MINNESOTA'S
Of. troix Kiver Valley ^4nokaSandplain
Minnesota Count)' Biological Surrey rfion of Wildlife Division offish and Wildlife Minnesota Department of Natural Resources
University of Minnesota Press Minneapolis I London
Daniel S. Wovcha Barbara C. Delaney Gerda E. Nordquist
Illustrated by Thomas R. Klein and Al Epp
MINNESOTA'S
St. Croix River Valley AND
Anoka Sandplain
A Guide to Native Habitats
Copyright 1995 by the State of Minnesota Department of Natural Resources All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Published by the University of Minnesota Press 111 Third Avenue South, Suite 290, Minneapolis, MN 55401-2520 Equal opportunity to participate in and benefitfrom programs of the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources is available to all individuals regardless of race, color, national origin, sex, age, sexual orientation, or disability. Discrimination inquiries should be sent to MnDNR, 500 Lafayette Road, St. Paul, MN 55155-4031 or the Equal Opportunity Office, Department of the Interior, Washington, DC 20240. This information is available in an alternativeformat upon request. The University of Minnesota Press gratefully acknowledges the generous assistance provided for the publication of this book by the Minnesota County Biological Survey, Section of Wildlife, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper. Book and cover design by Diane Gleba Hall Pan opening photo credits: page 2, Minnesota Historical Society photo, used by permission; page 40, MnDNR photo by Carmen Converse; page 166, MnDNR photo by]. C. Almendinger; page 204, MnDNR photo by Carrol Henderson. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wovcha, Daniel S. Minnesota's St. Croix River Valley and Anoka sandplain : a guide to native habitats / Daniel S. Wovcha, Barbara C. Delaney, Gerda E. Nordquist; illustrated by Thomas R. Klein and Al Epp. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. ISBN 0-8166-2483-6 (he). —ISBN 0-8166-2484-4 (pb) 1. Habitat (Ecology)—Minnesota. 2. Habitat (Ecology)—Saint Croix River Region (Wis. and Minn.) 3. Biotic communities—Minnesota. 4. Biotic communities—Saint Croix River Region (Wis. and Minn.) I. Delaney, Barbara C. II. Nordquist, Gerda E. HI. Title. IV. Title: Minnesota's Saint Croix River Valley and Anoka sandplain. V. Title: Anoka sandplain. QH105.M55W68 508.776'6—dc20
1995 94-4091
contents .vn
Preface
St. Croix River Terraces Cottage Grove Dissected Plain
Acknowledgments
ix
Parti A Landscape History of the St. Croix River Valley— Anoka Sandplain Region 3 1. Geologic History and Major Landforms of the Region Bedrock Geology Glacial Geology Major Landforms
4. Influence of European-Americans Logging
JO
Agriculture Urban Growth Summary
38
Part II The Native Habitats and Natural Communities of the St. Croix River ValleyAnoka Sandplain Region
.41
4
St. Croix Moraine Complex Rosemount Outwash Plain Grantsburg Sublobe Till Plain Anoka Sandplain
5. Guide to Part II Key to the Natural Community Fact Sheets
.42
6. Deciduous Forests Oak Forest
.46
Mississippi River Terraces St. Croix River Terraces Cottage Grove Dissected Plain
Formation of the Mississippi and St. Croix River Valleys Geologic Processes since the End of Glaciation 2. Postglacial Landscape Vegetation Influence of American Indians 3. Major Vegetation Patterns at the Time of Euro-American Settlement Vegetation of the Major Landforms
14
.21
Dry Oak Forest
Mesic Oak Forest Maple-Basswood Forest Lowland Hardwood Forest 7. Mixed Coniferous'-Deciduous Forests. White Pine-Hardwood Forest
62
8. Deciduous Woodlands Oak Woodland-Brushland
,67
Mississippi River Terraces Anoka Sandplain Grantsburg Sublobe Till Plain
9. Deciduous Savannas Dry Oak Savanna
St. Croix Moraine Complex
Barrens Oak Savanna
Rosemount Outwash Plain
Sand-Gravel Oak Savanna
72
10. Upland Prairies Mesic Prairie Dry Prairie
SO
Barrens Prairie Bedrock Bluff Prairie
17. Bedrock and Beach Communities Dry Cliff and Moist Cliff Rock Outcrop Lake Beach River Beach
143
18. Aquatic Habitats
757
Summary and Outlook
767
Part III A Guide to Selected Sites in the Region
767
Sand-Gravel Prairie
11. Floodplain Forests 12. Hardwood Swamps Mixed Hardwood Swamp Mixed Hardwood Seepage Swamp Black Ash Swamp
93 98
Appendix 1 13. Conifer Swamps Tamarack Swamp
107
County Checklist of Birds, Mammals, Amphibians, and Reptiles in the Region
205
Appendix 2 Sources of Additional Information
275
Glossary of Technical Terms
277
Bibliography
227
Index
225
Sphagnum Tamarack Swamp Minerotrophic Tamarack Swamp Seepage Tamarack Swamp White Cedar Swamp
14. Shrub Swamps . Alder Swamp Willow Swamp
776
15. Emergent Marshes Mixed Emergent Marsh Cattail Marsh
123
16. Wet Meadows and Fens.. Wet Prairie Wet Meadow Rich Fen Poor Fen
130
M]
Preface Habitats are places where plants, animals, and other organisms live: for example, prairies, forests, wetlands, caves, cornfields, and city neighborhoods. Each kind of habitat has its own special environment, which is influenced by geologic processes, climate, and the myriad interactions of living organisms with each other and with the rest of their environment. Native habitats are places occupied and characterized by organisms that are native or indigenous to a particular region (as opposed to organisms that evolved elsewhere and arrived in the region relatively recently). The prairies, forests, marshes, and swamps common in Minnesota before EuroAmerican settlement began in the mid-1800s are examples of native habitats; wheat fields, gardens, and city parks are not. This book describes the native habitats that remain in six counties (Anoka, Chisago, Isanti, Ramsey, Sherburne, and Washington) in a diverse region in east-central Minnesota formed by the St. Croix River Valley and the Anoka sandplain. We hope it will be used as a guide and reference by county and city planners, farmers, foresters, architects, park naturalists, developers, landowners, and citizens— that is, by anyone involved with or interested in the natural history of the Region.
In part I we present a brief geologic history of the Region, describe its major landforms and vegetation types, and discuss the forces that have shaped the landscape. The landscape of the Region and its native habitats have changed significantly in the past 150 years, as is evident from a comparison of the maps on the inside front cover and (in more detail) from the county wall maps available as a companion to this book (Minnesota County Biological Survey 1995). The large white spaces on map 2 represent farmland, old fields, logged or grazed forests, suburban neighborhoods, roads, and shopping centers. The few colored areas repre-
sent sites where native habitats have persisted relatively intact to the present. As one sees immediately, very little native habitat remains. Of the 1.5 million acres of land in the Region, less than 90,000 acres, or less than 6% of the total area, remain in native habitat (Marschner 1974, Minnesota County Biological Survey 1995). About 6% of the forests and only 1% of the prairies present at the time of Euro-American settlement remain. Only 3% of the native oak savanna and woodland and about 25% of the forested swamps and shrub swamps are left. Less than 11% of the marshes and wet meadows are still intact. Logging and farming had altered most of the native habitats of the Region by the 1940s. Native habitats remained primarily on inaccessible land or on land of marginal value for logging or agriculture. After 1940, the population of the Region began to grow rapidly (more than doubling between 1950 and 1990), and urban development spread from city centers. The rapid population growth and urbanization brought new patterns of land use to the Region and new threats to the remaining native habitats.
The documentation of the remaining native habitats presented in this book and on the companion wall maps is largely the work of the ecologists, botanists, and zoologists who conducted surveys for the Minnesota County Biological Survey (MCBS) in the six counties of the Region between 1987 and 1990. The MCBS is a systematic countyby-county survey designed to collect and interpret data on the distribution and ecology of native habitats, rare plants, and rare animals. The information gathered by MCBS serves as a foundation for the conservation of critical components of Minnesota's biological diversity. (For more details on MCBS, see Converse et al. 1988 and Converse 1990.) All of the data gathered during the MCBS—including descriptions and locations of natural communities, loca-
M7
tions of rare plants and rare animals, and quantitative samples of native vegetation—are stored in databases in the Natural Heritage Information System maintained by the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (Minnesota Natural Heritage Program 1992). This book interprets the data collected in the Region before and during the MCBS and highlights major or special natural features. In part II we present information gathered primarily during the MCBS on the composition and structure of the remaining natural communities of the Region. The companion wall maps show in detail the distributions of natural communities, rare plants, and rare animals in each county in the Region. Part III, a guide to selected native habitats, lists by county some of the publicly owned sites in the Region that contain native habitats. For each site, we provide a map, directions to the site, and a brief description of the natural features present. Part III is cross-referenced with
A bedrock bluff prairie overlooking the Mississippi River in southern Washington County in 1891. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers photo by Henry Basse
[viii]
Preface
the descriptions of native habitats in part II to aid the reader in interpreting the natural features at the sites. We hope this book will make the Region's native habitats more visible and more appreciated. These remaining native habitats provide niches for some surprising assemblages of plants and animals. They are also windows into the past, enabling us to imagine what the landscape once looked like and to learn about the processes that shaped it. Because of the great population and development pressures in the Region, these last remnants of the native landscape will persist into the future only under the active guidance of the people whose decisions and lifestyles affect the way land is used. Daniel S. Wovcha Barbara C. Delaney Gerda E. Nordquist
Acknowledgmen ts The authorship of this book is as follows: Daniel Wovcha wrote the landscape history, helped to shape the natural community descriptions, and coordinated the overall production of the book; Barb Delaney wrote the natural community descriptions and the guide section (part III); and Gerda Nordquist wrote and edited the material on animals that appears throughout the book. Thomas R. Klein produced the landscape and community silhouettes, and the site maps in part III, and Al Epp produced most of the other maps. Vera Ming Wong made many of the drawings of rare plants and rare animals. Nan Marie Kane, Don Luce, and Jim Tidwell made additional drawings. All of these drawings have been featured previously in Minnesota's Endangered Flora and Fauna (Coffin and Pfannmuller 1988). We are grateful for the opportunity to use them again here. The material presented in this book is built from the work of many people who have conducted natural history surveys and have chronicled the changes in the landscape of the Region over the last millennium. We recognize their contributions, especially the staff of the Minnesota County Biological Survey (MCBS), who recently surveyed the native habitats, rare plants, and rare animals of the Region. Carmen Converse supervised the survey. John Almendinger, Barb Delaney, Patrick Leacock, David McLaughlin, Kathryn Malody, Thomas Morley, Welby Smith, and Karen Van Norman conducted natural community and botanical surveys. Elmer Birney, Bonita Eliason, Mary Engelhard, Bruce Fall, Carolyn Ferrell, Lynelle Hanson, Lisa Hartman, John Moriarty, Gerda Nordquist, Joe Palmer, Margaret Robertsen, Steve Robertsen, and Steve Stucker did animal survey work. Collections at the University of Minnesota Department of Plant Biology herbarium, James Ford Bell Museum of Natural History, and Department of Entomology provided important historical information on the distributions of rare plants and animals and permanently house the voucher specimens obtained by the MCBS. The Minnesota and Ramsey County historical societies provided the historical photographs used in part I.
Completion of a book of this scope requires the involvement of many people besides the authors in planning, research, data management, writing, clerical work, and review of the manuscript. We wish to acknowledge their contributions. Carmen Converse and John Almendinger directed and shaped the process by which the data from the natural history surveys and other sources of information were incorporated into the present book. Barb Coffin saw the potential interest for a book of this type and, along with Eileen Griggs, guided it through publication at the University of Minnesota Press. Steve Stucker made substantial contributions to the animal text, especially the analysis of breeding bird data collected by MCBS and preparation of material on birds in the book. Carol Dorff, John Haarstad, and Konrad Schmidt also contributed animal information. Roleen Roden helped with manuscript preparation. Mary Miller, Sharron Nelson, and Todd Roden assisted with data compilation and analysis for the MCBS. Karl Bardon, B. J. Farley, Steve Presley, Cindy Thurston, and Jan Wolff contacted land managers and helped with manuscript preparation. Librarians Char Feist, Colleen Mlecoch, and Diane Vejtruba helped gather much of the reference material used in writing part I, and Tony Rodriguez processed hundreds of photographs, enabling selection of those that appear in the book. Carl Conney provided much legal assistance. Ed Gushing helped to shape the writing on glacial and vegetation history and to refine the concept of native habitats we used. Orrin Shane provided organizing ideas and information on the history of American Indians in the Region. Homer Hruby contributed ideas and information on all of the cultural history. J. D. Lehr and Carrie Patterson helped to smooth the presentation of glacial history. Lively discussions over the past several years with Norm Aaseng, Robert Dana, Hannah Dunnevitz, Kurt Rusterholz, and Nancy Sather concerning Minnesota's natural community classification helped clarify the descriptions of native habitats presented in part II. Many people reviewed the manuscript: Tom Anderson, Doug Birk, Nadine Blacklock, Mark [ix]
Cleveland, Dave Crawford, Mark Davis, Tom Dickson, Bob Djupstrom, Don Faber-Langendoen, Joan Galli, John Haarstad, Art Hawkins, Frank Irving, Roger Johnson, Blair Joselyn, Roger Lake, Sue Leaf, Thomas Morley, Dave Olfelt, Gerald B. Ownbey, Lee Pfannmuller, Welby Smith, Harvey Tjader, Scott Zager, and Dave Zumeta. We thank them for the time they spent and for their comments and suggestions. We also wish to thank the people of Minnesota for funding the MCBS and thereby enabling the production of this book. A substantial portion of this funding was approved
M
by the Minnesota Legislature in Chapter 254, Art. 1, Sec. 14, Subd. 9d, as recommended by the Legislative Commission on Minnesota Resources from the Minnesota Environment and Natural Resources Trust Fund. Other State of Minnesota programs that also contributed to the Survey include Reinvest in Minnesota, the Natural Heritage Program, and the Nongame Wildlife Program. The Nature Conservancy contributed funding for the 1987—89 survey of Washington County and has consistently supported documentation of Minnesota's natural features.
Acknowledgmen ts
MINNESOTA'S
J> t. C^roix Kiver I/alley AND Anoka Sandplain
part I A Landscape History of the St. Croix River Valley—Anoka Sandplain Region We tend to take the landscape around us for granted, believing that the land has looked, smelled, and sounded as it does now for as far back in time as we can imagine. But even within the geologically brief period of the past 15,000 or 20,000 years, the landscape of the St. Croix River Valley and Anoka Sandplain Region of eastcentral Minnesota has changed radically: worked and reworked by glaciers, it was covered with vegetation as different as boreal spruce parkland, pine barrens, and prairie as the climate changed and different plant species migrated across the Region. By the beginning of the 1800s, the predominant vegetation in the Region had come to be oak woodlandbrushland, oak forest, and marsh (see map 1, inside front cover). Pine forests, tamarack swamps, and other communities of the northern forest areas of the Great Lakes extended into the northern fringes of the Region. Prairies typical of the expansive grasslands of the midwestern plains extended up the Mississippi and St. Croix river valleys into the southern part of the Region. Maple-basswood forest, an extension of the deciduous forests of the eastern United States, merged with the pine forests in the northern part of the Region and along the St. Croix River Valley. Dakota and Ojibwe lived and hunted in the Region, finding deer in the woodlands, bison on the prairies, and ducks, geese, and wild rice in the marshes. They also traded with EuroAmerican traders who passed through the Region or established posts in the area. In the mid- 1800s, people of European descent began settling in east-central Minnesota, and the landscape changed again. In the course of logging, farming, and building towns and cities, much of the native vegetation was removed and replaced with crops, buildings, lawns, and pavement. Now, just 150 years after the first Euro-American settlers moved into the Region, only small fragments of native habitat remain. Except for these remnants, the landscape now appears unlike anything preceding it. The St. Croix River Valley-Anoka SanJplain Region spans three of North America's major vegetation zones: the conifer-hardwood forest zone, deciduousJorest-woodland zone, and prairie zone. As a result, just before extensive land-clearing began in the mid- 1800s, the type ojvegetation present changed noticeably across the Region. Characteristically northern communities, such as white pine-hardwoodJbrests, tamarack swamps, and poor Jens, were present in the northern part oj the Region. Prairies and oak savannas occurred along riverways in the southern and western parts of the Region. Oak woodland-brushland, oak savanna, and oakforest were especially abundant and stretched across much of the central part of the Region.
[3]
1. Geologic History and Major Landforms of the Region Bedrock Geology Most of the geologic features of the Region, such as plains, hills, river valleys, and lake basins, were produced directly or indirectly by glaciers over the past 20,000 or so years. In some sense, however, the present landscape began forming about 1.1 billion years ago, when the earth's crust parted along a rift stretching from Lake Superior, through Minnesota, to Kansas. In east-central Minnesota, lava flowed up out of the rift and hardened, forming a broad plain of basalt rock across the land (Ojakangas and Matsch 1982).
So much lava poured from the rift in east-central Minnesota that the earth's crust began to sag and fault along it. For millions of years afterward, water carried sediments into the depression formed along the rift by the sagging and faulting. These sediments covered the basalt flows and compacted into layers of sandstone, siltstone, shale, and other sedimentary rocks (fig. 1.1). Still later, beginning about 550 million years ago, eastcentral Minnesota was inundated by a succession of shallow seas, which deposited additional layers of sedimentary rocks over the area. These seas withdrew about 450 million
Fig. 1.1 Sedimentary rocks of the Franconia formation along the Curtain Falls hiking trail at Interstate State Park in Chisago County (see site 10 in part III). The rocks werejbrmed by sediment deposited in a sea that covered the Region during the Cambrian period about 505 million years ago. The smooth upper layer of rock is ajine-grained massive sandstone; the lower dissected layer is sandstone interbedded with siltstone and shale (J. H. Mossier pers. comm. 1993). Contrast the appearance of these rocks with the basalts in the photograph ojthe bedrock outcrop community in chapter 17 (fig. 17.4). The strikingly different nature of the plant communities that later developed on these bedrock types is related to the very different properties of the bedrock.
[4]
Fig. 1.3 Path of the Grantsburg sublobefrom Manitoba and northwestern Minnesota across the Region into western Wisconsin. The Grantsburg sublobe was an ojfshoot of a larger ice lobe, the Des Moines lobe, which traveled southwardfrom Manitoba into Iowa. (Modified from Wright 1972)
Fig. 1.2 Path of the Superior lobe from the Lake Superior basin to its maximum southern position at the St. Croix moraine. The Superior lobe reached its maximum southern position about 20,500years ago, then began melting back to the northeast. (Modifiedfrom Wright 1972)
years ago (Ojakangas and Matsch 1982). The bedrock then underwent millions of years of erosion and weathering, until approximately 2.5 million years ago, when the first of a series of glaciers advanced southward into Minnesota from Canada.
Glacial Geology The glaciers covered the bedrock with ice—perhaps thousands of feet thick in places—and deposited many feet of rock, gravel, sand, and silt. Thus, when the glacial era ended about 10,000 years ago, the underlying bedrock was exposed only along deep valleys cut by glacial rivers. The rest of the land surface was made up of plains, moraines, and river terraces formed by glacial ice lobes and glacial meltwater (see map 3, inside back cover). These glacial landforms dominated the geologic landscape of the Region and greatly influenced the major patterns of vegetation that developed after the ice lobes melted (compare the patterns in maps 1 and 3, for example). The glaciers that most affected the present landscape of the Region came at the end of about 2.5 million years of major glacial activity in the northern United States and Canada. During this period, ice sheets formed over Canada, flowed into the northern United States, melted back, and flowed southward again and again. These glaciers affected all of the land within the state of Minnesota at one time or another. Ice lobes moved earth and rock from one region and deposited it elsewhere, carved out basins, and built ridges. The meltwater from the glaciers scoured river valleys and deposited gravel and sand in broad outwash plains and in lake basins. In spite of the repeated episodes of glaciation over this long period, almost all of the major landscape features in the Region and across Minnesota were created
by the last episode of glaciation. This episode, the late Wisconsin glaciation, lasted from about 35,000 to about 10,000 years ago (Meyer et al. 1990, Wright 1972). The present understanding is that two major glacial ice lobes advanced into the Region during the late Wisconsin glaciation. The first, the Superior lobe, advanced southward from the Lake Superior basin (fig. 1.2); the second, the Grantsburg sublobe, entered the Region from the opposite direction, from the southwest, as an offshoot of a larger ice lobe that originated in present Manitoba and extended to Des Moines, Iowa (fig. 1.3). After the second ice lobe receded and its meltwater drained, the Region contained seven major landforms: the St. Croix moraine complex, Rosemount outwash plain, Grantsburg sublobe till plain, Anoka sandplain, Mississippi River terraces, St. Croix River terraces, and Cottage Grove dissected plain. The distinctive soils, topography, and patterns of lakes, rivers, and wetlands of these landforms greatly influenced the patterns of vegetation that developed later, at least those that were present just before Euro-American settlers began arriving in the mid-1800s. Streams flowing from the melting glaciers also carved the major river valleys of the Region, the Mississippi and the St. Croix. These rivers have attracted humans to the Region for thousands of years; in the mid- 1800s they began to draw Euro-American immigrants, setting the stage for the development of the current landscape. In the following sections we look more closely at the formation of these landforms and river valleys.
Major Landforms St. Croix Moraine Complex The St. Croix moraine complex is a broad band of rolling to rugged hills extending across the Region from St. Paul
Geologic History and Major Landforms of the Region
[5]
northeastward through Washington County and into Wisconsin (see map 3 on the inside back cover). The moraine was formed by the Superior lobe, the first ice sheet to advance into the Region duringO the late Wisconsin glaciO o ation. The Superior lobe scoured rock from the Lake Superior basin; ground it into gravel, sand, and silt; carried it south; and deposited it along the melting margin of the glacier (Wright 1972). The glacier appears to have melted back and readvanced several times before receding for good from the Region about 20,000 years ago. Each time it deposited more sand, gravel, and rock along its edge, forming a broad and rugged moraine (Patterson 1992). The sandy and gravelly till of the moraine is recognizable from its reddish hue, a by-product of the red felsite and sandstone of which the till is formed. This till, when reworked by weather and growing plants, forms coarse, droughty, and relatively infertile soils.
Rosemount Outwash Plain
Associated with the St. Croix moraine complex in southern Ramsey and Washington counties is a broad outwash plain formed of sand and gravel swept outward from the ice by glacial streams as the Superior lobe melted. The outwash plain, like the moraine, has coarse sandy and gravelly soils. However, in contrast to the ruggedness of the moraine, the outwash plain is gently rolling (fig. 1.4) except in a few areas—such as that just east of Woodbury—where the outwash sands were deposited over large blocks of ice, leaving hills and deep depressions now occupied by lakes (Meyer etal. 1990). Grantsburg Sublobe Till Plain
The Grantsburg sublobe till plain is a level to gently rolling plain coveringO the northeast third of the Region. It was -i o formed from material carried into the Region from Manitoba and northwestern Minnesota by the Grantsburg
Fig. 1.4 The nearly level Rosemount outwash plain just northwest of Lake Edith in Washington County. The outwash plain wasformed from sand and gravel deposited by meltwaterfrom the Superior lobe. In thefar background (looking northward toward Bayport) are the fugged hills and ridges of the St. Croix moraine. MnDNR photo by D. Wovcha
Fig. 1.5 The gently rolling Grantsburg sublobe till plain along Highway 24 near Springvale in northeastern Isanti County. Much of the till plain has been logged or converted tofarmland in the past 150years. Patches of native habitat remain primarily in wetland areas. Scattered white pines, such as those in the photograph, have grown up around manyfarms and on cutover land since the logging era of the 1800s.
sublobe, the second major ice lobe to move into the Region during the late Wisconsin glaciation (fig. 1.3). The Grantsburg sublobe covered all of the Region except for parts of Ramsey and Washington counties as it passed eastward into Wisconsin. When it melted, it left behind a broad plain of finely ground gray shale, limestone, and dolostone (fig. 1.5) (Hobbs and Goebel 1982, Meyer et al. 1990, Wright 1972). These deposits are finer than the deposits of the St. Croix moraine. The soils that develop from them are loamy and retain moisture very well (Wright et al. 1973). The soils are also richer in calcium and other minerals than the soils of the St. Croix moraine, the Rosemount outwash plain, and the other sandy and gravelly landforms of the Region. Another important feature of the Grantsburg till plain, in terms of vegetation development, is that it is poorly drained in many areas, with numerous lake and wetland basins. The area of the till plain around Center City in southeastern Chisago County, in particular, is dotted with lakes (see map 4, inside back cover). Anoka Sandplain As the Grantsburg sublobe melted, large sand-laden streams formed from the meltwater. These streams shifted widely
Ice Block Depressions
W
hen the glacial ice lobes were advancing in the Region,large blocks of icesometimesbecame
detached and were buried by glacial till. Other blocks broke off as the ice lobes melted and were buried by sand and gravel carried by glacial meltwater. The buried ice blocks, insulated by a layer of rock, sand, gravel, and sometimes vegetation (including forests), lasted for hundreds or maybe even thousands of years after the main ice sheets had disappeared. When the ice blocks finally melted, the sediment covering them collapsed, leaving expansive holes or depressions. The holes, when filled with water, became lakes, ponds, and wetlands (Gushing 1963, Wright 1972). Most of the present lakes and wetlands in east-central Minnesota are concentrated in areas of end moraine, such as the St. Croix moraine, or in outwash, such as the Anoka sandplain, because these are the areas where ice blocks were most likely to be buried by glacial deposits. Prominent examples of ice block lakes in the Region include Big Marine Lake in northern Washington Count/, the chain of lakes from Round Lake in Anoka County to Lake Josephine and McCarrons Lake in Ramsey County, and the lakes around Cottage Grove and Woodbury in southern Washington County (Meyer et al. 1990, Wright 1956,1972).
Geologic History and Major Landforms of the Region
m
Fig. 1.6 The nearly level Anoka sandplain in west-central Anoka County.
over the newly uncovered ground and deposited sand and gravel in broad, level plains (fig. 1.6) (Cooper 1935, Wright 1972). Later, these streams became dammed, and large, shallow lakes formed across Anoka, Isanti, and Chisago counties (fig. 1.7). The sand carried into the lakes by the streams was spread by currents and deposited across the lake beds, covering the earlier stream deposits in the eastern portion of the sandplain (J. D. Lehrpers. comm. 1993, Meyer 1993, Meyer et al. 1990,1993). These sands generally covered till laid down earlier across the central part of the Region by the Superior lobe and the Grantsburg sublobe. However, scattered across the sandplain are glacial till hills that were high enough that they were not covered by the sand. The sandplain also has numerous lake and wetland depressions that were formed where large blocks of glacier ice were buried by sand and then gradually melted. Mississippi River Terraces
Like the western part of the Anoka sandplain, the Mississippi River terraces are level plains formed from sand deposited by streams that originated from the melting Grantsburg sublobe. At first, these streams shifted over the land along the present Mississippi River Valley, depositing [8]
plains of sand and gravel. However, after the sublobe had melted back from the Region, the largest of these streams formed a well-defined channel between St. Cloud and Minneapolis and became the Mississippi River (Wright 1972). Afterward, glacial meltwater deepened the channel of the
Fig. 1.7 The extent of glacial lakes Anoka, Hugo, and Fridley in the St. Croix River Valley-Anoka Sandplain Region. These lakes were Jormedjrom glacial meltwater as the Grantsburg sublobe wasted between about 16,000 and 13,000years ago. The lakes deposited sands across much of the eastern part of the Anoka sandplain (Meyer 1993, Meyer et al. 1990, 1993, Patterson 1992). (Modifiedfrom Meyer 1993 and Meyer et al. 1990,1993)
Chapter 1
river, and the existing floodplains of the river were left dry, forming river terraces. Above Fort Snelling, the terrace is broad and level; below Fort Snelling, the terraces are renerally more narrow and rise from the river in three distinct levels, with each level representing a former floodplain of the river (fig. 1.8). The streams that deposited the terrace sands were powerful and flowed swiftly, at least compared to the streams that deposited the sands of the adjacent (western) portion of the Anoka sandplain. Therefore, the sands of the Mississippi River terraces are coarser than those of the Anoka sandplain (Wright 1972). In addition, the Mississippi River terraces have fewer lake and wetland basins than the Anoka sandplain. Evidently, most of the glacial ice had melted by the time the terraces formed, and few ice blocks were buried by the river terrace sands. 7
St. Croix River Terraces
As the Superior lobe and the Grantsburg sublobe melted, large glacial lakes formed to the north of the Region. These lakes, including Glacial Lake Duluth and Glacial Lake Grantsburg, drained via rivers down the St. Croix Valley (Meyer et al. 1990, Wright 1990). The first of these rivers cut broad terraces into the sand and gravel deposited along the St. Croix Valley by the Superior lobe. Later, the ancestral St. Croix River eroded the valley more deeply, cutting into the underlying bedrock and forming additional terraces. This left a deep river valley with a series of river terraces and numerous bedrock cliffs and bluffs (fig. 1.9). (See the following description of the formation of river valleys in the Region.) After the valley was deepened, the streams feeding the main river also cut down through the sand, gravel, and
Fig. 1.8 A portion of the Mississippi River terraces just northeast of Lower Grey Cloud Island in southern Washington County. The hillside in the background marks the boundary between the low river terrace in theforeground and a higher terraceJormed when the Glacial River WarrenJlowed through the Mississippi Valley at a higher level. The terraces continue northwestward up the Mississippi River through Ramsey, Hennepin, Anoka, and Sherburne counties. Injact, much of downtown St. Paul is on a river terrace—the St. Paul Cathedral and the capital building sit on a hill that marks the edge of the terrace and the beginning of a higher outwash plain. West of downtown St. Paul, the terraces encompass much of the ground along West Seventh Street below the Summit Hill and Highland Park neighborhoods. Farther upstream, the terraces widen greatly, covering much of southwestern Anoka County and the southwestern third oj Sherburne County.
Geologic History and Major Land/arms of the Region
[9]
underlying bedrock to form deep side ravines along the length of the valley in Washington and Chisago counties (Wright 1972). The ravines along Brown's Creek just north of Stillwater and at Falls Creek in northern Washington County are striking examples of this downcutting. Cottage Grove Dissected Plain
The Cottage Grove dissected plain is the only landform in the Region that was not formed from glacial sediments deposited during the late Wisconsin glaciation (Meyer et al. 1990). While glacier ice and glacier streams were depositing sediments elsewhere in the Region, the Cottage Grove plain was being eroded by water and wind. This erosion left the surface of the plain dissected and strongly rolling (fig. 1.10). The surface of the Cottage Grove plain is covered with a thin layer of windblown silt and till deposited by earlier glaciers. Beneath the thin soils are layers of dolo-
stone, limestone, and sandstone bedrock. These bedrock layers are exposed along many stream valleys and old glacial meltwater drainageways. Because it is an older landform, the Cottage Grove plain also has a well-developed drainage system and generally lacks the lake and wetland basins and poorly drained level areas common to the Region's more recently glaciated terrain. Formation of the Mississippi and St. Croix River Valleys With the exception of scattered buried ice blocks, the last glacial ice in east-central Minnesota—the Grantsburg sublobe—had melted by about 13,000 years ago (Wright 1972). By 12,000 years ago, the main ice sheet that fed the Grantsburg sublobe had melted back into the Red River Valley of northwestern Minnesota and adjacent North
Fig. 1.9 Cliffs along the St. Croix River gorge at Interstate State Park. These cliffs were cut by rivers draining glacial lakes north of the Region between about 13,000 and 10,000 years ago. The rocks of these cliffs are basalts that wereformed about 1.1 billion years ago by lavaflowing from a rift in the earth's surface. The basalts are much more resistant to erosion than the sedimentary rocks that the rivers cut through elsewhere in Chisago and Washingon counties. Therefore, the valley here is steep sided and narrow, in contrast to the wide valley south of the gorge, where the river cut through sedimentary rocks (Ojakangas and Matsch 1982, Wright 1972, Wright et al. 1973).
[10]
Chapter 1
Fig. 1.10 The strongly rolling Cottage Grove dissected plain along County Road 18 west ofAjion in southeastern Washington Country
Dakota and Canada. Glacial meltwater then began to pool in the Red River Valley, forming Glacial Lake Agassiz. The waters of Glacial Lake Agassiz eventually rose enough that they drained over the divide now separating the Red and Minnesota river valleys and flowed down the valley of the present Minnesota River as Glacial River Warren. River Warren was joined by the much smaller ancestral Mississippi River where the Minnesota River now joins the Mississippi River below the bluffs of Fort Snelling. Glacial River Warren was a powerfully erosive river. It cut down through dozens of feet of glacial deposits to the underlying bedrock. Near the present site of downtown St. Paul, a waterfall developed in River Warren where it flowed across an older river channel that had been etched into the bedrock. Over hundreds of years, the bedrock shelf underlying the waterfall eroded upstream beyond the mouth of the Mississippi River. When this waterfall eroded past the Mississippi, the River Warren channel cut below that of the
MnDNR photo by D. Woscha
Mississippi, leaving the Mississippi hanging and forming a second waterfall. The bedrock shelf under this second waterfall eroded upstream over the next 10,000 years to its present location at St. Anthony Falls (Wright 1990). The erosion of the Mississippi River Valley by Glacial River Warren and the migration of these waterfalls produced deep gorges and valleys along the Mississippi River in Washington and Ramsey counties (Meyer et al. 1990, Patterson 1992). River Warren also eroded its channel below the level of the channel of the ancestral St. Croix River, which fed River Warren at present-day Point Douglas in Washington County. This may have sent a similar wave of erosion and valley-cutting up the St. Croix River Valley. However, much of the St. Croix Valley had been deeply eroded previously by drainage from glacial lakes Grantsburg and Duluth to the north (Cooper 1935, Wright 1972,1990). After the oglacial lakes had drained,' the rivers flowing o through the Minnesota, Mississippi, and St. Croix river
Geologic History and Major Landforms of the Region
[11]
Fish of the Region's Rivers
T
he fish found in the rivers of the Rejion today reflect the history of mixing and sortim| of waters during the Pleis-
tocene. Perhaps n0 Singte force has affected the distribution of fish in the state more than fee glaciatiori events of some 13,000 to 20,000 years ago. The advance and retreat of glacial lobes at times converged the riyeis from several drainage systems, white diverting or obstructing the flow of others fUnderhil! 1989). Fish most likely followed trie shifts in water flowage and moved into these glacial lakes; and rivers. As the waters receded and the Mississippi and SJ. Croix rivers took on more of their present appearance,they toff behind them natural barriers, such as the falls at St. Artthony Falls and Taylors Falls,
that blocked or substantially limited, further movement of fish upstream. Three subdrainages of the Mississippi River drainage now make up the rivers and streams of the Region. Although these subdrainages have historical affinities, as shown by the species of fish they share, each also contains different native fisH assemblages, ; The segment of the Mississippi River that flows past Sherburne and Anoka counties and all rivers and streams that drain into this portion of the Mississippi are part of the Upper Mississippi Basin, Within this subdrainage, which originates at Lake Itasca and ends at St. Anthony Falls, 65 native species of fish have been documented (Underbill 1989), Alt but five species—the cisco (Coregonus artedii), lake whttefish (€. c/«peaformis), lake trout (SaMlintisnamaycvsh), finescale dace (Phoxinus neogaem)t and ninespine stickleback (Pungitius
turning southward* By comparison, 118 native fish species, almost twice as many species as in the Upper Mississippi fish community, have been documented from this subdrainage. Nearly all fish species Considered rare in Minnesota occur herer including distinctive specte such as ttie lake sturgeon (Acip&nser fulvme&m), which can exceed 200 pounds, and the paddlefish (Potyodon spathula), which moves its long, spoon-billed snout back and forth as ft forages, The third subdrainage, the St. Croix Basin, originates at the headwaters of the St Croix, Snake, and Kettle rivers and includes the streams and rivers that drain the eastern portions of Chisagp arid Washington counties to where the St. Croix River joins the Mississippi River. Nearly 80% of the 93 species of fish found here are also found in the Lower Mississippi fish community, as well as many of the state's rarest fish. The present distribution of one species, the gilt darter (Pertina evides), is apparently restricted to the upper St. Croix River and its tributaries (Phillips et at 1982); Conversely, 16 other species in the St, Croix ftsh community do not occur above Taylors Falls today. The rapids and cataracts originally present at Taylors Falls did notform an absolute barrier to fish migration, and during high water conditions in the spj^grish were probably able to get past the falls to reach spawning grounds upstream (K. Schmidt pers. comm, 1993). However, the dam constructed at Taylors Falls til the early 1900s prevented many fish, especially the larger species, from passing. Recent accounts describe shovel-
pimgitius)—can be found below the falls as well. The Lower Mississippi Basin begins below St. Anthony Falls
nose sturgeon (ScapMrhynchus piatorynchus) congregated in large numbers below the dam during the spawning season. Poor reproductive success among fish where dams have been constructed is thought to have contributed to the decline of some
and runs past Ramsey and southern Washington counties before
fish species and the disappearance of others from these rivers.
valleys became much smaller. They were unable to carry all
tributary of the Mississippi, the Chippewa River, deposited
of the sediment deposited in them by their tributary streams,
enough sediment in the Mississippi River near Wabasha to
and the river valleys began to fill with sediment. The Mis-
partially dam the river, creating Lake Pepin. Lake Pepin at
sissippi and St. Croix valleys have filled with as much as 100
one time extended upstream as far as St. Paul, but the upper
feet of sediment in places in Ramsey and Washington coun-
end of the lake gradually filled with sediment carried into
ties since the end of the glacial era (Meyer et al. 1990). One
it by the river. As this delta moved downstream past the
[12]
Chapter 1
mouth of the St. Croix River, the sediment dammed the
filling of the Mississippi and St. Croix river valleys with sedi-
St. Croix River, forming Lake St. Croix (Wright 1990).
ment carried by the sluggish postglacial Mississippi and St.
Geologic Processes since the End ofGlaciation
with dead plant material, or peat, and with sediment eroded
Once the river valleys and lakes had formed, about 10,000
on the Anoka sandplain (Wright 1972). The major vegeta-
years ago, the last glacial episode ended. Since then, the
tion patterns that developed after the glaciation were strongly
geologic landscape has changed relatively little. The major
influenced by the Region's geology, closely reflecting the
changes over the past 10,000 years have been the gradual
patterns of the major landforms.
Croix rivers; the gradual filling of lake and wetland basins
Dunes of the Anoka Sandplain unes began to form on the Anoka sandplain about 8,000 years ago during a particularly warm, dry period
D
when vegetation became sparse and strong winds eroded and redeposited the exposed sands. Development of the dunes continued during similar dry periods at about 6,000 and 5,000 years ago {Keen and Shane 1990). Dunes formed mainly
from surrounding uplands; and the formation of sand dunes
are common only far south and east of the Region, on the Atlantic coastal plain. West of the Atlantic coastal plain, they occur only in scattered sandy areas, such as dunes near trie southern tip of Lake Michigan and those on the Anoka sandplain. Because of their drought1/ infertile soils and steep topography, most of the dune areas on the sandplain have never been cultivated. Consequently, they harbor not onty rare and distinctive plant species, but also some of the most significant tracts of native vegetation in the Region, particularly oak savanna and dry prairie. However, in the decades following the droughts of the 1930s, some of the largest of tnese dune areas have been planted with pines, a crop that can persist on the sandy soils and that was believed would control wind erosion on the sandplain. These pines, as they mature, overtop the savanna oaks anrj shade out the native prairie species. Trie pines also produce aciaic needle litter that leaches nutrients from the soils and destroys the organic soil layers that develop under prairie grasses. Other areas of native dune vegetation in the Region have been destroyed recently by suburban development, including construction ot houses and golf courses.
The pines on this dune field in eastern Sherburne County were planted in the 1980s. As they mature, they will gradually shade out the native grasses and forks, until the only evidence of the present oak savanna will be a few scraggly oak trees growing among the pines. in the southern and western part of the sandplain, as shown on the accompanying map. Dune areas are especially extensive within Sand Dunes State Forest in central Sherbume County (see site 23 in part 111). The dune areas contain habitats that aie rare in the rest of the Region, including wind-scoured blowouts and arid dune crests. These habitats harbor species, such as false heather and sea-beach needlegrass, that are adapted to growing on droughty, shifting substrates. Interestingly, some of these species
Another threat to prairies and savannas on dune areas is erosion by ATVs. This dune field is near Elk River in Sherburne County.
Geologic History and Major Landforms of the Region
[13]
2. Postglacial Landscape Vegetation Vegetation began to develop in the Region even before the end of the glaciation. The vegetation then changed dramatically over the next 10,000 or 11,000 years, partly in response to changes in climate and apparently also the activities of American Indians. The first vegetation to develop was patches of spruce trees and perhaps tundra plants around the margins of the glaciers and on buried ice blocks (E. J. Gushingpers. comm. 1992, Wright 1972). By about 11,000 years ago, much of the Region was covered by boreal vegetation dominated by spruce trees, with smaller numbers of paper birch, aspen, black ash, tamarack, balsam fir, and alder (Gushing 1967, Keen and Shane 1990, Webb et al. 1983). Prairie species were also relatively abundant during this period, suggesting that the vegetation was spruce parkland, with many shrub- and grass-covered openings (E. J. Gushing pers. comm. 1992, Eyster-Smith et al. 1991). The land surface probably was highly disturbed by shifting glacial streams and the melting of buried ice blocks, which exposed patches of bare soil (Gushing 1963). Spruce began to decline in east-central Minnesota around 10,500 years ago, when the climate warmed rapidly. The spruce vegetation was replaced about 10,000 years ago by pine barrens and pine forests, as jack pine and later red pine migrated into eastern Minnesota from Michigan and northern Wisconsin (Keen and Shane 1990, Webb et al. 1983). In east-central Minnesota small amounts of elm, black ash, and paper birch were present with the pines. Bracken ferns were abundant in the understory, indicating that the tree canopy was rather open or patchy. Although the climate was warmer and drier at this time than during the glacial period and the period of spruce parkland, it probably was still fairly humid and cool because of the presence of large glaciers north of Minnesota in the Hudson Bay region. About 9,000 years ago, the climate warmed again and
[14]
pine declined in abundance. Prairie herbs began to increase, at least in the western part of the Anoka sandplain, while mesic forests dominated by elm developed near the St. Croix River (Eyster-Smith et al. 1991, Keen and Shane 1990). Oak became more widespread on the landscape as well, most likely forming scrubby thickets in moist areas, such as in deep ravines, along rivers and lakes, and on shaded slopes on the hilly St. Croix moraine (E. J. Gushing pers. comm. 1992). Remnants of pine forest may have been present on some of these moister sites. Small patches of jack pine woodland or savanna likely were present on droughty outwash plains. The climate appears to have continued to warm from about 9,000 to 8,000 years ago. It also became much drier; lake levels on the Anoka sandplain dropped to perhaps as much as 12 feet below their present levels (Keen and Shane 1990). Prairie spread across the landscape during this period. By about 7,000 years ago, prairie had reached its northeastern maximum in Minnesota, about 75 miles northeast of its present position, and covered most of the Region (fig. 2.1) (Webb et al. 1983, Wright 1992). The prairie vegetation of this period did not resemble the tallgrass prairie typical of much of southern and western Minnesota at the time of Euro-American settlement. Rather, it resembled the shorter and more arid midgrass prairies now present in the western Dakotas (Jacobson and Grimm 1986). Prairie—most likely with oak thickets interspersed in draws and on moist, shaded slopes—continued to dominate the Region until about 4,000 years ago, when the climate became cooler and moister (Keen and Shane 1990). In response to the moister climate, the oak thickets began to spread into the prairies. Oak woodland-brushland gradually became the dominant upland vegetation, probably interspersed with marshes and wet prairies. White pine also migrated eastward into the Region at this time as the climate cooled (Jacobson and Grimm 1986). Thus, east-central Minnesota probably contained a mosaic of oak woodlandbrushland and prairie openings, with small patches of oak
Fig. 2.1 The maximum northeastern extent of the prairie-Jbrest border in Minnesota, reached about 7,000years ago. (Modifiedfrom Wright 1992; copyright University of Minnesota Press)
and pine forest on moist sites and extensive marshes in poorly drained low areas. The prairie-forest border moved westward throughout this period of cooling. It reached its present position by about 500 years ago (see the map on page 3) (Webb et al. 1983). Around 300 years ago, the climate became especially moist and cool, and extensive mesic forests of elm, sugar maple, and basswood developed in parts of east-central Minnesota (Grimm 1983,1984). The major vegetation patterns present at the time of Euro-American settlement were then in place.
Influence of American Indians The history of American Indians on the Anoka sandplain and in the southern St. Croix River Valley is complex, and there have been few rigorous archaeological excavations that would help to interpret it. Therefore, ideas on the history of American Indians in the Region are still evolving. However, it does appear that the Region has a long history of use and occupation by American Indians. Campsites unearthed around marshes, lakes, and streams suggest that the Anoka sandplain has been inhabited and hunted on for much of the past 10,000 or 11,000 years. Artifacts found along the St. Croix River Valley indicate that it was a trade route for at least 9,000 years between American Indians living in the northern conifer forest regions and those in the deciduous forests to the south (O. C. Shane pen. comm. 1993). One conclusion that emerges from the tools, bones, and other materials found at sites around the Region is that during the prehistoric period the lifestyles of American Indians were closely tied to the vegetation and animal populations. Three successive American Indian lifestyles or cultural tra-
ditions can be distinguished: the Paleo Indian, the Archaic, and the Woodland. These paralleled the major changes in vegetation and animal populations in the postglacial era. The Paleo Indian tradition coincided roughly with the period when spruce parkland and pine forest dominated the landscape between 9,000 and 11,000 years ago. Evidence for Paleo Indian occupation of the Region comes from spear and javelin points found scattered across the Anoka sandplain (Harrison 1978). The Paleo Indians have traditionally been considered "big-game hunters." They are thought to have migrated into the Region from the Great Plains, following herds of large mammals such as caribou and woodland bison that moved into the area as the ice receded and vegetation began to develop. They lived in small bands and traveled from one temporary campsite to another, their movements determined by the movements of the animals they hunted. Although the Paleo Indians appear to have been adept hunters, wild fruits and nuts were probably as important as animals in their diet (T H. Hruby pers. comm. 1993). It is not clear whether Paleo Indians were ever numerous in the Region—the scattering of artifacts across the sandplain may mean that few lived here. If so, their impact on the landscape may have been small. There is some evidence that Paleo Indians were proficient in killing bison on the sandplain. A site unearthed by peat-digging operations near Coon Creek in Ham Lake Township in Anoka County contained the remains of at least 20 bison that may have been driven into the then swampy land by Paleo Indian hunters (Harrison 1978). In a broader context, it is possible that Paleo Indian hunters contributed to the extinction of giant mastodons and woolly mammoths in North America (Pielou 1991). When the climate became warmer and drier and prairie spread into the Region about 8,000 years ago, a new cultural tradition, the Archaic, developed. The Archaic Indians used the Region more intensively than the Paleo Indians, as evidenced by the abundance of Archaic artifacts and campsites across the Anoka sandplain (Harrison 1978). The Archaic Indians were more sedentary than the Paleo Indians. Many of their campsites on the sandplain contain tools and charcoal, indicating that Archaic Indians set up substantial base camps in certain areas, with smaller seasonal camps for hunting or foraging. Archaeologists have
Postglacial Landscape
[15]
Fig. 2.2 Ojibwe inhabited the St. Croix River Valleyjrom the late 1600s or early 1700s into the late 1800s. Apparent in this 1885 photo of an Ojibwe camp near Taylors Falls are influences on the Ojibwe (such as the cotton dresses) from Euro-American traders and settlers, who began moving into the valley in the 1700s and 1800s.
also found many bison bones dating from this period in the marshes of the Anoka sandplain. From this, they surmise that a large bison herd roamed the prairies of the sandplain and that the Archaic people hunted bison intensively (O. C. Shane pers. comm. 1993). One possible Archaic Indian bison kill site is in southeastern Anoka County, where Rice Creek narrows between two sandy ridges just south of Rice Lake. Eight Archaic projectile points and a partial bison skeleton have been found in the mucky creek bed, suggesting that the site was a popular fording spot for bison, which were ambushed there by Archaic Indians (Harrison 1978). Although the question has not been thoroughly examined for the sandplain as a whole, at least in the vicinity of Horseshoe Lake in Isanti County fire was common during the Archaic period (E. J. Gushing pers. comm. 1993). The Archaic Indians may have burned the prairies in association with bison hunting, as did American Indians living in the Region when European explorers began arriving in the late 1600s. Some time after the climate cooled and prairie gave way to woodland and forest, a new culture developed in the Region, the Woodland tradition. The Woodland Indians were much more numerous than either the Paleo Indians
[16]
or the Archaic Indians, as indicated by a dramatic rise in the number of campsites on the Anoka sandplain beginning about 2,500 years ago (Dobbs et al. 1990). The population increase may have been related to the increased diversity of animals and plants that accompanied the change from a largely prairied landscape to one that was a mosaic of woodland, prairie, and forest. The Woodland Indians set up their camps around the shallow lakes and marshes of the sandplain, taking advantage of the abundant fish, waterfowl, muskrats, turtles, and other small animals in these areas. They also gathered nuts and fruits and hunted deer in the surrounding woodlands. Around 1,200 years ago, a fairly significant change took place among the Woodland Indians of central Minnesota: they became heavily dependent on wild rice. Woodland Indians probably had been harvesting wild rice from the marshes and lakes of the sandplain for some time before 1,200 years ago, but around that time they developed a method for preserving the grain that allowed large quantities to be harvested and stored for later use (Johnson 1985). The intensive use of wild rice was accompanied by larger populations, as evidenced by an increase in the number and size of campsites. House floors have even been found at some Woodland campsites from this period (Wendt 1988).
Chapter 2
Not many years ago. these lakes weie frequented by thousands of wild ducks and geese... Howard Lake and several
Centerville Lakes Area
T
he lakes and marshes around Centerville in southeast-
em Anoka County have attracted humans lor much the time since the glaciers melted h east-central Minnesota. Spear points from Paleo Indians of perhaps 10,000 or 11,000 years ago have been found near Howard Lake. Laler, the area was occupied by Archaic Indians, as suggested dy the numerous Archaic Indian tools—such as drills, scrapers, hammers, and grindstones—found at campsites in the area and associaled with making shelters or clothing and processing food (Harrison 1978). Archaeologists have also found a-tifacts dating from tie later Woodland period on many of the dry sandy ridges in the area. In the late 1600s, when the French explore-s Father Louis Hennepin and Nicholas Perrot traveled through east-central Minnesota, they alluded to Dakota Indians residing in the Centerville lakes area Perrot (1867) observed that the area provided a haven lor the Dakota, as it was "nothing but lakes and marshes, full of wild rice" and was situated off the main travel routes of the Mississippi, Rum, and St. Crow rivers and was therefore relatively inaccessible to the Ojibwe, with whom the Dakota were at war (Harrison 1978]. Some sites in the area, such as a small knoll at the south end of Peltier Lake, appear to have been inhabited Qy American Indians for much of the historic and prehistoric periods. When Euro-American settlers began moving into tie area in the 1840s and 1850s, they found a lancscape with "intensive marshes . .. singularly interspersed with islands of various sizes covered with several kinds of timber" and small areas of dry land "rising abruptly above the level of the marsh and thereby covered with short grass and Sparse Jack Oak trees" or "thickly covered with brush of smsl: growth" (U.S. Surveyor General 1847-1908). Tne grassy upland knolls may well have been American Indian campsites, turned frequently to keep them open and free of brush. The settlers also found the area abounding in wildlife and gave accounts of excellent deer and waterfowl hunting in the 1800s (Dobbs et al. 1990, Goodrich 1905). Historian Albert Goodrich (1905) describes the waterfowl and wild rice present in the area during the early years of settlement:
The Woodland Indians still appear to have moved around quite a bit within the area of the base camps, setting up seasonal camps associated with foraging for nuts and fruits and with deer hunting. The Woodland tradition continued among the American Indians until the arrival of the fur
of the Cer,te:vil!e lakes are very shallow and the rice grows in them to such an extent that in the late summer, the water is entirely obscured and they look like green meadows. The waterfowl feed upon the rice and late in the fall, when the stalks have bent over and fallen beneath the surface of the water, they dive after the rice, refusing to leave this feedini ground until the last open space has frozen across. Residents of the area have recounted stories of canning a hundred pints of duck meat after a day's hunting. In the ISOOs. residents also picked high-bush and tow-bush cranberries around the lakes and netted fish oeneath the ice in the winler when the shal ow lakes *roze to the bottom except near springs and flowing water, where tne fisf. concentrated (Dobbs et al. 1990). The wild rice, waterfowl, deer, and forests around Ins lakes all began to decline soon after Euro-American settlement. The wild rice beds disappeared rapidly around 1900 when tre lakes became muddied, either by agriculture or the introduction of carp (Dobbs et al. 1990). Ducks and geese became less abundant as the wild rice diminished. Deer were hunted intensely f or market and perhaps also for home consumption by settlers and became less common in the late 1800s and early 1900s (Goodrich 1905). A charcoal factory ir Centerville placed such a demand on the surrounding oak forests that oy the 1900s oak trees had been depleted from much of the area and had to be brought in from as far as (he St. Croix River Valley and Wisconsin (Dobbs et al. 1990). Much of the remaining upland vegetation :n the area was cleared for cropland by the ea-ly decades of the 20th century, and drainage dutches were constructed throjgn the marshes. At present, game animals such as ducks, geese, ard whitetailed dee' are again common in the area, but little native vegetation remains. A few isolated matches of oak forest are all thai is left of the native upland vegetation. Some fairly large marshes ard swamps remain around the lakes, aut they generally lack many of the native plant species characteristic of wetlands in areas undisturbed by agriculture or drainage dilches. Instead, the present marshes and swamos contain almost exclusively common species such as cattails and speckled alders or have been invaced by aggressive weedy species such as reed canary-grass.
trade and Euro-American settlement in the Region in the 1700s and 1800s. At about the same time as the late Woodland tradition based on wild rice processing developed in east-central Minnesota, another cultural tradition, the Oneota, appeared
Postglacial Landscape
[17]
in southern Minnesota. The Oneota tradition was based on corn and bean agriculture and developed in southeastern Minnesota as farming and other ideas spread north from centers in Missouri and Illinois. The Oneota established large villages along major riverways. Although the Oneota generally lived south of the Region, there was an Oneota fishing camp on the St. Croix River near Marine on St. Croix (Gibbon 1973), and the agricultural practices of the Oneota appear to have spread among the Woodland Indians of the Region; the late Woodland Indians grew small plots of corn, beans, and squash on river floodplains or on mudflats adjacent to lakes (Harrison 1978). Another important aspect of American Indian activity in the Region during the postglacial era was the use of the St. Croix River as a trade route between tribes livingO in the northern forests and tribes living south of the Region. Artifacts found in caves along the river indicate that American Indians traveled through or inhabited the valley for at least 9,000 years before the arrival of Euro-American settlers (O. C. Shane pers. comm. 1993). Some of the more conspicuous trade goods found along the river are copper from the Lake Superior basin and adjacent areas and red pipestone from northern Wisconsin (Dobbs et al. 1990). These goods were evidently transported down the St. Croix to the central and lower Mississippi Valley. American Indians traveling along the river probably also brought medicinal and food plants from one area to another, thereby introducing new plants to the river valley. The heavy use of the river as a travel route may have caused other changes in the lands along the river, such as increased frequency of fire on the wooded and prairie-covered river bluffs. It is also likely that American Indians regularly inhabited many sites along the river during the prehistoric era. The first written account of American Indian life in the Region comes from Father Louis Hennepin, who was captured by a group of Eastern Dakota near St. Anthony Falls in 1679 and taken up the Rum River to spend a winter at their camp near Lake Mille Lacs (Hennepin 1938 [1683]). Hennepin recorded that the Dakota relied heavily on wild rice and fish—thus most archaeologists would consider the Dakota part of the late Woodland cultural tradition. Hennepin's account and the 1680s memoirs of another Frenchman, explorer Nicholas Perrot, imply that Eastern Dakota also lived at the time in the lake-dotted area around present-
[18]
day Centerville in southeastern Anoka County, where they found abundant wild rice, waterfowl, fish, deer, and other animals (Harrison 1978, Perrot 1867). At this time, however, the Eastern Dakota were moving southward out of the Region toward the riverine environment of southeastern Minnesota and the prairie areas of southern and southwestern Minnesota. In part, they were drawn to hunt bison on the prairies southwest of the Mississippi River and to gain access to traders moving into southern Minnesota. In part, they were driven by Ojibwe moving southward from the Lake Superior region (fig. 2.2) (Holzkamm 1983, Little 1985). They may also have moved south following climatic cooling and changes in the vegetation in the prairie-forest border area. At any rate, by the mid- 1700s, the Dakota had abandoned the Lake Mille Lacs area, possibly moving to wetland areas along Rice Creek in western Anoka County (Goodrich 1905). By the 1780s, the Mille Lacs Dakota and the Dakota near present-day Centerville had been pushed to land south and west of the Mississippi River. Afterward, until the removal of the Ojibwe and Dakota in the mid- 1800s, much of the Region formed a buffer between the two tribes and was used mainly for hunting. The Anoka sandplain is thought to have been especially contested because of the abundance of deer in its woodlands (Goodrich 1905, Hickerson 1965,1970). Participation in the fur trade in the 1700s brought changes in the lifestyles of the American Indians in the western Great Lakes area. In general, the fur trade encouraged American Indians across much of the area to hunt and trap animals such as bison and beaver much more intensely than before, contributing to their extirpation over wide areas. The fur trade may also have increased hunting pressure on large animals such as bison, elk, and deer by disrupting other food-gathering activities such as fishing and wild ricing (Hickerson 1965). The periodic warfare between the Dakota and Ojibwe within the Region may have interfered with the fur trade, causing the Region to be less heavily trapped and hunted than other parts of the western Great Lakes area (Hickerson 1965, Little 1985). Even so, the fur trade probably contributed to the extirpation of bison and elk, which had largely disappeared from the Region by the 1830s, well before extensive Euro-American settlement. The effect of the fur trade on other animals in the Region, such as beaver and muskrat, which were trapped for their skins, and deer,
Chapter 2
which were hunted for their hides and to supply traders with meat, is not well documented. One well-documented way in which American Indians altered the landscape of the Region during the historic era was by setting fire to the vegetation. Numerous accounts from Euro-American explorers and settlers tell of American Indians burning the prairies, savannas, and woodlands
Bison and Elk along the Mississippi River
H
erds of bison and elk grazec the prairies along the Mississippi River before Euro-American settlement. Bison were less abundant ir- the prairies along the Mississippi River thar in the more extensive tallgrass prairies in southern and western Minnesota (Hickerson 1965). However, Father Louis Hennepin reported in 1680 that bison were abundant in the vicinity of the river for many miles above and below St. Anthony Fails (Hennepin 1938 [1683]). Bison were also numer-
of the Upper Midwest during the early 1800s (Goodrich 1905, Grimm 1984, Harvey 1980). The explorers and settlers recognized that the fires had a significant impact on the vegetation of the Midwest. For example, Joseph Nicollet, who explored the Mississippi River above Fort Snelling and later the territory between the upper Mississippi River and the Missouri River, wrote in 1838 (Bray and Bray 1976):
ous enough on the river terrace prairies to catch the attention of Eastern Dakota living in the Lake Mille Lacs area, who journeyed to these prairies and others west of Lake Mille Lacs to hunt bison (Johnson 1985;. Henry Sctioolcraft, who traveled the upper Mississippi from the headwaters lakes to Fort Snelling in 1820. stated that the Eastern Dakota sometimes killed "immense numbers" of bison on the prairies along the upper Mississippi (Schooled 1953 [1821]). Members of Schoolcraft's party spent a day themselves tnat same year hunting bison along the river while descending from Little Falls to just above St. Cloud. Al that time, bison were probably already scarce across much of Minnesota as a result of being hunted commercially for their tongues and hides during the later part of the fur trade era. By the 1830s. bison had sisappea-edfrom the prairies along the Mississippi River above SI. Anthony Falls (Schoolcraft 183d). When a few bison were killed near St. Cloud in 1855 and 1866, the St. Cloud Democrat las reported in Swanson 1940) was prompted to report that it was "the first time in a number of years, that these shaggy monsters have been so near to us. They are row moving about m large herds." Like tne bison, elk were most abundant in Minnesota in the prairie regions; however, they also inhabited woodland areas during the winter (Fashmgbauer 1965). Elk River and Elk Lake in Sherburne County were named for the herds of elk that inhabited the area, as confirmed by the observations of Zebulon Pike in the early 1800s and later explorers and fur traders (Pike 1895, Upharn 1969). Elk declined rapidly in Minnesota m the 1800s, largely because of excessive hunting. Schoolcraft observed elk on the Mississippi River prairies in 1832, but they became rare in eastcentral Minnesota soon after, Several elk were seer along the Sunrise River in Chisago County as late as 1854, but by the late 1800s, the only elk in Minnesota we<e in the extreme northwest (Fashingcauer 1965). During tne 1930s, when severe droughl caused the levels o( many lakes in Minnesota to drop by several feet, elk antlers were retrieved from shallow lakes across southern and central Minnesota, confirming earlier accounts that elk roamed over all of the prairie parts ol the state and into the edges ol the forests [Breckenridge 1949).
Postglacial Landscape
[19]
All the prairies watered by the Mississippi and the Missouri are the work of the Indians who destroy by fire the rich vegetation to assure themselves animal food. Let the vast and shorn prairies . . . remain untouched and the forests, with time, will appear.
American Indians started fires for many reasons besides assuring themselves food. According to William Keating (1824), a geologist who traveled up the Mississippi to Fort Snellingin 1823: The Indian frequently sets the prairies on fire in order to distract the pursuit of his enemies by the smoke, or to destroy all trace of his passage; to keep the country open, and thus to invite the buffalo to it; to be able to see and chace [sic] his game with more facility; as a means of communicating intelligence at a distance with a view to give notice to his friends of his approach, or to warn them of the presence of an enemy. The [European fur] traders often burn the prairies with the same view. Independent of these, the fires of [Indian] encampments frequently spread in dry weather, and burn away the grass to a great distance.
American Indians also used fire to ease travel through dense vegetation; to flush, concentrate, confuse, or injure large animals they were hunting; and to kill and dry trees for firewood. Early accounts most commonly mentioned American Indians using fire as an aid in hunting or to alter the vegetation to attract animals such as deer and bison. The American Indians that lived along the upper Mississippi were especially dependent on fire for hunting bison, as they did not have horses (Schoolcraft 1953 [1821]). Therefore, the prairies adjacent to the Mississippi River—such as those in Sherburne and Washington counties—probably burned regularly, perhaps even annually. Fires would have occurred on the landscape even without being set, but the intentional (as well as accidental) setting of fires in the Region by American Indians greatly increased their frequency (Grimm 1984,1985). The displacement of the Dakota from the Region by the Ojibwe may have reduced fire frequency, as the Ojibwe were traditionally forest-dwelling and used fire less extensively than the Dakota, who had a long tradition of burning prairie and woodland vegetation (Johnson 1985). The development of maple-basswood forests in the area beginning about 300
[20]
years ago is evidence of a reduction in fire incidence in east-central Minnesota that coincided roughly with the movements of the two tribes southward. However, the development of maple-basswood forests also coincided with a general cooling trend that began about 300 years ago (Grimm 1985). In summary, the most widespread impact of humans on the landscape of the Region before the time of EuroAmerican settlement probably came from the burning of prairie and woodland vegetation by American Indians (Curtis 1959). American Indians may have depleted animal populations locally at times through hunting, but evidence indicates that until the fur trade era American Indians harvested animals in ways that did not seriously deplete populations over large areas (Smith 1975, Spector 1985, Watrall 1985). The introduction of the fur trade intensified certain hunting practices, as reflected in the rapid decline of animals such as beaver, bison, and elk across North America in the 1700s and 1800s, even while American Indian populations were vastly reduced by introduced diseases such as smallpox, influenza, and the common cold. Plant populations may also have been depleted locally at times, although at least during food gathering, American Indians harvested primarily the seeds, fruits, or other renewable parts of plants (Curtis 1959). American Indians did transport plants from one area to another, including cultivated plants like corn and beans as well as wild species like butternut and wild leek that were prized for their grains, nuts, fruits, or bark. Agriculture, which required the clearing of vegetation, probably was conducted on a small scale in the Region. It likely was restricted to areas such as river floodplains where much of the vegetation could be cleared by girdling trees and where the soils were soft enough to be worked with wood and bone digging sticks and hoes. Excavations at American Indian campsites and village sites in the Upper Midwest indicate that the vegetation around the camps was often disturbed enough to encourage the growth of weedy species such as poison ivy and ragweed (Dorney 1981, Johnson 1985). Another possible impact was cutting of fuelwood, which may have depleted forests surrounding larger and more permanent campsites or villages.
Chapter 2
3. Major Vegetation Patterns at the Time of Euro-American Settlement At the time of Euro-American settlement, the landscape of the Region was dominated by scrubby oak woodlandbrushland, or oak barrens or openings, as woodland was often called by early settlers and land surveyors in the Region. Marshes and swamps were extensive in parts of the Region, and there were also patches of prairie and forests (see map 1, inside front cover). We know this about the vegetation in part from descriptions in the journals of explorers and early Euro-American settlers but mainly from data on trees and other features of the vegetation collected in the Region between 1847 and 1857 by surveyors working for the General Land Office of the U.S. government (U.S. Surveyor General 1847—1908). Statistical analyses and comparisons of General Land Office survey records with information from soil maps, geologic maps, and recent climate data suggest that the major patterns of vegetation within the Region just before extensive settlement were most strongly influenced by climate, fire, and hydrology (Baker and Kuehnast 1978, Baker et al. 1985, Hobbs and Goebel 1982, Meyer et al. 1993, University of Minnesota 1975, 1980, U.S. Geological Survey undated). Climate, of course, had a strong general influence on the vegetation. The cold winters and dry summers explain why the land surveyors recorded oak trees and prairie grasses in their notes rather than cacti or palm trees. Climate also partly accounted for noticeable patterns of change in the vegetation from north to south and east to west within the Region. In the cooler, moister northeastern part of the Region, the surveyors found white pine-hardwood forests, poor fens (or "cranberry marshes"), and other characteristically northern plant communities. Many of the plants that composed these communities reached their southern limit in Minnesota here, partly in response to changes in temperature, rainfall, evaporation, or some other aspect of climate (Curtis 1959). In contrast, in the southern and western parts of the Region, the surveyors recorded prairies and savannas. These occurrences marked the eastern boundary
of the prairies and savannas that extended across southern and western Minnesota. In all likelihood, however, prairie and savanna would not have been present in the Region in the mid- 1800s were it not for fire. The fires that burned large areas of the Region maintained the prairies and savannas and prevented the development of mature forests across most of the southern and central parts of the Region. These fires interacted with geologic features of the landscape, including soils, topography, lakes, and streams, to produce striking patterns in the overall vegetation of the Region. The relationship between fire, landform, and the major patterns of the upland vegetation becomes apparent when one compares maps 1 and 3 (inside front and back covers). In general, forests occurred in areas (such as the Grantsburg sublobe till plain) that have loamy, moistureretaining soils or strong firebreaks, such as extensive wetlands or rugged hills, and prairies were present on landforms (such as the Mississippi River terraces or Cottage Grove dissected plain) that have coarse, droughty soils or few lakes or wetlands. Oak woodland-brushland dominated areas with relatively droughty soils but also many firebreaks, including much of the Anoka sandplain and the St. Croix moraine. Aspen woodland-brushland dominated areas with loamy or clayey soils that burned frequently, primarily because they were downwind from droughty, fire-prone areas. The fact that most fires in the Region were probably started by American Indians (Dorney 1981, Grimm 1985) also affected the overall pattern caused by fires. Instead of occurring randomly across the landscape, fires probably were concentrated on hunting grounds, near campsites or villages, and along travel routes. The third major influence on vegetation patterns was hydrology. Much of the central part of the Region is covered with shallow basins and poorly drained land along sluggish streams. Swamps, marshes, wet meadows, and fens developed in these wetland areas and covered a fifth of the
[21]
Mississippi River Terraces
landscape at the time of settlement (Marschner 1974). Wetlands were especially numerous on the Anoka sandplain and Grantsburg sublobe till plains, the Region's most level and poorly drained landforms. Like the upland vegetation, the wetland vegetation was influenced by climate: northern plant communities such as tamarack swamps and poor fens were present in the northern part of the Region, and prairies and wet meadows were more common in the south. The wetland vegetation was also influenced by fire, which sometimes swept off uplands during drought years and burned through wetlands, maintaining open, treeless communities such as wet prairies and wet meadows. Hydrology was also a major influence on the vegetation along the Region's larger rivers and streams.
Extensive floodplain forests developed along the St. Croix and parts of the Mississippi and other rivers in response to the particular conditions created by annual river flooding and drawdown.
Vegetation of the Major Landforms Because the vegetation of the Region varied so distinctly by landform at the time of Euro-American settlement in the mid-1800s, the following sections examine in more detail the major vegetation patterns on each of the seven major landforms. Information on local patterns—that is, patterns caused by such things as variation in soil chemistry, plant dispersal, or the presence of groundwater seepage—is pre-
Fig. 3.2
The bearing trees of
Sherburne County as recorded by the General Land Office surveyors between 1850 and 1855. Each small square represents a tree. Notice the striking absence of trees to the south and west of the Elk River (arrow). Fires (probably started by American Indians) burned the land along the Mississippi and spread northward, fanned by prevailing southwest winds, until they were blocked by the Elk River. Prairie occurred south and west of the river, wherejires were common, and woodlands occurred north of the river. The lakes and wetlands southwest of the Elk River also inhibited the spread offire, as shown by the trees scattered around their margins.
[22]
Chapter 3
Anoka Sandplain
Fig. 3.1 ^resettlement pattern of^vegetation across the Mississippi River terraces and the Anoka sandplain. The vegetation is shown along a hypothetical transect (A<—>A'J such as one might encounter in travelingJrom Orrock southwest through Becker to the Mississippi River in central Sherburne County. In this area, the Mississippi River terraces were dominated by prairie and oak savanna, while the Anoka sandplain contained oak woodland on the uplands and wet meadows, marshes, and swamps in the lowlands. The sandplain also had savanna and prairie on sand dune areas, as shown. The elevation along the transect risesfrom about 900feet at the Mississippi River to about l,000jeet on the Anoka sandplain.
sented in some of the descriptions in part II of the present natural communities of the Region.
the Elk River, the township contained brushy thickets of northern pin oaks, bur oaks, and shrubs (fig. 3.2).
Mississippi River Terraces
Anoka Sandplain
At the time of Euro-American settlement, prairie dominated much of the Mississippi River terraces in Sherburne, Anoka, and Washington counties (fig. 3.1; also, compare maps 1 and 3). Explorer Henry Schoolcraft (1953 [1821]) described the prairies along the Mississippi River in southeastern Sherburne and western Anoka counties as "of the richest kind," with a black, marly soil composed largely of organic material. Schoolcraft's description indicates that the prairies may have been mesic or tallgrass prairies, which are extremely rare in the Region at present. Schoolcraft observed that American Indians commonly burned the prairies along the river to corner bison. The fires, once started, spread readily on the level, sandy terrain, maintaining the open prairies. Schoolcraft also described scattered clumps of "dwarf black oak" trees on the prairies. These were probably either bur oaks or northern pin oaks rather than black oaks, and they formed patches of oak savanna or "oak openings," as the early land surveyors often called them. For example, the surveyor of Big Lake Township in Sherburne County reported that the "portion [of the township] lying south of the Elk River is Burr Oak openings and prairie." North of
Oak woodland-brushland dominated the uplands of the Anoka sandplain, while the lowlands contained numerous and sometimes extensive marshes, wet meadows, and tamarack swamps (fig. 3.1). The description of Santiago Township in Sherburne County by surveyor Oscar Davis in 1855 is typical: This township is generally level and in the south part are numerous marshes. The north part is slightly rolling with scattering groves of timber and dense thickets of brush. The timber in the south part is small scattering Black [northern pin] and Burr Oak, Aspen and some Tamarack swamps. . . . The north part is timbered with scattering White, Black and Burr Oak, Lind [basswood] and Elm.
The brush he mentioned was probably made up of young northern pin oaks that had resprouted from tree stumps after fires, along with hazelnut bushes, prickly ash and, in moist places, young aspens. Why the dominant upland vegetation changed from prairie and savanna on the Mississippi River terraces to woodland-brushland on the adjacent Anoka sandplain is not entirely clear. It seems likely, however, that the change was related to a difference in the frequency of fire on the
Major Vegetation Patterns at the Time of Euro-American Settlement
[23]
General Land Office Surveys
S
urveys directed by the General Land Office of the U.S. Congress were condacted in the St. Croix River ValleyAnoka Sandpiain Region between 1847 and 1857 (U.S. Surveyor General 1847-1908). Their main purpose was to subdivide and catalog tne land so it could be sold to tarmers, loggers, railroad Ouilders, and others (Bourdo 1956, Bryan 1978). At the beginning of a survey the iand was divided into townships, each 6 miles square. The townsnips were then divided into 36 1-mile-square sections. The surveyors were to establish tne township and section lines by compass and measuring chain and to place marker posts at the corners of all sections and at tie ha.(way point of each section line. They then located the section-corner posts in relation to the nearest suitable trees. Tnese trees were termed bearing or witness trees. At each section corner t-ne surveyors selected fcur bearing trees, one in each of the lour sections meeting at that corne;. At quartersection corners the surveyors selected two bearing trees, one in each of wo diagonally opposite quarter sections. They recorded the diameters of the bearing trees, their direction and distance from :ns corner post, and the tree soecies. By plotting on maps the species, diameters, snd distances of the bearing trees as recorded by the surveyors, we can now obtain a picture of the structure and species composition of the vegetation in the Region at the time of Euro-American settlement (see illustration) [Bourdo 1956. Bryan 1978. Grirnm 1984).
As the surveyors walked the section lines, they afso recorded the general character of the vegetation, such as "oak thicket" or "scattering timber" or "prairie"; the presence of swamps, streams, and lakes; and tne distances along the line at which tiese features occurred. We can now use this information to create maps of the vegetation types present at that time, including prairies, oak wests, and marshes. (Francis Marschner's nap of the original vegetation of Minnesota [see map 1, inside front cover] was probably composed at least in part from these section line rotes.) Finally, the surveyors wrote descriptions of the overall nature of t^e township, paying particular attention to the presence or absence of timber suitable for logging arri waterfalls suitable for power. They also noted whether the soils were good for farming. The surveying was difficult work, and the surveyors worked under contract with the General Land Office, so at times some were no doubt tempted to take shortcuts and fabricate surveys of lands they did not actually visit. Overall, however, the survey results give the nest detailed picture we have of the landscape as it appeared before extensive clearing and settlement of iand in the Region. When interpreted in combination with modern data on tne nteraction of vegetation with climate, soils, topcgraphy, and hydrology, the General Land Office survey data y>eld reasonably accurate reconstructions of the vegetation (Bourdo 1956, Bryan 1978, Grimm 1984).
Locations and species of the bearing trees recorded by a General Land Office surveyor in 1847 in a township in the Centerviile lakes area of southeastern Anoka County. The relative sizes of the letter codes on the plot indicate the relative diameter of the trees. Notice that the trees east and north of the lakes are often large and are species that are sensitive to fire, such as sugar maple, elm, and ash. The trees west of the lakes are smaller and are generally species that are adapted to frequent fire, such as oaks and aspen. This pattern probably was caused by fires that swept across the sandplain from southwest to northeast.
LEGEND Letrer s ze indicates re a:ive tree diairs^r. Shaded areas indicate water :odies. AH AS Bt BK BC BL
Ash Aspen Birch Black Oak Bur Q=k Bjtterut
HI Hickory IR iroflwood JO Jack Oak (Northern PTL Oa-i or Red Oax}
LI
Linden (Basswcadi MA Waste SU Sugar Maple TA Ta-narack WO White Oak
EL Elm
[24]
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.3 Construction of the Twin City and Lake Superior Railway across the Anoka sandplain in Chisago County around 1907. Note the oak savanna with evenly spaced trees. Frequent low-intensity around fires favored the growth of prairie grasses andforbs beneath the trees.
two landforms: either fewer fires were started on the sandplain, or the numerous lakes, wetlands, and streams of the sandplain prevented fires from spreading very far. Grazing by herds of bison and elk on the Mississippi River terraces, a difference in soil fertility on the two landforms, or coarser soils and a lower water table on the river terraces are other possible reasons for the difference. Small patches of prairie, oak savanna, and oak forest were scattered within the woodlands of the Anoka sandplain (fig. 3.3). The prairies and savannas were generally on droughty sand dune areas. The forests were generally on isolated patches of more fertile glacial till or on places protected from fire, including uplands surrounded by wetlands and areas north and east of lakes, marshes, and swamps. Interestingly, many of the American Indian campsites on the Anoka sandplain were on peninsulas or on the north and east sides of lakes and marshes (O. C. Shane pers. comm. 1993). The siting of camps in the "fire shadow" testifies to the prevalence of fire on the sandplain. The northern and eastern parts of the sandplain also had scattered white pine and white pine-hardwood forests, especially around the lakes and wetlands between Hoffman Lake in Isanti County and North Branch in Chisago County.
Portions of the sandplain were covered almost entirely with marshes and swamps. Columbus Township in Anoka County (the site of much of the present Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area) was described as "nearly all marshes and tamarack swamps," and the area around Elaine in Anoka County was called "one dense marsh, interspersed at intervals with numerous islands, small lakes or ponds and tamarack swamps." There were also many wet meadows, wet prairies, and poor fens in the shallow basins and wet depressions of the sandplain and on lowlands along streams such as the Rum River. The wet meadows and wet prairies were prized for hay by early Euro-American settlers and were often noted specifically by the surveyors. "Sunrise Meadow" along Goose Creek just east of Harris in Chisago County was reported as having "the best wild hay of any meadow in this section of the country." The surveyor of Columbus Township also reported many floating marshes, which were probably rich fens around the margins of shallow lakes and ponds. Grantsburg Sublobe Till Plain
The Grantsburg sublobe till plain was heavily wooded with oak, aspen, basswood, elm, sugar maple, and white pine
Major Vegetation Patterns at the Time of Euro-American Settlement
[25]
Grantsburg Sublobe Till Plain
Fig. 3.4 ^resettlement pattern of vegetation across the Grantsburg sublobe till plain and the adjacent St. Croix River terraces. The vegetation is depicted along a hypothetical transect (A<—>A'/) through southern Chisago County, Jrom Chisago City east to the St. Croix River. The till plain and river terraces in this area were heavily wooded with deciduousJorests on the uplands andjbrested swamps in the lowlands. Floodplain Jorests occurred in a band along the St. Croix River. The elevation changes along the transectJrom about 950feet on the Grantsburg sublobe till plain to 700Jeet at the St. Croix River (see map 4, inside back cover).
(fig. 3.4). Oak and aspen were present mostly along the border of the till plain with the Anoka sandplain and St. Croix moraine (compare maps 1 and 3). Here, fires from the adjacent oak woodlands of the Anoka sandplain and St. Croix moraine occasionally burned into the edges of the till plain. The result was either a thick growth of young aspens and shrubs, or oak woodland-brushland, or forests composed of northern pin oak, bur oak, white oak, and aspen. Fires probably did not spread very far into the till plain; they were halted by a combination of numerous lakes and wetlands and lush vegetation on the moist, fine-textured, fertile soils. Therefore, in the interior of the till plain, firesensitive trees such as basswood, elm, sugar maple, and butternut increased in abundance, and the aspen woodlands and oak forests graded into maple-basswood forests. For example, in Isanti Township in Isanti County, which borders the Anoka sandplain, the forests were composed of northern pin oak, white oak, aspen, and prickly ash, while Nessel Township in Chisago County, which is more isolated from the sandplain, had mesic forests of large sugar maples and basswoods. In general, maple-basswood forests were most common on the Grantsburg sublobe till plain in the southeast quarter of Chisago County, where the lakes near Chisago City would have blocked fires from the Anoka sandplain and the St. Croix moraine to the south and west, and in northern Chisago and Isanti counties, where wetlands would have stopped fires spreading northward from the sandplain.
[26]
In addition to maple-basswood and oak forests, the Grantsburg till plain had several characteristically northern communities. Tamarack swamps and poor fens developed in lowlands. White pine or white pine-hardwood forests were present on uplands, primarily in the vicinity of Little Stanchfield Lake in northern Isanti County and east of Goose Lake in northern Chisago County (Trygg 1964). St. Croix Moraine Complex
Most of the St. Croix moraine complex was covered by oak woodland-brushland (fig. 3.5) of scattered northern pin oak, bur oak, white oak, and aspen trees, with underbrush of young oak and aspen sprouts, hazelnut, and prickly ash. The southeast part of Hugo Township on the moraine in Washington County, for example, was described by one of the land surveyors as "high rolling land with a soil of light loose sand and stony, covered with short grub Jack [northern pin] and Burr Oak trees and small brush." Like the Anoka sandplain, the St. Croix moraine probably burned frequently, in part because of its coarse sandy and gravelly soils. The fires maintained the oak woodlandbrushland that dominated the moraine. The rugged hills of the moraine probably prevented the fires from spreading evenly, however. Shaded north- and east-facing slopes and deep ravines remained moist enough to resist burning and contained pockets of oak forest dominated by white oak, northern pin oak, and bur oak. Patches of oak forest also were present on the moraine to the north and east of lakes and wetlands. In May Township in Washington County, the
Chapter 3
St. Croix River Terraces
Floodplain
land surveyor found "one grove of good oak timber on the east side of Cornelian Lake," with the remainder of the township covered by "oak barrens." Small patches of prairie were present on some parts of the moraine. Rosemount Outwash Plain
The Rosemount outwash plain was mostly covered by prairie (fig. 3.5). In some places the land surveyors described the prairie as "good," indicating that it may have been mesic prairie. The Rosemount outwash plain also had large areas of bur oak savanna, in which bur oak trees were scattered among prairie grasses. For example, almost all of Baytown and West Lakeland townships on the outwash plain in central Washington County was described as "beautiful Burr Oak openings." Some areas of savanna had a combination of northern pin, white, and bur oak trees. Brushy oak woodland may also have covered parts of the outwash plain. St. Croix River Terraces
The vegetation of the St. Croix River terraces varied dramatically from south to north in the Region. South of Stillwater along Lake St. Croix, where the river terraces often rise abruptly from the water, they were dominated by prairie, as indicated in this description by Reverend R. T Boutwell, a member of Henry Schoolcraft's 1832 expedition up the river (Mason 1958): The shores of this lake are the most picturesque of any lake of the size I have witnessed. A dozen or 20 mounds rising in sugar loaf or pyramid form, may be seen at one glance,
covered with the most beautiful carpet of green, with hardly a shrub.
The high, rocky bluffs along the lake had bedrock bluff prairies with red cedars scattered in crevices in the rocks (Schoolcraft 1834). The low, sandy terraces along the lake— such as those near Lakeland and Bayport—had what the land surveyors described as "prairie bottom (wet)" or "poor prairie bottom," sometimes with thinly scattered bur and northern pin oak trees. These places likely were wet prairie and, where trees were present, oak savanna. Farther from the river, on the higher terraces, the surveyors reported "first rate prairie" or "second rate prairie," which was probably mesic prairie. The river terraces also had scattered patches of oak forest and oak woodland of bur, northern pin, and white oaks, generally in ravines or on steep slopes between the upper and lower terraces. North of Stillwater, the vegetation along the river terraces changed, as indicated by Dr. Douglas Houghton, another member of Schoolcraft's party (Mason 1958): The river for a distance of 25 or 30 miles above the lake has a more desolate appearance. On either side are low ground subject to be overflowed in the fall and spring and at all times marshy. These are covered with a dense growth
Major Vegetation Patterns at the Time of Euro-American Settlement
[27]
St. Croix Moraine
Prairie in St. Paul Jetis--fur traders of mixed Fre~ch-Canadian and Ojibwe
M
or Cree ancestry who lived in settlements along the Red River in Manitoba and northwestern Minnesota— cam Dec on a prairie.ust west of the city limits of St. Paul in the mid-1800s during yearly visits to deliver buffalo skins and other furs and tc Dick up trade goods (see photc) (White and Wickers 19911. The prairie they camoed on had developed in a droughry area of sand deposited in southern Rarrsey County by merhvater from tne Grarlsburg sublobe (Patterson 1992).
A map of the Summit and Como areas of SI. Paul, 1859.
Metis among their oxcarts on a prairie near downtown S(. Paul, ca.1860.
Drairie in 1847, and it shows up in map 1 (inside front cover) as the largest patch of prairie in southeastern Ramsey County. The land surveyors also recorded a house and a plowed field within the prairie in 1847 (Trygg 1964). The 1859 map of the suburbs of St. Paul shows the actual extent of the prairie opening (the stippled area in the center). The prairie covered about seven or eight square miles in an area today bounded by Snellmg Avenue and Dale Street on the west and east, respectively, and by Summit and Como avenues on the south and north, respectively {the area is roughly bisected by Interstate 94). The road from St. Paul to the village of St. Anthony (at St. Anlhony Falls) passed through the middle of the
At the time (his photograph was taken, the prairie was an opening within the oak woodland-orushlanfl that covered much of Ramsey County. Indeed, the line of trees on the horizon in the photo delineated the end of the prairie ard the beginning of the woodland. General Land Office surveyors recorded the
prairie in 1859, as shown on the map. However, the Northern Pacific Railroad shown cutting through the northern edge of the prairie had not yet been built. The map also shows imaginary subdivisions covering the prairie. Within a few yea's of 1859, the boundaries of St. Paul had expanded to encompass the prairie (White and Wickers 19911.
[28]
Chapter 3
Cottage Grove Dissected Plain
Rosemount Outwash Plain
Fig. 3.5 Presettlement pattern of vegetation across the St. Croix moraine, Rosemount outwash plain, and Cottage Grove dissected plain. The vegetation is depicted along a hypothetical transect (A<—>Axj stretching southeast across Washington Countyfrom White Bear Lake. The St. Croix moraine complex was dominated by oak woodland-brushland, while oak savanna and prairie were common on the Rosemount plain and Cottage Grove plain. The elevation changes along the transectfrom about 1,050feet at its high point on the St. Croix moraine to about 875 feet at its low point on the Rosemount outwash plain (see map 4, inside back cover).
of underbrush and some large trees of elm, ash, and soft maple [silver maple], back from these the bluffs rise to a great height. Higher up the river we saw trees of the butternut.
The floodplain forests described occurred in a narrow band adjacent to the river (see fig. 3.4). On the higher river terraces the floodplain forests gave way to hardwood swamps, tamarack swamps, and lowland hardwood forests on level, poorly drained ground (such as that near Goose Creek in Chisago County—see site 13 in part III) and maplebasswood forests and oak forests on higher, better-drained ground. The terraces north of Stillwater also had scattered patches of white pine, although some of these (for example, at Sunrise Bend) had been cut before the land along the river was surveyed in 1848 (Trygg 1964). Cottage Grove Dissected Plain The Cottage Grove dissected plain in southern Washington County was dominated in the south and west by prairie and in the northeast by oak savanna and oak woodlandbrushland. This description of Denmark Township in the General Land Office survey is typical:
The land in this township is high, dry and rolling. Soil good, loam, sand and gravel. The timber is mostly scrubby Bur, White and Black Oak scattered along thinly between the lake [Lake St. Croix] and the prairie on the west part of the township.
The prairies were probably mostly mesic prairies, because of the generally loamy soils of the Cottage Grove dissected plain, and were often described as "first rate prairies" (when on level land) and "second rate prairies" (on more rolling land). Savanna and woodland appear to have been most common along slopes where the Cottage Grove plain bordered the St. Croix River terraces (fig. 3.5) and in ravines within the Cottage Grove plain, such as that just northwest of Basswood Grove near Afton State Park. The Cottage Grove plain also contained dry bedrock bluff prairies on the numerous bedrock exposures along stream valleys and old glacial drainage channels. Bluff prairies were most common on south- and west-facing bluffs. Northeast-facing bluffs may have contained small thickets of oak and brush.
Major Vegetation Patterns at the Time of Euro-American Settlement
[29]
4. Influence of European-Americans The immigration of Euro-American settlers to the Region introduced a culture very different from that of the previous inhabitants. The pattern of consumption of plants and animals according to the local and immediate needs of a relatively small population was replaced by new patterns of use of the land and its plants and animals that were driven increasingly, as settlement proceeded, by speculation, by competition among businesses and landowners, and by trade with distant regions. This outcome was perhaps not surprising, as thousands of people migrated to the Region within a few decades, seeking wealth or at least a comfortable income from the resources of the Region.
Logging The first major wave of European-Americans to reach the Region were loggers looking for white pine. They began arriving in the 1840s and 1850s, after forests in Maine and other eastern states had been depleted of pine. White pine logging operations in east-central Minnesota centered on the St. Croix and Rum river valleys. The first commercial logging along the St. Croix River
began in the winter of 1837. A sawmill was constructed at Marine on St. Croix in 1839 (Swanholm 1978). By the early 1840s, 5 million feet of logs were passing annually through a log-sorting boom on the river at St. Croix Falls, destined for mills and markets downstream. By 1849, 75 million feet of logs were passing down the river each year. A large portion of this was rafted down the Mississippi to mills in Iowa, Illinois, and Missouri. By 1854, Stillwater had five sawmills supporting 1,000 loggers in the woods to the north. In 1857,140 million feet of logs passed through a new sorting boom on the St. Croix near Stillwater (Larson 1949, Swanholm 1978). Commercial logging along the Rum River did not begin until 1847, although earlier, during the 1820s and 1830s, soldiers from Fort Snelling had cut pine along the river to supply lumber to the fort (Goodrich 1905, White and Wickers 1991). In the winter of 1847, Daniel Stanchfield cruised the Rum River for pine. He reported seeing "pine that seventy mills could not cut in as many years" (Stanchfield 1901). Cutting began in earnest afterward (fig. 4.1). In the winter of 1848-49 Stanchfield cut 2.2 million feet of pine along the Rum and floated it downstream to be sawn at a Fig. 4.1 A logging camp on the Rum Rjver, ca. 1864.
Fig. 4.2 Construction on the Soo Line between Copas and Marine on St. Croix, ca. 1900. Logging began along the major rivers and streams in Minnesota, then spread inland as railroads were built in the 1860s and 1870s.
new mill at St. Anthony Falls. By 1855, a mill constructed at Anoka was said to be cutting 12,000 to 16,000 feet of pine daily, largely from the land along the Rum River. A second mill was soon put into operation, but even so the cutting could not keep up with the demand (Goodrich 1905). The next year, eight sawmills were in operation at St. Anthony Falls, sawing pine from along the Rum River and from upstream along the Mississippi. By 1870 the two sawmills in Anoka had a combined daily capacity of 175,000 feet, and in 1872 a new steam mill was built in Anoka with an annual capacity of 16 million feet (Goodrich 1905). During the peak years of white pine logging, mills were operating in the Region not only in Anoka, St. Anthony, and Stillwater, but also in smaller towns along the Rum River and its tributaries in Anoka and Isanti counties and along the St. Croix River in Chisago and Washington counties. Anoka claimed to be the largest lumbering town in Minnesota in the 1870s, but by the 1880s it became apparent that the pine along the Rum was being exhausted and logging was nearing its end (Goodrich 1905). The last sawmill in operation in Anoka shut down in 1889. The pine that Stanchfield had seen along the Rum River had been cleared in just 40 years. The pine forests along the St. Croix Valley were soon exhausted as well (fig. 4.2). In 1852, the editor of a St. Paul paper declared that "centuries will hardly exhaust the pines
above us," but as early as 1870, loggers began moving out of the valley, seeking more pine in the northern forests (Larson 1949). By the second decade of the 20th century the lumber mills of Minneapolis and the St. Croix River had shut down, and by 1937 the white pine industry had died throughout Minnesota. When logging was over in the area, 80 years after it began, 11 billion feet of logs had passed through the St. Croix boom, and hundreds of millions more had been milled at St. Anthony Falls and Anoka (Swanholm 1978). Most of this lumber came from the more extensive pine forests north of the Region, but substantial amounts were cut in northern Isanti and Chisago counties as well (Bergstrom and McGriff 1985, Larson 1949). It is reported that one man alone cut over 1 million board feet of pine around Stanchfield Lake in Isanti County. Other than the removal of white pine from the northern part of the Region, the direct impact of white pine logging on the landscape here can only be surmised. The plant and animal species compositions of the forests had not been documented before cutting began, so changes caused by logging remain unclear. Logging undoubtedly changed the composition of the soils, the rates of erosion, the fire regime, and the amount of sunlight reaching the ground, and these changes certainly caused corresponding changes in the vegetation.
Influence of European-Americans
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Agriculture Euro-American farming began in Minnesota in 1839, with the establishment of the Joseph Haskell farm in Afton Township in Washington County (Harvey 1980). Although farming began at about the same time as logging, it was secondary to logging as Minnesota's leading industry until the depletion of the white pine forests in the early 20th century. Nonetheless, the impact of agriculture on the landscape over the past 150 years has been much greater. The earliest farms were concentrated along the major rivers and their tributaries and along inland trails between population centers. They were mainly subsistence farms.
The early farmers had neither the technical means nor the financial incentive to cultivate all of their lands (City of Cottage Grove 1986, Letterman 1966, State Historic Preservation Office undated). By the 1860s, new technologies in plowing, planting, harvesting, and threshing machinery, the introduction of railroads, and increasing demand for wheat in North America and Europe fueled an expansion of farming across the Region and encouraged farmers to clear and cultivate more of their land. From the 1860s to the 1880s, wheat was the dominant cash crop in the Region (City of Cottage Grove 1986, Letterman 1966). After the 1880s, wheat cultivation declined, partly because of infestations of wheat rust disease and
Influence of Native Vegetation on Early Agriculture in Southern Washington County
T
he earliest Euro-American farmers in the Region, many of whom were f
grew. Thus, settlers in southern Washington County, an early cente- of agricultural envelopment in Minnesota, established their farms in the 1840s ard 1850s in oak woodland-brushland— such as v;as present .n and around tie Cottage Grove ravine— rat-er than in the treeless prairies that covered much of the southern third of the county (see map 1) (City of Cottage Grove 1986). Early farmers also found it easier to burn or cut the trees
Farmers breaking ground in Oakdale Township, Washington County, ca. 1900. of the woodlands and plow the relatively loose woodland soils than to break tne tough prairie sods and turn over the thick prairie loams witn their rudimentary wood and cast iron plows (City of Cottage Grove 1986). In addition, woodlands proviced shelter from extreme weather and wood for luel and lor building homes and fences (Letterman 1966). In the mid-1800s prairie fires were also still a danger to the inhabitants of the Region, or at least to their property. In southern Washington County, agriculture did not expand into the prairie areas on a large scale until the "King Wheat" e^a of the 1860s to the 1880s, when new designs in plows facilitated breaking of the prairie sods (City of Cottage Grove 1986). Once begun, however, the cultivation of prairies was exhaus-
Farmers in Sherbume County clearing what appears to be woodland-brushland. ca.1910.
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tive. Just a few small patches of the prairies that once covered southern Washington County remain, generally on slopes or bluffs that are too steep or rocky to plow.
Chapter 4
Fig. 4.3 The percentage of land in the Region classified as farmland that was still wooded, 1860—1987 (data from U.S. Bureau of the Census 1860-1987).
falling wheat prices, but also because of declining yields caused by reduced soil fertility after wheat was grown year after year in the same fields. To remain viable, the farms of the Region diversified (Bloomberg 1980a, Letterman 1966,
State Historic Preservation Office undated). Dairy farms and mixed farms of cattle, hogs, poultry, and feed grains increased in importance across much of the Region, along with potato farming in Anoka and Isanti counties and truck or vegetable farming in Ramsey County (Bergstrom and McGriff 1985, Bloomberg 1980b, Goodrich 1905, Letterman 1966). These diversified farms generally needed to be even larger than the wheat farms to be efficient, so the percentage of cleared and cultivated land on each farm rose as well (figs. 4.3 and 4.4) (City of Cottage Grove 1986). By the 1920s, the U.S. government had established agricultural policies that encouraged surplus production (Hennington 1987). These policies, over time, led to increasing cultivation of marginal lands, increased draining and filling of wetlands, increasing application of fertilizers and pesticides, and neglect of soil conservation as prices fell and farming became more and more competitive. As agricultural activity peaked in the Region around 1935 to 1940, more than 86% of the land in the Region was in farms (fig. 4.5) (U.S. Bureau of the Census 1860-1987).
Fig. 4.4 The countryside around Lakeland in central Washington County was still largely wooded in 1908, when this photo was taken of the road to the May farm. At that time, although 80% of the land in the Region was considered to be infarms, 45% of thefarmland was still wooded. As more and more land was put into cultivation in the 20th century, the amount of land infarms that was still wooded dropped, so that today only about 15% of the Region's farmland is wooded (seejig. 4.3) (U.S. Bureau of the Census 1860—1987).
Influence of European-Americans
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Ditching the Region
A
/Illhough much of the remaining native vegetation in the Region is in areas such as wetlands that do not make good farmland, this is not to say that wetlands as a whole were undisturbed by agriculture even during the early days of Euro-American settlement. Public drainage ditches were dug in Anoha County as early as 1884. By 1913 ditches drained more than 58,000 acres of land in Anoka County, oraooat21% of the county (Goodrich 1905, Palmer 1915). In the Region as a whole, it was estimated that more than 107,000 acres of wetlands, or more than 7% of the total area, had been drained.
Ditching of wetlands in northern Ramsey County in the early 1900s.
Much of the agricultural activity in the Region over the past 150 years required the removal of the native vegetation and its replacement with vegetation composed of introduced and cultivated species—at one point, in 1940, more than 70% of the land in the Region was considered to be cleared farmland. Areas of native vegetation that were not cleared—primarily wetlands—were also affected by the increased erosion and deposition of sediment, nutrients (from fertilizer runoff), and pollutants (from pesticides) that came with intensive agriculture. Moreover, although many farms in areas of the Region that were originally wooded or forested had small woodlots reserved for fuelwood or shelter, many of the reserved woodlots have been grazed over the years, significantly changing the vegetation. Similarly, some farms in the prairie areas of the Region have small hilly, rocky, or sandy prairies that have escaped culti-
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Al that time, wetlands were regarded mainly as an obstacle to development. A political scientist at the University of Minnesota, writing in 1915 about the value of draining wetlands, likened wetlands to a "wondrously fertile country inhabited by a pestilent and marauding people who every year invaded our shores and killed and carried away Ihousands of ojr citizens, and each time shook their fists beneath our noses and cheerfully promised to come again" (Palmer 1915). And a General Land Office surveyor working in 1847 in the then pooriy drained Blaine Township in Anoka County reported that "this township is almost unacceptable for man or beast excepting when frozen up" (U.S. Surveyor General 1847-1908). Other inhabitants of the era expressed similar 'lustrations. Wetlands are generally more appreciated today for rte habitat they provide for waterfowl and ether animals, for the role they play in controlling floods and recharging aquifers, and even for their beauty. Even so, the complexity and functioning of wetlands are not completely understood; their true hydrological and ecological value is probably underestimated, and they are often less inviting habitats for humans than forests, savannas, or prairies. Consequently, tine draining and filling o; native wetlands continues, as does their degradation by pollutants and sediment from runoff from roads, lawns, and cropland. Laws in Minnesota now require the creation of new wetlands to compensate for the d-aming or filling of native wetlands, but it is not clear that tnese artificially cheated wetlands are equivalent !o native wetlands, especially in terms of their native plant species diversity (when tends to be much lower) and their influence en local hydrology.
vation, but many of these also have been heavily grazed. On a few farms, prairies were mowed regularly for hay rather than being cultivated or grazed. Mowing may actually have helped to preserve some of these prairies, by retarding invasion by trees and shrubs. Although most of the clearing of land for cultivation in the Region was done before 1935 or 1940 (U.S. Bureau of the Census 1860—1987), some clearing of the remaining tracts of native vegetation for agriculture still occurs, and few of the earlier cultivated lands have reverted to vegetation resembling the native vegetation. Most of the remaining tracts of uncleared or undisturbed native vegetation are in wetlands, on steep, rocky lands (such as ravines or river bluffs), or on hilly, arid lands (such as sand dunes) because these sites are not easily cultivated and are relatively unattractive to grazing animals.
Chapter 4
Fig. 4.5 The percentage of land in the Region classified by the U.S. Census of Agriculture asfarmland and clearedfarmland, 1860—1987 (datajrom U.S. Bureau of the Census 1860-1987).
Urban Growth In the 20th century, especially the decades following World War II, urban growth has put increasing pressure on the remaining tracts of native vegetation and on farmlands themselves, as residential and commercial development has spread rapidly from the traditional urban centers into the surrounding countryside (fig. 4.6). The features that made the remaining areas of native vegetation unattractive for cultivation or grazing—their poor soils or steep topography—do not necessarily make them unattractive for development, and in some cases even make them desirable scenic homesites.
Fig. 4.6 Urban land (shaded areas) in the St. Croix River Valley— Anoka Sandplain Region in 1988 (datafrom Metropolitan Council 1993).
One reason for the urban expansion of the 20th century has been population growth; the population in the area rose from just over 300,000 in 1920 to almost 1 million in 1990 (fig. 4.7). However, during the major period of urban expansion since World War II, the population has grown less dramatically (or even declined at times) in concentrated urban areas and has soared in outlying areas, placing additional pressure on rural lands, where most of the remaining native vegetation is located. For example, between 1950 and 1990, the population of Ramsey County, the Region's most densely populated county, grew by 36%, while the population of the other five, largely rural counties rose by an average of 360%. The largest increase has been in Anoka
Fig. 4.7 Population growth in each of the six counties of the Regionfrom I860 to 1990 (datajrom Andriot 1983, U.S. Bureau of the Census 1991). (Notice that the population axis scales differ for each of the graphs.)
Influence of European-Americans
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County, which grew by 585% in the 40-year period (Andriot 1983, U.S. Bureau of the Census 1991). Moreover, in at least some parts of the Region, land has not been used as efficiently during the postwar period as it was earlier. For example, between 1970 and 1990 the population of Ramsey County increased by about 2%, while the amount of urban land in the county rose by 32% (Metropolitan Council 1982,1993). Much of this change in use has come from residential development, with more singlefamily houses and larger lot sizes. The increasing dominance of automobile transportation during the 20th century has been a major force behind spreading urban development. The automobile has enabled the decentralization of residential and commercial districts much more than did carriages, boats, or even railroads. The widespread adoption of zoning ordinances that favor singlefamily houses with large minimum lot sizes, as opposed to more concentrated or multifamily units, has also promoted low-density development (City of Cottage Grove 1986). These zoning practices were in place at the time of the postWorld War II building boom of the 1940s and 1950s and have continued to guide development in many of the newer suburban communities. Some of the more rural areas, assuming that lower density would ensure more green space and more comfortable living, have adopted zoning ordinances calling for minimum lot sizes as large as five acres in an effort to control residential development and subdivision of land (Bergstrom and McGriff 1985). One effect of these ordinances, however, has been to spread the fragmentation of the landscape even more widely, reducing the remaining large intact open spaces, including native habitats. Furthermore, development has been spurred by the construction of sewers, roads, and utility lines in undeveloped areas, which has made these areas more profitable and desirable for residential development (Ohrn 1983). Less tangible factors shaping patterns of urban growth include cultural and marketing influences that make suburban and rural living appear desirable; land speculation, which may push development outward by keeping land in urban cores unbuilt on; and deteriorating living conditions in city centers and older neighborhoods that push people away from metropolitan centers.
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Chapter 4
The Early St. Anthony Park neighborhood in St. Paul
I
n the mid-LSOOs, the site of the future St. Anthony park neighborhood of St. Paul was predominantly oat woocland or scattered groves of oaks interspersed with lakes, marsies, and small patches of prairie (U.S. Surveyor General 1847-1908). The Herman Gibbs farm w,as establishes in 1849 just north of the futdre neighborhood (Letterman 1966). The roafl running between St. Paul and the village of St. Anthony st Si. Anthony Falls passed j jst to the south (Trygg 1964;. In the 1850s, William R. Marshall, governor of Minnesota •ram 1866 tc 1.870, began to buy land in the area with the dea of developing a residential neighborhood (Stemhauser
Horace Cleveland's plan of the St. Anthony Park neighborhood, 1873.
Langford Lake, ca.1870.
Langford Lake being filled in the late 1800s. 1970). In the 1870s, others joined in Marshall's venlure, and in 1873 they hired nationally known landscape architect Horace W. S. Cleveland to draw up plans for St. Anthony Park, a proposed suburb of St. Paul and Minneapolis. The 1873 map shows Cleveland's plans for the neighborhood, with streets laid out according to the contours of the land. Notice the lakes near the intersection of Lake Avenue and Cleveland Street. These lakes are now mostly gone. Langford Lake was filled in the late 1800s to make Lar-gford Park. The park now neatly fits the outline of the former lake basin. LakeSarita, designated by Cleveland to be part of another park in the neighsorhood, is now largely the site of University of Minnesota stu-
den! housing. The only remaining traces of Lake Sarita are some small ponds at the west end of the midway of the state fairgrounds (U.S. Geological Survey undated). Much o! the land in the St. Anthony Park neighborhood was not built on even as late as 1902, as shown in the accompanying photograph. Savanna-grown oaks and prairie openings were still a prominent feature of the landscape, and residenis cescribed parts of the neighborhood as rich in wildflowers (Steinhauser 1970). It appears that some of the savanna oaks are still alive in the neighborhood, now surrounded by the bluegrass and fescue lawns of neighborhood yards and parks rather than the grasses and flowers of the former savanna and prairie.
The St. Anthony Park neighborhood in 1902, looking northeast toward the St. Paul campus of the University of Minnesota.
Influence of European-Americans
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Summary Landscapes are dynamic. They change over time in response to climate, geologic processes, the growth of plants, and the activities of human beings and other animals. The landscape of the St. Croix River Valley—Anoka Sandplain Region has been covered by molten rock, inundated by seas, and buried beneath glacial ice lobes perhaps thousands of feet thick. In between these tremendous events, the land was weathered and eroded, soils have built up, and communities of plants and animals have developed. In general, change has been slow, occurring over hundreds, thousands, and even millions of years. Although the present landscape of the Region shows signs of cumulative change going back millions of years, it really began to take form within the past 20,000 or so years. In this period, the most recent of several episodes of glaciers created a landscape of outwash plains, moraines, river terraces, deep river valleys, and numerous lakes and wetlands. As the last of the glaciers melted and its meltwaters receded, vegetation developed in the Region: first spruce parkland, then in succession pine barrens or woodland, prairies, woodland-brushlands, and deciduous forests. The major shifts in vegetation were largely determined by major changes in climate. At times, vegetation change appears to have been amplified by American Indians, who burned large areas of the landscape while living and hunting in the Region. The changes in climate and vegetation were accompanied by changes in the animal populations of the Region. When European-Americans moved into the Region in the mid-1800s, the rate of change accelerated. Within 150 years, human population densities rose from perhaps around 1 to 10 per square mile in local areas such as the Centerville lakes area (O. C. Shane pers. comm. 1993) to an average of more than 400 per square mile across the Region and more than 3,000 per square mile in Ramsey County (U.S. Bureau of the Census 1991). The landscape changed rapidly from one dominated by native species to one dominated by crops, lawns, roads, and buildings. Oak woodlandbrushland, the most widespread habitat type on the landscape before extensive settlement began, has mostly dis-
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appeared. It was either cleared for cropland and urban land or succeeded to oak forest as the Region became more densely settled and wildfires became rare. Virtually all of the original mesic prairie has been plowed. Oak savannas remain only on particularly droughty or infertile sites. Most of the other native habitats persist as isolated fragments that have been altered by pollution, erosion, sedimentation, and invasion by nonnative species. Animal populations have changed similarly, although the details of their previous occurrence in the area are not as well known as those of the vegetation. Certainly bison and elk have been extirpated, and large predators such as the gray wolf were driven from the Region by the early 1900s. Forest songbirds have likely declined because of forest fragmentation. Populations of other birds, such as the lark sparrow and loggerhead shrike, that use oak savanna, oak woodland, and prairie habitats have probably declined as well, while species that thrive in urban or edge habitats, such as crows, robins, and introduced species such as house sparrows and starlings, have become more abundant. Populations of many animal and plant species are now low enough that certain species are vulnerable to extirpation from the Region through random catastrophic events, disease, inbreeding, and human activity. Some of the recent changes have precedents (animal and plant species have come and gone before); others do not (there has been nothing in the past like downtown St. Paul). Perhaps the main difference between the changes in past eras and change in the present is that human beings are overwhelmingly responsible for the present landscape. Human decisions and choices have determined how the landscape now appears and will determine what becomes of it in the future. Amidst all of the change that has taken place in the Region over the past 150 years, some areas of the landscape have remained relatively unaltered by human beings. These remnants of native habitat are the basis for the descriptions in part II of the Region's natural communities.
Pike Island Ithough it appears at first glance to De wild and overgrown with trees and vines, Pike Island at Fort Snelling State Park has been heavily used by traders, soldiers, and farmers since the early 1800s. Before European-Americans came to the Region, it is possible that American Indians cultivated small plots of squash, com. or beans on the island, as the soft, rich floodplain soils woufc have been well suited to tfieir crops and farming techniques. Traders T. G. Anderson and Josepn Rolette operated a trading post, complete with a stockade, on the southwest side of trie island from 1810 to 1814 (M. Cleveland ,oe/s. comm. 1993). Some of the island's forest fray have been cut for lumber and fuelwood ;or the post, and the island was probably used by traders and trappers who camped on it while visiting the post. The Operation of the trading post must not have affected the vegetation of the island significantly, however, for when explorer Henry Schoolcra't came to Pike Island in 1820, he found it "covered with the most luxuriant growth of sugar maple, elm, oak, and walnut" tScboolcraft 1953 [1821]). However, Fort Spelling had been established at the junction of the Mississippi and Minnesota (formerly St. Peter's! rivers the year before, and as is shown in a drawing by Sergeant Joseph Heckel, by 1821 much of the island had been cleared. Soldiers from the fort probably cut trees from the island's forests for firewood aid Umber. The western third o: the island was cleared and cultivated as the fort's public fields. Jear Baptiste Faribault resided on the island briefly in tie 1820s—unlil his house was waste: away by floods—and grew crops next to the pLbhc garden. A pairting by J. C. Wild snows that the island (right center and foreground) was almost completely cleared by 1844. After the fort was closed down, the western half of the island was farmed with corn and gladiolas. As recently as 1965, gladiolas grown on Pike Island we'e available for surchase at the St. Paul farmers market (M. Cleveland pers comm. 1993). Thus, this half of the island is recovering from recent cultivation. II is woodec with sapiings and yourg trees and has openings where the trees and shrubs are covered with vines. The vegetation also includes -nany weed species usual-y essociated with agricjlture, such as smooth brorne and other introduced species. In the decades since the fort was decarnrnisioned and cutting ceased on the island, the eastern half of the island has reverted to a mature floodplain forest dominated ay si ver maple, cottonwood, and green ash trees. The oldest trees appear to be around 110 years od (M. Cleveland pers. comm. 1993). Afthougn the forest canopy seems to have recovered from the clearing in
A -
the 1800s, in the 1960s and 1970s it was ravaged by Dutch elm disease, which Killed many large American elm trees. In addition, the ground layer of the forest is probably not as diverse as it once was; much of it is row a monoculture of nettles. The lack of diversity in the ground layer may date back to the days of forest clearing. Barbed wire scars in trees, however, may be an indication Ihat the eastern half of the island was grazeo in the recent past, which may account for the lack of diversity. It is also possible that changes in trie flood cycle of the river {caused by Ihe lock and dam system on the Mississippi) or increased siltation during flooding (caused by extensive soil erosion upstream in the Mississippi and Minnesota river watersheds) has modified the vegetation of the island.
A drawing of the Fort Sf. Anthony tFort Snelling) grounds by Sergeant Joseph Heckel, 1821.
Fort Snelling in 1844.
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mS^m
^•^
The Native Habitats and Natural Communities of the St. Croix River Valley—Anoka Sandplain Region Native habitats are places where native plants and animals live. Thus, the habitat of a spider might be the underside of an oak leaf, while the habitat of a dogwood shrub or a gray squirrel might be an oak forest. Describing the habitat of each of the thousands of organisms in the Region separately would be an exhausting task—one needs an organizing scheme. In part II, we have chosen to describe native habitats by describing natural communities. Natural communities are groups of native plants and native animals that interact with each other and with the surrounding nonliving environment, generally in ways not greatly altered by humans or by introduced plants or animals. These groups of native species form recognizable units, such as an oak forest, a prairie, or a marsh, that tend to repeat over space and time, allowing one to organize the landscape into generic types of oak forests, prairies, and marshes. Each individual occurrence of a natural community—that is, each oak forest, prairie, or marsh—provides habitat for many species of native plants and animals. For example, a hardwood swamp in the Region may be home to up to 120 species of native vascular plants, as well as fungi, lichens, mosses, animals, and other organisms. Thus, in reading part II, one might think of natural communities as native habitats for groups of plants and animals. One problem with describing native habitats in terms of natural communities is that some species (especially animals) do not fit neatly into natural communities. They may be wide ranging and therefore inhabit many different types of communities, or they may inhabit the transitional areas between different communities (such as the edge of a forest along a meadow or marsh). We have not attempted to describe all of these possibilities here. It might be helpful to remember that the natural world is not tidy and organized. Describing and examining it in terms of natural communities is mainly a useful and efficient way of ordering its complexity.
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5. Guide to Part II While in principle the idea of a community of native plants and native animals is straightforward, natural communities can be denned and classified in many ways. The classification used in this book is that developed by the Natural Heritage Program of the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (Minnesota Natural Heritage Program 1993): natural communities are classified largely in terms of their vegetation,
MCBS, see Converse et al. (1988), Converse (1990), and Minnesota County Biological Survey (1992). The natural community descriptions and fact sheets also include some data from other surveys and research on rare species and natural communities in the Region. Many of these data, from both the MCBS and previous surveys, are maintained in the Minnesota Natural Heritage Informa-
which is influenced by such things as soil, climate, hydrology,
tion System (Minnesota Natural Heritage Program 1992).
topography, fire, interactions among plants, and interactions of plants with animals. This classification is outlined in figure 5.1. The most general division between communities, shown at the top of the figure, separates upland from wetland and aquatic communities. The next two sets of divisions separate communities into groups with similar structures or appearances, such as open versusforested communities and deciduous versus coniferous forests. The basic units of clas-
This computerized system contains more than 20 databases, including the Rare Features database, which is the only repository for statewide locational information on rare plants, rare animals, and significant natural communities. Other databases contain information ranging from General Land
sification—the natural community types and subtypes (shown below each box)—are described in detail here in part II. The structure of each community, its extent in the Region, and its important ecological characteristics are described. This information is then summarized in a "fact sheet" for quick reference. The natural community descriptions and fact sheets were compiled mainly from field data collected by the Minnesota County Biological Survey (MCBS) in the Region from 1987 through 1990. The survey focused on those remnants that best represent the habitats that were present in the mid-1800s, based on information from the General Land Office surveys (U.S. Surveyor General 1847-1908). In general, MCBS plant ecologists did not survey sites such as heavily grazed prairies, small patches of forest surrounded by cropland, or marshes invaded by purple loosestrife. Disturbed sites were occasionally surveyed by MCBS animal ecologists, because of the tendency
Office survey records to historical records of colonial waterbird nesting sites. Requests for information from this system may be directed to the Natural Heritage and Nongame Wildlife Research Programs within the Division of Fish and Wildlife, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, in St. Paul. We encourage readers to consult other references when using the natural community descriptions and fact sheets, including Minnesota's St. Croix River Valley and Anoka Sandplain: Maps of Native Habitats (available as a companion to this book); field guides for identifying plants and animals (see appendix 2); Minnesota's Native Vegetation: A Key to Natural Communities (Minnesota Natural Heritage Program 1993); and maps of the geology and soil landscapes of the Region (for example, Hobbs and Goebel 1982, Meyer et al. 1993, University of Minnesota 1980).
Key to the Natural Community Fact Sheets
of many of the Region's native animal species to utilize dis-
The fact sheets that follow each of the natural community descriptions in part II provide brief, specific details about the appearance, distribution, and composition of each
turbed as well as native habitats. In addition, MCBS did
community type or subtype present in the Region. The fact
not systematically survey aquatic habitats in lakes and rivers. For more information on the field techniques used in the
sheets are intended to be used as a quick reference, especially by visitors to sites in the Region (for example, the
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sites listed in part III). Here we explain the information
Historic distribution
The known or inferred extent of the
covered under each heading in the fact sheets. Some of the
community type in the Region based on General Land Office
technical terms used in the following descriptions are defined
survey records, historic maps and photographs, field inven-
in the glossary.
tories, and knowledge of environmental features, such as
The plant and animal species included in the fact sheets are those that are expected to occur today in (1) the highest quality and most typical examples of each natural community type in the Region (that is, relatively undisturbed examples, rather than those that are disturbed or are unusual or extreme in some way) and (2) examples of sufficient size to minimize the effect of "edge species." The animals listed in the fact sheets often overlap broadly and sometimes are identical because of structural similarity of many of the natural communities. Community types with similar animal
sand dunes or lakeshores, that determine the location of natural communities. Present distribution
The current extent of the community
type, including places where remaining examples of the community typically occur in the Region; see also the map of the present distribution of the community on the fact sheet and the companion maps (Minnesota County Biological Survey 1995). Causes are suggested for major changes in distribution from historic to present. Existing acreage The total acreage of known examples of
assemblages are noted in the fact sheets.
the community type or subtype that appear on the maps in Status A ranking that reflects the extent, condition, and
Minnesota's St. Croix River Valley and Anoka Sandplain: Maps of
rate of loss or degradation of the natural community type
Native Habitats (Minnesota County Biological Survey 1995).
or subtype in Minnesota. Communities are ranked on a scale from 1 to 5, with those ranked 1 being most rare and those ranked 5 considered relatively secure at present. Communities for which information is scarce are listed as "undetermined." The ranks were assigned by Natural Heritage Program and MCBS ecologists on the basis of current information from the Natural Heritage Information System, field observations, and other sources. Minnesota's Native Vegetation: A Key to Natural Communities (Minnesota Natural
Number of known locations
The number of locations of the
community type or subtype shown on the maps in Minnesota's St. Croix River Valley and Anoka Sandplain: Maps of Native Habitats (Minnesota County Biological Survey 1995). The locations are also indicated by dots on the distribution maps in the fact sheets. The dots on these maps are not intended to show actual coverage, which in many cases is too small to depict at the scale of the maps.
Heritage Program 1993) has a complete list of the ranks of
Common plant species
natural communities in Minnesota.
in approximately 50% or more of sites for which MCBS
Structure
A description of the different vegetation layers,
including height, typical cover, patchiness, and growth form of plants in the community. Idealized silhouettes illustrating community structure are included in most of the fact sheets. See the glossary for definitions of canopy, subcanopy, shrub layer, and ground layer.
The native plants that are present
surveyors and other recent surveyors have compiled lists of plant species. Lists were compiled from the best available examples of the natural communities in the Region, and they reflect current conditions, not hypothetical, presettlement composition. The plant lists are divided into layers by height (canopy, subcanopy, shrub layer, ground layer); plants in the ground layer are further subdivided into
Features that help to distinguish undis-
woody species (if present), forbs, and graminoids (see glos-
turbed examples of the natural community. Good exam-
sary) . The most common species are listed first within each
ples of the natural community should lack most of the
category.
Other characteristics
disturbance characteristics mentioned under Disturbance indicators and threats. Soils and substrate
Plants that tend to occur in the
community type in question more frequently than in any
The typical soils, substrates, and hydro-
logic conditions where the community is found.
Characteristic plant species
other community type in the Region. These may or may not be common species. Characteristic plants are useful
Guide to Part II
[43]
The Classification of Minnesota's Natural Communities
Fig. 5.1 The communities that are present in the St. Croix River Valley—Anoka Sandplain Region are highlighted in bold. For example, of the deciduous savannas that occur in Minnesota, dry oak savanna is present in the Region, while mesic oak savanna and aspen openings are not. Two subtypes of dry oak savanna are present in the Region, a sand-gravel subtype and aa barrens subtype; these subtypes are listed immediately below dry oak savanna. This book containsfact sheetsJor all communities in boldface type, except for those marked by an asterisk (*).
[44]
Chapter 5
indicators of the natural community type and typically occur
outcrop. These features can strongly influence the presence
in relatively undisturbed areas.
or absence of particular species in a natural community.
Rare plant species State or federally listed plants that potentially occur in the natural community. Each plant species often occurs in more than one community and therefore may be listed in several fact sheets. (For more information, see Coffin and Pfannmuller 1988.)
the regional examples of a natural community differ greatly from those listed in the fact sheets, we invite the visitor to look for clues that may explain the disparity. Has the site been disturbed? Is the vegetation overgrown? Does the presence of a pond or south-facing cliff offer an explana-
Animals of the (natural community) Aspects of the community that are important to animals. Natural communities with similar animal assemblages are also listed. Common animal species
Should the animals encountered during a visit to one of
tion for the animals observed? Characteristic animal species
Species of breeding birds,
mammals, amphibians, and reptiles that tend to occur in
Species of breeding birds, mam-
particular communities much more frequently than in other
mals, amphibians, and reptiles that are found in most exam-
communities within the Region. They may be common or
ples of a particular community. These species are generally
uncommon, but they typify the animal assemblage of the
widespread across several habitats and may be quite numer-
community.
ous (see also appendix 1 for county checklists of birds, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles in the Region). Only birds that occur in the natural community during the breeding season are listed; birds that reside there only during the winter or that stop over during migration are not listed. It is important to remember that most animal species can be found in a variety of habitats, including both natural
Rare animal species
State or federally listed animal species
that potentially occur in the natural community. Animal groups include breeding birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles, and butterflies. For more information on these rare animals, see Minnesota's Endangered Flora and Fauna (Coffin and Pfannmuller 1988).
and disturbed communities. Although we have associated
Disturbance indicators and threats
animal species with particular natural communities, keep
activities that are believed to be major causes of decreased
in mind that animals do not necessarily sort themselves
native species diversity and impaired natural functioning of
among habitats according to the vegetation characteristics
the community. Threats include human activities that are
used here to distinguish the various natural communities.
likely to cause further major losses of the community in the
More important determinants of the presence of animal
Region.
species include the size of the habitat tract, the structure and successional stage of the vegetation, and the presence of open water, rock outcrops, or other abiotic characteristics. In addition, when natural communities are disturbed or reduced in size—as many in the Region are—the effective "edge" areas increase and the interior areas decrease,
Associated natural communities
Evidence of human-related
Natural communities in the
Region that are likely to occur next to, or grade into, the community in question. See the landscape cross sections in figures 3.1, 3.4, and 3.5 for examples. Examples
Places in the Region where the public can ob-
which influences the species composition. Further, some
serve the natural community in question. The numbers
plant and animal species, while found in a particular commu-
here refer to those assigned to sites in part III and shown
nity, are actually associated with special habitat features,
on the distribution maps in the fact sheets.
such as a shaded stream, wet pools within a forest, or a rock
Guide to Part II
[45]
6. Deciduous Forests Deciduous forests are upland communities with a nearly continuous canopy of tall, mature, broad-leaved trees, such as oak, basswood, elm, maple, aspen, and birch, that produces shady, relatively moist conditions in the understory. Deciduous forests historically covered much of the landscape of eastern North America, stretching westward as far as the Mississippi River, where they gave way to the prairies of the central plains. The St. Croix River Valley—Anoka Sandplain Region lay in the area of transition between forest and prairie. At the time of Euro-American setdement deciduous forests covered only about 13% of the Region, mainly in the north and east (see map 1). On the droughty, fire-prone landforms of the Region,
Fig. 6.1
[46]
A maple-basswoodforest near Brown's Creek in Washington County.
such as the Anoka sandplain, the Mississippi River terraces, and the Rosemount outwash plain, deciduous forests were restricted mainly to areas where lakes and rivers blocked the spread of prairie fires. Patches of deciduous forest were present in deep ravines along the St. Croix River (fig. 6.1) and in shaded pockets on the hilly St. Croix moraine (see fig. 3.5). More extensive deciduous forests occurred on the Grantsburg sublobe till plain in Chisago and northern Isanti counties, where loamy soils and numerous lakes and wetlands greatly reduced the frequency of fire over wide areas (see fig. 3.4). Most of the deciduous forests on the rich soil of the Grantsburg sublobe till plain were cut or cleared soon after
Passenger Pigeons
P
assenger pigeons were once so numerous thai passing flocks would darken the sky for hours. Large flocks and nesiing colonies of this species were recorded in the
eastern portion of the staie, in habitat described as "red and black oak brushiands" and "groves of poolar" (Hatch 1892) They were reported in considerable numbers in the "Late Johanna woods" of Ramsey County in 187S, and a traditional
roost site was located between White Bear Lake and Taylors Falls in Washington County (Roberts 1932). Nesting was regularly documented in the 1880s near Elk River in Sherburne County, most likely in the oak savannas and oak woodlands ot the area. In 1895. passenger oigeons were observed early in the morning at oak openings around Stillwater feasting upon acorns (as reported in Rosenfelt and Johnson 1977). Passenger pigeons we'e a delicious "table bird," particularly the young, fatted squabs, but it was inconceivable at the time that hunting, even commercial harvesting, could ever deplete their numbers, h 1855, a resident of Washington County Drought cown 52 birds with one shot when he fired into a flock 'lying over the Osceola Prairie (as reportsc in Rosenfelt and Johnson 1977). During the 1800s roost sites were the focus of ntense and large-scale harvesting actiwities. The conversion of deciduous forests to croplands also contributed to the demise of passenger pigeons. The forests were important to the pigeor-s as a source o! food as we;l as a roosting area, and the reduction of the forests may have concentrated the remaining flocks mtc fewer anc smaller areas, making then even more vulnerable to human oersecution. The relentless disruption and decimation of passenger sigeon colonies resulted in "requent nest (allures and the abandonment of entire colonies. Once the large nesting colonies were gone, the remaining birds were not enough to save the species, whose whole reproductive strategy depended on mass nesting (Blockstein and Tordoff 1985). The last reliable observation of passenger pigeons in Minnesota was recorded near M'nneapolis in 1895. Although a flock of !'old time" pigeons was reported in 1913 nea'afarmat Briggs Lake in Sherburne County, they were more than likely the simterlooking mourning cove Today, the loss of this species from the Region is indisputable.
Euro-American settlement. The forests that remain are generally young stands that have grown up from oak or aspen woodlands throughout the Region following settlement and fire suppression. Few of the remaining wooded areas provide the shady, calm conditions of true forest habitats because they occur in narrow strips or in patches smaller than 40 acres. At present, four deciduous forest communities occur in the Region: oak forest, maple-basswood forest, aspen forest, and lowland hardwood forest. Aspen forests are not described in detail here because natural stands are so rare in the Region. Most of the groves of quaking aspen or bigtoothed aspen originated in the past 20 to 80 years on highly
disturbed sites, such as in logged oak or white pinehardwood forests, along field margins, in drained wetlands, and on old farmsteads. Small examples of natural aspen forest occur as inclusions within good-quality oak forest or lowland hardwood forest, where they originated following fire or flooding.
Oak Forest Before Euro-American settlement, the oak-dominated vegetation of the Region was mostly woodland and savanna maintained by fire, rather than true oak forest. The limited extent of oak forest in the Region before Euro-American
Deciduous Forests
[47]
settlement is evident from the notes of the General Land
have numerous dense patches of American hazelnut, espe-
Office surveys made in the 1840s and 1850s (see the side-
cially under gaps in the tree canopy. Other shrubs, such as
bar on General Land Office surveys in chapter 3). The early
chokecherry and Juneberry, are scattered throughout.
land surveyors described much of the upland vegetation of
The ground layer of the community is dominated by
the Region as oak openings, oak barrens, oak scrub, oak
common and widespread forest herbs such as Canada
thickets, or scattered timber, names that correspond to
mayflower, bracken fern, sweet cicely, hog-peanut, blue-
savanna and oak woodland in current usage. Oak forest,
berry, Pennsylvania sedge, and shoots of Virginia creeper.
which the land surveyors described simply as timber or oak
In disturbed dry oak forests, such as those on old farm-
timber, was limited to areas that burned only rarely: parts
steads within the Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge (see
of the Grantsburg sublobe till plain in Isanti and Chisago
site 25), the ground may be covered by a carpet of Penn-
counties, fire-protected ravines and slopes in the St. Croix
sylvania sedge with few other species present. Disturbed
River Valley, the rolling hills of the St. Croix moraine in
dry oak forests also tend to have dense patches of red rasp-
Washington County, and the hilly terrain of northwestern
berry, common blackberry, prickly ash, and other thorny
Anoka County (see map 3).
shrubs in their understories.
Two subtypes of oak forest occur in the Region: dry and
Although many of the Region's present dry oak forests
mesic. Dry oak forests have mostly succeeded from oak
are young, having originated from oak woodland, there are
woodland or brushland. Mesic oak forests are generally
a few examples with large-diameter (more than 16 inches), single-stemmed trees (fig. 6.2). These occur on the well-
remnants of the presettlement oak forests.
drained, nutrient-poor soils of the St. Croix moraine and Dry Oak Forest
Rosemount outwash plain, on the St. Croix River terraces,
The dry oak forests of the Anoka sandplain in Anoka and
and in a few places on the Anoka sandplain. The canopy is
Sherburne counties are typically dominated by multiple-
typically dominated by red oak, northern pin oak, north-
stemmed northern pin oak trees or northern pin oak-red
ern pin oak-red oak hybrids, and white oak. Bur oak, paper
oak hybrids that reach only 50 or 60 feet in height. The
birch, quaking aspen, black cherry, and big-toothed aspen
canopy may contain black cherry, paper birch, quaking
are occasionally present in the tree canopy. These forests
aspen, or big-toothed aspen, which typically occur at forest
may be succeeding to other forest types, such as mesic oak
margins or in patches where they have filled canopy gaps
forest or, where white pine is present (as, for example, at
created by windthrow or disease. Paper birch, aspen, and
Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area in Anoka County
in some cases white pine fill gaps in dry oak forests created
[see site 1]), to white pine-hardwood forest.
by cutting and burning; an example of an inclusion of birch occurs at Wilder Forest in Washington County (see site 34
Mesic Oak Forest
in part III). Oaks are rare in the subcanopy except along
The canopy of mesic oak forests in the Region is typically
forest edges and in canopy gaps where seedlings have enough
composed of red oak and basswood trees more than 60 feet
light to survive. Red maple is sometimes abundant in the
tall, mostly with narrow crowns as a result of growing up
subcanopy; bitternut may be present also, except in forests
in a closed forest rather than in savanna or woodland. The
on the Anoka sandplain.
dominant species of oak are usually red oak, white oak, and
The shrub layer of the dry oak forests is patchy. For
northern pin oak-red oak hybrids. White oak-dominated
example, the dry oak forests at Carlos Avery Wildlife Man-
forests are most common on knolls or low-lying uplands
agement Area (see site 4) in Anoka and Chisago counties
in and around large wetland areas on the Anoka sandplain, such as near Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area and at Cedar Creek Natural History Area. They also occur on
Fig. 6.2 A mature dry oakjbrest on a small island of glacial till within the Anoka sandplain just north of Becker in Sherburne County. The tall, straight trunks and narrow crowns of the trees suggest that the trees matured in a closedforest. MnDNR photo by D. Wovcha
local areas of glacial till within the Anoka sandplain (for example, near Stone Lake in eastern Sherburne County) and on alluvium in the St. Croix Valley (fig. 6.3). Many white
Deciduous Forests
[49]
oak forests have beautiful old trees with heavy, spreading limbs, suggesting that the white oaks grew up in a more open woodland habitat in the past. Bur oak, northern pin oak, green ash, bitternut, paper birch, big-toothed aspen, quaking aspen, sugar maple, and white pine also occur in the canopy but less frequendy Near the St. Croix, Rum, and Mississippi rivers, hackberry, box elder, and butternut are also occasionally present. Butternut, however, is rapidly disappearing here and elsewhere throughout the Midwest because of butternut canker disease. The subcanopy in mesic oak forests is usually dominated by a mixture of the canopy tree species, along with red maple, ironwood, and American hornbeam. In the absence of disturbance, shade-tolerant species such as sugar maple tend to become more abundant in the subcanopy, perhaps foreshadowing eventual succession of the community to maple-basswood forest. The shrub layer in mesic oak forests ranges from 5% to more than 50% cover. Shrubs in undisturbed stands include the widespread species chokecherry, American hazelnut, and pagoda dogwood as well as the less common downy arrowwood, round-leaved dogwood, and leatherwood. Huckleberry, an uncommon shrub that reaches its western range limit in the Region, occurs here only along the margin of a few mesic oak forests in eastern Anoka County, such as at Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area (see site 1). The Region's mesic oak forests have more ground layer species than do dry oak forests. They have no strongly characteristic herbs, but rather contain a mixture of widespread forest herbs such as wild sarsaparilla, lady fern, pointedleaved tick-trefoil, and lopseed. Ground layer herbs also include a few species typical of drier forests, such as roundbranched ground-pine, or of moister, richer forests, such as yellow violet. Maple-Basswood Forest Maple-basswood forests, which were known to early settlers in Minnesota as the "Big Woods," extended over a large expanse of Minnesota south of the Region. Dense, continuous canopies of sugar maple, American elm, and basswood trees created calm, cool, moist conditions under the heavy shade of the trees in the summer. The less extensive maple-basswood forests in the Region were separated [50]
from those in south-central Minnesota by the Mississippi River Valley and large droughty outwash plains. Maple-basswood forests in the Region were most common in areas with fertile loamy soils, primarily in northern Isanti and Chisago counties and east of Center City in southern Chisago County (see map 1). Smaller forests occurred near the St. Croix River, intermixed with mesic oak forests in shady, moist ravines on terrace slopes, or with lowland hardwood forests on the bottomlands. Maple-basswood forests were also present on the landscape north and east of firebreaks, such as those formed by the lakes near Lindstrom in Chisago County or by the deep ravines of the St. Croix River Valley. Overall, maple-basswood forest covered about 10% of the landscape. At present, most of the maple-basswood forests are less than 40 acres in area, except in the Goose Creek area of Wild River State Park (see site 13) and at one location in central Isanti County. These remnants typically occur as small inclusions in other types of forest. The tree canopy of the community is typically a mixture of sugar maple, basswood, red oak, and green ash. American elm is now almost completely absent because of losses from the introduced Dutch elm disease. On drier sites, white oak and paper birch trees may also be present. In wet areas, black ash, bur oak, slippery elm, and yellow birch are canopy associates. On some sites, oak trees make up as much as 60% of the canopy. In these cases, the community is distinguished from mesic oak forest by the presence of mature sugar maples and ground layer herbs characteristic of maple-basswood forests. Maple-basswood forests that lack canopy gaps may have a rather uniform subcanopy composed of mostly tall, slender sugar maples. Stands on steep slopes near the St. Croix River often have gaps in the canopy, and the subcanopy is quite diverse, including saplings of the canopy trees as well as bitternut, black cherry, butternut, American elm, paper birch, and ironwood. The shrub layer of the Region's maple-basswood forests is typically sparse where the canopy and subcanopy are dense. It consists mostly of young sugar maple seedlings and a few shrubs such as beaked hazelnut or pagoda dogwood. Beneath gaps in the tree canopy, such as on ridge crests or slopes, along stream banks, or in small wetland openings in the forest, the shrub layer is more diverse.
Chapter 6
Common shrubs in these places are prickly gooseberry, red raspberry, American hazelnut, bush honeysuckle, and wild black currant. A wide variety of herbaceous plants occur in the ground layer of the Region's maple-basswood forests. The most common species are widespread forest herbs such as bloodroot, yellow violet, large-flowered bellwort, maidenhair fern, and jack-in-the-pulpit. The maple-basswood forests of southern Minnesota contain a group of herbaceous plants called spring ephemerals. These perennials send up leaves and flowers in early spring, then wither before tree leaves open and the ground becomes heavily shaded. Spring ephemerals are rarely abundant in the Region and are limited mostly to a few species such as false rue-anemone, white trout lily, and Dutchman's breeches in forests near the St. Croix River. Regionally, this community's ground layer is most diverse in forests in ravines along the St. Croix River as, for example, at Falls Creek Scientific and Natural Area (see site 29)
Fig. 6.3
in northern Washington County Here, a variety of microhabitats within the forest, such as small cliffs, groundwater seeps, and talus slopes, promote the occurrence of ground layer herbs such as wild ginger, bloodroot, wild leek, and bulblet fern. The ground layer also tends to be diverse in maple-basswood forests on low, wet terraces along the St. Croix River in Washington and Chisago counties, where the community grades into hardwood swamps and floodplain forests. The canopies of mature forests that have never been heavily logged are composed of trees of many ages and sizes, such as along Brown's Creek in Washington County (fig. 6.7). The wide range of sizes occurs in part because sugar maple and basswood can quickly fill canopy gaps created by such natural disturbances as windthrow, ice damage, or disease. Sugar maple saplings can persist for years in the shady understory until a gap occurs, when one or a few of them grow quickly into the canopy. Basswood saplings, although they are less tolerant of shade than sugar maple,
A mesic oak forest dominated by white oak trees. The forest is in a ravine along the St. Croix River north oJStillwater in Washington County.
Deciduous Forests
[51]
Fig. 6.4 Small aspen groves such as this one in southern Isanti County are typical of transitional areas between lowland hardwoodJorests and uplandJbrests on the Anoka sandplain. Interruptedfern dominates the ground layer.
can produce sprouts that grow rapidly from the base of the trunk if the main trunk is damaged or if a canopy gap occurs. The ability of the dominant trees to replace themselves, combined with their long life spans, means that maplebasswood forests can develop into old-growth forests in the absence of catastrophic disturbances. Most of the Region's maple-basswood forests have been disturbed by grazing and logging in the past 150 years. One of the most significant changes caused by these disturbances is the loss of plant species—especially herbaceous plants that are intolerant of the browsing, soil compaction, high light intensity, or summer drying that follows grazing or logging. Maple-basswood forests that have been heavily grazed within the past few decades often lack a subcanopy layer because of the destruction of tree seedlings by grazing animals. Grazed forests, such as those on the upper terraces of the St. Croix River in Chisago County, almost always have abundant thorny shrubs such as prickly ash, prickly gooseberry, red raspberry, Missouri gooseberry, and common blackberry. Two exotic shrubs, common buckthorn and Tartarian honeysuckle, also occur in grazed areas, but whether they will become as abundant in maple-basswood forests as they have in many of the Region's drier forests is as yet uncertain. Disturbed forests often have abundant bur-fruited species, such as enchanter's nightshade, sweet cicely, and honewort, or ground layers dominated by Pennsylvania sedge. The unpleasant plant wood nettle often grows luxuriantly in the community on forest soils compacted or disrupted by grazing or vehicles. However, it sometimes dominates the ground layer of undisturbed maple-basswood forests in the Region, particularly those on moist clayey or silty soils, so is not always a sign of disturbance.
Lowland Hardwood Forest Lowland hardwood forests in the Region are intermediate in character between upland deciduous forests and hardwood swamps. The lowland hardwood forests contain plant species typical of both upland and wetland habitats and vary
[52]
considerably in composition from site to site depending on local soil and hydrological conditions and adjacent forest types. Lowland hardwood forests typically occur on low, level ground, such as broad terraces of the St. Croix River, or on level terrain adjacent to lakes or wetlands. They occur on mineral soil where the water table is relatively high (usually within 1 or 2 feet of the surface). However, unlike hardwood swamps and floodplain forests, they are not regularly flooded. Within a given lowland hardwood forest, slight changes in elevation result in small-scale differences in soil type, soil saturation, and species composition. This is especially evident in the two largest lowland hardwood forests in the Region: Sunrise Landing (see site 14) and areas north of Goose Creek (see site 13) in Wild River State Park in Chisago County. Both of these forests contain a mosaic of local habitats ranging from fairly dry upland rises to wet, mucky depressions. The differences in elevation between these two extremes is usually no more than several feet. On well-
Chapter 6
drained ; ise- he live canopy olten is dominated hv specie's such as red oak, basswood, green ash, while oak, or bur oak. On poorly drained ground, black ash and bur oak are common trees. Occasional patches of big-toothed aspen or quaking aspen and scattered red maple, paper birch, and hackberry are also typical (fig. 6.4). Large American elms and slippery elms were probably once common in the canopy of lowland hardwood forests throughout the Region; although elms are still present, they fail to reach large sizes before they succumb to Dutch elm disease. Where red oaks are present in the canopy, ironwood is often the most common subcanopy species; where bur oaks are present, American hazelnut, gray dogwood, and prickly ash may be common in the shrub layer. Speckled alder is common in the shrub layer in poorly drained areas, such as abandoned river channels. The composition of the ground layer in lowland forests is influenced by moisture in the upper few inches of soil where most forest herbs are rooted. Slight rises have herbs
t haractei istic ot mesic oak forests, while wet uva- contain herbs characteristic ot hardwood swamp iorests; the two type's otten grow within a tew teet of each other. The most common and conspicuous ground layer species are lady fern, interrupted fern, and ostrich fern. Smaller tracts ot lowland hardwood forest are present elsewhere in the Region. They occur along the margins of low upland knolls within Corrie's Swamp west of Big Marine Lake in Washington County. The composition of the community here is intermediate between mesic oak forest and mixed hardwood swamp. Lowland hardwood forests on the Anoka sandplain near Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area in eastern Anoka County have some of the largest white oak and basswood trees in the Region. Some healthy slippery elms found here exceed 18 inches in diameter. Along the Rum River in Isanti County, small patches of lowland hardwood forest dominated by bur oak, green ash, and basswood occur next to silver maple floodplain forests.
Deciduous Forests
[53]
Dry Oak Forest Fact Sheet
Fig. 6.5 A, young dry oak forest of red oak (or red oak-northern pin oak hybrids), bur oak, and white oak in Anoka County. The dense, brushy undergrowth and lack of subcanopy trees are typical of oak forests tnat have been disturbed by fire, cutting, or grazing. American hazeinut and bracken fern are visible m the foreground. Common blackberry ana shoots of Virginia creeper are also common here.
Status: 3 Structure A deciduous forest community with a relatively short canopy of oaks (50 feeti. Forests of recent origin typically have evenaged, multiple-stemmed trees with a fairly dense (80 to 85% cover), even-height canopy; older forests have single-stern trees of different ages, canopy trees with wide, rounded crowns, and natural gaps filled witti aspen or birch. Subcanopy sparse or absent; shrub layer often dense: ground layer patchy, with dry forest herbs and numerous shoots o1 Virginia creeper. Other characteristics Occasional northern pin oaks mere than 18 inches in diameter in older forests; forest floor shows fine-scale relief from old
[54]
tree bases or aninal burrows; only a mod-
across the Anoka sandplain, on the Missis-
erate diversity of herbaceous plants (average 16 species per 60 x 60 feet).
sippi River terraces, and on the Rosernount outwash plain; older forests are rare and
Soils and substrate
occur on the St. Croix moraine and on the Anoka sandolain.
Occurs on outwash sand, water-deposited alluvial sand and gravel in river valleys, and gravelly sand on moraines. Historic distribution On the Anoka sandplain. was probably limited to fire-protected areas sjch as knolls and margins of large wetland systems; on the St. Croix moraine, was probably on dry crests and slopes near natural firebreaks within areas of dry-mesic forest.
Existing acreage: 9,260 Number of known locations: 165 Common plant species —Canopy Northern pin oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis) Bur oak (Q. macrocarpa) Red oak (Q. rubra) Quaking aspen (Populus tremntoides) —Subcanopy
Present distribution
Black cherry (Prunus sero'ina)
Yojng forests developed from former oak
Red maple (Acer rubrum)
woodland and oak savanna are common
Bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa)
Chapter 6
Dry Oak Forest Fact Sheet (cont.)
Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of past cutting, such as lack of
—Shrub layer American hazelnut (Cory/us americana) Gray dogwood (Cornus foemina) Juneberries (Ametsnctiier spo.) Chokecnerry (Piunus virginiana) Common blackberry (Rubus allegheriiensisj Red raspberry (R, stngosus)
as well as other deciduous forest types. In older dry oak forests, the hollow trunks and
—Ground layer WOODY SPECIES Virginia creeper (Parthertocissus inserts) Blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium! Wild grape (Vitis rip ana) Poison ivy (Rhus radicals)
water.
FORBS Hog-peanut (Amphicarpa Oracteata) Canada mavflower (Maianthemum canadense) Bracken fern (Pleridium aquitinum) Pointed-1eaveO tick-trefoil (Desmodium glutinosum) Big-leaved aster (Aster macrophytlus) Wild geranium (Geranium maculatum} Wild sarsaparilla fAralia nudicaulis) False Solomon's-ssal fSmi'acina racemosa) Pale bellwort (Uvularia sessilitolia) Northern bedstraw (Galium boresle) BRAM1NQIDS Pennsylvania sedge fCarex pensylvanica) Mountain ricegrass (Oryzopsis asperifotia)
limbs typical of the larger trees are highly attractive to cavity-nesting species such as woodpeckers and tree squirrels. The presence of amDhibians in this community depends strongly on the availability of
Common animal species —Breeding birds Eastern wood-pewee (Contopus vtrens) Great crested flycatcher (Myiarchus crinitus) Blue jay (Cyamcitta cristata) Black-capped chickadee (Parus atricspillus) White-breasted nulhalch (Sitta
carollnensis) Yellow-throaled vireo (Vireo flavtfrons) Red-eyed vireo (V. olivaceusj Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus) Scarlet tanager (Piranga olivacea) —Mammals Eastern chipmunk (Tamos striatus) Gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensts) Southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys vo/ansj White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) White-tailed deer fOdoco/'eus virgin/anus)
Characteristic plant species Northern pin oak (Quercus etlipsoidalis) Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinuml Woocland sunflower (Helianthus liirsutus) Sandwort (Arenaria teteriflora)
—Amphibians and reptiles American toad (Bufo amencanus) Eastern gray treelrag (Hyla veistcolo!) Eastern garter snake (Tnamnophis sirtalis)
Rare plant species None
None
Animals of dry oak forests Animals found in this community are very similar to those of other oak communities
single-stemmed oak trees or of oak trees larger than 10 inches in diameter; cut stumps; lack of standing dead trees (snags): lack of woody debris on the ground in various stages of decay (except in stands wrtere fire nas consumed dead wood); evidence of grazing, such as poor diversity of subcanopy. shrub layer, or ground layer species; soil compaction, trails, pasture fences; an abundance of prickly ash. common blackberry, or Pennsylvania sedge. Threats include invasion of the nonnative plants common buckthorn and Tartarian honeysuckle; fragmentation by roads, driveways, and development. Associated natural communities Oak woodlaid-brushland, dry oak savanna, mesic oak forest, aspen forest, white pineHardwood forest, and wet meadow. Examples 4. Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area: Twin Lakes, Zodiac Street, and Pool 16 7. Martin-Island-Linwood Lakes Regional Park: Linwood Lake 13. Wild River State Park: Goose Creek Natural Area 14. Wild River State Park: Sunrise Landing East 15. Lyndon Cedarglade Park 16. Spectacle Lake Wildlife Management Area 25. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: Mahnomen Trail and Blue Hill Trail 30. Lee and Rose Warner Nature Center 34. Wilder Forest
Characteristic animal species
Rare animal species Red-shouldered hawk (Biiteo lineatus) Fox snake (Elaphe vutpina) Milk snake '.Lampropeltis trsangulum)
Deciduous Forests
[55]
Mesic Oak Forest Fact Sheet
Fig. 6.6 A mature white oak forest adjacent to a ravine en the St. Croix. River terraces in southeastern Washington County. Mesic oak forests such as this with canopy trees more than 20 inches in diameter are extremely rare. This forest has few saplings because of I'ghl grazing some years ago but stit! nas many species of forest herbs in the ground layer.
Status: 2
Soils and substrate Occurs on well-drained loamy soils derived
Red oak (Q. rubra! Bur oak (Q. macrocarpa)
from alluvium or glacial till; occasionally on
Basswood (Tilia americana)
relatively moist outwasb.
—Subcanopy
Historic distribution
Northern pin oak tQuercus eltipsoifolis)
inches in diameter are common in mature
On the St. Croix River terraces in moist,
stands; in sub-nature stands, the larger canopy trees are often between 10 and 12 inches in diameter. Ironwood is common in
sheltered ravines and stream valleys; on portions of the Grantsburg sublobe liii plain; local areas on the St. Croix moraine
Ironwood (Ostrya vtrginiana) Black cherry (Prunus serotina)
the subcanooy, and a variety of other
and Anokasandplain.
American eln (Ulmus americana) Red oak (Quercus rubra)
Present distribution
Box elder (Acer negundo)
Matu'e, high-quality stands extremely rare,
Bitternut (Carya corrjiformis)
with most occurring along the St. Croix
Red maple (Acer rubrum)
River on steep, inaccessible slooes.
Butternut (Juglans cinerea)
Existing acreage: 5,360
—Shrub layer
Structure A deciduous forest community dominated by straight oak trees taller than 60 feet. Larger, single-stem trees more than 15
woody plants occur at all Heights; shrub layer not usually dense or distinct; ground layer a mixture o* woody seedlings and herbs.
Other characteristics Forest floor not compacted but shows finescale relief from old tree bases or animal Burrows; dead wood standing and oown of all sizes and in various stages of decay; at '.east 35 plant species per 60 x 60 •"eet.
156}
Number of known locations: 185 Common plant species —Canopy White oak (Querciis alba)
Chapter 6
Basswood (Tttia americana) Paper birch (Betula papyrifera)
Chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) Prickly ash (Zanthoxylurn americanumj American hazelnut ICorylus americana) Prickly gooseberry (Ribes cynosbati) Red-berned elder (Sambucus pubens)
Mesic Oak Forest Fact Sheet (com.)
Characteristic animal species Gray fox (Urocyon cineoargenteus!
Nannyberry {Viburnum tentsgoj
Rare animal species Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo tineatus) Fcx snake (Etaphe vulpina) Bullsnake (Pituophis melanoteucus) Milk snake (Lamprcpeitis triangulum)
Red raspberry (Rubus strigosus) Missouri gooseberry (Ribes missouriense) Juneberres (Ameianchier spp.l Pagoda cogwood (Comus alternifo/ia) —Ground layer WOODY SPECIES Wild grape (Vitis riparia) Poison ivy (Rhus radicans) Virginia creeper (Partnenocissus inserta) FORBS Wild geranium (Geranium maculatum) Lopseed (Phryma leptostachya) Hog-peanut (Amphicarpa bracteata) Enchanter's nightshade (Circaea Ititetiana) Pointed-leaved tick-trefoil (Desmotfium glutinosum) Canada mayffower (Maiantfierrturn canadense) Sweet cicely (Osmorhiza claytonii) Lady tern (Athyriurn angustum) Wild sarsapanlla (Aralia nudicaulis) False Solomon's-seal (Smilacma racemose) Interrupted ferr (Osmunda claytoniana) Cleavers (Gahvm aparine) Big-leaved aster (Aster macrcphylius) Pale bellwort (Uvulafia sessilifolia) Columbine (Aquilegia canadensis) GffftMINOtDS Pennsylvania sedge (Carex psnsylvanica) Characteristic plant species Red oaK (Quercus rubra) Butternut (Juglans cinerea) Bitternut CCarya cordiforrnis) Black snakeroot <Sanicula maritandtca) Roimd-lobed hepatica (Hepatica amencana) Rare plant species Stemless tick-trefoil (Desmodium nudiflorum) Goldie's fern (Dryopteris gotdiana) Ginseng (Panax quinqusfolium) Animals of mesic oak forests Animals found in mesic oak forests are
similar to those of otner oak communities and of maple-basswaod forests. The thick litter layer of oak leaves characteristic of all oak forests and woodlands offers protection to the srrall mammals and amphibians that inhaoit them, Desiccation -sensitive species such as salamanders and shrews thrive on the higher soil moisture level characteristic of this community. Common animal species —Breeding birds Eastern wood-pewee (Contopus virensl Least flycatcher (EmpiOonax minimus) Great crested flycatcher (Myiarcrius crsnitus) Blue jay (Cyanocitta crislata) Black-csppea chickadee (Parus atricap'll'js) White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta caioi'rtensis) Yellow- throated vireo (Vireo flavifrons) Red-eyed vireo (V. olivaceus) Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus) Scarlet tanager (Pirartga olfvacea) —Mammals Northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina
brevicauda) Eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus) Gray squirrel (Sciurus catolmensis) Southern flying squirrel IGlaucornys vstansl White-footed mouse (Peiomyscus teucopus) Common raccoon (Procyon lotor) White-tailed deer (Odocoileus viiginianus)
Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of past cutting such as cut stumps and a lack of tall, straight trees larger than 10 inches in ciameter; evidence of past grazing, such as a poor diversity of suocanopy. shrub layer, and ground layer species; soil compaction, trails, old fences; abundant prickly ash. raspberries, blackberries, Pennsylvania sedge, or weeds such as burdock and mctherwort. Threats include invasion by common buckthorn and Tartarian honeysuckle and the spread of oak wilt from infected disturbed stands. Associated natural communities Ma pie-bass wood forest, dry oak forest, lowland hardwood forest, white pinehardwood 'orest, and hardwood swamps. Examples 1. Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area 7. Manir-Island-Linwood Lakes Regional ParK: Linwood Lake 11. Osceoia Landing (north of Osceoia bridge) 12. Osceoia Landing (south of Osceoia bridge) 13. Wild River State Park: Goose Creek Natural Area 14. Wild River State Park: Sunrise Landing East
—Amphibians and reptiles American toad !Bufo americanus) Spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer) Eastern gray treefrog CHyte versicolor) Wood frog (Rana syttattca) Eastern garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis)
Deciduous Forests
[577
Maple-Basswood Forest Fact Sheet
Fig. 6.7 A maple-basswood forest along Brown's Creek in Stillwaier. Many of the remaining maple-tasswood and mesic oak forests in the Region occur on steep, unstable slopes or in ravine bottoms along the St Croix Valley.
Status: 3 Structure A deciduous forest community composed of shade-tolerant, fire-sensitive tree species that form a closed canooy (80 to 100% cover) over 65 feet in height Canopy trees of various ages, with largest diameters greater than 10 inches; well-developed subcanopy of ironwood and sugar maole; sparse shrub layer; diverse ground layer ot rnesic forest herbs. Other characteristics A variety of tree species in the canopy; more than 40 native plant species per 50 x 50 feet, including a good variety of spring wildtlowers (wood nettle may become abundant by midsummer and obscure spring-blooming plants); dead woody material in all stages of decay Doth standing and on the ground; forest floor not compacted out shows fine-scale relief from old tree sases or animal burrows and has an intact layer of leaf litter.
/5S/
Soils and substrate Occurs on loam or fine sandy loam soils developed from calcareous glacial till; also occurs on moist sandy and rocky colluvium in ravines and on well-drained to moderately well-drained, tine-textured alluvium. Historic distribution On Ihe Grantsourg sublobe till plain; in the St. Croix River Valley in moist ravines, on terrace slopes, and on rises on the bottomlands; scattered elsewhere on local areas of relatively rich loam soils. Present distribution Less accessible ravines, moist terrace scopes, and bottomlands wilhin the St. Croix River Valley; only small (less than
Chapter 6
Common plant species —Canopy Basswood (Tiiia americana) Sugar maple fleer saccnarum) Slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) Red oak (Quercus rubra) Green ash (Fraxinus Pennsylvania) Black ash (F. nigra) —Subcanopy Ironwood (Ostr/a virginiana) Bitternut (Carya cordtformis} Black cherry (Prunus serottna) —Shrub layer Prickly gooseberry (Ribes cynosbati) Pagoda dogwood (Cornus alternifotia) Prickly ash (Zanthoxylum americanum) Ground layer FORBS Lady fern (Athyrtum angustum) Maidenhair fern (Adisntum pedatum) Blue cohosh (Csulophyflum tbalictroides) Enchanter's nightshade (Circaea tutetiam) Yellow violet (Viola pubescens}
Rare animal species
Maple- Basswood Forest Fact Sheet (com.) Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema tfiphytluml Bloodroot (Sangumana canadensis) Hog-peanut (Amphicarpa bracteata) Sweet cicely (Osmorhiza claylonii) Lopseed (Phryma leptostachya) Wild geranium (Geranium macutatum) Early meadow-rue tJhaUz'rum dioic-jm) Rattlesnake-tern (Botrychlum i'irginianum) Sharp-lobed hepatica (Hepatics acutiloba) Interrupted (ern lOsmtinda clsylonisna) False Solomon's-sea I (Smilacina racemoss', Zig-zag goldenrod (Sotidago flexicautss) Large-flowered bellwort (Uvularia grandiflora) GRAMINOIDS A species of sedge (Carex pedunculata) Pennsylvania sedge 1C. pensytvanica) Characteristic plant species Sugar -napie (Acer sacchartim) Maidenhair fern !Adiantum pedatutn) Bloodroot (Sangvinaria canadensts) Early meadow-rue (Tbaifctrum dioicum} Sharp-laced hepatica (Heoatica acutiloba) Hone wort (Cryptotaenia canadensis) Large-flowered Ir'lhum (Trillium grandifiorum) Wild leek iAtlium tncoccuiT') Virginia waterleaf (Hydropfiytlum
virginianum) Wild ginger (Asarum canadense) A species of sedge (Carex rosea) Rare plant species A species of sedge (Carex formosa) Sternless tick-trefoil fDesmodtum nuciiflorum} Goldie's fern (Dryopteris goidiana) One-flowered broom-rape (Orotanche
uni flora) Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium) Animals of ma pie-bass wood forests Typical deciduous forest animals are present. Species diversity is generally greater here than in any other deciduous forest
Rec-shouldereG hawk (Buteo lineatus) Louisiana waterthrush (Seiurus motacilla) Five-lined skink CEumeces fasctatus) Fox snake (Elapite vulpina) Milk snake (Lampropeltis triangulum)
tyoe. and some species, sucn as tie whitelooted mou5e: can reacn high numbers.
Common animal species —Breeding birds Eastern wood-pewee (Contopus virens) Least flycatcner (Empitfonax m/n/TiusJ Great crested flycatcher (Mytarchus
crinitus) Blue jay (Cyanocitta crisiata! Black-capped chickadee (Parus
aincapillusi White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carotinensisj Veery (Catriarus fuscescens) Wood thrush (Hylocichta mustelina) Ye I low-throated vireo fWreo flavifryns) Red-eyed vireo [V. olivaceus! Ovenbirc (Seiurus aurocspittus) Scarlet tanager (Piranga olivacea) —Mammals Masked shrew fSorex ciweus) Eastern mole (Scatopus aquaticus) Eastern chipmunk fJamias sttiatus) Gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) Southern ilying squirrel (Glaucomys volansi White-footed mouse (Peromyscvs
teucopus) Common raccoon IProcyori lotorj White-Iailed deer (Mocoifeus virgmianus)
Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence o? selective logging, such as cut stumps, lack of valuable timber species such as Clack cherry ana red oak, a high proportion of crooked or forked trees, and a lack of frees larger than 10 inches in diameler; evidence of grazing, such as lack of suscanopy or shrub layers, poor diversity of ground layer species, soil compaction, trails, fences, lack of dead wood, and an abundance of prickly, bu'-fruited, clonal, or unpalatable plant species; presence of nonnative species such as common buckthorn, Tartarian honeysuckle, and creeping Charlie.
Associated natural communities Mesic oak forest, lowland hardwood forest, white pine-hardwood forest, ard hardwood swamp or seepage swamp forests.
Examples 10. Interstate State Park
11. Osceola Landing (north of Osceola bridge! 12. Osceola Landing (south of Osceola bridge} 13. Wild River State Park: Goose Creek Natural Area 15. Lyndon Cedarglade Park 29. Falls Creek Scientific and Natural Area
—Amphibians and reptiles Blue-spotted salamander (AmDysioma laterals! American toad (Bufc americanus) Spring peeper (Pseudacrts cructfe:) Easterr gray treetrog (Hyla versicolor) Wood frag (Rana syfvatica) Eastern garter snake (Thamnophis $irta!is) Characteristic animal species Cerulean warbler (Dendrcica cerulea) Gray fox (Urocyon ciieoargenteus) Deciduous Forests
f59]
Lowland Hardwood Forest Fact Sheet
Fig. 6.8 A lowland hardwood forest in the northern part of Wild River State Park near Goose Creek (see site 13). The water table is high here, and the community grades into mined hardwood swamps and mesic oak forests locally.
Status: 4 Structure A deciduous larest community with a patchy to closed canopy (50 to 100% cover) that is variable in composition among landtorm types. Subcanopy may or may not be present; fairly dense shrub layer; ground layer composed ot mesic oak forest and hardwood swamp plants. Soils and substrate Occurs on moderately well-drained to poorly drained fine sandy loam, silt loam, or tine sandy soils. Historic distribution Probably common on level, low-lying areas in northeastern Anoka County and in north-
1601
western Washington County; also present on the broad, low terraces of trie St. Croix River in Chisago County; relatively uncommon and small in area elsewhere: absent from the Cottage Grove dissected plain.
Red oak fO. rubra) White oak (Q. alba) Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) Yellow birch (Betula alteghaniensis) Red maple (Acer rubrum)
Present distribution Best expressed near the St. Croix River in Wild River State Park; losses throughout the Region because of cutting and grazing.
—Subcanopy Ironwood (Qstrya virginiana) Green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanrca) Slippery elm (Ulmus rubra)
Existing acreage: 2,810
Butternut (Juglans cinerea) Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) American hornbeam (Carplnus caroliniana)
Number of known locations: 32 Common plant species —Canopy Basswood (Til/a americana) Black ash (Fraxinus nigra) Bur oak IQuercus macrocarps) Chapter 6
—Shrub layer Pagoda dogwood (Cornus alterntfolia) Prickly ash (Zanthoxylum americanum) American hazelnut (Corylus americana) Gray dogwood (Comus foemina)
Lowland Hardwood Forest Fact Sheet (com.)
Speckled alder (Alnus means subsp. rugosa) Winterberry (Ilex >jerticiltata) —Ground layer WOODY SPECIES Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus inserts) Poison ivy (Rhus radicans) Wild grape (Vitis riparia) FORBS Interrupted fern (Qsmunda claytoniana) Ostrich fern [Matteuccia struthiopteris) Honewort (Cryptotaenta canadensis) Hog-peanut (Ampnicarpa bracteata) White avens fGei/m canadense) Wood nettle (Laportea canadensis) Maidenhair fern (Adiantum pedatum) Lady fern fflthyfium angustum) Clearvjeed (Pilea pumila) Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense) Enchanter's nightshade (Circaea lutetsana} Jack-in-the-pulpit (Ansaems Iriphyiluml Cinnamon fern (Osmunda cinnamomea) Wild sarsaparilla (Aratia nudicaulis) Sweet-scented bedstraw (Galfum triflorum) 6RAMINOIDS A species of sedge (Carex pedunculata) Virginia 'AilO-rye ff/ymus virgmicus) Mountain ricegrass tQryzopsis asperifolia) Characteristic plant species A species of seoge CCarex graciltima) Woodland horsetail (Equisetum sytvatrcum) Rare plant species Ginseng (Panax quinquefotium/ Animals of lowland hardwood forests Animals found in this community are typical deciduous forest species, as well as species found in wet forests such as floodplain forests and mixed hardwood swamps.
Common animal species —Breeding birds Red-bellied woodpecker tMelanerpes csrolinus) Eastern wood-pewee (Con'opus virens) Great crested flycatcher (Myiarchus cnnitus) Black-capped chickadee (Parus atricapMus) White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis) American robin (Turdus migratortus! Yellow-throated vireo (Vireo flavifrons) Red-eyed vireo (V. olivaceus! American redstart (Setophaga rulicitla) —Mammals Masked shrew fSorex ctnereus) Northern short-tailed shrew (Biarina brevicauda) White-footed mouse fPeromyscus leucopus) Southern red-backed vcle (Cletfirionomys gapperij Meadow jumping mouse (Zapus tiudsonius) Common raccoon (Procyon htor) —Amphibians and reptiles American toad (Bufo americanus) Eastern gray treefrog (Hyla versicolor) Spring peeper (Pseudscris crucifer) Wood frog (Ran3 sylvatica)
Characteristic animal species None Rare animal species Red-shouldered hawk (Suteo tineatus) Louisiana waterlhrush (Seiurus motacilia) Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of grazing or draining, such as an abundance of reed canary-grass, stinging nettle, common buckthorn, and alder buckthorn. Threats include evidence of logging and other human activity, such as cutting or trail development. Associated natural communities Wet meadow, floodplain forest, oak woodland-brushland, oak forest, and white pinehardwood forest.
Examples 13. Wild River State Park: Goose Creek Natural Area 14. Wild River State Park: Sunrise Landing East
The presence of a lower layer of shrubs and herbaceous plants provides cover for many small mammals and enhances the diversity of animal species fojnd here.
Deciduous fives rs
[611
7. Mixed Coniferous-Deciduous Forests Mixed coniferous-deciduous forests are upland communities dominated by pines interspersed with deciduous trees such as oak, maple, aspen, and birch. Mixed coniferousdeciduous forests were widespread throughout the coniferous forest zone of Minnesota (see the map on page 3), just reaching into the northern fringes of the Region in Isanti and Chisago counties before Euro-American settlement and logging (see map 1).
According to General Land Office survey bearing tree records from the 1840s and 1850s, white pine occurred sporadically across the northeastern third of the Region. At some locations, dense patches of white pine trees may have covered more than 10 or 20 acres, forming small white pine forests. Most often, however, white pines were probably mixed with deciduous trees such as oak, maple, and basswood, forming white pine-hardwood forests. The presettlement white pine-hardwood and white pine forests of the Region were heavily logged from 1840 to 1880. Perhaps one or two of the white pine-hardwood forests present today may have originated following cutting or fires during this period (fig. 7.1). Most of the present stands, however, are much younger, apparently originating following cutting in the 1900s.
White Pine-Hardwood Forest
Fig. 7.1 (above) White pine grove at Falls Creek Scientific and Natural Area in northern Washington County. White pines do notform extensive purejbrests in the Region, but small patches of white pines do occur in places where pines became established following clear-cutting orjires. Fig. 7.2 (opposite) A white pine-hardwood forest at Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area in Anoka County. MnDNR photo by]. C. Almendinger
[62]
White pine-hardwood forests are dry to dry-mesic upland communities that occur in Minnesota primarily within the deciduous forest zone (see the map on page 3). They usually have a tall canopy of white pines with 20 to 80% cover, beneath which is a shorter canopy of oak, aspen, or maple trees. Before Euro-American settlement, white pine-hardwood forests in the Region occurred primarily in an area stretching from central Anoka County to northwestern Isanti County and eastward to the St. Croix River. Based on bearing tree records, concentrations of white pine occurred near Boot and Coon lakes in northeast Anoka County, along the St. Croix River north of Stillwater in Washington and Chisago counties, near Grandy and Springvale in Isanti County, north of Cedar Bog Lake in Isanti County, and south of Rush Lake in Chisago County. Before logging, the Region had perhaps 20,000 acres of white pine or white pinehardwood forest. About 2,000 acres exist at present, but of this only 30 or 40 acres have a mature canopy and an intact ground layer (fig. 7.2). Probably nothing here now
compares with the grand white pine-hardwood forests present before logging began in the 1840s. White pine logging in the Region changed the composition and structure of the white pine-hardwood forest community. Cutover areas often were burned in the early days of logging, commonly to make clearings for homesteads and pastures (Larson 1949, Swanholm 1978). Fire likely had a significant influence on the hardwood composition of the community. Those stands on the rich soils of the Grantsburg sublobe till plain and in ravines along the St. Croix River originally were composed of white pine with sugar maple, basswood, American elm, and bitternut. These mesic hardwood trees do not readily survive hot fires and probably were replaced by oak, aspen, and birch. White pine-hardwood forests on dry, sandy or gravelly soil generally were dominated by white pine with red oak, northern pin oak, red maple, and big-toothed aspen. These hardwood trees persist following cutting or fire by resprouting from the base and through dispersal of seeds that readily germinate on mineral soil; therefore, they would have been more likely to regenerate after logging and burning. Thus, white pine-hardwood forests with these fire-adapted species are at present more common than those with mesic hardwood trees. Typical examples of white pine-hardwood forests in the Region today are in Anoka County near Coon Lake and Linwood Lake (see site 7) and in Isanti County between Dalbo and Springvale. These remnants tend to be small (5 to 10 acres). White pine, red oak, northern pin oak, red maple, and big-toothed aspen are the major canopy species, and red maple and ironwood generally dominate the subcanopy. The shrub layer tends to have a diversity of species, particularly in forests that have not been grazed by cattle or heavily browsed by deer. Common, widespread species are American hazelnut and chokecherry; less common species include beaked hazelnut, bush honeysuckle, downy arrowwood, and species of Juneberry. Canada yew, an uncommon plant in east-central Minnesota, occurs in a few white pine-hardwood forests in Isanti County. The ground layer of the Region's white pine-hardwood forests is usually dominated by woody shoots and herbaceous species typical of adjacent deciduous forests. Where the pine canopy is even-aged and especially dense, such as 1
[64]
OO
O
O
O
in parts of the forest at Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area (see site 1), the ground layer is sparse, perhaps because of the dim light or acidic pine needle litter on the forest floor. Several native plants that tolerate these conditions are snowberry shinleaf, rattlesnake-plantain, hairy-leaved Solomon's-seal, red-berried elder, and poverty grass. Just as in deciduous forests, stands that have been grazed tend to have a greater abundance of prickly ash, prickly gooseberry, and Pennsylvania sedge. A few mesic white pine-hardwood forests occur in ravines along the St. Croix River as, for example, at Falls Creek Scientific and Natural Area in northern Washington County (see site 29) and at Wild River State Park in the Goose Creek area (see site 13). The canopies of these forests are dominated by white pine, with yellow birch, sugar maple, and red oak, and the ground layers are composed of mesic forest herbs such as bloodroot and maidenhair fern. Barring natural disturbances such as windstorms, lightning, and disease, in time these two forests could become oldgrowth forests similar to those present before the days of white pine logging. On the Grantsburg sublobe till plain, only a few degraded fragments of mesic white pine-hardwood forests remain as evidence of the forests that were there before EuroAmerican settlement. These fragments are generally marked by a few old white pines, old sugar maples, and northern herbs such as rose-twisted stalk and oak fern.
Chapter 7
White Pine Remnants
W
en the County BJclogical Survey was in Isanti County in 1990, a landowner in his 70s spoke of his grandfather, a county land surveyor, who at the turn of the century still had white pine on his (and near Day in northern Isanti County: "That pine yielded a quarter million board feet, and that was the second cutting. The pine was first cut before anyone lived up here." Mow only a few olc pines are scattered about at that farm. In a small patch of woods by the open pasture some la'ge, old sugar maple, red oak, and basswood trees are growing among old farm machinery, giving little indication lhat this was once a white pine-harcwood forest. One confirming piece of evidence for th.s story comes from the bearing tree records of the General Land Office surveys, which show that white pine did indeed occur or the county I'ne between Day and Coin.
White Pine-Hardwood Forest Fact Sheet
Fig. 7.3 A white pine-hardwood forest at Cedar Creek Natural History Ares in Isanti County. Here white pines occur with red oak (or red oak-northern pin oak hybrids), black cherry, and big-toothed aspen trees or, the ssnay losm soil typical of 'he Anoka sandptain.
Status: 3 Structure Mare or less continuous canopy of forest trees, with white pire forming at least 30% of the canopy: associated deciduous trees may be typical of dry oak forest, mesic oak forest, or maple-basswood forest; in mature stands, white pine forms a tall supercanopy trnore than 80 feet tall) over the deciduous canopy 150 to 80 feet tall). A subcanopy of red maple is common in white pine-oak wests. Many of the shrub and herb species that are present are those associated with the deciduous forest types in the local area.
stages of decay; forest floor not compacted; a variety of woody species in subcanopy, shrub layer, or ground layer. Soils and substrate Occurs on a variety of well-drained, upland soil types; sandy loam on alluvium, fine- to medium-textured sand on outwasn, and loamy soils derived from till. Historic distribution In the northern half of the Region on portions of the Granlsburg sublobe till plain, in the St. Croix River Valley, and in the northern half of Anoka County and into Isanti County on the Anoka sandplain, especially
Other characteristics
where fires were relatively uncommon.
Many
Present distribution In the St. Croix River Valley near the Washington-C his a go county border; at BOOT Lake
wcody debris on the ground m various
and Linwood Lake in Anoka County; in
Mixed Con iferous— Deciduous Forests
southeastern Isanti County: at the Cedar Creek Natural History Area on the AnokaIsanti coLnty border; and on the Grantsburg iublobe Ml plain in north-central Isanti County Existing acreage: 1,780 Number of known locations: 71 Common plant species —Canopy White pine (Pinus strobus) Red oak (Quercus rubra) Red maple (Acer rubrum) Big-toothed aspen (Populus grantfideritata) Bass'Aood (Titia americans) Bur oak (Quercus macrocsrpa) Northern pin oak (Q. ellipsoidatis) —Subcanopy Ironwood <0strya virgmiana) Red maple (Acer rubrum)
165!
American toad (Buf-o americanus) Spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer; Weed frog !Raria sylvatica) Eastern garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis)
White PineHardwood Forest Fact Sheet (cunt.) American hornbeam (Carpmus caroiiniana) Bitternut (Caiya cordi form's) Paper birch {Betuta papynfera)
Characteristic animal species Red-breasted nuthatch fS/((a canadensis) Pine warble' (Dendroica pinusi Red scuirrel (Tamiasciurus tiudsonicus)
—Shrub layer Prickly ash (Zantnoxy.'um americanum) Prickly gooseberry (R'bes cynosbali) Juneberries (Amelanchier spp.) Pagoda dogwood (Cornus alternifolia) Chokecherry (Prunus virginianaj American hazelnut (Corylus americana) —Ground layer WOODY SPECIES Poison ivy (Knus radicans) Virginia creeper (Partnenoctssus inserts) Bush honeysuckle (Diervilla lonicera)
FORMS Hog-peanut (Amphtcarpa brscteata) Big-leaved aster (Aster macrophyllus) Canada rrayflower (Maianthemum canadense) Bracken -ern (Pteridium aquilinumi Lady fern (Athyrium angustum} Columbine (Aquilegia canatfensis) Wild geranium (Geranium maculatutr,'/ Wood anemone (Anemone quinouefoita) Sweet cicely (Osmorhiza daytonit) V/ild sarsaparilia (Aralia nudicaulis) Early meadow-rue (Thalictrum dioicum,' Enchanter's nightshade (Circaea lute'iana) Sweet-scented bedstraw (Galium triftorum) Lopseed (Phryma 'epfosiac/i/aj GRAM1HQ1DS Pennsylvania sedge ICarex pensylvanica) Mountain ricegrass (Qryzopsts asperifotia) A species of sedge (Carex peduncutata) False melic grass (Scnizachne purpurascens) Characteristic plant species White pine (Pinus strobus) Red-berried elder (Sambttcus pubens! Hairy-leaved Solomon's-seal tPofygonatum pubescens) Snow berry (Symphoricarpos albus) Pink shinleaf (Pyrola asarilolia)
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Rare plant species Ginseng (Panax quinquefottum) Animals of white pine-hardwood forests The animals found in white pine-hardwood forests of the Region are more like those ol deciduous forest communities than like those of the mixed coniferous-deciduous forests of northern Minnesota, although the southern range limit in Minnesota of several boreal forest species, such as the northern flying squirrel, pine warbler, and red squ rrel, coincides wilh tie distribution of white pine in the Region. Small wetland inclusions will determine the presence and abundance of frogs in this community. Common animal species —Breeding birds Eastern wood-pewee fCootopus virensj Least flycatcher (Empidonax minimus) Great crested flycatcher (Myiarchus crinitus) Blue jay (Cyanocftta cnstata) Black-capped chickadee fPaois atricapltius) White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carotinensis) Veery (Catbarus fuscescensj Red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus) Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus) —Mammals Eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus) Southern flying squirrel SGIaucomys mlans} White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) White-tailed deer (Odocoi/ews vifginianus) —Amphibians and reptiles Blue-spotted salamander (Ambystoma laterale) Chapter 7
Rare animal species Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) Bald eagle (Haliaeetus ieucocephslus) Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of cutting, such as stumps; lack of trees bigger than 16 inches m diameter, especially tall, straight trees of white pine or red oak; lack of standing or fallen dead wood; abundant red-berried elder. Virginia creeper. Pennsylvania sedge, and little e!se; presence of nonnalive species such as common buckthorn or Tartarian honeysuckle; trails, old fenceline or fence posts, or old buildings. A major threat on private land is continued selective cutting.
Associated natural communities Oak forest, maple-basswood forest, aspen forest, and lowland hardwood forest.
Examples 1. Boot Lake Scientific and Matural Area 7. Martin-lsland-Linwood Lakes Regional Park: Linwood Laks 13. Wild River State Park: Goose Creek Natural Area 29. Falls Creek Scientific and Natural Area
8. Deciduous Woodlands Deciduous woodlands are upland communities composed of a tree canopy, ranging from 10 to 70% in cover, above a dense layer of shrubs or young oak or aspen sprouts. They develop where frequent fires, bedrock outcrops, or steep slopes prevent the formation of a closed forest canopy. Before Euro-American settlement, deciduous woodlands were widespread in parts of the deciduous forest zone of Minnesota (see the map on page 3), such as on the Anoka sandplain and parts of the St. Croix moraine (see figs. 3.1 and 3.5). At present, two kinds of deciduous woodland communities occur in the Region: oak woodland-brushland and aspen woodland. Oak woodland-brushland was once one of the most abundant communities in the Region but
fig. 8.7
is now largely gone because of clearing for farmland and fire suppression, which allowed woodlands to quickly succeed to dry oak forests. Aspen woodland is a short-lived community that probably occurred here as small groves in areas of savanna or prairie where quaking aspen shoots spread from sucker growth after a fire. These woodlands typically occurred at wetland margins and had a mixture of wet meadow and prairie species. Native aspen woodlands are now so poorly represented that they are not described in detail here. One of the few examples in the Region occurs at Sand Prairie Wildlife Management Area in Sherburne County (see site 24). Many disturbed groves of aspen occur on drained wet-
Oak woodland-brushland at Sherburne National Wildlije Refuge in Sherburne County.
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land sites and resemble native aspen woodland in structure; their understory, however, is composed only of reed canary-grass, common blackberry, or stinging nettles, rather than the diversity of prairie or wetland species typical in native aspen woodlands.
Oak Woodland-Brushland Once the dominant community across the Anoka sandplain and much of the St. Croix moraine, oak woodlandbrushland is now largely absent from the Region's landscape. As farms and villages began to spread over the Region and fire frequency declined, the oak woodlands were either
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cleared or quickly grew up into dense, scrubby oak forests (see the sidebar on the influence of native vegetation on early agriculture in chapter 4). The amount of oak woodland present in the mid-1800s is uncertain, because the General Land Office surveyors and early settlers of the Region did not distinguish oak woodland from oak savanna. Oak woodland consists of widely scattered or closely spaced (up to 70% cover) bur oak or northern pin oak trees, with an understory dominated by oak brush and American hazelnut. Oak savanna also consists of scattered or clustered oak trees, but with an understory of prairie grasses and forbs (see fig. 3.3). A conservative estimate of the cover of oak woodland in the Region before settlement is 30%.
Chapter 8
Fig. 8.2 Overgrown oak woodland-brushland along the Mississippi River in Sherburne County succeeding to dry oakjorest. The low branches on some of the oak trees indicate that the trees grew up in ajairly open setting. The multiple trunks are indicative of past disturbance, possibly Jromjire but also possiblyjrom grazing or cutting.
A description of the prescttlement < > , i k woodland of Burns Township in Anoka County bv tin 1 early land surveyor James Marsh is fitting for much of the Region's oak woodlands: in 1855, on the rollingo uplands of the northI west part of the township, Marsh saw "timber scattering with a thick undergrowth of Oak, prickly-ash, Willow and Hazel" (U.S. Surveyor General 1847-1908). The land surveyors also described scattered stunted northern pin oaks, bur oaks, and aspens and dense thickets or a thick undergrowth of brush, including northern pin oak "grubs," aspen, hazel, prickly ash, and plum. The dominant tree species in most of the presettlement oak woodlands of the Region was northern pin oak, although white oak probably 7
dominated the canopy >py of oak woodlands on the St. Croix moraine. At present, oak woodlands vary widely in structure, depending on their history of fire, cutting, and grazing and the soil type or landform on which they occur. Typically, the woodlands are now overgrown (fig. 8.2). Often scattered among taller northern pin oaks are old, open-grown bur oak trees that were naturally short in stature when the woodlands were more open. These bur oaks are now losing their heavy lower limbs and broad spreading crowns as they become shaded by taller, younger trees. Because of fire suppression, trees such as paper birch, black cherry, basswood, pin cherry, quaking aspen, red cedar, and Juneberry are probably more common now in the oak woodlands of the Region than they were in the past. The only contemporary oak woodlands in the Region that resemble the woodlands described by the surveyors and settlers of the 1800s are at the Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge in Sherburne County (see sites 25 and 26) and Cedar Creek Natural History Area in Anoka County. The woodlands at these sites are being restored with fire management; the number of northern pin oak trees has fallen dramatically, and widely spaced bur oaks are emerging as the survivors. Below the bur oaks is a dense cover of American hazelnut and clusters of northern pin oak shoots that resprouted from tree bases (fig. 8.3). Small woodland openings are sometimes created without the aid of fire in forest communities by tree removal by beavers along stream and lake margins. They can also persist on slopes too steep and dry for forest canopies to develop, particularly rocky bluffs near the Mississippi and St. Croix rivers. Many of these slopes, however, have become overgrown with red cedar in the absence of fire. Cutting by hand can mimic the effect of fire; for example, at Afton State Park red cedars are being selectively removed from a woodland, allowing room for a variety of woodland plant species to grow.
Deciduous Woodlands
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Oak Woodland-Brushland Fact Sheet
Fig. 8.3
Oak wood'and-brusfilancl that originated following recsnt fires at the Stierburne National Wildlife Refuge in Sherburne
County. Two fires a decade apart have recreated '.that was probably once common on the AnoKa sandplain. oak woodland-brushland. Scattered bur oak trees are growing over dense brush of hazel and sprouts of northern pin oak from old tree roots and stumps. In the absence of fire, the northern pin oaks will grow up among the bur oaks, and this woodland will eventually succeed to dry osk forest.
lands are now crowded with red cedar or young oaks growing between old, open-
Present distribution Persists on some dunes and dry ravine
grown trees; fire scars are sometimes
northern pin oak or bur oak trees (10 to 70% canopy cover) either scattered or in
present on trees.
slopes ot, more commonly, has succeeded from dry oak savanna.
Soils and substrate
Existing acreage: 4,980
groves. The shrub layer is usually pronounced and is dominated by American
Occurs primarily on well-drained, sandy or gravelly soils on glacial outwash or
Number of known locations: 119
hazelnut or oak sprouts^ the ground layer is
moraines: also on thin soil over bedrock.
Status: a Structure A relatively open community of open-grown
composed of herbs and woody plants characteristic of dry oak forests and also some plants of dry oak savanna or dry prairie.
Historic distribution Widespread across much of the Anoka sandplain; on terrace slopes and ravines in
Common plant species —Canopy Northern pin oak (Quercus etltpsoidalis) Bur oak (Q. macrocarpa) Red oak fQ. rubral
Other characteristics
the Mississippi River Valley; scatterec
The density and species composition of
woodlands on the St. Croix moraine; on
canopy trees are highly variable, depending
rocky or gravely slopes and crests of
—Subcanopy (if present)
on factors that influence tree size and
ravines in the St. Croix River Valley; and on
Black cherry (Prumis serotins)
survival, such as the frequency of hot fires,
the Rosemount outwash plain.
Red ceoar (Juniperus Virginians) Bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa)
disease, anc severe drought; most wooc-
1701
Chapter S
Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)
Oak WoodlandBrushland Fact Sheet
Scorn.)
—Shrub layer American hazelnut (Ccryfus americana) Gray dogwood (Cornus Foemina) Jjneberries (Ameianchief sop.) Ciokecherry iPrunus virginiana) Common blackberry (Rubus a!iegher,iensis) Red raspberry (R. strigvsusj —Ground layer VJQQDY SPECIES Virginia creeper (Partt>enocissus inserts) Blueberry (Vaccinium angusti'olium) Wild grape (Vitis rioaria) Poison ivy (Rhus raaicans var. rydbergiil Leacplant (Amorpha canescens) fORSS Hog-peanut (Amphicarpa bracteataj Canada mayflower (Matanifiemum canadense) Bracken ;ern (Pteridium aquilinum) Pointed-leaved tick-trefoil (DesrnodJum glutinosum) Big-leaved aster (Aster macropfiyllusj Wild sarsaparilla (Aratia nuOicaulis) Star-flowered false Solomon's-seal (Smilacim steilataj Pussytoes lAntennaria sp.> GKAUINOIDS Pennsylvania sedge fCarsx pensytvar.tca) Big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) Characteristic plant species Northern pin oak (Quercus ellipsoidal^} Bush juniper (Juniperus commuriis) Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) Woodland sunflower (Helianthus fiirsutusj Poke milkweed (Asclepias exaltata) Rare plant species Round-stemmed false foxglove (Agalinis gattingeri)
Kitten-tails fSesseya Oullii! Illinois tick-trefoil (Desmodium illwoense) Wild petu^a (Ruellis humilis) Animals of oak woodlartd-brushland Oak woodlancs of ina Regicn are typically overgrown anc resemble oak forests in their animal inhabitants. Where tne strjcture of this commurity is more open, edge species may be present. Prairie openings support open-country species, such as vesper sparrows and savannah spa rows. Common animal species —Breeding birds Mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) Blue jay (Cyanocitta cnstata) Gray catbird (Dumetella caretsnensis) Indigo bunting (Passenna eyases,1 Song sparrow (Metospiza metodia) Browi-headed cowbird (Moiothrus ater'j —Mammals Eastern cottontail (Syfviiagus ftondanus) Eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus) Fox squirrel (Sciurus nigsr) White-footed mouse IPeromyscus leucopus! Coyote
Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of past grazing, such as barbed wire or old ^erce posts, soil compaction, an abjrdance o; jrpalatabie plants such as prickly ash. and the presence of normative weeds such as Kentucky bluegrass. white clover, or Siberian elm; extensive patches of American hazehut. common blackberry, red cedar, o r Pennsylvania sedge Associated natural communities Dry oak forest, dry oak savarna, dry prairie, dry cliff and rock oLlcrop communities.
Examples 18. Battle Creek Regional Park 23. Sand Dunes State Forest ; south east dunes) 25. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: Mahnomen Trai1 ana Blue Hill Trail 26. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: Orrock Dunes 27. Sherburne National Wildlife Re;uge: Santiago Oak Savanna Research and Natural Area 28. Uncas Dunes Scientific and Natural Area
—Amphibians and reptiles American toad (Buro americaius) Prairie skink (Eumeces septentrionalis) Plains garter snake (Tnamnophis radix) Characteristic animal species None Rare animal species Eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) Bullsnake (Pituophis melanoteucus)
Deciduous Woodland*
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9. Deciduous Savannas The deciduous savannas of midwestern North America are upland communities of scattered trees, typically oaks, above a ground layer of prairie grasses and forbs. Deciduous savannas occur mostly within the transition zone between the central prairies and the eastern deciduous forests; in Minnesota, they occur primarily in areas where prairies historically merged with oak and aspen forests within the deciduous forest zone (see the map on page 3). Most of the savannas of the Midwest were naturally maintained by fire and periodic grazing. In the absence of fire, they tend to develop into brushy oak woodlands as taller woody plants spread through the understory and pro-
Fig. 9.1
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gressively shade out the prairie herbs. Because of fire suppression and the extirpation of bison and elk, oak savannas are now extremely rare in the Midwest (see the sidebar on bison and elk in chapter 2). Two types of deciduous savannas occurred historically in the Region: mesic oak savanna and dry oak savanna. Mesic oak savanna probably was present where fires from adjacent prairies frequently spread into areas with moist, loamy soils, such as portions of the Mississippi River terraces in Sherburne County and the Cottage Grove dissected plain in southern Washington County (see map 3). At present, there are no mesic oak savannas in the Region. Most were
Barrens oak savanna at Helen Allison Scientific and Natural Area in Anoka County.
Bullsnakes and Rodents
Snakes on roads are all too often viewed as targets by those
h e open expanses of prairie, pasture, and field in the Region are dotted with the numerous mounds of the plains pocket gopher, and "striped gophers," which are really Itiirteen-lined ground squirrels, can be seer standing on their hind legs like small sentinels along grassy roadsides. These species are the oane of farmers who must share a portion of their crops with the heroivorous rodents, and their burrows are often blamed when livestock turn up lame. One of the natural predators that has historically kept tnese species in check is the builsnake, also called the gopher snake after iis preferred prey. Rodents make up most of tna bullsnake's diet. The snakes capture rodents by pinning them against the burrow wall or by coiling around them. Rodent ourrows provide underground shelter, and their mounds make good masking platforms for this snake. Bullsnakes are Minnesota's largest native snake and can reach over six feet in length. Once common to tne Region, they are now quite scarce because of loss of habitat aid human persecution. They oten frighten those who encounter them, particularly when they perform their "rattlesnake imitation"—shaking their tail against dry vegetation artC hissing. Because of their subterranean habits, bullsnakes are rarely observed, even in grasslands where they may be relatively runerous. The snakes are most often seen on roads, where they seek out heat radiating from the pavement. Local observations of la
who consider all snakes dangerous. However, bultsnakes pose no danger to people, and tnose who encounter them should be grateful for Ihe opportunity. The potential benefrts from tnis rare ana beautiful snake m terms of rodent control should far outweigh people's fears of it.
found were roadkilis, which underscores the unfortunate fact that roans are highly attractive but also highly lethal to snakes.
probably cleared and plowed for cropland soon after settlement began because of the rich soils on which this community occurred. Dry oak savanna was probably more common in the Region than mesic oak savanna before Euro-American settlement. Dry oak savanna has also been widely destroyed or degraded through cultivation, overgrazing, and fire suppression. However, remnants of dry oak savannas still exist, particularly on droughty, infertile soils that are unsuitable for farmland.
Dry Oak Savanna Dry oak savannas are one of the most characteristic native habitats of the Region. They appeared as parklike openings
on the landscape, interspersed among areas covered by oak woodland-brushland. The pleasant quality of dry oak savannas was appreciated by natives and newcomers alike. The ground was sparsely covered by grassy prairie vegetation and was thus easy to travel across. The savannas provided forage for game, horses, and livestock. And the well-spaced open-grown bur oaks on the landscape gave one the feeling of being in a park. The location of dry oak savannas was influenced by soil type, drainage, fire frequency, and the historic distribution of oak trees (Curtis 1959). Dry oak savannas occurred on sites with harsh conditions, such as gravelly or rocky slopes, and on sand dunes where prairie plants survived drought and fire better than trees and shrubs (see the sidebar on dunes in chapter 1). They also occurred on more level
Deciduous Savannas
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ground with richer, sandy loam soils where fires were frequent enough to favor prairie species over woody plants. The exact acreage of dry oak savanna in the Region at the time of Euro-American settlement is uncertain. However, based on the acreage of sand dune areas and of land that still has old, open-grown bur oak trees, at least 225,000 acres, or 15% of the Region, was covered by dry oak savanna. At present, just 2,800 acres of dry oak savanna remain in the Region. The remaining dry oak savannas of the Region are of two subtypes: barrens oak savanna and sand-gravel oak savanna. Barrens oak savannas occur on sand dune areas with shifting, droughty sands. Sand-gravel oak savannas occur on steep, gravelly slopes, on level areas of sandy outwash, and on coarse stream deposits. Barrens Oak Savanna
Barrens oak savanna is a highly distinctive natural community that occurs in the Region almost exclusively on dune areas of the Anoka sandplain (fig. 9.1). Openings of various sizes are dominated by sparse barrens prairie grasses and forbs, species that are tolerant of hot, dry conditions and unstable, blowing sand. Bur oak and northern pin oak trees are either widely scattered in the openings or clustered on leeward slopes or in low areas. Dune crests may have windscoured blowouts with only a few perennial plants. The patterns of tree spacing vary widely among barrens oak savannas in the Region. At Sand Dunes State Forest and Uncas Dunes Scientific and Natural Area (see sites 23 and 28), there is an accentuated pattern of wooded and nonwooded slopes on high, steep dunes oriented more or less in a series of ridges. At Santiago Oak Savanna Research and Natural Area (see site 27), in contrast, oak trees are spaced in a more orchardlike fashion across the gently rolling dunes. Bur oak trees also vary in size and shape among savannas in the Region. They may have stout, cylindrical trunks 10 to 16 inches in diameter, like a pedestal supporting a broad, symmetrical crown to a height of only 30 feet (fig. 9.2). At Helen Allison Savanna (see site 5) and on portions of the adjacent Cedar Creek Natural History Area, bur oak trees are much less uniform in size, ranging from spindly, multiple-stemmed shoots 4 to 12 feet high without a spreading crown to trees that are 45 feet high. The shoots may be deceptively old for their spindly size; many are probably at
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least 60 years old. Because bur oaks can send up new shoots repeatedly from the tree base if stems are cut or killed by fire, the individual from which the shoots arise may actually be well over 200 years old. Helen Allison Savanna is a remarkable example of barrens oak savanna because of its great diversity of native plant species. The diversity appears to be related to a lack of heavy grazing, the reintroduction of fire, and the presence of varied microhabitats. Besides the characteristic barrens prairie species on dune crests and blowouts, lower slopes support mesic prairie species such as Indian grass and butterflyweed and grade into small wet meadows supporting a host of moisture-loving species. Unlike most other wet spots in savannas of the Region, here fire has prevented quaking aspen from shading out plants, such as prairie willow and the rare species tall nut-rush, that thrive at the margins of these small wet meadows. Sand-Gravel Oak Savanna
Nothing can exceed the beauty of the prairies which skirt both banks of the [Mississippi River] above [St. Anthony Falls]. They do not, however, consist of an unbroken plain, but are... interspersed with groves of oak, which throw an air of the most picturesque beauty on the scene. (Schoolcraft 1953 [1821])
This and other descriptions from explorer Henry Schoolcraft indicate that oak savannas were common in the early 1800s along the sandy terraces of the Mississippi River northward from St. Anthony Falls past Anoka and Sherburne counties. Some of these areas probably would have fit the description of sand-gravel oak savannas used by contemporary ecologists: groves of bur and northern pin oak trees interspersed with patches of prairie on sandy and gravelly soils. Descriptions from the General Land Office surveys show that sand-gravel oak savannas were also fairly common on the Anoka sandplain and on the sandy and gravelly soils of the St. Croix moraine and Rosemount outwash plain. Only a few sand-gravel savannas remain in the Region, on steep gravelly slopes in southern Washington County and scattered here and there on the Mississippi River terraces and the Anoka sandplain. Each sand-gravel savanna in the Region has a different expression of oak trees. Some have a scattering of small,
Chapter 9
Fig. 9.2 An opcn-yro\vn hnr thik near Llittv Lake in ^herhurne ( < > u n n . In the absence i>j jire, tree MVI////U/.S unJ ^aplint/s a ; / / ..;/<m u>-< n
akf. l / n / ) \ A ph<>it< /-i /' ll,>iJi,.'
gnarled bur oaks with only^ a few northern pin oaks. OthI ers, such as at St. Croix Savanna (see site 33), have small groves ot oak trees in moist hollows or ravines between patches of prairie. The ground layer is covered by numerous plants that grow in open, sand-gravel prairie habitats in addition to plants, such as star-flowered false Solomon's-seal, spreading dogbane, and the rare kitten-tails, that grow in partial shade among the oaks. Sand-gravel savannas differ from barrens savannas in having a somewhat denser cover of vegeo o
o
ration. They also lack species such as talse heather and sand reedgrass that are so characteristic of dune areas. Although beautiful open-grown bur oaks are a common sight on parts of the Anoka sandplain and Mississippi River terraces, giving the appearance of sand-gravel savanna, many of these areas are in fact pastures. The prairie ground layer is usually gone, replaced by smooth brome or Kentucky bluegrass. Some native plants that occasionally survive years of grazing are prairie-smoke, pasque-flower, slender beardtongue, and wild onion.
Deciduous Savannas
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Barrens Oak Savanna Fact Sheet
F/g. 9.3 ^ barrens oak savanna on dry dune sand at Helen Allison Savanna Scientific and Natural Area in Anoka County. Fire management at this site limits woody growth and maintains a ground layer dominated by little b!uestem, porcupine grass, and white sage below a canopy of scattered bur oak trees.
Status: 2 Structure A relatively open community of scattered (10 to 70% canopy cover), short (15 to 35 feet), open-grown bur oak trees above a herbaceous ground layer; northern pin oak sometimes present; trees scattered or in graves with tree seedlings and shrubs. The ground layer is mostly composed of prairie grasses and forbs, but their cover is patchy, with bare ground in between; bowl-shaped, wind-scoured sand blowouts are common on eroded dune slopes: sparsely vegetated areas may have small patches of lichens or mosses. Other characteristics A few gieen ash trees are sometimes present on dry dune crests where ground fires are too light to kill them; small-scale nat-
176)
ural disturbances such as gopher mounds,
but most are surrounded by pine plan-
thatch ant nests, and deer trails.
tations, abandoned fields, and housing developments.
Soils and substrate Occurs on fine-textured sand originally derived from glacial outwash, then deposited by wind in dune fields; also on medium to coarse-textureC sand. Soil development is poor or absent; sands are well drained to excessively well drained. Historic distribution Almost exclusively on dune formations on the Anoka sandplain; small inclusions of barrens savanna occurred in dry sandgravel savanna or dry prairie in local areas of wind-deposited sand and on unstable, gravelly slopes on the Mississippi River terraces. Pi esprit distribution Small fragments occur on dune formations, Chapter 9
Existing acreage: 2,360 Number of known locations: 41 Common plant species —Canopy Bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) Northern pin oak (Q. etlipscidalis) —Shrub layer Chokecherry (Prunus uirginiana) —Ground layer V/OODY SPECIES Leadplant (Amorpha canescens) Poison ivy (Rhus radicans) Prairie rose fftosa arkansana) FOftBS Western ragweed (Ambrosia coronopifolial
Eastern hognose snake (Heterodox
Barrens Oak Savanna Pact Sheet (cont.)
ptatyrhtnos) Bullsnake (Pituophis metanoteucus) Karner blue (Lycaeides melissa samuelis)
Hairy puccoon iLithosper-
murn caroflnfense) White sage (Artemisia ludowciana) Gray goldenroc (Sotidago nemoralis) Hairy golden aster (Heterotbeca villosa) Horseweed (Conyza canacfensisj Large-dowered beard-tongue fPs/istemon
grandiflorus Purple prairie clover (Petalostemon purpuream) Silky prairie clover ffi viilosum) Ground-cheery (Physaiis Virginians) Missouri go.denrod (Solidago
missourfensis) Prairie bird-foot violet (Viols pedsiifitfaj Prairie larkspur (Delphinium virescens) Rough blazing-star (Liatris asperal Rigid sunflower (Heiianthus rigidus) GRAMINOIDS Porcupine grass (Stipa spartea) Hairy grama (Bouteloua nirsuta) Little bluestem (Schizachyrium scopanutn) Big bluestem (Andropogon gerardit) Sand reedg.'ass (Calamovilfa longifolia) A species of umbrella sedge iCyperus
scttweinitzit) Jjnegrass (Koeleria mactantha) Scribner's panic-grass (Panicum
oligosanthes) Characteristic plant species Sand reedgrass (Caiamovilfa longifolia! Sea-beach needlegrass (Aristida tuberculosa) False heather (Hudson/a totnentosa) Muhlenberg's sedge (Carer, munlenbergii) Silky prairie clover (Petalostemon viilosum) Old field toadflax (Linaria canadensis) Geyer's spurge (Euptioroia geyert) Rare plant species Round-stemmed false foxglove (Agalinis gattingeri) Sir all-leaved pussytoes (Arttennaria parvi folia) Sea-beach needlegrass (Anstida tuberculosa)
Rhombic-petaled evening primrose fOenothera rhombipeta/a) Jamas' polanisia (Polanisia jamesii) Tall nut-rush (Selena triglotnerata! Purole sand-grass (Tnplasis purourea! Animals of barrens oak savannas Barrens oak savannas commonly contain animals associated with prairies and oak torests, as well as species characteristic of edge habitats. Althaugn this habitat is generally dry, low, wet swales between the dunes sometimes provide habitat T)r amphibians and reptiles. Common animal species —Breeding birds Mourning dove (Zenaida macro/jra) Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) Indigo bunting (Passerina cyanea) Chipping sparrow (Soizella passerina) Field sparrow ("S. pusilla) Song sparrow (Metosptza melodia) Brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) —Mammals Thirteen-lired ground squirrel (Spermcpnilus tridecemitneatus) Fox squirrel (Sctiirus niger) Plains pocket gopher (Georriys bursarius) White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) Rect fox (Vutpes vutpes) Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virgin/anus)
Disturbance indicators and threats Suggestions of past grazing or other disturbances include abundant sandbur, threeawn grass, sand dropseed, carpetweed, crabgrass, or Kentucky blueg'ass and a lack of characteristic plant species; fence lines, trails, and ruts. Threats include lack of buffer vegetation, residential development, golf courses, landfills, roads, and other permanent alterations of the landscape; erosion from all-terrain vehicles; encroachment of prairie openings by oak, American hazelnut, red cedar, and planted Dines. Associated natural communities Oak woodland-brushland, sand-gravel oak savanna, ban-ens prairie, sand-gravel prairie, and wet meadow. Examples 2. Bunker Hills Regional Park 5. Helen Allison Savanna Scientific and Natural Area 8. Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area: Wyoming Dunes 23. Sand Dunes State Forest (southeast dunes; 26. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: Orrock Dunes 27. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: Santiago Oak Savanna Research and Natural Area 28. Uncas Dunes Scientific and Natural Area
—Amphibians and reptiles Tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrmtim) American toad (Bufa amencanus) Prairie skink (Eumeces septentrionalis) Plains garter siake (Thamr,opbis radix) Characteristic animal species Lark spa r row (Ctiondestes grammacus) Rare animal species Loggerhead shrike [Ian/us ludovicianus) Eastern spotted skunk (SpHogale putorius)
Deiiduvus Savanna!
P7]
Sand-Gravel Oak Savanna Fact Sheet
Fig. 9.4 Sand-gravel oak savanna on a steep, gravelly hillside just south of Baypcrt at S! Cro/x Savanna Scientific and Natural Area in Washington County. The scattered trees are mostly bur oaks. Growing beneath them are prairie grasses and forbs, including the rare plants kitten-tails, Illinois tick-trefoil, and James'po!anisia.
Status: 1 Structure A relatively open community of scatterec (10 ID 70% canopy cover), stiort (15 to 45 feet], open-grown bur oak trees aoove a herbaceous ground layer; bur oaks singlestemmed or multiple-stemmed; northern pm oak usually present in canopy; trees widely scattered o' sometimes in small groves with oak brush and hazel: planls of oak woodland or forest habitats sometimes present in the groves. Ground layer has interrupted to nearly continuous cover of prairie grasses; prairie fo'bs scattered or patchy; small patches of exposed soil between clumps of grasses, particularly on
slopes or unstable soil. Other characteristics More than five native gramiroid species ana more than 15 native forbs per 30 x 30
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teet: small natural disturbances such as gopher mounds and badger excavations. Soils and substrate Occurs on sand, gravelly sand, or sandy loam on alljv : um and on :oamy line sand on outwash; soils are well drained to excessively well drained.
Historic distribution Primarily on the Mississippi River terraces and nondune areas on the Ancka sandplain; also in the St. Croix River Valley on gravelly slopes and crests of ravines and valley walls; small occurrences on outwash associated witn the St. Croix moraine; on the Cottage Grove dissected plain.
Present distribution Remnants typically occur on land unsuited tor cultivation, such as steep, inaccessible, or unstable slopes or drougnty, infertile soil.
Chapter 9
Existing acreage: 460 Number of known locations: 30 Common plant species —Canopy Bur oak (Quercus macrocaipa) Northern oin oak !Q. sllipsoidslis) —Ground layer WOODY SPECIES Prairie rose fffosa arkansana) Leadplant (Amorpha canescens) FORBS Hoary trostweed (Helianthemum bicknellii) Hairy four-o'clock (Mirabilis hirsuta) Purple prairie clover (Petatostemon purpureum) Tall cir-quefoil (Potendtia arguta) Prairie bird-foot violet (Viola pedatiftda) White sage (Artemisia iudoviciana) Heath aster (Aster ericoMesj
Sand-Gravel Oak Savanna Fact Sheet fcont.)
Prairie skink (Eumeces septentrionalis) Plains garter snake (Thamnophis radix) Characteristic animal species Lark sparrow (Chondestss grammacus)
Sky-blue aster (A. oolentsngierssis) Silky astar (A. sericeus) Bird-loot coraoosis (Coreopsis palmata) Dotted blazing-star iLiatris punctata) Grourd-cherry (Physalis vtrginiana) Gray goldenrod (Soiidago nemoratis) GffAMlNOIDS Little bluestEm ISchizachyrium scopaiium) Big bluestem (Andmpogon gerardii) A species of sedge (Cypsrus lupulinus) Praifie dropseed (Spc-rabolus beterolepis) Hairy grama (Bouteloua birsuta) Purple lovegrass (Eragrostis spectabilis) Porcupine grass (Stipa spartesj Characteristic plant species Bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) Large-flowered beard-tongue (Peisienwn grandtflorus) Western spiderwart (Trsdescantia occidental is) Wild lupine (Lupinus perenrtis) Hairy puccoon (Litfiospsrmum carol intense) Canada frostweed (Helianthemum canadense) Long-bearded hawk weed (Hie fad urn
longfpilom) Butterfly-weed (Asclepias tubemsa) Plains muh!y (Muhlenbergia cuspidata) Prairie pmweed (Lechea $t"cta) Rare plant species Round-stemmed ;alse foxglove (Agatinis gattingeii) Small-leaved pjssytoes (Antennana parvi folia) Sea-beach needlsgrass (Arisiids tubercutosa)
Kitten-tails (Besseya butlii) Hill's thistle (Cirsium hi/Hi) Illinois tick-trefoil (Desmodium illinoensej Rhombic-petaled evening rjrimrose (Qenothera rhombipetale) Louisiana broom-rape (Orobancrie ludovictana) One-flowered broom-rape TO. unttlora) Forked chickweed (Paronychia fastigiata) James' polanisia (Potanisis jamesiii Animals of sand-gravel oak savannas The animals present in sand-gravel oak savannas are essentially the same as those found in Darrens oak savannas. Trie most important factors affecting species diversity are the degree of canopy closure, the size of prairie openings, and the proximity to water. Common animal species —Breeding birds Mourning dove (Zsnatda macrouta} Blue jay (Cyanocttta cristata) Indigo bunting (Passerirta cyanea) Chbping sparrow fSprze/te passerine) Field sparrow IS. pusilla) Song sparrow (Meiospiza melodia) Brown-headed cowbird IMotothrus ater) —Mammals Thirteen-lined ground squirrel ISpermophtlus tntfece'n'/nea'usj Fox squirrel (Sciurus nigeii Plains pocket gopher (Geomys bursar/us) White-Footed mouse (PetOfnyscus leucopus) Red fox (Vutpes vulpes)
Rare animal species Loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus) Eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) Easterr nognose snake (Hetefodon platy rhinos) Bullsnake (Pitt/aphis melancte^cus! Karner blue \Lycaeides melissa samuetis) Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of grazing such as ground layer dominated by smooth brorne. Kentucky bluegrass, Canada bluegrass, or guackgrass; poor riative forb diversity; soil compaction; overdominance dy a few plant species; o'd fences or trails; evidence of past cultivation such as old plow lines (often visible on aerial photos]. Threats include encroachment of woody plants such as red cedar, prickly ash, smooth sumac. and black locust in the absence of fire; trails and erosion from recreational vehicles; residential development; and invasion by nonnative forbs such as leafy spurge, spotted Knarjweed, mullein, goat's beard, white sweet clover, and yellow sweet clover. Associated natural communities Oak woodland-brusriland, oakforest, barrens oak savanna, and sand-gravel prairie.
Examples 33. St. Croix Savanna Scientific and Matural Area
Striped skunk IMephitis mephifis) White-tailed deer (Odocoiieus t/irginianus) —Amphibians and reptiles Tiger salamander (AmOystoms t/gnnum) American toad (Bufo americanusi
Deciduous Soraoaas
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10. Upland Prairies Native grasslands once extended eastward across the Great Plains and into western and southern Minnesota, interrupted only by rivers, wetlands, and in some areas, lakes. Farther eastward into Minnesota, as well as into parts of Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio, they became increasingly interspersed with woodlands and forests. The native grasslands of Minnesota and states to the east were generally tallgrass prairies. Mixed grass prairie and short grass prairie (or steppe) occurred to the west where the climate is drier. In Minnesota, prairies that might otherwise have succeeded to woodland or forest in the prairie-forest transition zone (see the map on page 3) were
maintained before the arrival of European-Americans by human-set fires and by herds of bison and elk. At the time of setdement in the St. Croix River Valley— Anoka Sandplain Region, upland prairies occurred primarily near the Mississippi River. They covered much of the loamy Cottage Grove dissected plain in southern Washington O 1 o County and parts of the Mississippi River terraces in Ramsey, Anoka, and Sherburne counties. Two types of prairie occurred here: mesic prairie, primarily on rich, productive loamy soils, and dry prairie, on sandy, droughty soils. The dry prairies were most common and were diverse in composition. They contained plants characteristic of mesic
Fig. 10.1 A sand-gravel prairie near Bayport in Washington County. Small disturbances in the soil, such as the gopher mound in theforeground, provide germination sitesfor the seeds of large-flowered beard-tongue and other prairie plants (Davis et al. 1991).
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prairies, plants characteristic of the dry prairies of western Minnesota, and some plants common on dune areas along southern Lake Michigan and on the Atlantic Coastal Plain far to the east. They also provided habitat in the Region for several animals characteristic of the Great Plains, including the upland sandpiper, plains pocket mouse, and western hognose snake. The Region's prairies were rapidly plowed for cropland after settlement began. Evidently, fairly large prairies remained at least in Sherburne County in 1899—the Becker Town Board, experimenting with a new road grader, found that "the grader worked good on the prairies and farmers will soon be able to make their way into town much easier" (Sherburne County Historical Society 1975). But by 1920, geologist and historian Warren Upham wrote that most of the extensive prairies along the Mississippi River in Sherburne County had been converted to farmland (Upham 1969). Many prairies in the Region that escaped plowing probably were invaded by shrubs and trees in the late 1800s and early 1900s because of the suppression of prairie fires. Other prairies have been so continuously grazed by livestock or otherwise disturbed that most of the native species have been replaced by introduced plants such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome. Prairies are now extremely rare in the Region (compare maps 1 and 2). Of at least 80,000 acres present in the Region at the time of settlement, just a few small patches of mesic prairie remain, totaling about 20 acres. A greater percentage of the Region's dry prairies (about 840 acres) remain, in part because they were less rapidly invaded by trees and shrubs in the absence of fire. Also, many of them occur on sites that make poor farmland, such as rocky bluffs, steep slopes, and areas with infertile, sandy soils.
Loggerhead Shrikes
S
t y years ago, loggerhead shrikes were among the
common "wire birds" seen perched along the highways that run through Minnesota's prairies and ooen country (Roberts 1932). Today, they are a rare sight. Open grasslands interspersed with small trees are (he preferred habitat for shrikes; the widely spaced trees provide not only nest sites, but also hunting perches. Shrikes are the only truly predatory songbirds in the world. From the vantage point of a treetop or telephone wire, they swoop down to catch an insect or small bird out of the air or drop to the ground to capture a small mammal or reptile. Shrikes are also called "butcher birds" for their habit of impaling their prey on sharp thorns, twigs, or barbed wire, where t^sy store them for later consumption, In the relatively recent past, loggerhead shrikes have decreased markedly in abundance throughout their breeding range. Although shrikes have been the focus of considerable research, the reasons for tiieir decline remain unclear. Nesting loggerhead shrikes continue to be reported regularly across the southern two-thirds of Minnesota; however, the nesting pairs are few and widely spaced (B;ooks ar.d Temple 1986). In the Region, loggerhead shrikes have been found nesting in small grassland tracts within largely agricultural areas. Habitat of this type is relatively common, but for some as yet unknown reason most cf it remains unoccupied by shrikes.
Mesic Prairie Mesic prairies are grasslands with a dense cover of tall grasses such as big bluestem and Indian grass and prairie forbs such as purple prairie clover and rough blazing-star. Explorer Henry Schoolcraft described extensive mesic prairies along the Mississippi River in 1820, from St. Anthony Falls north through Anoka and Sherburne counties, "covered with the most luxuriant growth of grass and heath-flowers" and growing on "black, marly alluvion, which appears to be Upland Prairies
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Eastern Spotted Skunks
T
h e eastern spotted skunk is a relative newcomer to the Regien. Successive publications or the mammals in Mirnesota track its gradual bul ce'tain march northward through the stale. Accounts of marrmsls : n 1892 mada no mention of this strikingly marked animal, while describing other !ar more nondescript and secretive mammals IHerrick 1892). By 194^. spotted skunks were "ound regularly in southeastern Min-
composed in a great degree of vegetable mould" (Schoolcraft 1953 [1821]). Mesic prairies also covered much of the Cottage Grove dissected plain in Washington County and may have occurred in mesic depressions on the Anoka sandplain (U.S. Surveyor General 1847-1908). Mesic prairies are now gone from the Region except for a few small patches along railroads and fence lines. Restorations are underway at a few places in the Region that once may have contained mesic prairie, although to date they lack the rich diversity of forb species that most distinguishes native mesic prairies.
Dry Prairie Dry prairies are sparsely vegetated grasslands that often have exposed patches of bare soil. In the mid-1800s, dry
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nesota but were rare noct^ of [here. The first indication that the sKunk -night be in Sherburne County cane from 3 1922 record across the river from Big Lake IBaiiey 1929). in L932, a trapper took a spotted smnk near Still water, but its range was still considered limited TO the southeastern counties from Washington County southward. One year later, a spotted skunk was trapped in Roseau County near tie Canadian border. Why was this animal moving northward? What changes in the landscape, which usually work to the detriment of native species, were actually beneficial to this one? No one can say with certainty: nowever, the clearing of land and its conversion to agriculture closely parallel tne movement of this species into 'he Region. The spotted skunk is generally considered a species a' open or broken lands, but it appears quite comfortable in a wide variety of habitats, including fencerows, farmlands, and Other human-created nabitats. In 1943, estimates of spotted skunks trapped in tha Region exceeded 4,600, the majority from Anoka and Sherburne counties (based on Swanson et al. 1945) This number could well represent an all-time high for this species; trapping records ard other reports of this animal have steadily fallen since then. As mysteriously as it arrived ir Minnesota, the sootted skunk seems to be disappearing. No cause has yet been conciusively attributed tc its demise. Changes in agricultural practices that recuce or eliminate cover and food items have been implicated but not proved. Despite the decline of this species across its range, tns eastern spotted skunk continues to be reported from the state, and many of the sightings come from the counties of the Region.
prairies occurred in the Region primarily in association with mesic prairies in southern Washington County and on the Mississippi River terraces in Ramsey, Anoka, and Sherburne counties. In addition, an area of prairie on sandy soil west of the Sunrise River in Sunrise Township in Chisago County was mentioned in notes from the General Land Office survey. Small patches of dry prairie 10 to 20 acres in area were probably present across the Anoka sandplain but were not distinguished from oak woodland by the land surveyors. The Region's present dry prairies occur mostly in the same areas as those of the 1800s, although they are much smaller. The dry prairies of the Region vary distinctly according to the soils, substrates, and topography on which they occur. On the basis of these differences, they are divided into three different subtypes: barrens prairie, bedrock bluff prairie, and sand-gravel prairie.
Chapter 10
Barrens Prairie
Barrens prairies are the most distinctive but least common of the Region's dry prairies. They occur only on sand dunes on the Anoka sandplain (see the sidebar on dunes in chapter 1). The hot, dry conditions on the treeless dune slopes are tolerated only by certain plants and animals, including several rare species. Before Euro-American settlement in the Region, barrens prairies graded into barrens oak savannas on the Region's sand dune areas (see figs. 3.1 and 9.3). The prairie openings were probably maintained by the shifting, droughty sands of the dunes, by prairie fires, and perhaps by grazing bison and elk. Overgrazing by cattle, invasion by oaks and hazels and, more recently, erosion from off-road vehicles have destroyed all but a few patches of barrens prairie in the Region. These remaining prairies are generally small inclusions within barrens oak savannas. The largest exampie in the Region occurs on a dune area north of Elk River, where there are a few treeless slopes of more than 10 acres. The Region's barrens prairies all have a sparse cover of grasses and sedges growing scattered or in clumps with much bare sand between them. Sand reedgrass is common on the arid dune crests. Porcupine grass, little bluestem, rigid sunflower, hairy golden aster, western ragweed, Muhlenberg's sedge, and hairy puccoon are typical on the slopes. The most distinctive plants of the community occur on blowouts, which are wind-eroded hollows in the dune faces. The shifting sands of the blowouts are colonized by such plants as false heather, sea-beach needlegrass, silky prairie clover, coast jointweed, and the low, mat-forming sedge Carex umbellata. Several unusual species occur on adjacent, more stable patches of bare sand, including British-soldier lichen, earth-star fungus, and rock spikemoss.
Animals of the Barrens Prairie h e plains pocket mouse and the western hognose snake, two rare animal species that occur in the dunes and barrens prairies of tne Region, both have distributions ranging over the western plains and arid southwest o( the United States. In Minnesota they are largely restricted to the western border of the state, but the
T
Bedrock Bluff Prairie
Members of explorer Henry Schoolcraft's 1832 expedition up the St. Croix River noted that the tops of the rocky bluffs along Lake St. Croix were covered by prairie, with scattered oak thickets and red cedars below (Schoolcraft 1834). The prairies they saw were undoubtedly bedrock bluff prairies—prairies on steep, rocky sites. Bedrock bluff prairies occur in the Region almost exclusively in southern Washington County, where streams have cut down through the thin soils and underlying bedrock to Upload Prairiews
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form numerous rocky bluffs. The bedrock bluff prairies are most common here on arid south- or west-facing bluffs along the St. Croix and Mississippi rivers and smaller streams. The most widespread dominant grasses of the Region's present bedrock bluff prairies are little bluestem and sideoats grama. Hairy grama and plains muhly dominate particularly dry slopes and rock ledges. Big bluestem, Indian grass, and prairie dropseed are common in relatively moist areas. Limestone outcrops within the community often have plains muhly, long-leaved panic-grass, harebell, Leonard's skullcap, and lyre-leaved rock-cress growing in cracks in the rocks, and smooth cliff-brake and rock sandwort growing on bare rock faces. Plants characteristic of sand-gravel and barrens prairies tend to occur on the loose, dry sand that accumulates below eroding sandstone outcrops in bedrock bluff prairies. These plants include the sedge Cyperus schweinitzii, Junegrass, clammy-weed, and bird-foot violet.
Prairie Remnants on Railroad Grades
A
few of the rare remaining sand-gravel prairies in the Region exist along railroadrighte-of-wayestablished in the 1800s. These prairies now occupy a narrow strip between the graded slope of the rail bed and adjacent roads or cultivated land. When the grade was constructed, soil was often scraped from the right-of-way, ruining much of the prairie vegetation. However, when the railroads were built, the adjacent land was still dominated by native vegetation, and prairie plants quickly recolonized the right-of-way. Fires set accidentally Dy sparks or ignited intentionally by railroad workers kept many stretches of railroad prairie in good condition and free of trees and shrubs. Many small prairie remnants occur along the old railroad grade that parallels highways 61 and 30 north from White Bear Lake to North Branch. Triese remnants, however, sometimes have very few prairie forbs. possibly because of the use ot herbicides against broad-leaved plants along the rightof-way and in adjacent cultivated fields over the years.
Sand-Gravel Prairie Before Euro-American settlement in the Region, sandO ' gravel prairies occurred primarily in southern Washington County on the eroded slopes and ravines of the Cottage Grove dissected plain and on gravel deposits on the St. Croix moraine and Rosemount outwash plain (see map 3). Sand-gravel prairies probably also occurred as grassy openings in the oak woodlands or oak savannas of the Anoka sandplain and on coarser soils on the Mississippi River terraces in Sherburne County, where they graded into mesic prairies. Sand-gravel prairies have many species in common with mesic prairies, including big bluestem, little bluestem, butterfly-weed, leadplant, and purple prairie clover. Dry sand-gravel prairies differ from mesic prairies primarily in their sparser, shorter cover of vegetation and their many areas of bare, easily eroded soil. The Region's sand-gravel prairies are dominated by little bluestem, porcupine grass, side-oats grama, and the sedge Carexfoenea. Big bluestem and Indian grass often are locally abundant within the sand-
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gravel prairies in low, moist areas. Many of the common forb species of sand-gravel prairies are tolerant of summer drought, such as pasque-flower, narrow-leaved puccoon, prairie sagewort, prairie larkspur, and western spiderwort. The small existing sand-gravel prairies all show signs of disturbance, primarily from past grazing, and now contain the introduced grasses Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome. A northern variety of Kentucky bluegrass may have been native to the Region before the 1800s, but all of the plants found here now in lawns and abandoned fields probably originate from European stock (Gleason and Cronquist 1991). Smooth brome is from Eurasia and is now one of our most common grasses along roads and highways. The Region's prairie remnants face constant invasion from these two species. One defense is to burn prairies in the spring when bluegrass and brome have already begun sending up new shoots. The fire will set back their growth, improving conditions for species such as little bluestem and big bluestem, which begin growing later in the season.
Chapter 10
Mesic Prairie Fact Sheet
fig. 10.2 Expansive mesic prairies were present in the mid-1800s on fertile soil in areas that burned freguently, such as in southern Washington County and along the Mississippi River in Sherburne County. Al! that remain are a few small patches, such as this mesic praine on the grounds of the Twin Cities Army Ammunition Plant in northern Ramsey County.
Status: 2 Structure An open grassland win a continuous cover of tall (2 to 6 feet) native perennial grasses; high diversity of forb species; trees and tall shrubs absent except in localized patches such as in shaded ravines. Other characteristics Natural disturbances such as fire and gopher mounds are common. Soils and substrate On fine sandy loams on the Mississippi River terraces and the Anoha sandplain: soils dark-colored, moderately well drained to well drained, with a substantial organic layer. Historic distribution
River Valley, on the Cottage Grove dissected plain, and on the Rosemount outwash plain; rarely in the St. Croix Valley; small areas bordering wet prairie and wet meadow on moist or ricner soils of the Anokasandplah. Present distribution No remnants larger than 5 acres; small catches sometimes present along railroad tracks. Existing acreage; 20 Number of known locations: 5 Common plant species —Ground layer WGODY SPECIES Leadplant (Amorpha canescensi Prairie rose (Rosa arxaisana)
On the upper, flat terraces of the Mississippi Upland Prairies
FORSS Northern beastraw (Galium borssle) Bid-foot coreopsis (Coreopsis pslmata) Bastarc toadflax (Comandrs wnbellata! Heath aster (Aster erfcoides) Sky-blue aster (A. ooleiiang/ensis) Flowering spurge (Euphorbia coioltata) Rigid sunflower (Heliantrms rigidus) Rough blazing-star (Liatrts aspera) Wild oergamot (Monarda fiswtosa) Purple prair e clover (Pstalostemon purpureum) Downy phlox (Phlox pttosa Si,bsp. lulgida) Missouri goldenrod (Solidago missouriensis) Stiff goldenrod fS. rigids} Canada goldenrod fS. canader>sts) Prairie bird-foot violet (Viola pedatifida) Smooth rattlesnake-root (Prenanthes racemosa)
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Mesic Prairie Fact Sheet (com.)
GRAMINOIDS Big bluestem (Andmpogon gerardii) Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans) Little blueslem (Schizacbyrium scoparium) Porcupine grass (Stipa spartea) Prairie dropseed tSpombofus heterotepis) Jjnegrass (Koeleris tnacrantha) A species of sedge (Carex tenera) Kalm's b-ome (Bmmus kalmt!! Characteristic plant species Leiberg's panic-grass (Psnicum leibergii) Kalm's brome (Bromus kalmii) Downy phlox IPhlox pilosa subsp. fulgida) Smooth rattlesnake-root (Prenanthes racemosa) Canada tick-trefoil (Desmodium canadensis) Bird-foot coreopsis (Coreopsis palmata) Downy gentian (Gentiana puberu/enta) Showy goldenrod fSolidags specioss! Wheatgrass (Agmpyton trachycaulum) White prairie clover (Pstalostemon candidum) Hoary puccoon (Litfiospermum canescens) Rare plant species Illinois tick-trefoil (Desmodium illinoense) Animals of mesic prairies The few remaining tracls of this community in the Region are small and have animal assemblages greatly affected by the surrounding vegetation. In the present landscape, old tields and other disturbed grasslands, while less diverse than native prairies, provide the most extensive grassland habitat in the Region. Thus, animal lists for all upland prairie communities are based largely on the species found in these
Common animal species —Breeding birds Mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) Eastern kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus) Field sparrow (Sptzetla pusiHa) Eastern meadowiark (Sturnelia magna) Western meadowiark fS. neglecta) American goldfinch (Carduetis tristis) —Mammals Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Thirteen-lined ground sauirrel fSpermoph /'us tridecem Un ea tu s) Meadow voie (Micmtus pennsylvanicus) Meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius) Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis)
arid a poor diversity of native forbs. Threats include invasion by leafy spurge, roaa-salt runoff, herbicides, and encroachment by woody plants. Associated natural communities Sand-gravel oak savanna, sand-gravel prairie, wet prairie, wet meadow, and aspen woodland.
—Amphibians and reptiles Tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) American toad (Bufo americamis) Chorus frog (Pseudacris trisenata) Northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) Redbelly snake (Storeria occipitomaculata) Plains garter snake (Triamnoph/s radix) Characteristic animal species Upland sandpiper (Bartramia longicauda) Grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum) Rare animal species Upland sandpiper (Bartramia longicauda) Loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludo'jicianus) Hens low's sparrow (Ammodramus henslowit) Eastern spotted skunk (Spitogale putorius) Eastern hognose snake (Heterodon
platyrhlnos)
disturbed habitats.
186!
Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of past cultivation, such as plow lines (often visible in aerial photographs): evidence of past grazing, such as old fences, an abundance of nonnative grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, or Canada bluegrass,
Chapter 10
Example 24. Sand Prairie Wildlife Management Area
Barrens Prairie Fact Sheet
Fig. 10.3 A small barrens prairie opening within an area of oak savanna at Uncas Dunes Scientific and Natural Area in Sherburne County, Notice the exposed sand and sparse clumps of grasses. A rare butterfly, the Uncas skipper, inhabits this prairie.
Status: 2
Structure An open grassland with sparse to patchy (less than 50%) vegetation cover, dominated by clumps of perennial grasses mostly 6 to 24 inches tall. Forbs scattered; native annual plants common on exposed sand in wind-scoured blowouts, on dune crests, or on steep, unstable slopes. Other characteristics Natural disturbances such as tire, wind erosion, and gopher mounds are common. Soils and substrate Typically occurs on tine- and mediumtextured, wind-deposited sand; also on coarse sand on eroded terrace slopes; soils excessively well drained, with little soil development,
Historic distribution Limited distribution on dune formations on the Anoka sandplain; also in local areas of unstable sand on the Mississippi River terraces; often graded into barrens savanna where hilly dune topography, bare soil patches, sparse vegetation litter, lakeshores, or wet meadows impeded tires and allowed woody plants to persist; small barrens prairie openings possibly created elsewhere by bison or elk. Present distribution Areas where soil is too poor or slopes too steep or unstable for cultivation, pasture land, or pine plantations; occurs primarily as small inclusions on south-facing dune or river terrace slopes in barrens oak savanna or oak woodland-brushland. Existing acreage: 110
Upland Prairies
Number of known locations: 12 Common plant species —Ground layer WOODY SPECIES Leadplant (Amorpha canescens) FQRBS Western ragweed (Ambrosia coronopifolia) Hairy puccoon (Lithospermum carolmiense) Narrow-leaved lamb's quarters (Chenopodium desiccatum) Silky prairie clover (Petalostemon villosum) Geyer's spurge (Euphorbia geyeri) Hairy golden aster (Heterotheca villosa) Rock spikemoss (Setaginella rupestris) Gray goldenrad (Solidago nemaralis) Western spiderwort (Tradescantia occidentalis) Rigid sunflower (Helianthus rigidusi
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Barrens Prairie Fact Sheet (cont.) False heather (Hudsonia tomentosa) Carpetweed (Mollugo verticillata) Missouri goldenrod (Soltdago missouriensis) GRAMINOIDS Hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsutal Sand reedgrass (Calamovilfa longifolia) A species of sedge (Cyperus schweinitzii) Long-leaved panic-grass (Panicum perlongum) Sand dropseed (Sporobotus cryptandrus)
contain species associated with trees (iden-
Bullsnake (Pituophis melanoteucus)
Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha)
tified by an asterisk in the following lists).
Uncas skipper (Hesperia uncas)
Porcupine grass (Stipa spartea)
Turtles will travel to this habitat during
Muhienberg's sedge (Carex muhlenbergii)
summer to lay eggs.
Characteristic plant species
Common animal species
False heather (Hudsonia tomentosa)
—Breeding birds
plants such as sandbur, crabgrass, Ken-
Silky prairie clover (Petalostemon viltosum)
*Mourning dove (Zenaida macmura)
Sand reedgrass (Calamovilfa longifolia!
*Eastern kingbird (lyranttus tyrannus)
tucky bluegrass, iamb's quarters, Russian thistle, sported knapweed, or three-awn
Large-flowered beard-tongue (Penstemon
Field sparrow (Spizelia pusilla)
grass. Threats include erosion from all-
Eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna)
terrain vehicles and bridle paths; suburban
Western meadowlark fS. neglects)
development; domestic or nuisance animals
'American goldfinch (Carduelis tristis)
that disturb birds, small mammals, and
—Mammals
Blanding's turtle nests.
Thirteen-lined ground squirrel
Associated natural communities
grandiflorus) A species of panic-grass (Panicum commonsianum) Long-bearded hawkweed (Hieracium longipilum) Old field toadflax (Linaria canadensis)
(Spermophilus tridecemlmeatus)
Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of past grazing such as old fences, roads, and trails; an abundance of weedy
Barrens oak savanna, sand-gravel savanna
Coast jointweed (Polygonella articulaia)
Plains pocket gopher (Geomys bursarius)
and prairie, oak woodland-brushland, and
Rare plant species
Deer mouse (Pemmyscus maniculatus)
wet meadow.
Round-stem met) false foxglove (Agalinis
Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
ga Kings ri) Small-leaved pussytoes (Antennaria par vifolia) Sea-beach needlegrassM"s;/'c/a ttiberculosa) Rhombic-petaled evening primrose (Oenothera rhombipetala) Louisiana broom-rape (Orobanche ludoviciana) Forked chickweed (Paronychia fastigiata) James' polanisia (Polanisia jamesii) Purple sand-grass (Triplasis purpurea)
—Amphibians and reptiles American toad (Bufo amencanus) Prairie skink (Eumeces septentriona/is) Plains garter snake (Thamnophis radix) Characteristic animal species Western kingbird (Tyrannus verticalis) Plains pocket mouse (Perognathus flavescens) Western hognose snake IHeterodon nasicus) Rare animal species Upland sandpiper (Barfamia longicauda)
Animals of barrens prairies Barrens prairies typically have fewer animal species than mesic prairies. The sparseness of the ground cover excludes species that rely on a litter layer for concealment. Most examples of this habitat are small inclusions within barrens oak savanna and thus
1881
Loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludowcianus) Prairie vole (Micmtus ochmgaster) Eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) Western hognose snake (Hetemdon nasicus!
Chapter 10
Examples No publicly accessible examples, although barrens prairie species dominate the ground layer in barrens oak savannas such as at Bunker Hills Regional Park (see site 2).
Bedrock Bluff Prairie Fact Sheet
Fig. 10.4
Bedrock bluff prairies occur on several small, bedrock-cored ridges at Lost Valley Prairie Scientific arid Natural Area in
southern Washington County. The prairies are dominated by little bluestem, prairie dropseed, and other native grasses. The prairies on these ridges were threatened with invasion by wild plum and gray dogwood thickets but are now being managed by burning and removal of the trees and shrubs.
Status: 2 Structure A grassland community with continuous to interrupted cover of native prairie grasses and forbs, 2 to 30 inches high, on thin soil over bedrock. Woody plants are limited to shoots and small shrubs, either infrequent or concentrated in thickets in motst draws or near fire-protected bedrock slopes. Other characteristics Lichens on exposed rock; good diversity of native plants (more than 25 species per 30 x 30 feet), including many forbs; natural disturbances such as periodic fires, wind erosion, rock slides, or animal burrows;
Soils and substrate Soils vary depending on whether they are derived from sandstone or limestone bedrock and on the amount of unconsolidated material, such as till, alluvium, or loess, that mantles the bedrock slopes; commonly sandy loams to silty loams. Historic distribution On the Cottage Grove dissected plain; in the Mississippi River Valley, primarily on south- and west-facing bluffs in Ramsey County; rare occurrences in the St. Croix River Valley in Washington County.
Existing acreage: 320 Number of known locations: 33 Common plant species —Canopy Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) —Shrub layer Smooth sumac (Rhus glabra) —Ground layer WOODY SPECIES Leadplant (Amorpha canescens) Prairie rose (Rosa arkansana! FORBS Purple prairie clover (Petalostemon purpureum)
microhabitats such as rock ledges, crevices,
Present distribution Remnants on the Cottage Grove dissected plain; others lost to urban development of
or talus piles.
St. Paul, suburban growth, and encroach-
Sky-blue aster (Aster oolentangiensis) Gray goldenrod (Solidago nemoralis)
ment of woody vegetation.
Harebell (Campanula rotundifolia)
Upland Prairie*
1891
Bedrock Bluff Prairie Fact Sheet (cant.) Silky aster (Aster sericeus) Flowering spurge (Euphorbia corollata) Ground-cherry (Physalis virginiana) Daisy fleabane (Erigemn strigosus! Thimbleweed (Anemone cylindrical Whorled milkweed (Asclepias verticillata) Heath aster (Aster ericoidss)
Rare animal species
Prairie bird-toot violet (Viola pedatifida)
Five-lined skink (Eumeces fasciatus)
Bastard toadflax (Comandra umbellata)
Racer (Coluber constrictor)
Tall cinquefoil (Potentitla argtita)
Milk snake (Lampropeltis triangu/um)
GRAMINOIDS Big bluestem (Andmpogon gerardii)
Timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horrictus)
Little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium)
Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of past grazing such as cattle
Side-oats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula)
Animals of bedrock bluff prairies
Flairs rnuhly (Muhtenbergia cuspidata) Prairie dropseed (Spombolus hetemlepis) Hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta}
Animals in bedrock bluff prairies closely resemble those found in other dry prairie communities; however, the presence
Long-leaved panic-grass (Panicum
of rock outcrops provides an important
perlongum) Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans)
microhabitat for several reptile species. The
Characteristic plant species
portion of the Region limits the species
Silky aster (Aster sericeus)
found in examples of this habitat.
Heath aster (A. ericoides)
Common animal species
Harebell (Campanula rotund/folia)
restriction of this community type to a small
trails, fence lines, dominance of nonnative grasses such as smooth brome, Canada bluegrass, Kentucky bluegrass, or quackgrass, and low diversity of native forbs; presence of aggressive weeds such as sported knapweed or leafy spurge. Threats include invasion of woody plants such as wild plum, red cedar, gray dogwood, smooth sumac, poison ivy, prickly ash, chokecherry, Siberian elm, and box elder;
—Breeding birds
urban development and lack of buffer
Prairie larkspur (Delphinium virescens)
Eastern kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus)
vegetation; adjacent development that
Plains muhly (Mu/ilenbergia cuspidata)
Field sparrow (Spizella pusilla)
prohibits fire management.
Junegrass (Koeieria macrantha)
Eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna)
Smooth cliff-brake (Pellaea glabetla)
American goldfinch (Carduelis tristis)
Pasque-flower (Pulsatiila nuttalliana) Clammy ground-cherry (Physalis
—Mammals
hetemphyila) Western spiderwort (Tradescantia
occidental is) Ground-plum (Astragalus crassicarpus) Rare plant species Rock sandwort (Arenaria dawsonensis) Kitten-tails (Sesseya bullii)
Thirteen-lined ground squirrel (Spermophilus tridecemiineatus) White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) —Amphibians and reptiles American toad (Bufo americanus) Prairie skink (Eumeces septentrionalis! Eastern garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis)
Hill's thistle (Cirsium hillii) Forked chickweed (Paronychta fastigiata)
Characteristic animal species None
/goy
Chapter 10
Associated natural communities Sand-gravel oak savanna, oak woodlandbrushland, and oak forest. Examples 18. Battle Creek Regional Park 31. Lost Valley Prairie Scientific and Natural Area
Sand-Gravel Prairie Fact Sheet to excessively well drained; soils typically derived from glacial outwash and stream deposits. Historic distribution Extensive across the Mississippi River terraces in Sherburne County in association with mesic prairie and in southern Ramsey and Washington counties as large openings in savanna or woodland; small openings on ravines and hillsides of the St. Croix River terraces and St. Croix moraine; openings in dry oaK savanna on the Anoka sandplain: also on the Cottage Grove dissected plain. Present distribution None remain on better soils or flat areas of the Mississippi River terraces because of conversion to cropland or pasture; only a few small remnants on steep, inaccessible slopes or poor soils on the Mississippi River terraces, Cottage Grove dissected plain, and Anoka sandplain; a few cultivated fields abandoned before the 1940s and recolonized by native prairie plants now resemble sand-gravel prairie. Existing acreage: 410 Number of known locations: 39 Common plant species —Shrub layer Smooth sumac (Wius glabra)
Fig. 10.5 A sand-gravel prairie in a railroad right-of-way west of Oakdale, in Washington County. Small patches of prairie along railroads in Ramsey and Washington counties and along Highway 61 and Highway 30 in Chisago County are almost all that is left of the open prairies of the southern part of the Region.
—Ground layer WOODY SPECIES Prairie rose (Rosa arkansana) Leadplant (Amorpha canescens) FOffBS Purple prairie clover (Petalostemon purpureum) Prairie Dird-foot violet (Viola pedatifida)
Status: 2 Structure An open grassland with interrupted to nearly continuous cover of prairie grasses; prairie (orbs scattered or in patches; small patches of exposed ground on slopes or where soil is unstable.
Other characteristics Maintained Oy natural disturbances such as periodic drought, animal burrows, and fire. Soils and substrate Occurs on fine sandy loams on the Anoha sandplain and sandy loams on the Mississippi River terraces; soils are well drained Upland Prairies
Yarrow I'Achilles miilefolium) Thimbleweed (Anemone cylindrica) Common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) Sky-blue aster (Aster oolentangiensis) Bastard toadflax (Comandra umbellata) Daisy fleaoane (Erigeron strigosus) Flowering spurge (Euphorbia corollata)
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Rare animal species Upland sandpiper IBartramia longicauda) Loggerhead shrike ILanius ludovicianus) Prairie vole (Microtus octimgaster) Eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale pulorius) Standing's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) Western hognose snake
Sand-Gravel Prairie Fact Sheet (com.)
Round-headed bush-clover (Lespedeza capitata) Gray goldenrod fSo'/dsgo nemoralis) Stiff goldenrorJ (S. rigida) GRAMINOIDS Little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) Side-oats grarna (Bouteloua curtipendula) Big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) A species of sedge ICyperus lupulinus) Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans) Porcupine grass (Stipa spartea) Characteristic plant species Rough blazing-star (Liatris aspera) Large-flowered beard-tongue (Penstemon grandif/orus) Clammy ground-cherry (Physalis heterophylld) Junegrass IKoeleria macrantha) Long-bearded hawkweect (Hieracium
lorigipiltim) Prairie larkspur (Delphinium virescens) Hairy puccoon (Lithospermsim carol intense) Narrow-leaved puccoon (L incisum} Western spiderwort (Tradescantia occidental is) Butterfly-weed (Asclepias luberosa) Muhlenberg's sedge ("Care* muhlenbergii) Large-leaved pussytoes (Antennaria piantaginifolia) Rare plant species Round-stemmed false foxglove (Agalinis gattingeri) Small-leaved pussytoes (Antennaria par vi folia) Sea-beach needlegfass (Aristida tuberculosa)
Louisiana broom-rape (Qrobanche ludoviciana) Forked chickweed (Paronychia fastigiata! James' polanisia (Polanis/a jamesii) Purple sand-grass (Triplasis purpurea) Animals of sand-gravel prairies
Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of past cultivation such as plow lines (often visible in aerial photographs);
Animals of sand-gravel prairies are nearly identical to those found in other dry prairie habitats. The extent of open prairie deter-
evidence of past grazing such as fence lines, roads, trails, a low diversity of native forbs (less than 25 species per 30 x 30
mines the number of grass land-associated species present. Small tracts usually contain some species associated with the adjacent habitats. Turtles will use this habitat seasonally for nesting.
feet}, and an abundance of nonnative grasses such as smooth brome, Kentucky
Common animal species —Breeding birds Mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) Eastern kingbird (Jyrannus tyrannus) Field sparrow (Spizella pusilla) Western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta) American goldfinch (Carduelis tristis} —Mammals Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Thirteen-lined ground squirrel (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus) Plains pocket gopher (Geomys bursar/us) Deer mouse (Pemmyscus maniculatus) Meadow vole (Microtus pennsyivanicus) Red fox (Vulpes wipes) —Amphibians and reptiles American toad (Bufo arnericanus) Prairie skink (Eumeces septentrionalis) Plains garter snake (Thamnophis radix) Eastern garter snake (T, sirtaiis) Characteristic animal species Western kingbird ITyrannus verticalis)
Kitten-tails (Besseya bullii) Hill's thistle (Cirsium hillii) Illinois tick-trefoil (Desmodium illinoense)
Plains pocket mouse (Pemgnatnus flavescens) Western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis)
Rhombic-petaled evening primrose (Oenothera rhombipetala)
Western hognose snake (Heterodon nasicus)
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nasicus) Bullsnake (Pituophis meianoleucus} Uncas skipper (Hesperia uncas)
Chapter 10
bluegrass, quack-grass, or Canada bluegrass. Threats include invasion by woody plants such as smooth sumac, red cedar, poison ivy, prickly ash, chokecherry, Siberian elm, and box elder; suburban development and lack of buffer vegetation; sand and gravel mining. Associated natural communities Sand-gravel oak savanna, oak woodlandbrushland, barrens prairie, wet prairie, and wet meadow.
Examples 24. Sand Prairie Wildlife Management Area 33. St. Croix Savanna Scientific and Natural Area
11. Floodplain Forests Floodplain forests are composed of deciduous trees and herbs that develop on mineral soil on river floodplains and are adapted to prolonged flooding, severe erosion, and sedimentation. In the St. Croix River Valley—Anoka Sandplain Region, large floodplain forests once were common along the Mississippi River downstream from Fort Snelling and on the St. Croix River upstream from Stillwater, with narrow stands along the Rum, Sunrise, and Elk rivers (see map 1 and fig. 3.4). They covered about 1% of the landscape in the 1800s. Because so many rivers join together in this Region, floodplain forests have long been used by humans (see the sidebar on Pike Island in the summary of part I)
and have served as migration corridors for animals and plants. Human activities over the past 150 years have changed the composition and structure of many of the Region's floodplain forests, chiefly through alteration of river flood cycles by land clearing and dam construction, and also by filling and dredging. However, floodplain forests have been less extensivelyJ cleared than most of the Region's other o forests, because of the unsuitability of river bottomland for building sites and the low commercial value of most trees that grow there. They now provide vital refugia for wildlife species that are losing habitat elsewhere in the Region.
Fig. 11.1 A silver maplejloodplain forest along the St. Croix River south of the Osceola bridge in Chisago County (see site 12).
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Only one type of floodplain forest is recognized in Minnesota at present, despite evident differences in the community across the state and from one river to another. The varied character of the community is easily observed within the Region, as described here. The Region's floodplain forests occur on river bottomlands that flood every spring and sometimes after long periods of summer rainfall. They are most commonly dominated by silver maple trees, but cottonwood and black willow are locally abundant, especially in Ramsey and southern Washington counties. These three species can easily grow over
Red-shouldered Hawks
E
e n before the silver maples have leafed out, the distinctive "kee-yer, kee-yer" of the red-shouldered hawk may be heard above the floodplain forests of the Region. This hawk is among the first birds to return to their breeding territories in Minnesota each spring. By mid-Way, territorial pairs
3 feet in diameter, and cottonwoods can reach heights of O over 80 feet. Good examples of silver maple-dominated floodplain forests occur along the St. Croix River (fig. 11.1). Some of the islands in the river south of the bridge to Osceola,' Wiso consin, have forests with dense canopies of young silver maple trees (see site 12), while forests with old, widely spaced silver maples occur on natural levees along backwater channels. Silver maple may also occur in the Region's floodplain forests mixed with other trees. Where Trout Brook enters 7
Sherburne and isanti counties also support nesting birds (see site 17). Although red-shouldered hawks typically inhabit floodplain forests associated with major rivers, they also use upland deciduous or mixed coniferous-deciduous forests in areas with numerous small lakes and other wetlands. The hawk has been found in upland forests throughout the Region, provided the forest stands are sufficiently large, the canopy is high enough, and wetlands are nearby. Red-shouldered hawks require sizable tracts of mature, closed-canopy forest with large trees for nest sites. As much as 600 acres ol forest may be necessary to support a single breeding pair (Bednarz and Dinsmore 1981). Rivers, marshes, wet meadows, or other wetland openings within forests appear to be important as hunting areas for red-shouldered hawks. Minnesota, with its abundance of lakes and wetlands, provides a wealth of habitat for the amphibians, reptiles, insects, and small rodents that make up the bulk of this hawk's diet. The distribution and abundance of red-shouldered hawks in the Region have been poorly documented until relatively recently. During the early 1900s, there were only occasional reports of this species, and red-shouldered hawks were considered uncommon summer residents largely restricted to the southeastern portion of the state (Roberts 1932), However, observations during this time from the St. Croix River in Washington County and the Elk River in Sherburne County suggesl that they were present in the floodplain forests associated with these rivers. Today, the Region lies at the heart of the range of the species in Minnesota. However, the clearing and fragmentation of forests threaten to impede, if not reverse, this apparent expansion. The high density of red-shouldered hawks along the floodplains of the St. Croix River Valley is likely due to the
can be found along the length of the St. Croix River in Washington and Chisago counties (see sites 9,10, and 13). The density of red-shouldered hawks here is equaled nowhere else in the Region. Floodplain forests along the Elk and Rum rivers in
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nearly continuous band of extensive forest present there. Protection of large tracts of mature forest and associated wetland habitats is vital to the continued presence of the red-shouldered hawk in the Region and in the state.
Chapter 11
the St. Croix River at Afton State Park, silver maples dominate the floodplain forest canopy along with willows and cottonwoods. Other canopy trees that may occur in the community are green ash, hackberry, box elder, basswood, and bur oak. Green ash and bur oak are particularly common on rises in the floodplain of the Rum River throughout Isanti County. Silver maples form pure stands in these forests only in a narrow zone along the main channel or in backwater channels. Along parts of the St. Croix River, such as north of Goose Creek in Wild River State Park, basswood is occasionally present in floodplain forests where they border uplands containing mesic forests (see site 13). Below the canopy, floodplain forests often appear spacious because subcanopy trees or shrubs are usually sparse. A highly distinctive feature, however, is the abundance of vines. Species such as wild grape and Virginia creeper often climb into openings in the canopy. These and other vines, such as Canada moonseed,7 wild cucumber, ogroundnut, virgin's bower, nightshade, and hops, often thrive in great density along the exposed riverbanks, sometimes nearly obscuring supporting vegetation. Herbaceous plants adapted to spring flooding, soil erosion, and sedimentation dominate the ground layer. Many of these species, such as wood nettle, clearweed, beggarticks, and smartweed, are annuals that produce abundant seeds that germinate and grow rapidly as water levels begin to fall in the spring and early summer. Other plants, such as Virginia wild-rye, rice cut-grass, goldenglow, Ontario aster, and the sedge Carex tribuloides, are perennials that spread rapidly from rhizomes. These plants and others often occur in large patches. Seeds of silver maple, cottonwood, and willow trees can germinate in profusion immediately J
O
7
7
after dispersal, also creating large patches in the ground layer. Many floodplain forests also have piles of logs, branches, and other debris on the forest floor, deposited by exceptionally high or rapidly flowing floodwaters. Scarred tree trunks are also not uncommon, resulting from abrasion by ice blocks when flooding follows early spring thaws. Silver maples that have been injured by ice blocks sometimes send up new shoots from their base, forming multiple-stemmed trees. Multiple stems also result from cutting, but such trees are most likely found throughout the forest rather than near the river's edge as when natural disturbances are the cause. Since Euro-American settlement, logging, grazing, filling of the floodplains for urban land, deposition of dredge spoils, alteration of flood cycles by dams, and fragmentation by road and power line construction have affected the Region's floodplain forests. Many grazed or otherwise disturbed forests along the Mississippi River in Sherburne County now contain extensive mats of reed canary-grass in their ground layers, along with nonnative weeds such as creeping Charlie, motherwort, and giant chickweed. Grazed forests, such as those alongO the Rum River south of Princeton, often contain dense thickets of prickly ash and common buckthorn. Areas of dense box elder trees on a floodplain are an indication that the site was probably cutover or grazed in the past. Another major human impact has been the introduction of Dutch elm disease and the consequent loss of American elm in the canopy. Slippery elm appears to be slightly less susceptible; some large trees more than 18 inches in diameter grow in floodplain forests along the Sunrise River near the St. Croix River.
Floodplain Forests
7
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Floodplain Forest Fact Sheet
Fig. 11.2 A floodplain forest along Crosby Lake, a backwater of the Mississippi River in Ramsey County. The forest, shown here at flood stage, is a mixture of the typical floodplain forest trees, including silver maples, green ashes, box elders, and cottonwoods.
Status: 2 Structure Broken to closed forest canopy (30 to 100% cover) dominated by silver maple or a mixture of tree species; trees often large in diameter (18 to 50 inches) and more than 70 feet in height. Vines are common in canopy gaps and at forest edges; shrub layer is sparse or absent; ground layer cover is continuous by middle to late summer; rhizomatous perennial grasses, sedges, and forbs or opportunistic annuals commonly form large single-species patches. Other characteristics Tree diameters can vary greatly; cottonwoods often exceed 3 feel and silver maples often exceed 2 feet; smaller trees are common in areas of natural flood damage or in young forests on recent river deposits; piles of woody debris from natural
196j
flood events; dead logs and overhanging trees and branches common along shorelines; standing or fallen dead trees; natural flood and stream processes create surface features on the floodplain such as abandoned channels and levees (depositional ridges).
Soils and substrate Silty to sandy, water-deposited, mineral substrates; generally with little soil development; standing water in spring,
Historic distribution On floodplains and islands of the Mississippi, St. Croix, and Rurn rivers and along portions of the Sunrise, Elk, and St. Francis rivers.
losses along the Mississippi River in Ramsey County because of development; losses elsewhere because of cutting, grazing, and flood control that have allowed upland forest types to develop. Existing acreage: 4,900 Number of known locations: 75 Common plant species —Canopy Silver maple (Acer saccnarinum) Green ash (Fraxinus perinsylvariica) Box elder (Acer negtindo) Black willow (Salix nigrs) Slippery elrn (Ulmus rubra) Cottonwood IPopulus deltoides) —Ground layer
Present distribution Same as historic distribution, with exact locations shifted and reduced in extent;
Chapter II
WOODY SPECIES Wild grape (Vitis riparia) Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus inserts)
Disturbance indicators and threats Indications of cutting, such as lack of trees larger than 12 inches in diameter or all trees multiple-stemmed; indications of past grazing, such as trails, fences, or an abundance of shrubs such as prickly ash and prickly gooseberry, especially on rises; an abundance of reed canary-grass, common
Floodplain Forest Fact Sheet (cont.) FORBS Wood nettle (Laportea canadensis) Goldenglow (Rudbeckia laciniata) Ontario aster (Aster ontarionis) False nettle (Boehmeria cylindrical Clearweed (Pitea pumila) Mad-dog skullcap (Scutellana lateriflora) Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) Spotted touch-me-not (Impatiens capensis) Virginia waterleaf (Hydrophyi/um
Virginian urn) Honewort (Cryptotaenia canadensis) White snakeroot (Eupa tori urn rugosum) GRAMINOIDS Virginia wild-rye (Elymus virginictis) White grass ILeersia virginica) Rice cut-grass (L oryzoides) A species of sedge (Carex tribuloides) Characteristic plant species Silver maple (Acer saccharinurn) Hackberry (Celtis occidental^) Narrow-leaved hedge nettle (Stachys tenuifolia) Cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis! A species of sedge (Carex lupulina) Cattail sedge (C, typnina) A species of sedge CC. crinita) Virginia water horehound (Lycopus v/rginicus) False dragonhead (Pbysostegia virginiana) Bladdernut (Stapfiylea trifolial Rare plant species Buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentals) Walter's barnyard grass (Echinochloa wallet'i) Animals of floodplain forests The animals of floodplain forests are similar to those of lowland hardwood forests and mixed hardwood swamps. The lack of structural diversity beneath the canopy in this community and the absence of nearground cover exclude a number of animals that are present in more structurally diverse
forests. Small marsh and wet meadow inclusions, typical of this community, can locally enhance species diversity. Common animal species —Breeding birds Red-bellied woodpecker (Me/anerpes carol inus) Eastern wood-pewee (Contopus virens) Great crested flycatcher (Myiarchus crinitus) Black-capped chickadee (Parus atricaptllus) White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta camlinensis) Blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptila caetulea) American robin (Turdus rnigratorius) Ye I low-throated vireo (Vireo flavifrons) Red-eyed vireo (V. olivaceus) American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla) —Mammals Masked shrew ("Sorex cinereus) Northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) White-footed mouse (Perotnyscus leucopus) Meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius) Common raccoon (Procyon lotor) —Amphibians and reptiles American toad (Bufo americanus) Eastern gray treefrog (Hyia versicoior) Spring peeper (Pseudacris crueller) Wood frog (Rana sylvatica)
buckthorn, creeping Charlie, motherwort, burdock, garlic-mustard, or giant chickweed. Threats include increased upland runoff and sedimentation from storm sewers and ditches that drain wetlands; alteration of natural flood cycles by dams; stabilization of shoreline for navigation; development of boat landings, campgrounds, and marinas. Associated natural communities Lowland hardwood forest, mixed hardwood swamp, black ash swamp, maple-basswood forest, mixed emergenf marsh, wet meadow, and river beach. Examples 9. Chengwatana State Forest: Stevens Creek Landing 12. Osceola Landing (south of Osceola bridge) 13. Wild River State Park: Goose Creek Natural Area 14. Wild River State Park: Sunrise Landing East 17. Rum River West of Walbo Landing 19. Fort Snelling State Park: Pike Island 22. Mississippi River Islands Scientific and Natural Area 32. MeLeod's Slough 35. William O'Brien State Park
Characteristic animal species Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus! Cerulean warbler (Dendroica ceru/ea) Prothonotary warbler (Protonotaria citrea) Rare animal species Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus) Louisiana waterthrush (Seiurus motacilla) Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) Wood turtle (Clemrnys inscuipta) Floodplain Forests
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12. Hardwood Swamps Hardwood swamps are forested wetland communities on black, organic soil, dominated by trees that have shallow root systems and can survive nearly continuous soil saturation. Major tree species are black ash, red maple, American elm, and yellow birch. At the time of Euro-American settlement, hardwood swamps commonly bordered shallow wetlands across much of the Anoka sandplain and the Grantsburg sublobe till plain (see figs. 3.1 and 3.4). The Region's hardwood swamps have been altered in many ways since the mid- 1800s, particularly those adjacent to farmland. They have been grazed during drought years. They have been drained for pasture and cropland, and flooded where roads and dikes blocked their drainage. They
Fig. 12.1
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have been logged for hardwood lumber, invaded by nonnative species, and perhaps changed by nutrient-rich runoff from surrounding fields. And disease has killed almost all of the large American elms and slippery elms that were once present in hardwood swamps. Two types of hardwood swamps occur in the Region, mixed hardwood swamps (fig. 12.1) and black ash swamps. They differ mainly in the composition of their canopies. Black ash swamps have greater than 50% cover of black ash, while mixed hardwood swamps have less black ash in the canopy. Both kinds of hardwood swamp have a seepage subtype that occurs where groundwater is supplied from springs or seeps. The two subtypes are so similar in composition
A mixed hardwood swamp near Twin Lakes in southeastern Isanti County.
Waterthrushes of the Region
T
he Louisiana watertnrush and northern waterthrush are two species of waterthrushes that breed in Minnesota. The Louisiana waterthrush is rare in the state and highly localized in its distribution. Its breeding range, primarily south of Minnesota, extends northward into the Region, following the forested corridors of the Mississippi and St. Croix rivers. "The St. Croix River, below the falls of that name, runs for some distance through a deep, rocky, picturesque gorge known as the Dalles of the St. Croix....ITihe Louisiana or Southern WaterThrush is more numerous there than anywhere else in the state" (Roberts 1932). In Minnesota, Louisiana Waterthrushes typically occur along permanent, swiftly flowing streams in forested
and near the lakeshore at Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area in Anoka County (see site 1). Additional records for the northern waterthrush were obtained in conifer swamps in the Twin Lakes area in Isanti County and at Cedar Creek Natural History Area in Anoka County. These recent breeding season records confirm that within the Region, the two species overlap in their summer nesting range but select distinctively different habitats.
ravines, where they build their nests in the stream bank or amidst a tangle of exposed roots. The northern waterthrush is closely associated with conifer forests, conifer swamps, and shrub swamps near sluggish water. Its breeding range is confined largely to the northern third of the state, prompting Roberts (1932) to note that "there is a wide stretch of country in Minnesota without representatives of either species during the nesting season," Recent surveys by the Minnesota County Biological Survey found both Louisiana and northern Waterthrushes during the breeding season ai Goose Creek Naturai Area at Wild River State Park (see site 13). This complex of mixed hardwood swamp, maple-basswood forest, tamarack swamp, and shrub swamp is associated with both slow- and fast-moving streams and apparently offers nesting habitat suitable for both species. Elsewhere in the Region, Louisiana Waterthrushes have been documented in fioodplain forest along the Rum River in Isanti County
in the Region that only one, the mixed hardwood seepage swamp, is described here.
Mixed Hardwood Swamp Mixed hardwood swamps are forested wetlands growing on muck or on firm, shallow peat. The canopy is made up of a variable mixture of tree species; red maple, black ash, and paper birch are the most common in this Region. In addition to these species, swamps in Anoka, Isanti, Chisago, and northern Washington counties sometimes contain tamarack and yellow birch, especially when they border tamarack swamps. The size and density of the trees in the Region's mixed hardwood swamps vary considerably. On firm peat near
uplands or in swamps where drainageways reduce the chance of prolonged flooding, some trees grow to be quite large— especially black ash and yellow birch, which can exceed 12 inches in diameter. The tree canopy cover in these swamps may be as high as 80 or 90%. Examples of mixed hardwood swamps with large trees occur on the St. Croix River terraces in Wild River State Park in Chisago County (see site 13). In relatively wet swamps, such as those near the lakes around Centerville in eastern Anoka County, the tree canopy cover may be as low as 30%, with trees reaching diameters of only 4 to 8 inches before they are killed or weakened by the high water levels. Such swamps often have many dead and fallen trees and grade into shrub swamps. The most common shrub species in many mixed hardwood swamps in the Region is speckled alder, especially
Hardwood Swamps
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where the canopy trees are young or sparse. In swamps on firm peat, the shrub layer is often diverse, containing species such as winterberry, high-bush cranberry, wild black currant, swamp red currant, poison sumac, and red-osier dogwood. In relatively wet swamps with an understory of speckled alder, the herbaceous plants tend to be widespread species that are common to nutrient-rich wetlands across Minnesota. These include blue-joint, lake sedge, fowl meadowgrass, rice cut-grass, northern marsh fern, spotted touchme-not, and red-stemmed aster. Swamps with older trees tend to have more diverse ground layers because of the presence of several different microhabitats such as cool, shady patches, mossy hummocks around tree bases, old logs and stumps, wet pools, and small upland rises. Some less common species found in these swamps are wild calla, nodding trillium, royal fern, yellow lady's-slipper, and mountain fly-honeysuckle. Halberd-leaved tearthumb, a species related to the smartweeds, is fairly common in the Region's mixed hardwood swamps, although it is rare elsewhere in Minnesota. Mixed Hardwood Seepage Swamp
The most distinctive and diverse mixed hardwood swamps in the Region are in areas of groundwater seepage in the St. Croix River Valley in Chisago and Washington counties. Good examples occur west of Goose Creek in the northern part of Wild River State Park (see site 13). These seepage areas develop where steep sandy and gravelly slopes merge with level or gendy sloping river or stream terraces. Groundwater percolating through the uplands seeps out over the level terrace at the base of the slope, saturates the ground, and collects in pools and rivulets. The trees and shrubs that grow in these seepage areas are species that also occur in black ash and mixed hardwood swamps in the Region. The ground layer can be exceptionally diverse. Plants growing in wet seepage areas include skunk cabbage, angelica, golden saxifrage, and the rare plants bog bluegrass and American water-pennywort. Adding to the diversity are plants of the mesic upland forests, such as
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bloodroot and false rue-anemone, which occur on slopes or hummocks.
Black Ash Swamp Black ash swamps are very similar to mixed hardwood swamps in the Region except that, by definition, more than half of the tree canopy is composed of black ash. Black ash swamps were probably not abundant in the Region at the time of settlement. They occurred primarily on the Grantsburg sublobe till plain in northern Isanti and northern Chisago counties (see map 3). Other black ash swamps were present in areas of groundwater seepage on the St. Croix River terraces in Chisago and Washington counties. At present, the Region has fewer than 20 black ash swamps that are larger than 10 acres. The largest and best examples occur near the St. Croix River, such as at William O'Brien State Park in Washington County (see site 35). Most of the black ash trees in the canopies of these swamps are young or slender. Large trees are rare because they have been toppled by wind, suppressed in growth because of flooding, or removed by cutting. A few of the swamps in Chengwatana State Forest and Wild River State Park (see sites 9 and 13) have escaped recent disturbance and have black ash trees more than 60 feet tall and 16 inches in diameter. The density of the subcanopy trees and shrubs varies with the amount of light that filters through the canopy. Herbaceous plants such as cinnamon fern, interrupted fern, and ostrich fern are sometimes locally abundant. Where ferns or woody plants are not dense, small plants such as starflower, naked bishop's-cap, and the sedge Carex leptalea are often present on mossy hummocks around the base of trees. Black ash swamps that occur in groundwater seepage areas contain most of the same plants as mixed hardwood seepage swamps (fig. 12.3). Black ash seepage swamps are recognized by the presence of the characteristic species skunk cabbage, the sedge C. bromoides, bog bluegrass, and American water-pennywort.
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Mixed Hardwood Swamp Fact Sheet
Fig. 12.2 A typical mixed hardwood swamp in Lyndon Cedarglade Park in southwestern Isanti County. Wet pools such as that in the foreground often form along the edges of upland rises bordering hardwood swamps. The major tree species in the community—red maple, black ash, and paper birch—do not often grow large because they have shallow roots and are easily toppled during storms.
Status: 4
Structure A wetland forest with variable canopy cover (30 to 90%) dominated by broad-leaved trees ranging from 15 to more than 50 feet in height; tamarack or white pine sometimes present; the canopy is often ragged, composed of trees ol different heights; subcanopy indistinct, composed of saplings and tall shrubs. The shrub layer is dense where trees are sparse; in shadier, betterdrained swamps, shrubs are sparse and the ground layer is dominated by ferns, graminoids, and forbs; lake sedge prevalent in wetter swamps or along flowaees. Other characteristics Frequent canopy gaps and tip-ups from windthrow of individual trees, or larger
openings created by beaver activity; old swamps with large trees occur near uplands or where flooding or windthrow damage has been infrequent.
stream channels, at the bottom of wet ravines, and in areas of groundwater seepage. Present distribution Similar to historic distribution; swamps
Soils and substrate Occurs on poorly drained muck and shallow peat, often with raised, woody hummocks around tree bases; standing water present in pools and small channels, especially in the spring; soils are continuously saturated, or nearly so, in normal years.
with large-diameter trees (greater than 16 inches] mostly gone; major losses as a result of grazing during drought years and Dutch elm disease.
Historic distribution Near the upland margins of shallow wet-
Common plant species —Canopy Red maple (Acer rubrurn)
land basins and on level terrain along streams and rivers on the Anoka sandplain and Grantsburg sublobe till plain; also in St. Croix and Mississippi river bottomlands along backwater channels, in abandoned
Hardwood Swamps
Existing acreage: 7,190 Number of known locations: 280
Paper birch (Betula papyrifera) Tamarack (lam laricina) Slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) Black ash (Fraxinus nigra)
HOH
Mixed Hardwood Swamp Fact Sheet (com.)
Characteristic animal species None Rare animal species Red-shouldered hawk (Suteo lineatus) Louisiana waterthrush (Seiurus motacilla) Disturbance indicators and threats
—Shrub layer Winterberry (Ilex verticillata) Poison sumac (Rhus vernix) Speckled aider (Alnus incana subsp. rugosaj Red raspberry (Rubus strigosus) Red oak (Quercus rubra) —Ground layer FORBS Spotted touch-me-not (Irnpatiens capensis) Lady (ern (Athyrium angustum) Cinnamon fern (Osmunda cinnamomea) Canada mayflower (Maianlhemum canadense} Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum) Sweet-scented bedstraw IGalium triflorum) Sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis) Dwarf raspberry (Rubus pubescens) Starflower (Trientalis boreatis) Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus inserta) Wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis) Smaller enchanter's nightshade (Circaea alpina) GRAMINOIDS
Animals of mixed hardwood swamps Animals of mixed hardwood swamps are similar to those of lowland hardwood and
Evidence of past grazing, such as loss of native herbs and an abundance of reed canary-grass. Threats include disturbances that expose the substrate and allow aggressive plants such as alder buckthorn, common buckthorn, and stinging nettle to displace native species; loss of American elm from disease; nutrient-rich runoff from farms, Storrn sewers, water treatment
floodplain forests. The amount of canopy closure in this community, which varies from 30 to 90%, has a strong influence on the animal species present.
plants, and ditches that drain other wetlands; hydrologic alterations caused by road, power line, and pipeline construction; creation of impoundments for open-water
Common animal species —Breeding birds Eastern wood-pewee (Contopus virens! Great crested flycatcher (Myiarchus
habitat.
Halberd-leaved tearthumb (Polygonum a ri folium)
crinitus) Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) Black-capped chickadee (Parus atricapillus) White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis) Yellow-throated vireo (Vireo flavilrons) Red-eyed vireo (V. olivaceus) American redstart (Setophaga ruticiHa)
Characteristic plant species Black ash (Fraxinus nigra) Poison sumac (Rhus vernix)
—Mammals Masked shrew ISorex cinereus! Northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) Southern red-backed vole (C/elhrionomys
Swamp saxifrage (Saxifraga pensylvanica) Cinnamon fern (Osmunda cinnamomea!
gapperi) Common raccoon (Piocyon lotor!
Fowl meadow-grass (Poa paiustris) Wood reedgrass (Cinna latifolia) Fowl manna-grass (Glyceria striata)
Naked bishop's-cap (Mitella nuda) A species of sedge (Carex stipata) Rare plant species Virginia bartonia (Bartonia virginica) Water willow (Decodon verticellatus) American water-pennywprt (Hydrocotyle americana) Bog bluegrass (Poa paludigena)
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Ermine (Mustela erminea) —Amphibians and reptiles Blue-spotted salamander (Ambystoma late rale) American toad (Bufo americartus) Spring peeper (Psuedacris crucifer) Eastern gray treefrag (Hyla versicolor) Wood frog (Rana sylvatica)
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Associated natural communities Black ash swamp, seepage hardwood swamp, lowland hardwood forest, floodplain forest, alder swamp, wet meadow, mixed emergent marsh, tamarack swamp, and poor fen.
Examples 1. Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area 7, Martin-lsland-Linwood Lakes Regional Park: Ltnwood Lake 13. Wild River State Park: Goose Creek Natural Area 14. Wild River State Park; Sunrise Landing East 15. Lyndon Cedarglade Park
Mixed Hardwood Seepage Swamp Fact Sheet patches of skunk cabbage, Otherwise a highly diverse cover of wetland graminoids and forbs. Other characteristics Key feature is groundwater seepage emanating from base of slopes; frequent canopy gaps along seepage streams and from gradual toppling of individual trees on saturated soil; very high diversity of plant species because of varied microhabitats such as gravelly or sandy brooks, peat-filled channels, and fallen logs.
Soils and substrate Occurs on continuously saturated mineral soil, muck, or shallow peat that is gently to obviously sloping; cold, flowing groundwater present in pools, rivulets, or small, swift streams; peat accumulation may be more than 3 feet thick near origin of seep; portions of stream channels may have a sandy or cobbly bottom. Historic distribution Limited to locations where groundwater seeps from the sides or base of valley walls; in the St. Croix River Valley and possibly at the margins of the Grantsburg sublobe till plain or the St. Croix moraine. Present distribution Similar to historic distribution; losses and changes caused by gravel mining, grazing, and road development along the St. Croix River. Existing acreage: 390 Number of known locations: 14 Fig. 12.3 A seepage area in a mixed hardwood seepage swamp along the St. Croix
Common plant species
River in Chisago County. In this part of Minnesota, skunk cabbage (the broad-leaved
—Canopy
plant in the foreground! is a good indicator of areas where seeping groundwater keeps
Red rnaple (Acer rubrum)
the soil surface continually wet
Tamarack (Larix iaricina) Black ash (Fraxinus nigra) Yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis)
Status: 3 Structure A wetland forest with a patchy to interrupted canopy (30 to 90% cover) domi-
nated by broad-leaved trees 30 to 60 feet
Slippery elm (Ulmus rubra)
high; subcanopy patchy (20 to 70% cover), composed of saplings, tall shrubs, and low
—Shrub layer
shrubs that do not form distinct layers;
Winterberry (Ilex verticillata)
ground layer sometimes dominated by large
Poison sumac (Rhus vernix)
Hardwood Swamps
f> 031
Mixed Hardwood Seepage Swamp Fact Sheet (com.)
Speckled alder (Alnus incaria subs p. rugosa) —Ground layer FORBS Spotted touch-me-not (Impatierts capensis) Lady fern (Athyrium angustum) Cinnamon (ern (Qsmunda cinnamomea) Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense) Jack-in-the-pulpit (Ansaema triphyllum) Sweet-scented bedstraw (Gatium triflorum) Sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis) Dwarf raspberry (Rubus pubescens) Starf lower (Trientalis boreal is) Smaller enchanter's nightshade (Circaea alpina)
Common animal species —Breeding birds Eastern wood-pewee (Contopus vlrens) Great crested flycatcher (Myiarchus
crinltus) Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) Black-capped chickadee (Parus atricapillus) White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carol inensis) Yellow-throated vireo (Vireo f/avifrons) Red-eyed vireo (V. olivaceus) American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla)
GRAMINOIDS Fowl meadow-grass
•—Mammals Masked shrew fSorex cinereus) Northern short-tailed shrew (Btarina brevicauda)
Characteristic plant species
White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) Southern red-backed vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) Common raccoon (Procyon lotor)
Skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus) A species of sedge (Carex bmmoides) American water-pennywort (Hydmcotyle americana) Bog bluegrass (Poa paludigena) Tall scouring-rush (Equisetum hyemale) Golden saxifrage (Chrysosplenium americanum) Rare plant species False mermaid (F/o&rkea proserpiriacoides) American water-penny wort (Hydmcotyle americana) Bog bluegrass (Poa paludigena) Halberd-leaved tearthumb (Polygonum ari folium) Animals of mixed hardwood seepage swamps Animals of this community are indistinguishable from those of mixed hardwood swamps.
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Ermine IMustela erminea) —Amphibians and reptiles Blue-spotted salamander (Ambystoma laterals) American toad (Bufo americanus) Spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer) Eastern gray treefrag (Hyla versicolor) Wood frog (Rana sylvatica) Characteristic animal species None Rare animal species Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus) Louisiana waterthrush (Seiurus motaci/la) Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of past cutting or grazing, such as stumps, an abundance of reed canary-
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grass, forget-me-not, redtop, or stinging nettle, and low plant species diversity. Threats include nutrient-rich runoff from farms; excess runoff and sedimentation from culverts, road surfaces, storm sewers, and farms; fragmentation and hydrologic alterations from road construction and other development. Associated natural communities Mixed hardwood swamp, lowland hardwood forest, ma pie-bass wood forest, floodplain forest, seepage meadow, and alder swamp.
Examples ll.Osceola Landing (north of Osceola bridge) 12. Osceola Landing (south of Osceola bridge) 13. Wild River State Park: Goose Creek Natural Area
Black Ash Swamp Fact Sheet
Fig. 12.4 This small but delightful black ash seepage swamp is in William O'Brien State Park in Washington County, just north of the park road that leads to the Lake Alice picnic area near the St. Croix River. The swamp is fed by cold seepage springs that emanate from the terrace slopes. Several rare plants grow on mossy hummocks on peat. Seepage swamps such as this occur in the Region only near the St. Croix River.
Status: 4 Structure A wetland (ores! dominated by black ash with canopy cover ranging from 30 to 90% and canopy height ranging from 40 to over 60 feet; trees shallow-rooted; subcanopy sparse; shrub layer is sparse to patchy, mostly present in canopy gaps; ground layer often dominated by large patches ol terns or skunk cabbage, with a great variety ot smaller forbs and grarnmoids on mossy hummocks, on old logs, or beside wet pools. Other characteristics Presence of groundwater seepage sometimes indicated by small flowages, skunk
cabbage, and location of swamp at the base of a steep slope.
Croix moraine in Washington County and northwestern Anoka County.
Soils and substrate Occurs on poorly drained muck and shallow peat, often with raised areas around tree bases; standing water present in pools and small channels, especially in the spring; soils continuously saturated in areas of groundwater seepage.
Present distribution Similar to historic distribution but now rare because of cutting of large black ash and yellow birch trees.
Historic distribution
Common plant species —Canopy
Probably of limited extent; best expressed in zones of groundwaier seepage at the base of terrace slopes in the St. Croix River Valley; occasionally at wetland margins on the Grantsburg sublobe till plain in northern
Existing acreage: 490 Number of known locations: 13
Black ash (Fraxinus nigra) Red maple (Acer rubrum) Yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) Paper birch (B. papyrifera)
Isanti and Chisago counties; rare on the St. Hardwood Swamps
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Black Ash Swamp Fact Sheet (com.)
Slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) Tamarack (Larix laricina) —Shrub layer Winterberry (Ilex verticitlata) Poison sumac (Rhus vernix) Speckled alder (A!nus incana subsp. rugosa) —Ground layer FORBS Sported touch-me-not (Impatiens capensis! Lacly fern (Athyrium angustum) Cinnamon fern (Qsmunda cinnamomea) Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense) Jack-in-the-pulpil (Arisaema triphyllum) Sweet-scented bedstraw (Galium triflorum) Sensitive fern (Qnociea sensibi/is) Dwarf raspberry (Rubus pubescens) Start lower (Trientalis boreal is) Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus inserta) Wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis) Smaller enchanter's nightshade (Circaea alpina) GFtAMINOIDS Fowl meadow-grass (Poa palustris) Wood reedgrass (Cinna latifo/ial Fowl manna-grass (Glyceria striata) Characteristic plant species Black ash (Fraxmus nigra) Poison sumac (Rhus vernix) Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyilum) Dwarf raspberry (Rubus pubescens) Blue-bead lily (Clintonia borealis) Cinnamon fern (Osmunds cinnamomea) Naked bishop's-cap (Mitella nuda) Rare plant species American water-pennywort (Hydrocotyle arnericana) Bog bluegrass (Poa paludigeria) Halberd-leaved tearthumb (Potygonum arifolium) Animals of black ash swamps The animals of black ash swamps are closely similar to those of mixed hardwood swamps and lowland hardwood forests.
A/067
Common animal species —Breeding bints Eastern wood-pewee (Contopus virens) Great crested flycatcher (Myiarchus crinitus) Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) Black-capped chickadee (Parus atricapillus) White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta camlinensis) Yellow-throated vireo (Vireo f/avifronsl Red-eyed yireo (V. olivaceus) American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla) —Mammals Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) Southern red-backed vole (Ctethrionomys gapperi) Common raccoon (Procyon lotor) Ermine (Mustela ermines) —Amphibians and reptiles Blue-spotted salamander (Ambystoma late rale) American toad (Bufo americanus) Spring peeper (Psuedacris crucifer) Eastern gray treefrog (Hyla versicolor! Wood frog (Rana sylvatica) Characteristic animal species None Rare animal species Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo /ineatus) Louisiana waterthrush (Seiurus motacilla)
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Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of cutting or grazing, such as slumps, low plant species diversity, or an abundance of aggressive plants such as reed canary-grass, alder buckthorn, common buckthorn, and stinging nettle. Threats include nutrient-rich runoff from farms, storm sewers, and ditches that drain other wetlands; fragmentation and hydrologic alterations from road, power line, and pipeline construction. Associated natural communities Mixed hardwood swamp, mixed hardwood seepage swamp, black ash seepage swamp, seepage meadow, lowland hardwood forest, floodplain forest, alder swamp, wet meadow, and tamarack swarnp.
Examples 9. Chengwatana State Forest: Stevens Creek Landing 13. Wild River State Park: Goose Creek Natural Area 35. William O'Brien State Park
13. Conifer Swamps Conifer swamps are forested wetland communities that develop on organic soils in shallow basins and are dominated by tamarack, black spruce, or white cedar. In Minnesota, conifer swamps occur mainly in the conifer-hardwood forest zone (see the map on page 3). In the mid-1800s, tamarack swamps were common in the Region, but black spruce swamps and white cedar swamps were rare, reaching the very southern limit of their range in Minnesota here. Since settlement, the Region's conifer swamps have been altered to varying degrees by logging, draining, flooding, invasion by nonnative plants, and nutrient inputs from farms and surrounding developed land. Because of human activities, only about 4,800 acres of native conifer swamps remain in the Region, or about a tenth of the presettlement acreage.
Tamarack swamps and white cedar swamps are described in detail in this chapter, but a separate description of black spruce swamps is not given. Black spruce swamps occur in the Region only at a few locations in Isanti County and southeast of Rush Lake in northern Chisago County. At most of these locations, the community has the same composition as sphagnum tamarack swamps, apart from the presence of black spruce in the canopy or subcanopy.
Tamarack Swamp Tamarack swamps are common in the northern peatlands of North America and in Minnesota reach their southern limit in the St. Croix River Valley—Anoka Sandplain Region except for a few swamps to the south in Rice County. From
Fig. 13.1 Many plants typical ojswamps muchjarther north in Minnesota, including Labrador tea and creeping snowberry, are present in this sphagnum tamarack swamp in northern Isanti County.
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a distance, the Region's tamarack swamps look alike, with feathery tamarack trees growing above ferns and sedges. However, there are actually three subtypes of tamarack swamps in the Region: sphagnum tamarack swamps, in which the trees grow over a hummocky carpet of sphagnum mosses; minerotrophic tamarack swamps, which occur on mucky soils and contain a fairly diverse array of plant species; and seepage tamarack swamps, which occur in areas of groundwater seepage and are extremely rare. At the time of Euro-American settlement, tamarack swamps were common on the Anoka sandplain and the Grantsburg sublobe till plain (see map 1). A General Land Office surveyor on the Anoka sandplain in Anoka County described West St. Francis Township as "thickly interspersed with small ponds and marshes and numerous Tamarac swamps." Tamarack swamps were also present in a few places on the St. Croix River terraces and the St. Croix moraine, especially where they adjoined the Anoka sandplain and the Grantsburg sublobe till plain (see map 3). Tamarack swamps occurred in large wetland areas, in small shallow basins, in broad lowlands along sluggish streams, and along lake margins. In general, they developed in areas with organic, peat soils, as tamaracks are better adapted to saturated, sometimes acidic and nutrient-poor conditions than are other deciduous wetland trees. Minerotrophic tamarack swamps tended to develop in wetlands on highly decomposed, black peat called muck, while sphagnum tamarack swamps developed on fibrous peat formed of less decomposed plant material. About 15 small (12 acres or less) sphagnum tamarack swamps remain in the Region in southern and north-central Isanti County, plus a few larger ones in northwestern Chisago County. Minerotrophic tamarack swamps are fairly common, although many of them have been altered over the past 150 years of settlement. There is one known seepage tamarack swamp, near the St. Croix River in Washington County. Sphagnum Tamarack Swamp
Sphagnum tamarack swamps in the Region, like those to the north, are composed of tamarack trees (or, rarely here, tamarack with black spruce) growing on a hummocky surface dominated by sphagnum mosses. The sphagnum peat at the surface is continually wet, poor in available nutri-
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ents, and acidic. Few vascular plants can tolerate these inhospitable conditions. Consequently, this community is made up of only a small number of plants that are adapted to the harsh environment, such as leatherleaf, Labrador tea, bog-rosemary, and bog-laurel. These plants are common in the peatlands of northern Minnesota and reach the southern limit of their range in the Region (fig. 13.1). Although tamarack and black spruce tolerate growing on sphagnum peat, they sometimes are present only as small, stunted trees. Trees over 50 years old in tamarack swamps may be just 10 or 15 feet tall and 3 or 4 inches in diameter. In general, the trees increase in size and density near the edges of the swamp, where there are more nutrients because of runoff from surrounding uplands. Toward the center of the swamp, the trees become progressively smaller and more widely spaced. Red maple and paper birch are sometimes present as seedlings, but they rarely mature. Deciduous shrubs that grow in these swamps are bog birch, speckled alder, and mountain holly, usually just in small numbers. More characteristic are the low shrubs or trailing stems of plants in the heath family Of these, leatherleaf is usually most abundant in openings, while Labrador tea is most abundant in shady areas. Other heath plants that occur here are blueberry, small and large cranberry, bogrosemary, bog-laurel, creeping snowberry, and velvet-leaved blueberry. The ground layer in the community is dominated by several species of sphagnum moss. Some species form dense hummocks on which trees and shrubs grow, whereas others form low carpets in wet "hollows" (the areas between hummocks). Starflower, pitcher-plant, and cranberries grow on sphagnum hummocks; buckbean, three-leaved false Solomon's-seal, tawny cotton-grass, and a sparse cover of narrow-leaved sedges such as wiregrass and Carex oligosperma occur in the hollows. Minerotrophic Tamarack Swamp
Minerotrophic tamarack swamps are the most common tamarack swamps in the Region. Compared to sphagnum tamarack swamps, they are relatively rich in nutrients and have neutral to mildly acidic surface water. Minerotrophic tamarack swamps vary in composition across the Region. Some have a dense canopy of slender tamaracks with few other trees. Others have a canopy of
Chapter 13
tamaracks mixed with broad-leaved trees such as paper birch, red maple, and slippery elm. In Anoka and Isanti counties, white pines sometimes occur with the tamaracks as, for example, along the public hiking trail just south of Coon Lake. The shrub layer in the community ranges from sparse to dense. The most abundant shrubs are high-bush crano berry, winterberry, bog birch, speckled alder, mountain holly, swamp red currant, and willows. The shrub poison sumac occurs in Minnesota almost exclusively on the Anoka sandplain and is sometimes irritatingly common in minerotrophic tamarack swamps. The ground layer in these swamps is often diverse. Small herbs such as starflower, naked bishop's-cap, and one-sided pyrola grow on tree bases and mossy logs, while marshmarigolds are common in pools. Showy lady's-slippers are present in some of the Region's minero trophic tamarack swamps. Seepage Tamarack Swamp
Seepage tamarack swamps are known to occur in Minnesota at only one or two locations, including one on a terrace of the St. Croix River in Washington County at the Science Museum of Minnesota field station just south of Marine on St. Croix. Cold groundwater seeping from the base of a slope onto the level river terrace at this spot has for centuries maintained conditions suitable for the accumulation of peat. The peat is now many feet thick in places and supports patches of tamaracks mixed with paper birch and slippery elm. The understory of the swamp is a diverse assortment of shrubs, forbs, and graminoids of various heights. The rare bog bluegrass, a slender plant only 6 or 10 inches tall, grows at the edge of wet pools.
White Cedar Swamp White cedar swamps are rare in the Region; they occur at only two known locations. One of these examples, in northwestern Anoka County, covers only 2 or 3 acres and is somewhat disturbed. The other example is surprisingly large for a cedar swamp this far south. It occurs on property of the University of Minnesota on the border between Anoka and Isanti counties at Cedar Creek Natural History Area. There is also a small stand of white cedar trees in a mixed
Fig. 1 3.2
A smal' pi < / in ,/ vhitc c i t / . i r »amp. Much of the species
diversity in forested swamps is related to the presence oj diverse microhabitats, such as pools of water, mossv hummocks formed by tree roots or fallen trees, and small upland knolls.
hardwood swamp in Chengwatana State Forest in extreme northeastern Chisago County (see site 9), although it is not large enough to form a distinct community. The canopy of the swamp at Cedar Creek Natural History Area ranges from dense to patchy. Areas with the greatest diversity of plant species have an interrupted canopy composed mostly of white cedar trees, with a few yellow birch and black ash. The understory is generally open, with speckled alder and poison sumac common in canopy gaps. The ground layer is dominated by ferns in some places and by lush hummocks and mats of mosses and leafy liverworts in others.
Conifer Swamps
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Sphagnum Tamarack Swamp Fact Sheet growing, broad-leaved semi evergreen shrubs form a patchy cover over a ground layer of nearly continuous sphagnum mosses; sedge and forb species sparse; open-water pools and channels rare. Soils and substrate Occurs on woody peat or sphagnum peat, or on thin sphagnum over sedge peat; water table is at or just below the peat surface throughout the growing season. Historic distribution In ice block basins and other wetland depressions primarily on the Anoka sandplain and Grantsburg sublobe till plain in Isanti, Chisago, and northern Anoka counties; uncommon on the St. Croix moraine. Present distribution Probably much reduced in extent because of major losses from draining or heavy cutting; apparently has survived better in basins with deep peat that remain saturated during drought years. Existing acreage: 442 Number of known locations: 18 Common plant species —Canopy Tamarack (Larix iaricina) Paper birch (Betula papynfera) Red rnaple (Acer rubrum)
Fig. 13.3 The southernmost sphagnum tamarack swamp in Minnesota is in northern Washington County in an ice block depression on the St. Croix moraine. This and other sphagnum tamarack swamps in Anoka, Isanti, and Chisago counties have a nearly continuous layer of sphagnum moss and also many species at their southern range limit in Minnesota, such as the cotton-grass shown here.
Status: 4 Structure A forested welland community with a patchy to interrupted canopy dominated by
JIIOJ
tamaracks; tamaracks often 15 to 35 feet in height, rarely over 50 (eet; broad-leaved trees uncommon or absent in canopy. Tall deciduous shrubs primarily in peripheral zones, either sparse or common; lowChapter 13
—Shrub layer Speckled alder (Alnus incana subsp. rugosa) Bog birch (Betula glandulifera) Mountain holly (Nemopanthus mucronatus) —Ground layer WOODY SPECIES Leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata) Blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) Large cranberry (V. macrocarpon) Small cranberry (V. oxycoccus) FORBS Beggar-ticks (Bidens spp.) Buckbean (Menyanthes trifoliata)
Sphagnum Tamarack Swamp Fact Sheet (cont.) Cinnamon fern (Osmunds cinnamomea) Northern marsh fern (Thelypteris palustris) Tufted loosestrife (Lysimachia thyrsiflora) Marsh cinquefoil (Potentilla palustris) Starflower (Trientalis borealis) GRAMINOIDS Three-way sedge (Dulichium arundinaceum) Wiregrass (Carex lasiocarpa) Tawny cotton-grass (Eriophorum virginicum) Broad-leaved cattail (Typha latifolia)
ated with the surrounding upland forest communities. However, a few northerly distributed species, such as the northern waterthrush and pygmy shrew, extend their range southward into these conifer swamp communities. The presence of open water makes this habitat attractive as overwintering sites for amphibians and turtles. Common animal species —Breeding birds Black-capped chickadee (Parus atricapillus) Veery (Catharus fuscescens) Red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus) Nashville warbler (Vermivora ruficapilla)
Disturbance and threats Evidence of cutting, such as stumps and winter logging trails. Threats include ditching and draining; dredging to create open-water ponds; permanent flooding; sedimentation and nutrient-rich runoff from farms, lawns, and storm sewers; invasion by the nonnative plant alder buckthorn; clearing and crushing of vegetation along snowmobile trails. Associated natural communities Poor fen, minerotrophic tamarack swamp, alder swamp, mixed hardwood swamp, wet meadow, and mixed emergent marsh.
Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas) —Mammals Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina Snapping turtle Characteristic plant species Small cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus) Tussock cotton-grass (Eriophorum spissum) Sphagnum mosses (Sphagnum spp.) Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum) A species of sedge (Carex trisperma) Bog-rosemary (Andromeda glaucophylla) Pitcher-plant (Sarracenia purpurea)
brevicauda) Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) Southern red-backed vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) —Amphibians and reptiles American toad (Bufo americanus) Wood frog (Rana sylvatica)
Examples 1. Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area
Characteristic animal species Rare plant species Dragon's-mouth (Arethusa bulbosa) Waterwillow (Decodon verticillatus) Club-spur orchid (Platanthera clavellata) Animals of sphagnum tamarack swamps This community and other conifer swamp types are habitats that are more typical in northern Minnesota. Local examples are generally small, isolated tracts that contain many animal species more closely associ-
White-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis) Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) Southern bog lemming (Synaptomys cooperi) Rare animal species Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) Bog copper (Epidemia epixanthe)
Conifer Swamps
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Minerotrophic Tamarack Swamp Fact Sheet
Fig. 13.4
Minerotrophic tamarack swamps frequently grade into alder swamps or mixed hardwood swamps. This swamp in south-
western Isanti County is a typical example, with slender tamarack trees (background) as well as paper birch and slippery elm (foreground).
Status: 4 Structure A forested wetland community with a
appear to replace tamarack on disturbed
River Valley, especially east of Harris and
sites.
North Branch in Chisago County.
Soils and substrate
Present distribution
patchy or interrupted canopy dominated by
Occurs on highly decomposed organic soils
Much reduced in extent, especially in the
tamarack trees, often with smaller amounts
(muck); also on sedge peat, woody peat, or
southern half of the Region and in the
of broad-leaved trees (total canopy cover
sphagnum peat; occasionally on organicrich mineral soil; poorly drained; water
Harris-North Branch area; early post-
30 to 75%). Tree saplings and shrubs are sometimes abundant in canopy gaps; the
table is at or just below the ground surface
settlement losses caused by widespread draining, cutting of tamarack for fence
ground layer is a mixture of sedges, ferns,
throughout the growing season.
posts, and conversion to hay meadows;
forbs, grasses, and patches of mosses on hummocks; open-water pools or mucky channels are common.
Historic distribution Common in Anoka, Isanti, Chisago, and
later losses caused by impoundments. Existing acreage: 3,600
Washington counties and between Elk River and Zimmerman in Sherburne County; on
Number of known locations: 180
—Canopy
sometimes reestablish soon after distur-
the Anoka sandplain and Grantsburg sublobe till plain in shallow basins or in broad lowlands along slow streams; smaller
bance such as cutting, otherwise alder
occurrences on the St. Croix moraine; on
Paper birch (Betula papyrifera)
swamps or mixed hardwood swamps
poorly drained lowlands of the St. Croix
Other characteristics Canopy gaps from windthrow, flooding, and larch sawfly infestations; tamarack swamps
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Chapter 13
Common plant species Tamarack (Larix laricina)
Minerotrophic Tamarack Swamp Fact Sheet (cont.) —Shrub layer Speckled alder (Alnus incana subsp. rugosa) Bog birch (Betula glandulifera) Red-osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera) Poison sumac (Rhus vernix) Winterberry (Ilex verticillata) Swamp gooseberry (Ribes hirtellum) Red raspberry (Rubus strigosus) —Ground layer FORBS
Dwarf raspberry (Rubus pubescens) Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense) Northern marsh fern (Thelypteris palustris) Starf lower (Trien tali's bo real is) Marsh-marigold (Caltha palustris) Cinnamon fern (Osmunda cinnamomea) Mad-dog skullcap (Scutellaria later/flora) Wild grape (Vitis riparia) Joe-pye weed (Eupatorium maculatum) Spotted touch-me-not (Impatiens capensis) Tufted loosestrife (Lysimachia thyrsiflora) GRAMINOIDS Blue-joint (Calamagrostis canadensis) A species of sedge (Carex leptalea) Fowl meadow-grass (Poa palustris) Characteristic plant species Tamarack (Larix laricina) Poison sumac (Rhus vernix) Swamp gooseberry (Ribes hirtellum) Winterberry (Ilex verticillata) Dwarf raspberry (Rubus pubescens) A species of sedge (Carex comosa) Crested fern (Dryopteris cristata) Mountain fly-honeysuckle (Lonicera villosa) Swamp saxifrage (Saxifraga pensylvanica) Buckbean (Menyanthes trifoliata) Naked bishop's-cap (Mitella nuda) Showy lady's-slipper (Cypripedium reginae) Stemless lady's-slipper (C. acaule) Rare plant species Waterwillow (Decodon verticillatus) Club-spur orchid (Platanthera clavellata) Halberd-leaved tearthumb (Polygonum arifolium)
Animals of minerotrophic tamarack swamps Animals associated with this community type closely resemble those found in sphagnum tamarack swamps (see discussion under that community type). The greater diversity of ground flora generally associated with minerotrophic swamps compared to sphagnum swamps provides additional cover and food and thus contributes to a greater diversity of small mammals. Common animal species —Breeding birds Black-capped chickadee (Parus atricapillus) Veery (Catharus fuscescens) Red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus) Nashville warbler (Vermivora ruficapilla) Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas) Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) —Mammals Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Arctic shrew (S. arcticus) Northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) Southern red-backed vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) Meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius)
Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) Southern bog lemming (Synaptomys cooperi) Rare animal species Bog copper (Epidemia epixanthe) Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of cutting, such as stumps and logging trails; evidence of past grazing or draining, such as an abundance of reed canary-grass and ditches (visible on aerial photographs). Threats include sedimentation and nutrient-rich runoff from farms, residential land, and storm sewers; deposition of dust and salts from cropland and roads; hydrologic changes caused by road construction and impoundments; dredging to create open-water ponds; invasion of alder buckthorn. Associated natural communities Alder swamp, mixed hardwood swamp, wet meadow, mixed emergent marsh, poor fen, rich fen, and sphagnum tamarack swamp. Example 15. Lyndon Cedarglade Park
—Amphibians and reptiles American toad (Bufo americanus) Wood frog (Rana sylvatica) Characteristic animal species White-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis)
Conifer Swamps
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White Cedar Swamp Fact Sheet
Fig. 13.5 A white cedar swamp in northern Anoka County at the University of Minnesota's Cedar Creek Natural History Area. The trees in cedar swamps often tip slowly to the ground, their trunks gracefully curving as the trees continue to grow upward. This is the southernmost example of the community in Minnesota, although a few white cedar trees occur naturally farther south.
Status: 4 Structure A forested wetland with an interrupted to continuous canopy of white cedar; trees often leaning or fallen; broad-leaved trees occasional in canopy. Deciduous shrub and herb cover sparse (under dense canopy) to patchy; plant diversity under patchy canopy can be very high (60 to 100 vascular plant species per 60 x 60 feet); occasional openwater pools and mucky channels. Soils and substrate Occurs on we 11-decomposed peat or organic-rich mineral soil; poorly drained; ground saturated throughout most of the growing season. Historic distribution Mainly northern Anoka county.
1114}
Present distribution Probably same as historic distribution, with some loss from cutting. Existing acreage: 443 Number of known locations: 2 Common plant species —Canopy White cedar (Thuja occidenta/is! Black ash (Fraxinus nigra) Yellow birch (Betula al/eghaniensis) Tamarack (Larix laricina) —Subcanopy Black ash (Fraxinus nigra) —Shrub layei Poison sumac (Rhus vernix) Speckled alder (Alnus incana subsp. rugosa)
Chapter 13
—Ground layer FORBS Starflower (Trientalis borealis) Naked bishop's-cap (Mitella nuda! Dwarf raspberry (Rubus pubescens) Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum) Northern marsh fern fThefypteris pa/ustris) Smaller enchanter's nightshade (Circaea alpina) Bunchberry (Cornus canadensis) Lady fern (Athyrium angustum! Northern violet (Viola macloskeyi) GRAMINQ1DS Fowl rnanna-grass (Glyceria striata) A species of sedge CCarex pedunculate) A species of sedge (C. graciiiirna) Characteristic plant species White cedar (Thuja occidental's)
White Cedar Swamp Fact Sheet (cont.) Rare plant species Dragon's-mouth (Arethusa bulbosa) Ram's-head lady's-slipper (Cypripedium arietinum) Club-spur orchid (Platanthera clavellata) Animals of white cedar swamps Few examples of this community exist in the Region. The animals found in them reflect the surrounding upland forest communities and also show affinities to animals of other conifer swamps. Common animal species
Disturbance indicators and threats
—Breeding birds
Evidence of cutting, such as stumps and
Black-capped chickadee (Parus
old trails. Threats include hydrologic alter-
atricapillus)
ations of the wetland basin; sedimentation
Veery (Catharus fuscescens)
and nutrient-rich runoff; invasion by the
Red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus)
aggressive shrub alder buckthorn.
Nashville warbler (Vermivora ruficapilla) Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas) —Mammals Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus)
Associated natural communities Mixed hardwood swamp, black ash swamp, sphagnum tamarack swamp, and minerotrophic tamarack swamp.
Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) Southern red-backed vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) —Amphibians and reptiles American toad (Bufo americanus) Wood frog (Rana sylvatica) Characteristic animal species Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) Ram's-head lady's-slipper
Rare animal species None
Conifer Swamps
Examples No publicly accessible examples.
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14. Shrub Swamps Shrub swamps are shallow wetland communities dominated by tall shrubs such as speckled alder, pussy willow, and red-osier dogwood. They tend to occur in wetlands that are too wet or frequently flooded for conifer or hardwood swamps to develop, yet they do not tolerate the deeper water that typically supports marsh communities. Shrub swamps sometimes originate after the tree canopy of a forested swamp has been destroyed, commonly by floodingo or windstorms. The historic distribution of shrub swamps in the Region is not entirely clear, because the General Land Office surveyors did not always distinguish them from wet meadow,
Fig. 14.1
An alder swamp just southeast of Green Lake in Isanti County. Scattered tamaracks, common in these swamps, stand out among the bare
stems of alders in thisJail photograph. [116]
marsh, fen, or forested swamp communities. However, shrub swamps appear to have been most common in shallow wetland basins and in broad wetlands along sluggish streams on the Anoka sandplain and Grantsburg sublobe till plain. At present, two types of shrub swamps occur in the Region, alder swamps and willow swamps. Alder swamps are common across the northern part of the Region and northward through the forested areas of Minnesota (fig. o o 14.1). Willow swamps in natural condition are not common in the Region at present but may have been more common here before Euro-American settlement. v
Willow and Alder Flycatchers llowflycatchersand alder flycatchers are small,
W
£rav'sh ireen b'rds that are indistinguishable except by their brief, rather unmusical songs. For many years these birds were thought to be a single species known as Train's flycatcher, but in recent years ornithologists have determined that they are actually two different species. Ornithologist T, S, Roberts (1932) wrote of "Train's" flycatcher, "If looked for in the right situations, it will be found fairly common throughout the southern part of the state, even in the bushy lowlands, and northward it becomes increasingly abundant until in the upper half of the state its harsh cry comes from every alder thicket and wooded swamp." Ornithologists now recognize that the willow flycatcher breeds in southern Minnesota, whereas the alder flycatcher nests in the northern half of the state, The ranges of the two species overlap in a narrow, east-west zone that cuts through the middle of the Region, Willow flycatchers breed in willow swamps and woody thickets near wetlands or streams in Minnesota's prairie and deciduous forest-woodland zones. Alder flycatchers typically occur in brushy wetlands in the conifer-hardwood forest zone, particularly in dense alder or willow swamps. Where their ranges overlap, both flycatchers may sometimes be heard at the same time. However, willow flycatchers seem to prefer drier areas and alder flycatchers somewhat wetter habitats (Zink and Fall 1981).
10 feet tall. Speckled alder forms at least half of the shrub cover. Slender willow, red-osier dogwood, poison sumac, and saplings of tamarack, red maple, paper birch, and black ash are sometimes also present. A few mature trees of these species are sometimes present among the shrubs. The ground layer in the Region's alder swamps is composed of wetland plants common to minerotrophic wetlands. A variety of graminoids grow thinly below the alders, including familiar species such as blue-joint, lake sedge, and tussock sedge. Familiar wetland forbs such as spotted touch-me-not, northern marsh fern, arrow-leaved tearthumb, dwarf raspberry, and royal fern are abundant in the late summer. The ground layer is most diverse in alder swamps where the substrate or ground surface varies. For example, raised, woody hummocks within the community are often inhabited by wide-ranging forbs such as Canada mayflower, northern white violet, and sensitive fern. Mucky channels and pools between the hummocks often contain marsh plants such as nodding beggar-ticks, maddog skullcap, and cattails. Patches of sphagnum moss are present in some of the alder swamps in the Region. The aggressive shrub alder buckthorn can become very dense in alder swamps and displace many of the native species.
Willow Swamp
Alder Swamp The alder swamps of the St. Croix River Valley—Anoka Sandplain Region are among the southernmost in Minnesota. Historically, they appear to have been most extensive in shallow wedands on the Anoka sandplain and the Grantsburg sublobe till plain (see map 3), particularly in Isanti and Anoka counties. Alder swamps are still common on the Grantsburg sublobe till plain in northern Isanti and Chisago counties. They are probably less common than before on the Anoka sandplain because of extensive draining of wetlands in central and southern Anoka County for cropland and pasture in the early 1900s (see the sidebar on ditching in chapter 4). Alder swamps occur in wetlands with muck or sedge peat substrates. Most of the alder swamps in the Region have a patchy to nearly continuous canopy of shrubs 6 to
Willow swamps are shrub wedands composed of a mixture of shrubs, including several species of willows, red-osier dogwood, speckled alder, and bog birch (fig. 14.2) They occur in shallow basins and moist depressions and along the edges of lakes, ponds, and streams. Historically, willow swamps were present in the Region primarily on the level terrain of the Anoka sandplain and the Grantsburg sublobe till plain (see map 3). Undisturbed willow swamps are now uncommon, mostly because many of the wetlands they occurred in were drained and converted to cropland or pastures, especially during the drought of the 1930s. Willow swamps are more similar in species composition to wet meadows and wet prairies than to alder swamps, the Region's other shrub swamp community. The shrub canopy of native willow swamps ranges from patchy to continuous. Quaking aspen and paper birch trees are sometimes present but never exceed 30% in total cover. The ground layer is dominated by graminoids characteristic of
Shrub Swamps
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wet meadows, usually blue-joint, lake sedge, and tussock sedge. Other ground layer plants are generally widespread species, such as northern marsh fern and spotted touchme-not. In fact, the only plants that tend to occur in the Region exclusively in these swamps are a few species of willow, including autumn willow and shining willow. Willow swamps that have recently invaded wet prairies or wet meadows (in the absence of fire) sometimes contain plants, such as swamp lousewort and turtlehead, that are typical of sunnier, more open habitats. Fig. 14.2 A willow swamp in autumn in southwestern Isanti County.
Many willow swamps have developed recently following disturbance. Wet meadow or emergent marsh communities that have been drained, mowed, cultivated, or pastured, and then left idle are often invaded by willows. These disturbed willow swamps are especially common in central Anoka County and northwestern Washington County They lack many of the ground layer plants characteristic of native willow swamps and instead often have a nearly continuous cover of the aggressive plant reed canary-grass below the willow canopy.
Alder Swamp Fact Sheet
Fig. 14.3 Alder swamps are present in many of the large wetlands in Anoka, Isanti, and Chisago counties. Organic material such as dead leaves and stems decomposes rapidly in the wet pools of the swamp, forming black, mucky soils that (along with densely growing alders) make it difficult to walk through alder swamps.
Status: 5 Structure A wetland community with a continuous to nearly continuous canopy of tall shrubs (6 to 10 feet) dominated by speckled alder; trees, if present, are sparse; shrub canopy often interrupted by wet pools orflowages; ground layer patchy, with clumps of sedges, grasses, cattails, and forbs in canopy gaps. Other characteristics Flooding caused by beaver dams can kill or set back alder growth, favoring wet meadow or emergent marsh; water-level drawdown in certain wetlands because of drought or draining appears to favor the spread of alders. Soils and substrate Commonly occurs on muck, sometimes on
shallow sedge or sphagnum peat; poorly drained; soil saturated for most of the growing season. Historic distribution In both large and small shallow wetland basins and along small streams primarily on the nearly level terrain of the Grantsburg sublobe till plain and the Anoka sandplain; occasional on the St. Croix moraine and Rosemount outwash plain; uncommon on the Mississippi River terraces. Present distribution Common in Isanti and Chisago counties; losses in south-central Anoka County because of extensive draining and in eastern Anoka County because of impoundments. Existing acreage: 6,000 or more
Shrub Swamps
Number of known locations: 150 Common plant species —Canopy Red maple (Acer rubrum) Tamarack (Larix laricina) —Shrub layer Speckled alder (Alnus incana subsp. rugosa) Red-osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera) Poison sumac (Rhus vernix) Bog birch (Betula glandulifera) Winterberry (Ilex verticillata) —Ground layer FORBS Spotted touch-me-not (Impatiens capensis) Northern marsh fern (Thelypteris palustris) Dwarf raspberry (Rubus pubescens) Red-stemmed aster (Aster puniceus) Marsh-marigold (Caltha palustris)
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Alder Swamp Fact Sheet (cont.) Crested fern (Dryopteris cristata) Royal fern (Osmunda regalis) Arrow-leaved tearthumb (Polygonum sagittatum) Sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis) Cinnamon fern (Osmunda cinnamomea) Clearweed (Pilea spp.) Great water dock (Rumex orbiculatus) Long-leaved chickweed (Stellaria longifolia) Northern white violet (Viola macloskeyi) GRAMINOIDS Blue-joint (Calamagrostis canadensis) A species of sedge (Carex leptalea) Fowl meadow-grass (Poa palustris) Characteristic plant species Speckled alder (Alnus incana subsp. rugosa) Rough bedstraw (Galium asprellum) Rare plant species Halberd-leaved tearthumb (Polygonum
Common animal species
Associated natural communities
—Breeding birds
Minerotrophic tamarack swamp, sphagnum
Alder flycatcher (Empidonax alnorum)
tamarack swamp, mixed hardwood swamp,
Yellow warbler (Dendroica petechia)
black ash swamp, willow swamp, poor fen,
Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas)
rich fen, wet meadow, mixed emergent
Swamp sparrow (Melospiza georgiana)
marsh, and cattail marsh.
—Mammals Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) Southern red-backed vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) Meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) Meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius) Ermine (Mustela erminea) —Amphibians and reptiles American toad (Bufo americanus) Spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer)
arifolium)
Chorus frog (P. triseriata) Northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) Wood frog (R. sylvatica) Characteristic animal species Alder flycatcher (Empidonax alnorum) Star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata)
Examples 15. Lyndon Cedarglade Park
Snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus)
16. Spectacle Lake Wildlife
Rare animal species Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) Wood turtle
Animals of alder swamps The animals of alder swamps include edge species or brushland-associated species attracted to this habitat by the dense shrub layer. Also, species that depend on wet soil
Wood turtle (Clemmys insculpta) Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of grazing, such as fences and trails. Threats include hydrologic alterations caused by ditches and draining; invasion by reed canary-grass, alder buckthorn, and purple loosestrife.
conditions may be found here. Turtles may be present when pools or streams are nearby. The character of the ground layer vegetation, especially the graminoid component, has a direct influence on which species are present.
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Management Area 28. Uncas Dunes Scientific and Natural Area
Willow Swamp Fact Sheet
Fig. 14.4 A willow swamp southwest of Little Stanchfield Lake in Isanti County. The dominant shrubs here are slender willows. This swamp probably succeeded from a rich fen.
Status: 4 Structure A wetland community with a continuous to nearly continuous canopy (70 to 100% cover) of tall shrubs (4 to 8 feet) dominated by willow species or red-osier dogwood; alder, if present, is less common than willows; trees, if present, are rare; the herbaceous ground layer is interrupted to continuous and contains a mixture of sedges, grasses, and forbs. Other characteristics Distinguished from shrubby wet meadows by having sparser and more dispersed graminoids and forbs occurring in and between tall willow clumps rather than in discrete openings as in meadows; develops from wet meadows, wet prairies, and rich fens in the absence of fire.
Soils and substrate Generally occurs on sedge peat; poorly drained; soil saturated for much of the growing season. Historic distribution In medium to small shallow basins and moist depressions and adjacent to ponds, marshes, and small streams; probably common on the Anoka sandplain, Grantsburg sublobe till plain, and St. Croix moraine; occasionally in backwater pools and abandoned channels on the Mississippi, St. Croix, and Rum river floodplains. Present distribution Extent of change unknown; major losses because of conversion to pasture, meadow hay, or cropland; many present-day willowdominated wetlands are highly disturbed, having grown up on drained wet meadows
Shrub Swamps
or marshes or on wetlands left idle after mowing or pasturing. Existing acreage: 850 Number of known locations: 39 Common plant species —Shrub layer Slender willow (Salix gracilis) Pussy willow (S. discolor) Bebb's willow (S. bebbiana) Speckled alder (Alnus incana subsp. rugosa) Red-osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera) Bog birch (Betula glandulifera) —Ground layer FORBS Northern marsh fern (Thelypteris palustris) Broad-leaved arrowhead (Sagittaria Ia ti foil a)
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Willow Swamp Fact Sheet (cont.) Marsh bellflower (Campanula aparinoides) Bulb-bearing water-hemlock (Cicuta bulbifera) Joe-pye weed (Eupatorium maculatum) Marsh cinquefoil (Potentilla palustris) Great water dock (Rumex orbiculatus)
Common animal species
Disturbance indicators and threats
Tufted loosestrife (Lysimachia thyrsiflora)
—Breeding birds Willow flycatcher (Empidonax traillii)
Evidence of past draining, grazing, or haying, such as ditches and other linear
GRAMINOIDS Blue-joint (Calamagrostis canadensis)
Sedge wren (Cistothorus platensis) Yellow warbler (Dendroica petechia)
features (visible on aerial photographs),
Lake sedge (Carex lacustris)
Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas) Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia)
Spotted touch-me-not (Impatiens capensis)
Tussock sedge (C. stricta)
Swamp sparrow (M. georgiana) Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus)
abundant reed canary-grass, old fence posts, or accentuation of sedge tussocks caused by compaction of the surrounding peat. Threats include artificial water level fluctuations caused by ditches, dams,
American goldfinch (Carduelis tristis)
roads, or storm water diversion; nutrientrich runoff and excess sedimentation;
—Mammals
invasion by alder buckthorn and purple
Arctic shrew (Sorex arcticus) Masked shrew (S. cinereus)
loosestrife. Associated natural communities
Northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda)
Wet meadow, mixed hardwood swamp, black ash swamp, alder swamp, rich fen,
Southern red-backed vole (Clethrionomys
aspen woodland, and wet prairie.
gapperi) Meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) Meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsoStanding's turtle
nius) Ermine (Mustela erminea) —Amphibians and reptiles
Characteristic plant species Autumn willow (Salix serissima) Shining willow fS. lucida) Heart-leaved willow fS. eriocephala) Rare plant species None
American toad (Bufo americanus) Spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer) Chorus frog (P. triseriata) Eastern gray treefrog (Hyla versicolor) Northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) Wood frog (R. sylvatica) Eastern garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis)
Animals of willow swamps Brushland species common in alder swamps may also be found in willow
Characteristic animal species
swamps because of their similar habitat
Rare animal species Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii)
structure. However, the graminoids typically associated with this habitat make it attrac-
None
tive to species generally associated with wet meadows and rich fens.
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Example 25. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: Mahnomen Trail and Blue Hill Trail
15. Emergent Marshes Emergent marshes are wetland communities dominated by herbaceous plants such as cattails, arrowhead, bulrushes, and sedges that stand above the water level (fig. 15.1). Emergent marshes usually develop in deeper water than wet meadow and fen communities and in most years, have standing water throughout the growing season. Most of the marsh plants root in mineral or mucky substrates at the bottom of the wetland, although cattails can form floating rafts composed of their buoyant rhizomes. The presettlement extent and species composition of emergent marsh communities in the Region are unclear because the General Land Office survey notes of the 1840s and 1850s did not distinguish emergent marshes from other wetland types. However, emergent marshes were fairly common across the Region in shallow wetland basins and in shallow water along the margins of lakes, ponds, and river backwaters. They were probably most numerous on the
Anoka sandplain and Grantsburg sublobe till plain, where these features were common. At present, two emergent marsh community types occur in the Region: mixed emergent marshes and the more common cattail marshes. Cattail marshes, which have low species diversity, have probably increased greatly in the Region at the expense of the more diverse mixed emergent marshes. This change is very likely related to human activities, such as nutrient-rich runoff from surroundingO farmland and urban land,7 increased sedimentation from the clearing of surrounding uplands, and artificial water level changes caused by drainage ditches and dikes.
Mixed Emergent Marsh Mixed emergent marsh is a heterogeneous community, broadly defined as any marsh in which cattails form less
Fig. 15.1 A mixed emergent marsh (foreground) along the edge of a clear, shallow, sand-bottomed lake on the Anoka sandplain.
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than half of the total plant cover. Mixed emergent marshes
Sandhill Cranes on the Anoka Sandplain
S
ndhill cranes are large, conspicuous birds that nest on the ground in shallow wetland habitats, such as emergent marshes, wet meadows, and fens. Cranes are highly sensitive to disturbance during the nesting period, possibly because of their vulnerability to predation at this time, and typically inhabit remote areas. Historic overharvesting, encroachment of humans near traditional nesting areas, and the draining of important wetlands have been implicated in the decline of this species across its range. Within the Region, the majority of nesting sandhill cranes are restricted to the few remaining large tracts of wild lands. The most important of these are Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge in Sherburne County and Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area in Anoka and Chisago counties (see sites 3 and 25). These areas contain extensive wetlands, located some distance from roads, that provide the habitat and seclusion that these birds require. Nevertheless, the close proximity of these lands to the Twin Cities and St. Cloud metropolitan areas would seem to preclude nesting of this species in these spots. Roberts 11932) found it remarkable that "while engaged on a survey, [he] found several pairs [of sandhill cranes] at home and undoubtedly nesting in the great marshes in northern Anoka County within sound of the noon whistles of Minneapolis." The presence of sandhill cranes on the populous Anoka sandplain is a tribute to those who had the foresight to preserve such important areas for regional wildlife.
occur in river backwaters and sloughs, along the margins of ponds and lakes, and in the deeper parts of shallow wetland basins containing wet meadows or wet prairies. Historically, mixed emergent marshes probably occurred in wetland basins across the Region, apparently at many locations now dominated by cattails. At present, the best and largest examples occur along river backwaters, including those of the St.Croix, Mississippi, and Rum rivers (see site 17). These riverine marshes often have large patches dominated by just a few species, such as river bulrush, softstem bulrush, prairie cordgrass, rice cut-grass, or broadleaved arrowhead. They also have scattered bur-reed and small colonies of broad-leaved or narrow-leaved cattails. Mixed emergent marshes along lake or pond margins commonly have large patches of softstem bulrush or threesquare. In addition to the dominant emergent plants, the Region's mixed emergent marshes typically contain many plants that survive long periods of flooding as seeds, rhizome fragments, dormant buds, or tubers. As water levels drop through the spring and summer, these plants, including such opportunistic species as rushes, umbrella sedges, spike-rushes, monkey-flower, and species of arrowhead, often resume growth or germinate in great abundance on exposed soil. Perhaps the most extensive and diverse mixed emergent marsh in the Region is McLeod's Slough, a backwater of the St. Croix Piver in northern Washington County (see site 32).
Cattail Marsh Cattail marshes are one of the Region's most familiar communities. They occur throughout the Region but are most common in the numerous wetland basins and sloughs of the Anoka sandplain and Grantsburg sublobe till plain (see map 3). Undisturbed cattail marshes often appear to be composed entirely of broad-leaved cattail. Upon closer inspection, however, other marsh plants are present, such as lake sedge, woolgrass, softstem bulrush, and forbs characteristic of rich fens such as marsh St. John's-wort. Large expanses of cattail marsh are believed to have been much less common in the Region a century ago. The large marshes at Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area and at
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Chapter 15
ma*s Turtles
I
If only turtle coyld talk, they could tell us of the changes that have taken place in the wetlands of the St. Croix giver Valley-Anoka SandplaJn Region, One Binding's turtle over 80 years old has witnessed these changes from her wetland home near Rush City in Chisago County, in the spring of 1926, Qscar Larson found a young adult turtle, carved his initials in her shell, and returned her to the marsh. Mr. Larson's son discovered her in the same general vicinity in 1946, and she was folind again irt 1982, still with Mr, Larson's initials visible on her weathered shell, In 1988, the turtle was located, fitted with a DNR tag, and sent on Her way once again. Since this turtte was a hatehling in the early 1900s, the Region's wetlands have undergone significant alteration. Many have teen drained for industrial and residential expansion- others have been ringed antf bisected with roads and highways? still others have been greatly altered by sedimentation from eroded soil ami runoff of pollutants from adjacent lands. His-
torically, the Region's many shallow wetlands and open grasslands have provided some of the best habitat in the state foe the rare Standing's turtle, Despite the insults to local wetlands, the Region remains vitally important to this species, Standing's turtles spend most of their time feeding in shallow emergent marshes and other wetlands with floating and submergent vegetation. In addition to wetlands, female turtles require dryr;open habitats in which to lay their eggs. These turtles will travel considerable distances from wetlands to reach tradi^ tional nesting sites, which makes them different from most freshwater turtles, who usually nest close to wetlands. This inevitably puts them at risk, as they are famed to cross roads arid negotiate other human-made barriers during their journey. Danger lurks even after the turtles have reached the nest sites and laid their eggs, Predators, such as raccoons and skunks, destroy the vast majority of nests, so that few young are recruited into the population. The longevity of adults compensates somewhat for the loss The Rush City female described here probably has attempted
to lay eggs every other year since she reached sexual maturity at about 15 years of age. Protection of wetlands and nesting areas is vital to retaining this species in the Region, as well as elsewhere. With many wetlands currently being managed for waterfowl, opportunities
Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge appear to have developed after the construction of dikes and impoundments. Many recently developed cattail marshes are dominated by
exist for protecting core areas of habitat to the benefit of turtles as well as other wetland species. During a recent study of Blanding's turtles in the Region, activities of resident turtles were monitored from two shallow lakes, Marget and Bedkman lakes, in Isanti County (C, J. Dorff, unpublished), Marget Lake is part of a state wildlife management area and is actively managed for waterfowl. During the fail of 1989, the water level was lowered to facilitate a scheduled wetted drawdown, and over half of the lake was drained. The following spring, turtles in Marget
Lake were forced to disperse from the drained areas and were heavily preyed upon by raccoons, In contrast, Beckmari Lake was not drained, and there was no known mortality of Blanding's turtlers at that site
Most of the extensive wetland tracts that remain in the Region are managed by the state. With better understanding of the impact of manipulating wetlands, particularly the timing of such activities, these lands can remain haVem for waterfowl and turtles alike.!The protection and proper management of wetland complexes and adjacent grasslands in the Region, in addition to public} awareness and appreciation of this unique turtle, wilt ensure that the "grand dame of Rush City" maintains her record as the oldest known Handing's turtle and that successive generations will remain residents of the Region for years to come.
narrow-leaved or hybrid cattail and are not considered
very tall and dense and have a low diversity of wetland plant species relative to natural marshes. Unfortunately, not all of the marshes dominated by broad-leaved cattails are of natural origin either, making it difficult sometimes to dis-
natural communities. The cattail mats in these marshes are
tinguish natural and unnatural marshes.
Emergent Marshes
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Mixed Emergent Marsh Fact Sheet
Fig. 15.2
Mixed emergent marsh in McLeod's Slough, a backwater of the St. Croix River in northern Washington County (see site
32). The marsh is dominated by river bulrush and prairie cordgrass. Broad-leaved arrowhead is in the foreground. The largest remaining mixed emergent marshes in the Region are in river backwaters.
Status: 4
Soils and substrate
impoundments and displacement by cattail
Occurs on alluvial and lacustrine silt or
marsh; many marshes remain along the St.
sand; standing water during much of the
Croix and Rum rivers and portions of the
growing season.
Mississippi River.
the water level; cattails account for less
Historic distribution
Existing acreage: 2,100 or more
than half of the vegetation cover; frequent
Along the margins of major rivers, espe-
open-water pools and channels containing
cially in backwater channels or in shallow
floating or submerged aquatic plants.
sloughs, along the margins of lakes and
Common plant species
Other characteristics Common at lake and stream margins;
ponds, and in small closed basins; most
—Ground layer
extensive across south-central and eastern
occurs in basins where the water is too
Anoka County and adjacent Washington
FORBS St. John's-wort (Hypericum majus) Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum)
Structure An open wetland community dominated by graminoid and forb species that grow above
deep for wet meadow or where a peat mat
and Chisago counties; occurred on all of
supporting rich fen or poor fen has not developed; may be dominated by only one
the landforms in the Region.
or two species during high-water years;
Differs significantly from historic distri-
diverse native graminoids and forbs typi-
bution; losses throughout Anoka County
cally colonize mudflats or exposed mucky
because of county ditch systems developed
channels during drought years.
in the early 1900s; other losses caused by
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Present distribution
Chapter 15
Number of known locations: 95
Cut-leaved bugleweed (Lycopus americanus) Common bladderwort (Utricularia vulgaris) Broad-leaved arrowhead (Sagittaria latifolia) Blue vervain (Verbena hastata)
Mixed Emergent Marsh Fact Sheet (cont.) GRAMINOIDS Blue-joint (Calamagrostis canadensis) Softstem bulrush (Scirpus valid us var. creber) A species of sedge (Carex scoparia) Three-way sedge (Dulichium arundinaceum) Small's spike-rush (Eleocharis smallii) Woolgrass (Scirpus cyperinus) Reed canary-grass (Phalaris arundinacea) Characteristic plant species River bulrush (Scirpus fluviatilis) Giant bur-reed (Sparganium eurycarpum) Small's spike-rush (Eleocharis smallii) Rare plant species Waterwillow (Decodon verticillatus) Walter's barnyard grass (Echinochloa waiter!)
Spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer) Chorus frog (P. triseriata) Green frog (Rana clamitans) Northern leopard frog (R. pipiens) Painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) Characteristic animal species Least bittern (Ixobrychus exilis) Virginia rail (Rallus limicola) Black tern (Chlidonias niger) Marsh wren (Cistothorus palustris) Yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus) Standing's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii)
Animals of mixed emergent marshes Aquatic animals predominate in this community, although terrestrial species forage along the marsh perimeter. The height and structure of emergent vegetation are important to nesting birds and breeding frogs and toads. The amount of open water associated with the community and any connection with a lake or river can influence the species of waterbirds and turtles found here.
Examples 1. Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area 7. Martin-lsland-Linwood Lakes Regional Park: Linwood Lake 17. Rum River (west of Walbo Landing) 32. McLeod's Slough
American bittern
Common raccoon (Procyon lotor)
Rare animal species American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) Common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis)
—Amphibians and reptiles American toad (Bufo americanus)
Wilson's phalarope (Phalaropus tricolor) Forster's tern (Sterna forsteri)
—Mammals Common muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus)
Disturbance indicators and threats Lack of native plants on mudflats during drought years; abundant reed canary-grass. Threats include hydrologic alterations caused by ditches, draining, dikes, and dams; invasion by purple loosestrife; nutrient-rich runoff and excess sedimentation from surrounding farms, roads, lawns, and developed land; storm water runoff; unseasonable water level fluctuations in managed impoundments; incremental damage by small areas of dredging or filling. Associated natural communities River beach, floodplain forest, lake beach, cattail marsh, alder swamp, willow swamp, wet meadow, and rich fen.
Common animal species —Breeding birds Canada goose (Branta canadensis) Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) Sora (Porzana Carolina) American coot (Fulica americana) Marsh wren (Cistothorus palustris) Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas) Swamp sparrow (Melospiza georgiana) Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus)
Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii)
Emergent Marshes
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Cattail Marsh Fact Sheet
Fig. 15.3
A monotypic cattail marsh at the edge of an oak forest on the St. Croix moraine in northern Washington County. Cattail
marshes are generally much more common in the Region than mixed emergent marshes but are less diverse in plant species.
Status: 5 Structure An open wetland with cattails dominating
all sizes and in shallow water at the mar-
Swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata)
gins of ponds, lakes, and river backwaters;
Spotted touch-me-not (Impatiens capensis)
occurred on all of the major landforms.
Great water dock (Rumex orbiculatus) Marsh skullcap (Scutellaria galericulata)
at least half of the vegetation cover; openwater pools or channels are often present
Present distribution
Beggar-ticks (Bidens spp.)
Occur throughout the Region; anecdotal
and contain floating or submerged aquatic
Broad-leaved arrowhead (Sagittaria
evidence suggests that cattail marshes have
plants.
increased in acreage since settlement.
Marsh bel If lower (Campanula aparinoides)
Other characteristics Cattails either root on the marsh bottom or
Existing acreage: 4,000 or more
Arrow-leaved tearthumb (Polygonum
form a floating mat or raft buoyed by a network of cattail rhizomes.
sagittatum) Number of known locations: 100 or more
Occurs on highly decomposed peat or muck and on mineral substrates; standing water throughout the growing season. Historic distribution Throughout the Region in wetland basins of
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Marsh cinquefoil (Potentilla palustris)
(not surveyed exhaustively) GRAMINOIDS Common plant species
Soils and substrate
lati folia)
—Ground layer
Broad-leaved cattail (Typha latifolia) A species of sedge (Carex comosa)
FORBS Bulb-bearing water-hemlock (Cicuta
Characteristic plant species Broad-leaved cattail (Typha latifolia)
bulbifera) Northern marsh fern (Thelypteris palustris) Clearweed (Pilea pumila)
Chapter 15
Rare plant species Waterwillow (Decodon verticillatus)
Cattail Marsh Fact Sheet (cont.) Animals of cattail marshes Animals of cattail marshes are nearly identical to those of mixed emergent marshes and consist largely of aquatic species. The height and structure of the vegetation are important to nesting birds and breeding frogs and toads. Connection of the marsh to larger bodies of water, such as rivers or lakes, may enhance the diversity of species
—Mammals Common muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) Common raccoon (Procyon lotor)
Associated natural communities
present. Terrestrial animals may utilize the
—Amphibians and reptiles
Mixed emergent marsh, wet meadow, alder
margins of the marsh as foraging areas.
American toad (Bufo americanus)
swamp, tamarack swamp, mixed hardwood
Spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer) Chorus frog (P. triseriata)
swamp, lake beach, and river beach.
Common animal species —Breeding birds Canada goose (Branta canadensis) Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)
Green frog (Rana clamitans) Northern leopard frog (R. pipiens) Painted turtle (Chrysemys picta)
Sora (Porzana Carolina) American coot (Fulica americana) Marsh wren (Cistothorus palustris) Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas) Swamp sparrow (Melospiza georgiana) Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus)
Characteristic animal species Least bittern (Ixobrychus exilis) Virginia rail (Rallus limicola) Black tern (Chlidonias niger) Marsh wren (Cistothorus palustris) Yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus) Branding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii)
Rare animal species American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) Common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) Wilson's phalarope (Phalaropus tricolor) Forster's tern (Sterna forsteri) Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii)
Disturbance indicators and threats Lack of native plant colonizers on exposed
Examples 20. Snail Lake Regional Park 25. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: Mahnomen Trail and Blue Hill Trail
mud or muck during drought years. Threats include hydrologic alterations caused by ditches and dikes; nutrient- and salt-rich runoff from farms, lawns, and roads; displacement of broad-leaved cattail by narrow-leaved cattail or a hybrid of the two; invasion of purple loosestrife.
Common moorhen
Emergent Marshes
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16. Wet Meadows and Fens Wet meadows and fens make up a broad class of shallow wedand community types whose main shared characteristic is a herbaceous cover dominated by medium- or narrowleaved grasses and sedges. Communities included here range from wet prairie swales that are dry in summer to shallow peatlands, called fens, dominated by spongy mosses or a carpet of sedges. They differ from emergent marshes in that broad-leaved sedges, arrowhead, or cattails are usually not dominant. Also, wet meadow and fen plants grow on peat or mineral soils rather than in standing water, as in marshes. Wet meadow and fen communities were common in the Region in the mid- 1800s, particularly on the level, poorly drained Anoka sandplain. The General Land Office surveyors regarded these shallow wetlands—like marshes and
Fig. 16.1
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A rich Jen in Anoka County.
shrub swamps—as worthless land, except for some wet meadows, which they saw as sources of hay for horses and cattle. Therefore, the surveyors seldom distinguished between the wet meadows and marshes or swamps, and we can give only a rough estimate of the presettlement extent of wet meadows and fens of perhaps 90,000 acres, or about 6% of the Region. Many wet meadows and fens were drained in the early 1900s when extensive networks of ditches were constructed through wetlands in Anoka County (see the sidebar on ditching in chapter 4). Others were disturbed by grazing during the drought of the 1930s. Reed canary-grass was widely planted at that time to improve the quality of the forage, displacing native wetland plants over large areas.
Fire probably also altered fen communities dramatically during the 1930s drought. According to one landowner in Anoka County who lives near Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area, the dry peat in a nearby "cranberry bog" (poor fen) caught fire in the late 1930s and smouldered for two or three years. The fire consumed all of the peat, and the fen plants were replaced by cattails, which remain to this day. Because of draining, grazing, and invasion by reed canary-grass and cattails, wet meadows and fens now cover only 8,000 acres of the Region, or less than a tenth of their previous extent here. Five wet meadow and fen community types occur in the Region: wet prairie, wet meadow, seepage meadow, rich fen, and poor fen. Seepage meadows are not described in detail here. They are rare in the Region and share many of the plants found in mixed hardwood seepage swamps. Three or four examples occur near the St. Croix River as small openings—generally only a few hundred square yards in area—within either seepage swamps or mixed hardwood swamps. Floristically, seepage meadows are characterized by the presence of lush patches of skunk cabbage, towering stalks of angelica, and patches of the sedge Carex bromoides.
Wet Prairie Before Euro-American settlement, wet prairies were dotted across the Region, especially on the Anoka sandplain and Mississippi River terraces. They typically occurred along the margins of wet meadows and in swales within upland prairies and oak woodlands and savannas (see fig. 3.1). Because the water table in wet prairies generally remains within the rooting zone throughout the summer, wet prairies are lush and green throughout the growing season. This property made them valuable as pastures, especially in dry years. Their dark, rich soils also made fertile cropland when drained. Thus, many wet prairies have been altered since the early days of settlement. Many have also been displaced by shrub and tree thickets as a result of drainage and fire suppression. At present, less than 60 acres remain in the Region. The Region's wet prairie remnants contain a mixture of plant species common to upland prairies and wet meadows, as well as many plants that grow only in wet prairies. They are dominated by tall grasses—such as big
bluestem, prairie cordgrass, blue-joint, and Indian grass— and sedges. The forb composition varies greatly among wet prairies in the Region. For example, the wet prairie at Sand Prairie Wildlife Management Area in Sherburne County (see site 24) occurs on an organic-rich soil and contains forbs, such as heart-leaved alexanders, wood betony, and balsam ragwort, that grow in mesic prairies in other parts of Minnesota. The wet prairie at Santiago Oak Savanna, also in Sherburne County (see site 27), occurs on moist, sandy soil and contains forbs, such as grass-leaved goldenrod, flat-topped aster, and sky-blue aster, that grow on both upland and wetland sites. The wet prairie at Santiago Oak Savanna is one of three or four examples of a special kind that occurs on the Anoka sandplain. These prairies contain common wet meadow forbs such as northern marsh fern and sensitive fern. In addition, some specialized plants grow only along the edge of wet meadows on patches of moist, sandy soil that are exposed when pools of water recede in late spring and early summer. Characteristic plants of this microhabitat include nodding ladies'-tresses, purple milkwort, yellow star-grass, small-flowered gerardia, pale-spiked lobelia, arrow-leaved violet, and occasionally a cushiony carpet of hair-cap moss. These plants can be seen along the sandy trail at the south end of the Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area in Anoka County (see site 4). On the Anoka sandplain this narrow zone contains some of the rarest plants in Minnesota—tall nut-rush, cross milkwort, Virginia bartonia, and tubercled rein-orchid—as well as such uncommon plants as lanceleaved violet, cowbane, and adder's-tongue. Two rare plants collected in Anoka County in the early 1900s that probably occurred in this narrow zone are twisted yellow-eyed grass and marginated rush. These plants have not been found since then anywhere in Minnesota. Many of the Region's wet prairies have scattered trees and shrubs, including slender willow, Bebb's willow, redosier dogwood, and quaking aspen; prairie willow and blackberries are sometimes present along drier margins. Trees and shrubs were probably always present in the Region's wet prairies; however, they are probably more common now than they were in the past, largely because of fire suppression. Woody plants have also displaced many of the grasses and forbs in wet prairies where draining has lowered the water table.
Wet Meadows and Fens
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Wet Meadow Wet meadows are shallow wetland communities that are dominated by sedges and grasses. From adjacent uplands, they look like inviting, shimmering fields of grass, sometimes dotted with small clumps of willows. However, they are generally wet enough to soak one's feet, and the ground is frustratingly lumpy from dense tussocks of sedges. These characteristics made them unappreciated by the General Land Office surveyors who had to traverse them (U.S. Surveyor General 1847-1908). Wet meadows generally occur on shallow (less than 2 feet deep) peat, on muck, or on wet mineral soil. The community is most common on level, poorly drained portions of the Anoka sandplain and in shallow ice block depressions on the Grantsburg sublobe till plain (see the sidebar on ice block depressions in chapter 1). However, wet meadows also occur in abandoned river channels on the floodplains of the St. Croix and Mississippi rivers; in small basins on the hilly St. Croix moraine and the Rosemount outwash plain; in old glacial stream beds on the Mississippi River terraces; in small swales in sand dune areas on the Anoka sandplain; and at the margins of many of the Region's marshes, ponds, lakes, and streams (seefigs.3.1 and 3.4). The vegetation in wet meadows is dominated by densely growing, medium- or broad-leaved sedges. The tussockforming sedge Carex stricta is often the dominant species, with other sedges such as lake sedge, wiregrass, and C. prairea present in lesser amounts. In small swales on the Anoka sandplain, as well as at the margins of wet meadows, C. lanuginosa, Hayden's sedge, blue-joint, and woolgrass are common. Where wet meadows grade into emergent marshes, cattails and bulrushes are often abundant. Where they grade into wetland communities on thicker peat, such as rich fens or poor fens, beaked sedge and wiregrass are common. The Region's wet meadows generally contain many forb species, although the forbs are not usually conspicuous. They tend to occur in microhabitats, such as on tussocks formed by C. stricta, at upland margins, and in small pools of water (fig. 16.2). Some of the most common forbs are northern marsh fern, bulb-bearing water-hemlock, and joepye weed. Attractive but less common species are turtlehead, marsh vetchling, and purple fringed orchid. Shrubs are often present where wet meadows border
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drier upland communities. The most common shrubs are slender willow, Bebb's willow, red-osier dogwood, and meadowsweet. In wet meadows that grade into rich fens, bog birch and steeple-bush are common. Where wet meadows grade into communities on a muckier substrate, speckled alder is common. Although wet meadows are still common in the Region, most have been severely degraded by grazing, by mowing for hay in drought years, and by draining for cropland or sod farms. Wet meadows that are dominated by reed canarygrass or are completely surrounded by cultivated land are not considered to be in natural condition.
Rich Fen Rich fens are sedge- and grass-covered wetlands that develop on level, poorly drained ground, much like wet meadows or poor fens. They differ from wet meadows in that they occur on peat that is usually more than 2 feet thick. They differ from poor fens in that they lack a layer of sphagnum moss across the peat surface. Rich fens also sometimes develop on floating mats of sedge peat around the edges of ponds and small lakes. General Land Office surveyor A. J. Hewett in 1848 reported extensive "floating marshes" in southeastern Anoka County, which most likely were rich fens, or possibly rafts of cattails. Aside from Hewett's reference, it is not clear how extensive rich fens were in the Region in the 1800s. They were probably most common in large wetland systems such as the area now occupied by Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area. At present, however, most rich fens occur in small, isolated basins. A few occur as narrow bands between marshes and wet meadows or along the margins of ponds and lakes. Rich fens vary considerably in species composition depending on the type of substrate and the associated natural communities. Some, which occur in association with poor fens, are dominated by wiregrass. Useful indicators of rich fen here are three-way sedge and Small's spike-rush. Fig. 16.2
A small wet meadow opening within a lowland hardwood
Jbrest near the St. Croix River in Wild River State Park (see site 13). Forb species such as bugleweed or marsh skullcap (foreground) often grow around the margins ojsmall pools within wet meadows or on exposed mud as the pools dry up over the summer.
Chapter 16
MnDNR photo by D. Wovcha
Others, especially those near streams, have a diverse cornposition of sedges, grasses, and forbs and often grade into wet meadows. Common plants in these rich fens include tussock sedge, blue-joint, woolgrass, northern marsh fern, showy beggar-ticks, and marsh bellflower.
Poor Fen Poor fens are wetland communities dominated by a more or less continuous mat of sphagnum moss on which the wiregrass sedge and low, leathery-leaved shrubs grow. Poor fens are often called bogs, and indeed bogs and poor fens look very similar and have many species in common. In this Region, however, one need not be concerned about confusing poor fens with true bogs, because true bogs only occur north of here in large peatlands. The basic difference between the two communities is that true bogs have highly acidic surface water and are extremely low in available nutrients, while poor fens have mildly acidic surface water and a higher concentration of nutrients (although nutrients are still in short supply, relative to rich fens or wet meadows). Poor fens are present in the Region in ice block depressions on the Anoka sandplain and Grantsburg sublobe till plain and on the St. Croix moraine in northern Washington County (see map 3 and fig. 3.4). They almost always occur in basins that have small watersheds (which minimizes runoff
from surrounding uplands) and in areas with sandy, nutrientpoor soils. Poor fens are typically composed of just a few highly distinctive vascular plant species that grow on the sphagnum carpet, including a sparse cover of the wiry-bladed sedges wiregrass and Carex oligosperma and low mounds of the ericaceous shrub leatherleaf. Leatherleaf sometimes covers more than 80% of the fen surface. Trailing stems of small cranberry are generally present on sphagnum hummocks. Tawny cotton-grass is commonly visible in June and July when the seed heads sway on slender stems above the sphagnum mat like small, white pom-poms (see fig. 13.2). The most unusual species in the community are the carnivorous plants round-leaved sundew and pitcher-plant, which supplement their nutrient intake by trapping insects and dissolving them with enzymes. Sundews trap the insects on the sticky hairs on their leaves; pitcher-plants have vaseshaped leaves that collect water and also wayward insects. Poor fens, like other communities that develop on peat, appear to take decades to recover from disturbances such as severe drought or fire. The same is true for human-related disturbances—even relatively minor scars, such as footpaths, can persist for years. Nutrient inputs pose the greatest threat to this community. Under richer conditions, poor fen plants are crowded out by faster-growing species such as cattails, steeple-bush, or beggar-ticks.
Fig. 16.3 A poor fen dominated by wiregrass at Cedar Creek Natural History Area in Isanti County. In the background is a sphagnum tamarack swamp.
Wet Prairie Fact Sheet
Fig. 16.4
This small wet prairie—known as Jim's Prairie—in Maplewood in Ramsey County is dominated by prairie cordgrass with big
bluestem and Indian grass. July is a particularly good month to visit wet prairies, because of the abundance of colorful blooming flowers, such as the great blazing-stars and mountain-mint seen here in the foreground.
Status: 2 Structure An open, shallow wetland community dominated by a patchy to continuous cover of grasses and sedges ranging from 4 to 36
Soils and substrate
St. Croix moraine; major losses probably
Occurs on shallow organic soil or organic-
began as soon as farms were established.
rich mineral soil; soils are saturated or flooded temporarily in spring and dry out through the growing season.
Existing acreage: 60 Number of known locations: 5
inches or more in height; shrub cover is
Historic distribution
Common plant species
sparse to patchy but becomes more contin-
Common on the Anoka sandplain in small,
uous in the absence of fire; forbs are scat-
moist swales, at the margin of both large
tered or clumped.
and small, gently sloping wetland depres-
—Shrub layer Slender willow (Sa//x gracilis) Red-osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera)
sions, and at the margin of interdune wet-
Blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium)
lands; in moist swales on the Mississippi
—Ground layer
Other characteristics High diversity of plant species including a mixture of moisture-loving, upland prairie plants, wet meadow plants, and specialized plants that grow only on moist sand;
River terraces and on the St. Croix moraine and Rosemount outwash plain; in moist draws on the Cottage Grove dissected plain.
FORBS Mountain-mint (Pycnanthemum virginianum)
upland prairie plants must be tolerant of
Present distribution
Two-flowered cynthia (Krigia biflora)
spring inundation; woody invasion is limited
Nearly eliminated from the Region except
Prairie loosestrife (Lysimachia quadriflora)
mainly by fire but also by browsing of deer
for a few small examples on the Ancka
Downy phlox (Phlox pilosa subsp. fulgida)
sandplain, Mississippi River terraces, and
Old field cinquefoil (Potentilla simplex)
and rabbits.
Wet Meadows and Fens
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Wet Prairie Fact Sheet (cont.) Common strawberry (Fragaria virginiana) Northern bedstraw (Galium boreale) Tall meadow-rue (Thalictrum dasycarpum) Canada goldenrod (Solidago canadensis) Wood betony (Pedicularis canadensis) Sky-blue aster (Aster oolentangiensis) Yellow star-grass (Hypoxis hirsute) GRAMINOIDS Big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) Prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata) Hayden's sedge (Carex haydenii)
Animals of wet prairies Many animals that inhabit wet prairies are
certain native plants, such as blackberries, sensitive fern, Canada goldenrod, path
found in other wet grassland habitats, such as wet meadows and fens. Animals present
rush, or common strawberry, that quickly
in wet prairies are also very similar to those
and pastures; other indications of past grazing such as old fence lines, drainage
Blue-joint (Calamagrostis canadensis) Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)
in mesic prairies; however, standing water
A species of sedge (Carex tenera)
when present also attracts animals associ-
Wood-rush (Luzula multiflora)
ated with emergent marsh habitats.
Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans)
Common animal species
Characteristic plant species
—Breeding birds
Mountain-mint (Pycnanthemum virginianum) Great blazing-star (Liatris pycnostachya)
Sedge wren (Cistothorus platensis) Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas) Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia)
Two-flowered cynthia (Krigia biflora)
Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius
Yellow star-grass (Hypoxis hirsuta) Pale-spiked lobelia (Lobelia spicata) Purple milkwort (Polygala sanguinea) Nodding ladies'-tresses (Spiranthes cernua) Marsh hedge nettle (Stachys palustris) Heart-leaved alexanders (Zizia aptera) Culver's root (Veronicastrum virginicum) Sweet grass (Hierochloe odorata) Field sedge (Carex conoidea) Cowbane (Oxypolis rigidior) Balsam ragwort (Senecio paupercula) Ragged fringed orchid (Platanthera lacera) Green's rush (Juncus greenei) Rare plant species Virginia bartonia (Bartonia virginica) Jointed rush (Juncus articulatus)
Cross milkwort (Polygala cruciata) Tooth-cup (Rotala ramosior) Tall nut-rush (Scleria triglomerata) Lance-leaved violet (Viola lanceolata) Twisted yellow-eyed grass (Xyris torta)
photographs). Threats include invasion of shrubs or quaking aspen, impoundments, development, and nutrient-rich runoff. Associated natural communities Wet meadow, mesic prairie, dry prairie, and dry oak savanna.
American goldfinch (Carduelis tristis) —Mammals Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) Meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) Meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius) Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) —Amphibians and reptiles Tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) American toad (Bufo americanus) Spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer) Chorus frog (P. triseriata) Northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) Eastern garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) Characteristic animal species None Rare animal species Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) Disturbance indicators and threats Presence of introduced pasture grasses, such as Kentucky bluegrass, redtop, timothy, or reed canary-grass; an abundance of
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ditches, or dredged ponds; plow lines or ruts from haying (often visible in aerial
phoeniceus)
Marginated rush (J. marginatus) Club-spur orchid (Platanthera clavellata) Tubercled rein-orchid (P. flava var. herbiola)
recolonize moist areas in abandoned fields
Chapter 16
Examples 4. Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area: Twin Lakes, Zodiac Street, and
Pool 16 21. Maplewood Nature Center: Jim's Prairie 24. Sand Prairie Wildlife Management Area 27. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: Santiago Oak Savanna Research and Natural Area
Wet Meadow Fact Sheet
Fig. 16.5 Undisturbed wet meadows such as this one in southern Isanti County are dominated by native sedges and grasses, including the tussock-forming sedge Carex stricta (shown here) and blue-joint. Before settlement, wet meadows often burned in dry years, which set back invasion by willows and other shrubs. In the continued absence of fire, the willows in this wet meadow will likely spread and shade out the sedges and grasses.
Status: 3 Structure
ized plants colonize exposed wet-meadow margins during drought years, especially areas of moist sand.
An open, shallow wetland community dominated by a continuous cover of narrower medium-leaved sedges or grasses; forbs present but often inconspicuous among the graminoids except for occasional tall plants; shrub cover, if present, is composed mostly of willow species and tends to occur in clumps within a sedge-dominated matrix
Soils and substrate Occurs on shallow peat or muck or on organic-rich mineral soil; soils are saturated or flooded in spring; the water level typically recedes slowly throughout the growing season to a position at or near the surface.
rather than spread diffusely through the meadow.
Throughout the Region on all landforms;
Other characteristics Two dominant sedges, Carex stricta and C. haydenii, can form raised tussocks composed of a dense network of roots; special-
Historic distribution most extensive in shallow depressions and ice block basins on the Anoka sandplain, in adjacent portions of the Grantsburg sublobe till plain, and on outwash associated with the St. Croix moraine; also in abandoned
Wet Meadows and Fens
stream channels, interdune swales, and at the margins of streams, marshes, ponds, and lakes. Present distribution Throughout the Region, but much reduced in extent; major losses from draining of large wetland systems in Sherburne County and south-central Anoka County, haying, grazing, and creation of impoundments in the early 1900s; recent losses caused by draining and conversion to sod farms and by urban development. Existing acreage: 5,300 Number of known locations: 330
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Wet Meadow Fact Sheet (com.) Common plant species —Shrub layer Slender willow (Salix gracilis) Red-osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera) —Ground layer
Common animal species —Breeding birds
impoundments; dredging to create openwater pools; filling for roads and urban
Marsh bellflower (Campanula aparinoides)
Sora (Porzana Carolina) Sedge wren (Cistothorus platensis) Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas)
Joe-pye weed (Eupatorium maculatum) Swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata)
Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) Swamp sparrow (M. georgiana)
Sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis) Great water dock (Rumex orbiculatus)
Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus)
Marsh skullcap (Scutellaria galericulata)
—Mammals
Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum) Arrow-leaved tearthumb (Polygonurn
Arctic shrew (Sorex arcticus)
FORBS Northern marsh fern (Thelypteris palustris)
sagittatum) Bugleweed (Lycopus uniflorus) Beggar-ticks (Bidens spp.) Bulb-bearing water-hemlock (Cicuta bulbifera) Spotted touch-me-not (Impatiens capensis)
grass, purple loosestrife, or cattails. Associated natural communities Dry oak savanna, oak woodland-brushland, dry oak forest, alder swamp, willow swamp, mixed emergent marsh, cattail marsh, rich fen, and poor fen.
Masked shrew (S. cinereus) Northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina Examples
brevicauda) Meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus)
1. Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area
Meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius)
2. Bunker Hills Regional Park
Common raccoon (Procyon lotor)
4. Carlos Avery Wildlife Management
—Amphibians and reptiles
GRAMINOIDS Blue-joint (Calamagrostis canadensis)
American toad (Bufo americanus)
Tussock sedge (Carex stricta)
Chorus frog (P. triseriata)
Lake sedge (C. lacustris)
Northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens)
Characteristic plant species
development; and invasion by reed canary-
Spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer)
Eastern garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis)
Area: Twin Lakes, Zodiac Street, and Pool 16 5. Helen Allison Savanna Scientific and Natural Area 8. Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area: Wyoming Dunes 15. Lyndon Cedarglade Park
Hayden's sedge (Carex haydenii)
Characteristic animal species
24. Sand Prairie Wildlife Management Area
Great water dock (Rumex orbiculatus)
None
26. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge:
Woolgrass (Scirpus cyperinus) Blue vervain (Verbena hastata) Meadowsweet (Spiraea alba) Blue flag iris (Iris versicolor) Fringed brome (Bromus ciliatus) Rare plant species Marginated rush (Juncus marginatus) Club-spur orchid (Platanthera clavellata)
Rare animal species American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) Disturbance indicators and threats
Cross milkwort (Polygala cruciata)
Evidence of grazing or haying, such as unnatural linear features (often visible on aerial photographs), abundant reed canary-
Tooth-cup (Rotala ramosior)
grass, an abundance of the common forbs
Tall nut-rush (Scleria triglomerata)
joe-pye weed, boneset, and giant goldenrod, accentuation of sedge tussocks, and
Lance-leaved violet (Viola lanceolata) Twisted yellow-eyed grass (Xyris torta)
compaction of substrate. Threats include hydrologic alterations from ditches, roads,
Animals of wet meadows
and impoundments; increases in nutrients,
The animals of wet meadows are very simi-
salts, or sediments from farm and lawn runoff; succession to shrub swamp because
lar to those of emergent marsh habitats but also include species common to wet and mesic prairies.
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of draining and lack of fire; pools created from wastewater runoff; flooding from
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Orrock Dunes 27. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge.Santiago Oak Savanna Research and Natural Area 28. Uncas Dunes Scientific and Natural Area
Rich Fen Fact Sheet
Fig. 16.6
Floating-mat rich fens occur around the edges of a few undisturbed shallow lakes in the Region. The pale, grassy zone bor-
dering the trees and shrubs is dominated by blue-joint. The zone bordering the open water is dominated by Small's spike-rush and three-way sedge. Uncommon aquatic plants such as humped bladderwort sometimes occur along the edges of these fens.
Status: 3
than 2 feet; water is less acidic and more
Common plant species
nutrient-rich than in poor fens; substrate is
a continuous cover of sedges, grasses, and forbs growing to 3 or 4 feet tall; shrub cover
the surface throughout the growing season.
—Shrub layer Steeple-bush (Spiraea tomentosa) Bog birch (Betula glandulifera)
Historic distribution
—Ground layer
is sparse and mostly shorter than 4 feet.
Primarily in broad, shallow basins on the nearly level terrain of the Anoka sandplain
FORBS Tufted loosestrife (Lysimachia thyrsiflora)
and Grantsburg sublobe till plain; also in
Marsh cinq uef oil (Potent! I la palustris)
small basins on the St. Croix moraine.
Marsh St. John's-wort (Triadenum fraseri) Red-stemmed aster (Aster puniceus)
Structure An open wetland community dominated by
Other characteristics Varies greatly in character in the Region; some are similar to or grade into poor fens
continually saturated, or water level is near
(dominated by wiregrass), and others
Present distribution
resemble wet meadows (dominated by
Major losses caused by ditching, draining,
tussock sedge and Carex prairea); also occurs as a floating mat surrounding open
grazing, and artificial flooding.
water in a peat-filled basin. Soils and substrate Occurs on peat that is generally deeper
Existing acreage: 1,570 Number of known locations: 120
GRAMINOIDS Blue-joint (Calamagrostis canadensis) Wiregrass (Carex lasiocarpa) Small's spike-rush (Eleocharis smallii) Tall manna-grass (Glyceria grandis) Beaked sedge (Carex rostrata) Woolgrass (Scirpus cyperinus)
Wet Meadows and Fens
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Rich Fen Fact Sheet (cont.) Characteristic plant species A species of sedge (Carex interior) Three-way sedge (Dulichium arundinaceum) Pipewort (Eriocaulon septangulare) A species of rush (Juncus canadensis) Slender water-milfoil (Myriophyllum tenellum) Scheuchzeria (Scheuchzeria palustris) Intermediate bladderwort (Utricularia intermedia) Labrador bedstraw (Galium labradoricum) Rare plant species Waterwillow (Decodon verticillatus) Humped bladderwort (Utricularia gibba) Animals of rich fens Many animal species of rich fens are also found in poor fen and wet meadow habitats.
Common animal species —Breeding birds Sedge wren (Cistothorus platensis) Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas) Swamp sparrow (Melospiza georgiana) Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) —Mammals Arctic shrew (Sorex arcticus) Masked shrew (S. cinereus) Northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) Meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) Meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius) —Amphibians and reptiles Tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) American toad (Bufo americanus) Spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer) Chorus frog (P. triseriata) Northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) Eastern garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) Characteristic animal species None Rare animal species Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis)
Sandhill crane
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Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of grazing during drought years, ditching, or draining; abundant reed canary-grass or purple loosestrife. Threats include hydrologic alterations caused by impoundments
Chapter 16
or excess runoff from farms or developed land; nutrient inputs from runoff. Associated natural communities Wet meadow, poor fen, mixed emergent marsh, and alder swamp.
Examples 1. Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area 4. Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area: Twin Lakes, Zodiac Street, and Pool 16 6. Martin-lsland-Linwood Lakes Regional Park: Island Lake Boardwalk 8. Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area: Wyoming Dunes 24. Sand Prairie Wildlife Management Area 28. Uncas Dunes Scientific and Natural Area
Poor Fen Fact Sheet
Fig. 16.7
Poor fens develop in peat-filled, nutrient-poor wetland basins and are much more common in northern than in east-central
Minnesota. This poor fen in southeastern Isanti County is typical of the Region's poor fens, with patches of leatherleaf (the dark patches) and wiregrass. Notice the small tamaracks scattered in the background.
Status: 4 Structure An open wetland community dominated by low, ericaceous shrubs and wiry-bladed sedges growing on a boggy mat of sphagnum mosses; tamarack is sometimes present as short, stunted trees growing in occasional clusters; broad-leaved trees are absent; tall shrubs are sparse or absent; forbs are sparse or rare. Characteristic surface features such as a domed contour
in the most nutrient-poor areas of the fen,
Historic distribution
usually at the center of the mat; plants of
In wetland basins of all sizes, especially
rich fen or wet meadow habitats occur
on the poorly drained, level terrain of the
occasionally to commonly nearer the
Anoka sandplain and Grantsburg sublobe
margins; a narrow zone of open water or
till plain; usually in deeper ice block
mixed emergent marsh, called a moat or
depressions, and rarely in systems that
lagg, occurs between the peat mat and upland margins; poor fens appear to
most common in Anoka, Isanti, and
develop slowly and do not recover readily
Chisago counties.
if they are disturbed. Soils and substrate
have streams and surface water flowage;
Present distribution
of the peat mat or hummocky micro-
Occurs on saturated peat mostly ranging
Probably same as historic distribution except for major losses in northeastern
topography are rarely well developed in
from 3 to 15 feet thick above mineral soil;
Anoka County because of draining, burning
poor fens in this Region.
upper half meter or so is low-buoyancy
dredging, and flooding; scattered losses
sphagnum peat; surface water is mildly
elsewhere throughout the Region.
Other characteristics Vascular plant species diversity is naturally low in this acidic, low-nutrient environment; characteristic poor fen plants occur
acidic (pH 4.1-5.9) and nutrient-poor ([Ca2+] <13 mg/l); peat surface is saturated throughout the growing season.
Wet Meadows and Fens
Existing acreage: 890 Number of known locations: 110
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Poor Fen Fact Sheet (cont.) Common plant species —Shrub layer Tamarack (Lam laricina) Bog birch (Betula glandulifera) Leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata) Steeple-bush (Spiraea tomentosa) —Ground layer SEM1WOODY SPECIES Small cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus) Large cranberry (V. macrocarpon) FORBS Three-leaved false Solomon's-seal (Smilacina trifolia) GRAMINOIDS Wiregrass (Carex lasiocarpa) Characteristic plant species Bog-rosemary (Andromeda glaucophylla) A species of sedge (Carex chordorrhiza) Leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata) Round-leaved sundew (Drosera rotund/folia) Tawny cotton-grass (Eriophorum virginicum) Bog-laurel (Kalmia polifolia) Pitcher-plant (Sarracenia purpurea) Scheuchzeria (Scheuchzeria palustris) Bog willow (Salix pedicellaris) Balsam willow (S. pyrifolia) Rare plant species Dragon's-mouth (Arethusa bulbosa) Club-spur orchid (Platanthera clavellata) Animals of poor fens The animals found in poor fens overlap with those in other open wetland communities, such as rich fens and wet meadows. However, the presence of sphagnum moss and ericaceous shrubs similar to those in northern peatland communities makes this
Common animal species —Breeding birds Sedge wren (Cistothorus platensis) Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas)
ing from impoundments; invasion by slender willow and other common shrubs as well as by aggressive plants such as alder buckthorn, reed canary-grass, cattails, and
—Mammals
purple loosestrife; damage to the peat and the living vegetation during winter caused by trail clearing, snowmobiles, and other vehicles.
Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Southern red-backed vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) Meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) Ermine (Mustela erminea) —Amphibians and reptiles Spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer) Chorus frog (P. triseriata) Northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) Characteristic animal species None Rare animal species Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) Bog copper (Epidemia epixanthe) Disturbance indicators and threats Evidence of lowered water table, such as ditches or dry peat surface during years of average or high water levels. Threats include isolation and fragmentation caused by farmland, roads, and other development; dredging to create open-water ponds; drying and oxidation of peat caused by drain-
habitat suitable for animals generally asso-
ing, drawdown of lakes, and high-volume
ciated with conifer swamps, especially when tamaracks are also present. Frogs and turtles may use areas of open water in
wells; excavation for black peat soil; nutrient and sediment inputs from farm runoff;
poor fens as overwintering sites.
and roads; partial filling; permanent flood-
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Associated natural communities Tamarack swamp, alder swamp, rich fen, and wet meadow.
deposition of dust and salts from cropland
Chapter 16
Examples 4. Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area: Twin Lakes, Zodiac Street, and Pool 16 16. Spectacle Lake Wildlife Management Area 30. Lee and Rose Warner Nature Center
17. Bedrock and Beach Communities Bedrock and beach communities are sparsely vegetated communities that occur on cliffs, areas of bare rock, and lake and river beaches. The extreme environmental conditions of these places—such as thin, droughty soils or high rates of erosion or sedimentation—prevent the development of dense or long-lived vegetation. Instead, bedrock and beach communities tend to have a sparse cover of perennial plants that are adapted to repeated disturbance or to poor, droughty soils, or an ephemeral cover of annual plants that quickly colonize patches of newly exposed ground. Five bedrock and beach communities are present in the Region: moist cliff, dry cliff, rock outcrop, lake beach, and river beach. None of these communities is very common here. Where they do occur, they are restricted to small
Fig. 17.1
patches of the landscape. The Minnesota County Biological Survey did not systematically survey lake and river beach communities across the Region. Thus, the information provided for these communities is based on a subset of those present in the Region.
Dry Cliff and Moist Cliff Dry cliff and moist cliff communities occur along the Mississippi River in southern Washington County and in the St. Croix River Valley in northern Washington and southern Chisago counties (see fig. 1.1). Historically, natural cliff communities also occurred along the Mississippi River in southern Ramsey County. However, the native cliff plants there
A dry cliff along the Mississippi River in Hidden Falls—Crosby Park, Ramsey County.
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Cow Inhabitants
C
ves have long provided shelter for animals and humans, Only a few natural caves exist in the Region, where the predominant underlying rock layer is highly friable sandstone. However, these few, such as Carver Cave and Fountain Cave In Rams6y County, figured prominently in the early history of the area. A natural cave In Washington County served as a homesite for successive families of American Indians. Animal remains from the debris that accuoiulated at the mouth of the cave provide insight into the fauna of that area. Included were the thick shells of river mussels, turtle shells, and bones of small birds, small mammals, deer, bear, and several species of fish (Rosenfeit and Johnson 1977, as reported in Alexander 1980). But missing from the midden were any signs of Inhabitants that predate the presence of humans in the cave, namely, bate, Four species of bats—th6 little brown rnyotis, northern myotis, big brown bat, and eastern pipistrelle—hibernate in natural caves of the Region and in artificial cavities that have been dug into the cliff faces near St Paul and Stillwater. Caves of sufficient sfee offer the cool, stable temperatures and high relative humidity that are critical to hibernating bats, who must rely on their stored fat reserves as their only energy source during winter. All bats in Minnesota are insectivorous and prefer flying insects such as mosquitoes, flies, and moths. Fat stores accumulated
have mostly been displaced by development and quarrying that left the cliff faces bare except for a few weedy plants. The cliff communities along the Mississippi River in Washington County border the main river channel south of St. Paul Park and also occur in two steep side ravines cut through dolostone bedrock near Hastings. Five or six small sandstone cliffs are present in the St. Croix Valley in streamcut ravines. The most distinctive of these is at Curtain Falls in Interstate State Park. Dry Cliff
Dry cliff communities generally develop on south- and westfacing cliffs, especially on the upper, unshaded portions (figs. 17.1 and 17.3). They receive moisture during the growing season from rain, fog, and dew, but because they are so exposed and contain so little soil, this moisture evaporates soon after it falls. Therefore, the plants of the community are species such as lichens and mosses, which can grow on bare or nearly bare rock and are adapted to droughty conditions. These plants also can withstand the extreme changes
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during summer foraging are gradually burned to maintain the bats throughout the winter when insects are absent. During hibernation, bats conserve energy by reducing their metabolism to minimal levels. Their breathing and heart rate slow, and their body temperature approaches that of the surrounding cave environment. Bats remain in this "suspended state" from fall until spring, In the Region, bats may spend up to eight months of the year in hibernation, hanging quietly from the walls or ceiling of the cave, While hibernating, bats are especially vulnerable to predators and other disturbances. It takes 30 to 45 minutes for a bat to arouse itself sufficiently to be able to fly away from danger, and it uses up valuable fat stores In the process. If forced to arouse too many times during the hibernating period, bate deplete their energy stores and die before the spring flush of insect food reappears. Fortunately, bats have few predators that can reach them at their roost sites high in the caves. Humans, who intentionally destroy bats or inadvertently arouse them when they explore caves during the winter, are the greatest threat to hibernating bats. Bat gates that allow bats to move freely in arid out of a cave but restrict human access have now been erected at the entrances to several Important bat caves in Minnesota, including two in the Region.
in temperature on the rock faces as they go from the cool of night and early morning to full sunlight in the afternoon. Most of the plants on dry cliffs grow where soil has accumulated on ledges and in small cracks in the rock. Moist Cliff
Moist cliff communities most commonly develop on northor east-facing cliffs and on cliffs that are moistened by groundwater seepage. Some occur on the same cliffs as dry cliff communities but on the lower, shaded portions of the cliff. Moist cliff communities are composed of mosses, liverworts, ferns, and certain vascular plants that can grow on rock surfaces that have little or no soil but are somewhat protected from desiccation (fig. 17.4).
Rock Outcrop Rock outcrop communities develop on level or gently sloping exposed bedrock. In the St. Croix River Valley-Anoka Sandplain Region, they occur only near Taylors Falls. Here,
Chapter 17
they have developed on areas of basalt, a resistant rock formed during lava flows hundreds of millions of years ago (see the discussion of the bedrock geology of the Region in chapter 1). The organisms in rock outcrop communities, like those in dry cliff communities, must withstand droughty conditions and extreme temperatures. However, unlike dry cliff communities, rock outcrop communities occur on horizontal or rounded rock surfaces and typically support many prairie and woodland species (fig. 17.5). Historically, the rock outcrop communities near Taylors Falls were composed of prairie plants mixed with scattered trees and shrubs. The prairie plants grew in patches of thin soil that developed in potholes, cracks, and depressions in the bedrock. The trees and shrubs were present in areas with thicker soil. Possibly because of suppression of fires, however, trees and shrubs such as oak, box elder, red cedar, poison ivy, and prickly ash have become more abundant on the rocks and have shaded out many of the prairie plants.
The only remaining prairie plants are in scattered patches in small openings among the tree and shrub thickets. The rock outcrop communities at Taylors Falls also have a history of human disturbance, going back to the 1800s, from quarrying, picnicking, trail development, and rock climbing. Fragile plants characteristic of the community, such as brittle opuntia and the state endangered species rough-seeded fameflower, probably were more common here in the past but now occur in just a few untrampled openings on the rocks.
Lake Beach Lake beach communities develop on sandy, silty, or mucky lakeshores. The vegetation is composed mainly of opportunistic annual plants or short-lived perennial plants whose seeds either lie dormant in the beach sediments during years of high water or are washed or blown onto the beach by waves or wind. These plants typically grow vigorously
Fig. 17.2 A sand beach at a shallow lake on the Anoka sandplain in northern rlamsey County.
MnDNR photo by]. C. Almending
Dragonflies of the St. Croix River
C
noeists traveling the St. Croix River in early June cannot help but notice the swarms of dragonflies foraging along the riverbanks (see sites 12 and 32). As many as 15 dragonfly species may be emerging from their immature, or nymphai, stage at this time. At first glance, identifying individual species may appear daunting. However, behavioral and morphological clues can be used to reliably separate many of the species and may even lead to some surprising discoveries. In 1989, staff of the Wisconsin Natural Heritage Program, by careful observation and searching, discovered a species of dragonfly along the St. Croix River that was previously unknown to science. Dragonflies exhibit a range of foraging behaviors, from the dragon hunter (Hagenius brevisfylus) and cobra clubtail (Gomphurus vastus), which routinely patrol the river on bright, sunny days, to the pygmy clubtail (Qphiogomphus howei), which feeds in the treetops and descends to the river only to deposit its eggs. Some adult dragonflies closely resemble one another but have distinctive nymphai stages. Shed nymphai exoskeletons, or exuviae, can be quite numerous along the beach and among the shoreline vegetation. The discovery of a new type of exuvia prompted a search for nymphs and adults. The elusive adults were found in fields nearby. The St. Croix snaketail (0, susbencha) is now recognized among the dragonflies of the river.
after dispersal and germination and rapidly establish sometimes dense patches on the shoreline (fig. 17.2). Many of them produce seeds within a month after they begin growing, which are then stored in the sediment until conditions are again favorable for germination. Historically, lake beach communities occurred throughout the Region. However, many lakeshores have been altered over the past century by grazing, erosion, dredging, filling, and invasion by purple loosestrife and agricultural weeds. At present few lakes in the Region have shorelines colonized by native beach plants. The best and most diverse of the few remaining native beach communities are on shallow sand lakes on the Anoka sandplain. Some typical plants of lake beach communities in the Region are the annuals spotted touch-me-not and nodding smartweed and perennials such as the umbrella sedge Cyperus strigosus and least spike-rush. In years when water levels are very low, such as in 1988 and 1989, the vegetation is arranged in well-defined zones, especially in lake beach communities on shallow lakes with gently sloping shorelines, such as Snail Lake in Ramsey County (fig. 17.6) (see site 20). The upper zones are generally above the normal water level and are composed mainly of perennial species such as rice cutgrass and bulrushes. The lower zones on recently exposed beach sediments have a mixture of annual plants or shortlived perennials, such as St. John's-wort and golden dock.
River Beach
St Croix snaketeil
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River beach communities occur on sandy and gravelly beaches along the Region's rivers. They are similar to lake beach communities in that they are composed of sparse patches or zones of annual plants and perennial plants that are adapted to repeated disturbances. River beach communities historically occurred on all of the Region's larger rivers, including the Mississippi, St. Croix, Sunrise, and Rum. However, they were probably most common on the Mississippi and St. Croix rivers. River beach communities are still common in the Region, although many along the Mississippi River in Ramsey County have been degraded or destroyed by development and alteration of the river shoreline.
Chapter 17
Dry Cliff Fact Sheet
Fig. 17.3
Dry cliff communities occur on exposed south- and southwest-facing sandstone and limestone cliffs. This dry cliff is on an
eroding sandstone face near the St. Croix River in Washington County. The small holes along the seams in the rock are likely inhabited by bank, or perhaps rough-winged, swallows.
Status: 3 Structure A sparsely vegetated community composed of lichens, mosses, and small herbaceous plants growing on vertical or steeply sloping bedrock exposures. Other characteristics Organisms must tolerate periods of complete desiccation and high surface temperatures from direct sunlight; sometimes present on same bedrock exposures as moist cliff communities, but on upper, unshaded portions. Soils and substrate Little or no soil development; moisture often available only from fog or dew.
Historic distribution
Characteristic plant species
Southern Washington and Ramsey counties
Smooth cliff-brake (Pellaea glabella)
along the Mississippi River and southern
Rusty woodsia (Woodsia ilvensis)
Chisago County and northern Washington County along the St. Croix River.
Rare plant species Cliff golden rod (Solidago sciaphila)
Present distribution Same as historic distribution except for major losses in Ramsey County because of quarrying and development. Existing acreage: undetermined Number of known locations: 10
Animals of dry cliffs The exposed condition of cliff habitats makes them largely unsuitable for most animal species; however, the crevices and cavities associated with cliffs provide important nesting and winter shelter for a number of animals. Species that use cliff
Common plant species
cavities are identified by an asterisk (*) in
—Ground layer Harebell (Campanula rotund/folia)
the accompanying lists. Cliffs with southern
Columbine (Aquilegia canadensis)
reptiles. Those near rivers provide roosting
Bedrock and Beach Communities
exposures make attractive basking sites for
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Dry Cliff Fact Sheet (cont.)
sites for birds and bats that feed on the insects that congregate along rivers. Common animal species —Breeding birds Belted kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon) *Eastern phoebe (Sayornis phoebe) *Northern rough-winged swallow (Stelgidopteryx serripennis) *Bank swallow (Riparia riparia)
—Amphibians and reptiles Prairie skink (Eumeces septentrionalis) Plains garter snake (Thamnophis radix) Characteristic animal species None Rare animal species *Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) *Northern myotis (Myotis septentrionalis) *Eastern pipistrelle (Pipistrellus subflavus)
—Mammals * Little brown myotis (Myotis lucifugus)
Disturbance indicators and threats
*Big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus)
Lack of lichens on stable rock surfaces;
White-footed mouse (Peromyscus
presence of weedy plants such as hoary
leucopus)
alyssum, common buckthorn, or Canada bluegrass. Threats include trampling, rock climbing, roads, and development.
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Chapter 17
Associated natural communities Moist cliff, oak woodland-brushland, rock outcrop, and bedrock bluff prairie. Example 10. Interstate State Park
Moist Cliff Fact Sheet Status: 3 Structure A community composed of a patchy cover of mosses, liverworts, ferns, and other herbaceous plants growing on shady bedrock cliffs. Other characteristics Generally occurs on north-facing slopes or in narrow ravines.
Soils and substrate Little or no soil development; small accumulations of mineral sediment in cracks and on small ledges; moisture is available throughout the growing season from groundwater seepage or from condensation on cool rock surfaces. Historic distribution Southern Washington and Ramsey counties along the Mississippi River and southern Chisago County and northern Washington County along the St. Croix River. Present distribution Same as historic distribution except for losses in Ramsey County because of development. Existing acreage: undetermined Number of known locations: 2 Common plant species —Ground layer Conehead liverwort (Conocephalum conicum) Umbrella liverwort (Marchantia polymorpha) Spotted touch-me-not (Impatiens capensis) Bulblet fern (Cystopteris bulbifera) Characteristic plant species Fragile fern (Cystopteris fragilis) Common polypody (Polypodium Fig. 17.4 Moist cliff communities are common in deep ravines and on shaded bluffs along the St. Croix River Valley. This moist cliff is in a ravine just north of Stillwater in Washington County. Notice the abundant ferns and mosses, in contrast to the nearly bare rocks of the dry cliffs in figures 17.1 and 17.3.
Bedrock and Beach Communities
virginianum) Walking fern (Camptosaurus rhizophyllus) Rare plant species Cliff goldenrod (Solidago sciaphila)
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Moist Cliff Fact Sheet (cont.)
Associated natural communities
Animals of moist cliffs
—Mammals
The animals associated with moist cliffs
*l_ittle brown myotis (Myotis lucifugus)
Dry cliff, mesic oak forest, and maple-
closely resemble those found on dry cliffs. However, since moist cliffs are generally
*Big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) White-footed mouse (Peromyscus
basswood forest.
forested or oriented to the north or east,
leucopus)
reptiles do not find them suitable for basking. Animal species present on moist cliffs are largely determined by the adjacent
—Amphibians and reptiles
habitats. Species that use cliff cavities are identified by an asterisk (*) in the following
Characteristic animal species
lists.
Rare animal species *Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus)
Common animal species —Breeding birds * Eastern phoebe (Sayornis phoebe)
None
None
*Northern myotis (Myotis septentrionalis) *Eastern pipistrelle (Pipistrellus subflavus)
^Northern rough-winged swallow (Stelgidopteryx serripennis)
Disturbance indicators and threats
*Bank swallow (Riparia riparia)
ledges; presence of invasive plants such as white snakeroot and common buckthorn.
Lack of ferns and mosses on stable rock
Threats include trampling, road construction, and development.
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Chapter 17
Example 10. Interstate State Park
Rock Outcrop Fact Sheet Status: 3 Structure A sparsely vegetated community composed of lichens, mosses, and small herbaceous plants growing on rounded or nearly horizontal bedrock surfaces. Other characteristics Organisms must tolerate periods of complete desiccation and high surface temperatures from direct sunlight; fire is probably important in maintaining open nature of community. Soils and substrate Occurs in the Region only on basalt; little or no soil development except in cracks and potholes or at the margin of the rock outcrops; generally no water storage except for small, ephemeral surface pools. Historic distribution In the vicinity of Taylors Falls near the St. Croix River. Present distribution Same as historic distribution except for major losses caused by quarrying, road construction, trampling, and growth of weeds and woody plants. Existing acreage: 20 Number of known locations: 4 Common plant species —Shrub layer Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) —Ground layer Harebell (Campanula rotund/folia) Columbine (Aquilegia canadensis) Characteristic plant species Smooth cliff-brake (Pellaea glabella) Fig. 17.5 A rock outcrop community in Interstate State Park. Rock outcrop communities occur in the Region only in a small area near Taylors Falls in Chisago County where the basalt bedrock that underlies much of the Region is exposed along the St. Croix River. Although formerly open and dominated by prairie plants and plants adapted to growing on rocks, the Region's rock outcrop communities are now mostly overrun by
Rusty woodsia (Woods!a ilvensis) Cliff goldenrod (Solidago sciaphila) Rare plant species Rough-seeded fameflower (Talinum rugospermum)
trees and shrubs, such as red cedars and smooth sumacs.
Bedrock and Beach Communities
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Rock Outcrop Fact Sheet (cont.)
Animals of rock outcrops Rock outcrops provide habitat for animals
Disturbance indicators and threats Lack of lichens on rock surfaces; presence
that resembles that of cliff communities.
of invasive plants such as poison ivy,
The animals, however, are not restricted to
Tartarian honeysuckle, or Canada blue-
the outcrops and are usually more closely
grass. Threats include trampling, rock
associated with the surrounding vegetation,
climbing, road construction, or other
for example prairie or forest. Rock outcrops
development; displacement of herbs,
that form ledges and crevices are important
lichens, and mosses by red cedar in the
overwintering sites for snakes. Animals that
absence of fire.
use rock cavities are identified by an asterisk (*) in the following lists. Common animal species —Breeding birds
Associated natural communities Dry cliff, moist cliff, and oak woodlandbrushland.
* Eastern phoebe (Sayornis phoebe) —Mammals White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) —Amphibians and reptiles Prairie skink (Eumeces septentrionalis) Plains garter snake (Thamnophis radix) Characteristic animal species None Rare animal species Five-lined skink (Eumeces fasciatus) Racer (Coluber constrictor) Bullsnake (Pituophis melanoleucus) Rough-seeded fameflower
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Timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus)
Chapter 17
Example 10. Interstate State Park
Lake Beach Fact Sheet
Fig. 17.6 A sand beach at Snail Lake in Ramsey County during a low-water year. Undisturbed, undeveloped sand beaches are extremely rare in the Region. During low-water years such as this, seeds that have lain dormant for many years in the beach sands germinate in profusion. Notice the zones of vegetation corresponding to stepwise drops in the lake level.
Status: 3 Structure A sparsely vegetated community on exposed lake beaches; upper zones have a patchy cover of perennial graminoids;
a diverse variety of unusual native colonizers; in some years, lower zones are inundated in spring and then exposed in midsummer or late summer.
Present distribution Major losses throughout the Region
Soils and substrate
because of widespread shoreline development.
lower, exposed beach zones have a highly
Occurs on fine- to medium-textured wave-
distinctive flora of annuals and short-lived
washed sand and gravelly sand and some-
perennials; lower zone also contains
times on silt or muck in lower, drawdown
stranded submergent and floating-leaved
zones; no soil development; the upper
aquatic species.
beach zone is wave-washed and ice-
Other characteristics
occasional on lakes in Sherburne County on the Mississippi River terraces.
scoured.
Existing acreage: undetermined Number of known locations: undetermined Common plant species —Ground layer
Lakes with abrupt, steep margins or shores
Historic distribution
that receive strong wave action have coarse
At the margins of lakes throughout the
Blue vervain (Verbena hastata)
plants tolerant of inundation and erosion
Region but best developed on the broad,
and little vegetation zonation; shallow
firm, sandy margins of shallow lakes on the
Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum) Nodding smartweed (Polygonum
sand-bottomed lakes with broad, low-angle
Anoka sandplain, Grantsburg sublobe till
margins have distinct vegetation zones with
plain, and Rosemount outwash plain;
Bedrock and Beach Communities
FORBS
lapathifolium) Yellow-cress (Rorippa islandica)
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Lake Beach Fact Sheet (cont.)
Swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) Cut-leaved bugleweed (Lycopus americanus)
Rare plant species Waterwillow (Decodon verticillatus)
Golden dock (Rumex maritimus)
Walter's barnyard grass (Echinochloa
Monkey-flower (Mimulus ringens) Broad-leaved arrowhead (Sagittaria latifolia) GRAMINOIDS A species of umbrella sedge (Cyperus
waiter!)
Characteristic animal species Spotted sandpiper (Actitis macularia)
Marginated rush (Juncus marginatus) Tooth-cup (Rotala ramosior)
Rare animal species Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina)
Animals of lake beaches
Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii)
Few animals actually live in lake beach communities, but several species frequent
Disturbance indicators and threats
A species of sedge (Carex sychnocephala)
this habitat or the adjacent water to feed
Threats include dredging and filling to
A species of umbrella sedge (Cyperus
and are included in the following lists. The
modify shorelines; runoff from lawns; use of
surrounding habitats strongly influence the
herbicides or machinery to remove shore-
strigosus)
rivularis)
animals that are found in beach communi-
line plants; construction of swimming
Least spike-rush (Eleocharis acicularis)
ties. Turtles use sandy beach shores for
beaches, boat landings, and docks; housing
Reed canary-grass (Phalaris arundinacea)
basking and nesting sites, while the pres-
development; invasion of weedy species
ence of boulders may attract skinks.
such as reed canary-grass, purple looses-
Rice cut-grass (Leersia oryzoides)
Characteristic plant species Monkey-flower (Mimulus ringens) Least spike-rush (Eleocharis acicularis) Great lobelia (Lobelia siphilitica) St. John's-wort (Hypericum majus) Water star-grass (Heteranthera dubia) A species of umbrella sedge (Cyperus engelmanii)
trife, or horseweed. Common animal species —Breeding birds Great blue heron (Ardea herodias)
Small-flowered gerardia (Agalinis tenuifolia) Sessile-fruited arrowhead (Sagittaria rigida) A species of panic-grass (Panicum philadelphicum) A species of sedge (Fimbristylis autumnalis)
Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)
Examples
Killdeer (Charadrius vociferus) Belted kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon)
34. Wilder Forest
20. Snail Lake Regional Park
—Mammals Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) American beaver (Castor canadensis) Common muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) Meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius) Common raccoon (Procyon lotor) —Amphibians and reptiles American toad (Bufo americanus) Northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) Wood frog (R. sylvatica) Painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) Eastern garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis)
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Mixed emergent marsh and cattail marsh.
Canada goose (Branta canadensis)
Hemicarpha (Hemicarpha micrantha) Smith's bulrush (Scirpus smithii)
Associated natural communities
Chapter
(Distribution map not available because this community was not systematically inventoried by the Minnesota County Biological Survey.)
River Beach Fact Sheet
Fig. 17.7
A gravel-cobble river beach along Lake St. Croix in southeastern Washington County. River beach communities occur on
sand, mud, and gravelly or cobbly river beaches. The vegetation of the community is usually best developed on sandy or muddy beaches after drawdown of the river level in midsummer to late summer.
Status: undetermined Structure A community dominated by annual or short-lived perennial plants that grow on exposed river beaches; upper zones have a patchy to continuous cover of perennial graminoids and forbs; lower zones develop
Soils and substrate
possibly because of changes in hydrology
Occurs on fine to medium sandy alluvium
and sedimentation as a result of agricultural
and also on gravelly-sandy alluvium; no soil development; upper zone is typically flood-
activities.
ed in the spring and exposed throughout the growing season; lower zones become progressively exposed as water levels recede during the spring and summer.
a sparse cover of annuals and short-lived perennials.
Historic distribution Throughout the Region along the major
Other characteristics Locations continually shift because of erosion and deposition of sediments; ice scouring and floating logs also cause ero-
rivers (Mississippi, St. Croix, Rum, and Elk);
Existing acreage: undetermined Number of known locations: undetermined Common plant species —Ground layer WOODY SPECIES Silver maple (Acer saccharinum) FORBS
less common on the St. Francis and Sunrise
Blue vervain (Verbena hastata)
rivers.
Swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata)
sion; after low-water years, or along small,
Present distribution
Beggar-ticks (Bidens spp.)
subordinate channels, beach vegetation is
Primarily along the St. Croix and Rum
Cut-leaved bugleweed (Lycopus americanus)
dense because of accumulation of seed
rivers; major losses along the Mississippi
populations; silver maple and willow
because of development and stabilization of
Monkey-flower (Mimulus ringens)
seedlings can be abundant.
the shoreline; losses along the Elk River
Carpetweed (MoHugo verticillata)
Bedrock and Beach Communities
[155]
River Beach Fact Sheet (cont.)
Ditch stonecrop (Penthorum sedoides) Nodding smartweed (Polygonum lapathifolium) GRAMINOIDS A species of umbrella sedge (Cyperus a ri status) Creeping lovegrass (Eragrostis hypnoides) Rice cut-grass (Leersia oryzoides) Softstem bulrush (Scirpus validus var. creber)
White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) Common raccoon (Procyon lotor) —Amphibians and reptiles Wood frog (Rana sylvatica) Common map turtle (Graptemys geographies)
Disturbance indicators and threats An abundance of plants such as horseweed or daisy fleabane that invade from disturbed upland areas; abundant reed canary-grass or purple loosestrife. Threats include alteration of annual flooding and drawdown cycles caused by water control structures; dredging, filling, or stabilization of river beaches; disturbance associated with boat landings, docks, and campsites.
Characteristic plant species Monkey-flower (Mimulus ringens) Golden dock (Rumex maritimus) Tubercled amaranth (Amaranthus tuberculatus) Water-pepper (Polygonum hydropiper) Rare plant species Walter's barnyard grass (Echinochloa waiter!)
Associated natural communities Floodplain forest, lowland hardwood forest, and maple-basswood forest.
Animals of river beaches Animals use river beaches to forage or nest in much the same manner as they use lake beaches. River and stream banks are perhaps more important than beaches to animals, such as Louisiana waterthrushes and river otters, that require den or nest sites near water. These species are included in the following lists. Common animal species —Breeding birds Great blue heron (Ardea herodias) Killdeer (Charadrius vociferus) Belted kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon) —Mammals Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) American beaver (Castor canadensis)
[156]
Rare animal species Louisiana waterthrush (Seiurus motacilla) Northern cricket frog (Acris crepitans) Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) Wood turtle (Clemmys insculpta)
Examples 17. Rum River (west of Walbo Landing) 32. McLeod's Slough
Northern cricket frog
Painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) Spiny softshell turtle (Apalone spinifera) Characteristic animal species Spotted sandpiper (Actitis macularia)
Chapter 17
(Distribution map not available because this community was not systematically inventoried by the Minnesota County Biological Survey.)
18. Aquatic Habitats Aquatic habitats occur in lakes and rivers where there is permanent, usually deep, surface water. Although the variation may not always be readily apparent to the eye, the Region's aquatic habitats vary greatly, much like the upland and wetland habitats described in previous chapters. Differences in features of the major landforms (see map 3) cause variation in water fertility, water clarity, and bottom texture among the Region's rivers and (especially) lakes. In addition, there is variation within individual lakes and rivers in water depth, in the texture and composition of the bottom, in the availability of oxygen, in the slope of the bottom or shoreline, and in wave action or currents. These factors
Fig. 18.1
contribute to differences in the abundance, diversity, and distribution of aquatic plants and animals within individual bodies of water. As a result of this regional and local variation, aquatic habitats exist that are as distinct from one another as are a forest, a prairie, a swamp, and a marsh. The main difference between aquatic and upland or wetland habitats is that in aquatic habitats organisms are continuously bathed in water, rather than in air. (Although water is a key feature of wetland habitats, the surface water in wetlands is shallow and is not present continuously throughout the year, so most organisms in wetlands are not submersed completely or continuously.) This difference is
Aquatic habitat at Vadnais Lake in Ramsey County.
[157]
Freshwater Mussels of the St, Croix River sitors to the St,Croix River Valley are struck by the beauty of theriveras itflowspast densely wooded bluf and basalt rock outcrops and potholes. Few realize that beneath the waters, nestled into the substrate, are one of the St. Croix's greatest treasures, freshwater mussels. These unassuming and frequently overlooked members of the river bed community live partially buried in the river. Often the dead shells —accumulated in the middens of muskrats and river otters or washed up among the shoreline debris—are the only evidence that mussels are present in the area. The protective shells of the mussels come in 3 variety of sizes, shapes, and textures, as the common names of some local species suggest; giant floater, pimpleback, heelsplitter, and deertoe. Freshwater mussels are one of the most endangered groups of animals in North America (Cummings and Mayer 1992). Not only have mussel populations declined significantly, but also the diversity of species has been considerably reduced. The threats to the health and persistence of freshwater mussels are many and varied. Siltation from adjacent eroded lands, pollution from pesticides and other chemicals, dredging and damming of riverways, commercial harvesting, and the influx of exotic species have all taken their toll on mussel populations. The St. Croix River has not received the levels of environmental assault experienced by other large rivers and remains relatively clean. That, together with its range of substrate textures, water depths, and water velocities, likely accounts for the diverse assemblage of rnusset species found here. Thirty-eight species of freshwater mussels have been documented from the St. Croix, including five globally rare and six regionally rare species (Heath and Rasmussen 1990). The St. Croix River is vital to the sur-
V
reflected in the quite different requirements, appearance, and behavior of aquatic organisms compared to terrestrial organisms. For example, one of the most important influences on the vegetation of upland or wetland habitats is the availability of water. In aquatic habitats, however, water is never in short supply. Instead, the availability of light— which is greatly affected by water clarity and depth—is much more important and causes very noticeable patterns in the vegetation of lakes and rivers. Likewise, the distribution of many animals in aquatic habitats is strongly influenced by the availability of oxygen, whereas in upland or wetland habitats oxygen is continuously plentiful for most animals and does not affect their distribution as much as things like cover or food sources.
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vival of two federally endangered species, Higgins' eye (Lampsilis higginsi) and winged mapleleaf (Quadrufa fragosa). The Higgins' eye mussel has experienced a 53% reduction in its range and at present is found only at scattered sites along the upper Mississippi River and the St. Croix River (Havlik 1981, Higgins' Eye Mussel Recovery Team 1982). The winged mapleleaf mussel is thought to have been extirpated from its entire historic range except for a single remnant population in the St. Croix River (Winged Mapleleaf Mussel Recovery Team 1993). Efforts are underway to preserve the existing populations of these mussels in the St. Croix, as well as to establish viable populations elsewhere. However, looming at the mouth of the river is a new threat to native mussel species in the St. Croix—the zebra mussel. This Old World import has been found in the Mississippi River and now threatens to move up into the St. Croix. Its prolific breeding and habit of forming massive colonies may decimate the existing mussel beds. Recent evidence suggests that the water chemistry of the St. Croix River may limit the expansion of the zebra mussel. Only time will tell whether this river can continue to provide sanctuary to the native mussels.
Another consequence of the basic differences between aquatic and upland or wetland habitats is that surveying of aquatic habitats requires personnel skilled in methods of observation and sampling that are quite different from those required for surveying upland or wetland habitats. Because of this, surveying of aquatic habitats was beyond the scope of the Minnesota County Biological Survey in this Region. Therefore, descriptions of aquatic habitats analogous to
Fig. 18.2
The most extensive aquatic plant beds in rivers are in shallow
backwaters where there is little current to disrupt the vegetation. These beds of emergent andjloating-leaved plants are at Crosby Lake along the Mississippi River in Ramsey County. The large-leaved plants in the background are lotUS-lilieS.
Chapter 18
MnDNR photo by C. Converse
those of the upland and wetland habitats do not appear in this book. Nevertheless, it is important to remember that lakes and rivers provide habitat for many species of native plants and animals. Aquatic habitats along the edges of lakes and rivers often merge with the marsh habitats described in chapter 15 or the beach habitats described in chapter 17.
of invertebrate species in a stream can be greatly affected by decomposing tree leaves that fall into the stream. Moreover, many animals move regularly between aquatic habitats and upland or wetland habitats. For example, eagles and ospreys, which are considered terrestrial animals, obtain most of their food by foraging over the surface of lakes or
They share many plant species with these habitats, includ-
respects aquatic, lay their eggs in nests on beaches or occasionally forage in uplands adjacent to streams or lakes. Upland, wetland, and aquatic habitats are interrelated and modify one another in countless other ways as well.
ing emergent aquatic plants, such as wild rice, bulrushes, and cattails, and floating-leaved plants such as water-lilies and pond-lilies (fig. 18.2). Several species of frogs breed in the shallows of lakes and river backwaters, and these areas are also frequented by muskrats, beavers, belted kingfishers, and snapping turtles. In deeper water, the emergent and floating-leaved plants tend to give way to submergent aquatic plants such as pondweeds and coontail. The beds formed by these plants are important nurseries for many fish species; they are also inhabited by many species of invertebrates, including crayfish, and are visited by foraging waterbirds such as goldeneyes or grebes. Lakes and rivers also contain important habitats that are not shaped primarily by vegetation. For example, the muddy, sandy, gravelly, or rocky bottoms of lakes and rivers provide habitat for several species of mussels, for insect larvae and other invertebrates, and for hibernating frogs and turtles (see the sidebar on the freshwater mussels of the St. Croix
rivers, while some species of turtles, which are in most
Much like the Region's upland and wetland habitats, the Region's aquatic habitats have been heavily influenced over the past 150 years by activities associated with agricultural, residential, and urban development. Although the changes caused by development have not been studied systematically, evidence suggests that they include a decline in native species diversity similar to that in many upland and wetland communities. Among the serious continuing threats to the Region's aquatic habitats are increased siltation of lakes and rivers from erosion of uplands following land clearing; nutrient-rich and pollutant-laden runoff from cropland and lawns; chemical pollutants from industry and municipal sewage treatment systems; leaching residential septic systems; artificial water level or flow control by dams; alteration of basins or channels by dredging and filling;
River). The upper surfaces of open-water areas contain
drainage of shallow lakes and ponds; and invasion by exotic
many types of free-floating algae, which form the base of the aquatic food chain and are an essential source of energy for animal life. Open-water areas are also inhabited by many species of aquatic invertebrates and fish and by foraging river otters and many waterbirds. Lakes and rivers are also integrally associated with the other habitats of the Region described in earlier chapters. The relationship of aquatic habitats to marsh and beach habitats has already been mentioned. Other habitats, when
species such as Eurasian water-milfoil or zebra mussels. The diversity of aquatic habitats in the Region and their importance for plants and animals are well worth further exploration. Although more technical than the treatment in this book, the widely used Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States (Cowardin et al. 1979) provides an introduction to the way aquatic communities are classified and described. The classic work The Vegetation of Wisconsin (Curtis 1959) contains a discussion of the impor-
they occur along lakes or rivers, are strongly interconnected
tant influences on aquatic plant communities, along with
with aquatic habitats. For example, when a tree from an
descriptions of their structure and composition. Appendix
adjacent forest falls into a lake or a river, it provides cover
2 of this book lists several good sources of information on animals of aquatic habitats.
for fish or a basking site for turtles, and the composition
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Chapter 18
Summary and Outlook Landscapes and the habitats they contain change continuously under the influence of geologic processes, climate, and the plants and animals that live within them. The landscape and habitats of the St. Croix River Valley—Anoka Sandplain Region are no exception. Millions of years of change are recorded in the bedrock now underlying the Region. Evidence of tremendous glacial forces is recorded across the surface of the landscape. Layers of pollen and plant material in bog and lake sediments tell of changes in the vegetation over the past 12,000 years, from spruce parkland to prairie to woodland-brushland and deciduous forests. Accounts from early explorers and land survey records from the mid-1800s document changes in the landscape caused by American Indians, who burned the vegetation. When European-Americans came to the Region, they initiated a phase of accelerated change to the landscape that brought about, for the first time, a landscape overwhelmingly created by humans. The rate and extent of some of this recent change are reflected in the records of Euro-American settlement. Very few European-Americans even lived in the Region before the 1850s (Andriot 1983), yet by 1874 it was declared that much of the woodland and forest of Anoka County had been cut or opened into farmland and villages (Andreas 1874). The human population of the Region climbed from less than 5,000 in 1850 to 200,000 in 1890 (Andriot 1983, U.S. Bureau of the Census 1991). By the early 1900s, perhaps as many as 107,000 acres of wetlands, or more than 7% of the total surface area of the Region, had been ditched and drained (Palmer 1915). In 1936 the botanist F. K. Butters decried the widespread loss of prairies and tamarack swamps in the area surrounding the Twin Cities (Butters 1936). By 1940, more than 70% of the Region was cleared for farmland (U.S. Bureau of the Census 1860-1987). In recent decades, people who have spent time in rural parts of the Region watching birds or other wildlife, looking for wildflowers, hiking, or hunting probably have perceived the increasing pressure placed on forests, wetlands,
and other native habitats by urban growth. Important forest and wetland breeding and nesting sites have been fragmented or drained to make housing projects. Prairies that harbored abundant wildflowers have been turned into gravel pits and school grounds. Wetlands have been drained for sod farms and filled to make sites for shopping centers. In spite of the general awareness that recent change to the landscape has been substantial, the picture that emerges from data collected in the Region between 1987 and 1990 by the Minnesota County Biological Survey (MCBS) is startling (see the accompanying graph).
Acreage of native habitats in the Region before extensive Euro-American settlement and in 1990.
As we stated in the preface, of the 1.5 million acres of land in the Region, less than 90,000 acres, or less than 6% of the total area, remain in native habitat (Marschner 1974, Minnesota County Biological Survey 1995). Upland habitats have been most affected. Of the forests present at the time of Euro-American settlement, about 6% remain. Only 1% of the prairies and 3% of the native oak savanna and woodland are left. Fairly large acreages of wetland habitats remain: about 26,500 acres, or 25%, of the forested swamps and shrub swamps are left, and about 18,150 acres, or about 10%, of the marshes and wet meadows are still intact. However, the wetland habitats that have persisted have far fewer
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plant species than wetlands in pristine areas; many of them are composed almost exclusively of common and wideranging plants such as cattails or reed canary-grass. Overall, a fair number of native plant and animal species still inhabit the Region: about 1,340 vascular plant species and about 260 terrestrial vertebrates, 100 aquatic vertebrates, and many invertebrates. We cannot compare these numbers with presettlement numbers because the total flora and fauna of the Region have not been extensively documented until recently. We do know, however, that certain important and highly visible species have largely disappeared from the Region. These include bison and elk, which once grazed on the prairies along the Mississippi River; the gray
In Pursuit of Large Predators sent-day images of the fauna of the St. Croix River Valley-Anoka Sandplain Region do not include a gray wolf den on Blue Hill or black bears in oak trees near Elk River in Sherburne County, yet these were not uncommon occurrences throughout the Region up to the early 1900s. As the Region became increasingly populated and wild lands were converted to crops and timber, these large predators were pushed into the remote regions of northern Minnesota. Gray wolves were present in southern Minnesota until about 1855 and were reported as being "relatively numerous" in Sherburne County in 1882. During the winter of 1884-85, wolves were especially abundant and "insolent" in Wright County (across the river from Sherburne County) and could be seen on the outskirts of Monticelto in broad daylight (Herrick 1892). Even as late as 1903, wolves were so thick that the people of Sherburne County were afraid to be out at night (Sherburne County Historical Society 1975). Whether this danger was real or perceived cannot be said, yet during this period of intense agricultural
p
development of the Region, the presence of gray wolves was cause for great concern for the safety of family and livestock. Tales of near-death encounters were the stuff of great interest and were undoubtedly told, embellished, and retold many times over (Herrick 1892): [Around 1860, when John D. Wilcoxl lived at Sunrise in Chisago county, having worked through a winter day in the woods, making sugar~traughsrone and a half miles from home, which was at Sunrise, he was chased by a half dozen or more wolves, which he saw bounding up and down in their pursuit of his track, sndfteard their yelping; with the greatest haste possible he got across the open land where he then was and climbed up into a tree,
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wolf, which apparently roamed into Sherburne County as late as the 1920s (Sherburne County Historical Society 1975); the long-billed curlew, which was last sighted in eastern Minnesota near Moore Lake in Columbia Heights o in 1895 (Breckenridge 1949); the passenger pigeon, which roosted near Lake Johanna in Ramsey County in the late 1800s (Roberts 1932); the greater prairie-chicken; and others. Populations of other species have been reduced to such low numbers here and elsewhere in Minnesota and the United States that they are now protected by state and federal laws or are monitored by government agencies such as the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources and the
but only barely in time to save himself, for the wolves were immediately at the tree, jumping up, yelping, and making the evening hideous. Whenever gray wolves were spotted, the local forces were rallied and bounties paid in reward. Wolf hunts, ostensibly held as a service to the focal farming communities, were popular sporting events. The Minneapolis Wolf Destroying Association, unable to find suitable hunting targets nearer home, offered farmers in Anoka County $10 for every live wolf, $5 for every fox, and $1.50 for every jaekrabbit they could capture over a two-week period in 1885. During the fall of 1864, the St. Paul Sporting Club hosted a hunt in Anoka County and offered 100 points for each bear shot, 75 points for a wolf, 50 points for a deer, 40 points for a fox, and 25 points for a sandhill crane {Swanson 1940). When a pack of wolves was observed near Fridtey in Anoka County during the winter of 1893, the call for a hunt was put out and 500 men responded. A Minneapolis Journal (Dec. 21-23,1893) reporter recounted the adventure: "The crusade...turned out a fiasco....Not a single wolf is the worse for yesterday's campaign....[There was] an illimitable amount of coughing and sneezing, a fairish lot of damning, the waste of something like 2,000 rounds of ammunition, and the cost of team hire." On the day following the ill-fated hunt, a local farmer went over that same area, shot three gray wolves, and collected the bounty (as reported in Swanson 1940). Persecution of gray wolves was effective throughout the Region. The last wolf was shot in Sherburne County In 1917. However, with the elimination of griay wolves, "brush wolves," or coyotes, moved into the Region and increased in numbers. Coyotes were not found in Sherburne County before 1875, but by 1882 they had become serious predators on sheep in the area (Bailey 1929).
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. In all, 133 of the plant and animal species recorded in the Region since 1970 are rare enough to be protected or monitored.
As uncommon as they are, the small fragments of the native landscape that have survived to the present continue to be destroyed or degraded by housing developments, road construction, tree planting, invasion by exotic species, runoff from cropland and lawns, and succession in the absence of wildfires. Some of the most significant sites of native vegetation identified by the MCBS in the late 1980s—such as Bunker Hills savanna and prairie, and tracts of oak and
maple-basswood forest along the St. Croix River in northern Washington and southern Chisago counties—have already been lost to housing developments, road construction, golf course expansion, off-road vehicle trails, and selective logging. Further, there is great potential for continued destruction of native habitats. The human populations of most of the Region's counties are growing dramatically (see fig. 4.7), and the amount of urban land in parts of the Region has increased by more than 40% in the past two decades (for example, the amount of urban land rose by 44% in Washington County and by 50% in Anoka County between 1970 and 1990) (Metropolitan Council 1982,1993).
from the north during summer and early fall (Bailey 1929). The oak forests and oak savannas typical of the Anoka sandplaJn undoubtedly were an abundant source of acorns that were highly attractive to black bears. Bear meat was regularly sold in the meat markets of Minnesota during the mid-1800s. The extensive demand for bear meat, particularly in the larger cities in the Region, probably had a major impact on bears in the surrounding area. In 1863, a St. Paul meat market featured trie sale of bear meat from the St. Croix area, and the Metropolitan Saloon proudly served "young cub bar meat" (Swanson 1940). Before market-hunting of wild game was restricted, hunting bears was a profitable enterprise. In 1857, an American Indian band living near St. Cloud sold 13 bears for meat and hides, arid 50 bear carcasses were shipped by rail to St. Paul markets in 1877. In fact, bear meat was so plentiful in the St. Cloud area that butchers called it pork to stimulate sales (Swanson 1940). The taming of the Region has altered the prominence of
Black bears were another large predator that received special notice when they appeared in agricultural areas within the Region. Because they had a reputation for carrying away smaller livestock, such as pigs and calves, bears were pursued with great vigor. When one was sighted in 1875 near Elk River, a posse was formed that tracked the animal for more than a week (Sherburne County Historical Society 1975). While bears occurred regularly In the more heavily forested areas in the northeastern part of the Region, they were apparently not common residents in the southwestern half. Early settlers of Sherburne County claimed that bears never wintered there but would come down
large predators in the resident fauna. Black bears have not been totally excluded from the Region. Their black forms crossing country roads are an uncommon but regular sight in northeastern Chisago County, and their footprints in the late-fall snow along the St. Croix River in Washington County testify to their presence. The large expanses of wild lands at Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area and Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge provide sanctuary for the occasional black bear that crosses the inhospitable territory of human habitation that surrounds these refuges. Gray wolves have not fared as well as black bears and are now gone from the Region. Coyotes den near Blue Hill where wolf pups were once found. But gray wolves range close along the northeastern border of the Region, and it is not inconceivable that their howls may be heard from the forests near Sunrise; once again.
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Fragmenting the Landscape Ihis series of aerial photographs documents the progressive fragmentation, between 1953 and 1990, of an area of native dry barrens prairie and dry oak savanna near Bunker Lake in southern Anoka County. The prairie and savanna occur on sand dunes witli poor, droughty soils, which made them undesirable for cultivation. In contrast, most of the sur-
t
raphy just west of Bunker Lake (F in the 1970 photograph), was destroyed by expansion of the golf course in 1989 (F in the 1990 photograph). The fragmentation and loss of areas of native savanna and prairie such as at Bunker Hills have caused significant declines
rounding, more fertile land was cleared and plowed before the late 1930s. The savanna and prairie on the site may have been grazed at times in the past, but judging from the condition of the present prairie and savanna remnants, the vegetation was not greatly altered by grazing. The first photograph, tram 1953, shows the area largely intact. A few clearings are present within the tract, and a gravel road passes through the center of it. Pines were planted in the west-central part of the site sometime before 1953. They appear as a faint gray patch (labeled 4) in the center of the 1953 photo. In the late 1960s, Anoka County began developing a park on the site. Wide paved roads were cut through the area, and a golf course was constructed in the southwest corner of the site, destroying the native prairie and savanna that had been there (B and C in the photo taken in 1970). In the 1970s and 1980s additional roads, parking lots, a wave pool, and trails were built in the area. Also evident from the 1970 and 1990 photos is the encroachment of housing developments along the eastern edge of the site (D in the 1970 and 1990 photos). Small but significant tracts of native prairie and savanna remained on the site into the late 1980s. However, one of the best of these areas of native vegetation, a barrens oak savanna on rolling dune topog-
Set against these increasing pressures is the fact that only a small portion of the remaining native habitats in the Region is protected in any official way (see the accompanying table). Of the 87,400 acres of native habitats documented in the Region between 1987 and 1992, about 30% are in managed areas, such as natural areas, state parks, county parks, city parks, wildlife refuges, wildlife management areas, and national and scenic riverways. Only about 6% of the remaining native habitats, or 0.4% of the total landscape of the Region, are in designated preserves such as state scientific and natural areas, where they are protected from road and trail construction, campsite development, artificial flooding and drawdown, and logging. There are no relatively unaltered or undisturbed stands of some habitats, such as sphagnum tamarack swamps, mesic oak forests, and rich fens, that are publicly owned and protected.
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Aerial view of the Bunker Hills area, 1953.
Ownership Private land
71%
State parks
6%
Wildlife management areas
6%
Private nature reserves
5%
County parks
3%
National wildlife refuges
3%
State forests
3%
City parks
1%
National scenic riverways
1%
Scientific and natural areas
1%
Total
100%
Ownership of the remaining native habitats in the Region in 1990. Of the 1,445,000 acres of land in the Region, about 87,400 acres (or 6%) remain in native habitats. Of these native habitats, 25,600 acres are publicly owned, while 61,800 acres (about 71 % of the remaining acreage) are privately owned.
in populations of animals and plants in the Region that depend on these habitats. Animals such as the loggerhead shrike and lark sparrow and plants such as tall nut-rush were probably once common in the Region's savannas and prairies. Since 1977, breeding pairs of shrikes have been observed at just 16
sites in the Region. Only about five populations of tall nut-rush are known, Fragmentation of other native habitats, such as maple-basswood forests and oak forests, has caused similar losses in the plants and animals associated with them.
Aerrial view of the Bunker Hills area, 1970
Aerial view of the Bunker Hills area,1990
The small patches of native habitats that remain in 1994 will not necessarily survive continuing growth and development without some combination of awareness, concern, planning, and legal or financial incentives for protection. The economic and population pressures of the 1800s that led to the extermination of bison and elk from the Mississippi River terrace prairies in Sherburne County, the widespread cultivation of the prairies of southern Washington County, and the extensive cutting of the forests in Chisago and Isanti counties, still greatly influence how land and resources are used in the Region. This book is intended in part to provide guidance for people whose decisions and lifestyles affect the way land is used. These decisions range from zoning and park management plans to school curriculum, private land management, and choosing a place to live. As more of the Region's human
inhabitants appreciate and value the diversity of the native landscape, they may also realize that the choices they make will determine whether or not native habitats will persist in the Region.
Even though much of the native landscape has been altered in the past 150 years, opportunities remain to view portions of the Region as it once appeared. Small tracts of forest, prairie, savanna, and swamp have remained relatively intact while agricultural activity and urban development have proceeded. These tracts serve as habitats for native plants and animals and also provide glimpses of how the landscape might have appeared in the early 1800s. Some of these sites are accessible to the public and are described in part III.
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PART IIII A Guide to Selected Sites in the Region This guide and the accompanying maps highlight 35 sites where one can go to see some of the best examples of the native habitats in the Region. The landscape is constantly changing because of natural disturbances such as flooding or drought, natural processes of succession, and widespread human activity. Consequently, some of the site descriptions presented here will eventually become outdated. In addition, some habitats, such as maple-basswood forest, dry prairie, and mesic prairie, are not well represented in this guide because no large or high-quality examples occur on public land. Nevertheless, each of the places described here, even if small, provides an opportunity for the visitor to see firsthand the diversity, complexity, and beauty of the native landscapes of the Region. The sites are organized in part III by county. For each site we list selected natural community or native habitat types. Refer to the corresponding fact sheets and descriptions in part II for interpretation of each habitat type. Appendix 2 lists resources, such as field identification guides and related maps, that are helpful in preparing for a site visit. A Minnesota state road map is necessary for locating the towns and highways mentioned in the directions to each site.
Visiting Natural Areas he Scientific and Natural Area (SNA) program has developed the following rules for visitors to SNAs. The same rules should be adhered to at other areas of native habitats to protect these remnants throughout the Region. In addi-
t
tion, groups of 10 or more people planning to visit an SNA must contact the program at the Department of Natural Resources in St. Paul. * No collecting plants, animals, rocks, or fossils.* *• No camping, picnicking, or swimming except in designated areas. * No snowmobiles or other motorized vehicles, * No horses, dogs, or other pets. * No hunting, trapping, fishing, or boating except where allowed.
* No entry into restricted areas and sanctuaries. * No research projects without proper authorization. *Species that are listed by the State of Minnesota or the U.S. government as endangered or threatened, native species in the orchid family, native species of trilliums, lilies, lotus-lily, and trailing arbutus are protected by law and must not be harmed or collected. In all cases, visitors should respect property boundaries as posted. The maps provided in part 111 are not intended to indicate legal boundaries because of possible changes in ownership and possible mapping errors. Most of these areas are quite accessible; however, visitors should be adequately outfitted for those that are more challenging because of difficult access, rough terrain, insect pests, thick understory vegetation, or extreme weather conditions.
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List of Sites Anoka County 1. Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area 2. Bunker Hills Regional Park 3. Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area: Pool 9 4. Carlos Avery Wildlife Management
12. Osceola Landing (south of Osceola bridge) 13. Wild River State Park: Goose Creek Natural Area 14. Wild River State Park: Sunrise Landing East
Area: Twin Lakes, Zodiac Street, and
Isanti County
Pool 16
15. Lyndon Cedarglade Park
5. Helen Allison Savanna Scientific and Natural Area 6. Martin-lsland-Linwood Lakes Regional
16. Spectacle Lake Wildlife Management Area 17. Rum River (west of Walbo Landing)
Park: Island Lake Boardwalk 7. Martin-lsland-Linwood Lakes Regional Park: Linwood Lake Chisago County 8. Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area.- Wyoming Dunes 9. Chengwatana State Forest: Stevens Creek Landing 10. Interstate State Park 11. Osceola Landing (north of Osceola bridge)
Ramsey County 18. Battle Creek Regional Park 19. Fort Snelling State Park: Pike Island 20. Snail Lake Regional Park 21. Maplewood Nature Center: Jim's Prairie Sherburne County 22. Mississippi River Islands Scientific and Natural Area 23. Sand Dunes State Forest (southeast dunes)
Locations of the 35 sites described in part HI. For other locations of native habitats in the Region, see Minnesota's St. Croix River Valley and Anoka Sandplain: Maps of Native Habitats (Minnesota County Biological Survey 1995), available as a companion to this book.
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A Guide to Selected Sites in the Region
24. Sand Prairie Wildlife Management Area 25. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: Mahnomen Trail and Blue Hill Trail 26. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: Orrock Dunes 27. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: Santiago Oak Savanna Research and Natural Area 28. Uncas Dunes Scientific and Natural Area Washington County 29. Falls Creek Scientific and Natural Area 30. Lee and Rose Warner Nature Center 31. Lost Valley Prairie Scientific and Natural Area 32. McLeod's Slough 33. St. Croix Savanna Scientific and Natural Area 34. Wilder Forest 35. William O'Brien State Park
/. Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area Natural community types Mesic oak forest White pine-hardwood forest Mixed hardwood swamp Sphagnum tamarack swamp Alder swamp Mixed emergent marsh Wet meadow Rich fen Location, directions, and legal description In northeastern Anoka County. From Highway 65, go east on County Road 22 for 4.5 miles; turn east onto County Road 17 (Lexington Avenue), continue 1.25 miles, then turn north on Jodrell Street. Go 0.8 miles, and park at the side of the road. Most of E 1/2 section 19, NW 1/4 sec. 20, SW 1/4 sec. 17, SE 1/4 sec. 18, T33N R22W. Natural features Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area (SNA) features a diversity of native habitats, from
the lake itself to beautiful white pinehardwood forests (see fig. 7.2). The outlet stream from Boot Lake cuts through an open wetland on shallow peat that supports alder swamp, rich fen, and wet meadow; these communities are visible on the west side of Jodrell Street, just south of Linwood Lake. A small, peat-filled basin near the southeast end of Boot Lake has a tamarack swamp with a carpet of sphagnum moss. Another basin has a few jack pines on peat, and yet another has white pine on a muck substrate. Geologically, the lake and peatfilled depressions are part of a chain of ice block lakes within a tunnel valley system created when this area was covered by glacial ice more than 12,000 years ago (see the sidebar on ice block depressions in chapter 1). The greatest variety of plants in the upland forests is encountered along forest edges near wetlands. Plants here include interrupted fern, blue-bead lily, round-
Anoka County
branched ground-pine, ground-cedar, blueberry, and huckleberry. In late September, about the time the red maples are changing color, look for bright red fruits on female winterberry bushes, a native member of the holly family. Birds of the boreal forest, such as Nashville warbler and pine warbler, are attracted to the white pines around Boot Lake and reach their southern range limit in Minnesota in this vicinity (see the sidebar on willow and alder flycatchers in chapter 14). Barred owls are common in the oak forest, and sandhill cranes are frequently heard to the east. Refer to Longley (1990, 1991 b) for a complete list of breeding birds at the site. Visitors should not enter the portions of the SNA posted as sanctuary, because this area protects red-shouldered hawk and bald eagle nest sites. Ownership State of Minnesota, Department of Natural Resources (DNR), Section of Wildlife
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2. Bunker Hills Regional Park Natural community types
Natural features
flower, prairie larkspur, prairie bird-foot
Barrens oak savanna
Until recent decades, the Bunker Hills dune
violet, puccoons, and false heather bloom
Barrens prairie
formation was a haven, amidst miles of
during early to mid-May. Large-flowered
Wet meadow
agricultural land, for creatures of the bar-
beard-tongue blooms in mid-June. Lark
rens oak savanna community. Today, it is a
sparrows, bullsnakes, and hognose snakes
busy metropolitan park, with only small
occur in sparsely vegetated, sandy savanna
patches of dune vegetation remaining
habitat, as well as in old fields west of
Location, directions, and legal description In central Anoka County. From Highway 65 in Blaine, go west 2 miles on Highway 242, and turn north on Foley Boulevard, which becomes park road A. To reach the family campground, turn right on road B, then right on road C. To reach county land on the west side of the railroad tracks, park either on Highway 242 or on County Road 116. In both cases, there is only a small place to park; use caution. E 1/2 section 2, N 1/2 sec. 9, T31N R24W; and SE 1/4 sec. 35, SW 1/4 sec. 36, T32N R24W.
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within the archery range and the family
Bunker Lake. These dry, open habitats are
campground and as a backdrop along the
critical for the rare plains pocket mouse,
north end of the golf course (see the side-
which is largely restricted to the few
bars on dunes in chapter 1 and on frag-
remnants of barrens prairie found in
menting the landscape in the summary of part II). Native prairie plants can be seen
the Region.
along the loop through the family campground or on the west side of the railroad tracks in small remnants of bur oak savanna. Showy plants such as pasque-
Anoka County
Ownership Anoka County
3. Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area: Pool 9 Location, directions, and legal description
peatland system. The open-water pools at
watch for river otters playing and fishing in
In northeastern Anoka County. From Inter-
Carlos Avery were created by the construc-
the pools. In the surrounding oak woodland
state 35 at Wyoming, go west 0.5 mile on
tion of dikes. Open water attracts a wide
and forest, deer, gray squirrels, and even
County Road 22, then turn west onto 205th
variety of waterbirds, such as loons, grebes,
the secretive gray fox may be seen.
Avenue and continue west 1.25 miles. Turn
black terns, Forster's terns, yellowlegs, and
south 0.25 mile past the high transmission
solitary sandpipers, in addition to the
the 1930s caused great losses of native poor fen, rich fen, and wet meadow com-
Changes in water level and peat fires in
lines, and go about 1.6 miles. Turn south
numerous ducks and geese. Common
again and go 0.5 mile to reach Pool 9.
nesting birds are Virginia rails, soras, marsh
munities once found at Carlos Avery WMA.
Proceed carefully through areas of loose
wrens, red-winged blackbirds, and yellow-
Cattail marshes are now widespread in their
sand along the road. Section 22, sec. 23,
headed blackbirds. Careful observation may
place. These marshes differ from native
W 1/2 sec. 26, N 1/2 sec. 27, T33N
reveal a Wilson's phalarope, common
marshes in that the overall species diversity
R22W.
moorhen, sandhill crane, or American
is fairly low and the typical dominant,
Natural features Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area (WMA) is one of several extraordinary places to view birds within the metropolitan area. Historically, great displays of waterbirds took place on the Coon Lake chain of lakes to the west and on the Rice Creek chain of lakes to the south of this former
bittern (see the sidebar on sandhill cranes
broad-leaved cattail, is being displaced by
in chapter 15). In spring, early-morning
the recent invasion of narrow-leaved cattail
visitors are rewarded by the many and
as well as a vigorous hybrid of the two
varied bird songs. Those who stay until
species.
dark hear the frenzied calls of breeding frogs, such as spring peepers and chorus frogs, which can become deafening at times. Dawn and dusk are good times to
Anoka County
Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Section of Wildlife
[171]
4. Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area: Twin Lakes, Zodiac Street, and Pool 16 Natural community types Dry oak forest Wet prairie Wet meadow Rich fen Poor fen Location, directions, and legal description In northeastern Anoka County. To Twin Lakes; from the Carlos Avery game farm on County Road 18 (5.7 miles east of Highway 65], go east 0.3 mile, then go north about 1.1 miles, and park near a r intersection. SW1/4 section 32, T33N R22W. To Zodiac Street: from the game farm, go east 1.4 miles, then go north 0.2 mile to view the
grass, over 50 species of vascular plants can be found here, many of which do not occur in other habitat types. The vegetation is not tall; low-growing species such as common strawberry, several species of rush, three species of panic-grass, giant goldenrod, and grass-leaved goldenrod are common. The most colorful display occurs in late August or early September, when the nodding ladies'-tresses and small-flowered gerardia are flowering. Closer to the ground among patches of hair-cap moss are purple
poor fen from the road. To Pool 16: from the game farm, go south about 3 miles, keeping to the west or outer side of the loop; from the southwest corner of Pool 16, continue eastward about 0.6 mile to the wet prairie, and park at the side of the road. Caution; vehicles can become mired in loose sand. NW 1/4 section 18, T32N R22W. Natural features Remnants of the once expansive "wiregrass meadows," "cranberry bogs," and "leatherleaf bogs" can be seen at a few places around the periphery of Carlos Avery WMA, A "wiregrass meadow," or poor fen dominated by wiregrass, occurs on private land along the east side of Zodiac Street just north of County Road 18. A poor fen dominated by the low shrub leatherteaf occurs at the north end of west Twin Lake; the fen is reached by walking through a typical dry oak forest. Along the south margin of Pool 16 is a 200-yard stretch of wet prairie in a narrow zone of moist sand. This kind of wet prairie was probably once common at the margin of wetlands on the Anoka sandplain, especially where fires occurred. Despite road building, impoundments, and the invasion of species such as redtop and reed canary-
11721
Anoka County
milkwort, sdder's-tongue, LoeseI's twayblade, and a sedge with round orange fruits fCarex aurea). During the fall and spring, rough-legged hawks may be seen hovering over this area looking for the movement o( meadow voles. A watchful eye may also catch a glimpse of an ermine dashing through the grass in pursuit of voles. Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Section of Wildlife
5. Helen Allison Savanna Scientific and Natural Area Natural community types
first acquisitions in Minnesota. Since its
meadows are the finest on the Anoka sand-
Barrens oak savanna
first prescribed burn in 1962, about a third
plain—they have a wide array of native
Wet meadow
of the savanna has been burned each year
plants and no introduced pasture grasses
on a rotating basis. The frequent, low-
such as timothy or redtop. Meadows such
Location, directions, and legal description In northeastern Anoka County. From Highway 65 at Bethel, go east on County Road 24 for 1 mile, turn south on County Road 26, and continue for 3.3 miles. At County Road 15, go south 0.25 mile and park in the small pull-over area. N 1/2 of NE 1/4 section 2, T33N R23W.
intensity spring fires have helped to keep
as these are usually degraded because they
American hazelnut and Kentucky bluegrass
have been preferred spots for grazing
from spreading.
horses and cattle.
The entire site has an impressive total
Visitors are requested to disperse their
of over 200 species of vascular plants. The
walkways to avoid creating trails through
rare sea-beach needlegrass occurs in
this small site. You can picnic nearby at
sparsely vegetated, bowl-shaped
Martin-lsland-Linwood Lakes Regional
"blowouts" near the dune crests; the dune
Park.
Natural features
crests themselves are rimmed by sand
This beautifully sculptured dune landscape
reedgrass. In contrast, lush green pockets
contains one of the best tracts of barrens
of wet meadow vegetation occupy swales
oak savanna remaining in the Region (see
between the dunes. A state endangered
the sidebar on dunes in chapter 1 and figs.
plant, tall nut-rush, grows in moist sand at
9.1 and 9.3). In 1960, The Nature Conser-
meadow margins with pale-spiked lobelia
vancy purchased the land as one of their
and arrow-leaved violet. These wet
Anoka County
Ownership The Nature Conservancy; leased to the State of Minnesota, DNR, Section of Wildlife
[173]
6. Martin-Island-Linwood Lakes Regional Park: Island Lake Boardwalk Natural community types
Natural features
water level in this basin appears to have
Wet meadow
The highlight of this park is the rich fen
dropped rapidly some time in the past, as
Rich fen
visible from the first stretch of the board-
evidenced by a steep, water-eroded bank
walk trail. Over 60 species of native plants
along the north side of the island north of
Location, directions, and legal description In northeastern Anoka County. From Interstate 35 at Wyoming, go west on County Road 22 for 4.5 miles, then turn north on County Road 26 and go 1 mile. There is a picnic area at the south end of Martin Lake on the west side of the road. From the picnic area, follow a hiking trail on the west side of the creek past planted pine trees, then go south onto a boardwalk trail. SW 1/4 section 4, NW 1/4 sec. 9, T33N R22W.
[174]
occur within a yard of the boardwalk as it
present-day Island Lake. Now red maple
crosses the quaking peatland. Dominant
trees more than 18 inches in diameter grow
graminoids are wiregrass, blue-joint, and
on mineral soil where the wet organic soil
beaked sedge. In late August, red-stemmed
has washed away. Steep banks such as this
aster, joe-pye weed, two species of willow-
also occur nearby at the southeast margin
herb, and bog goldenrod are in bloom.
of Linwood Lake and Rice Lake.
Unnatural changes, such as the invasion of purple loosestrife and alder buckthorn, may bring about the rapid demise of this fen and, unfortunately, fens of this quality are deteriorating elsewhere in the Region. The
Anoka County
Ownership Anoka County
7. Martin-Island-Linwood Lakes Regional Park: Linwood Lake Natural community types Mesic oak forest White pine-hardwood forest Mixed hardwood swamp Mixed emergent marsh Location, directions, and legal description In northeastern Anoka County. From Interstate 35 at Wyoming, go west on County Road 22 for 5 miles, then turn south on the park road to Linwood Lake. SW 1/4 section 9, W 1/2 sec. 16, T33N R22W.
access. The canopy is dominated by red
in the mesic oak forest at the southeast end
oak trees that are mostly single-stemmed and over 12 inches in diameter. A few large
of Linwood Lake. This part of the park is
white oak trees are scattered throughout,
accessible to hikers who walk around the east side of the lake. In this forest, bass-
and small patches of big-toothed aspen fill
wood is codominant with red oak in the
canopy gaps. Cut stumps are occasionally
canopy, and ironwood is the most common
encountered. Red maple is common in the
subcanopy tree. Some dense patches of
subcanopy but is found only sporadically in
Pennsylvania sedge suggest that the ground
the canopy. The forest floor is dominated by
was disturbed in the past, but overall the
native plants; the most conspicuous is
native forbs are more diverse than is typical
interrupted fern, which grows in the low
of grazed forests. Some mesic forest plants
spots. The overall diversity of species in the
that occur here but are uncommon else-
Natural features
forest is lower than expected, perhaps
where on the Anoka sandplain include
A good example of an intermediate dry-
because the area was grazed in the past.
butternut, American hornbeam, round-
mesic oak forest lines the road to the public
The diversity of plant species is greater
lobed hepatica, yellow violet, maidenhair fern, and Indian pipe. Where the oak forest grades into a hardwood swamp, yellow birch, black ash, ostrich fern, and nodding trillium are found. A distinct sandy ridge, 8 or 10 feet high, parallels Linwood Lake, marking an old shoreline. On the lowland bordering the lake a narrow strip of white pines grow on what was formerly lake bed. The present-day sandy lakeshore contains a mixture of plants typical of aquatic, emergent marsh, and rich fen habitats, including wild rice, yellow pond-lily, softstem bulrush, three-way sedge, and the rare waterwillow.
ownership Anoka County
Anoka County
[175]
8. Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area: looming Dunes Natural community types
see the low shrub false heather growing on
the south branch of the Sunrise River. The
Barrens oak savanna
the bare soil of dune slopes. It blooms in
dominant wetland graminoid near the
Wet meadow
early June, when western spiderwort and
upland is blue-joint. Twenty yards farther
Rich fen
hoary puccoon are also blooming. The dune
out, tussock sedge, lake sedge, and wire-
vegetation appears somewhat degraded
grass are dominant, and near the stream
because of the abundance of Kentucky
are some patches of cattail. Look for the
bluegrass, three-awn grass, and the native
high-domed shell and yellow neck of
Location, directions, and legal description In southwestern Chisago County. Just east of Interstate 35 at Wyoming, turn north on County Road 30 and go 2 miles. Turn east at the radio tower, go 0.25 mile, then continue south about 0.2 mile, and turn east just past a marsh. Park at the DNR gate. NE 1/4 section 8, W 1/2 sec. 9, T33N R21W. Natural features
plant western ragweed. Nevertheless, one
Blanding's turtles that inhabit the wetland
will find sand reedgrass, coast jointweed,
(see the sidebar on Blanding's turtles in
Geyer's spurge, and Muhlenberg's sedge,
chapter 15).
as well as the more familiar dry prairie species, such as little bluestem, Junegrass, and rigid sunflower. About a half mile to the southeast is an old field with a good cover of little bluestem
This small area of barrens oak savanna is
but few native forbs. Here, the view opens
the best place on the Anoka sandplain to
out across extensive wetlands bordering
[176]
Chisago County
Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Section of Wildlife
9. Chengwatana State Forest: Stevens Creek Landing Natural community types
black bear that travel along the river. In the
River. Inland from here is a beautiful black
Black ash swamp
swamp below the county road are a few
Location, directions, and legal description In northeastern Chisago County. From Rush City, go north on Highway 361 for 2 miles, then turn east on County Road 3 and go 4.3 miles. Turn north and go 1 mile. Just beyond the county line, bear right, past two forks in the road, and continue to the parking lot. NW 1/4 section 4, NE 1/4 sec. 5, T37N R20W. Natural features
white cedars on which bears have marked
ash swamp with abundant skunk cabbage. Within the swamp is an upland peninsula
their presence by leaving shredded bark
on which pines were planted; it resembles
and strands of hair (see the sidebar on large
a young mixed pine-hardwood forest
predators in the summary of part II). Near
but lacks plants, such as snowberry,
the mouth of Stevens Creek, Louisiana
rattlesnake-plantain, and mountain rice-
waterthrushes often sing along the bank
grass, that would be expected in forests
during spring and early summer (see the
of that type near the St. Croix River.
sidebar on waterthrushes in chapter 12). After dark, coyotes may be heard howling nearby. From the boat landing, walk south and
The remote character of this area offers
westward for about half a mile along a
refuge for larger animals. Look for signs of
narrow upland ridge near the St. Croix
Chisago County
Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Division of Forestry
[177]
10. Interstate State Park Natural community types
River. Sandstone cliffs can also be seen
Maple-basswood forest
along the trail (see fig. 1.1). Good examples
are abundant along portions of the trails and, unfortunately, are shading out native
Red cedar and Tartarian honeysuckle
Dry cliff
of the vegetation of this cliff community are
Moist cliff
rare elsewhere along the St. Croix River in
herbs such as columbine, sky-blue aster,
Rock outcrop
Washington and Chisago counties.
and white sage. Park personnel are cutting
Location, directions, and legal description In southeastern Chisago County. From Interstate 35 at Forest Lake, go 20 miles east on Highway 8. One mile west of the town of Taylors Falls is the campground. Park here and follow signs to reach the hiking trails. NW 1/4 section 36, S 1/2 sec. 25, T34N R19W.
A 1.25-mile hike on the River Trail from the campground to the pothole area passes through some examples of a rock outcrop
the brush as a substitute for the fires that once kept the outcrop areas more open. There is some excellent amphibian and
community. These basalt rocks support a
reptile habitat along the River Trail. Turtles
different flora and fauna than the sandstone
bask on logs at the river bank, garter
cliffs (see fig. 17.5). About a quarter mile
snakes warm themselves at the river's edge
east of the campground are basalt outcrops
or on sunlit rocks along the trail, and skinks
with a cover of lichens, mosses, and brittle
find shelter among the boulders. Overhead,
opuntia. The pothole area, in contrast, has
turkey vultures are commonly seen soaring
Natural features
been a popular picnic spot for over a cen-
on thermal currents.
Along the trail to Curtain Falls is a small
tury, and many of these fragile plants have
maple-basswood forest on the lower, moist
been trampled and thus lost there.
slopes of the ravine that is typical of those
Division of Parks and Recreation
that occur elsewhere along the St. Croix
[178]
Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR,
Chisago County
11. Osceola Landing (north of Osceola bridge) Natural community types
0.2 mile uphill from the park driveway is an
Maple-basswood forest
old asphalt road grade. From here, one can
and erosion, visitors should hike on stable
Mesic oak forest
hike northward through good examples of
ground. Alternatively, this site can be
Mixed hardwood seepage swamp
Location, directions, and legal description In southeastern Chisago County. From Taylors Falls, go south 5 miles on Highway 95, then go east on Highway 243 about 1 mile. As the road descends, go slowly, and turn south into the park. There are no marked trails, and hiking is strenuous. SE 1/4 section 21, W 1/2 sec. 22, T33N
R19W. Natural features On the north side of Highway 243 about
slopes are easily damaged by trampling
mesic oak forest and maple-basswood
reached by canoe. It is an ideal location to
forest on public land on a southeast-facing
hear green frogs and perhaps even bull-
slope that stretches for over a mile. At the
frogs, especially in late summer after sunset
base of the slope just north of Highway
in the backwater areas. Bats can be seen
243, ground water seeps out onto a wedge
foraging for moths and mosquitoes over the
of black, mucky peat that supports a
water and at the forest edge in the dwin-
narrow zone of hardwood seepage swamp.
dling light of evening (see the sidebar on
Some plants that grow in the cold, flowing
cave inhabitants in chapter 17).
water are skunk cabbage, tall scouringrush, golden saxifrage, and the rare plants Carex bromoides and bog bluegrass, along
Ownership U.S. National Park Service
with the invader forget-me-not (see fig. 12.3). Because the peat and wet seepage
Chisago County
[179]
12. Osceola Landing (south of Osceola bridge) Natural community types
backwater channels and river islands (see
Maple-basswood forest
fig. 11.1). Look for cardinal flowers in late
hardwood seepage swamps are fed by
Mesic oak forest
summer under silver maple trees at water's
groundwater. Visitors on foot should avoid
Floodplain forest
edge. Deer are numerous and can startle
trampling in seeps and on steep or wet
Mixed hardwood seepage swamp
you when they splash through the shallow
slopes.
Location, directions, and legal description In southeastern Chisago County. From Taylors Falls, go south 5 miles on Highway 95, then east on Highway 243 about 1 mile, and turn south into the park. Parts of sections 28, 31, and 32, T33N R19W.
water and disappear into the hillside forests. One can reach the hillside forests, which are on federally owned land, by walking through the bottomlands, although this may require traversing wet ground and wading through an undergrowth of wood nettles. These forests are inaccessible from
Natural features Here a great day trip can be made exploring
above because of adjacent privately owned land at the top of the bluff. The rarest
by canoe among the floodplain forests along
habitats in the area occur in ravines in the
[180]
Chisago County
valley wall where seepage meadows or
Ownership U.S. National Park Service
13. Wild River State Park: Goose Creek Natural Area Natural community types Dry oak forest Mesic oak forest Maple-basswood forest White pine-hardwood forest Lowland hardwood forest Roodplain forest Mixed hardwood swamp Black ash swamp Mixed hardwood seepage swamp Location, directions, and legal description In eastern Chisago County. From Interstate 35 at North Branch, go 7 miles east on Highway 95, then 2.5 miles north on County Road 9. and turn north just after the road crosses the Sunrise River. Follow the road 1.3 miles to the parking area and
boat ramp. Parts of sections 1.12,13, 24, and 25, T36N R21W; parts of sec. 6, 7, 18,19, 30, 31, and 32, T36N R20W. Natural features The undeveloped Goose Creek Natural Area is a challenging area for wilderness exploration. The best access to this area is gained by canoeing upstream on the St. Croix River, then hiking inland from points north of the rnouth of Goose Creek. Otherwise, take the hiking trail from the parking area. From 3 canoe, map turtles are commonly seen basking on rocks and logs at the river's edge on sunny days. An occasional softshell turtle may also be observed warming itself on the beach. On the broad, low terraces of the St.
Croix River here is a large, intricate mosaic of several natural community types. Maplebasswood and lowland hardwood forests, each with occasional patches of white pine, occur on slight rises (see fig. 6.8). Black ash swamps occur in old meanders of the river channel or in wet areas fed by groundwater. Hardwood seepage swamps are best developed about a half mile or more inland from the river at the base of the steep terrace slope, where springs are concentrated. Tamarack swamps, alder swamps, and wet meadows occur in the wetlands along Goose Creek. Because of the diversity of native habitats, this area contains an excellent variety of native plants and animals. Northern plants such as wintergreen and twinflower occur in areas of white pine, the rare bog bluegrass occurs in seepage swamps, and more than 30 native species of sedges occur throughout the site. Similarly, over 50 species of birds are likely to be encountered in the Goose Creek area during the breeding season. Red-shoulctered hawks are common in hardwood swamps that have wetland openings (see the sidebar on redshouldered hawks in chapter 11). Also occurring here are wood thrushes, scarlet tanagers, and Nashville warblers. The rare Louisiana waterthrush, near the northern limit of its range, favors cut banks along small forested streams for nest sites (see the sidebar on waterthrushes in chapter 12). The closely related northern waterthrush, well south of its normal range, breeds nearby in alder swamps and hardwood swamps that have standing water. This is a rare opportunity to observe these two waterthrushes together. Birds typical of northern forests may also be found here, such as common ravens, winter wrens, and mourning warblers. Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Division of Parks and Recreation
Chisago County
\I81I
14. Wild River State Park: Sunrise Landing East Natural community types
channels and terraces of the St. Croix River
Dry oak forest
with some of the wet channels now fed by
not been cut in recent years lack cut
Mesic oak forest
groundwater. This is a superb area for
stumps and have fallen trees and standing
Lowland hardwood forest
winter exploring because of the many miles
dead trees; the latter are heavily used by
Mixed hardwood swamp
of easy cross-country ski trails. Two to three
pileated woodpeckers and other birds for
miles east of the Sunrise River, large old
foraging or for cavity nests.
Location, directions, and legal description In eastern Chisago County. From Interstate 35 at North Branch, go 7 miles east on Highway 95, then 2.5 miles north on County Road 9, and turn north just after the road crosses the Sunrise River. Follow the road 1.3 miles to the parking area and boat ramp. Parts of sections 32-36, T36N R20W.
bur oak, red oak, and green ash trees are particularly striking against a snowy background. By examining the height, diameter, and spacing of trees in the forested communities, one can see patterns that are hard to detect in summer. For example, large trees more than 18 inches in diameter, typically green ash or bur oak, often occur next to hardwood swamps. Much of the site has
Natural features
recovered well from the 1800s, when cab-
This complex landscape of forested wet-
ins were built, firewood was cut, and horses
lands and upland forest rises represents old
were grazed during the great St. Croix River
[182]
Chisago County
logging era. Portions of the site that have
Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Division of Parks and Recreation
15. Lyndon Cedarglade Park Natural community types
Anoka sandplain. The oak trees are mostly
side, it is important evidence that mesic
Dry oak forest
northern pin oak or red oak-northern pin
forest once occurred on patches of richer
Maple-basswood forest
oak hybrids and have multiple stems. The
soil within the Anoka sandplain.
Mixed hardwood swamp Minerotrophic tamarack swamp
forest grew up either from fire-maintained oak woodland-brushland or from stumps
of the park and is bordered by wet meadow
Alder swamp
following logging. Within the forest is a very
and alder swamp, with tamarack swamp
Wet meadow
small savanna opening that is closing up
and hardwood swamp located near the
Location, directions, and legal description In southwestern Isanti County. From Anoka, take Highway 47 north for 18 miles to County Road 8 (see a Minnesota state road map for alternate routes), then go west 1.4 miles. Parts of section 13, T34N R25W.
Seelye Brook flows through the middle
with oaks and American hazelnut in the
uplands (see fig. 12.2). The tamarack
absence of fire. It contains native dry prairie
swamps are accessible from the east.
plants such as little bluestem, gray golden-
Red-shouldered hawks nest in the park.
rod, butterfly-weed, and rough blazing-star.
This nesting location typifies an "inland"
Where the dry oak forest slopes down to
territory away from major rivers: it encom-
the mixed hardwood swamps are many
passes large stands of mature deciduous forest near small wetlands. (See the sidebar
Natural features
large red oak, white oak, and basswood trees greater than 18 inches in diameter.
This site consists of a large wetland com-
Along the northwest side of the park is a
plex surrounded by upland forest. On the
narrow strip of maple-basswood forest.
east side of the park is a good example of
Although this forest is small and has suf-
the dry oak forest that is typical of the
fered wind damage from its exposed west
Isanti County
on red-shouldered hawks in chapter 11.) Ownership Stanford Township
[183]
/ 6. Spectacle Lake Wildlife Management Area South of the poor fen are patches of oak
Natural community types
River (see fig. 14.1). The upland ridge of
Dry oak forest
dry oak forest along the north side of the
woodland-brushland on the sandy slope
Alder swamp
channel is typical of the Anoka sandplain.
overlooking the wetlands. Old field open-
Poor fen
The brook channel itself has a fairly low
ings here are dominated by Kentucky blue-
diversity of native vascular aquatic plants,
grass or smooth brome, with scattered dry
primarily coontail, horned pondweed, and
prairie plants among the planted pines.
Location, directions, and legal description In west-central Isanti County. From Cambridge, go 8 miles west on Highway 95 to Highway 47, then go south 1.25 miles to County Road 37. Turn west and go 1 mile to the parking area, which is within a stand of planted pines. S 1/2 section 35, SW 1/4 sec. 36, T36N R25W.
the nonnative crisped pondweed. At the south end of Spectacle Lake on the south side of County Road 37 just west of the parking area is an overview of an attractive poor fen. This peat-filled basin, dominated by a mat of sphagnum moss, leatherleaf, and scattered tamaracks, pro-
Natural features
vides a setting reminiscent of the peatlands
The wildlife area consists primarily of the
of northern Minnesota. Small cranberry and
wetlands along Green Lake Brook, which
a few pitcher-plants grow on the sphagnum
flows east out of Green Lake to the Rum
moss mat.
[184]
Isanti County
Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Section of Wildlife
/ 7. Rum River (west of Walbo Landing) Natural community types
travel route for American Indians, most
Flood plain forest
recently the Ojibwe, who moved between
(pictured in the middle of the site map)
Mixed emergent marsh
the Mississippi River and Lake Mille Lacs.
dominated by river bulrush and arrow-head
River beach Location, directions, and legal description In central Isanti County. From Cambridge, go 5 miles west on Highway 95 to County
On sandy or silty depositional beaches
The large, quiet river backwater area
is an ideal place for watching great blue
and on the river bank are a great variety of
herons slowly stalking their prey. Snapping
native river beach plants. Conspicuous
turtles are also here but are rarely seen
species include water smartweed, monkey-
except for a sudden roiling of the water as they dive deeper. This undeveloped expanse of floodplain forest had the greatest concen-
landing. SW 1/4 section 28, S 1/2 sec. 29,
flower, slender hedge nettle, false dragonhead, Virginia wild-rye, goldenglow, and many species of sedges and umbrella
N 1/2 sec. 32, T36N R24W.
sedges. Silver maple seedlings and wind-
Natural features Stretches of quiet floodplain forest and
dispersed agricultural weeds such as horse-
Biological Survey in 1990 (see the sidebar
weed and daisy fleabane sometimes occur
on red-shouldered hawks in chapter 11).
backwater channels west of Walbo Landing give some idea of the former wildness of
in abundance. Sandbar willow and black willow may occur in dense patches on
the Rum River. This river was once a major
recently formed beaches.
Road 1. Go south 0.25 mile to the boat
Isanti County
tration of red-shouldered hawks observed in Isanti County during the Minnesota County
Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Trails and Waterways Unit
[185]
18. Battle Creek Regional Park Natural community types
woodlands—on the blufflands east of Battle
sumac have not taken over or where the
Oak woodland-brushland
Creek Road and in the ravine west of the
soil is not badly eroded. A variety of native
Bedrock bluff prairie Location, directions, and legal description In southeastern Ramsey County. From St. Paul, take Highway 10/61 south to Lower Afton Road and turn left. Turn left again onto a road leading to the parking area, which is visible from Highway 10/61. SW 1/4 section 2, SE 1/4 sec. 3, T28N R22W.
road—are composed of white oak, northern
prairie species still occur in places in the
pin oak, and bur oak trees, with large trees
partial shade of young oaks and in small
over 30 inches in diameter on the bluff-
openings. Common plants include little
lands. The woodlands have become thick
bluestem, leadplant, and porcupine grass.
with young northern pin oaks and, unfortu-
Less common plants are spreading rock-
nately, common buckthorn is abundant in
cress, white sage, two species of panic-
places. Only a few decades ago, bur oaks
grass, hoary frostweed, hoary puccoon,
on the slopes of the prominent west ridge of
spiderwort, and the rare plant kitten-tails.
the creek still had the "grub" form; that is,
Fox snakes may be found basking on the
Natural features
a shrublike cluster of young basal shoots
exposed sandstone along the woodland
Just east of downtown St. Paul, is a rem-
that developed because of the hot fires that
edge.
nant of native woodland and bluff prairie
repeatedly swept up the slopes.
vegetation on steep, scenic sandstone bluffs above the Mississippi River Valley. The oak
A few small openings of native bluff prairie persist where oaks, buckthorn, and
[186]
Ramsey County
Ownership Ramsey County and the City of St. Paul
19. Fort Snelling State Park: Pike Island Natural community types
Natural features
become lodged among the silver maples
Floodplain forest
Although Pike Island has had a long history of human use, it is a fun place to see enor-
during spring floods. Beavers are commonly
mous old cottonwood trees in the floodplain
gnawed stumps may be seen at the river's
forest around its margin (see the sidebar on
edge. Deer, accustomed to human activity,
Pike Island in the summary of part I). On
are a frequent sight along the trails.
Location, directions, and legal description In southwestern Ramsey County. From St. Paul, take Highway 5 west to Post Road. Watch carefully for signs to Fort Snelling State Park. Parking is available near Pike Island under the Mendota Bridge. S 1/2 section 22, T28N R23W.
the southwest side of the island are classic floodplain features such as scars on tree trunks from the abrasion of ice during early spring breakup and piles of logs that
Ramsey County
observed swimming the channels, and
Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Division of Parks and Recreation
[187]
20. Snail Lake Regional Park Natural community types
is limited because of the impact of past
and the females may be seen in adjacent
Cattail marsh
farming. Portions of Snail Lake have fairly
sandy old field areas during the midsummer
Lake beach
natural beaches and a good diversity of
nesting period (see the sidebar on Bland-
Location, directions, and legal description In northwestern Ramsey County. From Interstate 694, go north on Rice Street (Highway 49) 1 mile to Gramsie Road. Go west less than a mile to either of two parking areas. NE 1/4 section 23, SW 1/4 sec. 24, sec. 25, T30N R23W.
native plants, especially during low-water
ing's turtles in chapter 15). The old fields
years (see fig. 17.6). The extensive cattail
also provide habitats for prairie skinks and
marshes at Grass Lake provide excellent
red-bellied snakes. Red fox and deer are
nesting habitat for many common birds,
common and range widely through the
such as red-winged blackbirds, Canada
uplands.
geese, and swamp sparrows. More significant are the black terns that may be seen performing their agile aerobatics over open
Natural features
water as they forage. Painted turtles and
The native vegetation in this regional park
Blanding's turtles reside in the marsh,
[188]
Ramsey County
Ownership Ramsey County
21. Maplewood Nature Center: Jim's Prairie Natural community types Wet prairie Location, directions, and legal description In southeastern Ramsey County. From Interstate 94 in St. Paul, go north on Century Avenue 1.25 miles to East Seventh Street, then go west to the nature center. Address: 2659 East Seventh St., Maplewood, MN 55119. The prairie is located about 1.5 miles north of the nature center in NW 1/4 of SE 1/4 section 24, T29N R22W.
Natural features Maplewood Nature Center maintains one of the most species-rich remnants of wet prairie in the Region (see fig. 16.4). Because the site is so small and vulnerable, visitors are requested to contact the nature center before they visit the prairie. Some parts of the prairie are shrubby with Bebb's willow, slender willow, prairie willow, and young quaking aspen. The open areas are mostly dominated by prairie cordgrass; however, Indian grass and big bluestem are dominant in places. The forb diversity is
Ramsey County
exceptional, and a species list is available at the nature center. The diverse vegetation of this small tract is reflected in the diversity of small mammal species found here. Visitors may catch a glimpse of a meadow jumping mouse as it bounds swiftly through the grass. Ownership City of Maplewood
[189]
22. Mississippi River Islands Scientific and Natural Area Natural community types Floodplain forest Location and Directions In southeastern Sherburne County. The islands can be reached only by boat. Public access is available in Wright County at Montissippi County Park or Otsego County Park (carry-in access) or in Sherburne County near Elk River, west of the intersection of Highways 169 and 10. For legal descriptions, contact the Scientific and Natural Areas Program of the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. Natural features Paddling by canoe along the Mississippi River Islands near Elk River, one can imagine the American Indian or French tur traders who passed through this area.
J190I
Where would they have chosen to camp? Under the cover of the flood plain forest trees? Probably not in August, when the mosquitoes and wood nettles were thick. They might have searched the forests for
lost much of their native character, but upstream near Becker there are still patches ol oak woodland-brushland and dry sand-
game or useful herbs but likely camped on the high east bank of the river in dry sandgravel savanna or prairie.
trees that have spread in the absence of lire; nevertheless, a good variety of prairie species still grow in openings on the river-
Today, the floodplain forests on these islands are still much the same: silver maple generally dominates the river margin, with cottonwood, black willow, green ash, bur oak, and hackberry toward the interior.
banks and on gravelly beaches.
Huge American elms once grew in the forest, but Dutch elm disease has reduced their presence to mere understory saplings. The previous savanna- and prairiecovered banks of the Mississippi River in both Wright and Sherburne counties have
Sherburne County
gravel savanna. Here, open-grown bur oaks are now crowded in by red cedar
Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Section of Wildlife
23. Sand Dunes State Forest (southeast dunes) Natural community types
Natural features
Barrens oak savanna Wet meadow
Sand Dunes State Forest is situated on one
and dry barrens prairie occurs on southwest-
of the largest dune complexes in Minnesota
facing slopes. The jack pine and red pine
(see the map of the Region's major dune
that have shaded out prairie plants here
Location, directions, and legal description In east-central Sherburne County. From Highway 10 in Elk River, go 7 miles north on County Road 1, then turn west onto County Road 32 for 0.8 mile. Turn north on a small road (142nd St.) and continue about 1 mile to the South Orrock Trail. NE 1/4 section 36, T34N R27W.
are clustered on northeast-facing slopes,
areas in the sidebar on sand dunes in
and elsewhere across the Anoka sandplain
chapter 1). At this location, the dunes have
did not occur on the landscape until plant-
well-developed transverse ridges oriented
ing began in the 1940s.
southeast to northwest. The best dunes are about half a mile northeastward along the trail and to the east of the trail. On this series of ridges old, open-grown bur oaks
Sherburne County
Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Division of Forestry
[191]
24. Sand Prairie Wildlife Management Area Natural community types
that developed when glacial meltwater
in the fen include bog birch and big
Mesic prairie
flowed across the landscape. The ancient
bluestem. The native forbs are highly diverse and include such species as golden
Rich fen
stream, laden with sediment, was divided
Sand-gravel prairie
into multiple channels as the coarser mate-
alexanders, downy phlox, prairie loosestrife,
Wet prairie
rial was deposited into the river channel as
great blazing-star, mountain-mint, Riddell's
Wet meadow
sandbars. The pattern can be seen readily*
goldenrod, and wood lily.
Location, directions, and legal description In northwestern Sherburne County. From Highway 10 east of St. Cloud, take County Road 7 east 1.5 miles. The Wildlife Management Area is on the south side of the road (there is no designated parking area). SW 1/4 section 4 (in part), SE sec. 5, NE sec. 8, NW sec. 9, T35N R30W.
from the air and in aerial photographs but is difficult to detect on the ground. Extensive wet meadows now occupy the former stream channels. The sandbars supported dry sand-gravel prairie before the land was cultivated. Now, abandoned fields are being recolonized by native prairie plants that persisted at the field margins. Two rare community types, wet prairie and
Natural features
rich fen, co-occur in an area of saturated
This site on the Mississippi River terraces
ground that grades from organic-rich min-
is a classic example of the braided streams
eral soil to shallow peat. Dominant plants
[192]
Sherburne County
Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Section of Wildlife
25. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: Mahnomen Trail and Blue Hill Trail Natural community types
its typical habitat on the Anoka sandplain.
Dry oak forest
Blueberries are usually ripe in this part of
Rice Lake. The boulders seen along the trail
Oak woodland-brushland
the state around the Fourth of July. The
that winds through the dry oak forest are
Willow swamp
adjacent wet meadow is dominated by
evidence of this geologic event. Buck Lake,
Wet meadow
blue-joint and grades into a willow swamp
one-quarter mile north of Blue Hill, is a
Cattail marsh
dominated by slender willow.
Location, directions, and legal description In north-central Sherburne County. From Highway 169 in Zimmerman, continue 4 miles north to County Road 9, then go west 5 miles to the Mahnomen Trail parking area (NW 1/4 section 26, NE 1/4 sec. 27, T35N R27W) or 6.5 miles west to the Blue Hill Trail parking area (NW 1/4 section 28, T35N R27W). Natural features
By the refuge headquarters, the road passes over the St. Francis River. On a
ing uplands and 140 feet above the level of
natural lake formed by a stagnant ice block and is an excellent place to observe waterbirds during migration (see the sidebar on
warm summer evening the bridge is an
ice block depressions in chapter 1). Finally,
excellent place to observe bats as they
back at the parking area, note the im-
forage for flying insects along the forested
poundments and large fields on the south
river corridor. Species such as little brown
side of the road. Beavers and muskrats are
myotis, red bats, and hoary bats may be
active in the impoundments, and their
observed here until the light becomes too dim.
spring, flocks of sandhill cranes may be
The parking area at the head of the
lodges and houses may be visible. In seen performing their unusual courtship
Blue Hill Trail offers a good view of the
displays in the grassy fields (see the sidebar
The Mahnomen Trail winds eastward
prominent cone-shaped hill that was
on sandhill cranes in chapter 15). A visit at
through dry oak forest, around wet mead-
formed by glacial debris that collected in a
dawn or dusk may reveal numerous deer
ows, and across a peat-filled wetland that
steep-sided depression in the ice at the end
grazing in these same fields.
is succeeding from rich fen to cattail marsh.
of the last glaciation. While the ice walls
Along the low margin of the forest near the
melted, the debris collapsed into the pile
beginning of the trail, blueberry is found in
that now rises 100 feet above the surround-
Sherburne County
Ownership U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
•[193]
26. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: Orrock Duneshhhhh Visitors to Orrock Dunes must obtain a
what the oak woodland-brushland on the
may bring an increase in other native plants
special-use permit from the refuge
Anoka sandplain may have looked like at
that have persisted in small numbers, in-
manager at the following address: 17076
the time of Euro-American settlement. A
cluding pasque-flower, bird-foot coreopsis,
293rd Avenue, Zimmerman, MN 55398.
photograph taken at this site in 1992 (fig.
leadplant, prairie bird-foot violet, and the
(The refuge headquarters is shown on the
8.3) may illustrate what the General Land
rare sea-beach needlegrass.
map for site 25.)
Office surveyors in the 1850s called "scat-
Natural community types Oak woodland-brushland Barrens oak savanna Wet meadow Location, directions, and legal description
tering timber." North of County Road 15 is a native
The rectangular field about a quarter mile west of County Road 15 was once cultivated and then was seeded with the
barrens savanna on a small dune area. The
prairie grass little bluestem around 1980.
ground layer of the savanna is composed of
Western hognose snakes and plains pocket
prairie plants, which distinguishes it from
mice have been found in similar habitat
the brushy woodland. The surveyors might
near Orrock. Bullsnakes may be found
In north-central Sherburne County. From
have called the savanna an "oak opening"
basking in the sunny openings of this habi-
Highway 169 in Zimmerman, go west on
or "oak barrens." The barrens savanna has
tat (see the sidebar on bullsnakes and
County Road 4 for 5 miles (to County Road
been degraded by grazing, as suggested by
rodents in chapter 9). When alarmed, they
15). Oak woodland on the refuge is observ-
the prevalence of poison ivy, witch-grass,
will shake their tail in the dry litter, making
able along the north side of the road for 2
sandbur, Scribner's panic-grass, and west-
a sound not unlike the warning rattle of a
miles farther westward. S 1/2 section 10,
ern ragweed on dry slopes and the abun-
timber rattlesnake. This can be quite star-
T34N R27W.
dance of Kentucky bluegrass around the
tling to the unsuspecting visitor.
Natural features The land on the north side of County Road 4 east of Orrock provides one example of
[194]
small wet meadows. The wet areas, however, have many typical native plants such as northern dewberry, sensitive fern, and Hayden's sedge. The reintroduction of fire
Sherburne County
Ownership U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
27. Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: Santiago Oak Savanna Research and Natural Area Visitors to this research and natural area
Natural features
must obtain a special-use permit from the
The highlight of this site is the barrens oak
refuge manager at the following address:
savanna that stretches for nearly a mile
narrow zone of wet prairie that grades into
17076 293rd Avenue, Zimmerman, MN
along a low, rolling dune ridge oriented
wet meadow. These rare habitats have
At the east margin of the old fields onehalf mile east of the parking location is a
55398. (The refuge headquarters is shown
northwest to southeast. The manner in
become overgrown with quaking aspen but
on the map for site 25.)
which prairie species are dispersed accord-
are identifiable by the presence of sensitive
ing to moisture level and soil nutrient level
fern, blue-joint, and hair-cap moss in more
Natural community types Oak woodland-brushland Barrens oak savanna Wet prairie Wet meadow
is well demonstrated here. Dominant plants
open areas. Reintroduction of fire here may
such as Indian grass and big bluestem
favor uncommon plants such as arrow-
occur in lower, moister areas, and porcu-
leaved violet, purple milkwort, Green's
pine grass, hairy grama, and sand dropseed
rush, adder's-tongue, leathery grape-fern,
occur on dry, sparsely vegetated rises.
and the rare tall nut-rush.
Location, directions, and legal description
Forbs are too numerous to list but include
In north-central Sherburne County. From
such showy plants as downy phlox, north-
Princeton, go west 12 miles on County
ern bedstraw, wood betony, and wild lupine
Road 3 to Santiago, then turn south and go
in low areas and prairie bird-foot violet,
2 miles on County Road 11. Turn east onto
large-flowered beard-tongue, and hairy
a small road (40th Avenue) and go 1 mile.
golden aster on dry sand. Eight species of
Park at the side of the road. Section 23,
goldenrod occur in this one savanna.
Ownership U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
T35N R28W.
Sherburne County
[195]
28. Uncas Dunes Scientific and Natural Area Natural community types
of NW 1/4 of the SW 1/4 sec. 22, T34N
Oak woodland-brushland
R27W.
Barrens oak savanna Alder swamp Wet meadow Rich fen Lake beach
Surrounding the SNA on state forest land are other habitats, such as shallow
Natural features These dunes on the west side of Ann Lake were named after a rare butterfly, the Uncas skipper, that occurs here, far to the east of its main range in the central Great
wetlands with wet meadow and rich fen communities, lake beach, oak woodlandbrushland, and alder swamp. These communities contribute greatly to the overall species diversity of this landscape. The rare lance-leaved violet occurs at the margin of
Location, directions, and legal description
Plains. The skipper is known from only two
In central Sherburne County. From Highway
other locations on the Anoka sandplain, one
169 in Zimmerman, go 5.5 miles west on
in a 40-acre tract 2 miles to the southeast
County Road 4 to the entrance sign to Sand
that is also part of the SNA. The butterfly
Dunes State Forest (0.5 mile past County
larvae emerge in spring to feed on the
Road 15), go 0.5 mile south, then turn
leaves of hairy grama, which grows on the
Ownership
right (west) and follow the signs to the
dry savanna slopes. Adult skippers may be
State of Minnesota, DNR, Section of
campground. A short walk to the south
seen visiting the yellow flowers of hairy
Wildlife and Division of Forestry
brings you to the scientific and natural area
puccoon during June.
(SNA). Part of SE 1/4 section 21 and part
[196]
Sherburne Couaty
a wet meadow southwest of Ann Lake. Many of the native barrens savanna plants may be seen right within the state forest campground north of the SNA.
29. Falls Creek Scientific and Natural Area Natural community types
Natural features
Ownership
Maple-basswood forest
Falls Creek SNA features one of the most
State of Minnesota, DNR,
White pine-hardwood forest
beautiful white pine-hardwood forests in
Section of Wildlife
Location, directions, and legal description In northeastern Washington County. From Marine on St. Croix, go 5 miles north on Highway 95 and look for the brown scientific and natural area (SNA) sign. Pilar Road (shown on the map) is 1 mile north of Highway 97. Of the two off-road parking areas, the one located 0.25 mile north of Pilar Road is recommended. Part of W 1/2 of the NW 1/4 section 7, T32N R19W; part of E 1/2 of the E 1/2 sec. 12, T32N R20W.
the Region (see fig. 7.1). It is situated on the crests and slopes of steep ravines near the St. Croix River. North-facing slopes are shady and are covered with the fern common polypody. South-facing slopes are drier, and oaks, bracken fern, and wild sarsaparilla are common. On lower slopes, small patches of maple-basswood forest contain herbs such as miterwort and wild leek; these plants are rare in this Region. For a list of the breeding birds of Falls Creek SNA, see Longley (1992b, 1993).
Washington County
[197]
30. Lee and Rose Warner Nature Center Please call ahead for reservations and information (612-433-2427) or write to the following address: 15375 Norell Avenue North, Marine on St. Croix, MN 55047. Natural community types Dry oak forest Poor fen Location, directions, and legal description In northeastern Washington County. From north of Hugo on Highway 61, go east 7 miles on County Road 4, then south on
[198]
County Road 55 for 1.5 miles. Look for the driveway on the east side of the road. Part of W 1/2 section 15, T31N R20W. Natural features Upland trails wind through oak forest on a fine example of the rolling topography of the St. Croix moraine. One trail opens out into a small basin containing a poor fen. Here, a boardwalk stretches across the boggy mat, providing a close-up view of sphagnum moss, leatherleaf, cranberries, white beakrush, and perhaps most exquisite of all, rose pogonia. On bright, sunny days, a
Washington County
distinctive, pleasant odor comes from the acidic sphagnum moss mat. Most poor fens in the Region happen to be on private land or are difficult to reach; this convenient access is a rare opportunity. Ownership Science Museum of Minnesota
31. Lost Valley Prairie Scientific and Natural Area Natural community types
ing activity and recent development pres-
Bedrock bluff prairie
sures. The tops of the knobs have been
Location, directions, and legal description In southeastern Washington County. From Highway 10/61 north of Hastings, go north 1 mile on Highway 95, then east on County Road 78 for 1.8 miles. Turn north on Nyberg Avenue, go 0.5 mile, and park at the brown scientific and natural area (SNA) sign. W 1/2 of NW 1/4 section 28; part of N El/4 sec. 29,T27N R20W.
cliff-brake and the rare rock sandwort are even more specialized, growing on nearly
severely degraded by past grazing, and
bare moss- or lichen-covered limestone
mesic prairie present on the deeper soil of
outcrops. Recent thinning of wild plum and
the valleys below was destroyed by cultiva-
gray dogwood thickets on lower slopes has
tion. Bedrock bluff prairie, however, has
allowed prairie plant populations to expand
persisted on the steep upper slopes of the
and has also revealed more native plants,
knobs on thin soil and near small rock
such as cutleaf grape fern, that might not
outcrops (see fig. 10.4). Dominant native
have survived much longer under the shade
prairie plants include little bluestem, prairie
of encroaching brush. For a list of the
dropseed, side-oats grama, and hairy
breeding birds of Lost Valley Prairie SNA,
grama. Some of the forbs that occur here,
see Longley (1991a, 1992a).
Natural features
such as ground-plum, dotted blazing-star,
Just east of the Twin Cities on a series of
gray-headed coneflower, and whitlow-grass,
limestone knobs is a prairie remnant that
were once common in southern Washington
has survived more than a century of farm-
County but are now difficult to find. Smooth
Washington County
Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Section of Wildlife
[199]
32. McLeod's Slough Natural community types Floodplain forest Mixed emergent marsh River beach Location, directions, and legal description In northeastern Washington County. This site can be reached only by boat. Public access is available 4.5 miles north at the Osceola landing (see site 11), 0.5 mile south in Otisville (carry-in only), or 2.5 miles south at William O'Brien State Park (see site 35). SE 1/4 section 7, E 1/2 sec. 18, T32N R19W. Natural features The river beaches and abandoned river channels of McLeod's Slough provide an opportunity for observing plants and turtles from a canoe. The best time to see turtles is on sunny days in May, when they are basking, or in early June, when females come ashore to lay eggs. These nest sites are threatened, however, because the shoreline is also a popular picnic spot for boaters. The best array of beach plants can be seen in midsummer to late summer, when annual colonizers such as water-pepper, ditch stonecrop, false pimpernel, and hedge-hyssop are reaching maturity. Animal tracks are common on undisturbed beaches, where one may find those of turtles, raccoons, sandpipers, and great blue herons. Ownership U.S. National Park Service and State of Minnesota, DNR, Section of Wildlife
[200]
Washington County
33. St. Croix Savanna Scientific and Natural Area Natural community types
River, probably has the greatest plant
further gullying, please walk where the
Sand-gravel oak savanna
species diversity of any prairie or savanna remnant in Washington County (see fig.
plant cover is well established and avoid
9.4). Showy flowers bloom here from May
Two aggressive nonnative plants found here
through September. During the first week of
are spotted knapweed and the tree black
Location, directions, and legal description In east-central Washington County. From Highway 36 north of Bayport, go approximately 2 miles south on Highway 95, note the entrance to Bayport Marina, and continue for 0.9 mile. Park carefully on the southbound shoulder of the highway near the brown sign for St. Croix Savanna, or park at the gate about 0.2 mile farther south. Part of NW 1/4 of the SW 1/4 section 14, part of NE 1/4 of the SE 1/4 sec. 15, T29N R20W.
hiking up or down the steep, bare slopes.
June the large-flowered beard-tongue
locust. Both of these plants must be con-
begins to bloom while the May-blooming
trolled regularly to prevent them from
puccoons and spiderworts are still in flower.
crowding out the native vegetation.
Common midsummer flowers are bird-foot coreopsis, rigid sunflower, silky aster, and rough blazing-star. Bare patches of soil on the coarse, easily eroded slopes are perfect
Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Section of Wildlife
habitat for the rare plant James' polanisia, which also blooms in midsummer. These patches were once created by animal bur-
Natural features
rows and animal trails, but in recent years
This small savanna, located on a steep
the loose soil has been eroded into gullies,
south-facing ravine slope near the St. Croix
primarily by all-terrain vehicles. To prevent
Washington County
[201]
34. Wilder Forest Wilder Forest is private land and is not
Location, directions, and legal description
areas left in Washington County. Dry oak
open to the public for hiking. The Wilder
In northeastern Washington County. From
forest is most common, but portions of the
Foundation serves nonprofit organizations
County Road 7 southwest of Square Lake,
forest that were cut or burned long ago are
and uses the area for scheduled groups.
go north on Oldfield Road 1 mile, then turn
now dominated by aspen and birch. The
For information about reservations, please
north onto Ostlund Trail. Go 0.2 mile to the
hiking trails through the forest also connect
call (612) 433-5198 or write to the
trail center entrance or 0.7 mile to the
several small lakes that in late summer,
following address: Wilder Forest, 14189
village entrance. E 1/2 section 15, NE 1/4
especially in low-water years, have a variety
Ostlund Trail North, Marine on St. Croix,
sec. 22.T31N R20W.
of native beach plants.
MN 55047.
Natural features
Ownership
Natural community types
Wilder Forest is situated on the rolling
Amherst H. Wilder Foundation
Dry oak forest
topography of the St. Croix moraine and is
Lake beach
one of the largest undeveloped forested
[202]
Washington County
35. William O'Brien State Park Natural community types
park are the black ash seepage swamp
good example of silver maple-dominated
Floodplain forest
located north of Lake Alice (see fig. 12.4) and the floodplain forest on Greenburg
floodplain forest. Large areas of wood nettle occur naturally in the shade of the tall
Island. (In addition, a mesic oak forest west
canopy. Some of the best plant viewing,
of the railroad tracks is accessible by hiking
however, is near the riverbank, where in
Black ash swamp Mesic oak forest Location, directions, and legal description In northeastern Washington County. From Marine on St. Croix, go north on Highway 95 about 1 mile to the park entrance. Turn west into the park and follow the road that loops under the highway and leads to Lake Alice and the St. Croix River public access. E 1/2 section 31, T32N R19W; SE 1/4 sec. 25, T32N R20W.
or cross-country ski trails.) Seepage
late summer one may find the intense red
swamps are rare in the St. Croix Valley and
blooms of cardinal flower or the rare cattail
mostly quite difficult to reach. Here, the
sedge, which has dense, fruiting heads that
swamp can be viewed from the park road.
look like small pineapples at the ends of
The best time to visit is in May, when
tall, leafy stalks.
marsh-marigolds are blooming. Groundwater seepage from the base of the eastfacing slope creates ideal conditions for the growth of black ash trees, interrupted ferns,
Natural features
and the rare plants bog bluegrass and
The most important native habitats in the
Carex bromoides. Greenburg Island is a
Washington County
Ownership State of Minnesota, DNR, Division of Parks and Recreation
[203]
Appendix 1. County Checklist of Birds, Mammals, Amphibians, and Reptiles in the Region This checklist of birds, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles summarizes the known records for the Region. The list of birds includes only those species documented during the breeding season; it does not include birds that are only winter residents or that are observed only during migration. The documentation of animal species is not exhaustive; records are based largely on animal surveys conducted in these six counties in 1988 and 1990 by the Minnesota County Biological Survey. Other sources that were consulted to complete the lists include records maintained by the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR) or provided by DNR staff; mammal and herpetological Anoka
collections at the Bell Museum of Natural History, University of Minnesota; and published accounts of birds (Green and Janssen 1975, Janssen 1987, and seasonal reports and articles from The loon), mammals (Hazard 1982), and amphibians and reptiles (Oldfield and Moriarty 1994). Users of the checklist may find that they have seen an animal in a county for which we have listed no record of its occurrence. Observations of undocumented animal species, particularly if accompanied by a photograph or specimen, may be reported to the Department of Natural Resources, Section of Wildlife, in St. Paul.
Chisago
Isanti
Ramsey
Sherburne Washington
BREEDING BIRDS LOONS, GREBES, AND CORMORANTS Common loon (Gavia immer) Double-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus) Pied-billed grebe (Podilymbus podiceps) Red-necked grebe (Podiceps grisegena) BITTERNS, HERONS, AND EGRETS American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) Black-crowned night-heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) Cattle egret (Bubufcus ibis) Great blue heron (Ardea herodias) Great egret (Casmerodius albus) Green heron (Butorides virescens) Least bittern (tmbrychus exilis) Little blue heron (Egretta caerulea) Yellow-crowned night-heron (Nyctanassa violacea) = occurrence for which lasting records, such as voucher specimens or photographs, are maintained in state or
=occurrence based on reliable observations but for which no such lasting record exists.
federal repositories;
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^m GEESE AND DUCKS American black duck (Anas rubripes) Blue-winged teal (Anas discors) Canada goose (Branta canadensis} Canvasback (Aythya valisineria) Green-winged teal (Anas crecca) Hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus) Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) Northern pintail (Anas acuta) Northern shoveter (Anas clypeata) Redhead (Aythya americana) Ring-necked duck (Aythya collaris) Ruddy duck lOxyura jamaicensis) Wood duck (Aix sponsa) VULTURES, EAGLES, HAWKS. AND FALCONS American kestrel (Falco sparverius) Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocepha/us) Broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus) Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperii) Northern harrier (Circus cyaneus) Os prey (Pandion haliaetus) Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo /ineatus) Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) PHEASANTS, GROUSE. AND TURKEYS Gray partridge (Perdix perdix) Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) Ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) Wild turkey IMeleagris gal/opavo) RAILS AND CRANES American coot (Fulica americana) Common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) King rail (Rallus elegaris) Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) Sora (Porzana Carolina) Virginia rail (Rallus limicola) Yellow rail (Coturnicops noveboracensis)
206
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SHOREBIRDS. GULLS, AND TERNS
American woodcock (Scolopax minor) Black tern (Cfilidomas niger) Common snipe (Gallinago gallinago) Foreter's tern (Sterna foisteti) Killdeer (Charadrius vociferus) Spotted sandpiper (Actitis macu/aria) Upland sandpiper (Bartramia /ongicauda) Wilson's phalarope (Pttatampus tricolor) DOVES AND CUCKOOS
Black-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus erythropthalmus) Mourning dove (Zenaida macmura) Rock dove (Co/umbd livia) Yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus) OWLS Barred owl (Strix varia) Eastern screech-owl fOfus asioj Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) Long-eared owl (Asio otus) Northern saw-whel owl (Aegolius acadicus) NIGHTHAWKS Common nighthawk (Chordeiles minor) Whip-poor-will (Capiimulgus vociferus) SWIFTS, HUMMINGBIRDS, AND KINGFISHERS Belted kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon) Chimney swift (Chaetuta pelagica) Ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris) WOODPECKERS Downy woodpecker (Picoides pubescerts) Hairy woodpecker (Picoides villosus) Northern flicker (Colaptes auratus) Pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus piteatus) Red-bellied woodpecker (Melanerpes carotinus) Red-neaded woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) Yellow-bellied sapsucker {Sphyrapicus varius)
Appendix 1
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FLYCATCHERS Acadian flycatcher (Empidonax virescens) Alder flycatcher (Empidonax alnorum) Eastern kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannusl Eastern phoebe (Sayomis phoebe) Eastern wood-pewee (Contopus virens) Great crested flycatcher (Myiarchus crimtus) Least flycatcher (Empidonax minimus) Western kingbird (Tyrannus verticalis) Willow flycatcher (Empidonax trailtii) LARKS Horned lark (Eremophila alpestris) SWALLOWS Bank swallow (Riparia riparia) Barn swallow (Hirundo rustical Cliff swallow (Hirundo pyrrhonata) Northern rough-winged swallow (Stelgidopteryx sempennis) Purple martin (Progne subis) Tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor) JAYS AND CROWS American craw (Con/us brachyrhynchos) Blue jay ICyanocitta crtstata) Common raven (Corvus coraxj CHICKADEES, NUTHATCHES, AND CREEPERS Black-capped chickadee (Parus atricapillus) Brown creeper (Certhia arnericana) Red-breasted nuthatch (Sitta canadensis) Tufted titmouse (Parus bicolor) White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carotinensis) WRENS House wren (Troglodytes aedon) Marsh wren (Cistothorus palustris) Sedge wren (Cistothorus platensis) Winter wren (Troglodytes troglodytes)
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KINGLETS, BLUEBIRDS, AND THRUSHES American robin (Turdus migrator/us) Blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptila caerulea) Eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis) Go Id en -crowned kinglet (Regulus satrapa) Veery (Catharus fuscescens) Wood thrush (Hylocichla musteiina) CATBIRDS, THRASHERS, WAXW/NGS, STARLINGS, AND SHRIKES Brown thrasher (Toxostoma rufuml Cedar waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum) European starling fSturnus vulgaris) Gray catbird (Dumetella carolinensis) Loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus) V1REOS Bell's vireo (Vireo belli)) Red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus! Warbling vireo (Vireo gi/vus) Yellow-throated vireo (Vireo fiavifrons) WARBLERS American redstart (Setophaga rutacitla) Black-and-white warbler (Mniotilta varia) Blue-winged warbler (Vermivora pinus) Cerulean warbler (Dendroica cerulea) Chestnut-sided warbler (Dendroica pensylvanica) Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas) Go ItJen- winged warbler (Vermivora chrysoptera) Louisiana waterthrush (Seiurus motacilia) Mourning warbler (Oporornis philadelphicus) Nashville warbler (Vermivora ruficapilta) Northern waterthrush (Seiurus noveboracensis) Ovenbird (Seiurus aumcapillus) Pine warbler (Dendroica pinus! Prothonotary warbler (Protonotaria citrea) Yellow warbler (Dendroica petechia)
Appendix 1
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TANAGERS, CARDINALS, AND BUNTINGS Indigo bunting (Passerina cyanea) Northern cardinal (Cardirialis cardinalis) Rose-breasted grosbeak fPheuticus ludovicianus) Scarlet tanager (Piranga olivacea) TOWHEES, SPARROWS, AND JUNCOS Chipping sparrow (Spizella passerina) Clay-colored sparrow (Spizella pallida) Dickcissel <Spiza americana) Field sparrow (Spizella pusilta) Grasshopper sparrow (Amtnodramus savannarum) Lark sparrow (Chondestes grammacus) Rufous-sided towhee (Pipito erythmphthalmus} Savannah sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis) Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) Swamp sparrow (Melospiza georgiana) Vesper sparrow fPooecefes gramineus) Wnite-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis) BOBOLINKS, BLACKBIRDS, MEADOWLARKS, AND ORIOLES Bobolink (Dotichonyx oryzivorus) Brewer's blackbird lEuphagus cyanocephalus) Brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) Common grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) Eastern meadowlark (Sturnelta magrta) Northern oriole (Icterus galbu la ! Orchard oriole (Icterus spurius) Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoenicetis) Western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta) Yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus) FINCHES AND HOUSE SPARROWS American goldfinch (Carduelis tristis) House finch (Carpodacus mexicanus) House sparrow (Passer domesticus) Pine siskin ICarduelis pinus) Purple finch (Carpodacus purpureus) Red crossbill (lox/a curvirostra)
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MAMMALS MARSUPIALS Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) SHREWS
Arctic shrew (Sorex arcticus) Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) Pygmy shrew (Sorex hoyi) Water shrew (Sorex palustris) MOLES Eastern mole (Sea/opus aquaticus) Star-nosed mole (Condylura cristate) BATS Big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) Eastern pipistrelle (Pipistrellus subf/avtis) Eastern red bat (Lasiurus borealis) Hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus) Little brawn myotis (Myolis lucifugus) Northern myotis (Myotis septentnonalis) Silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans) RABBITS AND HARES Eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus fioridanus) Snowshoe hare (Lepus amertcanus) White-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii) SQUIRRELS Eastern chipmunk (Tarn/as striatus) Fox squirrel (Sciurus mger) Franklin's ground squirrel (Spermophilus frankHrtii) Gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) Northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus) Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus budsoniCUS) Southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans) Thirteen- lined ground squirrel ISpermophi/us
tridecemlineatus)
Woodcnuck (Marmota monax)
Appendix 1
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POCKET GOPHERS AND POCKET MICE Plains pocket gopher (Geornys bursarius) Plains pocket mouse (Perognathus flavesceris) BEAVERS, MICE, VOLES, MUSKRATS, AND PORCUPINES American beaver (Castor canadensis) Common muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) Common porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) Deer mouse (Pemmyscus maniculatus) House mouse (Mus muscutus) Meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius) Meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) Norway rat IRattus norvegicus! Prairie vole (Microtus ocftrogaster) Southern bog lemming (Synaptomys cooperi) Southern red-backed vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) Western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis) White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) CARNIVORES American badger (Taxidea taxus) Black bear lUrsus americanus) Common raccoon (Procyon lotor) Coyote ICanis latrans) Eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) Ermine (Mustela erminea) Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) Gray wolt (Cam's lupus) Least weasel (Mustela nivalis) Long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata} Lynx (Lynx lynx) Mink (Mustela vison) Northern river otter (Lutra canadensis) Red fox (Vulpes vutpesl Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) UNGULATES Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
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AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES SALAMANDERS
Blue-spotted salamander (Ambystoma laterals) Mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus) Redback salamander (P/ethodon cineieus) Tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) TOADS AND FROGS
American toad (Bufo americanus) Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) Chorus frog (Pseudacris triseriata) Cope's gray treefrog (Hy!a chrysoscelis) Eastern gray treefrog (Hyla versicotor) Green (rag (Rana c/amitans) Mink frog (Rana septentrionalis) Northern cricket frag (Acris crepitans) Northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) Spring peeper (Pseudacris cruciferi Wood frog (Rana sylvatica) TURTLES
Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) Common map turtle (Graptemys geographical False map turtle (Graptemys pseudogeographica) Painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) Smooth softshell turtle (Apalone mutica) Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) Spiny softshell turtle (Apalone spinifera) Wood turtle fC/emmys mscuiptaS LIZARDS AND SKINKS
Five-lined skink (Eumeces fasciatus) Prairie skink (Eumeces septentrionali$) Six-lined racerunner (Cnemidophorus sexlineatus) SNAKES
Brown snake (Storeria dekayi) Bullsnake (Pituophis me/anoleucus) Eastern garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) Eastern hognose snake (Hetemdon platyrhinos)
Appendix 1
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Fox snake (Elaphe vulpina) Milk snake (Lampropeltis triangulum) Northern water snake (Nerodia sipedon) Plains garter snake (Thamnophis radix! Racer (Coluber constrictor) Redbelly snake (Storeria occipitomaculata) Smooth green snake (Opheodrys vernalis) Timber rattlesnake (Crotalus tiorridus) Western hognose snake (Hetemdon nasicus)
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Appendix 1
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Appendix 2. Sources of Additional Information The selected publications listed in this appendix offer additional information for those interested in further exploring topics presented in this book. While not an exhaustive resource guide, this list includes popular field guides and publications for identifying plants, animals, and landforms of the Region. A variety of guidebooks available in libraries and bookstores are helpful in locating public and private nature centers, parks, historical areas, and so forth. Inquire at government agencies, county courthouses, or local government centers regarding availability of maps or listings of parks and nature centers. Also, there are several local organizations in the Twin Cities area that are interested in native habitats, plants, and animals, and these organizations have informative newsletters, meetings, and field trips. (See also the bibliography.) O
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Rare species Coffin, B., and L. Pfannmuller, eds. 1988. Minnesota's endangered flora andjauna. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 473 pp.
Smith, W. R. 1993. Orchids of Minnesota. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 160 pp. Tryon, R. 1980. Ferns of Minnesota. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 165 pp. Birds Ehrlich, P R., D. S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye. 1988. The birder's handbook. Simon & Schuster, New York. 785 pp. Janssen, R. B. 1987. Birds in Minnesota. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 352 pp. National Geographic Society. 1983. Field guide to the birds of North America. National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 464 pp. Peterson, R. T. 1980. AJield guide to the birds. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 384 pp. Mammals Hazard, E. B. 1982. The mammals oJMinnesota. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 280 pp. Jackson, H. H. T. 1961. Mammals of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. 504 pp. Jones, J. K., Jr., and E.C. Birney. 1988. Handbook ojmammals of the north-central states. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 346 pp.
Plants and plant communities Amphibians and reptiles Courtenay, B., and J. Zimmerman. 1972. Wildjlowers and weeds: AJield guide in full color. Simon & Schuster, New York. 144 pp. Curtis, J. T. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. 657 pp. Eggers, S., and D. Reed. 1987. Wetland plants and plant communities of Minnesota and Wisconsin. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, St. Paul District, St. Paul. 201 pp. Miller, O. 1981. Mushrooms of 'North America. Button, New York. 368 pp. Newcomb, L. 1977. Newcomb's wildjlowerguide. Little, Brown, Boston. 490 pp. Ownbey, G., and T. Morley. 1991. Vascular plants oJMinnesota. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 307 pp. Peterson, R. T., and M. McKenny. 1968. A field guide to wildflowers of northeastern and north central North America. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 420 pp. Rosendahl, C. 1955. Trees and shrubs of the Upper Midwest. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 411 pp.
Conant, R., and J. T. Collins. 1991. The reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central United States. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 608 pp. Nongame Wildlife Program. 1989. Snakes and lizards oJMinnesota. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, St. Paul. 25 pp. Oldfield, B., and J. J. Moriarty 1994. Amphibians and reptiles native to Minnesota. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 237 pp. Vogt, R. C. 1981. Natural history of amphibians and reptiles in Wisconsin. The Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee. 205 pp.
Fish Becker, G. C. 1983. Fishes ojWisconsin. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. 1,052 pp. Eddy, S., andj. C. Underbill. 1974. Northern fishes. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 414 pp. Phillips, G. L, W D. Schmid, and J. C. Underbill. 1982. Fishes of the Minnesota region. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 248 pp.
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Insects
Geology, lakes, and rivers
Borrer, D. J., and R. E. White. 1970. AJield guide to the insects of America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 404 pp. Opler, E A., and V Malikul. 1992. AJield guide to eastern butterflies. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 396 pp.
Ojakangas, R. W, and C. L. Matsch. 1982. Minnesota's geology. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 255 pp. Reid, G., S. Kaicher, and T. Dolan. 1967. Pond life; a guide to common plants and animals of North American ponds and lakes. Golden Press, New York. 160pp.
Mussels
Sansome, C. J. 1983. Minnesota underfoot: AJield guide to the state's
Cummings, K. S., and C. A. Mayer. 1992. Field guide tofreshwater mussels ojthe Midwest. Manual 5, Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign. 194 pp. Mueller, L. 1993. Freshwater mussels threatened with extinction. Minnesota Department of Agriculture, St. Paul. 19 pp. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1985. Freshwater mussels of the upper Mississippi River. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison. 63 pp.
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outstanding geologicfeatures. Voyageur Press, Stillwater, Minnesota. 224 pp. Sims, R K., and G. B. Morey, eds. 1972. Geology of Minnesota: A centennial volume. Minnesota Geological Society, Minneapolis. 632 pp. Waters, T. 1977. The streams and rivers of Minnesota. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 386 pp. Wright, H. E., Jr. 1990. Geologic history oj Minnesota rivers. Educational Series 7, Minnesota Geological Survey, University of Minnesota, St. Paul. 20 pp.
Appendix 2
Glossary of Technical Terms Alluvium Material, such as sand and gravel, deposited by running water. River terraces and outwash plains are examples of landforms composed of alluvium. Barrens Usually refers to an area with sparse vegetation or stunted plants, caused by harsh growing conditions such as infertile, droughty, or thin soils; also, a plant community that has very sparse cover or is composed of stunted plants. Bedrock Any solid rock exposed at the earth's surface or covered by unconsolidated material such as till, gravel, or sand. Blowout An area, on a dune or other sand deposit, where wind has eroded a bowl-shaped hollow in the sand. Blowouts generally are sparsely vegetated. Bog A wetland composed of a layer of acidic peat on which grows a specialized group of herbs and low shrubs. Bogs are distinguished from closely related poor fens by extremely nutrient-poor conditions and the absence of most of the minerotrophic species that occur in poor fens. Brushland An upland plant community composed of shrubs and tree sprouts. Calcareous Describes a soil or substrate that contains a significant amount of calcium carbonate. Canopy Aerial branches and leaves of terrestrial plants; generally the tallest layer of foliage in a plant community. Colluvium A deposit of rock and soil at the base of a cliff or slope, formed by gravitational action. Colonial nesting birds Species that nest in colonies (groups or aggregations), either with others of the same species or in mixed-species aggregations. Confirmed breeding birds Species that show evidence of nestingo based on the following criteria: nest with eggs, adult o oo ' sittingo on nest constantly, near nest,' young J~ eggshells oo J o in nest seen or heard, downy young or young still unable to fly seen away from nest.
Cover The proportion of the ground shaded when the living plant canopy is projected vertically downward; also a general term used to describe any component of the habitat that conceals animals from view. Dominant Describes a plant species that shapes the character of a community by virtue of its size, abundance, dense shade, or effects on soils. Dominant species generally influence the presence, growth, and distribution of other plant species in the community. Downcutting The process by which a river or stream erodes and lowers its bed, eventually resulting in the formation of a valley or ravine. Drawdown The lowering of the water level in a body of water. Drift (glacial) Rock material, such as boulders, gravel, sand, silt, or clay, removed from one area and deposited in another by glaciers. Drift includes material deposited directly by glacial ice, such as till, as well as material deposited indirectly, such as outwash. Edge species Animals that are typically associated with the boundaries between habitat types, especially between a forested habitat and an open habitat, where the growth of shrubs and trees results in high structural diversity. Emergent Describes a plant capable of surviving indefinitely with its root system and lower stem in water and its upper stem above water (e.g., cattails). End moraine A typically hilly landform composed of material deposited at the margin of a glacier. Ephemeral habitat A temporary habitat created by lowintensity short-lived fluctuations in environmental factors. Ericaceous Describes plants in the heath or Ericaceae family (e.g., leatherleaf, blueberry). Esker A long, often serpentine hill or ridge composed of sand and gravel deposited by meltwater streams flowing in a channel in a decaying ice sheet. Fen A wetland community composed of sedges, grasses,
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forbs, and sometimes shrubs, that develops on peat in
Ice block lake A lake that occurs in a depression that was formed when a block of o glacial ice was buried or sur-
shallow basins. Floating-leaved plants Aquatic plants that root on lake, pond, or river bottoms and have leaves that float on the water surface at the end of long, flexible stems (e.g., water-lilies). Floodplain A flat area adjacent to a stream or river channel, created by erosion and deposition of sediment during
rounded by till or outwash sand, and then melted. Ice scar A scar on a floodplain tree caused by abrasion by ice floes duringo spring r o flooding. o Inflorescence An arrangement of flowers on a plant, such as in a cluster or along a stalk. o
regular flooding. Signs of flooding include debris caught
Insectivore An animal that feeds on insects.
in trees and ice scars at the bases of trees.
Lacustrine Refers to features (such as sediments, landforms,
Forb A general term for broad-leaved, herbaceous plants; in this book, forbs include ferns and fern allies. Forest A plant community with a nearly continuous to continuous canopy (70 to 100% cover) of mature trees. Forest-grown tree A tree that matured within a closed-canopy forest. Forest-grown trees tend to have narrow crowns and tall, straight trunks with few lower limbs.
plant communities, or animal communities) that were formed by or are associated with a lake. Landform A land feature, such as a plain, plateau, or valley, formed by a particular geologic process. Larva A growing stage in the life cycle of invertebrates; also used to describe immature salamanders. Life form Characteristic structural features and growth pat-
Graminoid An herbaceous plant with linear, "grasslike" leaves
tern of plant species (e.g., broad-leaved deciduous shrub).
that typically are oriented vertically. Graminoids include
Litter layer Relatively undecomposed organic matter and debris on top of soil layer.
grasses, sedges, and rushes. Ground layer A vegetation layer, mostly less than 3 feet tall,
Loess Fine material consisting predominantly of silt with fine sand and clay. Loess is often deposited by wind.
of grasses, forbs, and woody plants. Ground moraine A broad and level or ogentlyJ undulatingo land-
Marsh A plant community of shallow wetland basins, dom-
form composed of material that was deposited under-
inated by herbaceous, emergent aquatic plants such as
neath and sometimes at the margin of a glacier as the ice
cattails and bulrushes. Marshes usually have standing water
sheet melted; also referred to as a till plain.
throughout the growing season.
Grove A general term for a patch of trees less than 2 acres
Meltwater Water released by melting glacial ice. J o o Mesic A general term describing upland habitats that are
in area. Grub A tree or shrub whose aboveground shoots are repeat-
intermediate between wet and dry; also used to describe
edly killed by fire or browsing but whose root system
plants and plant communities that occur in mesic habi-
survives and continues to send up new shoots. The root
tats.
system of a grub may be several hundred years old; the
Microhabitat A small, specialized habitat.
aboveground shoots are generally much younger.
Mineral soil A soil composed mostly of inorganic matter,
Habitat The locality, site, and particular type of local environment in which plants, animals, and other organisms live.
including clay, silt, sand, and gravel. Mineral soils usually have less than 20% organic matter but may have organic surface layers up to 12 inches thick.
Heath family See Ericaceous.
Herb A plant lacking a persistent aboveground woody stem.
Minerotrophic A general term describing wetlands with nutri-
Herbs include broad-leaved flowering plants, ferns, grasses,
ent levels that fall between very low (such as in bogs) and very high (such as in seepage meadows).
sedges, and others. Hibernaculum A site where an animal spends the winter in
Moraine Rock and mineral debris deposited directly by
a dormant state called hibernation characterized by
glacial ice. Moraines most often consist of unsorted rock
reduced metabolism, body temperature, breathing rate,
and mineral particles. Muck A dark-colored organic soil of highly decomposed
and heart rate. Hydrophyte A plant adapted to growing in water or on wet soils that are periodically saturated and deficient in oxygen.
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plant material in which the original plant parts are not recognizable.
Glossary of Technical Terms
Native habitat A habitat formed and occupied by native
Persistent vegetation Wetland vegetation formed by emer-
plants and animals and little modified by logging, farm-
gent hydrophytic plants with stems that normally remain
ing, ditching, flood control, and the like.
standing until the beginning of the following growing
Native species A species that occurs naturally within a given
season (e.g., cattails and bulrushes). Prairie An upland plant community composed of grasses
region. Native vegetation Vegetation, composed of native plants, that has been little modified by human activities such as logging, farming, ditching, or the introduction of nonnative
and forbs. Prairies generally lack trees; shrubs, if present, are not prominent. Presettlement A term used for convenience to denote the time period before Euro-American settlers moved into
species. Natural community An assemblage that tends to recur over
the Region. The Region was actually settled by American
space and time of native plants and animals that interact
Indians for thousands of years before European-Americans
with each other and with their abiotic habitats in ways that have been little modified by nonnative plant and animal species. Natural communities are classified and
arrived. Range (geographic) The limits of the geographic distribution of a species or group.
described according to their vegetation, successional sta-
Refugium An isolated habitat that retains environmental
tus, topography, hydrologic conditions, landforms, sub-
conditions that were once widespread. Refugia are habitat
strates, soils, and natural disturbance regimes (such as wildfires, windstorms, normal flood cycles, and normal infestation by native insects and microorganisms). J O ' Nonnative species A species that has been introduced to an area by humans or that is present in the area as a result
for species that were once more widely distributed. Reintroduced species Species that had been eliminated from areas where they occurred historically and were later released back into the area by humans. Remnant A portion or fragment of a natural community
of human-caused changes. By far, most of the nonnative
that has survived while the rest of the community has
species in the St. Croix River Valley—Anoka Sandplain
been destroyed by logging, urban development, clearing
Region have been introduced from outside North Amer-
of land for cultivation, and other human activities.
ica since the mid-1800s. A handful of species are thought
Rhizome A horizontal underground plant stem.
to have been introduced to the Region from other places
Savanna An upland plant community formed of prairie
in North America by American Indians before the mid-
herbs with scattered trees or groves of trees. The canopy
1800s.
cover of trees in a savanna is generally between 10 and 70%.
Open-grown tree A tree that has matured in an open setting, such as a prairie or savanna. Open-grown trees tend to have broad crowns and thick, spreading lower limbs. Organic soil A soil in which the upper surface layers contain more than 25% organic matter. o
Sedge Any of a number of grasslike plants of the family Cyperaceae. Sedimentation The process by which matter (usually soil particles) settles on a substrate following transport by water, wind, or ice. Seepage The slow, diffuse oozing of groundwater onto the
Outcrop Bedrock that projects above the soil. Outwash plain A plain formed of sorted and stratified material—such as layers of sand and gravel—carried from an ice sheet and deposited by glacial meltwater.
earth's surface. Shrub layer A vegetation layer, usually less than 6 feet high, of shrubs and tree seedlings. o Shrub swamp A wetland community dominated by a nearly
Overwintering site See Hibernaculum.
Parent material The weathered rock or partly weathered soil material from which topsoil develops.
continuous to continuous canopy (70 to 100% cover) of shrubs, such as willows and alders.
Peat soil A dark brown or black organic soil consisting largely
Subcanopy A vegetation layer, composed of patches of indi-
of undecomposed or slightly decomposed plants. Peat
viduals of approximately equal height, that is lower than
soils usually form where persistent excessive moisture
the canopy layer; often refers to a layer of saplings, tall
slows or inhibits the decay of plant material.
shrubs, or small trees between 6 and 35 feet high. Glossary of Technical Terms
[219]
Submergent Describes an aquatic plant that grows entirely under water.
composed of material that was deposited underneath and at the margin of a glacier as the ice sheet melted; also
Substrate The surface layer of organic or mineral material— such as till, outwash, or bedrock—from which the soil
referred to as a ground moraine. Transitional habitat A habitat present between two adjacent natural communities (for example, the edge of a forest
is formed. Succession The change in vegetation over time. o o
along a wet meadow). Transitional habitats often have
Swale A broad, shallow depression in a till plain or broad
features that set them apart from the habitats formed by either of the adjacent communities.
river plain. Swamp A wetland community with a fairly continuous to continuous canopy of shrubs or trees, such as speckled alder, black ash, or tamarack. Swamps generally occur in
Understory The vegetation occurring below the canopy in a plant community. Vine A plant with a long, weak stem that grows along the ground or climbs on other vegetation for support.
shallow basins or wet depressions. Talus Rocks and other coarse mineral debris that accumu-
Wetland Habitats where the soil is saturated or covered with water for part of the year.
late at the base of a cliff or steep slope. Terrace A sandy and gravelly alluvial plain bordering a river.
Woodland A wooded habitat characterized by an interrupted
Terraces represent former river floodplains, left stranded
tree canopy; also used as a general term to describe any
when the river level dropped because of channel down-
tract of land with trees growing on it.
cutting or decreased flow. Terraces are ordinarily level or
Woodland-brushland An upland plant community composed
nearly level and are seldom flooded. Compare with
of a patchy canopy (10 to 70% cover) of mature trees and
Floodplain.
a dense understory of shrubs, tree shoots, and saplings.
Till Unstratified and unsorted material deposited directly by a glacier. Till consists of clay, sand, gravel, or boulders mixed in any proportion. Compare with Drift.
thickets of brush between them. Woody plant A perennial plant with a secondarily thickened,
Till plain A broad and level or gently undulating landform
[220]
Usually the trees occur in scattered groves with dense
lignified stem.
Glossary of Technical Terms
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Index Page numbers followed by f indicate that the
ash: black (Fraxinus nigra), 58f, 60f, lOlf,
plant or animal species is listed as a com-
102f, 103f, 105f, 106f, 114f; green
mon, characteristic, rare, or disturbance or
(F. pennsylvanica), 58f, 60f, 96f
threat species in the natural community fact sheet on that page.
aspen: (Populus sp.), 23, 52; big-toothed (P. grandidentata), 47, 65f; quaking (P. tremuloides), 47, 54f, 60f, 70f, 136f
195
grandiflorus), 77f, 79f, 88f, 92f; slender (P. gracilis), 75 beaver, American (Castor canadensis), 19,
154f, 156f, 187, 193 bedrock and beach communities, 143.
aspen forests, 47
See also dry cliff, lake beach, moist cliff,
aspen woodland, 26, 67
river beach, rock outcrop
aster: big-leaved (Aster macrophyllus), 55f, 57f, adder's-tongue (Ophioglossum pusillum), 131,
beard-tongue: large-flowered (Penstemon
66f, 7If; flat-topped (A. umbellatus), 131; heath (A. ericoides), 78f, 85f, 90f; Ontario
bedrock bluff prairie, 27, 29, 186, 199; described, 83-84; fact sheet, 89-90 bedstrawr: Labrador (Galium labradoricum),
Afton State Park, native habitats of, 95
(A. ontarionis), 97f; red-stemmed (A.
140; northern (G. boreale), 55f, 85f, 136f;
agriculture, influence on native habitats, 17,
puniceus), 119f, 139f; silky (A. sericeus), 79f,
rough (G. asprellum), 120f; sweet-scented
90f; sky-blue (A. oolentangiensis), 79f, 85f,
(G. tnflorum), 61f, 66f, 102f, 104f, 106f
32-34, 39 alder, speckled (Alnus incana subsp. rugosa),
61f, 102f, 104f, 106f, 11 Of, 113f, 114f,
89f, 91 f, 136f avens, white (Geum canadense), 61 f
119f, 120f, 12 If
bellflower, marsh (Campanula aparinoides),
B
sheet, 119-20 alexanders: golden (Zizia aurea), 192; heart-leaved (Z. aptera), 136f amaranth, tubercled (Amamnthus tuberculatus), 156f American Indians, 15-20, 21, 23, 38, 39,
144 anemone, wood (Anemone quinquefolia), 66f angelica (Angelica atropurpurea), 100, 131 Anoka sandplain: bison on, 16; formation
155f; nodding (B. cernua), 117; showy (B. coronata), 134
alder swamp, 116; described, 117; fact
alyssum, hoary (Berteroa incana), 148f
beggar-ticks: (Bidens sp.), 11 Of, 128f, 138f,
122f, 128f, 138f bellwort: large-flowered (Uvularia grandi-
barrens oak savanna, 72, 173, 176, 194, 195; described, 74; fact sheet, 76—77 barrens prairie: described, 83; fact sheet, 87-88 bartonia, Virginia (Bartonia virginica), 102f,
136f basswood (Tilia americana), 51—52, 56f, 58f,
60f, 65 f bat: big brown (Eptesicusjuscus), 144, 148f,
fora), 59f; pale (U. sessilifolia), 55f, 57f bergamot, wild (Monardajistulosa), 85f betony, wood (Pedicularis canadensis), 136f birch: bog (Betula glandulifera), 11 Of, 113f, 119f, 12If, 139f, 142f; paper (B. papyrifera), 56f, 66f, lOlf, 105f, 11 Of, 112f; yellow (B. alleghaniensis), 60f, 103f, 105f, 114f bishop's-cap, naked (Mitella nuda), 102f,
106f, 113f, 114f
of, 7—8; occupation by American Indians,
150f, 179; eastern pipistrelle (Pipistrelle
bison (Bison bison), 15, 16, 18, 19, 20
16, 18, 25; presettlement vegetation of,
subflavus), 144, 148f, ISOf; hoary (Lasiurus
bittern: American (Botaurus lentiginosus),
23-25
cinereus), 193; little brown myotis (Myotis
127f, 129f, 138f, 171; least (Ixobrychus
aquatic habitats, described, 157—60
lucifugus), 144, 147f, ISOf, 179, 193; north-
arbutus, trailing (Epigaea repens), 168
ern myotis (M. septentrionalis), 144, 148f,
arrowhead: broad-leaved (Sagittaria latifolia),
ISOf; red (L borealis), 193
12If, 126f, 128f, 154f; sessile-fruited (S. rigida), 154f arrowwood, downy (Viburnum rafinesquianum), 64
Battle Creek Regional Park, native habitats of, 186
beak-rush, white (Rhynchospora alba), 198 bear, black (Ursus americanus), 162, 163, 177
exilis), 127f, 129f bitternut (Carya cordiformis), 56f, 57f, 58f, 66f
black ash swamp, 203; described, 98, 100; fact sheet, 105-6 blackberry: (Rubus sp.), 57f, 136f; common (Rubus allegheniensis), 55f, 71f
[225]
blackbird: red-winged (Agelaius phoeniceus),
122f, 127f, 129f, 136f, 138f, 140f, 171, 188;
bugleweed: (Lycopus uniflorus), 138f; cut-leaved (L. americanus), 126f, 154f, 155f
cattail: (Jypha sp.), 138f; broad-leaved (T. latifolia), lllf, 128f; hybrid (T. glauca),
yellow-headed (Xanthocephalus
bulrush: river (Scirpusjiuviatilis), 121 f;
125; narrow-leaved (T. angustifolia), 129f
xanthcephalus), 127 f, 129f, 171
Smith's (S. smithii), 154f; softstem
cattail marsh, 123; described, 124—25; fact
black spruce swamp, 107
(S. validus var. creber), 127 f, 156f
bladdernut (Staphylea trifolia), 91 f
bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), 114f
bladderwort: cornrnon (Utricularia vulgaris),
Bunker Hills Regional Park: animals of, 170;
126f; humped (U. gibba), 140f; intermediate (U. intermedia), 140f blazing-star: dotted (Liatris punctata), 79f; great (L. pycnostachya), 136f; rough (I. aspera), 77f, 85f, 92f bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), S9f blue-joint (Calamagrostis canadensis), 118f,
120f, 122f, 127f, 136f, 138f, 139f blueberry: (Vaccinium angustifolium), 55 f,
native habitats of, 164-65, 170 bunting, indigo (Passerina cyanea), 7If, 77f, 79f bur-reed: (Sparganium sp.), 124; giant (S. eurycarpum), 127f burdock (Arctium minus), 51 f, 91 f bush-clover, round-headed (Lespedeza butterfly-weed (Asclepias tuberosa), 79f, 92f butterfly: bog copper (Epidemia epixanthe), l l l f , 113f, 142f; Karner blue (Lycaeides
(V. myrtilloides), 108
melissa samuelis), 11 f, 79f; Uncas skipper
bluegrass: (Poa sp.), 37; bog (P. paludigena), 79f, 86f, 90f, 92f, 148f, 152f; Kentucky
(Hesperia uncas), 88f, 92f, 196 butternut (Juglans cinerea), 50, 56f, 57f, 60f buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), 91 f
(P. pratensis), 7If, 77f, 79f, 84, 86f, 88f,
142f bog. See poor fen boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum), 126f, 138f,
153f Boot Lake Scientific and Natural Area: animals of, 99, 169; geology of, 169; native habitats of, 49, 50, 62, 64, 169 box elder (Acer negundo), S6f, 90f, 92f, 96f brome: fringed (Bromus ciliatus), 138f;
calla, wild (Calla palustris), 100 canary-grass, reed (Phalaris arundinacea), 61 f,
95, 97f, 104f, 106f, 113f, 120f, 122f, 127f,
130, 136f, 138f, 140f, 142f, 154f, 156f cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis ssp. cardinalis), 91 f, 180, 203 caribou (Rangifer sp.), 15 Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area,
Twin Lakes, Zodiac Street, and Pool 16:
70f chickadee, black-capped (Parus atricapillus),
SSf, 57f, 59f, 61 f, 66f, 97f, 102f, 104f, 106f, lllf, 113f, 115f chickweed: forked (Paronychiajdstigiata),
19f,
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), 55f, 57f,
66f, 7If, 76f, 90f, 92f cinquefoil: marsh (Potentilla palustris), lllf, 122f, 128f, 139f; old field (P. simplex), 135f; tall (P. arguta), 78f, 90f clammy-weed (Polanisia dodecandra), 84 clearweed: (Pilea sp.), 120f; (P. pumila), 61f, 97f, 120f, 127f
147f, 15 If
climate, influence on vegetation, 13, 14, 15,
21,22 clover, white (Trifolium repens), 71 f
Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area, Wyoming Dunes: native habitats of, 176 Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area:
buckbean (Menyanthes trifoliata), 11 Of, 113f
native habitats of, 49, 53, 124-25, 131, 132; presettlement vegetation of, 25
102f, 106f, lllf, 113f, HSf, 117, 120f, 122f, carpetweed (Mollugo verticillata), llf, 88f,
[226]
cherry, black (Prunus serotina), 54f, 56f, SSf,
cliff-brake, smooth (Pellaea glabella), 90f,
buckthorn: alder (Rhamnusfrangula), 6If, 142f, 174; common (R. cathartica), SSf,
177; native habitats of, 100, 109, 177
habitats of, 171 Carlos Avery Wildlife Management Area,
172
57f, 61f, 66f, 97f, 102f, 106f, 148f, ISOf
17, 24, 99
cleavers (Galium aparine), 51 f
(B. inermis), 79f, 84, 86f, 90f, 92f
CO. uniflora), 59f, 19f
Centerville area, 17, 19; native habitats of,
Pool 9: animals of, 124, 171; native
animals of, 172; native habitats of, 49, 131,
viciana), 79f, 88f, 92f; one-flowered
109, 114, 134
59f, 66f, 71f
Kalm's (B. kalmii), 86f; smooth broom-rape: Louisiana (Orobanche ludo-
of, 99; native habitats of, 49, 65, 69, 74,
chipmunk, eastern (Tamias striatus), 55 f, 51 f,
79f, 86f, 90f, 92f, 136f; little (Schizadyrium
bog-rosemary (Andromeda glaucophylla), 111 f,
Cedar Creek Natural History Area: animals
91 f; long-leaved (Stellaria longifolia), 120f
bluestem: big (Andropogon gerardii), 7If, 77f, scoparium), 77f, 79f, 86f, 90f, 92f
89f, 90f, 92f, 15If; white (Thuja occidentalis), 114f, 177
88f, 90f, 92f; giant (Myosoton acjuaticum),
90f, 92f, 136f
bog-laurel (Kalmia polifolia), 142 f
cedar: red (Juniperus virginiana), 70f, 77f,
Chengwatana State Forest: animals of, 94,
capitata), 92 f
71f, 11 Of, 135f, 193; velvet-leaved
, 102f, 104f, 106f; Canada (P. compressa),
sheet, 128-29
cohosh, blue (Caulophyllum thalictroides), 58f columbine (Aquilegia canadensis), 51 f, 66f,
147 f, 15 If coneflower, gray-headed (Ratibida pinnata),
199 conifer swamps, 107. See also tamarack swamp, white cedar swamp
156f
catbird, gray (Dumetella carolinensis), 71 f
Index
coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum), 160
coot, American (Fulica americana), 121 f, 129f cordgrass, prairie (Spartina pectinata), 136f coreopsis, bird-foot (Coreopsis palmata), 19 f,
8Sf, 86f
deciduous savannas, 72—73. See also dry oak savanna, mesic oak savanna deciduous woodlands, 67—68. See also oak woodland-brushland
Cottage Grove dissected plain, 11; forma-
deer: (Odocoileus sp.), 17, 19, 180, 187, 188,
tion of, f 0; presettlernent vegetation of,
193; white-tailed (0. virginianus), 55f, 57f,
29; soils of, 10 cotton-grass: (Eriophorum sp.), 110; tawny
59f, 66f,71f, 77f, 79f dewberry, northern (Rubusjlagellaris), 194
(E. virginicum), lllf, 142f; tussock
dock, golden (Rumex mari tint us), 154f, 1561
(E. spissum), l l l f
dogbane, spreading (Apocynum androsaemi-
cottontail, eastern (SylvilagusJJoridanus), 71 f cottonwood (Populus deltoides), 96f, 187
Jolium), 75
cowbird, brown-headed (Molothrus ater),
60f, 66f; red-osier (C. stolonifera), 113f,
crabgrass (Digitaria sp.), 77f, 88f cranberry: (Vacdnium sp.), 198; high-bush (Viburnum trilobum), 17, 109; large (Vacdnium macrocarpon), 11 Of, 142f; low-bush
125. See also cattail marsh, mixed emergent marsh ermine (Mustela erminea), 102f, 104f, 106f,
120f, 122f, 142f, 172 European-Americans, 17, 18, 19, 20, 30-37, 38, 39, 161-65 evening primrose, rhombic-petaled
119f, 121f, 135f, f38f; round-leaved (C. rugosa), 50
falcon, peregrine (Falco peregrin us), 148f, 150
dove, mourning (Zenaida macroura), 7If, 77f,
79f, 86f, 88f, 92f
Falls Creek Scientific and Natural Area: native habitats of, 51, 62, 64, 197
dragon's-mouth (Arethusa bulbosa), l l l f ,
false foxglove, round-stemmed (Agalinis gattingeri), 71f, 77f, 79f, 88f, 92f
115f, 142 f
(Vacdnium sp.), 17; small (V. oxycoccus),
dragonhead, false (Physostegia virginiana), 91 f
11 Of, l l l f , 142f
dragonfly: cobra club tail (Gomphurus vastus),
crane, sandhill (Grus canadensis), 124, 127f,
emergent marshes, 123; animals of, 124,
(Oenothera rhombipetala), 77f, 79f, 88f, 92f
7If, 90f; pagoda (C. alternifolia), 57f, 58f,
coyote (Canislatraw), 71f, 162, 163, 177
lOlf, 103f, 106f
dogwood: gray (Cornusjoemina), 551, 61f,
cowbane (Oxypolis rigidior), 136f
7If, 77f, 79f
92f; slippery (U. rubra), 53, 58f, 60f, 96f,
false heather (Hudsonia tomentosa), 11 f, 88f, 176
146; dragon hunter (Hagenius brevistylus),
false mermaid (Floerkea proserpinacoides), 104f
129f, 136f, 138f, 140f, 142f, 169, 171, 193
146; pygmy clubtail (Ophiogomphus howei),
false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), 91 f
creeper, Virginia (Parthenodssus inserta), 55f,
146; St. Croix snaketail (0. susbehcha), 146
false Solomon's-seal (Smiladna racemosa),
S7f, 61f, 66f, 71f, 96f, 102f, 106f creeping Charlie (Glechoma hederacea), 59f,
97f
dropseed: prairie (Spowbolus heterolepis), 19f, 86f, 90f; sand (S. cryptandrus), 11 f, 88f dry cliff: described, 143—44; fact sheet,
crow, American (Corvus brachyrhynchos), 38 cucumber, wild (Echinocystis lobata), 95 Culver's root (Veronicastrum virginicum), 136f curlew, long-billed (Numenius americanus), 162
147-48
wild black (R. americanum), 51, 100 cut-grass, rice (Leersia oryzoides), 97f, 154f,
156f
stellata), 75; three-leaved (S. tnjolia), 142f fameflower, rough-seeded (Talinum rugospermum), 15 If
dry oak forest, 183; described, 49; fact sheet 54-55
fern: bracken (Pteridium aquilinum van latiusculum), 14, 55f, 66f, 71f; bulblet
dry oak savanna, 73—74. See also barrens oak savanna, sand-gravel oak savanna
currant: swamp red (%'fces triste), 100, 109;
55f, 57f, 59f, 7If; star-flowered (S.
dry prairie, 80—81, 82. See also barrens prairie, bedrock bluff prairie, sand-gravel prairie
(Cystopteris bulbifera), 149f; cinnamon (Osmunda dnnamomea), 61f, 102f, 104f, 106f, l l l f , 113f, 120f; crested (Dryopteris cristata), 113f, 119f; fragile (C.fragilis), 149f; Goldie's (D. goldiana), 57f, 59f; inter-
Dutchman's breeches (Dicentm cucullaria), 51
cynthia, two-flowered (Krigia biflora), 135f,
rupted (0. daytoniana), 52, 57f, 59f, 61f; lady (Athyrium angustum), 57f, 58f, 61f, 66f,
136f
102f, 104f, 106f, 114f; maidenhair
E
(Adiantum pedatum), 58f, 59f, 61f; ostrich (Matteucda struthiopteris), 6If;
D darter, gilt (Perdna evides), 12 deciduous forests, 46—47. See a/so lowland hardwood forest, maple-basswood forest, oak forest
eagle, bald (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), 169
royal (0. regalis), 120f; sensitive (Onoclea
elder, red-berried (Sambucus pubens), 57f,
sensibilis), 102f, 104f, 106f, 120f, 138f;
66f
walking (Camptosaurus rhizophyllus), 149f
e\k(Cervuselaphus), 18, 19
fir, balsam (Abies balsamea), 14
elm: American (Ulmus americana), 50, 53,
fire: influence on native habitats, 46, 49, 64,
56f, 190; Siberian (U. pumila), 7If, 90f,
Index
72, 84, 131, 134, 171, 173; and pre-
[227]
settlement vegetation, 19-20,' 21,* 22,' 23,' O '
gentian, downy (Gentiana puberulenta), 86f
24, 25, 26
geology: bedrock, 4—5; glacial, 5—13, 169,
fleabane, daisy (Erigeron strigosus), 90f, 9If,
192,193
floodplain forest, 22, 29, 39, 187, 190, 203; described, 93-95; fact sheet, 96-97 fly-honeysuckle, mountain (Lonicera villosa),
113f
57f, 59f, 66f
120f; great crested (Myiarchus crinitus), 55f,
57f, 59f, 61 f, 66f, 97f, 102f, 104f, 106f;
gerardia, small-flowered (Agalinis tenuifolia),
154f
obscurum var. isophyllum), 50 ground squirrel, thirteen-lined (Spermophilus
66f gnatcatcher, blue-gray (Polioptila caerulea),
tridecemlineatus), 73, 77f, 79f, 86f, 88f, 90f,
92f
97f goat's beard (Tragopogon dubius), 79f
(E. traillii), 117, 122f
golden aster, hairy (Heterotheca villosa), 11 f,
47
ground-plum (Astragalus crassicarpus), 90f ground-pine, round-branched (Lycopodium
least (E. minimus), 57f, 59f, 66f; willow forest fragmentation, and bird populations,
90f; clammy (P. heterophylla), 90f, 92f groundnut (Apios americana), 95
ginseng (Panax quinquefolia), 57f, 59f, 61f,
flycatcher: alder (Empidonax alnorum), 117,
169
ground-cherry (Physalis virginiana), 11 f, 19f,
geranium, wild (Geranium maculatum), 55f,
156f
ground-cedar (Lycopodium complanatum),
H
87f goldenglow (Rudbeckia laciniata), 91 f
forget-me-not (Myosotis scorpioides), 104f
goldenrod: (Solidago sp.), 195; bog
habitat, defined, vii
Fort Snelling State Park. See Pike Island
(S. uliginosa), 174; Canada (S. canadensis),
hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), 91 f
four-o'clock, hairy (Mirabilis hirsuta), 78f
85f, 136f; cliff (S. sciaphila), 147'f, 149f,
hardwood swamps, 98—99. See also black ash
fox: gray (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), 57f, 59f,
15If; giant (S. gigantea), 138f; grass-leaved
swamp, mixed hardwood seepage swamp, mixed hardwood swamp
171; red (Vulpes wipes), 77f, 79f, 86f, 88f,
(Euthamia graminifolia), 131; gray
92f, 188
(5. nemoralis), 77f, 79f, 89f, 92f; Missouri
hare, snowshoe (Lepus americanus), 120f
(S. missouriensis), IK, 85f, 88f; Riddell's
harebell (Campanula rotundifolia), 89f, 90f,
fringed orchid: purple (Platanthera psycodes), 132; ragged (P. lacera), 136f frog: bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), 179; chorus (Pseudacris trisaiata), 86f, 120f, 122f, 127f, 129f, 136f, 138f, 140f, 142f, 171; green (R. clamitans), 127f, 129f, 179; northern cricket (Acris crepitans), 156f; northern leopard (R. pipiens), 86f, 120f, 122f, 127f, 129f, 136f, 138f, 140f, 142f, 154f; spring
(S. riddellii), 192; showy (S. speciosa), 86f; stiff (S. rigida), 85f, 92f; zig-zag (S.fexigoldfinch, American (Carduelis tristis), 86f,
88f, 90f, 92f, 122f, 136f goose, Canada (Branta canadensis), 121 f, 129f,
154f, 188 gooseberry: Missouri (Ribes missouriense),
102f, 104f, 106f, 120f, 122f, 127 f, 129f,
97 f; swamp (R. hinellum), 113f Goose Creek Natural Area: animals of, 99,
(R. sylvatica), 57f, 59f, 61f, 66f, 97f, 102f,
181; native habitats of, 29, 50, 52-53, 60,
104f, 106f, 11 If, 113f, 115f, 120f, 122f,
64, 99, 100, 132, 181
154f, 156f 79f; hoary (H. bicknellii), 78f
grama: hairy (Bouteloua hirsuta), 11 f, 79f, 88f, 90f; side-oats (B. curtipendula), 90f, 92f Grantsburg sublobe till plain: fire on, 26;
fungus, earth-star (Geastrum sp.), 83
formation of, 6—7; presettlement vege-
fur trade, 18, 19,20,28
tation of, 25—26; soils of, 7 grape, wild (Vitis riparia), 55f, 57f, 61f, 7lf,
96f, 113f
G
General Land Office survey, 21, 22, 24, 28,
49
[228]
57f, 59f, 61 f, 94, 97f, 102f, 104f, 106f, 169, 181, 183, 185; rough-legged hawkweed, long-bearded (Hieracium longipilum), 19f, 88f, 92f hazelnut: (Corylus sp.), 23; American (C. americana), 55f, 57f, 60f, 66f, 71f, 77f; beaked (C. cornuta), 64 hedge-hyssop (Gratiola neglecta), 200 hedge nettle: marsh (Stachys palustris), 136f; slender (S. tenuifolia), 91 f Helen Allison Scientific and Natural Area: native habitats of, 72, 74, 76, 173 hemicarpha (Hemicarpha micrantha), 154f Hennepin, Father Louis, 17, 18, 19 hepatica: round-lobed (Hepatica americana),
grapefern: cutleaf (Botrychium dissectum), 199; leathery (B. multifidum), 198
garlic-mustard (Alliaria petiolata), 91 f
hawk: red-shouldered (Buteo lineatus), 55f,
(B. lagopus), 172
57f; prickly (R. cynosbati), 51 f, 58f, 66f,
frostweed: Canada (Helianthemum canadense),
harvest mouse, western (Reithrodontomys megalotis), 92 f
caulis), 59f
peeper (P. crucifer), 57f, 59f, 61f, 66f, 97f, 136f, 138f, 140f, 142f, 171; wood
147 f, 15 If
grass, Walter's barnyard (Echinochloa walteri),
97f, 127f, 154f, 156f grass, white (Leersia virginica), 91 f
Index
57f; sharp-lobed (H. acutiloba), 59f heron, great blue (Ardea herodias), 154f, 156f,
185, 200 Hidden Falls-Crosby Regional Park: native habitats of, 143, 158
hog-peanut (Amphicarpa bracteata), SSf, 51 f,
S9f, 61f, 66f, 71f honewort (Cryptotaenia canadensis), 59f, 6If, 97f
61 f, 86f, 97f, 113f, 120f, 122f, 136f, 138f,
leek, wild (Allium tricoccum), 20, 59f
140f, 154f, 189
lemming, southern bog (Synaptomys cooped),
Juneberries (Amelanchier spp.), SSf, 57f, 66f,
honeysuckle: bush (Diervilla lonicera), 66f; Tartarian (Lonicera tatarica), SSf, 57f, 59f,
66f, 152f, 178 hops (Humulus lupulus), 95
lllf, 113f lichen, British-soldier (Cladonia cristatella),
71f
Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha), 11 f, 86f, 88f,
90f, 92f
83
lily: blue-bead (Clintonia borealis), 106f;
juniper, bush (Juniperus communis var.
wood (Lilium philadelphicum var. andinum), 192
depressa), 71 f
hornbeam, American (Carpinus caroliniana),
liverwort: conehead (Conocephalum conicum),
60f, 66f
149f; umbrella (Marchantia polymorpha),
K
horsetail, woodland (Equisetum sylvaticum),
149f lobelia: great (Lobelia siphilitica), 154f;
61f
horseweed (Conyza canadensis), 77f, 154f, 156f
Keating, William,' 20 o'
huckleberry (Gaylussacia baccata), 50
killdeer (Charadrius vociferus), 154f, 156f
locust, black (Robinia pseudoacacia), 19 f, 201
hydrology, influence on native vegetation,
kingbird: eastern (Tyrannus tyrannus), 86f,
logging, 30—31, 39; and maple-basswood
21-22
88f, 90f, 92f; western (T. verticalis), 88f, 92f kingfisher, belted (Ceryle alcyon), 147'f, 154f, kitten-tails (Besseya bullii), 71f, 79f, 90f, 92f knapweed, spotted (Centaurea biebersteinii),
ice block depressions: in Anoka sandplain,
79f, 88f, 90f, 201
lopseed (Phryma leptostachya), 57f, 59f, 66f
Indian pipe (Monotropa uniflora), 175
Lost Valley Prairie Scientific and Natural Labrador tea (Ledum gwenlandicum), 111 f ladies'-tresses, nodding (Spiranthes cernua),
136f
178
ironwood (Ostrya virginiana), 56f, 58f, 60f, 65 f
SSf, 57f, 6If, 66f, 7If, 76f, 90f, 92f, 152f
arietinum), 115f; showy (C. reginae), 113f; (C. calceolus var. pubescens), 100 lake beach: described, 145—46; fact sheet, 153-54
lovegrass: creeping (Eragrostis hypnoides), 156f; purple (E. spectabilis), 79f lowland hardwood forest, 29; described, 52-53; fact sheet, 60-61 lupine, wild (Lupinus perennis), 19f Lyndon Cedarglade Park: native habitats of,
lakes: oglacial,' 8, ' 9. '12;' in T postglacial era,' 14 o
J
Area, native habitats of, 89, 199 lotus-lily (Nelumbo lutea), 158 lousewort, swamp (Pedicularis lanceolata), 118
lady's-slipper: ram's-head (Cypripedium stemless (C. acaule), 113f; yellow
ivy, poison (Rhus radicans var. rydbergii), 20,
135f; purple (Lythrum salicaria var. tomen-
fora), lllf, 113f, 122f, 139f
L
92f, 136f
iris, blue flag (Iris versicolor), 138f
loosestrife: prairie (Lysimachia quadriflora),
142f, 154f, 156; tufted (Lysimachia thyrsi-
Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans), 86f, 90f,
178; geology of, 4; native habitats of, 151,
forests, 62, 64
tosum), 120f, 122f, UK, 129f, 138f, 140f,
8; formation of, 7
Interstate State Park, 10; animals of, 94,
forests, 52; and white pine-hardwood loon, common (Gavia immer), 171
156f
I
pale-spiked (L. spicata), 136f
101, 183
Lake St. Croix, formation of, 13 lamb's quarters (Chenopodium album), 88f;
jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), 59f,
61f, 102f, 104f, 106f, 114f jack oak. See oak, northern pin jay, blue (Cyanotitta cristata), SSf, S7f, 59f,
66f, 7If, 77f, 79f, 102f, 104f, 106f Jim's Prairie, 189 Joe-pye weed (Eupatorium maculatum), 113f, 122f, 138f jointweed, coast (Polygonella articulata), 88f jumping mouse, meadow (Zapus hudsonius),
narrow-leaved (C. desiccatum), 87 f
M
larkspur, prairie (Delphinium virescens), 77f,
90f, 92f
Mahnomen Trail and Blue Hill Trail: animals
leadplant (Amorpha canescens), 7If, 76f, 78f,
85f, 87f, 89f, 91f
of, 193; native habitats of, 49, 69, 193 malhrd(Anasplatyrhynchos), 121 f, 129f, 154f
leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata), 11 Of,
142f
manna-grass: fowl (Glyceria striata), 102f, 104f, 106f, 114f; tall (G. grandis), 139f
leatherwood (Dirca palustris), 50 Lee and Rose Warner Nature Center, native habitats of, 198
maple-basswood forest, 15, 20, 26, 29, 46, 59, 183; described, 50-52; fact sheet, 58-59
Index
[229]
maple: red (Acer rubrum), S4f, S6f, 60f, 6Sf, lOlf, H9f; silver (A. saccharinum), 96f, 97f, ISSf; sugar (A. saccharum), 51, 58f, 59f, 60f Maplewood Nature Center. See Jim's Prairie marsh-marigold (Caltha palustris), 113f, 119f marsh fern, northern (Thelypteris palustris), lllf, 113f, 114f, 119f, 12 If, 128f, 138f Martin-Island-Linwood Lakes Regional Park: native habitats of, 64, 174, 175 mayflower, Canada (Maianthemum canadense),
55f, 57f, 61f, 66f, 71f, 102f, 104f, 106f, 113f
McLeod's Slough: animals of, 200; native habitats of, 126, 200 meadow-grass, fowl (Poa palustris), 102f, 104f, 106f, 113f, 120
meadow-rue: early (Thalictrum dioicum), 59f, 66f; tall (T. dasycarpum), 136f meadowlark: eastern (Sturnella magna),
mixed coniferous-deciduous forests, 62. See also white pine-hardwood forest mixed emergent marsh, described, 123—24; fact sheet, 126-27 mixed hardwood seepage swamp, 179; described, 100; fact sheet, 103-4 mixed hardwood swamp, 98; described, 99-100; fact sheet, 101-2 moist cliff: described, 144; fact sheet, 149-50 star-nosed (Condylum cnstata), 120f monkey-flower (Mimulus ringens), 154f, 155f, 156f
moonseed, Canada (Menispermum canadense), moorhen, common (Gallinula chloropus),
127 f, 129f, 171
fact sheet, 56-57
104f, 106f; wood (Laportea canadensis), 52,
61 f, 97f Nicollet, Joseph, 19 nightshade (Solanum dulcamara), 95; 6If, 66f; smaller enchanter's (C. alpina), 102f, 104f, 106f, 114f
nut-rush, tall (Scleria triglomerata), 11 f, 136f, nuthatch: red-breasted (Sitta canadensis),
55f, 57f, 59f, 61 f, 66f, 97f, 102f, 104f, 106f
moss, hair-cap (Polytrichum sp.), 195 motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca), 51 f, 91 f
mesic oak forest, 51, 175; described, 49—50;
nettle: stinging (Urtica dioica), 6If, 97f, 102f,
66f; white-breasted (S. carolinensis),
95
mountain-mint (Pycnanthemum virginianum),
66f
77f, 79f, 88f, 92f
138f
88f, 92f
melic grass, false (Schizachne purpurascens),
42-45 needlegrass, sea-beach (Aristida tuberculosa),
enchanter's (Circaea lutetiana), 51 f, 58f,
mole: eastern (Scalopus aquaticus), 59f;
86f, 88f, 90f; western (S. neglecta), 86f, meadowsweet (Spiraea alba), 138f
natural community fact sheets, key to,
o
135f, 136f
mountain holly (Nemopanthus mucronata),
oak: bur (Quercus macrocarpa), 54f, 56f, 60f, 65f, 70f, 74, 75, 76f, 78f, 79f; northern
HOf
mouse: deer (Pewmyscus maniculatus), 88f, 92f; white-footed (P. leucopus), 55f, 57f,
pin (Q. ellipsoidalis), 23, 54f, 55f, 56f, 65f, 70f, 71f, 76f, 78f; red (Q. rubra), 54f, 56f,
mesic oak savanna, 72—73
59f, 61f, 66f, 71f, 77f, 79f, 90f, 97f, 102f,
57f, 58f, 60f, 65f, 70f, 102f; white
mesic prairie, 27, 29, 38; described, 81—82;
104f, 106f, l l l f , 113f, 115f, 148f, 150f,
(Q. alba), 50, 56f, 60f
fact sheet, 85-86 milkweed: common (Asclepias syriaca), 91 f; poke (A. exaltata), 71 f; swamp (A. incar-
152f, 156f
oak forest, 17, 26, 27, 29, 47-49. See also
muhly, plains (Muhlenbergia cuspidata), 79f,
nata), 128f, 138f, 154f, 155f; whorled
mullein (Verbascum thapsus), 19f
(A. verticillata), 90f
muskrat, common (Ondatra zibethicus), 127'f,
milkwort: cross (Polygala cruciata), 136f, 138f; purple (P. sanguined), 136f minerotrophic tamarack swamp: described, 108-9; fact sheet, 112-13
mussel: Higgins' eye (Lampsilis higginsi), 158; winged mapleleaf (Quadrula Jragosa), 158; zebra (Dreissena polymorpha), 158, 160
lllf, 113f, 115f, 136f, 138f, 142f
nannyberry (Viburnum lentago), 51 f
Mississippi River Islands Scientific and
native habitats: defined, vii, 41; field inven-
Natural Area, native habitats of, 190
tory of, 42, 158, 160; list of sites with,
[230]
68-69; fact sheet, 70-71 onion, wild (Allium stellatum), 15
Orrock Dunes: animals of, 194; native
Mississippi River, 8—9, 11; fish of, 12
miterwort (Mitella diphylla), 197
29, 32, 67, 186, 190, 194; described,
orchid, club-spur (Platanthera clavellata), N
information system, 42
8—9; presettlement vegetation of, 23
also dry oak savanna, mesic oak savanna
opuntia, brittle (Opuntiajragilis), 145
described, vii; methods of, 42
Mississippi River terraces: formation of,
oak savanna, 23, 25, 27, 29, 37, 38, 68. See oak woodland-brushland, 14, 21, 23, 26, 28,
129f, 154f, 193
Minnesota County Biological Survey: Minnesota Natural Heritage Program
dry oak forest, mesic oak forest oak openings. See oak savanna
90f
168; ownership of, 164; visiting, 168 natural communities: classification of, 42, 44; defined, 41
habitats of, 69, 194 Osceola Landing: animals of, 94, 179; native habitats of, 93, 94, 179, 180 osprey (Pandion haliaetus), 160 otter, northern river (Lutra canadensis), 160, 171
Index
ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus), SSf, 57f, 59f,
66f owl, barred (Strix varia), 169
(P. crispus), 184; horned (Zannichellia palus-
rattlesnake-plantain (Goodyera pubescens), 64
tris var. major), 184
rattlesnake-root, smooth (Prenanthes race-
poor fen, 26, 184, 198; described, 134; fact
porcupine grass (Stipa spartea), 77'f, 79f, 86f,
P paddlefish (Polyodon spathula), 12 panic-grass: (Panicum sp.), 172, 186;
88f, 92f
97 f, 102f, 104f, 106f
redtop (Agrostis stolonifera), 104f, 136f
prairie-chicken, greater (Jympanuchus
reedgrass: sand (Calamovilja longifolia), 11f, 88f;wood(Cinnalatifolia),
cupido), 162 prairie-smoke (Geum triflorum), 75
154f; Leiberg's fP leibergii), 86f;
prairie clover: purple (Petalostemon
long-leaved (P perlongum), 88f, 90f;
purpureum), 77f, 78f, SSf, 89f, 91f; silky
Scribner's (7! oligosanth.es), 77f
(P. villosum), 11 f, 87f, 88f; white
pigeon, passenger (Ectopistes migratorius), 47 Perrot, Nicholas, 17, 18 petunia, wild (Ruellia humilis), 71 f phalarope, Wilson's (Phalawpus tricolor),
127 f, 129f, 171 phlox, do\vny (Phlox pilosa subsp.Julgida),
SSf, 86f, 135f phoebe, eastern (Sayornis phoebe), 147f, 15Of,
152f Pike Island: animals of, 187; history of, 39;
prickly ash (Zanthoxylum americanum), 51 f,
SSf, 60f, 66f, 90f, 92f, 97f puccoon: (Lithospermum sp.,), 170, 201; hairy (L carolmiense), lit, 79f, 87f, 92f; hoary (L. canescens), 86f; narrow-leaved (L. incisum), 92f
ginifolia), 711, 92f; small-leaved (A. parviJolia), 77f, 79f, SSf, 92f pyrola, one-sided (Pyrola secunda), 109
Q quack-grass (Agropyron repens), 19f, 86f, 90f,
92f
83, 88f, 92f, 170, 193 pogonia, rose (Pogonia ophioglossoides), 198 polanisia, James' (Polanisiajamesii), 77'f, 79f,
88f, 92f, 201 polypody, common (Polypodium virginianum),
149f pond-lily: (Nuphar sp.), 160; yellow (N. luteum subsp. variegatum), 175 pondweed: (Potamogeton sp.), 160; crisped
river beach, 185, 200: described, 146; fact
robin, American (Turdus migratorius), 6If, 97f rock-cress: lyre-leaved (Arabis lyrata), 84; spreading (/I. divaricarpa), 186 rock outcrop community, 178; described,
presettlement vegetation of, 27, 29; soils
of, 6 rue-anemone, false (Isopyrum biternatum), 51 Rum River, and logging, 30—31
R
Rum River (Walbo Landing): animals of, 94,
142
pocket mouse, plains (Perognathus flavescens),
fact sheet, 139-40
89f, 91 f
pipewort (Eriocaulon septangulare), 140f
77f, 79f, 88f, 92f
SSf, 61 f, 66f rich fen, 25, 130, 174; described, 132-34;
Rosemount outwash plain: formation of, 6;
pinweed, prairie (Lechea stricta), 19 f
pocket gopher, plains (Geomys bursarius), 73,
ricegrass, mountain (Oryzopsis asperijolia),
144-45; fact sheet, 151-52
200
plum, wild (Prunus americana), 901
herbiola), 131, 136f Rice Creek area, American Indians at, 16,
rose, prairie (Rosa arkansana), 76f, 78f, SSf,
pine: jack (Pinus banksiana), 14, 191; red
pitcher-plant (Sarracenia purpurea), 11 If, 134,
rein-orchid, tubercled (Platantherajlava var.
sheet, 155-56
pussytoes: large-leaved (Antennaria planta-
native habitats of, 187
62, 6Sf, 66f
102f, 104f,
106f
19
(P. candidum), 86f
pimpernel, false (Lindernia anagallidea),
(P. resinosa), 14, 191; white (P strobus), 14,
redstart, American (Setophaga rutadlla), 6If,
poverty grass (Danthonia spicata), 64
(P. commonsianum), SSf; (P philadelphicum),
pasque-flower (Pulsatilla nuttalliana), 901
mosa), SSf, 86f raven, common (Corvus corax), 181
sheet, 141-42
185; native habitats of, 124, 185 raccoon, common (Procyon lotor), 51 f, 59f,
rush: (Juncus sp.), 172; Green's (J. greenei),
61f, 97f, 102f, 104f, 106f, 127f, 129f, 138f,
136f; jointed (J. articulatus), 136f; (J. cana-
154f, 156f, 200
densis), 140f; marginated (J. marginatus),
racer (Coluber constrictor), 901, 152f ragweed: (Ambrosia sp.), 20; western (A. coronopifolia), 76f, 87f
131, 136f, 138f, 154f; path (J. tenuis),
136f Russian-thistle (Salsola ibirica), SSf
ragwort, balsam (Senedo paupercula), 136f rail, Virginia (Rallus limicola), 121 f, 129f, 171 Ramsey County, presettlement vegetation, 28
S
raspberry: (Rubus sp.), 57f; dwarf (R. pubescens), 102f, 104f, 106f, 113f, 114f, 119f;
sage, white (Artemisia ludoviciana), 77f, 78f
red (R. strigosus), SSf, S7f, 71f, lOlf, 113f
sagewort, prairie (Artemisia Jrigida), 84
rattlesnake-fern (Botrychium virginianum), 59f
salamander: blue-spotted (Ambystoma
Index
[231]
laterale), 59 f, 66f, 102f, 104f, 106f; tiger (A. tigrinum), 77f, 79f, 86f, 136f, 140f sand-grass, purple (Triplasis purpurea), 11 f, 88f, 92f
sand-gravel oak savanna, 201; described, 74-75; fact sheet, 78-79
lake fC. lacustris), 122f, 138f; Muhlenberg's (C. muhlenbergii), 11 f, 88f, 92f; Pennsylvania ('C. pensylvanica), 55f, 57f, 59f, 66f, 71 f; three-way (Dulichium amndinaceum),
snake: bullsnake (Pituophis melanoleucus), 57f, 71f, 73, 77f, 79f, 88f, 92f, 152f, 170, 194; eastern garter (Thamnophis sirtalis), 55 f, 57f, 59f, 66f, 90f, 92f, 122f, 136f, 138f,
lllf, 127f, 140f; tussock (C. stricta), 122f,
140f, 154f; eastern hognose (Heterodon
137, 138f
platyrhinos), 11 f, 79f, 86f; fox (Elaphe
sand-gravel prairie, 80; described, 84; fact sheet, 91-92
seepage meadow, 131 seepage tamarack swamp, 109
(Heterodon sp.), 170; milk (Lampropeltis
sandbur (Cenchrus longispinus), 77f, 88f
Sherburne County, presettlement vege-
triangulum), 55f, 57f, 59f, 90f; plains garter
sand dunes: formation of, 13; native habitats of, 13, 25, 173, 191
Sand Dunes State Forest, 13; native habitats of, 74, 191 sandpiper: solitary (Tringa solitaria), 111;
tation, 22
(T. radix), 71 f, 77f, 79f, 86f, 88f, 92f, 148f,
Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge: O
86f, 188; timber rattlesnake (Crotalus
habitats of,' 67.' 70;' vegetation of,' 125. o See also Mahnomen Trail and Blue Hill
horridus), 90f, 152f; western hognose
Trail, Orrock Dunes, Santiago Oak
upland (Bartramia longicauda), 86f, 88f, 92f
Savanna Research and Natural Area
native habitats of, 67, 131, 192 sandwort: (Arenaria lateriflora), 55f; rock (A. dawsonensis), 90f Santiago Oak Savanna Research and Natural Area: native habitats of, 74, 131, 195 sarsaparilla, wild (Aralia nudicaulis), 55f, 57f, 61f, 66f,71f, 102f, 106f saxifrage: golden (Chrysosplenium americanum), 104f; swamp (Saxifraga pensylvanica), 102f, 113f scheuchzeria (Scheuchzeriapalustris), 140f, 142 f Schoolcraft, Henry, 19, 23, 27, 39 scouring-rush, tall (Equisetum hyemale), 104f, 179f sedge: (Carex aurea), 172; (C. bromoides),
104f; (C. chordorrhiza), 142 f; (C. comosa), 113f, 128f; (C. crinita), 97f; (C.foenea), 84; (C.formosa), 59f; (C. gracillima), 6If, 114f; (C. interior), 140f; (C. lanuginosa), 132; (C. leptalea), 113f, 120f; (C. lupulina), 97f; (C. oligosperma), 108, 134; (C. pedunculata),
152f; redbelly (Storeria occipitomaculata),
animals of, 124; geology of, 193; native
spotted (Actitis macularia), 154f, 156f; Sand Prairie Wildlife Management Area:
vulpina), 55f, 57f, 59f, 186; hognose
white (Eupatorium rugosum), 91 f, 150f
shinleaf (Pyrola elliptica), 64; pink (P. asari-
snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus), 66f; creep-
folia), 66f shrew: arctic (Sorex arcticus), 113f, 122f, 138f,
Solomon's-seal, hairy-leaved (Polygonatum
140f; masked (S. cinereus), 59f, 61f, 86f, 92f, 97f, 102f, 104f, 106f, lllf, 113f, HSf, 120f, 122f, 136f, 138f, 140f, 142f, 154f, 156f; northern short-tailed (Blarina brevi-
79f; field (S. pusilla), IK, 79f, 86f, 88f, 90f, 92f; grasshopper (Ammodramus savannarum), 86f; Henslow's (A. henslowii),
pygmy (S. hoyi) ,111
86f; house (Passer domesticus), 38; lark
shrike, loggerhead (Lanius ludovicianus), 11 f, 79f, 81,86f, 88f, 92f, 165
(Chondestesgrammacus), 11 f, 79f, 165, 170; savannah (Passerculus sandwichensis), 71;
shrub swamps, 116. See also alder swamp, willow swamp
song (Melospiza melodia), 71 f, 77f, 79f, 113f, 122f, 136f, 138f; swamp (M. georgiana),
skink: (Eumeces sp.), 178; five-lined (E.fasdatus), 59f, 90f, 152f; prairie (E. septentrionalis), 71 f, 77f, 79f, 88f, 90f, 92f, 148f, 152f, 188 skullcap: Leonard's (Scutellaria leonardi), 84;
mad-dog (S. lateriflora), 91 f, 117f; marsh (S. galericulata), 128f, 138f skunk: eastern spotted (Spilogale putorius),
(C. rosea), 59f; (C. scoparia), 127f;
(Mephitis mephitis), 7If, 77f, 79f, 86f, 136f
(C. trisperma), 11 If; ('C. umbellata), 83;
pubescens), 66f sora (Porzana Carolina), 121 f, 129f, 138f, 171 sparrow: chipping (Spizella passerina), 11 f,
lllf, 113f, 120f, 122f, 136f, 138f, 140f;
71f, 77f, 79f, 82, 86f, 88f, 92f; striped
(C. tenera), 86f, 136f; (C. tribuloides), 97f;
ing (Gaultheria hispidula), 108
cauda), 51 f, 61 f, 91 f, 102f, 104f, 106f,
59f, 61f, 66f, 114f; (C. prairea), 132; (C. stipata), 102f; (C. sychnocephala), 154f;
(H. nasicus), 83, 88f, 92f, 194 snakeroot: black (Sanicula marilandica), 51 f;
skunk cabbage (Symplocarpusfoetidus),
103,
104f
120f, 122f, 127f, 129f, 138f, 140f, 188; vesper (Pooecetesgramineus), 7If; white-throated (Zonotrichia albicollis), lllf,
113f
Spectacle Lake Wildlife Management Area: native habitats of, 184 sphagnum moss (Sphagnum sp.), lllf sphagnum tamarack swamp, 107; described, 108; fact sheet, 110-11 spiderwort: (Tradescantia sp.), 201; western (T. occidentalis), 79f, 87f, 90f, 92f spike-rush: least (Eleocharis acicularis), 154f;
smartweed: (Polygonum sp.), 95; nodding
Small's (E. smallii), 121 f, 139f
(Fimbristylis autumnalis), 154f; beaked
(P. lapathifolium), 153f, 156f; water
spikemoss, rock (Selaginella rupestris), 87f
(C. rostrata var. utriculata), 139f, 174; cattail
(P. amphibium var. stipulaceum), 185
spruce: (Picea sp.), 14; black (P. mariana),
(C. typ/una;, 97f, 203; field (C conoidea), 136f; Hayden's (C haydenii), 136f, 138f;
[232]
Snail Lake Regional Park: animals of, 188; native habitats of, 146, 153, 188
Index
107, 108
spurge: flowering (Euphorbia corollata), 85f,
90f, 91f; Geyer's (E. geyeri), 77f, 87f; leafy
sweet cicely (Osmorhiza claytonii), 57f, 59f, 66f
C£. podperae), 79f, 86f, 90f
sweet clover: white (Melilotus alba), 79f;
squirrel: fox (Sciurus niger), 11 f, 19 f; gray (S. carolinensis), 55f, S7f, 59f, 171; northern
yellow (M. officinalis),
79f
sweet grass (Hiewchloe odorata), 136f
142f, 154f, 176, 188; common map (Graptemys geographica), 156f, 181; painted 188; snapping (Chelydra serpentina), 97f,
astiums hudsonicus), 66f, l l l f , 113f, 115f;
T
southern flying (G. volans), 55f, 57f, 59f,
l l l f , 127f, 129f, 154f, 156f, 185; spiny softshell (Apalone spinifera), 156f, 181;
66f mills at, 31
92f, lllf, 120f, 122f, 125, 127f, 129f, 138f,
(Chrysemyspicta), 127 f, 129f, 154f, 156f,
flying (Glaucomys sabrinus), 66; red (Tami-
St. Anthony Falls: formation of, 11; lumber
turtle: Blanding's (Emydoidea blandingii), 88f,
tamarack (Larix laridna), lOlf, 103f, 106f,
11 Of, 112f, 113f, 114f, 119f, 142f
wood (Clemmys insculpta), 91 f, 120f, 156f turtlehead (Chelone glabra), 132
St. Anthony Park, native habitats of, 36—37
tamarack swamp, 25, 26; described, 107—8.
St. Croix moraine complex, 5—6; formation
See also minerotrophic tamarack swamp,
twinflower (Linnaea borealis), 181
of, 6; presettlement vegetation of, 26—27,
seepage tamarack swamp, sphagnum
twisted-stalk, rose (Streptopus roseus), 64
29; soils of, 6
tamarack swamp
St. Croix River, fish of, 12 St. Croix River terraces: formation of, 9— 10; presettlement vegetation of, 26, 27, 29 St. Croix River Valley, 9; American Indians
tanager, scarlet (Piranga olivacea), 55f, 57f,
59f, 181 tatum), 120f, 128f, 138f; halberd-leaved (P. anfokum), 102f, 104f, 106f, 113f, 120f
presettlement vegetation of, 27; sedimen-
tern: black (Chlidonias niger), 121 f, 129f, 171,
St. Croix Savanna Scientific and Natural Area: native habitats of, 75, 78, 201 St. John's-wort: (Hypericum majus), 1261, 154f; marsh (Triadenumjmseri), 139f star-grass: water (Hetemnthem dubia), 154f; yellow (Hypoxis hirsuta), 136f starflower (Trientalis borealis), 102f, 104f,
106f, lllf, 113f, 114f steeple-bush (Spiraea tomentosa), 139f, 142f
188; Forster's (Sternaforsteri), 127'f, 129f, 171 thimbleweed (Anemone cylindrica), 90f, 91 f thistle, Hill's (Cirsium hillii), 19f, 90f, 92f three-awn grass (Aristida basiramea), 77f, 88f three-square (Scirpus pungens), 124 thrush, wood (Hylodchla mustelina), 59f, 181
92f; pointed-leaved (D. glutinosum), 55f,
toad, American (Bufo americanus), 55f, 57f,
sumac: (Rhus sp.), 186; poison (R. vernix),
102f, 103f, 106f, 109, 113f, 114f, 119f; smooth (R. glabra), 79f, 90f, 91f, 92f sundew, round-leaved (Drosem rotundifolia),
134, 142f sunflower: rigid (Helianthus rigidus), 77f, 85f, 87f; woodland (H. hirsutus), 55f, 71f Sunrise Landing East: native habitats of, 52-53, 182 swallow: bank (Riparia riparia), 148f, 150f; northern rough-winged (Stelgidopteryx serripennis), 148f, ISOf
(C. lupulinus), 19f, 92f; (C. rivularis), 154f; (C. schweinitzii), 77f, 88f; (C. strigosus), 154f Uncas Dunes Scientific and Natural Area: native habitats of, 74, 87, 196 upland prairies, 80—81. See also dry prairie, mesic prairie urban growth, 35-37, 38, 161
V
57f, 7If; stemless (D. nudiflomm), 57f, 59f
strawberry, common (Fragaria virginiana),
nose (Scaphirhynchus platorynchus), 12
(C. aristatus), 156f; (C. engelmanii), 154f;
86f; Illinois (D. illinoense), 71f, 79f, 86f,
Timothy (Phleum pratense), 173
sturgeon: lake (Acipenserjiilvescens), 12; shovel-
umbrella sedge: (Cyperus sp.), 185;
tick-trefoil: Canada (Desmodium canadensis),
stonecrop, ditch (Penthorum sedoides), 156f
136f
u
tearthumb: arrow-leaved (Polygonum sagit-
in, 18; formation of, 12; logging in, 30, 31;
tation in, 12, 13
twayblade, Loesel's (Liparis loeselii), 172
veery (Catharusjuscescens), 59f, 66f, l l l f ,
113f, 115f
59f, 61f, 66f, 71f, 77f, 79f, 86f, 88f, 90f, 92f, 97f, 102f, 104f, 106f, lllf, 113f, 115f,
vegetation: major zones in Minnesota, 3;
120f, 122f, 127f, 129f, 136f, 138f, 140f, 154f
vervain, blue (Verbena hastata), 126f, 138f,
toadflax: bastard (Comandra umbellata), 85f,
postglacial, 14—15; presettlement, 21—29
153f, 155f
90f, 9If; old field (Linaria canadensis), 11 f,
vetchling, marsh (Lathyrus palustris), 132
88f
violet: arrow-leaved (Viola sagittata), 131;
tooth-cup (Rotala ramosior), 136f, 138f, 154f
bird-foot (V. pedata), 84; lance-leaved
touch-me-not, spotted (Impatiens capensis),
(V. lanceolata), 136f, 138f, 196; northern
97 f, 102f, 104f, 106f, 113f, 119f, 122f,
white (V. macloskeyi), 114f, 120f; prairie
128f, 138f, 149f
bird-foot (V. pedatiflda), 77f, 78f, 85f, 90f,
treefrog, eastern gray (Hyla versicolor), 55f,
57f, 59f, 61f, 97f, 102f, 104f, 106f, 122f trillium: large-flowered (Trillium grandiJiorum), 59f; nodding (T. cernuum), 100 trout lily, white (Erythronium albidum), 51
Index
9If; yellow (V. pubescens), 58f vireo: red-eyed (Vireo olivaceus), 55f, 57f, 59f, 61 f, 66f, 97f, 102f, 104f, 106f, l l l f , 113f, 115f; yellow-throated (V. favifwns), 55f,
57f, 59f, 61 f, 97f, 102f, 104f, 106f
[233]
virgin's bower (Clematis virginiana), 95 vole: meadow (Microtus pennsylvanicus), 86f,
92f, 120f, 122f, 136f, B8f, 140f, 142f, 172; prairie (M. ochrogaster), 88f, 92 f; southern
waterwillow (Decodon verticillatus var laevi-
shining (S. lucida), 122f; slender
154f
(S.gracilis), 12 If, 135f, 138f
wetlands, 17, 21, 22, 26, 34, 125, 161, 171.
red-backed (Clethrionomys gapperi), 6If,
See also conifer swamps, emergent
102f, 104f, 106f, l l l f , 113f, HSf, 120f,
marshes, floodplain forests, hardwood
122f, 142f
swamps, shrub swamps, wet meadows and
vulture, turkey (Cathartes aura), 178
fens sheet, 137-38
97f; mourning (Oporomis philadelphicus), 181; Nashville (Vermivom ruficapilla), lllf,
wet meadows and fens, 130—31. See also meadow, wet prairie wet prairie, 25, 172; described, 131; fact sheet, 135-36 wheatgrass (Agwpyron trachycaulum), 86f
169; prothonotary (Protonotaria citrea), 91 f;
white cedar swamp: described, 109; fact
water-hemlock, bulb-bearing (Cicuta bulbiJera), 122f, 128f, 138f water-milfoil: Eurasian (Myriophyllum spicatum), 160; slender (M. tenellum), 140f water-pennywort, American (Hydrocotyle americana), 102f, 104f, 106f water-pepper (Polygonum hydropiper), 156f, 200
water dock, great (Rumex orbiculatus), 120f,
' 122f, 128f, 138f water horehound, Virginia (Lycopus virginicus), 91 f waterleaf, Virginia (Hydmphyllum virginianum), 59f, 97f water lilies (Nymphaea spp.), 160 waterthrush: Louisiana (Seiurus motacilla),
wiregrass (Carexlasiocarpa), l l l f , B9f, 142f wolf, gray (Canis lupus), 162—63 wood-pewee, eastern (Contopus rirens), 55f,
57f, S9f, 61f, 66f, 97f, 102f, 104f, 106f wood-rush (Luzula multiflora), 136f 182; red-bellied (Melanerpes carolinus), 6If,
97f woodsia, rusty (Woodsia ilvensis), 147f, 151f
sheet, 114-15 white pine-hardwood forest, 25, 26, 196, 197; described, 62-64; fact sheet, 65-66
woolgrass (Scirpus cyperinus), 127f, 138f, 139f wren: marsh (Cistothorus palustris), 127f, 129f,
white pine, logging, 29, 30—31
171; sedge (C. platensis), 122f, 136f, 138f,
whitlow-grass (Draba reptans), 199
140f, 142f; winter (Troglodytes troglodytes),
wild-rye, Virginia (Elymus virginicus), 6If, 97f
181
Wilder Forest, native habitats of, 202 wild ginger (Asarum canadense), 59f wild rice (Zizania palustris), 16, 17, 160
Y
Wild River State Park. See Goose Creek Natural Area, Sunrise Landing East William O'Brien State Park: native habitats
yarrow (Achillea millefolium), 91 f yellow-cress (Rorippa islandica), 154f yellow-eyed grass, twisted (Xyris torta), 131,
of, 100, 105, 203
willow-herb (Epilobium coloratum, E. leptophyllum, and others), 174 willow: autumn (Salix serissima), 122f; balsam (S. pyrifolia), 142f; Bebb's (S. bebbiana),
59f, 61f, 97f, 99, 102f, 104f, 106f, 156f,
12If; black (S. nigra), 96f; bog (S. pedi-
177, 181; northern (S. noveboracensis), 99,
cellaris), 142 f; heart-leaved (S. eriocephala),
111, 181
122f; prairie (S. humilis), 189; pussy
[234]
106f, IBf, 119f
woodpecker: pileated (Dryocopus pileatus),
IBf, HSf, 169, 181; pine (D. pinus), 66f, yellow CD. petechia), 120f, 122f
fact sheet, 121-22 winterberry (Ilex verticillata), 61f, 102f, 103f,
witch-grass (Panicum capillare), 194
poor fen, rich fen, seepage meadow, wet warbler: cerulean (Dendroica cerulea), 59f,
willow swamp: described, 116, 117—18;
wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens), 181
wet meadow, 25, 133; described, 132; fact
w
(S. discolor), 12If; sandbar (S. exigua), 185f;
gatus), 102f, lllf, 113f, 127f, 128f, 140f,
Index
136f, B8f yellowthroat, common (Geothlypis trichas), l l l f , IBf, 115f, 120f, 122f, 127f, 129f,
B6f, B8f, 140f, 142f yew, Canada (Taxus canadensis), 64
Daniel Wovcha has been working as an ecologist, writer, and photographer for the Minnesota County Biological Survey (MCBS) since 1991. He received his B.A. in biology from Gustavus Adolphus College and his M.S. in ecology from
to Glacier Bay National Park; the central Rockies; desert communities of the southwest United States and Baja California, Mexico; the sandhills of Nebraska; the Smoky Mountains; the Galapagos archipelago; and mainland Ecuador. Gerda Nordquist has been working as coordinator of ani-
the University of Minnesota. In addition to his recent work on Minnesota's Native Habitats, Wovcha has studied writing at The Loft in Minneapolis since 1986 and has undertaken internships in photography as well as the history of science in the former Yugoslavia. Wovcha has been the recipient of many awards and fellowships in the natural sciences. Barbara Delaney has been working as a botanist/plant ecologist with the Minnesota County Biological Survey (MCBS) since 1989. Delaney received her B.A. in geology
mal surveys at the Minnesota County Biological Survey (MCBS) since 1990. Nordquist received her B.S. in wildlife from the University of Washington and is a doctoral candidate in zoology at the University of Minnesota. Before her work directing surveys at the MCBS, Nordquist conducted studies of mammals in the San Juan Islands and Mt. Rainer National Park in Washington State; of small mammals associated with peatland habitats in Minnesota; and of the distri-
from the College of Wooster and an M.S. in botany from
bution and abundance of cave bats in Minnesota. Nordquist
the University of Minnesota. Delaney has traveled extensively studying native plant communities. She has journeyed
has numerous publications and professional presentations to her credit.
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Minnesota's St. Croix River Valley and Anoka Sandplain Typeset in Perpetua and News Gothic Composed by The Art Dept., Manhattan, Montana Printed on 70 Ib. Sterling Litho Satin by Edwards Brothers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan Cover and endsheets printed by Litho Technical Services, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota Bound by Edwards Brothers, Inc.
