Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography

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811.411.11 HOROWITZ mesopota

800159000001

Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography McSOP()lAMJAN C~VJLIZAl-IONS General Editor Jerrold S. Cooper, Johns Hopkins University Editorial Board

Wayne Horowitz

Walter Farber, University of Chicago Marvin Powell, Northern Illinois University Jean-Pierre Gregoire, CNR.5. Jack Sasson, University of North Carolina Piotr Michalowski, University of Michigan Piotr Steinkeller, Harvard University Simo Parpola, University of Helsinki Marten Stol, Free University of Amsterdam Irene Winter, Harvard University

l. The Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur Piotr Michalowski

2. Schlaf, Kindchen, Schlaf! Mesopotamische Baby-Beschworungen und -Rituale Walter Farber 3. Adoption in Old Babylonian Nippur and the Archive of Mannum-mesu-li$$ur Elizabeth C. Stone and David I. Owen 4. Third-Millennium Legal and Administrative Texts in the Iraq Museum, Baghdad Piotr Steinkeller and J. N. Postgate 5. House Most High: The Temples of Ancient Mesopotamia A. R. George 6. Textes culinaires Mesopotamiens / Mesopotamian Culinary Texts Jean Bottero 7. Legends of the Kings of Akkade: The Texts Joan Goodnick Westenholz

Eisenbrauns Winona Lake, Indiana 1998

Contents

© Copyright 1998 by Eisenbrauns. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vll Acknowledgments ................................................... viii Abbreviations and Conventions ..................................... IX Introduction ................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii

Part I: Sources for Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Horowitz, Wayne, 1957Mesopotamian cosmic geography / Wayne Horowitz. p. cm. - (Mesopotamian civilizations; 8) Includes bibliographic references (p. ) and index. ISBN 0-931464-99-4 (cloth: alk. paper) 1. Cosmology, Babylonian. 2. Cosmology, Sumerian. 3. Akkadian language-Texts. 4. Sumerian language-Texts. 1. Title. II. Series. B147.C68H67 1998 113'.0935-dc21 98-17770 CIP

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. §TM

1. The Levels of the Universe: KAR 307 30-38 and AO 8196 iv 20-22 ............................................

3

2. "The Babylonian Map of the World" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

3. The Flights of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens . . . . . . . . . .

43

4. The Sargon Geography ..........................................

67

5. Gilgamesh and the Distant Reaches of the Earth's Surface.....

96

6. Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 107 7. The Geography of the Sky: The "Astrolabes;' Mul-Apin, and Related Texts ............................................ 150 8. BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 and the Compass Points .................. 193 9. "Seven Heavens and Seven Earths" ............................. 208

Part II: The Regions of the Universe 10. Names for Heaven ............................................... 223

v

vi

Table of Contents

11. The Geography of the Heavens . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . ... 243 12. Names for Earth................................................. 268 13. The Geography of Earth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 318 Appendixes .......................................................... 363 Indexes............................................................... 369 Subject Index .................................................. 369 Ancient Texts and Modern Editions .......................... 382 Sumerian and Akkadian Terms ................................ 391 Stars ............................................................ 397 Plates ................................................................ 399

Foreword

Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography represents the main part of my first decade of study as an assyriologist. The book began its life as a Ph.D. thesis of the same name under the supervision of Professor W G. Lambert of the Universityof Birmingham. After completion of the Ph.D. thesis in 1986, I continued to collect materials relevant to the study of Mesopotamian views of cosmography with the intention of revising the thesis as a book in the early 1990s. The book Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography presents this revised, more mature examination of the topic. Wayne Horowitz Kfar Adumim February, 1994

vii

Acknowledgments

Abbreviations and Conventions

First and foremost I would like to thank Professor W. G. Lambert of The University of Birmingham. Professor Lambert both supervised the original 1986 Ph.D. thesis "Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography" and then graciously reread the manuscript of the book. His wise and learned criticisms were invaluable in the preparation of the book. I would also like to thank my colleagues at The Hebrew University, Professors Aaron Shaffer and Hayim Tadmor, and my first teachers of Akkadian and Sumerian, Dr. Martha Morrison and Professors Anne Kilmer and Wolfgang Heimpel, for their support during the various stages of my career. In addition, a special word of thanks is due to Professor Tsvi Abusch, who assisted in the preparation of the original PhD. thesis. I would also like to thank the Trustees of The British Museum for permission to publish materials included in the book, and colleagues at The Western Asiatic Department of the British Museum, Das Vorderasiatische Museum, and The University Museum for their hospitality during study visits to London, Berlin, and Philadelphia, respectively. In addition, I would like to thank The American Friends of Hebrew University, The Lady Davis Foundation, and The Israel Academy of Sciences for their financial support during the period of the preparation of the manuscript. Finally, special thanks are due to my parents Dawn and Paul for their continued encouragement and support (financial and otherwise); my wife Lilach, for her selfless help over the past decade; Lilach's parents, Professor Chaim and Miriam Brandwein; and of course my children Lisa, Mikhael, Liam, and Gilbe for their unseen contributions to the preparation of this book.

Abbreviations, with the exception of those listed below, are as in The Assyrian Dictionary of The Oriental Institute of The University of Chicago (CAD), or if indicated, as in The Sumerian Dictionary of The University Museum of The University of Pennsylvania (PSD). In transliterations from editions of texts, the most likely reconstruction of the ancient text is provided, not necessarily that of the edition. St~r-names are not translated from Sumerian to Akkadian or from Akkadian to Sumerian. Dates in the text are B.C.E. unless otherwise noted.

Ancient Cosmologies Archaic Bookkeeping Benito Enki Berlin EnID. Bottero Mesopotamia Bottero MrB Burstein Berossus BWL Charpin Le Clerge

C. Blacker and M. Loewe, eds., Ancient Cosmologies (1975) H. Nissen, P. Demerow, and R. Englund, Archaic Bookkeeping; trans. P. Larsen (1993) C. Benito, "Enkiand Ninmah" and "Enki and the

World Order" (1969) PSD: Enmerkar and Ensubkesdanna J. Bottero, Mesopotamia, Writing, Reasoning, and the Gods; trans. Z. Bahrani and M. van de Mieroop (1992) J. Bottero, Mythes et Rites de Babylone (1985) S. Burstein, The Babyloniaca of Berossus = Sources from The Ancient Near East 1/5 W. G. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature (1960; repro 1996) D. Charpin, Le Clerge d'Ur au Siecle d'Hammurabi (1986)

Cohen Balag Cohen Canonical Cohen ErSemma Cooper Curse of Agade Dalley Myths Deimel Pantheon EAE Ee ELA

viii

PSD: M. E. Cohen Balag M. Cohen, The Canonical Lamentations of Lamentations Mesopotamia (1988) PSD: M. E. Cohen ErSemma J. S. Cooper, The Curse of Agade (1977) S. Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia (1989) A. Deimel, Pantheon Babyloniacum (1911) The Astronomical Series Enuma Anu Enlil Enuma Elish PSD: Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta

ix

x

Emar EN Enki's Journey EWO Fest. Artzi Fest. Hallo

Fest. Tadmor

FGrH Fuchs Sargon Grayson Chronicles George BTT George Temples GHT

GMS3 Halley's Comet HBA Hunger-Pingree ID Inanna und Enki Jacobsen Harps Jacobsen Treasures of Jensen Kosmologie Kinnier Wilson Etana Koch Neue

Lahar and Asnan: Lambert Cat. Lewis Sargon

Abbreviauons and Conventions

Abbreviations and Conventions D. Arnaud, Emar 6: Recherches au pays d'Astata (1985) PSD: Enki and Ninmah PSD: Enki's Journey to Nippur PSD: Enki and The World Order Bar-Ilan Studies in Assyriology Dedicated to Pin1;,as Artzi (1990) M. Cohen, D. Snell, and D. Weisberg (eds.), The Tablet and the Scroll: Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William W. Hallo (1993) M. Cogan and I. Eph~al (eds.), Ah Assyria. .. : Studies in Assyrian History and Ancient Near Eastern Historiography Presented to Hayim Tadmor [= Scripta Hierosolymitana 33[ (1991) Die Fragmente der grieschischen Historiker (19231958) A. Fuchs, Die Inschriften Sargons II. aus Khorsabad (1994) A. Grayson, Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles = TCS 5 A. George, Babylonian Topographical Texts (1992) A. George, House Most High: The Temples of Ancient Mesopotamia (1993) Gilgamesh and the Huluppu-Tree (= A. Shaffer, Sumerian Sources of Tablet XII of the Epic of Gilgamesh (1963) Grazer MorgenHindische Studien 3 = Die Rolle der Astronomie in den Kulturen Mesopotamiens (1993) F. Stephenson and C. Walker, Halley's Comet in History (1985) E. Weidner, Handbuch der babylonischen Astronomie (1915) H. Hunger and D. Pingree, Mul.Apin: An Astronomical Compendium in Cuneiform = AfO Beiheft 24 PSD: Inanna's Descent PSD: Inanna and Enki as in PSD T. Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness (1976) Darkness P Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier (1890) J. Kinnier Wilson, The Legend of Etana (1985) J. Koch, Neue Untersuchungen zur Topographie des UntersuchungenBabylonischen Fixsternhimmels (1989) Pettinato Menschenbild 86-90 W. G. Lambert, Catalogue of The Kouyunjik Collection, Third Supplement (1992) B. Lewis, The Legend of Sargon (1980)

Livingstone

Ludlul Machinist TN Epic Malamat Mari MEE Naissance Natural Phenomena

OA Oppenheim Man and Pettinato Menschenbild

Pickaxe Reisman Two Hymns RTCA Tigay Gilg. Saporetti Etana Science Awakening Shamash Hymn SG Sladek ID SLTN

Steible Rim-Sin Sumerian Flood Story Tadmor Tigl. Two Elegies Unity and Diversity Van Soldt Solar Omens Weidner GestirnWest Theogony World Map

xi

A. Livingstone, Mystical and Mythological

Explanatory Works of Assyrian and Babylonian Scholars (1986) Ludlul Bel Nemeqi = BWL 21-62, 343-44; R. Barnett, AnSt 30101-7 P Machinist, The Epic of Tukulti-Ninurta (1978) A. Malamat, Mari and the Early Israelite Experience (1979) Materiali Epigrafici di Ebla Naissance de l'ecriture cuneiformes et hieroglyphes (1982) D. Meijer, ed., Natural Phenomena: Their Meaning, Depiction, and Description in the Ancient Near East (1992) Oriens Antiquus A. Oppenheim, Dictionary of Scientific NatureBibliography, vol. 15, pp. 634-66 G. Pettinato, Das altorientalilsche Menschenbild und die Sumerischen und Akkadischen Schopfungsmythen (1971) Pettinato Menschenbild 82-85 D. Reisman, Two SU1nerian Royal Hymns (1969) Recueil de Travaux et Communications de l'Association des Etudes du Proche-Orient Ancien J. Tigay, The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic (1982) c. Saporetti, Etana-tl990) B. van der Waerden, Science Awakening I, II (1954, 1974) BWL 121-38 = Sargon Geography: Edition pp. 68-75 W. Sladek, Inanna's Descent to the Netherworld (1974) S. Kramer, Sumerian Literary Texts from Nippur in the Museum of the Ancient Orient at Istantbul = MSOR 23 (1944) H. Steibel, RimSin, Mein Konig (1975) Lambert-Millard Atra-hasls 138-45 H. Tadmor, The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria (1994) as in PSD H. Goedicke and J. Roberts, eds., Unity and Diversity (1975) W. van Soldt, Solar Omens of Enuma Anu Enlil: Tablets 23 (24) - 29 (30) (1995) E. Weidner, Gestirn-Darstellungen auf Darstellungen babylonischen Tontafeln (1967) M. L. West, Hesiod's Theogony (1966) Edition: pp. 20-25.

Introduction

Introduction

This study collects and presents the available evidence in Sumerian and Akkadian texts for Mesopotamian ideas of the physical structure of the universe and its constituent parts (Heaven, Earth, Apsu [the subterranean waters], Underworld). All texts from all periods and genres are considered, from the earliest phases of cuneiform writing through the late period. What emerges from this study is a Mesopotamian view of the universe that is both cohesive on the one hand, and discordant and deficient on the other. In many respects, ancient Mesopotamian understandings of the universe remained remarkably constant over the 2,500 years or so from the earliest evidence for cosmography in literary materials through the end of cuneiform writing. Throughout this time, the extant texts demonstrate that Sumerians and Akkadians understood the universe as consisting of superimposed levels separated by open space. From above to below, the levels were: a region of heaven above the sky where the gods of heaven dwelled, the starry sky, the earth's surface, the subterranean waters of the Apsu, and finally the underworld of the dead:

A View of The Mesopotamian Universe Heaven of Anu Middle Heavens Sky Earth's Surface Apsu Underworld

xii

XUI

This universe, according to both Sumerian and Akkadian traditions, was built by the gods in earliest times and held together by cosmic bonds. It is this conception of the physical universe that underlies, for example, early cosmological traditions in literary works from the middle of the third millennium, the cosmography of the Babylonian national epic Enuma Elish from the late second millennium, and traditions preserved in late archives such as that of Hellenistic Uruk. Similarly, important Mesopotamian cosmographical ideas, such as the existence of an unseen region of the gods above the sky, or the tradition of the "Four Regions of the World" (an. u b.da.limm u. ba = kibrat arbaJi, are present in materials before the end of the third millennium, and these traditions live onward through the end of cuneiform writing. Nonetheless, the available evidence does document change in Mesopotamian conceptions of the universe. Mesopotamian understandings of the geography of the sky evolved over time as Mesopotamian astronomy improved, and Akkadian texts from the end of the second millennium onward divide the region of heaven above the sky into two parts. Anu, the king of heaven, dwells in the higher of the two, which is often called "The Heaven of Anu." . Yet, despite the continuity of tradition between the earliest and latest documents, one does find disagreement between texts from different periods, of different genres, and even among texts from the same period and genre. For example, a number of texts seem to ignore the existence of the waters of the Apsu between the earth's surface and the underworld, and one text (KAR 307) even preserves an apparent contradiction whereby Igigi-gods are placed in a heaven belonging to Anu, the upper of three heavens in one line, and then in an intermediate level of heaven between Anu's heaven and the sky in the very next line. Finally, the available evidence leaves a number of problems completely unsolved. For example, no surviving text presents clear evidence for the bounds of the physical universe or explains what might be found beyond the limits of the universe. Such problems are endemic to this study, since no Single surviving ancient Mesopotamian source or set of sources presents a comprehensive view of the physical universe. This investigation attempts to glean evidence from the widest possible variety of surviving sources in order to present as clear a picture as possible of Mesopotamian views of the universe. At the same time, however, it must be recognized that this approach poses certain dangers, not the least of which are our distance in time and space from the ancient writers, as well as the vagaries of archaeological discovery. For example, the most complete description of the earth's surface is found in The Babylonian Map of the World, which is known from but a Single manuscript, and ancient Mesopotamian authors do not distinguish between cosmographic ideas drawn from direct observation of the physical world (for example, the movement of stars in the sky) and those not derived from direct observation (for example, the geography of the Heaven of Anu above the sky or the fantastic regions visited by Gilgamesh in Gilg. IX-X). The current evidence simply does not allow us to know, for instance, if ancient readers of

Introduction

xiv

Gilgamesh really believed that they too could have visited UtnapiStim by sailing across the cosmic sea and "the waters of death;' or if a few, many, most, or all ancient readers understood the topographical material in Gilg. IX-X in metaphysical or mystical terms. Thus, herein I do not attempt to assess the plausibility of ancient cosmographic traditions, to harmonize conflicting traditions, or to flesh out surviving materials by speculation or through comparison with materials from other cultures. Rather, as noted above, the aim of the study is to to collect and present the available evidence in Sumerian and Akkadian texts for Mesopotamian ideas of the physical structure of the universe and its constituent parts. As such, this study, despite its use of a wide variety of materials from the entire history of cuneiform civilization, is limited in scope and may be thought of as a data-base that may be used to facilitate future explorations in the field of Mesopotamian cosmography. Mesopotamia Cosmic Geography is divided into two parts. The first part (chapters 1-9) presents studies of the main sources for Sumerian and Akkadian views of the physical universe. Included here is a study of lists of heavens and earths in KAR 307; editions of The Babylonian Map of the World and The Sargon Geography; traditions concerning voyages to heaven in the Akkadian epics Etana, Adapa, and Nergal and Ereskigal; cosmography in Sumerian and Akkadian accounts of creation; the geography of the sky in astronomical texts; an edition of a late fragment of what may be an ancient Mesopotamian drawing of a compass-card or sundial; and finally an evaluation of a possible tradition of seven heavens and seven earths in Sumerian language incantations. Part II presents general studies of Sumerian and Akkadian names for heaven and earth (chapters 10, 12), and examines the geographies of the two halves of the universe (chapters 11, 13). Here it is noted that the Sumerian and Akkadian lexica contain no single word that conveys our notion of cosmos or universe. Instead, general words or phrases for totality are used such as Akkadian kissatu, kullatu, or kissat kal gimrati 'the entirety of all of everything' (Ee IV 14). More often both Sumerian and Akkadian materials speak of the entire universe in terms of its two constituent halves, 'Heaven and Earth'. Most common are Sumerian an.ki and the Akkadian equivalent samu u er$etum, but other more poetic pairs are also attested including Sumerian an -u r a sand g i s1a m, and Akkadian samamfl u qaqqaru, and the pairs samamfl - esmabbu, andurunna - er$etu, elatu - saplatu, asru - kigallu, ermi dani - ganzer, and burflmfl-matatu. 1 In the studies of the geographies of heaven and earth in Part II, materials are drawn from the entire Sumero-Akkadian corpus, including texts previously examined in Part I. Thus, Part II helps place the materials presented in Part I in a broader context. The book concludes with handcopies and . photographs of ancient texts, and indexes. I

A list of such pairs may be found in the index sub Heaven - Earth.

art I Sources for Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography

Chapter 1

The Levels of the Universe

KAR 307 30-38 and AO 8196 iv 20-22 Two short passages, KAR 307 30-38 (for a new copy, see plate 1)1 and AO 8196 iv 20-22 (AfO 19 taf. 33), list the levels of the universe, with short descriptions of each level. KAR 307, a religious explanatory text in Neo-Assyrian script from Assur, lists three sets of heavens and three earths, while AO 8196, a late astrological-astronomical tablet, lists the three heavens but does not list the earths. AO 8196 iv 20-22 is nearly identical to the opening portions of KAR 307 30,31, and 33. In both texts, the levels of the universe are listed in descending order beginning with the highest heavens.KAR 307 30-38 (VAT 8917); New Copy, Plate 1 30.

samu li eluti (an.ta)ti lla.lu-lu-da-ni-tu sa da-nim 300(5 us) dt_g'i_g'i ina lib-bi u-s[ej-fsib1

31.

samu li qabl£tti(murub4 )ti lla.sag-gil-mud sa dt_g'i_g'i be-lum ina libbi paramabi(bara.ma!J) ina l"ib-rbil

32.

i-na parakki(bara) lla.uqni(za.gln) u-sib GIS bU-$i-(in) el-me-si ina libbi u-nam-mir

NA4

33.

samuru1 saplUtu(kUa)mes lla.as-pu-u sa kakkabani<mes)2 lu-ma-si sa ilani mes ina mubbi(ugu) e-$ir

34.

rina libbi1 [danlnat([kalla.ga) er$eti ti ellti(an.rta1) zi-qi-qu ameliiti(nam.lu.ulu 1u) ina libbi u-sar-bi-i$

1 KAR 30738 mayor may not belong to the descriptions of the levels of universe (see p. 19). 2 Text emended on the basis of AO 8196 iv 22.

3

The Levels of the Universe

The Tablets

[ina libbi danna]t([kala.g]a) er~etitl qab[li]tu(mu[ru]b.)lu dea(DIs) aba(ad)-su ina libbi u-se-sib

sion of the Igigi and Anunnaki is not known before Kassite times. s Nevertheless, the tradition of three heavens and earths could be older.

4 35. 36.

[ x x x x ] x x si-l:Ju ul u-mas-si

37.

[ina libbi dannat(kala.ga) er~etiltl saplitu(ki.ta)tu neru(ges.u) cira-nunl-naJkil ina nb-bi e-sir

The Tablets

38.

[x x x x ]

KAR 307 (VAT 8917)4

30.

31. 32.

5

BU MU

x x [ x ina] rlibbi na.1as-pu-u

The Upper Heavens are luludanitu-stone. They belong to Anu. He settled the 300 Igigi inside. The Middle Heavens are saggilmud-stone. They belong to the Igigi. Bel sat on the high dais inside, in the lapis lazuli sanctuary. He made a lamp? of electrum shine inside.

33.

The Lower Heavens are jasper. They belong to the stars. He drew the constellations of the gods on them.

34.

In the ... of the Upper Earth, he lay down the spirits of mankind.

35.

[In the .. ] . of the Middle Earth, he settled Ea his father.

36.

[ ... ] .. He did not let the rebellion be forgotten / identify rebellion.

37.

[In the ... of the the Lowe]r Earth, he shut inside the 600 Anunnaki.

38.

[ .... ] .... [. in]side jasper

AO 8196 iv 20-22 (AfO 19 pl. 33)

iv 20 [samu u e]lUtu tu4 na4lu-lu-da-ni-tu4 sa da-nim iv 21 [samu u] qablUtu(murub4)tu4 na.sag-gil-mud sa dl-gi-gi iv 22 rsamu u1 saplututu4 na.as-pu-u sa kakkabani mes iv 20 The Upper Heavens are luludanitu-stone. They belong to Anu. iv 21 The Middle Heavens are saggilmud-stone. They belong to the Igigi. iv 22. The Lower Heavens are jasper. They belong to the stars.

The Date of the Lists

Although the tablets KAR 307 and AO 8196 both date to the first millennium, the lists of cosmic regions in KAR 307 30-38 and AO 8196 iv 20-22, in their present form, may be as old as the Kassite period. The lists as preserved cannot have been written earlier than this time, because KAR 307 places the 19i9i-gods in the heavens and the Anunnaki-gods in the underworld. This divi-

KAR 307 is one of a small number of first-millennium mystical-religious compilations. 5 The tablet preserves 63 lines of text divided into six sections by horizontal rulings, with three sections on the obverse and three on the reverse. The section of the tablet describing the levels of the universe (obv. 30-38) occupies the final section of the obverse. No horizontal ruling follows, so the first section of the reverse (rev. 1-10) may belong to the same section as the list of cosmic regions. The colophon notes that KAR 307 conveys privileged information. Its first line describes the tablet as a piristi ilani rabUti 'secret of the Great Gods' and admonishes the reader "let the knowing reveal it only to the knowing, do not let the unknowing view it, it is a taboo (ikkibu) of the Great Gods."6 This secret information consists mainly of identifications and explanations. Everyday and religious articles, religious practices, parts of the universe, and astronomical phenomena are listed and their religious, mystical, or cultic significance explained. For instance, the first 18 lines of the text equate everyday items such as drums, fish, figs, and oil with parts of a divine statue or god's body; lines 19-21 identify !Star of Nineveh as Tiamat and explain that she was the wet-nurse (museniqtum) of Bel; and rev. 4 states that the "disk"6f the Sun is 60 leagues and that of the Moon is 40 leagues. 7 This line is repeated verbatim in ACh !Star 28: 42, demonstrating that KAR 307, like AO 8196, provides some astrological information. 3 For the Igigi as gods of heaven, see Oppenheim, Man and Nature 657 n. 81. For the Anunnaki as gods of the underworld, see B. Kienast in AS 16 156-58 and A Tsukimoto, AOAT 216184-200. The earliest known example of this distinction is found in the Sumerian myth preserved on a statue of the Kassite king Kurigalzu (see pp. 143-44). For this distinction in a Middle Babylonian kudurru, see W Sommerfeld, UF 16303 v 9-15. 4 A transliteration and translation of KAR 307 appears in SAA 3 99-102. Editions of various sections of KAR 307 also appear in A Livingstone, Mystical and Mythological Explanatory Works. A now outdated edition of the tablet is offered by E. Ebeling in TuL 28-37. See also W G. Lambert, Ancient Cosmologies 58-59; F. Kraus, ZA 43 88; B. Landsberger, JCS 21 154-155; Oppenheim Dreams 235; Oppenheim Man and Nature 640641,658 n. 96; Thompson DAC 75-76. 5 For editions of these texts see A Livingstone, Mystical and Mythological Explanatory Works and SAA 3 81-105. A number of these texts are also discussed in W G. Lambert, JSS 13 104-112 and Unity and Diversity 72-76, with partial editions in the footnotes of the article. For new examples of this genre, see A George, ZA 80 157-59; A Livingstone, NABU 1990 no. 91; G. Beckman and B. Foster, Sachs Mem. VoL p. 4, no. 22. 6 Hunger Kolophone no. 206. For similar colophons, see also Hunger Kolophone 89,98, 1l0, 533, and 562; CAD M/2 166 mudu c. 7 For t!AB-rat 'disk' in astronomical contexts, see ACT 197-198; AfO Beih. 22 5051,288.

6

The Levels oj the Universe

Much of the information revealed by KAR 307 relates to the battles of Marduk and Ninurta against their enemies Tiamat, Kingu, Enmdarra, and the Anzu-bird that are known from literary texts such as Enuma Elish, The MoonGod and the Demons (= Utukku Lemnutu 16), The Judgment oj EnmeSarra (T. G. Pinches, PSBA 30 53-62, 77-83), The Anzu-Myth, Lugale, and Angimdimma. KAR 307 rev. 3, for instance, notes that Tiamat has four eyes and explains that her right eyes form the sources of the Tigris and her left eyes form the sources of the Euphrates. In Ee V 55, Marduk opens the sources of the two rivers in the eyes of Tiamat. Ee I 97-98 states that Marduk himself was endowed with four eyes and four ears. Likewise, KAR 307 24-27 alludes to Ninurta's victory over the Anzu-bird, which was celebrated in the various recensions of the Anzu-Myth. Often, information in KAR 307 correlates events in the aforementioned texts with ritual practice. For instance, KAR 307 rev. 20-25 apparently connects a ritual involving the king with materials similar to Angimdimma and Lugale. In the ritual, the king, who sits on a throne, is carried out of Ekur and then returned to Ekur. Cedar is then burned before him. The mystical explanation of the ceremony identifies the king as Ninurta, who avenged his fathers. In Lugale, Ninurta leaves the Ekur to fight enemies on behalf of his fathers and then returns triumphantly to Ekur. Similarly, KAR 307 rev. 19 equates the ritual throwing of a dove with the splitting of Tiamat. Thus the ritual act in KAR 307 is explained in terms of Ee IV 137-38, where Marduk splits Tiamat in half before constructing the heavens. Such passages correlating ritual practice and mythological events are typical of the genre of mystical-religious works that includes KAR 307, but it is not clear if these passages served as rough scripts for cultic reenactments of mythological events or if the association between myth and ritual occurred on a more mystical plain. Other sections of KAR 307 present religious traditions that have not been preserved elsewhere. KAR 307 rev. 11-16, for example, identifies the ghosts of Enlil, Anu, the Daughters of Anu, and Tiamat as animals. In these lines, the ghost of Enlil is a donkey; the ghost of Anu is a wolf; the ghosts of the Daughters of Anu are gazelles; and the ghost of Tiamat is a camel with shorn horns, bound feet, and a cut-off tail. These traditions may be based on religious ceremonies where such animals were understood to represent the aforementioned gods. 8 However, no such ritual application is obvious for the list of the levels of the universe in KAR 307 30-38. Therefore, it seems probable that this list was included in KAR 307 because of the close affinities between the list and materials in Enuma Elish. In both Enuma Elish and KAR 307 30-38, MarduklBel settles Ea in the Apsu, mankind on the earth's surface, and groups of gods in heaven and earth. KAR 307 33, like Ee V 1-8, states that Marduk arranged the stars in heaven. 8 Note, for example, KAR 307 rev. 17-18, where cattle and sheep that are slaughtered in a ritual represent Kingu and his seven sons, and Racc 26: 6, where the seven sons of Enmesarra are represented by seven heaps of flour (zidubdubbu). However, for the ghost of Anu as a wolf compare VR 46 2: mUlur. bar.ra = da-nu, 'The Wolf-Star is Anu'.

The Tablets

7

AO 8196 (AJO 19 pls. 31-34)

AO 8196 presents a late-Babylonian collection of astronomical, astrological, and religious information. The tablet is poorly preserved. When complete, AO 8196 presented six columns, with three columns on each side. The entire first and sixth columns, most of the second and fifth columns, and portions of columns three and four are missing. The surviving text is divided into sections by horizontal lines. Each section consists of a short list of related identifications. For instance, the section of immediate interest (iv 20-22) is comprised of three lines that name the three heavens and identify each set of heavens with a stone. . ~. yveidner, in his article "Ein astrologischer Sammeltext aus der SargonIdenzelt (AfO 19 105-113), identified AO 8196 as one of eight exemplars of a Neo-Assyrian astrological work best known from K. 250+ (CT 26 40-41).9 In t~e article, an attempt is made to reconstruct the original tablet utilizing matenals from AO 8196, K. 250+, and the other sources. Although portions of AO 8196 do duplicate portions of these tablets, AO 8196 is not an exemplar of this astrological compendium. The list of heavens in AO 8196 iv 20-22 and six other sections occupying AO 8196 iv 28-50, are not found in any ~reserved exemplar of the Neo-Assyrian work. However, the exact relationship between AO 8196 and the Neo-Assyrian tablets remains uncertain since all proposed exemplars for the Neo-Assyrian astrological text are incomplete. In addition to the section listing the three heavens, well preserved sections of AO 8196 include two lists of stars (iii 1-15; iii 16-38); a list of synonyms for $allummu 'comet' (iii 39-44);10 sections identifying the quadrants of the Moon, months, and watches of the night with the countries of Akkad, Elam, Amurru, and Subartu (iii 45-48; iv 13-19; iv 28-30); a section identifying various parts of the month, and the sun at sunrise and sunset, with various deities (iv 23-27); a list identifying the four winds with animals (iv 33-36); the names of the two calves of Adad and two horses of the flood (iv 37-42);11 and a list of seven manifestations of the goddess Gula worshipped in different cities (iv 43-50). Most of the information preserved on AO 8196 can be used when interpreting astronomical omens. The series Enuma Anu Enlil includes numerous omens relating to the observation of comets and meteors, the lands of Akkad, Elam, Amurru, and Subartu appear frequently in the apodoses of astronomical omens, and the interpretation of astronomical phenomena is dependent on the month of the year and time of night that the phenomena are observed. Yet, no 9 The full tablet of K. 250+ is K. 250 + 7646 (CT 29 47) + 11184 + 13677 (CT 26 50) + 13709 + 16242 (CT 34 14). The other seven sources utilized by E. Weidner are listed in AfO 19 105-6. For a new rendering of the text, see U. Koch-Westenholz, Mesopotamian Astrology (1995) 187-205. 10 For $allummu meaning 'comet', see R. Chadwick, GMS 3 170-80. 11 Note the parallels in Atrahasis 122 rev. 5-6 where Adad rides on "the four winds, his donkeys"; Atrahasis 94: 15-16 where the flood bellows like a bull and the winds of the flood "whinny like a wild donkey"; and Cohen Ersemma 58: 13-16 where ISkur harnesses seven storms. For parallels with rakabu 'to ride' in meteorological contexts, see AHw 945 rakabu G 9-10.

The Levels of the Universe

The Levels of the Universe

8

practical application for the names of the calves of Adad, horses of the flood, Gula-goddesses, or the list of the heavens is obvious.

Heavens

The Levels of the Universe

Upper Middle Lower

The presentation of lists of cosmic regions in both KAR 307 (a mysticalreligious text) and AO 8196 (an astronomical-astrological text) demonstrates that the beliefs expressed in the lists were part of both the general religious traditions of Mesopotamia and the tenets of Mesopotamian astronomy and astrology. Of course, the disciplines of astronomy and astrology were but part of the overall religious system. Major deities such as Marduk, Anu, Enlil, and Ea were believed to have arranged the stars in heaven in early times, and gods are often identified with stars and constellations in astronomical works such as the "Astrolabes" and Mul-Apin.

The Heavens The list of heavens in KAR 307 is drawn from two sources. The descriptions of the heavens in both KAR 307 and AO 8196 begin by identifying each heaven with a stone. These identifications can be identified as "Source A." AO 8196 preserves only material from "Source A:' KAR 307 adds additional information from a second source, "Source B." This information is introduced by sa and always includes a preterite verb. In each case, the subject of the verb apparently is Bel. The descriptions of the three earths in KAR 307 34-38 also derive from "Source B." Preterite verbs occur in these descriptions, with Bel apparently also the subject. Although the two sources are expertly joined by sa in KAR 307, a close inspection of KAR 307 30-38 reveals that the two sources are contradictory. In the opening portions of KAR 307 30-31, "Source J\' assigns the Upper Heavens to Anu and the Middle Heavens to the Igigi. "Source B" in the latter sections of line 30 and lines 32-33 disagrees. Here, the Igigi are placed in the Upper Heavens and Bel is placed in the Middle Heavens. Both sources, however, agree that the Lower Heavens belong to stars. The first part of line 33 assigns the Lower Heavens to stars, while the later half of the line states that Bel drew constellations on the Lower Heavens. This is not contradictory, because constellations are groups of stars. Below is a table identifying the denizens of the three heavens according to Sources A and B: 12 12 The division of the heavens into three zones is also attested in the second tablet of the series Bit Meseri where portions of the heavens are assigned to Anu, Enlil, and Ea:

u-qa-dis-ku dlugal-g'ir-ra same e sa-lal-ti-su-nu su-ut da-nim su-ut denlil(bad) su-ut de-a G. Meier, AfO 14 142:43-44

I have pu~ified the three heavens for you Lugalgirra: those of Anu, those of Enlil, and those of Ea.

Source A (KAR 307 and AO 8196) Anu Igigi Stars

9

Source B (KAR 307 only) 300 Igigi Bel Constellations

The Stones of Heaven. Source A notes that the three heavens are compo.sed of luludanitu-stone, saggilmud-stone, and iaspu-stone 'jasper'. It is inconceivable that these heavens were composed of three giant contiguous blocks of stone, because this would not allow for movement within the heavens. Therefore, it must be assumed that the floors of each level of the heavens were composed of a different type of stone, and that there was open space between each stone floor, just as there is open space between the earth's surface and the Lower Heavens. Furthermore, it may be assumed that each stone floor was visible from bel~w and served as a roof for the region below. These assumptions find support III a parallel from Exodus, where the floor of heaven is apparently built of blue brick: Then Moses, Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and the seventy elders of Israel rose up and they saw the God of Israel, and beneath his feet was the likeness of "sapphire" (Hebrew 1'00) brick just like the heavens for clarity. Exodus 24:9-10 (cf. Ezekiel 1:26-28, 10:1) ~ebrew

'sapphire', which is equated with Greek CHimp8tpOt; and Latin sappirus, a blue stone and has often been identified with lapis-Iazuli. 13 Thus, the blue brick floor of heaven in Exodus, when seen from below, may be identified with the blue background color of the sky on clear days and the darker blue of the clear night sky. In KAR 307 30-31, Anu and the Igigi apparently stand on ~uludanitu-stone and saggilmud-stone floors of the Upper and Middle Heavens, Just as the God of Israel stands on a blue 'sapphire' brick heavenly floor in Exodus. IS

The Upper Heavens. The highest level of the universe in both KAR 307 and AO 8196 is called the Upper Heavens. Source A assigns this level of heaven to Anu and reveals that this level is made of luludanitu-stone. Source B states that Bel settled 300 Igigi in the Upper Heavens. In this p~ssage, how~ver, the.t~ree heavens probably refer to the astronomical paths of Anu, EnId, and Ea III the VlsIble heavens, rather than three superimposed levels of heaven. Note for exampl.e the followin.g general st~dies: The Interpreter's Dictionary of The Btble 4.219; Der Kleme Pauly Lencon der Anttke 4.1545· Liddell and Scott A GreekEnglish Lexicon (1968) 1583; R. Forbers, Studies in Ancie;'t Technology 7.89: and note more recently P Kingsley, JRAS Third Series 2 (1992) 39-46. However, for an identification of the stone with modem sapphire see D. Ginzburg, Eretz-Israell7 4*,83-85.

:3

The Levels of the Universe

The Levels of the Universe

The assignment of the Upper Heavens to Anu in Source A identifies this heaven with the Heaven of Anu (samu sa danim; samu danim). The Heaven of Anu is well known in Akkadian literature and incantations. Examples of the Heaven of Anu occur in Gilgamesh, N ergal and Ereskigal, and Erra, as well as Akkadian incantations in the series Bit Meseri, Bit Rimki, and in NamburbisJ4 The identification of Anu's heaven as the highest level of heaven in KAR 307 and AO 8196 provides the most explicit evidence that the Heaven of Anu is in fact the highest level of the universe. The reason for the identification of Anu's heaven with luladanitu-stone is unclear. In Abnu-sikinsu, a series describing the appearances of stones,15 luludanitu-stone is said to be a reddish stone:

The tradition of 300 Igigi in the Upper Heavens in Section B agrees with the apocryphal line of Enuma Elish, Ee VI 69:

10

[abnu(na 4 ) siki]n(gar)-su kima na.l;ulali(nir) na4mussari (m us. g 1r) na.lu-lu4-da-ni-tum sum [su] (m u. [n i]) [abnu sikin]-su sama(sa5) pU$a(babbar) u $alma(g i6) [e-d]i-il; na.lu-lu4-da-ni-tum sumsu STT 108:14-15 [The stone whose appear]ance is like hulalu-stone and mussaru-stone is named luludanitu-stone. [The stone whose appearan]ce is red covered with white and black [patc]hes is named luludanitu-stone. Thus KAR 307 and AO 8196 seem to imply that the surface of the Heaven of Anu was thought to be colored red, white, and black. There is no obvious explanation for this tradition. A few passages allude to red heavens, but these passages always refer to the red color of the sky at sunrise and sunset l6 rather than to a visible high heaven above the sky. Thus it seems likely that the reddish hue of the Upper Heavens is based on unknown religious or mythological considerationsJ7

For examples of the Heaven of Anu, see pp. 244-46. For the series Abnu-sikinsu, see W. Horowitz, ZA 82 112-22. 16 Note SAA 8266 rev. 4, 309:1; van Soldt Solar Omens 46:5-47:7; M. Leibovici, RA 50 18: 28-38; Nabnitu XX 44 (MSL XVI 181); and a number of passages where the Heavens are said to 'be beaten red' ~amta mabi~ at sunrise (see CAD S 124 samtu B). This expression apparently refers to blood-red heavens, since the same expression is used for bloody fingers in Labat TDP 98: 58-59. For blood in the sky in mythological contexts, see Lugale 178; CT 1334 rev. 7'-9' (The Labbu-Myth); and a similar allusion in Ee IV 32. See also CAD S 382 samu b), AfO Beih. 22 55-57, and S. Langdon, Babyl. 7234-35. For a parallel expression urqa mabi~ 'to turn yellow/green', see W. von Soden, ZA 71 110: 3. 17 For instance, red, white, and black luludanitu-stone may be identified with the Heaven of Anu because Anu himself is identified with the colors red, white, and black. In Summa-Alu (CT 40 49: 29-30), a red bird with a white patch on his head is identified as the "bird of Anu;' and red, white, and black patterns of decorative cones were found in the archaeological remains of Anu's city, Uruk (see for example Bagd. Mitt. Beih. 1 Beilage 2-3, taf. 1-7). 14

300 di-gt-t

sa sa-ma-[m]i u 600

11

sa apsi kali(du)-su-nu pal;-ru

The 300 Igigi of heaven and 600 of the Apsu,

a~l

of them, were gathered.

In Ee VI 37-44, Marduk places 300 Anunnaki, rather than Igigi, in heaven. The Middle Heavens. Source A assigns the Middle Heavens to the Igigi and notes that these heavens are made of saggilmud-stone. Source B explains that Bel's cella is located in the Middle Heavens. . T~e identifi?ation of the Middle Heavens with saggilmud-stone is appropnate, smce saggzlmud-stone is a blue stone. The blue color of saggilmud-stone can be established on the basis of information in Uruanna, Urgud and Abnusikinsu. In Uruanna (MSL X 70: 30) and Urgud (MSL X 33: 113): saggilmudstone is identified as l;asmanu-stone. The color of saggilmudll;asmanu-stone can be established on the basis of l;asmanu-colored wool. In an economic tablet from Ugarit, l;asmanu-colored wool is said to be a shade of lapis-lazuli colored wool: 2 tugkitu gad[a mes 2 me-a]t sikiuqni (za.gln) 2 me-at siki na.l;as-ma-ni a-na [ ... ] 2 tugkitu mes f21 [me-a]t sikiuqnimes 2 me-at sikiuqni l;as-ma-ni a-na mar [ ... ] 1 tugkitit me-at siki!uqni 1 me-at sikiuqni~l;as-ma-ni a-na lutup-pa-nu-[ru] RS 11.732 B 3-5 (MRS 6 181, Syria 21 258)

2 garments (made of [20]0 (shekels) of blue wool (and) 200 of "hasmanu"-wool for [ ... ] 2 garments (made of) 2[00] (shekels) of blue wool (and) 200 of blue-"hasmanu" wool for the "son" [ ... ] 1 garment (made of) 100 (shekels) of blue wool (and) 100 of blue-"hasmanu" wool for the tuppanu[ru-official]

15

The description of saggilmud-stone in Abnu-sikinsu, although partially damaged, confirms that saggilmud-stone is the same color as lapis-lazuli:

abnu sikin-su kima [na.]fu-qu1-ni na.sag-fgi[l-mud sum[su] STT 108:88 The stone whose appearance is like lapis-lazuli is named saggilmud-stone The blue lapis-like color of the Middle Heavens may be compared with the blue brick roof of the sky in Exodus 24:10. Therefore, KAR 307 and AO 8196 suggest that the bottom surface of the Middle Heavens was visible from the earth's surface.

The Levels of the Universe

The Levels of the Universe

12

The Cella of Bel in the Middle Heavens .IS In KAR 30731-32, Tradition B describes a heavenly cella of Bel in the Middle Heavens. Two elements of the cella appear in the text: bara == parakku and bara.man == paramaJ;u. It is difficult to distinguish between these two terms, since KAR 307 31-32 provides the only contextual example of parakku and paramaJ;u together, and chairs can be placed on both. UITa 5, for example, lists chairs of both the parakku and paramaJ;u: 19 (kussi)] pa-rak-ki (chair of the parakku) [MIN] pa!-ra!-ma-J;u! (chair of the paramaJ;u) Urra 5 87-87a (see MSL V 157, IX 170)

MIN

[gisgu.za.bara.m] an

The translation of parakku as 'sanctuary' is based on Malku and Explicit Malku, which list parakku as a synonymn for a number of words meaning 'shrine, sanctuary, etc.' (A. Kilmer, JAOS 83 429: 274-75,443: 152-55). The second part of the description of Bel's cella, as written, states that Bel made a GIS bU-$i NA4 el-me-si shine inside the cella. This phrase is problematic. As preserved GIS bU-$i NA4 el-me-Si can refer to three objects, t~o objects, _or a single object. For instance, there may be three separate w~od (~IS), gl.ass (bu$u), and stone (nf4 elmesu) furnishings in the cella of Bel; a gtsbu-$~ that IS made of wood and glass, plus a stone object; or a single wooden object inlaid with glass and elmesu-stone. Two suggested emendations solve some but not all of these difficulties. CAD B 349 bU$u A 3' deletes GIS, and translates: He (Marduk) made it shine within with bU$u-glass and crystal (elmesu-stone). This translation, however, does not explain the form or function of the glass and elmesu-stone. CAD E 107 (sub elmeSu a) offers a better solution. Here, the editors of CAD emend to read gisbu-$i-(in} and then translate 'lamp (made of) elmesu-stone', explaining that Marduk lit a lamp (bu$innu) of elmesu-stone in the cella. 20 A parallel can then be found in an Esarhaddon oracle where IStar lights a light of elmesu-stone in a heavenly cella: 21 For cellas and daises in Heaven, see pp. 250-52. PSD B does not separate bara from bara.mah. Sumerian bara.mah is translated into Akkadian in bilingual texts by the both the loanword pararr:alJ,u. and as pa,rakku $lru 'majestic dais' (see PSD B 142 3-5). The loanword paramalJ,u IS chosen III KAR 307 31 so that the word parakku is not repeated in both KAR 307 31 and 32. However, a rendering parakku $lru remains possible. See PSD B 135-36 1.4 for examples of gisgu.za.bara and giSgu.za.bara.mah in Sumerian texts. 20 B. Landsberger OCS 21 154) also emends bU-$i-(in) and translat~s 'La,:npe'. A. Oppenheim (Oppenheim Glass 16; Oppenheim Man an~ Nature 641) omIts GIS and translates 'bu$u-glass'. A. Livingstone (SAA 3100) translates has made a lamp of electrum shine there'. 21 Note the Hebrew parallel in Ezek 1:26-27 and an Akkadian parallel in KAR 98 rev. 8-9: u-ki-in ina qaqqadi ka-ka-a[b-t]am el-me-si nam-r[i] 'I placed on the head a star of shining elmeSu-stone'. For possible Sumerian parallels, see M. Stol, Natural Phenomena 255, 269 n. 90. 18 19

13

giskussa-ka ina sapal(ki.ta) sarne e ra-bu-te uk-ti-in ina ma-si-ki sa J;ura$i ina qereb same e a-J;a-ri-di nu-ur sa el-me-si ina pani mdassuraJ;a-iddina sar4 kurassuri u-sa-na-ma-ra 4R2 61 iii 29-35

I have established your throne below the great heavens. From the golden cella in the midst of heaven I will keep watch over you. I will make a light of elmesu-stone shine before Esarhaddon, the King of Assyria. However, one might object that bU$innu normally means 'lamp-wick', while the lamp itself is a bit bU$inni 'house of the wick' (see CAD B 348). Nonetheless, a copper bU$innu 'lamp' is found in ADD 964 rev. 15 without bitU. 22 Another reference to the Middle Heavens (same qabluti) is to be found in the mystical explanatory work OECT 11 69+70 i 35-37 (OECT 11 p. 28) in the context of a celebration of an Akitu festival of Ninurta on the 24th of Iyar: den-liZ iJ;-du-sum-ma fbuLsu-rat sul-mi a-na dlugal-du6-ku-ga a-na same e qab-lu-(ti) is-pur OECT 11 p. 28, nos. 69+70: 33'-34'

Enlil rejoiced over him (Ninurta) and sent a message of well-being for Lugaldukuga to the Middle Heavens. The appearance of Lugalkuduga in the Middle Heavens in this passage is puzzling. Elsewhere, Lugalkuduga is either an ancestor of Enlil who dwells in the underworld, or a name for Ea who is normally to be found in the Apsu (see W. G. Lambert, RIA 7 133-34). If Lugalkuduga in this context is the underworld god, then one might find a parallel in Adapa, where the underworld gods Tammuz and Gizzida stand at the Gate of Anu at the entrance to heaven (p. 65). If Lugalkuduga is Ea, then one might note the events in Nergal and EreSkigal, where Ea is to be found in the heavens along with Anu and Enlil (p. 66). The Lower Heavens. Sources A and B agree that the Lower Heavens were composed of jasper and that these heavens belong to stars. Source A assigns the jasper heavens to the stars in general, while Source B is more specific, explaining that Marduk drew the lumasu 'constellations' on the jasper heavens. Jasper is a type of chalcedony, a hard, glassy, often translucent stone. 23 Many ancient varieties of translucent chalcedony were called jasper (tU0'1W; == iaspis) in the classical world, although modern jasper is generally opaque. Pliny, in his Natural History (Book 37 37), states that jasper (iaspis) is often translucent and refers to many varieties of "jasper;' including a hard, dull, grayishgreen jasper from Cyprus, a sky blue "aerizusa" jasper from Persia, and rosecolored, violet, yellow, and purple varieties of jasper. The sky-blue "aerizusa" jasper from Persia is appropriate for the jasper of the Lower Heavens in KAR 22

23

Note also a bit giSbu-si-ni in BAM 304: 20'. See G. F Herbert Su{ith, Gemstones (1940) 348-49.

The Levels of the Universe

The Levels of the Universe

307 and AO 8196, since the Greeks thought this variety of jasper resembled the appearance of the sky in Autumn:

Anunnaki all dwell ina libbi their regions. Thus ina libbi here must mean 'on (and above) the surface of the region', because mankind lives on and above the surface of the earth. In contrast, ina mubbi occurs just one time in KAR 307 33 and implies that the stars were drawn directly onto the stone surface of the Lower Heavens. In a parallel on a late Lamastu tablet, ina mubbi and e$eru are used when a lunar crescent and solar disk are etched onto a clay tablet:

14

The fourth variety (of jasper) is known among (the Greeks) as "boria" or "northwind" jasper, because it is like the sky on an autumn morning. This will be identified with the kind that is called "aerizusa." Pliny Natural History 37 37 (Loeb Classical Library 10 258-59)

Descriptions of two varieties of jasper in Abnu-sikinsu explain why the Lower Heavens are identified with jasper in Mesopotamia:

abnu sikin-su kima same e za-ku-ti n"-4as-pu-u sumsu abnu sikin-su kima urpat(dungu) rib$i(glri.bal) [n"-4a]s-pu-u sumsu BAM 378 iv 19-2211STT 108: 76-77 24 The stone whose appearance is like the clear heavens is named jasper. The stone whose appearance is like a rain cloud is named U]asper. Another reference to jasper of the heavens is found in CT 51 89 iii 13:

. . . ] na4as-pu-u sa kima fsame e1 [ ... ] jasper which like heaven [ ...

...

The series Abnu-sikinsu describes a gray jasper that has the appearance of the overcast sky and a variety of jasper that has the appearance of the clear sky. T~e first variety may be compared with the grayish-green jasper of Cyprus, while the second is probably to be identified with sky-blue jasper of Persia or yellow jasper. On clear sunny days, the blue sky often appears to be tinged yellow by the sun. Both varieties of jasper in Abnu-sikinsu are appropriate stones for the Lower Heavens. On cloudy days, the lowest portion of heaven appears to be colored gray by clouds, while on sunny days, the lowest portion of heaven seems to be the clear, open sky. In his Natural History (3737 115), Pliny states that ancient jasper (iaspis) was often translucent. This would explain how the blue saggilmud-stone floor of the Middle Heavens could be seen from the earth's surface through the 'jasper' floor of the Lower Heavens. There is no evidence t~at saggilmud-stone is translucent, so the blue saggilmud-stone floor of the Middle Heavens apparently kept humans from seeing into the homes of Anu, th: Igigi, and Bel ~n the Middle Heavens and Highest Heavens, above the saggtlmud-stone. It IS not clear, however, how the jasper of the Lower Heavens might have been thought to change from clear to cloudy. The terminology of KAR 307 33 suggests that the stars and constellations were thought to be etched directly onto the jasper surface of the Lower Heavens. The text explains that the stars are drawn ina mubbi the Lowest Heavens. This prepositional phrase is apparently contrasted with ina libbi, which occurs seven times in KAR 307 30-38. The Igigi, "spirits of mankind;' Ea, and the 24 STT 108: 76, fza!1-su-ti may be read za-qat-ti or be an error for za-ku-ti (the difference between KU ( p3) and SU is but a single stroke.

(P )

15

du.du.bi tuppa(dub) tasattar(sar)ar uskara(u 4.sakar) samsata(as.me) [kakkaba gamla] ina muh-hi te-es-sir ... LKD 33 r~v: 18-19 + duplicates (see CAD SI1 333 c) It's ritual, you inscribe a tablet. A crescent moon, solar-disk, [star, and hooked-staff] on it you draw ... Further evidence for stars and constellations inscribed onto the sky is found in other Akkadian texts. In a literary passage from Enuma Anu Enlil, Anu, Enlil, and Ea draw constellations in the sky (E. Weidner, AfO 17 89:4-5) . In The Labbu Myth, Enlil draws a 50-league-long constellation in the heavens:

den-lil ina same e i-te-$er [ ..... ] 50 beru mu-rak-su 1 ber[u ru-pu-us-su] CT 1333:7-8 Enlil, in the heavens, drew [ ..... ] 50 leagues was its length, 1 leagu[e was its width.] Another text explains how to draw various constellations, including mU1su.gi 'Perseus', mU1al.l u 5 'Cancer' and mU1mar.gid.da 'Ursa Major' (E. Weidner, AfO 4 7475). Surviving sketches of constellations are found on the Neo-Assyrian planisphere CT 3310, and drawings of stars and constellations, including mU1ur.gu.la 'Leo' and the seven stars of m ul.m ul 'Pleiades', are found in E. Weidner GestimDarstellungen pIs. 1-2,5-6, and 9-10. 25 A tradition that the fixed-stars were inscribed onto the surface of the heavens implies that this surface rotated every 24 hours, since inscribed stars could not move independently. This tradition is reasonable since stars and constellations maintain fixed positions relative to one another as if inscribed on a rotating sphere. The Sun, Moon, and planets do not maintain fixed positions in relation to the stars, leading later Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic astronomers to speculate that these heavenly bodies were located on different levels or spheres from the fixed stars.

25 For CT 3310 (K. 8538), see now J Koch, Neue Untersuchungen zur Topographie des babylonischen Fixsternhimmels. Note also the tenns sitir burilme ('writing of the night-sky') and sitir same ('writing of heaven'), which refer to the arrangement of the stars in the sky; the drawing of miijratu 'boundary lines' in the sky in Ee V 3; the stars drawn on circular 'Astrolabes' (CT 33 11); and the Old Akkadian exercise tablet AfO 25 104.

The Levels of the Universe

16

The Earths KAR 307 34-38 lists and identifies three earths. The Upper Earth is inhabited by the "spirits of mankind;' the Middle Earth by Ea, and the Lower Earth by 600 Anunnaki. These inhabitants live inion the dannatu of these earths. It is almost certain that the dannatu of these earths are the surfaces of each earth, although dannatu has a wide range of meanings including 'hard ground', 'fortress', 'hard times', 'bottom of a foundation pit', and even a part of the lungs (see CAD D 87). The only direct evidence connecting dannatu with the earth is found in Malku I 51 where dannatu is listed as a synonym for ammatu (A. Kilmer, JAOS 83 425). In the commentary to the Babylonian Theodicy (BWL 74: 58), ammatis is explained as kima er$etu ('like earth'), so dannatu can be a name for 'earth' as a whole. Indirect evidence for dannatu as the surfaces of the earths is found in the equivalence between dannatu and Sumerian KLKAL, literally 'hard earth'. If this sense of dannatu is intended, then the dannatu of the three earths could correspond to the stone floors of the three heavens. The dannatu of the Apsu, in this case, would be the the 'ocean floor' of the Apsu, rather than the top surface of the Apsu. The Upper Earth. The Upper Earth should logically be the earth's surface, because the earth's surface lies directly beneath the heavens. Yet, KAR 307 34 places the ziqiqu of mankind on this earth, and ziq'iqu normally are ghosts of the dead (see CAD Z 58-59). Dead human beings reside in the underworld rather than on the earth's surface. A parallel from the series Bit Rimki helps solve this paradox: dutu mas.su.mab di.ku 5 an.ki.da.me.en dsamas mas-su-u $i-r[ul? dajtin(di.ku5) same e u er$etimtim at-ta5 nl sa.ta l.ga.ga inim su [x x x x 1 ral?l DI DUll mim-ma sa ina l'ib-bi ba-as-su-u ral?-[mat? x x ilq-qab-bu-u slg.slg.ga nigin nam.lu.ulu1u.ke4 su.min ma.ra.ni.ib.gi 4·gi4 zi-qi-qa sa nap-/;ar ni-si u-sa-an-na-ka 16 nl.erim e.gir bUb.sub.bu.de rag-ga ar-/;is tu-sam-qa-at 16 nl.zi nl.si.sa baLta bUb.ag.en kit-ta u me-sa-ra te-be-er R. Borger, JCS 21 3: 11-15 (Oppenheim Dreams 235) Sun-god, you are the august leader, the judge of heaven and earth. Whatever is inside, the word? w[hich ... , so ilt is said, the spirits of all men repeat to you. You strike the evil-man quickly. You choose truth and righteousness.

The Levels of the Universe

17

In Bit Rimki, there is no suggestion that the ziqiqil sa nap/;ar nisi 'spirits of all men' are located anywhere but the surface of the earth. Thus, the ziqiqi amelilti 'spirits of mankind' in KAR 307 34 must be the embodied spirits of living humans on the earth's surface. A parallel may be found in the Kassite period Sumerian literary work The Duties and Powers of the Gods that is inscribed on fragments of a statue of Kurigalzu: a.n[el.er ki.a su.nigin a.za.lu.lu al.n6.n6 Sumer 4 pI. 4 vi 1'-6' For him, they lay down all of mankind on earth. In this passage, unnamed gods settle a.za.lu.lu on ki. Here, ki must be the earth's surface, because the underworld is identified as kur in this text (see p. 144). Sumerian n u parallels rabti$u in KAR 30734, and a.za.l u.l u is equivalent to both ameliltu 'mankind' and nammastu 'herd-animals'.26 The Middle Earth. The Middle Earth belongs to Ea. This earth must be the Apsu since the Apsu is the cosmic region of EnkilEa. In Ee IV 145-46, Ea occupies the Apsu when Anu and Enlil take possesion of the heavens (samtimil) and Esarra. KAR 307 36 is obscure. The verb in the line, umassi, may be understood as a preterite of mussulmussu'to identify' or a III1 preterite of masu 'to forgef. 27 In the latter case, a parallel might be found in LKA 73:5: · .. siPl-/;i ul a-mas-si LKA 73 rev. 5 (SAA 3 104) · .. rebeillion? I will not forget The verb mussulmussu 'to identify' does not occur in the III stem. It is not certain, however, how a rebellion in KAR 307 36 could be connected with Bel, Ea, and the Apsu, because no account of a rebellion by Ea against Marduk is known. In a parallel to KAR 307 36 in a mystical-religious text, Marduk sends Ea down to the Apsu without any reference to a rebellion:

· .. de-a sa ina tu-li-su dbel i-dar-su-ma a-na apsi u-se-rid-[sul Livingstone 116:2 (SAA 3 96: 8-9) · .. Ea, whom Bel pushed away from his bosom and sent down to the Apsu. The term er$etu qablitu 'Middle Earth' also occurs a number of times in BE 39099, a late-Babylonian account of the flood (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 26 For nti = rabi$U, see AHw 933. For a.za.lu.lu = both amelutu 'mankind' and nammastu 'herd animals', see CAD A/2 58, Nil 234. 27 For examples of mussillmussil 'to identify' written with variants sand S, see Shamash Hymn 127 (BWL 134) and Erra V 10 (Cagni Erra 122-23).

The Levels of the Universe

The Levels of the Universe

BE 39099 116-21). In this text, the Middle Earth is not necessarily the Apsu. before Earth Middle the guard to d explains that Sin and Nergal were assigne d guarde Ea and s, heaven the d guarde the flood at a time when Anu and Adad BE in Earth Middle the If Sea"'. the of the sigaru nal;balu tamti 'bolt, "Net because he 39099 is the Apsu, Ea may have been removed from his region Atral;asis both In Enlil. of nds comma the could not be trusted to implem ent the secret ng reveali by race human the saves and the flood story of Gilg. XI, Ea of the flood.

37. Enuma . It is certain that Enuma Elish is not the source of KAR 307 places 300 39-44 Ehsh does not even mention the underworld, and Ee VI 307. KAR in as aki, Anunnaki in earth, rather than 600 Anunn way . The fina.ll.ine p:eserv ed on .the obverse, KAR 307 38, refers in some underthe of tion to psper, but It IS unlikely that thIS line continues the descrip the end world, because line 37 ends with a preteri te verb. Preterite verbs mark 30-37. 307 KAR in of the descriptions of each of the five previous cosmic regions

18

The Lowest Earth This The bottom level of the universe in KAR 307 is the Lowest Earth. the in aki Anunn 600 shut Bel that notes 37 earth is the underworld. KAR 307 underworld. dge The information in KAR 307 37 is consistent with much of our knowle period Kassite the from aki, Anunn the of the underworld. As noted earlier, that the onward, are almost always undetw orld gods, and a few texts confirm Nergal to hymn a e, instanc For 600. red Anunnaki of the underw orld numbe ller of 'Contro ner saniq a dannin asir the as praises the king of the underw orld a late while 8:4),28 NergaI rucher (Bollen 600' the the underworld, Supervisor of 'earth': of aki Anunn 600 bilingual passage refers to the da.nun .na ki.a mu.us .u.bi da-nun-na-ki sa ersetimtim ne-e-er-su SBH 139:157-58 . The Anunnaki of the earth, the 600 of them. orld, It is also implie d elsewh ere that the Anunn aki are locked in the underw s of Addres An In fact. this states tly explici 307 although no text other than KAR underthe of gates the within located are aki Marduk to the Demons, the Anunn la tari world (AfO 19 117 24-30). Furthe rmore, the underw orld name en}et hoped bly reasona have not could aki Anunn that 'Earth of No Return ' indicates underthe of officers ged privile Only dead. to escape from the realm of the ever left world, such as Kaka, the vizier of Ereskigal in Nergal and Ereskigal, excepAn return. to d expecte was Kaka even the gates of the underworld, but must she but IStar, of t Descen The and t Descen tion is Inanna/IStar in Inanna's . . orld. underw the in provide a substitute to take her place The tradition that Marduk, or any god, locked the Anunn aklm the underl may be world is not found in surviving Mesopotamian texts, but a paralle d enedefeate his jails Zeus ny, Theogo the In . found in the Theogony of Hesiod (Hesiod rule his against on rebelli their down mies in Tartarus after putting Theogony 713-35). Esarh. 79: For the name of the Anunnaki written d600(CES.U), note also Borger LivingVision); orld (Underw 12 72: 29-31); ABRT Craig (= 8 9: 9,96: 8; SM 3 8: 26,30; stone 32: 4. 28

19

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

Chapter 2

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

The Late Babylonian tablet BM 92687 preserves a unique Babylonian bird's-eye view of the earth's surface. The sketch, commonly called "The Babylonian Map of the World" or "Mappa Mundi;' occupies the upper half of the obverse, while the remainder of the obverse and entire reverse preserve related textual information. The text was first published more than a century ago by F. E. Peiser (ZA 4 [1889] 361-70) and then recopied by R. C. Thompson in 1906 as CT 22 48. This second copy served as the basis for later studies by E. Weidner (BoSt 6 [1922] 85-93) and E. Unger (in Unger Babylon 254-58 [1931]). Then, in 1988, I published a new edition and copy of BM 92687 in Iraq 50 (1988) 147-65. More recently, 1. Finkel identified and joined a tiny ("square inch or so of backed clay"), but important, fragment to the map on the obverse. 1 A revised copy and photographs of BM 92687 are found below (see pp. 402-3, 405-6).2 The Captions

1. sa-du- rtil 2. uru 3. ti-ra-ds-tu[m]

Mountain city Urartu

This chapter appeared in an earlier form as an article entitled "The Babylonian Map of the World;' Iraq 50 147-65. 1 This discovery is reported by I. Finkel in British Museum Magazine 23 (1995) in the News & Events section. The author thanks Dr. Finkel for his cooperation in the study of the new fragment. 2 The earliest photo of the tablet known to me is in C. Ball, Light from The East (1899),23. However, note that a third nagu (no. 21) has now fallen off (compare the photo in Ball with pl. 6, p. 406 here). For other photos of the obverse only and further bibliography, see Iraq 50147 n. 2; SAA 8 94; A. Millard in J. B. Harley and D. Woodward, eds., The History of Cartography I, 111-14. Note also W. Heimpel, ZA 77 68; J. Glassner, Akkadika 40 20; Naissance 257; M. Stohl, Pheonix 34 29-35; W. Horowitz, VTSup 41 35-43.

20

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

kuras+surki der(BADAN)ki x-ra-[ ... ap-pa-r[u[ [s]usa[n]([M]US.rERENlk[i?]) bit-qu bit-ia-J-ki-nu uru lya-ab-ban

Assyria Der swamp Susa channel Bit Yakin city Habban

21

The Text

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

22 13. 14. 15. 16.

TIN.TIRki

idmar-ra-tum [(id)mar-ra-tum] [(id)m]ar-ra-tum 17. mar-r[a-tum] IS. BAD.CD.LA f6 1 beru ina bi-rit a-sar dsamas la innammaru (nu.igi.la) 19. na-gu*-u* 6 beru ina bi-rit 20. [na-guj-fu l [( ... ) 21. [na]-gu-u [(

... )

22. na-gu-u fSl beru ina bi-rit 23-25. No Inscription * Signs

Babylon ocean [ocean] [o]cean oce[an] Great Wall 6 leagues in between where the Sun is not seen Region 6 leagues in between [Regio]n [(

... )

[Re]gion [( ... ) Region Sleagues in between

visible on early photographs

23

10', [x x mjfdlut-napistim(zi)tim sarru-kin u nur(zalag)-d[d]a-gan sar burJsaan?-lyaLa[n-da] 11', [x x k]a-ap-pi i$$uris(musen)riLma man-ma qe-reb-si-na ul fil_[du-u]

Translation 1', ....... ] .... [ ........ .

2' ....... ] . the rui[ned] cities [ ....... ] 3'. [ ... the vas]t [Sea] which Marduk sees. The bridge in [side her?] 4', [ ... ] . and the ruine[d] gods which he set [tIed] inside the Sea

5', [ .... ] .. are present; the viper, great sea-serpent inside. The Anzu-bird, and scorpi[on-man] 6', [ .. moun]tain goat, gazelle, zebu, [p]anther, bull-m[an] 7', [ .. l]ion, wolf, red-deer, and hye[na],

S', [monk]ey, female-monkey,4 ibex, ostrich, cat, chameleon,

9'. [ ... ] beasts which Marduk created on top of the res[tl]ess Sea,

10'. [ .. U]tnapiStim, Sargon, and Nur-[D]agan the King of Bursaga[nda], 11'. [ .. w]ings like a bird, which/whom no one can com[prehend.]

The Text on the Reverse 1', ........ ] x [ ..... .

The Text on the Obverse 1'. ........ ] xxxx [ .........

2', ....... tab?]-ra?-[ti? .... .

3' ...... tam-t]u4 ra-bi-tu [ .... .

2' ....... ] x alanu mes ab-t[u-tu ..... .

4'. [maly-ru? na-gu-u? ina e-re-b]i-su tal-l[a-ku 7 beru ...

3'. [ ... tam-tum rapastumtu]m sa i-bar-ru-u dfmarduk ti -tu-lri qe-r[eb-sa] 4'. [ ... b]i u ilanu mes ab-tu-t[u] sa ina fib-bi tam-tim u-se-[si-bu]

5'. [a-na sanu u na-gu-u] fal-sar tal-la-ku 7 be[ru ...

5'. [... x]-x_fsul iz-za-zu ba-as-mu muslyussu rabU(mus.gus gal) ina libbi an-zu-u girt[ablullu ](gir. t [a b.l u.ul u1u] 3

6', [ .... ] x x x sap-[lis/lat ...

6'. [x x a]r-mu $a-bi-tum ap-sa-su-u [n]im-ru ki-sa-r[i-ku] 7'. [x x n]esu(ur.mag) barbaru(ur.bar.ra) lulimu(lu.lim) it bu-u-[$u]

S'. [pa-guj-f ul pa-gi-tum turalyu(dara) lu-ur-mu su-ra-nu [wr-ba-bi-li 9', [x x x ] u-ma-mu sa ina mulylyi tam-tim gal-l[a-t]im dmarduk ib-nu-su-n[ u-ti] 3 The reading girtablullu for gir.tab.lu.ulu 1u is suggested by the loanword lullu from Sumerian lu.ulu (see CAD L 242). There are no phonetic writings of the word, to confirm this reading, or girtablilu as proposed in AHw 291.

7', [a-na salsujfsul na-gu!(text DU)-U a-sar tal-la-ku 7 ber[u ... S', [i$-$u]-ru mut-tap-ri-si la u-sal-l[a-am uruly-su]

9', [a-na re]-bi-i na-gu-u a-sar tal-la-ku 7 be[ru ... 10', [x x x ]-du ik-bi-ru ma-la par-sik-tum 20 uban[u](su.s [il) [ ...

4

dul.bi

For pagu and pagitu as male and female monkeys, see Urra 14 118-19: ugu. pa-gu-u, munusugu.dul.bi = pa-gi-ti (MSL 8/216).

=

24

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

11'. [a-na o,anS]u rsul na-gu-u a-sar taPlaLku 7 beru [ ...

12'. [x x ] mi-lu-su 1 usta,am Iju-up-pan x [ ...

The Text

25

9'. [To the fo]urth region, where you travel 7 lea [gues '" 10'. [, .. 1 . are thick as a parsiktum-measure/vessel, 20 finger(s) [,"

13'. [x x x ] x zi-nu-su a-na as-lata,am [ .. . 14'. [x x ]-x-mi da-mi-Su ul im-mar [ .. .

11'. [To the fif]th region, where you travel 7 leagues [,"

15'. [x x x ] ni-il-lu as-ri tal-la-[ku .. .

12'. [,' is] its height/flood; S40 cubits is its . [ , , ,5

16'. [x x x x tal]-al-la-ku r7 1 b[eru .. . 17'. [x x x x x x lA a-Iji- ri sa? ina? SU?L[ . ..

13'. [ ... ]. its frond/rain; as much as 120 cubits 6 is [ its . , , 14'. [ ... ] . its blood he does not seer . '.

IS'. [x x x x ]-su i-bi-ri [ . , ,

15'. [ ... which we c]limb?, where you trave[l , , , 16'. [,",., youl] I will t;avel 7le[agues . , ,

19'. [a-na sessu su ] na-gu-u a-sar tal-la-ku [7 beru . , ,

17'. [ ....... ]. the departure which? is in . [ .. ,

20'. [x x x x x ina?] muo,o,i a-na-ku KIM/DIM-m[u ...

IS'. [ .... ] its [ .. , ] he crossed [ ...

21'. [a-na sebijfil na-gu-u a-sar tal-la-ku [ 7 beru , ..

19'. [To the sixth] region, where you travel [ 7 leagues, , ,

22'. so, alpu(gu 4 ) qar-nu sak-nu [ , ..

20'. [ ...... on? 1 top, I .. [ .. '

23'. i-flaLas-su-mu-ma i-kas-sa-du-f u

l [ .,.

21'. [To the seven]th region, where you travel [ 7 leagues, , . 24'. a-na [sam]ani i na-gu-u a-sar tal-ka-ku 7 ber[u ...

22'. where cattle equipped with horns [ ...

25'. [x x x x ] a-sar ti-Se-::l-ru ina o,a-an-du-ri-Su rUlsaml-[x-x]

23'. they run fast and reach [ ".

26'. [x x x x x -t]i sa kib-ra-a-ti er-bet-ti so, kal x [ ...]

24'. To the [ei]ghth region, where you travel 7leagu[es ".

27'. [x x x x x] x: qe-reb-si-na man-ma la ril_[du-u]

25'. [,'" the p]lace where". dawns at its entrance?

2S'. [x x x x x ] x ki-ma la-bi-ri-i-su sa-ti-ir-ma ba-r[i]

26'. [".,.]. of the Four Quadrants of the entire. [ ...]

29'. [x x x x x] mar-su sa milj-Iju-frul [ma]r mdea(idim)-bel(en)-il[zmes]

27'. [ ..... ] . : which no one can compre[hend]

Translation

2S'. [.,',.] . copied from its old exemplar and colla[ted]

1'. , ..... ,.]

x [ ., .. ,.

29'. [,",.] the son of I~~uru [the descend]ant of Ea-beHl[i]

2' ........ wo]nde[rs? ... , , 3' ... ,',.,] great s[ea? . , , , ,

The Date and Composition of the Text

4', [The first? region?, when one ent]ers it you tra[vel ... leagues ... 5'. To the second region] where you travel 7 lea [gues ... 6'. [,",].,' bellow ...

The map, at least, can be no older than the ninth century. The author of the map calls the ocean marratu (salt-sea) and includes the sites of Bit Yakin (no, 10) and Urartu (no. 3). The earliest example of marratu occurs in an inscription of Shalmaneser III (S5S-S24) that identifies the name as a loanword from a Chaldean dialect into Akkadian:

7'. [To the thir]d region, where you travel 7leagu[es .,. S'. A winged [bi]rd cannot safely comp[lete its journey]

5

1

us

(720 cubits) + 2 $UPPU (120 cubits) (see RIA 7 459 Table II). As written,

$uppan is dual. 6

1 aslu = 120 cubits (see RlA 7 459).

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

The Map

ka-sid ultu tam-di rabfti ti sa mat a-mur-ri sa sul-me dsam-si a-di tam-di sa mat kal-di sa idmar-ra-tam i-qa-bu-si-ni KAH 1003-6 (E. Michel, WO 1 387; cf. WO 1 466:51)

circle represents the central continental portion of the earth's surface, where important sites such as Babylon and Assyria are located. The area between the two circles is identified as the marratu 'ocean'. On the map, this cosmic ocean circumambulates the central continent. The area beyond the outer circle consists of the triangular areas, which are identified as nagu 'regions', and unchartered space. The drawing is unique among ancient Mesopotamian maps. Numerous maps or plans of cities and rural areas, such as the map of Nippur (S. N. Kramer, FTS 274),7 are known, but only the World Map is drawn on an international scale. Nevertheless, the World Map utilizes standard Mesopotamian cartographic conventions. Both the World Map and small-scale maps use geometric shapes to represent topographic features. For instance, the placement of the marratu 'ocean' within two concentric circles is comparable to the practice of drawing rivers and canals within parallel lines representing their banks. One small map fragment (RA 4, plates follOWing p. 84 no. 72) even preserves a circular segment of a river or canal that is similar in shape to the cosmic ocean on the World Map.s Similarly, the oval shape of the region marked 'mountain' (no. 1) may be compared with semicircular hills drawn on the Old Akkadian map from Nuzi (HSS 10 1). Nonetheless, the World Map differs from other cuneiform maps and plans in other respects. On other cuneiform maps, rivers, fields, buildings, and other features are drawn to scale, and the relative positions of features seem reasonable. In contrast, the relative size and location of many of the features on the World Map seem preposterous. For instance, the circle representing the city of Der (no. 5) is as large as the circle representing Assyria.

26

Conqueror from the Great Sea of the Land of Amurru of the setting of the Sun to the Sea of the Land of Chaldea which they call the marratu. Likewise, Bit Yakin also occurs for the first time during the ninth century (see Brinkman PKB 169, 199), and Urartu occurs regularly in Neo-Assyrian inscriptions beginning at this time, although an earlier form Uruatri occurs in Middle Assyrian inscriptions (see RGTC 5 274-75). It is likely, however, that the map dates to the late eighth or seventh century. In the Shalmaneser III inscription, the Persian Gulf is called marratu, while the Mediterranean is called ttlmdu rabftu. The World Map identifies the entire world ocean as marratu. The earliest evidence that the Mediterranean was called marratu is found in an inscription of Sargon II (721-705) where the king rules the Ulmarrati eliti and idmarrati sapliti 'Upper and Lower Ocean' (R. C. Thompson, Iraq 7 112 fig. 1:12). It is not certain if the text on the obverse and reverse was composed together with the map. The text on the reverse was probably written to accompany the map, because both include nagu, but the text on the obverse was probably composed separately and joined to the map by a later editor. This text calls the ocean tamtu, instead of marratu, and does not mention any of the places drawn on the map. The map was composed in Babylonia rather than Assyria. Babylon is represented by a large rectangle encompassing almost half the width of the central continent, while Assyria is represented as a small oval. The provenance of the Late Babylonian copy BM 92687.itself is uncertain. Most of the 82-7-14 collection (BM 92687 = 82-7-14, 509) is from Sippar (see Leichty Cat. 6 xxxiii), but it is possible that the tablet comes from Borsippa. The tablet preserving the map (82-7-14,509) is assigned an out-of-sequence BM number (see Leichty Cat. 6 198), suggesting that the tablet may not be from Sippar, and the colophon of the tablet identifies the scribe who prepared BM 92687 as a descendant of Ea-bel-ili. In an economic document, a scribe of the same name is identified as being from Borsippa:

mitti-dnabu-balatu mar-su sa mla-a-ba-si mar mdea-bel-ili mes bar-sipaki TuM IIIlII 220:12-13 Itti-NabU-balatu, the son of Labasi, the descendant of Ea-bel-ih of Borsippa

ThcMap The map as preserved depicts the earth's surface as two concentric circles, with triangular areas radiating from the outer circle. The area within the inner

27

The Continent The continent on the World Map contains various geometric shapes representing places and topographic features. The place-names include the countries of Assyria (no. 4) and Urartu (no. 3); the cities of Babylon (no. 13) and Der (no. 5); and Bit Yakin (no. 10) and Habban (no. 12). Topographic features include sadu'mountain' (no. 1), apparu'swamp' (no. 7), and bitqu 'channel' (no. 9). The oval labeled Susa (no. 8) is placed within the circle representing the continent but is located across the 'swamp' and 'channel' from Babylonia. The parallel lines that begin in the region marked 'mountain' and end in the rectangle marked 'channel' and 'swamp' provide the means for interpreting the map. On cuneiform maps and plans, parallel lines represent river banks. On 7 The map of Nippur is also published in C. S. Fisher, Excavations at Nippur, pL 1. For other maps and plans see Iraq 50 154 n. 5; RlA 6 464-67, A. Millard in J. B. Harley and D. Woodward, eds., The History of Cartography I, 107-14; Naissance 243; George 28, 133; Archaic Bookkeeping 64-69. 8 For drawings of rivers and canals, note, for example, the Map of Nippur (FTS 274); Naissance 243; CT 2249; HSS 10 no. 1 (cf. AOS 74 81-82); KAV 25; and JNES 21 80.

29

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

The Map

the World Map, the parallel lines are not identified, but the course of the lines indicates that they represent the banks of the Euphrates. Near the middle of the map, the two parallel lines bisect the rectangle labeled 'Babylon'. In the first millennium, the Euphrates flowed through the center of Babylon. Herodotus (Book 1 180) states: "there are two sections of the city [Babylon] for a river flows through the middle. It's name is the Euphrates." Nebuchadnezzar speaks of building projects on both sides of the river (VAB 4 130:7-132:30), and the excavations of Babylon by Koldewey found architectural remains on both sides of the ancient course of the river (see R. Koldewey, Excavations at Babylon, 16). When the parallel lines are identified as the Euphrates, the locations of many of the other features on the map become clear. The 'mountain' at the source of the river represents the mountains of southern Turkey where Shalmaneser III visited the sources of the Tigris and the Euphrates:

oval marked 'mountain', pass through Assyria and to the right of the rectangle labeled 'Babylon', before emptying into the rectangle marked 'channel' and 'swamp'. The ancient course of the Tigris passed approximately 80 km. northeast of Babylon in the first millennium (see RGTe 8, maps). Thus, it is not possible that the two parallel lines represent both the Euphrates and the Tigris. The locations of other features are also problematic. Assyria and Urartu are correctly placed east of the Euphrates, with Urartu north of Assyria, but Assyria is located too far south in relation to Babylon. Bit Yakin, the southernmost entity in Babylonia during the first millennium, is correctly positioned near the mouth of the Euphrates, but is moved from the east side of the river to the west. Susa is correctly positioned below the outlet of the Euphrates, but should be located to the right of Babylon, rather than directly below the city. Habban (no. 12) is located west of the Euphrates, although the land and city Habban of the Kassite tribe Bit Habban were located east of the Tigris. 9 Other features on the map cannot be identified. The crescent-shaped area extending from the east bank of the Euphrates to the marratu (no. 6) may represent an arm of the ocean separating southern Babylonia from Elam, since the traces inside the the figure can be restored [ma]r-ra-[tum].lO This crescent, however, might also be an arm of the Euphrates ([p]u-ra-[tu]), a canal, or even a road ([lJa]r-ra-[nu]) leading from the river to the coast. Of course, the two circles identified uru (city) and the three circles containing only compass points cannot be identified. The reason that these sites are not labeled is unclear, but it is likely that their names were damaged on an earlier copy of the map. However, it is also possible that these sites may be ancient ruins whose names were no longer remembered, such as the 'ruined cities' in obv. 2.

28

ina 15 pale(bala)meLia ina res e-ni sa ididiglat(bal.bal) idpuratti(a.rat) a-lik $a-lam sarru-ti-ia ina ka-pi-Si-na ul-ziz Layard ICC 92:92-93 (E. Michel, WO 2 152) In the 15th year of my reign, I went by the headwater(s) of the Tigris and Euphrates. My royal relief I erected on their cliff's. On the bronze gates of Balawat, this expedition to the sources of the rivers is drawn in mountains (L. W. King, Bronze Reliefs, pI. 109). The rectangle at the mouth of the river marked apparu 'swamp' and bitqu 'channel' represents the swamps along the lower Euphrates and a waterway connecting the mouth of the Euphrates with the Persian Gulf. The modern Euphrates does not issue directly into the Persian Gulf but joins with the Tigris to form the Shatt-AI-Arab, a channel connecting the rivers to the Gulf. The left edge of the rectangle on the World Map, next to the label bitqu, touches the shore of the marratu, so the bitqu is probably an ancient equivalent of the Shatt-AI-Arab. In a letter, this ancient bitqu is located near Bit Yakin, just as Bit Yakin is drawn along the shore of the bitqu on the map:

llisakin temi(cAR.KU) if e-muq sa bit-illia-a-ki-nu it-ti-su-nu a-di ABL 542:12-13 mulJlJi bit-qa ki-i il-li-ku-ni The governor and forces of Bit-Yakin went with them as far as the bitqu. It is likely that the bitqu was a shipping channel that enabled ships to bypass the marshes of southern Babylonia on their way to the open sea, because the bitqu on the map connects the mouth of the Euphrates with the ocean and leads away from the area marked 'swamp'. The bend of the Euphrates by the rectangle marked 'Babylon' apparently represents the shift in the course of the river from southeast to a more southerly direction, near Babylon, rather than the great bend of the Euphrates upstream. In contrast to the relatively accurate depiction of the course of the Euphrates, the map omits the Tigris altogether. The Tigris should rise in the

The marratu 'Ocean' The circular band enclosing the continent is identified four times on the map as the marratu 'ocean' (nos. 14-17). The term marratu is a first-millennium synonym of tamtu 'sea'. For instance, Sargon II of Assyria states that the gods entrusted him with leadership of the peoples istu idmarrati elfti adi id marrati sapliti 'from the Upper Ocean to the Lower Ocean' (R. C. Thompson, Iraq 7 112 fig. 1:12), just as Sargon of Akkad is given the tiamtam alitam u sapiltam 'Upper and Lower Sea' by EnUl in a third-millennium inscription (H. H. Hirsch, AfO 20 48:9-13, Gelb-Kienast 182). The term marratu, unlike tamtu, is often written with the ID determinative used for rivers and canals. This suggests that the marratu was thought to be a relatively narrow body of water rather than a boundless sea. On the map, the marratu is bounded on both sides by circles and, as drawn, is not much wider 9 See RGTe 8145. 10 RIA 8229 suggests

'Horn of the Sea' (i.e., [qa]-ra-[an tamti]) and a relationship between this term and the Sumerian equivalent si a.ab.ba in the writing of the Sumerian name of Borsippa (bad.sLa.ab.ba ki). The reference to A. L. Oppenheim, Dict. of Scientific Biography (= Oppenheim Man and Nature) in RIA 8229 should be to p. 655 n. 31.

31

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

The Map

than the Euphrates. This mistake in scale almost certainly reflects the crudity of the map rather than a belief that the world ocean was almost as narrow as a major river. Similarly, the fact that the lines marking the banks of the Euphrates touch the inner shore of the marratu need not necessarily mean that Mesopotamians thought that the Euphrates began at the cosmic sea.

The clearest example is found in a description of the empire that Marduk granted to Nebuchadnezzar:

30

The nagu The five triangular areas (nos. 18-22) radiating from the outer circle are identified as nagu. When complete, the map may have included as many as eight such nagu. The text on the reverse describes eight nagu, and there is room for additional missing nagu along the broken bottom edge of the map where Peiser drew two nagu in ZA 4 369. Nevertheless, it is not possible to correlate the surviving nagu on the map with those described on the reverse, and it cannot even be certain that the nagu described on the reverse are identical to those drawn on the map. On the reverse, the nagu are said to be seven leagues ina birit 'in between', but the nagu on the map itself are not equidistant from each other. The nagu on the map, however, are all equidistant from the coast of the continent so "seven leagues" may measure the distance across the marratu to the nagu, rather than the space between nagu. The Term nagfi in Assyrian and Babylonian Texts. In the first millennium, the geographic term nagu is common in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions, but rare in Late Babylonian royal inscriptions and literary texts. In Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions, nagu is generally used with a political nuance to refer to administrative districts or provinces. For example, Sargon II states that he conquered 430 cities belonging to seven nagu'districts' (TCL 3 66:422), and Sennacherib conquers the nagu 'province' of Judah (OIP 2 86:15).1l This Assyrian meaning of nagu is not appropriate for the World Map because there is no evidence that any Mesopotamian king conquered any of the nagu nor are the nagu across the marratu divided into political units. In Late Babylonian royal inscriptions, the term nagu is used for distant unspecified areas. This sense of the word is appropriate for the World Map. The term nagu survive~ five times in published Late Babylonian royal inscriptions: four times in the inscriptions of Nebuchadnezzar and once in those of Nabonidus. In three of the Nebuchadnezzar examples, the nagu are located ina qereb tamti 'in the sea', suggesting that these nagu are islands. 12 11 For other examples of nagil in Neo-Assyrian inscriptions, see CAD Nil 121-22 nagil A 1. For a possible Old Babylonian example of nagil, see A. Grayson and E. Soll-

berger, RA 70 115 L II 12'. 12 Oppenheim (Man and Nature 655 n. 36) connects this sense of nagil with an Aramaic cognate nagwan. For an equation between the nagil on the World Map with "the isles of nations" in Genesis 10:5, see W. Horowitz, VTSup 4135-43. MSL 1760 n. 74 no longer identifies eil and nagil as near synonyms in ErimlJ,us as in CAD I/J 317 eil. H. and ]. Lewy (HUCA 1712-13) argued that the nagil on the World Map are mountains rising

ku-ul-la-at ma- rti1-ta-an gi-mi-ir ka-la da-ad-mi ul-tu ti-a-am-tim e-litim a-di ti-a-am-tim sa-ap-li-tim matati (ma.da.ma.da) ru-qa-a-tim ni-si da-ad-mi ra-ap-sa-a-tim sarrani mes sa-di-i ne-su-tim it na-gi-i be-e-ru-tim sa qe-re-eb ti-a-am-tim e-li-tim it sa-ap-li-tim sa dmarduk be-li a-na sa-da-ad si-ir-di-Su Si-ra-at-si-na u-ma-al-lu-it qa-tu-u-a BE 111 85 ii 13-29 (VAB 4 146 ii 17-33) (cf. VAB 4 146 iii 2-148 iii 7; 206:17) All the lands, the entire inhabited world from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea, distant lands, the people of vast territories, kings of far away mountains and remote nagu in the Upper and Lower Sea, whose lead-rope Marduk, my lord, placed in my hand in order to pull his yoke. In the remaining Nebuchadnezzar inscription (CT 4645 v 23-24) and the Nabonidus inscription (c. J. Gadd, AnSt 8 52:20), nagu are also said to be distant (nesu), but it is not clear if they are located in the sea since both passages are broken. Further evidence for nagu as islands in the sea may be found in The Gilgamesh Epic where nagu emerge at the edge of the sea as the waters of the flood recede:

ap-pa-li-is kib-ra-a-ti pa-tu tamti(a.ab.ba) a-na 12 (var. 14)ta.am i-te-la-a na-gu-u a-na kurni-mus He-mid giselippu(m a) 13 sadu u kurni-mus giselippa i$-bat-ma a-na na-a-si ul id-din Gilg. XI 138-41 (Thompson Gilg. pI. 48) I scanned the regions at the edge of the sea. At (each) 12 (var. 14) a nagu appeared. After the ship put in at Mt. Nimus, the mountain Mt. Nimus held the boat fast, did not allow it to rock. In this passage, the nagu are the first outcroppings of dry land to emerge after the flood. These nagu, therefore, seem to be temporary islands surrounded by the receding waters of the flood. This meaning of nagu ('island') may also be found in three Neo-Assyrian passages. In parallel passages from the inscriptions of Assurbanipal, the newly discovered land of Lydia is described as anagu across the sea:

out of the sea drawn from a frontal view, rather than regions in the sea that are drawn from a bird's-eye view. 13 For the reading Nimus, see W. G. Lambert, RA 80 185-86.

32

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

The Text on the Obverse

mgu-ug_gu sar kurlu-ud-di na-gu-u sa ni-bir-ti tamti as-ru ru-u-qu sa sarranumes abemes-ia la is-mu-u zi-kir sumi-su VR 2 95-96 (Streck Asb. 20:95-96, cf. 166:13-14).

Two possible explanations for the statement that the Sun is not seen in this region also come to mind. First, the northern nagu may be a region of perpetual darkness. Comparable dark regions are found in Gilg. IX iv-v, where Gilgamesh follows the aarran dsamsi 'Path of the Sun' through total blackness, and in literary traditions concerning Sargon of Akkad. For instance, Sargon of Akkad traverses a dark region in an omen apodosis: 16

Gyges, the King of Lydia, a region across the sea, a place which the kings my fathers had not heard mention of. In a takultu-ritual, nagPanu (a plural of nagu) in the Upper and Lower Seas, as well as the Tigris River, appear to be islands: 14 ididiglat(bal.bal) a-na si-air-t[i-sa x x x x] it na-gi-a-nu rsa 1 [qe-reb-sa] tam-tum elitum(AN.TA) tam-t[um saplitum] tam-tum a-na si-air-[ti-sa x x x x ] it na-gi-a-nu sIal q[e-reb-sa] it tu-ub-qa-[at er-bet-ti x x x x ] KAR 214 rev. iii 18-23 (Frankena Takultu 26, collated) The Tigris in [her] entire[ty .... ], and the "islands" which [are inside it], The Upper Sea and [The Lower] Sera], The Sea in [its] entire[ty .... ] and the islands wh[ich are] in[side it] and the [four] corne[rs .... J The nagu on the World Map may also be islands, because they lie across the sea from the continent. Yet, this cannot be certain, since two sides of the nagu extend into an uncharted area. This uncharted space could represent a body of water, such as a portion of the tamtu beyond the marratu, the Apsu, or even the me midi 'waters of death' referred to in Gilg. X (see p. 103). However, it is also possible that this terra incognita is a distant land mass, or that the nagu extend over the far edge of the earth's surface. In the later case, a traveler crossing over the sides of the nagu beyond the cosmic ocean might fall directly into the Apsu or underworld. The Northern nagu (no. 18). The northern nagu (no. 18) is identified as 'Great Wall ... where the Sun is not seen'. This identification is obscure. 'Great Wall' may literally refer to an actual cosmic wall separating this nagu from some other cosmic region, or perhaps figuratively to a 'wall of mountains' located in part or all of the nagu. In Neo-Babylonian royal inscriptions, high city walls are often compared to mountains, so it is not impossible that Babylonians might likewise have thought of high mountains as a wall. 15 14 For this passage, cf. K. Deller et. aI., Or 56 180. The plural form nagi"anu may be compared to Ar,§lmaic nagwan (cf. VTSup 41 42). 15 See CAD S/1 36 sadanis; VAB 4 82 i 22, 90 ii 5-92 ii 9. For parallels, see Coo]2er Curse of Agade 42; SBH p. 99 53: 54-55; CT 15 11:11; PSD B 39-40 bads 1.1; CAD S/1 59 sadil A 4; and Angim 60:33, where Ninurta brings one of his creatures out of bad.gal gal kur.ra 'Great Wall of the Mountain'. For a possible parallel "Great Wall of Heaven

33

... a-mu-ut rsar-ru1-ki-in sa ek-le-tam ikli-ku-ma nu-ru-um V Scheil, RA 27149:16-17 u-$i-as-su-um ... the omen of Sargon, who went through the darkness and a light came out for him. Second, the missing northern nagu may be called 'a place where the Sun is not seen' because the Sun, when viewed from the latitude of Mesopotamia, never passes through the northern portion of the sky. North of the tropic of cancer, the Sun describes an arc in the southern sky throughout the entire year,l7 Thus, some Babylonians might have believed that the Sun never reached the northern skies because of the 'Great Wall'. In this case, however, the northern nagu need not necessarily be a land of everlasting night since sunlight could have entered the nagu from the south.

The Text on the Obverse The obverse preserves eleven lines of text. This text is difficult to interpret because the beginnings and ends of each line are missing and the opening portion of the obverse is almost completely lost. Nevertheless, a general concern with distant places and early times is discernible.

Obverse 1 '-2' The first two lines yield only the single phrase alanu abtutu 'ruined cities'. The adjective abtu, when applied to buildings, refers to old buildings that have fallen into disrepair (CAD All 67). Thus the 'ruined cities', as noted earlier, could be the ruins of. uninhabited ancient sites that could no longer be identified by name, such as the ovals labeled uru 'city' on the map (nos. 2, 11).

Obverse 3'-9' Lines 3'-9' provide information relating to the earliest of times, the era of creation. Lines 3'-4' parallel passages in Enuma Elish. The ruined gods in the sea in line 4' are probably to be identified with the creatures of Tiamat that and Earth' (BAD.AN.KI GAL-i) in lines 20, 30 of "The Sargon Legend;' see Horowitz, "The Great Wall of Sargon of Akkad;' forthcoming in NA.B.U 16 For Sargon of Akkad and the region of darkness, see J.-J. Glassner, RA 79 12224. For Gilgamesh ang the region of darkness, see pp. 98-100. 17 This interpretation is suggested by C. B. F. Walker in a brief British Museum leaflet.

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

The Text on the Obverse

Marduk defeats in Enuma Elish. In Ee VI 151-54, Marduk is praised by the name Asallubi-Namtila and hailed as the savior of these godS: 18

beings, the basrnu 'viper' and mustwssu rabu 'great sea-serpent', which live ina libbi 'inside', presumably inside the sea. Mythological basmu and mus/yussu are placed inside the sea in other works. Angimdimma 139 (Cooper Angim 80) compares a mace with the mus/yussu of the sea (mus.bus a.ab.ba = mus/yus tamtim), and the Labbu myth speaks of a 60-league-Iong fantastic basmu that was created in the sea:

34

dasal-lu-hi dnam-ti-la sa-nis im-bu-u ilu mus-nes-su . sa ki-ma~ bi-nu-ti-su-ma ik-si-ru ka-lu ilani ab-tu-ti be-lum sa ina sip-ti-Su el-le-ti u-bal-li-tu ilani mes mi-tu-ti mu-ab-bit eg-ru-ti za-J-i-ri i ni-Pu-da1 Ee VI 151-54 Asarlubi-Namtila, secondly they named him, the healing god, who mended all the ruined gods in accordance with its (the name's) structure. The Lord, who gave life to the dead gods by his holy incantation, who destroys wicked enemies, let us praise (him). In an inscription of Sennacherib listing elements of a relief depicting the battle in which Assur replaces Marduk, creatures of Tiamat are said to be inside the goddess, just as the 'ruined gods' are inside the sea in obv. 4':

[ti]-amat a-di nab-nit qer-bi-su Meissner-Rost Senn. pI. 16 edge 2 (OIP 2 142 b 2) (cf. OIP 2140:10-12) [Ti]amat together with the creatures inside her. An analogous tradition is preserved in The Babyloniaca of Berossus. Here, creatures are placed inside primeval water, which is later identified with the waters of the primeval Sea-goddess: They say there was a time when everything was darkness and water, within which monstruous beings lived, which were born alive having strange forms. F. Jacoby, FGrH 3/1 p. 370(6); (Burstein Berossus 14 2.1) Later, Marduk defeats the sea and splits it in half. Thus the sea in Berossus is to be identified with Tiamat, whom Marduk divides into two parts in Ee IV 137-38. Line three mentions Marduk and a bridge. This line can be compared with Ee VII 74-75, where Marduk as dsirsir crosses the sea during battle as if crossing a bridge:

sa ti-amat rapasta ta i-ti-ib-bi-ru uz-zu-us-su ki-i ti-tur-ri i-ti-it-ti-qu a-sar sa-as-me-sa

Ee VII 74-75

who crossed the broad sea in his fury, passed over its place of battle as if on a bridge. Lines 5-9 list animals, beasts, and fantastic creatures. These beings are divided into two groups. As preserved, the first group consists of only two 18

Cf. Erra HIe 32: ki

sa ila ab !(=*BA)-ta. ...

35

i-na tamti(a.ab.ba) ib-ba-ni musba-[as-mu] 1 su-si beru(danna) sa-kin u-rak-[su] KAR 6 21'-22' (cf. CT 13 33:5-12) 19 In the sea the vi[per] was created. [His] length was set at 60 leagues. The remaining beings are explained in line 9' as 'beasts which Marduk created on top of the restless sea'. This group consists of the the anzu 'fabulous eagle or winged horse',2o girtablullu 'scorpion-man', armu 'gazelle', $ab'itu 'gazelle', apsasu 'zebu, water buffalo',21 nimru 'panther', kusarikku 'bull-man', nesu 'lion', barbaru 'wolf', lulimu 'red-deer', bU$u 'hyena', pagu 'monkey', pagitu 'femalemonkey', tura/yu'ibex', lurmu 'ostrich', suranu 'cat', and /yurbabillu 'chameleon'. The statement that Marduk creates these animals 'on top of the sea' may be compared with the account of the creation of animals in The Bilingual Account of the Creation of the World by Marduk (CT 13 35-37 + dupl.). In this text, Marduk creates dry land on top of the sea by building a (reed-)raft (gidiri = amu) and pouring out dirt (CT 13 36:17-18). Then, in lines 20-22, Marduk creates mankind and the animals on dry land on top of the raft, which floats on the sea. Thus, in terms of the map, the two groups of animals may represent the sea-animals that inhabit the marratu and the animals that live above the sea on the continent and the nagu. On the reverse of the tablet (rev. 21'-23'), horned cattle run about on the seventh nagu. With the exception of the cat, all of the beings listed in lines 5'-8' were not common in Mesopotamia cities, although they were familiar to Mesopotamians from depictions and statues, literary works, and military campaigns in distant lands. For example, representations of the mus/yussu, apsasu, anzu, kusarikku, lion, ape, and monkey adorned the public buildings of Babylonia and Assyria;22 Assyrian kings brought home hyenas, panthers, red-deer, lions, For the Labbu myth, see T. Lewis, JAOS ll6 (1996) 28-47. For the anzu as winged horses in first-millennium materials, note KAR 307:25 (see SAA 3 100), where horses hitched to a chariot are mystically identified with anzu, and AfO 19 107:21, where the anzu-star is identified with the "Horse-star." Cf. A. George, RA 85 157 n. 122. 21 In the third millennium, at least, the apsasu (Sumerian ab.za.za) is a real animal that was imported to Mesopotamia from afar (Cooper Curse of Agade 50:21) and is probably to be identified with the Indian water buffalo (see R. M. Boehmer ZA 64 11-13) or the Indian zebu-bulL First-millennium apsasu, on the other hand, are mythological composite creatures that are often represented in palace reliefs (see CAD A/2 193-94), 22 Note for example, AKA 146:16-147:19; Borger Esarh. 61 15-21,87 rev. 4; Rost Tigl. III 76:29; TCL 3 58:379; Parpola SAA 1 77, 78, 140. See R. D. Barnett, Assyrian Palace Reliefs, 9, 33-34, for drawings of elephants and monkeys. 19

20

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

The Text on the Reverse

monkeys, ostriches, and gazelles with them from their campaigns;23 and the basmu, musl:Jussu, girtablullu, and kusarikku are listed among the eleven creatures of Tiamat in Enuma Elish (Ee I 141-46). These beings may have been considered the fauna of distant lands, and as such would have provided a tangible link with the faraway places on the map.24

underworld wear birdlike garments. However, the flood hero Utnapistim, who is granted eternal life, should not be placed in the underworld. If the phrase does not describe the heroes, it may refer back to a statement in the broken opening lines of the obverse. In this case, 'f... w]ings like a bird' could explain that the world map offers a view of the earth's surface that only birds or passengers on birds' wings could have seen. One such passenger could have been another third-millennium hero, Etana, who flies up into heaven on the back of an eagle in The Etana Epic. The possibility that obv. 11' refers back to the broken opening section finds support in the closing phrase manma qerebsina ul i [du]. This phrase includes a suffix that has no antecedent in the surviving text. It is possible that this missing antecedent is kibrat erbetti ('four quadrants of the earth's surface'), because the closing phrase of the obverse is repeated almost verbatim in rev. 27' after kibrat erbetti in rev. 26'.

36

Obverse 10' Line 10' continues the theme of distant lands and distant times, but is concerned with human beings rather than animals. The line lists three famous figures from the third millennium who are associated with far-away places: UtnapiStim, Sargon of Akkad, and Nur-Dagan. The first, Utnapistim, is the wellknown hero of the flood story that is incorporated into tablet eleven of The Gilgamesh Epic. In this account of the flood, Utnapistim is settled in the distant locale ina pi narati 'at the source of the rivers' as a reward for saving the human race (Gilg. XI 193-98). In the Sumerian flood story, the hero Ziusudra is settled in Dilmun (Lambert-Millard Atra-hasis 144:258-60). Both the home of Utnapistim and Dilmun (modern Bahrain), like the nagu, are located across the sea from Mesopotamia. The second figure, Sargon of Akkad, is the famous third-millennium king who was remembered as a conqueror of the entire world. In terms of the World Map, the empire of Sargon of Akkad would have included the entire central continent as well as the nagu across the marratu. The third figure, Nur-Dagan, the king of BursalJanda, is the antagonist of Sargon of Akkad in The Sar Taml:Jari Epic. The Amarna version of the epic (VS 12 193; EA 359) describes the long and arduous journey from Akkad to far away Bursahanda. 25

Obverse 11' The final line of the obverse preserves two phrases. The first, [... w]ings like a bird, may either describe the heroes in line 10' or serve some other function. In Descent of IStar 10 (Sladek ID 241) and Gilg. VII iv 38, the dead in the 23 Note, for example, AKA 89:5-90:6,141:19-25,201:41-203:46; KAH 84:126-27; and D. J. Wiseman, Iraq 14 34:97-100. For the propaganda value of these beings in royal monumental art, see S. Lieberman, RA 79 88, and M. Marcus, Iraq 49 77-90. 24 For additional literary examples of the beings listed in obv. 5'-8', note the anzu in Lugalbanda and the various recensions of The Anzu Myth. For the kusarikku in the sea in SB Anzu see JCS 31 92:12. Note also the girtablullu that live by Mt. Masu in Gilg. IX ii; and the hyena, panther, red-deer, lion, and ibex that are included among the bul nammasse $i?ri (herd animals of the steppe) in Gilg. VIII (see 0. R. Gurney, JCS 8 92:9-11). For kusarikku, see also M. de Jong-Ellis, Fest. Sjoberg 121-35. For muslJussu, see F. Wiggerman, RIA 8 455-62. See also the articles by Wiggerman and A. Green in RlA 8 222-64 (Mischwesen A, Bi" with bibliography. 25 For The Sar TamlJari Epic, see J. Westenholz, JAOS 103 329 5. For a recent study of BursahandalPuruslJanda, see A. Kempinski and S. Kosak, Tel Aviv 9 99-100.

37

The Text on the Reverse The reverse is divided into nine sections comprising 27 lines of text. Sections two through eight contain standardized descriptions of the second through eighth nagu. Each section opens with an introductory line that identifies the nagu by number and assigns a distance of seven leagues to the nagu with the phrase asar tallaku 'where you go'. A short passage describing the nagu then follows. These descriptions are limited to one or two lines, with the exception of the description of the fifth nagu, whiclioccupies eight lines. Only the descriptions of the third, fifth, seventh, and eighth nagu are even partially intelligible, due to breaks in the text. The first and ninth sections of the reverse do not describe nagu. The first section is almost completely lost, but the surviving traces suggest that it introduced the reverse and explained how to identify the first nagu. The word tabrati 'wonders' may be preserved in rev. 2'. The following deSCriptions of the nagu relate wondrous features, while rev. 3' 'great s[ea?' could refer to the cosmic ocean marratu on the map. Line 4', which may preserve the phrase ina erebfsu 'when he enters if, could have explained how to enter the map at the first nagu. Without an introduction of this sort, it is impossible to correlate the nagu on the map with the descriptions on the reverse. The ninth section (rev. 26'-27') apparently provides a summary of the reverse. This section refers to the kibrat erbetti 'four quadrants' (of the earth's surface).

The Third nagu (rev. 7'-8') The third nagu is described in rev. 8' as a place that winged birds cannot reach. This nagu may be a distant desert or a mountainous region. The inscriptions of Assurbanipal describe the desert area of Hararina and Ayalla as "a

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

38

place where there are no steppe animals and the bird of he~ven does not establish a nest" (Streck Asb. 70:87-88). In the inscriptions of Samsi-Adad V, three mountains in Na"iri are described as "hanging from heaven like a cloud which winged birds cannot pass" (I R 30 ii 47-49).26

The Fifth nagu (rev. 11 '-18') The description of the fifth nagu is by far the longest, but it is difficult to interpret due to the poor preservation of the tablet. Two possible interpretations of the fifth nagu derive from the ambigous writings MI.LD and ZI.ND in rev. 12' and 13'. First, the nagu may be a region of wondrous trees. If the word MI.LD is interpreted as meW 'height', then line 12' may explain that the nagu contained tall trees. Elsewhere, distant lands are noted for their unusual trees. Gilgamesh visits a grove of stone-bearing trees in Gilg. IX v-vi, and the Sumerian epic Gilgamesh and the Cedar Forest speaks of a larger-than-life forest. 27 If MI.LD refers to the height of trees, then ZI.ND in rev. 13' can represent the word zinu 'date frond', and damlsu'its blood' in rev. 14' can refer to the sap of the tree, since tree sap as well as animal blood is called damu. For instance, in Summa-Alu, a felled date-palm sheds its "blood":

summa gisgisimmara sap-lis tak-ki-is-ma da-mi iq-qi . .. CT 41 19:12 (cf. CAD D 79 damu d) If you cut a date-palm down and it sheds sap ... Further support for the identification of the fift~ nagu as a region of trees is found in rev. 16' "Youll go seven leagues." In The Sar TamlJari Epic, the road to Bursaganda is blocked by a seven-league region of forested mountains (VS 12 193:28-32). A possible verbal form, nillu 'which we climb', in rev. 15' may then refer to an ascent of tree-covered mountains or an attempt to climb the fantastic trees themselves. 28 Second, the nagu may be a region of high rainfall and flooding, because MI.LD could represent milu 'flood' and ZI.ND could represent zinnu 'rain'. It is difficult, however, to explain damu in this context. 29 The only clues that might help identify MI.LD and ZI.ND are the figures of 840 cubits and 120 cubits in rev. 12'-13'. These measurements, however, probably belong to the missing second halves of the lines, rather than to MI.LD and ZI.ND.

The Text on the Reverse

39

The Seventh nagu (rev. 21 '-23') The seventh nagu is described as the home of horned cattle. Horned cattle may have been included among the fauna of distant lands, together with many of the animals on the obverse. It is probable that rev. 23' 'move fast and reach' describes the horned cattle, although there may be room for a change of subject at the end of rev. 22'.

The Eighth nagu (rev.

24'-25~

The eighth nagu may be located in the far east, where the Sun rises. The verb in line 24', ti-se-J-ru, may be understood as a third-person feminine subjunctive present-future of scru 'to rise early', with an incorrect prefix ti/te9 for Babylonian dialect tao A reading te9 provides a possible Assyrian form, but the World Map is a Babylonian text (and copy). The noun lJanduru may refer to a gate of sunrise at the eastern end of the earth's surface, or to part of such a gate. The Sun, Moon, and stars often enter and leave the sky through heavenly gates (see pp. 265-67). Evidence associating lJanduru with gates is found in the inscriptions of Sennacherib and lexical lists. In a Sennacherib inscription, one of the western gates of Nineveh is named abullJanduri:

dsar-ur4 mu-sam-qit a-a-ab sarri abullJa-an-du-u-ri CT 26 32 viii 3 (OIP 2 113) "Sarur, destroyer of the enemy of the king;' (is the name of) the lJanduru-gate. In both Malku II and Explicit Malku III (ZA 43240:170; CT 18 3 ii 17), a near homonyn anduru is equated with daltu (door).3o However, there is no proof that anduru and lJanduru are related, and lJanduru in the gate-name may have nothing to do with the gate itself. Without the missing first part of the line, it is not possible to determine if su in lJandurisu refers back to the eighth nagu or to a different antecedent. Likewise, the last word u/sam-[x-xj may be a II- or III-stem main verb or a noun acting as the subject of tiscru. 31

The Ninth Section (rev. 26'-2n For similar phrases, see CAD S/I 52 sadil b); AKA 270 49; Streck Asb. 72:110, 204:11-12,31-32; TCL 316:98; E. Weidner, AfO 6 82:30. 27 For Gilgamesh and the Cedar Forest, see A. Shaffer, JAOS 103 307-1l. 28 Note also the seven mountains that Gilgamesh crosses in Gilgamesh and the Cedar Forest and the seven mountains that Lugalbanda crosses in Lugalb. 122:344. 29 Another possibility for rev. 15' is [us]nillu '[they l]aid (the dead) to rest' (see CAD Nil 206); this might be in some way related to 'blood' in rev. 14'. A further possibility would be to emend rev. 14' mi-lam!-mi-su ul im-mar'its (the Sun's) shine he does not see' and speculate that the fifth nagil is a region of darkness (for mi-lam-mu as the glow of the Sun, see BWL 126:11); in this case, the fifth nagil might be identified with the northern nagil on the map. 26

Reverse 26' refers to the kibrat erbetti 'four quadrants' of the earth's surface, but the complete phrase is missing due to a break. Peiser's early copy 30 The phonetic switch of a to l:J in opening syllables also occurs in words such as annilll:Jannil and ammull:Jammu. 31 The last word, if it is a noun, may be restored sam-[sa-tu] 'sun-[disk]', with the translation "where the sun-disk dawns at its entrance." For samsatu in astronomical contexts, see CAD SII 334 2 and SAA 8337. For the sun with the verb seru in the astronomical omen KUB 37 150:11, see CAD S/2 335 seru A C. A translation 'where storms whirl around?' from CAD S/2 259 seJeru may also be pOSSible.

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

Greek Maps and Babylonian Geometry

shows a full HI sign (..6~J after kal, instead of the single stroke (X) now preserved at the end of the line. This HI can be read sar or taken as the first half of 1M, allowing for three possible restorations:

rable maps during the middle of the first millennium. Herodotus (Book IV 36 of his history) refers to circular world maps before providing his own description of the inhabited world:

40

· .. kib-rat er-bet-ti sa kal kissati(sar) · .. four quadrants of the entire universe. · .. kib-rat er-bet-ti sa kal sa[re](I[M)mes] ... four quadrants of all the wi[nds.] · .. kib-rat er-bet-ti sa kal sa[r erbetti] ... four quadrants of all fo[ur winds.] Parallel passages where the 'four winds' refer to the entire earth's surface are found in Shamash Hymn 151-52 and The Tukulti-Ninurta Epic (Machinist TN Epic 66 LA 13'). Reverse 27' preserves the phrase qerebsina manma la idil 'which no one can comprehend'. The suffix sina here, as noted earlier, apparently refers back to kibrat erbetti in rev. 26'. Thus the closing section of the text seems to explain that the earth's surface extends for an incomprehensible distance to the north, south, east, and west of Babylonia.

The Babylonian Map of the World and Distant Places The emphasis on distant places in the texts accompanying the map sug. gests that the purpose of BM 92687 was to locate and describe distant regions. The map illustrated where these distant areas were located in relation to familiar locales, such as Babylon, Assyria, and the Euphrates. The obverse related these distant places to familiar literary figures and exotic animals, and the reverse described conditions in the far-away regions. The ancient author's interest in distant places reflects a general interest in distant areas during the first half of the first millennium, when the Assyrian and Babylonian empires reached their greatest extents. Other manifestations of this interest include the construction of kirimal:J,u 'botanical gardens', filled with the flora of distant lands in Assyria during the reigns of Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Assurbanipal;32 the aforementioned expedition of Shalmaneser III to the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates (Layard ICC 92: 92-93); and the writing of The Sargon Geography, a text purporting to describe the worldwide empire of Sargon of Akkad-all during this same period (see pp. 92-93).

The Babylonian Map of the World, Greek Maps, and Babylonian Geometry Although the Babylonian Map of the World is unique among cuneiform documents, there is textual evidence that Greek geographers developed compa32 For royal kirimill:;u, see CAD K 406; D. J Wiseman, in Monarchies and SocioReligious Traditions in the Ancient Near East (= Bulletin of the Middle-Eastern Cultural Center in Japan, Vol. 1 (1984) 37-43.

41

I laugh when I see so many men drawing maps of the Earth, as none till now have drawn reasonably, for they draw Oceanus flowing in a circle around the Earth as if drawn with a compass making Asia equal to Europe, but I myself will explain how big each of them is and how to draw them.

Unfortunately, none of the Greek maps dismissed by Herodotus have survived. One map that Herodotus may have seen was the map of Anaximander (610540), a disciple of Thales. This map and similar antique maps are discussed by the fourth century B.C.E. geographer Agathemenus: Anaximander, the Milesian, the disciple of Thales, was the first to draw the inhabited world on a tablet ... and the ancients drew the inhabited world as round and Greece lay in the middle, and Delphi (lay) in the middle of it for it is the umbilicus of the Earth ... and swift flowing Oceanus completed a circle around the Earth. C. Muller, Geographi Graeci Minores II 471-72 33

Both the Greek maps described by Herodotus and Anaximander and the Babylonian map on BM 92687 share a belief that the inhabited world was surrounded by water. In Greece, the cosmic ocean Oceanus, like the marratu on BM 92687, was believed to encircle the continental portion of the earth's surface. Both Homer and Hesiod indicate that Oceanus surrounded the inhabited world, and Strabo in Book I.l: 8 of his geography explicitly states that the inhabited world is an island encircled by Oceanus. 34 In Mesopotamian literature, one finds a parallel tradition in The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk (CT 13 35-37), which states that Marduk created dry land on a raft floating upon and surrounded by the cosmic sea (see pp. 130-31). Nonetheless, BM 92687 does not fully agree with the Greek traditions. First, the compass point at the center of the Greek maps is identified as Delphi, while the compass point on the Babylonian map is unlabeled. The city of Babylon is drawn as a rectangle above the compass point and thus cannot be considered the umbilicus of the Babylonian world. 35 Second, the Greek maps do not include any land areas beyond Oceanus that can be compared with the nagu on the Babylonian map. Another similarity between the Babylonian and Greek maps is the shared use of geometric shapes to represent topographic features. In the map of 33 Another early Greek map was the map that Aristagorous of Miletus brings to Sparta in Herodotus V:49. This map consists of "the entire world, entire sea, all the rivers" drawn on a bronze tablet. Later Greek world maps include the third century B.C.E. map of Eratosthenes that is described by Strabo (Book II.l 1); and the second century C.E. maps of Marinus of Tyre and Claudius Ptolemy (see E. L. Stevenson, ed., Geography of Claudius Ptolemy, The New York Public Library, New York, 1932). 34 Homer Iliad XVIII 607-8, XXI 195-96; Odyssey XI 13, XXIV 11-12; Hesiod Theogony 789-91; Shield of Heracles 314. See also Strabo Book I.l 3, where the geographer notes that Homer indicated that Oceanus encircled the inhabited world. 35 The indentification of Nippur and Babylon as 'bonds of heaven and earth' (dur. an.ki = markas same u er$eti) is never explicitly interpreted in Mesopotamian texts to mean that the cities are placed at the exact center of the earth's surface.

42

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

Anaximander, two concentric circles and the compass point represent the general outline of the earth's surface, with Delphi in the middle. On the Babylonian world map, various standard geometric shapes, including the kippatu 'circle', santakku 'triangle', naru 'river', nalbattu 'brick mold' (no. 13) and ini alpi 'eye of an ox' (no. 1)36 represent the various features of the earth's surface. These shapes are also found on BM 15285 (RA 54 132-33), an Old Babylonian tablet illustrating geometric problems, so it apppears that the author of the Babylonian world map was well versed in geometry. Two other Mesopotamian mathematical texts even include illustrations that are similar in design to the sketch on the world map. Bohl Collection 1821 (W, Leemans, CRRA1 2 31-35; A. Kilmer, Studies Oppenheim 142-43) presents a geometric problem concerned with a new residential area ringing an older city center. This problem is illustrated by two concentric circles, just as the continent and marratu, without the nagu, appear as two concentric circles on the map. A second text, BM 85194 i 37-52 (MKT II pI. 5; Studies Oppenheim 144) preserves three concentric circles that illustrate a geometric problem concerned with the area of a city ringed by a ditch and a dike. Another mathematical text even includes the geometric shape "circle in a circle" in a list of standard geometric functions:

ki-pa-tam i-na li-bu kip-pa-tim e-pe-sa-am ki-pa-t[ am] r al-na si-na at-he za-za-am e-pe-sa-am i-na li-bu na-al-ba-tim ki-pa-ta-am i-na li-bu ki-pa-tim na-al-ba-ta-am 1M 52916 rev. 18-21 (Sumer 7, third plate following p. 154) To make a circle inside a circle. To make the division of circle into two equal parts. (To make) a circle inside a brick-mold. (To make) a brick-mold inside a circle. Furthermore, the map and text on the reverse are similar in format to geometric problems that consist of diagrams and second-person procedural instructions. The map can be considered a diagram, and the text on the reverse repeats the phrase asar tallaku 'where you go'. Thus it is possible that geometric conventions, as well as cosmographic traditions, influenced the development of The Babylonian Map of the World. 36 For the geometric shape 'eye of an ox', see Sumer 7137:12. The shape of the region labeled mountain on the world map (no. 1) is identical to the shape of ox eyes on reliefs such as those in R. D. Barnett, Assyrian Palace Reliefs, pI. 36.

Chapter 3

The Flights of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens Introduction The Etana Epic tells the story of Etana, a king of Kish, who is described in The Sumerian King List as sipa lu an.se ba.ell.de 16 kur.kur mU.un. gi.na 'a shepherd who ascended to heaven, who organized the lands' (AS 11 80:16-18), 1 an eagle, and a snake. Near the end of the preserved portion of the text, Etana and the eagle fly up into heaven. The account of their flight provides information concerning the geography of the heavens and the appearance of the earth's surface when viewed from above. The Etana Epic is known from Old Babylonian recensions, from both Babylonia and Susa, and from Middle-Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian recensions. 2 1 This same tradition is also known from the bilingual myth of the "Seven Sages" (E. Reiner, Or n.s. 30 2:1'-4'); the Late Babylonian omen BRM 4 13:33: summa(BE) tfranu(sa.nigin) kima(gim) eri (tig)musen amat(BA)ut de-ta-na sarru sa ana same e elu (euJ U 'If the "coil" is like an eagle, it is the omen of Etana, the king who ascended to heaven'; and a passage in a poem about early rulers where Etana is identified as Entena: [me j.e men. te.n[a I uj gal.e I u an.se bi.in.e.de (Sumerian Version) B. Alster, ASJ 8 4 B II 4; Emar 767: 12 me.e men.t[e.na lugal.e lu.an.se bi.inj.rell1.[dje a-le-e m[e-ta-nja sa [a-na same e e-lu-uj (Bilingual Version) Emar 767:12 Where is Etana, the king, who ascended to heaven?

The poem about early rulers is at least as old as the Old Babylonian period (see M. Civil, Aula Orientalis 7 7 no. 767). For an etymology of the name of Etana, 'he who went up to heaven', see AS 11 80-81. 2 For the Akkadian "Series of Etana" in literary catalogues, see W,e. Lambert, JCS 16 66 VI 11; Kramer AV 314 K. 13684+ 5; Bezold Cat. 1627 20. Although no Sumerian examples of Etana have been identified, the story of Etana and the Eagle's flight to heaven, at least, must have circulated in the third millennium, because Etana's ascent to heaven is recorded in The Sumerian King List, and a hero (probably Etana) is drawn on an eagle's back in Old Akkadian cylinder seals (see n. 20). See also Kinnier Wilson Etana 27-28.

43

192 192

The Geography Geography of of the the Sky Sky The Month in in Month Mul-Apin Mul-Apin Nisan Nisan Iyar Tyar Sivan Sivan Tammuz Tammuz Ab Ab Elul Elul Tisreh Tisreh Arahsamnu Arahsamnu Kislev Kislev Tebet Tebet Shevat Shevat Adar

Minasfor for Day Day Hours Hours Minas 3,00 3,20 3,40 4,00 3,40 3,20 3,00 2,40 2,20 2,00 2,20 2,40

Degrees Degrees

Chapter Chapter 88

180 200 220 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 140 160

horizon to to horizon horizon at at the the equinoxes. equinoxes. However, However, on on all all other other days days during during the the year, year, horizon the day day and and night portions portions of of the the circle circle would not be be equal. equal. For example, example, acacthe cording to to this this model, model, at at the the winter solstice, solstice, the the Sun Sun would would be be visible visible above above the the cording horizon for for only only one-third one-third of its its path (2,0 (2,Ous US == 120°), 120°),but invisible invisible below below the the hohohorizon rizon for for two-thirds two-thirds of its its path (4,0 (4,O us US == 240°). 240").At At this this time, time, circumpolar circumpolar stars stars rizon be visible visible at at night night for for two-thirds two-thirds of of their path at at the the winter solstice, solstice, but would be 61 It is only one-third one-third of their path at at the the summer summer solstice. solstice.61 is not clear, clear, however, however, only mechanics of such such a system system would have worked. worked. how the mechanics

BagM. BagM. Beih. Beih. 2 no. no. 98 98 and and the the Compass Compass Points Points

BagM BagM Beih. Beih. 22 no. no. 98 98 (W.20030/121) (W.20030/121)preserves aa small small flake flake in in Late Late BabyBabylonian lonian script script from from the the Res Re5 Temple Temple in in Uruk Uruk that may may shed shed some some light light on on MesoMesopotamian potamian ideas ideas of of the the shape shape and and orientation of of the the heavens heavens and and earth's earth's surface. surface. When When complete, complete, the the text text included aa diagram diagram that that apparently apparently consisted consisted of of aa circle circle enclosing enclosing aa squarecontaining square containing four four triangles. triangles. Only Only about about one-half one-half of the the diagram diagram remains, remains, including including two two triangles triangles and and slightly slightly less less than than half of the the square square and circle. circle.

Edition 61 By the first first millennium, Mesopotamian Mesopotamian astronomers astronomers had already recognized recognized that 61 the 4 :: 2 2 : 4 ratio ratio between day day and night hours hours was false, false, and a better approximation approximation 3, was estabestabfor the differential between day and night hours hours at the solstices, solstices, 3 : 2 2 : 3, for 0. Neugebauer, Neugebauer, Isis Isis 37 37 38; 38; Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin Mul-Apin 153-54). 153-54). For previous previous lished (see (see 0. 'Rstrolabes" and Mulstudies on the numbering system system for for day and night hours hours in the "Astrolabes" studies Apin,see 0. 0. Neugebauer Isis Isis 37 37 40; 40; Weidner Gestirn-Darstellungen 19-20; F. F. RochbergRochbergApin, Centaurus 32 32 150-51; A. A. George, George, AfO AfO 38/39 38/39 52-73; and see see n. n. 57 57 above. above. Note Halton, Centaurus Halton, E. Weidner (HBA (HBA 65-76) and T. T. Pinches Pinches (JRAS (JRAS 1900 1900 573-75) previously previously understood that E. 60. circular-Astrolabes as as units of 60. the numerals on the circular-Astrolabes

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

IMG~~IU IMUIUlu Southwind Southwind Sunrise $'lt Sunrise sit dsamsi(du dgamSi( d tu.e) t~u .6 ) 1Mamurru(mar.dli) Westwind Westwind ~ ~ a m u r r ua( r. md 6 ) [iH]u U41 14 [is-t]uituaddari(se.kin) itUaddari( S e .k i n) rru2 14 a-di a-di [itU]simäni(sig simani (si g,) u,4 55 IM IM SLSI.IK.TUM SI.SI.IK.TUM 4) U [Fro]m [Frolm the 14th 14th of Adar to to the the 5th of Sivan, Sivan, a ... . . . wind. wind. k [am]/zA is-tu is'-tu itusimäni itusimctniU u,4 [6] [6] a-di a-di ituululi(kin.rinninP.na) ituuliili(kin.'i n n i n!'. n a) [u [u,4 .. (( .. . . )])] IM IM 4 4k[am] /ZA

rtU]

x [( . 11 From the [6th] .. [([( .. [Bth] of Sivan Sivan to the [[.... . .]] of Elul, a ... . . . -wind -wind.. . . )] Ocean? Ocean? ... . . . ] id?[mar-ra-tum? 'd?[mar-ra-tum?... ... [Eastwind] [Eastwind] [Sunset] [Sunset] [Northwind] [Northwind] [From [From the ... . . . of Elul to the ... . . . of Kislev, Kislev, a ... , . . wind.] wind.] ... of Kislev to the 13th of Adar, a ... wind.] [From the ... 13th , . . wind.] [From X [( .. )]

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

193

194

Beih. 2 no. 98 and and the Compass Points BagM. Beilz.

-

--....

Winds and and Compass Point Directions Directions iinn Ancient Ancient Mesopotamia

\

........ \

5. From the [6th] of Sivan to the [ .... . .] of Elul, a .... . . wind, [( .... )]

\ "-

\ "-

\ "-

\ "-

"- \

\

\

\

I I

\

"

\

Cl

8. 3

\

A~

\

~ I::': Sllo

I

?J ::l

cn

Cir$" CD'

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m. I ~s: I :'rö 85' I CD

___ \ / ~vl / q,-Q;'? \ /~"" I ~~. I ------_J /

-- --

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----

/'

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/

195

EluI, which is summer (no. (no. 5).l 5).1 Thus side deals with the period from Sivan to Elul, of the square apparently represents one of of the four seasons, and each each side of season is assigned a characteristic wind. Traces of of a sign (no. (no. 6) are also found beyond the circle that encloses the square. The significance of of the diagram is difficult to determine. No accompanying available, and it is explanatory text, such as that found with the World Map, is available, of the text is missing, not certain how much of missing, because the flake does not preserve any edge or provide an indication of of the thickness of of the original tablet. It is not even certain where the top of of the diagram is. iso The surviving text is symmetrical, symmetrical, with the bases of of all signs drawn toward the center of of the diagram. diagram. Thus, the diagram in its present form has no top or bottom. bottom. Furthermore, the diagram need not be aligned according to the north-south axis used on most modern maps; there is no such convention in ancient maps. maps. For example, the Map of of the World and a late third-millennium map of of Nippur Nippur (S. (S. N. Kramer FTS2 FTS2 274) 274) are of the Euphrates, and an Old AkkadianAkkadiandrawn along axes following the course of 2 .~ (HSS 10 "westwind" at the b bottom. period map from Nuzi (HSS 10 1) 1) is drawn with "westwind ~ttom Despite these uncertainties, it seems likely that the diagram was meant to of variables: variables: those placed inside the square (sunrise, (sunrise, correlate at least two sets of sunset, north, south, east, and west winds), winds), and those placed outside the square winds). Before examining this (the seasons seasons of of the year, with their characteristic winds). (the hypothesis further, it is first necessary to consider how ancient Mesopotamians Mesopotamians identified the four compass-point directions and to examine BagM Beih. Beih. 2 no. no. 98 in greater detail. detail.

/ /

/

/

_/'"

BagM. Beih. Beih. 2 no. no. 98 seems to correlate the positions The diagram on BagM. positions of sunset, and the seasons seasons of the year. year. the four winds, wi~ds,. the locations of sunrise and sunset, within the square square preserves two triangles that are labeled "South"SouthThe area wühm w i n d (no. (no. 1) 1) and "Westwind" 'Westwind (no. (no. 3), 3), with the space space between them labeled wind" (no.2). 2). Based on this pattern, it may be surmised that the missing half "Sunrise" (no. (no. 9) 9) and "Eastwind" "Eastwind of the square preserved triangles labeled "Northwind" (no. (no. ~), 7), with the space space between these triangles labeled "Sunset" (no. (no. 8). 8). Along (no. the sldes sides of the square, square, between the square and the circle, circle, two short inscripinscript?e tions are preserved. Periods of approximately approximately three months are listed, listed, with hons descriptions of winds. winds. One side side deals with the what appear to be names or descriptions from Adar to Sivan, Sivan, which is the spring season (no. (no. 4), 4), and the second period from

Winds Winds and Compass Compass Point Directions in Ancient Mesopotamia Mesopotamians possessed no reliable method for determining Ancient Mesopotamians due north, south, west. Modern compasses were not invented until south, east, east, and west. approximately approximately 1000 1000 GE., c.E., and the modern North Star (Polaris) (Polaris) was more than 12° 12" south of due north during antiquity.3 antiquity3 Therefore, other less reliable indicaindicators were used to determine the approximate locations of the four compass points. These indicators included the Sun, points. Sun, winds, and stars. stars.

1 The total total number of days days in No. No. 4, from from the 14th 14th of Adar to the 5th of Sivan, Sivan, is 80 80 days days in an ideal 360-day calendar of twelve 30-day months. months. No reason for aperiod a period of 80 80 days days is clear, clear, but the number of days days in No. No. 4 may be compared with aperiod a period of 160 160 days days (twice (twice 80) 80) in a first-millennium first-millennium religious-mystical text (see (see Livingstone Livingstone 256-57 256-57 BM 34035 34035 50-53 and cf. cf. ibid., ibid., 255 255 BM 34035 34035 1-8). 1-8). 2 For Neo-Babylonian Neo-Babylonian field field plans with cardinal points other than north at the top, top, see Nemet-Nejat Nemet-Nejat LB LB Field Plans 373-74 Table IVB. IVB. For related tables, tables, see Nemet-Nejat Nemet-Nejat LB 375-81. For the Nuzi map, see Frayne, AOS 74 81-82. LB Field Plans 371-72, 371-72,375-81. S Hipparchus states that Polaris 12;" south south of due north in his time Polaris was situated 12~o (second B.c.E.). See See the Geography Geography of Ptolemy Ptolemy i.7.4 i.7.4 (E. (E. L. L. Stevenson, Stevenson, The The GeograGeogra(second century B.C.E.). of Claudius Claudius Ptolemy, Ptolemy, p. p. 30). 30). phy oi

196

BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 and the Compass Cornpass Points Points

Winds Winds and and Compass Cornpass Point Point Directions Directions in in Ancient Ancient Mesopotamia Mesopotarnia

'*

197 197

pn " r'fI"i'i'i.i>

The Sun Numerous Sumerian and Akkadian texts use the terms "sunrise" and "sunw e ~ t "This . ~ is not surprising, because the sun rises set" as terms for "east" and ""west".4 each day in the east and sets in the west, but only on the first days of of Spring and Autumn does the sun actually rise and set due east and west. During the Spring and Summer months, the sun actually actually rises and sets north of due east and west. Conversely, in the Autumn and Winter, the sun rises and sets south of Conversely, of due east and west. west. Tbe The maximum deviation of the locations of sunrise and sunset from locations due east and west oeeurs occurs at the Summer and Winter solstices. solstices. At the latitude of Babylon, the Sun appears appears to rise and set approximately approximately 30° 30" north of due east on Babyion, the first first day of Summer, and 30° 30" south of due due east on the first first day of Winter. Winter.5 5 Sunset Summer Solstice Solstice

N

Sunrise Sunrise

I

Summer Solstice Solstice Summer

w ------~~-r~~4_~--------E Sunset Sunset / \ Sunrise Winter Winter Solstice Solstice

I

winter Solstice Solstice Winter

SS These variations variations were were recognized recognized by by Mesopotamian Mesopotamian astronomers. astronomers.A A Mul-Apin Mul-Apin These fragment explains explains that that the the sun sun spends spends different differentseasons seasonsof of the the vear year in in different different fragment paths of of the the sky sky (seep.p. 173), 173),and and Mul-Apin Mul-ApinII I1states states that that the the S~n Sun moves moves toward toward paths the south south after after the the Summer Summer solstice solstice (II (I1ii 11-13) 11-13) and and toward toward the the north north after after the the the Winter Winter solstice solstice (ll (I1ii 17-18). 17-18). The The Winds Winds

Thenorthwest-southeast northwest-southeastmountain mountain ranges rangeseast eastof of Iraq Iraq influence influencethe thewinds winds The of Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia As As aa result, result,the the prevailing prevailing winds winds are arenorthwest northwest and and southeast southeast of winds,rather rather than than true true north, north,south, south,east, east,and and west west winds. winds. winds, Ancient Mesopotamians, Mesopotamians,like like ourselves, ourselves,reeognized recognized four four primary primary winds winds Aneient (north,south, south,east, east,and and west), west),and and assigned assignedthe the names names of of the thefour fourwinds winds totothe the (north, four eompass compass points. points. In In Sumerian, Sumerian, north north isis called called IMsLsa IMsi.sBor or IMmir IMmir,south south isis four called 1Millu, IMiilu,east east isis ealled called IMkur.ra, IMkur.ra,and and west west isis called called IMmar.du. IMmar.d-G. The signifisignifiThe ealled Forexamples examplesoE of ereb erebdsamJi dSamSiand and§1ft sitdsamsi dSamSiused usedasastenns termsfor for'east' 'east'and and'west' 'west',see see 4 For CAD ' 258-59 and andCAD CADSS216-17 216-17. CADEE258-59 Seet;1eteorologicaf MeteorologicalOffice Office(U.K.), (U.K.),Observer's Observer'sHandbook,2 Handbook: p.p.155 155(bottom (bottomdiagram) diagram), 5 See where,the thedlstance distancebetween betweenthe thepositions positionsofof sunrise sunriseand andsunset sunsetand andduc dueeast eastand andwest' west, where 34"Non onlune June22, 22,isisjust justunder under30 30".The Thesun sunrises risesand andsets setsslightly slightlyneare~ nearer latitudeofof 34°N atataalatitude (32O30'N).For Forthe thetirnes timesofof sunrise sunriseand and due:ast east.and andwest westatatthe thelatitude latitudeofof Babyion Babylon(32°30'N). totodue LAS22408-9. 408-9. sunsetminNmeveh Ninevehand andAssur, Assur,see seeParpola ParpolaLAS sunset 0

•

winds cance b t and eance of of the the names names for for the the eE\2iSt and winds is 1S certain. certain. The The name name of of the the east east wind, to the the mountains mountains east east and and northeast northeast of of wind, IMkur.ra IMkur.ra 'mountain 'mountain wind' wind' refers refers to Mesopotamia. IMm ar. d U, bears the name of of the Amorites, who Mesopotamia. The west wind, IMmar.dL, arrived from the west In Akkadian, Akkadian, arrived in in Mesopotamia Mesopotamiafrom west in in the the third third millennium.' millennium. 6 In the names of these two winds, IMSad.ii IMsadil and IMamurru, IMarnurru, are exact exaet equivalents of of namescof the Sumerian names. names. the Sumerian The derivations of Sumerian names of the south winds The derivations of the the Sumerian names of the north north and and south winds and and the corresponding IMiltanuFMiStlinu and IMStitu, cerL"dsiltu, are less cereorresponding Akkadian names 1MiltänujIMiStänu tain. IMsi .s B 'appropriate/straight i .s B == esem) eSGrui, tain. Sumerian 'north wind', IMsi.sa 'appropriatefstraight wind' (s (si.sa may the fact fact that that the most eommon common wind wind in in Mesopotamia from may reflect reflect the the most Mesopotamia blows blows from the northwest. northwest. Akkadian Akkadian 1Miltanu!JMistänu lMilt~nu/lMiStdnu same word as a homohomomay be the same the nym meaning meaning 'the 'the number number one' one' (see (see CAD CAD IIJ IIJ 275). 275). However, However, there there is is evidenee evidence nym that the the south south wind wind was was considered considered to to be be the the "first" "first" wind, wind, followed followed in in order order of of that priority by by the the north, north, east, east, and and west west winds. winds Thewinds The winds are are listed listed in in this this order order in in priority ErimbuS II 1182-85 (MSL (MSL 1730-31), 17 30-311, Emar 5761'-4', 576 1'-4, and a passage in The The PracPracErimbus tical Vocabulary Vocabulary of of Assur Assur (AfO (AfO 18 18 334: 334: 841-44) that ean can be restored on on the the twal basis of of KAN KAV 81: 81:7 7 basis IM.~ IM.l 1M.2 IM.2 1M.3 IM.3 IM.~ IM.4

SU-U-tu su-u-tu [ill-ta-nu [i]l-ta-nu = sa-du-u Sa-du-u = r'a1-mur-ru al-rnur-ru

= =

'south wind' wind' 'south 'north wind' wind' 'north 'east wind' wind' 'east 'west wind' wind' 'west

Ancient Mesopotamians Mesopotamians (like (like ourselves) ourselves) named named the the winds winds for for their their orioriAneient (i.e.,aa gins, rather rather than than the the direction direction toward toward which which the the winds winds were were blowing blowing (i.e., gins, north wind wind has has its its origin origin in in the the north north and and blows blows southward). southward). This This isis demondemonnorth strated by by the the story story of of the the violent violent southwind southwind sütu Stitu that that sinks sinks the the boat boat of of Adapa Adapa strated in The Adapa Epic: in The Adapa Epic: be-lia-na a-na bi-it bi-it be-lC-ia be-li-ia be-li i-naqa-a-ab-la-at qa-a-ab-la-atta-am-ti ta-am-tinu-ni nu-nia-ba-ar a-ba-ar i-na ta-am-ta i-na rne-se-li mk-Se-liim-si-il-rna im-Si-il-ma ta-arn-tai-na Su-u-tu i-zi-qa-am-ma ia-a-Siut-te-eb-ba-an-ni ucte-eb-ba-an-ni su-u-tu i-zi-qa-am-rna ia-a-si [i-n]abi-it bi-itnu-ni nu-niul-ta-arn-$i-il ul-ta-am-si-il [i.-n]a i-na ug-ga-at li-ib-bi-ia [Su-t]aat-ta-za-ar at-ta-za-ar i-na ug-ga-at li-ib-bHa [su-tJa (Picchioni Adapa 118:62-67, 118:62-67,cf. cf.114 114BB 1-6) 1-6) (Picchioni Adapa Mylord, lord,for forthe the house house of of my my lord lord My I was catching fish in the midst of thesea. sea. I was eatching fish in thc midst of Thesea seawas waslike likeaamirror mirrorthen then the south wind blew and sank me. the south wind blew and sank me. Thetenn termrnar.du mar.dhfirst firstoccurs occursinintara Faratexts texts(see (seeRGTC RGTC11115). 115).For Forthe thehomeland homeland 6 The theAmorites AmoritesininSyria, Syria,see, see,for forexarnple, example,Buccellati BuccellatiAmorites Amorites235-37. 235-37. ofof the SS186, 86,Kagal KagalDDSection Section11 Notealso alsothe thepartially partiallypreserved preservedlist listofof winds windsininMSL MSLSSI 7 Note 244),and andMSL MSL1744 17 44RS RS25.425 25.42510'-17'. 10'-17'. (MSL13 13244), (MSL

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BagM. Beih. Beih. 2 no. 98 BagM. 98 and the Compass Compass Points

198 198

I spent the night [i]n [i]n the "house of fish." fish." [south wi]nd. In my anger I cursed the [south wilnd.

Winds and Compass Mesopotamia Compass Point Directions in Ancient Mesopotamia

199 199

In order for you to observe the departure of the winds: Ursa Major lies across the rising of the north wind, 69. Piscis Austrinuslies Austrinus lies across the rising of the south wind, Scorpio Scorpio lies 69. across the rising of the west wind, 70. Perseus and the Pleiades stand at the rising of the east wind, 70. 71. on the day of your observation, observation, the stars will tell you which wind is 71. blowing. blowing. The correlations correlations between stars and winds in this passage are reasonably accuaccurate. rate. Ursa Major is a northern star, Piscis Austrinus is a southern star, star, and ScorScorpio and the Pleiades are said to be located across from each other at the eastern and western ends of heaven in Mul-Apin Mul-Apin 1: I: 68. 68.

Mesopotamia is a calm southeast wind, The common south wind in southern Mesopotamia but a strong, strong, violent southwest suhaili wind also occurs, occurs, bringing clouds, clouds, rain, and fog fog in its wake. wake. This southwest wind from from the gulf poses a danger to small sütu '(ancient) craft on the Persian Gulf, Gulf, such as the boat of Adapa. Adapa. Thus Siitu '(ancient) south' 8 must include modern southwest or be equivalent to modern southwest. southwest.* As of yet, no ancient device device to determine the directions of winds has been identified. identified. However, However, an obscure passage from "The Fable of the Willow" may refer to a weather vane of some sort that was placed on roofs or aboard ships: ships: a-na Su-zu-ub su-zu-ub u-ri sa-kin x [ ... zi-ri Sa-kin ... ki-ma zu-"u-na-at xx [ ... ki-ma ki-li-li ki-li-li ekallu zu-'u-nu-at ... [i].?'-$ur sa-a-ri ana mas-tak %ri säri i-na-ta-lu [i]s-~ur Sa-a-ri i-nu-ta-lu [x] malätm(ma.lag4) [ x ] x [x] [ x ] f'ee llil '"mahbu(m a.1ab,) i-za-bi-la i-za-bi-la [ ... ... BWL 166:11-14 166:ll-14 [ ... . . . ] . is placed to save save the roof. roof. Like a headband, the temple is adorned with [ ... ... They look at the "[b]ird "[blird of the wind" w i n d to test the wind. .... . . . . the sailor carries [ ... ... The 'bird of the wind' in this context may be compared with the rooster that sits atop many modern weather vanes. vanesg9 The The Stars Although no single star, such as the modern pole-star Polaris, Polaris, served as an iildicator indicator of the compass-point compass-point directions in ancient Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, it is clear that Mesopotamians Mesopotamians did use combinations combinations of stars and constellations constellations to deterdeterlocations of north, south, south, east, east, and west. west. One section section of Mul-Apin II mine the locations I1 even explains how to determine all four compass points by observing the stars: stars: 68. sum-ma mU-$e-e säri mes 68. Sum-ma mu-se-e Sari """nuana amäri(igi.la)-ka amari (ig i .l8)-ka mulmar.gid.da ""'mar. g i d .d a ina tib(zi) park[a]t([g] b) [ap tib (zi) 1Miltäni IMiltani(si.sa) (si.s 8) park[a] t ( k ]i b) ["It 69. mulkus IMamurri(mar.du) ""'k u, ina tib IMsüti(iilu)lu IMSiiti(G lu)lu parik mUlgir.tab ""'g i r.t a b ina tib IMamurri (mar.d 6) 69. park[a]t["p park [a]tr] mes z[u] 70. mUlsu.gi IMsadi(kur.ra) izzazzü ""'Su.gi U u mul.mul mul.mu1 ina tib IMSadz*(kur.ra) izzazziimes zp] 70. ku kakkabänu mes 71. ina uu4-me -me ma$$arti(en.nun)-ka sära sa illaku 71. massarti (e n. n u n) -ka Sara $4 ilLakuku kakkabanumes 4 u-kal-la-mu-k[a] 6-kal-la-mu-k[a] Mul-Apin Mul-Apin II I1 i 68-71 (Hunger (Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin Mul-Apin 87)10 87) 8 Note also also G. Roux, Roux, RA R4 5515-20, 55 15-20, and Gudea Cudea Cyl. Cyl. A xi 19-23, where the northwind (1M m ir) dwells in the mountains "north" fMmir) "north of Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia. Mountains are found both northeast and northwest of Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia. 9 For the winds in Mesopotamia, R. Englund, JESHO 31 31 166 166 n. 37. 37. For Mesopotamia, see further R. J. de Roos, Roos, Journal of Ancient Civilizations a study of wind directions in Hittite texts, see J. 5 (1990) (1990) 87-96. 10 For this passage, passage, see more recently.J recent1y.J. Koch, Koch, AfO 42/43 42/43 155-62.

mul.mul inappal;(kur)-ma inappah(kur)-mamUlgir.tab ""'gir. t a b irabbi(su)bi ir~bbi(S6)~' mUlgir.tab (ku r)-ma mul.mul ""'gir.tab inappal; inappab(kur)-ma mul.mu1 irabbi(su)bi ir~bbi(S6)~' Mul-Apin I iii 13-14 (Hunger (Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 47) 47) The Pleiades rise when Scorpio Scorpio sets. sets. Scorpio Scorpio rises when the Pleiades set. set. Thus for a time each year, the Pleiades would rise at the eastern horizon while Scorpio horizon, when Ursa Major and Piscis AustriScorpio was setting at the western horizon, nus were to be found in the northern and southern quadrants quadrants of the sky. sky MulApin I identifies identifies this time of year as the beginning of Iyar: Iyar: ina itu a iari(gu ituaiari (gu,)4 ) uu,4 1kam kam mul.mul m u 1.mu 1 innammar(igi.la) innammar (ig i .18) Mul-Apin Mul-Apin I ii 38 (Hunger (Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 40) 40) On the 1st 1st of Iyar, the Pleiades are seen. seen. The first first of Iyar occurs occurs just after the Spring equinox on the 15th of Nisan in Mul-Apin (see Mul-Apin (see Mul-Apin II I1 i 19-21), so sunrise and sunset on this day would be very close to due east and west. west. Nevertheless, west in Mul-Apin II I1 i 69 seems to be southwest rather than due west, because Scorpio Scorpio is an Ea-star (southern (southern star) star) in Mul-Apin Mul-Apin I ii 29 rather than an equatorial Anu-star, Anu-star, as is the Pleiades in Mul-Apin I i 44. Adapa), ( 44. This demonstrates that "west;' "west:' as weH well as "south" "south (as (as in Adapa), includes southwest. E. Weidner recognized recognized in AfO 7 271, 271, each comcomsouthwest. Thus, as E. pass-point direction in Mesopotamia Mesopotamia included a range of 90°, 90°, with "north" "north inincluding areas from from northeast to northwest, "south" "south areas from southeast to southwest, southwest, "east" areas from northeast to southeast, southeast, and "west" areas from northwest to southwest (see p. 200).11 (see diagram, diagram, p. 200).11 11 l' For similar models of winds and compass compass points in astrology, astrology, see Parpola LAS 2 406-7; 406-7; AfO Beih. Beih. 22 53-54. Note in this context a south(-east) south(-east) wind in an astronomical diary: diary: 1 sd fULU lii~ul Sd ana am KUR $al-pu sal-pu illiku(du) illiku(du) Sachs-Hunger Diaries I p. p. 164 164 -333: -333: 8

a south wind which slants to the east blew. blew.

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In addition addition to to the the position position of of the the sun, sun,the the winds, winds,and and the the stars, stars,topographic topographic In features also also seem seem to to have have influenced influenced Mesopotamian Mesopotamian conceptions conceptions of of the the comcomfeatures pass points. points. The The name name of of the the east east wind, wind, 'mountain 'mountain wind', wind', points points to to the the role role of of pass the mountains mountains in in Mesopotamian Mesopotamian conceptions conceptions of of 'east'. 'east'. Similarly, Similarly,identifications identifications the of the the Persian Persian Gulf Gulf an~ and Mediterranean Mediterranean as as seas seas of of sunrise sunrise and and sunset, sunset, in in pas"~ pas of sages such as the following excerpt from a Sennacherib inscription, suggest that sages suc~ as the follo,:"mg excerpt from a Sennacherib inscription, suggest that these bodtes bodies of of water water mfluenced influenced Mesopotamian Mesopotamian views views of of "east" "east" and and "west": "west":12l2 these

u 1-tutamti(a.ab.ba) tcimti (a.a b .b a) e-li-ni-ti e-li-ni-tisa 5a sa-lam 5a-lamdsamsisi d5am5i;iia-di a-di tam-tim tam-tim ul-tu .$-itdsamsisi dSam5iii"i gim-ri !$al-mat ~al-mat q a q q a d i ( s ~ ~ .u-sak-nis u-5ak-ni5 ~u) gap-li-ti sa 5a !$i-it gim-ri qaqqadi(SAGDU) sap-li-ti se-pu-u-a OIP OIP 22 163 163 ii 13-15 13-15 (OIP (OIP 22 23) 23)

This This restoration restoration isis problematic problematic because because itit results results in in the the sun sun rising rising in in the the west west and and setting setting in in the the east! east!ItIt isis suggested suggested in in the the catalogue catalogue of of BagM BagM Beih. Beih.22 (pp. (pp.202021) 21) that that the the labels labels attached attached to to the the triangles triangles reflect reflect the the ultimate ultimate destinations destinations of of the the winds winds rather rather than than their their points points of of origin. origin. If If so, so, the the south south and and west west winds winds would would originate originate in in the the north north and and east. east.Yet, Yet, as as noted noted earlier, earlier, there there isis no no evidence evidence that that winds winds were were named named for for the the direction direction they they are are blowing blowing toward toward in in MesopotaMesopotamian mian texts, texts, while while Adapa Adapa clearly clearly identifies identifies aa wind wind blowing blowing from from the the southwest southwest as as sütu 5ittu 'southwind'. 'southwind'.Two Two possible possible explanations explanations for for the the impossible impossible placement placement of of 'sunrise' 'sunrise' remain. remain. First, First, itit is is possible possible that that 'sunrise' 'sunrise' and and 'sunset' 'sunset' have have been been switched switched on on BagM BagM Beih. Beih.22 no. no.98 98 as as the the result result of of aa scribal scribal error. error.Switching Switching'sun'sunrise' rise' and and 'sunset' 'sunset' yields yields the the same same result result as as placing placing the the south south and and west west winds winds in in the 13 the north north and and east: east:13 BagM BagM Beih. Beih. 22 98 98

From the the Upper Upper Sea Sea of of the the setting setting sun sun to to the the Lower Lower Sea Sea of of the the rising rising From sun I made all of the human race submit at my feet. sun I made all of the human race submit at my feet. The head head of of the the Persian Persian Gulf Gulf is is in in actuality actuality southeast southeast of of Babylonia Babylonia and and Assyria, Assyria, The rather than than due due east, east, providing providing further further indication indication that that 'east' 'east' includes includes aa range range of of rather 90" from from northeast northeast to to southeast. southeast.The The Mediterranean Mediterranean coast coast is is reached reached by by traveltraveling north north and and then then west west from from Babylonia Babylonia but but lies lies due due west west of of Assyria. Assyria. mg

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Examination of of BagM Beih. Beih.22 no. no.98 98 Examination The Square

complete, the the square square almost almost celiainly certainly contained contained four four triangles triangles When complete, labeled north, north, south, south, east, east, and and west west winds, winds, with two two of of the the spaces spaces between the the labeled triangles labeled sunrise sunrise and and sunset: sunset: triangles l2 For For additional additional examples, examples,see see AOAT AOAT 66 345-47. 345-47. 12

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Examination Examination of of BagM BagM Beih. Beih. 22 no. no.98 98

BagM. Beih. Beih.22 no. no.98 98 and and the the Compass CompassPoints Points BagM.

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13 l3 Note Note for for example example Nemet-Nejat Nemet-Nejat LB LB Field Field Plans Plans 374 374 Table Table IVC, IVC, which which lists lists eight eight tablets tablets where where north north and and south, south,or or east east and and west, west, are are reversed. reversed.

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Examination Examination oi of BagM BagM Beih. Beih.22no. no.98 98

The second second possibility possibilityisis that that BagM BagM Beih. Beih.22 no. no.98 98 illustrates illustrates aa device devicewhere where The 'sunrise'and and'sunsef 'sunset' can canbe bemoved movedindependently independentlyof of the thetriangles trianglesrepresenting representing 'sunrise' thewinds. winds.In Inthis thiscase, case,the thetab tablet coulddepict depictan animpossible impossibleplacement placementof of 'sun'sunthe let could rise' that that aa user user could could correct, correct,just just asas the the arrow arrow of of aa compass compassisis meant meant toto be be rise' turned toto point point toward toward the the side sidelabeled labeled 'north'. 'north'. For For instance, instance,the the square, square,circle, circle, turned andtriangles trianglescould couldhave havebeen beenplaced placedon onseparate separatepieces piecesof of wood woodthat thatwere wereheld held and together by by aa peg, peg,with with 'sunrise' 'sunrise' and and 'sunsef 'sunset' attached attached toto this this same samepeg peg by by thin thin together pieces of of wood, wood,reeds, reeds,or or rope. rope.This This would would have have allowed allowedthe the square, square,circle, circle,tritripieces angles,and and 'sunrise' 'sunrise' and and 'sunsef 'sunset' totomove movein in relation relation totoone oneanother. another.In In fact, fact,the the angles, "impossible"placement placement of of sunrise sunriseand andsunset sunsetin inthe thewest westand andeast easton onsuch suchaadede"impossible" vice might very well indicate that the elements in the square, at least, funcvice might very weH indicate that the elements in the square, at least, functioned as as aa rudimentary rudimentary sundial sundial of of some some sort, sort,where where the the morning morning shadow shadow atat tioned 14 sunrise fell to the west and evening shadow at sunset fell to the east.14 sunrise fell to the west and evening shadow at sunset fell to the east.

The Thewind windname namefor forthe theSpring Spring(no. (no.4), 4),although althoughcomplete, complete,presents presentsgreater greater difficulties. There are two ways to understand the name. First 81.8LIK.TUM may difficulties. There are two ways to understand the name. First ~I.SI.IK.TUM may be understood as a single word. An Akkadian word sissiktu is known but only be understood as a single word. An Akkadian word SiSSiktu is known but only occurs occursasasaa name name for for aa stone stoneor or asasaa topographie topographicterm term (see (seeAHw AHw 1220). 1220).Other Other sar abiktim(8I.8I)ik-tlm possible explanations of the word include a reading possible explanations of the word include a reading E r abiktim(S1.51)""" ('Wind connect('Wind of of Destruction'), Destruction'),or or aa reading reading SIl7.5Il7.IGtlm.19 ~ I ~ ~ . ~ I ~ , .Lexical Lexical I G ~ ' "evidence evidence .~~ connectsissig with winds is found in parallel passages in Urra II and Izi ing ing sissig with winds is found in parallel passages in Urra I1 and IziM: M: 'wind' ==sa-a-ru slg.slg sig.sig Sa-a-ru 'wind' 'storm ==me-l;u-u slg.slg sig.sig me-hu-G 'storm wind' wind' ==za-qi-qu 'breeze' slg.slg sig.sig za-qi-qu 'breeze' == sa-qum-ma-tum 'stillness' 'stillness' slg.slg sig.sig $6-qum-ma-tum ==sa-l;ur-ra-tum 'stillness' 'stillness' slg.slg Sa-bur-ra-tum s i g .s i g Urra 306-10 (MSL (MSL574-75) 5 74-75) Urra III1306-10

TheNames Names oi of the theWinds Windsin inNo. No.44 and and No. No.55 The Neither the the Spring Spring wind wind in in no. no.44 nor nor the the Summer Summer wind wind in in no. no. 55 can can be be Neither 15 positively identified.15 The first signs in the wind-name in no. 5 may be read positively identified. The first signs in the wind-name in no. 5 may be read kam or either 44kam or ZA-X. ZA-x.In In the the former former case, case,the the wind-name wind-name almost almost certainly certainly reprerepreeither 'west wind' (amurru), because the numeral 4 is used to write amurru sents sents 'west wind' (amurru), because the numeral 4 is used to write amurru 16 An bothin inlexicallists lexical lists (see (seep.p.197) 197)and and in in Summa-Alu S u m m a - ~ land and u other other texts. texts.16 An identifiidentifiboth cation of 'west wind' as the Summer-wind in no. 5 would be appropriate since cation of 'west wind' as the Summer-wind in no. 5 would be appropriate since west winds are common during the months of June, July, and August in southwest winds are common during the months of June, July, and August in southern IraqP Iraq.17However, However,itit isis not not clear clearwhy why the the numeral·4 numeral.4 here here isis written written limmu limmu,5 ern (74) instead of the more common l i m m u (GAR). (ZA) instead of the more common limmu (GAR). Other possible possible identifications identificationsof of the the wind wind name name are are even even less less satisfactory. satisfactory Other An identification of IM 4 as Sar erbetti (the four winds = north, south, east,and and An identification of IM 4 as sar erbetti (the four winds = north, south, east, west winds) is improbable, because south and east winds are not common durwest winds) is improbable, because south and east winds are not common during the the Summer Summer months months in in Iraq, Iraq, and and no no wind wind name, name, or or adjective adjective describing describing 18 winds, beginning za, Sa, or sa is obvious.1s winds, beginning za, sa, or sa is obvious.

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203 203

BagM.Beih. Beih.22no. no.98 98and and the theCompass CompassPoints Points BagM.

202 202

l4On On aasundial, sundial,the the seasonal seasonalvariations variations in in the the location locationof of sunrise sunrise and and sunset sunset should should 14 require that that 'sunrise' 'sunrise' and and 'sunsef 'sunset' be be able able toto move moveindependently independently of of each each other otheras as weH well as as require the triangles triangles represeEting represerting the the 'winds' 'winds' (compass (compasspoints). points).For For Mesopotamian Mesopotamian sundials sundials and and the Rochberg-Halton,CenCengnomons,see seemost most recently recently Hunger-Pingree Hunger-PingreeMul-Apin Mul-Apin153-54; 153-54; Fl? Rochberg-Halton, gnomons, 162-65. The The author author isis grateful grateful toto Mr. Mr. Avraham Avraham Avitzour Avitzour for for his his advice advice on on the the taurus 32 32 162-65. taurus matter of of ancient ancient sundials. sundials.Mr. Mr.Avitzour Avitzourand and the the author author are are atat present present preparing preparing aa more more matter detailed study study of of BagM. BagM.Beih. Beih.22 98. 98. detailed l5 For For previous previous discussion discussionof of the the wind-names wind-namesin in Nos. Nos.4-5, 4-5, see seeBagM BagMBeih. Beih.22pp. pp.2020IS 21;J.J.Oelsner, Oelsner,Materialien Materialienzur zur Babylonischen BabylonischenGesellschaft Gesellschaftund und Kultur Kultur in inHellenistischer Hellenistischer 21; Zeit (1986) (1986)432 432 n.n.666; 666;J.J.McEwan, McEwan,BiOr BiOr 38 38 641. 641.AHw AHw 1590 1590seSsektu SeSSektureads reads sär s'iirsi-Si-ik-tu Si-Si-ik-tu, Zeit 4 for No. No.44 and and identifies identifies this this passage passage with with the the word word se/isseliktu blis'bliktu (AHw (AHw 1220). 1220); for l6 For For additional additional examples examples of of this this system, system, see see CT CT 39 39 38 38 rev. rev. 3-6 3-6 (Sumrna (SumnzaAlu); Alu); 16 A.Sachs, Sachs,JCS JCS 66 146: 146:4'-5'; 4-5' CAD ; A/2 A12 92-93 92-93 amurru. amurru. A. CAD l7See See Wind Wind Tables Tables for for June, June, July, July, and and August August in in Climatological Climatological Atlas Atlas for for lraq Iraq 17 (Republic of of Iraq, Iraq, Meteorological MeteorologicalDepartment, Department, Climatology ClimatologySeetion) Section) Publication Publication No. No. 13 13 (Republic 191-99. pp. 191-99. pp. J. Oelsner Oelsner in in Materialien Materialien zur zur Babylonischen Babylonischen Gesellschaft Gesellschaftund und Kultur Kultur in in HelleHelle18 J. nistischer Zeit Zeit (1986) (1986)432 432 n.n. 666 666 reads reads IMza.qi[q!]. IMza.qi[q !]. nistischer

[s] $a-bur-r[a-tu] [s]i.si.ig i.s i .ig ==sa-l;ur-r[a-tu] rrsil.si.ig si 1 .si.ig ==xi-qi-q[u] zi-qi-q[u] ==su-ul;-ra-tu si.si.iq Su-uh-ra-tu s i .s i i q

.

i

'stillness' 'stillness' 'breeze' 'breeze' 'stillness' 'stillness' Izi Izi M Miiii6'-8' 6'-8' (MSL (MSL13 13216) 216)

If SI.SI.IKcan can be be accepted acceptedas asaa phonetic phoneticwriting writing for forsissig, sissig,then then the the wind wind name name If 81.8LIK tum ). If in in BagM BagMBeih. Beih.22 no. no.98 98could couldbe be this thisword wordwith with aafeminine feminineending ending (SISSIG (SISSIG~~"). If \ so, so, saqummatum $aqummatum and and sal;urratum Saburratum 'still 'still wind' wind' are are possible possible readings, readings, and and this this might mightindicate indicatethat thatthere therewas wasliUle littleor orno nowind windduring duringthe theSpring Springseason. season.However, However, 20 Spring Springwinds windsin inIraq Iraqare arenot notnoticeably noticeablyweaker weakerthan thanthe thewinds windsof of other otherseasons. seasons.20, The The second second possible possible interpretation interpretation of of the the wind wind name name for for Summer Summer also also depends S l7 I ~.51 , .l7S Ifor for ~ ~81.81. 51.51.In In the the Boghazkoi Boghazkoiversion versionof of aa "Prayer "Prayer to to ~ depends on on aa reading reading SI the theGods Godsof of the the Nighf'(KUB Nightn(KUB4447 47rev. rev.42), 42),the the name name of of the the north north wind wind isiswritten written \' S1 SI,,.SI,,, which apparently apparently isis aa substitute substitute for for the the regular regular Sumerian Sumerianwriting writing si.sa si.s8 l7 .51 17 , which (see (seeG. 6.Meier, Meier,ZA ZA 45197-98). 45 197-98).Thus ThusSI SI,,.SI,~ alonecould could be be aa name name for forthe the north north I l7 .S1 l7 alone wind, wind, and and IGTUM IG.TUM could could represent represent an an adjective. adjective.During During the the months months of of March, March, April, April, and and May, May, true true north north winds winds are are common common in in southern southern Iraq,21 Iraq,21hut but these these north north winds winds become become less less frequent frequent during during the the Summer. Summer.Hence, Hence, the the prevailing prevailing \\ northwest northwest wind wind of of Mesopotamia Mesopotamiacould could be be thought thought of of as as aa north north wind wind during duringthe the \ Spring Spring and and west west wind wind during during the the Summer. Summer. Unfortunately, Unfortunately, no no adjective adjective iglklqiglklq- J tum A reading reading gal-tum gal-tam 'terrifying' 'terrifying' isis t winds. A for winds. appropriate for tum or or eg/k/q-tum eglklq-tum isis appropriate possible, g61 instead instead of of being written written with with gal word being this word possible, but but no no other other example example of of this

,

19 l9For For the the reading reading 51.5I 51.51==Sisi,, .si17, seeA. A.Goetze, Goetze,JGS JCS 11 1197; 97;cf. cf.J.J.McEwan, McEwan,BiOr BiOr 38 38 I7 , see I7 .si (ni} paraHels zaqiqu Gilg. XII 641. 641.Note Note also alsoGHT GHT 243, 243,where where Sumerian Sumeriansi.sLig. si.si.ig. ( n i ) parallels zaqiqu Gilg. XI184, 84,and and ACh ACh Adad Adad 33:23, 33:23,where where ziqlqu ziqiqu isis identified identified with with the the north north wind. wind. A A loanword loanword ziqziqqul ziqziqqul siqsiqqu siqsiqqu isis equated equated with with säru Siiruwind wind in in aa list list of of synonymns synonymns of of säru Eru in in Malku Malku III 111(CT (CT 18 18 21 K.11191i ii 3-4 3-4 +i duplicates; duplicates; see see CAD CAD ZZ 134). 134).For For 51.5I 51.51== abiktum abiktumsee see CAD CAD All A11 525221 Kll191+ 53 abiktu.ItIt isislikely likelythat that the the diri-compound d i ri-compound 51.51 51.51isistoto be be read read bads.bad b a d ,. b ad,s when when equated equated 53abiktu. with abiktu,by by analogy analogy with with bads.bad bad,.bad5s == dabdu dabdQ(see (see CAD CAD D D 14 14 dabdu). dabdQ).The The homohomowith abiktu, nym sissiktu (zizziktu, (zizziktu,sissiktu) SiSSiktu)'fringe, 'fringe, edge, edge,hem hem of of aa garmenf garment' can can hardly hardly nym CAD CAD SS 322 322 sissiktu be be associated associatedwith with winds. winds. 20 20 Climatological Climatobgical Atlas Atlas for for Iraq, Iraq,. pp. pp. 182-90. - - 182-90. 21 21 Ibid. Ibid.

-

\

t1 t. [w""" ß.' Or )6'

(1'1 ~1) Rv ~M ~t;~ l 9' 6q 1 c.J tJ e . 08 (Lw (rllvv, )vM-." II'1.~UI,IG.)

I

C:vd Af4",JiJ 1I1o-cA llJ1

ordinary gal gal isis known, known,and and there there isis no no evidence evidencethat that the the winds winds of of Summer Summer were were ordinary particularly dangerous. dangerous.Thus Thus the the identity identity of of the the wind wind name name for for the the Spring Spring seaseaparticularly son seems seems even even less less certain certain than than that that of of Summer. Summer. son

TheArea Area beyond beyond the the Circle Circle The ItIt isis conceivable conceivablethat that the the cosmic cosmicocean ocean lies lies beyond beyond the the circle circle preserved preserved on on BagM Beih. Beih.22 98, 98, because because the the traces traces in in no. no.66 may may be be interpreted interpreted as as the the remains remains BagM of On i ~ (A.ENGUR). A.ENGUR). = On The The Babylonian Babylonian Map Map of of the the World, World, of the the diri-compound diri-compound rD(= the 'dmarratu,and and this this ocean ocean flows flows beyond beyond aa the cosmic cosmic ocean ocean isis identified identified as as the the idmarratu, circle circle marking marking the the border border of of the the known known world. world.If If the the area area beyond beyond the the circle circle in in BagM BagM Beih. Beih. 22 98 98 isis also also the the cosmic cosmic ocean, ocean, then then the the relationship relationship between between this this ocean and and the the winds winds may may be be important. important. In In aa Sumerian Sumerian incantation, incantation, diseasediseaseocean bearing winds winds blow blow from from the the Upper Upper and and Lower Lower Seas: Seas: bearing

205 205

Interpretation Interpretation of of the the Diagram Diagram

BagM. Beih. Beih. 22 no. no.98 98 and and the the Compass Compass Points Points BagM.

204

surface. ~ u d a 22 c eThe The . ~ ~'four 'four regions' regions' of of heaven heaven are are less lessweIl well known known but but are are mentioned mentioned in in connection connection with with winds, winds, atmospheric atmospheric phenomena, phenomena, and and stars stars in in astronomical astronomical omens omensand and reports reports where where various various phenomena phenomena are are located located in in the the northern, northern, southsouthern, ern,eastern, eastern,and andwestern western quarters quartersof of the thesky. skyExamples Examplesinclude includeMul-Apin Mul-ApinII I1ii 686871 71 (see (see p.p. 198), 198),which which correlates correlates the the four four winds winds with with constellations; constellations; Prayers Prayers to to The The Gods Gods of of the the Night, Night,which which mention mention the the stars stars of of the the four four winds;23 winds;23and and aa paspassage sagein inSurpu Surputhat that connects connectsthe thefour fourquarters quartersof of the the sky skywith with both both stars starsand andwinds winds and and speaks speaksof of the the stars stars of of the the 'four 'four winds' winds' in in conjunction conjunctionwith with the the 'seven 'seven winds': winds':

t

mes IMsüti(illu)lu 1Miltäni(si.sa) IMsadi(kur.ra) kakkabänu kakkabanume"~5iiti (G1u)'" I"iltani (si.s 6) I"3adz^ (ku r. r a) IMamurri(mar.d u) I"amurri (m a r. d G) särü mes si-bit-ti si-bit-ti li-zi-qu-nim-ma li-zi-qu-nim-ma li-pat-ti-ru 1:l li-pat-ti-ruma-mit-su ma-mit-su lz Surpu Surpu H:165-67 k7.:165-67 v

May May the the stars stars of of the the south south wind, wind, north north wind, wind, east east wind, wind, and and west west wind, wind, the the seven seven winds, winds, blow blow upon upon hirn him and and let let them them release release his his oath. oath.

IM IM rrsagl.ba sag l.ba

fim.da.ta.dall rim.da.ta.dal' a.ab.ba sig.ga.ta sig.ga.ta im.da.t im.da.t[a.d]al a.ab.ba [a.d] al a.ab.ba ig[i].rnim1.ta ig[i].'nim'.ta im.da.ta.dal im.da.ta.da1 a.ab.ba 'an.Grl.ta du.a.ni ran .ur l.ta du.a.ni SB.gig im.tum im.tGm libis.gig 1ibiS.gig im.tum im.t6m sa.gig

OECT 55 23:1-5 23:l-5 OECT The wind wind blew blew to to the the fore. fore. The From the the Lower Lower Sea, Sea,itit blew blew forth. forth. From From the the Upper Upper Sea, Sea, itit blew blew forth. forth. From As itit came came from from the the Horizon, Horizon, As brought heart-disease, heart-disease, brought brought heart-sickness. heart-sickness. itit brought

The The placement placement of of the the triangles triangles representing representing the the winds winds in in the the corners corners of of the the square, at an angle of 45° to a line drawn though 'Sunrise', suggests that the four square, at an angle of 45" to a line drawn though 'Sunrise', suggests that the four quarters quarters were were divided divided so so as as to to create create four four equal equal triangles triangles rather rather than than four four equal equal squares:

Winds blowing blowing from from Upper Upper and and Lower Lower Seas Seas could could be be the the prevailing prevailing northwest northwest Winds and southeast southeast winds winds of of Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, because because the the Upper Upper Sea Sea (Mediterranean) (Mediterranean) and located north/northwest northlnorthwest of of Assyria Assyria and and Babylonia Babylonia and and the the Lower Lower Sea Sea (Persian (Persian isis located Gulf) is is located located southeast southeast of of Babylonia. Babylonia. However, However, the the triangles triangles labeled labeled 'South 'South Gulf) wind' and and 'West 'West wind' wind' on on BagM BagM Beih. Beih.22 98 98 are are placed placed weIl well within within the the circle circle that that wind' may mark mark the the shores shores of of the the cosmic cosmic sea. sea. may

of the the Diagram Interpretation of The Square

Despite the the difficulties difficulties outlined outlined above, above, the the diagram diagram on on BabM BabM Beih. Beih. 22 98 98 Despite does seem seem to to illustrate illustrate aa number of important Mesopotamian Mesopotamian cosmographic cosmographictratradoes ditions.The The placement of triangles triangles labeled 'South 'South wind' wind' and and 'West 'West wind' wind' in in the the ditions. corners of the the square square seems seems to to illustrate illustrate the the tradition of of the the kibrät kibrat arbaJi arba'i 'four 'four corners regions' in in which heaven heaven and and the the earth's earth's surface surface are are divided divided into into northern, northern, regions' southern, eastern, eastern, and and western western quarters. quarters. southern, The 'four 'four regions' regions' of of the the earth's earth's surface surface are are weIl well known known from from historical historical The inscriptions and and literary literary texts, texts,where where the the 'four 'four regions' regions' comprise comprise the the entire entire earth's earth's inscriptions

See See further further examples examples and and discussion, discussion, p. p. 259. 259. See -ak-ka4 -ab![text ad] See KUB KUB 44 47 47 rev. rev. 42 42 (ka (ka,-ak-ka,-ab![text a d ] tumuuUa t"uul.la tuI.I t u ~ .tu.muku.u.ra '""ku.u.ra ~ 4 tumug a r 14.d u; cf. t"ugar,,.du; cf. G. 6.Meier, Meier, ZA ZA 45 45 197-98); 197-98); A. A. Oppenheim, Oppenheim, AnBi AnBi 12283:40; 12 283:40;OECT OECT 66 pl. pl. 12 12 K. K. 3507 3507 16' 16' (OECT (OECT 675). 6 75).Note Note also also KAR KAR 214 214 iii iii 26-27 26-27 (Frankena (Frankena Takultu Takultu 26). 26). 22 22

23 23

\

Interpretation of of the Diagram

geometric figure, figure, which may have have illustrated the geographie geographic tradition of This geometrie occurs on mathematical tablets (MCT (MCT 42-43, 141; 141; MDP 34 34 the 'four regions', occurs pl. 1; 1; cf. cf. H. H. Saggs, Saggs, RA 54 54 132). 132). pI.

only be used at night. night. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, the evidence evidence cited above above does does not prove that uo. 98 diagrammed an "ancient compass;' because it is BagM. Beih. 2 BagM. Beih. no. 98 compass: is unc1ear unclear how such a device would work and the text is too broken to allow for any final device is too allow final conc1usions. conclusions, Thus all hypotheses deduced from from the surviving surviving fragment fragment must remain only hypotheses pending the discovery discovery of a more complete complete duplicate or missing fragments that can be joined to BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98. fragments BagM. Beih. no. 98.

The Circle Circle The circle surrounding the square seems to illustrate another MesopotaMesopotaThe circ1e cosmographic concept. concept. This circ1e, circle, which enc10ses encloses the square of the mian cosmographic suggests that the winds blew in a circular region, region, just as as the circular winds, suggests Xstrolabes" (CT (CT 33 33 11-12) (CT 33 33 10) 10) and circular "Astrolabes" shape of the planisphere (CT stars and the earth's surface were also also conceived conceived as as suggest that the level of the stars cire8es."24 Further evidence evidence for the circular shape of the region of the winds is circles. found in a Shalmaneser Siialmaneser III 111inscription, where the weather-god Adad holds the kippat säre $are 'circ1e 'circle of the winds' (J. (J. Kinnier Wilson, Wilson, Iraq 24 93:4), 93:4), and in The The TukuEl-i-WjiwrtaEpic, Epic, where Tukulti-Ninurta inspires fear among the kings kings of kippat Sär E r erbetti 'circle of the four winds' (Machinist (Machinist TN Epic 60 IA LA 13'; cf. cf. 116 25 ilcl A v 377.2"

BagM. Beih. a n "Ancient Compass" Beih. 2 No. No. 98 as an

)

207 207

BagM. Beih. Beih. 2 no. no. 98 and the the Compass Compass Points BagM.

206 206

Beih. 2 no. no. 98 suggests suggests that the tablet diagrams a device device Evidence in BagM. Beih. compass, as defined in ancient that was used to identify the directions of the compass, Mesopotamaia. Two of the three indicators of compass-point compass-point directions used in Mesopotamaia. Mesopotamia (the (the sun and winds) are represented on the tablet by the positions Mesopotamia winds. These two compass-point compass-point of sunrise and sunset and the origins of the winds. seasons of the year and the type of directions apparently are correlated with the seasons wind characteristic of of each season. season. This is significant, significant, because the locations of of sunrise and sunset and the frequencies of winds vary over the course of of the year. year. Furthermore, the apparent impossible placement of of 'sunrise' on the tablet opens the possibility, at least, that 'sunrise' and 'sunset' 'sunset' could have been moved to more appropriate positions on a moveable device that may have included inc1uded some so me elements of a sundial. The user of such a device might have been able to correlate wind direction with the location of the sun and time of year in order to determine the compass-point compass-point directions. directions. Such a device would have been very useful, since the only attested method for determining the four compass compass points (that of of Mul-Apin I1 II i 68-71, 68-71, which utilizes the positions of constellations) constellations) can 24 For the 'circle of of the heavenslnight heavens/night skies' (kippat (kippat Sam.&, same, buriim-, burilme, see pp. 26426465). 65). The planisphere CT 33 10 (= Koch Neue Untersuchungen 56) 56) preserves eight sectors marked off 'sunset' are inoff by dividing lines drawn 45" 45° apart, just just as 'sunrise' and 'sunset' scribed 45" 45° away from the triangles representing the winds on BagM. Beih. Beih. 2 98. However, BagM Beih. Beih. 2 98 lacks a label in the space between 'West wind' wind' (no. (no. 3) and '[North wind]' (no. (no. 9), 9), which might indicate that that circle on this fragment also was to be divided into eight 45" 45° sectors. sectors. 25 Note also Weidner TN 8:5: 8:5: kippat tubuqat tubuqät erbetti 'The Circle of of the Four Cor. . kima Sari ners'; and Erra I 36: .... säri zi[q]ma zi[q]ma kippata hita l}ita 'Blow like the wind, survey the circle'.

\

The The Incantation Incantation me.se me.Si: ba.da.dal ba.da.da1

209 209

bilingual V, aa similar similar phrase phrase an.7.am an.7.8m bilingual ineantation incantation from from Utukku-Lemnutu Utukku-Lemnutu V, ki. ki.7.am 7.8m oeeurs occur,sin in the the eontextof context of disease-spreading disease-spreading lamastu-demons lamas'tu-demons in in heaven heaven and earth:

Chapter 9

13. 7.8m dingir d i n g i r an.dagal.la.meS an.dagal.la.meS 13. 7.am 14. si-bit 14. si-bit ilänu i k n ~mes m esameerap-su-ti G a m erap-s'u-ti ^~ 15. 7.8m dingir.kalam.ma.dagal.la.meS dingir.kalam.ma.daga1.la.meS 15. 7.am mes ma-a-ti 16. si-bit si-bit ilänu i18numex ma-a-ti ra-ap-as-ti ra-up-as'-ti

"Seven Heavens Heavens and Seven Seven Earths": Earths": an.7 an.7 ki.7, ki.7, an.7.bi an.7.bi ki.7.bi, ki.7.bi, an.7.ki.7.bi.da an.7.ki.7.bi.da

A A number number of of Sumerian Sumerian ineantations incantations may may preserve aa Sumerian Sumerian eosmocosmographie mgraphic tradition tradition of seven seven heavens heavens (an) (an) and and seven seven earths earths (ki) (ki) that ean can be be co compared to to the the three three heavens heavens and and earths earths of of the the Akkadian Akkadian mystieal-religious mystical-religious text text KAR KAR 307 307 30-38: 30-38: 1.1. Editions Editions of of the the ineantation incantation me.se me. S i: ba.da.dal b a.d a.d a1 preserve the the phrase an.7 an. 7 ki.7. 2. h6.daddag.ge an a n den.lil den.lilden.ki den.kidnerigal dnerigal 2. Editions Editions of the the ineantation incantation be.daddag.ge preserve the an.7.bi ki.7.bi. ki.7.bi. the phrase an.7.bi 3. 3. The The medieal medical ineantation incantation AMT AMT 103 103 8-12 preserves the the phrase an.7.bi an.7.bi ki.7.bi.da. ki.7.bi.da. 4. 4. A A number of ineantations incantations preserve ehains chains of seven seven or more an a n and and ki signs.

lMQv\;oJ

It It is is not clear, clear, however, however, from from the eontext context of these these ineantations incantations how the the phrases phrases with an to a n and ki are are to to be understood. understood. It It is is possible possible that these phrases refer to seven seven superimposed levels levels of heaven and and earth that are are invoked invoked to to rid the the supsupplicant of disease. me.SB ba.da.dal ba.da.da1 and and be.daddag.ge h6.daddag.ge an an disease. Versions Versions of both me.se den.lil den.lilden.ki den.ki dnerigal, dneriga!, as as weIl well as as AMT AMT 103:8-12, 103:8-12, preserve the the exorcism exorcism forformula zi.an.na z i .a n .n a be.pa h 6.p 8 zi.ki.a z i .k i .a be.pa h 6 .p 8 'be exoreised exorcised by heaven, be exoreised exorcised by earth'. lips'ur formulas formulas invoke invoke eosmographie cosmographic features, features, ininearth'. Other zi-exorcism zi-exorcism and and lipsur cluding heaven, rivers11 Nevertheless, it is is also also heaven, earth, earth, winds, winds, mountains, mountains, and and rivers. possible that the the phrases phrases were meant to to refer to to demons demons that afflict afflict the the suppli~ supplicant, cant, rather than heavens and earths earths that may help help eure cure the the supplieant. supplicant. In aa 1 For editions editions of zi z i formulas, formulas, see see E. E. Ebeling, Ebeling, ArOr ArOr 21 21 357-403. For Lipsur-litanies LipSur-litanies invoking invoking the the mountains and and rivers rivers listed listed in in Urra {(XII &XI1(MSL (MSL 11 11 23-28), see see E. E. Reiner, Reiner, JNES JNES 15 15 132-135. 132-135. See See also also YOS YOS 11 11p. p. 22 22 12; 12; CAD CAD S/2 S/2 135 135 b. b.

208 208

mes mas-sP-u-ti ·17. 17. 7.am 7.8m dingir d i n g i r ur ur,.ur,.re.a.meg si-bit ilänu iknurne"as'-~i-~-~-ti 4 .ur4 .re.a.mes :: si-bit mes kis-sa-ti 18. d i n g i r 7.am.mes: 7.Bm.meS : si-bit si-bit ilänu il8nume%iS-s'a-ti 18. 7.am 7.8m dingir 19. 19. 7.am 7.8m dingir.bul.a.mes dingir.hul.a.mes' mes lem-nu-tu4 20. si-bit si-bit ilänu i18nume"em-nu-tu4 21. 21. 7.am 7.8m ddlm.me.bul.a.mes ddim.me.hul.a.meS 22. si-bit si-bit la-mas-ti la-mabti lem-nu-tu4 lem-nu-tu, 23. 23. 7.am 7.8m ddlm.me.a ddim.me.a sed Sed,.dk.hul.a.meS 7 .de.bul.a.mes 24. si-bit 24, si-bit la-mas-tu lamas'-tu4 li-'-bu lem-nu-tu4 lem-nu-tu4 4 lP-bu 25. 7.am 25. an.7.am an.7.8m ki. ki.7.8m tim si-bit-ma e si-bit 26. ina ina same s'amke si-bit ina ina er$etim er;etimtim si-bit-ma u1 27. 27. udug.bul udug.hul a.la.bul a.lS.f?ul gidim.bul gidim.hul gal5.la.bul gal,.lS.hul dingir.b dingir.hu1 maSkim.kul maskim·bul 28. 28, zi.an.na zi.an.na be.pa l ~ 6 . p 8zi.ki.a zi.ki.a be.pa h6.p8 CT CT 16 16 13 13 iii iii 13-14 13-14 iii iii 28 28 13. Seven gods gods of the the broad heavens. heavens. 13. Seven 15. 15. Seven Seven gods gods of the the broad land. land. 17. 17. Seven Seven robber gods. gods. 18. 18. Seven Seven gods, gods, all. all. 19. 19. Seven Seven evil evil gods. gods. 21. 21. Seven Seven evillamastu-demons. evil lamas'tu-demons. 23. 23. Seven Seven evil evil infeetious infectious lamastu-demons. lamas'tu-demons. 25. 25. Heaven seven, seven, earth seven. seven. 26. 26. [Akkadian] [Akkadian]In heaven seven, seven, in earth seven. seven. 27. evil demon, demon, evil evil devil, devil, evil evil ghost, ghost, evil evil ghoul, ghoul, evil evil god, god, evil evil prowler; prowler; 27. 00 evil 28. heaven, be exoreised exorcised by earth. earth. 28. be exoreised exorcised by heaven, Here, Here, the phrase an.7.am a n . 7.8m ki.7.am ki. 7.8m == ina same Sam&sibit ina er$etim ersetim sibit foIlows follows deseriptions descriptions of seven evil evil demons demons in !ines lines 13-24 13-24 and and preeedes precedes the exorcism exorcism of these demons demons in bnes lines 27-28. Thus, Thus, it is is not eertain certain if an.7.am a n . 7.8m ki. ki.7.am 7.8m == ina same .$am&sibit sibit ina er$etim ersetim sibit sibit refers to to the demons demons themselves or heaven(s) heaven(s) and and earth(s) earth(s) meant to exorcise exorcise the demons. demons. This This ineantation incantation and and others, others, as as weIl well as as

"Seven Heavens and Seven Earths"

The Incantation me.;& me.se ba.da.da1 ba.da.dal

possible interpretations of of the phrases aan.7 ki.7, an.7.bi ki.7.bi and an.7.bi n . 7 ki.7, ki.7.bi.da, are examined below. k i .7.b i .d a,

iizi z i 7 igi 7 bbar a r 7 bar.ta.7 bar.ta.igi.7 zi.an.na -he.p& ·he.pa zi,ki.a zi.ki.a he.p8 he.pa n . n a ha.ba.e,,.dit musen.an.gim ha.ba.dal.en i.bi.gim LbLgim aan.na na.ba.eu.de 5. muSen.an.gim muru,.gim murug.gim ki,a ki.a ha.ba.ni.in.Sub ha.ba.ni.in.sub tu,.du,,.ga tU6.d uu.ga en.gal den.ki den.ki eriduki.ga.ke, eriduki.ga.ke4 nam.mu.un.da.an.blir.ra nam.mu.un.da.an.bur.ra TU,.EN TU6.EN

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me.se ba.da.dal ba.da.dal The Incantation me.SZ: me.se ba.da.dal is known from eight exemplars: two The incantion me. S & ba.da.da1 fragments. namburbi duplicates, three medical tablets, and three unidentified fragments. of the incantation, beginning with the phrase an.7 an. 7ki. 7, is included An extract of ki.7, 51 142 without transin the Akkadian Utukku-LemnutulEnuru incantation CT 51 lation from Sumerian, and a short version of of the incantation occurs in SpTU 111 III Iation u4 .7 (seven heavens, seven 83:15-16. A related incantation that opens an.7 u,.7 storms) is found in CT 44 33 iii 5'-9': 5'-9': storms) ofme.se Exemplars of me.:& bba.da.dal a.da.dal

Exemplar 2'-8' KAR 20 ii 2'-8' K. 157+ 2'-5' K. 157+ 2'-5' BAM 508 iv 11'-17' 11'- 17' K. K. 2542+ 2542+ ii 37-42! 37'-42' K. 9329+ 9329+ b 5'-8' 5'-8' K. BM 50958 50958 a 3'-11' 3'-11' BM 17311 17311 ii 6'-13' 6'-13' Sm. 1802 ii 2'-3' Sm. 1802 2'-3'

A. B. C. C. D. D. E. E. F. F. G. G. H. H.

Copy/Photo -

Namburbi 2 Namburbi2 OrNS 40 300 taf. taf. 111-IV III-IV Namburbi Medical Text Plate 83 Medical Text 83 Plate 10 Medical Text Plate 10 Unidentified Plate 10 Unidentified Plate 10 Unidentified

Related Texts Texts 1. CT 51 51 1422-3 142 2-3 1.

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2. I11 83:15-16 2. SpTU III

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3. 5'-9' 3. CT 44 33 iii 5'-9'

Identification

Utukku-Lemnutu IEnuru Short Version of me.se ba.da.da1 ba.da.dal me.56 an.7 u 4 .7

A number of different versions ba.da.dal circulated in antiquity. versions of me.se me.Si: ba.da.da1 antiquity A composite version of the incantation is presented below, with a discussion of the more important variants following. following. A transliteration of each example of the incantation is found in Appendix A (pp. (pp. 363-65):

1. 6~ me.se me.Si: ba.da.dal ba.da.da1 ki.se ki.Si: ba.da.zah ba.da.zah me.se me.Sit gub.ba igi.mu 1. EN nu.gub an 7 ki 7 IM 7 IM.gal 7 For KAR 201fK. 20//K. 157+, 157+,see R. R. Caplice, Caplice, OrNs 40 140-47. To be copied in a forthcoming volume of BAM (cf. 21 19 19 n. n. 47). 47). An old copy (cf. AfO 21 of the incantation is available in BE 31 31 60 ii 18'-23'. 18'-23'. 2

3

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1. Incantation: Where has it flown? It has escaped to earth. 1. Where is it standing? Before me it does not stand. o "seven heavens: heavens;' "seven earths: earths;' "seven winds: winds;' "seven great 0 winds;' winds: fires;' "seven fronts: fronts;' "seven backs: backs;' "seven sides: sides;' seven. seven ... "seven fires: .. Be exorcised by heaven, be exorcised by earth. 5. Like a bird of of heaven may you fly away away. Like smoke may you 5. go up into heaven. Like a cloud may you fall on earth. of the Great-Lord, Great-Lord, Enki Let the spoken incantation of of of Eridu not be undone. undone.

Most of me.se ba.da.da1 ba.da.dal are minor. minor. These of the variants between versions of me.Si: include the omission of 12, the omission of of bar.ta.7 in BAM 508 iv 12, of bar.ta. bar.ta. igi.7 in BM 17311 17311 77',, and the insertion of 7, of the verbal-prefix verbal-prefix Ssii in K.2542+ K.2542+ ii 3 37', S & bba.da.si.dal. a.d a. Si.d al. Other variants, however, resulting in the incipit reading me. me.se are of greater consequence. b 'before consequence. BM 50958 50958 a 4' preserves igi.na nu.gu nu.gub him hirn it does not stand' instead of of igi.mu igi.m u nu.gub n u.gu b 'before me it does not stand', while K.25421 K.2542+ ii 38', 38', on the other hand, apparently omits this phrase alto4 gether., Second, BM 50958 a 3' opens [EN [I?N me.se me.Si: ba.d] a.ra. Here, rraa may or gether. Second, 50958 ba.d] a.ra. may not be a phonetic variant of DALIRI DAL/RI = = naprusu napru5u 'to fly'.5 fly'.' S it b a.d a.d a1 is also found in medical texts where the recThe incipit me. me.se ba.da.dal recitation of the incantation is required but the fuH text is not provided,6 and in a full provided,, (F.Kocher, Kocher, AfO 21 21 17: 17:19,22,26). addilist of medical and MuSSuJu MussuJu incipits (F. 19,22,26). Thus additional examples of the incantation may come to light as more exemplars of MuSMus5uJu identified. The verbal chain ba.da.Si.da1 K.2542+ suJu are identified. ba.da.si.dal is only found in K.2542+ ii 37' at the start of the incantation and in incipits in K.2542+ K.2542+ ii 30 and 35. 35. The medical applications of two occurrences occurrences of the incantation are known. known. In K 2542+ 2542+ the incantation is recited to alleviate paralysis (simmatu). (Simmatu).In BAM 508, 508, the incantation is recited into the right ear of a patient to relieve 'buzzing 7 of the ear': ear':7 4 Between me m e and gub.ba in K.2542+ K.2542+ ii 38 there is room for as many as five five very closely written signs, nu.g]ub.ba is possigns, so arestoration a restoration such as m[e.se m [e.Sb gub.ba igi nu.g]ub.ba sible, though unlikely. unlikely. 5 Both readings dal N/1 314). 314). d a l (da-al) (da-al) and ri r i (rH) (ri-i) occur in lexicallists lexical lists (see (see CAD Nil Further evidence for dal d a l is found in bilingual texts, texts, where dal d a l is resumed by la l a (LKU (LKU 14 14 ii 13, 13, 15; 15; SBH 54 rev. rev. 23). 23). 6 K.2542+ 17 (s~e K.2542+ iii 5, 5, iv 7//BAM 7/BAM 354 iv 6, 6,17 (see BAM IV p. p. xiv-xv); K.3274 K.3274 5', 5', 12', rev. rev. 13'. S/1 64 sagämu Sagamu 2; 2; Parpola LAS 2 p. p. 250. 250. condition, see CAD S/1 7 For this medical condition,

"Seven "Seven Heavens Heavens and and Seven Seven Earths" Earths"

212

ka-inim-ma amelu (na) uzneI[Lsu uznel[I-Sui-Sag-gu-ma] i-Sag-gu-ma] ka-inim-ma summa Summa amelu(na) 3-su 3-Szi a-na a-na uzni uxni imitti(15)-su imitti (15)-$ti [tamannu(sid)nu] [tamannu(Si djnu] BAM 508 508 iv iv 26-27 26-27 Incantation; if aa man's earls earls buzz,] buzz,f three three times times into into his his right ear ear [you [you recite recite it.] it.]

The The Incantation Incantation be.daddag.ge $k.daddag.ge an a n den.lil den.lil den.ki den.ki dnerigal dnerigaf The The incantantation incantantation be.daddag.ge h6.daddag.ge an a n den.lil den.lil den.ki den.ki dnerigal dnerigal preserves the an.7.bi ki.7.bi. ki.7.bi. Like Like me.se me.Si: ba.da.dal, ba.da.da1, more more than one one version version of of the phrase phrase an.7.bi the the incantation incantation has has survived. survived. The The incantation is is known known from from the the Old Old BabyloBabylonian nian lamastu-tablet lamas'tu-tablet TIM TIM 99 63110ECT 63llOECT 55 55 55 (M. (M. Tonietti, Tonietti, Or Or 48 48 304-5) 304-5) and and aa number of 1amaStuseries, series, of amulets amulets but was was apparently apparently not not included included in in the the main main lamastu s The because because no no other other known known lamastu-tablet LamaStu-tablet preserves preserves the the incantation. incantations8 The most most complete 63, is is complete version version of of the the incantantion, incantantion, that that of of the the lamastu-tablet lamas'tu-tablet TIM TIM 99 63, presented presented below. below. Transliterations Transliterations of of the the other other examples examples of of the the incantation incantation are are found found in in Appendix Appendix B B (pp. (pp.366-67). 366-67). 6'. h6.daddag.ge an a n den.lil den.lil den.ki den.ki dnerigal dnerigal 6'. be.daddag.ge 7'. an.7.bi ki.7.bi en.7.bi sU.7.bi 7'. an.7.bi ki.7.bi en.7.bi su.7.bi 8'. 8'. en.na e n . n a lu.u 1G.G dumu.dingir.ra.na dumu.dingir.ra.na na.an.ga.ti.1a na.an.ga.ti.la 9'. u ba.ra.da.gu .e a ba.ra.da.nas.nas 9'. G ba.ra.da.gu,.e a ba.ra.da.na8.na8 7 10'. l.ra.da. tus gis.n u ba.ra.da.n u 10'. gisgu.za @gu.za rba rba'.ra.da.tuS giS.nC ba.ra.da.nG gis . ba.ra.da.tus.u.de 11'. za gu 11'. gisgu.za ba.ra.da.tuS.ii.di: 12'. g i k G ba.ra.da.nu.u.de ba.ra.da.nti.ii.de 12'. giSnu 1 13'. su.zu 13'. gisbansur @%anSura.a.zu a.a.zu den.lil.la.Wzu den.lil.l6.(('zul)) Su,zu ba.ra.bi.in.te ba.ra.bi.in.te 14'. ddlm.me zi.an.na be.pa zi.ki.a be.p [al 14'. ddim.me zi.an.na h6.ph zi.ki.a he.p[B] 15'. 15'. zi zi dingir.gal.e.ne dingir.gal.e.ne be.pa h6.ph 16'. ka.inim.ma ka.inim.ma ddlm.me ddim.me TIM TIM 99 63:6-16 63:6-16

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6'. 6'. 7'. 7'. 8'. 8'. 9'. 9'. 10'. 10'. 11'. 11'. 12'. 12'.

Cleanse Cleanse him him 0O Anu, Anu, Enlil, Enlil, Enki, Enki, Nergal, Nergal, "seven "seven heavens;' heavens: "seven "seven earths;' earths:' "seven "seven lords?", lords?", "seven "seven bodies?". bodies?". Until Until the the man, man, the the son son of of his his god, god, lives,9 lives,g May May you you not not eat eat food, food, may may you you not not drink drink water. water. May May you you not not sit sit on on achair, a chair, may may you you not not lie lie in in bed. bed. May May you you not not be be allowed allowed to to sit sit in in achair. a chair. May May you you not not be be allowed allowed to to lie lie in in bed. bed.

88 The The incantation incantation be.daddag.ge h6.daddag.ge an a n den.lil den.lilden.ki den.ki dnerigal dnerigal isis not not included included in in 2 55 no. 1 rev. 1-19. In the amulets, the names of the the list list of of lamaStu-incantations lamas'tu-incantations in in 4R 4R2 55 no. 1 rev. 1-19. In the amulets, the names of the the four four gods gods occur occur in in the the line line below below he.daddag.ge, hk.daddag.ge, so so this this first first word word alone alone may may be be the the ancient ancient title title of of the the incantation. incantation. 99 The The verbal verbal chain chain na.an.ga.ti.la na.an.ga.ti.la isis understood understood as: as: na n a (affirmative) (affirmative)++ iga iga ++ aa ++ BASE BASE ++ aa (subjunctive). (subjunctive).The The sense sense of of 'until' 'until' isis derived derived from from conjugation conjugation ia i a with with subjuncsubjunctive tive a.a.See See M. M.Tonietti, Tonietti,OrNS OrNS 48 48 313 3138'. 8'.

Incantation he.daddag.ge b 6 . d a d d a g . g e an a n den.lil d e n . l i l den.ki d e n . k i dnerigal %erigal The Incantation The 13'. 13'. 14'. 14'. 15'. 15'. 16'. 16'.

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May your hand not touch touch the the table of your father, father, Enlil. Enlil. May LamaStu, be exorcised exorcised by by heaven, heaven, be exorcised exorcised by earth. earth. 0O LamaStu, Be Be exorcised exorcised.by the the Great Gods. Gods. lO A Lamastu-incantation. LamaStu-incantation.1° A

The 11 89 89 preserves preserves aversion a version of of the the incantantion that includes includes The amulet amulet YOS YOS 11 both the the phrase an.ki.7!.bi an.ki.7I.bi (seven (seven heavens heavens and and earths), earths), as as well well as as an.7.bi an.7.bi ki. ki.7. 7.bi (YOS (YOS 11 1189:3, 89:3, 7; 7; see see Appendix Appendix C, 6 , no. no. 2). 2).

The The Gods Gods in in TIM TIM 99 63 63 6' 6' In In TIM TIM 99 63 63 6' 6' four four gods gods are are invoked invoked in in sequence sequence at at the the start start of of the the incanincantation: tation: An, An, Enlil, Enlil, Enki, Enki, and and Nergal. Nergal. These These gods gods are are leading leading gods gods of of their cosmic cosmic regions. regions.In In the the Sumerian Sumerian pantheon, pantheon, An An is is the the king king of of heaven, heaven, Enlil Enlil is is the the king king of of the the earth's earth's surface, surface, and and Enki Enki is is the the king king of of the the Apsu. Apsu. The'god The'god Nergal Nergal obtains obtains the the kingship kingship of of the the underworld underworld by by marrying marrying the the Sumerian Sumerian queen queen of of this this region, region, Ereskigal, EreSkigal, in in the the Akkadian Akkadian epic epic Nergal Nergal and and Ereskigal. EreSkigal. Although Although the the earliest earliest copy copy of of this this epic epic is is from from the the Amarna Amarna Period Period (EA (EA 357), 357), Nergal Nergal is is already already soversovereign in in the the underworld underworld as as early early as as the the Ur Ur III-period 111-period Sumerian Sumerian literary literary work work eign ll The Death oi Ur-Nammu: The of Ur-Nammu:l1 dnerigal dnerigalden.lil den.lil kur.ra.ra kur.ra.ra s i p a ur. ~ r d. nammu.ke ~ n a m r n u .4ke.gal.a.na 6.gal.a.na e, giS im.ma.ab.tag.ge im.ma.ab.tag.ge sipa giS Kramer, JCS JCS 21 21 114:89-90 11439-90 S.Kramer, S. To To Nergal, Nergal, the the "Enlil "Enlil of of the the Underworld;' Underworld: the shepherd shepherd Ur-Nammu Ur-Nammu offers offers aa sacrifice sacrifice in in his his palace. palace. the Hence, Hence, the the four four gods gods in in the the incantation incantation are are listed listed in in descending descending order order according according to to the the location location of of their their cosmic cosmic kingdoms. kingdoms.

Cosmic Region Region Cosmic

God God

Heaven Heaven Earth's Surface Earth's Surface Apsu Underworld Underworld

An An Enlil Enlil Enki Enki Nergal Nergal

For ddlm.me ddim.me== lamastu, lamas'tu,see see CAD CAD LL 66 66 lamastu lamas'tu lexical lexical and and bilingual bilingual sections. sections. 10 For For aa bilingual bilingual parallel parallel to to TIM TIM 99 63 638-13, 8-13, see see CT CT 16 1611 11vv 56-62. 56-62. The The second-person second-personproproFor nominal suffix s u f i zu zu in in TIM TIM 99 63:13 63:13demonstrates demonstrates that that the the verbs verbs with with prefix prefix bara bhra in in lines lines nominal 9'-13' 9'-13' must must be be second second person. person. l1For For Nergal Nergal as as King King of of the the Underworld Underworld before before the the Kassite Kassite period, period, see see AOAT AOAT 11 1I \ 11 14-15; 14-15; W. W.G. G.Lambert, Lambert,BiOr BiOr 30 30 356. 356.

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"Seven "Seven Heavens Heavens and Seven Seven Earths"

The The Incantation I n c a n t a t i o n an.7.bi ki.7.bi.da ki.7.bi.da AMT AMT 103, 103, an exemplar of the third tablet of the medical series UGU (see (see HKL 2 284) 284) preserves an incantation that apparently opens with the words 'seven heavens and and seven earths': earths': EN 6~ an.7.bi an.7.bi ki.[7.b]i.da ki.[7.b]i.da be.7.bi h6.7.bi dutu dutu nam.tar.ra nam.tar.ra n[a] n [ a ]m.ba.lub.k m.ba.1uh.k[u.g] [ii.g]aa u.me.lub u.me.luh nam.mu.un.da.a.bur.ra nam.mu.un.da.a.bGr.ra nam.mu.un.da.a.la.e: nam.mu.un.da.a.18.e : al.li al.li ma.da ma.da.bi ma.da.bi den.ki den.ki lugal abzu.ke abzu.ke4 4: ki .ga.ke nam.mu.un.da.an.bur.re: dasal.l u.bi dumu.eridu dasal.lG.hi dumu.eriduki.ga.ke4 4 nam.mu.un.da.an.bGr.re: zi an.na be.pa b6.pB zi zi kLa ki.a be.pa h6.pB zi an.na AMT AMT 1038-12 103 8-12 Incantation: Incantation: Seven Seven heavens and and [seven] [seven]earths, earths, seven seven firmaments, firmaments, oO Utu who who determines the the destinies. destinies. May May you make make binding the the absolution absolution when one one washes washes with pure wash. wash. Land by land 0O Enki, Enki, king king of the the Apsu, Apsu, Asallubi, son of Eridu, Eridu, may you absolve. absolve. Asalluhi, son Be Be exorcised exorcised by heaven, heaven, be exorcised exorcised by earth. earth. In the ki. 7.bi.da appears appears as as part of an an opening chain chain of the incantation, an.7.bi a n . 7.bi ki.7.bLda cosmographic 7. bi may be idencosmographic terms. terms. Utu is is the the Sumerian Sumerian sun-god sun-god and and be. h6.7.bi identified tified with the the sky, sky, because because the the Sumerian Sumerian element be 136 appears appears in Sumerian Sumerian equivalents of Akkadian 5upuk sarn.e Samg 'firmament, 'firmament, sky' sky' (see (see pp. pp. 240-41). AlAlAkkadian supuk though though this this context context suggests suggests that that 'seven 'seven heavens and and seven seven earths' earths' may may be be 14 14 cosmic cosmic regions, regions, the the editor editor of of UGU UGU may may have have understood understood an.7.bi a n . 7.bi ki.7.bi.da ki. 7.bi.da as as 14 14 demons demons in in heaven and and earth, earth, because because 14 14 statuettes statuettes are are used used in in the the ritual ritual acaccompanying companying the the incantation (see (see AMT AMT 103:14). 103:14).

lncantations Incantations with w i t h Seven Seven AN AN Signs Signs Incantations beginning AN signs signs may may be be related to to the the phrases phrases beginning with with seven seven AN an.7 and an. 7. bio In various versions of the incantation AN.AN.AN.AN.AN.AN.AN,12 a n . 7 and a n . 7.bi. In various versions of the AN.AN.AN.AN.AN.AN.AN,~~ AN AN may may be be understood as as the the Sumerian Sumerian name name for for heaven, heaven, and and each each individual individual AN AN sign may invoke one of seven heavens. In one such incantation, seven sign may invoke one of seven heavens. In one such incantation, seven KI KI signs signs that that may may invoke invoke seven seven earths earths follow follow seven seven AN AN signs: signs: EN 6~ een. n .nni.i .nnu. u .nnaa an.an.an.an.an.an.an an.an.an.an.an.an.an ki. ki. ki .ki. ki. ki. ki ki.ki.ki.ki.ki.ki.ki sSu.S ~ . S u.S U . S u.S U . S U.su.su.su U.SU.SU.SU bara. bara. bara. bara. bara. bara. bara b8ra.b8ra.b6ra.b8ra.bAra,b8ra.bAra X.X.X.X.X.x.x x.x.x.x.x.x.~ 12 12 For For related related incantations, incantations, see see M. M. Tonietti, Tonietti, OrNs OrNs 48 48 311-12. 311-12. Note Note that that NBC NBC 3830 3830 is is YOS YOS 11 1166, 66, not not 64b. 64b.Compare Compare also also EA EA 355. 355.

an.7 ki.7 ki.7 and an.7.bi an.7.bi ki.7.bi The Lists Beginning an.7 The

215

• J • ! . !.. nIn . .., nI. n ..J nln. • J nln .. n In .. nI. n ..! nln nin!.nin!.nin!.nin!.nin!.nin!.nin! ezen ?ezen·?ezen ?ezen ?ezen ?ezen ?ezen?13 ezen?.ezen-?.ezen?.ezen?.e~en?.ezen?.ezen?'~ BIN 2 16 16 1-8

signs (W. (W.G. G.Lambert, Lambert, Iraq opens with astring a string of nine AN signs Another incantation opens 38 A), and and the the first first two two lines lines of the the partially preserved incantation YOS YOS 11 11 38 62 62 A), 67 11-18 11-18 preserves preserves room room for for at at least nine nine AN and and KI signs. signs. Nonetheless, Nonetheless, the the 67 mere and KI signs signs does does not prove prove the the existence existence of seven, seven, nine, me re repetition of AN and or more more heavens and and earths. earths. In Maqlu I 37, 37, for for example, example, er$etu erSetu is is repeated three tim times an invocation invocation of the the underworld. underworld. This This invocation invocation in no no way three es in an proves proves the existence existence of three underworlds. underworlds.

The The Lists Lists Beginning Beginning an.7 an.7 ki.7 and and an.7.bi an.7.bi ki.7.bi Both me.se me.Sk ba.da.dal ba.da.da1 and and be.daddag.ge b6.daddag.ge an a n den.lfl den.lilden.ki den.ki dnerigal dnerigal list aa number of items items after an a n and and ki. ki. The The former lists lists winds winds (IM), (IM),great winds winds gal), and and fires fires (izi), (izi),followed followed by igi, igi, bar, bar, bar.ta, bar.ta, and and bar.ta.igi. bar.ta.igi. The The sursur(IM.gal), viving examples examples of the the latter incantation list six six items items in addition to to en e n and and su, su, viving 63. These These are are dU du,6 (hills), (hills),za zB (sides), (sides),gaba g a b a (chests), (chests),bara b8ra appear in TIM TIM 99 63. which appear (daises), (daises), haI ha1 (crotches), (crotches),and and bar b a r (backs). (backs).It is is likely, likely, however, however, that the the priests who who recited the the incantations did did not fully fully understand the the meaning meaning of the the lists lists beginning with an a n and and ki. ki. In the the Akkadian Akkadian Utukku-Lemnutu Utukku-Lemnutuincantation CT CT 51 51 142, 7 is me.Si: ba.da.dal ba.da.da1 beginning an. a n .77 ki. ki.7 is not translated 142, the the extract extract from from me.se from from Sumerian Sumerian into into Akkadian. Akkadian. This This suggests suggests that the list here was was recited as as aa 14 magical magical "hocus-pocus" "hocus-pocus" formula. formula.14

Non-Cosmographic Non-Cosmographic Items in i n the the Lists Many Many of of the the items items listed listed after after an a n and and ki ki are are not not cosmographic cosmographic features, features. instance, the the last last four four items items listed listed in in me.se me.Si: ba.da.dal ba.da.da1 (igi, (igi, bar, bar, bar.ta, bar.ta, \ For instance, bar.ta.igi) may refer to to demons demons surrounding surrounding the the supplicant. supplicant. In In Sumerian Sumerian literliterbar. ta.igi) may ary ary texts, texts, igi igi and and bar b a r occur occur together in in contexts contexts where where they they refer refer to to the the front front and Descent, demons demons and back of of human beings beings and and gods. gods. For For example, example, in in Inanna's Descent, guard Inanna at at the the front, front, back, back, and and sides sides of of the the goddess goddess when she she is is allowed allowed to to leave leave the the underworld underworld in in search search of of aa substitute: s u b s t i t ~15t e : ~ ~ 13 l3 The The sign sign in in BIN BIN 22 16:6 16:6also also occurs occurs in in W. W.G. G. Lambert, Lambert, Iraq Iraq 3862:3 38 62:3 and and PBS PBS 1333 13 33 2-3. 2-3. M. M. Tonietti Tonietti (OrNS (OrNS 48 48 311-12) 311-12) reads reads the the sign sign udug. udug. If If udug u d u g isis the the correct correct reading, reading, then 16:6 apparently apparently refers refers to to seven seven demons; demons; cf. cf. OrNS OrNS 48 48 310 310 n. n. 2l. 21. The The "boxes" "boxes" then BIN BIN 22 16:6 of of the the nin n i n and and ezen e z e n signs signs in in line line 88 are are uninscribed uninscribed in in the the copy. copy The The ezen e z e n sign sign might might therefore therefore be be read read bad b8d or or represent represent any any of of the the EZENxX EZENXX group group of of signs. signs. l4 For For the the possibility possibility of of Elamite Elamite personal personal names names recited recited as as "magical "magical mumbomumbo14 jumbo" in in versions versions of of ANANAN.ANAN.ANAN, AN.AN.AN.AN.AN.AN.AN,see see W. W. G. G. Lambert, Lambert, RA RA 7794-95. 77 94-95. See See also also W. W. Farber, Farber, Schlaf, Schlaf, Kindchen, Kindchen, Schlaf! Schlaf! 144-45. 144-45. 15 l5 For For these these meanings meanings of of igi igi and and bar, bar, see see PSD PSD B B 93 93 bar bar A A l.2 1.2 and and note note the the bilinbilingual The Blessing of of Nissaba (w. (W.Hallo, Hallo, Rencontre Rencontre Assyriologique Assyriologique 17 17 125 125 vii vii gual passage passage in in The 44) 44) where where bar b a r corresponds corresponds to to warku warku 'back'. 'back'. See See also also B. B.Alster, Alster, Dumuzi's Dumuzi's Dream Dream p.p. 95 95 and and Sladek Sladek ID ID pp. pp. 216-17. 216-17.

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216

"Seven "Seven Heavens and Seven Earths"

The The Lists Beginning an.7 an.7 ki.7 ki.7 and an.7.bi an.7.bi ki.7.bi ki.7.bi

lu giSgidri su bi.in.du8 113 igi.na sukkal nU.me.a nu.me.a@gidri Su bi.in.du8 bar.ra.na ra.gaba nU.me.a giStukul ur.ra bi.in.la nu.me.a W u k u l hr.ra bi.in.18 gaI ga15.18.tur.tur gi.Sukur.gim 5 .la.tur.tur gUukur.gim gal,.lB.gal.gal gi.dub.ba.an.na.gim zB.ga.na ga1 u b. ba.an.na.gim za.ga.na 5 .la.gal.gal gi.d ba.an.dab,.be.eS ba.an.dab 5 ·be.es Sladek I.D. LD. 139:291-140:294 139:291-140:294

heaven and earth that can be compared to the three superimposed heavens and earths 01' of KAR 307 30-38. A tradition of seven heavens and seven earths was popular in the Near East during the later part of the first millennium B.C.E. B.C.E. and the first millennium C.E. Surviving Hebrew and Arabic texts from this time present cosmographies cosmographies C.E. in which seven heavens and earths are explained in detaiL detail. For example, the Hebrew Book of beionging to the of Enoch speaks of seven superimposed heavens belonging seven archangels. archangels. In Enoch, these heavens rise above above the spheres of the sun, sun, moon, mo on, stars, and planets.17 planetsP The Koran similarly speaks of seven heavens in Sura 65 65 verse 12 12 and Sura 78 verse 12. 12. The earlier verse also also alludes to the existence of seven analogous analogous earths: earths:18 l8

The one at her front was not a vizier, he held a scepter. scepter. The one at her back was not a courier, he carried a mace at his thigh. thigh. The small demons like a reed hut, the large demons like reed fencing dung clung to her side. side. ba.da.dal may refer to demons This suggests suggests that igi.7 igi.7 and bar.7 in me.se me.56 ba.da.da1 that go in front of and behind the supplicant. Similarly, bar.ta. 7 can refer to Similarly, bar.ta.7 the demons at the sides of the supplicant, since bar.ta, like za, supplicant, zB, is equated with abu ('arm, side') in bilingual texts such as SBH no. 67: 16 ahu no. 67:l6 ....krirn.d&.km erim.de.em bar.ta ba.da.gub.be. ba.da.gub.be.[en] [en] . . . ki-ma a-a-bi a-a-bi a-bi-i a-hi-i ta-az-zi-[iz] ta-ax-xi-[iz] SBH p. p. 119 rev. 7-8 119 no. no. 67 rev. 7-8 Like an enemy you stand at the side. side. Thus the chain igi. bar.ta.7 igi. 7 bar. 7 b ar.t a. 7 may be translated 'they are seven (demons) (demons) at the front, front, they are seven (demons) (demons) at the back, they are seven (demons) (demons) at the side'. bar. ta.igi. 7 is not attested elsewhere, but may be a comside'. The final phrase bar.ta.igi.7 compound of bar. ta t a and igi meaning 'front-side'. be.daddag.ge an Most of the items listed in h6.daddag.ge a n den.lil den.lil den.ki den.ki dnerigal dnerigal seem to refer to parts of the body afflicted by the lamastu-demons. lamas'tu-demons. For instance, TIM 9 63 bi (seven bodies), and other versions 63 itself preserves the phrase su. su. 7. 7.bi (seven bodies), versions baI ('crotches'), bar of the incantation list za z B ('sides'), gaba g a b a ('chests'), ('chests'), ha1 ('crotches'),and b a r ('backs'). Thus both an. 7 and an. bi may refer to demons that originated a n . 77 ki. ki.7 a n . 7. 7.bi ki. k i . 7. 7.bi in heaven and earth, but later came to surround the supplicant, or invade his body. body.

217

It is Allah who created the seven heavens: heavens: and concerning the earth, (it (it is) is) simisimilar to them. them.

There is, however, no evidence to prove a direct connection between these later cosmographies and a possible Sumerian tradition of seven Hebrew and Arabic cosmographies heavens and earths earths.. evidence for seven superimposed heavens Despite the absence of direct evidence and earths in Sumerian and Akkadian texts, texts, indirect evidence for understanding a n . 7 ki.7, an.7 ki.7, an.7.bi an.7.bi ki.7.bi, ki.7.bi, and an.ki.7.bi.da an.ki.7.bi.da as allusions allusions to 14 14 cosmic regions regions available. If If the phrases in the incantations allude to multiple heavens and is available. earths, then these incantations invoke the heavens and earths to cure a supplicant. Such invocations of cosmic cosmic regions regions do occur in a number of other incantacant. tions. For example, example, Maqlu I 37 invokes invokes en;etu tions. ersetu 'earth' by repeating the cosmic place-name three times at the start of an incantation, and the medical incantation AMT 32/1 3211 rev. rev. 1-3 begins by invoking invoking KUR u KURND.CI KUR.NU.GI,.A 4.A 'earth and (see p. underworld' (see p. 278). 278). Similarly, Similarly, zi-formulas invoking IM.7.bi r ~ . 7 . b i'the seven winds' and an.ki.ub.da.lfmmu an.ki. u b.d a.1i m m u 'the four quarters of heaven and earth' (E. (E. Ebeling, 21 397:77-78) can be compared with the formula zi.an.na zi.an.na h6.pB bng, ArOr 21 be.pa zi.ki.a h6.pB be.pa in the incantations me.se ba.da.dal and h6.daddag.ge be.daddag.ge an me.Si: ba.da.da1 an den.lil ner igal,l9 den.lil den.ki den.ki ddnerigal.lg

Interpretationsofan.7 Interpretations of a n . 7 ki.7, an.7.bi an.7.bi ki.7.bi, ki.7.bi, an.7.bi an.7.bi ki.7.bLda ki.7.bi.da There are at least three possible interpretations of an.7 a n . 7 ki.7, ki. 7, an.7.bi a n . 7.b i ki.7.bi, ki.7.bi, and an.7.bi a n . 7.bi ki.7.bi.da. ki. 7.bi.da.First, the phrases could be understood literally 14 separate cosmic cosmic regions. regions. Second, Second, they may be taken figurafiguraas referring to 14 tively to mean 'all of heaven and all of earth' or 'all heavens and earths', because the numeral seven is sometimes translated from Sumerian into Akkadian as kiski3satu 'all, entirety' (see s'atu (see CAD K 457). 457). Third, the phrases can be understood to refer to demons in heaven and earth. earth. 1. 1. Seven Superimposed Heavens and Earths. It is conceivable that the incantations preserve a Sumerian tradition of seven superimposed levels of

aau

16 baLta and bar.ta.bi.56 baLta.bLSe corresponding to ahu 'side', see PSD B 103-4 bar l6 For bar.ta A Bil. Bil. 4-5.

17 l7 For a general overview of Jewish cosmography, cosmography, see L. L. Jacobs in Ancient CosCosmologies mologies 66-84, 66-84, and for additional references to multiple heavens in Hebrew texts, texts, see The ]ewish Encyclopedia sub "heavens." The Jewish "heavens." See H. H. Odeberg, 3 Enoch Part II I1 46-48 46-48 for a list of angels angels belonging to each heaven. heaven. 18 l8 For an overview of Islamic cosmography, cosmography, 'see see E. E. Jachimowicz Jachimowicz in Ancient CosCosmologies mologies 143-71. 19 l9 Note also further examples in n. n. 11 (p. (p. 208). 208). The powers of the underworld ininvoked in AMT 32/1 3211 may be compared with the powers of the gates of the underworld to bless Kaka, Kaka, the vizier of Anu, in Nergal and Ereskigal (0. (0.R. R. Gurney, Gurney, AnSt 10 10 108:19') and the blessing of the doors doors of heaven in Abel-Winckler Abel-Winckler p. 59:1-6: 591-6: o 0 Sun-god, Sun-god, when you enter "Heaven's Interior (an.sa);' (an.$&):' may the bolt of the clear heavens say "hello." doors of the heavens bless you. p. 248) May the doors you. (See (See p. 248) Note also biblical parallels paralleis in Psalms 19:2; 192; 24:7-10; 96:11-12. 96:11-12.

219 219

"Seven Heavens Heavens and and Seven Seven Earths" Earths" "Seven

The The Lists Lists Beginning Beginning an.7 an.7 ki.7 ki.7 and and an.7.bi an.7.bi ki.7.bi ki.7.bi

The The grammatical grammatical structure structure of of the the phrase phrase an. a n .7.am 7.Bm ki. ki.7.am 7.8m in in the the SumerSumerian V) also also allows allows for for aa SumerSumerian portion portion of of CT CT 16 16 14 14 iii iii 25-26 25-26 (Utukku-Lemnutu (Utukku-Lemnutu V) ian ian tradition tradition of of seven seven heavens heavens and and earth, earth, despite despite the the Akkadian Akkadian translation translation ina ina 1im sibitma e sibit s'amge sibit ina ina er$etim ersetimtim sibitma 'in 'in heaven heaven seven, seven, in in earth earth seven'. seven'. In In The The same Sumerian Flood Flood Story, Story, aa parallel construction construction uu4.7.8m gi6.7.8m refers to to seven seven Sumerian 4 .7.am gi ß .7.am refers days and and nights: nights: days

or refer to to heaven heaven and and earth earth in in their their entireties, entireties, just as as pairs pairs of of an a n and and ki ki signs signs or refer in Sumerian hymn hymn to to Inanna Inanna offer offer no no proof proof that that the the universe universe consisted consisted of of exexin aa Sumerian actly actly two two heavens heavens and and earths: earths:

218

a.ma.ru a.ma.ru ugu.KAB.dug u g u . ~ ~ ~ . 4d.ga u gba.an.da.ab.ur.e ba.an.da.ab.iir.e ~.ga gi6.7.8m uu4.7.8m ·7.am gi ·7.am 4 ß a.ma.ru kalam.ma kalam.ma ba.ur.ra.ta ba.iir.ra.ta a.ma.ru Flood Story Story 202-4 Sumerian Flood Sumerian

The flood flood swept swept over over the the top top of of ... ... The The The days days were were seven, seven, the the nights nights were were seven. seven. the flood flood swept swept over over the the land, land, After the Thus, Thus, by comparison, comparison, Sumerian Sumerian an. a n .7.am 7.8m ki. ki.7.am 7.Bm in in CT CT 16 16 14 14 iii iii 25 25 should should be be translated translated 'the 'the heavens heavens are are seven, seven, the the earths earths are are seven'. seven'. The The Akkadian Akkadian translatranslation tion in in CT CT 16 16 14 14 iii iii 26 26 is, is, in in any any case, case, problematic. problematic. The The Sumerian Sumerian line line (iii (iii 25) 25) inincludes cludes no no locatives locatives that that correspond correspond to to ina ina in in the the Akkadian Akkadian line line (iii (iii 26), 26),while while the the structure 7.am (noun structure of of the the terms terms an.7.am an.7.8m ki. ki.7.8m (noun ++ number number ++ am) Bm) follows follows aa nornormal ma1 pattern for for expressing expressing plurality in in Sumerian Sumerian (see (see M. M. L. L. Thomsen, Thomsen, The The SuSumerian Language, Language, 83 83 no. no. 140 140 [115], [115],276 276 no. no. 543). 543). Furthermore, Furthermore, an.7.am an.7Am ki.7.am ki.7.8m occurs occurs in in iii iii 25-26 just before the the exorcism exorcism of of the the lamastu-demons lamas'tu-demons by heaven and and earth earth in in iii iii 27-28. Thus, Thus, an. a n .7.am 7.8m ki. ki.7.am 7.8m may may have have invoked invoked seven seven heavens and and earths earths in in the the original original Sumerian Sumerian incantation, incantation, despite despite the the Akkadian Akkadian translatransla20 If so, tionZ0 so, the the author(s) author(s) of the the original original incantation, as as weH well as as those those of me.se me.S6 tion. ba.da.da1 and and be.daddag.ge f?k.daddag.gean a n den.l:il den.Iilden.ki den.ki dnerigal, dnerigaI,may have known known aa ba.da.dal cosmography cosmography based on on seven seven heavens and earths that was no no longer known, known, or the bilingual edition of Utukku-Lemnutu Utukku-Lemnutu was was prepared. prepared. This This not popular, when the also explain why the the author of the the Akkadian Akkadian Utukku-Lemnutu Utukku-Lemnutu incantaincantamight also tion CT CT 51 51 142 142 omits omits aa translation of the the Sumerian Sumerian refrain beginning an. a n .77 ki. ki,77 tion altogether. 2. 2. "AU '%All oi of Heaven and and Earth, Earth, All Heavens Heaveus and and Earths." Earths:' Even if an.7 an.7 ki. 7 and and an. a n .7. 7.bi ki. ki. 7. 7.bi do do indeed refer to to cosmic cosmic regions regions rather than dedeki.7 mons, it cannot be certain that there are exactly seven heavens and seven earths. As noted above, the numeral "7" in Sumerian texts is sometimes translated in Akkadian as kissatu ('all, entirety').21 Thus, it is possible that "seven heavens, seven seven earths' in the the Sumerian Sumerian incantations edited edited above above could could refer to to heavens, an unspecified unspecified number of heavens and and earths earths that comprise comprise the the entire entire universe universe an 20 20 Sumerian forerunners forerunners to to the the bilingual bilingual Utukku-Lemnutu Utukku-Lemnutuincantations incantations are are pubpubM. Geiler GelIer in in Forerunners Forerunners to to Udugfjul, UdugfJul,1985, 1985. lished by M. 21 21 See See CT CT 16 16 13 13 iii iii 18 18 7.am 7.8m dingir d i n g i r 7.am.mes 7.8m.meS == sibit ilänu &nu kissati; ki55ati;CAD GAD K 457; 457; Nabnitu 1436 14 36 (MSL (MSL 16 16 135); 135);Lu I 52 52 (MSL (MSL 1294); 12 94);Leichty Leichty Izbu 220:309 220:309 (Summa-Izbu (Summa-lzbu Commentary); W. W. Schramm, Schramm, OrNS OrNS 39 39 406:11-14. 406:ll-14. Commentary);

nin n'i.gal n i n an.an.se an.an.S&ki.ki.se ki.ki.56 nl.Sl1sa.zu ni.sh"SB.zu ni.ga1 a.ba.a a.ba.a mu.e.da.an.zu mu.e.da.an.zu CT CT 36 36 34:16-17 34:16-17 (cf. (cf.CT CT 36 36 34:22; 34:22; D. D. Foxvog, Foxvog, Fest. Fest. Hallo Hal10 104) 104) Lady Lady throughout throughout the the heavens, heavens, throughout the the earths, earths, the the matters of of your your heart are are great: great, Who Who can can comprehend comprehend you? YOU? 3. The third possibility, possibility, that 3. "Seven "Seven Demons Demons in in Heaven Heaven and and Earth:' Earth." The an.7 a n . 7 ki.7 ki.7 and and an.7.bi an.7.bi ki.7.bi ki.7.bi refer to to demons demons in in heaven and and earths, earths, as as noted noted earlier, earlier, is is suggested suggested by by CT CT 16 16 14 14 iii iii 25-26 where where Sumerian Sumerian an.7.am an.7.8m ki.7.am ki. 7.8m 'heaven si-bit ina ina 'heaven seven, seven, earth earth seven' seven' is is translated translated into into Akkadian Akkadian as as ina ina same e si-bit 1im er$etim ersetimtimsi-bit-ma si-bit-ma'In 'In heaven they they are are seven, seven, in in earth earth they they are are seven': seven': 13. 13. Seven Seven gods gods of of the the broad broad heavens. heavens. 15. 15. Seven Seven gods gods of of the the broad broad land. land. 17. 17. Seven Seven robber gods. gods. 18. 18. Seven Seven gods, gods, all. all. 19. 19. Seven Seven evil evil gods. gods. 21. 21. Seven Seven evillamastu-demons. evil lamas'tu-demons. 23. 23. Seven Seven evil evil infectious infectious lamastu-demons. lamas'tu-demons. 25. 25. Heaven Heaven seven, seven, earth earth seven. seven. 26. 26. (Akkadian) (Akkadian)In In heaven seven, seven, in in earth earth seven. seven. 27. on, evil 27. 00 evil evil dem demon, evil devil, devil, evil evil ghost, ghost, evil evil ghoul, ghoul, evil evil god, god, evil evil prowler; 28. be exorcised by heaven, be exorcised by earth. eT V; see see p. p. 209) 209) CT 16 16 13 13 iii iii 13-14 13-14 iii iii 28 28 (Utukku-Lemnutu (Utukku-Lemnutu V; Here Here an.7.am a n .7.8m ki.7.am ki. 7.8m occurs occurs in line line 26 26 following following seven seven lines lines of the the incantaincantation Eamas'tu-demons (13-24), (13-24), but (as (as noted above) above) just betion that speak speak of seven seven lamastu-demons fore and earth in lines 27-28. In line line 25, 25, fore these these demons demons are are exorcised exorcised by heaven and the the Akkadian Akkadian translator understands understands an.7.am a n . 7.8m ki.7.am ki. 7.8m to to refer back to to the the 22 seven demons.22 seven demons demons although, although, as as preserved, CT CT 16 16 14 14 iii 27 27 names names only only six six demons. In TIM 63llOECT 55 55, 55, an.7.bi a n . 7.bi ki.7.bi ki. 7.bi occurs occurs in the invocation invocation against against TIM 99 63110ECT lamastu-demons f?k.daddag.ge an a n den.lfl den.lilden.ki denskidnerigal. dnerigaI. lamas'tu-demonsin the the incantation be.daddag.ge Further support for 7 with demons for the the identification identification of an.7 an.7 ki. ki.7 demons is is found found in AMT AMT 103, 103,where where the the recitation recitation of an. a n .7. 7.bi.ki. b i.ki.7. 7.bi.da bi. d a is is accompanied accompanied by aa ritual 22 22 The The six six demons demons of CT CT 16 16 13 13iii iii 27-28 also also appear in in sequence sequence in in Utukku-LemUtukku-Lemnutu 10, 10,followed followed by aa number of additional additional demons demons (see (see J.J. Prosecky, Prosecky, ArOr 43 43 249:94249:94250:108). also possible possible that the the winds, winds, great winds, winds, and and even even fires fires in in me.se me.Si: ba.da, ba.da. 250:108).It isis also dal dal can can also also be identified identified with demons. demons. Both Both the the long long Utukku-Lemnutu Utukku-Lemnutuincantation incantation The The Moon Moon God and the tlze Demons Demons (CT (CT 16 16 19-21 19-21 ++ duplicates) duplicates) and and the the Utukku-Lemnutu Utukku-Lemnutuincanincantation that includes 7.am (CT includes the the phrase an.7.am an.7.8m ki. ki.7.km (CT 16 16 13 13 iiii 65-14 iii iii 38) 38) refer to to seven seven wind-demons wind-demons and and demonic-storms. demonic-storms.Incantations against against isätu ii'dtu ('fixes' ('fires' == fevers) fevers) have been published by W. W. G. G. Lambert in AfO AfO 23 23 39-45.

"Seven "SevenHeavens and Seven Earths"

220

p. 214) using 14 14 figurines figurines (see (see p. 214) and in CT 51 51 142, 142, where a list of seven demons 23 follows follows the refrain beginning an. a n .7 ki.7: ki. 7:23

di-u-um su-ru-up-pu-u l;a-mi-tum di-G-ummu-ur-$um mu-ur-~um Su-ru-up-pu-G ha-mi-f;um e-te-em-mu e-@-em-mumu-ut-ta-ag-gi-su mu-ut-ta-ag-gi-Su sa-ag-ga-a-su Sa-ga-US-ti sa-ga-as-ti ilanu Sa-ag-ga-a-Su i k n u lemnutu(dingir.bul.a)mes lemn~tu (di n g i r.b u I. a)mes CT 51 51 142:4-6 Headache, Sickness, Sickness, Cold, Cold, Inflammation,24 Inflammati~n,~~ Roaming Ghost, Ghost, Murder, Murderess: evil gods. gods.

Conclusions The phrases an.7 ki.7, an.7.bi ki.7.bi and an.7.bi ki.7.bi.da in a n . 7 ki.7, an.7.bi ki.7.bi an.7.bi ki.7.bi.da Sumerian incantations may or may not refer to seven superimposed heavens and earths. earths. A tradition of seven heavens and earths does exist in later Hebrew and Arabic traditions, yet no surviving Mesopotamian text preserves a cosmos that includes more than three heavens and earths. earths. Furthermore, the Akkadian translators of the bilingual Utukku-Lemnutu Utukku-Lemnutupassage CT 16 16 14 14 iii 25-26 25-26 understood an.7.am an.7.8m ki.7.am ki.7.8m to refer to seven demons in heaven and earth. earth. Nonetheless, it is possible that a Sumerian tradition of seven heavens and earths may be a source source for the later traditions of seven heavens and earths, although such a tradition is never expressed in surviving Akkadian materials. A solution to this problem may await the discovery discovery of Akkadian translations of the Sumerian incantations examined above. above. 23 See ba.da.dal in K. 2542/IBAM See CAD L 200 lippu b for the recitation of me.se me.5 b ba.da.da1 2542lBAM 354 in conjunction with rituals employing seven lappu lappu and riksu ('burls' and 'knots'). 24 The disease b-amitum barniturn is not found elsewhere but is apparently derived from the verb b-amatu bamdtu 'to burn, to be inflamed', which does occur in medical texts (see (see CAD tl H 64 b-amatu B b).

Part Par 11 The Regions of the Universe

Chapter 10

Names for Heaven

an

=

samu, sama"u, samamu

The most common names for 'heaven' in Sumerian and Akkadian texts are Sumerian an and Akkadian samu. 1 Both names are used in all periods and genres, and both appear as names for heaven as a whole, or for individual levels of heaven as in KAR 307 and AO 8196, where the three heavens are the samu elutu, samu qablUtu, and samu saplutu (upper, middle, and lower heavens). Sumerian an is a singular noun. This name for heaven is also the Sumerian name for the king of the heavens, the god An. It occurs numerous times as a name for all of heaven in the cosmic pair an.ki ('heaven and earth'). Likewise, an is separated from ki in Sumerian accounts of the separation of heaven and earth (see pp. 135-42). There are also almost countless examples of an as a name for the sky where stars shine and birds fly, such as passages where stars are called mul.an.na ('star of heaven') and birds are called musen.an.na ('bird of heaven').2 Akkadian samu, unlike Sumerian an, is a plural noun. The name is a cognate of the most common names for heaven in other Semitic languages, including Arabic W (sama"u) , Aramaic il"~iZi (semaya) , and Hebrew tl'~iV (samayim). In Akkadian, the name for heaven occurs both in the contracted form samu, as well as the uncontracted forms sama"u and samamu. The contracted form samu, originally *samawu, is by far the most common and is used 1 For lexical ex~mples of an = samu, see CAD Sfl 339-40; AHw 1160. For the name written ag, see Sulgi B 198 'Q' mul.ag.ga (G. Castellino, Two Shulgi Hymns 5051). For a writing sa-mu-ma at Ugarit, see Ugaritica V 246:33", 247:13; and cf. sa-mu-maf sa-me-ma at El-Amarna (EA 211:17; 264:16). For unusual Sumerian plural writings an. an, see CT 36 34:16-17 (above, p. 219) and Racc. 129:17-130:18. 2 ~or musen.an.na, see, for example, Inanna and Enki 30:9; CT 38 20:70 (Namburbi); SGL I 17:118. For mul.an.na see Fest. Kramer 88:49, 67 and CAD K 46 kakkabu. See also TCS III 138 n. 480, CAD Sf1 344-45.

223

224

andurunna 'Where Anu Dwells'

Names for Heaven

in all genres in all periods. Although the origins of samu are unknown, a learned etymology is offered in the series Inamgisl;uranki: . .. 1 same~ an )e sa me~(a)mes ... CT 25 50:17 (Livingstone 32:6) v

(

v

... ] heaven: (composed) of water, ... This explanation reflects a tradition that the heavens were fashioned from water. In Ee IV 137-46, for example, Marduk fashions the heavens from the watery corpse of Tiamat. Another connection between the name of heaven and water is that a singular homonym samu (samum with mimation) means 'rain'. The uncontracted forms most often occur in literary texts, because samu cannot end a line of poetry. The two forms are popular in different periods. The form samii'Jil is popular in second-millennium literary works such as Old Babylonian Etana (Kinnier-Wilson Etana 30:13, 36:35), Old Babylonian Atra-l;asis (Lambert-Millard Atra-hasls 94:48), and a passage in an Old Assyrian Lamastu incantation: 3

a-nu-um a-bu-sa is-tu sa-ma-e

i-pu-~a-Si qa-qa-ar-su-um

BIN 4 126:10-13 Anu, her father, cast her (lamastu) down from heaven earthward. The second form, samamil, is popular in the first millennium and is treated as a separate name for heaven in Malku, where samamil is listed as a synonym for samu (CT 18 10 iii 22). This form apparently retains the final consonant w, with w changing to m. An identical phenomena is found in the synonyms mu and mamil 'water' (see A. Rainey, Tel Aviv 3 131:1; W. G. Lambert, Fest. Reiner 192:63. 4 Almost all examples of samamil occur in literary works, incantations, or stock phrases such as such as 'star of heaven' (kakkab samelsamami), 'bird of heaven' (i~~ilr samelsamami), 'writing of heaven' (sitir samelsamami) and samamil u qaqqaru 'heaven and earth'.5 Early examples of samamil occur in an Old Babylonian hymn to IStar (VAS 10213:6',8', 10'). In addition to the numerous examples of the equation an = samu in bilingual texts and lexical lists, an is equated with asru in Commentary B to Enuma Elish (see J Bottero, Fest. Finklestein 13:135), and samu is equated with a number of rare Sumerian names for heaven in lexical lists (these names are examined below, pp. 228-33). Three more Akkadian synonyms of samu (burilmil, asru, and ermi danim) are listed in Malku II (See CAD SI1 340). 3 Note also Thompson Gilg. 20:6; JRAS Cent. Suppi. (1924) 73:29; R. Nougayrol, RA 45 174:61; CH II: 31; C. Walker, AnSt 33 148:37, 39; Ludlul I 9,11; W. G. Lambert, Fest. Moran 293 LE with the note on p. 294; and cf. F. Al-Rawi, RA 86 79:9 sa-ma. 4 For the synonyms memil and mamil, see p. 62. 5 Note, for instance, Streck Asb. 258:33, 268:20; BAM 127:10; CT 1643:70-71; CT 1719:11-12; VAB 4 74:2, 86 ii 2; Erra I 127, 134; BBR II 98:41; Or 17420:3 (= Ebeling Parfum Rez. pI. 49:3) with the writing AN-ma-mi. Note also the use of both samu and samamil in Ee IV 137-46.

225

andurunna 'Where Anu Dwells' The term andurunna, literally 'Where Anu Dwells', occurs as a cosmic place-name in Enuma Elish, "An Address of Marduk to the Demons;' and an incantation to Enmesarra. The meaning of the term is explained in a Balaghymn where andurunna occurs in a non-cosmic context: ki an.dur.ru.na.[se] u.mi.a mar.ma.an.ze.en a-sar da-nu-um [us-sa-b]u ni-si l;i-sa-nu ki an.dur.ru.na.se da.nun.na ki an.dur.ru.na.se u.mi.a mar.ma.an.ze.en SBH p. 44 rev. 33-36 (Cohen Balag 227-28)

o people, hurry to where Anu dwells. Anunna, (hurry) to where Anu dwells. o people, hurry to where Anu dwells. Only in the incantation to Enmesarra is it certain that andurunna is a name for heaven. Here, andurunna is paired with the name for earth er~etum, just as another name for heaven, asru is paired with the underworld name kurnugu:

bel as-ri u kur-nu-gi4 sa-du-u sa da-nun-na-ki pa-ri-is purusse(eS.bar) er~etimtim mar-kas rabu u sa an-durun-na R. Borger, ZA 61 77:43-44 (Enmesarra) Lord of Heaven and Underworld, Mountain of the Anunnaki, Determiner of the Destinies of Earth, Great Bond of andurunna. In Ee I 23-24, the place-name occurs long before the heavens are built. In An Address of Marduk to the Demons B:5 (w. G. Lambert, AfO 17 313), the name occurs in the epithet of Marduk-Asalluhi, mumaJir andurunna 'Commander of andurunna'. The name andurunna also occurs in the series An = Anum as the name of an official of Anu (CT 24 2:11; see p. 109). Here the divine name may have been intended to be read ddurun.na.

asru 'Place' Akkadian asru is a poetic name for heaven. Th~ name occurs only in lexical lists and literary texts. In Malku II 100 (see CAD SI1 340) and Commentary B to Ee VII 135 (Fest. Finklestein 13:135), asru is explained as a synonym of samu. In Ee VII 135 itself, asru is paired with the poetic name for earth danninu, and this same pair probably also occurred in a now-broken line of The Marduk Theology: asra ibnu iptiq[u dannina] (CT 25 47 K 8222 ii 12'). In two Nabu hymns (w. G. Lambert, JAOS 88130 rev. 6; Khorsabad II 130:13), asru is paired with the poetic name for the underworld, kigallu. In the incantation to Enmesarra (ZA 61 77:43-44), asru is paired with the underworld name, kurnugu.

Names for Heaven

226

asrata The cosmic place-name asrata occurs in Ee IV 141-42 and Ee V 121-22, but it is not certain from these contexts that asrata is an alternate name for the heavens (samu) that belong to Anu or a feature of these heavens (see p. 114). There are at least three possible explanations of the name. First, the name may be a feminine form of asru. Second, asrata may be related to the Babylonian plural form asrtltu from the noun asirtu 'shrine'. This form occurs in The Agum-Kakrime Inscription (5R 33 ii 43, iv 5) and a Nabopolassar inscription (VAB 4 86 i 4//JCS 26 67 no. 86:5). If so, asrata may refer in some way to shrines of the gods in heaven. Third, asrata may be related to the word asartu 'hard ground', which occurs with a construct form asrat (see CAD A/2 420). KAR 307 and AO 8196 preserve traditions that the floors of the heavens are made of hard stone.

burumu, burummu The term burumu is a common name for the level of the stars or the night sky in first-millennium texts. The name derives from the root bartlmu B 'to be speckled' (CAD B 103) and refers to the appearance of the night sky, where stars are seen as specks on a dark background. Like samu, burumu is a plural noun, as is demonstrated by the plural adjective in the term burumu ellutu 'clear night skies' (R. C. Thompson AAA 20 80:4; OIP 2 149 V 5). Passages identifying burumu as the night sky include an inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II, where a beautiful boat is said to sparkle like a kakkab burumu 'star of the night sky' (PBS 1579 ii 25), and a passage in a Neo-Assyrian inscription where the Moon-god illuminates the burumu:

[d]sin na-[an-na-ar same e u er$etiti] bel age (en.aga) mu-nam-mir bu-ru-me F. Thureau-Dangin, RA 2714:6-7 Sin, Mo[on-god of heaven and earth], Lord of the Lunar-disk, who illuminates the night-skies. Additional evidence identifying burumu as the region where the stars shine is found in the term sitir burume 'writing of the night sky', which refers to the fixed arrangement of stars in the sky. This sense of sitir burume is revealed in a hymn to Assur: [x x

k]i-ma si-tir bu-ru-um-me ul i-mes-sa a-dan-na SM 3 p. 4 no. 1:21 (BA 565321, cf. SM 3 p. 5 no. 1:24)

[who .. li]ke the "writing of the night sky" does not disregard a fixedtime. In astronomical contexts, the adannu of stars are the fixed times of their risings and settings over the course of the year. Thus, the adannu of sitir burume must refer to the regular pattern of stellar movement during the course of a year. Similarly, the term kippat burume u mtl[ttlti] 'circle of the night sky and the

elatu

227

lands', which occurs in a hymn to Marduk (SM 37:8), and kippat burume, in a hymn to Nabu (S. A. Strong, PSBA 20 156:16), refer to the circular shape of the sky on clear nights.

elatu The term elatu 'higher regions' is used both on its own and paired with sapltltu 'lower regions'. On many occasions, sapltltu is a name for the underworld (see pp. 292-91), so elatu can often be a name for any higher region, including both the heavens and earth's surface. For instance, in Underworld Vision 68-69 (SM 376 rev. 28-29), the prince is ordered back to the elatu during a dream and wakes up on the earth's surface. On a few occasions, however, elatu is clearly a name for the heavens or part of the sky. For instance, in MiddleAssyrian Etana, elatu occurs twice in broken contexts during Etana and the eagle's flight to heaven (Kinnier Wilson Etana 64 I1G 2', 66:10). Elsewhere, the Moon-god, Sun-god and !Star (Venus) shine in elatu. In Ee V 11-12, Marduk commands Nannar to appear in elatu (see p. 116); the Sun-god shines in the elatu in a bilingual incantation (A. Falkenstein, UVB 1536:5); and IStar (Venus) is said to sit on the dais of Anu in elatu in the Akkadian portion of The Exaltation of IStar (B. Hruska, ArOr 37 484:37-38, see p. 250).

ermi danim 'Anu's Cover' In Malku II 101 (see CAD S/1 340), ermi danim 'Anu's Cover' is listed as a synonym of samu. Apart from Malku, the term occurs three additional times in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions as a name for heaven paralleling the underworld name kigallu (OIP 2149 V 4; Ebeling Parfumrez. pI. 27:10; Borger Esarh. 75:3), and once in an epithet of the tuppi simtlti 'Tablet of Destinies':

[p]i-ris-ti sa-ma-mu it, es-m[ab-bi] [m]ar-kas er-mi a-nu u ga-an-$ir $er-ret t[e-ne-se-ti?] A. George, Iraq 48 135 B 4-5 (Tablet of Destinies) [S]ecret of Heaven and Great Shrine, Bond of "Anu's Cover" and Underworld, Lead-Rope of M[ankind?] Two passages in the inscriptions of Assurbanipal (Streck Ash. 148:26; Thompson Esarh. pl. 14 i 31) refer to ermi danim made of musukkannu-wood that are decorated to resemble the sky (samtlmeS). These wooden ermi danim are wooden ceilings or canopies of some sort. A comparable musukkannu-wood samu is built by Nebuchadnezzar II in VAB 4 164:12.6

esarra Akkadian esarra, like asrata, only occurs as a name for part of heaven in Enuma Elish. In Ee IV 145-46 and Ee V 119-20, the region of heaven named 6 For samu-canopies, including the golden samu of Esagil, see CAD SI1 348 2. Note also the canopy of Enki's boat an.ma.dill (see J. Klein, Fest. Artzi 93:19 n. 151).

Names for Heaven

228

eSarra belongs to Enlil and is located above the Apsu and earth's surface but below the heavens proper (samu/samame) that belong to Anu. The name esarra also occurs as a name for temples of various deities in various cities, including the temple of Assur in Assur and the temple of Enlil in Nippur (see George Temples 144-45). subat danim, subat same 'The Abode of Anu, Heaven'

The expression subat danim stands in apposition to the term samu rapsatu 'broad heavens' in the Akkadian portion of a passage from The Moon God and the Demons: an.dagal.la ki.tus an lugal.la.ke4 bul.dib.be sU8.ga gaba.ri nu.tuku.a.mes ina same e rap-su-ti su-bat da-nim sar-ri lem-nis iz-za-zu-ma ma-ai-ra ul i-su-u CT 16 19:48-51 In the broad heavens, the Abode of Anu the king, they stand angrily. They have no rival. A parallel term, subat same/SamaJi occurs in the prologue to the law-code of ljammurabi (CH ii 30-31) and the inscriptions of Tukulti-Ninurta I (Weidner TN 16:50-52). In the later text, the Assyrian king decorates a room, making it as beautiful as subat same. In a parallel from the inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser I (AKA 98:98-101), a room is decorated with stars to make it shine like the libbi same 'middle of heaven'. In this context, subat same is the sky where stars are seen at night.

Equivalences of samu A number of equivalences of samu 7 are known from lexical lists and commentaries. In lexical lists, these terms appear in the left "Sumerian" column, indicating that they are non-Akkadian words. Because most of the equivalences only occur in lexical lists, it is not always possible to determine if they are names for heaven or equivalences of the homonym samu meaning 'rain'. The List K. 2035 + ii 17-33

K. 2035+ (2R 50+) contains a list of equivalences of samu. At present, 17 of these equivalences are preserved: 8

Equivalences of samu

an na me mu e.nuen ge.eSgis im si.rimslr

sci-mu-u sci-mu-u sci-mu-u sci-mu-u sci-mu-u sci-mu-u Sci-mu-u sci-mu-u

si u.de.es.suAS zi.ku.umENGUR zi.ka.ra(IMxIM) e.nimNIM rel.dimidim ur5.ra.as DU!du lO x [x]UR

sci-mu-u sci-rnu-u Sci-mu-u Sci-mu-u s[ci-muj-u s[ci-muj-u s[ci-mu-u] s[ci-mu-u] s[ci-mu-u]

A much shorter list of equivalents is found in Nabnitu IV 371-73: 9 an idim ur5 .ra.as

Sci-rnu-u MIN MIN

MSL 1692 The Equivalences

na (K 2035+ ii 18). No examples of na 2035a+.

=

samu are known outside K.

me (K 2035+ ii 19). Sumerian me is also equated with samu in Izi E i 1 (MSL 13 185), Proto-Aa 71:7 (MSL 1491), and the commentary of An Address of Marduk to the Demons F: 8 (AfO 19 118). In the commentary, the syllable me of the word melammu is understood as a name for heaven while lam is equated with erl?etu 'earth'. Additional examples occur in Kassite-period cylinder seals, where me me is used as a writing for same u erl?etim in epithets (see W G. Lambert, BiOr 32 222 4.l6). mu, giS (K 2035+ ii 20, 22), The name mu is also equated with samu in Izi G i 9 (MSL 13201) and the catchline to Emesal II, where mu is the Emesal equivalent of samu and giS is the standard dialect word: 9 Another long list of heaven names and related terms may be found in a poorly preserved portion of Izi A: ... sam]b

... ]2 ... ]3

... ] same e ... ] samee ... MIN da]-nu

7 For the equivalances of samu, see below, CAD Sil 339-40; George BTT 80:5-6: 11 = samu, and cf. the Greek renderings of samu in J. Knudsen, AOAT 240 138 rev. 1,3. 8 The tablet is K. 2035a + 4337. A photograph is available in J. Curtis and J. Reade, Art af!:d Empire (1995) 202 no. 218. See previously F. Weissback in ZDMG 53 655-57; CAD S/l 339-40. A translation of the geographic portion of the tablet is found in MSL 11 54-56.

229

... ] samee ... s]amee . .. MIN e-lu]-tum ... MIN sap-lu-tu]m MSL 13 173 i 11'-20' Note also MSL 1161 v 155-64; Emar 5671'-12'.

Names for Heaven

230 mu

=

giS

=

Equivalences of samu

sa-mu-u MSL 410:116

Sumerian gis is also equated with samu in Idu II 176 (CAD SI1 339), and in Syllabaire Sa from Emar (Emar 537:208) where gis occurs with a gloss ni-es (for gis). Another example of giS = samu is found in a commentary explaining the name of one of two horses of the flood: gis.lam.sar.sar = mustilbil same u ersetim 'The One who understands Heaven and Earth' (E. Weidner, AfO 19 11'0:40).10 Both m u and giS also occur in the name for the sky or parts of the sky mu.be and gis.be (see pp. 239-38).

231

zikum (K 2035+ ii 27). The equivalence zikum = samu is also documented in Aa I12 236 (MSL 14 215), while zikum itself occurs in the Dr III personal name ur.zikum.ma (Kang SACT I 119:2). This same sign with the reading engur is a common Sumerian name for the Apsu. zikara (K 2035+ ii 28). Two entries in Antagal preserve equivalences for samu that may be compared with zikara (IMxIM) = samu. zi.ga.ar fIMlx

=

sa-mu-u

1M

Antagal III 177 (MSL 17 156) im (K 2035+ ii 23). Sumerian im is also attested as an equivalent of samu in Idu II 340: i.mi = 1M = sa-mu-u (see CAD SI1 340). si (K 2035+ ii 25). The equation si = samu may be based on the equation si.un.na = elM same, which is attested in a bilingual hymn from Druki dutu.gim dungu.na na.an.ku4.k [u 4.dam] ki-ma dsamas ana u-pe-e la ter-ru-u[b] dnanna!.gim si.un.na mus nam!.ba. [an.tum.ma]ll ki-ma dsin ina e-lat same e la ta-pa-ra-[ak-ka] SBH p. 128 rev. 36-39 Like the Sun-god, you do not enter a cloud. Like the Moon-god, you do not stop in the "Heights of Heaven." In this passage si must be the equivalent of samu because un is an equivalent of eLU ('high'; see CAD E 110), although un itself may be equated with samu in Aa VIII/2 46 (MSL 14498). Another example of si = samu is found in Aa IIII4 171: si si si si

= = = =

nu-u-rum 'light' na-ma-rum 'to shine' na-pa-bu 'to kindle' sa-mu-u 'heaven' (MSL 14341:168-71)

Here si may be a name for heaven because si has a general meaning 'light'. According to NBC 11108 (see p. 139), the heavens glow with their own light independent of the luminaries in the sky. A related equation si.an.ta = eliitu occurs in a late bilingual incantation to Dtu (A. Falkenstein DVB 1536:5). 10 Compare also the name of Nippur dir.giS.lam 'Bond of Heaven and Earth', which is equivalent to the more common dur.an.ki (see A. George, RA 85 160), and 0. Neugebauer and A. Sachs, JCS 21 213: gis.nim giS.su = 'east, west'. See also p. 257 for Craig ABRT I 32 rev. 9. II mus-tum = naparku: see CAD Nil 279.

zi.ga.rum

U.SA =

sa-mu-u

U.SA

Antagal G 281 (MSL 17228) Here, zigar (IMxIM) is the same name as zikara. The entry in Antagal G may also represent this name, although a different Sumerian writing is used. The name(s) of heaven zikara, zigar, zigarum presumably represent a foreign word (s). idim (K 2035+ ii 30). The equation idim (BAD) = samu occurs in K. 2035+, Nabnitu IV (see p. 229), Aa VIIII2 (MSL 14499:59), and Emar 537:693', 568:51'.12 uras. Sumerian uras occurs as a synonym for samu in K. 2035a+, Nabnitu IV (see p. 229), and Izi H 232 (MSL 13 208), as well as Ea I 338b and Aa II 8:35 (MSL 14 194,240). A Sumerian literary example of uras as a name for the sky occurs in a hymn of praise to the barge of Enlil in Shulgi R: ma.sag.zu.u dnanna ur5.ra.as sal[ga? (x x x )].fme1.e[n] ma.egir.zu.u dutu an.ur.r[a (x x x x) e.a.me.en] J. Klein, Fest. Artzi 104:37-38 As for your prow, you are (like) Nanna graci[ng ( ... ) the sky. As for your stern, [you are (like)] Dtu [rising o]n the horizon. Elsewhere, however, uras is usually a name for earth rather than heaven. For instance, the Sumerian pair an.uras occurs in numerous contexts meaning 'heaven and earth'.13 The process by which uras developed a second meaning 'heaven' is not clear but may parallel the evolution of the divine name duras from a name for Anu's spouse, Antum, to a name for Anu himself.l4

For this name at Ugarit, see J. Huehnergard, NABU 1991 p. 39 no. 58. For the cosmic pair an.uras, see Sjoberg Moongod 67 n. 4, 75 n. 5, and 79 nn. 14-15. Note also ZA 52 59:27; OrSuec 19-20 147 no. 3 rev. 6. 14 See W. G. Lambert, Unity and Diversity 197. 12

13

Names for Heaven

Names of Parts of the Sky

bur, bur, buru, buru. Sumerian buru 'pit, hole, well' occurs as an equivalent of samu in the catchline of the god-list K. 2100 (CT 25 18 rev. ii 20). The same name, or a homonym, is also attested at Emar: bur = ljAL = samu (Emar 537:291). Akkadian buru occurs three times as a name for heaven: twice in a late copy of a hymn to Aya (SpTU III 75:12, 19) and once as a variant of burumu in a su,ila to Nabu (see w. Mayer, Or 59 461:9; see n. 9 [4]). The Akkadian name may be a loanword from Sumerian bur/buru or be derived from burumu, as suggested by W. Mayer, in Or 59 465. 15

gina. The name girra for heaven is known from parallel entries in Aa II/4 (MSL 14284:141) and Antagal D 121 (MSL 17205). In both lists, girra is written U.MAS.KAB. In Antagal D, the name occurs before three names for earth (see p. 271). Exactly how girra can to be a name for heaven is unclear.18

232

U+GA (utal;,t, utu). The sign U+GA occurs in Sb and a precursor to Ea with readings utah and utu as equivalents of samu and supuk same: 16

u.ta.ah u.tu

U+GA U+GA

u.tu

sa-mu-u 1 su-puk sa-mu-u di-ik-tum Sb87-88 (MSL 3 104; 4 206) sa-mu-u si- ripLku MSL 14 119:32-33

Textual examples of utah demonstrate that the term is a name for the sky. In a hymn to Nannar, the Moon-god shines in utah: a.a dnanna utahbe.bad.ta gi6 dUlO.dulO gal.zu A. Sjoberg, OrSuec 19/20 146:7 Father Nanna, who knows how to make the night sweet throughout the distant heavens. Parallels are found in a Rim-Sin Hymn (UET 6 101:19) and two Rim-Sin inscriptions (RIM 4 272:6, 300:5). un/ug. Sumerian un/ug (high) is equated with samu in Aa VIII/2 46, 51 (MSL 14 498-99). A related name is listed later in this same tablet: [Xl = EZENx KASKAL = sa-qu-u, sa-mu-u (MSL 14499:80-81). The name may also occur in a hymn to Nanna: 17 un.na

e me.an.na

su.du 7 TCL 16 pI. 152:2 (Sjoberg Mondgott 65:2)

(Nanna) who comes out in "The Above" perfects the me of heaven. 15 W. Mayer in Or 59 465 n. 9 derives the name burumu e > burumlw e > buruw. For Aa II14 129 (MSL 14 283), see W. G. Lambert, JNES 33 302 n. 6. For the god-list K. 2100, see A. Kilmer, JAOS 83 423. See also Ea II:216 (MSL 14256). 16 In Or 52 237-40, M. Civil argues that U+GA was originally used to designate a cereal dish that came to be known as sipku in Akkadian. Sumerian U +GA, then, came to be a name for heaven through the homonym sipkulsupku in sipiklsupuk same in the Old Babylonian period. See also CAD D 138-39 diktu and Charpin Le Clerge 199. A word utah meaning 'light rain' also occurs in astronomical diaries (see Sachs-Hunger Diaries I 33). 17 Note also A. Sjoberg, OrSuec 19/20 148:32,37: un.e giS.ge.a me. te [ ...

233

Kassite Names for Heaven Kassite names for heaven may be listed in a Kassite-Akkadian list, where dagilgi and ilulu are equated with samU.

samuu samuu zi-na er-Ije-tum sa-a-ru T. Pinches, JRAS 1917 103:19-23 (Balkan Kassit. Stud. 4)

da-gil-gi i-Iu-Iu zi-in-bi-na mi -ri -i a -as tu-ru-uh-na

At least one of the two Kassite equivalences of samu could mean 'rain' instead of 'heaven'. The third term is translated zi-na, which may be a writing for Akkadian zinnu 'rain'.

Names of Parts of the Sky A number of Sumerian terms and Akkadian equivalents serve as names _ for parts of the sky. These include: 'Horizon':

an.ur = isid same 'Heaven's Base, The Base of Heaven', an.za 'Heaven's Edge', nablptu

'Zenith':

an.pa = ehit same 'Heaven's Top, The Heights of Heaven' .

'Middle of the Sky':

an.sa

=

qereb same, libbi same

Akkadian supuk same and its Sumerian equivalents including giS.he, mu.he, ul.he. These t~rms are not used in a consistent manner. They often seem to be synonymous WIth one another or to refer to overlapping areas. For example, different versions of a bilingual lamentation translate mu.he as supuk same (Cohen Canonical Lamentations p. 154:18) and elfit same (KAR 375 ii 42-43; see Cohen Canonical Lamentations p. 173). 18

Note in this context a broken passage in Inamgishuranki that may relate the

heav~n~ to the fire-god Girra: ... J an dgi-ri '... J (of?) AnlHeaven is Girra?' (CT 25 50: ~8, Llvmgstone 32:7; and van Soldt Solar Omens 45:17': gi-ra-aU.MAS.KAB: sa-mu-u). Girra IS both a son of Anu and constellation in Girra and Elamatum (c. Walker, AnSt 33145-

53, esp. 150 n. 48) and a constellation in Prayers to the Gods of the Night (RA 32 180:15, 181:16).

Names for Heaven

Names of Parts of the Sky

Each of the terms consists of a name of heaven, with a second noun referring to a portion of the sky. In the Akkadian terms, the part of the sky comes first, followed by samu or burilmil in the genitive case. In the Sumerian terms, the opposite occurs, with the name of heaven placed first. For instance, an.ur and an.pa consist of an (heaven) followed by ur and pa. Likewise, mu.he and gis.he consist of the Sumerian names mu and gis (which are equated with one another and samu in the Emesal vocabulary (MSL 410:116), plus he. The order of nouns in these Sumerian terms is the reverse of the standard genitive construction, where the part precedes the whole. This reversal of order cannot be explained, but parallel constructions occur with a few other nouns, including giS 'tree', kur 'mountain', ab 'sea', uru 'city', and gi 'reed';19 Ancient scholars conceived of these names as a group of related terms. Entries an.ur = isid same and an.pa = eLM same often occur consecutively in lexical lists, Antagal G lists four sets of terms as a group, and Emar 567:2-4 preserves three paired terms: 20

an.ur isid same 'Heaven's Base', 'The Base of Heaven'. Sumerian an.ur and Akkadian isid same are equated with each other in numerous lexical lists and bilingual works (see CAD I 235-36). In Bit Rimki, an.ur = isid same is the place where heaven and earth meet and the Sun passes from heaven to earth at sunrise:

234

ul 4 uI 4 ·he.a an.pa an.sa.ga

su-pu-uk same e MIN bu-ru-me e-lat same e qe-reb same e Antagal G 223-226 (MSL 17 227)

an.dim an.pa.dim an.a.sa.ga

il-di sa-me-e (isid same) i-la-a sa-me-e (elat same) qe-re-eb sa-[me-e]

Emar 567:2-4

235

ki.se an.ki tes.bi la.a.ta an.ur.ta um.ta.e.na.z[u.s]e ana e-ma sa-mu-u u en;etum tum istenis niS na-an-du-ru is-tu i-sid same e ina (a-$e-ka) R. Borger, JCS 21 3:4 When you (Sun-god) rise at the place where heaven and earth embrace, from the horizon. In Ee V 17-20, the Moon and Sun are said to see each other at isid same at the middle of the month, the time of the month when the Moon rises at the eastern horizon just as the Sun sets at the western horizon. The fact that an.ur and isid same include a band of heaven above the horizon is demonstrated by BBR 2 p. 102:101 and parallel passages, where isid same turns red at dawn before the Sun rises. 23 At this time of day, the lower part of the eastern sky above the horizon is tinged red by the approaching Sun. A parallel with ur.an.na instead of an.ur is found in Lugale 181: me.dam ur.an.na sig he.ma.da.gim sas.se urs he.en.na.nam.ma ma-ti-ma Hid same e ki-ma na-ba-si $a-rip si-i lu-u ki-a-am Lugale 74:181 (Bilingual Version) When the horizon is dyed red like red-wool, let this be so.

'The Horizon' an.ur = isid same, an.za = pat same, saplan same. 21 Terms for 'horizon' refer to the lower portion of the sky, including the actual horizon where heaven and earth meet and a band above the horizon. This portion of the sky is usually identified as an.za 'Heaven's Edge' or an.ur 'Heaven's Base' in Sumerian texts and isid same 'the Base of Heaven' in Akkadian texts. In addition to the visible horizon in the sky, an.ur, an.za, isid same, and piit same also refer to the edge of the earth's surface. The border between 'Horizon' and 'Zenith' is never defined in any Sumerian or Akkadian text. 22

an.za = pat same 'Heaven's Edge', 'The Edge of Heaven', Sumerian an.za is a near synonym of an.ur = isid same. Although the normal meaning of za is piitu 'edge, border', za is also equated with isdu in Aa VIIII4 9 (MSL 14 509). Like an.ur, an.za comprises the actual horizon, plus a band above the horizon. In Gudea Cyl. A IX:18-19 (see p. 94), kur.kur 'the lands~ apparently extends to an.za, just as earth meets heaven at an.ur and isid same in Bit Rimki. 24 In the hymn to Inanna an.ta.e.a.ra, an.za includes the part of heaven above the horizon where Venus shines: nin an.usan an.za.se mah. [am] Reisman Two Hymns 153:85

19 For giS.pa and giS.ur, see MSL 5139:514-15. For ab.sa and kur.sa, see TCS 3 108 n. 283. For kur.bar and kur.sa, note PBS 112 115:15-16. For uru.bar and uru.sa, see PSD B 97 2.2.5. For gLur/sa/pa/bar, see MSL 717:153-56. 20 For further lexical examples, see Antagal III 152-54 (MSL 17 155-56, see p. 237); MSL 13 16:18-22,34:11'-12' (Proto-Izi), MSL 11 61 v 159-60, and MSL SSl 87 ii 5'-6'. For Akkadian and bilingual examples, see CAD E 79 c. 21 Note also KAR 375 ii 40-41 an.di b. ba = isM same (see Cohen Canonical Lamentations 173). 22 For a different opinion, see E. Weidner, BabyL 6 2 n. 1.

The Lady of the Evening (Inanna) [is] magificent at the horizon.

For parallels, see chapter 1 n. 16 (p. 10). Note also Westenholz OSP 1 no. 6:2 (= B. Alster, Kramer AV p. 14): kur.kur gurum.u den.lil an.za.se, and Fest. Sjoberg 305:59 an.ki.za. til.la.rbi l.se. See also W. Romer, Kraus AV 305. 23

24

236

Names of Parts of the Sky

Names for Heaven

The planet Venus alternately shines in the lower western sky at dusk, and the lower eastern sky at dawn. A bilingual example of an.za as a cosmic place name occurs in UtukkuLemnutu VI, where an.za is equated with pat same. mu nu.tuku mU.ne an.za.se su-ma ul i-su-u sum-su-nu ana pat same e

CT 16 33:189

o (demon) who has no name, their name (goes) to the horizon. In this context, an.za and pat same refer to the ends of the earth's surface where demons could presumably cross into the underworld, just as the Sun rises and sets from the underworld. A parallel with names for both heaven and earth occurs in Samsuiluna E:25 ni.me.lam nam.lugal.la.mu za.an.rkil.ke4 he.'en.dul' pu-lul:y-ti me-lam sar-ru-ti-ia pa-at sa-me-e it er-I?e-tum lu ik-tum RIM 4 382, Sumerian version 68-70 Akkadian version 64-66 My terrifying royal splendor covered the borders (i.e. all) of heaven and earth. saplan same 'The Lower Parts of Heaven' The term saplan same occurs in an incantation to Shamash, replacing isid same alongside an unusual writing of eMt same: (istu>

AN.PA

samee ana sap-La-an samee us-su-ru sa-ru-ru-ka KAR 32:26

Your shine runs free (from> the "zenith of heaven" to the horizon. Zenith (an.pa, eMt same, appi same) 'Heaven's Tip', 'The Heights of Heaven', 'The Tip of Heaven' The portion of the sky an. p a = elat same is the part of the sky above an. lir = elM same. The meaning of elatu 'upper parts' in elM same is obvious, because elM same is the top part of the sky, but the etymology of an.pa requires explanation. Two ancient explanations of an.pa are available. First, pa is understood as appu 'tip' in Proto-Izi: [a] n.pa = a-pi sa~me (MSL 1336 B 5). Second, pa is itself explained as elMu in Aa and Antagal:

25 Not~ also M. Civil, NABU 1987 n. 49: za an.ki; F. Al-Rawi, Iraq 523:21: pat kissat same u er$etlm; AAA 20 pi. 90: 3-4: ... pat samame u qaqqari. V

A

= PAl

e-li-tum e-la-tum sa same e Aa I17B ii 4'-5' (MSL 14 237)

pa an.pa an.lir

e-la-a-tum samee Hit-tum samee Antagal III 152-54 (MSL 17 155-56)

(pa.a

237

MIN

In many contexts, an.pa = elM same is paired with an.lir = isid same, indicating that these two parts of the sky together comprise the entire visible heavens. In The Exaltation of IStar, the Sun- and Moon-gods are assigned the task of keeping the stars on their courses from an.lir = isid same to an.pa = elat same (B. Hruska, ArOr 37 484:55-56; see pp. 144-45). In the inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, Nebuchadnezzar II, and Neriglissar, the kings claim worldwide dominion from isid same to elM Same. 26 Here, these two parts of heaven apparently cover the entire earth's surface (see diagram, p. 261). In addition to the Sun, Moon, and stars, which perform duties in 'horizon' and 'zenith' in The Exaltation of IStar, other texts place meteorological phenomena, including clouds, a rainbow, and akukiltu 'haze', in elat same (see CAD E 79 2'). an.pa an.ka, AN.PA same. Two unusual writings of 'the zenith of heaven', an.pa an.ka and AN.PA same, apparently construe an.pa as equivalent to elatu instead of elat same. In the Kassite period Sumerian work The Duties and Powers of the Gods, the Akkadian-speaking author apparently translates elM same back into Sumerian as a genitive construction an. pa an.ka: ... x].da ku.ga.bi nu.mu.ni.in.te.es.am an.pa an.ka ba.ra.an.sum.mu.us dnanna gi6 zalag.ge.da u4.da ug.ga ku.ku.da [g] iskim gi6.a [zu.z] u.da ... Sumer 4 pI. 1 v 1'-16' ... ] their clear ..... they could not ... , they had not given in "the zenith of heaven." In order that Nanna would make the night bright, would rest during the day when it is light, would [make kno]wn the [s]ign of the night, ... The Akkadian writing AN.PA same in KAR 32 26 (see p. 236) parallels Sumerian an.pa an.ka. mll.be = elat same. As noted above (p. 233, KAR 375 ii 42'-43'), one exemplar of a bilingual lamentation preserves the equation m u.he = elat same. 26 See CAD E 79 2'; Tadmor Tigi. 158:4, 194:4. Compare The Gilgamesh Letter 14 (F. Kraus, AnSt 30 109) and Piccioni Adapa 122:7-8. Note also B. Alster, AS] 13 48:6869 and Sargon Geography 31, where Sargon of Akkad conquers mat silJip same 'the totality of the land under heaven'.

239

Names for Heaven

Names of Parts of the Sky

sLun.na = eUtt same. The term si.un.na is translated as elat same in the late copy of a bilingual hymn (SBH 128 rev. 38-39; see p. 230) where the Moon-god is placed in the region. Here, si is probably the name of heaven si = samu, and un is probably to be interpreted as elatu. Three additional examples where the Moon shines in si.un.na also occur in Sumerian literature: Sjoberg Moongod 70:2; ELA 27l; Death of Ur-Nammu 13 (see JCS 21 113). The Sumerian term also occurs in a lists of cosmic terms in Proto-Izi and Nabnitu:

supuk same!burume (see p. 234). Likewise, sa.an.na = qereb same occurs in a common blessing formula alongside names for heaven and earth:

238

an ki gis·b e ul.be ub.sI kur.un.na si.un.na ub.da.4 an.si.u [n.na si.BAnb [a si.un. [n] a kur.BAnba kur.un.na

an.gim be.en.ku.ga ki.gim be.en.sikil.la sa.an.gim be.en.daddag.ga

ki-ma samee li-liZ ki-maen;etim tim li-bi-ib ki-ma qe-reb same e lim-mir Surpu 53:26-28

May he be pure like heaven. May he be clean like earth. May he shine like the "middle of heaven." The shine of an.sa and qereb same is the glow of the stars. This is demonstrated by an inscription of Tiglath-Pileser I where a temple is described in terms of the stars and libbi same:

Proto-Izi 52-58 (MSL 13 18)

e-la-at samee ] MIN MIN] [MIN MIN]

[sa-du-u e-lu-u] [MIN MIN]

Nabnitu XXV 145-49 (MSL 16 227) In Nabnitu XXV 145 as restored, the term an.si.un.na is construed on the pattern of an.pa, an.ur, and an.za, with the name of heaven an followed by si.un.na (= elatu). In surviving examples of si.un.na, only the Moon is found in the region, although the Sun and meteorological phenomena, as well as the Moon, are found in an.pa = elat same.

'The Middle of Heaven' (an.sa, sa.an.na, gereb same, libbi same)

ki-ma llb-bi same e u-be-en-ni i-ga-ra-a-te-su ki-ma sa-ru-ur ~i-it kakkabani mes u-si-im u-sar-ril; AKA 98:98-101 I decorated it like the heart of heaven. I made its walls shine with a brillance befitting the light of the stars. Other visible astronomical and meteorological phenomena seen in an.sa include the Moon (Sjoberg Mondgott 44:9), the Sun (Gudea Cyl. B 1:7), Venus (Reisman Two-Hymns 153:82, 154:104, 155:120, 157:141), clouds (Sjoberg Mondgott 119:8); and rainbows (EWO 345).28 Although it may be assumed that the "Middle of Heaven" included the center of the sky around the apex of the celestial dome, it is not possible to determine how far the "Middle of Heaven" extended downward.

supuk same and Its Equivalences supuk burumC, sipik same giS.be, mu.ge, ul/u14.be, u1 4, utab

The use of terms for the 'middle of heaven'27 as a part of the sky are problematic. Sumerian an.sa occurs in a few passages as an unseen portion of heaven above the sky, where Anu lives (see pp. 247-49). Elsewhere, Sumerian sa with a following noun in the genitive case can be used as a preposition meaning 'in'. Similarly, the Akkadian prepositional phrases ina libbi and ina qereb often mean little more than ina ('in'). Thus an.sa, ina qereb same, and ina libbi same often occur with the meaning 'in heaven'. Nevertheless, there are examples where an.sa, qereb same, and libbi same do seem to be used as names for part of the sky. In Antagal G 223-26 and Emar 567:2-4 an.sa.gal an.a.sa.ga = qereb same occurs in lists with names for 'Horizon', 'Zenith', and

The term supuk same and its equivalences occur in literary texts as the portion of the heavens where stars, the Sun, Moon, and Venus shine and winds blow. In The Moon God and the Demons (= Utukku Lemnutu 16), the Sun, Moon, and Venus are said to regulate ul.be = supuk same:

27 CAD Q 8 qablu A b offers no syllabic examples of qabal same as a name for the 'middle of the sky'. Thus, examples of MURUB4 same under qablu could be rendered qereb same.

28 For an.sa see also Gud. CyL A 25:4, B 1:18. For additional Akkadian and bilingual examples of qereb same, see CAD Q 220-21. See also Oppenheim Dreams 327:70 and George Temples 143 nos. 1009, 1011.

dnanna dutu dinanna.ke4 ul.be.a si.sa,e.de im.ma.ni.in.gar dsin(30) dsamas u dis-tar su-puk same e ana su-te-su-ri uk-tin-nu CT 16 19:59-61 the Moon-god, Sun-god, and Venus were appointed to regulate the firmament

240

Names for Heaven

Names of Parts of the Sky

In Antagal G 223-24 (see p. 234), u1 4 and uld}e.a are equated with supuk same and supuk burumu. In variant exemplars of Sb, Sumerian utab is translated alternately as samu and supuk same (see MSL 3 104:87, MSL 4 206:87), while ul.be is translated as supuk same in the hymn to Inannallstar (Cohen Ersemma 132:24 = SBH 53 rev. 48-49), but as samu in the Exaltation of IStar (B. Hruska ArOr 37 484:29-30), and LKA 23 rev. 8'-9'. Thus, supuk same and its equivalences are in some sense equivalent to the entire sky. Although the above examples establish the sense of the terms, their origins and etymologies are uncertain. Therefore, it is useful to examine each more closely.

the imagery suggested by supuk samelsipik same and supuk burumu may be that of the sky serving as the foundation for the unseen higher regions of heaven above, just as mountains rise above their foundations. 31

gis.be, mu.be, ul.be, uI4.be.29 The terms gis.be, mu.be, ul.be, and u1 4.be consist of a common element be with a preceeding noun. The element be corresponds to supku in Akkadian supuk same, and while giS, mu, ul/u14 correspond to samu. Thus, the first elements should be names for heaven or related terms. Sumerian gis and m u are listed as equivalents of samu in the Emesal vocabulary (MSL 4 10:116) and K 2035+ ii 20', 22' (see p. 229). The word ul/u1 4 does not occur as an equivalent of samu but may be identified as ul = kakkabu'star' (see CAD K 46). Nonetheless, the origins of the element be in the Sumerian terms and how be came to be equivalent to supuk same remains unclear, because no surviving evidence for be = supkulsipku exists other than the terms themselves. One possibility is that the meaning of be = supkulsipku reflects an early lexical tradition that did not survive to be included in Old Babylonian canonical lists suchs as Proto-Ea and Proto-Aa (see MSL 14 476, 489), although the meaning "giS.be, mu.be, ul.be = supuk same (and equivalents)" did survive. An Early Dynastic period example of u1 4.be referring to the sky may occur in The Stele of the Vultures (see J. Cooper, RA 74 94).30

supuk samelsipik same, supuk burumu. Like their Sumerian equivalents, Akkadian supuk same, sipik same, and supuk burumu consist of a name for heaven and a second noun. All three terms are synonymous. Akkadian supku and sipku are equivalent nouns derived from the root sapaku 'to pour out, to heap up', and burumu and samu are synonyms. The terms can be compared with the parallel constructions sipik sadilsupuk sadi (see AHw 1245 sipku 4; 1280 supku 2), which refer to the foundations of mountains. As such, The reading he for CAN is based on the variants gis.he/he (= supuk same) in TCS 3 36:324. Additional writings with he may be found in TCS 3 26 164 (ul.he.a/ utahUE.a) and MSL 11 61 v 156 (ul.liE). However, ul.liE here is followed by an.sar, kLSar 'all of heaven, all of earth' (MSL 11 61 v 157-58), so gis.liE, mU.liE, ul.liE might best be understood, at least in some cases, as gis/m u.sar ('all of heaven') and uLSar ('all of the stars'). If liE is always to be read sar in these compounds, then a reading gan for . liE cannot be ruled out (i.e., gis.gan, mu.gan, ul.gan, perhaps again 'all of heaven, all of the stars' on the basis of CAN = kullatu 'entirety'). The element he might also be the same as that in he.nun = nuasu 'abundance'. Cf. TCS 3 115 no. 324 for further examples and discussion and ibid. no. 164. 30 See also p. 140 for Sollberger Corpus Ukg. 15 iii 2: ul. [he]. 29

241

Other Examples of supuk same and Its Equivalences. Numerous other examples prove that supuk same and its equivalents are names for at least part of the sky. A passage in The Moon God and the Demons states that seven wicked storm demons whirled around the Moon in u1 4.be = supuk same (CT 16 20:7074); hymns to Nannar place the Moon in gis.be (A. Sjoberg, OrSuec 19/20 144:2, 145:1; 148:32, 37, 149:64); and Gilg. IX ii 4 explains that scorpion-men observe the setting Sun by Mt. Masu, whose peak reaches up to supuk same. In this Gilgamesh passage, the Sun may move along supuk same before setting behind Mt. Masu. The term sipik same occurs in Proto-Kagal (Bilingual) (MSL 13 87:44), translating gis.be, and perhaps also in Babyl. 6 98:6 (see AHw 1245 5). The only known example of supuk burumu is Antagal G 224 (MSL 17227).32

pani same 'Face of Heaven' The term pani same occurs in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions and astronomical omens. In these passages, pani same is a portion of the sky where the stars and moon are seen on clear nights. When the sky is not clear, pani same is said to be covered. Thus pani same must be the surface of the clear sky above the cloud cover. For instance, the 'face of heaven' is obscured by smoke from fires in the inscriptions of Sargon II (TCL 3 30:182; 32:198; 42:261, 268), by smoke and dust in the inscriptions of Sennacherib (OIP 2 40:80; 44:58-59), and by anqullu 'haze' in an astronomical omen (ACh Samas 147, see CAD A/2 144 b). In contrast, the visible 'face of heaven' shines like moonlight in an Old Babylonian astronomical omen: 33

[summa s]a-mu-u ki-ma $[i-i]t wa-ar-l:Ji-im pa-nu-su-nu na-am-ru-u . .. T. Bauer, ZA 43 309:3-4 If the face of the heavens shines like moonlight ...

In AS 16286 rev. 23, pani same is contrasted with the Heaven of Anu above the sky (see p. 246).

For sapaky with mountains, clouds, and the sky, see CAD S/l 414-15 6'. Note also Surpu 46:38: ... an. ur he.an.na '... horizon and "supuk same'" and AMT 1038 he.7.bi 'seven firmaments' (see p. 214). 33 For additional examples of pani same, see AHw 820 9 and AfO Beih. 22 287 rev. 10, where F. Rochberg-Halton translates 'the surface of the sky'. 31

32

242

Names for Heaven

an. bar The term an.bar, another name for a portion of the visible heavens, is formed on the pattern an.za, an.ur, an.pa, and an.sa. The term occurs as a cosmic place-name in a hymn to NingiSzidda: lugal ni.ri.a ildu utu.bi sag.ba gin.a an.bar an.ta a.ba sa.du.ne a.na an.da.sa.a TCL 15 pI. 113 rev. 6'-7' (J, van Dijk, Sumerische Gotterlieder 82:28-29) Fearsome king, Sun-god of the host, who goes at the fore, at the ... above, who can equal you? What can rival you? The term an.bar may be an opposite of an.sa since bar and sa are often opposites meaning 'outside' and 'inside' (see PSD B 93, 96-98). If so, an.bar may be another name for the horizon, since an.sa refers to the center of the sky. A related term, an.bar.bar, may also occur as an opposite of an.sa in Gudea Cylinder A: 34 e.KAgid.da.bi an.bar.bar.ra nLgal.la.am e e.du14.la.bi nUll an.sa.ge diri.ga.am Gudea Cyl. A 25:2-4 (cf. PSD B 93 1) The long ... of the temple was splendid at heaven's sides. The ... of the temple was like a light filling the center of the sky.

34 Note also an.ba = samu and an.ba.ni = samu petiltum (AS 16 24:90-91); an.bar.Bu,a in MSL 11 61 v 163; Emar 567:10' an.bar.an. [....

Chapter 11

The Geography of the Heavens

Introduction Heaven is the upper of the two halves of the universe. In ancient Mesopotamia, as in the Judeo-Christian tradition, the heavens include both visible areas, where the stars, Sun, Moon, and planets are seen, and higher regions above the sky, where gods of heaven dwelL Only the lists of KAR 307 and AO 8196 and Enuma. Elish provide clear evidence that the heavens consist of the sky and more than one level above the sky. In both KAR 307 and AO 8196, three heavens are listed: the Upper Heavens, belonging to Anu; the Middle Heavens of the Igigi above the sky; and the Lower Heavens (the sky) of the stars. KAR 307 adds that Marduk settled 300 Igigi in the Upper Heavens, that Bel sits in his cella in the Middle Heavens, and that Marduk drew stars on the Lower Heavens. The interior of Marduk's cella in the Middle Heavens is not seen from earth, but its blue saggilmud-stone floor may be visible as the blue sky (see p. 9). Below the heavens in KAR 307 there are three earths: the earth's surface, Apsu, and underworld. The area between the earth's surface and the stars is not listed in KAR 307 or AO 8196 but is part of the heavens in other texts. For instance, ~umerous passages speak of birds, clouds, and winds in the heavens (See CAD SII 345-47), so the region of the universe we call the "atmosphere" or "sky" was clearly part of heaven in ancient Mesopotamia. This interrelationship between heaven and the atmosphere is further illustrated by a passage from Lamastu, where dew is said to come from the stars: 1 1 Note also the following passage from Sagigames: mul.an.gim sur.sur.ra a.gim gie.a al.du.du ki-ma kak-kab sa-ma-me i-$ar-ru-ur ki-ma memes mu-si il-lak CT 1719:11-12

(Headache) flashing like a star of heaven, comes like "water of the night" (dew). See also W. Farber, Schlaf, Kindchen, Schlaf 62:195, with notes on pp. 63-64.

243

The Geography of the Heavens

244

High Heavens in Akkadian Texts

ki-ma na-al-si sa kakkabani mes ki-ma za!-q{-q{ sa a-pa-a-ti ki-ma sik-ke-e la ta-l:J,al-lu-pi $ir-ra-nis 4R 582 i 18-19 II PBS II2 113:53

ilanu mes ip-la-l:J,u a-bu-ba-am-ma it-te-el:J,-su i-te-lu-u ana samee sa da-nim

Like dew of the stars, like the breeze of a window, do not slip past the door pivot like a mongoose.

The gods became frightened by the flood, so they departed, went up to the Heaven of Anu.

In Enuma Elish, there are at least three heavens: the heaven that belongs to Anu, the Esarra of Enlil, and the level of the stars. Another cosmic placename, elatu, occurs in Ee V 11-12 as the region of the moon-god Nanna, and the term asrata occurs in Ee IV 141 and Ee V 121 as a name for a region of heaven or a feature of heaven (see p. 114). In addition, a number of Sumerian incantations, including me.se ba.da.dal, mayor may not preserve traditions of seven or more levels of heaven (see p. 220). Outside KAR 307, AO 8196, and Enuma Elish (and perhaps the Sumerian incantations), the heavens can be divided into two regions only: (1) the sky and (2) the region above the sky. In Sumerian literary texts, a region of heaven above the sky belonging to An is called an.sa, and a term an.un.na 'High Heaven' occurs in both lnanna and Sukkaletuda and the Kassite period Sumerian language work The Duties and Powers of the Gods. In Akkadian texts from the Middle Assyrian period onward, heavens above the sky are called "The Heaven of Anu." Although full geographies of the high heavens are not available much is known about these heavens from Akkadian texts, such as the fact that 'these heavens include gates, divine homes, and in Nergal and Ereskigal, a courtyard. The Heaven of Anu and high heavens in Akkadian texts are examined below. A study of parallel materials in Sumerian and bilingual works follows on pp. 247-49.

High Heavens in Akkadian Texts The Heaven of Anu In Enuma Elish, KAR 307, and AO 8196, the highest level of heaven belongs to Anu. Elsewhere, this heaven is identified as the "Heaven of Anu" (samu sa danim; samu danim).2 Additional evidence that the Heaven of Anu is the highest heaven is found in The Gilgamesh Epic and The Erra Epic. In Gilg. XI 113-14, gods ascend to the Heaven of Anu in order to escape the terror of the flood on the earth's surface below: 2 Following is a list of occurrences of the "Heaven of Anu": Gilg XI 114; Cagni Erra 74:153; JNES 15 134:67; Laessoe Bit Rimki 25 iii 51; Ebeling Handerhebung 30:2 n.5; E. Ebeling, RA 49 40:5; Surpu 43:78; W. G. Lambert, AS 16 286 rev. 23, AfO 23 40:15,41:33; G. Meier, AfO 14 142:41; KAR 83 i 6; STT 23 obv. 17'-18'; Kinnier-Wilson Etana 112:39; SpTU I 1 iii 9; AnSt 10 110:52' n. 14. Note also the possible restoration [MIN (samu) da]-nu in MSL 13 173 i 16' (Izi A, see p. 229).

245

Thompson Gilg. XI 113-14

It is logical that gods escaping the flood would move as far away from the earth's surface as pOSSible, so the Heaven of Anu should be the most distant heaven from the earth's surface, the highest level of heaven. In Erra I, a cosmic mesu-tree reaches from the lowest earth, the underworld (arallu) , to the Heaven of Anu through the region of the heavens called elatu: a-li gismesu Sir ilani mes si-mat sar gim-[ri] is-su el-lu et-lu! si-i-ru sa su-lu-ku a-na be-lu-ti s'a'ina tam-tim ;apastim 1im memes 100(1 ME) beru i-sid-su ik-su-fdu1 su-pul a-ra-al-[le-e] qim-mat-su ina e-la-a-ti em-de-tu same e sa d[a-nim] Cagni Erra 74:150-53

Where is the mesu-tree, the flesh of the gods, the emblem of the King of the Univ[erse], the pure tree, august hero, which is becoming to lordship, whose roots reach 100 leagues through the vast sea to the depth of the under[world], whose crown, in the heavens, leans on the Heaven of [Anu]? The Heaven of Anu, in this context, must be the highest heaven, since the cosmic mesu-tree apparently stretched from the lowest earth to the highest heaven. In many sources, Anu shares his heaven with other gods. In KAR 307 30, Anu lives in the highest heavens with 300 Igigi. Lipsur (E. Reiner, JNES 15 134:67) also places Igigi in the Heaven of Anu. In Etana, Etana and the eagle ascend to the Heaven of Anu in search of !Star and apparently find !Star's home (see p. 58). Elsewhere, Bit Rimki (Laess0e Bit Rimki 25 iii 51') and a su,ila (Ebeling Handerhebung 30: 1 n. 5) call Gula asibat same danim 'Resident of the Heaven of Anu', and a supplicant calls out to the gods of the Heaven of Anu in Namburbi (E. Ebeling, RA 4940:5). Divine asse~blies take place in the Heaven of Anu in Nergal and Ereskigal (see p. 66) and Surpu: ina u 4 -me an-ni-i ilanu mes rabutu mes a-si-bu samee da-nim ina pul:J,ri(ukkin)-su-nu lip-su-ru-[ka lip]-su-ru-ka Surpu 43:78 On this day, let the great gods who reside in the Heaven of Anu rel[ease you and abs]olve you in their assembly. In these texts, the Heaven of Anu apparently houses the heavenly pantheon. Gilgamesh XI and the lists of three heavens in AO 8196 and KAR 307, however, may imply that only Anu and his court lived in the Heaven of Anu,

The Geography of the Heavens

Evidence for High Heavens in Sumerian Texts

while other heavenly gods, such as the Igigi, lived in intermediate levels of heaven above the sky. In AO 8196 iv 20-22 and KAR 307 (Source A), Anu is placed in the Upper Heavens, while the Igigi are placed one level below in the Middle Heavens. In KAR 307 "Source B" 300 Igigi are placed in the highest heavens with Anu, and Bel's cella occupies the Middle Heavens. In Gilg. XI 113-14, gods ascend to the Heaven of Anu during the emergency created by the flood. These gods may have included divine refugees from both an intermediate level(s) of heaven, as well as from the earth's surface.

Igigi is made of saggilmud-stone. KAR 307 (Source B) states that the cella of Bel was located in this heaven. In Enuma Elish, a region of heaven named Esarra belonging to Enlillies beneath Anu's heaven (samillsamamil).

246

247

Evidence for High Heavens in Sumerian Texts an.sa

The Development of the Tradition of the Heaven of Anu The only evidence for the term "Heaven of Anu" before the first millennium is found in a Middle Assyrian incantation:

... i-na pa-ni samee same e sa da-nim e-na x [ ... W. G. Lambert, AS 16288 rev. i 23 (AS 16286 rev. 23) ... on the "face of heaven;' the Heaven of Anu ... [ ... In Enuma Anu Enlil, atmospheric phenomena on the "face of heaven" is seen from the earth's surface (see p. 241), so the Heaven of Anu must be contrasted with pani same if the Heaven of Anu is a high heaven above the stars in this context. There is evidence for high heavens above the stars in other second-millennium texts, but these texts do not use the term "Heaven of Anu." In the Amarna version of Nergal and Ereskigal, Namtar ascends to the same $irilti 'majestic heavens' (EA 357:8) instead of the Heaven of Anu, as in the first-millennium Sultantepe and Uruk versions of the epic (AnSt 10 11052' n. 14; SpTU I 1 iii 9). An Old Babylonian example of Anu's heaven is found in the preserved portion of the prologue to Old Babylonian Etana (Kinnier Wilson Etana 30-31), where the emblems of kingship lie before Anu in heaven (samaJil). Another old example of Anu's heavens may be found embedded in Ee VI 37-44, where 300 Anunnaki are sent to dwell with Anu in heaven (samillsamamil). These 300 Anunnaki may be compared with the 300 Igigi that inhabit Anu's heaven in KAR 307. By the Middle Babylonian period, Igigi rather than Anunnaki are the gods of heaven, so Ee VI 37-44 presumably derives from an Old Babylonian source. s

The term an.sa is translated qereb same 'the middle of heaven' in Antagal G 226 (MSL 17227) and the commentary 2R 47 ii 13. In Akkadian and bilingual texts, an.sa and qereb same often refer to a part of the sky (see pp. 23839). Nonetheless, evidence in Sumerian texts and the Sumerian portions of bilingual incantations indicate that an.sa is also a name for an interior region of heaven above the stars that may be compared with the Heaven of Anu. 4 The clearest evidence for an.sa as a high region of heaven above the sky is found in a passage from The Curse of Agade, where Anu abandons Akkad for an.sa just as Enki leaves the city for his cosmic region, the Apsu: me.lam an.ne im.us.sa.a.bi an.ne an.sa.ga ba.e.e ll gisdargul.ku im.du.du.a.bi d en .ki.ke4 abzu.a mi.ni.in.gid Cooper Curse of Agade 52:72-54:75 Its (Akkad's) aura, which leaned on heaven, Anu took up to "Heaven's Interior." Its well firmly planted mooring pole, Enki dragged into the Apsu. "Heaven's Interior" is also the home of Anu in heaven in Sumerian hymns to Anu's viziers, Baba and Ninsubur (BL 195:4; UET 6/1 72:3; STVC 36:3, 9, 13), TCS 3 38:37l, and the Sumerian portion of the bilingual edition of Angimdimma: ni me.lam an.na an.sa.ta sag.ga.es mu.un.rig7 .ga pu-lu/:J-ti me-Lam-me da-nu-um ina qe-reb same e ana si-rik-ti is-ruk-su Angim 66:70

The Intermediate High Heavens Intermediate heavens are found between the heaven that belongs to Anu, and the level of the stars in both KAR 307 and AO 8196, as well as in Enuma Elish. In KAR 307 (Source A) and AO 8196, a middle heavens belonging to the 3

See p. 5 n. 3.

4 No exact Sumerian equivalent of Akkadian samu danimlsamu sa danim is possible. Both the Sumerian equivalent of samu and danim are written with the AN sign, and a construct an.an.na would be ambiguous. In Akkadian texts, the two words are clearly differentiated, so the term "Heaven of Anu;' as well as the divine-name "Anu of the Heavens;' are possible. Note for example danum u dantum sa same in Racc~ 79:30, and the epithet of Sin 'f\nu of Heaven" (E. Ebeling, Or 23 213:9). See also CAD Sii 341 2'; OECT 11 p. 17 nn. 1-2; W. Farber, JNES 49 301.

The Geography of the Heavens

Evidence for High Heavens in Sumerian Texts

Sum.: (Ninurta) who was given the fearsome splendor of Anu as a gift in "Heaven's Interior." Akk.: Anu granted him fearsome splendor as a gift in the "middle of heaven."

that this tradition posed severe proplems for a later author, who translates an.sa as isid sarn,i instead of qereb same in a Bit-Rimki incantation:

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In these passages, there is no reason to place Anu's home among the stars or at the same level as the sun, moon, and clouds. Thus an.sa here, like the Akkadian Heaven of Anu, must be Anu's region of heaven above the sky. Other evidence identifies an.sa with a night resting place of the sun. In an incantation that was to be recited at sunset, the Sun-god enters an.sa: 5 dutu an.sa.se kU4.ku4.da.zu.de (dsamas) ana qe-reb sa-me-e ina e-re-bi-ka gis s i.gar.ku.an.na.ke 4 silim.ma hu.mu.ra.ab.be si-gar sa-me-e el-lu-tlm sul-ma liq-bu-kum giSig.an.na.ke4 sud 4 bu.mu.ra.ab.be da-la-at sa-me-e lik-ru-ba-a-kum Abel-Winckler 59 no. 2 1-6

o Sun-god, when you enter "Heaven's Interior;' may the bolt of the clear heavens say "hello." May the doors of the heavens bless you. In this context, the Sun apparently sets into an.sa after passing through the gates of heaven. In a second incantation, the Sun rises from an.sa: en.gal an.sa.ku.ga.ta [ej.zu.de be-lum rabil li is-tu qe-reb sarn,ie [ellilti i]na a-si-ka ur.sag suI dutu an.sa.ku.ga.ta [ej.zu.de qar-ra-du et-lum dsamas is-tu qe-reb samee (ellilti) ina a-si-ka . 4R 17:1-4 Great Lord, when you rise from clear "Heaven's Interior;' hero, youth, Sham ash, when you rise from clear "Heaven's Interior;' Thus, according to one Sumerian tradition, the Sun-god apparently spent the night in an.sa instead of passing under the earth's surface through the Apsu or underworld. It is not clear, though, how the Sun-god might have passed from the western to eastern horizon at night through an.sa. 6 Thus, it is not surprising

For the recitation of this incantation at sunset, see Abel-Winckler 60:25 kainim-ma-ki dutu kam sa dutu.su..a 'an incantation of the Sun-god at sunset'. Note the parallels R. Kutscher, Kramer AV 307:17: gissLga [r an.na.ke4 silim.ma] bu. [m u].da. gi4.gi4; Cohen Ersemma 57 no. 184:8 [ki du t] u.e.de du tu.ku 4.ku4.de. Note also B. Alster, ASJ 13 51:86, where Utu judges in an.sa. For a study of the sun's movements at night, see W. Heimpel, JCS 38 127-51. 6 W. Heimpel concludes OCS 38 151) that 'heaven's interior' (an.sa) "is the invisible part of heaven below the earth. This concept implies the belief that the sun and the other heavenly bodies remained at all times in heaven and did not pass into the realm of 5

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EN dutu an.sa.ta e me.l [am.zu an.dul.laj

dsamas ina Hid same e tap-pu-l:Ja me-l[dm-ma-ka samee i-kat-tamJ7 Laess0e Bit Rimki 52:1-2 (cf. 53:15-16)

Incantation: Sun-god, when you rise from "Heaven's Interior" (Akk.: the horizon), [your] sh[een covers the heavens.] an.un.na In "Duties and Powers of the Gods" (Sumer 4 pi. I ii 6'-11'; see p. 143), an. un. n a houses Igigi, suggesting that this region is a high, unseen level of heaven. This literary work, however, was written during the Kassite period, so this example of an.un.na, cannot prove a third-millennium Sumerian tradition of high heavens. Additional examples of the term, however, occur in the traditional Sumerian literary work Inanna and Sukalletuda: 8 sig.se igi mu.:il an.un.na kur.utu.e.ke 4.ne igi bLdu8 nim.se igi mu.:il an.un.na kur.utu.Su.ke4.ne igi bLdu8 an.sikiF.bad!.rara igi m u.nLd U8 an.bad.ra ra giskim mu.ni.zu ISET II pi. 9 iii 44-47 9 He (Sukalletuda) lifted the eye eastwards and looked at the high heaven by the mountain of sunrise. He lifted the eye westwards and looked at the high heaven by the mountain of sunset. He gazed at the shining? distant heaven. In the distant heaven he understood the sign. Although Sukalletuda sees an.un.na by mountains of sunrise and sunset, an. un.na in this passage might still be a region of heaven above the sky, since Adapa is able to see the visible parts of heaven isid same and elM same (horizon and zenith) while standing in Anu's heaven in Adapa D:7-8 (Piccioni Adapa 122). Sumerian an.bad.ra 'distant heaven' must be visible from earth in Inanna and Sukalletuda, since it provides Sukalletuda with a sign. earth upon setting." This argument, although appealing, contradicts the many texts where the Sun and Moon are placed in the underworld at night (see, for example, p. 352) and passages where Anu's abode in heaven is placed in an.sa in Sumerian literature. 7 Cf. R. Borger, Or 5416:11-12: an.sa.ku.ga = samu elliltu. 8 Note also an.un.na in BE 3127:14-15: ba dingir.re.e.ne.er mu.rLin.Bu.e.ne an.un.na ki ib.ta.sag.ku5 sag.ku5 .zu x x a mu zu x 9 K. Yolk (Inanna und Sukaletuda, 177) interprets this passage and parallels in a different manner.

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The Geography of the Heavens

The Geography of the High Heavens Very little is known about the interior of the Heaven of Anu or the other high heavens. The only evidence for the interior of the Heaven of Anu is found in Nergal and Ereskigal and Etana. In Nergal and Ereskigal, the assembly of the gods convenes in a courtyard named kisal danim 'courtyard of Anu'. In this same text, a gate to the Heaven of Anu is named "Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea;' and this gate is reached by ascending the simmelat samam'l 'stairway of heaven': i-la-a rdnaml-tar dr-kat sisim-me-lat sd-m[a-mi] ana bab da-nim den-lil u de-a ina ka-[sd-di] da-nim den-lil u de-a e-mu-ru-s[u!-ma]

bara nam.lugal.la.mu.se ga.na u.bLGALAM.GALAMgaga1a,am an.ta hebe.gal ana pa-rak-ku sar-ru-ti-ia ga-na ut-li-li-ma ina e-la-a-tu tis-bi Exaltation of Btar 18-19 Come, take yourself up to my (Anu's) royal dais, sit in the "Heights." [x.bara].nam.lugal.la.an.na.ke4 ul.be su bi.in.t[i mab.di] [x]-x pa-rak sar-ru-ut da-nim samee i-J;u-uz [tis-qar-tum] LKA 23 rev. 8'-9' (collated) [The exalted lady] took hold of the ... of the royal dais of Anu of heaven (Sum. Anulheaven).

STT 28 v 42'-44' d[na]m-tar ana ki-sal-li da-nim e-ru-u[b-ma] STT 28 v 47' Namtar ascended the long stairway of hea[ven.] When he arr[ived] at the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, Anu, Enlil, and Ea sa[w him] (and said ...) "Namtar ente[r] into the courtyard of Anu." In Etana, Etana and the eagle fly to the Heaven of Anu and enter through the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, and Gate of Sin, Samas, Adad, and Btar on their way to find a windowless home of Btar that Etana has seen in a dream (see p. 58). This information suggests that the Heaven of Anu was a great temple complex complete with a courtyard, gates, and shrines to house important gods. Such a tradition may have developed by analogy to the underworld, which also has a courtyard, gates, and divine homes (see p. 350-49). In Adapa, Anu also lives in a high heaven beyond a road to heaven named J;arran same 'Path of Heaven' and a gate called "Gate of Anu" (see p. 65), but the term "Heaven of Anu" is not used.

Divine Abodes in Heaven In both Sumerian and Akkadian texts, gods live in the high part of heaven above the sky. In KAR 307 32-33, a dais of Bel is located in the middle heavens. Parallel divine cellas and daises above the sky are found in a number of texts. In bilingual passages, Inanna/Btar sits on the dais of Anu in heaven: lO Note also another possible bilingual example of the dais of Anu in heaven in TCL 6 53:17-18 [hal raP.an.na.zu = [ina] same re paLrak-k[u] .... Note also A. Sjoberg, OrSuec 22116:8; EWO 74; Ebeling Handerhebung 55:1-2; PSD B 141-42 hara A Bilingual1; PSD B 145 bara.si.ga Bilinguall. A heavenly bara may also appear in a lexical list of cosmic terms: an, ul.HE, an.sar, ki.sar, an.ur, an.pa, bara, bara.an.dul, an.bar.Bu.a, an (MSL 11 61 v 155-64). Note also the biblical parallel in 1 Kings 22:19 and Isaiah 14:13. 10

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Divine Abodes in Heaven

Other passages refer to a solar cella in an unseen portion of heaven above the sky where the Sun-god passes the night. In a Sumerian hymn to Inanna, Inanna as Venus shines in the sky after the Sun enters his cella at sunset: dutu agrun.na.se kU4.ra.a.ba dinanna i.zi.gim an.ta im.gur.ru.a.zu.de BE 31 12 rev. 24-25 After Utu goes into his cella, Inanna, like a fire, you are raised up high. In parallel Old Babylonian Prayers to the Gods of the Night, the Sun-god enters his cella before the stars come out: da-a-a-an ki-it-tim a-bi ki-it-tim dsamas i-te-ru-ub a-na ku-um-mi-su RA 32181:14-15 (cf. 180:12-13) The Judge of Truth, Father of Truth, Shamash has gone into his cella. Earlier, both prayers call the night-resting place of the Sun utul same 'lap of heaven' (RA 32180:7, 181:7). In GHT 47-49 and 91-93, Utu leaves his cella when he rises at dawn, and a star apparently rises from a cella at the horizon in Namburbi: 11 ENmul agrun.ta rel.[a (...)] an.Ur.ta rel.[a] R. Caplice, Or 39 113: 1 Incantation: Star risin[g (...)] from the cella, risin[g] from the horizon. Other cellas of Btar, Shamash, and Sin, however, may be partially visible from earth. In an Esarhaddon oracle, Btar can see Esarhaddon when she sits in 11 Note also 0. Gurney, MA 22 92 i 179-80; Kramer AV 307:9; ELA 132,204; and the Sagigames incantation CT 17 19 i 34-39, where the Sun-god sets into a house and then rises the next morning. R. Caplice (OrNs 42 299-305) suggests that agrun is a name for the Apsu in these contexts.

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The Visible Heavens (The Sky)

her golden heavenly cella, but the Assyrian king can only see a light of elmesustone:

paths that cross the sky from the eastern to western horizon: a northern path belonging to Anu, a central path belonging to Enlil, and a southern path belonging to Ea. The Moon and Sun-gods use similar paths, called "The Path of Sin" and "The Path of Shamash;' on their way across the sky:

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I have established your (Esarhaddon's) throne below the great heavens. From the golden cella in the midst of heaven I will keep watch over you. I will make a light of elmesu-stone shine before Esarhaddon, the king of Assyria. 4R2 61 iii 29-35; see p. 13)

The light of elmesu-stone in !Star's cella may be compared with the elmeSustone in Bel's cella in KAR 307 33. This, however, is problematic, because the goddesses' throne in the interior of the heavenly cella was not visible from earth. A possible solution to this problem might be that the light inside the cella shone through a window and was therefore visible from earth, while the interior of the cella was not visible. Yet, Etana and the eagle apparently find that !Star's heavenly cella has no window in The Etana Epic (see pp. 50-51). Similar problems arise in a hymn to Sin, where the throne of the Moon-god is located in the samu ellutu 'clear heavens' (Perry Sin 5a:2-5c:16), and a su.fla to Shamash, where the Sun-god sits on a dais in the samu ellutu (KAR 55:1-2; Ebeling Handerhebung 52). Such passages, where the Sun, Moon, and goddess Venus (!Star) are visible in their shrines even when their shrines are not visible, demonstrate that the visible and non-visible heavens were not always totally separate in Mesopotamian thought.

The Visible Heavens (The Sky) The Heavens of the Stars, Sun, Moon, and Planets Sumerian and Akkadian texts preserve three' systems for describing the geography of the sky. First, Akkadian texts speak of paths of the heavens belonging to the stars and the seven ancient planets (udu.idim = bibbu): the Moon, Sun, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Second, both Sumerian and Akkadian texts refer to a system of dividing the heavens into quadrants that may be compared with the four quarters of the earth's surface. Third, a number of Sumerian terms and their Akkadian equivalents are used as names for various portions of the sky. These include an.ur = isid same 'Horizon' and an.pa = eldt same 'Zenith' (see pp. 233-42). In Mesopotamian texts, no region of heaven exists between the earth's surface and the level of the stars, sun, and moon for lesser astronomical objects such as comets or shooting stars. For example, the term kakkabu 'star' applies to meteors as well as fixed stars (see CAD K 48 2). The Paths of the Heavens. The division of the visible heavens into paths (l:Jarranu) is the most common system in astronomical texts. In these texts, the term usually refers to bands of the sky reaching from the eastern to western horizon. Both "The Astrolabes" and Mul-Apin divide the sky into three stellar

N

Path of Enlil

w

Path of Anu

E

Path of Ea

s The Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. The "Astrolabes" and star-catalogue of Mul-Apin (Mul-Apin I i 1-ii 35) list Anu, Enlil, and Ea-stars that travel along the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea over the course of the year. These paths are also mentioned in many other astronomical and astrological texts where, on occasion, the positions of astronomical phenomena are defined in terms of the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea-stars. For example, CT 41 23:10-12 states that a misl:Ju and a sallummu 'comet' move from the Path of Anu to the Path of Enlil; Parpola LAS I' 290 notes that Jupiter has moved from the sector (qaqqaru) of mu1si pa. zi.an.na (Orion) in the Path of Anu to the sector of mulgisgigir (,The Chariot') in the Path of Enlil; Borger Esarh. 2 i 37-ii 9 reports that Venus and Mars appeared in the Path of Ea; and Enuma Anu Enlil preserves numerous protases where Venus or other planets stand in one of the three stellar paths: 12 summa muldili.bad ina $it samsi u ereb samsi ina harran su-ut den-liZ izziz-ma ... [sum~a mul]dili.bad ina $it samsi u ereb samsi ina harran su-ut da-nu izziz-ma ... [sum~a mul]dili.bad ina $it samsi u ereb samsi ina l:Jarran su-ut de-a izziz-ma ... ACh !Star 4 10-12 12 See also E. Weidner, AfO 7 170-78; ACh IStar 16:13'-15'; ACh Supp. 34:5-7, 37:34-47; 53:10-15; LAS I 64 rev. 12, 18, 110+300:5 (LAS II p. 375),289: 15-16,290:17, rev. 5, 10, 14,324:3; AfO Beih. 22 224 rev. 14; SM 8 144: 6, 175:1,4,211:1,323:4,326:3, 349 rev. 2; Halley's Comet 24: 16-17.

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If Venus at sunrise or sunset stands in the Path of Enlil .. . [If] Venus at sunrise or sunset stands in the Path of Anu .. . [If] Venus at sunrise or sunset stands in the Path of Ea .. . This demonstrates that Mesopotamian astronomers used the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea to locate heavenly bodies in the sky, just as modern astronomers use degrees of latitude and longitude. In Mul-Apin II, the location of the Sun in the sky over the course of the year is explained in terms of the three stellar paths: l. From the 1st of Adar to the 30th of Iyar, the Sun travels in the Path of Anu; breeze and warm weat[her]. 3. From the 1st of Sivan to the 30th of Ab, the Sun travels in the Path of Enlil; harvest and heat. 5. [Fr]om the 1st of Elul to the 30th of Aragsamnu, the Sun travels in the Path of Anu; breeze and warm weather. 7. [From the 1s]t of Kislev to the 30th of Shevat, the Sun travels in the Path of Ea; cold weather. Mul-Apin II Gap A 1-7 (see p. 173)

Here the Sun is said to travel through the Path of Anu during the spring and autumn seasons, the Path of Enlil in summer, and Path of Ea in winter, demonstrating that the day sky, as well as the night sky, was divided into Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. This system of dividing the sky into Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea was well known in the first millennium. References and allusions to the Paths of Anu Enlil, and Ea are found outside astronomical and astrological works in literar; contexts, including Ee V 1-8, a Prayer to the Gods of the Night (A. Falkenstein, AnBi 12 284:43-44), an incantation from Sultantepe (STT 73:92-94), and Assurbanipal's Acrostic Hymn to Marduk and Zarpanitum, where Marduk establishes bnrranu 'paths' and malaku 'courses' in the sky for the constellations (SM 3 9 no. 2 rev. 8-9).13 Such literary allusions demonstrate that non-astronomers were familiar with the practice of dividing the visible heavens into Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. The earliest evidence for the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea dates to the second millennium. The final portion of a Boghazkoi version of a Babylonian "Prayer to the Gods of the Night" lists 17 stars belonging to Ea and refers to stars of Ea, Anu, and Enlil (KUB 4 47 rev. 43-48; see p. 158). However, this prayer does not use the term J;arranu. The earliest surviving evidence for J;arranu itself dates to the late second millennium; the Middle Babylonian "forerunner" to the "Astrolabes" HS 1897 from Jena and the slightly later Middle Assyrian Astrolabe KAV 218 (Astrolabe B; see pp. 158-59). Nevertheless, the fact that stars maintain regular courses must have been observed in very early times. 13 Note also AfO 1789:4-5 (see pp. 146-47); RA 488:23; Borger Esar:h.14 Episode 6, cf. BBR 98:41-42.

The Visible Heavens (The Sky)

255

Although no text ever explicitly states that the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea together comprise the entire sky, this may be inferred from a passage in a NeoAssyrian Prayer to the Gods of the Night that parallels KUB 4 47:

kakkab dIMsuti(ul u) d 1Miltani(si.sa) d 1Msade(kur) d1Mamurri(mar) su-pu-tu4 kakkabanu mes a-J;u-tu4 sa i-ni la i-mu-ru-su-nu-tu mu-pal-su la mu-pal-su la ip-pal-su-su-nu-tu su-ut da -nu al-si-ku-nu-(Si) su-ut denlil(50) na-as-J;u-ra-ni su-ut de-a gi-mir-ku-un pu-uJ;-ra-ni A. Oppenheim, AnBi 12283:40-284:44 Star of the north, south, east, and west, brill ant stars, others which the eye has not seen, which observers or non-observers have not observed, those of Anu, I cry out to you. Those of Enlil turn to me. Those of Ea, all of you, gather around me. In this context, all of the visible stars in heaven seem to be included among the stars of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. 14 The stars that have not been seen are probably 14 Note a nearly identical passage in STT 73:92-94. The Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea may also be said to comprise the entire heavens in two obscure passages in Enuma Anu Enlil: mU1e.tur.ra dim.ma.an.na [dull.ga] a-na nap-l:Jar same e DIM: na[p-l:Ja-ru (..)] a-na bi-nu-ut same e i-qab-bi BPO 2 42:22-22a

The "Caule-pen"-star, all of Heaven [so it is said] for all of Heaven. DIM means tot[ality (..)], so it says, for the creatures of heaven. l:Jarran dsamas se-pi-it tarba$i(tur) su-ut dea(dis) l:Jarran dsamas m[i-sil ta]rba$i su-ut da -nu harran dsamas res brt tarbasi(e.tur) su-u[ t den-liZ. . . . BPO 2 42:24b The Path of the Sun at the foot of the cattle-pen belongs to Ea. The Path of the Sun in the m[iddle of the calttle-pen belongs to Anu. The Path of the Sun at the head of the cattle-pen belong[s to Enlil ... In the first passage, the entire heavens (napl:Jar same) seems to be a cattle-pen for the creatures of heaven (i.e., the stars). In the second passage, the cosmic cattle-pen seems to be divided into thirds, with each third representing one of the three astronomical paths. The Path of Ea in the south is at the bottom, the Path of Anu in the center of the sky is in the middle of the cattle-pen, and the Path of Enlil in the north is at the top of the cattle-pen. However, a parallel places the Path of Ea at the top of the cattle-pen and the Path of Enlil at the bottom (see BPO 2 43 n. 24b). The Path of the Sun crosses into all three paths, as in Mul-Apin II (see p. 173). As noted by W. Heimpel (Fest. Sjoberg 24952), the cattle of the sky in this context, as in Sumerian literature, are the stars. If so, the identification of the "cattle-pen" with only the eastern horizon in BPO 2 p. 17 2.2.1.2.1 must be abandoned, since stars are found throughout the sky. For a further reference to stars behaving like cattle in The Exaltation of Istar, see p. 145. For a previous study of the cattle-pen (viehhof) of the stars, see Koch Neue Untersuchungen 119-32. The image

The Geography of the Heavens

The Visible Heavens (The Sky)

lesser stars that are not very bright or stars that have yet to rise or already set. Although unseen, the powers of such stars could still have been helpful.

The path which the Moon goes in, the Sun goes along. The path which the Moon goes in, Jupiter goes along. The path which the Moon goes in, Venus goes along. The path which the Moon goes in, Mars goes along. The path which the Moon goes in, the planet Mercury, whose name is Ninurta, gores along]. The path which the Moon goes in, the planet Saturn goes along. Mul-Apin II i 1-6 (see pp. 171-72)

256

Astronomical Lines of Latitude, Meridians, and Stellar Sectors. The Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea themselves were divided into stellar zones. On the circular Astrolabes, the sky is divided into 36 zones by "latitudinal lines" marking the borders of the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea and "longitudinal meridians" marking the beginnings and ends of the months. In Ee V I-S, Marduk draws mi$ratu 'boundary lines' when he arranges the stars of the "Astrolabe" in Ee V I-S. Grids of heavenly lines and meridians, such as those drawn on the circular Astrolabes, establish stellar sectors in the sky. Evidence for such stellar sectors is found in Mul-Apin and other texts from the first millennium where the terms qaqqaru 'area' and pirku 'sector' refer to areas of the sky surrounding important stars. Likewise, in the late period the positions of the stars of the zodiac and normal stars were used to define sectors of the sky called ba.la = zittuJ5 The Paths of the Moon, Sun, and Planets. The Moon, Sun, and planets move over the course of the year in relation to the fixed-stars. Both the terms Path of Sin and Path of Shamash, like the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, refer to fixed bands in the sky. In Mul-Apin I iv 31-39, the closing section of Mul-Apin I, the Path of Sin Caarran dsin) is explained in terms of IS stars (see p. 171). According to this list, the Moon moves through the stellar paths in the annual sequence Anu-Enlil-Anu-Ea-Anu. The term Path of Shamash (aarran dsamaS) occurs as a fixed band in the sky in astronomical reports and omens where stars reach (kasadu) the Path of Shamash at night (i.e., enter into the course that the Sun follows during the day).16 Likewise, in Ee V 21-22, the Moon-god is commanded to approach (sutaqrib) the Path of Shamash on the last day of the lunar month (um bubbulim), where neither the Sun nor Moon is seen in the sky at night. The opening section of Mul-Apin II identifies the Path of Shamash and the paths of the planets with the Moon's path: of the starry sky as a cattle-pen may proVide indirect evidence that the sky was perceived as a dome. The original pictograph of the TlJR (cattle-pen) sign includes a dome-shaped element (see Labat 87a), suggesting that some cattle-pens had dome-shaped roofs that might have been comparevd with the apparent dome of the sky. For the "head" and "foot" of the sky, see also CAD S/2 294 e. 15 For qaqqaru = 'stellar sector', see p. 166; SpTU I 94; AfO Beih. 22 219 EAE 20 Text a, 285:29. Compare also the later 12 ga.la = zittu 'parts' of the microzodiac (AfO Beih. 22 39 n. 24; F. Rochberg-Halton, JAOS 108 57-60). For boundary lines and meridians in the sky, compare also TCL 6 14 37-rev. 4 where planets stand (are stationary) on tallu 'dividing lines', DUR (= riksu, turru) 'bands, ropes', and MLsIR (perhaps a writing for mi$ir; see A. Sachs, JCS 6 74). Compare also DUR in TCL 613 ii 7-8, rev. ii 1-20 (F. Rochberg-Halton, ZA 77 212-15, cf. 222-24). Lines are also established in the sky by joining stars to form qu 'ropes' in BM 78161 (D. Pingree and C. Walker, Fest. Sachs 31322). For tallu and zittu on sundials, see F. Rochberg-Halton, Centaurus 32 164-65. 16 See E. Weidner, AfO 7 175-77; SAA 8 49 rev. 4, 230:5-6; BPO 2 39 n. II 13b, SpTU I 90 rev. 8.

257

The Moon's Path is itself defined by the IS stars in the Path of Sin in the immediately preceeding closing section of Mul-Apin I. Thus, the paths of the Sun and the five modern planets in Mul-Apin II, like the Path of Sin in Mul-Apin I, crosses the boundaries between the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. Later in MulApin II, the Sun is said to travel in different stellar paths during different seasons of the year (see pp. 172-73). In a few other texts, the paths of the Sun, Moon, and planets are called talaktu 'course' or malaku 'way' rather than aarranu 'path'. Parallel terms "Way of the Moon" and "Way of the Sun" occur in Late Babylonian astronomical texts (ACT 200 i 20; 0. Neugebauer and A. Sachs, JCS 21202 rev. 23-24, cf. 201 S, 15, 20), while the courses of the Sun, Moon, and planets are called tallaktu in E. Reiner and D. Pingree, AfO 25 52 rev. ii 1, 13. In Assurbanipal's Acrostic Hymn to Marduk and Sarpanitum, both "ways" and "paths" of constellations reach from east to west:

ina $itas(cIs.NIM) u silan(cIs.sU) lu-mas-si us-rziz-ma1 aar-ra-nu ma-la-[ku i]s-ruk-su-nu-ma u-[ x x x x x x ] Craig ABRT I 32 rev. 9 (SAA 3 9) In the east-sky and west-sky he set up the constellations, provided them with paths and way[sl, and. [ ...... ]17 On other occasions, however, aarranu seems to be used with the sense of the course of the Sun or planets in the sky at a given time, rather than a fixed band of the sky. For example, cloud formations (nidu) stand in the "Path of the Sun" in two of four omens in Thompson Reports 182 (= SAA S 401) and the path of the rising Sun in a third: 18 DIS

20

KUR

ina aarrani(kaskal)-su ni-du SUB.MES Thompson Reports IS2 rev. 1 (SAA 8 401)

If the Sun rises (and) cloud-formations lie in its path. The Shape, Length, and Width of the Astronomical Paths. In the "Astrolabes" and Mul-Apin, it is assumed that the paths of the stars are circles, with gis = samu, see pp. 229-30. For the Path of Shamash, Path of Sin, and the planets, see also E. Weidner, AfO 7 175-78, SpTU I 100:8' (Path of Mercury), Livingstone 24:24 (quotes Ee V 21-22), SAA 855: rev. 7-8. For "The Path of the Sun" in Gilg. IX, see pp. 98-99. 17

18

The Geography of the Heavens

The Visible Heavens (The Sky)

stars returning to their original positions each year. Thus each path should consist of 360 degrees. As noted on p. 186, this may be confirmed for the Path of Enlil in both the ziqpu-star text BM 38369+ and the blessing formula from Sultantepe, STT 340:12. In the Neo-Assyrian astronomical text AfO 25 52 rev. ii 1-4, the daily course (talaktu) of the Sun is also described as a circle (see pp. 190-91). In AO 6478, the Path of Enlil is 364 degrees long, instead of 360 degrees, but this slight anomaly reflects the author's intention to provide a better approximation of the true astronomical year of 365~ days (see p. 185). Nevertheless, there is no direct statement in any surviving text that circles of the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, or Sin and Shamash, extended beneath the earth's surface, although this may be inferred from ziqpu-star texts, where the Path of Enlil is 360° or 364° long, and from Astrolabe B Section D, where most of the Anu, Enlil, and Ea-stars rise on the eastern horizon six months (180 days = 180°) after setting on the western horizon. The width of the "Way of the Moon" (malak dsin) is provided in late astronomical texts. In ACT 200 this figure is said to be 12 degrees:

The Four Quadrants of Heaven. The tradition of the four quadrants of heaven parallels the tradition of the four quadrants of the earth's surface. This tradition in heaven is illustrated by Mul-Apin II i 68-71 (see pp. 172-73), where the constellations Ursa Major, PiscisAustrinus, Scorpio, and the Pleiades are said to lie across the north, south, east, and west winds. Other examples of this tradition include Surpu II 165-67 and Prayers to the Gods of the Night, which refer to stars of the four winds (A. Oppenheim, AnBi 12 283:40; OECT 6 75:16). A diagram of the four quadrants of heaven may be found on BagM Beih. 2 no. 98 where triangles labelled "Southwind" and "Westwind" are placed in the corners of a square above and below the label "sunrise." The placement of these triangles suggests that the four quadrants of the heavens were equal triangles rather than four equal squares (see p. 194).21

258

259

epesu(du)Sll sa NIM u SIG sa sin(30) ar[w(ab) ana arbi(ab) 12 DAGAL ma-lak dsin(30) ACT 200 i 20 (cf. SpTU I 94 20-21) The procedure for (determining) the positive and negative latitude of the Moon month by month. 12 (degrees) is the width of the "Way of the Moon." An equivalent measurement in cubits (6 kus) is provided in parallel texts (JCS 21 201:8, 15,20; JCS 21 202 BM 33739 rev. 2), This total of 12° represents the maximum north-south deviation of the course of the Moon over the 18-year lunar cycle. 19 Only the length of the Path of Enlil is measured in surviving texts. In the ziqpu-star text AO 6478, ziqpu-stars that circumambulate the Path of Enlil travel 655,200 leagues (see p. 186). The Movement of Heavenly Bodies. No text explains in detail how the stars, Sun, Moon, and planets move through the sky. In KAR 307, the stars are said to be inscribed upon the lower jasper heavens. As noted on p. 15, stars inscribed onto the stone floor of heaven would not have been able to move independently. Thus, the author of KAR 307 may have explained that stars appear to move in the night sky because the entire sky rotated. Such a cosmographic belief could not explain the independent motion of the Sun, Moon, planets, comets, or shooting stars, nor could it explain why circumpolar stars remained above the horizon throughout the year while other stars rose and set. 20 19 For 1 KUS = 2°, see CAD A/2 74 ammatu A i. For further discussion of the astronomical malaku, see ACT pp. 191-93 and JCS 21 203-5. 20 See B. Alster, ASJ 13 30-31 for a team of four lions that apparently pulls the chariot of Utu across the sky.

The tradition of the four quadrants of heaven may also be illustrated by two Sumerian passages where Venus shines in the sky. In a hymn to Inanna, the goddess is said to shine in u b.an: nam.dingir.zu dnanna dutu.gim an.ku.ge dalla.e izi!.gar.zu ub.an.na zalag.ge kukku zalag.ge.es gar A. Sj0berg, ZA 65198:209-10 (cf. 206 n. 210) Your divinity, like the Moon and Sun, is resplendent in the clear heavens. Your torch shines in the "Corner of heaven", turns darkness into light. The Duties and Powers of the Gods preserves a parallel passage, with an.u b instead of ub.an: 21 For the four winds in astrology, see AfO Beih. 22 57-60. Note also SAA 8 33435 and Sachs-Hunger Diaries I 118 -372:11: is]tu MURUB 4 same ana SrI ... 'fr]om the "center of heaven" to the nor[th ...'

260

The Geography of the Heavens

The Visible Heavens (The Sky)

261

dbelet.Ui an.na diri.ga.as ki.a slg.ge.dam an.ub.ta da.gan lil.da ba.tab.ba ... Sumer 4 pI. IV vii 19'-29' So that Venus would waft in heaven, to make her go down in "earth", to make her burn from "Heaven's Corner" through the entire atmosphere? ... 22 The term an.ub also also occurs in The Kesh Temple Hymn paralleling ki.ub: ga.nun ga.ra.bi an.ub ki.ub (TCS 3173:96). Both u b.an and an. u b are probably variations of Sumerian names for the the four quadrants of the earth's surface, an.ub.da.limmu.ba and ub.da. limmu.ba. The term an.ub is formed on the same pattern as an.ur, an.pa, and an.sa, while u b.an is similar to the term u b.da.an.ki, which occurs in two Sumerian hymns see p. 299). A related Akkadian geographical term, kippat sar erbetti 'Circle of the Four Winds', occurs in an epithet of Adad and The TukultiNinurta Epic (see p. 206; CAD K 399 kippatu 3d).23 A number of other passages demonstrate the close affinities between heavenly and earthbound geography. These include Sargon Geography 31, where Sargon rules all the lands sil;ip same 'under heaven' (see p. 86); passages in first millennium royal inscriptions where kings claim dominion from "horizon to zenith" (see p. 330); and the Sumerian phrase mul.mul.kur.kur. ra 'stars of the lands', which occurs in an incantation (LKA 145:4 II AMT 104:19). Parts of the Sky. A repertoire of equivalent Sumerian and Akkadian terms are used as names for parts of the sky. These terms, including Sumerian an.ur, an.pa, and giS.be, and their Akkadian counterparts isid same, eldt same, and supuk same, are examined on pp. 233-42. The repertoire of terms represents a traditional means for expressing the geography of the heavens, rather than a scientifically based system, and as such does not refer to welldefined parts of the sky.

The "Atmosphere." The area between the stars and earth's surface is not considered a separate level of the universe in KAR 307. Other texts, however, demonstrate that this space is a part of heaven, and there is some evidence that this space had its own geography and perhaps even a Sumerian name. Two Assyrian texts speak of kippatu 'circles' of the winds, which may be compared with the kippat same 'circle of heaven' and kippat burume 'circle of 22 For lil as a possible name for the atmosphere, see below. The verb sig is understood as a phonetic variant for sig with the general meaning sapalu 'to be low, to go down'. For tab = bnmatu 'to glow, to burn', see CAD t£ 64. 23 The division of the heavens into eight sectors is attested in !he planisphere CT 33 10 (Koch Neue Untersuchungen 56-61). Cf. Lugale 77 and CAD S/2 136 saru A2 for Lyon Sar. 10:66, 17:82.

the sky' in heaven. 24 In the inscriptions of Shalmaneser III, Adad is said to hold the kippat sare 'circle of the winds' 0. V. Kinnier Wilson, Iraq 24 93:4). In The Tukulti-Ninurta Epic, the Assyrian king excercises control over the kippat sar erbetti 'circle of the four winds' (Machinist TN Epic 66 1A:13). This 'circle of the winds' may be illustrated by the circle enclosing the square with triangles labeled "Southwind" and "Westwind" on BagM Beih. 2 no. 98. Sumerian lil may be used as a name for the level of the winds between heaven and earth. In The Duties and Powers of the Gods, the glow of Venus in heaven seems to shine in 1i 1: . .. an.ub.ta da.gan lil.da ba.tab.ba Sumer 4 pI. IV vii 25'-29' (see p. 260) ... to make her (Venus) burn from "Heaven's Corner" through the entire atmosphere(?) This sense of lil also fits the name of the god Enlil, perhaps literally 'lord of the open space'. Enlil, as the ruler of the earth's surface, would have been responsible for the open space above his region. The source of winds is never fully explained in Mesopotamian texts. One possibility is that winds were believed to issue out of the heavens and underworld and then to blow into Mesopotamian from the edges of the earth's surface. Wind-blown demons come from heaven and the underworld, and winds are said to blow in from an.ur 'the horizon' in an "Incantation of the Wind" (OECT 5 23:1-4; see p. 204).25 24 For kippatu in cosmic contexts, see CAD K 399 and J. V Kinnier Wilson, Iraq 24 100-101. 25 Note, for example, the opening lines of The Moon-God and the Demons, where wind-demons are born in ul.ge = supuk sa1'l1R (CT 16 19 i 1-5). In the World Map of Claudius Ptolemy, winds blow from an area beyond a cosmic ocean that extends to the ends of the earth's surface. For a reproduction of this map, see E. L. Stevenson (ed.), Geography of Claudius Ptolemy. In the Book of Enoch, portals and treasuries of the winds are found at the ends of the earth (see Charles Apocrypha II Enoch 18:34-36, 41, 76.

262

The Geography of the Heavens

The Composition of the Heavens There are two traditions concerning the composition of the heavens. According to one tradition, the heavens are made of water. In the second, the heavens are made of stone.

Water Explicit statements that the heavens are made of water are found in Babylonian texts. Examples include Ee IV 137-46, where Marduk builds the heavens out of part of the watery corpse of Tiamat, and Inamgisuranki, where the Akkadian name for heaven, same, is explained as sa me 'of water' (Livingstone 32:6; see p. 224). In Ee IV 139-40, Marduk stretches out a skin and assigns guards to keep the waters of heaven from draining downward onto lower regions of the universe. These traditions may be compared with Genesis 1, where the primeval waters are divided in two, with the upper waters positioned above the firmament (:I7'v1), and Psalms 104:3 and 148:4, which speak of waters above the heavens. The tradition of watery heavens almost certainly derives from the observation that waters fell from the heavens in the form of precipitation. This observation is reflected by close connections between Sumerian and Akkadian names for heaven and words for 'rain'. In Sumerian, the word for 'rain' seg is written with a diri-compound that includes the Sumerian name for heaven, an: A.AN ('water of the sky') (see CAD Z 160-61). As noted earlier, Akkadian samu 'heavens' (plural) is related to a common word for precipitation samulsamuml *sam{Jum, pl. sam{Jatu, samatu. The phenomenon of rainfall is explained in different ways. In the Lamastu incantation 4R2 58 II PBS I12 113, dew is connected in some way with the stars (see p. 244). In Sumerian texts, rain issues out of cosmic teats called u bur.an.na 'teat of heaven', which serve as rain ducts in the sky. In a royal hymn to Rim-Sin, the opening of these ducts results in rainfall: ubur.an.sud.aga gal bu.mu.ra.ab.tag 4 segx(IM.A) .an.na bu.mu.ra.ab.seg UET 6/1 102:23 (Steib Ie Rim-Sin 6) May he open the teat of the elmesu heavens, may he make the rain of heaven rain down. Because sud.aga = elmesu (see CAD E 107), the surface of the heavens appears to be made of elmesu-stone, and rain water may be stored in reservoirs above. Additional examples of the "teat of heaven" are found in the Vase Inscription of Lugalzagesi (BE I12 87 iii 27-28), a Rim-Sin inscription (RIM 4 272:6), a hymn to Nanna (A. Sj0berg, ZA 6332:24), and a passage in a hymn to Enki: ubur.an.na.ke4 gal bu.mu.na.ab.tag 4[ ... J buru 14 ·bi be.na.[ ... A. Sjoberg, JCS 29 31 B i 7 (photo ZA 63 50 no. 2) May he open the "teat of heaven" for him, may he ... the harvest [ ...

The Composition of the Heavens

263

In this last passage, the opening of the "teat of heaven" apparently provides rain for the harvest. Thus, the "teat of heaven" seems to provide life-sustaining rain waters, just as human and animal teats provide mother's milk. 26 Sumerian ubur.an.na may have an Akkadian equivalent. Some examples of the term $erret same, translated by CAD 135 4 as 'lead-rope of heaven', may in fact represent $erret same 'breasts of heaven', with serret understood as a plural construct of $irtu 'breast' written with doubled r (~ote, for instance, Ee I 85 $er-ret). Examples where the meaning 'breasts of heaven' is more appropriate than 'lead-rope of heaven' include passages in an Agum II inscription and a late hymn to Marduk: 27

$er-re-et same e rap-su-ti li-ip-pe-ta-su er-pe-tu zu-un-na W-[ ... J 5R 33 vii 16-21 (Agum II) Let the breasts of the broad heavens be opened for him, let the clouds. [...J the rain. [mu-sa-aJz-nin na-al-si ina ser-ret sa-ma-mi [ x x 1x sa-a-ri ti-iq me-e e-iu qar-ba-a-ti W. Lambert, AfO 19 61:9-10 [Who raJins down dew from the breasts of heaven, [ .. 1. wind and raindrops over the fields. Stone The tradition that the heavens are made of stone is found in KAR 307 and AO 8196, where the floors of the three heavens are made of luludanitu-stone saggilmud-stone, and jasper, and the Rim-Sin hymn that refers to elmesu-ston~ heavens (Steible Rim-Sin 6:23; see above). The tradition of stone heavens may derive from an observation that certain heavenly objects were the same color as minerals. For instance, Sirius shines like copper in the inscriptions of TiglathPileser I (AKA 140:15), and a shooting star is said to shine like zaginduru (lapis or lapis-colored glass) in astronomical omens (S. Langdon, Babyl. 7233:20-21). The identification of astronomical bodies with stones, although probably originally based simply on color, may have lead to a tradition that the heavens themselves were composed of stone. Such a belief might have been confirmed by finding stone meteors that fell from the sky.28 26 Note also Gudea Cyl. B iv 8-9: im.ma.al.an.na.ke 4 ubur si ba.ni.ib.sa 'On the cow of heaven she set the udder aright' (see Jacobsen Harps 428 n. 14). 27 For $erret same/samami, see also BWL 126:17, 318 nn. 17, 18 (Shamash Hymn); MSL 2 99-101; TCS 3 116-17 n. 332; AHw 861 peW N 5; E. Reiner, Astral Magic in Babylonia, 59; Van Soldt Solar Omens 66 note to line 14'; and see W Farber, JNES 49 316-17 4.5: 3 for variants MUL samamfl[MU]L.MES samam'i/$er-ret same (here translated 'the Milky Way'). 28 For falling stars reaching the earth's surface, see Oppenheim Dreams 283. For a study of meteorites and meteoric iron, see J. Bjorkman, Meteors and Meteorites in the Ancient Near East, 110-18; and R. Chadwick, GMS 3 161-70. In Sumerian texts, the heavens themselves may be compared with the blue color of lapis-lazuli. The tablet dub mul.an "Tablet Stars of Heaven;' which may have been an early star chart, was made of lapis-lazuli (see pp. 166-68).

The Bonds of Heaven

The Geography of the Heavens

264

The Size of the Heavens Mesopotamians believed that the heavens were extremely broad and high. In many contexts, the heavens are said to be vast (dagal = rapsu), and a number of texts make it clear that the heavens extended over the entire earth's surface. Twice, in Etana and in AO 6478, the immense size of heaven is expressed in measured units. In Etana, Etana and the eagle fly upward for six leagues without reaching the top of the heavens, and AO 6478 states that a circumnavigation of the Path of Enlil entails a voyage of 655,200 leagues (see p. 186). In CT 46 55, an even larger figure of 1,432,000 is recorded as the distance between asurrakku and earth, but the meaning of asurrakku in this context is not certain (see pp. 178-79).

The Shape of the Heavens The visible heavens were thought to be circular in shape, since the clear sky appears to be a giant circle. Textual evidence for this belief is found in the terms kippat burume 'circle of the sky' (see pp. 226-27) and kippat same 'circle of heaven'; the latter occurs in two hymns to the Sun-god: za.e zalag.ga.ta sag.kul su.da an.na.ta aHa-ma nu-ur-su-nu sa kip-pat samee ru-qu-u-tu4 4R 19 no. 2:51-52 You are their (mankind's) light in the circle of the distant heavens (Sum. distant bolt of heaven) 29

[mus-te-s]ir nise mes sa kip-pat same e [at-tal K. 2830:3 (Gray Samas pI. III, Bit Rimki) v

[You are the direc]tor of people in the circle of heaven Further evidence for the circular shape of the sky may be found in the circular shape of Assyrian planispheres (CT 33 10-12), the circle enclosing the winds in BagM Beih. 2 no. 98, and the terms kippat sare 'circle of the winds' and kippat sar erbetti 'circle of the four winds' (see p. 260). Although the clear sky seems to us to be shaped like a dome, rather than a flat circle, there is no direct evidence that ancient Mesopotamians thought the visible heavens to be a dome. Akkadian kippatu are always flat, circular objects such as geometric circles or hoops, rather than three dimensional domes. Nonetheless, evidence for dome-shaped, or curved, heavens may be found in the ziqpu-star text BM 38693+, the blessing formula STT 340:12, and AO 6478, where the Path of Enlil is 364 0 long. All three imply that the Path of Enlil, at least, is a curved band that encircles the earth's surface (see p. 258). However, 29

gissag.kul

=

sikkilru 'bolt' (see CAD S 256).

265

this does not prove that the surface of heaven is curved, since stars need not have necessarily traveled along the surface of the sky.30 There is also no direct evidence for the shape of the high unseen heavens, although it is likely that these levels too were thought to be circles. A cryptic reference to the possible circular shape of the Heaven of Anu may be found in a su.ila where the Heaven of Anu is identified with a nignakku 'censer' (Ebeling Handerhebung 14:16). Censers were flat, round objects.

The Bonds of Heaven A number of texts refer to cosmic bonds, including 'bonds' (riksu, markasu), 'lead-ropes' ($erretu), and the durmal;u ('great bond'), which secure the heavens in place. The most complete explanation of how the heavens are secured is found in Ee V 59-62 (see p. 119). Here Marduk twists Tiamat's tail into the durmal;u, and uses this durmal;u to keep the heavens in place over the earth's surface and Apsu. Then, Mardukuses Tiamat's crotch as a wedge to hoist the heavens upwards and keep the heavens from falling. Later in Ee V 65-68, Marduk secures the riksu 'bonds' of heaven and earth and fastens $erretu 'leadropes', which he hands to Ea in the Apsu. These lead-ropes may be tethered to higher regions of the Universe, and Ea, the lord of the bottom region in Enuma Elish, may hold these lead-ropes to keep the higher regions from floating away.31 Although it is not certain how the apparatus described in Ee V looked when it was fully operational, it is likely that it had the appearance of a lattice of rope work, with the durmal;u as its central axis. This durmal;u may have been a thick reed bundle, since a "reed" durmal;u is listed in Urra VIII: gi.dur.mab gi.dur.mab gi.dur.gal

su-I;u (durmal;u) =

gir-ri-gu-u

=

MIN

MSL 719:186-88

Both the gi.dur.mab and gi.dur.gal, according to their etymologies at least, should be large objects made of reeds. 32 30 For a possible drawing of a dome vault of the sky at Mari, see W. G. Lambert, Or 54 202. See also p. 256 n. 14. 31 Note also the parallel in A George, Iraq 48 134 B 8-9 (see p. 120). For further examples of markasu, see CAD Mil 2834, and perhaps also Kinnier Wilson Etana 66: 10 (cf. 64 I1G 2). For $erretu, see CAD $ 135 ab, W. G. Lambert, Kraus AV 196:2, SAA 3 121 K. 5708a 6', and Erra IIId:3. Note also the turru 'bond' in Ee VII 80; Maqlu 23:33; Cohen Canonical Lamentations 154:17, with dupl. pp. 172-73; and Ugaritica V 32:20'. Another example of Marduk lifting heaven upward may be found in Ludlul Bel Nemeqi. CAD N/2 89 2' understands the parallel lines Ludlul Bel Nemeqi I 9,11: (dmarduk) sa nagbi qatesu la inasstl sama~il (BWL 343 II D. J, Wiseman, AnSt 30 102) as explaining that Marduk's hands hold up the heavens: "from the depth, do his (Marduk's) hands not hold up the heavens?" However, a more likely translation of the line "(Marduk) whose full hands the heavens cannot bear" is suggested by a bilingual parallel (see BWL 314 n. 9). 32 For the bonds of heaven and earth, see also George BTT 261-62; CAD S/2 381: seams (sibuu) of heaven and earth.

266

The Geography of the Heavens

The Gates of Heaven The Moon, Sun, stars, gods, and others pass through gates 33 when entering and leaving the heavens. Gates occur in both Sumerian and Akkadian texts and lead into both visible and nonvisible levels of heaven. Gates to the High Heavens

Gates to the high heavens are found in Adapa, Nergal and Ereskigal, and Etana. In Adapa, Adapa travels along the /:Jarran same 'Path of Heaven' to the Gate of Anu, where he finds the gods Tammuz and Giszidda guarding the gate (see p. 65). In Nergal and EreSkigal, the simmelat samami 'Stairway of Heaven' leads to the Heaven of Anu by way of the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea (see p. 66). In Etana, Etana and the eagle enter the Heaven of Anu by passing through the Gate of Anu, EnUI, and Ea, and the Gate of Sin, Samas, Adad, and !Star (see pp.50-51). Gates to the Visible Heavens

In numerous Akkadian and Sumerian texts, the Moon, Sun, Venus, and the stars are said to pass through heavenly gates. As these astronomical bodies rise or appear in the sky, they are said to enter the heavens through gates. Conversely, as they set or disappear, they leave the heavens through gates. For instance, in an ikribu-prayer to Sin, the Moon-god opens the door of heaven when he appears in the sky (S. Langdon, RA 12 190:3); Adad thunders by the gate of the Moon in SM 8 119:5; the opening of the abulli sa same rapsilti 'gate of the vast heavens' allows stars and constellations to take their places in the night sky in a Prayer to the Gods of the Night (OECT 6 74: 10-75: 17), and Venus is said to open the bolt of heaven in a bilingual hymn (Cohen ErSemma 132:21). A gate of !Star also occurs in a broken context in an astronomical diary (Sachs-Hunger Diaries 1 106 -373 rev. 17'). In Enki and the World Order, the weather-god !Skur, rather than the Sun, Moon, or Venus, is charged with opening the bolt of heaven (Benito Enki 102:313; see p. 143). Thus, clouds, winds, and other atmospheric phenomena can also enter the sky through gates. The gates to the visible heavens are probably to be located at the eastern and western ends of the sky, where the Sun rose and set. In Old Akkadian cylinder seals, the Sun-god is depicted as rising through a gate by mountains that may be identified with the mountains east of Mesopotamia (see RlA 7 531 "Masu"). In Ee V 9-10, the gates and bolts of heaven are placed on the right and left sides of heaven.

33 For gates and gate-parts of they heaven~ see W. Heimpel, JCS 38 132-40; F. Rochberg-Halton, JNES 42 214; CAD S/1 344, S/2 410; and n. 34 below. For recent studies of gates and gate-parts, see J. Scurlock, Or 57 421-33; E. Leichty, JCS 39 190-96.

The CTGtes of Heaven

267

Parts of the Gates of Heaven

A number of passages refer to parts of the heavenly gates. Examples include the "Door of Anu" in The Exaltation of Istar (see pp. 144-45), a SinIddinam cone where Utu opens the gissi.gar.an.na 'bolt of heaven' (RIM 4 167:3), and a passage in Bit Rimki where the sun lifts the key-peg of the bolt in heaven's gate: S4 gissi.gar an.ku.ga.ta giskak nl.kak.ti te.ga.da.zu.de ina si-gar same e ellilUmes sik-kat nam-za-q{ ina su-li-i-ka 4R 17:5-6 + duplicates (see CAD NII 256 namzaqu bil. section) When you lift the peg of the key from the bolt of the clear heavens. Approaches to the Gates of Heaven

There are three ways to reach the gates of heaven in Akkadian literature. First, it is possible to fly to the gates from the earth's surface, like Etana and the eagle. Second, it is possible to take a road, like Adapa. Third it is possible to climb a stairway like the simmelat samami 'Stairway of Heaven' in Nergal and Ereskigal. The Sun may use a similar stairway in an Old Babylonian prayer where Shamash opens the dalat same 'doors of heaven' and ascends a lapislazuli stairway (Starr Baru 30:9//RA 38 87:10-11; see p. 66). Another reference to a ramp or stairway of some sort may be found in a Nabonidus inscription that calls the wall of Babylon Imgur-Enlil a melit samami 'Incline of Heaven' and simmelat ganzer 'Stairway of the Underworld' (F. Al-Rawi, Iraq 47 4:15). Although it is never explicity stated how the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets reach the gates of heaven in other texts, it is logical to assume that the astronomical paths continued below the horizon. This may be confirmed by AO 6478, where a full circuit of the Path of Enlil includes travel below the horizon. 34 Note also the namzaqu 'key' of Anu in UVB 1536:12. For additional examples of the gates of heaven and parts of the gates, see n. 33 above; Sjoberg Moongod 167:20; E. Ebeling, OrNS 17420:7, 16; BA 5 572 no. 6:16-17; BiOr 28 10 Assur IV 23; LKA 32:18, 139 rev. 201/140:5; STT 1449'-10'; ZA 6710:34; EWO 313; ACh Sin 1:8; Craig ABRT 1 22 ii 15; Cohen ErSemma 122:13-16, 125:14-17, 132:21; SpTU III 75:21; SAA 8459:11-12.

Names for 'Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

269

kir5 ganzerlkanisurra kisi l;astu 'The Pit' irkalla k u k k u 'Darkness' kur haru ku r.gi kiftru kunugilkurnugia 'Earth kukku'Darkness' of No Return' kurnugu 'Earth of No Return' lamllamma lammu lambu matu saplitu 'Lower Land' uras 2 qaqqaru urugallerigal 'Grave/Great City'

Chapter 12

Names for Earth

ZE

Numerous Sumerian and Akkadian names for earth and the regions of earth (the earth's surface, Apsu, and underworld) are known. Most names for earth are also names for the earth's surface and the underworld. For instance, erl?etu, the most common Akkadian name for earth, is also the common Akkadian name for the underworld, and the three earths of KAR 307 30-38 (earth's surface, Apsu, and underworld) are identified as erl?etu elitu, erl?etu qablitu, and erl?etu saplitu 'upper, middle, and lower earths'. Nonetheless, with the exception of the term erl?etu qablitu 'middle earth' in KAR 307 35, no name for earth is also used as a name for Apsu. Names of the Apsu are examined on pp. 30617, while names for earth, the earth's surface, and the underworld are examined below. Additional geographic terms and names for the sea are examined on pp. 295-306.

The longest lists of names are found in Group Vocabulary CT 51 168, and parallel sections of Diri and Proto-Diri. Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 62-70 lists nine equivalents of Akkadian erl?etu: 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70.

kur lam ZE

a.ni ara.liKURBAD IGI.KUR

kur.gi kur.nu.gi ga.an.ze.er

er-I?e-tu MIN MIN MIN MIN MIN MIN MIN MIN

Parallel sections of Diri and Proto-Diri explain the diri-compounds IGI.KUR,ZA (see CAD E 308 erl?etu):

Names for 'Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld Lexical Evidence

Most common names for earth, the earth's surface, and the underworld, as well as a number of rare or poetic names, are found in lexical lists. 1 The lists include at least 17 Sumerian names and 16 Akkadian names: Sumerian Names a.d. arali bur ganzer idim . ki

Akkadian Names ammatu arali/arallu bit ddumuzi 'House of Dumuzi' danninu erl?etu erl?et la tari 'Earth of No Return'

For previous studies of names for earth and underworld, see Sladek ID 58-61, with further bibliography; Jensen Kosmologie 160-260; J. Bottero, Mesopotamia, 273-75. 1

268

145. bi.l i b 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. ga.an.zer 151. 152. 153. 154. ba.li.ib

IGLKUR

IGI.KURZA

IGI.KUR

IGLKUR

and

pa-an er-I?e-ti er-I?e-tu ir-kal-la dan-ni-na ga-an-ze-er bab(ka) der-I?e-ti der-se-tu dir-kal-la ddan-ni-na ga-an-zer Diri II 145-54 ir-ka-al-la pa-ni er-I?e-tim

2 Sumerian uras is a name for both heaven and earth (see MSL 14 194; Ea I 338b-c: uras = samil, er$etum). Cf. F. Wiggerman, Natural Phenomena 282, 291. For uras as a name for heaven, see p. 231.

Names for Earth

270

[ga.an.ze.er IGI.KURZA]

da-ni-na ka-ni-sur-ra ku-uk-[ku-u] ba-ab er-~e-tim Proto-Diri III a, aa-e

Both bilib/halib and ganzer are names for the entrance to the underworld, as well as the underworld as a whole. The entry pani er~etim 'front of the underworld' is a literal translation of the diri-compound IGI.KUR, since IGI is equivalent to panu and kur is equivalent to er~etu, while ganzer = bab er~eti indicates that ganzer is a name for a gate to the underworld. In CRT 167, a gate to the underworld is called ka.gal ganzer 'ganzer-gate', and Inanna enters the underworld at e.gal ganzer 'The Palace ganzer' in lnanna's Descent (see Sladek ID 59-60). The significance of the divine determinatives before the names in Diri II 150-53 is uncertain. The next longest fully preserved list is found in the lexical tablet LTBA 2 2 i 2-5:

da-ne-ne ki-u-ru [i]r-kal-lum [l]am-mu

er-~e-tum

=

MIN MIN MIN

Other lists with three or more names are found in Aa, Igituh, Nabnitu, Group Vocabularies, and Proto-Izi: 3

Aa VII4 29-33 (MSL 14441) [a.ra.li] = URUxX]

er-~e-tum

a-ra-li bit ddumu-zi [u.ru.gal

=

URUxX]

er-~e-tum

qa-ab-rum Igituh (Short Version b) 157-59 (B. Landsberger, AfO 1882-83) kur.nu.gi 4.a su E.KURa.ra.li.BAD = a-r[a-al-lu-u] IGLKuRgaan.zerZA = er-[~e-tum] Nabnitu XXV 72-74 (MSL 16 226) ra1.ra.li a-ra-al-l[u-u] E.KURM1N.BAD MIN u.ru.galurugal MIN 3 For single entries and lists with two entries, see Aa IV 3 107 (MSL 14381); Ea II 121-22 (MSL 14 252); Ea IV 162-62a (MSL 14 361); Ea VI C 12'-13' (MSL 14432); Ea II Assur MA Excerpt 5 (MSL 14 261); Diri III 205 (see CAD E 308); Diri IV 236-37; Lanu C iii 2 (see CAD K 564); Proto-Izi I Bilingual D i 21'-22' (MSL 1337); Sb1 216 (see MSL 4206); Group Vocabulary K. 4177+ i 14-15 (see CAD I 177); Emar 537:282, 300; 568:52'.

Names for 'Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

27l

Group Vocabulary CT 1830 rev. i 28-30 arali(E.KuRBAD) er-~e-tu arali bit mu-ti arali na-aq-ba~ru Unilingual Proto-Izi 1386-89 (MSL 1330) u rugalqa-ab-'rum u rug a 1er-~e-tum a.ra.li kur.nu.gi 4 Antagal D 122-24 (MSL 17205) [ x x ] KAxKI er-~e-tum [IGI.KU]RZA = ir-kal-l[um] [E.KUR].BAD = naq-[ba-rum] Many of the Sumerian names also occur in PBS I12 112 in a list of zi.pa (exorcism) formulas: 4

61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69.

zi zi zi zi zi zi zi zi zi

61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69.

Be exorcised by Nergal, the Enlil of the underworld. Be exorcised by Ereskigal, who is queen in the underworld. Be exorcised by Ningiszida, the 'chair-bearer' of the underworld. Be exorcised by Namtar, the chief nagallu of the underworld. Be exorcised by Rusbisa, the steward of the underworld. Be exorcised by Sarsarbid, the butcher of the underworld. 5 Be exorcised by Etana, the vizier of the underworld. Be exorcised by Cilgamesh?, the .. of the underworld. Be exorcised by.... , the door-man of the underworld.

dnerigal den.lil uru.gal.la.ke4 [be] deres.ki.gal nin sa ki.gal.la.k[e 4 be] dnin.giS.zi.da gu.za.la kur.ra.ke 4 [be] dnam.tar na.gal.mab kur.nu.gi.gi.da.k [e 4 be] dbus.bLSa agrig kur.ra.ke 4 be dsadar.bUd glri.la kur.ra?ke4? be de.ta.na sukkal aralUE.KuRBAD)li?ke4! be dbiF.ga?mes? x x kur.ra? be dx.x.x .x lUsi.gar ganzer. [ke 4 be] PBS I12 112 61-69 (collated)

4 A parallel bilingual list of zi. pa-formulas is found in K. 3179+ (see E. Ebeling, ArOr 21 387:50-388:80a). Note also OECT V 19:30,33-34, K. Deller, NABU 1991 pp. 1416 no. 18. 5 Compare the tree sarsabittu (= Sumerian gisNEDU.KU). dNEDU is of course the gatekeeper of the underworld (see J Bauer, Altorientalistische Notizen 1992 no. 45).

Names for Earth

272 ki, kur, ersetu

The most common names for earth are Sumerian ki and kur and Akkadian en}etu. The name er$etu is the most common Akkadian name for earth, the earth's surface, and the underworld, but Sumerian kur and ki only have some of these meanings. Sumerian ki is the most common name for earth and the earth's surface but is almost never used as a name for the underworld. In contrast, kur, the most common name for the underworld in Sumerian texts, is never used as a name for the earth's surface, although Sumerian kur.kur 'the lands' is a common name for this region. The three names also occur in compound names with ki, kur, or er$etu as the first element. Examples include the underworld name 'Earth of No Return' (kur.nu.gi = er$et la tari), and ki.gal = kigallu 'Great Earth'. ki. Sumerian ki occurs countless times in the cosmic pair an.ki 'heaven and earth' and in parallelisms between heaven and earth in texts such as Gilgames and the Jjuluppu-Tree, Enki and Ninmab, and KAR 4, where an and ki are separated from one another in early times (see pp. 134-42). As such, ki also. occurs as a name for the exposed upper surface of earth, the earth's surface. Two examples of ki = er$etu as the underworld occur in bilingual texts. In SBH 139 no. iv 157-58, 600 Anunnaki are placed in ki = er$etu (see p. 18). These 600 can be identified as the 600 Anunnaki of the underworld in KAR 30737. In Utukku Lemnutu XVI, demons are sent down to ki = er$etu from the earth's surface: 6 udug.hul a.la.bul ki.se ba.ba.ell.de u-tuk-ku lem-nu a-lu-u lem-nu ana er$etimtim li-ri-du CT 16 22: 280-281 + duplicates (cf. 0. Gurney, AAA 22 86: 136-137) Let the evil utukku-demon and evil alit-demon go down to the underworld. kur. The ordinary name for the underworld in Sumerian texts is kur. In addition to the meaning 'underworld', kur is also equivalent to Akkadian sadit 'mountain' and matu 'land'. The sign KUR was originally a pictograph of a mountain, so the use of kur as a name for the underworld may indicate that the underworld was once conceived to be a mountain, thought to lie in the mountains outside the Mesopotamian plain, or was placed inside a cosmic mountain that the earth's surface rested upon. Unfortunately, the origins of kur as a name for the underworld are not explained in surviving materials. 7

Names for 'Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

273

Numerous examples of kur as a name for the underworld occur in texts concerned with the underworld. For example, the term occurs more than 60 times in lnanna's Descent, over 30 times in Gilgames and the Jjuluppu-Tree, and more than 10 times in The Death of Ur-Nammu. Two other examples occur in the list of mes in Inanna and Enki, where Inanna steals mes, including kur.ell.de 'descending to the underworld' and kur.ell.da 'ascending from the underworld' (Inanna und Enki 28:23, 54:19-20). In ID 4-13 Inanna is said to abandon her temples before descending to kur. Later in ID 284-85, the goddess ascends from kur. Additional examples occur in a wide variety of texts, including the zi.pa-formulas in PBS I12 112 (see p. 271) and a hymn to Nergal: garza.gi 16 .sa rnll.da.ri kur.se rsu.du7.du71 dnerigal lugal u 4 .su x x X x den.lil dnin.lil.bi sag.e.eS mu.ni.ri[g7] BL 196:26-28 (collated AOAT 11 15) Enlil and Ninlil gave Nergal, the king who daily. .. , the (duty of) perfecting the eternal rite and everlasting deed for the underworld, as a gift. er~etu. Akkadian er$etu is the most common Akkadian name for both the earth and underworld and is paired with Sumerian kur 'underworld' and ki 'earth', as well as common Sumerian names for the underworld, including arali, ganzer, kur.nu.gi, and urugal in lexical and bilingual texts. Like Sumerian kur and ki, er$etu has a number of other meanings, including 'land, sterritory, ground, and soil' (see CAD E 308). The term is a cognate of the most common names for earth in other Semitic langUages such as Hebrew (y1N, J ere$) and Arabic (~~i, an;'). Unambiguous examples of er$etu as a name for the underworld occur in a wide variety of texts. In Gilg. XII, the Akkadian parallel to GilgameS and the Jjuluppu-Tree, Akkadian er$etu translates Sumerian kur 'underworld' more than 30 times (see Shaffer Sumerian Sources). Other examples of er$etu as the underworld occur in dream omens (Oppenheim Dreams 327:71-328:85); An Underworld Vision of an Akkadian Crown Prince (SAA 3 68-76); epithets of underworld gods such as Nergal, EreSkigal, Namtar, Bidu, and Enmesarra (see CAD E 311 2b); and a funerary text, where offerings are presented to the underworld gods in er$etu:

qi-sa-a-ti a-na mal-ki da-nun-na-ki it ilani mes a-si-bu-ut er$etimtim [uj-qa-a-is K. 7856:19-22 (TuL p. 58) I presented offerings to the malku-gods, the Anunnaki, and the resident gods of the underworld.

Also note M. Geller, AfO 35 17:48. It has long been argued that a cosmic mountain or weltburg exists in Sumerian cosmology on the basis of Labar and Asnan 1: bur.sag.an.ki.bi.da 'mountain of heaven and earth' (see TCS 3 51 n. 2). 6

7

Unambiguous examples of er$etu as a name for the earth's surface are more difficult to identify, but three can be found in The Shamash Hymn, Atra-basis, and a prayer to Shamash and Adad. In Shamash Hymn 176-79, the Sun-god

Names for Earth

Names for 'Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

shines over the earth (er$etu) and vast earth (er$etu rapastu) during the day (BWL 136). In the prayer to Shamash and Adad, Adad brings rain down on the kippat er$eti 'circle of the earth':

pit' (see CAD B 213). Akkadian kigallu also has the meaning 'base or pedestal of a statue' and 'raised platform for cultic use' (see CAD K 348).8 As a name for the underworld, ki.gal occurs in the name of Ereskigal, the Queen of the Underworld, as explained in PBS I12 112:62: zi dereS.ki.gal nin sa k i. g a l.l a. k [e 4 be] 'Be exorcised by Ereskigal, who is queen in the underworld'. Elsewhere, b.gal occurs in epithets of underworld deities (see TCS 3 54 n. 16), and Inanna turns her mind toward b.gal from heaven before descending to the underworld in Inanna's Descent: 9

274

... dadad qu-ra-du ina kip-pat er$eti ti u-sa-az-na-an-(nu) nu-ulJHu! BBR II no. 100:16 (CAD Z 43 zananu A 2) ... heroic Adad who brings down bounty on the "circle of the earth" ... Here kippat er$eti is the earth's surface, since rain falls from heaven directly onto the surface of the earth. In a broken passage in Atra-basis, the flood-hero explains that he must build his boat because he can no longer live on the er$et denlil 'Earth of Enlil' (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 90:48). In the parallel passage in Gilg. XI 41-42, Utnapistim explains that he can no longer remain on qaqqar denlil 'The Ground of Enlil', and so must descend to the Apsu. The only portion of earth above the Apsu is the earth's surface. er~etu

elitu, qablitu, saplitu 'Upper, Middle, Lower Earth'. The terms

er$etu elitu, qablitu, saplitu occur in KAR 307 35-38 as names for the three earths. The Upper Earth is the earth's surface where Marduk settles the spirits of mankind; the Middle Earth is the Apsu of Ea; and the Lower Earth is the underworld, where 600 Anunnaki are imprisoned (see pp. 16-19). The term er$etu qablitu 'Middle Earth' also occurs a number of times in the Late Babylonian flood tablet BE 39099 (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 11621) as a name for the earth's surface, rather than the Apsu: taq-bi-ma (d a -nu u) dadad i$-$ur e-le-nu [dsin u dnerga]l i$-$ur er$etu tli qab-li-tu4 [si-ga-ru n]a-ab-ba-lu tam-tu [a-na-ku a$]-$ur qa-du lab*-me-ia Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 118:16-19

[ .. ] x

[ .. ] . You (Enlil) commanded and (Anu and) Adad guarded above, [Sin and Nerga]l guarded the Middle Earth, [The Bolt, "N]et of the Sea", [I (Ea) gu]arded together with my labmu. Here, 'Middle Earth' is placed between Anu's region above and a region of Ea below. The earth's surface lies between Anu's heavens and Ea's region, the Apsu, where labmu are often to be found (see p. 308).

275

an.gal.ta ki.gaUe gestu.ga.ni na.an.gu [b] dingir an.gaLta ki.gaUe gestu.ga.ni na.an. [gu b] dinanna an.gal.[ta ki.gaUe] gestu.ga.ni na.an.[gub] Sladek ID 103:1-3 She se[t] her mind from great heaven to great earth. The goddess [set] her mind from great heaven to great earth. Inanna [set] her mind from great heaven [to great earth.] A phonetic variant ki.gul is attested in the epithet of Ningiszida lugal. ki.gu.la 'Lord of the Underworld' in TCL 15 25 rev. 10' and in an incantation to Utu (B. Alster, ASJ 13 46:55). This name can be compared with the term tus.gu.la 'great abode' that occurs as a variant of tus.kur.ra 'abode of the underworld' in GHT 164 (Shaffer Sumerian Sources 69). Akkadian kigallu is used as a name for the earth as a whole as well as the underworld. In literary contexts, kigallu occurs in parallelisms with the poetic names of heaven asru (w. G. Lambert, JAOS 88 131 rev. 6; OIP 40 103 no. 1:13) and ermi danim (OIP 2 149 v 4; Borger Esarh. -'75:3). In the surviving Akkadian portion of a bilingual work, kigallu is paired with tdmatu 'seas' (W G. Lambert, JCS 21 129:28). Elsewhere, kigallu is clearly a name for the underworld. In Late Babylonian royal inscriptions, foundations are placed on kigallu or irat kigalli 'surface of the underworld' (see CAD K 349 3). The underworld god Enmesarra is called $amt kippat kigalli 'Holder of the Circle of the Underworld' in R. Borger, ZA 61 77:48, and kigallu may be explained as the region of the dead in a Late Babylonian fragment: · .. ] rkiLgal ilani mes i-N[E ... · II · . . ] kt-ga - a : er$e t'Imtim sa mt- [tu.? -t'? z. ... v

/

•

SpTU I 164:3'-4'

· .. 1the ... of the gods he . [ ... · .. ] kigallu (means) "earth of the d[ead"? ...

ki.gal

=

kigallu 'Great Earth'

Sumerian ki.gal and Akkadian kigallu have a number of meanings. In addition to 'underworld', ki.gal can be the base or pedestal of a statue, and the diri-compound KLGAL can be read sur7 with the meaning berutu 'foundation

8 For kLgal in an Old Akkadian inscription with a possible meaning 'burial mound', see A. Westenholz, AfO 23 27-3l. 9 Compare CT 16 10 iv 25-30 II SpTU III 64 iv 17-26 (Utukku Lemnutu 10; see p.280).

276

Names for Earth

There are no surviving examples of the equation ki.gal = kigallu, but ki.gal corresponds to erl?etu in poetic names for the date-palm. Urra III 276 lists gisi bila.ki.gal 'Heir of the Underworld' (MSL V 116) as an equivalent of gisimmaru 'date-palm'. Both Malku II 129 (ZA 43 239+dupl.) and Explicit Malku III (CT 182 i 57+dupl.) equate gisimmaru with apil erl?etim 'Heir of the Underworld'. Thus ki.gal in ibila.ki.gal corresponds to erl?etim in apil erl?etim. ki.ur.ra, kiUru The Akkadian synonym list LTBA 2 2i 2-5 lists Akkadian kiUru, danninu, lammu, and irkallu as synonyms of erl?etu. A near Sumerian homonym ki.ur.ra is explained as nereb erl?etim 'entrance of the underworld' in Antagal G 22 (MSL 17221), and this same name also occurs in Akkadian in a su.ila to Nabu paralleling the name for the sky burilmil: ga-mir sip-ti u purusse(es.bar) bu-ru-me ki-ur-ra sa da -num den-La de-a se-mu-u zi-kir-su W. Mayer, Or 59 461:9-lO (Nabu) who controls the incantation and decision of sky and earth, whose command Anu, Enlil, and Ea obey. Thus, kiUru may be a loanword from Sumerian. The other possibility is that both the Sumerian and Akkadian names are derived from Urartian qewra, since this word corresponds to erl?etu and qaqqaru in Urartian-Akkadian bilingual texts (see CAD K 476 kiUru B; AfO Beiheft 8/144 no. 23). Any relationship between the cosmic place name and the homonym meaning "metal cauldron" (see CAD K 476) is unclear. ki.deres.ki.gal

=

asar dereskigal 'The Place of EreSkigaL'

See p. 289. Sumerian kur.nu.gi 4 /gi, kur.n u.gi 4 /gi.a, kur.n u.gi 4 .gi4 /gi.gi Akkadian kurnugu, erl?et la tari 'Earth of No Return' The compound name of the underworld 'Earth of No Return' is well attested in lexical lists and Akkadian texts but rare in Sumerian and bilingual works. The significance of the name is that human beings and most gods who descended to the underworld were never able to return to their former homes, as explained in ID 83-84: a.na.am ba.du.un kur.nu.gi 4 .se ba.ra.an lti..du.be nu.gi 4 .gi 4 .de sa.zu a.gim tti.m.mu.un Sladek ID 113 83-84 Why have you (Inanna) come to the Earth of No Return? What brought you to take the road whose traveler never returns?

Names for 'Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

277

In Akkadian times, the name was construed as the underworld name k u r erl?etu plus a negative infinitive. In the Sumerian forms kur.nu.gi 4.gi4 and kur.nu.gi.gi, the stem is reduplicated as with nu.gi 4 .gi 4 .de in ID 84.

=

Sumerian and Bilingual Examples. Both short Sumerian writings kur.nu.gi and kur.nu.gi4 , as well as long writings kur.nu.gi 4 /gi.a and kur.nu.gi 4 .gi4 /gi.gi are known. Proto-Izi and Proto-Izi Bilingual preserve kur.nu.gi 4 (MSL 1330:389; 37:22'), while Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 69 preserves kur.nu.gi. The long writing kur.nu.gi 4 .a occurs in an excerpt from Lti. = sa (MSL 12 lO6:65) and Lanu C iii 2' (see CAD K 564). The writing kur.nu.gi.gi occurs in PBS I12 11264 and kur.nu.gi 4 .gi4 occurs in a bilingual Sagigamd incantation: dnam.tar udug.gal urugal.la kur.r nu 1.gi4 .gi 4 .ke4 dM1N u-tuk-ku rabfl u sa qab-ri e[r-I?]e-ti la ta-ri STT 173:1-2 + duplicates (J. Prosecky, ArOr 47 50) Namtar, great utukku-demonof the grave (and) 'Earth of No Return' Another writing, kur.nu.gi.da, occurs in an oath formula in LKA 77: : nis den.uru.ul.la zi den.uru. ul.la : dnin.uru.ul.la dnin.uru.ul.la [kur ].nu.gi.da.ke 4 be.pa : sa kur-nu-gi LKA 77 i 5-7 (E. Ebeling, ArOr 21 361) Be exorcised by Enurulla and Ninurulla of 'The Earth of No Return'. In the oath, kur.nu.gi.da is in the genitive case, so da following the base gi must represent the ending ede plus the a of the genitive ak. Other Sumerian examples of the term occur in ID 83 (see p. 276) and an Enuru incantation found on an amulet: lUkin.gi 4 ·a dum u.nam.tar.me. [d] ka.gal kur.nu.g[i.(a)] im.ta.e.me.e [s]

RA 64 68:5-8

The messenger, the son of the fates, came forth from the gate of "The Earth of No Re[turn".] Akkadian Examples. Akkadian scribes rendered 'Earth of No Return' both by a loanword kurnugu and an Akkadian translation erl?et la tari. In lexical lists, the loanword occurs in Lanu C iii 2' (see CAD K 564), Igituh (short version) (AfO 1882:157), and Ea II 122 (MSL 14252), while kur.nu.gi 4 .a and kur.nu.gi are translated as erl?et la tari in Lti. (MSL 12 106:65) and Proto-Izi Bilingual (MSL 13 3722'). Outside lexical lists, the term is almost always written KUR.NU,CI 4 ,A, but it is not clear if this writing represents the Akkadian translation erl?et la tari, the

Names for 'Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

Names for Earth

278

loanword kurnugu, or a loanword 'kurnugia'. Both Igituh (Short Version b 157), where kur.nu.gi 4.a is translated as su 'itself', and the opening line of The Descent of IStarindicate that KURNU.CI 4 .A was not always meant to be translated:

a-na KURNU.CI 4 .A qaq-qa-ri l[a ta-ri] CT 1545:1 An Akkadian rendering of the line ana er$et la tari qaqqari la tari seems awkward, so KURNU.CI 4 .A here almost certainly represents one of the loanwords. If so, qaqqari la tari in the second half of the line was probably meant to explain the Sumerian loanword, just as lullu-amelu 'human being' in Gilg. I iv 6 and Ee VI 7 consists of lullu, a loanword from lu.ulu1u , plus the Akkadian equivalent amelu. lO In a medical incantation KURNU.CI 4.A is contrasted with er$etuY

er$etu(ki) u

KURNU.CI 4.A

$a-lam-su istu KURNU.C[I4.A ... AMT 32/1:1

'Earth' and underworld, his image from the underw[orld ... kur.gi. Sumerian kur.gi = er$etum occurs immediately before kur.nu. gi 'Earth of No Return' in Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 68-69 and should be the opposite of this underworld name. It is possible, though, that kur.gi is a phonetic writing for kur.gi 6 'dark earth', since numerous passages explain that the underworld is a dark region (see pp. 352-53). Another possibility is that kur.gi is a scribal error for kur.nu.gi, which was taken up in the scribal tradition. Vast Earth er~etu rapastu, kLdagal, kur.dagal. The term er$etu rapastu is a common Akkadian name for the underworld but also occurs a few times as a name for the earth's surface. Sumerian equivalents of the term, ki.dagal, ki.nl.dagal, and kur.dagal, occur in bilingual texts. Examples of er$etu rapastu as a name for the underworld include passages in Nergal and Ereskigal, incantations, and royal inscriptions. In the Amarna version of Nergal and Ereskigal, Ereskigal offers Nergal kingship in the Vast Earth as a wedding gift:

at-ta lu mu-ti-ma a-na-ku lu as-sa-at-ka lu-se-e$-bi-it-ka sar-ru-ta i-na er-$e-e-ti ra-pa-as~ti lu-us-ku-un tu-up-pa sa ne-me-e-qi a-na qa-ti-ka at-ta lu be-e-lu K. Bezold, Tell el-Amarna Tablets 82 rev. 34-36 (EA 357:82-84)

10 For a similar phenomenom with the name of Ursa-Minor, mUlmar.gfd.da.an .na = eriqqi samelsamilmi, see W Horowitz, ZA 79 244. Note also W. G. Lambert, Kraus AV 198:55: dnin-an-na = sar-ra-tu4 sa-ma-a-me. 11 Other examples of KURNU,CI 4 .A include BWL 130:80 (Shamash Hymn); W. G. Lambert, AfO 19 117:23; KAR 76 rev. 14,227 ii 3; Oppenheim Dreams 311:5; STT 73 35-36; Descent of IStar 12,93-94; Erra I 185; STT 28 iv 19' (Nergal and Ereskigal, cf. SpTU I 1 iii 3': KURNU.C[I ...). For KURNU,CllcI 4 = the loanword kurnugu, see Descent of !Star 41, 86, BWL 70:10 (The Babylonian Theodicy, see pI. 19), Farber !Star und Dumuzi 242 65'; R. Borger, ZA 61 77:43.

279

You will be my husband, I will be your wife. r will have you receive kingship in the Vast Earth. I will place the tablet of wisdom in your hand. You will rule. In the late Uruk version of the text, Ereskigal instructs her vizier Namtar to sit on her underworld throne in the Vast Earth prior to a planned visit to the Heaven of Anu:

e-li-ma ti-Sab ina giskussi parakki(bara) sarru-u-tu di-ni er-$e-tu4 ra-pa-as-tu4 i-pu-us at-ta SpTU I 1 iii 7'-8' Go up and sit on the throne of the dais of kingship. You render the judgements of the Vast Earth. Elsewhere, the underworld gatekeeper bears the epithet idugal er$etu rapastu 'chief gatekeeper of the Vast Earth' (Farber Btar und Dumuzi 174 n. 146), and an incantation to Shamash speaks of the vast earth in conjunction with the gates of the underworld:

te-pe-et-ti abul(ka.gal) er$eti ti rapastiti tu-nam-mar nu-ra ana da-nun-na-ki tu-gaml-mar l di-nam KAR 32:30-31 You open the gate of the vast earth. You make light shine for the Anunnaki, you settle the court case. In Late Babylonian inscriptions, foundations are placed at irat er$eti rapasti 'surface of the vast earth', just as they are placed at irat er$eti and irat kigalli 'surface of the underworld' in similar contexts (see CAD I 186-87 irtu 1 c). In other passages, 'vast earth' refers to the earth's surface. In Ee VII 6869, Marduk as Enbilulu-lJegal is said to rain down abundance on the 'vast earth', and dew settles on the vast earth in LKA 70 ii 25:

... kima na-al-si er-$e-tim r ra-paL[aHim li-iz-nun] ... like dew of the va[st] earth [may you rain down]. Shamash Hymn 176-79 list duties of the Sun-god over the earth's surface, including those concerned with the 'vast earth', and humans on the 'vast earth' gaze at the sun in a bilingual parallel: 12 ki.nl.dagal.la zu.se igi.ne.ne i.nam.ma sa er-$e-tlm rapastimtim di-gi-il-si-na at-ta-ma NLNI igi nam.mi.in.di buLla un.dagal.la.es.am i-na-at-ta-la-ka-ma i-lyad-da-a nisil mes rap-sa-a-ti 4R 19 no. 2 53-56 On the vast earth, their gaze looks toward you. The widespread people look at you and rejoice. 12 For the sea described as a ki.nl.dagal.la and er$etu rapastu, see Sj0berg Moongod 45:37 and 52 n. 37. Note also EWO 306 (see p. 341).

280

Names for Earth

Names for 'Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

In Utukku Lemnutu IV, kLdagal = er$etu rapastu is reached by way of the "Gate of Sunset" and is associated with Nergal:

The feminine pronoun sa indicates that KURGAL should be grammatically feminine, like er$etu rabitu, rather than masculine as in sadu rabu 'great mountain'. A parallel, where the doors of the underworld hold their locks in place, is found in Bit Meseri II:

EN en.e an.gal.ta ki.dagal.la.se gestu.ga.a.ni nam. [gub] be-lu is-tu same e rabuti mes a-n[a] er$eti ti ra-pa-as-ti u-zu-u[n-su is-kun]

en.gal den .ki.ke4 an.gal.ta ki.dagaUe gestu.g[a.ni nam.gub] be-lu ra-bu-u de-a is-t[u] rsameel [rabUti mes ] a-na er$eti tl ra-pa-as-ti ru1-[zu-un-su is-kun] dingir.gal an.gal.ta ki.dagal.la.se ges[tu.ga.ni nam.gub] ilu rabu u is-tu same e rabuti mes ana er$etWirapasti tl u-zu-un-su is-kun] ka.gal dutu.su.a.se gest[u.ga.ni nam.gub a-na a-bul-lu4 e-reb dsamsi si [u-zu-un-su is-kun] x da.rl dnerigal x [ [] xx [ SpTU III 64 iv 17-26//CT 16 10 iv 25-30 The lord set his mind from the great heavens to the vast earth. The lord EnkilEa [set his mind] from the [great] heavens to the vast earth. The great god [set his min]d from the great heavens to the vast earth. [He set his min]d toward the 'Gate of Sunset'.. eternal Nergal. [ ... This passage parallels ID 1-3, where Inanna turns her mind from an. gal 'the great heavens' toward the underworld (ki.gal) before traveling to the underworld gates (see p. 275). EnkilEa's departure toward the underworld here in Utukku Lemnutu can be compared with GHT 14-16, where Enki sails to the underworld k u r. In another bilingual passage, 'The Vast Earth' (kur.dagal = er$etu rapastu) is the underworld abode of an asakkku-demon (CT 173:22). 'Great Earth' kur.gal

=

ersetu rabitu

The Akkadian term er$etu rabitu occurs as a name for the underworld twice in the Sultantepe version of Nergal and Ereskigal (STT 28 v 10', vi 6; see AnSt 10 122, 124), and twice in An Address of Marduk to the Demons (w. G. Lambert, AfO 19 117:26,32; see pp. 356-57). In the second text, a new arrival to the underworld must pass the gate and stream of the Great Earth. Another example of the gates of er$etu rabitu may be found in the apodosis of an astronomical omen: ... ] x e KURGAL aar-gal-lu-sa it-tab-ba-ku

281

dbi-dUg atu rabu sa er$etim tim pa-nu-us-su li-iz-ziz u gisdaltu aur-gul-li-su li-i$-bat G. Meier, AfO 14 146:127-28

Let Bidu, the chief door-keeper of the underworld, stand before him, and let the door hold its locks fast. Sumerian examples of kur.gal as a name for the underworld include the epithet of Nergal en.kur.gal (A. Sjoberg, ZA 63 4:39, RIM 4 345 no. ILl); an Ur III literary text where Nergal "fills" kur.gal (see A. Sjoberg, ZA 63 10 no. 39), and a Surpu-incantation where Girra provides a light in kur.gal: EN dgirra se.er.gal kur.gaLta [il].la

kir5 kukku.ga zalagnu.[x.x] ug.an.na.ke 4 an.na re l(UD.[DU).an.na] si.ku.ga.a.ni)~u.mu.r[a.an.sum]

v

Surpu 48 107-10 (BBR pI. 73 102-5) cf. Surpu 53 6-13 Incantation: Girra, Great Light, [exalt]ed throughout the Great Earth. In the Netherworld and "Darkness" where light does not [ .. ] [when] the light of heaven (the Sun) in the sky ri[ses,] let hi[m give] his pure ray, to you. 'Earth of the Dead' kur.ug5.na

=

erseti mitilti

The term 'Earth of the Dead' occurs in an obscure passage in a Dumuzi text as the destination of Dumuzi: 14 in.di in.di gaba kur.ra. [se] il-lak i-Uk a-na i-rat er-$e-tim [u4].zal.e u4 .zal.e kur.ug5·na.se us-ta-bar-ri : dsamas ir-ta-bi-su ana er-$e-tim mi-tu-ti 4R 30 no. 2 22-25 He goes, he went to the surface of the underworld. All day long, all day long, to the 'Earth of the Dead'. (Akk.: It remained present: the Sun set for him toward the 'Earth of the Dead'.)

ACh Adad 19:36 13 ... ] .. the locks of the great earth will be overturned. 13

ACh Adad 17:34 preserves a similar apodosis:

dadad

sa KUR: sa AAB.BA l:Jar-gal-li-sa HE.HE.

\

14 For this text and passage, see Jacobsen Treasures of Darkness 66, 247 n. 47; Unity and Diversity 86 n. 22. Sumerian kur.un.na can also mean sadu eLU 'high mountain' and sadu elutu 'high mountains', as is probably to be restored in Nabnitu 25:148-49 (MSL 16 227). Compare also SpTU I 164:3'-4' (see p. 275).

Names for 'Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

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282

'Distant Earth' kur.su.da/ersetu ruqtu The Akkadian portion of a later passage in 4R2 30 no. 2 preserves another compound name for the underworld, 'Distant Earth': mes ki.a.na.su nu.mu.un.da.pa.da 15

et-lu ana er$etimtim ru-uq-ti sa la in-nam-ma-ru 4R 30 no. 2 34-35 (Dumuzi) the youth to the distant earth, which is never seen A parallel to Akkadian er$etu ruqtu may be found in the first line of a hymn to NingiSzida: [ur].sag en sa.tum a.gara rurl.mab kur.s[u.da] TCL 1525:1 [He]ro, Lord of Meadow and Field, Lion of the Dista[nt] Earth.

ammatu (ambatulabbatu) The term ammatu, a poetic name for earth, occurs in Enuma Elish, The Babylonian Theodicy, and Malku. In Ee I 1-2, samamu and ammatu 'heaven and earth' do not exist at the very start of creation. 16 The Theodicy preserves an adverbial form of the term, ammatis, which is explained by the commentary as kima er$eti 'like earth' (BWL 74:58). In Malku I 51, ammatu (ambatu) is listed as a synonym for the name of earth, dannatu (A. Kilmer, JAOS 83 425).17 Akkadian ammatu is probably a cognate of Hebrew i'1i:)1N eadamil) 'ground'. arali, arallu The underworld name arali = arallu is common in Akkadian and bilingual texts but relatively rare in Sumerian works. Four Sumerian writings of the term are known. Most common are the syllabic writing a.ra.li and the diricompound E.KUR.BAD, which is glossed a.ra.li in Igituh (Short Version) 158 (AfO 1882). Less common are the writings KUR.BAD (araliJ, which is glossed a.raJi in Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 66, and URUxX, which is known from parallel entries in Ea and Aa: a.raJ [i] = URUx[X] = er-wtum Ea IV C' 12' II Aa VII4 29 (MSL 14432,441)

283

In Akkadian texts, both a short writing arali and a long writing arallu are known. For example, Nabnitu 25 72-73 preserves a-ra-al-l[u-u] (MSL 16 226), while Aa VII4 30 preserves a-ra-li (MSL 124441), probably for aralu. The origins of arali as a name for the underworld are unclear, but it seems probable that the term became a name for the underworld because of close connections between a.ra.Ii, Dumuzi, and Dumuzi's city Bad-Tibira. 18 A temple named e.a.ra.li belonging to Dumuzi is located in or near Bad-Tibira in TCS 3 30:215, and Dumuzi is captured by gallu-demons in a "ditch of arali" (e.a.ra.li) before being carried away to the underworld in Dumuzi's Dream: e.a.ra.li.ka be.en.sub ki.ni ba.ra.zu ddumu.zi.de e.a.ra.li.ka mu.nUn.dab 5·be.ne B. Alster, Dumuzi's Dream 70:150-51 "He fell into the ditch of arali. I do not know where he is." They (the gallu-demons) seized Dumuzi in the ditch of arali. In this passage, e.a.ra.li 'ditch of arali' may be pun on the temple name e.a.ra.li or even allude to a ditch that an underworld stream flows through. In two other Dumuzi texts, a.ra.li is located in steppe-lands that presumably lie outside Bad-Tibira: edin nigin edin nigin ses.mu edin.nigin edin a.ra.li edin.nigin seS.mu edin.nigin Cohen Ershemma 88:28-29 (CT 15 19) (Gestinanna) roams the steppe, roams the steppe, "my brother" (Dumuzi, she cries) as she roams the steppe. The steppe, arali, she roams the steppe, "my brother" (she cries as) she roams the steppe. a.ra.Ii KA.edin.na.ke4 [ ...

a-r a - a-1 a-a he-pe es-su

TCL 654 rev. 20-21 At arali the ... of the steppe

(new break) [ ...

In any case, arali is already in use as a name for the underworld in the Ur IIIperiod literary work The Death of Ur-Nammu: ni talam.a.ni dnin.a.zi. [mu.a] dub. [sar.mab a].ra.li. [raj S. N. Kramer, JCS 21 115:125-26

Compare RIM 4 284: 3:kLan.a.na.su.a.as/ki.an.na.a.kLSu.a.as. 16 In RA 79 187-88, M. Hutter,argues that ammatu is a name for the underworld in Ee I 1-2. For Ee I 1-2, see also p. l08. 17 The writing am-ba-tum is only attested in STT 392:51 (Malku I 51), so this may be a scribal error for am-rna-tum. For the commentary to Theodicy 58, see also CAD A/2 75 ammatu B "lexical section." 15

[To] his wife Ninazi[mua], the [august scr]ibe of the [u]nderworld 18 In JAOS 103 195 g, T. Jacobsen suggests that arali was originally the name of the desert between Bad-Tibira and Uruk and that the use of arali as a name for the underworld is secondary.

284

285

Names for Earth

Names for 'Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

A bilingual parallel where Ninanna replaces Ninazimua is found in UtukkuLemnutu III: du b.sar.mab.arali = tup-sar-ra-tum fjir-tum sa a-ra-al-le-e (CT 163:95-97). Another Sumerian example of arali as a name for the underworld occurs in a late Enuru amulet:

however, KURBAD is resumed by m in an exorcism formula, suggesting that KURBAD could also represent a different name: KURBAD.ma : [sa . ..J (ArOr 21 373:46). One possibility is a reading kur.idim, since idim is equated with erfjetu 'underworld' and ekletu, etfltu 'darkness' in Emar 568 52'-54'. Another possibility is a diri-compound KURBAD = dalam on the basis of a lexical tablet related to the series Malku. 20

16. ba.ug7 ki.n6. nu.tuku 16. ba.ug7 sag.Em.tar nu.tuku a.ra.li kUus.a ba.tus

KURBAD KURBAD KURBAD

RA 6468:2-4 The man who is dead has no bed. The man who is dead has no attendant. In arali he sits on a seat. In a bilingual incantation to the Sun-god, dead gods inhabit arali

=

arallfl:

sag.tuku dingir.ug5 .ga.am sa.ga arali.ke 4 ra-bi-ifj dingir-u&-ga-e i-na qe-reb a-ra-al-li A. Falkenstein, UVB 1536:9 (Sun-god) caretaker of the dead-gods inside the underworld. In Akkadian texts, arallfl is both a name for the underworld and a mountain where gold is found. 19 Examples of arallfl as the underworld include Underworld Vision 28, 30, 53, and 58 (SAA 3 70-74) and an incantation where the name occurs alongside the synonym "Earth of No Return":

=

he-pEi es-su

CT 18 29 ii 26-28

If dalamu does represent a loanword from Sumerian dalam, which is a name for the underworld, then lines 27-28 may have preserved common names for the underworld, such as erfjetu and arallfl. The cosmic place name KURBAD also occurs in the divine name den.KUR BAD (PBS I12 106: 17). bur, buru, l:Jastu Sumerian bur/buru 'pit, hole' occurs as a poetic name for the underworld. In Aa II/4 110 (MSL 14 283), buru is equated with erfjetu. The same name occurs in a hymn to Lugalgirra and Meslamtaea: en dlugal.gir.ra glri.zu um.mi.gub n un.kur.ra.ke4 sa.m u.e.si.gam.e.de.eS bur.ra u 4.zalag sa.mu.un.ne.ri.ib.e A. Sj0berg, Or. Suec. 19-20 142:23'-25'

a-na KURNU.CI 4.A li-Se-re-es-su-nu-ti a-na etemmi(gidim) a-ra-le-e li-ru-su-nu-ti LKA 154 rev. 12-13

Lord Lugalgirra, when you set foot there, the prince(s) of the underworld indeed bowed down to you. In "The Pit" you made a shining light go out for them.

Let it (fire) take them down to the "Earth of No Return", let it direct them to the ghost of the underworld. In Gilg. IX ii 4-5 and the account of the eighth campaign of Sargon II (TCL 3 6:19), the bases of cosmic mountains Mt. Masu and Mt. Simirriya reach into arallfl below, while the peaks of the mountains reach the heavens above. In Erra I 151-53, the roots of a cosmic mesu-tree reach down to arallfl (see p. 245).

= da-la-mu = he-pEi es-su

In line 25, bur.ra may be a syllabic spelling for buru = erfjetu plus locative a. Akkadian hastu 'hole, grave, pit' is explained as erfjetum in the commentary to Theodicy 62 (BWL 74): "For the crime which the lion committed the hastu 'hole' (i.e., erfjetum 'underworld') is opened for him." a.ni

KURBAD In Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 66, the diri-compound KURBAD is glossed a.ra.li, indicating that the two signs fan be read aralix ' Elsewhere, 19 For arallil as a mountain of gold, see Urra 22:22 (MSL 11 23), Lipsur Litanies (E. Reiner, JNES 15 132:21) and the inscriptions of Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal (Borger Esarh. 88 rev. 14; E. F. Weidner, AfO 13 205:26). The name of the mountain, however, derives from the land of gold harali = l:Jarallil known from third millennium and Old Babylonian tablets (see A. Sjoberg, JCS 40 174), so the shared name between the mountain and the underworld is probably coincidental. A second Mt. Arallu is identified with the cella of the god Assur, Ehursagkurkurra, in the city of Assur (Winckler Sargon 70:416-17; 128:156).

Sumerian a.ni is equated with erfjetu in Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 65. This is surprising, since none of the usual meanings of a.ni (see MSL 14 206:194-210) explain how a.d. can be a cosmic place name.

20 K. 2054+ (CT 1829-30) may be an exemplar of an expanded versi9n of Malku Sarru. The colophon identifies that tablet as the third tablet of the series Sarru (CT 18 30 rev. ii 32), and the opening line preserves the entry [mal]-ku = sarru, followed by 30 more equivalences of sarru. Canonical Malku only lists five equivalences (A. Kilmer, JAOS 83 424:1-5). v

=

Names for 'Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

Names for Earth

286

dannatu and danninu Both dannatu and danninu derive from the root dananu 'to be strong'. In KAR 307, the surfaces of each of the three earths, including the underworld, are identified as dannatu (see p. 16). In Malku I 51 (JAOS 83 425), dannatu is listed as a synonym of the name of earth ammatu, while the lexical tablet LTBA 2 2 i 2 and commentaries to Enuma Elish equate danninu with er$etu (see CAD D 91; Fest. Finkelstein 14). The term danninu occurs both as a name for the underworld and for the earth as a whole. In Diri II and Proto-Diri III, danninu is equated with the Sumerian underworld names bilib and ganzer (see pp. 269-70), and a hymn to Nergal identifies the 600 Anunnaki of the underworld with danninu:

a-si-ir dan-ni-na sa-ni-iq ni-i-ir lu-us-tar-ri-iJ; nar-bi-ka Bollenrucher Nergal 50:4 (Nergal) controller of the underworld, organizer of the 600, let me extol your might. In Ee VII 135-36, the term is paired with the name for heaven asru:

as-su as-ri ib-na-a ip-ti-qa dan-ni-na dbel matati sum-su it-ta-bi a-bu den-lil Ee VII 135-36 Because he created the heavens, fashioned the earth "Lord of the Lands" is the name that father Enlil gave him. In Assurbanipal's Acrostic Hymn to Marduk and Zarpanitum, danninu occurs with Apsu and lumasu-stars (SM 3 8:37). erigal-See urugal

esgalla The name esgalla is a a loanword from Sumerian es.gal 'great shrine'. In Ee IV 143-46, esgalla is a second name for the Apsu (see p. U3). However, it is possible that esgalla was also a name for the underworld, since the signs used to write es.gal (AB.GAL), when joined ABxGAL, form a writing for the underworld name urugal = er$etu (Ea IV 162a, Aa IV/3 107; MSL 14361,381).

esmahhu Akkadian esmaJ;J;u occurs twice as a cosmic place name. In the Marduk hymn STC I 205 19-21 (see pp. 310-11), esmaJ;J;u is the underworld that houses the dead $allutu (literally 'the sleepers'). Here, esmaJ;J;u is a poetic name for the underworld alongside poetic names for the other three regions of the universe: heaven, the earth's surface, and the Apsu (samamu, dadmu, asurrakku). The second example of esmaJ;J;u is found in a Sennacherib inscription in the first of

287

two epithets of "The Tablet of Destinies": [p]iristi samamu u eSm[aJ;J;i] '[S]ecret of Heaven and esm[aJ;J;i]', and [m]arkas ermi anu u ganzer '[B]ond of Anu's Canopy (Heaven) and Underworld' (A. George, Iraq 48 133 B 4-5; see p.227). Here esmaJ;J;u parallels ganzer. ganzer, kanisurra Sumerian ganzer is both a name for the underworld and an entrance to the underworld. In Diri II and Proto-Diri III (see pp. 269-70), ganzer, written IGLKURZA, is both explained as bab er$eti 'gate of the underworld' and also translated by the underworld names er$etu, danninu, irkalla, and kukku, as well as by loanwords ganzer and kanisurra. In Antagal D 123, Sumerian ganzer is equated with Akkadian irkallu (MSL 17205). The etymology of ganzer is uncertain (see A. George, Iraq 48 136 n. 5). In addition to the diri-compound IGLKUR.ZA, the name is also written IGLKUR in Group Vocabulary K. 4177+ with a gloss [ga].an.zer (see CAD I 177).21 In Diri and Proto-Diri, the diri-compound IGLKUR is treated as a separate name for the underworld, to be read bilib or baUb. The clearest textual examples of ganzer as a name for the underworld are found in GHT 176, 180, and 233, when Gilgames's pukku and mekku fall into ganzer. The corresponding lines of Gilg. XII translate ganzer by the underworld name er$etu (see Shaffer Sumerian Sources 71-72,83). Earlier in GHT 167, however, ganzer occurs in the name of a gate to the underworld: ka.gal ganzer IGI.KUR.ra.ka tus im.ma.ni.in.gar In this line, IGLKUR is probably to be understood as pani er$eti 'front of the underworld', as in Diri II 145 and Proto-Diri III aa, with the subsequent translation: At the ganzer-gate at the front of the underworld they (the pukku and mekku) came to a rest. Nevertheless, a reading ganzer for IGI.KUR is possible here, since the signs are resumed by r. The first part of GHT 167 is repeated verbatim in a variant of ID 126 (see Sladek ID 118 n. 126). Examples of ganzer in names for the entrance of the underworld include passages in Inanna's Descent, where giSig.kur.ra 'door of the underworld' and ka.gal.kur.ra 'gate of the underworld' are located at e.gal.ganzer 'the palace ganzer' (see Sladek ID 59-60); Inanna und Enki 60:41, which preserves e.ga. an.ze.er 'the house ganzer'; and the divine epithet lUsi.gar ganzer'door-man of ganzer' in PBS II2 112:69. The only known Akkadian examples of ganzer outside lexical lists occur in a Sennacherib inscription, where ganzer parallels ermi danim (A. George, Iraq 48 133 B 5), and a Nabopolassar inscription, where simmelat ganzer 'Stairway 21 For writings ga.an.zelze.er, see Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 70; JCS 4139 rev. ii 7; lnanna und Enki 60:41; VET 6/2 141 ii' 2'.

Names for Earth

Names for 'Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

of the Underworld' parallels meln samami 'Incline of Heaven' (F. AI-Rawi, Iraq 474:15). Akkadian kanisurra also occurs in the divine name dkanisurra (RIM 4 468:1; Ugaritica V 212:23, 248:11; RGTC 8 373).

Within the texts listed above, irkalla occurs in compound forms four times. In parallel passages from The Descent of IStar and Gilg. VII, the underworld is called "House of Darkness" and subat dirkalla:

288

hastu-See bur, buru, hastu, p. 285 hilib, halib

ki.tus.a.na ki.IGLKUR.am su-bat-su a-sar er-$e-tim-ma (M. J. Geller, Iraq 42 28:8'-9')

His abode is the place of the underworld. A related entry may be found in Group Vocabulary K. 4177+: =

dir-[kal-la] (see CAD I 177 irkalla)

irkalla Akkadian irkalla, a literary name for the underworld, occurs both with and without determinative dingir and in the compounds subatdirkalla, musab dirkalla, and bn irkalla. The name may be an Akkadian rendering of the Sumerian underworld name urugallerigal, but no lexical or bilingual equivalence between the Sumerian and Akkadian names is known. In lexical lists, irkalla is equated with Sumerian hilib/halib, ganzer, kir5, and lamhu (see CAD I 177). Outside lexical lists, irkalla occurs in literary works and the late mysticalreligious commentary 0175:7 (Livingstone 190). In Descent of !Star 4, Gilg. VII iv 33, and Nergal and Erdkigal (STT 28 ii 1', v 8', vi 47), as well as 01 li5:7, the term is written with the determinative dingir. Examples without the determinative include Erra I 135 and IV 123; Ludlul II 47 (BWL 40); and LKA 62 rev. 11, 13-14 (the variant edition of The Descent of IStar) .. Note also dIGLKUR in Shaffer Sumerian Sources 70 1672 r. For a Mari and western month name itudIGLKUR.ra and possible connections with [nanna's Descent and The Descent of Ishtar, see Langdon Menologies 41; RlA 5 301 Mari month VI; W. G. Lambert, MARl 4 526. 22

CT 1545:4

a-na bit ek-le-ti su-bat dir-kal-la

Gilg. VII iv 33

To the "House of Darkness" the abode of the underworld,

Diri and Proto-Diri preserve parallel sections explaining l:Jilib and l:Jalib (IGLKUR), and ganzer (IGLKUR.ZA; see pp. 269-70). No certain examples of the names outside Diri and Proto-Diri are known, since IGLKUR is never resumed by a syllable beginning with b. Possible examples of the term, however, may be found in Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 67, where IGI.KUR is translated as en}etu, GHT 167, where IGI.KUR occurs with ganzer (see p. 287), and a passage in Utukku Lemnutu XII:22

x[u.kuIGLKUR

a-na bit e-te-e su-bat dir-[kal-la]

289

o 175:7 also preserves this same compound with the writing TUS dir-kal-la. A variant to Gilg. VII iv 33 preserves musab irkalla and LKA 62 rev. 14 preserves bn irkalla. The use of the determinative before the underworld name may indicate that irkalla in the compounds, at least, should be understood as a divine name as well as a place name. In an Old Babylonian god-list, dirkalla is identified as a name of the goddess Allatum, who is equated with Ereskigal:

deres-ki-gal-la [dal]-la-t[um]. = da[l-l]a-t[um] dal-la-tum = dal-la-t[um] dir-kal-la E. Weidner, AfK 2 73:23-25 (cf. Ugaritica V 218:116-18) On this basis, the parallel lines in The Descent of IStar and Gilgamesh could be translated 'to the House of Darkness, the abode of (the goddess) Irkalla'. If so, this name may be compared with the underworld name 'Place of Ereskigal' (ki.deres.ki.gal = asar dereskigal), which occurs once in Dumuzi and Gestinanna 6 (Sladek ID 226:6) and once in a bilingual incantation in UtukkuLemnutu VI (0. Gurney, AAA 22 86: 130-31). kir5 and kiSi, idim The rare underworld names kir5 and kiSi occur in Ea II 121-22. ki.ir kUi

IDIM IDIM' BUR IDIM

MIN

(i-dim-mu)

= =

ir-kal-la kur-nu-gi MSL 14252

The name kir5 appears once elsewhere as a name for the underworld in Surpu 48 108 (see p. 281). An equation idim = er$etum occurs in Emar 568:52'. k u k k u, kukku, KLKI Sumerian kukku 'darkness' occurs as a name for the underworld in Diri IV 236-37: ku.uk.ku

=

KLK[I]

=

k[u!-u]k-kuhl!

= ma-a-tu sap-l[i-tu] CT 11 48 rev. iii 4' (CAD K 498)

Names for Earth

290

Names for 'Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

In Proto-Diri IIId, Akkadian kukku is equated with ganzer and synonymous with danninu and kanisurra (see pp. 270-71). Although the name is written KI.KI in Diri IV, the term most probably originated from a writing of the word kukku (KUlO.KU lO = MI.MI) that is equivalent to Akkadian ekletu and etUtu 'darkness' (see CAD E 413). Sumerian KI.KI, with the reading utu, may also be listed as a name for the underworld in Antagal G 19: KLu.tUKI = erfjetimtim s[a ... MSL 17221 The term 'House of Darkness' (e.kukku = bit ekleti) occurs in Surpu 53 rev. 12-13, a Sumerian incantation (see YOS 11 p. 20e) and parallel descriptions of the underworld in The Descent of IStar, Gilg. VII, and Nergal and Ereskigal (see p. 349).

Sumerian lam and lamma, and the loanword lammu, are listed as equivalents of erfjetu in lexical lists and commentaries. In LTBA 2 2 i 2-5, lammu is listed as a synonym of erfjetu along with danninu, kiilru, and irkalla, while Sumerian lam is equated with erl?etu in Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 63, and lamma is equated with erl?etu in Sb1 216:

= er-I?e-tum

LAM

MSL 3115:216 corrected by MSL 4 206:216 Outside lexical lists, lam is equated with erl?etu in explanations of the word melammu in commentaries: 23 [ME :]

same e

: LAM:

gis.lam.sar.sar

=

er-I?e-tu : a-sib same e erl?etimtim W. G. Lambert, AfO 19 118 F 8

mus-ta-bil same e u erl?etimtim AfO 19 pI. 33 iv 40 (AO 8196)

lambu The Sumerian name lambu occurs in a Middle Assyrian excerpt from Ea that lists rare signs and readings: lam.bu

= KUR.HmI =

ir-kal-la

MSL 14261:5

matu saplitu 'Lower Land' Diri IV equates matu saplitu with the underworld name kukku = kukku 'darkness' (see p. 289). The term matu saplitu usually refers to southern areas downstream from central Mesopotamia, or down the Persian Gulf. 23 See also Antagal G 317 (MSL 17229) [gis.lam.sadar = mus-ta-blil AN u KL Note also the name of Nippur dur.giS.lam (= markas same u er$etum; see A. George,

RA 85160).

mitu An entry in Group Vocabulary 5R 16 equates Akkadian mitu 'dead' with the Sumerian underworld name arali: E.KURaraliBAD

ki.tum

=

mi-i-tum 'Dead' qe-be-ru 'to bury'

5R 16 iv 42-43

miriyas Kassite miriyas occurs as an equivalent of Akkadian erl?etu in the KassiteAkkadian vocabulary T. Pinches, JRAS 1917103:22 (Balkan Kassit. Stud. 4). naqbaru

lam, lamma, lammu

la.am.ma =

291

Akkadian naqbaru 'tomb, burial place' appears as an equivalent of arali in a Group Vocabulary CT 1830 rev. i 30 and Antagal D 124 (see p. 271). The name naqbaru can be compared both with Sumerian urugallerigal, which has the meaning qabru 'grave' as well as 'underworld' (see p. 293), and Akkadian hastu 'pit, grave' (see p. 285). qabru-See urugal

=

qabru, pp. 293-94

qaqqaru Akkadian qaqqaru, like Sumerian ki, is commonly used as a name for earth and the earth's surface but also occurs as a name for the underworld. The word occurs from the Old Akkadian period onward and is the most common name for earth in Achaemenid royal inscriptions (see CAD Q 1232').24 An Old Assyrian example occurs in an incantation (BIN 4 126:13). Old Babylonian examples occur in three parallel lines in a hymn to !Star (VAS 10 213 i 6', 8', 10') and a broken passage in an Old Babylonian religious text: [ ......... ] ruLsu-li-ia-su

ka-qa-ar-su

(w. G. Lambert, Fest. Reiner 192:43 (cf. 192:32)

[ ......... ] he raised him up to earth. In this passage, qaqqaru must be the earth's surface, since there is no cosmic region below the underworld or earth (the lower half of the universe as a whole). Other examples where qaqqaru refers only to the earth's surface include Gilg. VII iii 44, where the princes of the qaqqaru are said to kiss Enkidu's feet; Gilg. XI:41,

24 Parpola (LAS II 117 n. 6, 21) proposes that Neo-Assyrian KLTIM, when paired with samu, be read as forms of qaqqaru (kaqqaru, qaqqiru, etc.) rather than er$etimtim. See also K. Deller, Fest. von Soden 48 u.

292

Names for 'Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

Names for Earth

where the earth's surface is identified as qaqqar denlil 'the Earth of Enlil', and a hymn to Gula, where mankind lives on the qaqqaru:

· .. ina q]aq-qa-ri tu-ma-J-ir ab-ra-a-ti ana ilani mes rabuti mes tu-sar-bi zik-[ra-ki] LKA 17:15 · .. on the e]arth's surface you directed mankind, for the great gods you made [your na]me great. Two other texts, The Cruciform Monument of Manistusu (E. SolI berger, JEOL 2055:78-80) and an Amarna letter (EA 105:11), contrast qaqqaru with names for the sea, so qaqqaru can also refer specifically to the dry land portion of the earth's surface. Examples of qaqqaru as a name for the underworld include the terms qaqqaru la tari 'Earth of No Return' and qaqqiru rabftu 'Great Earth' in variant versions of The Descent of IStar (CT 1545:1; LKA 62 rev. 10, 12) and a passage in fire incantations (W G. Lambert, AfO 23 43:32).25 A reference to the underworld river as na-i-il ka-a[q-qa-ri ... Watercourse of the Ea[rth .. .' in W G. Lambert, Fest. Sj0berg 326 i 64 parallels naJilu sa eri$eti rabiti 'Watercourse of the Great Earth' in An Address of Marduk to the Demons (W G. Lambert, AfO 19 117:32).26

saplatu 'Lower Regions' The name saplatu, a general term referring to lower parts ot the universe, often appears as an opposite of elatu 'Upper Regions' (see CAD SI1 464 2). On a few occasions, saplatu refers specifically to the underworld. In funerary texts, both saplatu and elatu occur in a common blessing: 27

i-na e-la-ti sum-su li-id-mi-iq i-na sa-ap-la-ti e-f;e-em-mu-su me-e za-ku-ti li-il-tu-u VAS 1 54:15-19 In the upper regions let his name be praised. In the lower regions let his ghost drink pure water. In a broken passage in a funerary text, the Anunnaki gods are found in saplatu:

· .. ] su-bat da-nun-na · .. ]-am i-na sa-ap-la-ti Kish I pI. 34 2:11-12 See also I. Finkel, AfO 29-30 9 ii 2' and an unpublished parallel in CAD Q 1249. Note the unusual order qaqqarum sama:Jum in an Old Babylonian parallel to The Descent of !Star and an Old Akkadian incantation (see W G. Lambert, Fest. Moran 293-94 LE). Compare Genesis 2:4. 27 For other examples of the blessing and pairings of saplatu with elatu, see CAD E 77-]8 elatu 2; A. Tsukimoto, AOAT 216 154. For saplatu as the underworld, see also CAD S/1 464 2. 25

293

... ] the abode of the Anunna-gods. ... ] . in the lower regions. urugal, erigal The Sumerian underworld name urugallerigal, literally 'Great City', occurs in the name of the king of the underworld Nergal. The Emesal god list explains that the most common writing of the god's name, dne.erin.gal (= dnerigal 1), is a contracted form of en.urugal 'Lord of the Great City': 28 dumun.rurugall = dne.erill.gal = su Emesal 1106 (MSL 4 9) In Emesal 1:2, 12-14, 43, and 50 (MSL 4 4-7), names of gods beginning urn u n in Emesal start with en in the standard dialect. Hymns to Nergal and epithets of Nergal also use the name urugaI. In PBS I12 112 iii 61, Nergal is called "Enlil of urugal". This epithet is explained in a hymn to Nergal: dnerigal e?da.ri erill.gal den.lil.b~lll.da.me.en S. Kramer, Fest. Sj0berg 306:67 Nergal, at the eternal hOUSe?, "The Great City;' you are the junior Enlil. In Death of Ur-Nammu 89 (S. Kramer, JCS 21 114), Nergal is identified as den.lil.kur.ra 'Enlil of the Underworld'. Sumerian urugallerigal also occurs in epithets of other underworld gods in Death of Ur-Nammu 109, 133 (JCS 21 114-15) and in RIM 4 284:3. In lexical lists and bilingual works, urugal is translated by Akkadian names for the underworld. Nabnitu XXV 74 equates urugal with arallu (MSL 16226), and urugal = eri$etu occurs in Proto-Izi 387 (MSL 1330) and the bilingual menology of Astrolabe B (KAV 218 A iii 3, 8). Broken examples of urugal = eri$etu are also found in Ea and Aa (MSL 14 361:162a, 381:107, 441:32). As noted earlier, Akkadian irkalla is probably a loanword from urugallerigal. urugal

=

qabru

As well as a name for the underworld, urugal also has the more common meaning qabru 'grave' (see CAD Q 17-18).' Both meanings are clearly related, since the destination of all those lowered into graves was the underworld. An example of urugal = qabru as the underworld may occur in the opening line of a bilingual totengeist-incantation where "captive gods" are found in urugal = qabru:

26

28 For a series of studies of erigallurugal in the name of Nergal, see W G. Lambert, ZA 80 40-52; P. Steinkeller, ZA 77 161-68; ZA 80 53-59. Note also dNE.ERIll.KI. GAL in cylinder seals (D. Callan, Catalogue of the Western Asiatic Seals in the British Museum, Cylinder Seals III (1986) no. 53, 112.

Names for Earth

294

EN dingir.dib.dib.be.e.ne urugal.la.[ta] im.ta.e.a[meS] ilanumes ka-rmu-ti 1 is-tu qab-rim it-ta-:ju-ni W. Schramm, OrNs 39 405:1-3 (cf. 4-10) Incantation: The captive gods came forth from the underworld/ grave. The 'captive gods' are placed at the gates of the underworld in Bit Meseri II 126-28 (AfO 14 146) and may be associated with the underworld gate bab kamuti 'Gate of the Captives' (AfO 19 117:25; TuL 1288').29

Geographic Terms

295

u-:ja-a ul-tu e-kur ul-tu qe-reb sadi i Ludlul II 51-55 (BWL 40)

54. [u-tuk-ku lla [niF'i 55. [la-mas-tu u-ri]-da

51. An evil wind, [from the hor]izon has blown in. 52. [F]rom the surface of the underworld headache sprung up. 52. An evil cough has come forth from the Apsu. 54. [A relent]less [utukku-demon] departed from Ekur. 55. [A lamastu-demon has desce]nded from the mountain. Later, in Ludlul III, the utukku-demon leaves the body of Subsi-Mesre-Sakkan and returns to Ekur:

zikura A rare, possibly foreign name for 'earth', zikura (KASKAL.AS) is listed in Antagal G 282 (MSL 17 228) as an equivalent of er:jetu.

[us-te]-rid ap-su-us-su su-u-lu lem-[nu] u J tukLku la nPi u-tir e-kur-ri-[is] BWL 52:6-7

House Names A number of Akkadian names for the underworld are kennings formed by compounds with bitu 'house'. These include 'House of Darkness' (bit eti, bit ekleti), 'House of Death' (bit milti) , 'House of Dumuzi' (bit ddumuzi) , and 'House of Dust' (bit epri). A related equation e.ki.kur = er:jetu is found in K. 2873:1-2 (CT 1741).30

Related Terms Ekurlbit ekur. AHw 196 identifies the name of Enlil's temple at Nippur, Ekur, as a name for the underworld on the basis of passages in Ludlul Bel Nemeqi and bilingual incantations. In these texts, Ekur is the haunt of demons, but there is no proof that Ekur is a name for an underworld beneath the earth's surface. In Ludlul, an utukku-demon leaves Ekur when a number of diseasedemons leave their homes for Babylon in order to infect Subsi-MeSre-Sakkan: 51. im-hul-li [is-tu i-Sid] 52. [u]l-te i-rat er:jetimtim 53. rsu-uLlu lem-nu

same e i-zi-qa i-Si-l;a tP-i it-ta-:ja-a ap-su-us-su

For the Gate of the Captives and captive gods, see pp. 356-57. 30 'House of Darkness' (bit eti) CT 1545:4 (Descent of Istar) , AMT 88 2:3; Maqlu 20 183;v(bu ekleti) LKA 62 rev. 17 (Descent of IStar), Gilg. VII iv 33; (e.kukku.ga = bit ekleti) Surpu 53 12-13; YOS 11 p. 20e. 'House of Death' (bit mflti) CT 18 30 rev. i 30, arali = bit mflti, (e.ug7 .ga) w. G. Lambert, AfO 19 118 F 9. 'House of Dumuzi' (bit ddumuzi) Aa VII4 31 (MSL 14 441) = [arali]. 'House of Dust' (bit epri) Gilg. VII iv 40, 45, see Descent of IStar 11 (CT 1545). Note also e?da.ri 'eternal house?' in S. Kramer, Fest. Sjoberg 306:67 (see p. 293). 29

[He sent d]own Apsu-ward the evil cough. The relentless utukku-demon he returned [to] Ekur. In Ludlul, it is unlikely that Ekur is an underworld beneath the earth's surface, since the utukku-demon neither ascends nor descends between Ekur and Babylon. In contrast, the 'evil cough' descends from Babylon to the Apsu in BWL 52:6. Examples of Ekur in bilingual incantations also fail to identify Ekur as an underworld beneath the earth's surface. In these incantations the cosmic Ekur is identified with Enlil's temple Ekur in Nippur. In the opening lines of a Sagigames incantation, headache leaves Ekur (CT17 25:1-4). Here Ekur is identified as the "House of Enlil." In Utukku-Lemnutu III (CT 16 1:23-27), disease-demons leaving e.a e.kur = bit ekur 'the Temple Ekur' are identified as messengers of Enlil. In a second Sagigames incantation (J. Prosecky, ArOr 47 51:37-38) demons leave es e.kur = bit ekurfor the land (kalam = matu). In all three incantations, as in Ludlul II 54, forms of the verb e = a:ju 'to leave' describe the movement of the demons from Ekur to the earth's surface, rather than ell = elu 'to go up', as might be expected if Ekur was an underworld beneath the earth's surface. 31

Geographic Terms In addition to names for earth such as ki, er:jetu, and qaqqaru, a number of geographic terms refer to vast expanses of the earth's surface and perhaps even 31

CT 17 25:1-4 nam.taJe 1

=

it-ta-$a-a; CT 16 1:25 e.a.mes

=

it-ta-$u-ni;

J. Prosecky, ArOr 47 51:37-38 e.a.ne.ne.ke4 = a-$i-su-n[u] (see ArOr 47 53 Variants nos. 17-18). Ekur is also accepted as name for the underworld in Jensen Kosmologie 185-95, and K. Tallqvist, StOr 5/4 25-32. CAD E 70, however, translates "(a locality where demons live)."

Geographic Terms

Names for Earth

296

the entire land portion of earth. These include 'the land' (kalam, kur, ma.da, meitu), 'the lands' (kur.kur, miltatu), 'the four quadrants' (an.u b.da.llmmu.ba, ub.da.limmu.ba, kibrilt arbaJi, kibriltu) , dadmu, adniltu, and nabalu 'dry land'. A number of these terms are listed together in Malku I 187-93: 32 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 192. 193.

ir-bu-u ir-bu-u kib-ra-a-tum ad-na-tum un-na-tum da-ad-mu ma-ti-tan da-ad-mu

kib-ra-a-tu kib-rat dr-ba-Ji ma-a-tum MIN MIN

ma-ta-a-ti a-lum

A. Kilmer, JAOS 83 428

'The Land' kalam, kur, ma.da, matu

Akkadian miltu, like the English word 'land', has a wide range of meanings. Among these are 'dry land' (as opposed to seas), 'flat plain', 'country' in a political sense, and 'homeland'. In its broadest sense, miltu can refer to all dry land areas on the earth's surface. For example, the worldwide empire of Sargon is said to occupy milt sil;ip same 'the land under heaven' in Sargon Geography 31, and Etana reports that he sees matu 'land' and tamtu 'sea' when he gazes down at the earth's surface during his flight to the heavens (see pp. 60-65). No comparable unilingual Sumerian examples of kalam, kur, or ma.da are known. However, two bilingual texts may preserve passages where kalam refers to at least the continental portion of the earth's surface. In UtukkuLemnutu V, kalam.dagal.la = miltu rapastu 'vast land' parallels an.dagal.la = samu rapsutu 'vast heavens' (CT 16 13 iii 13-16). In a bilingual literary letter, kalam extends from sunrise to sunset: mu.ma!} lugal.mu sig igi.nim.ma su-ma-am $i-rum sa be-li-ia is-tu ma-tim e-li-tim a-di! (ma-tim sa-ap-li-tim} dutu.e.ta utu.su.us za.se kalam.til.la.a mi.ni.in.tum.tum.ma is-tu ($it samsi adi} ereb samsi(DIs.US) ana pa-te4 gi-mi-ir-ti ma-tim i-gam(text DAM!)-mi-ra PBS 10/48:6'-7' (WO 5 2:7-8)

32 For ma.da, kur, and kalam, see H. Limet, RA 72 1-12. The equivalence of a number of these geographic terms is demonstrated by the bilingual Akkadian-Aramaic Tell-Fekherye inscription, where Aramaic mt is translated by Akkadian dadmu, kibriltu, and miltu (see J. Greenfield and A. Shaffer, Iraq 45 110).

297

The exalted name of my lord (extends) from below to abovelfrom the Upper Land to the Lower Land. From sunrise to sunset it encompasses the land to its full extent. 'The Lands'kur.kur

=

matiltu

'The Lands' is used from the Early Dynastic period onward to refer to all the countries on the earth's surface. When combined, the territories of these countries comprised the entire earth's surface. kur.kur 'The Lands'. The term kur.kur is the most common Sumerian name for large portions of the earth's surface. Examples where kur.kur includes most if not all of the lands include a Sumerian hymn in which Enki's gissu 'shade, protection' covers kur.kur from sunrise to sunset (CT 36 32: 5); a hymn to Inanna, where kur.kur reaches from above to below (Reisman Two Hymns 148:13-14); and Gudea Cyl. A 9:18-19, where kur.kur extends to an.za 'the horizon' (see p. 94). In the Vase Inscription of Lugalzagesi, kur.kur extends from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea and from sunrise to sunset (BE I12 87 i 44-ii 16; see p. 321). No Sumerian examples of ma.da.ma.da used in cosmic contexts with reference to the entire earth's surface are known, although matatu is often written ma.da.ma.da in Late Babylonian royal inscriptions. 33 miltatu 'The Lands', Akkadian matatu is the usual equivalent of Sumerian kur.kur (see CAD Mil 415). The term occurs regularly from the Old Babylonian period to the Hellenistic period. An earlier example may be found in The Cruciform Monument of Manistusu (the son of Sargon of Akkad), but this text is generally thought to be an Old Babylonian or later forgery (see E. Sollberger, JEOL 2050-51). The term matatu can include all the lands on the earth's surface. Often, rulers who claim universal kingship also claim to rule the miltatu. For instance, Sargon is said to rule the matiltu from sunrise to sunset in Sargon Geography 43. Parallels in royal inscriptions include a passage in which Tukulti-Ninurta I receives tribute of the matiltu from sunrise to sunset (Weidner TN 26:22-24) and a late parallel in the Antiochus-Soter inscription (VAB 3 134:17-18; A. Kuhrt and S. Sherwin White, JHS 111 76 ii 17-18). Examples in literature include the final two lines of The Erra Epic, where all the miltiltu and the people of the dadmu are implored to praise Erra (Erra V 60-61), and Shamash Hymn 20, 22, 40, where the Sun shines over miltatu (BWL 126-28). An adverbial form of the term, miltitan, meaning '(in) all countries' or 'everywhere' is also known (see CAD Mil 411-12). In Malku I 192 the term is equated with matatu. 33 Note, for example, IR 66 iii 21 (VAB 4 94); PBS 15 79 i 17, 21; S. J. Levy, Sumer 3 13:9; J. Zablocka and P R. Berger, OrNs 38 123 ii 1.

298

Geographic Terms

Names for Earth

The Four Regions: u b.da.lfmmu. ba, an. u b.da.lfmm u. ba, u b.da.limm u, u b.da.an.ki, an. u b, kibrat erbetti/arbaJi, tubuqat erbetti/arbaJi, kibratu 34 The geographic term 'The Four Regions' is based on a tradition of dividing the earth's surface into northern, southern, eastern, and western quadran~s derived from the four winds or compass point directions. Ancient MesopotamIans could determine the four directions by correlating the position of the sun, moon and stars with wind direction and the time of year (see pp. 195-200). The close ~onnection between the four winds and earthbound geography is demonstrated by the names of the east and west winds. The east wind, IMkur.ra = sadu bears the name of the mountains east of Mesopotamia, and the west wind 1Mmar.du = amurru bears the name of the Amorites who first arrived in Sumer and Akkad from the west in the third millennium. The importance of the four winds in geography is also documented by Shamash Hymn 151-53, where the Sun reveals omens to the human race in the world (dadmu) in all four wind directions (BWL 134), and passages in The Tukulti-Ninurta Epic (Machinist TN Epic 66 I A1:3', 116 I A V:17), where the terms kippat sar erbeu,i 'c~rcle ~f the four winds' and kippat erbetti 'circle of the winds' refer to Tukulh-Nmurtas empire. A system of dividing the earth's surface and level of the winds into four quadrants may be diagrammed on BagM Beih. 2 no. 98 (see p. 194).~5 , Numerous Sumerian and Akkadian versions of the geographlc term the four regions' are known. The most common are Sumerian ub.da.limmu.ba and an.u b.da.limm u.ba 'the four corners', and Akkadian kibrat arbaJi, kibrat erbetti 'the four regions' and kibratu 'the regions'. The term is first attested in both Sumerian and Akkadian during the reign of Naram-Sin in the royal epithet 'King of the Four Regions' (lugal.an.ub.limmu.ba = sar kibrat ~rbaJim!.36 Thus it is not possible to determine whether the Akkadian or Sumenan verSlOn is oldest. The Sumerian and Akkadian terms, although equated with one another in lexical lists and bilingual works, are not all exact translations of one another. Sumerian u b.da has the basic meaning tubqu 'corner/edge' while Akkadian kibratu appears to be a plural noun derived from kibru 'edge, shore'. Exact translations of Sumerian ub.da.llmmu.ba as tubuqat arbaJi and tubuqat erbetti are known, but rare. The tenn tubuqat er~etti occ~rs thre~ tim~s: in a Tukulti-Ninurta I inscription (Weidner TN 8:5), a Tlglath-PIleser I mscnp34 For additional versions of the term, see CAD K 331 and AHw 1365 tuqbu5, and note B. Alster, ASJ 13 79 n. 2. For Aramaic equivalents, see S. Paul, Scripta Hierosolymi, tana 31 202. 35 See R. Caplice, OrNs 40 148:48, 152 n. 48 fO.r 'T~e F?ur Regions in rituals where ritual acts are performed in the four compass pomt dIrectIons. . 36 See Hallo Royal Titles 49-56. For additional examples, see H. HIrSch, AfO 20 75:20-22,77:5-7; A. H. Ayish, Sumer 3270:6-7; B. Foster, RIM Annual Review 8 42 (a); PBS 1581:4-5. For an argument that the Sumerian and Akk.adian homeland w~s not part of the 'The Four Regions' (i.e., the world would have conSIsted of five parts, The Four Regions' and Mesopotamia) see J. Glassner, Akkadica 40 17-34.

299

tion (E. Weidner, AfO 18 349: 9), and in Izi, where both tubuqat erbetti and kibraterbetti are equated with u b.da.limm u5 (MSL 13212 i 9-10). The equiv:alent tubuqat arbaJi occurs in LTBA 2 1 iv 11-12, where both tubuqat arbaJi and kibratu are equated with mattltu. A third Akkadian version of the tenn, tu-buuq rer?-bieLti may occur in a bilingual work from Susa (MDP 57 36 i 30). There are numerous passages where Akkadian forms of the 'the four regions' encompass all the land areas on the earth's surface (see CAD K 33133). Perhaps the clearest example is World Map rev. 26'-27', where kibrat erbetti apparently refers to the entire earth's surface on the map. In Sumerian texts, no such unambiguous examples of 'the four regions' as the entire earth's surface can be found. Utu-Hegal and kings of the Ur III dynasty adopted the title 'King of The Four Regions',37 although these kings could not claim anything approaching the "worldwide" empire of Naram-Sin. In Sumerian literature, Duranki (Nippur) is placed in the center (murub 4) of ub.da.limmu.ba in a hymn to Enlil (Reisman Two-Hymns 49:68), but the hymn does not provide the outer borders of 'the four regions'. . It is also not certain how the terms for 'the four regions' originated. There are two lexical difficulties. First, Sumerian u b.da 'corner/edge' and Akkadian kibratu 'edges, shores' should logically refer to the outer edges of the earth's surface rather than its interior. Second, the common Sumerian form of the term an.ub.da.limmu.ba, which begins with the name of heaven an, could be the name of a region of heaven like an.ur, an.pa, and an.za. Both problems can be solved. Mesopotamian terms often refer to the interior of regions when only borders are named. For example, in Neo-Assyrian inscriptions, kings are said to conquer lands adi pat gimrisa, literally 'up to the edge of its entirety' (i.e., to its full extent; see AHw 852). Although this phrase refers literally only to borders, it is clear that the kings conquered the interior of the lands as well. Similarly, Sargon Geography 33-40 lists the talbitu 'circumference' of lands included in Sargon's Empire rather than measuring their interiors in units comparable to modern "square miles" (see p. 86). Thus ub.da. 11 m m u. b a and kibratu include territories up to the borders of the earth's surface at the horizon. This explanation of u b. d a and kibrtltu also helps explain an. u b. d a. limmu.ba. A number of passages explain that the far ends of the earth's surface and heaven meet at the horizon (see pp. 330-31). Hence, the corners and sides of heaven are also those of the earth's surface. Thus a term beginning with an can also to refer to the ends of the earth, as do the Sumerian names for the horizon an.ur and an.za. This explanation of an.ub.da.limmu.ba is confirmed by the equivalent term u h.da.an.ki 'corner of heaven and earth', which occurs in two Sumerian hymns (A. Sj0berg, OrSuec 19-20 145:13; A. Falkenstein, ZA 49 118:21).

37

See Hallo Royal Titles 52-53; JCS 20 140:37-38; C. Wilcke, Fest. Sj0berg 561.

Names for the Sea

Names for Earth

300

301

dadmu

adnatu

The term dadmu, when used in cosmic contexts, seems to be synonymous with terms for 'the lands' and 'the four regions'. On other occasions, however, dadmu refers to cities or smaller settlements. On a cosmic scale, dadmu can be equal to the entire earth's surface. Sumerian gukin (LAGABxKIN) is equated with both kissatu 'the entire world' and dadmu in Ea I 120-21 (MSL 14a 14 183), and kur.kur is translated as dadmu, rather than matatu, in a hymn to Inannallstar: 38

The geographic term adnatu is a near synonym of dadmu. In Malku I 189-91, both are listed as synonyms of matu, and the two occur in nearly identical passages in The Shamash Hymn:

ul.be.se mU.mu kur.kur.ra za.sa4 mu.bi ar.re.mu sa ina su-pu-uk same e nap-l;a-tu4 ina da-ad-me zi-kir-su su-pu-u MIN (tanadatua) SBH no. 53 rev. 48-49 (Cohen Ersemma 132:24) My praise (is for) the one who shines on the firmament, her name is exalted in the lands/dadmu. Other cosmic examples of dadmu include the opening line of The Erra Epic, where both dadmu and kibratu occur in epithets of Erra [sa]r gimir dadme banil kib[rati] '[Ki]ng of the entire World, Builder of the World Reg[ions]' (cf. Erra V 60-61); an Esarhaddon inscription where kullat dadme seems to be equivalent to kal kibrati (R. Borger, AfO 18 113:10-11); and a parallel in a hymn to Nabu:

a-a-u re1-pis kul-lat (da}-ad-me lu-tas-qar kali(d u)-si-na kib-ra- ra1-[ti] dan-n[u] rkis-sa-ti 1 qi-bit-ka $i-rat dnabil at-ta-[ma]

sa LKA 16:6-7

Let me praise the one who made all the world, all of the regions, the mighty one of the universe, 0 Nabu, your command is exalted.

sa ad-[na]-a-ti dsamas uz-[ni]-si-na tus-pat-ti BWL 134:149 Shamash, you open the minds of the (the people) of the regions.

kal si-l;i-ip da-ad-me u[z]-nHi-na tus-pat-ti BWL 134:153 You open the minds (of. the people) until the limit of world. In both passages, adnatu and dadmu refer to the human population of the earth's surface rather than just to the geographic features of earth. It is possible that adnatu, like dadmu in VAB 4146:18-22 (see above), only refers to the continent. In an inscription of Tiglath-Pileser III, adnatu extends from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea: 40

ad-na-ti sa istu tam-tim eliti(an.ta) sa su-lum dsamsiSi adi tam-tim Sapliti(ki.ta) sa [d]U[TU.E ... J. N. Postgate, Sumer 29 fig. 1:15 (following page 59) The people/regions from the Upper Sea of sunset to the Lower Sea of [s]u[nrise ...

nabalu The term nabalu, a noun from the root abalu B 'to dry out, to dry up' (see CAD A/I 29), is paired in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions with wmtu (see CAD Nil 20 b), so the term in its broadest sense refers to all dry land. An example of the term in literature occurs in a hymn to Gula: belet nabali sarur kullati 'mistress of dry land, glow of the universe' (K. 3371:20; see CAD Nil 21).

In a Sennacherib inscription, dadmu occurs alongside the names of heaven and underworld ermi danim and kigallu (orp 2 149 v 3-4). Although dadmu is a near synonym of kibratu, mattltu, and kissatu, dadmu need not always include the entire earth's surface. In the inscriptions of Nebuchadnezzar, dadmu extends only from the shores of the Upper Sea to the shores of the Lower Sea but not across the sea to the nagil (VAB 4 146:18-22) Here, dadmu seems to correspond to the central continent on the World Map (see p. 31). However, in Shamash Hymn 182-83 (BWL 136), dalat dadme 'door of the world' parallels sikkur same 'bolt of heaven', indicating that dadmu can extend to the ends of the earth's surface where the Sun passes through the gates of heaven. 39

ab, a.ab.ba, ab.ba. The two most common Sumerian names for the sea 41 are a band a.a b. ba.'Both are equated with tamtu, the most common Akka-

38 For additional examples of kur.kur = dadmu, see CAD D 18 and note also BA 5646:7-8. For sargadu = kissatu, gukin = dadmu, see also MSL 14400:99-100,417: 121-22. See also M. Civil, Or 56 237. 39 Compare also Shamash Hymn 153 (BWL 134) and Hinke Kudurru i 14-15 (cf. BWL 323 n. 174).

40 Cf. the month-name adnatu at Mari (M, E, Cohen, The Cultic Calendars of the Ancient Near East, 285). 41 For a detailed study of names for the sea in Assyrian royal inscriptions, see J. Elayi, OA 23 75-92. For the Lower Sea (Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean), see W. Heimpel, ZA 77 22-91. See also RGTC 5 319-21; AOAT 6 345-47; RIA 81-3,

Names for the Sea Sumerian Names

Names for Earth

Names for the Sea

dian name for the sea (see AHw 1353), and the two occur together in Nabnitu IV nO-1l:

as tamatu/tawatu (see AHw 1353). The word derives from the root thm and is a cognate of Hebrew tehom. The name tamtu is used in all genres of texts, during all periods, and with reference both to the Persian GulflIndian Ocean and the Mediterranean. The Persian GulflIndian Ocean is usually called tamtu saplItu 'Lower Sea', and the Mediterranean tamtu elItu 'Upper Sea'. In Middle-Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian inscriptions, smaller bodies of water to the north of Assyria, including the seas of the lands of Nairi and Zamua (almost certainly Lake Van and Lake Urmia), are also called tamtu. 44 Thus Akkadian tamtu, like English 'sea', can refer to large lakes as well as the ocean.

302

ab a.ab.ba

=

tam-tum MSL 1681

= MIN

Evidence from the third millennium suggests that a.ab.ba is a genitive construction meaning 'water(s) of the sea' (a of ab). Twice in Old Babylonian copies of inscriptions of Sargon of Akkad, the k of the genitive post-position ak appears: once due to the combination of the genitive and a locative, and once due to a double-genitive construction: giStukul.ni a.ab.ba.ka l.lub AfO 20 35:51-53 (Gelb-Kienast 158) (Sargon) washed his weapon in the sea. za a.ab.ba.ka.se ma me.lub.baki ma ma.gan.naki ma dilmunki kar ag.ga.deki.ka bLkesda AfO 20 37 v 8-13 (Gelb-Kienast 164) At the edge of the sea, (Sargon) tied the boat of Melubba, the boat of Magan, and the boat of Dilmun to the quay of Akkad. Other examples of a.ab.ba with the genitive k occur in Ur-Nammu Clay Cone B i 14 and The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk (CT 13 35:10, CT 13 37:31-32 + dupl.; see pp. 130-31). This might suggest that a b was the earlier form of the name a.ab.ba. The sea name ab may also occur in the Sumerian name for the Apsu abzu. 42 Sumerian texts identify two seas by name: the Upper Sea = Mediterranean a.ab.ba igi.nim/.ma), and the Lower Sea = Persian Gulf/Indian Ocean (a.ab.ba igi.sig/.ga/.sig.sig). The earliest examples of these terms occur in The Vase Inscription of Lugalzagesi (BE 1/2 87 ii 3-9; see p. 321). Examples are also known from Old Akkadian royal inscriptions and Gudea texts (see RGTC 1 203-5).43 Other Sumerian Equivalences of tamtu. In addition to ab and a.ab.ba, Akkadian tamtu is also equated with nab in Aa II/6:22 (MSL 14291), and with sug and tul (see AHw 1353).

Akkadian Names

tamtu, tamatu, ti"'amat. The most common Akkadian name for the sea is tamtu, a name that also occurs in the uncontracted form tr:'amat/tr:'amtu, and For possible etymologies of abzu = apsu, see p. 307. Note also lists with a.ab.ba, a.ab.ab.si.ga, a.ab.ba.bu.lub.ba, a.ab.ba.sig. ga, and a.ab.ba.igi.nim.ma in Proto-Izi and Proto-Kagal (MSL 1328-29,76), and MSL 11 147 iii 11'-13': a.ab.ba, a.ab.ba.igi.nim.ma, a.ab.ba.igi.sig. 42

43

303

ajabba. Akkadian ajabba is apparently a loanword from Sumerian a.ab.ba. In an Old Babylonian bilingual hymn, ajabba translates Sumerian a.ab.ba (see A. George, NABU 1991 p. 16 no. 19). Elsewhere, the term occurs both as a name for the Mediterranean in "The Foundation Inscription of YabdunLim" of Mari (G. Dossin, Syria 32 1-28; RIM 4 602-8) and Amarna texts and in the phrase ajabba tamtu rapastu 'ocean, vast sea' in Gilgamesh and incantations. In the Yabdun-Lim inscription, ajabba occurs three times. In one of these examples, tamtu and ajabba occur in phrases joined by ma, demonstrating that the two names refer to a single body of water: a-na ki-sa-ad ti-a-am-tim il-li-ik-ma a-na a-a-ab-ba ni-qi sar-ru-ti-su ra-bi-a-am iq-qi Syria 32 6 ii 8-11 (cf. ii 12, 22, RIM 4 606) He went to the shore of the the sea and offered his great royal offerings to the ocean. In the Amarna letters, ajabba is the standard name for the Mediterranean. Examples of ajabba at Amarna include EA 105: 11-13, where ajabba 'sea' parallels qaqqaru 'dry land' (see CAD A/I 221a). This name for the sea also occurs in the Amarna literary fragment EA 340:6 e (see P. Artzi, Eretz-Israel 24 232*). In the prologue to The Gilgamesh Epic, ajabba tamatu rapastu refers to the cosmic ocean that Gilgamesh crosses later, in Tablet X, on his way to visit UtnapiStim:

[e-b]ir a-aJba1 [t]a-ma-ti rapastiti adi $It samsi(du tu.e) Gilg. I 38 (Iraq 37 p. 162, pI. 37) [(Gilgamesh), cro]sser of the ocean, [v]ast sea as far as sunrise 44 For the seas of the Lands of Na~iri and Zamua, see J. Elayi, OA 23 80-87 and E. Michel, WO 2 410 II ii. For the sea of the Land of Na~iri, see ReTC 5 321 and AOAT 6346. For tamtu elenftu as a name for Lake Van, see ReTC 5 319 no. 1. However, see AOS 74 81 for an identification of Lake Zeribor as the (a?) Sea of Zamua. Although it may be assumed that the existence of the Black and Caspian Seas was known from at least the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I, no certain references to these seas are known. For possible references to the Black Sea, see ReTC 5 319 1,3203.

Namesfor the Sea

Names for Earth

304

In this context, ajabba and tamtu rapastu are also a single body of water. In incantations, the waters of the ajabba tamtu rapastu 'ocean, the vast sea' are apparently used as cleansing agents to wash off evil spells (see W. Farber, JNES 49 305-16). In one such medical incantation, the waters of the ajabba tamtu rapastu are sprinkled on a supplicant:

man-nam lu-us-pur a-na marat(mes) rdl [a-nim] lil-qa-an-ni ka-ni-Si-na sa rna,l [bulali] kar-pa-ti-Si-na sa na'uqn[i] (za.g [in]) li-sa-ba-ni memes a-ab-ba ta-ma-te rapa[stiti] me(a) ididiglat u idpurat[ti] li-is-Iu-ba li-bal-Ia-a sik-ka-tu mi-iq-tu a-[si-a] BAM 543 30'-35' ONES 49 317) Let me send someone for the Daughters of Anu. Let them take their jugs of [bulalu]-stone (and) their pitchers of lap [is] for me. Let them draw the waters of the ocean, the vast sea, (and) the water of the Tigris and Euphrat[es]. Let them sprinkle it and extinguish the sikkatu, miqtu, and a[su]-diseases. It is not clear why ajabba is used together with tamtu rapastu. It is possible that tamtu rapastu was originally intended to explain the relatively rare word ajabba, although most copies of a parallel incantation preserve tamtu rapastu with the name of the Ulaja River instead of ajabba (JNES 49 314-15:6).45 Another example of ajabba alongside tamtu, albeit without the adjective rapastu, occurs in a prayer to Nabu (W. G. Lambert, RA 53135:44). The word also occurs in an epithet of Inanna/IStar: [dinn] i [n].a.ab.baki

=

ia-bi-i-[tu]

KAV 73:4' + KAV 145 rev. 3'

In Summa Alu, this same epithet is written AAB.BA-ta (CT 28 38 K. 4079a:11'). A male deity lugal.a.ab.ba is also known (Deimel Pantheon 163 no. 1854) and dAAB.BA is equated with the west-semitic Sea-god Yamm at Ugarit. 46

jamu. Akkadian jamu, a loanword from the common West-Semitic name for the sea, yamm, occurs in Uruanna as part of the plant-name kusajame (see CAD IIJ 322; J Durand, MARl 757-60). marratu. The name marratu is a first-millennium synonym of tamtu. The word derives from the root mararu 'to be bitter' and apparently refers to the fact that sea water is not potable. The name appears to be an Aramaic loanword into Akkadian, since it does not appear before the first millennium and Shalmaneser III identifies marratu as a Chaldean name for the Persian Gulf For the Ulaja River in what may be a related context, se SM 6 288; ]. Scurlock, NABU 1993 pp. 11-12 no. 17. 46 For AAB.BA in the west and the western Sea-god Yamm, see ]. Nougayrol, Ugaritica 5 58 line 29 and Malamat Marl 107-12. 45

305

(WO 1 387:3-6; see p. 26). On the World Map, the cosmic ocean is labeled marratu (see pp. 21-22). In Neo-Assyrian texts, marratu occurs regularly as a name for the Persian Gulf. Examples include the Shalmaneser III inscription, a passage in the inscriptions of Sargon II where Bit Yakin and Dilmun are located by the marratu (Winckler Sargon lOO:22), and a passage in the inscriptions of Sennacherib where the city of Kar-Nabu in Chaldea is located on the shore of the marratu (A. Grayson, AfO 20 88:8-9). In contrast, only two Neo-Assyrian examples of the term as a name for the Mediterranean are known. Twice in the inscriptions of Sargon II the Mediterranean is called the upper marratu while the Persian Gulf is identified as the lower marratu (R. C. Thompson, Iraq 7 87: 12; Winckler Sargon 176:23-24).47 Thus it is possible that the term was originally only a name for the Gulf, rather than a synonym of tamtu. However, on the World Map, which was composed in Babylonia during the Neo-Assyrian period (see pp. 25-26), the entire cosmic ocean is identified as the marratu. By the Late Babylonian and Achaemenid periods, marratu is used as a synonym of tamtu for both the Upper and Lower Seas. In a Neriglissar Chronicle, the city of Pitusu on the coast of Asia Minor is placed on the shore of the marratu (Grayson Chronicles 104:20; see RGTC 8 251), Egypt lies by the marratu in the inscriptions of Darius (VAB 3 11 no. 6:5), and Greeks live on the shore of the marratu and across the marratu in the inscriptions of Xerxes (Herzfeld API 30 no. 14:18-19). Late examples of marratu as a name for the Mediterranean occur in historical notices in astronomic diaries (see, for example, Sachs-Hunger Diaries II 496 C 14'; III 72 upper edge: Antioch which is on the idma-rat). On the World Map, and in a number of other texts, marratu occurs with the id (river) determinative, demonstrating that the marratu was, in some sense, thought to be a river.48 A related term jarri marti 'pool of bile' occurs in apposition to tamtu gallatu 'restless sea' in a description of a defensive moat outside Babylon built by Nebuchadnezzar (VAB 4 134 vi 45-46).

Other Synonyms of tamtu Malku II lists four more equivalents of tamtu 'sea' and one equivalent of tamatu'seas':

ta-am-tu se-er-kup-pu mu-gam-mir-tu MIN si-qi-tul MIN mas-qi-tum a-ba-ma-a-tum ta-ma-a-tu W. von Soden, ZA 43

'the swamp' 'the encloser' 'the drink' 'the watering-place' 235:35-38 II SpTU III 119:37-40

47 For rnarratu in Sargon II inscriptions, see further A. Fuchs, Die Inschriften Sargons II. aus Khorsabad, 450. 48 Compare with Hesiod's Theogony 241-42, where Greek Oceanus bears the epithet "Perfect River."

Names for Earth

306

The synonyms of tamtu only occur in lists and commentaries. The equation serkuppu = tamtu is also attested in An VII: 11, and the same word (or a homonym) with the meaning apu 'reed-swamp' occurs with writings serkuppu, sarkuppu, zarkuppu later in Malku II 77 (see CAD S 177). Exactly how a reed-swamp could also be a sea is not clear unless ancient Mesopotamians considered coastal marshes, as well as the open sea, to be part of the ocean. The name mugammirtu = tamtu also occurs in the synonym list K. 4233+ ii 30 (CT 18 9) and in the late commentary LBAT 1577 rev. ii 2' (mu-gam-mirt[um = ... ]). This name is a II-stem feminine participle from gamaru (gummuru) with a probable meaning 'the encloser', since the sea, on the World Map at least, encloses the lands. The variants siqitulmasqitu, both from the root saqu 'to water, to give to drink' may be compared with the English slang name for the ocean "the drink." AHw 1353 compares abamatum with Nuzi ammu = team-teo

Names for Apsu Four names for the cosmic Apsu 49 occur in lexical lists: a b z u = apsu, engur = engurru, anzanunzu,50 and asurrakku. The first two are the most common names for the cosmic Apsu. In lexical lists, abzu and engur are equated with apsu in Proto-Izi I (bilingual) i 10'-11' (MSL 1337), and Sumerian engur is equated both with a loanword engurru and apsu in Ea I 70, Aa I12 233-34, and Proto-Aa 40:1-2 (MSL 14 180,215,91). A parallel list in unilingual Proto-Izi I 363-64 (MSL 1329) lists Sumerian engur, engur.mab, and abzu. 51 Akkadian anzanunzu and asurrakku are not equated with abzu = apsu or engur = engurru in lexical lists but do appear in Malku II as synonyms of mu saplUum 'lowlying waters, deep waters' in a section of terms related to water and bodies of water:

mu mes sap-lu-tum an-za-na-an-zu-u a-sur-rak-ku MIN a-ru-ru MIN W von Soden, ZA 43 236:52-54 II SpTU III 11954-56 In Aa II/4, mu saplUu occurs as a near synonym of mu rilqiltu 'distant waters, deep waters': For a previous study of abzu = apsu and synonyms, see Green Eridu 154-60. The reading anzanunzu is preferred over dzanunzu because the term is never written without ANldingir as are other cosmic place names that are occasionally written with dingir. For cosmic place names written both with and without dingir in Diri and Proto-Diri, see pp. 269-70. 51 Note alsosug = apsu in Aa II2 208 (MSL 14214); ap.ar = apsum in MSL 3217 G5 6'; and broken entries in Aa II8 239 (MSL 14 241) and Sbl 142a (MSL 3 110). For ABxA as a name for Apsu in UET 6 67 see Charpin Le Clerge 371 n. l. For a Greek transliteration alJft!a~1;O), see E. Knudsen, AOAT 240 138 rev. 6-7. 49

Names for Apsu (buru u)

307

sa mu(a)u sa mu-u ru-qu-u-tum sa mu-u sap-lu-tum Aa II/4 129-30 (MSL 14283, PSD B 201burus B)

Thus anzanunzu and asurrakku are, in some sense, distant deep waters of the Apsu below the earth's surface. A list of synonyms for apsu also occurs in a list of temples and shrines in Malku I that begins with synonyms for esirtum 'sanctuary': re-engurLra [x-xj-ra dUe- ku UtI-gar A[BZjU

ap-su-u MIN MIN MIN MIN

Malku I 288-91 (A. Kilmer, JAOS 83 429) A badly damaged parallel list occurs in Explicit Malku (JAOS 83 444: 175-79) between terms for shrines and ziggIJrats. Here, only the equivalents e-engurra and due-ku can be restored. Three of the four names in Malku I 288-91 are names for temples or shrines. Eengurra is the name of Enki's temple in Eridu. Abzu is the name of Enki's shrine in Eengurra, as well as shrines dedicated to EnkilEa in Eridu, Ur, and Lagash (see Green Eridu 177-80).52 Shrines called du 6 .ku were also found in Eridu, Nippur, Lagash, and, later, in Babylon. 53 Akkadian duku also occurs as a cosmic place-name, but no connection between the cosmic duku and the Apsu is certain (see pp. 315-16). The name lalgar occurs as a cosmic place-name belonging to Ea, but there is no evidence for temples or shines named lalgar. 54 Thus lalgar may appear Malku I 290 because it is a name for the cosmic Apsu. Two other equivalents of apsu, segbar and hal.an.ku, only occur as names for Apsu shrines. abzu

=

apsu

Sumerian abzu and Akkadian apsu are names for Apsu temples and shrines, cultic water basins, and the god Apsu, as well as name for the cosmic Apsu. The origins of the word are uncertain. Akkadian apsu may be a loanword from Sumerian abzu, but it is also possible that abzu is borrowed from Akkadian, or that both abzu and apsu are borrowed from a third language. If the term is originally Sumerian, abzu may derive from the Sumerian name for the sea, abo If so, abzu may mean 'knowing sea' (ab.zu), since the Apsu belongs to

50

52 For the abzu of Ur, Eridu, and Lagash, see UET III "Indexes Volume" 196-97 no. 66; RIM Annual Review 8 54-56 no. 8-9. V E. Crawford, JCS 29 194 v' 6' with n. 23; For the apsu shrine at Babylon, see CAD A/2 196 apsu C. See also CT 29 48:22 for the bit apsi in Esagil, and George Tintir 301-3. Note also the town Apsu-IStar in RGTC 5 33. 53 See George Temples 77. 54 The only exception is the name of the Apsu-temple of EnkilEa at Eridu E.LAL. C[AR] in The Canonical Temple List (see George Temples 14:187, 26 n. 187)

308

Names for Earth

Enki, the Sumerian god of wisdom. A later interpretation of the word as 'distant sea' may be found in a hymn to Enlil: me.bi me.abzu lu igi nu.bar.re.de sa.bi ab.su.da an.za nu.zu.a Reisman Two-Hymns 46:43-44 Its (Ekur's) mes are mes of the Apsu which no one can understand. Its interior is a distant sea which 'Heaven's Edge' cannot comprehend. 55 In Sumerian texts, engur occurs much more regularly as a name for the cosmic Apsu than abzu itself. Nonetheless, examples of abzu as a cosmic place name are found in The Curse of Agade and Lugalbanda. In The Curse of Agade, An and Enki remove possessions from Akkad to their cosmic homes in an.sa and Apsu prior to the destruction of the city (Cooper Curse of Agade 52:72-54:75; see p. 247). In Lugalbanda 221, a lahama comes out of 'abzu, just as 50 labama inhabit engur in Inanna und Enki 40:28, and lal:Jmu live in the apsu in Samas Hymn 38 (BWL 128).56 Sumerian abzu also occurs as a name for the cosmic waters of the water tablet beneath the earth's surface in Sumerian literature. Examples include passages in The Kesh Temple Hymn (where abzu occurs with an.sa), Enki's Journey 22, and an Dr-Nammu hymn:

Names for Apsu e ku na'za.gfn.na ki.gar.ra temen.bi abzu.a si.ga Enki's Journey 21-22 Temple, built of silver and lapis, whose foundation is fastened on the Apsu uru.me.dulO.dulO.ga bara.mah nam.lugal.la es uriki gu.gal ke.en.gi.ra ki.ku.ga du.a uru! bad.gal ki.gar.ra.zu abzu.ta mu.a TCL 15 12:1-3 (G. Castelli no, ZA 53118) City with good mes, august seat of kingship. Shrine, Dr, preeminent (city) of Sumer, built on a holy site. City, your great well-founded wall grows out of the Apsu.

Similarly, in Late Babylonian royal inscriptions, walls and foundations of buildings are placed in apsu, and irat apsi 'the surface of Apsu' (see CAD A/2 196 b). Akkadian apsu is by far the· most common name for the cosmic Apsu in Akkadian texts. Examples of the term as a cosmic place name include Ee IV 137-46, where apsu/esgalla is the lowest of three cosmic regions, and Atra-hasIs I 17-18, where Ea descends to the Apsu in early times when Anu ascends to heaven (Lambert-Millard Atra-hasis 42). engur

e e b.gal an.ne us.sa e zi.da.gal an.ne us.sa e men.gal an.ne us.sa e dtir.an.na an.ne us.sa e mus.bi an.sa.ga la.a te.me.bi abzu.a si.ga TCS 3 169:31-36 (Kes Temple Hymn) Temple, 'great shrine' reaching heaven. 57 True great temple reaching heaven. Temple, great crown reaching heaven. Temple, rainbow reaching heaven. Temple, whose gleam stretches into 'Heaven's Midst', whose foundation is fastened on the ApSu. 58 55 Note also the parallel [e].gal ab.su.ra an.za nu.zu [ ... in A. Sj0berg, Or.Suec. 23/24 166:15'. 56 For additional examples of latJmu and latJamu in the Apsu, see CAD L 41, Green Eridu 108-9. For the latJmu and latJamu of the Apsu, see W. G. Lambert, OrNs 54 189-202. 57 For this passage in the Archaic Kesh Temple Hymn, see R. Biggs, ZA 61201:3136. For ib/eb meaning 'shrine', see TCS 3181 n. 31. For eb.gal meaning 'temple oval', see ZA 61 205. 58 In RA 80 40-60 S. Dunham collects attestations of temen with the verb si (g). It is suggested in RA 80 52-53 that temen - si(g) refers to a tradition that the foundations

309

=

engurru

The most common Sumerian name for the cosmic Apsu is engur. Examples in Sumerian literature include EN 13-14, where Enki rests in the engur.buru 'deep Apsu' (see p. 138); Lugalbanda 78-79, where the Anzu-bird ascends to heaven and his wife descends to engur in search of their missing fledgling; Inanna und Enki 40:28, where 50 lal:Jama inhabit engur; and a passage in a hymn to Ninurta-Ningirsu, where a god grants Ninurta kingship in heaven, earth, and Apsu: nam.lugal.zu an.r na 1 mu.un.gal ki.a r mu l.un.gal den.ki.da engur.ku.ga za.e sa.mu.un.ne.dab 5.en Your kingship, he established in heaven. He established in earth. With Enki in the Apsu/ You, he made take it.

STLN 61 i 12-16

of temples were fastened by foundation-pegs all the way into the Apsu. See also B. Alster, ASJ 9 32 line 5. For an early study of this and related aspects of Apsu see R. Burrows, Or. 1 231-56.

311

Names for Earth

Names for Apsu

The loanword engurru is only known from lexical entries in Ea, Aa, and Proto-Aa (see p. 306). In bilingual texts, engur is translated as apsu, rather than engurru (see CAD A/2 194-95). In CT 1645:136-37, e.engur occurs as a variant for engur = apsu. 59

He is the lord of the gods of the inhabited world from asurrakku (upward). Before his furious bow the heavens stand still. The "sleepers" (dead) of the 'Great Shrine' (underworld) are stunned and panic-stricken.

310

anzanunzu and asurrakku Although neither anzanunzu nor asurrakku 60 is ever eqvated with abzu = apsu or engur = engurru in lexical lists or bilingual texts, both are used as names for the Apsu or waters of the Apsu. In Malku II 52-53, both names occur as synonyms for mu mes saplztum 'deep waters' (see p. 306). In literature, both occur as cosmic place names for the Apsu together with names for other cosmic regions. In a literary letter that introduces an exemplar of The Weidner Chronicle, anzanunzu and asurakku occur together with 'heaven' in a blessing:

In an earlier portion of this same text (STC I 205:9), Marduk 'roils' the Apsu, just as Marduk roils asurrakku in a bilingual parallel: e.ne.em dasal.lu.bi a.sur.bi ab.lu.lu a-mat dmarduk a-sur!-ra-ak-ku i-dal-la-aJ; 4R 26 no. 4:51-52 The word of Marduk roils asurrakku.

a-na u-ta-az-zu-mi-su id-dal-la-J;u ap-su-u STC I 205:9

rik1?-ru-ba-an-(ni) ina a-sur-rak-ki-i ma-an-za-za

tu- rka-an1 ina an-za-nunu ze-e1 ta-x-ri NIM AK? LA [a-na] same e ru-qu-tu re-si-ka ta-na-as-si . .. F. Al-Rawi, Iraq 52 3 S:15-16

She (GuIa) blessed (me): In asurrakku you will establish an abode, in anzanunzu you will ...... . [Toward] the distant heavens you will lift your head ... In Ludlul II 37-39, anzanunzu occurs with qereb same:

a-a-u te-em ilani mes mi-lik sa an-za-nun-ze-e e-ka -a -ma il-ma -da

The Apsu is roiled by his (Marduk's) roaring. In Descent of !Star 27, the goddess roils apsu. Three other examples of the anzanunzu are known. In these examples, anzanunzu occurs in the context of subsurface waters, both identifying anzanunzu as a name for Apsu and justifying the equation anzanunzu = 'deep waters' in Malku II. In The Shamash Hymn, a mariner almost drowns in anzanunzu:

te-em-mi-id a-na al-la-ki sa sup-su-qat u-r[u-uJ;-su] a-na e-bir tamti(a.ab.ba) a-dir a-ge-e ta-nam-d[in x x] J;ar-ra-na-a-ti sa la am-ra $a-J-i-da-ta art-tal [su]-li-i terteniddi(us)mes dima-J;i-ru sa d[samsiJSi

qe-reb samee i-Lam-mad i-l:Ja-ak-kim man-nu a-lak-ti ili a-pa-a-ti BWL 40:36-38

Who can learn the will of the gods in heaven? What man can explain the plan of (the gods in) the Apsu? Where has the human race ever learned the way of a god? In the hymn to Marduk STC I 205, asurrakku occurs with names for heaven, the earth's surface, and the underworld:

ul-tu a-sur-rak-ka be-lum ilanimessu-ut da-ad-me i-na pa-an giSqasti(pan)-su ez-ze-ti im-me-du sa-ma-mi sa eSmal:JJ;i $al-lu-tum l:Ja-mu-u it gar-ru STC I 205:19-21

59 For a possible writing an.kur for engur, see W. G. Lambert, Iraq 38 61 B 5; see also S. Kramer, JAOS 105 139 n. 17. 60 Variant writings anzananzu and anzanuzu are also attested for Malku II 52 (see p. 306).

l[Utamka]ru na-as ki-si ina e-de-e tu-se-zib tu-sel-li a-rid an-za-nun-ze-e tu-sa-as-kan kap-pa BWL 130:65-70 II Rm. IV 277 (see CAD A/2 153) You stand by the traveler whose w[ay] is difficult. To the one who crosses the sea, fears the waves you giv[e ...]. Y[ou] are the one who patrols the routes that are unseen. You ceaselessly follow the paths before the S[u]n. T[he mercha]nt carrying his capital you save from high waves. You raise up the one going down to anzanunzu , you provide (him) with a wing. In this context, anzanunzu is the depths of the sea, since Sham ash saves the mariner from drowning in anzanunzu by raising him upward. In Shamash Hymn 35-38 and 171-73, apsu is the depths of the sea (see p. 340).61 61

For a parallel in Psalm 107, see M. Weinfeld, AfO Beih. 19 275-77.

Names for Earth

Names for Apsu

In a bilingual Bit Rimki incantation, fish are boiled alive underwater in an.[za.nu].un.zu = [an-z]a-nu-un-zi-i (R. Borger, JCS 21 863-66). Fish are boiled alive in engurand engur= apsuin CT 1510 rev. 5 and SBH no. 56:66-67. In duplicates of a Sargon II inscription, a quay wall extends below the surface of the Euphrates into anzanunzu (see G. Beckman, RIM Annual Review 5 2-3 no. 3). The Apsu is also to be found in rivers in an incantation to the River of Creation (R. Caplice, Or. 39 135:24), the Akkadian incantation The 21 Poultices (w. G. Lambert, AnSt 30 80-82), and Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 78 iii 25-30 (for all of these, see pp. 338-39). In CT 46 55, asurrakku occurs as a cosmic place name alongside heaven and earth, but it is not certain that asurrakku is a name for the Apsu in this context (see pp. 178-79). Three additional examples of asurrakku occur in the inscriptions of Sennacherib, where the Tebiltu river in Nineveh has an asurrakku (OIP 2 96:76; 99:49; 118:15). This asurrakku appears to be an underground culvert that Sennacherib built to redirect the waters of the Tebiltu River away from the planned building site of his new palace. 62 The hidden culvert of the Tebiltu, like the cosmic Apsu, was filled with underground waters.

den .kLke4 engur.buru a.sur.ra ki dingir.na.me sa.bi U6 nU.um.me [. . . ] x ru-qu-u-ti [ ... ma-am-man l]a i-du-u Benito Enki 22:13

312

The Etymology of asurrakku and anzanunzu. The doubled consonant k at the end of the asurrakku indicates that asurrakku is a loanword from Sumerian. As written, the term would seem to be based on a genitive construction 'a (water) of sur'. A possible etymology based on such a construction might be 'a of sur6/7 (= me berutu) 'water of the foundation pit'.63 In a Nebuchadnezzar II inscription, the foundations of the IStar-Gate at Babylon are placed both at irat apsi 'the surface of Apsu', as in other Neo-Babylonian royal inscriptions (see CAD A/2 196 b), and at me berutu:

... i-Si-is-sa mi-/;i-ra-at ap-si-i i-na su-pu-ul me-e be-e-ru-tim u-sa-ar-si-id IR 52 no. 3 ii 18-19 (VAB 4 86 ii 18-19) (The IStar-Gate's) foundation I set fast at the surface of Apsu at the depth of the "waters of the foundation-pit" (i.e., the ground waters) Nonetheless, a passage in Enki and Ninma/; and a bilingual incantation seem to understand asurrakku as '(place of/where) a.sur.ra (flowing waters, roiled waters, deep waters)' from sur = ~arti.ru.64 In Enki and Ninmah 13, engur. buru, the deep Apsu, is described as a place where water flows:

313

Enki, in the deep Apsu, where water flows, into which no god can see The same meaning of a.sur.ra is evident in a bilingual incantation in the context of waters belonging to EnkilEa, the king of the Apsu: a.sur.ra den.ki.ke4 sag bi.in.ga.ga [(x x x)] sa a-na me-e ~ar-ru-ti sa de-a Cl-ir-[ru] [gil s. par den.kLke4 be.nUb.di b. [di b. be] gis-pa,r-ru sa de-a li-bar-[su] CT 1734:23-26 (w. Romer, Fest. Sj0berg 468:12-13) Any (demon) who goes against the flowing water of Ea; let the trap of Ea catch [him]. Yet a third etymology, a.sud.ra, '(place of) distant/deep waters', is suggested by Antagal III 15, where asurrakku translates a.su(d).ra 'distant/deep waters' (MSL 17 150). Both the Sumerian hymn ZA 52 59:6 and the bilingual fragment BA 5646:5-6 describe the abzu = apsu as distant/deep (see p. 342). No Sumerian etymology of anzanunzu seems obvious, so the word may very well be a loanword into Akkadian from a third language. However, it is just possible that the word derives from the Sumerian phrase an.za nu.zu.a 'which Heaven's Edge cannot comprehend'. This phrase occurs in the context of the Apsu in Reisman Two-Hymns 46:43-44 and A. K. Sj0berg, OrSuec. 23/24 166:15' (see p. 308). lalgar The equation lalgar = apsu in Malku I 291 (JAOS 83 429; see p. 307) demonstrates that lalgar is in some sense a synonym for apsu. In all known Akkadian examples of the term, lalgar is written without case endings. This curious fact may indicate that lalgar is a foreign word. 65 Seven examples of the term are known. In three of the seven, lalgar appears alongside names for heaven and earth, demonstrating that lalgar is a cosmic place name. In the bilingual literary fragment LKA 23, IStar takes possesion of heaven, earth, and lalgar: [x x bara].nam.l ugal.an.na.ke 4 ul.be su bUn. t [i gal.di] pa-rak sar-ru-ut da-nim same e i-/;u-uz [tiz-qur-tum]

[x x ] x 62 Such a culvert can be compared with Sennacherib's aqueduct tunnel (described in OIP 24 47-49) and the Negub tunnel (see c. Davey, Iraq 47 49-55). 63 See CAD B 213. Less likely is sur = suru 'ditch' and other homonyms (see CAD S 415-16). 64 For sur = $araru A, see CAD $ 105-6.

[x x] x nam.den.lll.la kur.ra su bUn.ti [gal.di] [ x ]-x-[t]i den-lil-u-ti ma-a- f tal e-/;u-uz tiz-qu[r-tum] 65 W G. Lambert in AfO 17319 C no. III identifies the term with the name of the second king of the Sumerian King List, a. Bd .gar (AS 11 70: 5). See also M. Civil in RA 60 92.

Names for Earth

Names for Apsu

runu 1 dnu!.dim.mud.da lal.gar su bUn.ti g[al.di] [s]u-bat de-a la-al- rga-ar1 i-/yu-uz tiz-qur-[tum] LKA 23 rev. 8'-13' (collated)

table' (see CAD Nil 110 2b), and a drought occurs in Atra-/yasis when themilu 'flood' from the Apsu and rain from heaven cease (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 72: 11-12; 78 iv 1-2). A four-column god-list from Assurbanipal's library may even identify nagbu with both the god Ea and the name of the Apsu, engur:

314

[The exalted lady] took hold of the [ ... ] of the royal dais of Anu of heaven. [The exalted] lady took hold of the ... of Enlilship of the land. [The exalted] lady took hold of the' abode of EnkUEa, lalgar. Here, lalgar must be the Apsu, since it is a cosmic abode of EnkilEa. In two other passages, lalgar occurs with names for heaven and earth: an.na za.e m [ah.me.en .. . ina same e ~[i-ra-ta at-ta .. . ki.a za.e mab.me.e [n lal.gar.r] a r za.e 1 m [ab.me.en] ina er-~e-ti at-ta ~i-ra-ta ina lal-[gar at-ta ~i-ra-ta] K. 5201 1-4 (BA 5396) In heaven [you are] ex[alted ... In earth you are exalted, in lal[ gar you are exalted]

en.gur den.engur de -a sa n [a-ag-bi] CT 25 48: 3 + dupl.67

engur: Lord of Engur : Ea of the s[ource]. Although it is clear that nagbu in these contexts can refer to waters normally associated with the Apsu, it is unlikely that nagbu was ever understood as a synonym of apsu, since the word never occurs as an equivalent of any known name of the Apsu. Furthermore, the Apsu itself has its very own nagbu 'source' in identical lines of two incantations: idim.abzu.ta 7.na.mes ina na-gab ap-si-i si-bit-ti. su-nu CT 16 15 v 30-31 (Utukku Lemnutu V) idim.abzu. [tal 7.na. [meS] [ina n]a-gab ap-si-i si-bit-ti su-nu

kul-lat nag-bi ne-me-qi ni-~ir-ti ka-ku-ga-lu-ti ka-nak giswjurati mes same u er~eti pi-ris-ti lill-gar

CT 1713:14 KAR 44 rev. 7-8

All sources of wisdom, the secret of the exorcist, the sealing of the designs of heaven and earth, the secret of lalgar. A fourth example of lalgar as a cosmic region may be found in a su.lla to Nabu, where the god is called mukil markas lalgar paqid du6-ku-ga 'holder of the bond of lalgar, commander of duku' (w. Mayer, Or 59461:7; see p. 316). Although the above examples demonstrate that lalgar can be a cosmic place name, the only direct evidence that identifies lalgar with the cosmic Apsu is found in LKA 23 rev. 12'-13', where lalgar is a home of EnkilEa. However, no surviving text identifies lalgar as a body of water. Thus, if lalgar is to be identified as a name of the cosmic Apsu, the link between lalgar and the Apsu may be that lalgar is associated with wisdom, as in KAR 44 rev. 7-8. Elsewhere, Asarlubi is said to view lalgar and formulate plans in An Address of Marduk to the Demons (w. G. Lambert, AfO 17 313 C 11), and Nineveh is praised as an ancient seat of wisdom where the ni~irti lalgar 'secret of lalgar' is studied, in the inscriptions of Sennacherib (OIP 2 94:63-65; 103:32).66

Related Terms nagbu. Akkadian nagbu 'spring, source' is sometimes used as a name for the waters of the water table that belong to the Apsu. For example, a number of Assyrian royal inscriptions place foundations at the me nagbi 'waters of the water 66

315

For parallels with ni$irti apsi'secret of the Apsu', see CAD N/2 276 d.

They are 7 (demons) at the source of the Apsu. 68

esgalla. The name esgalla occurs as a second name for the cosmic Apsu in Ee IV 143-46 (see pp. 127-28). dU6.ku. Akkadian du6-ku occurs twice in Akkadian texts as a cosmic place name: in a Bit Rimki incantation, where the Sun rises from a cosmic Duku situated by mountains east of Mesopotamia, and in a bilingual incantation: EN dutu kur.gaLta um.ta.e.na.zu.se

dsamas ul-tu sa-di-i ra-bi-i ina

a-~e-ka

kur.gal kur.idim.ta um.ta.e.na.zu.se is-tu sa-di-i ra-bi-i sa-ad nag-bi ina a-~e-k[a] dU6.kil ki.nam.tar.tar.re.de um.ta.e.na.zu.se is-tu dU6-ku a-sar si-ma-a-tum is-sim-ma ina a-~e-k[a] ki.se an.ki tes.bi la.a.ta an.ur.ta um.ta.e.na.z[u.s]e ana e-ma sa-mu-u u er~etumtum iStenis niS na-an-du-ru is-tu i-sid same e ina (a-~e-ka) R. Borger, JCS 21 2: 1-3:4 67 For a restoration dea sa nari 'Ea of the River', see H. Galter, Der Gatt EalEnki in der Akkadischer Uberlieferung 23:3, 24 n 3. Compare dl ugal.a.kLa = dMarduk sa nagbi (CT 24 50 BM 47406:2; AOAT 240 399). 68 For this incantation, see F. Kocher, AfO 21 15.

316

Names for Earth

Names for Apsu

Sun-god, when you rise from the Great Mountain, when you rise from the Great Mountain, the "Mountain of the Spring;' when you rise from Duku, the place where the destinies are determined, when you rise at the place where heaven and earth embrace, at the horizon.

sa segg.bar.ra i. bi nu. bar.re.dam qe-reb ap-si-i sa la nap-lu-si

Tu?/DU6 ?kur.ti.ta sa.bi im.ti.a.mes is-tu du6-ku ana qe-reb er:?etimtim it-ta-$u-nu su-nu K. 2873:3-4 (CT 1741)

sa.bi a.se.er.ra mu.lu im.ta.e.a l'ib-ba-su ta-ni-hi a-we-lam u-se-es-sa-a BM 54745:47-54 (cf. Enki's Journey 44-48)

(Akk.) They left Duku for the "middle" of the earth.

In the midst of Apsu, which cannot be seen. His face is weeping, ... weeping. His face is weeping, they bring in a man. When his heart sighs, they take the man out.

Neither passage indicates that the cosmic Duku is to be identified with the Apsu. In the Bit Rimki passage, Duku seems to be located along the horizon rather than below the earth's surface. In K. 2873:3-4, the Sumerian equivalent of Akkadian duku includes the name of the underworld, kur, suggesting that duku here is to be identified with the underworld rather than the ApSU. 69 A third example may be found in a su.ila where Akkadian dU6-ku occurs in an epithet of Nabu, paralleling lalgar: mu-kil mar-kas lal-garlla-al-ga-ar pa-qid du 6_ku-ga a-sa-red di-g'i-g'i a-si-ir da-nun-na-ki W. Mayer, Or 59 461:7-8 Holder of the bond of lalgar, Commander of duku, Foremostof the Igigi, Director of the Anunnaki. bal.an.ku. Sumerian bal.an.ku is equated with apsu in an Old Babylonian Proto-Ea/Aa tablet (MSL 14 142:18). This term is certainly a name for an Apsu shrine, rather than the cosmic Apsu. Sumerian bal.an.ku occurs as a name for Eengurra, or a part of Eengurra, in both The Canonical Temple List (see George Temples 26 no. 193) and The Blessing of Nissaba by Enki (w. Hallo, Rencontre Assyriologique 17 125 42), which preserves both Sumerian bal.an. k u and an Akkadian loanword l:J,allanku in the bilingual version. segbar. The term segbar, like bal.an.ku, is a name for a shrine in Eridu (see George Temples 26 no. 189). Twice in bilingual works segbar is equated with apsu: in Surpu 52:6-7 and in BM 54745, where a man is brought into a shrine segbar = apsu to pacify a deity: 69 For the cosmic du6.kit, see also A. Tsukimoto, AOAT 216 212-17; F. Wiggermann, Natural Phenomena 285-86, 295-96; and p. 130 above. Note also the ancestors of Enlil, den.du6.ku.ga and dnin.du6.ku.ga (see J. van Dijk, AcOr 28 chart p. 6; Ancient Cosmologies 51-53). The god den.d u6.ku.ga occurs as a gatekeeper of the underworld in Nergal and Ereskigal (SpTU II iv 2). Sumerian dU6.ku also occurs six times in a cosmic context in Lahar and Asnan 27-42. See also TCS 3 50-51, and note gods of heaven, earth, Apsu, and Duku in H. Zimmem, ZA 23374:82-85.

317

i.bi.bi ir.ra x.bi.a ir.ra.am pa-nu-su bi-ki-tum x-da bi-ki-tum-ma i.bi.bi ir.ra mu.rlu 1 mu.un.ku4·ku4 pa-nu-su bi-ki-tum r a-we1-lam u-se-er-re-bu

v

The origins of segbar as a name for the Apsu are not clear. A homonym segg.bar = sapparu 'a type of wild goat or sheep' is known, but it is uncertain how such an animal can be related to the Apsu shrines.

The Levels of Earth

Chapter 13

319

88, the god Apsu is pacified by Ea and put to death. His watery corpse forms the waters of the cosmic region Apsu. The sea-goddess Tiamat is slain in Ee IV. After the heavens are built from the upper half of her corpse in Ee IV 137-46, parts of the lower half of her body are used to form mountains, the springs of the Tigris and Euphrates, and other cosmic features (Ee V 1-60). Then, in Ee V 61-64, Marduk hoists the heavens upward over earth and then releases his net, allowing any remaining parts of Tiamat's corpse to escape: 61. [He set up] her crotch wedging up the heavens, 62. [her half which h]e made as a roof, earth was set firm.

The Geography of Earth

The portion of the cosmos below the heavens consists of solid and liquid elements. Earth is a solid, and the waters of the Apsu and cosmic sea are liquids. Other waters in earth include the rivers, lakes, and streams of the earth's surface and the underworld river Hubur. The waters of lakes and streams drain into'the sea by means of the ri~ers. There is no statement in Mesopotamian materials that the waters of the underworld river are connected in any way to the sea or bodies of water on the earth's surface. KAR 307 divides the portion of the cosmos below the heaven, like heaven itself, into three levels: an upper earth, middle earth, and lower earth. The Upper Earth is the earth's surface, the home of mankind in the universe. In KAR 307, Marduk settles the spirits of mankind on this level. The Middle Earth is the Apsu, which Marduk assigns to Ea. The Lower Earth is the underworld where Marduk shuts in 600 Anunnaki. KAR 307 does not refer to the ocean. In Sumerian mythology, I the earth is a solid block of matter that is separated from heaven in early times. Heaven and earth are made distant from one another, thereby exposing the dry land on the upper surface of the earth, where mankind is later settled. The underworld below the earth's surface also apparently belongs to this solid block of matter. Sumerian traditions of the separatio~ of heaven and earth do not consider the waters of the Apsu beneath the earth s surface nor the cosmic sea whose surface is visible from the earth's surface. These waters appear to be primordial elements in Sumerian mythology. In Babylonian myths, cosmic waters that eventually form the Apsu and sea are primoridal elements. In Enuma Elish, the divine waters of both the Apsu and the sea-goddess Tiamat exist at the very start of creation. In Ee I 711 For the Sumerian and Babylonian accounts of the creation of earth, dry land, and sea, see chapter 6.

318

63. [After] he completed the work inside the sea. 64. [He loosene]d his net and let it out completely. Ee V 61-64 (see p. 119) Here, waters of the primeval sea-goddess are apparently released from Marduk's net, thereby creating the cosmic sea. In The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk, the sea (tamtu0 exists at the start of creation, before ancient cities are built, and the topographical features of the earth's surface are formed on top of a raft floating on the primordial sea. Likewise, in The Babyloniaca of Berossus, the Sea-Goddess exists before Bel fashions the rest of the universe. A different tradition is found in The Theogony of Dunnu, where the gods bring the goddess Sea into existence with their plow (CT 46 43:4; see p. 146). Here the gods apparently dig the hollow of the sea, so the sea-floor is in effect an extension of the earth's surface. 2

The Levels of Earth The Level of the Earth's Surface (Dry Land and Sea) The portion of the earth visible to living human beings is formed by the upper surfaces of two cosmic regions: earth itself, and the sea. These are visible to mankind as dry land and the surface of the sea, respectively. The earth's surface is the highest level of earth. With a few notable exceptions-such as Etana and Adapa, who travel to the heavens-living human beings are limited to this level. The relative position of the earth's surface, between the lowest heaven and Apsu in KAR 307, is confirmed by other texts. For instance, in Ee V 119-22, the site of Babylon on the earth's surface is placed between Enlil's region of heaven, Esarra, and the Apsu. Although dry land and the sea belong to separate cosmic entities and mountains can stretch thousands of feet above sea level, there is no suggestion 2 Parallels where gods dig rivers are found in EN 10; Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 42:23-24, 43 K. 8562 5-6; BWL 162:1-2; and various examples of "An Address to the River of Creation;' including STC 1 200:1-21ISTC 1 201 1-2, and R. Caplice, OrNs 34 130:3'-4'.

320

The Continent

The Geography of Earth

that dry land and the sea surface do not share a single level of the universe. The depths of the sea, however, are sometimes identified with the Apsu (see p. 340). Further confusion between the sea and Apsu arises in The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk, where waters beneath the world raft are identified as tamtu 'sea', rather than Apsu.

The Geography of the Earth's Surface Although Sumerian and Akkadian texts contain a vast amount of geographical information, only two sources, The Babylonian Map of the World and The Sargon Geography, provide descriptions of the earth's surface. In both texts, the earth's surface consists of a central continent, sea, and territories across the sea (see pp. 93-94). This tripartite view of the earth's surface fits well with information from other texts. In Gilg. IX-X, Gilgamesh travels from Uruk to the home of UtnapiStim. During this journey, Gilgamesh passes the cosmic mountain, Mount Masu, and traverses the 7:Jarran dsamsi 'Path of the Sun' on his way to the shores of a cosmic sea that only the Sun normally crosses. Then, Gilgamesh sails across this cosmic sea, which includes the me muti 'waters of death', before finally reaching his destination. When he arrives, he tells UtnapiStim that he has passed lands, mountains, and seas: I wandered and walked through all the lands. I traversed difficult mountains. I crossed all the seas. Thompson Gilg. X v 25-27 (see p. 96) The level of the earth's surface in this context consists of a continent where Uruk and Mount Masu are situated, the cosmic sea with the waters of death, and the home of Utnapistim across the sea. Parallels are found in first-millennium royal inscriptions. Nebuchanezzar II claims universal kingship over both the dadmu 'inhabited world' from the Upper to the Lower Sea, as well as nagu 'regions' across the sea (VAB 4 146 ii 17-33; see p. 31). Neo-Assyrian kings also claim territories across the seas, including Dilmun in the lower sea, Lydia neberti 'across' the Upper Sea (Streck Ash. 20:95, 166:13), and Iadnana (Cyprus), Tarsis, and Iaman (Ionian Greece) qabal 'in' the Upper Sea (Borger Esarh. 86 no. 57:7-10). Later, in the inscriptions of Xerxes, the Greek homeland in Europe is placed across the sea:

mat ia-a-man-na sa ina idmar-rat as-bu-u u sa a-7:Ju-ul-lu-u sa idmar-rat as-bu-u Herzfeld API 30 no. 14:18-19 The Land of the Greeks who live in the ocean, and on the far side of the ocean. Many of these lands, including Greece, Lydia, and Tarsis, are in reality on the Eurasian land-mass but were normally reached by sea in ancient times and thus classified as lands across the sea.

321

The Continent Mesopotamian geographers had no way of knowing that Babylonia and Assyria were part of the Eurasian land-mass that stretches from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Arctic to Indian oceans. The ancient geographers imagined that the continent they lived on was much smaller. On the World Map, the cosmic ocean marratu is drawn just beyond Assyria, Urartu, and mountains where the Euphrates rises, while more distant areas are drawn as nagu across the marratu. The author of The Sargon Geography also believed that the continent was relatively small. The m01't distant areas in The Sargon Geography are the Cedar Mountain in the north, the land of Ansan in the south, Marbasi in the east, and Egypt in the west. Although the author of the text does not explicitly state that the cosmic sea flowed beyond these lands, this can be inferred from Sargon Geography 33-42, which lists the circumferences of eight continental countries (Marbasi, Tukris, Elam, Akkad, Subartu, Amurru, Lullubi, and Ansan), followed by the names of the lands across the Upper and Lower Seas. The eight continentallands encompass an area comparable to the continent on the World Map (see pp. 93-94). Evidence from third-millennium royal inscriptions and geographic lists suggests that the World Map and Sargon Geography present commonly-held views of the geography of the continent. For example, the third-millennium empire of Sargon of Akkad, with the addition of Egypt, is nearly identical to the empire in The Sargon Geography, and the realm of Lugalzagesi, as described in "The Vase Inscription" (BE I12 87), is similar to the sketch of the continent on the World Map: U 4 den.iil lugal.kur.kur.ra.ke 4 1ugal.za.ge.si nam.lugal.kalam.ma e.na.sum.ma.a igi.kalam.ma.ke4 si e.na.sa.a kur.kur glri.na e.nLsi.si.ga.a utu.e.ta utu.su.se gu e.na.gar.ra.a u 4 .ba a.ab.ba sig.ta.ta idigna buranuna.be a.ab.ba igLnim.ma.se glri.bi si e.na.sa u tu.e. ta u tu.su.se [de] n.lil.le [ga ba.s] u.gar [n] u.m u.ni.tuku BE I12 87 i 36-ii 16 (collated J, Cooper, JCS 32 117-18)

When Enlil, the King of the Lands, gave Lugalzagesi the kingship of the country, set his way at "eye of the land;'3 brought down the lands at his feet, and made them submit to him from sunrise to sunset, at that time, from the Lower Sea, along the Tigris and Euphrates, to the Upper Sea, he made the campaigns against them proceed. Enlil did [n]ot allow any [ri]val from sunrise to sunset. 3 The phrase igi.kalam.ma is problematic. A temple e.igi.kalam.ma of Lugalmarada in Marad is known (see George Temples 104), but it seems unlikely that this temple can be related to EnUl's decision to grant Lugalzagesi universal kingship. An Akkadian equivalent, fnu miltim 'eye of the land', occurs as an epithet of the Sun and Moon gods in personal names (see CAD I 156 d).

The Geography of Earth

322

The Continent

In the passage, the empire of Lugalzagesi extends from the Lower Sea, along the course of the Tigris and Euphrates, to the Upper Sea following the course of a campaign from southern Sumer to the Mediterranean coast. On the map, the Euphrates flows through nearly the entire length of the continent, from the upper part of the world ocean to the rectangle labeled 'channel and swamp' (bitqu, apparu) that touches the lower part of the world ocean. A second-millennium view of the continent may be found in the land lists of Urra XXI that were composed during the very late Old Babylonian period or the Kassite period 4 and the land lists of the slightly later Ras Shamra and Emar parallels to Urra. Urra XXI itself preserves two sub-lists of land-names: one list in which Sumerian land-names are prefixed with kur, and a second list in which Sumerian land-names are prefixed with ma.da. The lists are known from two editions of the series: I. A Middle Assyrian edition from Assur preserving the kur list is represented by KAV 80+90+137(+)89 (see w. Horowitz, AfO 35 64-72). II. A Babylonian version preserving both kur and ma.da lists is known from Ashmolean 1924.798+ (a tablet from Kish), BM 40739, and two exercise tablets (S and X below).

7. 8. 9. 10.

BX X X X

ma.da gu.ti.um ki ma.da za.gu.ti.umki [m] a.da igi.nimki [m] a.da igi.sigki

MIN MIN MIN MIN

qu-ti-[i] pa-at MIN e-li-tum sap-li-tum

323 Gub Border of Guti Upper Land Lower Land

*For a previous edition without X, see MSL 11 18. kur List, Babylonian Version* l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

B B BC BC BC BC BC C C C n. C 12. C 13. C

[kur giserinki] [kur mar.ba.5d ki] kur suo [bir4ki] kur elam. [maki] kur gu.tUum1[ki] kur za.gu.tU um1[ki] kur si.rumk[i] kur si.rumk[i] kur sir.rum ki kur bi.ta.laki kur be.a.naki [kur 1u.l] u.bu ki [kur.k]ur

[m]a-at re-re1-nu [MI]N pa-ra-si-i [MI]N su-bar-tum [MIN] re1-la-mi-i [MIN qu-t]i-i [MIN pa-at] MIN MIN i-[te-n]i** [MIN x x x] [MIN x x x] MIN [x x x] MIN [va-a-ni] MIN [lul-lu-bi-i]

[ma-ta-tu]

Cedar Land MarbasilParasi Subartu Elam Guti Border of Guti

Bani Lullubi The Lands

Exemplars B. C. E. S. X.

Ashmolean 1924.798+ (MSL 11 pIs. I-II) BM 40739 (MSL 11 C I ) KAR 80+137+190(+)189 (w. Horowitz, AfO 35 64-72) BM 46837 (MSL 11 Sll) BM 22854 (photo: AfO 3570) ma.da List, Babylonian Version*

l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

BSX BSX BSX BSX BX BX

ma.daki ma.da ki.in.gi ki ma.da ki.in.gi.uri ki ma.da ki,in.gi.sag.6 ki ma.da su.bir4ki ma.da elam.maki

ma-a-tum su-me-ri MIN u [ak-k]a-di-i ia-m[ut-ba-li] su-bar-[ til e-la-m[i-i]

MIN MIN MIN MIN MIN

'land' Sumer Sumer and Akkad Emutbal Subartu Elam

The exact date of canonical Urra cannot be established, since only first-millennium exemplars of the full series have survived. Nonetheless, the existence of Middle Assyrian, Ras Shamra, and Emar parallels to Urra from the second millennium indicates that a Middle Babylonian version of the series circulated as welL It is unlikely that Urra could have been compiled any earlier than the late Old Babylonian period, since Old Babylonian single-column precursors to later lexical series are characteristic of this time. Thus the most probable date for the earliest edition of the series is the Kassite period, although a very late Old Babylonian date cannot be completely ruled out. See also M. Civil in L. Cagni ed. Ebla 1975-1985 (1987) 131-40. 4

k u r List, Assur Version (AfO 35 65 ii 1'-15') l. E

[kur x x x ki]

KUR [xxx

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

[kur x x x]ki [kur x x x ]ki [kur gu-t]i ki [kur za.g] U.tiki [kur mar ].d uki [kur mar.ba].si ki

KURx [ ... KURx [ ... KUR q[u-ti-i] KUR pa-a[ t MIN] KUR a-mu[r-ri-i] KUR pa-[ra-si-i]

8. E 9. E 10. E

kur [si.r] um ki kur [si.r] um ki kur s [ir.r] um ki

KUR i-[ te-ni] ** KUR a-x-[x] KUR x-[x-x]

11. E 12. E 13. E

ku r U. r sallli.sal.lu ki kur u.saUla l.aki kur u.saUna1.aki

KI.MIN [ ... KI.MIN [ ... [KI.M]I[N ...

14. E 15. E

kur igi.nimrkil kur igi.sigrkil

[KUR e-li-tum] [KUR sap-li-tum]

E E E E E E

Guti Border of Guti Amurru MarbasilParasi

Upper Land Lower Land

*For a previous edition see MSL 11 14-15. **Restored on basis of MSL 11 43:14' (Ras Shamra parallel to Urra).

324

The Sea

The Geography of Earth

Together the three sub-lists preserve 15 identifiable land-names: Sumer, Sumer and Akkad, Emutbal, Subartu, Elam, Guti, pat quti 'The Land at the Border of Guti', The Upper Land, The Lower Land, The Cedar Land, MarhasilParasi, Bitala, ljani, Lullubi and Amurru. The Ras-Shamra and Emar parallels to Urra preserve parallellists: 5

Sumer Akkad Subartu Elam Guti The Land at the Border of Guti Amurru MarhasilParasi si.rum sir.rum Upper Land Lower Land

N

w

Emar (kur) Emar 558 59'-68'

Ras Shamra (ma.da) MSL 11431'-16'

Cedar Land Subartu Guti The Land at the Border of Guti Amurru Marhasi si.rum sir.rum Upper Land Lower Land

All the lands in the Ras Shamra and Emar lists also occur in the Urra lists. Furthermore, both lists end with the Upper and Lower Lands, as do the kur-list of the Middle Assyrian recension of Urra and the Babylonian ma.da-list. With the possible exception of the Upper and Lower Lands, all of the countries in the lists lie within the land borders of Sargon's empire in The Sargon Geography. In Sargon Geography 41-42, lands across the Upper and Lower Seas are listed after the eight continental lands in Sargon Geography 33-40.

The Four Regions of the Earth's Surface Various Sumerian and Akkadian terms for 'the Four Quarters' or 'Four ' Regions' refer to the division of the earth's surface into equal northern, southern, eastern, and western quadrants. These quadrants correspond to the four compass point directions. As demonstrated by the diagram on BagM Beih. 2 98 (see p. 194), these quadrants are arranged so as to form four equal regions when transposed on a modern map with north at the top. 5 Note also the kur-list in MSL 11 55:15-56:4 (Misc. Geographical List 1) and parallel lists of languages (Sumerian, Akkadian, Amorite, Elamite, Gutian, Subartean, Sutean) in MSL SSllO xi 28'-33', 12 iii' 7'-11', 24:30-34, 32:240-45.

325

E

s The diagram may also provide a pictorial representation of the geographic terms 'The Circle of the Four Winds', 'The Circle of the Four Corners', 'The Circle of the Four Regions', and 'The Circle of the Winds' (see p. 205). On BagM Beih. 2 98, the area outside the circle may be labeled marratu 'ocean' (see p. 195). If so, the area inside the circle may be equivalent to the continent on World Map that is encircled by a cosmic ocean marratu. In this case, the continent alone, rather than the entire level of the earth's surface, may be divided into four quadrants. Elsewhere, however, 'The Four World Regions' seem to stretch to the very ends of the earth. In World Map rev. 26', the phrase kibrati erbetti sa kal ... 'The Four Quadrants of the entire ...' occurs after the descriptions of nagu across the marratu from the continent. Likewise, Shamash Hymn 11-12 appears to identify kibrat erbetti as the entire level of the earth's surface beneath the Sun:

mi-lam-mu-ka is-te-nPJ t[l [ ........ J kib-rat er-bet-ti ki-ma dgir[ra ........ J BWL 126: 11-12 (cf. W. Horowitz, NABU 1993 54-55, no. 69) Your shine ever seeks out [ ........ J The Four Regions, like the fir[e-god, ........ J

The Sea The Babylonian Map of the World and The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk demonstrate that Babylonians, at least, believed that a cosmic ocean encircled the continental portion of the earth's surface. The most familiar parts of the this ocean were the Upper Sea (Mediterranean) and the Lower Sea (Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean), but it is clear from the World Map that the cosmic ocean was also believed to flow to the east of Babylonia beyond Iran, and to the north of the mountains of modern Turkey. The tradition of a northern part of the ocean may have been influenced in part by vague knowledge of the Black and Caspian seas. Additional northern upper seas, including the "seas" of Nairi and Zamua (see p. 303), are mentioned in Assyrian royal inscriptions beginning at the time

The Geography of Earth

The Sea

of Tukulti-Ninurta I. These seas, however, are inland lakes such as Lake Van and Lake U rmia that, like the ocean, have no egress.

sea' (mal?l?aril tamti) (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 118:23-24, 120:39-40). A na/:}balu is a net or snare of some sort. It is apparently made of both netting and a wooden frame, since a common Sumerian equivalent of the term, gises.sa.du (see CAD Nil 134), is written with the gis 'wood' determinative and means literally 'made of netting and rope' (es = aslu, sa = saul. Objects made even in part of netting are porous, so it is not clear how a na/:}balu could restrain the sea. Thus na/:}balu tamti 'Net of the Sea' seems to be a proper name rather than an actual object and, if so, may be the name of the 'bolt of the sea'.7 Although the exact function of the sigaru na/:}balu tamti is not explained in the Mesopotamian flood stories, it can be compared with doors and a bar that hold the sea in place in the biblical book of Job:

326

The Depth of the Sea The only exact figure provided for the depth of the sea is found in Erra I 152 where the roots of a cosmic mesu-tree are said to reach 100 leagues thr~ugh the tam tum rapastum 'vast sea' to the underworld (see p. 245). This passage, however, may confuse the waters of the Apsu with the depths of the sea, since the Apsu lies between the earth's surface and the underworld according to KAR 307. 6 The Limits of the Sea Available evidence for the far limits of the sea is problematic. On the World Map, the far shore of the marratu is drawn as a circle. Beyond this circle, uncharted space extends to the ends of the tablet. Triangular-shaped nagu extend into this uncharted territory. Because the area beyond the marratu is not labeled, it is not possible to determine if a cosmic sea beyond the marratu extends to the ends of the earth's surface, if the nagu hang over the horizon, or if a second continent lies beyond the marratu (see p. 32). A more mysterious tradition concerning the far reaches of the sea is included in The Gilgamesh Epic. In Gilg. X, Gilgamesh and UrSanabi encounter the me mati 'waters of death' in a distant part of the sea on the way to the home of UtnapiStim at ina pi narati (see pp. 103-4). Here too it is unclear if the 'waters of death' extend to the ends of the earth's surface. Features of the Sea sigaru nabbalu tamti 'The Bolt (Named) "Net of the Sea"'. The term sigaru na/:}balu tamti occurs six times in the Late Babylonian F~~od St~ry ~E 39099 (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 116-21) and probably an addItIOnal time III Old Babylonian Atra-/:}as'is (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 42:15). In both accounts, the sigaru na/:}balu tamti belongs to EnkilEa, but it is not certain if the tern;- refers to one item or two. The term, as written, can best be translated bolt (named) "Net of the Sea''', since both sigaru and na/:}balu are, as written, in the nominative case. The sigaru na/:}balu tamti can be at least partially identified by examining the the meanings of sigaru and na/:}balu. A sigaru is a bolt on a door. In the context of the sea, the sigaru na/:}balu tamti may be a bolt on a water-lock that holds the waters of the sea in place. Such a bolt (sigaru) appears in the Late Babylonion flood story twice in the context of the killing of the 'guards of the 6

For the Apsu and the sea, see pp. 340-41.

327

And who shut in the sea with doors when it burst forth coming out of the womb, when I made a cloud as its cover, and fog its swaddling band? It is I who imposed my laws upon it and stationed a bar and doors. Then I said "to this point you may come, but no more, for here your prideful waves will be destroyed." Job 38:8-11 In this passage, the function of the bar and doors of the sea is to keep the waters of the sea within their bounds. The sigaru na/:}balu tamti was probably meant to serve the same purpose, since it is mentioned in connection with the flood, a time when the normal restraints of the sea may have been removed. The bargullu 'Lock' of the Sea. In addition to the sigaru na/:}balu tamti, the waters of the sea may have also been held in check by locks. An obscure reference to such locks is found in an astronomical omen: dadad sa sadi II sa tamti(a.ab.ba) /:}ar-gal-li-sa BI.BI ACh Adad 17:34 Adad will ... the locks of the mountain/sea. A second reference to the locks may occur in a broken passage near the end of an Esarhaddon inscription: aban(na4) na-de-e /:}ar-gul-li I?e-res tam-tim . .. BA 3 297:52 (Borger Esarhaddon 85) A stone for placing locks against the sea/Tiamat ...

7 The name 'Net of the Sea' may be compared with the net saparru that Marduk uses against Tiamat in Ee IV-V (see also CAD S 161-62 saparru A b).

328

The Geography of Earth

Regions across the Sea and the Ends of the Earth's Surface Although Mesopotamian texts often speak of distant areas across the seas, and the ends of the earth's surface beyond, information relating to the far reaches of the earth's surface is limited. Most of what is known about distant regions across the seas comes from three sources: references to Dilmun, Magan, and MelulJlJa in third-millennium texts, the descriptions of the nagu in The Babylonian Map of the World, and information in Gilgamesh IX-X Most of the available information concerning the actual ends of the earth's surface relates to the place where the Sun-god crosses the boundary between heaven and earth as he rises and sets.

Dilmun, Magan, and Melul:Jl:Ja The lands of Dilmun, Magan, and MelulJlJa are located down the Persian Gulf from Mesopotamia. In Sargon Geography 30, Magan and MelulJlJa are placed 120 leagues from the outlet of the Euphrates, and Dilmun and Magan are located across the Lower Sea in Sargon Geography 42. In third-millennium texts, the lands of Dilmun, Magan, and MelulJlJa are often grouped together as trading partners of Sumer and Akkad. For example, boats bring trade goods from all three lands to the quays of Akkad in the inscriptions of Sargon of Akkad (H. Hirsch, AfO 20 37:8-13; Gelb-Kienast 164). Modern research has identified the third-millennium locations of all three lands. Dilmun has been identified with Bahrain, Magan has been identified with the upper Persian Gulf Coast including modern Oman, and MelulJlJa has been identified with the Indus Valley Culture. In third-millennium sources, MelulJlJa always lies across the sea from Sumer. Magan could also be reached by sea but may have been accessible by overland travel as well, since it is much closer to southern Mesopotamia. In the inscriptions of Naram-Sin and The Chronicle of Early Kings, Naram-Sin mounts a successful campaign against Magan (MDP 6 3 ii 1-7; Grayson Chronicles 154:27).8 Unfortunately, neither source explains how Naram-Sin reached Magan. Third-millennium texts demonstrate that Dilmun was a sacred locale, as well as a trading partner of Sumer and Akkad. In Sumerian literature, Dilmun is both the setting for the myth Enki and Ninl:Jursag (P. Attinger, ZA 74 1-52) and the eventual home of Ziusudra, the hero of the Sumerian flood story: u 4 .ba zi.u 4 .sud4 .ni lugal.am mu.nl.gilim.ma numun.nam.lu.ulu urLaka kur.bal kur.dilmun.na ki.dutu.e.se mu.un.ti.es PBS 5 1 vi 10-12 (Lambert-Millard Atra-lJasis 145:258-60)

8 Note also the inscribed bowl of Naram-Sin in The Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem, which is identified as "Booty of Magan" (see O. Muscarella, ed., Ladders to Heaven, 80; Guide to the Collection of the Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem [1994] 38).

Regions across the Sea and the Ends of the Earth's Surface

329

At that time, Ziusudra, the king, the one who protected the seed of mankind during the era of disaster they settled in the "Land of the Crossing;' the Land of Dilmun, ' a place in the direction of the rising sun. After the Ur III period, contact with the three lands diminished but the

name~ of. Dil~un, Magan, and MelulJlJa continued to be remembered in geo-

?rap~IC lIsts, lIterary texts, and historical omens, as well as through goods Id~ntIfie.d as be~ng of the Dilmun, Magan, or MelulJlJa type. 9 Later in the second n:lllenmum, eVIde~ce for. direct contact with these three lands reappears. A KassIte governor of Dilmun IS known from a cylinder seal (see J. Brinkman. NABU 199389-91, no. 106). The name of Dilmun also occurs in two Kassite letters as well as in the inscriptions of the Middle Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I ;ho adopts ~he ro~al title "King of Dilmun and MelulJlJa" (see RGTC 5 261). 'Elsewhere In the Inscriptions, Tukulti-Ninurta's empire is said to extend to the border of Magan (see RGTC 5 182).10 . In the ~rst .mil~ennium., all three lands occur in Neo-Assyrian inscriptions. Dllmun, whICh lIes In th~ mlddl~ of the sea in the inscriptions of Assurbanipal, Sargon II, and Sennachenb, contInues to be a name for Bahrain, but Magan and MelulJlJa are moved from the Persian Gulf to the borders of Egypt.

The nagu on the World Map ~ortions ?f five nagu are preserved across the marratu on the map itself, and eIght nagu are described on the reverse of the tablet. When complete, both the map and the descriptions on the reverse probably revealed a tremendous amount of information about distant areas, but even the small amount of information that is preserved reveals that distant lands were believed to be strange and wondrous places. For example, the northern nagu on the map is said to be a place where the "sun is not seen;' and the seventh nagu on the reverse (rev. 21'-23') is inhabited by speedy horned cattle.

Gilgamesh Distant areas in The Gilgamesh Epic are also filled with wonders. Beyond the sh~~~s of the .continent, 'waters of death' flow in a cosmic sea (Gilg. X iv), and ?tnapIsbm, the Immortal survivor of the flood, lives in a region beyond the waters of death'. The distant part o~ the continent is also filled with stange and wondro~s phenomena. Before reachIng the seacoast, Gilgamesh passes a cosmic mountaIn where fantastic beings, who are part-human and part-scorpion, obs~rve the Sun (Gilg. IX ii); he travels along a 12-league-long path through a regIOn of darkness (Gilg. IX iv-v); and finally he reaches a grove where trees l~ See C~D .M/l 131 makannu, ~/2 15 melulJlJu, and AHw 1359 tilmunnu. . TukultI~Nmurta I apparently mherited this title from the Kassite Dynasty, whIch had preVIOusly ruled Dilmun (see J. Brinkman, AJA 76 276).

The Geography of Earth

Regions across the Sea and the Ends of the Earth's Surface

bear precious stones instead of fruit (Gilg. IX v-vi). These episodes in The Gilgamesh Epic provide further evidence that Mesopotamians believed that distant lands were very different from their own. Such beliefs were not unfounded, since Neo-Assyrian kings brought strange and wondrous plants and beasts back with them from their campaigns in distant lands. These included trees that bore wool for making clothing instead of food to eat (OIP 2111:56,116:64) and pagu and pagitu 'male and female monkeys', which are depicted in Neo-Assyrian reliefs with almost-human heads, hands, and feet, but animal bodies,l1

The Ends of the Earth's Surface, Mountains, and Regions of Darkness. Evidence that the Sun-god passes over mountains as he rises at dawn is found in a number of texts. Two sources suggest that these mountains lie at the very ends of the earth's surface. In Bit Rimki, the Sun-god rises by a mountain identified with the shrine Duku at the horizon: 12

330

The Ends of the Earth's Surface All of the available evidence agrees that the earth's surface ends at the horizon, the place where heaven and earth meet. Yet, there is widespread disagreement about the topography of the ends of the earth's surface. Some texts suggest that the ends of the earth's surface are marked by cosmic mountains, while others suggest that the cosmic ocean extends to the ends of the earth. Still others are ambiguous. The Sun and the Ends of the Earth's Surface. Evidence for the course of the Sun defining the limits of the earth's surface is found in royal inscriptions and literary texts. In Late Babylonian royal inscriptions, Neriglissar claims to rule all of mankind on the earth's surface under the sun from horizon to zenith:

is-tu isid same(an.ur) a-di eLM same(an.pa) e-ma dsamas a-$u-u sa sarrani (l ugal.l ugal) ki-ib-ra-a-ti sa ka-al te-ne-se-e-ti bi-Ia-at-su-nu ka-bi-it-ti lu-um-J:ju-ur qe-er-bu-us-sa 1R 67 ii 37-40 (VAB 4 214) From horizon to zenith, wherever the sun goes out, may I receive the heavy tribute of the kings of the world regions of all mankind in (my palace). Tiglath-Pileser III (Tadmor Tigl. 158:4, 194:4) and Nebuchadnezzar (VAB 4 120:52, 140 x 13) also claim kingdoms from 'horizon to zenith', and Sargon of Akkad rules all the lands siJ:jip same 'under heaven' in Sargon Geography 31. Likewise, all the lands extend from 'sunrise to sunset' (a$e dsamsi adi ereb dsamsi) in Underworld Vision 63 (SAA 374:23), and from 'horizon to zenith' in ' a Gilgamesh letter from Sultantepe:

sa

ki-ma qe-e [ ... u]l-tu isid same(an.ur) a-di el{U same(an.pa) matati(kur.kur) napJ:jar(niginHi-na i-be-Iu 0. Gurney, AnSt 7 128:4 (F. Kraus, AnSt 30 109)

who (Gilgamesh), as if with a ... cord rules all the lands from horizon to zenith. II

For a detailed discussion of Gilgamesh's journey to ina pi narati, see Chapter 5.

331

Sun-god, when you rise from the Great Mountain, when you rise from the Great Mountain, the "Mountain of the Spring;' when you rise from Duku, the place where the destinies are determined, when you rise at the place where heaven and earth embrace at the horizon. . , R. Borger, JCS 21 2:1-3:4 (see p. 316) In a Sumerian passage in a hymn to Enlil, the mountains of sunrise and sunset also seem to be equated with the edges of heaven and earth: u.mu.un za.an.na u.mu.un za.kiJke 41 kur.utu.e.a.ta kur.utu.su.a.se kur.ra u.mu.un nu.mu.un.ti za.e u.um.un ab.ak dmu.ul.lil kur.kur.ra ga.sa.an nu.mu.un.ti dam.zu ga.sa.an ab.ak R. Kutscher, Oh Angry Sea 61:25-29 (Cohen Canonical Lamentations 339-40) Lord, as far as the edge of heaven, lord as far as the edge of earth, from the mountain of sunrise to the mountain of sunset. In the mountain/land, no (other) lord resides, you exercise lordship. Enlil, in the lands no (other) lady resides, your wife, exercises ladyship. These passages may be related to Old Akkadian cylinder seals that picture the Sun-god rising by a gate over a hillock. The gate may be identified as a gate of sunrise, and the hillock may represent the mountain of sunrise (see R. M. Boehmer, ZA Erganzungsbande 4 pIs. 33-36).13 In other possible parallels, mountains of sunrise and sunset may be located at the far ends of the central continent, rather than across the sea at the edge of the earth. These include a hymn to Inanna, where the Sun rises from kur. sim.giSeren 'the mountain of cedar scent' (CT 36 34 rev. 3-4),14 and a bilingual For both cosmic and non-cosmic examples of du 6 .kil, see pp. 315-16. Note also Urra XXII (MSL 11 23:5 II SpTU III 114:5) and Lipsur Type I 1:4 (E. Remer, JNES) 5 132:4) where Mt. Buduhudug is explained as nereb dsamas ana daja 'the entrance of Samas to Aya'. For mountains of sunrise and sunset, see also W. Heimpel, JCS 38 143-46; W. G. Lambert, JCS 41 5 i 1; MSL 11 38 b 4-5. 14 The rising of the sun from the Cedar Mountains both here and in other passages (see Tigay Gilg. 77 n. 11) indicates that the Cedar Mountain included mountains to the east of Mesopotamia during Sumerian times, as well as the Lebanon range in the ,,:,est. This b:ings th.e commonly accepted identification of giseren = 'cedar' into question, smce there IS no eVIdence for true cedars east of Mesopotamia. Thus, giseren in the east 12

~3

The Geography of Earth

Regions across the Sea and the Ends of the Earth's Surface

incantation where demons are identified with light and dark mountains of sunrise and sunset:

gisba.l u. u b. ta giseri n.na. ta ki.en.gi.rki1.uri.a sibir sibir sum.mu.na.ab CT 42 pl. 8 ii 13-17 (S. Kramer, PAPS 107501)

332

7.bi bur.sag.gi6 .ga ba.u.tu.ud.da.mes si-bit-ti su-nu ina sa-ad e-reb dsamsisi f'-al-du 7.bi bur.sag.babbar.ra ba.bulug.a.mes si-bit-ti su-nu ina sa-ad si-it dsamsi si ir-bu-u . CT 16 44:84-87 (98-101) They are seven (demons) who were born in the Dark Mountains (Akk. The Mountain of Sunset). They are seven demons who were raised in the Bright Mountains (Akk. Mountain of Sunrise). This dark mountain of sunset may be compared with Mt. Masu in Gilg. IX, where Gilgamesh encounters a region of darkness (see pp. 98-100). Mt. Masu, of course, is located on the central continent. Gilgamesh only reaches the sea coast in Gilg. X after crossing Mt. Masu and the region of darkness. Sargon of Akkad encounters a similar region of darkness in the mountains east of Mesopotamia (see p. 33). On the World Map, however, a region "where the sun is not seen" is located across the northern portion of the cosmic ocean marratu from the mountain on the continent. The Cosmic Ocean, the Sun, and the Ends of the Earth's Surface. In The Gilgamesh Epic, The Babylonian Map of the World, and Sumerian works, seas lie beyond mountains of sunrise and sunset. In Gilg. IX-X, Gilgamesh encounters the sea (tamtu) and the 'waters of death' after passing Mt. Masu, where scorpion-men observe the rising and setting of the Sun. The prologue to The Gilgamesh Epic indicates that the waters crossed by Gilgamesh may extend as far as the place of sunrise in the east:

[e-b]ir a-abJba1 [t]a-ma-ti rapasti ti adi ~it samsi(dutu.e) Gilg. I i 38 (Iraq 37 pl. 37) (Gilgamesh) who crossed the ocean, the vast sea, as far as the sunrise. On the World Map, the cosmic ocean marratu flows beyond a region marked, 'mountain' upstream from Babylon and Assyria. Sumerian evidence for cosmic seas located beyond mountains is found in the Sumerian literary composition Inanna and the King: du tu.e. ta du tu.su.se

1MU 1u. t atumlO .mu.uLlu.ta 1Mm i r. ra. a.s etuffilO.mU.AN.mi.ra a.ab.ba.igi.nim. ta a.a b. ba.sig.se may refer to another tree such as Juniperus Excelsa, which shares many of the same properties as cedars (see J Hansman, Iraq 3823-35).

333

From sunrise to sunset, from the northwind to the southwind, from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea, from the 1:Juluppu-tree, from the cedar, in Sumer and Akkad, give him the scepter and staff. In the passage, the author seems to work from the outer ends of the earth's surface inward, beginning with sunrise and sunset and ending with Sumer and Akkad. Thus the seas seem to be beyond distant eastern lands where 1:Julupputrees grow, such as Magan and Melubba (see CAD tJ 56), and the distant western mountains, where cedars grow. A parallel may be found in The Shamash Hymn where the Sun rises over the sea and then crosses mountains each day: 15

te-te-ni-ti-iq gi-na-a sa-ma-mi. [s]u-um-dul-ta er-~e-tu ta-ba-Ja u 4-me-sam rmil (i 11 u) tamti (a. a b. b a) 1 1:Jur-sa-a-ni er-~e-ta sa-ma-mi ki-i GAN/SA-(x)-x-si gi-na-a ta-ba-Ja u 4 -mi-sam BWL 12627-30 (Sham ash) you continously cross the heavens, daily you pass over the vast earth. The flood of the sea, mountains, earth, and heavens, daily you pass over faithfully like a .... Together, these passages indicate that at least some ancient Mesopotamian geographers conceived of the continental portion of the earth's surface as a flat plain ringed by mountains and surrounded by the waters of a cosmic ocean. The Ends of the Earth in the World Map and Sargon Geography. Neither the World Map nor The Sargon Geography provide clear descriptions of the ends of the earth's surface. On the map, an uncharted blank area stretches beyond the far shore of the marratu and most distant points of the nag£!. Similarly, the preserved portion of the The Sargon Geography does not explain what lies beyond the distant lands of Dilmun, Melubba, Anaku, and Kaptara. Such ambiguities and the existence of conflicting traditions concerning the ends of the earth's surface reflect the fact that little was actually known about distant areas during antiquity. In the words of the author of The Shamash Hymn, knowledge of the far reaches of the earth's surface was not one of the privileges of mankind, but the prerogative of Shamash, who moved daily over the entire expanse of the earth's surface:

15

Note also parallel passages in Cohen Ersemma 57:5-8; Cohen Balag 247:19-27;

A. Sj0berg, JCS 34 76:28'.

335

The Geography of Earth

The Apsu

ra1-na sid-di sa la i-di ne-su-ti u bi-ri la ma-n[u-ti] dsamas dal-pa-ta sa ur-ra tal-li-ka u mu-sa ta-sab-r[a] BWL 128:43-44

the Apsu (see l 17). In Old Babylonian Atra-bas'is, Ea descends to the Apsu from the earths surface when Anu ascends to heaven, and Enlil remains on the earth's surface (Lambert-Millard Atra-basls 42:17-18; see p. 113). In Gilg. XI 41-42, UtnapiStim tells his fellow citizens of Uruk that he is building his ark because he must abandon the qaqqar denlil 'earth of Enlil' (earth's surface) and descend to join Ea in the Apsu. N? Sumerian text preserves an account of the creation of the Apsu or the ~ep~ratlOn of the Apsu from heaven and earth in early times. This apparently ~ndlCates th~t. the Sumerians conceived the Apsu to be a primordial element, Just as the dlvme Apsu exists at the very start of Enuma Elish. In Enki and Nin~ab, for exa~pl~, the Apslt alre~dy exists in EN 12-14, where Enki is present m engur.buru the deep Apsu, although the Apsu is not mentioned when heaven and earth are separated in EN 1-2 (see p. 138),17 In Ee I, the deified Apsu is one of two primordial elements the other being the deified sea (Tiamat). The cosmic Apsu is formed from th~ corpse of the deposed god Apsu and remains intact throughout the epic. In contrast, Tiamat is butchered into a number of cosmic features. The incantation When Anu Built the Heavens disagrees. Here Ea builds the Apsu just as Anu builds his region:

334

To distant stretches which are not known and uncounted leagues, Shamash you work ceaselessly going by day and returning by night. The Shape of the Level of the Earth's Surface

All of the available evidence demonstrates that the earth's surface was thought to be basically circular in shape. The geographic terms kippat matiiti 'circle of the lands', kippat erf}eti 'circle of earth', kippat tubuqat erbetti 'circle of the four corners', kippat sar erbetti 'circle of the four winds', and kippat erbetti 'circle of the four (regions), (see CAD K 399 3), if understood literally, demonstrate that the earth's surface was a circle. Similarly, the author of the World Map drew the level of the earth's surface as two concentric circles, with nagu radiating from the outer circle. On BagM Beih. 2 98, the names of the south wind and west wind are inscribed by triangles inside a square that is itself drawn inside a circle. This square apparently corresponds to the geographic concept of 'The Four Corners' or 'The Four Regions' (see p. 204). Thus, the placement of the square inside a circle in BagM Beih. 298 may illustrate that 'The Four CornerslRegions' were thought to be located inside a circle defining the borders of the earth's surface, or earth's surface and sea. The Size of the Level of the Earth's Surface

No ancient text measures the dimensions of the earth's surface. However modern calculations based on distances between ziqpu-stars in the astronomical text AO 6478 indicate that the level of the earth's surface could have a diameter of 218,400 leagues in this text (see p. 187). This figure, though, is incredibly large when compared with the size of lands in Sargon Geography 33-40 and the scale of the World Map.

The Apsu In KAR 307, the Apsu 16 is the middle earth, is located between the earth's surface and the underworld, and belongs to Ea. The Apsu also lies beneath the earth's surface and belongs to EnkilEa in the cosmographies of Enuma Elish, Atra-bas'is, and The Gilgamesh Epic. In Ee IV 137-46, Marduk assigns the Apsu to Ea. Later in Ee V 119-22, Marduk indicates that the city of Babylon on the earth's surface is to be located above the Apsu. The mystical-religous work Livingstone 116:2 (= SAA 3 96:8-9) also relates that Marduk sent Ea down to 16

For a previous study of Apsu and related topics, see Green Eridu 160-69.

When Anu built the heavens; Nudimmud built the Apsu, his home Ea in the Apsu pinched off clary]. Weissbach Bab. Misc. no. 12:24-26 + duplicates (see pp. 149-50) In both Sumerian and Akkadian texts, the Apsu is identified as a watery region rather than a solid earth. In numerous instances the Apsu is inhabited by fish (CAD A/2 194 b), and Ea establishes his home over the cosmic Apsu amidst the waters of the slain god Apsu in Ee I 61-78. The Apsu in Sumerian and Akkadian Texts

Mesopotamian texts preserve a number of different views of the Apsu. The Apsu is both a cosmic region on a par with the heavens, earth's surface, and underworld, while the waters of the Apsu occur as the waters of the water table just beneath the earth's surface, waters in marshes and swamps, waters in rivers, waters in the sea, and distant cosmic waters. On a few other occasions the Apsu even seems to be confused with the underworld. In order to unders~and the overall Mesopotamian conception of the Apsu, these various aspects must first be examined separately.

17 The Apsu may also exist as a primordial element before the separation of heav:n ar:d earth in Gilgamesh and the ljuluppu-Tree and NBC 11108 (see p. 139). Note also III thIS context the learned association: ullanu = dea = mu 'primordial = Ea = waters' (see Livingstone 74).

336

The Apsu

The Geography of Earth

The Apsu as a Cosmic Region The tradition of the Apsu as an independent cosmic region is better attested in Akkadian texts than in Sumerian' texts. The Apsu is one of the six regions that comprise the universe in KAR 307, one of at least four regions in Enuma Elish, and Ea receives the Apsu as his cosmic realm at the same time that Anu and Enlil occupy the heavens and earth's surface in Old Babylonian Atra-!:Jas'iS (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 42:11-18).ls In contrast, the Apsu is not considered when cosmic regions are assigned to their leading gods in the cosmological prologues to the Sumerian literary works Gilgamesh and the ljuluppu-Tree, Enki and Ninma!:J, and The Creation of the Pickaxe, or the prologue to the bilingual work KAR 4. Nevertheless, there is ample evidence for the Apsu as a cosmic region in Sumerian literature. The Sumerian hymn STLN 61 i 12-16 lists engur 'Apsu' alongside an and ki 'heaven and earth' (see p. 309); Enki is said to lie in the engur.buru 'deep Apsu' in EN 13; and Apsu and heaven occur in parallelisms in Curse of Agade 72-75 (see p. 247) and Lugalb. 78-79, where the anzu-bird and his wife look for their missing fledgling in heaven above and engur below.

The Apsu, Waters of the Water Table, Marshes, and Swamps A number of passages indicate that the waters of the Apsu include the waters of the water table. At higher elevations, these waters are not visible. Here, the Apsu is reached by digging downward. At lower elevations these same waters are visible on the earth's surface as the waters in marshes and swamps.

The Apsu and Ground Waters Most examples where the Apsu is associated with ground waters come from southern Mesopotamia, where the water table is very close to the earth's surface. These include a number of passages where the foundations of temples reach down to Apsu, including Enki's Journey 21-22: Temple, built of silver and lapiS, whose foundation is fastened on the Apsu. Enki's Journey to Nippur 21-22 (see p. 309) Parallels in first-millennium Babylonia include the Sargon II inscription, where a quay wall in Babylon is placed in anzanunzu (RIM Annual Review 5 2-3 no. 3), and passages in Late Babylonian royal inscriptions such as VAB 4 86 ii 18-19 (see p. 312 for both), where foundations are placed by Apsu. In Assyria, where ground waters are farther from the earth's surface, the only attested ex18 Note also Neo-Assyrian Anzu, where ap~u occurs with er$etu 'earth', arallu 'underworld', and tamtu 'sea' (M. Vogelzang, Bin Sar Dadme: Edition and AnalYSis of the Akkadian Anzu Poem, 121:29'-32'), and Erra I 183-85, where apsu occurs between samu 'heaven' and KURND.CI 4.A 'underworld'.

337

ample of foundations resting on the Apsu dates to the reign of Esarhaddon, a time of close cultural ties between Assyria and Babylon.

sa-qa-a re-sa-a-su sa-ma-mi en-du sap-la-nu i-na apsi su-te-lu!-pu sur-su-su KAH 127 vi 5'-10' (Borger Esarh. 5 vi 20-23) above, its top (Ebursaggula's) 19 reaches to heaven; below, its foundations are entwined in the Apsu. The connection between the Apsu and subsurface waters is also illustrated by passages where bitumen is said to come from the Apsu. In Mesopotamia, bitumen bubbles up to the surface from subterranean sources. One such font of bitumen near modern Hit is described both in the annals of TukultiNinurta II (Scheil TN 16:59-60) and by Herodotus: 2o There is another city which is eight days journey from Babylon named Is. Here there is a river that is not large and Is is also the name of this river, and the river empties in the Euphrates. From the springs of the river Is, great clods of bitumen rise along with the water. Herodotus I 179

In Mesopotamian sources, both crude bitumen (itf;u) and fine bitumen (kupru) rise up from the nagbu 'underground waters' in The Underworld Vision of An Akkadian Crown Prince (SAA 3 69:9), and bitumen is said to come from abzu in Shulgi D 357-358 (Klein Sulgi 86), and Nanna-Suen's Journey to Nippur:21 fgisma.gurs.ral a.esir.bi abzu.se das.im. bab bar.re 1u im.si.in.gi4 .gi4 Nanna-Suen's Journey to Nippur 47:41-42 (cf. 49:61-62) (For) the makurru-boat's pitch, to the Apsu, Asimbabbar dispatched a man. Similarly, clay, which is found just below the surface in almost all of Mesopotamia, is also said to come from the Apsu in texts such as Ninurta and the Turtle OCS 24121:36), Curse of Agade 231, and the incantations STT 198:1-2, CT 17 29:30-31, and When Anu Built the Heavens (Weissbach Bab. Misc. no. 1224-26 + duplicates; see p. 149). In EN 31 and 58, clay found over the Apsu is used in the creation of mankind.

The Apsu, Marshes, and Swamps Apsu waters belonging to the water table are visible on the earth's surface in marshes and swamps. Reeds from marshes are said to grow in the Apsu in For this temple at Assur, see George Temples 101. For a photograph of the bitumen fonts at Hit, see Das Vorderasiatische Museum Berlin (1992) p. 32. 21 For the Apsu in similar contexts, see also Green Eridu 168-74. 19

20

338

The Geography of Earth

The Apsu

Corpus Urn. 49:1-2 and STT 198:21, 34. 22 In a Sumerian hymn to Enlil, fish belonging to engur are placed in a canebrake: ku 6 .engur.ra.ke4 giS.gi.a nunuz nu.mu.ni.ib.nu.nu Reisman Two-Hymns 54:118 The fish of the Apsu would not lay eggs in the canebrake. In parallel Akkadian passages, fish belonging to apsu inhabit the marshes along the Euphrates near Babylon (Borger Esarh. 14 7c), and apsu-fish from marshes are presented as offerings in the inscriptions of Nebuchanezzar (see CAD I 318 izlJU).23 The Apsu and River Waters There is evidence associating the Apsu with both cosmic rivers and real rivers on the earth's surface. In An Address to the River of Creation, Ea is said to build his home in the cosmic river instead of the Apsu:

EN at-ta ID ba-na-a-tu[m] ka-la-mu e-nu-ma ilJ-ru-ki iltlnumes rabutu mes ina a-lJi-ka is-ku-nu dum-qi ina qer-bi-ka dea(idim) sar apsi ib-na-a su-bat-su STC I 200:1-4 24 Incantation: You, River, creatress of everything. When the Great Gods dug you, they placed good things on your banks. Within you, Ea, the King of the Apsu, built his home. In a later part of another version of the incantation, the river is asked to remove evil from a supplicant by taking it down to the river's apsu:

zi did! ama.en.gu.ra.ke 4 [b] e PBS I12 112:30 (ArOr 21 395:30) Be exorcised by the River-goddess, the mother of the Apsu. In the Akkadian incantation The 21 Poultices, the Apsu is itself a cosmic river or contains a river. At the start of the text, Ea is located by a river named ide.silim.ma mus.bus nunuz ur4 .ur4 .a.de 'House of Peace where the muslJussu Gathers "Eggs"'.25 Nabu then visits Ea in this river in order to take the 21 poultices up to the earth's surface (elatu). Later, we are told that the poultices in the river were inside the Apsu: [2]1 meli(a.ugu) sa pi(ka) de-a [dnabu] ul-tu ide.silim.ma mus.bus nunuz ur 4 .ur4 .a.de [u]l-tu qe-reb apsi u-se~eL-la LKA 146 rev. 16-18 II AnSt 3080 BM 33999 rev. 12-14 (w. G. Lambert, AnSt 3079-80) [2]1 poultices composed by Ea. [Nabu] brought them up from the river "House of Peace where the muslJussu Gathers 'Eggs' ", from the midst of the Apsu. A parallel with a river on the earth's surface is found in Old Babylonian Atra-lJasis where Atra-basls addresses Ea in the Apsu while standing on the banks of a river: 26 is-tu-ma i[s- ... pu-ti-is na-ri [ .. . i-na kiHb-ri x [ .. . a-na ap-si-i u-[rid-di zi-kar-su?]

[es-re-e-t]a ID su-ri-di apsu-ki ID lemnu(bul) sa-a-su ia-a-si u bitia(e.mu) La i-qar-ru-bu R. Caplice, OrNs 39135:24 (cf. STC I 201:11-12)

is-me-e-ma dEN.K[I a-wa-as-su] a-na la-alJ-mi u-[ ... Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 78 iii 25-30

[You are strai]ght 0 river. Take it down to your apsu o river. May that evil not approach me or my house.

After he [ ... Facing the river [ ...

In this passage, the depths of the river seem to be called apsu. A related zi.pa formula preserves a tradition that the Divine River is the mother of Apsu:

339

At the bank. [ ... To the Apsu went [down his speech.] When Ea heard [ his words,] He ... to the Labmu.

22 For Corpus Urn. 49 1-2, see T. Jacobsen, Or 54 65-72; J. Cooper, SARI 1 32-33. 23 Note also MSL 3 217:6'-7' (ap.ar = apsil, sug = ap-a-[rum]). Sumerian ap.ar is apparently a loanword back into Sumerian from Akkadian apparu 'marsh' or a phonetic writing for *abbarlambar. See also CAD A/2 194 1.b'. 24 For this incantation, see also STC I 201; Caplice OrNs 34 127, 130-31; Or 364, 290. For Divine Rivers, see also CAD Nil 374 1.

25 For the 'eggs' identified as precious stones, see W. G. Lambert, AnSt 30 82-83. Note also the god name dfd.si.limasilim in An II (CT 24 16:25). 26 Compare the following passage in The Destruction of Lagas: abzu e.ga.ka su bi. ti5 '(The Ummaite) laid hands on the abzu of the ditch' (Sollberger Corpus Ukg. 16 iii 11-12). For eg = E = iku (see Ea III 236, MSL 14313).

340

The Geography of Earth

The Apsu and the Sea The relationship between the Apsu and the sea on the earth's surface is not completely clear. Many passages in Akkadian texts suggest that the two were identical in some way, physically connected, or that the deep part of the ocean was called apsu. The closest association between the Apsu and the Sea may be found in Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk, where the continental portion of the earth's surface is placed on a raft above the waters of a cosmic sea (tamtu), rather than the Apsu (see pp. 130-31). A parallel may be found in an old copy of a curse in an inscription of the Lullubean king Annubanini: ti-am-ti e-li-tum u sa-pil-tum sa apsi a-bi-[su] u

341

The Apsu

su-~a-[su

lil-qu-tu] MDP 2 68 ii 12-18

Let the Upper and Lower Seas of the Apsu, his father and [his] offspring, [cut off]. Here, the Upper and Lower Seas appear to be part of the Apsu. More recent editions of this inscription no longer confirm the presence of the word apsu in this context (see D. Edzard, AfO 24 74 ii 12-18, RIM 470:5). Other passages identify the Apsu with the Sea. Twice in the The Shamash Hymn, apsu is either a name for the sea or the deep part of the sea. In Shamash Hymn 35-38, the rays of the Sun-god passing over the sea penetrate into apsu, where the lal:Jmu of the sea reside (BWL 128). In other texts, lal:Jmu are usually associated with EnkilEa and the Apsu. Later in Shamash Hymn 171-73, the riches/locust of the sea are said to be in Apsu, and the lal:Jmu are once again in the tamtu: 27 dlal:J-mu s[u-u]t tam]ti sa ma-lu-u pu-lul:J-ta e-ri-ib ta[m]ti sa apsa i-ba-J-u mi-Sir-ti nari sa ir-te-du-u dsamas ina mah-f ri1-ka BWL 136:171-73 The lal:Jmu o[f the se]a who are filled with fearsomeness, the riches of the sea/locust of the sea (shellfish) which passes through the Apsu, the produce of the river which moves, 0 Shamash, before you. A parallel is found in Shamash Hymn 65-70, where mariners who are about to sink into anzanunzu from the sea surface need to be lifted up by Shamash (BWL 130; see p. 311). Ea himself sees the face of the Sun shining into Apsu in a short hymn to Shamash:

Apsu may also be found in the depths of the ocean in Gilg. XI, where Gilgamesh descends to the Apsu in search of the plant "Man becomes Young in Old Age":

271. 272. 273. 274. 275. 276.

When Gilgamesh heard this, he opened the walter-pipe] He tied heavy stoners onto his feet] They dragged him to the Aps[u ... He took the plant and it pr[icked his hands.] He untied the heavy stoners on his feet] The sea deposited him on its shore. Thompson Gilg. XI 271-76 /1 CT 46 35 (see p. 105)

In this passage, Apsu may be the deep part of the sea, as in The Shamash Hymn, since Gilgamesh dives down into the sea, is dragged by the stones to the Apsu, and then returns to the seashore. A physical link between the Apsu and sea is also implied in the annals of Sennacherib, where the king presents offerings to Ea at the shore of the Persian Gulf (OIP 274:78-75:80).28 The Sumerian epic Enki and the World Order also preseves an association between the Apsu (engur) and the sea in a broken passage enumerating the duties of Nanse: a.gi 6 .uru 16 .gal.la engur. [raj .ke4 i.zi.bu.lub.ba kur.ku ab.ba [ ... ] x [0"] zi.pa.ag.ta e.[a ... ] x in.nin.slrar[aki ama dnan]se a.ab.ba kionl.d[agal].la.ba den .ki.ke4 za.ba nam.mi.in.sa4

EWO 302-7

The one who is the great high wave of the Apsu, the fearsome wave, flood [which? ..... ] the sea, who, at the roar, comes out [ ... 0] . ,29 the Lady of Sirar[a, Mother Nan]se, Enki charged her with the sea, whose expanse is vast. The Apsu and Deep Cosmic Waters Three passages confirm that the Apsu included a deep region of waters far below the water table. In a bilingual fragment, the interior of the Apsu is said to be distant:

de-a da-a-a-in de-e-ni qe-reb apsi i-na-sal pa-nu-uk-ka E. Ebeling, MVAG 23/125:9 Ea, the judge who gives judgements, sees your face inside the Apsu. For Shamash Hymn 171-73, see W. Horowitz and S. Paul, NABU 1995 ll-12 no. 15. Cf. above, Lambert-Millard, Atra-basis 78 iii 25-30, and p. 308 here. 27

28 Compare the epithet of Ea in OIP 2 81:28-29 as quoted in CAD Nil 1092': bel nagbl kuppl u ta-ma!-a!-ti 'Lord of springs, fountains, and seas'. 29 The word zi.pa.ag is taken as a variant writing for za.pa.ag = rigmu.

The Geography of Earth

The Apsu

· .. sa.abz] u.su.ud.ni.gim dingir.na.me nU.m u.un.pa.da.e.de ... ] sa ki-ma qti-reb ap-si-i ru-u-qu ilu ma-am-man la ut-tu-u BA 5 646:5-6

EnkilEa is also associated with the underworld river lJubur in Farber IStar und Dumuzi 137:179-82 (see p. 354) and perhaps also in a broken passage in The Shamash Hymn, where the Sun-god renders verdicts at the underworld lJubur River five lines after descending into the Apsu:

342

· .. ] which like the interior of the distant Apsu no god can discover. A unilingual Sumerian parallel is found in a hymn to Inanna: dim.ma.zu abzu sud.ni.am igi.bar.re nu.um.zu A. Falkenstein, ZA 52 59:6· Your form is like the distant Apsu, the viewer cannot comprehend it. Further evidence for a deep part of the Apsu is found in a broken portion of Utukku Lemnutu X:30 · .. ] x x

[s]ap-la-a-ti

sa ap-si-[i a-na-ku] CT 16 17:2'

0. Prosecky, ArOr 43 247:20)

[ I am ... ] .. the depths of the Apsu.

343

[ul ib-si sa] ur-ra-du ina apsi ba-li-ka [.... $]e-e-ni u za-ma-ne-e tu-sa-pi di-in-su-u[nJ

ax [ .................. J i-re-eL~-l;i-su-ma sit-ta x x x [ ........ ] tu-tar-ra $al-pa sa la-mu-u [ .......... J tu-sel-li ina l;u-bur sa di-na ti-i$-bu-tu x [ ..... J BWL 128:57-62 [There is none who] descend into Apsu except you, [For the ... , wJicked and rebellious you make clear their judgment. .. [ .................. J

He pours out sleep on him/it ... [ ........ ]

The Apsu and the Underworld Although no text explicitly places dead human beings in the Apsu, there is evidence that the Apsu and underworld were either confused with one another or that the Apsu itself was thought to be a netherworld inhabited by malevolent spirits. The clearest example of such confusion is found in The Incantation of Eridu in Utukku-Lemnutu XII, where EnkilEa resides in ganzer, a name for the underworld or gate to the underworld: EN

eridu ki

giS.kin ki.sikil.la mu.a ina eri4-du lO giskiskanu ina as-ri el-lim ib-ba-ni

mus.bi na4za.gln.duru5 abzu.ta la.a zi-mu-su na4uqni elli(ku) ina ap-si-i tar-$u den .kLke4 ki.lalh be.gal Bu,ta.am sa d e-a a-lak-ta-su l;egalla ma-la-at ki.tus.an.na ki.ganzer.am mu-sab-su a-sar er-$e-tim-ma S. Geller, Iraq 42 28:2-9 Incantation: In Eridu a kiskanu-tree was created in a pure place. It's appearance is gleaming lapis-lazuli, stretching forth at the Apsu. The way of Enki is full of abundance. His abode is the place of the underworld.

30

For further parallels, see Green Eridu 166-67; M. Civil, Aula Orientalis 5/1 20.

You return the crook who is surrounded [ .......... ] You raise up the one caught in a lawsuit from the lJubur . [ ..... J Further difficulties arise in texts that place underworld deities and demons in Apsu. In the god-list An = Anum, the deity dlugal.gal.abzu 'Great King of Apsu' is listed as a name of the underworld king Nergal (see RIA 7 138), while the Anunnaki reside in in Apsu instead of the underworld in The Erra Epic. 31

a-na same e el-li-ma a-na di-gz-gz a-nam-din ur-ta [ur-rJad a-na apsi da-nun-na-ki u-paq-qad gal-le-e sam-ru-ti ana KURNU.GI 4.A a-tar-rad Cagni Erra 78:183-85 I will go up to heaven and give instructions to the Igigi. [I will desJcend to the Apsu, direct the Anunnaki. I will send the wild gallu-demons to the "Earth of No Return." Seven demons live in the nagab apsi 'spring of the Apsu' in parallel incantations in CT 16 15 v 30-36 and 1713:14 (see p. 346), and a disease causing convulsions (buru 5 = dimitu) comes up from the Apsu in Surpu 36:1-2. In Ludlul II 52-53, a "ghost" may even reside in the Apsu:

[uJl-te i-rat er$etimtim i-si-l;a #-co-i rsu-u1-lu lem-nu it-ta-$a-a ap-su-us-su Ludlul II 52-53 (BWL 40; cf. BWL 53:5-6)

31 For a parallel in a cultic context where Marduk casts a spell against Enlil and consigns him to the Anunnaki, see SAA 3 93:3-4. Cf. SAA 3 94:32'-34'.

344

The Geography of Earth [Frjom the surface of the underworld headache sprung up. An evil sulu came forth from the Apsu.

In the commentary to Ludlul, sulu is explained as etimmu 'ghost' (BWL 40). In Akkadian texts, etimmu are normally the ghosts of dead human beings, so the arrival of an etimmu from Apsu would indicate that some human ghosts resided in Apsu instead of the underworld, or that the Apsu was a/the underworld. However, it is possible that the commentary has misidentified sulu. Malku IV explains that sulu can mean saJalu 'cough' (see CAD S 1 saJalu lexical section). If so, a disease demon, rather than a departed human spirit, may exit from the Apsu in Ludlul. The apparent confusion or overlap between the Apsu and the underworld is probably based on empirical observation. It is logical to place both the Apsu and the underworld directly beneath the earth's surface. When one digs a well, one reaches the waters of Apsu without passing through the underworld, but graves of the dead are located above the groundwaters. 32 Underworld rivers, such as Mesopotamian ijubur or Greek Styx, which souls must cross on their way to the underworld, probably represent the waters of the water table between graves and the realm of the dead further below.

The Geography of the Apsu The various aspects of Apsu share a number of common elements. The Apsu is always filled with waters, the Apsu is always lower than the earth's surface, and waters identified with Apsu are found below the surface of rivers, seas, and other bodies of water. For example, groundwaters in the Apsu are located beneath the earth's surface, and Apsu waters in marshes, swamps, seas, and rivers are lower than the banks of these bodies of water. These common elements suggest that the Apsu can be thought of as a cosmic subterranean lake that maintains a constant surface level. If so, it would be logical for the Apsu to form groundwaters below the earth's crust, where'the earth's surface is higher than the Apsu, but also possible for Apsu waters to seep into marshes, swamps, rivers, and the ocean, when the earth's crust dips below the level of the Apsu. Other deeper portions of the Apsu, of course, could be located beneath the hard floors of these bodies of water, just as groundwaters flow below the courses of rivers and canals. Nonetheless, it is clear that there were many different conflicting views of the Apsu in antiquity, and a few authors apparently ignore the existence of the Apsu altogether. For instance, Inanna and IStar reach the underworld in lnanna's Descent and The Descent of IStar without ever crossing the Apsu, and the lands float on a raft above the waters of the tamtu 'sea', instead of the Apsu, in The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk

For the Apsu mentioned in the context of excavating a grave in a broken context in Adapa and Enmerkar, see Picchioni Adapa 106:20. 32

The Apsu

345

The Top of the Apsu In Old Babylonian Atra-l;asis and Gilg. XI, the flood heroes Atra-basis and Utnapistim are commanded to roof their arks like the Apsu:

[kji-ma ap-si-i su-a-ti $u-ul-li-il-si a-ia+mu-ur dsamas qe-re-eb-sa lu-u su-ul-la-at e-li-is it sap-li-is Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 88:29-31 (CT 46 pI. 13) Roof it over like the Apsu. Do not let the Sun look inside it. Let it be roofed at the front and the back. 33

[lju-u mit-bur ru-pu-us-sa it mu-rak-sa [kji-ma apsf sa-a-si $u-ul-liHi Thompson Gilg. XI 30-31 Let its width and length be equal. Roof it over like the Apsu.

If the roofed Apsu refers to the cosmic Apsu, then the earth's crust can be identified as Apsu's roof. Another reference to the roof of the Apsu may be found in fire incantations:

de-a ina te-e-ka ib-ba-ni a-me-lu-tu tus-tas-ni-ma i-na as-rat ap-si-i titta (i m) -si-na tak-ri-i$ W. G. Lambert, AfO 23 43:25-26 Ea, by your spell mankind was created. You continued, pinched their clay from the hard surface of Apsu. In this context, asrat can be understood as the construct state of the noun asartu 'hard ground', and asrat apsi may be the earth's surface over the Apsu.

The Floor of the Apsu The only direct evidence for the floor of the Apsu is found in KAR 307, where the Apsu has a dannatu 'hard surface', just as the three heavens have stone floors, and the dannatu of the upper earth is the solid earth's surface where mankind dwells. In this context, the dannatu of Apsu must be the 'seafloor' of the Apsu and must separate the Apsu from the underworld.

33 For this understanding of elis and saplis, see A. Shaffer, RA 75 188-89. Note also abzu.sa.dur.ra, perhaps 'the "rear part" (bottom) of Apsu', in Shulgi G (J. Klein, Fest. Tadmor 302:12, 307 n. 12).

The Apsu

The Geography of Earth

346

The Sides of the Apsu In a bilingual incantation, EnkilEa tells his son Marduk that seven demons from the underworld, who wreak havoc on the earth's surface, once came to the sides of the Apsu: 7.bi kur.ta ba.bulug.ga.a.mes si-bit-ti-su-nu ina er-$e-ti ir-bu-u da.da <e>.engur.ra.ke4 zukum.e ba.an.na.te.es i-da-at ap-si-i a-na ka-ba-su it-l:J,u-u~ni CT 1645:134-37 The seven of them grew up in the underworld. They came near me to tread at the sides of Apsu. This passage suggests that the demons passed the edge of the Apsu when they traveled from the underworld to the earth's surface. Thus it may have been possible to travel directly from the underworld to higher regions of the universe by passing outside the borders of ApSU. 84

347

Apsu, mountain built on princely mes, in a pure place. [ ... ] Great Marsh, extending over the 'snake'-marsh, Eridu, shrine [ .... ]86

The Depth of the Apsu No figure is ever provided for the depth of the Apsu or the distance between the earth's surface and the underworld via the Apsu. Indirect evidence for this distance, however, may be found in the fragment CT 46 55 (see pp. 178-79), which states that er$etu is 1,432,000 leagues from asurrakku. If er$etu in this context is the earth's surface and asurrakku is here a name for the cosmic Apsu rather than the asurrakku of stars (see p. 179), then the distance from the earth's surface to the Apsu may be 1,432,000 leagues. However, the distance 1,432,000 leagues need not represent a straight line drawn from the earth's surface downward, and it is not possible to determine which point on earth and which part of the Apsu might be 1,432,000 leagues apart. 37

The Gate of the Apsu in Ee V In Ee V 73-76, Marduk places representations of the 11 creatures of Tiamat at the Gate of the Apsu as a reminder of his victory for future generations:

The Interior of the Apsu There is almost no evidence concerning the interior of the Apsu. One might assume that the Apsu was completely filled with water, since the upper surface of the Apsu, in some contexts, is identified with ground waters. However, this hypothesis cannot be proved. Two features of the interior of the Apsu are known: the cella of EnkilEa and the 'spring of the Apsu' (idim.abzu = nagab apsi), which presumably supplied the Apsu with a never-ending source of waters. Seven demons inhabit the 'spring of the Apsu' in CT 17 13:14 and Utukku Lemnutu V (CT 16 15 v 30-36; see p. 315). In the latter passage, the cella of the Apsu is located at this site: 85 idim.abzu.ta agrun.ta e.a.mes ina na-gab ap-si-i ina ku-um-me ir-bu-u su-nu CT 16 15 v 34-36 At the 'spring of the Apsu', in the cella, they grew up. In Ee I 71-72, however, the cella of Ea is place eli apsi 'on Apsu'. Here Ea's cella may be located on the upper surface of the Apsu, just as Ea's cella in Eengurra is located above the marshes of Eridu in a hymn to Enki: abzu kur me.nun.na du.a ki.sikil.la x [ ... ] sug.gal sug.mus la.a eriduki es [ .... ] A. Sj0berg, JCS 29 30 A obv. ii 7-8 34 Cf. Nergal and Ereskigal, where "The Stairway of Heaven" leads from the Heaven of Anu to the underworld, bypassing the earth's surface and Apsu (see p. 66). 35 See also F. Wiggermann, Natural Phenomena 295d.

[ill riSl-ten eS-ret nab-nit-sa [kak-k]i-su-un il:J,-te-pa-a

sa ti-amat ib-nu-u u-[x-x] i-sir se-pu-us-su

ib-ni-ma $al-mi-[su-nu [al:J,]-ra-tas la im-ma-sa J a

bab] ap-si-i u-sa-a$-[bit] si l-i lu it-tu Ee V 73-76

And the eleven creatures which Tiamat bore. [ .. ] Their [weapo]ns he broke and bound them at his feet. He made images [of them] and placed them at the [Gate] of Apsu (saying) "[So] that this will not be forgotten in the future, let it be a sign." The images of the eleven creatures of Tiamat here at 'The Gate of Apsu' allude to the images of fantastic beings that decorated the Esagil at Babylon, which housed an Apsu-shrine. 38 Here in Ee V 73-76, one could argue that the 'Gate of Apsu' is a cosmic gate, since Esagil and Babylon are not built until Ee VI. Cf. AHw 1115 [sug].mu[s] = $U$U 'canebrake, swamp'. A second referepce to the depth of Apsu may be found in an obscure passage of the Amarna version of Sar TamlJari in the description of mountains on the way to Bursahanda: um-muq! 7 ZU?.AB bi-ra-su 'Its ... is 7 Apsus? deep?' (VS 12 193:29). Here ummuq might be construed as a nil stative from the root emequ with a western meaning 'to be deep', as in the standard Hebrew word for valley P1.):l) (Cemeq ). Thus the passage may explain that the height of the mountain peaks over the valley bottoms was seven times greater than the depth of the Apsu. 38 For the Apsu shrine of Esagil, see CAD A/2 196-97 c and George 300-303. For the Esagil and fantastic creatures, see p. 108. 36

37

The Underworld

The Geography of Earth

348

The Underworld The underworld is the lowest region of the universe, the home of underworld deities such as Nergal and EreSkigal, and the final resting place of deceased humans. In KAR 307, the underworld is identified as the lowest of three earths, and 600 Anunnaki are shut inside. No text other than KAR 307 can confirm that the underworld was located below the Apsu, since only KAR 307 considers the relative locations of the the underworld, Apsu, and earth's surface together. Nonetheless, many texts do demonstrate that the underworld was lower than the earth's surface. For example, Ludlul II 46-47 states that people worry about descending to the underworld during times of distress: 39

ina ta-a-bi i-ta-ma-a i-li sd-ma-Ji u-tas-sd-sd-ma i-dab-bu-ba a-rad ir-kal-la BWL 40:46-47 In good times people speak of going up to heaven. Whey they become worried they mutter about going down to the underworld. In contrast, no one is ever said to ascend to the underworld, and there is no evidence for any cosmic feature below the underworld.

The Creation of the Underworld Very little information concerning the early history of the underworld has survived. The only known reference to the actual building of the underworld may be found in a short passage in Lugale where Ninurta builds urugal = qabrum from stone: [u4].da.ta a.sag nam.ba.sa na4 mu.he he. [em] [ a-a iq-qa]-bi ab-nu lu sum-su na4 na4zalag mu.bi he.em na4 mu.bi he.em a[b-n]i [za-la-qu lu-u] sum-su ab-nu lu-u sum(m u)-su ur5.ra.am bar.bi urugal he.em su-u z[u-mur-su] lu sa qab-rim Lugale 327-29 (Sumerian from Sumerian version) [From now] on it will not be called asakku, stone will be its name. Zalaqu-stone will be its name, stone will be its name. Its body will be the underworld (Akk.: of the grave). If urugal = qabru is taken as a name for the underworld, rather than a simple noun meaning 'grave', Lugale reveals that the underworld was fash39 For additional examples of descent from the earth's surface to the underworld, note Sladek ID 226:4-10 (Dumuzi and Gestinanna); LKA 154 rev. 11-13; Ebeling Handerhebung 24:22; Oppenheim Dreams 327:71-328:85; Underworld Vision 28 (SM 370).

349

ioned from the stone corpse of the asakku-demon. 4o This tradition can be compared to Ee IV 147-56, where Marduk fashions the heavens from the watery corpse of Tiamat. The Sumerian epic Gilgamesh and the IJuluppu-Tree offers a second tradition. In CHT 8-13, the daughter of Enlil, Ereskigal, receives the underworld (kur) as a gift, after heaven (an) and earth (ki) are carried away by Anu and Enlil and mankind is created (see p. 135). Here the underworld is apparently a part of earth (k i) that is assigned to Ereskigal.

The Geography of the Underworld Despite the numerous references to the underworld and the large number of names for the region (see chapter 12), little is known about the geography or interior of the underworld. Most of the available information concerns the approaches to the underworld, including a road that leads to the underworld, a river that flows at the entrance to the underworld, and the gates that lead into the underworld.

The Interior of the Underworld Descriptions of the interior of the underworld and its inhabitants are found in a few literary texts. One nearly identical description is repeated in Cilg. VII, Nergal and EreSkigal, and The Descent of !Star, where the description is best preserved:

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

a-na bit e-te-e su-bat dir-[kal-la] a-na bit sa e-re-bu-su la a-$u-[u] a-na har-ra-ni sa a-lak-ta-sd la ta-a-a-[rat] a-na biti sa e-re-bu-su zu-um-mu-u nu-[u-ra] a-sar epru(sahar)ll'i bu-bu-us-su-nu a-kal-Su-nu ti-i[t-ta] nu-u-ru ul im-ma-ru ina e-tu-ti ds-[bu-u] lab-su-ma k'ima i$-$u-ri $u-bat kap-[pi-i] eli gisdalti u gissikkuri(sag.gul) sd-pu-ul; ep-ru Descent of IStar 4-11 (CT 1545) (cf. Cilg. VII iv 34-39; STT 28 iii 1-8, AnSt 10 114)

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

to the House of Darkness, the abode of Ir[kalla,] to the house which no one who enters can leav[e,] to the road whose journey has no ret [urn,] to the house where one who enters is deprived of li[ght,] where dust is their sustenance, their food is cl[ay.] They see no light, in darkness they dw[ell,] clothed like birds with a garb of feat[hers.] Over the door and bolt dust lies.

40 For "captive gods" in urugal = qabrum, see W. Schramm, Or. 39 405:1-3 (see p.294). For a parallel to Lugale 327-29, see W. G. Lambert, JNES 48 216-18. For a different interpretation of these lines, see W. Heimpel, JNES 46 310; Jacobsen Harps 251, Sachs Mem. VoL 230-31.

The Geography of Earth

The Underworld

In The Descent of IStar and Nergal and Ereskigal, the narrator provides the descriptions of the underworld, but in Gilg. VII, Enkidu describes the underworld after a nightmare in which he sees residents of the underworld, including Etana and Ereskigal (Gilg. VII iv 48-51).41 Three other literary works offer accounts of conditions inside the underworld. In The Death of Ur-Nammu (S. N. Kramer, JCS 21 104-22), the ghost of Ur-Nammu pays courtesy calls to the underworld palaces (e.gal) of various underworld gods, including Nergal, EreSkigal, and Dumuzi, soon after his death. In Gilgamesh and the ljuluppu-Tree and the parallel portion of Gilg. XII, Enkidu describes the ultimate fates of various categories of humans in the underworld (Shaffer Sumerian Sources pp. 86-95). Many of the underworld gods themselves are described in The Underworld Vision of an Akkadian Crown Prince (SM 3 68-76). For instance, the gatekeeper Bidu is said to have the head of a lion, human hands, and feet of a bird (SM 372:7).42

In the Sultantepe and late versions of Nergal and Erdkigal, Ereskigal holds court in an underworld courtyard (kisallu) (STT 28 vi 29; SpTU I 1 iv 3). In the Amarna version, Ereskigal sits in a temple/house:

350

Features of the Interior of the Underworld Almost all known features of the underworld are architectural rather than topographical. In The Death of Ur-Nammu, the deceased Ur III king visits the palaces (e.gal) of Nergal, Gilgamesh, Ereskigal, Dumuzi, Husbisa, Ningiszida, Dimpimeku, and Ninazimua, bringing gifts OCS 21 114:89-115:127) before acquiring his own underworld home: ur.dnammu bara.gal.kur.ra.ke4 mu.ni.ib.tus.u.ne kur.ra ki.tus?ni mu.na.ga.ga.ne S. N. Kramer, JCS 21 115:135-36 (collated)// (PSD B 139 bara l.8.4) Ur-Nammu they seated by the great dais of the underworld. In the underworld, they established his abode? for him. In Descent of Btar 111-17, Ereskigal orders N amtar to summon the Anunnaki from the underworld palace e.gal.gi.na, and Anunnaki may even live in an underworld temple tower in a funerary text from Elam:

aHa lu-li-ka Hi be-li a-na ma-al:J-rP til e-nu-na-ki 'lu'-ti-iq g[i4?-g]un4 ?-na

i-na li-ib-bi bi-i-ti i$-$a-ba-at e-re-d-ki-i-gal i-na sa-ar-ti-sa u-qi-id-di-da-a-as-si-im-ma is-tu ku-us-si-i C. Bezold, The Tell-el-Amarna Tablets 82 rev. 29-30 (EA 357:77-78) Inside the temple/house he seized Ereskigal. By her hair, he pulled her down from her throne. The presence of palaces, a house/temple, a courtyard, and perhaps even a temple-tower in the underworld demonstrates that the region was conceived as a great temple complex. In some traditions, this temple complex may have represented the entire underworld. However, it is more likely that the underworld was thought to be a complete underground city. The term urugallerigal 'Great City' was a popular Sumerian name for the underworld (see pp. 293-94), and it is difficult to imagine all the generations of mankind living in a temple complex alongside the underworld gods. Most probably, ordinary deceased people were thought to dwell outside the temple complex of the underworld, just as they did not reside in palaces and temples during their lifetimes on the earth's surface. Nevertheless, important deceased humans, such as Gilgamesh, Etana, and Dumuzi, resided with the gods in the underworld and even became underworld gods themselves. Etana is found in the underworld along with Ereskigal in Gilg. VII iv 49-50, and both Gilgamesh and Dumuzi, as well as Nergal and Ereskigal, have underworld palaces in The Death of Ur-Nammu.

Topographic Features The only possible evidence for topographical features in the underworld is found in a passage from Damu in the Underworld, where underworld rivers, fields, and sheep are very different from those on the earth's surface: id.kur.ra.ke 4 a nu.um.tum a.b [i nu.um.si.si] " 1 [VSUo b'1 nu.mu.ur5.re ] a.sa k ur.ra. k e se nu. rmU.mu udu.kur.ra.ke siki nu.[un.la s]u.bi [na.ma.az?az?] UET 6/1 23 rev. 26-28 (rest. from V. ScheH, RA 8 170 rev. 3-5) v,

MDP 18250:1-3 Come, let me go, my god, my lord, into the presence of the Anunnaki. Let me pass the t[emple-to]wer?43 41 Compare also W. G. Lambert, Fest. Moran 291:10-292:16 (UET 6 395), H. Hoffner, Sachs Mem. Vol. 191-99. 42 For the reading of the name BidulBitulBiti, see K. Deller, NABU 1991 pp. 14-16 no. 18 and A. George, NABU 1991 p. 16 no. 194. 43 CAD G 70 reads [wrP-[r]aP-na.

351

v

The river of the underworld does not carry water, its water [does not fill it] The field of the underworld grows no grain, [its hand does not grind it] The sheep of the underworld [produce] no wool, its ha[nd does not ... ]44

44 Cf. CT.58 318-19: ... J id.mah.a, ... J a.sa.bi ... For id.mah and the underworld river, see p. 358.

The Underworld

The Geography of Earth

352 Underworld Darkness

The names of the underworld kukku/kukku 'Darkness' (see pp. 289-90) and 'House of Darkness' in Gilgames, The Descent of IStar, and Nergal and Ereskigal (see p. 349) demonstrate that the underworld was a dark place. This darkness is explained in an Akkadian medical incantation and an excerpt from The Descent of IStar. The medical incantation states that no fires or lights illuminated the underworld: ... J x ina e-re-bi-su ana bit e-ti-i sa isata(izi) u nura(zalag) la immaru(n u.igi.d us) erib(ku4)-SU AMT 88 2:3 ... J . when he enters into the 'House of Darkness' whose enterer sees neither fire nor light.

The Descent of IStar explains that no stars shine in the underworld: (bi)-it ek-le-tu kakkabu(m ul) ul u-sa-a LKA 62 rev. 17 House of Darkness, where a star does not come out. Additional references to the underworld darkness are found in Surpu 48:10710 (see p. 281) and a passage from The Death of Gilgamesh: rdl[ ... J.tur/dumu du tu.ke 4 kur.ra ki.kukku.ka U 4 bu.mu.na.an.ga.ga SEM 25 rev. i 1-2 + SEM 28 4-5 (BASOR 94 7:25-26) Let ... [ ... J the ... I son of Utu,45 in the underworld, the place of darkness, set up a light for him. These passages, however, may not mean that the underworld is always bereft of light. In a number of passages, the Sun-god passes through the underworld at night on his way under the earth's surface from the western horizon to the eastern horizon. For example, Shamash Hymn 31 (BWL 126) places the Sun-god in the underworld alongside the underworld malku, kusu, and Anunnaki-gods. A Sumerian literary work explicitly states that the Sun-god Utu illuminates the underworld before offering judgment in the underworld: 46 45 For this passage, compare R. Borger, AOAT 1 10:175; M. Geller ZA 73 114:6, where Utu/Shamash's son is the flame (nablu). For sons of Utu, see Deimel Pantheon 252-53. 46 The epithets of Shamash, dajan same u er$eti 'Judge of Heaven and Earth', dajan eliiti u saplati 'Judge of Upper and Lower Regions', and dajan digigi u danunnaki 'Judge of the Igigi and Anunnaki', also imply that the Sun-god rendered judgments in the underworld (see also Tallqvist Gotterepitheta 79-80; CAD D 32 3'). For the Sun-god at night in the underworld, see also W. Heimpel, JCS 38 146-51. For Utu as an underworld judge, see B. Alster, ASJ 1327-32. For the Moon-god and Sun-god as judges in the underworld, see Livingstone 42. The name of the underworld god in the funerary texts from Elam MDP 18 251:4, 252:7, mu-se-KI-li-im may be read musekilum 'He who makes darkness' or museqqilum 'He who weighs (judgments), (see M. Leibovici, RTCA 2 41-42).

353

dutu.en?gal a.ra.li.ke 4 ki.kulO·kulO u 4 .se u.mi.nUn.ku 4 di.ku5'zu l. ku5· de Two Elegies 54:88-89 Utu, the great lord? of the underworld, after changing the place of darkness to light, will render your judgment.

The Approaches to the Underworld The most commonly attested route to the underworld followed a road from the earth's surface to the underworld gates or the banks of a river that flowed by the entrance to the underworld. All humans passed this way after death. This road is often called 'The Road of No Return', since humans who traveled along the road could never return to life on the earth's surface, as is explained in The Gilgamesh Epic and Descent of IStar:

a-na l:Jarrani sa a-lak-ta-sa la ta-a-a-rat Thompson Gilg. VII iv 35, CT 15 45:6 to the road whose journey has no return. Gods, demons, and ghosts had alternate routes to the underworld. They could travel along the simmilat samami 'Stairway of Heaven', which leads directly from the gates of heaven to the gates of the underworld in Nergal and EreSkigal, or they could spring up from the underworld through cracks in the earth's surface like the spirit of Enkidu in GHT 242-43 = Gilg. XII 83-84 or plants that pierce the earth's crust.

The Road to the Underworld Although the road to the underworld is mentioned in numerous texts, its exact route is never explained, and the terminus of the road varies. In some instances, the road leads directly to the underworld gates, while elsewhere, the road ends at the underworld river which must then be crossed. The only known itinerary of a journey to the underworld from a Mesopotamian city is found in Inanna's Descent, where Inanna journeys from her city Uruk to the underworld. Her route follows the Iturungal Canal upstream from Uruk to Bad Tibira, Zabalam, and Adab, and then continues northward to Nippur, Kish, and finally Akkad (ID 7-13).47 From Akkad, the goddess proceeds directly to the gates of the underworld without crossing the ljubur River. When she arrives at the gates, she is challenged by Bidu, the gatekeeper of the underworld, to explain her presence. She answers that she is traveling eastward to the 'Place of Sunrise', presumably to rise as the morning star Venus, since she identifies herself as the 'Lady of Heaven': 47 For the Iturungal Canal, see RGTC 2 271. The route of Inanna along the canal is examined in Sladek ID 61-63 and G. Buccellati, SMS 4/3 3-5, where Inanna's journey is explained as a litual journey to Kutha. This proposal must be reconsidered in light of C. Wall-Romema's identification of Tell Muhammad near Baghdad as the site of Akkad (see JNES 49 243-45). .

354

The Underworld

The Geography of Earth me.e dga.sa.an.na kLdutu.e.a.as Sladek ID 113:81 I am the Lady of Heaven (going) towards the 'Place of Sunrise'

al.di ga.da.an.gin gurus.me.en bar.ra.an nu.gi 4 .gi4 tu-ku-um-ma al-lak et-lu u-ru-ul] La ta-ri 4R 30 no. 2 11 -12 Boldly, I (Dumuzi), the youth, go along the 'Road of No Return'.

Bidu is not satisfied with her answer:

l'<:t

tukum.bi za.e dinanna ki.dutu.e.a.as a.na.am ba.du.un kur.nu.gi 4 .se ba.ra.an lu.du.be nu.gi 4 .gi 4 .de sa.zu a.gim tum.mu.un Sladek ID 113:82-84

If you are Inanna (going) to the 'Place of Sunrise', why have you come to the 'Earth of No Return'? What made you decide to take the path whose traveler never returns. Inanna then uses the excuse that she has come to attend the funeral of her brother-in-law Gugalanna in order to gain entry to the underworld. Inanna's need to excuse her presence at the gate suggests that Inanna has not followed her normal course eastward to the 'Place of Sunrise' and that she is lying to Bidu when she tells him she has traveled eastward to the gates. Thus, it cannot be certain that Inanna has traveled eastward to the underworld. Although Inanna does not cross an underworld river during her trip to the underworld, there is evidence elsewhere for a river lying at the end of the road. For instance, The Babylonian Theodicy states that the destiny of all mankind is to follow a road to the underworld River ljubur:

na-a[d]-nu-ma ab-bu-nu na-'a'-ri l]u-bur ib-bi-ri

355

il-la-ku qa-bu-u

u-ru-ul] mu-u-t[u] ul-tu ul-la BWL 70:16-17

Our fathers gave in, traveled the road of death. "They crossed the river ljubur;' as the old saying goes. Similarly, Dumuzi travels along a road to the ljubur River, bearing the sin of a supplicant in an incantation:

e-nu-ma tal-la-ku u-ru-ul]-ka lem-nu sul]4-l]ir-su-ma pa-nu-us-ka liZ-lik e-nu-ma te-eb-be-ru ldl]u-bur tum-mi-su-ma de-a-ma a-a i-tur-ra W. Farber !Star und Dumuzi 137: 179-82 (cf. 186:51-54) When you go on your road, turn the evil away, let it go before you. When you cross the ljubur, exorcise it by Ea so that it will not come back. In a bilingual parallel, this road is identified as the 'Road of No Return':

(

)

This road is also called l]arran La tiiri in Maqlu 22:29 yt STT 82 29; and urul] KURNU.GI 4.A in STT 73:36. In a broken passage from The Death of Ur-Nammu, after death the Sumerian king travels along a road in a chariot to the underworld gates: [xxkur].ra in.ti su.ga.am x [x x] gisgigir ba.da.su bar.ra.an im.ma.da.suh su nu.um.ma.nigin l.r duSl x [(x)] giSgigir ba.da.su bar.ra.an im.ma.da.sub su nu.um.nigin lugal.mu [.(..)]. kur.ra 7.bi nl.ba ba.da.sum.mu PBS 101II 6 ii 32-35 II TuM NF 4 28 ii 1'-2'1/ Rencontre Assyriologique 178373-76 (S. N. Kramer, JCS 21 114:73-76) [At the ... of the underwo]rld he arrived. It was empty. . [ .. ], the chariot fell down. The road became disordered. He could not proceed. 4s The gatekeeper. [(.)], the chariot fell down. The road became disordered. He could not proceed. My king gave the seven [ . (..) ] of the underworld an offering. Here, the seven gods who receive offerings are presumably the seven gatekeepers of the underworld. In Inanna's Descent and The Descent of IStar, the goddess is required to give each of the seven gatekeepers an article of clothing. The chariot that Ur-Nammu rides to the underworld in The Death of Ur-Nammu may be compared with the vehicles excavated by Woolley in the "Royal Graves of Ur."

The River of the Underworld A number of Sumerian and Akkadian texts speak of a river flowing at the entrance to the underworld. 49 In Sumerian texts, this river is not identified by name, but many Akkadian texts call the river the ljubur. The Location of the River. The relative position of the underworld river, road, and gates is not explained in any single text. In The Babylonian Theodicy 48 For su - nigin meaning 'to proceed along a road', note parallels in Klein Shulgi 198:76 and Enmerkar and Ensuhkesdanna 44:88. 49 For the underworld riv;r and cosmic waters, see also T. Fymer-Kensky, The Judicial Ordeal in the Ancient Near East (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1977) 587-604.

The Geography of Earth

The Underworld

(BWL 70:16-17) and Farber IStar und Dumuzi 137:179-82, the river seems to be located at the end of the road to the underworld. Here one might suppose that the river flows before the gates. This idea finds support in the phrase i d da.da kur.ra. ka 'river at the sides of the underworld' in Damu in the Underworld (Y. Scheil, RA 8 170 rev. 1). If so, new arrivals at the underworld would have been ferried across the tJubur, just as the boatman Charon ferries the dead across the Styx to Hades in Greek mythology. A similar Mesopotamian boatman is described in Underworld Vision 45: dl;u-mut-ta-bal1limalal;(ma.lalh) er$ctim tim qaqqadu an-zumusen

31. u-tam-me-ku-nu-si gu-za-la-a raba a sa dal-la-ti 32. lik-la-ku-nu-si na-:J+lu sa er$etim tim rabUiti W. G. Lambert, AfO 19 117:23-32 + duplicates

356

4 qatil II se[pa II

...

SAA. 3 71 no. 32 rev. 5 Humuttabal, the boatman of the underworld, with the head of an Anzu-bird, four hands and fe[et ... In a few texts, however, the underworld river need not necessarily flow outside the entire series of gates. In LKA 90, the tJubur is mentioned between a gatecomplex belonging to the Anunnaki and the "Gate of the Captives;' indicating that the tJubur may flow within the series of gates: 50 ana dnam-tar sukkal er$etim tim pi-qi-is-su-[nu-ti] itti da-nun-na-ki abulla(ka.gal) li-ru-bu-ma a-[a i-tu-ra] idl;u-bur li-ru-bu-ma a-a is-sal;-r[u] bab(ka) ka-mu-ti li-ru-bu [x x x x] a-a innamr[u](igi)r[u] LKA 90 photo lines 19-22 from bottom edge (TuL 128:5'-8') Consign them to Namtar the vizier of the underworld. Let the enter the gate with the Anunnaki, let them nev[er return] Let them enter the tJubur, let them never come back. Let them enter the Gate of the Captives [ ..... ] let them never be seen again. A parallel is found in An Address of Marduk to the Demons E 23-32, where the gates of the underworld are mentioned before the na:Jilu sa er$etim rapastim 'stream of the Vast Earth': 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

li-din-ku-nu-si dmes-lam-ta-e-r a1 {ana> KUR.NU.GI 4.A lip-qid-ku-nu-si ana 7 ate(l.d us)mes [sa] deres-ki-gal KLMIN ana dnam-tar sukkal er$etim tim sa bab k[a-mu]-ti u-kal-lu li-Se-ri-bu-ku-nu-si ab[ul er$eti]ti rabUi ti ana qate II gallemes rabUti li-m[a-a]l-li-ku-nu-si dbi-dus 'i-dus-gal er$etimtim mal;ar-ku-nu li-iz-ziz lid-din-ku-nu-si ana dnin-gis-zi-da gu-za-la er$etimtim ra-pa-as-ti da-nun-na-ki ilanu mes rabatumes lik-[m]u-ku-nu-si

50 For the "Gate of the Captives" and the "captive gods;' see also CAD K 127-28 kamu Band p. 294. For seven gallu-demons of the underworld by the underworld river in a broken context see, OECT 519:1-7 (OECT 5 pp. 27-30).

357

23. Let Meslamtaea give you over to the "Earth of No Return." 24. Let him consign you to the seven gatekeepers of Ereskigal. 25. Let him consign you to Namtar, the vizier of the underworld who controls the "Gate of the Captives." 26. Let him bring you through the Ga[te] of the Great [Earth]. 27. Let him place you in the hands of the great galla-demons. 28. Let Bidu, the chief gatekeeper of the of underworld, stand before you. 29. Let him give you to NingiSzida, the "chair-bearer" of the Vast Earth. 30. Let the Anunnaki, the Great Gods, bind you. 31. I exorcise you by the great "chair-bearer" of the goddess Allati (Ereskigal).51 32. Let the stream of the Great Earth keep you in check.

The above passage apparently describes the process by which a demon is banished to the underworld. First, the demon is handed over to the underworld. Then he is admitted through the seven gates of the underworld by the gatekeepers of Ereskigal and by Namtar, who escorts him through the "Gate of the Captives." At this point, the newcomer is passed to the galla-demons, who may hold him while Bidu locks the gates. Ningiszida then takes charge of him and passes him on to the Anunnaki in the interior of the underworld. In this passage, the underworld stream is not mentioned until the demon reaches the home of Allati, well within the underworld gates. The Course of the Underworld River. There is no information concerning the source, outlet, or course of the river other than the passage in Damu in the Underworld, where the river is said to flow at the sides of the underworld (see p. 356). Therefore, it cannot be proved that the river circumambulated the underworld. The source of the waters of the river remains a mystery, since the underworld itself is a dry region. The Size of the Underworld River. There are two conflicting traditions concerning the nature of the river. In Damu in the Underworld, waters do not flow in the river of the underworld (see p. 351), suggesting that this underworld river may be a stagnant stream, like small waterways on the earth's surface during the dry season, or perhaps even a dry river bed. In contrast, passages from a hymn to Lugalgirra and Meslamtaea and An Address of Marduk to the Demons describe the underworld river as a great river: 51 For dallatu as a name for Ereskigal, see AfK 2 73:23 (p. 289); CT 25 4:24, 8:8; Ugaritica 5 55-56.

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The Geography of Earth

358

id.zu id.kala.ga.am nam.tar.ra.fam 1 id.mab ki.utu.e igi nu.bar.re.dam A. Sj0berg, OrSuec 19/20 142:19'-20' Your river is a great river, which determines the destinies. A mighty river at the place of sunrise, which no one can comprehend. [KI].MIN [KI].MIN

sa same e ru-qu-u-ti mi-la-su-nu /:}i-i-tu sa /:}u-bur pal-ka-ti su-pu-ul-sa i-di w. G. Lambert, AfO 17312:8-9

[(I am ] Asarlubi) who has examined the height of the distant heavens. [(I am ] Asarlubi) who knows the depth of the broad lJubur. The Gates of the Underworld

The best-known feature of the underworld is its gates. These gates lead from the approaches to the underworld into the interior of the region. In a number of texts, the underworld is reached through a series of seven gates. The clearest explanation of the configuration of these gates is found in [nanna's Descent, when Ereskigal instructs Bidu, the gatekeeper of the underworld, on how to admit Inanna to her realm: ka.gal.kur.ra 7.bi gissi.gar.bi be.eb.us e.gal.ganzer dili.bi gisig.bi su ba.ba.an.us Sladek ID 118:119-20 Let the bolts of the gate of the underworld, the seven of them, be set down. Let the doors of the underworld palace be opened individually. In this passage, all seven gates are located in e.gal.ganzer, demonstrating that these gates belong to a single gate complex rather than seven separate gate complexes in seven concentric walls, or seven gates spread along the circumference of the underworld. Other examples of the seven gates and gatekeepers of the underworld include An Address of Marduk to the Demons E 24 (see p. 356); passages in Nergal and Ereskigal, where the gates are listed with the names of their keepers;52 KAR 142 rev. iv 12-15, which lists seven gatekeepers of Ereskigal; and two zi.pa-formulas from Utukku-Lemnutu V that invoke the seven doors and locks of the gates: zi gisig.kur.ra 7.bi be nis da-[lat er?etim 7 su-nu MIN] zi giSsahab(su'ms).kur.ra 7.bi be

359

Be exorcised by the seven doors of the underworld. Be exorcised by the seven locks of the underworld. In the Amarna version of Nergal and Ereskigal, 14 gatekeepers are listed (EA 357:67-74), but these 14 gatekeepers probably guard seven gates, with two portals and two gatekeepers to each gate. Likewise, gates to the underworld such as ka.gal ganzer in GHT 167, and bab dereskigal 'The Gate of Ereskigal' in Nergal and Ereskigal (STT 28 vi 19'; EA 357:51-52) can be gate complexes with multiple gates. In ID 74-75, the entrance to the underworld is identified as ka.gal.kur.ra 'Gate of the Underworld'. Only later in ID 119-20 do we learn that ka.gal.kur.ra is in fact a gate-complex with seven gates. The underworld gates, like those of heaven (see pp. 265-67), were identical in structure to city gates on the earth's surface. These gates consisted of many gate parts, including doors, door frames, bolts, locks, and keys. For example, the door and locks of the underworld gates are mentioned in CT 16 13 46-48 (see above); ID 74, 120, and 126 refer to an underworld door; Descent of !Star 17-18 (CT 15 45) speaks of the door, bolt, and door frame (sippu) of the underworld; and KAR 267 II BMS 53 (J. Scurlock, JAOS 108 207:22-23) refers to the key that opens the lock of the underworld gate. Bit Meseri II 128 refers to a door and a lock guarded by Bidu: ilanumes ka-mu-tu lil-qu-su dbi-dus 'i-dus-gal sa er?etimtim pa-nu-us-su li-iz-ziz it, gisdaltu /:}ar-gul-li-su li-i?-bat G. Meier, AfO 14 146:126-28 Let the captive gods take it (all evil). Let Bidu, the chief gatekeeper of the underworld, stand before it, and let the door hold fast its lock. This gate may be identified as the bab kamuti 'Gate of the Captives', which occurs in LKA 90 (TuL p. 128) and in An Address of Marduk to the Demons E 25 (AfO 19 117; see pp. 356-57), where the 'Gate of the Captives' is mentioned after the seven gatekeepers of Ereskigal. The 'Gate of the Captives' was presumably among the inner gates of the underworld, if not the innermost gate, since it would not have been prudent to allow captive gods to approach the exit from the underworld. 53 The Stairway of Heaven

Two texts refer to stairways leading to the underworld. In the Sultantepe version of Nergal and EreSkigaZ the simmilat Samaml 'Stairway of Heaven' leads from the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea in the heavens to the Gate of Erdkigal at the entrance to the underworld, bypassing the earth's surface, Apsu, and

CT 16 13:46-48 STT 28 i 20'-26', iii 41'-47', vi 19'-28' (see AnSt 10 108-26); SpTU I 1 iii 13'iv 3. For the El-Amarna parallel EA 357:47-50, 67-74, see below. 52

53 For the 'Gate of the Captives', see n. 50 above. Note also the 'Gate of Sunset' and Nergal in a broken context in SpTU 3 64 iv 17-26 + dupL (see p. 280), and CT 58 p. 19 no. 43 for the Moon-god and underworld doors.

361

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The Underworld

]jubur River (see p. 60). In a Nabopolassar inscription (F. A1-Rawi, Iraq 474:15) simmelat ganzer 'Stairway of the Underworld' occurs as an epithet of the wall of Babylon Imgur-Enlil. A possible parallel to these two passages may be found in The Duties and Powers of the Gods:

Similarly, a zLpa tablet lists ki.in.dar urugal.la = nigi$ er$eti 'crack of the underworld' as a haunt of demons (Fest. von Soden 10 no. 21 185). In Surpu, a demon even pierces his own opening in the earth's crust like a sprouting plant:

360

du.du u.sim.gim ki.a mu.un.dar aJ;-J;a-zu ki-ma ur-qe-ti er-$e-ta i-pe-$[i]/ipe$$a Surpu 36:5-6+dupl. (see CAD All 185)

... dnerigal.ra kun.sag.kur.ra ki da.nun.na.ke4.ne te.ga d en. 1'1 . [1'1 1 fdl nln. 1. b'1 ... Sumer 4 pi. IV iv 27'-37' ... forNergal, the 'stairway'? of the underworld, where the Anunnaki draw near, Enlil and Nin[lil ... Nabnitu VII 287 (MSL 16 U3) lists kun.sag as an equivalent of simmiltu sa gigune'stairway of a temple-tower'.

The jaundice-demon is breaking through the ground like a plant. Such openings in the earth's crust allowing contact between the earth's surface and the underworld below can be compared with clay pipes (arutu) that were placed in the earth as conduits for libations to the dead (see CAD A/2 324; AS] 13 86 n. 131). Mountains

Cracks in the Earth's Surface

Demons and ghosts could pass vertically from the underworld directly to the earth's surface through openings in the earth without using the underworld gates. In GHT 242-43 = Gilg. XII 82-83, the ghost of Enkidu issues out of the underworld through a hole and speaks to Gilgamesh in Uruk: 54

It may have been possible to enter the underworld by crossing distant mountains. In The Death of Gilgamesh, 'climbing the mountain' may be used as a euphemism for dying:

hur.sag ell.de.de ba.nu ur5 nu.mu.e.[da.an.zi.zi] giSnu.nam.tar.ra.ka ba.nu ur5 nu.mu.e.da.an.zi.zi S. N. Kramer, BAS OR 947:67-68

ab.lal kur.ra gal im.ma.an.tag4 si.si.ig.ta subur.a.ni kur.ta mu.ni.in.ell·de GHT 242-43 (Shaffer Sumerian Sources 85-86) (Gilgamesh) opened a hole in the underworld. As a ghost, his servant (Enkidu) came up from the underworld. lu-man tak-ka-ap erlletimtim ip-te-e-ma u-tuk-ku sa den-ki-du ki-i za-qi-qi ul-tu er$etimtim f it- ta51 -$a-a Thompson Gilg. XII 83-84

Now, when (Gilgamesh) opened a hole in the underworld, the ghost of Enkidu came forth from the underworld as a ghost. Underworld demons also seem to be able to pass through openings in the earth's surface. In a bilingual incantation, seven demons reside in a crack in the underworld: ki.in.dar kur.ra.ke 4 durun.na.a.mes ina ni-gi-i$-$i er-$e-ti it-ta-na-as-sa-hu CT 1644:88-89 (cf. 102-3)

He (?ilgamesh) lies 'climbing the mountain', he cannot [raise himself up.] He lIes on the bed of destiny, he cannot raise himself up. The king of the underworld, Nergal, is associated with a mountain of sunrise in SGL II 37:46. 55 The Size and Shape of the Underworld

There is very little evidence for the size and shape of the underworld. names of the underworld kur.gal, kur.dagal, ki.gal, ki.dagal, urugal, k 1 gall u, er$etu rahuu, and er$etu rapastu all demonstrate that the underworld was very large, but no text ever measures the dimensions of the region. The only known evidence for the shape of the underworld is found in the epithet of Enmesarra $iihit kippat kigalli 'Holder of the Circle of the Underworld' (R. Borger, ZA 61 77:48). If 'circle' in this context can be taken literally, then this epithet reveals that the underworld, like the heavens and earth's surface, was circular in shape. T~e

In the crack of the underworld they are dwelling. 54 K Szarzynska (Akkadica 23 45-49) suggests that this literary opening to the underworld is to be identified with the "Steingebaude" of Archaic Uruk. Note also A Koefoed, ASJ 5 17-23.

jC~ 55 For Mountains of Sunrise and Sunset, see also pp. 331-32 and W. Heimpel ' fNES-38 143-46; J. Scurlock, JAOS 108206:18-23. -l IV.

".,V...

Ii<

~'.J~"'J

362

The Geography of Earth

The Depth of the Underworld The only evidence for an exact distance between the underworld and a higher region is found in Erra I 152, where a cosmic mesu-tree is said to descend 100 leagues through the tamtu rapastu 'vast sea' to the depth of the underworld (see p. 245). Thus, the interior of the underworld must be at least 100 leagues below sea-level in this passage. Late Babylonian building inscriptions, where foundations are placed at the irtu 'edge' of the underworld,56 imply that the underworld was much closer. However, as Gilgamesh and Enkidu learned when they tried to retrieve their fallen instruments in GHT 164-67, it was not possible for humans to reach down into the underworld.

Appendix A

Transliteration of Examples v... ba. da, da 1" of " me.se

56 For examples of irat kigalli, irat er$eti, and irat er$eti rapasti, see CAD I/J 18687 c. Note also F. Al-Rawi, Iraq 47 4:39; WVDOG 59 42 i 34-35,6249 no. 9; and the Sumerian parallel in F. Al-Rawi, Sumer 37117:13-14.

A KAR 20 ii 2-8

2. EN me.se b [a ... 3. me,rse 1 gub.ba! [ ... 4. IM.7 IM.gal. 7 [ ... 5. .zi an.na be.pa [ ... 6. musen an.gim ba.ba.dal [ .. . 7. ki.a ba.ba.ni.in.sub i. [bi .. . 8. tU6.dull.ga en.gal d [ ... B. K. 157+ 2'-5' (Photo OrNs 40 p. 300 tal III, collated)

2' EN me.se ba [ ... 3' an.7 ki. 7 1M.7 I[M ... 4' musen.an.gim ba.ba.da[l .. . 5' murug.gim b.a ba.ba.n [i .. . C. BAM 508 iv 11 '-17'

11' EN me.se ba.da.dal kLSe ba.da.zab me.se gub.ba igi.mu n[u.gub] 12' an.7 ki.7IM.7IM.gal.7 izi.7 igi.7 bar.7 bar.ta.ig[i,7] 13' zi an.na be.pa zi.ki.a be.p [a] 14' musen.an.gim ba.ba.dal.en i.bf.gim ba.ba.ell(Du[L.Du).de] 15' murug.gim b.a ba.ba.ni.i [n.sub] 16' tu 6.du ll .ga en.gal den.ki [( x x)] 17' eridu ki .ga.ke4 nam.mu.un.da.an.bur.ra T[U6.EN]

363

D. K. 2542+ ii 37'-42' (Plate 8, p. 408) 37' E[N me.se ba.da.s] i.dal ki.Se ba.da.zah 38' m[e.se (xxxx) g]ub.ba an.7 ki.7 IM.7 1M.gal.7 39' [izi.7 igL7 bar].r7 1 bar.ta.igi.7 zi.an.na be.pa zi.ki.a be.pa 40' [musen.an.gim b] a.ba.dal.e LbLgim an.na ba.ba.ell·de 41' [m urug],f gim 1 ki.a ba.ba.ni.in.su b tU6.d ull.ga en.gal den .ki.ga.ke4 42' [eriduk]i.ga.ta nam.mu.un.da.an.bur.re TU6·EN E. K. 9329+ A 5'-8' (Plate 10, p.41O)

5' EN me.se [ .. . 6' me.se gu [b .. . 7' izi.7 [ ... 8' z [i ]. a [n ...

F EM 50958 a 3'-11' (Plate 10, p.41O) 3' 4' 5' 6'

7' 8' 9' 10'

11'

[EN me.se ba.d] a.ra kUe ba.da [(zab)] [me.se] gub.ba igi.na nu.gub [(ba)] [a] n 7 ki.7 1M.7 1M.gal. 7 izi.7 ig [i. 7] bar.7 bar.ta.7 bar.ta.igi.7 zi.an.na be.pa zi.[ki.a be.pa] [m] usen an.gim ba.da.dal rp.bLgim an.na ba.da.ell.d[e] [mu] rug.gim ki.a ba.ba.ni.in. [sub] [tu6.d]ull.ga en.gal d en .ki.ga.k[e4] ... nam.mu.u] n.da.an.burJra1 [T]U6. [EN]

G. EM 17311 ii6'-13'(Plate 10, p.41O) 4'

5' 6' 7' 8' 9' 10' 11'

EN me.se ba.da.da [1 ... me.se gub.ba igi.mu n[u ... ki.7 IM.7 1M.gal 7 [ ... bar. 7 bar.ta 7 zi.an.n [a ... zi.ki be.pa rmusen an.gim 1[ ... . 1 [b] a. r ell 1 [ ... . b'l.glm 1. an.na rh~a. murug.gim ki.a ba,fba 1 .ni.in.sub [ ... x.ga en.gal d en .ki.ke 4 T[U6.EN]

H. Sm. 1802 ii2'-3'(Plate 10, p.41O)

l' 2'

Transliteration of Examples of "me.s€: ba.da.dal"

Transliteration of Examples of "me.s€: ba.da.dal"

364

[EN .. . me [ .. .

Related Texts 1. CT 51 142:1-3 I' 2' 3'

rEN1 e.nu.ru an.7 ki. 7 1M.7 1M.gal 7 izi. 7 igi. 7 bar.7 bar.ta.7 bar.ta.igi.7

2. SpTU III 83 15

15

EN an.7 ki. 7 1M.7 1M.gal. 7 izi. 7 igi. 7 bar. 7 bar. tao 7 zi.an. [n] a be.pa zi.ki.a be.p [a]

3. CT44 33 iii 5//-9//

5' EN e!.nu.ra 6' an.7 u4 .7 [ .. . 7' an.7 rki. 7 1 [ .. . . . r7 1 [ ... 8' 19l. 9' b [ar ...

365

Examples of "lyi.daddag.ge an den.lil den.ki dnerigal"

11. 12. 13.

Appendix B

3. Iraq 3862 Face B 1. 3.

Examples of "be.daddag.ge an den.lil den.ki dnerigal"

1. F Bohl, MLVS 29-10 (collation: Or 48309) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

en.nun.ur.re be.en.daddag.g[a] an den.lil den.ki dnerigal an. 7. hi ki. 7. hi dU6.7.hi hara.7.hi zLin.zi.la.ab zi.bi.Ia.ab bu.ub.la.ab bu.ub·ti.la bu.ub.me.la.ab ddlm.me zi.an.na be.pa zi.ki.a be.pa en.na Iu.ulu dumu.dingir.ra.ni ki.he gi 4 .gi4 ·de u ha.ra.an.da.gu7.e a ha.ra.an.da.nas.nas giSbansur a.a.zu den.lil.le su.zu ha.ra.hi.dull

2. YBC 5627 (YOS 11 89)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

fEN 1 e.nu.ru be.daddag.g[e] [a] n den.lil den.ki dnerig [all an.7.hi ki.7.h[i] dU6.7.hi za.7.b[i] gaba.7.bi bara.7.hi ba1.7.hi har.7.bi an.ki.7!.hi zi.im.zi.ra.a[b] dnu.me.la. [ab] dnun.ahzu.m [e.en] dnun.ub. [la.ab]

366

ddlm.m [e] zi.an.na be.p [a] zi.[ki.a be.p]a zi.den.lil.[la be.pa] [an].na sag mu.un.[il] fki.a 1 sa[g mlu.[un.sig?] [k] a.inim.ma.ddlm.me.k [am]

6.

7. 8.

be.da.da.da AN en.lll den.ki dnerigal EN e.nu.ru an. an duldu 6 ?

367

Indexes

Subject Index 1,21-44,26,40

180-81

AblalUbla 82 Abul-Adad 68-69,82-83 Adab 351 Adad~skur 7-8,18,139,143,206,260, 273-74,327 Adapa 65,103,197-98,249,267, 319 Agathemenus 41 Agilma 129, 132 Agum 108 Akitu 13 Akkad/Agade 7, 68-71, 74, 77, 79-80,8283, 85-87, 91, 106, 175-77, 247, 302, 308,328,353 Akkad-stars see Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-stars Akkadian Language 324 and passim Aklitu 72-74 Akriyas 72-73, 90 Alalgar 313 Aleppo 82-83, 89; see also tIallaba Alexander Romances 102, 106 Alexander the Great 102,106 Allatu 289, 357 Alman 82; see also Armani Amanus 80 Amarna 62,65,79,93,213,223,303; see also EA Amorite/Amorites 75,84-85,91,169, 197, 298, 324; see also Amurru Amurru 7, 26, 70-73, 77, 84-85, 87, 90-91, 94, 106, 177, 321, 323-24; see also Amorites

Amurru-stars see Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-stars An see Anu Anaku 72-73,87-88,94,106,333 Anatolia 77, 88 Anaximander 41-42 Andurunna see Heaven Angi 72-73 Ansan 68-69, 72-73, 79-81,87, 89-90, 93-94,106,321 Ansar 109,111 Antioch 305 Antiochus I 133 Antiochus IV 90 Antu 227 Anu/An 3-4,6,8-10,14-15,17-18, 107, 109, 111-13, 118, 122-27, 130, 135,138-42,144-47, 149, 158, 168, 212-13,217, 225, 227-28, 231, 233, 238,243-50,274,276,308-9, 313-14, 335; see also Daughters of Anu Anu of Heaven 247, 251 Anu-Stars see Path of Anu, Enlil, Ea Anu, Enlil, Ea-stars see Path of Anu, Enlil, Ea Anunna 138, 143,292-93; see also Anunnaki Anunnaki 3-4,11,15-16,18-19,63, 108, 120, 122-25, 127, 130, 137-39, 143-44,161,246,272-74,279,286, 292,316,318,343,348,350,352, 356-57, 360 Anzan see Ansan

369

370

Indexes

Anzu-bird 6, 22-23, 33, 36, 98, 309, 336, 356 Apsu 3-4,11,13,16-18,32,86,105, 108-14,119-28,130-32,135-39, 145,148-50,179,213,228,231,243, 247-48,265,268,274,286,294-95, 302,306-20,326,334-48,359 Deep Cosmic Waters 341-42 Depth of 347 Depths 342 Floor 345 Gate of the Apsu 347 Ground waters 336-37, 344, 346 Interior 346 Marsh 337-38,344 River 338-39,344 Roof 345 Sea 339-40,344 Sides 346 Spring 346 Swamp 337-38,344 Top 345 Underworld 342-44 nagbu 314-15,343,346 see also Eengurra, Esgalla, abzu, dU6.ku, engur, lalgar, anzanunzu, apsu, asurrakku, engurru, lalgar, subat dnudimmud Apsu-shrines 347 Arabia/Arabian Desert 79-81,89-90,93 Arabic 223 Aramaic 223 Arctic Ocean 321 Ariaba see Eriaba Aristagorous of Miletus 41 Arman 82; see also Aleppo, Armani Armani 68-69,82 Arrapba 68-69,81 Asallubi/Asarlubi 34, 128, 131,214,225, 314,358 Asarlubi-Namru 128 Ascent to Heaven see Heaven-Ascent Assembly 245; see also Heaven, ubsukkinakku Assur (City) 67, 86,136, 159, 196,228, 284 Assur (God) 120, 226, 228 Assur-Bel-Kala 94 Assur-ReHsi 155

Assurbanipal 31-32,37-38,40,123-24, 168,178,190,315,329 Assyria 21,26-27, 29, 40, 68-69, 81, 9395,200,321,332,336-37 Assyrians 92 Asaru 128 Asrata 112-14,116,120-22,125-27, 226-27 Atlantic Ocean 321 Atmosphere 243, 260 Atrabasis 105,339; see also Utnapistim, Ziusudra Aya 232 Baba 247 Babylon 22,26-29,40-41,62-63,77, 94, 108, 120-25, 127, 130, 132, 134, 169, 172, 196, 267, 294-95, 307, 312, 319, 332,334, 337-38, 347, 360 Walls 63, 360; see also Imgur-Enlil Babylonia 26-29, 93-94, 202, 321, 325, 336 Badrah 83 Bad-Tibira 283, 353 Baghdad 82-84,353 Bahrain 36,88,105,132,328-29 Balib 45 Baza 68-69,72-73,79,89-90,93-94 Bel see Marduk Belet-Ili 98, 260 Berossus 132-34 Bidu 273,350,353-54,356-59 Bird 37-38,211,223-24,243,349 Bitala 323-24 Bit Gabagal 70-71,84 Bit Babban 29 Bit Bubba 70-71,84 Bit Nanib 68-69, 82 Bit Sin 70-71,84 Bit Yakin 21,25-26,305 Bitter Waters see Marrud Bitumen 337 Black Sea 93, 95, 303, 325 Bolts, Cosmic 115, 143; see also Heavenbolt, Underworld-bolt, giSsi.gar, sigaru BondlBonds, Cosmic 41, 114, 119-20, 125,230; see also Heaven-Bond; dur, durmabbu, markasu

Sulject Index Border of Guti 323-24 Borsippa 26,29 Botanical Gardens 40,102 Bursabanda 36 Byblos 72-73, 89-90, 93 Calendar 162-64 Caphtor 87; see also Crete, Kaptara Captive Gods 293-94, 349, 359 Caspian Sea 93, 303, 325 Cedar Forest, Land, Mountain 68-69,77, 79-80,93,98,101,321,323-24,331, 333; see also giseren = erenu Cella, Heaven see Heaven-Cella Chaldea/Chaldean 25-26, 304-5 Channel see bitqu Chariot of Utu 258 Charon 356 Cimmerians 89, 106 Circle see also kippatu Astronomical, Stellar, Solar 183-88, 190-92,206,257-58 Earth's Surface 260,265,274,334 Four Winds/CornerslRegions 325, 334 Heaven 178,206,260,264 Underworld 275,361 WindslFour Winds 206, 260, 264, 325,334 see also kippatu Claudius Ptolemy 195 Clay 149-50,335,349 Cloud 118, 266 Comet 7, 166,252-53,258 Compass/Compass Points 193-207, 298 Constellations 3-4, 8-9, 13-15,49, Ill, 114,127, 146-47, 152-54, 198, 207-8, 257, 286 Continent 27-32, 41, 60, 93-94, 97, 105, 296,320-22,324-26,331,333 Creatures of Tiamat see Tiamat Cremation 91 Crete 87-88,95; see also Caphtor, Kaptara Cylinder Seals 43,58,88,163,229,266, 293,329,331 Cyprus 88 Dais (Heaven)

see Heaven

371

Damkina 110-11 Damru 70-71 DarknesslLand of DarknesslRegion of Darkness 33,96,98-100,102,106, 133,278,329,331-32; see also Underworld-Darkness, kukku, kukku Daughters of Anu 6, 304 Day 117, 134, 137-41, 147-48, 152, 162, 189,191,334 Day and Night Hours 155, 157, 189-92 Days and Nights of Creation 134, 13739,141-42 Dead Gods 284 Delphi 41-42 Der 21,27, 68-69, 74, 77, 83, 94 Dew 243-44,279 Dilmun 36, 72-73, 77, 79, 86-88, 94, 104-6,302,305,320,328-29,333 Diodorus Siculus 152, 164 Disease 206, 210 Distances in Heaven 177-88 Diyala River 84 Door of the World see dalat dadme Dream 45, 60, 227, 250, 273 Duda 72-73 Duku 130,315-16,331; see also dU6.kUl dU6.ku.ga, duku Dumudukuga 130 DumuziiTammuz 13,281,283,350-51, 354-55 Dunnu 145-46 Duranki 299; see also Nippur Dur-Kurigalzu 143 Ea 4,8-9,13-15,17-18,109-16,122-23, 126-27, 131, 144-50, 158,250,274, 276,309,318-19,326,334-36,33840, 354; see also EnkilEa, Nudimmud Ea-stars see Path of Anu, Enlil, Ea Eanna 104, 130-31, 138-39 Earth 268-362 and passim Distant Earth 282 Great Earth 272,280-81,292,356-57 Lower Earth 3-4, 16, 18,268,274, 318 Middle Earth 3-4,16-18,268,274,318 Seven Earths 208-20; see also an. 7-ki.7

372

Indexes

Earth (cont.) Upper Earth 3-4,16-17, 274, 318 Vast Earth 278-80,356-57; see also en;etu rapastu, ki.dagal, kur.dagal see also Earth's Surface, Ends of the Earth, Underworld; bur/buru, ki, lam/lamma, uras, zikara, danninu, er$etu, eSmal:Jl:Ju: miriyas: qaqqaru: Earth (goddess) 145-46 Earth of Enlil 274,292; see also er$et denlil, qaqqar denlil Earth of No Return 18, 217, 269-72, 276-78,284,336,343,354-57; see also kur.nu.gi 4.a, kur.nu.gi.gi, er$et la tfiri, kurnugU Earth of the Dead 275,281 Earth's Surface 16-17,20,26-27,39-43, 47, 49-51, 60-62, 64, 67, 86, 93-97, 105, 118-22, 125-27, 129, 179, 18788,193,204-6,213,227-28,236, 243-46,248,252,258,264,268,272, 274,278-79,286,291-92,294-301, 307,318-20,325-26,328-34,33940,344-47, 351, 353, 357, 359-61 Diameter 187, 334 Shape 334 Size 334 EastlEastwind 91, 104, 193-202,205, 230,249,257 Ebla 68-69,77,82,160; see also Abla/ Ubla Edamaru~ 70-71,83-84 Edom 72-74, 89-90, 93 Eengurra 307, 310, 316, 346 Egypt 72-73,79,89-90,93,95,165,321, 329 Ebursaggula 337 Ekur (Cosmic Region) 294-95 Ekur (Temple) 6, 76, 130-31,294 Elam 7, 70-71, 77, 81, 83, 85-86, 91, 93, 106,321-24,350 Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-stars 175-77 Elamatum 124 Elamite 324 Electrum see elmesu Elephant 35 Emutbal 70-71, 84, 322, 324 Enbilulu-ijegal 279

Subject Index

Ends of the Earth's SurfacelEarth 236, 325, 328-34; see also Horizon E-Ninnu 94 EnkilEa 17, 107, 129-30, 135-44, 149, 211-14,247, 262, 280, 297, 307-9, 313-15,334-35,340,342-43,34546; see also Ea Enkidu 291,350,353,360,362 Enlil 6,8-9, 13, 15, 17, 107, 112-13, 11516,122-23,125-27, 129-30, 135-36, 138-41,144-49,158,212-13,228, 244,247, 250, 274, 276, 294-95, 308, 313-14,321,331,338,343,349,360 Ancestors of Enlil and Ninlil 141 Enlil-stars see Path of Anu, Enlil Ea Enmdarra 6,225,273,275,361 Enoch (Book of) 217 Enurulla 277 Equinoxes and Solstices 157-58,172, 181, 189-92, 196, 199 Ereskigal 18,66, 125, 135, 139, 161,213, 271,273,275,278-79,289,348-51, 357-59; see also Allatu Eriaba 70-71, 84 Eridu 130,211,307, 316-17, 342, 346-47 Erra 297, 300 Esagil 108, 122-24, 127, 130,227, 307, 347 Esarhaddon 13,40,79,93,168,251-52 Esarra (cosmic region) 17, 112-14, 116, 120-21, 123-27, 145, 227-28, 244, 247, 319 Esgalla (cosmic region) 112-14, 125-28, 286,309,315 Esnunna 84 Etana 37, 43-44, 185, 227, 245, 250, 252, 264,266-67,271,296,319,350-51 Etemenanki 123 Euphrates 6, 28-30, 68-69, 74-75, 77, 79-81,84-85,92-95,118-19,195, 321-22,328,338 Tail of (kun = zibbatu) 70-71, 85, 9495 see also Tigris and Ephrates Exodus 9,11 Ezekiel 9, 12 Falaika 88 Fara Period/Texts

141,197

Firmament 262; see also be, belbe.an.na, CAN, gis.be, muM, uLbe, burumu, supuk same, supuk burilme Fish 312,335,338 Flood 7, 31, 36, 44, 99,104-6, Ill, 134, 218, 244-45, 326-29; see also Sumerian Flood Story (ancient texts) Four Corners/Quarters/Quadrants/ Compass Points/Winds Earth's Surface 24-25, 32, 37, 40, 9091,111,204,206,252,259-60, 296,298-300,324-25,334 Heaven 204-6,217, 252, 255, 259-60 see also an.ki.ub.da.l1mmu.ba, an.ub, an.ub.da.limmu.ba, ki.ub, ub.an, ub.da.an.ki, ub.da.limmu.ba, kibratu, tubuqatu Four Winds see Four Corners, Winds Gate of Susa 70-71, 85, 87 Gates see Heaven-Gates, UnderworldGates Gems see Grove of Gem-Bearing Stone Genesis 66,113,133-34,139,145,262,292 Geographic Terms 295-301 Geometry 40-42, 183-86, 190,206 Gestinanna 283 Ghost 343- 44, 353, 360 Gilgamesh 38,96-106, 132,271,303, 320,326,329-30,332,350-51,36162; see also Gilgamesh Akkadian, Gilgamesh Sumerian Gilimma-Marduk 130-31 Gimdub 70-71 Ginirtum 72-74 Girra 174, 233, 281 Gizzida 13, 65 Glass 12 Gnomon 169,202 Gods of the Night 146-47; see also Prayer to the Gods of the Night Greece 88, 320 Greek Transliterations of Cuneiform 228, 306 Grove of Gem-Bearing Stones (Gilgamesh) 96,99, 100-102, 104, 106,329-30 Gudea 80,83,302 Gugalanna 354

373

Gula 7-8,245,292,301 Guti/Gutium 68-71, 74-75, 82-84, 87, 91-92,323-24 Gutian 324 Gyges of Lydia 32 ijabban 21,29,94; see also Bit ijabban Hades 356 ijalab see Aleppo ijallaba 68-69, 83; see also Aleppo ijalman 82; see also Armani Hammurabi 84, 87 ijandakiyas 72-73,90 ijanigalbatlijabigalbat 72-73, 89-90 ijanulijaneans 68-69,78-80,94,323-24 HeavenlHeavens 223-67 and passim Ascentto 43-66,267 Assembly 245, 250 Bolt 217, 248, 264, 266-67, 300 Bond 265 Cattle-Pen/Cow 255-56, 263 Cella 12-13, 152, 243, 246- 47, 250-52 Circle 178, 264-65, 334; see also kippatu ClearlLapis Heavens see an.za.gln Composition of Heaven 262-63 Courtyard 244, 250 Dais 227, 250-51 Distances in see Distances in Heaven Distant Heavens 249 Divine Homes 244-45 Dome 256, 264 Door 144-45,217, 248, 266-67 Face 64,241 Floor 9,226,258,263 Four Corners/Quadrants/Quarters/ Regions of see Four CornersHeaven Gates 39, 45, 52-53, 58-60, 114-16, 144-45,244,248,250,265-66, 287, 300, 359 Gate of Anu 65, 250, 266 Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea 52-53, 58-60,66,250,266,359 Gate of Sin, Shamash, Adad, and IStar 52-53, 58-60, 250, 266 Gate-parts 266 Incline 288

374

Indexes

HeavenlHeavens (cont.) Interior 60,244-45,247-50 Key 266-67 Key-peg 266-67 Intermediate Heavens 246-47 Kassite Names 233 Lower Heavens 3-4,8-9, 13-15, 125, 147, 243, 258 Middle Heavens 3-4,8, 11-14, 125, 243,246 Path 65,147, 177,252-58; see also Path of AnulEnlillEa Seam 265 Seven Heavens 208-20; see also an.7-ki.7 Size 264 Shape 264 Stairway 66, 250, 267, 346, 353, 35960; see also simmelat samami Stone 262-63 Teat 262-63 UpperlHighestlHigh 3-4,8-11,14, 125, 127, 143,243-50,265; see also Heaven of Anu Visible Heavens see Sky Waters 262-63 see also Asrata, Esarra, ag, an, an.gal, bur, bur, girra, gis, idim, 11, im, me, mu, si, u14, un, uras, utab, zikara, zikum, andurunna, asru, burumu, elatu, ermi danim, sama:Ju, samamu, samu, sa-mumalsa-me-ma, subatdanim, subat samelsama:Ji Heaven of Anu 10,47-53,58-60,66, 127, 152,241,244-47, 265, 279 Area above the Heaven of Anu 60 Heaven-Apsu 124, 126 Heaven-Earth Seven Heavens and Earths 208-20 an-ki 74,86,135-42,272 and passim an-,uras 231 an.dagal.la-kalam.dagal.la 296 an.gal-ki.gal 275,280 giS-lam 230 me-lam 229-30, 290 me-me 229-30 andurunna-er$etum 225 asru-kigallu 225

asru-kurnugu 225 burumu-ki-ur-ra 276 burumu-matatu 226 elittu-saplatu 227, 292, 352 ermi-danim-ganzer 227, 287 ermi-danim-kigallu 227 sama:Ju-irkalla 348 sama:Ju-qaqqaru 224 samamu-ammatu 108, 282 samamu-apsu 337 samamu-dadmu 310 samamu-er$etu 119,333 samamu-esmalj.lj.u 227, 287, 310 samamu-qaqqaru 142, 224, 236 samu-er$etu passim samu rapsutu-matu rapastu 296 Heaven-Underworld see Heaven-Earth: asru-kigallu, asru-kurnugu, ermi danim-kigallu Heaven's Cover see Heaven; ermi-danim Heaven's Edge see an.za Hebrew 223,273,282,303,347 Heliacal Rising 163-64,169,175,188 Herodotus 28, 41, 92, 337 Hesiod 18,41, 164,305 Shield of Achilles 41 Theogony 18,41,132,305 Hezekiah 100 Hipparchus 195 Historical Omens 77, 89 Hit 337 HittitelHittites 198 Bizzat/lj.isat 68-69, 82 Homer 41, 106 Illiad 41 Odyssey 41, 106 Horizon 94, 111, 117, 140, 143, 187, 19192,233-36,238,242,248,251-52, 258,267, 294-95, 299, 308, 316-17, 326,331,352 see also Ends of the Earth, an.ur, an.za, isid same, nab/ptu Horizon-Zenith 144-45,330 House of Darkness 289-90, 294, 349, 352 House of Death see bit muti House of Dumuzi see bit ddumuzi House of Dust 294 Bubur 318,344,353-56,358,360;see also Underworld-river

Subject Index Human Beings see Mankind Bumbaba see Buwawa/Bumbabal Buppipi Bumuttabal 356 Buppipi see Buwawa/Bumbabal Buppipi ljurim 68:-69, 83, 93 Hurrian 90 Busbisa 271,350 Buwawa/Bumbaba/Buppipi 98 Iabuse 68-69,81 raman 320 Ibrat 68-69, 83 19i9i 3-4,8, 11, 14,59,63, 108, 120, 12425, 127, 143-44, 152, 161,243,24547, 249, 316, 352 Illiad see Homer Imgur-Enlil 63,267, 360 Inanna/IStar 18,91, 124, 138-39, 160, 219,235,245,250-52,259,270,273, 275,291,304,313,331,344,353-54 Incantations, Cosmological 148-50 Indian Ocean 87, 303, 321, 325 Indus Valley Culture 328 Intercalation 164, 169 Intermediate Heavens see Heavens Ionian Greece 320 Iran 60,77, 79-82, 85, 87-89, 94, 325 Is 337 Isaiah 250 Isin 70-71, 83-84 Iskandarnama see Alexander Romances Israel 89-90 !Skur 7; see also AdadlISkur ISpatum 68-69, 81, 83 !Star 54-55, 58, 60, 64, 250; see also Inannaiistar !Star of Babylon 124 IStar of Elam 124-25 !Star of Uruk 58 IStar Gate 123-24,312 Itinerary 78, 82 Iturungal Canal 353 Jacob's Ladder 66 Jasper 4, 13-14, 19, 258, 263; see also iaspu Jaundice 361

375

Jerusalem 100 Job 327 Jordan 89 Judah 30,90 Juniper 80 Kaka 18, 66, 217 Kaptara 72-73,87-88,94-95,106,333; see also Caphtor, Crete Kar-Nabu 305 Karzina 74-75,90,93 KassitelKassites 169,233,291 Kazallu 77 Khafajeh 83 1 Kings 250 Kingu 111-12 Kirkuk 81 Kish 43-44,353 Kisar 109 Koldewey, R. 28 Koran 217 Kos 133 Kudurru 84, 139 KullabalKullabi 68-69, 83; see also Uruk Kurdistan 82 Kurigalzu 143 Kutalla 72-73,90 Kutha 353 Kutumta-people 68-69, 80, 83 Lagash 68-69, 77, 83, 93, 307 LabamalLabmulLabamu 108-9, 288, 308-9,339-40 Lakes 318 Lake Urmiah 89,303,326 Lake Van 90, 303, 326 Lake Zeribor 303 LandlLandslDryLand 60-65,296-97, 319-24 and passim Land at the Border of Guti 323-24 Lower Land 87, 269, 323-24 Upper Land 77, 87, 323-24 Upper and Lower LandlLands 72-73, 87-88,296-97 see also Earth's Surface, ki, kalam, kur.kur, matu, matatu Languages 324 Lapis Lazuli 9, 11, 101, 166-67, 263, 309 Lapu see Til Balapu

376

Indexes

Larsa 84 Latin 133 Lead-ropes see $erretu Lebanon 60,72-73, 77, 80, 87 Light 133, 139 Lock of the Sea see Sea Lower Zab see Zab River Lubdi 68-69,81 Lugalakia 315 Lugalbanda 38 Lugaldukuga 13, 130 Lugalgirra 285, 357 Lugalmarada 321 Lugalzagesi 76, 262, 321-22 LullubiILullubeans 68-69,72-76,82,87, 89-92,106,321,323-24,340 Lullupun 72-73; see Lullubi Lunar see Moon Lydia 31-32, 320 Magan 70-73,77, 79-81, 85-90, 94,106, 302,328-29,333 Malgi 70-71,84 Maneans 89 Mangi~u 68-69, 83 Manistusu 76 Mankind/Man/Men 6,15-17, 35, 64,122, 125-26,129,131,135-36,149,274, 292,310,318,320,328-29,337, 345, 349,351 Maps, Ancient Cuneiform 26-27, 60-61, 195; see also Babylonian Map of the World, Map of Nippur Marad 321 Marasman 72-73 MarduklBel 3-4,6,8,11-14,17-18,2223,31,34-35,86,107-8,112-34, 136,145,147, 156, 159, 161-62, 22425,227, 243, 246-47, 250, 252, 256, 262-63,265,274,279,286,310,315, 318-19,327,334,343,346,349; see also Asallu\}i/Asarlu\}i, Gilimma, Neberu, Sirsir Marduk's Fifty Names 108,128-32 Mar\}asilParasi 70-71, 77, 86-87, 93-94, 106,321-23; see also Para\}sum Mari 61,68-71,77, 79,81,84-85,88-89, 92,94,264,288,301,303 Marrud 70-71,84 Marsuna 72-73

Maskan-Sapir 70-71, 84 Maskan-Sarri 68-69,81 Math/Mathematical Texts 179-81,206; see also Geometry Media 90 Mediterranean 77, 87, 93-94, 200, 204, 302-3,305,322,325 Melu\}\}a 68-71, 77, 79-81, 85-87, 93-94, 302,328-29,333 Merodach-Baladan I 84, 139 Meslamtaea 285, 356-57 Metals 88 Meunim 89 Microzodiac 256 Mitanni 90 Moab 72-73,89-90 Monkey 22-23,35,330 Month 115,117, 147-48, 151-52, 154, 163,193-94,256 Month-star 154-55,157-58,161-63,175, 189 Moon/Moon-godlLunar 15,114,116-17, 125, 127, 129, 134, 139-40, 144-45, 147-48,151-53,163-64,166,16972, 179-80, 191,226-27, 230,232, 235,237-41,243,248-49,252,25659, 266-67, 298, 321, 352, 359 Lunar Calendar 163 Lunar Crescent 15 Lunar Cycle 258 Lunar Eclipse 166, 170 see also Nannar/Sin, Path of the Moon, Sin Mountain/Mountains 20, 27-29, 52-53, 61,119,126,149-50,196-98,200, 208,272,295,315-16,319-21,327, 329-32,361 Cosmic Mountain (Weltburg) 272 Sunrise and Sunset 97, 249, 331-32, 361 Upper and Lower Mountains 77 sadu beriltu 118-19 sadu nagbi 119 see also Amanus, Cedar, Zagros Mount Masu 36,96-98,104-6,241,266, 284,320,332 Mount Simirriya 98, 284 Mummu 110 Munna/Munni 72-74, 89-90, 93 Mutiabal 70-71, 84, 93

Subject Index Nabonidus 30-31,58 Nabopolassar 63 Nabu 225,227, 232, 276, 300, 304, 314, 339 Nairi 90,303 Namtar 66, 246, 250, 271, 273, 277, 279, 350,356-57 NannariSin 18,144-45,227, 231-32, 237, 239,247, 251-52, 259, 262; see also Moon Nanse 341 Naram-Sin 78,80,82-83,92,298 Neberu 115-16,128,145,156,159, 161-62 Nebuchadnezzar II 28,30-31, 134,227, 237 Nergal 18,66,125,144,161-62,212-13, 271,273-74,278,280-81,286,293, 343,348,350-51,359,361 Neriglessar 237, 305 "Net of the Sea" see sigaru nal:;balu tamti New Year 151-52,160,162-63; see also zagmukku Night 117, 134, 137-39, 147-48, 162-63, 191,334; see also Watches of the Night, Days and Nights of Creation Ninanna 284 Ninazimua 283-84,350 Nineveh 102,196,312,314 Ningirsu 309 NingiSzidda 242, 271, 275, 282, 350, 356-57 Ninki 140-41 Ninlil 140-41,144,360 Ninsubur 109,247 Ninurta 13,32, 171-72,247-48,257, 309, 348 Mercury 171-72, 257 Ninurulla 277 Nippur 27, 41, 76, 83-84,130-31,138,179, 195,228,230,290,294-95,299,307, 353 Niqqu 68-69,82-83 Nissaba 166-68 Nomads 91 NorthlNorthwind 72-73,90-91,99-100, 177, 193-203, 205, 332-33 Nudimmud 109, 112, 114, 128, 149-50; see also Ea

377

Nur-Dagan 23,36 Nuzi 27, 195,306 Ocean see Sea Oceanus 41,132,305 Odyssey see Homer Oman 88,328 Omens 39, 77-78, 89, 92, 148; see also Astronomical Omens One Thousand and One Arabian Nights 102 Pacific Ocean 321 Para\}sum 77, 86; see also Mar\}asi Path of Anu, Enlil, Ea/Anu, Enlil, Eastars 115-16, 154, 156-66, 169-77, 181,183,186-91,199,253-58,264, 267 Borders between Paths 165-66, 169-70,173 Path of Planets 256-57 Path of Mercury 257 Path of the Moon 169-71,185,256-58 Path of the Sun 33, 96, 98-100, 106, 172, 190,256-58,320 Persian Gulf 28, 77, 81, 83, 85-87, 93-95, 105,198,200,204,290,302-5,325, 328-29,341 PlanetlPlanetslPlanetary 114, 134, 151-53,161-62,169,171-72,176, 243, 252, 257-58, 267; see also Path of Planets; Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, Saturn, Venus, UDU.IDIM, bibbu Plant 'Man Becomes Young in Old Age' 105-6, 132 Plant of Birth 44, 58 PlantslPlantlife 129-32, 139,304,353 Proverb (Sumerian) 142 Psalms 217, 262 Pseudo-Callisthenes 102 Radanu 81 RalJabu 70-71,84 Rain ll8, 228, 262-63 Rain Ducts 262 Rapiqu 68-69,81 Ras Shamra see Ugarit ReciprocallReciprocal Tables see also igi-gal.bi

180-81;

378

Indexes

ReedlReed Marsh 131,141, 150,306, 335-38,344,346-47; see also ambar, apparu Region of Darkness see Darkness Res-Temple 193 Rim-Sin 167, 232, 262-63 Rimus 76 Rivers 27, 84,142,149-50,208,312,318, 335,338-39,344 see also Diyala, Euphrates, Tebiltu, Tigris, Tigris and Euphrates, Zab River (goddess) 146,338-39 River of Creation 312,338 Royal Graves of Ur 355 Samarra 86 Sapphire 9 Sargon II 26, 29-30, 40, 90, 93, 98, 104, 284,329 Sargon of Akkad 29,33,36,40,67-73, 75-81, 88, 92-93, 100, 106, 237, 260, 296-97,299,321,324,330 Sarpanitum 108 Scorpion-Man 22-23, 35-36, 96-98, 329; see also girtablullu Sea/Seas/Sea-goddess 18,25-26,45-46, 52-53,56-57, 60-65, 68-69, 74-75, 77, 80, 83, 87, 93, 96-97, 102-6, HI, 119-20,128-34,141, 146, 150, 182, 197, 204, 245, 279, 296, 301-7, 311, 318-20,325-33,335-36,340-41, 344 Apsu 340-41 Bolt (named) 'Net of the Sea' see sigaru nal:Jbalu tfimti Depth 326 Floor 319 Limits 326 Lock 327 Lower Sea 72-73, 76-77, 86-88, 9294,301-3,320-22,328 Sea of Nairi 303,325 Sea of Zamua 303,325 Sunrise and Sunset 200 Upper and Lower Sea 31-32,72-73, 76-77, 86, 88, 92-93, 106, 200, 204,301-2,305,320-21,324-25, 332-33,340 Upper Sea 72-73,76-77, 87-88, 9293,302-3,320-22

see also Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, Oceanus, Persian Gulf, Tiamat, a.ab.ba, ab, ab.ba, ajabba, jamu, marratu, mugammirtum, sigaru nal:Jbalu tfimt~ tfimtu Sea Land 77-78 Seasons 194-95,254,257 Sennacherib 30,34,39-40,62,93,100, 102,329 Shalmaneser III 25-26, 28, 40, 206, 304-5 Shalmaneser V 90 Shamash 44,54-55,97-98,103,147, 252, 273-74,311,352 see also Sun, Utu/Shamash Shulgi 65, 167, 169 Sidon 89 Siduri 98, 101-3 Silver Mountain 77 Sin 18,147, 247, 274; see also NannariSin Sippar 26,70-71,82-83,129 SirsiriMarduk-Sirsir 118 SkyNisible Heavens 49, 127, 151-92, 226-28,233-43,247, 250, 252-61, 276,281 Snow 129 Solar see Sun Solstices see Equinoxes and Solstices South/South Wind 65,72-73,90-91, 193-202,204-5,332-33 Star-Catalogue 156, 160 StarslFixed-stars/Stellar 3-4,6-7, 13-15, 49,59,114-16,125,127-28,134, 139, 144-48, 151-54, 157, 166-67, 178,180,191,198-200,205-6,22324, 226-28, 237, 239-40, 243, 24648,252-59,265-67, 298, 347 "Cattle of the Sky" 255 Circumpolar Stars 169 Culminating Stars see zigpu-stars Winds 255 Star Charts, Sumerian 166-68; see also dub.muLan Stars of Anu, Enlil, Ea see Paths of Anu, Enlil, Ea Stellar Circle see Circle Stellar Distances 182-88 Stellar Lines of Latitude/Meridians 256; see also mi$ratu, tallu

Subject Index

Stellar Motion 188-92 Stellar Paths see Path of Anu, Enlil, Ea Stellar "Ropes" see qu Stellar Sectors/Segments 165-66, 170, 185, 253, 256; see also pirku, qaqqaru Stone/Stones 3-4,9-14, 100-102, 121, 167, 226, 262-63, 330, 345 Strabo 41 Styx 132,344,356 Subartean 324 Subartu/Subareans 7, 68-69, 72-73, 7780,87, 91,106,175,321-24 Sukalletuda 249 Sumer 70-73,76,81,83-86,89-90,105, 322,324,328 Sumer and Akkad 70-71, 82-86, 88, 298, 322,324,328,333 Sumerian Language 324 and passim Sun, Sun-god, Solar 49, 104, 114, 116-17, 125,127, 134, 139-40, 142, 144-45, 151-53,163,171-73,190-92,196200, 206, 227, 230, 235-39, 241, 243, 248-49,251-52,256-59,264-67, 273-74,279,281,284,298,315-16, 320-21,325,328-33,340,343,345, 352 Solar Disk 15 Solar Motion 188-92 see also Path of the Sun, ShamashlUtu, Sunrise, Sunset, Sunrise-Sunset, Utu Sundial 202, 256 SunriselRising Sun 97, 99, 104, 193-96, 199-202,205-6,235,248,259,26667, 281, 303, 316-17, 328-29, 35354; see also Sunrise-Sunset Sunrise-Sunset 72-73,96-98,106,14748,163,173,190-91,193-96,199202,206,296-97,321,330,332-33; see also Sea, Mountain Sunset, Setting Sun 193-96,199-202, 206, 248, 266, 328; see also SunriseSunset Surginiyas 72-73,90 Susa 21,29,43,70-71, 77, 81, 94,124, 299; see also Gate of Susa Sutean/Suteans 74-76, 92, 324 Swamp 322, 335-38; see also Marsh, apparu

379

Syria 61,82, 197 $inu 68-69, 82 $upri 68-69,81 $ursatak 72-73 Samsi-Adad I 94 Sar-Sin 70-71 Sadarbid 271 Subur 88 Surbu 68-69 Tablet of Destinies 227, 287 Tablet Stars of Heaven see dub.muLan Takulti-Ninurta I 298 Tammuz 13, 65; see also Dumuzil Tammuz Tarsis 320 Tebiltu River 312 Tell Muhammad 82, 353 Tema 72-73, 89-90; see also Temanaja, Til Temania Temanaja 89 Temple-tower see gigunu Terqa 81 Thales 41 Theodicy see Babylonian Theodicy Theogony see Hesiod, Hesiod Theogony Tiamat 6,34,36,108-9,111-12,117-18, 120,127-28,130,133,224,262,265, 318-19,335,347, 349 Creatures of 33,36,108,133,347 see also Sea Tiglath-Pileser I 94, 155 Tiglath-Pileser III 237, 330 Tigris 28-29,32,81-85,87, 92, 94, 100, 118-19, 131; see also Tigris and Euphrates Tigris and Euphrates 5, 28-29, 40, 61, 68-69,80-81,92,118,126,131,142, 319,321-22 Til ijalapu 72-73, 89 Til Temania 72-74, 89 Tirgan of Gutium 70-71,84 Tukris 70-71,87, 93, 106,321 Tukulti-Ninurta I 326,329 Tunnel 312 Turgu 70-71 Turkey 80,93,325 Turukki 72-73,87

380

Subject Index

Indexes

Tutu-Ziukkina 128 Twenty-One Poultices 312,339 Tyre 72-73,89-90,93 Udani 72-73,89-90 UgaritlRas Shamra 11,223,231,304, 322-24 Ulaja River 304 Underworld 13, 18-19,32,58,66,97-98, 104, 122, 125-26, 135, 138, 143-44, 161,179,213,215,217, 227, 236, 243, 245,248-49,268-95,311,318,326, 334-36,342-46,348-62 Approaches 349, 353 Boatman 356 Bolt 287, 349, 358-59 Courtyard 351 I)arkness 289-90,294,349,352-53 I)epth 362 I)oor 281,287, 349, 358-59 Entrance 276, 349, 353 Fields 351 Gatekeeper 271,279,281,316,350, 353,355-59 Gates 58,269-70,279-81,287, 294, 349,353-54,356,358-59 Gate of Ereskigal 359 Gate of Sunset 280, 359 Gate of the Captives 294, 356-57, 359 ganzer 269-71,287, 358 hi.gal ganzer 270, 359 ka.gal kur.ra 358-59 House 351 Interior 349-53 Key 359 Lock 281,358-59 Palace 270,350-51,358 e.gal.ganzer 270,287, 358 Place of Ereskigal 276, 289 River 132,292,318,344,349,351, 354-58 see also Hubur-River, Styx, Underworld- Stream, Watercourse Road 349,353-56 Road of No Return 353-55 Shape 361 Size 361

Stairway 144, 353, 359-60; see also Heaven-stairway, kun.sag, simmeltu Stream 280, 283, 356-57; see also na"ilu Surface 275, 279 Water Course 292 see also Earth, Earth of No Return, a.ra.li, erigal, ganzer, ki, ki.gal, ki.gul, kir5 kur, ki.ur.ra, kur.nu.gi4.a, urugal, arallu/arali, bit ddumuzi, enlet la tari, irkalla, kanisurra, kigallu, lambu, mitu, qabru, sapldtu Upper and Lower Land see Land Upper and Lower Mountains see Mountain Upper and Lower Seas see Sea Upper and Lower Zab see Zab River Ur 307, 355 Ur III 65,83,329 Urartian 276 Urartu 21,25-26,29,93,98,321 Ur-Nammu 213,308,350,355 UrSanabi 103,326 Uruk 10,83,96,104-5,130-31,144,193, 230,283, 320, 335,353, 360-61; see also KullabalKullabi Uruna 68-69 UtnapiStim 36-37, 96, 103-6, 303, 320, 326, 329, 335; see also Atrahasis, Ziusudra Utu/Shamash 140-44,214,231,251,259, 267, 352-53; see also Chariot of Utu, Shamash, Sun Utu-Abzu 65· Utuhegal 299 Uzarilulu 70-71,84 Visible Heavens

see Sky

Watches of the Night 7, 117 Water 117, 127 Water clock 148,169,182, 189 Waters of I)eath 96, 103, 106, 320, 326, 329,332 Waters of Life 103 Water Table 335-36, 341, 344 Way of the Moon 257

Way of the Sun 257 West/Westwind 81,91,193-202,204-5, 230, 249, 257, 298 Wind/Winds 65, Ill, 113, 117-18, 193206,208,243,266,332-33 Four Winds 111,197, 202,259; see also IM 4, stir erbetti Lists 197 Seven Winds 205 see also Circle, East, Four Winds, North, South, West Writing of Heaven 224; S2e also sitir same/burflme Yahdun-Lim 79, 94 Yamm 304 Yarmuti 77 Year 115,147, 151-52, 155, 162, 194, 206, 258 360-I)ay Year 152, 174, 181, 184, 190, 195 364-I)ay Year 185 Astronomical Year 153,185,258 Ideal Astronomical Year 152,162, 174,181,184,258

381

Leap Year 163-64 Lunar Year 157, 163 Solar Year 153, 163 Stellar Year 153 see also New Year Zabalam 353 Zab River, Upper and Lower 68-69,8082,84 Zagros 80-83, 87, 89, 94 Zamua 303 Zaralulu see Uzarilulu Zenith 144-45,233,236-38,252; see also Horizon-Zenith, an.pa, eldt same ZerlQuliyas 72-73, 90 Zeus 133 Ziggurat 123-24,307; see also gigunu Ziusudra 36, 88, 104-6, 328-29; see also Atrahasis, UtnapiStim Zodiac 256; see also Microzodiac Zumirini 68-69

382

Indexes

Ancient Texts and Modern Editions 81-7-27, 81 155,175-77 82-7-14,4005 146 Aa

140,160,229-33,235-37,270,28283, 285-86, 293, 306-7, 310 Commentary to Aa 140 Proto-Aa 229,240,306,310,316 Abel-Winckler 217, 248 ABL 542 28 657 152 744 166 Abnu-sikinsu 10-11, 14, 102 ACh Adad 17 280, 327 19 280 ACh !Star 4 253 28 5 29 179 39 175-77; see 81-7-72, 81 ACh Supp. !Star 33 64 ACh Supp. 2 Sin 19 179 ACh Samas 14 241 ACT 200 257-58 210 185 Adapa 13,65,103,197-99,201,249-50, 266 Adapa and Enmerkar 344 ADD 964 13 Address of Marduk to the Demons 18, 225,229,280,290,292,314,356-58 AfO 18 393 see Hilprecht Text AfO Beih. 22 177 Agum-Kakrime Inscription (5R 33) 108, 226,263 AKA 90,228,239,263 AI-Rawi, Iraq 47 144,267,288,360 AI-Rawi, Iraq 52 236,310 Alster, ASJ 8 4 43 Alster, Dumuzi's Dream 283 AMT 32/1 217, 278 88 352 103 208,214,219,241 104 260 An = Anum 109, 225, 306, 339, 343 Angimdimma 6,32,35,108,247-48 Antagal 153,231,233-34,236-38,241, 247, 27l, 290-91, 294, 313 Antiochus-Soter Inscription 297

Anzu 6, 36, 98 AO 6478 (TCL 6 21) 95, l77, 179, 18188, 191,258,264,267,334 AO 8196 3-4, 7-15, 59, 90-91, 125, 152, 226,243-44,246,263,290 ARM 3 61 Ashmolean 1924.798+ 322-23 Assurbanipal's Acrostic Hymn to Marduk and Zarpanitum 120,227, 254, 257, 286 Assyrian Dream Book 45; see also Oppenheim Dreams Astrolabes 8,15,115-16,128,147-48, 151-52,154-66,169-70,174-75, 177, 181, 188-90,206, 252-53, 256-57 Astrolabe B (KAV 218) 115-16,124, 154-55,157-63,169,176,181, 188,254,258,293 BM 82923 (G Walker, MDOG 109) 154-55 Circular Astrolabes 154-56, 158, 165, 206, 256, 264; see also CT 33 ll12 LBAT 1499 154-55,158,189 LBAT 1500 155 List Astrolabes 154-56, 158-59, 170 Sm. ll25 (CT 26 49) 155 Astronomical Diaries 90,199,266,305 Astronomical Omens 39,155,158, 169, 175,205,241,256,263,280,327 Astronomical Reports 256; see also SAA 8, Thompson Reports Atra!Jasis 7, 18, 64, 99, 113, 126, 129, 142-43,145,224,273-74,309,312, 315,326-27, 335-36, 339, 345 BA 3 327 BA 5 226,313,342 Babyloniaca of Berossus 34, 107, 132-34, 319 Babylonian Map of the World/World Map 20-42,60,62,85,92-94,97, 100,105-6,118,131,141,182-83, 195,204,299-300,305-6,320-22, 325-26,328-29,332-34 Babylonian Theodicy 16,282,285,354-56

Ancient Texts and Modern Editions BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 193-207, 298, 32425,334 Balag 109, 225 Ballad of Early Heroes 43 BAM 127 224 304 13 333 150 338 124 354 211 378 14 508 210-12 543 304 Bauer Ash. 148 Bauer, ZA 43 241 BBR 224,235,254 BE l/l 85 31 11287 262,297 3127 249 3160 210 BE 39099 (Flood) 17-18,274 (LambertMillard Atra-!Jasis 116-21) Benito Enki see Enki and Ninma!J, Enki and the World Order BHT 124 Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk 35,41,105,107, ll8, 123, 129-32,302,319-20,325,340,344 BIN216 214-15 BIN 4 126 224,291 Bit Meseri 8, 65, 281, 294, 359 Bit Rimki 16,119,139, 141,235,245, 249,264,267, 312, 316, 331 BL 195 247 196 273 Blessing of Nissaba 166-67, 215, 316 BM 15285 42 17175+17284 157 17311 21O-ll 22854 322-23 34035 195 38369+38694 183, 186, 188, 190, 258,264 40739 322-23 46837 322-23 50958 210-11 54745 316-17 64382+82955 see Sargon Geography 82923 see Astrolabes 92687 see Babylonian Map of the World

383

123340 (Ivory Prism) 191 BMS 53 359 Bahl Collection 1821 42 Bollenrucher Nergal 18,286 Borger, BiOr 30 148-49 Borger Esarh. 18,79,164,227,253-54, 275,300,320,327, 337-38 Borger, Fest. Bohl 149 Borger, JCS 21 16, 139,235,312,316-17, 331 Borger, Or 54 249 Borger, ZA 61 225,275 BPO 2 42 255 BWL 166 198; see also Babylonian Theodicy, Ludlul Bel Nemeqi, Shamash Hymn Canonical Temple List 316 Caplice, Or. 39 251,312,338 Castellino, Two Shulgi Hymns 223 Castellino, ZA 53 309 CBS 13972 76 CH 228 Chronicle of Early Kings 77-78,81,88, 92,328 Civil, NABU 1987 236 Civil, Or 54 28 85 Cohen Balag 109,225 Cohen Canonical Lamentations 233-34, 332 Cohen Ersemma 7, 240, 248, 266, 283, 300 Corpus Ukg., Urn. see SolI berger Corpus Craig AAT 67 see 81-7-27, 81 Craig ABRT 18; see Underworld Vision Creation of the Pickaxe 134, 136-37, 336 Cros Tello 169 85 Cruciform Monument of Manistusu 292, 297 CT 11 48 289 CT 13 31 see K. 7067 33 see Labbu 34 see DT 41 CT 16 I 295 3 284 10 275 13-14 209,218-20,296,358-59 15 315,346 17 342 19 228 22 272

384

Indexes

Death of Gilgamesh 352, 361 CT 16 (cant.) Death of Ur-Nammu 213,238,273,283, 43 224 293,350-51,355 44 360 Descent of !Star 18,36,288-90,292,344, 45 310,346 349-50,352-53,355,359 CT 173 280 Destruction of Lagash 339 13 315 Dialogue of Pessimism 142 19 224,243,251 Dietrich, AOAT 240 141-42 25 295 Diri 269-70,286,288-90 34 313 Proto-Diri 269-70,286,288,290 CT 189 306 DT 41 146 10 224 Dumuzi and Gestinanna 289, 348 21 203 Dumuzi's Dream 283 29-30 285 Duties and Powers of the Gods (Sumer 4) CT 24 2 109, 225 17, 134, 143-44, 161, 237, 244, 249, CT 2518 232 259-60,360 47 225 48 315 Ea (lexical series) 140,231-32,269,277, 50 224,315 282,286,289-90,293,300,306,310, CT 26 32 39 339 41 175-77 Proto-Ea 240,316 44 175-77 EA 105 292, 303 47 169 256 93 49 155 340 303 CT 28 38 304 355 214 CT 33 9 170,174 357 see Nergal and Ereskigal 10 (Planisphere = K. 8538) 15,155, Ebeling, ArOr 21 217, 285 206,264 Ebeling Handerhebung 64, 245, 252, 11 rev. (Hilprecht Text) see Hilprecht 265,348 Text 11-12 (Circular Astrolabes) 115, 154- Ebeling MVAG 23/1 340 Ebeling, Or 17 420 224 55,264 Ebeling Parfum Rez. 224,227 CT 36 32 297 Ebeling, RA 49 245 34 219,223,331 Emar 537 230-32 CT 38 20 223 553 101 CT 39 38 202 567 229,234,238,242 CT 41 19 38 568 231,285,289 23 166,253 576 197 CT 44 33 210 652 146 CT 46 43 see the Theogony of Dunnu 767 43 55 177-79,188,264,312,347 Emesal Vocabulary 234, 240, 293 CT 51 142 210,215,218,220 Enki and Ninbursag 328 168 269,277-78,282,284-85,288, Enki and Ninmab 134,137-39,142,272, 290 309,312-13,335-37 CT 53115 168 Enki and the World Order 134,142-43, CT 58 351,359 239,266,279,341 Curse of Akkad/Agade 32,35,77,91,139, Enki's Journey 308-9,336 247, 308, 336 Enmerkhar and Ensubkesdanna 80, 355 Enmerkhar and the Lord of Aratta 238 Damu in the Underworld 351,356-57

Ancient Texts and Modern Editions Enuma Anu Enlil 7, 10, 15, 146-47, 158, 175,179,246,253-55 Enuma anu ibnu same see When Anu Built the Heavens Enuma Elish 6,10,15,19,33-34,36,86, 107-32,134,136,138,145,147, 154, 159,161-62,165,224-25,227, 235, 243-44,246-47, 254, 256, 262-63, 266,278-79,282,286,309,318-19, 327, 334-36, 346-47, 349 Commentaries 129, 177, 224-25, 286 Ergot 150 Eridu Genesis see Sumerian Flood Story Erimbus 126, 197 Erra Epic 10, 17, 34, 206, 224, 244-45, 265,284,288,297,300,326,343,362 Etana Epic 37, 43-66, 185, 224, 227, 24546,250,252,264,296 Exaltation of !Star 134,144-45,147, 153, 227, 237, 251, 255, 267 Fable of the Willow 198 Falkenstein, UVB 15 227, 230, 284 Falkenstein, ZA 49 299 ZA 52 342 Farber !Star und Dumuzi 279, 343, 354, 356 Farber, JNES 49 263, 304 Flood Story see Flood (subject index), Sumerian Flood Story Foxvog, Fest. Hallo 219 Frankena Takultu 32, 205 Fuchs, Die Inschriften Sargon II 104-5, 305 Geller, Iraq 42 288 George, Iraq 48 120,227, 265,287 Gilgamesh (Akkadian) 10,18,31-33,36, 38,59,96-106,132,241,244-45, 257, 273-74, 278, 284, 287-92, 303, 320,326,328-30,332,334-35,341, 345,349-53,360 Gilgamesh (Sumerian) 38, 98, 134-39, 352,361 Gilgamesh and the Cedar Forest 38 Gilgamesh and the ljuluppu Tree 134-39,251,270,272-73,275, 280,287-88,335-36,349-50, 353,359-60,362

385

see also Death of Gilgamesh Girra and Elamatum 233 Grayson, AfO 20 305 Grayson Chronicles 77, 81, 88, 305, 328 Gray Samas 264 Great Revolt against Naram-Sin 77-78, 82-83 Hittite 83 Group Vocabularies 269-70,277-78,282, 284-85,287-88,290-91 Gudea Cyl. A 94,124,167, 198,235,239, 242,297 Gudea Cyl. B 239, 263 Gudea Statue B 80 Gurney, AAA 22 251,272,289 Gurney, AfO 28 186 Gurney, AnSt 7 330

Halley's Comet 166 M.daddag.ge an den.lil den.ki dnerigal (Incantation) 208,212-13,215-19, 366-67 Herzfeld API 305, 320 Hilprecht Text 177, 179-82, 185 Horowitz, w., JCS 46 92-93 183, 186 HS 245 see Hilprecht Text HS 1897 158-59,254 HSS 10 1 195 Idu 230 Igitub 270,277, 282 1M 52916 42 InamgiSburanki 224, 233, 262 Inanna and Enki 273, 287, 308-9 Inanna and Sukkaletuda 244, 249 Inanna and the King 332-33 Inanna's Descent 18,58,215-16,270, 273,275-77,280,287-88,344,35355,358-59 Incantation of Eridu 342 Incantation to Utu 167,275 Iqqur-ipus 162 Commentary 130 ISET II 249 Ivory Prism 191 Izbu-Commentary see Summa-Izbu Izi 137, 203, 229, 231, 244, 299 Proto-izi 234, 236, 238, 270, 277, 293, 302,306

386

Indexes

Judgment of Enmesarra 6 K. 157 210 K. 250+ 7, 175, 230 K. 2035+ 228-31 K. 2054+ 285 K. 2077+ 191 K. 2100 232 K. 2542+ 210-11 K. 2830 264 K. 3179+ 271 K. 3274 211 K. 3371 301 K. 3507 205 K. 3597 164 K. 4079a 304 K.4177+ 287-88 K. 4233+ 306 K. 5201 314 K. 7067 147-48 K. 7856 273 K. 9239+ 210 K. 9794 182; see AO 6478 K. 11191+ 203 K. 11251 169 K. 14943 (+) 83-1-18, 608 155; see also Circular Astrolabes Kagal 197 Proto-Kagal 241,302 KAH 337 Kang SACT I 231 KAR 4 134, 136-37, 272, 336 6 see Labbu 20 210 32 237, 279 44 314 55 252 98 12 142 358 214 32,205 233 124 252 149 267 359 302 58 307 3-19,59,121,125, 127, 131, 147, 152,167, 208, 226, 243-46, 250, 252,258,260,263,268,272,274, 286,318-19,326,334,336,345, 348

360 86 375 233-34,237 Kassite-Akkadian Vocabulary 90,291 KAV 80+ 322-23 81 197 92 see Sargon Geography 73 + 145 304 218 see Astrolabe B KBo III 13 83 Kesh Temple Hymn 260, 308 Khorsabad II 225 Kilmer, Studies Oppenheim 42 Kinnier Wilson J., Iraq 24 93 206 Kish I 292-93 Klein, Fest. Arzi 231 Klein Shulgi 337, 355 Koch, AfO 21 17 211 Kramer, Fest. Sjoberg 293 Kraus, AnSt 30 330 KUB 4 47 158,203,205,254-55 Kuhrt and Sherwin White, JHS 111 297 Kurigalzu Statue see Duties and Powers of the Gods (Sumer 4) Kutscher, Oh Angry Sea 331 Labbu 10,15,35,185 Laessoe Bit Rimki 249 Labar and Asnan 64,272,316 Lamastu 15,212-13,224,243,262, 294-95 Lambert, AfO 19 263 Lambert, AfO 23 292, 345 Lambert, AnSt 30 312,339 Lambert, AS 16 241,246 Lambert, Fest. Moran 350 Lambert, Fest. Reiner 291 Lambert, Fest. Sjoberg 292 Lambert, Iraq 38 215 Lambert, JAOS 88 225, 275 Lambert, JCS 21 275 Lambert, Kraus AV 198 278 Lambert, RA 53 304 Lambert-Millard Atra-basis see Atrabasis, BE 39099, Sumerian Flood Story Langdon, BabyL 7 233 263 Langdon Menologies 55 191 Langdon, RA 12190 266 Lanu 277

Ancient Texts and Modern Editions Layard ICC 28 LBAT 1499 see Astrolabes 1500 see Astrolabes 1577 306 Leemans, CRAI 2 42 Legend of Sargon see Sargon Birth Legen<:l Leighty Izbu 218 Lipsur 80,208,245,284,331 Livingstone 17-18, 195,224,233,262, 334-35 LKA 16 300 17 292 23 240,251,313-14 29 158 62 288-89,292 70 279 73 17 77 277 90 356,359 145 260 146 339 154 348 LKU 14 211 33 15 LTBA 2 270, 276, 286, 290, 299 Lu 218,277 Ludlul Bel Nemeqi 265, 288, 294-95, 310,343-44 Commentary 344 Lugalbanda Epic 38, 98, 308-9, 336 Lugalbanda and Hurumkurru (Lugalbanda I) 134 Lugale 6,10,108,168,235,348-49 Machinist TN Epic 206 Malku and Explicit Malku 12, 16,39, 203, 224-25, 227, 276, 282, 284-86, 296-98, 301, 305-7, 31 0-11, 313, 344 Map of Nippur 27, 195 Map of the World see Babylonian Map of the World Mappa Mundi see Babylonian Map of the World Maqlu 215,217, 355 Marduk Theology 225 Marriage of Mardu 91 Mayer, Or 47 149 Mayer, Or 59 232,276,314,316

387

MCT 206 MDP 2 340 6 328 18 350,352 34 206 Meier AfO 14 281 Meissner-Rost Senn. 34 me.se ba.da.dal (Incantation) 208,21012,215-18,220,244,363-65 Michel, E., WO 2 28 Michalowski, JCS 30 80 MKT 2 42 Moon-God and the Demons (= Utukku Lemutu XVI) 6,145,219,228,239, 241 Mul-Apin 8, 115, 148, 151-52, 157-59, 163-64, 166, 168-74, 176-77, 181, 185,188-90,196,198-99,206,25254, 256-57, 259 Mussu)u 211 MVAG 475 58 Na)aman, BASOR 214 26 100 Nabnitu 10, 139-40, 144,218,229,231, 238,270,281,283,293,302,360 Namburbi 166,210,223,245,251 Nanna-Suen's Journey to Nippur 337 NBC 3830 214 NBC 11108 134,138-39,141,230,335 Nebuchadnezzar King of Justice 61 Nemet-Nejat LB Field Plans 61, 195, 201 Nergal and Ereskigal 10,13,18,65-66, 125, 135, 161,213,217, 244-46, 250, 266-67, 278, 280, 288, 290, 316, 346, 349-53,358-59 Neugebauer, JCS 10 132 181 Neugebauer and Sachs, JCS 21 201-2 257-58 Ni.3200 76 4507 135 Ninurta and the Turtle 337 Nougayrol, RA 38 87 66,267 0. 175 288-89 OECT 5 23 204, 261 55 212,219 OECT 6 74-75 205, 259, 266 OECT 11 69 + 70 13 86 168

388

Indexes

OIP 2 34,102,200,226-27, 275, 300, 312, 314,330,341 OIP 40 275 Oppenheim, AnBi 12 205, 254-55, 259 Oppenheim Dreams 5,16,45,273,348 Oppenheim,JNES 33 200 151-52,160 Parpola LAS 154, 164, 166,253 PBS 112 106 285 112 271, 275, 277, 287, 293, 339 113 262 PBS 5 1 328-29; see also Sumerian Flood Story PBS 10/4 8 296-97 Perry Sin 252 Pingree D. and E. Reiner, AfO 25 191, 257-58 Postgate, Sumer 29 301 Practical Vocabulary of Assur 197 Prayers to the Gods of the Night 116, 158,203,205,233,251,254-55,259, 266 Prosecky, ArOr 43 342 47 277, 295 Proto-Aa see Aa lR 30 38 52 124,312 17 248,267 67 330 2R 50 see K. 2035+ 3R 26 309 4R 17 248 19 264,279 4R 30 281-82,355 34 79 4R2 55 212 58 262 61 13,252 5R 6 124 16 291 46 124 33 see Agum-Kakrime InSCription Racc 118,148,223,247 Reisman Two Hymns 235, 239, 297, 299, 308,313,338 RIM 4 236, 262, 281-82, 288, 293, 303 Romer, Fest. Sjoberg 313

Royal InSCriptions Agum 103,108,226,263 Annubanini 340 Antiochus-Soter 297 Assurbanipal 31-32,37-38,90, 12324, 224, 227, 284, 320 Darius 305 Esarhaddon 79, 227, 284, 300, 320, 327, 337-38 Hammurabi 87 Nabonidus 30-31,58,267 Nabopolassar 63, 144,226,287, 360 Naram-Sin 80, 82-83, 328 NebuchadnezzarII 28,30-31,12324,226-27, 300-301, 305, 312, 320,330,338 Neriglessar 237, 330 Rim-Sin 232, 262 Samsuiluna 236 Sargon of Akkad 29, 76-77, 79, 302, 328 Sargon II 26, 29-30, 88, 90, 98, 104-5, 241,305,312,336 Sennacherib 30,34,39,62,100,102, 120, 168,200, 226-27, 286-87, 300,305,312,314,341 Shalmaneser III 25-26, 28 Sin-Iddinam 267 Samsi-Adad I 94 Samsi-Adad V 38 Su-Sin 88 Tiglath-Pileser I 228,239,263,29899 Tiglath-Pileser III 89,301,330 Tukulti-Ninurta I 90, 228, 297, 299, 303,329,337 Ur-Nammu 302 Urukagina 85 Xerxes 305, 320 Yabdun-Lim 79,94,303 RS 11.732 11 SAA 3 226; see also Assurbanipal's Acrostic Hymn to Marduk and Sarpanitum, Underworld Vision SAA 8 10, 117, 154, 164,257, 259, 266 Sachs-Hunger Diaries 90,199,259,266, 305 Sagigames 243,251,277, 295

Ancient Texts and Modern Editions Sargon Geography 67-95,97, 105-6,237, 260,296,299,320-21,324,328,330, 333-34 Sargon Legend 33,77-78,89 Sb 232,290 SBH 18,64, 109,211,216,225,230,238, 240,272,300,312 Scheil, RA 8 351,356 Scheil, RA 27 33 Scheil TN 337 Schramm, Or 39 218,294 Scurlock, JAOS 108 359 Seven Sages 43 Shamash Hymn 17, 40, 118, 263, 273, 279,297-98,300-301,30~311,325,

333-34,340,343,352 Shulgi Hymns 223,231,337 Silbenalphabet A 136 Silbenvokabular A 136 Sjoberg, JCS 29 262,346-47 Sjoberg, Mondgott 232, 238-39 Sjoberg,OrSuec 19/20 232,241,285,299, 358 Sjoberg, OrSuec 23/24 308, 313 Sjoberg, ZA 63 262, 281 Sjoberg, ZA 65 209-10, 259 SLTN 61 309, 336 Sm. 162 155, 158; see also Circular Astrolabes Sm.1125 155 Sm.1802 210 Sollberger Corpus Ukg. 85, 139-41, 339 Sollberger Corpus Urn. 338 SpTU 1 94 258 97 155 100 257 164 275,281 SpTU 3 64 275, 280, 359 67 134,141-42 75 232 83 210 Starr Baru 30 66, 267 STC 1 286, 310-11, 338 STC 2 146 Steible Rim-sin 85, 167, 262-63 Stele of the Vultures 240 Streck Ash. 124, 224, 227, 320 Strong, PSBA 20 227

389

STT 73 254, 355 108 10-11,14 173 277 198 338 340 186,188,190,258,264 STYC 36 247 Sumerian Flood Story 36, 88, 104, 106, 143,218,328-29 Sumerian King List 43-45,81,313 Sumerian Sargon Legend 77 Sumerian Temple Hymns 167; see also TCS3

~ar Tambari Epic 36, 38, 347 SGL I 223 SGL II 242, 361 Su.ila 64,119,265,276 314 Summa-Alu 10, 38, 202 ~umma-Izbu Commentary 218 Sundu danu irhil same 150 Surpu 205,239,241,245,259,281,28990,343,352,361 Tadmor Tigl. 330 Takulti-Ninurta Epic 206, 298 Takultu 32 TCL 3 98, 241, 284 TCL 613 155 21 see AO 6478 53 250 54 283 TCL 15 242,275,282,309 TCL 16 232 TCS 3 167, 247, 260, 283, 308 Theogonyof Dunnu 145-46,319 Thompson, AAA 20 226, 236 Thompson, Iraq 7 305 Thompson Esarh. 227 Thompson Reports 117, 154, 164,257; see also SM 8 Thureau-Dangin, RA 2714 226 Thureau-Dangin, RA 32 251 TIM 9 63 212-13,215-16,219 Tintir 123-24 Tonietti, Or 48 304-5 212 Tukulti-Ninurta Epic 40, 260 TuM NF 3 10 134 Twenty-One Poultices 312, 339 Two Elegies 353

390

VAS 154 292 134 1 103 84 UET 1146 87 10 213 224,291 275/276 82 12195 66 UET 6 23 351 2497 108 667 306 24120 159 72 247 VAT 8006 see Sargon Geography 101 232 Vase Inscription of Lugalzagesi 262,297, 102 262 302,321 104 167 Venus Tablet of Ammi~aduqa 158 106 85 Verse Account of Nabonidus 124 395 350 Victory Stele of Naram-Sin 82 Ugaritica V 288-89 UGU (Medical Series) 214 Walker, MDOG 109 see Astrolabes Underworld Vision (of an Akkadian Weidner, AfK 2 289 Crown Prince) 18,227, 273, 284, Weidner AfO 13 205 123 330,337,348,350,356 Weidner, AfO 1789 15,147 Urgud 11, 102 Weidner, AfO 18 299 Ur-Nammu Clay Cone B 302 Weidner, AfO 20 118 170, 185 Urra = hubullu 12,23, 130, 153,203, Weidner Chronicle 77, 88, 310 208,265,276,284,322-24,331 Weidner Gestirn-Darstellungen 15, 155 Emar Parallel 101,322,324 Weidner TN 90,228,297-98 Ras Shamra 322-24 Westenholz OSP 80, 235 Uruanna 11,304 UtukkuLemnutu 145,209-10,215,218- When Anu Built the Heavens 149-50, 335,337 20,236,272,280,284,289,295-96, Winckler Sarg. 90, 284, 305 315,342,346,358-59 World Map see Babylonian Map of the see also CT 51 142, Moon-God and the World Demons Worm 150 VAB 3 297,305 VAB 4 31,58, 124,224,226-27,300-301, YOS 10 89 YOS 11 213-15,290 305,312,320,330,336 van Dijk, Sumerische Gotterlieder 242 Zi-formula 208,217,277, 285 van Soldt Solar Omens 233, 263 see also zi.an.na M.pa zi.ki.a be.pa Zi.pa-formula 271, 273, 338-39, 358-59, 361 UD.GAL.NUN

Sumerian and Akkadian Terms

Indexes

391

Sumerian and Akkadian Terms Sumerian Terms a.ab.ba 130-31,141,301-4,341 ab/ab.ba 301-2 abzu 306-10,315,317, 337, 342, 346 ag 223 (Heaven) an (Heaven) 223-24, 229, 243, 278, and passim an.7 see Heavens-Seven, an.7-ki.7 an.7-ki.7 208-10,212-20 an.7-u4.7 210 an.an 219 an.bad.ra 249 an.bar 242 an.bar.Bua 250 an.dagal 209, 296 andurunna 109,125,128,225 an.gal 275,280 an.ki passim an.ki.ub.da.lfmmu.ba 217 an.ki.za 235 an.pa 144,233-34,236-38,242,250,252, 260-91 an.pa an.ka 237 an.pa same 237 see also Zenith, appi same, eldt same an.saJan.sa.ga/sa.an.na 143,233-34,23839,242,247-49,308 an.sa (Highest Heavens) 244,247-49; see also Heaven's Midst an.sar 240, 250; see also Ansar an.ub 259-61 an.ub.da.lfmmu.ba 298-99 an.lm.na 143,244,249; see also Upper/ Highest Heavens an.ur 143-44,233-35,237-38,241-42, 250,252,260-61,299 see also Horizon, ur.an.na, isid same an.ur-an.pa 144 an.za 233-36,238,242,299,308,313; see also pat same za.an.ki 236 za.an.na 331 za.ki 331 an.za.gln 167-68 anzanunzu 312 arali 268, 270-71, 282-84, 353

bad.ra 137 Mra 48, 309; see also Heaven-Dais bur/bur/buru 138-39, 232, 285, 288, 307 (Earth) 285 (Heaven) 232 dal = naprusu 211 ddlm.me 209,212-13; see also lamastu dU6.ku 130,307,315-16; see also Duku dub.mul.an 166-68,263 dur 256 (astronomical) dur.an.ki 41 (Nippur); see also markas same u er$eti engur

138-39,306,308-10,312,315, 335-36,338-39,346 giseren see Cedar, Cedar Forest, Mountain erigal 269,286,288,291,293,351; see also urugal gaba.kur.ra 281 GAN 240 ganzerlganzer 268-71,286-88,290, 342,358-59 GAR = ninda = nindanu see ninda girra (Heaven) 233 gis (Heaven) 229-30, 240 gis.be/gis.M (supuk same) 232-34,23840,260 ba.la (astronomical) 256 bal.an.ku 307,316; see also lJallanku be/be/be.an.na 214,239-41; see also supuk same bilib/balib 269-70, 286, 288 bur.sag 361 bur.sag.an.ki.bi.da 272 idim (Heaven) 229, 231 idim (Earth) 268, 289 id-kur-ra 70-71 id-kur-raki 70-71 gisig.kur.ra 287 igi-gal.bi 180; see also Reciprocal

392

Sumerian and Akkad ian Terms

Indexes

igi.kalam.ma 321 1G1.KUR 269-70 ,287-88 en;etu 269-70, 288 irkalla 288 il (Heaven) 228 1Miltiinu!istiinu 197; see also North im/1Mx1M (Heaven) 229-30 1M 4 202; see also Four Winds ka.gal.kur.ra 287 kalam 136,20 9,295-9 6,321 see also miitu ki 268, 272, 295, 349 and passim ki.7 see Seven Earths, an.7-ki.7 kLdagal 278,280 ,361 ki.gal 271":72,274-76,280,361 irat kigalli 275 kigallu -tilmiit u 275 kippat kigalli 275, 361 ki.gul 275 ki.ki 219 KI.K1 289-90 giSkin = kiskann u 342 kir5 269,28 1,288-8 9 ki.sar 240 kisi 269, 289 ki.tum 91 ki.ub 260 kiur.ra 276 kukku 269, 281, 289-90, 352; see also kukkil kun.sag 115,144 ,360 kur (EarthlUnderworld) 135, 138, 144, 213,217, 269-73, 280-81, 285, 296, 349-52 ,355-56 ,358-60 kur (Land) 313-14 ,322-23 ; see also matu gaba.kur.ra = irat er$etim 281 tus.kur.ra 275 kur.bad 284-85 kur.dagal 278, 280, 361 kur.gal (mountain) 315-16 kur.gal (underworld) 280-81 ,361 kur.gi (= er$etum) 269,278 kur.idim 285,315 kur.kur 130, 138, 167, 235, 260, 272, 29697,321, 323,331 kur.kur = dadmu 300 kur.kur = matatu 130, 323

see also LandlLands, miitiitu kur.nu.gilgi 4 269,27 1,276-7 8,354 kur.nu.gi/gi4.a 217,269 -70,276 -78, 336,34 3,355-5 7 kur.nu.gi.gi/gi4.gi4 271,276 -78 see also Earth of No Return, kurnug il 1Mkur.ra 196-97; see also East kur.su.da = er~etu ruqtu 282 kur si.rum/sir.rum 323-24 kur.tita 316 kur.ug5.na = er$eti mituti 281 kur u.sal.la/u.sal.na 323-24; see also gabakur.ra, gisig.kur.ra, ka.gal.kur.ra, tus.kur.ra, er$etu

lalgar 307,313 -14 lam/lam ma 269, 290; see also HeavenEarth lamgu 269, 290 lil 260 lu.ulu = lullil 22, 278 ma.da 296-97, 322 madam a.da 297 1Mmar.du 196-97; see also West me 232,27 3,346-4 7 me (Heaven) 229-30; see also HeavenEarth me.lam 247, 290 ME.LIM 178-79 IMmir 196,198; see also North mu (Heaven) 229-30, 240 mul.an/mul.an.na/mul.ag.ga 223, 243 nab (Sea) 302 nam.lu.ulu 16 ninda 180 sag.kul 264 si (Heaven) 229-30; 238 si.an.ta = elatu 230 si.un.na = elat same 230, 237 gissi.gar 143,248,267, 287; see also Bolts, sigaru h"si.gar 287 1Msi.sa 196-97; see also North si.sLig 203, 360 sig.sig 203 siun.na/an.siun.na = eldt same 230, 238

sud.aga = elmesu 262 sug = apsil 306 sug = tilmtu 302 saan.na see an.sa segbar 307, 316-17 si.rum/sir.rum see kur si.rum/sir.rum temen- si (g) 308-9 Ms 138-40, 315 tul = tamtu 302 tus.kur.ra 275 ub.an 259-60 ub.da.an.ki 260,298 -99 ub.da.limmu.ba 260, 298-99 ubur.an.na see Heaven-Teat UDU.IDIM = bibbu 153 u14 (Heaven) 234, 240 uLM/uLM.a 140,23 3-34,23 8-41,25 051; see also Firmament, M, supuk same

IMUl u 196 un (Heaven) 230, 232, 238 ur.an.na 235 uras (Earth) 231,269 uras (Heaven) 229, 231, 269 urugal 269-71 ,286,28 8,291,2 93,348 , 351,361 er$etu 361 qabru 348-49 us ina qaqqari 182-86 utah (Heaven) 232, 240 za see an.za ZE (Earth) 269 zi.an.na M.pa zi.ki.a M.pa 208-9,2 11-12, 214,217 zikaralzigar/zigarum (Heaven) 229,231 zikum (Heaven) 229,231 zikura (Earth) 294

Akkad ian Terms abamat u 305-6 amelutu 3-4,17 ammatu 16, 108, 268, 282, 286 ammu 306 IMamurru 197, 202; see also West anduru nna 109,12 5,128,2 25 anzanu nzil 306-7, 310-13, 336, 340 apparu 21,28,9 4; see also Swamp appi same 236 apsasil 22,35 apsil 302,306 -13,315 -17, 339, 342-43 , 345- 46 and passim Lexical Equivalents 306-7 see also Apsu, abzu, engur, lalgar aralilarallil 97-98, 268, 270, 282-85, 336 asakku 280, 348 asarru 190-91 asurrak ku 178-79 ,264,28 6,306-7 , 31013,347 asrata see Asrata asru (Heaven) 129, 224-25, 286

393

basmu 22,35-3 6,108 ber qaqqari 190-91 beru ina same 179, 182-86 bibbu 153 bit apsi 307 bit ddumuz i 268,27 0,294 bu ekleti 289, 294 bu ekur 294-95 bit epri 294 bit ept 289, 294 bit irkalla 289 bu muti 271, 294 bitqu (Channel) 21, 28-29, 85, 94, 322 buril (Heaven) 232 burumi tu 168 burumu 15, 146,206 ,224, 226-27, 232, 234,276 kippat burume 206, 260, 264 sitir burume 15,224 ,226 supuk burume 234, 239-40 bU$ulbu$innu 12-13

394

Indexes

dadmu 31,286,296-98,300-301,310,320 dalat dadme 300 kur.kur 300 dalam 285 dannatu 3-4,16,286,345 danninu 18,129,225,268-70,276,286, 290 duku 314,316 durmal;l;u 119-20, 125, 265 eiat same 116,144,230,233-38,252, 260-61; see also Zenith, an.pa, si.un.na, eiatu, isid same-elat same elatu 45, 116, 125, 127, 129,227, 230, 236-37, 244, 251, 339 see also Heaven-Earth, elat same, si.un.na, si.an.ta elatu-saplatu 116,292 elis-saplis 115, 122, 345 elmesu 3-4, 12-13,252,262; see also sud.aga = elmeSu engurru 306, 309-10; see also engur erenu see Cedar, Cedar Forest, Mountain ermi danim 224,227, 287, 300 Canopies 227 er?etu 268-82,285,287-90,292-95, 355-62 and passim Sumerian equivalences 269-73, 342 er?et la tari 18,268-69,276-77 bab er?eti 270, 287 pani er?eti 269-70, 287 irat er?eti 294, 343 kippat er?eti 274,334 qereb er?eti 316 er?et denlil 274 er?eti miwti 281 er$etu rabitu 280-81,356-57,361 enietu rapastu 274,278-80,356-57, 361 er$etu ruqtu 282 e?arra see Esarra eSgalla see Esgalla esmabl;u 227, 286-87, 310 gallu 356-57 ganzer see ganzer gigunu 350 girtabluZlu 22, 35-36; see also ScorpionMan

l;ababu 63-64 {JAB-rat 5 !;allanku 316; see also hal.an.ku l;anduru 24, 39 !;argullu 327 l;arranu (astronomical) 146-47 harran same 65, 250, 266 barran dsamsi see Path of the Sun see also Path !;asmtlnu 11,120-21 l;astu 269,285,288,291 zaspu 3-4,9, 14 1Miltanu!istanu 197; see also North ina pi narati 96, 103-6, 326 irkalla 269-70,287-90,293,348-49 irtu irat apsi 309 irat er$etiler?eti rapastilkigalli 275, 279,281,294,362 see also gaba isid same 144,233-37, 249, 252, 260-61, 315-16; see also Horizon isid same-elM same 144,330 i:J u 30 jamu 304 jarri marti 305 kanisurra 269-70,287-88,290; see also ganzer kibratu 31,97, 296, 298-300 kibrat arba:Ji 204,296,298 kibrat erbetti 24-25,37,39-40,29899,325 see also Four Corners, Earth's Surface kigallu 225,272,274-76,300,361 irat kigalli 275 kigallu-tamatu 275 kippat kigaUi 275,361 kippatu 42,178,206,260,264,325 kippat burume 206, 226-27, 260, 264 kippat burume u mtltati 226 kippat erbetti 298, 334 kippat er$eti 274,334 kippat kigalli 275, 361 kippat matati 334 kippat same 178,206,260,264

Sumerian and Akkadian Terms kippat sar erbetti 208, 260, 264, 298, 334 kippat sare 206, 264 kippat tubuqat erbetti 206, 334 kirimal;u 40, 102 ki$rutum 91 kissatu 40, 74, 89, 216, 300 ki-ur-ra 276 kiuru 269-70,276,290 kukku 269-70, 289-90, 352; see also kukku kunsaggu 115; see also kun.sag kurnugu 225,269-70,276-78,289; see also Earth of No Return, kur.nu.gi/gi 4 kusarikku 22,35-36,108 kusu 352 lalgar 313-14; see also lalgar lamastu 209,213,216,218-19,295 lammu 269-70, 276, 290 libbi same 228, 233, 238-39 lullu 22,278 luludanitu-stone 3-4 9-10 263 lumasu 13, llI, 114, i46-47, 257, 286 malaku 254,257 malku-gods 273, 352 manzazu/nanzazu (astronomical) 128, 146-48 markasu 120,265 markas ilani 120 markas lalgar 314 markas same u erseti 41 (Nippur); see also dur.an.ki marratu 22, 25-30, 35, 37, 42, 60, 62, 94, 106,182,193-94,204,304-5,32021,325-26,329,332-33 masqitu (Sea) 305-6 matatu 130-31,296-97, 299-300, 323, 330,334 kippat mtltati 334 see also kur.kur, ma.da.ma.da matitan 297 mtltu 295-96,301,313-14,322; see also Land, kalam, ma.da mtltu saplitu (underworld) 269, 289-90 me balati see Waters of Life melammu 38, llO, 174,229,290,325

395

melit samami 288 me marrudltu 70-71, 84; see also Bitter Waters, Marrud me muti see Waters of Death mil;irtu 123-24 mil;rit me 124 minatu 151-52 miriyas (Kassite) 291 mi$ratu 114, 165, 256 mitu (Underworld) 291 mugammirtum (Sea) 142,305-6 mul;l;u 75 musl;u8sU 22,35-36,108,339 nabalu 301 nab/ptu 233 nagbu 118-19,314-16,337, 343 nagu 22-26,30-33,35,37-39,41-42,92, 94,100,106,182-83,300,320-21, 325,328-29 nal;balu 326-27; see also sigaru nal;balu tamti na:Jilu 292,356-57; see also Underworld-stream naqbaru 271,291 nindanu 180; see also ninda nipl;u (astronomical) 151-52 pani same 241,246 pat same 234-36; see also an.za patu 31,234-36 pirku (astronomical) 166,256 qabal same 238 qabru 270-71,291,293-94,348-49; see also urugal qaqqar denlil 274,335 qaqqaru 48-49,56-57, 120, 142, 185, 269,276,278,291-92,295,303 qaqqar denlil 292 qaqqari la tari 278 qaqqaru (astronomical) 49, 166, 170, 182-86, 190-91,253,256; see also Stellar Sectors qaqqiru rabitu 292 see also Heaven-Earth samamuqaqqaru, us ina qaqqari qarnu 29, 123-24 qeberu 91

396

Stars

Indexes

qereb same 183,233-34,238-39,24749, 259, 310; see also an.sa qu (astronomical) 256 ratu 105, 132 riksu 256, 265 saggilmud-stone 3-4,9, 11, 14,243,247, 263 saparru 327 serkuppu (Sea) 305-6 si1:;pu 86 sa1:;ip samamf 86 si1:;ip same 86, 260, 296 sil:;ip same u erfjeti 86 sikkur same 300 simmiltu simmelat ganzer 144,267, 287-88, 360 simmelat samamf 66,144,250,267, 353,359 fjerretu (lead-ropes) 119-20, 265 fjerretu (teats) see Heaven-Teat 1Msadu 197; see also East samamu 17, 66, 86, 98, 108, 112-14, 116, 120-21, 125, 127, 145,223-24,227, 236,243,247, 250, 278, 288, 310, 337 melft samamf 267, 288 sama~u 223-24,228,246,348 sammu sa aladi see Plant of Birth samsatu 39 samu 223-42 and passim Canopies 227 Equivalences 228-33 tarba$u 255 see also appi same, eldt same, isid same, 1:;arran same, kippat same, libbi same, pani same, pat same, qabal same, qereb same, sikkur same, saplan same, sipik same, sitir same, supuk same, utul same samu 'Rain' 224, 228 sa mu1:;1:;i 75 sa-mu-malsa-me-ma 223 samu rabutu 280 samu rapsutu 209, 228, 296 samu fjirutu 66, 246 saplan same 234, 236 saplittu 116, 227, 292-93

sar erbetti 202, 206, 260, 264, 298, 334; see also Four Winds, kippat sar erbetti seru 39 sigaru 114-15,267, 326-27 sigaru na1:;balu tamti 18,126,274, 326-27 see also Heaven-Bolt, si.gar sipku 232, 240 sipik same 232,240-41; see also supuk same siqftu = tamtu 305-6 sissiktum 193-94,205 sitir burume, samame, same 15, 224 sitqultu (astronomical) 151-52 subat danim 228 subat irkallaldirkalla 288-89 subatdnudimmud 112,128 subat samelsama~i 228 supuk burume see burumu supuk same 97-98,214,232-34,239-41, 260; see also Firmament, be, ul.be, sipik same 1Msutu 197; see also South talbftu 70-73, 75, 86, 299 talaktu (astronomical) 257 tallu (astronomical) 256 tamartu (astronomical) 151-52 tamtu 301-6 and passim; see also Sea, Tiamat, a.ab.ba, ab/ab.ba, ammu, masqitu, mugammirtum, serkuppu, siqitu tarbafju 63-64,255 tubuqat arba~i 298-99 tubuqat erbetti 206, 298-99

Stars Sumerian and Akkadian Star Names mulab.sin 171, 176 mulal.l u5 = alluttu 15,171,191; see also

mUllugal

mulalluttu mulalluttu 156; see also mUIaLlu5 mulangubbil 181 mulan.ta.gub 180-81 mulanunitu 156,161,171,176-77 mulapin;mul gisapin 116, 156-57, 161-62

15,156, 175, 177, 198-99; see also Ursa Major mulmar.gid.da.an.na 278; see also Ursa

mulbibbu gU4.utu

171-72; see also

mulgu4· utu

si.si.ig

ziqpu-stars 169, 177, 179, 181-88, 190, 258,264,334 circle of 186-88 ziqpu-point, height of 187 zittu (astronomical) 256

Minor mUlmas.tab.ba 156, 175, 177 mulmas.tab.ba.gal.gal 156, 171, 175-77 mulMUBUkes.da 160 mul.mul 15, 151-52, 156, 160, 163, 170-

71, 175-77, 179-81, 198-99 156, 175, 177

mulda.mu 156 muldarJugal 176 muldili.bad 156-57, 161, 171-72, 175-76

mulneberu see Neberu, Marduk mulnin.mab 156-57, 160,175-77 mulniru 160; see also m\1MUBukes.da mUlnu.mus.da 156-57, 160, 176 muINUN.KI 176

muldingirtusu

176

mulen.te.na.bar.bum 156-57, 160, 175, 177 eriqqi samelsamami 278 mule.tur.ra 255 mulgam 171 mulgenna; see kajamanu, dbibbu kajamanu mul giSgigir 253 mulgir.tab 156, 171, 180-81, 198-99 mulgu4.an.na/gu.an.na/gu.an.na 160, 171,

176 mulgu.la 156-57, 160, 171, 176 mulgu4.u tu 171-72; see also mul bibbu gU4· utu

170-71, 174

151-52, 156, 160, 163, 169, 17576· see also mUliku muliku '160; see also mUliku mulis le 157, 160

muliku

zagmukku 151-52 zaqiqu 202-3 ziqiqu/zaqiqu 3- 4, 16-17, 360; see also

mulmar.gid.da

mulmus

256, 265

ubSukkinakku III um bubbulim 162, 256 utul same 251

156

dbibbu kajamanu; see kajamanu, Mercury

mullubun.ga

turru

397

156, 159 kajamanu; see dbibbu kajamanu, Mercury mulkaksi.sa 156,160,174, 176, 188 mulkaktag.ga 180-81 mulkalftum 156,160 mulka-ma-tu 160 mulku6 116, 156, 159-60, 162, 174, 176, 198-99 mulka5a

mulpa.biLsag 171, 176 mulpan 156, 160, 175, 177, 180-81; see also The Bow-Star mUlsag.me.gar 159,166 mulsim.mab 156, 171, 176 mulsipa.zi.an.na 156,160,166, 171, 175-

77, 253 mulsipa.an.na 179-81 mulsubur.mas 171,176,191

mulfjalbatanu

156, 160, 162, 171-72

176 mulsitadallu 160; see also mulsipazi.an.na mUIsu.gi 15,156,161,171,174,177, 198-99 mulsukudu 160; see also mulkaksi.sa dsuLpa.e 171-72 mUlsuLpa.e 156 dsullat-dbaniS 176 muIsu.pa 156, 176, 180-81 dsar.ur-dsar.gaz

mUltesmusen

156, 160, 176

mUlud.ka.duh.a 156 mUl uga 156 mUlugamusen 175-77 mul d ge -e 176

u-

398

Indexes

mUlur.bar.ra 6 mUlur.gu.l a 15, 156, 171, 176 mu1ur.idim 156, 160 mul uz 15, 156, 176

mUlzappu 160; see also muLmul mUlzibanitu 156-57, 171, 176 mulzibbatu 171,176

Plates

English/Classical Star Names Anzu-star 35 Aquarius see mulgu.l a Aries see mul hibun.ga Arrow see mulkaksi.sa Auriga see mUlgam

153, 159, 169, 171-72, 252, 257; see also mulbibbu gU4.utu

11ercury

North Star Orion

Bootes see mUI su.pa Bow-star 124; see also mulpan Bull of Heaven 160; see also mulgu4.an.na Cancer see mUla l.l u5 , mUlalluttu Capricorn see mulsubur.mas Centaurus see mulen.te.na.bar.bum Chariot 253 Corvus see mUlugamusen

164,166; see also mulsipa.zi.an.na

Perseus see mulsu.gi Pisces see mulanunitu, mulsim.mab Piscis Austrinus 259; see also mUlkue Pleiades 160, 163-64, 177, 259; see also muLmuL mulka-ma-tit Plough see mulapin Polaris 195, 198 Sagittarius see mulpa.biLsag Saturn 153,169,171-72,252,257 Scorpio 259; see also mulgir.tab Sirius 263

Field see muliku Fish see mUlkue Fox see mulka5a Harness 186 Horse-star 35 Hyades see mulis Hydra see mul dmus

ze

153, 159, 161-62, 166, 169, 17172, 252-53, 257; see also

Jupiter

mulsag.me.gar, dsuLpa.e Leo see mUlur.gu.la Libra see mulzibanitum 11ars

see Polaris

153,161-62,169,171-72,252-53, 257

Tails

see zibbatu

Ursa 11ajor 177, 259; see also mUlmar.gid.da Ursa 11inor 177, 278; see also mulmar.gid.da.an.na

153,156-57, 161-62, 169, 171-72, 175-76,227, 235-36, 239, 251-54, 257, 259-60, 266, 353 Virgo see mulab.sin Venus

Yoke

186

Plates

401

Plate 1

KAR 307:30-38

402

Plates

Plates

Plate 2

403

Plate 3

BM 92687 World Map obverse

BM 92687 World Map reverse

404

405

Plates

Plates

Plate 5

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Obverse

Left edge

hlif

BM 82955 Sargon Geography Reverse only

2

3

4

5

6

em

Reverse

BM 82955 Sargon Geography

406

Plates

Plates

407

Plate 7

Plate 6

BM 92687 World Map obverse 2

3

4

5

6

em

BM 92687 World Map reverse

408

Plates

Plates

Plate 8

409

Plate 9

K 2542+ obverse

2

3

4

5

6

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8

em

K 2542 + reverse

Plates

410

Plate 10

K. 9329+, BM 50958, BM 17311, Sm. 1802 2

3

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em