distance a place is inland. In certain areas of the earth there exists a type of climate unique to areas with high mountains, usually different from their surroundings. This type of climate is called a "vertical climate" because the temperatures, crops, vegetation, and human activities change and become different as one ascends the different levels of elevation. At the foot of the mountain, a hot and rainy climate is found with the cultivation of many lowland crops. As one climbs higher, the air becomes cooler, the climate changes sharply and different economic activities change, such as grazing sheep and growing corn. At the top of many mountains, snow is found year round. Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their natural form. A commodity is generally considered a natural resource when the primary activities associated with it are extraction and purification, as opposed to creation. Thus, mining, petroleum extraction, fishing, and forestry are generally considered natural-resource industries, while agriculture is not.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
296
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Natural resources are often classified into renewable and non-renewable resources. Renewable resources are generally living resources (fish, coffee, and forests, for example), which can restock (renew) themselves if they are not overharvested. Renewable resources can restock themselves and be used indefinitely if they are sustained. Once renewable resources are consumed at a rate that exceeds their natural rate of replacement, the standing stock will diminish and eventually run out. The rate of sustainable use of a renewable resource is determined by the replacement rate and amount of standing stock of that particular resource. Non-living renewable natural resources include soil, as well as water, wind, tides and solar radiation. Natural resources include soil, timber, oil, minerals, and other goods taken more or less as they are from the Earth. In recent years, the depletion of natural capital and attempts to move to sustainable development has been a major focus of development agencies. This is of particular concern in rainforest regions, which hold most of the Earth's natural biodiversity - irreplaceable genetic natural capital. Conservation of natural resources is the major focus of Natural Capitalism, environmentalism, the ecology movement, and Green Parties. Some view this depletion as a major source of social unrest and conflicts in developing nations. Skill 13.2
Identify major political units and divisions.
The major countries in Asia include China, Japan, and North and South Korea. Asian countries have been largely influenced by China throughout history, borrowing traditions and languages from that ancient civilization. Europe is made up of several countries including Great Britain, France and Germany. Several European countries have joined together under international agreements to form the European Union, adopting a common currency. Russia is one of the largest countries in terms of area, extending from the eastern edge of Europe across northern Asia. Africa is made up of several countries, many of them former colonies of European nations. Africa is typically divided into Northern Africa, which includes the countries along the Mediterranean and Red Seas such as Libya and Egypt, and Sub-Saharan Africa, which is made up of the countries to the south of the great Sahara Desert, such as South Africa. North America includes the United States and Canada. Mexico is sometimes considered politically part of North America, although culturally it is also related to Central America, which includes the countries of Guatemala and Nicaragua. The largest countries in South American include Brazil, Chile, Peru and Argentina. Australia extends over the continent of the same name in the Southern Hemisphere. The island nation of New Zealand is nearby, as is Indonesia, a series of islands between Asia and Australia. The Indian Subcontinent is sometimes considered part of Asia, and includes the countries of India and Pakistan. The Middle East is made up of primarily Arab nations, including Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Syria.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
297
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 13.3
Utilize application of basic geographic terms and concepts.
GEOGRAPHY involves studying location and how living things and earth's features are distributed throughout the earth. It includes where animals, people, and plants live and the effects of their relationship with earth's physical features. Geographers also explore the locations of earth's features, how they got there, and why it is so important. What geographers study can be broken down into four areas: Location: Being able to find the exact site of anything on the earth; Spatial relations: The relationships of earth's features, places, and groups of people with one another due to their location; Regional characteristics: Characteristics of a place such as landform and climate, types of plants and animals, kinds of people who live there, and how they use the land; and Forces that change the earth: Such as human activities and natural forces. Geographical studies are divided into: Regional: Elements and characteristics of a place or region Topical: One earth feature or one human activity occurring throughout the entire world Physical: Earth's physical features, what creates and changes them, their relationships to each other as well as human activities Human: Human activity patterns and how they relate to the environment including political, cultural, historical, urban, and social geographical fields of study. Special research methods used by geographers include mapping, interviewing, field studies, mathematics, statistics, and scientific instruments. Eratosthenes was an ancient Greek mathematician who calculated the circumference of the earth. Strabo wrote a geographical depiction of the known ancient world in 17 volumes. Ptolemy contributed his skills in mapping and theories from studies in astronomy to geographic knowledge. Christopher Columbus, known for his famous first voyage sailing west to find the riches of the east and finding the Western Hemisphere instead. Marco Polo, Vasco da Gama, and Magellan were three of many explorers and colonizers who contributed to geographic knowledge.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
298
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE National Geographic Society is publisher of the National Geographic magazine and funds expeditions and other activities furthering geographic education. Geography is the study of the earth, its people, and how people adapt to life on earth and how they use its resources. It is undeniably connected to history, economics, political science, sociology, anthropology, and even a bit of archaeology. Geography not only deals with people and the earth today but also with: • • • • • • • •
How did it all begin? What is the background of the people of an area? What kind of government or political system do they have? How does that affect their ways of producing goods and the distribution of them? What kind of relationships do these people have with other groups? How is the way they live their lives affected by their physical environment? In what ways do they effect change in their way of living? All of this is tied in with their physical environment, the earth and its people.
Human communities subsisted initially as gatherers – gathering berries, leaves, etc. With the invention of tools it became possible to dig for roots, hunt small animals, and catch fish from rivers and oceans. Humans observed their environments and soon learned to plant seeds and harvest crops. As people migrated to areas in which game and fertile soil were abundant, communities began to develop. When people had the knowledge to grow crops and the skills to hunt game, they began to understand division of labor. Some of the people in the community tended to agricultural needs while others hunted game. As habitats attracted larger numbers of people, environments became crowded and there was competition. The concept of division of labor and sharing of food soon came, in more heavily populated areas, to be managed. Groups of people focused on growing crops while others concentrated on hunting. Experience led to the development of skills and of knowledge that make the work easier. Farmers began to develop new plant species and hunters began to protect animal species from other predators for their own use. This ability to manage the environment led people to settle down, to guard their resources, and to manage them. Camps soon became villages. Villages became year-round settlements. Animals were domesticated and gathered into herds that met the needs of the village. With the settled life it was no longer necessary to “travel light.” Pottery was developed for storing and cooking food.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
299
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE By 8000 BCE, culture was beginning to evolve in these villages. Agriculture was developed for the production of grain crops, which led to a decreased reliance on wild plants. Domesticating animals for various purposes decreased the need to hunt wild game. Life became more settled. It was then possible to turn attention to such matters as managing water supplies, producing tools, making cloth, etc. There was both the social interaction and the opportunity to reflect upon existence. Mythologies arose and various kinds of belief systems. Rituals arose that re-enacted the mythologies that gave meaning to life. As farming and animal husbandry skills increased, the dependence upon wild game and food gathering declined. With this change came the realization that a larger number of people could be supported on the produce of farming and animal husbandry. Two things seem to have come together to produce cultures and civilizations: a society and culture based on agriculture and the development of centers of the community with literate social and religious structures. The members of these hierarchies then managed water supply and irrigation, ritual and religious life, and exerted their own right to use a portion of the goods produced by the community for their own subsistence in return for their management. Sharpened skills, development of more sophisticated tools, commerce with other communities, and increasing knowledge of their environment, the resources available to them, and responses to the needs to share good, order community life, and protect their possessions from outsiders led to further division of labor and community development. As trade routes developed and travel between cities became easier, trade led to specialization. Trade enables a people to obtain the goods they desire in exchange for the goods they are able to produce. This, in turn, leads to increased attention to refinements of technique and the sharing of ideas. The knowledge of a new discovery or invention provides knowledge and technology that increases the ability to produce goods for trade. As each community learns the value of the goods it produces and improves its ability to produce the goods in greater quantity, industry is born. Another way to describe where people live is by the geography and topography around them. The vast majority of people on the planet live in areas that are very hospitable. Yes, people live in the Himalayas and in the Sahara, but the populations in those areas are small indeed when compared to the plains of China, India, Europe, and the United States. People naturally want to live where they won’t have to work really hard just to survive, and world population patterns reflect this.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
300
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE We can examine the spatial organization of the places where people live. For example, in a city, where are the factories and heavy industry buildings? Are they near airports or train stations? Are they on the edge of town, near major roads? What about housing developments? Are they near these industries, or are they far away? Where are the other industry buildings? Where are the schools and hospitals and parks? What about the police and fire stations? How close are homes to each of these things? Towns and especially cities are routinely organized into neighborhoods, so that each house or home is near to most things that its residents might need on a regular basis. This means that large cities have multiple schools, hospitals, grocery stores, fire stations, etc. Related to this is the distance between cities, towns, villages, or settlements. In certain parts of the United States and definitely in many countries in Europe, the population settlement patterns achieve megalopolis standards, with no clear boundaries from one town to the next. Other, more sparsely populated areas have towns that are few and far between and have relatively few people in them. Some exceptions to this exist, of course, like oases in the deserts; for the most part, however, population centers tend to be relatively near one another or at least near smaller towns. Most places in the world are in some manner close to agricultural land as well. Food makes the world go round and some cities are more agriculturally inclined than others. Rare is the city, however, that grows absolutely no crops. The kind of food grown is almost entirely dependent on the kind of land available and the climate surrounding that land. Rice doesn’t grow well in the desert, for instance, nor do bananas grow well in snowy lands. Certain crops are easier to transport than others and the ones that aren’t are usually grown near ports or other areas of export. The one thing that changes all of these things, of course, is the airplane. Flight has made possible global commerce and goods exchange on a level never before seen. Foods from all around the world can be flown literally around the world and, with the aid of refrigeration techniques, be kept fresh enough to sell in markets nearly everywhere. The same is true of medicine and, unfortunately, weapons.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
301
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 13.4
Identify characteristics and uses of basic geographic sources.
Information can be gained looking at a map that might take hundreds of words to explain otherwise. Maps reflect the great variety of knowledge covered by social sciences. To show such a variety of information, maps are made in many different ways. Because of this variety, maps must be understood in order to make the best sense of them. Once they are understood, maps provide a solid foundation for social science studies. To apply information obtained from graphs one must understand the two major reasons why graphs are used: 1. To present a model or theory visually in order to show how two or more variables interrelate. 2. To present real world data visually in order to show how two or more variables interrelate. Most often used are those known as bar graphs and line graphs. (Charts are often used for similar reasons and are explained in the next section). Graphs themselves are most useful when one wishes to demonstrate the sequential increase, or decrease of a variable or to show specific correlations between two or more variables in a given circumstance. Most common is the bar graph, because it is easy to see and understandable way of visually showing the difference in a given set of variables. However it is limited in that it can not really show the actual proportional increase, or decrease, of each given variable to each other. (In order to show a decrease, a bar graph must show the "bar" under the starting line, thus removing the ability to really show how the various different variables would relate to each other). Thus in order to accomplish this one must use a line graph. Line graphs can be of two types: a linear or non-linear graph. A linear line graph uses a series of straight lines; a non-linear line graph uses a curved line. Though the lines can be either straight or curved, all of the lines are called curves. A line graph uses a number line or axis. The numbers are generally placed in order, equal distances from one another. The number line is used to represent a number, degree or some such other variable at an appropriate point on the line. Two lines are used, intersecting at a specific point. They are referred to as the X-axis and the Y-axis.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
302
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Y-axis is a vertical line the X-axis is a horizontal line. Together they form a coordinate system. The difference between a point on the line of the X-axis and the Y-axis is called the slope of the line, or the change in the value on the vertical axis divided by the change in the value on the horizontal axis. The Y-axis number is called the rise and the X-axis number is called the run, thus the equation for slope is: SLOPE = RISE - (Change in value on the vertical axis) RUN - (Change in value on the horizontal axis) The slope tells the amount of increase or decrease of a given specific variable. When using two or more variables one can plot the amount of difference between them in any given situation. This makes presenting information on a line graph more involved. It also makes it more informative and accurate than a simple bar graph. Knowledge of the term slope and what it is and how it is measured helps us to describe verbally the pictures we are seeing visually. For example, if a curve is said to have a slope of "zero", you should picture a flat line. If a curve has a slope of "one", you should picture a rising line that makes a 45-degree angle with the horizontal and vertical axis lines. The preceding examples are of linear (straight line) curves. With non-linear curves (the ones that really do curve) the slope of the curve is constantly changing, so as a result, we must then understand that the slope of the nonlinear curved line will be at a specific point. How is this done? The slope of a non-linear curve is determined by the slope of a straight line that intersects the curve at that specific point. In all graphs, an upward sloping line represents a direct relationship between the two variables. A downward slope represents an inverse relationship between the two variables. In reading any graph, one must always be very careful to understand what is being measured, what can be deduced and what cannot be deduced from the given graph. To use charts correctly, one should remember the reasons one uses graphs. The general ideas are similar. It is usually a question as to which, a graph or chart, is more capable of adequately portraying the information one wants to illustrate. One can see the difference between them and realize that in many ways graphs and charts are interrelated. One of the most common types, because it is easiest to read and understand, even for the lay person, is the piechart. You can see pie-charts used often, especially when one is trying to illustrate the differences in percentages among various items, or when one is demonstrating the divisions of a whole.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
303
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 13.5
Apply the use of maps to obtain data for solving locational problems and to answer questions, infer relationships, and analyze spatial change.
We use illustrations of various sorts because it is often easier to demonstrate a given idea visually instead of orally. Sometimes it is even easier to do so with an illustration than a description. This is especially true in the areas of education and research because humans are visually stimulated. It is a fact that any idea presented visually in some manner is always easier to understand and to comprehend than simply getting an idea across verbally, by hearing it or reading it. Throughout this document, there are several illustrations that have been presented to explain an idea in a more precise way. Sometimes these will demonstrate some of the types of illustrations available for use in the arena of political science. Among the more common illustrations used in political science are various types of maps, graphs and charts. Photographs and globes are useful as well, but as they are limited in what kind of information that they can show, they are rarely used. Unless, as in the case of a photograph, it is of a particular political figure or a time that one wishes to visualize. Although maps have advantages over globes and photographs, they do have a major disadvantage. This problem must be considered as well. The major problem of all maps comes about because most maps are flat and the Earth is a sphere. It is impossible to reproduce exactly on a flat surface an object shaped like a sphere. In order to put the earth's features onto a map they must be stretched in some way. This stretching is called distortion. Distortion does not mean that maps are wrong; it simply means that they are not perfect representations of the Earth or its parts. Cartographers, or mapmakers, understand the problems of distortion. They try to design them so that there is as little distortion as possible in the maps. The process of putting the features of the Earth onto a flat surface is called projection. All maps are really map projections. There are many different types. Each one deals in a different way with the problem of distortion. Map projections are made in a number of ways. Some are done using complicated mathematics. However, the basic ideas behind map projections can be understood by looking at the three most common types: (1) Cylindrical Projections - These are done by taking a cylinder of paper and wrapping it around a globe. A light is used to project the globe’s features onto the paper. Distortion is least where the paper touches the globe. For example, suppose that the paper was wrapped so that it touched the globe at the equator, the map from this projection would have just a little distortion near the equator.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
304
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE However, in moving north or south of the equator, the distortion would increase as you moved further away from the equator. The best known and most widely used cylindrical projection is the Mercator Projection. It was first developed in 1569 by Gerardus Mercator, a Flemish mapmaker. (2). Conical Projections - The name for these maps come from the fact that the projection is made onto a cone of paper. The cone is made so that it touches a globe at the base of the cone only. It can also be made so that it cuts through part of the globe in two different places. Again, there is the least distortion where the paper touches the globe. If the cone touches at two different points, there is some distortion at both of them. Conical projections are most often used to map areas in the middle latitudes. Maps of the United States are most often conical projections. This is because most of the country lies within these latitudes. (3). Flat-Plane Projections - These are made with a flat piece of paper. It touches the globe at one point only. Areas near this point show little distortion. Flat-plane projections are often used to show the areas of the north and south poles. One such flat projection is called a Gnomonic Projection. On this kind of map all meridians appear as straight lines, Gnomonic projections are useful because any straight line drawn between points on it forms a Great-Circle Route. Great-Circle Routes can best be described by thinking of a globe and when using the globe the shortest route between two points on it can be found by simply stretching a string from one point to the other. However, if the string was extended in reality, so that it took into effect the globe's curvature, it would then make a great-circle. A great-circle is any circle that cuts a sphere, such as the globe, into two equal parts. Because of distortion, most maps do not show greatcircle routes as straight lines, Gnomonic projections, however, do show the shortest distance between the two places as a straight line, because of this they are valuable for navigation. They are called Great-Circle Sailing Maps. To properly analyze a given map one must be familiar with the various parts and symbols that most modern maps use. For the most part, this is standardized, with different maps using similar parts and symbols, these can include: The Title - All maps should have a title, just like all books should. The title tells you what information is to be found on the map. The Legend - Most maps have a legend. A legend tells the reader about the various symbols that are used on that particular map and what the symbols represent, (also called a map key). The Grid - A grid is a series of lines that are used to find exact places and locations on the map. There are several different kinds of grid systems in use, however, most maps do use the longitude and latitude system, known as the Geographic Grid System.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
305
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Directions - Most maps have some directional system to show which way the map is being presented. Often on a map, a small compass will be present, with arrows showing the four basic directions, north, south, east, and west. The Scale - This is used to show the relationship between a unit of measurement on the map versus the real world measure on the Earth. Maps are drawn to many different scales. Some maps show a lot of detail for a small area. Others show a greater span of distance, whichever is being used one should always be aware of just what scale is being used. For instance the scale might be something like 1 inch = 10 miles for a small area or for a map showing the whole world it might have a scale in which 1 inch = 1,000 miles. The point is that one must look at the map key in order to see what units of measurements the map is using. Maps have four main properties. They are (1) the size of the areas shown on the map. (2) The shapes of the areas, (3) Consistent scales, and (4) Straight line directions. A map can be drawn so that it is correct in one or more of these properties. No map can be correct in all of them. Equal areas - One property which maps can have is that of equal areas, In an equal area map, the meridians and parallels are drawn so that the areas shown have the same proportions as they do on the Earth. For example, Greenland is about 118th the size of South America, thus it will be show as 118th the size on an equal area map. The Mercator projection is an example of a map that does not have equal areas. In it, Greenland appears to be about the same size of South America. This is because the distortion is very bad at the poles and Greenland lies near the North Pole. Conformality - A second map property is conformality, or correct shapes. There are no maps which can show very large areas of the earth in their exact shapes. Only globes can really do that, however Conformal Maps are as close as possible to true shapes. The United States is often shown by a Lambert Conformal Conic Projection Map. Consistent Scales - Many maps attempt to use the same scale on all parts of the map. Generally, this is easier when maps show a relatively small part of the earth's surface. For example, a map of Florida might be a Consistent Scale Map. Generally maps showing large areas are not consistent-scale maps. This is so because of distortion. Often such maps will have two scales noted in the key. One scale, for example, might be accurate to measure distances between points along the Equator. Another might be then used to measure distances between the North Pole and the South Pole. Maps showing physical features often try to show information about the elevation or relief of the land. Elevation is the distance above or below the sea level. The elevation is usually shown with colors, for instance, all areas on a map which are at a certain level will be shown in the same color.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
306
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Relief Maps - Show the shape of the land surface, flat, rugged, or steep. Relief maps usually give more detail than simply showing the overall elevation of the land's surface. Relief is also sometimes shown with colors, but another way to show relief is by using contour lines. These lines connect all points of a land surface which are the same height surrounding the particular area of land. Thematic Maps - These are used to show more specific information, often on a single theme, or topic. Thematic maps show the distribution or amount of something over a certain given area. Things such as population density, climate, economic information, cultural, political information, etc... Political science would be almost impossible without maps. Information can be gained looking at a map that might take hundreds of words to explain otherwise. Maps reflect the great variety of knowledge covered by political science. To show such a variety of information maps are made in many different ways. Because of this variety, maps must be understood in order to make the best sense of them. Once they are understood, maps provide a solid foundation for political science studies. To apply information obtained from graphs one must understand the two major reasons why graphs are used: 1. To present a model or theory visually in order to show how two or more variables interrelate. 2. To present real world data visually in order to show how two or more variables interrelate. Most often used are those known as bar graphs and line graphs. (Charts are often used for similar reasons and are explained in the next section). Graphs themselves are most useful when one wishes to demonstrate the sequential increase, or decrease of a variable or to show specific correlations between two or more variables in a given circumstance. Most common is the bar graph, because it has an easy to see and understand way of visually showing the difference in a given set of variables. However it is limited in that it can not really show the actual proportional increase, or decrease, of each given variable to each other. (In order to show a decrease, a bar graph must show the "bar" under the starting line, thus removing the ability to really show how the various different variables would relate to each other). Thus in order to accomplish this one must use a line graph. Line graphs can be of two types a linear or non-linear graph. A linear line graph uses a series of straight lines; a non-linear line graph uses a curved line. Though the lines can be either straight or curved, all of the lines are called curves.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
307
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE A line graph uses a number line or axis. The numbers are generally placed in order, equal distances from one another, the number line is used to represent a number, degree or some such other variable at an appropriate point on the line. Two lines are used, intersecting at a specific point. They are referred to as the X-axis and the Y-axis. The Y-axis is a vertical line the X-axis is a horizontal line. Together they form a coordinate system. The difference between a point on the line of the X-axis and the Y-axis is called the slope of the line, or the change in the value on the vertical axis divided by the change in the value on the horizontal axis. The Y-axis number is called the rise and the X-axis number is called the run, thus the equation for slope is: SLOPE = RISE - (Change in value on the vertical axis) RUN - (Change in value on the horizontal axis) The slope tells the amount of increase or decrease of a given specific variable. When using two or more variables one can plot the amount of difference between them in any given situation. This makes presenting information on a line graph more involved. It also makes it more informative and accurate than a simple bar graph. Knowledge of the term slope and what it is and how it is measured helps us to describe verbally the pictures we are seeing visually. For example, if a curve is said to have a slope of "zero", you should picture a flat line. If a curve has a slope of "one", you should picture a rising line that makes a 45-degree angle with the horizontal and vertical axis lines. The preceding examples are of linear (straight line) curves. With non-linear curves (the ones that really do curve) the slope of the curve is constantly changing, so as a result, we must then understand that the slope of the nonlinear curved line will be at a specific point. How is this done? The slope of a non-linear curve is determined by the slope of a straight line that intersects the curve at that specific point. In all graphs, an upward sloping line represents a direct relationship between the two variables. A downward slope represents an inverse relationship between the two variables. In reading any graph, one must always be very careful to understand what is being measured, what can be deduced and what cannot be deduced from the given graph. To use charts correctly, one should remember the reasons one uses graphs. The general ideas are similar. It is usually a question as to which, a graph or chart, is more capable of adequately portraying the information one-wants to illustrate. One can see the difference between them and realize that in many ways graphs and charts are interrelated. One of the most common types, because it is easiest to read and understand, even for the lay person, is the Piechart.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
308
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE You can see pie-charts used often, especially when one is trying to illustrate the differences in percentages among various items, or when one is demonstrating the divisions of a whole. Two of the most important terms in the study of geography are absolute and relative location. Both technically describe the same thing, but both are also, in many respects, as different as day and night. First, what is location? We want to know this in order to determine where something is and where we can find it. We want to point to a spot on a map and say, “That is where we are” or “That is where we want to be.” In another way, we want to know where something is as compared to other things. It is very difficult for many people to describe something without referring to something else. Associative reasoning is a powerful way to think. Absolute location is the exact whereabouts of a person, place, or thing, according to any kind of geographical indicators you want to name. You could be talking about latitude and longitude or GPS or any kind of indicators at all. For example, Paris is at 48 degrees north longitude and 2 degrees east latitude. You can’t get much more exact than that. If you had a map that showed every degree of latitude and longitude, you could pinpoint exactly where Paris was and have absolutely no doubt that your geographical depiction was accurate. Many geographers prefer to use absolute location because of its precision. If you have access to maps and compasses and GPS indicators, why not describe the absolute location of something? It’s much more accurate than other means of describing where something is. An absolute location can also be much simpler. Someone might ask you where the nearest post office is and you might say, “It’s at the southeast corner of First Avenue and Main Street.” That’s about as absolute as you can get. Relative location, on the other hand, is always a description that involves more than one thing. When you describe a relative location, you tell where something is by describing what is around it. The same description of where the nearest post office is in terms of absolute location might be this: “It’s down the street from the supermarket, on the right side of the street, next to the dentist’s office.” We use relative location to be not necessarily less precise but to be more in tune with the real world. Very few people carry exact maps or GPS locators around with them. Nearly everyone, though, can find a location if they have it described to them in terms of what is nearby. Absolute location can be a bit more map-like and direction-oriented as well. You might say that Chicago is east of Seattle or that St. Louis is north of New Orleans. This is not nearly as involved as the post office location description. In the same way, you might say that Chicago is on Lake Michigan.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
309
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Spatial organization is a description of how things are grouped in a given space. In geographical terms, this can describe people, places, and environments anywhere and everywhere on Earth. The most basic form of spatial organization for people is where they live. The vast majority of people live near other people, in villages and towns and cities and settlements. These people live near others in order to take advantage of the goods and services that naturally arise from cooperation. These villages and towns and cities and settlements are, to varying degrees, near bodies of water. Water is a staple of survival for every person on the planet and is also a good source of energy for factories and other industries, as well as a form of transportation for people and goods. Also See Skill 13.4. Skill 13.6
Identify the influence of geographic factors on patterns of human settlement, major historical events, and patterns of economic activity.
Human communities subsisted initially as gatherers – gathering berries, leaves, etc. With the invention of tools it became possible to dig for roots, hunt small animals, and catch fish from rivers and oceans. Humans observed their environments and soon learned to plant seeds and harvest crops. As people migrated to areas in which game and fertile soil were abundant, communities began to develop. When people had the knowledge to grow crops and the skills to hunt game, they began to understand division of labor. Some of the people in the community tended to agricultural needs while others hunted game. As habitats attracted larger numbers of people, environments became crowded and there was competition. The concept of division of labor and sharing of food soon came, in more heavily populated areas, to be managed. Groups of people focused on growing crops while others concentrated on hunting. Experience led to the development of skills and of knowledge that make the work easier. Farmers began to develop new plant species and hunters began to protect animal species from other predators for their own use. This ability to manage the environment led people to settle down, to guard their resources, and to manage them. Camps soon became villages. Villages became year-round settlements. Animals were domesticated and gathered into herds that met the needs of the village. With the settled life it was no longer necessary to “travel light.” Pottery was developed for storing and cooking food.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
310
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE By 8000 BCE, culture was beginning to evolve in these villages. Agriculture was developed for the production of grain crops, which led to a decreased reliance on wild plants. Domesticating animals for various purposes decreased the need to hunt wild game. Life became more settled. It was then possible to turn attention to such matters as managing water supplies, producing tools, making cloth, etc. There was both the social interaction and the opportunity to reflect upon existence. Mythologies arose and various kinds of belief systems. Rituals arose that re-enacted the mythologies that gave meaning to life. As farming and animal husbandry skills increased, the dependence upon wild game and food gathering declined. With this change came the realization that a larger number of people could be supported on the produce of farming and animal husbandry. Two things seem to have come together to produce cultures and civilizations: a society and culture based on agriculture and the development of centers of the community with literate social and religious structures. The members of these hierarchies then managed water supply and irrigation, ritual and religious life, and exerted their own right to use a portion of the goods produced by the community for their own subsistence in return for their management. Sharpened skills, development of more sophisticated tools, commerce with other communities, and increasing knowledge of their environment, the resources available to them, and responses to the needs to share good, order community life, and protect their possessions from outsiders led to further division of labor and community development. As trade routes developed and travel between cities became easier, trade led to specialization. Trade enables a people to obtain the goods they desire in exchange for the goods they are able to produce. This, in turn, leads to increased attention to refinements of technique and the sharing of ideas. The knowledge of a new discovery or invention provides knowledge and technology that increases the ability to produce goods for trade. As each community learns the value of the goods it produces and improves its ability to produce the goods in greater quantity, industry is born. By nature, people are essentially social creatures. They generally live in communities or settlements of some kind and of some size. Settlements are the cradles of culture, political structure, education, and the management of resources. The relative placement of these settlements or communities are shaped by the proximity to natural resources, the movement of raw materials, the production of finished products, the availability of a work force, and the delivery of finished products. Shared values, language, culture, religion, and subsistence will at least to some extent, determine the composition of communities.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
311
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Settlements begin in areas that offer the natural resources to support life – food and water. With the ability to manage the environment one finds a concentration of populations. With the ability to transport raw materials and finished products, comes mobility. With increasing technology and the rise of industrial centers, comes a migration of the workforce. Cities are the major hubs of human settlement. Almost half of the population of the world now lives in cities. These percentages are much higher in developed regions. Established cities continue to grow. The fastest growth, however, is occurring in developing areas. In some regions there are “metropolitan areas” made up of urban and sub-urban areas. In some places cities and urban areas have become interconnected into “megalopoli” (e.g., Tokyo-KawasakiYokohama). The concentrations of populations and the divisions of these areas among various groups that constitute the cities can differ significantly. North American cities are different from European cities in terms of shape, size, population density, and modes of transportation. While in North America, the wealthiest economic groups tend to live outside the cities, the opposite is true in Latin American cities. There are significant differences among the cities of the world in terms of connectedness to other cities. While European and North American cities tend to be well linked both by transportation and communication connections, there are other places in the world in which communication between the cities of the country may be inferior to communication with the rest of the world. Rural areas tend to be less densely populated due to the needs of agriculture. More land is needed to produce crops or for animal husbandry than for manufacturing, especially in a city in which the buildings tend to be taller. Rural areas, however, must be connected via communication and transportation in order to provide food and raw materials to urban areas. Social policy addresses basic human needs for the sustainability of the individual and the society. The concerns of social policy, then, include food, clean water, shelter, clothing, education, health, and social security. Social policy is part of public policy, determined by the city, the state, the nation, responsible for human welfare in a particular region.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
312
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Many different factors affect and influence politics, of them geography, economics and culture are among the most important. Looking at geography, we should realize that the geographic location of a particular country (that is the type of politics we will examine, those that take place on a national level) would greatly affect its’ politics. Both domestic and foreign policy is determined by a given country's location. For instance, in an area like Europe where there are many independent countries in close proximity to each other, the development of rivalries and conflicts was bound to arise. The main struggle would be over boundaries and control of the limited amount of land that is available for each national group. We can see historically how these conflicts have arisen throughout history whenever two or more countries that are in close proximity to each other engage in warfare. It is a fact of human experience that a majority of wars throughout history has begun for the most part over the issue of land, later spreading to other lands in a continuing competition. In fact, if we examine the history of European colonialism, we see that the struggle for empires and land overseas was a direct result and outgrowth of the inability for expansion for the relief of growing population and economic pressures. In a country like the United States for instance, separate for the most part from other nations by the wide oceans, the chances for conflict is that much greatly diminished. In the case of the United States, it started small as colonies established along a wide coast. With its’ independence, it had the ability to expand throughout a large land area straight across to the other side of the continent. This has been the most important fact in both America's growth from small, lightly populated former colonies, to the strongest major power in the world. The policies of every American administration since independence have also focused on this idea, the right and obligation for America to expand and control the entire area between its two coasts. An idea called "Manifest Destiny” or its "obvious" destiny. The fact that this massive expansion was able to occur with little or no real conflict helped it in the extent and speed by which it did occur. This is a legacy of both Mexico's pre-colonial history and its’ history as a Spanish colony which did not allow it to develop along similar lines to the United States. Though it has a large land area, a large population and some important natural resources like oil; the fact that America constantly was acquiring more and more land, with relatively little cost was a factor in its internal stability. Americans had no basis for conflict with each other. With no history of feudalism or class conflict, plus a wide open country with a lot of available cheap land, Americans who did not like their present circumstances could, in the words of the writer Horace Greeley, simply "go West'.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
313
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE This they did in ever larger and larger numbers with assistance from the government, which made such settlement of newly acquired land easy and cheap. Most other nations did not enjoy this luxury. This pioneering spirit free of class conflict and violence, with peaceful borders and relative isolation goes a long way in explaining the ability of America to become the strongest economic and military power on the Earth. The lack of area in which to expand uncontested is what has lead to continual strife in other countries of the world, most notably and with the most serious consequences, in Europe. Throughout history, thus, we see geographic location has been of supreme importance. It has been a major factor in a nation’s ability to advance its interests, even in the modern era and looking at continuing world events this fact is not likely to change. Looking at economics - we must consider what is known as Political Economy, that is the interrelationship between politics and economics. They are closely tied together. In fact, it has been stated by many different theorists that politics itself is just the particular method that people have adapted in order to solve their economic problems. Among the most prominent of these has been Karl Marx. Other important theorists on how politics and economics interact are Adam Smith and his most famous work, "The Wealth of Nations” (1776). In it, he promoted the idea of "Laissez Faire", or letting an economy run itself with little or no government interference. Also important was Thomas Malthus, who wrote about population problems over available food, land, and resources. John Maynard Keynes who studied the business cycle and gave rise to an economic theory that bears his name. The most important fact in economics is the question of the ordering of the economy, and as stated, politics is how the economy is set up. Two of the most prominent methods are the market and central planning. The market is most closely associated with democratic free enterprise as is practiced in the United States. Central planning is an important feature of socialist, communist and to an extent fascist system. Whatever system is in place, all economies have to answer the basic questions of what to produce, how to produce it, and for whom to produce it. Calvin Coolidge once said, "the business of America is business". He may have been overstating it but generally, this can be said to be true and not only for the United States but also more and more for all nations.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
314
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The third major component we will examine in politics is culture. Though it may be examined third, it is by no means third in importance. In fact, all three things we are examining can be, at times of equal importance. The first two, geography and economics, are more or less external forces. People choose (usually) the type of government and what type of economic policy they will follow. In addition, a country can try to lessen geographic pressure. This can be done by staying neutral like Switzerland, or by maintaining superior and powerful armed forces capable of repelling aggression directed against it like Israel. A nation with no strategic geographic territory in an area where it is outnumbered, out gunned, and surrounded by aggressive neighbors. Its survival has been a matter of sheer superior capabilities. However, a nation's culture is something that is immutable and intrinsically a part of a people. Thus, all of its politics will be naturally defined by it. The fact is that all peoples are different from each other. This is not a value judgment; it is not a question of superiority, or inferiority. Terms like "Social Darwinism" (the struggle among peoples in which only the strong survive) or "White Man's Burden" the presumed justification for colonial expansion have historically been used to justify ideas of national or cultural superiority. (The white Europeans felt they had a burden or obligation to "civilize" the world). However, culture simply means those attitudes and beliefs that a nation holds that affects their political and economic decisions. It is a fact of history that at certain times specific peoples and cultures have found themselves in positions of importance or power that gave them an advantage over others. Usually this is because those cultures found themselves better able to adapt to changing circumstances and times. Examples of cultures that maximized their advantages have been the Roman Empire, Great Britain, Germany, Japan, and the United States. Each one of these arose from simple beginnings to positions of immense power in the world. This is directly traceable to their cultures, which proved themselves up to the challenges they were presented with. The keyword historically for success thus is adaptability.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
315
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 14.0 UNDERSTAND THE CHARACTERISTICS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT AND THE STRUCTURE AND OPERATION OF THE U.S. POLITICAL SYSTEM Skill 14.1
Identify central concepts and purposes of the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution.
The Declaration of independence is an outgrowth of both ancient Greek ideas of democracy and individual rights and the ideas of the European Enlightenment and the Renaissance, especially the ideology of the political thinker John Locke. Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) the principle author of the Declaration borrowed much from Locke's theories and writings. Essentially, Jefferson applied Locke's principles to the contemporary American situation. Jefferson argued that the currently reigning King George Ill had repeatedly violated the rights of the colonists as subjects of the British Crown. Disdaining the colonial petition for redress of grievances (a right guaranteed by the Declaration of Rights of 1689), the King seemed bent upon establishing an "absolute tyranny" over the colonies. Such disgraceful behavior itself violated the reasons for which government had been instituted. The American colonists were left with no choice, "it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such a government, and to provide new guards for their future security" so wrote Thomas Jefferson. Yet, though his fundamental principles were derived from Locke's, Jefferson was bolder than his intellectual mentor was. He went farther in that his view of natural rights was much broader than Locke’s and less tied to the idea of property rights. For instance, though both Jefferson and Locke believed very strongly in property rights, especially as a guard for individual liberty, the famous line in the Declaration about people being endowed with the inalienable right to "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness", was originally Locke's idea. It was "life, liberty, and private property". Jefferson didn't want to tie the idea of rights to any one particular circumstance however, thus, he changed Locke's original specific reliance on property and substituted the more general idea of human happiness as being a fundamental right that is the duty of a government to protect. Locke and Jefferson both stressed that the individual citizen's rights are prior to and more important than any obligation to the state. Government is the servant of the people. The officials of government hold their positions at the sufferance of the people. Their job is to ensure that the rights of the people are preserved and protected by that government. The citizen come first, the government comes second. The Declaration thus produced turned out to be one of the most important and historic documents that expounded the inherent rights of all peoples; a document still looked up to as an ideal and an example.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
316
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Declaration of lndependence - The Declaration of lndependence was the founding document of the United States of America. The Articles of Confederation were the first attempt of the newly independent states to reach a new understanding amongst themselves. The Declaration was intended to demonstrate the reasons that the colonies were seeking separation from Great Britain. Conceived by and written for the most part by Thomas Jefferson, it is not only important for what it says, but also for how it says it. The Declaration is in many respects a poetic document. Instead of a simple recitation of the colonists’ grievances, it set out clearly the reasons why the colonists were seeking their freedom from Great Britain. They had tried all means to resolve the dispute peacefully. It was the right of a people, when all other methods of addressing their grievances have been tried and failed, to separate themselves from that power that was keeping them from fully expressing their rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness". Within a few months from the adoption of the Articles of Confederation, it became apparent that there were serious defects in the system of government established for the new republic. There was a need for changes that would create a national government with adequate powers to replace the Confederation, which was actually only a league of sovereign states. In 1786, an effort to regulate interstate commerce ended in what is known as the Annapolis Convention. Because only five states were represented, this Convention was not able to accomplish definitive results. The debates, however, made it clear that foreign and interstate commerce could not be regulated by a government with as little authority as the government established by the Confederation. Congress was, therefore, asked to call a convention to provide a constitution that would address the emerging needs of the new nation. The convention met under the presidency of George Washington, with fifty-five of the sixty-five appointed members present. A constitution was written in four months. The Constitution of the United States is the fundamental law of the republic. It is a precise, formal, written document of the extraordinary, or supreme, type of constitution. The founders of the Union established it as the highest governmental authority. There is no national power superior to it. The foundations were so broadly laid as to provide for the expansion of national life and to make it an instrument which would last for all time. To maintain its stability, the framers created a difficult process for making any changes to it. No amendment can become valid until it is ratified by three fourths of all of the states. The British system of government was part of the basis of the final document. But significant changes were necessary to meet the needs of a partnership of states that were tied together as a single federation, yet sovereign in their own local affairs. This constitution established a system of government that was unique and advanced far beyond other systems of its day.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
317
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE There were, to be sure, differences of opinion. The compromises that resolved these conflicts are reflected in the final document. The first point of disagreement and compromise was related to the Presidency. Some wanted a strong, centralized, individual authority. Others feared autocracy or the growth of monarchy. The compromise was to give the President broad powers but to limit the amount of time, through term of office, that any individual could exercise that power. The power to make appointments and to conclude treaties was controlled by the requirement of the consent of the Senate. The second conflict was between large and small states. The large states wanted power proportionate to their voting strength; the small states opposed this plan. The compromise was that all states should have equal voting power in the Senate, but to make the membership of the House of Representatives determined in proportion to population. The third conflict was about slavery. The compromise was that (a) fugitive slaves should be returned by states to which they might flee for refuge, and (b) that no law would be passed for 20 years prohibiting the importation of slaves. The fourth major area of conflict was how the President would be chosen. One side of the disagreement argued for election by direct vote of the people. The other side thought the President should be chosen by Congress. One group feared the ignorance of the people; the other feared the power of a small group of people. The Compromise was the Electoral College. The Constitution binds the states in a governmental unity in everything that affects the welfare of all. At the same time, it recognizes the right of the people of each state to independence of action in matters that relate only to them. Since the Federal Constitution is the law of the land, all other laws must conform to it. The debates conducted during the Constitutional Congress represent the issues and the arguments that led to the compromises in the final document. The debates also reflect the concerns of the Founding Fathers that the rights of the people be protected from abrogation by the government itself and the determination that no branch of government should have enough power to override the others. There is, therefore, a system of checks and balances. The Federalist Papers were written to win popular support for the new proposed Constitution. In these publications the debates of the Congress and the concerns of the founding fathers were made available to the people of the nation. In addition to providing an explanation of the underlying philosophies and concerns of the Constitution and the compromises that were made, the Federalist Papers conducted what has frequently been called the most effective marketing and public relations campaign in human history.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
318
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 14.2
Identify other key documents of U.S. government.
Bill Of Rights - The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution dealing with civil liberties and civil rights. James Madison was credited with writing a majority of them. They are in brief: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Freedom of Religion. Right To Bear Arms. Security from the quartering of troops in homes. Right against unreasonable search and seizures. Right against self-incrimination. Right to trial by jury, right to legal council. Right to jury trial for civil actions. No cruel or unusual punishment allowed. These rights shall not deny other rights the people enjoy. Powers not mentioned in the Constitution shall be retained by the states or the people.
Skill 14.3
Understand the structure and functions of government at the local, state, and national levels.
In the United States, the three branches of the federal government are the Executive, the Legislative, and the Judicial, divide up their powers thus: Legislative – Article I of the Constitution established the Legislative, or lawmaking branch of the government called the Congress. It is made up of two houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate. Voters in all states elect the members who serve in each respective House of Congress. The Legislative branch is responsible for making laws, raising and printing money, regulating trade, establishing the postal service and federal courts, approving the President’s appointments, declaring war and supporting the armed forces. The Congress also has the power to change the Constitution itself, and to impeach (bring charges against) the President. Charges for impeachment are brought by the House of Representatives, and are then tried in the Senate.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
319
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Executive – Article II of the Constitution created the Executive branch of the government, headed by the President, who leads the country, recommends new laws, and can veto bills passed by the legislative branch. As the chief of state, the President is responsible for carrying out the laws of the country and the treaties and declarations of war passed by the Legislative branch. The President also appoints federal judges and is commander-in-chief of the military when it is called into service. Other members of the Executive branch include the VicePresident, also elected, and various cabinet members as he might appoint: ambassadors, presidential advisors, members of the armed forces, and other appointed and civil servants of government agencies, departments and bureaus. Though the President appoints them, they must be approved by the Legislative branch. Judicial – Article III of the Constitution established the Judicial branch of government headed by the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court has the power to rule that a law passed by the legislature, or an act of the Executive branch is illegal and unconstitutional. Citizens, businesses, and government officials can also, in an appeal capacity, ask the Supreme Court to review a decision made in a lower court if someone believes that the ruling by a judge is unconstitutional. The Judicial branch also includes lower federal courts known as federal district courts that have been established by the Congress. These courts try law breakers and review cases referred from other courts.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
320
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Powers delegated to the federal government: 1. To tax. 2. To borrow and coin money
Powers reserved to the states: 1. To regulate intrastate trade. 2. To establish local governments. 3. To protect general welfare. 4. To protect life and property. 5. To ratify amendments.
3. To establish postal service. 4. To grant patents and copyrights. 5. To regulate interstate and foreign commerce. 6. To establish courts. 6. To conduct elections. 7. To declare war. 7. To make state and local laws. 8. To raise and support the armed forces. 9. To govern territories. 10. To define and punish felonies and piracy on the high seas. 11. To fix standards of weights and measures. 12. To conduct foreign affairs. Concurrent powers of the federal government and states. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Both Congress and the states may tax. Both may borrow money. Both may charter banks and corporations. Both may establish courts. Both may make and enforce laws. Both may take property for public purposes. Both may spend money to provide for the public welfare.
Implied powers of the federal government. 1. To establish banks or other corporations, implied from delegated powers to tax, borrow, and to regulate commerce. 2. To spend money for roads, schools, health, insurance, etc. implied from powers to establish post roads, to tax to provide for general welfare and defense, and to regulate commerce. 3. To create military academies, implied from powers to raise and support an armed force. 4. To locate and generate sources of power and sell surplus, implied from powers to dispose of government property, commerce, and war powers. 5. To assist and regulate agriculture, implied from power to tax and spend for general welfare and regulate commerce.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
321
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In the United States, checks and balances refers to the ability of each branch of government (Executive, Legislative, and Judicial) to “check” or limit the actions of the others. Examples of checks and balances are: The Executive branch limits the Legislature by power of veto over bills and appointments in the court system. The Judicial branch limits the power of the Legislature by judicial review and the ability to rule laws unconstitutional and may also determine executive orders unconstitutional. The Legislature checks the Executive by power of impeachment. Eleven states finally ratified the document and the new national government went into effect. It was no small feat that the delegates were able to produce a workable document that satisfied all opinions, feelings, and viewpoints. The separation of powers of the three branches of government and the built-in system of checks and balances to keep power balanced were a stroke of genius. It provided for the individuals and the states as well as an organized central authority to keep a new inexperienced young nation on track. They created a system of government so flexible that it has continued in its basic form to this day. In 1789, the Electoral College unanimously elected George Washington as the first President and the new nation was on its way. The Federal Court System - is provided for in the Constitution of the United States on the theory that the judicial power of the federal government could not be entrusted to the individual states, many of which had opposed the idea of a strong federal government in the first place. Thus Article III, Section 1, of the Constitution says: "the judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish". In accordance with these provisions, Congress passed the Judiciary Act in 1789, organizing the Supreme Court of the United States and establishing a system of federal courts of inferior jurisdiction. The states were left to establish their own judicial systems subject to the exclusive overall jurisdiction of the federal courts and to Article VI of the Constitution declaring the judges of the state courts to be bound to the Constitution and to the laws and treaties of the United States. Thus, developed in the United States was a dual system of judicial power and authority. The jurisdiction of the federal courts is further defined in Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution as extending in law and in equity to all cases arising under the Constitution and through federal legislation to controversies in which the United States is a party, including those arising from treaties with other governments, to maritime cases on the high seas in areas under American control, to disagreements between the states, between a citizen and a state, between citizens in different states and between a citizen and a foreign nation. The federal courts were also originally empowered with jurisdiction over problems airing between citizens of one state and the government of another state.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
322
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The 11th Amendment to the Constitution (ratified 1795) however removed from federal jurisdiction those cases in which citizens of one state were the plaintiffs and the government of another state was the defendant. The amendment, though, did not disturb the jurisdiction of the federal courts in cases in which a state government is a plaintiff and a citizen of another state the defendant. The federal courts also have exclusive jurisdiction in all patent and copyright cases and by congressional law in 1898; the federal courts were empowered with original jurisdiction in all bankruptcy cases. The courts established under the powers granted by Article Ill Section 1 & 2 of the Constitution are known as Constitutional Courts. Judges of the Constitutional courts are appointed for life by the President with the approval of the Senate. These courts are the district courts, lower courts of original jurisdiction, the courts of appeals (before 1948, known as the circuit court of appeals), exercising appellate jurisdiction over the district courts and the Supreme Court. A district court functions in each of the more than ninety federal judicial districts and in the District of Columbia. A court of appeals functions in each of the ten federal judicial circuits and also in the District of Columbia, (The federal district court and the circuit court of appeals of the District of Columbia performs all of the same functions discharged in the states by the state courts). All of the lower federal courts operate under the uniform rules of procedure promulgated by the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest appellate court in the country and is a court of original jurisdiction according to the Constitution "in all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party". By virtue of its’ power to declare legislation unconstitutional (see Section 1.2 Marbury vs. Madison), the Supreme Court is also the final arbitrator of all Constitutional questions. Other federal courts, established by Congress under powers to be implied in other articles of the Constitution, are called legislative courts. These courts are the Court of Claims, the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals, the Customs Court, and the territorial courts established in the federally administered territories of the United States. The special jurisdictions of these courts are defined by the Congress of the United States. (Except in the case of the territorial courts, which are courts of general jurisdiction), the specialized functions of these courts are suggested by their titles.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
323
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The State Courts - Each State has an independent system of courts operating under the laws and constitution of that particular individual state. Broadly speaking, the state courts are based on the English judicial system as it existed in colonial times, but as modified by succeeding statues. The character and names of the various courts differ from state to state, but the state courts as a whole have general jurisdiction, except in cases in which exclusive jurisdiction has by law been vested in the federal courts. In cases involving the United States Constitution or federal laws or treaties, etc, the state courts are governed by the decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States and their decisions are subject to review by it. Cases involving the federal Constitution, federal laws, or treaties and the like, may be brought to either the state courts, or the federal courts. Ordinary civil suits not involving any of the aforementioned elements, can be brought only to the state courts, except in cases of different state citizenship between the parties, in which case the suit may be brought to a federal court. By an act of Congress, however, suits involving different federal questions, or different state citizenship may be brought to a federal court only when it is a civil suit that involves $3,000 or more. All such cases that involve a smaller amount must be brought to a state court only. In accordance with a congressional law, a suit brought before a state court may be removed to a federal court at the option of the defendant. Bearing in mind that any statements about state courts that is trying to give a typical explanation of all of them is subject to many exceptions. The following may be taken as a general comprehensive statement of their respective jurisdictions, functions, and organization. County courts of general original jurisdiction exercise both criminal and civil jurisdictions in most states. A few states maintain separate courts of criminal and civil law inherited from the English judicial system. Between the lower courts and the supreme appellate courts of each state in a number of states, are intermediate appellate courts which, like the federal courts of appeals, provide faster justice for individuals by disposing of a large number of cases which would otherwise be added to the overcrowded calendars of the higher courts. Courts of last resort, the highest appellate courts for the states in criminal and civil cases are usually called State Supreme Courts. The state court system also includes a number of minor, local courts with limited jurisdictions; these courts dispose of minor offenses and relatively small civil actions. Included in this classification are police and municipal courts in various cities and towns, and the courts presided over by justices of the peace in rural areas. Specifically, in regards to the state of Florida, they are 16 circuit courts, Florida is also part of the United States Fifth Judicial Circuit of the Federal Court system and Florida also has two federal court districts at a lower level. The State Supreme Court is comprised of seven justices that are elected for sixyear terms.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
324
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 14.4
Identify elements and operation of the U.S. electoral system.
The U.S. electoral process has many and varied elements, from simple voting to complex campaigning for office. Everything in between is complex and detailed. First of all, American citizens vote. They vote for laws and statues and referenda and elected officials. They have to register in order to vote, and at that time they can declare their intended membership in a political party. America has a large list of political parties, which have varying degrees of membership. The Democratic and Republican Parties are the two with the most money and power, but other political parties abound. In some cases, people who are registered members of a political party are allowed to vote for only members of that political party. This takes place in many cases in primary elections, when, for example, a number of people are running to secure the nomination of one political party for a general election. If you are a registered Democrat, then in the primary election, you will be able to vote for only Democratic candidates; this restriction will be listed for the general election, in which the Democratic Party will expect you to vote for that party’s candidate but in which you can also vote for whomever you want. A potential voter need not register for a political party, however. Candidates affiliate themselves with political parties (or sometimes not—some candidates run unaffiliated, but they usually have trouble raising enough money to adequately campaign against their opponents). Candidates then go about the business of campaigning, which includes getting the word on out on their candidacy, what they believe in, and what they will do if elected. All of this costs money, of course, unless a candidate relies entirely on word-of-mouth or some sort of email campaign. Candidates sometimes get together for debates, to showcase their views on important issues of the day and how those views differ from those of their opponents. Candidates give public speeches, attend public functions, and spout their views to reporters, for coverage in newspapers and magazines and on radio and television. On Election Day, candidates cross their fingers and hope that what they’ve done is enough. The results of elections are made known very quickly, sometimes instantly, thanks to computerized vote tallying. Once results are finalized, winning candidates give victory speeches and losing candidates give concession speeches. Losing candidates go back to the lives they were leading, and winning candidates get ready to take their places in the local, state, or national government.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
325
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Elections take place regularly, so voters know just how long it will be before the next election. Some candidates begin planning their next campaign the day after their victory or loss. Voters technically have the option to recall elected candidates; such a measure, however, is drastic and requires a large pile of signatures to get the motion on the ballot and then a large number of votes to have the measure approved. As such, recalls of elected candidates are relatively rare. One widely publicized recall in recent years was that of California Governor Gray Davis, who was replaced by movie star Arnold Schwarzenegger. Another method of removing public officials from office is impeachment. This is also rare but still a possibility. Both houses of the state or federal government get involved, and both houses have to approve the impeachment measures by a large margin. In the case of the federal government, the House of Representatives votes to impeach a federal official and the Senate votes to convict or acquit. Conviction means that the official must leave office immediately; acquittal results in no penalties or fines. All of these components of the U.S. electoral process are public and can be known by anyone who wishes to do a little digging. The College of Electors—or the Electoral College, as it is more commonly known—has a long and distinguished history of mirroring the political will of the American voters. On some occasions, the results have not been entirely in sync with that political will. Article II of the Constitution lists the specifics of the Electoral College. The Founding Fathers included the Electoral College as one of the famous "checks and balances" for two reasons: 1) to give states with small populations more of an equal weight in the presidential election, and 2) they didn't trust the common man (women couldn't vote then.) to be able to make an informed decision on which candidate would make the best president. First of all, the same theory that created the U.S. Senate practice of giving two Senators to each state created the Electoral College. The large-population states had their populations reflected in the House of Representatives. New York and Pennsylvania, two of the states with the largest populations, had the highest number of members of the House of Representatives. But these two states still had only two senators, the exact same number that small-population states like Rhode Island and Delaware had. This was true as well in the Electoral College: Each state had just one vote, regardless of how many members of the House represented that state. So, the one vote that the state of New York cast would be decided by an initial vote of New York's Representatives. (If that initial vote was a tie, then that deadlock would have to be broken.)
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
326
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Secondly, when the Constitution was being written, not many people knew a whole lot about government, politics, or presidential elections. A large number of people were farmers or lived in rural areas, where they were far more concerned with making a living and providing for their families than they were with who was running for which office. Many of these "common people" could not read or write, either, and wouldn't be able to read a ballot in any case. Like it or not, the Founding Fathers thought that even if these "common people" could vote, they wouldn't necessarily make the best decision for who would make the best president. So, the Electoral College was born. Technically, the electors do not have to vote for anyone. The Constitution does not require them to do so. And throughout the history of presidential elections, some have indeed voted for someone else. But tradition holds that the electors vote for the candidate chosen by their state, and so the vast majority of electors do just that. The Electoral College meets a few weeks after the presidential election. Mostly, their meeting is a formality. When all the electoral votes are counted, the president with the most votes wins. In most cases, the candidate who wins the popular vote also wins in the Electoral College. However, this has not always been the case. Most recently, in 2000 in Florida, the election was decided by the Supreme Court. The Democratic Party's nominee was Vice-President Al Gore. A presidential candidate himself back in 1988, Gore had served as vice-president for both of President Bill Clinton's terms. As such, he was both a champion of Clinton's successes and a reflection of his failures. The Republican Party's nominee was George W. Bush, governor of Texas and son of former President George Bush. He campaigned on a platform of a strong national defense and an end to questionable ethics in the White House. The election was hotly contested, and many states went down to the wire, being decided by only a handful of votes. The one state that seemed to be flip-flopping as Election Day turned into Election Night was Florida. In the end, Gore won the popular vote, by nearly 540,000 votes. But he didn't win the electoral vote. The vote was so close in Florida that a recount was necessary under federal law. Eventually, the Supreme Court weighed in and stopped all the recounts. The last count had Bush winning by less than a thousand votes. That gave him Florida and the White House. Because of these irregularities, especially the last one, many have taken up the cry to eliminate the Electoral College, which they see as archaic and capable of distorting the will of the people. After all, they argue, elections these days come down to one or two key states, as if the votes of the people in all the other states don’t matter. Proponents of the Electoral College point to the tradition of the entity and all of the other elections in which the electoral vote mirrored the popular vote. Eliminating the Electoral College would no doubt take a constitutional amendment, and those are certainly hard to come by. The debate crops up every four years; in the past decade, though, the debate has lasted longer in between elections.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
327
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 14.5
Distinguish the role of political parties and interest groups.
In regards to the American political system, it is important to realize that political parties are never mentioned in the United States Constitution. George Washington himself warned against the creation of “factions” in American politics that cause “jealousies and false alarms” and the damage they could cause to the body politic. Thomas Jefferson echoed this warning, yet he would come to lead a party himself. Americans had good reason to fear the emergence of political parties. They had witnessed how parties worked in Great Britain. Parties, called “factions” in Britain, thus Washington’s warning, were made up of a few people who schemed to win favors from the government. They were more interested in their own personal profit and advantage than in the public good. Thus, the new American leaders were very interested in keeping factions from forming. It was, ironically, disagreements between two of Washington’s chief advisors, Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton that spurred the formation of the first political parties in the newly formed United States of America. The two parties that developed through the early 1790s were led by Jefferson as the Secretary of State and Alexander Hamilton as the Secretary of the Treasury. Jefferson and Hamilton were different in many ways. Not the least was their views on what should be the proper form of government of the United States. This difference helped to shape the parties that formed around them. Hamilton wanted the federal government to be stronger than the state governments. Jefferson believed that the state governments should be stronger. Hamilton supported the creation of the first Bank of the United States; Jefferson opposed it because he felt that it gave too much power to wealthy investors who would help run it. Jefferson interpreted the Constitution strictly; he argued that nowhere did the Constitution give the federal government the power to create a national bank. Hamilton interpreted the Constitution much more loosely. He pointed out that the Constitution gave Congress the power to make all laws “necessary and proper” to carry out its duties. He reasoned that since Congress had the right to collect taxes, then Congress had the right to create the bank. Hamilton wanted the government to encourage economic growth. He favored the growth of trade, manufacturing, and the rise of cities as the necessary parts of economic growth. He favored the business leaders and mistrusted the common people. Jefferson believed that the common people, especially the farmers, were the backbone of the nation. He thought that the rise of big cities and manufacturing would corrupt American life.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
328
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Finally, Hamilton and Jefferson had their disagreements only in private. But when Congress began to pass many of Hamilton’s ideas and programs, Jefferson and his friend, James Madison, decided to organize support for their own views. They moved quietly and very cautiously in the beginning. In 1791, they went to New York telling people that they were going to study its wildlife. Actually, Jefferson was more interested in meeting with several important New York politicians such as its governor George Clinton and Aaron Burr, a strong critic of Hamilton. Jefferson asked Clinton and Burr to help defeat Hamilton’s program by getting New Yorkers to vote for Jefferson’s supporters in the next election. Before long, leaders in other states began to organize support for either Jefferson or Hamilton. Jefferson’s supporters called themselves DemocraticRepublicans (often this was shortened just to Republicans, though in actuality it was the forerunner of today’s Democratic Party). Hamilton and his supporters were known as Federalists, because they favored a strong federal government. The Federalists had the support of the merchants and ship owners in the Northeast and some planters in the South. Small farmers, craft workers, and some of the wealthier landowners supported Jefferson and the DemocraticRepublicans. By the time Washington retired from office in 1796, the new political parties would come to play an important role in choosing his successor. Each party would put up its own candidates for office. The election of 1796 was the first one in which political parties played a role. A role that, for better or worse, they have continued to play in various forms for all of American history. By the beginning of the 1800s, the Federalist Party, torn by internal divisions, began suffering a decline. The election in 1800 of Thomas Jefferson as President, Hamilton’s bitter rival, and after its leader Alexander Hamilton was killed in 1804 in a duel with Aaron Burr, the Federalist Party began to collapse. By 1816, after losing a string of important elections, (Jefferson was reelected in 1804, and James Madison, a Democratic-Republican was elected in 1808), the Federalist party ceased to be an effective political force, and soon passed off the national stage. By the late 1820s, new political parties had grown up. The DemocraticRepublican Party, or simply the Republican Party, had been the major party for many years, but differences within it about the direction the country was headed in caused a split after 1824. Those who favored strong national growth took the name Whigs after a similar party in Great Britain and united around then President John Quincy Adams. Many business people in the Northeast as well as some wealthy planters in the South, supported it. Those who favored slower growth and were more worker and small farmer oriented, went on to form the new Democratic Party, with Andrew Jackson being its first leader as well as becoming the first President from it. It is the forerunner of today’s present party of the same name.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
329
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In the mid-1850s, the slavery issue was beginning to heat up. In 1854, those opposed to slavery, the Whigs and some northern Democrats, united to form the Republican Party. (Before the Civil War, the Democratic Party was more heavily represented in the South and thus was pro-slavery for the most part). By the time of the Civil War, the present form of the major political parties had been formed. Though there would sometimes be drastic changes in ideology and platforms over the years, no other political parties would mange to gain enough strength to seriously challenge the "Big-Two" parties. In fact, the two parties have shown themselves to adapt to changing times. In many instances, they have managed to shut out other parties by simply adapting their platforms. For example, in the 1930s during the Depression and in the years immediately proceeding it, the Democratic Party adapted much of the Socialist Party platform and under Franklin Roosevelt put much of it into effect. This managed to eliminate any contenders as a serious threat. Since the Civil War, no other political party has managed to either gain enough support to elect members to Congress or to elect a President. Some have come closer than others, but barring any unforeseen circumstances, the absolute monopoly on national political debate seems very secure in the hands of the Republican and Democratic parties. A special interest is nothing more than a subject that a person or people who pursue one issue above all others. As more and more people gained more and more money, they began to pressure their lawmakers more and more to pass laws that favored their interests. Exporters of goods from ports to destinations overseas would not want to see heavy taxes on such exports. People who owned large amounts of land wouldn’t want to see a sharp increase in property taxes. The list goes on and on. These special interests can be found today. These days, it’s just more money and more ways to influence lawmakers that distinguish special interest pursuits from those made in years past. So, too, can we draw a straight line from the deliberative-collaborative traditions of today to the secret meetings and political conventions of colonial days. Special interest groups are not necessarily economic powers but rather groups whose people want to effect political change (or make sure that such change doesn’t take place, depending on the status of the laws at the time). A good example of a special interest group is an anti-abortion group or a pro-choice group. The abortion issue is still a divisive one in American politics, and many groups will want to protect or defend or ban—depending on which side they’re on—certain rights and practices. An anti-abortion group, for example, might pay big money to candidates who pledge to work against laws that protect the right for women to have abortions.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
330
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE As long as these candidates continue to assure their supporters that they will keep on fighting the fight, the money will continue to flow. This kind of social group usually has a large number of dedicated individuals who do much more than vote: They organize themselves into political action committees, attend meetings and rallies, and work to make sure that their message gets out to a wide audience. Methods of spreading the word often include media advertising on behalf of their chosen candidates. This kind of expenditure is no doubt welcomed by the candidates, who will get the benefit of the exposure but won’t have to spend that money because someone else is signing the checks. Skill 14.6
Understand ways citizens participate in and influence the political process.
The most basic way for citizens to participate in the political process is to vote. Since the passing of the 23rd Amendment in 1965, US citizens who are at least 18 years old are eligible to vote. Elections are held at regular intervals at all levels of government, allowing citizens to weigh in on local matters as well as those of national scope. Citizens wishing to engage in the political process to a greater degree have several paths open, such as participating in local government. Counties, states, and sometimes even neighborhoods are governed by locally-elected boards or councils which meet publicly. Citizens are usually able to address these boards, bringing their concerns and expressing their opinions on matters being considered. Citizens may even wish to stand for local election and join a governing board, or seek support for higher office. Supporting a political party is another means by which citizens can participate in the political process. Political parties endorse certain platforms that express general social and political goals, and support member candidates in election campaigns. Political parties make use of much volunteer labor, with supporters making telephone calls, distributing printed material and campaigning for the party's causes and candidates. Political parties solicit donations to support their efforts as well. Contributing money to a political party is another form of participation citizens can undertake. Another form of political activity is to support an issue-related political group. Several political groups work actively to sway public opinion on various issues or on behalf of a segment of American society. These groups may have representatives who meet with state and federal legislators to "lobby" them - to provide them with information on an issue and persuade them to take favorable action.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
331
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 14.7
Understand the rights and responsibilities of U.S. citizenship.
A citizen in a democratic society is expected to do certain things in order to remain such a citizen. First and foremost, that person is expected to follow the laws of that society. The vast majority of the laws of a democratic society have been enacted to facilitate the continuance of that society. Many of these laws also have the rights of the citizens in mind. It is certainly easier to follow some of these laws than others. Throughout the history of democratic societies, however, laws have been passed that seem to violate the very spirit of the rights of those citizens. In such cases, people have worked to overturn such laws, either directly or by means of pursuing judicial solutions or indirectly by way of making sure that the lawmakers who created such laws are not re-elected. This reinforces the idea that citizens have a responsibility to themselves as well and that if government is infringing on their basic rights, they have a natural right to speak up and do something about it. Related to this is the idea that the government of a democratic society exists in part to protect the rights of its citizens. People expect such protection, in both real and virtual terms. Real terms include civil and countrywide defense, and virtual terms include laws and the people who make them. If such protection standards are not being met, then the citizens have the right and even the duty to demand such protection and work to see that it is maintained or restored. Citizens of a democratic society are also expected to participate in the political process, either directly or indirectly. In theory, anyone who is a citizen of a democratic society can get himself or herself elected to something, be it at the local, state, or federal level. Other ways to participate in the political process include donating time and/or money to the political campaigns of others and speaking out on behalf of or against certain issues. The most basic level of participation in the political process is to vote. A democratic society is built on the theory of participatory government. Citizens of such a society expect that political debates on important issues will be public and ongoing, so that they can keep themselves informed on how their representatives view such issues. Information is meant to be shared, especially in a democratic society. If major political meetings begin to take place in private, without witnesses or records, then the citizens have the right to demand that such proceedings be made current, for only then can they know whether their government is acting on their behalf.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
332
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 15.0 UNDERSTAND FUNDAMENTAL ECONOMIC CONCEPTS, THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR ECONOMIC SYSTEMS, AND THE ORGANIZATION AND OPERATION OF THE U.S. ECONOMIC SYSTEM. Skill 15.1
Understand basic economic concepts.
Economics is the study of how a society allocates its scarce resources to satisfy what are basically unlimited and competing wants. Economics can also be defined as a study of the production, consumption and distribution of goods and services. Both of these definitions are the same. A fundamental fact of economics is that resources are scarce and that wants are infinite. The fact that scarce resources have to satisfy unlimited wants means that choices have to be made. If society uses its resources to produce good A then it doesn’t have those resources to produce good B. More of good A means less of good B. This trade-off is referred to as the opportunity cost, or the value of the sacrificed alternative. On the consumption side of the market, consumers buy the goods and services that give them satisfaction, or utility. They want to obtain the most utility they can for their dollar. The quantity of goods and services that consumers are willing and able to purchase at different prices during a given period of time is referred to as demand. Since consumers buy the goods and services that give them satisfaction, this means that, for the most part, they don’t buy the goods and services that they don’t want that don’t give them satisfaction. Consumers are, in effect, voting for the goods and services that they want with the dollars or what is called dollar voting. Consumers are basically signaling firms as to how they want society’s scarce resources used with their dollar votes. A good that society wants acquires enough dollar votes for the producer to experience profits – a situation where the firm’s revenues exceed the firm’s costs. The existence of profits indicate to the firm that it is producing the goods and services that consumers want and that society’s scarce resources are being used in accordance with consumer preferences. This process where consumers vote with their dollars is called consumer sovereignty. Consumers are basically directing the allocation of scarce resources in the economy with their dollar spending. Firms, who are in business to earn profit, then hire resources, or inputs, in accordance with consumer preferences. This is the way in which resources are allocated in a market economy.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
333
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Price plays an important role in a market economy. Demand was defined above. Supply is based on production costs. The supply of a good or service is defined as the quantities of a good or service that a producer is willing and able to sell at different prices during a given period of time. Market equilibrium occurs where the buying decisions of buyers are equal to the selling decision of seller, or where the demand and supply curves intersect. At this point the quantity that sellers want to sell at a price is equal to the quantity the buyers want to buy at that same price. This is the market equilibrium price. The price of an input or output allocates that input or output to those who are willing and able to transact at the market price. Those who can transact at the market price or better are included in the market; those that can’t or won’t transact at the market price are excluded from the market. Skill 15.2
Distinguish types of economic systems.
Economic systems refer to the arrangements a society has devised to answer what are known as the Three Questions: What goods to produce? How to produce the goods> and for Who are the goods being produced? Or how is the allocation of the output determined. Different economic systems answer these questions in different ways. These are the different “isms” that exist that define the method of resource and output allocation. Feudalism was a form of slavery, with a feudal lord functioning as a local government. The serfs worked for the feudal lord on very unfavorable terms and had to pay taxes to the lord. The economy was pretty much contained on the lord’s estate. The three questions were addressed by the policies of the feudal lord. A market economy answers these questions in terms of demand and supply and the use of markets. Consumers vote for the products they want with their dollar spending. Goods acquiring enough dollar votes are profitable, signaling to the producers that society wants their scarce resources used in this way. This is how the “What” question is answered. The producer then hires inputs in accordance with the goods consumers want, looking for the most efficient or lowest cost method of production. The lower the firm’s costs for any given level of revenue, the higher the firm’s profits. This is the way in which the “How” question is answered in a market economy. The “For Whom” question is answered in the marketplace by the determination of the equilibrium price. Price serves to ration the good to those who can and will transact at the market price or better. Those who can’t or won’t are excluded from the market. The United States has a market economy.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
334
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The opposite of the market economy is called the centrally planned economy. This used to be called Communism, even though the term is not correct in a strict Marxian sense. In a planned economy, the means of production are publicly owned with little, if any public ownership. Instead of the Three Questions being solved by markets, they have a planning authority that makes the decisions in place of markets. The planning authority decides what will be produced and how. Since most planned economies direct resources into the production of capital and military goods, there was little remaining for consumer goods and the result was chronic shortages. Price functions as an accounting measure and does not reflect scarcity. The former Soviet Union and most of the Eastern Bloc countries were planned economies of this sort. In between the two extremes is market socialism. This is a mixed economic system that uses both markets and planning. Planning is usually used to direct resources at the upper levels of the economy, with markets being used to determine prices of consumer goods and wages. This kind of economic system answers the three questions with planning and markets. The former Yugoslavia was a market socialist economy. Skill 15.3
Understand historical development of the U.S. economy.
Economic systems refer to the arrangements a society has devised to answer what are known as the Three Questions: What goods to produce, How to produce the goods, and For Whom are the goods being produced, or how is the allocation of the output determined. Different economic systems answer these questions in different ways. These are the different “isms” that exist that define the method of resource and output allocation. A market economy answers these questions in terms of demand and supply and the use of markets. Consumers vote for the products they want with their dollar spending. Goods acquiring enough dollar votes are profitable, signaling to the producers that society wants their scarce resources used in this way. This is how the “What” question is answered. The producer then hires inputs in accordance with the goods consumers want, looking for the most efficient or lowest cost method of production. The lower the firm’s costs for any given level of revenue, the higher the firm’s profits. This is the way in which the “How” question is answered in a market economy. The “For Whom” question is answered in the marketplace by the determination of the equilibrium price. Price serves to ration the good to those that can and will transact at the market price of better. Those who can’t or won’t are excluded from the market. The United States has a market economy.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
335
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The opposite of the market economy is called the centrally planned economy. This used to be called Communism, even though the term in not correct in a strict Marxian sense. In a planned economy, the means of production are publicly owned with little, if any public ownership. Instead of the Three Questions being solved by markets, they have a planning authority that makes the decisions in place of markets. The planning authority decides what will be produced and how. Since most planned economies directed resources into the production of capital and military goods, there was little remaining for consumer goods and the result was chronic shortages. Price functioned as an accounting measure and did not reflect scarcity. The former Soviet Union and most of the Eastern Bloc countries were planned economies of this sort. In between the two extremes is market socialism. This is a mixed economic system that uses both markets and planning. Planning is usually used to direct resources at the upper levels of the economy, with markets being used to determine prices of consumer goods and wages. This kind of economic system answers the three questions with planning and markets. The former Yugoslavia was a market socialist economy. You can put each nation of the world on a continuum in terms of these characteristics and rank them from most capitalistic to the most planned. The United States would probably rank as the most capitalistic and North Korea would probably rank as the most planned, but this doesn’t mean that the United States doesn’t engage in planning or that economies like mainland China don’t use markets Skill 15.4
Identify fundamental principles and characteristics of the U.S. economic system.
The U.S. economy consists of the household or consumer sector, the business sector and the government sector. Households earn their incomes by selling their factors of production in the input market. Businesses hire their inputs in the factor market and use them to produce outputs. Households use their incomes earned in the factor market to purchase the output of businesses. Both households and businesses are active participants in both the input and output market. The function of organized labor was to help obtain a higher factor income for workers. They negotiate the work agreement, or contract, for their union members. This collective bargaining agreement states the terms and conditions of employment for the length of the contract, and is a contract between the worker and the employers. Households do not spend all of their income; they save some of it in banks. A well-organized smoothly functioning banking system is required for the operation of the economy.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
336
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Even in a capitalist economy, there is a role for government. Government is required to provide the framework for the functioning of the economy. This requires a legal system, a monetary system, a watch dog authority to protect consumers from bad or dangerous products and practices. We need a government to correct for the misallocation of resources when the market doesn’t function properly, as in the case of externalities, like pollution. Government functions to provide public goods, like national defense and to correct for macro instability like inflation and unemployment through the use of monetary and fiscal policy. These are the more important roles that we define for government in our economy. In today’s world, markets are international. U.S. consumers and producers are affected by events on world markets. Our domestic prices, employment and income levels are affected by exchange rate changes. If the dollar depreciates in value, the cheaper dollar makes U.S. exports more attractive to foreigners who buy the relatively cheaper U.S. exports instead of the now relatively higher priced domestic goods. The increased demand for U.S. exports leads to higher employment levels in the export industries in the U.S. The lower demand for domestic products in the foreign country leads to unemployment in their domestic industries. Trade barriers function in the same way. Suppose the domestic government is confronted with rising unemployment in the domestic industry due to cheaper foreign imports. Consumers are buying the cheaper foreign import instead of the higher priced domestic good. In order to protect domestic labor, government imposes a tariff thus raising the price of the more efficiently produced foreign good. The result of the tariff is that consumers buy more of the domestic good and less of the foreign good. This leads to higher levels of income and employment in the domestic country. Trade pacts can be any kind of agreement between countries regarding any aspect of trade. They will affect U.S. consumers and producers in that they affect the price of imports and exports. This will cause effects in income and employment levels. Depending on the trade pact, this may help or hurt U.S. consumers and producers.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
337
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 15.5
Identify components of the U.S. economy.
Free enterprise, individual entrepreneurship, competitive markets and consumer sovereignty are all parts of a market economy. Individuals have the right to make their own decisions as to what they want to do as a career. The financial incentives are there for individuals who are willing to take the risk. A successful venture earns profit. It is these financial incentives that serve to motivate inventors and small businesses. The same is true for businesses. They are free to determine what production technique they want to use and what output they want to produce within the confines of the legal system. They can make investments based on their own decisions. Nobody is telling them what to do. Competitive markets, relatively free from government interference are also a manifestation of the freedom that the U.S. economic system is based on. These markets function on the basis of supply and demand to determine output mix and resource allocation. There is no commissar dictating what is produced and how. Since consumers buy the goods and services that give them satisfaction, this means that, for the most part, they don’t buy the goods and services that they don’t want that don’t give them satisfaction. Consumers are, in effect, voting for the goods and services that they want with the dollars or what is called dollar voting. Consumers are basically signaling firms as to how they want society’s scarce resources used with their dollar votes. A good that society wants acquires enough dollar votes for the producer to experience profits – a situation where the firm’s revenues exceed the firm’s costs. The existence of profits indicate to the firm that it is producing the goods and services that consumers want and that society’s scarce resources are being used in accordance with consumer preferences. When a firm does not have a profitable product, it is because that product is not tabulating enough dollar votes of consumers. Consumers don’t want the good or service and they don’t want society’s scarce resources being used in its production. This process where consumers vote with their dollars is called consumer sovereignty. Consumers are basically directing the allocation of scarce resources in the economy with the dollar spending. Firms, who are in business to earn profit, then hire resources, or inputs, in accordance with consumer preferences. This is the way in which resources are allocated in a market economy. This is the manner in which society achieves the output mix that it desires.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
338
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Profit, capital and competition all go together in the U.S. economic system. Competition is determined by market structure. Since the cost curves are the same for all the firms, the only difference comes from the revenue side. The most competitive of all market structures is perfect competition, characterized by numerous buyers and sellers, all with perfect knowledge. No one seller is big enough to influence price so the firm is a price taker. Products are homogenous so buyers are indifferent as to whom they buy from. The absence of barriers to entry makes it easy for firms to enter and leave the industry. At the other end of the spectrum is monopoly, the only seller of a unique product. Barriers to entry are significant enough to keep firms from entering or leaving the industry. In monopolistic competition firms sell similar products in an industry with low barriers to entry, making it easy for firms to enter and leave the industry. Oligopoly is a market structure with a few large firms selling heterogeneous or homogeneous product in a market structure with the strength of barriers to entry varying. Each firm maximizes profit by producing at the point where marginal cost equals marginal revenue. The existence of economic profits, an above normal rate of return, attracts capital to an industry and results in expansion. Whether or not new firms can enter depends on barriers to entry. Firms can enter easily in perfect competition and the expansion will continue until economic profits are eliminated and firms earn a normal rate of return. The significant barriers to entry in monopoly serve to keep firms out so the monopolist continues to earn an above normal rate of return. Some firms will be able to enter in monopolistic competition but won’t have a monopoly over the existing firm’s brand name. The competitiveness of the market structure determines whether new firms or capital can enter in response to profits. Households, businesses and government are related through the circular flow diagram. There are two markets. The input market is where factor owners sell their factors and employers hire their inputs. The output market is where firms sell the output they produce with their inputs. It’s where factors owners spend their incomes on goods and services. There are two sectors, households and businesses. Households sell their factors in the input market and use their income to purchase goods and services in the output market. So wages, interest, rent and profit flow from the business sectors to the household sector. Households that earn their factor incomes in the factor market spend their incomes on goods and services produced by businesses and sold in the output market. Receipts for goods and services flow from households to businesses. Government receives tax payments from households and businesses and provides services to businesses and households. Each of the three is a component of the aggregate sectors of the economy and as such makes a contribution to the GDP.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
339
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 15.6
Understand the role of government in the U.S. economy.
U.S. economic policy is based on promoting full employment and stable prices in the economy. The economy needs a stable environment in which to function. With this end in mind, monetary policy and/or fiscal policy is used to fine-tune the economy and to steer it toward its goals. Contractionary monetary and/or fiscal policies are used to slow an economy that is expanding too quickly. Expansionary monetary and/or fiscal policies are used to stimulate a sluggish economy to eliminate unemployment. The Fed has been raising interest rates until just recently to keep the economy from entering periods of inflation. Hurricane Katrina and the Iraqi War contributed to rising energy prices which had a rippling effect through the economy. The latest figures released showed an increase in unemployment and a slow down in the growth of GDP. This indicates that growth is slowing down and that the economy might be entering a period of recession. The Iraq War, the rise in oil prices, the situation in Lebanon are all factors that influence the U.S. economy. Did the Fed raise interest rates too much trying to fend off inflation and caused a recession? Only time will tell. If the unemployment and growth figures continue to rise, the Fed may have to lower interest rates to stimulate the economy. However, this will only work if the problem is a demand side problem. There is more than one strategy of economic growth and development and the strategy that a country selects must be consistent with its situation. The strategy chosen by the United States may not be well suited for less developed countries (LDC). Most of the developing countries are producers of agricultural products. Many of these countries need agricultural growth in order to feed their own population. For many this requires investment in equipment and machinery that they can’t afford. In some cases, they need land reform so people have workable plots of land. Hand in hand with the problem of agricultural growth is the problem of population growth. Many LDCs have large populations and a labor force that suffers from unemployment or underemployment. They need some method of controlling the growth of the population and giving the labor force the necessary training it requires. An increase in a resource, like labor, should be a factor contributing to economic growth, but that labor force must be productive and employed. One method of growth is through commodity. Most LDCs are producers of primary products like minerals and ore and other natural resources. Many developed countries are dependent on the LDCs for these commodities. LDCs complain of price instability in the markets for these products. When a nation’s economy is dependent on two or three primary commodities, any change in demand or supply results in big changes in the economies of the producers. This is why they have developed buffer stocks as a form of price stabilization to try to insulate the economies from market instability. The oil producing countries went a step further and formed a cartel. Cartelization is a form of collusion. It is when all of the producers act together and function as a monopolist.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
340
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The purpose or the cartel is to raise price by restricting supply. The cartel can only work if it has production controls that all of the member adhere to. The big problem with cartels is cheating. This occurs when one of more cartel member doesn’t follow the production controls. In spite of this, OPEC has been a very successful control. Import substitution and export development are two other growth strategies. Import substitution is a strategy of protecting the domestic industry with trade barriers so the population buys the domestically produced product. Sheltering the domestic industry allows it to grow to a point where it will hopefully be competitive in world markets. It also leads to higher employment levels in the domestic country. The problem is they may be sheltering an industry that will never be competitive, especially if the industry isn’t consistent with the resource base and technology of the domestic country. They will require imports of those products. Export development is closer to the principle of comparative advantage. The country exports the goods that its resources are suited for and imports those goods that its resources are not suited for. Export development as a growth strategy has been more successful than import substitution. Skill 15.7
Identify factors influencing the activities of American producers and consumers in international markets.
The theory of comparative advantage says that trade should be based on the comparative opportunity costs between two nations. The nation that can produce a good more cheaply should specialize in the production of that good and trade for the good in which it has the comparative disadvantage. In this way both nations will experience gains from trade. A basis for trade exists if there are differing comparative costs in each country. Suppose country A can produce ten units of good X or ten units of good Y with its resources. Country B can produce 30 units of X or 10 units of Y with its resources. What are the relative costs in each country? In country A, one X costs one unit of Y and in country B one X costs three units of Y. Good Y is cheaper in country B than it is in country A, 1/3X = 1 Y in country B versus 1Y = 1X in country A. Country B has the comparative advantage in the production of Y and country A has the comparative advantage in the production of good X. According to trade theory each country should specialize in the production of the good in which it has the comparative advantage. Country B will devote all of its resources to the production of good Y and country A will devote its resources to the production of good X. Each country will trade for the good in which it has the comparative disadvantage.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
341
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE When nations engage in trade, the traded items have to be paid for. This involves exchange rate and international currency markets. Today, the exchange rates for most currencies float. This means the exchange rate is determined by supply and demand, just like the price of any good. Governments are not required to intervene in the market, as they were when exchange rates were fixed. Under the Bretton Woods system, the U.S. dollar was quoted in terms of gold and all other major currencies were quoted in terms of the dollar. This meant that nations were required to buy and sell currencies to maintain the par value of their currency. Situations of dis-equilibrium resulted from imbalances in the nation’s Balance of Payments, which was an accounting statement of all of a nation’s inflows and outflows. If a nation’s inflows did not equal its outflows, its currency would come under pressure. A surplus in the Balance of Payments put upward pressure on the currency and the country would have to sell its currency against the dollar to increase the supply and take the upward pressure off of the exchange rate. If there was a deficit in the Balance of Payment, there would be downward pressure on the exchange rate and the nation would have to buy its currency against the dollar. The continued Payments imbalances resulted in one crisis after another in the world currency markets until the Bretton Woods system was ended. Currencies have been floating since 1973. This means they adjust to trade imbalances with their values appreciating or depreciating automatically without any form of intervention. There have been no crises in the currency markets since currencies have been floating. In today’s world, markets are international. Nations are all part of a global economy. No nation exists in isolationism or is totally independent of other nations. Isolationism is referred to as autarky or a closed economy. No one nation has all of the resources needed to be totally self-sufficient in everything it produces and consumes. Even a nation with such a well diversified resource base like the United States has to import items like coffee, tea and other items. The United States is not as dependent on trade as are other nations but we still need to trade for goods and items that we either can’t produce domestically or that we can’t produce as cheaply as other nations can. Membership in a global economy means that what one nation does affects other nations because economies are linked through international trade, commerce and finance. They all have open economies and they are all interdependent. International transactions affect the levels of income, employment and prices in each of the trading economies. The relative importance of trade is based on what percentage of Gross Domestic Product trade constitutes. In a country like the United States, trade represents only a few percent points of GDP. In other nations, trade may represent over fifty percent of GDP. For those countries changes in international transactions can cause many economic fluctuations and problems.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
342
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Trade barriers are a way in which economic problems are caused in other countries. Suppose the domestic government is confronted with rising unemployment in the domestic industry due to cheaper foreign imports. Consumers are buying the cheaper foreign import instead of the higher priced domestic good. In order to protect domestic labor, government imposes a tariff, thus raising the price of the more efficiently produced foreign good. The result of the tariff is that consumers buy more of the domestic good and less of the foreign good. The problem is that the foreign good is the product of the foreign nation’s labor. A decrease in the demand for the foreign good means foreign producers don’t need as much labor, so they lay-off workers in the foreign country. The result of the trade barrier is that unemployment has been exported from the domestic country to the foreign country. What one nation does affects other nations. The exact same thing can happen through the exchange rate and other capital markets. Capital goes where it receives the highest rate of return, regardless of national borders. Nations can affect their exchange rate values buy buying and selling foreign exchange in the currency markets. Suppose the United States decides that a lower valued dollar will stimulate its exports leading to higher employment levels in the United States. The United States in effect, sells dollars on the open market, thus increasing the supply of dollars on the world market. The effect is a depreciation of the dollar. The lower valued dollar makes U.S. exports more attractive to foreigners who buy the relatively cheaper U.S. exports instead of the now relatively higher priced domestic goods. The increased demand for U.S. exports leads to higher employment levels in the export industries in the U.S. The lower demand for domestic products in the foreign country leads to unemployment in their domestic industries. Again, what one nation does affects other nations? The existence of multinational corporations means that plants also go where the lowest cost deal is because it leads to higher levels of profits for them. Membership in a global economy adds another dimension to economics, in terms of aiding developing countries and in terms of national policies that are implemented.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
343
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE DOMAIN V.
INTEGRATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF ENGLISH
COMPETENCY 16.0 PREPARE AN ORGANIZED, DEVELOPED ANALYSIS ON A TOPIC RELATED TO LITERATURE, LANGUAGE, READING, RHETORIC, AND/OR COMPOSITION Topics may include: significant genres and types of literature; writers, works, and movements in the development of American, British, and other world literature; rhetorical principles and devices; the writing process; and reading theory and instructional practice. Before preparing anything for writing an essay, make certain that the topic chosen is limited enough to comprehensively limn within the time and wordlength allowed. Do not, for instance, attempt to write an essay entitled “Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment”—at best this is a book-length topic. Rather, pare down the focus to something more manageable, such as “Raskolnikoff’s Rationalization of Homicide.” Better yet, choose a shorter work as one’s topic. For instance, suppose that one chooses to write an essay entitled “Martin Luther King’s Use of Rhetoric and Symbolism in the ‘I Have a Dream’ Speech.” One could then prepare for writing the speech as follows: • • • • •
List all written works and songs mentioned by King. List all historical events and persons mentioned by King. List all landforms and American place names mentioned by King. Make a list of all the metaphors and similes used in the speech. Make a list of words, phrases, and ideas repeated in the speech.
Next, evaluate and analyze all of the above. Take well-organized notes and highlight key passages in the text. Typical questions to ask are: •
• • • • •
Why does King use imagery from the natural world—islands, sweltering summer, etc.—to describe abstractions such as freedom, equality, justice, and injustice? Does his use of metaphors shows any patterns or conscious intentions? Is his imagery effective? Why or why not? Why does King mention so many landforms and American place names? What is the effect? What is the relationship to King’s subject of the works and songs mentioned in his speech? What is the effect of King’s use of repetition in the speech? How would one describe the tone and effect of King’s speech? How do any of the matters above relate to King’s intended audience? Who is his intended audience? What does one think he wanted to achieve with them?
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
344
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE • •
What is the overall effectiveness and literary quality of King’s speech? Do the contents of “I Have a Dream” offer any hints or suggestions about what to put into speeches and/or writings in general?
Next, reconfigure the questions in the previous section into an outline—taking into account that an introduction and conclusion will need to provide a synthesis of the key material addressed by those questions. Then write and revise the essay. If one is uncertain as to the particulars of any of this, consult one of the many college composition style guides available. Note: Questions, strategies, emphases, and exercises similar to those above can equally apply when evaluating and analyzing any literary work. Once the instructor has given a written assignment for classroom development of the above competency, and the topics have been chosen, have students prepare by doing work along the lines of that listed above, as well as the following: • • •
Conduct research in the library to determine what others have done with the same topic and/or similar assignments. Consider who the audience is, then determine the appropriate tone, vocabulary, and content to get one’s key points across. If advocating a particular cause, opinion, and/or course of action, determine what type of support will strengthen the case (see below). Writers will also need to take into account any opposing views and determine a strategy to address and counter them.
A variety of supporting material is needed to make a successful presentation. Options for a persuasive essay, for instance, include: • • • •
Facts, figures, and statistics (if blending literary critique with social commentary; or if assessing the results of a particular pedagogical method or approach, for instance) Quotations from experts or other authoritative sources, such as critics Quotations from literary works Relevant personal experiences and/or anecdotes
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
345
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Massachusetts Sample Test SAMPLE ESSAY QUESTION #1 World Literature, Important Works
Read the passage below from The Diary of Anne Frank (1947); then complete the exercise that follows. Written on July 15, 1944, three weeks before the Frank family was arrested by the Nazis, Anne’s diary entry explains her worldview and future hopes.
It’s difficult in times like these: ideals, dreams and cherished hopes rise within us, only to be crushed by grim reality. It’s a wonder I haven’t abandoned all my ideals, they seem so absurd and impractical. Yet I cling to them because I still believe, in spite of everything, that people are truly good at heart. It’s utterly impossible for me to build my life on a foundation of chaos, suffering and death. I see the world being slowly transformed into a wilderness, I hear the approaching thunder that, one day, will destroy us too, I feel the suffering of millions, And yet, when I look up at the sky, I somehow feel that everything will change for the better, that this cruelty too shall end, that peace and tranquility will return once more. In the meantime, I must hold on to my ideals. Perhaps the day will come when I will be able to realize them! Using your knowledge of literature, write a response in which you: • •
Compare and contrast Anne’s ideals with her awareness of the conditions in which she lives; and Discuss how the structure of Anne’s writing—her sentences and paragraphs—emphasize the above contrast.
Sample Weak Response Anne Frank’s ideals in this writing make readers clear on the point that she was strongly against Hitler and the Nazis. You can tell that she knows the Nazis are very dangerous and violent people who cause “the suffering of millions.” Otherwise, why would she have written this? This fact of Nazis causing the suffering of millions of people, and killing them, is a large contrast to how much she believes “that people are truly good at heart.” Anne Frank is right about her ideals. And that is why her whole book is such a large contrast to the conditions in which she lived in WWII, when everything was going wrong in the world. You can also tell from this passage that she is a lot smarter than Hitler was. That is another big contrast in the book.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
346
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Anne’s sentences and paragraphs emphasize the above contrast. They are not fiction; they are her own real thoughts, and these thoughts don’t cause “a grim reality” of “cruelty” or the “absurd and impractical” things that she talks about as the war’s fault. No, Anne’s words cause us to see what is true and real in her art and in her heart. She makes us see that love is not the fiction. Hitler and the Nazis are the ones who make the fiction. We can read this in between the lines, which sometimes has to be done. Back when Anne Frank wrote her words down on paper, everything was going wrong around her but she knew what to do, and she did it. She wrote a world classic story about her life. This story is a big contrast to what the Germans were doing.
Sample Strong Response This excerpt from The Diary of Anne Frank reveals the inner strength of a young girl who refuses, despite the wartime violence and danger surrounding her, to let her idealism be overcome by hatred and mass killing. This idealism is reflected, in part, by her emphases on universal human hopes such as peace, tranquility, and goodwill. But Anne Frank is no dreamy Pollyanna. Reflecting on her idealism in the context of the war raging around her, she matter-of-factly writes: “my dreams, they seem so absurd and impractical.” This indicates Anne Frank’s awareness of not only her own predicament but of human miseries that extend beyond the immediate circumstances of her life. For elsewhere she writes in a similar vein, “In times like these… I see the world being slowly transformed into a wilderness”; despite her own suffering she can “feel the suffering of millions.” And yet Anne Frank believes, “in spite of everything, that people are truly good at heart.” This statement epitomizes the stark existential contrast of her worldview with the wartime reality that ultimately claimed her life. The statement also exemplifies how Anne’s literary form—her syntax and diction—mirror thematic content and contrasts. “In spite of everything,” she still believes in people. She can “hear the approaching thunder…yet, when I look up at the sky, I somehow feel that everything will change for the better.” At numerous points in this diary entry, first-hand knowledge of violent tragedy stands side-by-side with belief in humanity and human progress. “I must hold on to my ideals,” Anne concludes. “Perhaps the day will come when I’ll be able to realize them!” In her diary she has done so, and more.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
347
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE DOMAIN VI.
INTEGRATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF HISTORY
COMPETENCY 17.0 PREPARE AN ORGANIZED, DEVELOPED ANALYSIS ON A TOPIC RELATED TO HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT, AND/OR ECONOMICS Topics may include: the influence of ancient Greek and Roman societies on the development of Western civilization; the emergence, expansion, and evolution of Islam; the causes and consequences of the Age of Exploration; the formation of American democracy; and the economic and social consequences of industrial expansion in the United States. SAMPLE ESSAY QUESTION #1: Social Studies
For example: Discuss the emergence, expansion, and evolution of Islam Islam is a monotheistic faith that traces its traditions to Abraham and considers the Jewish patriarchs and prophets, especially Moses, King Solomon and Jesus Christ as earlier “Prophets of God”. Mohammed was born in 570 CE in a small Arabian town. Around 610, Mohammed came to some prominence through a new religion called Islam or submission to the will of God and his followers were called Moslems. His first converts were members of his family and his friends. As the new faith began to grow, it remained a secret society. But when they began to make their faith public, they met with opposition and persecution from the pagan Arabians who feared the loss of profitable trade with the pilgrims who came to the Kaaba every year. In 622, Mohammed and his close followers fled persecution in Mecca and found refuge in Medina. His flight is called the Hegira. Mohammed took advantage of feuds between Jews and Arabs and became the ruler, making it the capital of a rapidly growing state. Islam changed significantly. It became a fighting religion and Mohammed became a political leader. The group survived by raiding caravans on the road to Mecca and plundering nearby Jewish tribes. It attracted many converts from Bedouin tribes. By 630, Mohammed conquered Mecca and made it the religious center of Islam, toward which all Moslems turned to pray. By taking over the sacred city, Mohammed made it easier for converts to join the religion. By the time of his death in 632, most of the people of Arabia had become adherents of Islam.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
348
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Mohammed left behind a collection of revelations (surahs) he believed were delivered by the angel Gabriel. The Quran was reputedly dictated to Muhammad as the Word of God and published in a book called the Koran. The revelations were never dated or kept in any kind of order. After Mohammed’s death they were organized by length in diminishing order. The Koran contains Mohammed’s teachings on moral and theological questions, his legislation on political matters, and his comments on current events. Five basic principles of Islam are: Allah, Pray five times a day facing Mecca, Charity, Fasting during Ramadan and Pilgrimage to Mecca. The Islamic armies spread their faith by conquering the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Syria and Persia by 650 CE and expanding to North Africa and most of the Iberian Peninsula by 750 CE. During this period of expansion, the Muslim conquerors established great centers of learning in the Middle East.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
349
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Bibliography Adams, James Truslow. (2006). "The March of Democracy," Vol 1. "The Rise of the Union". New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, Publisher. Barbini, John & Warshaw, Steven. (2006). "The World Past and Present." New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, Publishers. Berthon, Simon & Robinson, Andrew. (2006. "The Shape of the World." Chicago: Rand McNally, Publisher. Bram, Leon (Vice-President and Editorial Director). (2006). "Funk and Wagnalls New Encyclopedia." United States of America. Burns, Edward McNall & Ralph, Philip Lee. (2006. "World Civilizations Their History and Culture" (5th ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., Publishers. Dauben, Joseph W. (2006). "The World Book Encyclopedia." Chicago: World Book Inc. A Scott Fetzer Company, Publisher. De Blij, H.J. & Muller, Peter O. (2006). "Geography Regions and Concepts" (Sixth Edition). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publisher. Encyclopedia Americana. (2006). Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Incorporated, Publisher. Heigh, Christopher (Editor). (2006). "The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and Ireland." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Publisher. Hunkins, Francis P. & Armstrong, David G. (2006). "World Geography People and Places." Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co. A Bell & Howell Company, Publishers. Jarolimek, John; Anderson, J. Hubert & Durand, Loyal, Jr. (2006). "World Neighbors." New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. London: Collier Macmillan Publishers. McConnell, Campbell R. (2006). "Economics-Principles, Problems, and Policies" (Tenth Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Publisher. Millard, Dr. Anne & Vanags, Patricia. (2006). "The Usborne Book of World History." London: Usborne Publishing Ltd., Publisher.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
350
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Novosad, Charles (Executive Editor). (2006). "The Nystrom Desk Atlas." Chicago: Nystrom Division of Herff Jones, Inc., Publisher. Patton, Clyde P.; Rengert, Arlene C.; Saveland, Robert N.; Cooper, Kenneth S. & Cam, Patricia T. (2006). "A World View." Morristown, N.J.: Silver Burdette Companion, Publisher. Schwartz, Melvin & O'Connor, John R. (2006). "Exploring A Changing World." New York: Globe Book Company, Publisher. “The Annals of America: Selected Readings on Great Issues in American History 1620-1968." (2006). United States of America: William Benton, Publisher. Tindall, George Brown & Shi, David E. (2006). "America-A Narrative History" (Fourth Edition). New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Publisher. Todd, Lewis Paul & Curti, Merle. (2006). "Rise of the American Nation" (Third Edition). New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, Inc., Publishers. Tyler, Jenny; Watts, Lisa; Bowyer, Carol; Trundle, Roma & Warrender, Annabelle (2006) 'The Usbome Book of World Geography." London: Usbome Publishing Ltd., Publisher. Willson, David H. (2006). "A History of England." Hinsdale, Illinois: The Dryder Press, inc., Publisher
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
351
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Sample Test: Social Studies
4. The foundation of modern constitutionalism is embodied in the idea that government is limited by law. This law was stated by:
1. Which one of the following is not a reason why Europeans came to the New World? A. To find resources in order to increase wealth
A. John Locke
B. To establish trade
B. Rousseau
C. To increase a ruler’s power and importance
C. St. Thomas Aquinas D. Montesquieu
D. To spread Christianity 5. The only colony not founded and settled for religious, political, or business reasons was:
2. The results of the Renaissance, Enlightenment, Commercial and the Industrial Revolutions were more unfortunate for the people of:
A. Delaware B. Virginia
A. Asia C. Georgia B. Latin America D. New York C. Africa 6. Bathtubs, hot and cold running water, and sewage systems with flush toilets were developed by the:
D. Middle East 3. The first ancient civilization to introduce and practice monotheism was the:
A. Minoans
A. Sumerians
B. Mycenaeans
B. Minoans
C. Phoenicians
C. Phoenicians
D. Greeks
D. Hebrews
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
352
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 7. In Western Europe, the achievements of the Renaissance were unsurpassed and made these countries outstanding cultural centers on the continent. All of the following were accomplishments except:
10. The year 1619 was a memorable year for the colony of Virginia. Three important events occurred resulting in lasting effects on US history. Which one of the following was not one of the events?
A. Invention of the printing press
A. Twenty African slaves arrived.
B. A rekindling of interest in the learning of classical Greece & Rome
B. The London Company granted the colony a charter making it independent.
C. Growth in literature, philosophy, and art
C. The colonists were given the right by the London Company to govern themselves through representative government in the Virginia House of Burgesses.
D. Better military tactics 8. Of the thirteen English colonies, the greatest degree of religious toleration was found in:
D. The London Company sent to the colony 60 women who were quickly married, establishing families and stability in the colony.
A. Maryland B. Rhode Island
11. Of all the major causes of both World Wars I and II, the most significant one is considered to be:
C. Pennsylvania D. Delaware 9. The makeup of today’s modern newspapers – including comics, puzzles, sports, and columnists – was a technique first used by:
A. Extreme nationalism
A. William Randolph Hearst
C. Political unrest
B. Edward W. Scripps
D. Agreements and alliances
B. Military buildup and aggression
C. Joseph Pulitzer D. Charles A. Dana
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
353
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 14. Which one of the following was not a reason why the United States went to war with Great Britain in 1812?
12. The end to hunting, gathering, and fishing of prehistoric people was due to: A. Domestication of animals
A. Resentment by Spain over the sale, exploration, and settlement of the Louisiana Territory
B. Building crude huts and houses C. Development of agriculture
B. The westward movement of farmers because of the need for more land
D. Organized government in villages 13. Under the brand new Constitution, the most urgent of the many problems facing the new federal government was that of:
C. Canadian fur traders were agitating the northwestern Indians to fight American expansion
A. Maintaining a strong army and navy B. Establishing a strong foreign policy
D. Britain continued to seize American ships on the high seas and force American seamen to serve aboard British ships
C. Raising money to pay salaries and war debts
15. The “divine right” of kings was the key political characteristic of:
D. Setting up courts, passing federal laws, and providing for law E. enforcement officers
A. The Age of Absolutism B. The Age of Reason C. The Age of Feudalism D. The Age of Despotism
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
354
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 18. Colonial expansion by Western European powers in the 18th and 19th centuries was due primarily to:
16. The principle of zero in mathematics is the discovery of the ancient civilization found in: A. Egypt B. Persia
A. Building and opening the Suez Canal
C. India
B. The Industrial Revolution
D. Babylon
C. Marked improvements in transportation
17. During the 1920s, the United States almost completely stopped all immigration. One of the reasons was:
D. Complete independence of all the Americas and loss of European domination and influence
A. Plentiful cheap, unskilled labor was no longer needed by industrialists
19. In the United States government, the power of coining money is:
B. War debts from World War I made it difficult to render financial assistance
A. Implied or suggested B. Concurrent or shared
C. European nations were reluctant to allow people to leave since there was a need to rebuild populations and economic stability
C. Delegated or expressed D. Reserved 20. The source of authority for national, state, and local governments in the United States is:
D. The United States did not become a member of the League of Nations
A. The will of the people B. The United States Constitution C. Written laws D. The Bill of Rights
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
355
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 21. Historians state that the West helped to speed up the Industrial Revolution. Which one of the following statements was not a reason for this?
23. Which ancient civilization is credited with being the first to develop irrigation techniques through the use of canals, dikes, and devices for raising water?
A. Food supplies for the everincreasing urban populations came from farms in the West.
A. The Sumerians
B. A tremendous supply of gold and silver from western mines provided the capital needed to build industries.
C. The Babylonians
B. The Egyptians
D. The Akkadians 24. The ideas and innovations of the period of the Renaissance were spread throughout Europe mainly because of:
C. Descendants of western settlers, educated as engineers, geologists, and metallurgists in the East, returned to the West to mine the mineral resources needed for industry.
A. Extensive exploration B. Craft workers and their guilds
D. Iron, copper, and other minerals from western mines were important resources in manufacturing products.
C. The invention of the printing press D. Increased travel and trade
22. The Age of Exploration begun in the 1400s was led by:
25. The American labor union movement started gaining new momentum:
A. The Portuguese
A. During the building of the railroads
B. The Spanish C. The English
B. After 1865 with the growth of cities
D. The Dutch
C. With the rise of industrial giants such as Carnegie and Vanderbilt D. During the war years of 1861-1865
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
356
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 29. In the United States, checks and balances refers to:
26. To become a citizen, an individual must generally have lived in the United States for at least: A. Six years
A. The ability of each branch of government to “check” or limit the actions of the others
B. Five years
B. Balance of payments
C. One year
C. International law
D. Ten years
D. The federal deficit
27. The “father of political science” is considered to be:
30. An amendment is: A. A change or addition to the United States Constitution
A. Aristotle
B. The right of a state to secede from the Union
B. John Locke C. Plato
C. To add a state to the Union
D. Thomas Hobbes
D. The right of the Supreme Court to check actions of Congress and the President
28. Which one of the following is not a function or responsibility of the US political parties? A. Conducting elections or the voting process
31. Studies in astronomy, skills in mapping, and other contributions to geographic knowledge came from:
B. Obtaining funds needed for election campaigns
A. Galileo
C. Choosing candidates to run for public office
B. Columbus D. Making voters aware of issues and other public affairs information
C. Eratosthenes D. Ptolemy
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
357
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 32. Meridians, or lines of longitude, not only help in pinpointing locations, but are also used for:
35. Maps as a rule are:
A. Measuring distance from the Poles
B. Always entirely accurate
A. All subject to some sort of distortion
C. Not very useful in political science studies
B. Determining direction of ocean currents
D. Difficult usually to understand
C. Determining the time around the world
36. The economic system promoting individual ownership of land, capital, and businesses with minimal governmental regulations is called:
D. Measuring distance on the Equator 33. Which one of the following is not a use for a region’s wetlands?
A. Macro-economy A. Produces fresh clean water B. Micro-economy B. Provides habitat for wildlife C. Laissez-faire C. Provides water for hydroelectric power
D. Free enterprise 37. Government regulation of economic activities for favorable balance of trade was the first major economic theory. It was called:
D. Controls floods 34. Soil erosion is most likely to occur in large amounts in: A. Mountain ranges
A. Laissez-faire B. Deserts B. Globalism C. Tropical rainforests C. Mercantilism D. River valleys D. Syndicalism
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
358
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 41. The highest appellate court in the United States is the:
38. The “father” of modern economics is considered by most economists today to be:
A. National Appeals Court A. Thomas Robert Malthus B. Circuit Court B. John Stuart Mill C. Supreme Court C. Adam Smith D. Court of Appeals D. John Maynard Keynes 42. Which political economic system discourages private land ownership?
39. The economist who disagreed with the idea that free markets lead to full employment and prosperity and suggested that increasing government spending would end depressions was:
A. Capitalism B. Socialism
A. Keynes C. Agriculturalism B. Malthus D. Welfare Capitalism C. Smith 43. The Bill of Rights was mostly written by:
D. Friedman
A. Thomas Jefferson
40. Public administration, such as public officials in the areas of budgets, accounting, distribution of public funds, and personnel management, would be a part of the field of:
B. James Madison C. George Washington D. Alexander Hamilton
A. Anthropology 44. The US Constitution was ratified by the required number of states in:
B. Sociology C. Law and Taxation
A. August, 1861 D. Political Science and Economics
B. July, 1776 C. June, 1788 D. September, 1848
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
359
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 48. “Walk softly and carry a big stick” is a statement associated with:
45. To be a naturalized citizen means: A. To have been refused citizenship
A. Franklin Roosevelt
B. To have dual-citizenship
B. Theodore Roosevelt
C. To be a “natural” or native born citizen
C. George Washington D. Thomas Hobbes
D. To acquire citizenship 49. Florida has been ___________ in local government reform:
46. George Washington’s opinion of America having trade with other nations was:
A. A leader B. Following
A. Approval in only some instances
C. Unsure B. Disapproval D. Unwilling to change C. Approval 50. The Bill of Rights says that any rights it does not mention are:
D. Unsure
A. Reserved to the federal government
47. The “history of all societies is one of class struggle” is a statement associated with:
B. Not important A. John Locke C. Judged by the Supreme Court
B. Thomas Jefferson
D. Reserved to the states or to the people
C. Karl Marx D. Thomas Hobbes
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
360
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE
Answer Key: Social Studies 1. 2. 3 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.
B C D C C A D B C B A C C A A C A B C A C A A C B B A A A A D C C
34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53.
C A D C C A D C B B C D C C B A D B C B
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
361
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Rationales with Sample Questions: Social Studies 1. Which one of the following is not a reason why Europeans came to the New World? A. To find resources in order to increase wealth B. To establish trade C. To increase a ruler’s power and importance D. To spread Christianity Answer: B. To establish trade The Europeans came to the New World for a number of reasons; often they came to find new natural resources to extract for manufacturing. The Portuguese, Spanish and English were sent over to increase the monarch’s power and spread influences such as religion (Christianity) and culture. Therefore, the only reason given that Europeans didn’t come to the New World was to establish trade. 2. The results of the Renaissance, Enlightenment, Commercial and the Industrial Revolutions were more unfortunate for the people of: A. Asia B. Latin America C. Africa D. Middle East Answer: C. Africa The results of the Renaissance, Enlightenment, Commercial and Industrial Revolutions were quite beneficial for many people in much of the world. New ideas of humanism, religious tolerance, and secularism were spreading. Increased trade and manufacturing were surging economies in much of the world. The people of Africa, however, suffered during these times as they became largely left out of the developments. Also, the people of Africa were stolen, traded, and sold into slavery to provide a cheap labor force for the growing industries of Europe and the New World.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
362
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 3. The first ancient civilization to introduce and practice monotheism was the: A. Sumerians B. Minoans C. Phoenicians D. Hebrews Answer: D. Hebrews The (A) Sumerians and (C) Phoenicians both practiced religions in which many gods and goddesses were worshipped. Often these Gods/Goddesses were based on a feature of nature such as a sun, moon, weather, rocks, water, etc. The (B) Minoan culture shared many religious practices with the Ancient Egyptians. It seems that the king was somewhat of a god figure and the queen, a goddess. Much of the Minoan art points to the worship of multiple gods. Therefore, only the (D) Hebrews introduced and fully practiced monotheism, or the belief in one god.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
363
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 4. The foundation of modern constitutionalism is embodied in the idea that government is limited by law. This law was stated by: A. John Locke B. Rousseau C. St. Thomas Aquinas D. Montesquieu Answer: C. St. Thomas Aquinas (A) John Locke (1632-1704), whose book Two Treatises of Government has long been considered a founding document on the rights of people to rebel against an unjust government, was an important figure in the founding of the US Constitution and on general politics of the American Colonies. (D) Montesquieu (1689-1755) and (B) Rousseau (1712-1778) were political philosophers who explored the idea of what has come to be known as liberalism. They pushed the idea that through understanding the interconnectedness of economics, geography, climate and psychology that changes could be made to improve life. Therefore, it was St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) who merged Aristotelian ideas with Christianity, who helped lay the ideas of modern constitutionalism and the limiting of government by law.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
364
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 5. The only colony not founded and settled for religious, political, or business reasons was: A. Delaware B. Virginia C. Georgia D. New York Answer: C. Georgia The Swedish and the Dutch established Delaware and New York as Middle Colonies. They were established with the intention of growth by economic prosperity from farming across the countryside. The English, with the intention of generating a strong farming economy settled Virginia, a Southern Colony. Georgia was the only one of these colonies not settled for religious, political or business reasons as it was started as a place for debtors from English prisons.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
365
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 6. Bathtubs, hot and cold running water, and sewage systems with flush toilets were developed by the: A. Minoans B. Mycenaeans C. Phoenicians D. Greeks Answer: A. Minoans The (A) Minoans were one of the earliest Greek cultures and existed on the island of Crete and flourished from about 1600 B.C. to about 1400 B.C. During this time, the (B) Mycenaean were flourishing on the mainland of what is now Greece. However, it was the Minoans on Crete that are best known for their advanced ancient civilization in which such advances as bathtubs, hot and cold running water, sewage systems and flush toilets were developed. The (C) Phoenicians also flourished around 1250 B.C., however, their primary development was in language and arts. The Phoenicians created an alphabet that has still considerable influence in the world today. The great developments of the (D) Greeks were primarily in the fields of philosophy, political science, and early ideas of democracy.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
366
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 7.
In Western Europe, the achievements of the Renaissance were unsurpassed and made these countries outstanding cultural centers on the continent. All of the following were accomplishments except: A. Invention of the printing press B. A rekindling of interest in the learning of classical Greece & Rome C. Growth in literature, philosophy, and art D. Better military tactics
Answer: D. Better military tactics The Renaissance in Western Europe produced many important achievements that helped push immense progress among European civilization. Some of the most important developments during the Renaissance were Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press in Germany and a reexamination of the ideas and philosophies of classical Greece and Rome that eventually helped Renaissance thinkers to approach more modern ideas. Also important during the Renaissance was the growth in literature (Petrarch, Boccaccio, Erasmus), philosophy (Machiavelli, More, Bacon) and art (Van Eyck, Giotto, da Vinci). Therefore, improved military tactics is the only possible answer as it was clearly not a characteristic of the Renaissance in Western Europe.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
367
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 8.
Of the thirteen English colonies, the greatest degree of religious toleration was found in: A. Maryland B. Rhode Island C. Pennsylvania D. Delaware
Answer: B. Rhode Island The greatest degree of religious tolerance in all of the colonies was found in Rhode Island. Roger Williams, founder of Providence and Rhode Island, had objected to the Massachusetts colonial seizure of Indian lands and settlements and the relationship between these seizures and the Church of England. Williams was banished from Massachusetts and purposely set up Rhode Island as the first colony with a true separation of church and state.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
368
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 9. The makeup of today’s modern newspapers – including comics, puzzles, sports, and columnists – was a technique first used by: A. William Randolph Hearst B. Edward W. Scripps C. Joseph Pulitzer D. Charles A. Dana Answer: C. Joseph Pulitzer (A) William Randolph Hearst (1863-1951) was better known for his vast “empire” of publications, mostly newspapers and magazines. (B) Edward W. Scripps (1854-1926) set up the first chain of newspapers in the United States called the Scripps-McRae League and later set up the Scripps-Howard chain. (D) Charles A. Dana (1819-1897) was a newspaper editor most well known for his strong stance on the Civil War and his relentless pursuit of exposing corruption in the post-Civil War administration of Grant. The answer is, therefore, Joseph Pulitzer (1847-1911). His papers, New York World and Evening World, were the first to include such modern techniques as comics, puzzles, columnists, illustrations, and sports.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
369
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 10. The year 1619 was a memorable year for the colony of Virginia. Three important events occurred resulting in lasting effects on US history. Which one of the following was not one of the events? A. Twenty African slaves arrived. B. The London Company granted the colony a charter making it independent. C. The colonists were given the right by the London Company to govern themselves through representative government in the Virginia House of Burgesses. D. The London Company sent to the colony 60 women who were quickly married, establishing families and stability in the colony. Answer: B. The London Company granted the colony a charter making it independent. In the year 1619, the Southern colony of Virginia had an eventful year including the first arrival of twenty African slaves, the right to self-governance through representative government in the Virginia House of Burgesses (their own legislative body), and the arrival of sixty women sent to marry and establish families in the colony. The London Company did not, however, grant the colony a charter in 1619.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
370
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 11. Of all the major causes of both World Wars I and II, the most significant one is considered to be: A. Extreme nationalism B. Military buildup and aggression C. Political unrest D. Agreements and alliances Answer: A. Extreme nationalism Although military buildup and aggression, political unrest, and agreements and alliances were all characteristic of the world climate before and during World War I and World War II, the most significant cause of both wars was extreme nationalism. Nationalism is the idea that the interests and needs of a particular nation are of the utmost and primary importance above all else. Some nationalist movements could be liberation movements while others were oppressive regimes, much depends on their degree of nationalism. The nationalism that sparked WWI included a rejection of German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman imperialism by Serbs, Slavs and others culminating in the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand by a Serb nationalist in 1914. Following WWI and the Treaty of Versailles, many Germans and others in the Central Alliance Nations, malcontent at the concessions and reparations of the treaty started a new form of nationalism. Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime led this extreme nationalism. Hitler’s ideas were an example of extreme, oppressive nationalism combined with political, social and economic scapegoating and were the primary cause of WWII.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
371
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 12. The end to hunting, gathering, and fishing of prehistoric people was due to: A. Domestication of animals B. Building crude huts and houses C. Development of agriculture D. Organized government in villages Answer: C. Development of agriculture Although the domestication of animals, the building of huts and houses and the first organized governments were all very important steps made by early civilizations, it was the development of agriculture that ended the once dominant practices of hunting, gathering, and fishing among prehistoric people. The development of agriculture provided a more efficient use of time and for the first time a surplus of food. This greatly improved the quality of life and contributed to early population growth.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
372
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 13. Under the brand new Constitution, the most urgent of the many problems facing the new federal government was that of: A. Maintaining a strong army and navy B. Establishing a strong foreign policy C. Raising money to pay salaries and war debts D. Setting up courts, passing federal laws, and providing for law enforcement officers Answer: C. Raising money to pay salaries and war debts Maintaining strong military forces, establishment of a strong foreign policy, and setting up a justice system were important problems facing the United States under the newly ratified Constitution. However, the most important and pressing issue was how to raise money to pay salaries and war debts from the Revolutionary War. Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804) then Secretary of the Treasury proposed increased tariffs and taxes on products such as liquor. This money would be used to pay off war debts and to pay for internal programs. Hamilton also proposed the idea of a National Bank.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
373
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 14. Which one of the following was not a reason why the United States went to war with Great Britain in 1812? A. Resentment by Spain over the sale, exploration, and settlement of the Louisiana Territory B. The westward movement of farmers because of the need for more land C. Canadian fur traders were agitating the northwestern Indians to fight American expansion D. Britain continued to seize American ships on the high seas and force American seamen to serve aboard British ships Answer: A. Resentment by Spain over the sale, exploration, and settlement of the Louisiana Territory The United States went to war with Great Britain in 1812 for a number of reasons including the expansion of settlers westward and the need for more land, the agitation of Indians by Canadian fur traders in eastern Canada, and the continued seizures of American ships by the British on the high seas. Therefore, the only statement given that was not a reason for the War of 1812 was the resentment by Spain over the sale, exploration and settlement of the Louisiana Territory. In fact, the Spanish continually held more hostility towards the British than towards the United States. The War of 1812 is often considered to be the second American war for independence.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
374
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 15. The “divine right” of kings was the key political characteristic of: A. The Age of Absolutism B. The Age of Reason C. The Age of Feudalism D. The Age of Despotism Answer: A. The Age of Absolutism The “divine right” of kings was the key political characteristic of The Age of Absolutism and was most visible in the reign of King Louis XIV of France, as well as during the times of King James I and his son, Charles I. The divine right doctrine claims that kings and absolute leaders derive their right to rule by virtue of their birth alone. They see this both as a law of God and of nature. 16. The principle of zero in mathematics is the discovery of the ancient civilization found in: A. Egypt B. Persia C. India D. Babylon Answer: C. India Although the Egyptians practiced algebra and geometry, the Persians developed an alphabet, and the Babylonians developed Hammurabi’s Code, which would come to be considered among the most important contributions of the Mesopotamian civilization, it was the Indians that created the idea of zero in mathematics changing drastically our ideas about numbers.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
375
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 17. During the 1920s, the United States almost completely stopped all immigration. One of the reasons was: A. Plentiful cheap, unskilled labor was no longer needed by industrialists B. War debts from World War I made it difficult to render financial assistance C. European nations were reluctant to allow people to leave since there was a need to rebuild populations and economic stability D. The United States did not become a member of the League of Nations Answer: A. Plentiful cheap, unskilled labor was no longer needed by industrialists The primary reason that the United States almost completely stopped all immigration during the 1920s was because their once, much needed, cheap, unskilled labor jobs, made available by the once booming industrial economy, were no longer needed. This has much to do with the increased use of machines to do the work once done by cheap, unskilled laborers.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
376
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 18. Colonial expansion by Western European powers in the 18th and 19th centuries was due primarily to: A. Building and opening the Suez Canal B. The Industrial Revolution C. Marked improvements in transportation D. Complete independence of all the Americas and loss of European domination and influence Answer:
B. The Industrial Revolution Colonial expansion by Western European powers in the late 18th and 19th centuries was due primarily to the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain that spread across Europe and needed new natural resources and therefore, new locations from which to extract the raw materials needed to feed the new industries. 19. In the United States government, the power of coining money is: A. Implied or suggested B. Concurrent or shared C. Delegated or expressed D. Reserved Answer: C. Delegated or expressed In the United States government, the power of coining money is delegated or expressed. Therefore, only the United States government may coin money, the states may not coin money for themselves.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
377
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 20. The source of authority for national, state, and local governments in the United States is: A. The will of the people B. The United States Constitution C. Written laws D. The Bill of Rights Answer: A. The will of the people The source of authority for national, state, and local governments in the United States is the will of the people. Although the United States Constitution, the Bill of Rights, and the other written laws of the land are important guidelines for authority, they may ultimately be altered or changed by the will of the people.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
378
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 21. Historians state that the West helped to speed up the Industrial Revolution. Which one of the following statements was not a reason for this? A. Food supplies for the ever-increasing urban populations came from farms in the West. B. A tremendous supply of gold and silver from western mines provided the capital needed to build industries. C. Descendants of western settlers, educated as engineers, geologists, and metallurgists in the East, returned to the West to mine the mineral resources needed for industry. D. Iron, copper, and other minerals from western mines were important resources in manufacturing products. Answer: C. Descendants of western settlers, educated as engineers, geologists, and metallurgists in the East, returned to the West to mine the mineral resources needed for industry. The West helped to speed up the Industrial Revolution in a number of important and significant ways. First, the land yielded crops for the growing urban populations. Second, the gold and silver supplies coming out of the Western mines provided the capital needed to build industries. Also, resources such as iron and copper were extracted from the mines in the West and provided natural resources for manufacturing. The descendants of western settlers typically didn’t become educated and then returned to the West as miners. The miners were typically working class with little or no education. His theory stated that the earth was the center of the universe and all the other planets rotated around it, a theory that was later proven false. Ptolemy, however, was important for his contributions to the fields of mapping, mathematics, and geography. Galileo (1564-1642) was also important in the field of astronomy but did not make the mapping and geographic contributions of Ptolemy. He invented and used the world’s first telescope and advanced Copernicus’ theory that the earth revolved around the sun, much to the dismay of the Church.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
379
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 22. The Age of Exploration begun in the 1400s was led by: A. The Portuguese B. The Spanish C. The English D. The Dutch Answer:
A. The Portuguese Although the Age of Exploration had many important players among them, the Dutch, Spanish and English, it was the Portuguese who sent the first explorers to the New World. 23. Which ancient civilization is credited with being the first to develop irrigation techniques through the use of canals, dikes, and devices for raising water? A. The Sumerians B. The Egyptians C. The Babylonians D. The Akkadians Answer: A. The Sumerians The ancient (A) Sumerians of the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia are credited with being the first to develop irrigation techniques through the use of canals, dikes, and devices for raising water. The (B) Egyptians also practiced controlled irrigation but that was primarily through the use of the Nile’s predictable flooding schedule. The (C) Babylonians were more noted for their revolutionary systems of law than their irrigation systems.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
380
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 24. The ideas and innovations of the period of the Renaissance were spread throughout Europe mainly because of: A. Extensive exploration B. Craft workers and their guilds C. The invention of the printing press D. Increased travel and trade Answer: C. The invention of the printing press The ideas and innovations of the Renaissance were spread throughout Europe for a number of reasons. While exploration, increased travel, and spread of craft may have aided the spread of the Renaissance to small degrees, nothing was as important to the spread of ideas as Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press in Germany. 25. The American labor union movement started gaining new momentum: A. During the building of the railroads B. After 1865 with the growth of cities C. With the rise of industrial giants such as Carnegie and Vanderbilt D. During the war years of 1861-1865 Answer: B. After 1865 with the growth of cities The American Labor Union movement had been around since the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The Labor movement began to first experience persecution by employers in the early 1800s. The American Labor Movement remained relatively ineffective until after the Civil War. In 1866, the National Labor Union was formed, pushing such issues as the eight-hour workday and new policies of immigration. This gave rise to the Knights of Labor and eventually the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in the 1890s and the Industrial Workers of the World (1905). Therefore, it was the period following the Civil War that empowered the labor movement in terms of numbers, militancy, and effectiveness.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
381
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 26. To become a citizen, an individual must generally have lived in the United States for at least: A. Six years B. Five years C. One year D. Ten years Answer: B. Five years To become a citizen, an individual must generally have lived in the United States for at least five years.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
382
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 27. The “father of political science” is considered to be: A. Aristotle B. John Locke C. Plato D. Thomas Hobbes Answer: A. Aristotle (D) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) wrote the important work Leviathan in which he pointed out that people are by all means selfish, individualistic animals that will always look out for themselves and therefore, the state must combat this natural desire. (B) John Locke (1632-1704) whose book Two Treatises of Government has long been considered a founding document on the rights of people to rebel against an unjust government was an important figure in the founding of the US Constitution and on general politics of the American Colonies. (C) Plato (427347 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) both contributed to the field of political science. Both believed that political order would result in the greatest stability. In fact, Aristotle studied under Plato. Both Plato and Aristotle studied the ideas of causality and the Prime Mover, but their conclusions were different. Aristotle is considered to be “the father of political science” because of his development of systems of political order the true development, a scientific system to study justice and political order.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
383
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 28. Which one of the following is not a function or responsibility of the US political parties? A. Conducting elections or the voting process B. Obtaining funds needed for election campaigns C. Choosing candidates to run for public office D. Making voters aware of issues and other public affairs information Answer: A. Conducting elections or the voting process The US political parties have numerous functions and responsibilities. Among them are obtaining funds needed for election campaigns, choosing the candidates to run for office, and making voters aware of the issues. The political parties, however, do not conduct elections or the voting process, as that would be an obvious conflict of interest. 29. In the United States, checks and balances refers to: A. The ability of each branch of government to “check” or limit the actions of the others B. Balance of payments C. International law D. The federal deficit Answer: A. The ability of each branch of government to “check” or limit the actions of the others In the United States, checks and balances refers to the ability of each branch of government (Executive, Legislative, and Judicial) to “check” or limit the actions of the others. Examples of checks and balances are: The Executive branch limits the Legislature by power of veto over bills and appointments in the court system. The Judicial branch limits the power of the Legislature by judicial review and the ability to rule laws unconstitutional and may also determine executive orders unconstitutional. The Legislature checks the Executive by power of impeachment.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
384
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 30. An amendment is: A. A change or addition to the United States Constitution B. The right of a state to secede from the Union C. To add a state to the Union D. The right of the Supreme Court to check actions of Congress and the President Answer: A. A change or addition to the United States Constitution An amendment is a change or addition to the United States Constitution. No amendment refers to states’ abilities to succeed or be annexed or the right of the Supreme Court to check actions of Congress and the President.
31.
Studies in astronomy, skills in mapping, and other contributions to geographic knowledge came from: A. Galileo B. Columbus C. Eratosthenes D. Ptolemy
Answer: D. Ptolemy Ptolemy (2nd century AD) was important in the fields of astronomy and geography.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
385
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 32. Meridians, or lines of longitude, not only help in pinpointing locations, but are also used for: A. Measuring distance from the Poles B. Determining direction of ocean currents C. Determining the time around the world D. Measuring distance on the Equator Answer: C. Determining the time around the world Meridians, or lines of longitude, are the determining factor in separating time zones and determining time around the world. 33. Which one of the following is not a use for a region’s wetlands? A. Produces fresh clean water B. Provides habitat for wildlife C. Provides water for hydroelectric power D. Controls floods Answer: C. Provides water for hydroelectric power A region’s wetlands provide a number of uses and services not limited to but including production of fresh water, habitat and natural preserve of wildlife, and flood control. Wetlands are not used in the production of hydroelectric power the way dams or other power structures do.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
386
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 34. Soil erosion is most likely to occur in large amounts in: A. Mountain ranges B. Deserts C. Tropical rainforests D. River valleys Answer: C. Tropical rainforests Soil erosion is most likely to occur in tropical rainforests as the large amount of constant rainfall moves the soil at a greater rate across a greater area. Mountain ranges and river valleys experience some soil erosion but don’t have the levels of precipitation found in a tropical rainforest. Deserts have virtually no soil erosion due to their climate. 35. Maps as a rule are: A. All subject to some sort of distortion B. Always entirely accurate C. Not very useful in political science studies D. Difficult usually to understand Answer: A. All subject to some sort of distortion Maps as a rule are all subject to some sort of distortion. Since they are representing a three-dimensional world in a two-dimensional representation, it will never be completely accurate. Even maps that are specifically designed to limit distortion still will lack total accuracy. Maps are still very helpful in most social science disciplines and generally designed to be understood easily using keys and symbols.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
387
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 36. The economic system promoting individual ownership of land, capital, and businesses with minimal governmental regulations is called: A. Macro-economy B. Micro-economy C. Laissez-faire D. Free enterprise Answer: D. Free Enterprise (D) Free enterprise or capitalism is the economic system that promotes private ownership of land, capital, and business with minimal government interference. (C) Laissez-faire is the idea that an “invisible hand” will guide the free enterprise system to the maximum potential efficiency.
37. Government regulation of economic activities for favorable balance of trade was the first major economic theory. It was called: A. Laissez-faire B. Globalism C. Mercantilism D. Syndicalism
Answer: C. Mercantilism (A) Laissez-faire is the doctrine that calls for no government interference in economic and political policy. (B) Globalism is not an economic or political theory, nor is it an actual word in the English language. Globalization is the idea that we are all increasingly connected in a worldwide system. (D) Syndicalism is similar to anarchism claiming that workers should control and govern economic policies and regulations as opposed to state control. Therefore, (C) mercantilism is the best regulation of economic activities for a favorable balance of trade.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
388
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 38. The “father” of modern economics is considered by most economists today to be: A. Thomas Robert Malthus B. John Stuart Mill C. Adam Smith D. John Maynard Keynes Answer: C. Adam Smith Adam Smith (1723-1790) is considered by many to be the “father” of modern economics. In the Wealth of Nations, Smith advocated for little or no government interference in the economy. Smith claimed that individuals’ self-interest would bring about the public’s welfare. It is important to note that Smith was firmly against the free market systems of monopoly power and warned that the private sector, particularly large manufacturers, if left unregulated could potentially stand in opposition to the public welfare. John Maynard Keynes 1883-1946) was also an important economist. He advocated an economic system in which government regulations and spending on public works would stimulate the economy and lead to full employment. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was a progressive British philosopher and economist, whose ideas came closer to socialism than to the classical capitalist ideas of Adam Smith. Mill constantly advocated for political and social reforms, including emancipation for women, labor organizations, and farming cooperatives. Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) was a British economist who introduced the study of population and early on considered famine, war, and disease to be the primary checks on world population. He later modified his views and recognized his early theoretical shortcomings and shifted his focus to the causes of unemployment.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
389
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 39. The economist who disagreed with the idea that free markets lead to full employment and prosperity and suggested that increasing government spending would end depressions was: A. Keynes B. Malthus C. Smith D. Friedman Answer: A. Keynes John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) advocated an economic system in which government regulations and spending on public works would stimulate the economy and lead to full employment. This broke from the classical idea that free markets would lead to full employment and prosperity. He was still a firm believer in capitalism, but in a less classical sense than Adam Smith (1723-1790), whose Wealth of Nations advocated for little or no government interference in the economy. Smith claimed that an individual’s self-interest would bring about the public’s welfare. It is important to note that Smith was firmly against the free market systems of monopoly power and warned that the private sector, particularly large manufacturers, if left unregulated could potentially stand in opposition to the public welfare.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
390
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 40. Public administration, such as public officials in the areas of budgets, accounting, distribution of public funds, and personnel management, would be a part of the field of: A. Anthropology B. Sociology C. Law and Taxation D. Political Science and Economics Answer: D. Political Science and Economics Public administration, such as public officials in the areas of budgets, accounting, distribution of public funds, and personnel management, would be parts of the fields of Economics and Political Science. While political scientists would be concerned with public administration, economists would also be concerned with the distribution of public funds, budgets, and accounting and their effects on the economy. 41. The highest appellate court in the United States is the: A. National Appeals Court B. Circuit Court C. Supreme Court D. Court of Appeals Answer: C. Supreme Court The highest appellate court in the United States is the Supreme Court. There is also a federal circuit court of appeals and a state system that includes appellate courts and state supreme courts, but they are not as high as the United States Supreme Court.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
391
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 42. Which political economic system discourages private land ownership? A. Capitalism B. Socialism C. Agriculturalism D. Welfare Capitalism Answer: B. Socialism Capitalism and welfare capitalism both encourage the private ownership of land. Socialism encourages the nationalization and redistribution of land in which the government owns the land and allocates its usage in the best interests of the people. 43. The Bill of Rights was mostly written by: A. Thomas Jefferson B. James Madison C. George Washington D. Alexander Hamilton Answer: B. James Madison The Bill of Rights, along with the majority of the Constitution, was mostly written by James Madison. Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence. Washington and Hamilton were present at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia and they were advocates of federalism or increasing the power of the federal government.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
392
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 44. The US Constitution was ratified by the required number of states in: A. August, 1861 B. July, 1776 C. June, 1788 D. September, 1848 Answer: C. June, 1788 The United States Constitution was ratified by the required nine states on June 21, 1788. July of 1776 was the Declaration of Independence. August, 1861 was the start of the Civil War. 1848 marked the discovery of gold in California and started the “gold rush”. 45. To be a naturalized citizen means: A. To have been refused citizenship B. To have dual-citizenship C. To be a “natural” or native born citizen D. To acquire citizenship Answer: D. To acquire citizenship To be a naturalized citizen in the United States is to acquire citizenship by meeting several requirements including a swearing to uphold the US Constitution, a judgement of good character, and event he ability to read and write English (often controversial as English is not the official language of the United States).
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
393
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 46. George Washington’s opinion of America having trade with other nations was: A. Approval in only some instances B. Disapproval C. Approval D. Unsure Answer: C. Approval George Washington (1732-1799) approved of US trade with other nations although he was firmly against creating permanent alliances with foreign countries as evidenced by his farewell address in 1796. 47. The “history of all societies is one of class struggle” is a statement associated with: A. John Locke B. Thomas Jefferson C. Karl Marx D. Thomas Hobbes Answer: C. Karl Marx (A) John Locke (1632-1704) was the English enlightenment philosopher who believed in the middle class’ right to property and prosperity. (B) Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) was the 3rd President of the United States and his Jeffersonian democracy was concerned with preserving individual and states’ rights from the federal government. (C) Karl Marx (1818-1883), who is generally regarded as the founder of modern socialism and communism, claimed that the “History of all societies is one of class struggle”. This illustrates his placement of class struggle as the central struggle within a society. (D) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) the English philosopher, mathematician, and rationalist believed that men were basically self-serving and would destroy one another in their personal quest for power. Therefore, he said that the state must be created (he favored a monarchy) to ensure the safety of man against himself and his neighbors.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
394
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 48. “Walk softly and carry a big stick” is a statement associated with: A. Franklin Roosevelt B. Theodore Roosevelt C. George Washington D. Thomas Hobbes Answer: B. Theodore Roosevelt “Walk softly and carry a big stick” is a statement made by Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) in reference to his foreign policy, which was just as aggressive as his domestic policy. Roosevelt advocated for a new extension of the Monroe doctrine extending the idea all the way through South America. The statement also refers to Roosevelt’s dealing with the Panama Canal situation, the opendoor policy with China, and the formation of the Hague tribunal. 49. Florida has been ___________ in local government reform: A. A leader B. Following C. Unsure D. Unwilling to change Answer: A. A leader Florida has been a leader in local government reform.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
395
TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 50. The Bill of Rights says that any rights it does not mention are: A. Reserved to the federal government B. Not important C. Judged by the Supreme Court D. Reserved to the states or to the people Answer: D. Reserved to the states or to the people The Bill of Rights says that any rights it does not mention are reserved to the states or to the people. This means that just because a right is not listed specifically in the Bill of Rights does not necessarily mean that that right does not exist or that it may be violated.
MIDDLE SCHOOL HUMANITIES
396
XAMonline, INC. 21 Orient Ave. Melrose, MA 02176 Toll Free number 800-509-4128
TO ORDER Fax 781-662-9268 OR www.XAMonline.com
MASSACHUSETTS TEST FOR EDUCATOR LICENTURE - MTEL - 2007 P0#
Store/School:
Address 1:
Address 2 (Ship to other):
City, State Zip Credit card number_______-________-_________-________ EMAIL _____________________________ PHONE FAX 13# ISBN 2007 978-1-58197-884-1 978-1-58197-883-4 978-1-58197-875-9 978-1-58197-885-8 978-1-58197-879-7 978-1-58197-892-6 978-1-58197-887-2 978-1-58197-876-6 978-1-58197-877-3 978-1-58197-881-0 978-1-58197-878-0 978-1-58197-196-5 978-1-58197-880-3 978-1-58197-890-2 978-1-58197-889-6 978-1-58197-891-9 978-1-58197-886-5 978-1-58197-882-7 978-1-58197-898-8 978-1-58197-888-9
expiration_______
TITLE MTEL Biology 13 MTEL Chemistry 12 MTEL Communication and Literacy Skills 01 MTEL Earth Science 14 MTEL English 07 MTEL Foundations of Reading 90 (requirement all El. Ed) MTEL French 26
Qty
Retail
Total
MTEL General Curriculum (formerly Elementary) 03 MTEL General Curriculum (formerly Elementary) 03 Sample Questions MTEL General Science 10 MTEL History 06 (Social Science) MTEL Latin & Classical Humanities 15 MTEL Mathematics 09 MTEL Middle School Humanities 50 MTEL Middle School Mathematics 47 MTEL Middle School Mathematics-Science 51 MTEL Physical Education 22 MTEL Physics Sample Test 11 MTEL Political Science/Political Philosophy 48 MTEL Spanish 28 FOR PRODUCT PRICES VISIT WWW.XAMONLINE.COM
SUBTOTAL Ship $8.25
TOTAL
