Manufacturing processes. 2, Grinding, honing, lapping

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RWTHedition RWTH Aachen

Fritz Klocke

Manufacturing Processes 2 Grinding, Honing, Lapping Translated by Aaron Kuchle

123

Professor Dr.-Ing. Dr.-Ing. E. h. Fritz Klocke Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering of RWTH Aachen University Manfred-Weck Building Steinbachstr. 19 52074 Aachen Germany [email protected]

Translator Aaron Kuchle Woosong University Woosong Language Institute 196-5 Jayang Dong Daejon 300-831 Dong Gu Republic of Korea (South Korea) [email protected]

ISBN 978-3-540-92258-2

e-ISBN 978-3-540-92259-9

DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-92259-9 RWTHedition ISSN 1865-0899

e-ISSN 1865-0902

Library of Congress Control Number: 2009920210 c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2009 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: deblik Berlin, Germany Printed on acid-free paper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com

Preamble about Compendium “Manufacturing Processes’’

Key factors for quality and economic efficiency of industrial production are the choice of the manufacturing processes and their design. Manufacturing Technology is an elemental part of the fundamental knowledge of machining engineers. Also design engineers have to gain knowledge in this field, since they have high responsibility for the manufacturing costs. However, the students as well as practising experts who are willing to enhance their knowledge have the problem to collect information. To the current day there is no extensive, but still clear description of manufacturing processes focussing on the technology itself. In order to counter this necessity the compendium at hand is supposed to present an overall picture of the most common machining and non-machining manufacturing processes. Additional to the description of the techniques these volumes are desired to deliver an insight in the underlying physical principles whenever it is necessary for the understanding of the processes. The apportionment of the compendium “Manufacturing Processes” into Volume 1: Turning, Milling, Drilling Volume 2: Grinding, Honing, Lapping Volume 3: Electrical Erosion and Hybride Processes Volume 4: Forming Volume 5: Casting, Sintering, Rapid Prototyping groups techniques with similar active principles together. In front of the first volume is placed a technique-spanning section to the tolerances and questions of the workpiece measuring techniques used in manufacturing. Within the individual volumes was tried to avoid an encyclopaedic listing of the techniques. The book series are primarily intended for junior scientists in the fields of manufacturing technology and construction. In addition, the practitioner will be able to refurbish or extend his knowledge. The variety of manufacturing problems is as large as the multiplicity of the products, and alone with text book wise sayings manufacturing questions are not to be solved. We wish that this book offers starting points and ways to its readers, on which they can come up with successful solutions by engineering thinking. Aachen, September 2008 Fritz Klocke

Preamble for Volume 2 “Grinding, Honing, Lapping’’

The available volume treats machining with geometrically undefined cutting edges. It approaches both the practical engineer and the student of engineering sciences. This book is based on the lecture “Manufacturing Technologies I and II” and the pertinent exercises, which are held at RWTH Aachen University. The arrangement of the book results from the experiences, which were gained when lecturing in the chronology of the course. It results likewise from the fact that new topic areas such as the grindability of different materials, is brought up for the first time. The structure of the book is oriented to a large extent at didactical criteriae. Thus the first section deals with the chip formation at the cutting edges, the involved force and energy distributions at the cutting edges as well as the wear of the grinding grit. Following the description of grinding tool specifications, the new chapter on grindability of different materials and a chapter on the fundamentals of cooling lubricants follow. On these basic principles the different grinding processes and their kinematic characteristices are then presented in detail. The parameters of the different grinding techniques, references to process implementations as well as industrial used sample applications are likewise specified. Finally, besides honing and lapping techniques, special techniques and different methods of process control are presented. The necessity for process control, used sensor systems and application possibilities are regarded. Due to the increasing relevance and application in industrial manufacturing plants, monitoring systems are discussed in their own chapter. For their cooperation with the compilation of the available edition I would like to thank my co-workers, Dr.-Ing. Z. Nachmani, Dr.-Ing. H. Wegner, Dipl.-Ing. S. Buchholz, Dipl.-Ing. (FH) M. Duscha, Dipl.-Ing. H. Gröning, Dipl.-Ing. B. Meyer, Dipl.-Ing. A. Pampus, Dipl.-Ing. A. Roderburg, Dipl.-Ing. (FH) D. Schlütter, Dipl.-Ing. V. Vasilios, Dipl.-Ing. M. Weiß, Dipl.-Ing. R. Zunke, as well as Dr.Ing. B. Linke, who was additionally responsible for the coordination of the work on this book. Further I would like to thank the many former co-workers, who participated in the past German editions and now have leading positions in industry and research companies. Aachen, September 2008 Fritz Klocke

Contents

Symbols and Abbreviations ............................................................................ XIII 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................1 2 Principles of Cutting Edge Engagement...........................................................3 2.1 Cutting Edge Form.......................................................................................4 2.2 Cutting Edge Engagement ...........................................................................7 2.3 Distribution of Force and Energy in the Grinding Process ........................11 2.4 Grit and Bond Wear...................................................................................14 3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels ...........................................17 3.1 Grit Material ..............................................................................................17 3.1.1 Natural Grit Materials ........................................................................17 3.1.2 Synthetic Grit Materials .....................................................................19 3.2 Bonds .........................................................................................................37 3.2.1 Resin Bonds........................................................................................38 3.2.2 Vitrified Bonds...................................................................................39 3.2.3 Metallic Bonds ...................................................................................40 3.2.4 Other bonds ........................................................................................40 3.2.5 Fillers and Additives ..........................................................................41 3.3 Tool Structure and Designation .................................................................42 3.3.1 Composition of Conventional Grinding Wheels ................................43 3.3.2 The Designation of Conventional Tools.............................................45 3.3.3 Composition of Superabrasive Grinding Wheels ...............................50 3.3.4 The Designation of Superabrasive Grinding Wheels .........................51 3.4 Tool Manufacture ......................................................................................54 3.4.1 The Manufacture of Tools with Conventional Abrasives...................54 3.4.2 The Manufacture of Superabrasive Grinding Wheels ........................58 3.5 Tool Testing...............................................................................................61 3.5.1 Hardness Testing ................................................................................62 3.5.2 Investigations in Grit Break-out .........................................................64 3.6 Abrasive Belts (Coated Abrasives) ............................................................66 3.6.1 Composition of Abrasive Belts ..........................................................66 3.6.2 The Manufacture and Structure of Abrasive Belts .............................66

VIII

Contents

4 The Machinability of Various Materials ........................................................ 73 4.1 The Concept of “Machinability” in the Grinding Process ......................... 73 4.2 Influencing the Material Properties of Steels............................................. 74 4.2.1 Material Properties as a Function of Carbon Content ........................ 74 4.2.2 The Influence of Alloying Elements on Material Properties.............. 77 4.2.3 Material Properties as a Function of Heat Treatment......................... 79 4.3 The Structure of Various Steel Materials................................................... 83 4.3.1 Case-Hardened Steels......................................................................... 83 4.3.2 Heat-Treated Steels ............................................................................ 84 4.3.3 Nitrided Steels.................................................................................... 86 4.3.4 Roller Bearing Steels.......................................................................... 87 4.3.5 Tool Steels.......................................................................................... 88 4.3.6 Non-Corrosion, Fireproof and High-Temperature Steels................... 89 4.4 Grinding Various Structural Components in Steels ................................... 91 4.5 Grinding Iron-Casting Materials................................................................ 92 4.6 Grinding Nickel-Based Materials .............................................................. 94 4.6.1 Construction and Structure................................................................. 94 4.6.2 Properties and Uses ............................................................................ 96 4.6.3 Grinding Behaviour – Influences on the Grinding Process ................ 96 4.7 Grinding Titanium Materials ..................................................................... 99 4.7.1 Construction and Structure................................................................. 99 4.7.2 Properties and Uses .......................................................................... 102 4.7.3 Grinding Behaviour – Influences on the Grinding Process .............. 103 4.8. Grinding Brittle Materials....................................................................... 105 4.8.1 The Machining Behaviour of Brittle Materials ................................ 106 4.8.2 Machining High-Performance Ceramics .......................................... 107 4.8.3 Glass Machining............................................................................... 108 4.8.4 Silicon .............................................................................................. 110 5 Cooling Lubricants......................................................................................... 113 5.1 Principles of Cooling Lubricants in the Grinding Process....................... 113 5.1.1 General Functions ............................................................................ 113 5.1.2 The Tribological System of Grinding............................................... 114 5.1.3 Requirements of Cooling Lubricants in the Grinding Process ......... 114 5.2 Classification, Structure and Properties ................................................... 116 5.2.1 Oils ................................................................................................... 116 5.2.2 Emulsions......................................................................................... 117 5.2.3 Aqueous Solutions ........................................................................... 119 5.2.4 Use of Additives............................................................................... 119 5.3 The Influence of Cooling Lubrication on the Grinding Process .............. 120 5.3.1 Cooling Lubricant Type ................................................................... 120 5.3.2 Cooling Lubricant Supply ................................................................ 123 5.4 Supervision, Maintenance and Disposal .................................................. 129

Contents

IX

6 Grinding ..........................................................................................................135 6.1 Preparation...............................................................................................135 6.1.1 Dressing Kinematics.........................................................................136 6.1.2 Sharpening........................................................................................142 6.1.3 Further Dressing Methods – Special Methods..................................146 6.1.4 Cleaning ...........................................................................................152 6.1.5 Dressing Variables and Effective Mechanisms – The Influence of Tool Preparation on the Grinding Process .......................................153 6.2 Parameters................................................................................................161 6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589...................................177 6.3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................177 6.3.2 External Cylindrical Grinding ..........................................................182 6.3.3 Internal Cylindrical Grinding ...........................................................210 6.3.4 Surface Grinding ..............................................................................212 6.3.5 Coated Abrasives..............................................................................215 6.4 Other Variants..........................................................................................227 6.4.1 Gear Grinding...................................................................................227 6.4.2 Gear Honing .....................................................................................248 6.5 Process Design.........................................................................................251 6.5.1 The Influence of Variables and Parameters on the Result................251 6.5.2 The Influence of the Grinding Tool on the Output...........................269 6.5.3 Multistage Processes ........................................................................273 6.5.4 Disturbances .....................................................................................280 6.6 Application Examples..............................................................................287 6.6.1 External Cylindrical Peripheral Plunge Grinding.............................287 6.2.2 External Form Grinding ...................................................................290 6.6.3 Internal Cylindrical Peripheral Plunge Grinding..............................293 6.6.4 Centreless Plunge Grinding..............................................................296 6.6.5 Surface Peripheral Plunge Grinding .................................................299 7 Honing .............................................................................................................302 7.1 Kinematic Principles................................................................................303 7.2 Honing Tools and their Preparation .........................................................309 7.2.1 Honing Stones with Corundum or Silicon Carbide ..........................309 7.2.2 Honing Stones with Boron Nitride and Diamond.............................309 7.3 Influences on the Process and the Work Result .......................................310 7.3.1 Input Variables .................................................................................310 7.3.2 Tool Shape and Specifications .........................................................321 7.3.3 Workpiece Structure.........................................................................329 7.3.4 Additives ..........................................................................................331 7.4 Examples of Application..........................................................................333 7.4.1 Plateau Honing .................................................................................333

X

Contents

7.4.2 Gear Honing of Externally Toothed Spur Gears with an Internally Toothed Tool ...................................................................................334 7.4.3 Laser Honing .................................................................................... 337 8 Lapping and Polishing ................................................................................... 338 8.1 Lapping.................................................................................................... 338 8.1.1 Fundamentals ................................................................................... 339 8.1.2 Composition of Tools and Operational Materials ............................ 347 8.1.3 Accessories....................................................................................... 350 8.1.4 Parameters ........................................................................................ 351 8.1.5 Applications ..................................................................................... 354 8.2 Polishing .................................................................................................. 356 8.2.1 Principles.......................................................................................... 357 8.2.2 Tool Construction and Composition ................................................ 364 8.2.3 Accessories....................................................................................... 367 8.2.4 Parameters ........................................................................................ 368 9 Special Methods.............................................................................................. 370 9.1 Abrasive Blast Cutting............................................................................. 370 9.1.1 Operating Principle, Initial Process Parameters and Blast Parameters ....................................................................................... 370 9.1.2 Method Variations and Applications................................................ 371 9.2 Free Abrasive Grinding ........................................................................... 375 9.2.1 Operating Principle .......................................................................... 375 9.2.2 Method Variations and Applications................................................ 376 9.2.3 The Influence of Input Process Parameters on the Result ................ 379 9.3 Cutting with Geometrically Undefined Cutting Edges ............................ 380 9.3.1 Abrasive Cutting .............................................................................. 380 9.3.2 Multi-Wire Slicing (MWS) .............................................................. 383 9.3.3. Inner Diameter Slicing .................................................................... 387 10 Process Monitoring....................................................................................... 390 10.1 The Necessity of Process Monitoring .................................................... 390 10.2 Sensors for Process Monitoring ............................................................. 392 10.2.1 Force Sensors ................................................................................. 392 10.2.2 Current Sensors .............................................................................. 393 10.2.3 AE-Sensors..................................................................................... 394 10.3 First Contact Control ............................................................................. 397 10.4 Collision Monitoring ............................................................................. 400 10.5 Dressing Monitoring .............................................................................. 401 10.6 Service Life Monitoring while Grinding Using AE............................... 403 10.6.1 Monitoring Grinding Wheel Wear with the AE Effective Value ... 403 10.6.2 Detecting Chattering ...................................................................... 404 10.6.3 Process Step Recognition as an Element of Reliable Monitoring .. 405

Contents

XI

10.7 Control of Workpiece Properties ........................................................... 406 10.8 Reliability of Process Monitoring.......................................................... 408 Literature ...........................................................................................................410 Index ...................................................................................................................431

Symbols and Abbreviations

Capital letters Acu Ah AH Ak

mm2

chip cross-sectional area

2

contact surface of the honing stone

2

chip area

2

piston area

mm mm

mm

2

Amom

μm

momentary chip cross-sectional area

AN

-

proportionality constant

AR eff AR Ask

2

effective scratch cross-sectional area

2

scratch cross-sectional area

μm μm

2

edge wear area

2

radial wear area

mm

Asr

mm

Avk

2

Cstat C1 E

μm

wear area

-3

mm

static cutting edge density

-3

mm

cutting edge density 2

N/mm -

E modulus

Ec´´

J/mm ²

area related grinding energy

F

N

force

F´n

N/mm

specific normal force

F´t

N/mm

specific tangential force

Fa

N

axial force

Fc

N

cutting force

Fn

N

normal force

XIV

Symbols and Abbreviations

Fns

N

normal cutting force during centreless grinding

Fo

N

edge force (upward stroke of the tool)

FQ

N

transversal force

Ft

N

tangential force

Fta

N

friction force on workrest plate

Ftr

N

friction force on control wheel

FtS

N

grain tangential cutting force

Fu

N

edge force (downward stroke of the tool)

G

-

grinding ratio

HB

-

Brinell hardness

HRC

-

Rockwell hardness

HV

-

Vickers hardness

HZ

-

hardness number

K

g

compensation weight (wheel balancing)

Lkin

mm

kinematic cutting edge distance

Lstat

mm

static cutting edge distance

Lvk

μm

length of wear area

MAK

-

maximal workplace concentration level

Nkin

mm-2

kinematic cutting edge number per surface area

Nmom

-

momentary cutting edge number

HK

Knoop hardness

Symbols and Abbreviations

XV

Nstat

mm-2

statical cutting edge number per surface area

P

kW

power (total power, spindle power)

Pc

kW

cutting power (grinding power)

Pc''

W/mm2

area related grinding power

Pl

kW

idle load power

Qs

mm3/s

wear volume flow rate

Q'S

mm3/(mm⋅s)

specific wear volume flow rate

Q'Sb

mm3/(mm⋅s)

specific sharpening material removal rate

Q'Sb krit

mm3/(mm⋅s)

critical specific sharpening material removal rate

Qw

mm3/s

material removal rate

Q'w

mm3/(mm.s)

specific material removal rate

Q'w eff

mm3/(mm.s)

specific effective material removal rate

Q'w eff min

mm3/(mm.s)

minimal specific effective material removal rate

Ra

μm

average roughness height

Ra0

μm

initial average roughness height

Ri

-

heat transfer factors

Rm

N/mm2

tensile strength

Rp0,2

N/mm2

0,2% creep limit

Rt

μm

roughness

Rt0

μm

initial roughness

Rtb

μm

reference roughness

Rts

μm

actual grinding wheel surface roughness

XVI

Symbols and Abbreviations

Rts0

μm

initial actual grinding wheel surface roughness

RtW

μm

workpiece roughness

Rz

μm

mean peak-to-valley height

S

sharpness parameter

Skin

mm-1

kinematic cutting edge number per length

Sstat

mm-1

statical cutting edge number per length

T

s

time constant

T

°C

temperature

Tμ

μm

grain cutting depth

TRK

-

technical concentration guideline value

TStand

min

tool life

U

-

overlap ratio

Ua

-

overlap ratio in spark-out zone

Ud

-

dressing overlap ratio

URMS

V

effective value of AE amplitude

V

mm3

volume

VB

mm3

bond volume

Vh

mm3

honing stone wear volume

VK

mm3

grit volume

Vp

mm3

pore volume

Vs

mm3

grinding wheel wear volume

V's

mm3/mm

specific grinding wheel wear volume

Symbols and Abbreviations

XVII

V'Sb

mm3/mm

specific sharpening material removal

Vsd

mm3

dressing volume

Vsk

mm3

edge wear volume

Vsr

mm3

radial wear volume

Vw

mm3

material removal

V'w

mm3/mm

specific material removal

Wh

g

workpiece material removal

WS

J

specific scratching energy

Z

%

percentage reduction of area after fracture

Z*

μm

grit protrusion

Small letters aδ

cm²/s

thermal conductivity

ae ges

mm

total depth of cut

ae

mm

depth of cut

aed

mm

depth of dressing cut

af

mm

feed

afa

mm

axial feed (form grinding)

afr

mm

radial feed (form grinding)

ap

mm

width of cut

as

mm

depth of hole

aSb

mm

sharpening block feed

b

mm

(gear wheel) width

bD

mm

effective grinding width

bd

mm

active width of the dressing tool

XVIII

Symbols and Abbreviations

bh

mm

honing stone width

br

mm

control wheel width

bs eff

mm

effective grinding wheel width

bs

mm

grinding wheel width

bsa

mm

width of spark-out zone

bSS

mm

roughing zone width

bw

mm

workpiece width

ca

N/m

stiffness of workrest plate

cI

m/s

velocity of vibration propagation

cp

J/(g⋅K)

specific heat capacity

cr

N/m

stiffness of control wheel

cs

N/m

stiffness of grinding wheel

da

mm

outside diameter (gear wheel)

deq

mm

equivalent grinding wheel diameter

dK

μm

grit size

dkm

μm

mean grit diameter

dr

mm

dressing roller diameter

dr

mm

control wheel diameter

dr min

mm

minimal control wheel diameter

dS

mm

grinding wheel diameter

dw

mm

workpiece diameter

dw0

mm

initial workpiece diameter

dwA

mm

initial diameter

dwE

mm

diameter after machining

e

μm

excentricity of centre of mass

ec

J/mm-3

specific grinding energy

Symbols and Abbreviations

XIX

f

Hz

frequency

fa

mm

axial feed

fad

mm

axial dressing feed per grinding wheel revolution

ff

μm

profile/form deviation

fk

μm

roundness deviation

fk0

μm

initial roundness deviation

fr

mm

radial feed

frd

mm

radial dressing feed

ft

mm

tangential feed

fz

μm

cylindricity deviation

fz0

μm

initial cylindricity deviation

h

mm

workpiece centre height

hcu

μm

chip thickness

hcu eff

μm

effective chip thickness

hcu eq

μm

equivalent chip thickness

hcu max

μm

maximum undeformed chip thickness

hdr

mm

dressing centre height

hp

mm

profile height

hSb

mm

sharpening block height

hwA

mm

initial height

hwE

mm

end height

iDH

min-1

number of return strokes

k

W/(m K)

thermal conductivity

ka

Ns/m

damping of workrest plate

kr

Ns/m

damping of control wheel

XX

Symbols and Abbreviations

ks

Ns/m

damping of grinding wheel

l

mm

workpiece length, grinding length

lcu

mm

chip length

leg

mm

real geometrical contact length

lek

mm

real kinematical contact length

lf

mm

(total) infeed

lfr

mm

radial infeed

lg

mm

geometrical contact length

lh

mm

honing stone length

lk

mm

kinematic contact length

lü

mm

overshoot length

lW

mm

workpiece length

lw eff

mm

grinding length

lwirk

mm

effective honing stone length

m

g

total mass

m

mm

modulus

mB

g

mass of bonding material

m'B

%

specific mass of bonding material

mK

g

grit mass

m'K

%

specific grit mass

n

-

number

nl nr nR

s

-1

number of lap revolutions

s

-1

number of control wheel revolutions

s

-1

number of dressing roller revolutions

Symbols and Abbreviations

XXI

nS

s-1

number of grinding wheel revolutions

nW

s-1

number of workpiece revolutions

p

bar

pressure

pn

N/mm2

contact pressure

pS

bar

pressure of cooling lubricant

q

-

speed ratio

qd

-

dressing speed ratio

qKSS

W/mm2

heat flow via cooling lubricant

qs

W/mm2

heat flow via grinding wheel

qspan

W/mm2

heat flow via chips

qt

W/mm2

total heat flow

qw

W/mm2

heat flow via workpiece

r

J/g

heat of vaporisation

rp

mm

profile radius

rr

mm

radius of control wheel

rS

mm

radius of grinding wheel

rw

mm

workpiece radius

s

mm

distance to workpiece

sh

mm

shift-distance

t

s

time

ta

s

spark-out time

tc

s

cutting time, grinding time

td

s

dressing time

th

s

honing time

tk eq

s

equivalent contact time

tk eq ges

s

total equivalent contact time

XXII

Symbols and Abbreviations

tp

%

bearing line fraction

tSb

s

sharpening time

ü

mm

protrusion

v

m/s

velocity

vB

%

specific volume of binding material

vc

m/s

cutting speed

ve

m/s

effective speed

vf

mm/s

feed rate

vfa

mm/s

axial feed rate

vfad

mm/s

axial dressing feed rate

vfn

mm/s

feed rate (normal direction)

vfr

mm/s

radial feed rate

vfrd

mm/s

radial dressing feed rate

vfSb

mm/s

sharpening block feed rate

vft

mm/s

tangential feed rate

vK

%

specific grit volume

vKSS

m/s

cooling lubricant exit speed

vP

%

specific pore volume

vr

m/s

control wheel circumferential speed

vR

m/s

dressing roller circumferential speed

vrd

m/s

dressing roller circumferential speed

vs

m/s

grinding wheel circumferential speed

vsd

m/s

grinding wheel circumferential speed during dressing

vw

m/s

workpiece speed (workpiece circumferential speed)

Symbols and Abbreviations

XXIII

vwa

m/s

axial workpiece speed

vwälz

mm/min

roll speed

x

-

profile shift factor

x

mm

distance in direction of workpiece perimeter

y

mm

oscillation distance

z

-

number of teeth

z

mm

stock removal (for cylindrical workpieces diameter related)

zj

μm

depth of heat influenced surface layer

Greek Letters α

μm/(m⋅°C)

thermal coefficient of expansion

α

°

engagement angle

α

°

cross hatch angle

α

°

profile angle

α

m²/s

thermal conductivity

αdr

°

dressing inclination angle

αr

°

control wheel inclination angle

αtd

°

nozzle angle (jet sharpening)

α, β, γ

-

exponential coefficient based on cutting edge distribution (0 < α, β, γ <1)

β

°

workrest plate angle

β

°

inclination angle

γ

°

rake angle

γ

°

tangent angle

XXIV

Symbols and Abbreviations

γr

°

control wheel tangent angle

γs

°

grinding wheel tangent angle

δr

°

control wheel pivoting angle

Δrh

μm

radial honing stone wear

Δrs

mm

radial grinding wheel wear

Δr&s

mm/s

radial wear rate

Δrsk

mm

radial edge wear

Δrw

mm

reduction of workpiece radius

Δs

μm

tooth flank stock removal

ε

°

angle

η

°

effective angle

η

°

pivoting angle

ϑ

°C, K

temperature

ϑmax

°C, K

maximum temperature

χ

°

grit cutting edge angle transversal to cutting speed direction

λ

W/Km

thermal conductivity

μ

-

cutting force ratio

ρ

°

angle

ρ

kg/dm³

density

ρB

kg/dm³

bonding desity

ρK

kg/dm³

grit density

ρS

μm

cutting edge radius

τ

s

time constant

ϕ

°

honing helix angle

ϕ

°

tilt or taper angle in honing

ω

s

-1

angular speed

1 Introduction

The future of manufacturing companies depends largely on their ability to adapt to swiftly changing global conditions. These are exemplified by international competition, rapidly growing intercommunication and the increased significance of environmental issues [KLOC98a, ENGE02]. Precision machining with geometrically undefined cutting edges represents a key production engineering technology with high efficiency, security and machining quality. DIN norm 8589 subsumes within the group “machining with geometrically undefined cutting edges” the following material removal manufacturing processes: grinding, honing, lapping, free abrasive grinding and abrasive blast cutting. Machining is carried out in these production methods by means of more or less irregularly formed grains composed of hard substances brought into contact with the material. Of all methods understood as machining with geometrically undefined cutting edges, only grinding, honing and lapping can, strictly speaking, be considered precision machining. Free abrasive grinding and abrasive blast cutting, also treated in this book, represent a special group, as they generally cannot bring about geometrical change in the material. Machining methods with geometrically undefined cutting edges are precision processes with which a very high surface quality and degree of accuracy can be obtained. Formerly, these procedures were only used in the finishing stage. Today however, such high material removal rates can be reached with high efficiency grinding methods that the machining of larger volumes of material has become economically feasible. For machining narrow, deep slots of hardened component parts for example, grinding can be significantly more efficient with respect to machining performance than methods using defined cutting edges. Such performance enhancement in grinding processes has only become possible by the constant further development of abrasive grain materials, grinding wheels and grinding machines. The modern era of machining with geometrically undefined cutting edges began around the middle of the 18th century, when the first grinding wheels were being burned. Several decades later (186l), the American chemist Acheson succeeded in the first synthesis of silicon carbide. This started a development in hard materials that still continues today and has contributed such decisive inventions as diamond and boron nitride synthesis. While the development of tools and machine tools was aided from the early stages by research in physics, chemistry and engineering, the design of machining processes is, even today, often carried out empirically. With growing demands on product quality and increasing automation of manufacturing processes, the machining process itself must also become physi-

2

1 Introduction

cally interpretable and, finally, functionally describable in the causal chain: tool – workpiece – machine tool. At the beginning of this causal chain is chip formation at the cutting edges of hard material grains, and it is with this area that this volume begins.

2 Principles of Cutting Edge Engagement

Knowledge of the basic principles of a machining method is an essential prerequisite for the full realisation of its potential. Yet research into the essential features of material removal with geometrically undefined cutting edges is beset with great difficulties. The determination of the cutting edges used in the procedure is hampered by the extremely complex microstructure of the tools. Because of the large number of grain points acting on the component part, material removal is made up of the sum of many different cutting edge engagements that remove the individual chips from the material surface (Fig. 2-1). cutting direction

25 μm Material: Ck15N

10 μm Material: Ck45N

Fig. 2-1. Images of chip roots taken with a scanning electron microscope [LORT75]

Grinding is used primarily as a precision machining method in which chip formation proceeds within the realm of a few micrometers and to a large extent eludes direct observation. However, due to theoretical considerations and with the help of investigations into the physical and chemical processes, we can make assertions about this process as well. Such findings are necessary for basic understanding and are of invaluable help in the optimal design of machining processes.

4

2 Principles of Cutting Edge Engagement

2.1 Cutting Edge Form In order to form a chip, the grains cutting into the component must be harder than the material which is to be machined. Crystalline and brittle abrasive materials are used. The grains splinter during the crushing caused by the production process, so that the fragments possess an irregular form with more or less sharp corners and edges. Natural or synthetic abrasive materials that already have the desired form in their raw state are also used. LS, kin4

LS, kin3

LS, kin2

LS, kin1

vc 4 5

S6

S8 S 7

LS78 LS, stat LS, kin Si vc

S4

S5

LS67

LS56

1

2

3

LS45

S3

LS34

S2

LS23

S1

LS12

statistic cutting edge distance (can be measured) kinematic cutting edge distance follows from machine parameters cutting edges cutting speed

Fig. 2-2. Statistic and kinematic cutting edges

The grains protrude variably far from the bond material of the grinding wheel, thereby engaging with varying strength. Only especially protruding grains or parts of the grain surface penetrate into the component during the machining process, causing material removal. These are called kinematic cutting edges. The concept of static cutting edges is used when cutting edge distribution on the component is described without consideration of the machining process. This is shown in Fig. 22 [PEKL57, PEKL58]. Because of the large number of cutting edges, a metrological ascertainment of the geometry of all individual cutting edges of a tool is only possible at high efforts. Due to wear, the number of cutting edges and their geometry change constantly during removal. We can get an idea of the form of the cutting edges statistically by means of a cutting edge profile, which can then describe on average the

2.1 Cutting Edge Form

5

form of a cutting edge. In Figs. 2-3 and 2-4, two characteristic cutting edge profiles are illustrated, acquired by scanning the grinding wheel [GUEH67, STEF78]. To scan the grinding wheel topography, tactile or optical scanning systems are used primarily [GOSE89, POPP91]. Clearance angles are usually ignored in the determination of grinding wheel topology.

cutting direction abrasive grain

cutting edge radius ρS

chip thickness hcu

Fig. 2-3. Average form and the analytical description of an abrasive cutting edge

If the average profile of the cutting edges is approximated by a circle of radius ρs (Fig. 2-3) [LORT75, MASS52], we can then define a sharpness parameter with the quotient from the chip thickness hcu and the cutting edge radius ρs:

S=

h cu

ρs

.

(2.1)

The sharpness parameter S of machining process with geometrically undefined cutting edges is remarkable under 1, whereas it is several orders of magnitude above 1 in machining processes with defined cutting edges such as turning. Other typical cutting edge profiles are shown in Fig. 2-4. Individual abrasive grains can splinter during the production process such that its form can be described similarly to tools with defined cutting edges. A tip, the geometry of which should be determined as in Fig. 2-4 by the tool orthogonal rake angle γ, the tool orthogonal clearance angle α and the wear surface Avk, should thus have a negative tool orthogonal rake angle in order to be comparable to the geometry of the grits. Many researchers are of the opinion that the average grit resembles a tip of a rake angle of up to γ = -80° [GUEH67, WERN71].

6

2 Principles of Cutting Edge Engagement

Beyond this, two basic forms are distinguished in Fig. 2-4. Form I shows a cutting edge geometry devoid of wear. Form II illustrates a cutting edge contour with wear surface Avk, which can be considered as part of a flank face, so that the friction conditions are comparable with those of the flank face friction of a turning tool.

cutting direction Form I

cutting edge

γ α

Form II cutting edge

α

γ

length Lvk of the worn surface Avk by abrasion or dressing

Fig. 2-4. Description of an average grit profile in analogy to cutting edges used in defined machining

2.2 Cutting Edge Engagement

7

2.2 Cutting Edge Engagement In addition to the geometry of the individual cutting edges, the way in which the hard material grains engage is also important. The four possible operating principles for this are represented in Fig. 2-5.

Principles Energy-bound

Force-bound

Track-bound

Space-bound

ω

Abrasive blast cutting

Free abrasive grinding

Honing

cutting edge

Grinding

Lapping

chip

workpiece

Fig. 2-5. Operating principles of cutting edge employment

In the case of abrasive blast cutting, the grains are unbonded and collide with the surface of the workpiece. If the grains come up against a ductile workpiece material, a surface with small craters will result. Crater formation is associated with plastic flow processes, which result in a hardening of the surface. A condition of compressive residual stress initiated by this can also remain in layers of the workpiece near the surface even after machining. On the other hand, if the workpiece surface layer is brittle, entire regions of the layer near the surface chip due to the grains. Since it is primarily the kinetic energy of the grain which influences the effect of the cutting edge, the working principle of cutting edge engagement is energy-bound. Unbonded grains are used in lapping as well. They are found between the target workpiece surface and a fixed lap tool. A parallel relative movement between the

8

2 Principles of Cutting Edge Engagement

lap tool and the workpiece surface forces the grains to execute a rolling movement. During the rolling, the grains are constantly pushing into the workpiece, so the machined slot on the workpiece resembles a series of small, consecutive craters. A smoothing and hardening of the workpiece surface also results. Moreover, the constant rolling of the grains produces a fine material removal as a result of workpiece fatigue [MART75]. Since the space between the lap tool and the workpiece determines the sequence of the cutting edge engagement, this is essentially a case of a space-bound operating principle. Depending on the process parameters it can change into a force-bound principle. We succeed to a third working principle if the tool is pressed against the workpiece with increased force, but constant surface pressure. The grain can no longer roll in these conditions. The cutting edges make fine scratch marks in the machining location. Since the grain is pressed against the surface of the workpiece with limited force due to the constant surface pressure, cutting edge engagement is force-bound. In the case of some grinding, honing and free abrasive grinding operations with bonded grains, cutting edge engagement is also force-bound. It is hereby often the case that the grain remains relatively fixed and penetrates into the workpiece at a predetermined path by the relative movement between the tool and the workpiece (Fig. 2.6). Cutting edge engagement is thereby conditionally track-bound. This working principle can be found with most machining methods with geometrically undefined cutting edges. It is based on the following observation on the engagement of individual grits. grinding wheel

Fn,S Ft,S

grit path bond

vs

grit (cutting edge)

bulging Tμ

hcu

workpiece I

II

elastic elastic and deformation plastic deformation

chip

III elastic and plastic deformation and chip formation

Fig. 2-6. Zones of elastic and plastic deformation in chip removal

2.2 Cutting Edge Engagement

9

During a machining process with a track-bound cutting edge engagement, the cutting edge of the grain penetrates the workpiece upon a flat path and, after a phase of elastic deformation, triggers plastic flow of the workpiece material (Fig. 2-6). Because of the form of the cutting edge, the angle between the cutting edge contour and the workpiece surface is very small at first, so that no chips are formed initially. The workpiece material is merely shifted to the side, forming elevations and/or flows beneath the cutting edge to its flank face. Only when the cutting edge has penetrated deeply enough into the workpiece that chip thickness hcu corresponds to the grain cutting depth Tμ does actual chip formation begin [LORT75, MASS52, STEF78]. Since, as the sequence continues, deformation processes and chip formation appear simultaneously, it is decisive for the efficacy of material removal just how much of the chip thickness hcu is actually produced as chips and thus how large the effective chip thickness hcu eff is (Fig. 26). Vc

high friction

cutting edge η

chip

lateral bulging cut-off point

hcu eff

Tμ μ

I

II

III

hcu

penetration path

Vc

low friction

cutting edge η

chip

lateral bulging cut-off point

hcu eff Tμ μ

I

II

III

elastic spring-back

material flow

Fig. 2-7. The influence of friction on the cutting depth and machining efficiency

hcu

10

2 Principles of Cutting Edge Engagement

Chip formation and thus hcu eff and Tμ are influenced to a large degree by the friction conditions at the cutting edge. For a better understanding of the influence of friction in cutting edge engagement, it is useful first to explain the differences in chip formation with cooling lubrication with oil or emulsions. Fig. 2-7 illustrates the influence of friction on the grain cutting depth and the efficiency of material removal. With increasing lubrication, the grain cutting depth increases, and there is a longer lasting and therefore also stronger plastic material deformation [VITS85]. Increased lubricating capability of the cooling lubricant reduces the efficiency of material removal. At equal undeformed chip thickness h and less friction, a thinner chip (lower hcu eff) results, with which the ratio of chipped to deformed material volumes decreases. Investigations have shown that, besides friction, the following quantities influence the amounts of hcu eff and Tμ : • • • •

the cutting edge radius ρs, effective cutting speed angle η, cutting speed vc the flow properties of the material.

Usually, blunt cutting edges with a small sharpness parameter and a small angle η tend to promote deformation of the material, leading to larger grain cutting depths and thus to smaller effective chip thickness. With rising machining temperatures, the grain cutting depth increases, since the material becomes more ductile because of the higher temperature. With higher material malleability, the grain cutting depth decreases, since strain hardening has the strongest effect here. The capability of the material to flow beneath the cutting edge is determined by friction: at higher levels of friction, the grain cutting depth decreases. In considering the entire process, the speed of the grinding wheel should always be seen in relation to the workpiece speed. The cutting speed vc is defined as the vector sum of the grinding wheel peripheral speed vs and the workpiece speed vw. If we consider a cutting edge as a fixed point on the grinding wheel and describe its trajectory curve, cycloidal trajectories appear for both down and up dressing with varying markedness [EICH97, HARB96, SAWL64]. The kinematic roughness in the grinding direction is thus the result of the engagement paths of the grit, as is depicted for flat grinding in Fig. 2-8.

2.3 Distribution of Force and Energy in the Grinding Process

11

Down grinding

grit engagement path

vw Up grinding

vw

grit engagement paths in down grinding workpiece kinematic roughness

grit engagement paths in down grinding workpiece Fig. 2-8. Cycloidal trajectories of an abrasive grain in down and up grinding

2.3 Distribution of Force and Energy in the Grinding Process The distribution of force and energy can be considered both microscopically with relation to the individual grits as well as macroscopically on the scale of the entire grinding wheel. In the following, we will begin with a microscopic observation and then expand this with macroscopic considerations. The cutting force acting upon the individual grit during a cutting edge engagement can be broken down into a component FtS in the direction of the cutting

12

2 Principles of Cutting Edge Engagement

speed and a component FnS in the direction normal to this (Fig. 2-6). The quotient FtS/FnS is called the cutting force ratio μ. The cutting force of the entire tool is the vector sum of the cutting forces that act upon the cutting edges momentarily engaging with the workpiece. The cutting force ratio determined by the machine often largely corresponds to the average cutting force ratio of the individual cutting grits [RUBE67]. During the phase of pure material deformation, the force FnS, with which the cutting edge must be pressed into the workpiece, is considerably larger than FtS; the cutting force ratio thus assumes a relatively small value. As chip formation starts, the tangential force FtS goes up, and so the cutting force ratio increases. Sharper cutting edges with a small cutting edge radius ρS and/or greater friction allow for earlier chip formation during cutting edge engagement and lead to a – in comparison to duller cutting edges – larger cutting force ratio. Scoring experiments, in which the engagement path of a particular grain is seen in analogy with the grinding process, can give us concrete information about the absolute magnitude of the cutting force components. For the experiments, the results of which are illustrated in Figs. 2-9 and 2-10, conical diamonds with varying peak radii ρS served as the scoring tools [BUSC68, VITS85]. In order to obtain conveyable results, the measured tangential force is related to the cross-section of the scratched groove. 5

ρs= 30 μm

spec. scratching-force

FtS AR

N 10 -3 μm 2 3

ρs= 20 μm

2

ρs= 10 μm 1

workpiece material C 60 0

20

40

60

μm 2

100

Scratch cross section AR Fig. 2-9. The cutting edge radius and scratch cross-section determine the specific scratching force along with friction

With shrinking cross-sectional areas, the specific scratching force takes on very high values. This reflects the fact that the cutting edge rubs over the workpiece material with the flank face at small amounts of chip thickness, thereby only deforming it. Furthermore, the positions of the curves make it clear that, in the case

2.3 Distribution of Force and Energy in the Grinding Process

13

of dull cutting edges, there must be a higher cutting force due to the enlarged contact surface. If we broaden the specific scratch force in the numerator and denominator with the dimension of length, a volume controlled work results. The numerical value of the specific scratching force can then be interpreted as that work which is needed to produce a unit volume of score. The influence of friction on the specific scratching force is also clarified by Fig. 2-10. For varying friction conditions, the specific scratching force reaches higher values with shrinking scratch cross-sections. For example, at small chip thicknesses, the material is only deformed by the cutting edge. Material removal is dominated by the mechanism of micro-groove formation. In the realm of small scratch cross-sections, an improvement in lubrication leads to a higher specific energy requirement, which can be ascribed to the proportionally increased workpiece material deformation. In comparison to scratching without cooling lubrication, with the use of emulsions or oil, an average of ca. 2 to 2.5 μm less scratch depth was realised. In the case of larger scratch cross section on the other hand, the influence of the tangential forces dropping with friction are dominant, so that emulsions and especially oil lower the specific energy requirement [VITS85]. By these machining conditions, the mechanism of microcutting comes to the fore.

60 90°

N 10 μm 2

AR eff

30 μm

AR

Spec. scratching energy W=

FtS

-3

30 dry

Öl 15 emulsion 0

0

6

12

μm 2

Workpiece material: Ck 45N Cutting material: Diamond Workpiece speed: vw = 6,25 mm/s Scratching method: Lengthwise scratching Cutting speed: vc = 20 m/s

24

Effective scratch cross section AR eff

Fig. 2-10. The influence of friction on the specific energy in scratching

The mechanical energy present is transformed into heat basically in four places. Because of the large cutting edge radii, most of the heat generated consists of flank face friction and plastic deformation of the workpiece material. Heat is generated by friction at the chip surface and during chip cropping. Finally, in the case of bonded grains, a small amount of mechanical energy is also converted into heat as the bond rubs against the workpiece.

14

2 Principles of Cutting Edge Engagement

The main share of the energy inserted into the process is converted into heat. Thus, all system components involved in machining experience thermal stress or dissipate heat. The total heat flow rate qt spreads in the contact zone to the grinding wheel (qs), the workpiece (qw), the chips (qspan) and the cooling lubricant (qkss) (Fig. 2-11). How high the particular share of heat flow is depends on, among other things, the heat conduction coefficient of the workpiece material, the cooling lubricant and the grinding wheel as well as the heat transfer coefficient [JAEG42, STEP03]. Heat flow into the workpiece can lead to a local rise in temperature. This increase in temperature can, depending on the magnitude and action time, produce thermal structural changes in the workpiece surface layer. The action time of the heat and the temperature level can be favourably influenced by applying a cooling lubricant. grinding wheel vs

bond penetration path

qspan grit (cutting edge)

qkss

chip

qs

FtS

workpiece

qt = q kss + q s + qspan + q w

qw

Fig. 2-11. Energy distribution and heat flow during cutting edge penetration

2.4 Grit and Bond Wear Not only the workpiece, but also the tool is subjected to high temperatures and pressures in the contact zone. The result of this is microscopic wear in the grit and the bond (Fig. 2-12). Grit wear begins in the crystalline layers lying near the surface of the grit. Extreme pressures and temperatures initiate oxidation and diffusion processes there, which decrease the abrasion resistance of the grit material. This pressure-softened layer is removed by mechanical agitation (abrasion). In this way, new crystalline

2.4 Grit and Bond Wear

15

layers are constantly exposed to wear. By means of tribochemical reactions on the grit surface, the mechanical endurance of the grit can change, intensifying wear.

chemical and thermal wear of bonding

bonding breakage grit breakage

micro-breakage compressive softening chemical wear abrasion

abrasion and small grit flaking material adhesion

grit breakage

crack initiation chip adhesion

micro-breakage

Fig. 2-12. Types of grain and bond wear

Moreover, mechanical and thermal alternating stress can lead to fatigue in the crystal bond. At points of disruption, which exist in every solid body in the form of lattice and grain boundaries, impurities, differences in hardness etc., cracks of fatigue appear. These can lead to disintegration of the surface as well as to the splitting off of individual grain particles or initiate the formation of cracks that cause entire sections of grit to break off. In many cases, grit wear is the indirect cause for bond wear, since a flattening of the cutting edge of the grit leads, due to an enlarged friction surface, to an increase in cutting force on the individual grit and thus to mechanical overloading of the bond. Entire grits or grit sections can then break out of the bond. The bond can also be directly worn by chemical, mechanical or thermal influences.

16

2 Principles of Cutting Edge Engagement

Such causes of wear are to be considered in process design and particularly in the choice of grinding wheel specifications.

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

3.1 Grit Material In grinding material removal is caused by the interaction of the grit material and the target material. The following demands are placed on the abrasive grit material: • A high degree of hardness and toughness in order to facilitate chip formation and to maintain cutting edge sharpness over a longer period. • High thermal (change) resistance, so that the grit can withstand both the high machining temperatures as well as rapid temperature changes. • Chemical resistance in order to avoid grit-weakening chemical reactions even at higher pressures and temperatures when interacting with the air, cooling lubricant or workpiece material. Furthermore, varying requirements are made of the grit material with respect to fracture behaviour, depending on the grinding process at hand. Since no grit material can fulfil all these demands to the same extent, numerous natural and synthetic grit materials are utilised for diverse machining tasks.

3.1.1 Natural Grit Materials The category of natural grinding resources comprises the grit materials quartz (flint), corundum, emery, garnet and diamond. Except for diamond, these materials are usually of insufficient strength, so they are of secondary importance in comparison with synthetic grit materials for most industrial purposes. A further reason for the exclusion of natural grit materials is the insufficiently manageable and non-reproducible grit quality of natural products. The only exception to this rule is the diamond, which is still used today in industrial grinding technology.

18

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

Quartz Quartz includes, among others, flint and tripolite. They are composed mostly of SiO2 and reveal impurities in the form of iron oxide FeO and titanium dioxide TiO2. Flint, a comparatively soft grit material (820 HK) fracturing in no sharp edges, is primarily used in the wood and leather processing industry. Tripolite is used for the polish-grinding of metals [COLL88, SPEN70]. Corundum and Emery The natural grit materials corundum and emery consist predominately of macrocrystalline aluminium oxide (Al2O3), the content of which determines its cutting properties to a decisive extent. Natural corundum has an Al2O3 content of 80 to 95 %, attains a high level of hardness (2050 HK) compared with other natural grit materials and is sufficiently tough. Emery is composed of up to 60 % Al2O3 and contains iron oxide Fe2O3 as an additional component. For this reason, emery is less effective than corundum. Today natural corundum and emery are rarely used, since the two minerals crack in both round and block shapes and form few sharp cutting edges, they are now seldom used. However, they do still find practical application in rubber-bonded grinding components and emery paper. Furthermore, they are also utilised in unbonded form for polishing optical glasses [COLL88]. Garnet In the case of natural garnet, both its hardness (1360 HK) and its shell-shaped fracture, which causes the formation of numerous new cutting edges, are decisive. Garnet is predominately utilised for abrasive paper and cloth for the treatment of hard and soft woods, as well as in unbonded form in the polishing treatment of optical components [COLL80]. Natural Diamond Diamond is chemically pure carbon that crystallises as a natural product under extreme pressure and heat over a long period of time. About 80 % of natural diamonds are rejected for use as decorative objects because of their small size and deficient purity, making them available to industry. Their properties are nearly identical to synthetic diamonds [LEIC75]. Large diamonds of high purity are incorporated into drawing dies, hardness testers, dressing tools and diamond lathes. Other natural diamonds of the purer variety are used in drill bits for the natural gas industry and tunnel-boring machines. Impure, irregular diamonds, so-called “borts”, are used in bonded form for grinding in diverse diamond tools and in loose form for polishing. It is processed by the abrasive grit industry in grit sizes of 1 to 1100 μm grit diameter. Natural diamond is primarily used for grinding and slicing glass, ceramic products, and carbides, plastics as well as concrete, natural

3.1 Grit Material

19

and synthetic stones and in stationary and rotating dressing tools. However, the diamond is not suited for grinding steel for two reasons. Firstly, in grinding, high shear loads arise, as well as high temperatures under low pressures compared with the conditions for the synthesis of diamonds. These conditions favour the diffusion of the carbon from the diamond into a material in which carbon is easily dissolved, e.g. steel workpieces. The second mechanism also arises in the grinding conditions described above. Thereby, diamond graphitises only in the layers near the surface, which is accelerated by the presence of a catalyst such as oxygen. The carbon in graphite dissolves well in iron [COLL80, KOMA76].

3.1.2 Synthetic Grit Materials Synthetically produced grit materials have replaced natural abrasives in a wide range of applications. The most important synthetic grit materials are: • • • •

corundum (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC), cubic boron nitride (cBN) and (synthetic) diamond.

Corundum and silicon carbide belong to the conventional grinding materials, while cBN and diamond represent the superabrasive category. An overview of the hardness and fracture toughness of these grit materials is provided in Fig. 3-1. 1000

Fracture toughness

[MPa m 0.5]

high speed steel tool steel

100

carbide 10 sintered aluminium oxide

melted aluminium oxide cBN

diamond

SiC 1 0

50 Knoop hardness

[GPa]

100

Fig. 3-1. Hardness and fracture toughness of synthetic abrasive grit materials in comparison to a few working materials [HELL93]

20

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

The higher performance of superabrasives compared with conventional grit materials is already clear from this figure. With conventional grit materials, performance enhancements are possible by means of newly developed sintered corundum (e.g. sol-gel corundum). Although the hardness of the grit material is higher than the material to be processed, the toughness of the abrasive is much lower. It is therefore evident that further performance enhancements can be achieved by developing new grit materials with extremely high hardness and sufficient toughness [HELL93]. For comparative purposes, the hardness and toughness domain of materials processed by grinding, such as tool steel, high speed steel (HSS) and carbide, are also shown in Fig. 3-1.

3.1.2.1 Corundum Corundum is crystalline aluminium oxide Al2O3. Several types of corundum are used as abrasives. Basically, we distinguish between fused and sintered corundum according to its method of production. Fused corundum or electrocorundum include white, brown and normal corundum. Special forms of single crystal and zircon corundum are available to meet special requirements. Sintered bauxite and sol-gel corundum belong to the group of sintered corundum materials. Manufacture In principle, the following methods are distinguished in the production of corundum. These determine its properties to a considerable extent: • melting raw bauxite in an electric furnace for the fabrication of normal, brown and mono crystalline corundum, • melting pure alumina (Al2O3) in electric furnaces for the manufacture of white corundum, pink corundum and red corundum, • sintering of ground raw bauxite to produce sintered bauxite corundum and • sintering aluminium hydroxide gel to produce sol-gel corundum. Bauxite serves as the raw material in the manufacture of fused corundum in electric furnaces (Fig. 3-2). Bauxite as it appears in nature contains up to 25 % impurities such as iron oxide Fe2O3, iron hydroxide Fe(OH)3, titanium oxide TiO2 and silicic acid, aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3 and aluminium oxide hydrates. For the production of white corundum, impurities are removed from the bauxite by means of the Bayer method, so that ultimately pure alumina (Al2O3) is added to the melting furnace. Brown and normal corundum is made by melting bauxite. The melting process takes place in an electric arc furnace while adding coke and iron. Under the electric arc, corundum is melted at a temperature of over 2000 °C. Melting times vary according to the method used (billet/Higgins furnace 15-24 hours, tilting furnaces 3-5 hours) and according to the size of the furnace. Tilting

3.1 Grit Material

21

furnace technology is enjoying increasing popularity, as it offers both advantages in performance as well as a high degree of flexibility. Bauxite Calcine (roaster)

Purification (Bayer process)

80% calcined bauxite

Pure alumina (Al2O3)

16% iron

4% coke

Melting at about 2000°C in arc furnace Cooling down of aluminum oxide stack (crystallisation) Milling Magnetic separation, mech./ therm./ chem. treatment Sieving (elutriation) Grain size 8-800 (1200) Regular, semi-friable aluminium oxide

White aluminium oxide

Source: by H. Frank Fig. 3-2. The manufacture of fused corundum [FRAN68]

The cooling rate of molten corundum largely influences the size of the crystals formed. In the case of the billet method, the corundum billet, weighing up to 20 tons, cools slowly. Cooling times can range from 10 to 14 days. In this way, generally larger crystals are formed than in the so-called tapping method, in which molten corundum in flat casting pans cools off relatively quickly, thereby forming fine crystalline corundum. In the case of the tilting method, crystal sizes depend on the furnace and casting sizes. The sizes of the corundum crystals can also be considerably increased by technological means. After cooling, the billets or casts are crushed or ground. For this purpose, jaw crushers, crude or fine crushers, roller mills or also ball mills or pipe mills are utilised [COLL80]. The crushing process determines to a great extent the form of the grit. While crushing with rollers can create needles in extreme cases, crushing with impact mills produces cubical grit forms.

22

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

Especially in the case of normal corundum, physical properties such as toughness and hardness can be improved by means of thermal and mechanical finishing. Used in resin bonded grinding wheels, an additional silane coating improves the bond strength of the grit. In the manufacture of sintered corundum, the goal is to create a strong ceramic body out of α-Al2O3 with a consistent, fine-grited structure. This fine-grited crystal structure should have a positive effect on wear resistance in the grinding process. For conventional methods for the productions of highly resistant sintered ceramics, α-Al2O3 is already available as a raw material for the sintering process. Using a suitable grinding method, the corundum which has been obtained from the melting process is reduced to an adjusted grit size and, in a further step, sintered additionally by the implementation of means such as glass phase-separating agents. αAl2O3, which is available as a raw material for grinding, is obtained from bauxite via conventional melting methods [MUEL02, N.N.1]. For the manufacture of sintered bauxite corundum, ground raw bauxite is mixed with water, binding materials and compacting auxiliary agents. The pasty mass is then extruded, cut into lengths and finally sintered. Depending on the manufacturing method, a consistent, fine-grited grit structure is formed. Sol-gel corundum, also belonging to the sintered corundum group, play an important role in industrial applications. They are distinguished by their homogeneous microcrystalline form and their high density, which, as opposed to sintered bauxite corundum, can even be obtained without compacting, i.e. using a sintering process with no pressure. In contrast to sintered bauxite corundum, these microcrystalline aluminium oxides are manufactured before the final sintering process by means of the costly chemical sol-gel method, from which the material also derives its name. The first step of the sol-gel method is converting a solid to a colloidal solution by adding water. The solid particles dissolved in the medium exhibit a size ranging as a rule between 1 nm and 1 μm [N.N.82, ODIE85]. They thus fulfil the requirement of a colloidal solution, in which the disperse particles should have larger dimensions than those of simple molecules. Colloid-disperse materials in liquids are designated as colloidal solutions or also in general as sols. If water is utilised as a means of dispersion, it is called a hydrosol. To stabilise and to dissolve the agglomerates and thus to increase the degree of dispersions, a so-called peptisator is added to the mixture. Aluminium hydroxide is peptised, e.g. with hydrochloric acid or nitric acid [N.N.82]. In most cases, the hydrosol pH value lies between 2 and 3. By adding more electrolytes, the sol is dehydrated, i.e. the disperse particles polymerise and a gallert-type mass develops, the gel. In this way, a homogeneous mass with oriented alignments of the individual crystals is created. The process of gel formation can therefore be described as a controlled and simultaneously oriented flocculation [HERM73]. The manufacturing process for the abrasive sol-gel corundum is shown in Fig. 3-3. For the production of sol-gel corundum, powdered boehmite (γ-A100H) is used as a starting material. The latter is previously synthesised by means of hy-

3.1 Grit Material

23

drolysis of aluminium alcoholates. The resulting boehmite is characterised by its high material purity, its high specific surface area (200-300 m2/g) and its small particle size (5 nm) [N.N.84, UHLM97a]. The powdery boehmite is transformed into a clear sol with the addition of water and mixing with the peptisator, this being nitric acid in most cases [N.N.82]. Water

Boehmite (AIO(OH))

Gelling agent (HNO3; Mg(No3)2)

Rolling out and drying of the mass

+

Crushing

Calcining

Sintering

Fig. 3-3. Basic representation of the sol-gel corundum manufacturing process [LUDE94]

By means of further addition of an acid (mostly nitric acid) or a nitrate solution, the reaction to form a gel, i.e. dehydration and polymerisation, is induced. The fact that the acid is utilised on the one hand as a peptisator for the production of the sol and on the other hand to form the gel shows that the correct choice in added amounts of water, acid and boehmite is vital for the sol-gel process. As a result of gelation, the boehmite is now distributed very homogeneously. In a final working step, the water which has been released is evaporated. The gel is rolled into thin strands and dried at a temperature of ca. 80 – 100 °C. In this way, a brittle solid is formed, which is crushed to the required grit size and filtered out in a further working step for use as an abrasive. In this stage, the individual grits are still composed of aluminium hydroxide in the boehmite phase. Grits manufactured in this way undergo an initial heat treatment in the next working step. At firing temperatures of 450 - 550 °C, the aluminium hydroxide transforms into a transitional-phase aluminium oxide, γ-Al2O3. Upon the reaction of boehmite with γ-Al2O3, nitrogen is released as a residue of acid and water. This low-temperature firing is designated as calcining. The last step in the production of sol-gel corundum is the concluding unpressured sintering. During the sintering

24

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

process, the temperature is incrementally raised to values lying between 1200 und 1500 °C. In general, abrasive grits are sorted according to size by sifting and, in the case of finer grits, by sedimentation or air sifting (table 3-1). Grit classification as well as the inspection methods for macrogrit and microgrit materials have been standardised by DIN ISO 8486-1. The dominant grit form of a batch can be determined by the bulk density of the loose abrasive grit. Various special corundum materials are produced by varying the manufacturing process described above. Pink or red corundum is developed by adding about 0.3 % or 2 % Cr2O3 during the melting process. In this way, the chrome oxide is built into the Al2O3 lattice of the corundum. In the case of zircon corundum, up to 42 % zircon dioxide (ZrO2) is added to the molten mass. During the solidification phase of such molten masses, eutectic structures of Al2O3 and ZrO2 emerge. If, besides coke, iron sulphide is added to the molten bauxite, highly pure, monocrystalline aluminium oxide forms in a sulphidic matrix. We obtain monocrystalline corundum by forming monocrystals from the matrix. Hollow sphere corundum is created by atomising the molten Al2O3. This special corundum is characterised by a more or less regular, spherical form. Table 3-1. The classification of abrasives in accordance with the FEPA standard Macro grit Rough

Micro grit

Middle

Fine

Very fine

Grit size

dkm [μm]

Grit size

dkm [μm]

Grit size

dkm [μm]

Grit size

dkm [μm]

F4

4550

F 30

650

F 70

230

F 230

53.0

F5

3750

F 36

545

F 80

194

F 240

44.5

F6

3165

F 46

385

F 90

163

F 280

36.5

F7

-

F 54

-

F 100

137

F 320

29.2

F8

2630

F 60

274

F 120

115

F 360

22.8

F 10

2190

F 150

97

F 400

17.3

F 12

1840

F 180

81

F 500

12.8

F 14

1545

F 220

57.5

F 600

9.3

F 16

1250

F 800

6.5

F 20

1095

F 1000

4.5

F 22

-

F 1200

3.0

F 24

775

dkm = mean grit diameter

3.1 Grit Material

25

Properties A high degree of hardness and toughness and high amounts of stability and thermal conductivity are the primary requirements placed on an abrasive grit. These properties are influenced by chemical composition, crystal structure as well as by the grit size. In table 3-2, the main components of various types of corundum and their most important properties are shown. For comparative purposes, the grit materials silicon carbide, cBN and diamond are also displayed [COLL88, JUCH86, LEIC75, LUDE94, N.N.4, SCHE81, UHLM96]. Hardness and toughness are mostly dependent on the composition of the grit material. Pure white corundum has a Knoop hardness of 2160 HK. Brown and normal corundum exhibit, due to incomplete reduction, residual oxides, which exist mainly in the form of titanium oxide TiO2. Titanium oxide causes an increase in the lattice constants of electrocorundum, from which results a decreased hardness of this grit type [COES71]. On the other hand, contaminating oxides can improve the toughness of the grit material. This can be shown with the help of a bray machine, in which a certain amount of abrasive grits are subjected to shear and impact stress. Fig. 3-4 shows the percentile amount of grits that remained undamaged after the pulverising experiment. According to it, the toughness of electro-corundum clearly decreases with increasing purity. This amounts to a toughness increase from white to brown to normal corundum. In order to improve the toughness of white fused corundum, small amounts of Cr2O3 are added during the production process. These cause a toughness increase at the same hardness, e.g. in pink and red corundum [BRAD67]. Table 3-2. Application areas of synthetic grit materials Range of application White fused corundum Wheels, rings, seg(Wfc) ments, cup wheels, mounted points, bond: most vitrified,

Grinding process

Materials

External-/internal-, centreless-, surface-, profile-, thread-, tool-, belt grinding

Unalloyed, alloyed, untempered, tempered steels up to 63 HRC, high speed steel, casting, nonferrous metals, wood, plastics

abrasive belts Pink fused corundum (Pfc) Ruby alum. ox.

Like Wfc, rarely abrasive belts Like Wfc, no abrasive belts

Mono-crystaline corundum (Mcc)

Like Wfc, no abrasive belts

Like Wfc, universal for Like Wfc, though supeprecision grinding rior at higher strengths Like Wfc, especially for profile grinding External-/internal-, Specially tempered centreless-, tool-, gear steel more than 63 flank grinding HRC, tool steel, HSS

26

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

Table 3-2. Application areas of synthetic grit materials (continued)

Semi – friable alum. ox.

Range of application

Grinding process

Like Wfc

External-/internal-, belt Unalloyed, alloyed, grinding untempered, tempered steels up to 63 HRC, spheroidal iron, tool steel

(HK)

Brown corundum (Bc) Grinding tools like Wfc,

Rough-, cut-off-, offhand-, (high performance-), belt grinding,

bond: most resin, as well hot-pressed cleaning, deburring wheels, cut-off wheels Zircon alum. ox.

Wheels, bond: resin, grinding belts,

Materials

Unalloyed, low alloyed steels, cast iron, base metals

Rough-, high-pressure, Steel casting (high performance-), belt grinding,

always with NK or SiC cleaning, deburring Sintered bauxite corundum Sintered corundum

Wheels

High-pressure grinding Austentic steels

Wheels,

Like Wfc and Mcc,

Like Wfc and Mcc

bond:vitrified,

(high performance-), pro rata 50 - 90 % EK belt grinding Silicon carbide, black

Wheels, cut-off wheels,

Rough-, cut-off-, offhand-, belt grinding

Grey cast iron, aluminium, wood, lacquer

grinding belts Silicon carbide, green Wheels, bond: resin

All grinding processes Grey cast iron, carbide, glass, stone, titanium base alloy, plastics, ceramics

Cubic boron nitride cBN

Wheels, metal (as well Like Wfc and Mcc galvanic bond), resin bond, vitrified bond,

Diamond

Wheels, metal bond (as well galvanic), resin bond, loose abrasive grit

Tempered steels, HSS, low alloyed steels

loose abrasive grit Surface-, profile-, cut- Glass, ceramics, caroff grinding, dressing bide, natural stone, tools, cermets, glass-fibre reinforced plastics, semilapping, polishing conductor, base metals

3.1 Grit Material

>99.5 % Al2O3

Pink fused corundum (Pfc)

>99.0 % Al2O3

Red corundum

∼98.0 % Al2O3 ∼ 2 % Cr2O3

15

Pink

2160

18

∼ 0.2 % Cr2O3 Ruby

(>Pfc)

Mono-crystaline ∼99 % Al2O3 corundum (Mcc)

Light grey

(tough)

∼ 98 % Al2O3

Grey/ blue

(>Wfc)

Semi – friable alum. ox. (HK)

Thermal conductibility [W/m°C]

2000 2160

up to °C

White

Thermal stability

3.98

[%]

Relative toughness

Hardness Knoop HK

Colour

White fused corundum (Wfc)

Density [g/cm3]

Main chemical constituents

Table 3-3. Composition and properties of synthetic grit materials

∼ 1.5 % TiO2

Brown corundum (Bc)

∼ 96 % Al2O3

Zirconium alum. ox.

∼75(60) % Al2O3

2000

6

Brown

1950

21

Grey/ brown

16001750

50

∼ 3 % TiO2 ∼ 600

∼25(40) % ZrO2 Sintered bauxite Al2O3 corundum Nk/Nk + ZrO2 Sintered corundum

95-99 % Al2O3 0-5 % MgO/Fe2O3

Various

(very tough)

3.83.96

Various

(>Wfc) (very tough)

3.21

Black

24003000

6

Green

24003000

3

3.48

Black/ yellow

3.52

Yellow/ yellowgreen

various additives Silicon carbide black (SiCd)

∼97.0 % SiC

Silicon carbide green(SiCg)

∼98.0 % SiC

Cubic boron nitride cBN

∼43.6 % B

Diamond

∼ 100 % C

∼56.4 % N

1300

55

4700

1370

200 700

70008000

900

6002100

27

28

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

Proportion of undamaged grains

50

%

30

20

10

0 95

96 97 98 Proportion of Al2O3

%

100

Fig. 3-4. Higher purity in the grit material lessens its toughness [BRAD67]

Compared to white fused corundum, mono-crystalline corundum exhibits a higher level of toughness at scarcely lower hardness. This is based on the facts that, as opposed to white and normal corundum, the grit boundaries of monocrystalline corundum are formed by crystal layers, and that the toughness properties of mono-crystalline corundum are clearly improved due to the lack of lattice defects. By adding zircon dioxide (ZrO2) in the manufacturing process of corundum, so-called zircon corundum can be produced. An addition of 25 % to 40 % of zircon dioxide causes a noticeable increase in grit toughness. The principal mechanism of this increase in toughness is based upon the temperature-dependent crystal structure of zircon dioxide, which is associated with a change in volume. Thus, with a suitable regulation of temperature during cooling, compressive residual stresses can be induced in the grit. These compressive residual stresses work against the growth of cracks, thereby improving the toughness of the grit. The hardness of the zircon corundum, on the other hand, is significantly lower than that of fused corundum [LUDE94]. The influence of the grit size on grit toughness for both normal corundum and silicon corundum is represented in Fig. 3-5. Toughness proves to diminish with increasing grit size, while it increases when the grit structure is finer. Thus, corundum manufactured by means of the billet method (crystal diameter up to 1200 μm) are more brittle than those produced with the tapping method (crystal diameter of abut 400 μm) [COES71, PEKL60]. A reduction in crystal size amounting to about 25 μm can be achieved with sintered bauxite corundum. The fine crystalline structure of this corundum type is responsible for its high level of toughness.

3.1 Grit Material

29

Silicon carbide (99%)

Toughness

Electro aluminium oxide (96%)

8

2600

50

324

100

150 Grain size

137 97 Grit diameter

200

240

[μm]

49

Fig. 3-5. Toughness of Al2O3 and SiC as a function of the grit size

Microcrystalline structures that further enhance toughness can be found in solgel corundum. The latter have crystal sizes under 500 nm. It is assumed that crack proliferation can be reduced or hindered by reducing the crystal size [BRUN97, LUDE94]. Especially micro-crack formation, which occurs as a result of dislocation yield stress at the grit boundaries, can take on properties that increase toughness [ENGE02]. The microcrystalline structure of sol-gel corundum results in a more favourable fracture behaviour for the grinding process compared with conventionally fused corundum [BRUN97, MUEL02]. Fused corundum has fracture planes, at which relatively large particles break out in clods under strain (Fig. 3-6). Due to their microcrystalline structure, sol-gel corundum lacks these slip planes. As a result, only relatively small particles chip off and the grit maintains it sharpness [COLL80]. The most crucial thermal properties of a grit material are its temperature conductivity, pressure softening point and melting point. Temperature conductivity is a measure of a material’s capability to balance out differences in temperature, i.e. to transfer temperature. If it is assumed that an individual grit is strained with a punctiform heat source due to chip formation at its cutting edge, if the temperature

30

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

conductivity is good, the added heat is distributed quickly across the grit. Thus, the applied increase in temperature reaches equilibrium rapidly.

Melted aluminium oxide

10μm

Sintered aluminium oxide

1μm

Fig. 3-6. Comparison of the microstructure and fracture properties of fused corundum and sol-gel corundum

Fig. 3-7 shows that the temperature conductivity of Al2O3 reduces significantly with increasing temperature. Therefore, at high temperatures, one can expect that the heat stress will concentrate increasingly on the cutting edge and that extreme temperature peaks will occur here. Since, with increasing temperature, the thermal coefficient of expansion also goes up, temperature differences lead additionally to increasingly large thermal stresses in the grit. These thermally dependent stresses can also appear between the grit and the bond if the grit’s and the bond’s thermal coefficients of expansion deviate from each other excessively. Aluminium oxide has a pressure softening point of 1750 °C and its melting point is 2050 °C [COES71]. It has been proved in friction experiments that, under a large amount of pressure and temperature, spinels – especially iron spinel FeAl2O4 – are formed [KIRK74]. Tribochemical layers on the abrasive grits of sol-gel corundums were first demonstrated by Engelhorn [ENGE02]. These are composed of oxides and mixed oxides. Especially manganese, chrome and silicon were verified in comparatively high concentrations in the developed layers.

3.1 Grit Material

31

aϑ α 7

1.4

5

4 3 2 1 0

Al 2O3

1.0

Conductibility of temperature aϑ

Coefficient of thermal expansion α

2 μm -1 cm 10 s m .°C

0.8

SiC

SiC

0.6 0.4 Al2O3

0.2 0 0 200

400

600

[°C]

1000

Temperature ϑ Fig. 3-7. Thermal properties of the abrasives Al2O3 and SiC [COES71]

Uses The uses of various abrasive grit materials, based on specifications provided by a range of abrasive grit manufacturers, are shown in table 3-2. The specific properties of the various grits and tool properties lead by necessity to special uses. Depending on the case, uses that do not appear in the table could also prove to be practicable, since the choice of an optimal abrasive grit is always contingent upon particular processing conditions. Hardened steels of up to 63 HRC, carbides and casting materials, even wood and plastic – all are processed with corundum, either bonded in grinding wheels or on abrasive belts.

32

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

Direction of engagement

Tribochemical layer

Material: 100Cr6V, 61±1 HRC Abrasive material: : Sintered aluminium oxide

______

200 μm RE 15 kV

Material adhesion _____ 10 μm RE 15 kV

Scratching: vs = 45 m/s ae = 40 μm vw = 90 mm/min

____

10 μm

Al 15 kV

____

10 μm

O 15 kV

____

10 μm

Fe 15 kV

____

10 μm

Mn 15 kV

____

10 μm

Cr 15 kV

____

10 μm

Si 15 kV

Fig. 3-8. ESMA surface analysis of a sol-gel corundum grit

3.1.2.2 Silicon Carbide Silicon carbide is a technical product that is melted from quartz sand in a resistance arc furnace. In this method, silicon carbides of varying purity, toughness and colour can be produced by altering the process, as is the case for corundum. Proceeding from the colour, we differentiate between green silicon carbide and black (dark) silicon carbide.

3.1 Grit Material

33

Manufacture Silicon carbide utilised for abrasive applications is manufactured from a mixture of quartz sand, carbon, sawdust and common salt. The working steps illustrated in Fig. 3-9 are carried out in its production. The proportional amounts of these components in the furnace mixture correspond approximately to the stoichiometric ratio for the reactions executed in the production process [POCH62]:

SiO 2 + 3C → SiC + 2CO .

(3.1)

Sawdust serves to loosen the mixture and thus to remove CO gases. Beyond this, the furnace mixture requires a small percent of common salt, which promotes the purification process by converting aluminium, iron and other impurities to their volatile chlorides [BABL67]. The melting process is carried out in temperatures of 2000 to 2400 °C in 5 to 20 meter-long furnaces and lasts about 36 hours. After the mixture has cooled, its exterior zone is removed. In this layer, the reaction does not take place, and it therefore serves merely as a thermal isolation layer. Further inside, there is a zone of partially converted material made of SiO2, Si, C and SiC. After the removal of these layers, we come across the actual silicon carbide concentrically encircling the nerve, which has in the meantime turned to graphite. The finished product displays a solid, tubular crust baked together out of smaller and larger SiC crystals [BABL67]. This is crushed and freed of crude impurities, especially graphite. After cleaning follows the sorting of the raw material. According to the positioning in the furnace, three to five quality levels are separated (Fig. 3-9), of which the first two undergo upgrading via a chemicalmechanical purification process. Qualities three to five are only mechanically purified. The latter are exploited in areas such as the metallurgical industry, where common impurities are not a problem. After sorting, the SiC is crushed to a fineness of less than 3 mm in jaw crushers, roll crushers and impact crushers [BABL67]. The refinement of the product begins with acid treatment in order to dissolve any iron that may still be present. A second washing process removes the silicon and its compounds by means of a caustic soda solution. Finally, any graphite still present is separated with water and steam. After drying, the iron which was added in the conditioning process (crushing, rolling) is removed with a magnet separator. At the end, the grits are classified by sifting and sometimes also by sedimentation.

34

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

53% Silica sand

40% Coal

5% Sawdust

2% Common salt

Melting in resistance furnace at ca. 2000 to 2300 °C Cooling down in the furnace Preturning of SiC-Crust Crushing and fettling Sorting Quality 1 and 2 Crushing, milling

Quality 3 to 5 For metallurgy industry

Acid treatment, washing, magnet deposition Screening, elutriation Grains 8 to 800 (1200) SiC green

SiC black

Fig. 3-9. The manufacture of silicon carbide

Properties The composition and properties of silicon carbide vary according to the type and proportion of impurities as well as the position in the furnace. Silicon carbide used for grinding is divided by colour into green and black silicon carbide. While the green colouration of 98 % SiC can be derived from quantities of nitrogen of 10-4 to 10-3 % [CELY54], small amounts of aluminium or aluminium oxide cause the blue to black colouration of the 97 % SiC variety [KONO65]. The Knoop hardness of silicon carbide is cited in the literature, independently of crystal orientation and the impurities present, as in the area of 2450 to 3000 HK [BABL67, COLL80, SPEN70]. As such, silicon carbide possesses the highest degree of hardness of all conventional abrasives. Silicon carbide is a comparatively brittle grit material. Black silicon carbide exhibits more toughness than green silicon carbide in comminuting machines [GIES59]. Grit toughness is enhanced with increasing grit fineness (Fig. 3-5). The comparison between the temperature conductivity of silicon carbide and that of

3.1 Grit Material

35

corundum shows that silicon carbide is capable of balancing temperature differences in the grit much better (Fig. 3-7). Since the thermal coefficient of expansion of SiC is relatively small, silicon carbide generally has a better temperature resistance than corundum. The pressure softening point is 2000 °C [BABL67]; at 2400 °C [COES71], the recrystallisation temperature is comparatively high. Chemically, SiC is a very stable compound. It is also acid resistant at high temperatures. An exception to this is phosphoric acid, which already attacks finely powdered SiC at 200 to 300 °C. With temperatures between 1000 und 1600 °C, oxidation resistance is determined by diffusion processes. A continuous layer, consisting mostly of SiO2, acts against oxidation. There are numerous possible ways to increase the oxidation resistance of granular SiC. To these belong the reduction of the specific surface area and the selection of appropriate bonding materials. Uses SiC grinding wheels are predominately used in the rough-grinding and slitting of castings, carbides, aluminium, titanium and stone. However, SiC has lost a lot of its significance, because, especially in the case of glass and stone processing, many practices have been made more economical by synthetic diamond [JUCH86].

3.1.2.3 Cubic Boron Nitride The synthesis of cubic boron nitride (cBN) was first carried out by R.H. Wentorf in 1957 [WENT75]. cBN was first produced industrially in 1968 and, in 1969, it was introduced to the market under the brand name Borazon by the US General Electric Company. In contrast to grinding wheels with conventional abrasive materials, cBN grinding wheels are mainly built from an abrasive lining applied to a base body. Among the most important advantages of cBN in comparison with diamond are its higher thermal stability and its suitability for grinding ferrous tools. Manufacture Cubic boron nitride is manufactured by the pyrolysis of boron chloride ammonia using a catalyst at pressures of 50 to 90 kbar and temperatures between 1800 and 2700 °C. The corresponding chemical reaction is shown in equation 3.2.

BCl 3 ⋅ NH 3 → BN + 3HCl

(3.2)

36

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

After the pressing process, the pressed pieces are further treated chemically, whereby the residues of the synthesis process are dissolved in various acid baths. Subsequently, the purified cutting material is introduced into the grit preparation. There the grits are prepared by means of surface treatment or coatings on the respective application area [N.N.5]. Classification of the grits then proceeds, as for the conventional abrasives corundum and SiC, by sifting or, for microgrits, by sedimentation. Cubic boron nitride is harder than conventional abrasives by a factor of 2 and has a much higher thermal conductivity (table 3-3) [DRUM84, N.N.5, N.N.83, VRIE72]. At higher temperatures, chemical reactions are possible when cBN is exposed to oxygen or water. Investigations have established that cBN grits become covered with boron oxide when in 1200 °C warm, dry air (equation 3.3) [CELY54]. This layer has a wear-inhibiting effect in the machining process.

4BN + 3O 2 → 2B 2 O 3 + 2N 2 .

(3.3)

Boron nitride grits heated under steam formed no boron oxide layer in laboratory experiments. They became cracked and scarred and lost mass [CELY54]. Above a temperature of about 1000 °C, a hydrolysis initiated, proceeding in accordance with the relation

BN + 3H 2 O → H 3 BO 3 + NH 3

(3.4)

This reaction has, however, not been observed in the grinding process. It is presumed, on the contrary, that this reaction does not occur in grinding due to minimal contact times. Uses Compared with synthetic and natural diamonds, boron nitride is technological and economical advantageous in the machining of ferrous tools. Contrasted with conventional abrasives, it has proven advantageous above all in the grinding of difficult-to-machine steels with high amounts of alloy and a hardness of over 55 HRC. The low wear of cBN grinding wheels also makes it possible to reach high form and dimensional tolerances. At the same time, especially in the case of steels which are difficult to machine, there is less influence on the workpiece surface layer in comparison to conventional grinding wheels. This can be ascribed to the higher thermal conductivity of cubic boron nitride, resulting, especially in machining high speed steel, in a longer service life compared to grinding these tools with conventional abrasives.

3.2 Bonds

37

3.1.2.4 Synthetic Diamond The most dominant group of diamond abrasives by far are those manufactured synthetically. Carbon in graphite form serves as the raw material. Synthesis is carried out at pressures of 70 to 120 kbar and temperatures around 2000 °C in the presence of metallic catalysts. In accordance with an appropriate choice of synthesis conditions, e.g. the respective combinations of pressure, temperature and chemical features, the growth rate of the diamond crystals can be varied and adjusted across a size range of several powers. For example, an abrasive diamond of acceptable size can be gained within a few seconds at the right temperature and pressure. In this case, the growth rate is decreased by synthesis times amounting to mere thousands of a second, such that requisite crystal magnitudes are acquired for specific grinding processes. In the further processing of the grits, one proceeds in the same way as with the cBN grit. One of the most conspicuous properties of the diamond abrasive is its extreme hardness, matched by no other material (table 3-3). Its Knoop hardness of 7000 to 8000 HK is about twice as large as that of the conventional abrasives corundum and silicon carbide. While in the case of the latter grit types the hardness is largely independent of crystal orientation, synthetic diamond exhibits a marked dependence [HOWE75]. Hardness in the (110) plane has been measured to be 123 % and in the (100) plane 138 % of the hardness in the (111) plane. There is little in the literature pertaining to the toughness of diamond grits. The synthesis process and aftertreatment can influence toughness to a limited extent. Diamond has, in comparison with corundum or silicon carbide, a very high heat conductivity. The diamond grit thus quickly transfers the heat generated in the machining zone to the bond. This can, under extreme conditions for example, lead in the case of a synthetic resin bond to its destruction at the grit/bond interface and therefore to premature grit break-out. Coatings of the diamond grits with nickel, cobalt or composite metals are therefore used as heat retardants. Beyond this, they can enhance the adhesion between the grit and the bond. Exposed to small pressures, diamond graphitisation is set off starting at about 900°K assuming there is enough oxygen present [GULB50].

3.2 Bonds According to DIN 69 111, for all abrasive tools excepting loose abrasives, individual grits are bonded with each other and with the backing material. In practice, all components of the grinding wheel, with the exception of the abrasive grit, are comprised under the designation of “bond” [COLL88]. Bonds have the task of adhering to the grits until they are dulled by the grinding process. Then the bonds should release the grits so that succeeding, sharp grits can be applied. The holding function is only fulfilled if the bond material is strong

38

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

enough and the bond web exhibits cross-sectional areas of sufficient size. In addition, the bond must have pores so that there is enough space for the chipped material and cooling lubricant. The essential properties of a grinding wheel can be adjusted by the composition of the bond, the volumetric amounts of the bond components and the manufacturing process. Primarily, we differentiate between synthetic resin, vitrified and metal bonds. These must be customised for the respective application and have numerous variations.

3.2.1 Resin Bonds The resin bond consists of a synthetic resin or synthetic resin combination with or without fillers. For particular grinding wheel types, applications or different fabrication methods, there are many resins available. In the case of the dry mix method, phenol resol is used for the grit wetting as well as a phenol resin powder based on novolak hexamethylenetetramine [COLL88]. Despite the variety of synthetic resins available today, phenol resins or phenol plasters are still the most common bond components for grinding wheels bonded with synthetic resin. In order to give the bond certain properties, it is customary to modify the phenol resin powder. Besides variations in the proportion of hexamethylenetetramine, bond hardness and brittleness can be manipulated by the addition of elastomeric bonds. In this way, wheel speed can be increased and the danger of crack formation due to large changes in temperature and pressure loads can be significantly decreased. In this context, particularly polyvinylbutyral, certain types of rubber and epoxy resins have proved useful. In the case of grinding wheels reinforced with glass fibre, adhesion to the fibreglass can be improved by means of epoxy resin modification [COLL88]. Of lesser importance among abrasive products bonded with synthetic resin are bond systems based on polyurethane, polyester and epoxy resin. In order to achieve particular grinding effects, like especially soft, smooth grinding or polishing effects, epoxy or polyester resins are utilised. An extremely high elasticity in the abrasive can be gained by using polyurethane resin. When in contact with alkaline cooling lubricants, resin-bonded abrasives show a decrease in bond strength and hardness, which is attributable to the penetration of water molecules and particularly OH ions into the interface between the grit surface and the resin bond. To reduce this influence, grits are pre-treated with special adhesive agents and the wetting and wear properties of the resin are specifically influenced by a suitable choice of resin system [COLL88]. When using resin bonded grinding wheels, cooling lubricants mixed with water should not exceed a pH value of 9 [FRAN88].

3.2 Bonds

39

Grinding wheels manufactured with synthetic resin bonds • are insensitive to impact or shock as well as lateral pressure, • allow for high rotational speeds and chipping volumes for abrasive cutters and rough grinders, • permit high surface qualities by means of a high elasticity in the case of polishing and smoothing discs [COLL88]. Consequently, the primary areas of use for grinding wheels bonded with synthetic resin are abrasive cutting and rough grinding.

3.2.2 Vitrified Bonds Vitrified bonds are formed by mixtures from the natural silicates red and white clay, kaolin and feldspar, as well as quartz and, as an additive, frits [HADE66, PADB93]. Frits are glassy, previously melted and pulverised organic and inorganic mixes which serve as fluxing agents and give the vitrified bond certain properties. Among other things, they help lower the firing temperature of the bond mixture. For grinding wheels, these mixtures are composed mostly of boron silicates or glass containing magnesium. Especially with frits containing boron, the propensity of borax, as in the hard soldering of metals, to form molten masses with metal oxides at low temperatures (these masses then congealing into glassy state after cooling) is evident [HADE66]. The usual components and their volumetric portions determine the strength of the bond bridges. All components are prepared, after checking the raw material, by crushing, milling, sifting and air sifting. Mixture proportions are varied in accordance with the desired target properties. The bonds must be attuned to the respective machining conditions and the abrasive grit material in use. In view of this, we distinguish according to the proportion of the glass phase in the bond mixture • fused bonds with a high amount of glass phase, • bonds with a medium amount of glass phase and • sintered bonds with a small amount of glass phase. In fused bonds, grits bonding occurs by means of a glass phase with low viscosity. In sintered bonds, adhesive force is a result of rearrangement or solid reactions [PADB93]. The sintering and melting points of the bond mixture are essential, characteristic values for every bond. They determine the firing temperature and the process behaviour of the abrasives. Furthermore, the bond should be made to conform to the abrasive’s properties. Certain sintered corundum materials, for example, are attacked by alkaline silicates. Besides a diffusion of sodium and silicon in the interior of the grit, crystal

40

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

growth transpires when exposed to higher temperatures. This interferes with the self-sharpening properties of the abrasive grits. Thus, in the case of sintered corundum, low-alkaline fused bonds with the lowest possible melting point are used. Should high requirements be placed on the grinding component’s profile accuracy and dressing capability of the wheel, the hardness and strength of the bond can be enhanced by increasing the amount of glass phase. Thereby, next to an improvement in the bonding of the individual grit, a facilitation of the dressing process is achieved [PADB93]. In essence, the properties of ceramic bonds can be summarised as follows: • • • •

brittle and thus comparatively sensitive to impact, high elasticity modulus, temperature-resistant, yet sensitive to temperature change, chemically resistant to oil and water.

3.2.3 Metallic Bonds Metallic bonds exist in multiple varieties. All metallic bonds exhibit, in contrast to grinding wheels bonded with resins or vitrified mixtures, an increased level of heat conductivity. The properties of metallic bonds can be summarised along these lines: • high resistance to wear, • difficult to dress, or, in the case of single-layered grinding wheels, not dressable, • high heat conductivity, • increase in frictional heat. Metallic bonds are of particular importance for grinding wheels with superabrasive materials. This will be further explored in chapter 3.4.2.

3.2.4 Other bonds The rubber bond consists mostly of synthetic caoutchouc, sulphur and zinc oxide to speed up vulcanisation. Grinding wheels bonded with rubber are used, for example, in abrasive cutting discs and in control wheels for centerless grinding. Rubber bonds are comparatively cool-grinding bonds. This can be attributed to the fact that grits that have become dull due to low grinding wheel hardness break off early and only a small amount of frictional heat is generated. Binders in the form of highly viscous, foamless natural glues serve primarily as the bond material for non-moisture-proof abrasive material as a foundation. These

3.2 Bonds

41

are almost exclusively used in wood treatment, maintaining a large market share in this area. In addition, in many branches of industry, binder-coated grinding wheels are used for surface finishing. The method is designated as either crude or fine finishing. The tools used for this consist of felt, leather or sometimes wood discs, which are coated with tough, hard, yet temperature-sensitive warm binder or with cold binder which is insensitive to heat but brittle (mostly liquid glass). After several hours of drying, a second binder coating is applied. Immediately, the coated surface is rolled in grinding powder of predetermined grit size in a tank until the binder dries and no more grits are attaching to the leather. After drying, the surface once again is coated with binder and rolled in grinding powder. In this way, abrasives receive an elastic backing material and can assimilate to the form of the tool [HADE66]. One seldom-used bond type is the magnesite bond. It is manufactured with magnesite or burned magnesium (MgO), which converts to magnesium hydroxide with water. Magnesite bonds produce a soft grinding wheel, exactly like silicate bonds. Such grinding wheels are utilised in dry-grinding thin, heat-sensitive tools, primarily cutlery. Although they dull easily, this disadvantage is accepted for the sake of being able to work at lower grinding temperatures [HADE66]. Shellac, dissolved in alcohol or water mixed with alkalines (borax, ammonia etc.), functions nowadays only rarely as a binder for abrasive grits, although it is completely water-repellent after drying. However, its use has incited the artificial resin industry to replace it with more efficient synthetic resins.

3.2.5 Fillers and Additives Besides the basic materials described above, the bonds of abrasive tools occasionally contain a number of additives. These are, on the one hand, necessary for the manufacturing process of the tools, and, on the other, help to create specifically defined grinding properties. Fillers contained in the matrix of grinding wheels bonded with synthetic resin can play a reinforcing role by increasing the strength, heat-resistance, toughness and fracture resistance. The materials used as fillers for these tools are quite heterogeneous. Calcium oxide in the form of chalk powder, magnesium oxide, zinc sulphide and barium sulphate are used in order to promote the bonding of the resin while hardening and to prevent bubbles or cavities. [COLL88, N.N.7]. Graphite, pyrite, cryolite, lithopone (a mixture made of zinc sulphide and barium sulphide), potassium sulphate, potassium chloride and borax function as lubricants. Their purpose is to lower the grinding temperature and prevent oxidation on the tool surface. The sulphur dioxides that develop can also decelerate a thermally contingent decomposition of the synthetic resin and thus help increase the service life of the grinding wheel [ARMI84].

42

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

In abrasive cutting discs, lead chloride and antimony trisulphide are important fillers used for lubrication. They diminish the risk of surface hardening, because they melt during grinding, thereby taking in heat. Moreover, the fluid film which develops from this reduces friction between the grinding wheel and the tool and therefore leads to a diminished heat generation as well [N.N.8]. It must however be noted that antimony trisulphide and lead chloride are poisonous and therefore subject to label requirements. Strict MAK/TRK values are in effect for them. Thus, both additives may only be made use of in grinding wheels for stationary cutting. Accident prevention regulation VBG 7 n 6 stipulates for the continuous operation of dry grinding machines a suction or other form of removal of the accruing dust. Antimony trisulphide and lead chloride are being increasingly replaced by, for example, alkali-iron halogenide [COLL88]. In vitrified bonds, so-called burnout materials like granulated coke or paraffin are used. These sublimate or burn during the burning process. With their help, an alteration of the abrasive material structure can be achieved without changing the quantitative composition. With the extension of the bond web, there is a coagulation of smaller pores to form larger ones. This kind of additive is called an effective filling. Besides this, there is also the so-called necessary filling, which must be utilised to achieve a high pore volume and in order to ensure green strength and dimensional stability. To increase wheel speeds, especially strong and secure bonds are employed. These high bursting speed values are achieved for vitrified grinding wheels, among other ways, by adding lithium and boron compounds [PADB93]. Sulphur and zinc oxide are used to accelerate vulcanisation for rubber-bonded abrasives.

3.3 Tool Structure and Designation According to DIN 69 111, grinding components with bonded abrasives are comprised of straight, conical, and reduced grinding wheels, abrasive cutting discs, grinding wheels affixed to support discs, cup grinding wheels, bent grinding wheels, grinding segments, mounted points, honing stones and oil stones (Fig. 310). Ignoring form and dimensions, all of these types exhibit the same basic structure made of abrasive material, bond and pore space.

3.3 Tool Structure and Designation

43

Source: Saint Gobain Abrasives Fig. 3-10. Tools for machining with geometrically undefined cutting edges

3.3.1 Composition of Conventional Grinding Wheels The volumetric portion of grit VG, of bond VB and of pores VP of the total volume of the grinding component V is described by the equation

V = V K + VB + V P

(3.5)

If the individual columns are referred to the total volume V of the grinding component, we obtain the so-called structural formula. According to this

v K + v B + v P = 100% .

(3.6)

Furthermore, from the grit mass mG, the bond mass mB and the density of the abrasive grit ρG and the bond ρB, we obtain the relation

44

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

m = m K + m B = ρ K V K + ρ BV B .

(3.7)

In relation to the total mass of the grinding component, we obtain

m' K + m' B = 100% .

(3.8)

The possibilities resulting from volumetric changes are clarified in Fig. 3-11.

a) vk1 vb1 vp1

Volume :

c) vk1+j vb1 vp1-j

b) vk1 vb1+j vp1-j

d) vk1+j vb1-j vp1

e) vk1+j1 vb1+j2 vp1-(j1+j2)

V = Vk+ Vb +Vp 100% = vk+ vb +vp

Mass:

m = m k + mb = ρkVk + ρbVb 100% = m'k + m'b

Density :

ρ =

ρkVk + ρbVb Vk + V b + Vp

=

ρkvk + ρbvb 100

Fig. 3-11. The structure of grinding tools

Starting with a distribution of vG1, vB1, vP1, grinding component hardness can be improved in b) by increasing the bond volume by the amount j. If the grit quantity remains the same, the pore amount must be reduced to vP1-j. In c), the grit amount is raised at the cost of the pores, which must also lead to an increase in hardness, since the amount of bond remains the same and can thus form stronger webs. In d), there is an increase in vG and simultaneous reduction in vB. Diminished tool strength is here to be derived from the reduction of the bond crosssection [PEKL60a, PEKL66]. Finally, an increase in vG and vB by the respective amount j at the expense of the pore space is represented in e). In this way, the hardness of the grinding component may be raised considerably, but at the same time it diminishes its absorbing power for the chips produced, since the pore space must lead the chips away from the contact zone.

3.3 Tool Structure and Designation

45

Such variation of volumetric parts has limits defined, on the one hand, by the strength requirements placed on the grinding component, on the other hand by tool manufacture. Fig. 3-12 shows a triple-material coordinate system, upon the axes of which are applied vG, vB and vP. The framed regions identify the compositional range of conventional grinding components.

20

[%]

40

gra in

Volume limits: conventional 60

40

20

100 0

evp

[%]

lu m vo

60

VKmax VKmin VBmax

re po

Sp ec.

100

. ec Sp

vo l um e

v

k

0

20

40

60

[%]

0 100

= = =

68 % 40 % 25 %

= cBN VKmax = = VKmin

5% 55 % 18 %

VBmax VBmin

48 % 10 %

VBmin

= =

Spec. bond volume v B conventional abrasive

cBN

Fig. 3-12. The composition of grinding tools

Beyond these limits, fabrication is only possible if special measures are taken, for example, hot pressing or adding burnout materials.

3.3.2 The Designation of Conventional Tools The parameters used to designate grinding wheels made of bonded abrasives follow DIN 69 100 und DIN 69 186 (Figs. 3-13 and 3-14). The following specifications are required in the order indicated for the designation of conventional grinding components: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

name DIN-main number form number profile shape nominal size material maximum operating speed.

46

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

Abrasive tools that are not suitable for all purposes must also be clearly denoted with a corresponding use limitation. These are defined in VBG 49 and consist of the prefix VE followed by a number [N.N.94a]. Grinding wheel DIN 69100 - 5A - 500x250x304 - P390 x F20 A60 L - 5V -50 Name DIN - main number Form number Profile shape Nominal size (List depending on shape) Material Abrasive Grain size Grade Structure Bond Maximum operating speed Fig. 3-13. The designation of conventional grinding wheels

The shapes of the tools are differentiated numerically, the profile with uppercase letters. Code letters are appended to the shape designation. The nominal size of the abrasive tools are in the order and notation specified by DIN 69 100. The latter also stipulates which letters must also be supplied to label the dimensions. A further subdivision for the specification of the abrasive material is shown in Fig. 3-15. According to it, among abrasives, we presently only distinguish corundum A and silicon carbide C. In order to differentiate particular corundum and silicon carbide types, like monocrystal corundum, the norm allows for a two-digit number in front of the designation.

3.3 Tool Structure and Designation

Honing stone

47

DIN 69186 - A 13 x 160 x A 150 - L 8 V S

Name DIN - main number Form

A: Quadrate B: Rectangle

Nominal size ( List depending on shape) Abrasive Grain size Grade

Structure Bond Model Fig. 3-14. The structure of a honing stone designation

Grit size, from the coarsest to the finest, are designated with index numbers that are identical with the mesh count per inch in grit classification. The number 4 (grit diameter 3 mm) represents the coarsest granulation, 1200 (grit diameter 3 μm) the finest. Manufacturers supplement the numbers of the grit magnitudes with signs for combinations of various granulations. For example, for the nominal grit of granulation F 60 (FEPA-Standard 60), the designation 60 1 is often chosen. The hardness of the grinding component is designated with code letters A to Z. A corresponds to the softest degree, Z to the hardest. Hardness is understood as resistance to abrasive grit break out from the grinding wheel, contingent on the adhesiveness of the bond at the grit and on the strength of the bond bridges. It is thus directly determined by the grinding component structure, i.e. by the volumetric composition of grit, bond, pore space and their distribution. The designation of the structure extends from 0 (closed structure) to 14 (very open structure). Subsequent to the classification of the grinding component structure, the bond is characterised by letters, e.g. V for vitrified or B for resin bonds. Concluding the grinding wheel designation in accordance with DIN 69 100 is a number representing the maximum wheel speed. For grinding components for general maximum wheel speeds corresponding to UVV-VBG 7n6, this specification is unnecessary. For grinding wheels built for operation with increased rotational speeds, the maximum operating speed must be provided in the designation according to paragraph 4 of the accident prevention regulations of the employer’s liability insurance association (UVV). Moreover, according to VBG 49 of the accident prevention regulations, the colour markings shown in table 3-4 must be applied to the grinding component in the form of coloured lines. Grinding wheels

48

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

tested with a trial run according to paragraph 4 of the UVV also receive a label with the letter P [N.N.94]. Table 3-4. Labelling grinding wheels in order to indicate the maximum operating speed Cutting speed up to vc / (m/s)

Label

40

Without stripes

50

1 x blue

63

1 x yellow

80

1 x red

100

1 x green

125

1 x blue, 1 x yellow

140

1 x blue, 1 x red

160

1 x blue, 1 x green

180

1 x yellow, 1 x red

200

1 x yellow, 1 x green

225

1 x red, 1 x green

250

2 x blue

280

2 x yellow

320

2 x red

360

2 x green

Abrasive

Grain size

...

A

60

hardness Structure Bonding grade

L

5

Bonding type

Maximum velocity

...

63

B

Maximum velocity [ m/s ] 16 63 20 80 DSA 101 25 100 part 3 32 125 1) 40 140 50 160 1) 1) without practical application

Abrasive A Aluminium oxide C

Silicon carbide

Grain size Macrograin size Micrograin size DIN 69100 Part 1 DIN 69101 Part 1 Coarse Medium Fine Very fine 4 230 70 30 80 5 240 36 90 6 280 40 100 8 320 46 120 10 360 54 150 12 400 60 180 14 500 220 16 600 20 800 22 1000 24 1200

A E H L P T X

B F I M Q U Y

C G J N R V Z

Grade Extremly soft D Very soft Soft K O Medium Hard S W Very Hard Extremly Hard

V R RF B BF E Mg

Bonding Vitrified bonding Rubber bonding Rubber bonding fibre added Resin bonding Resin bonding fibre added Shellac bonding Magnesite bonding

Structure 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 etc. Closed structure Opened structure

3.3 Tool Structure and Designation

Fig. 3-15. The composition of conventional grinding wheels

Example:

Abrasive type

49

50

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

3.3.3 Composition of Superabrasive Grinding Wheels The superabrasive grits cBN and diamond are a great deal more expensive than the conventional abrasives already mentioned. Thus, the construction of superabrasive grinding wheels is also different from that of conventional ones. A further reason for the altered construction has to do with the fact that such grinding wheels exhibit a higher wear resistance. Furthermore, in order to reach higher material removal rates, which is what makes such grinding wheels economical, much higher burst resistance values and grinding wheel speeds are necessary than in the use of conventional grinding wheels. Therefore, grinding wheels with diamond or cBN have bodies applied only with a thin abrasive coating. Basic requirements of the body material are: • a high heat conductivity, • high mechanical strength, • good vibration dampening. These property requirements are partially in contrast to each other and thus necessitate compromises. Not all combinations between the body and the grinding wheel layerare possible and technically sensible. Some frequently used body materials are: • • • •

aluminium, steel, bronze, synthetic resin with metallic or non-metallic fillers, fibre-reinforced synthetic resin, ceramics.

Aluminium and Steel Bodies Metallic bodies are distinguished by their high strength. Theoretically, for a body design without a central hole and with an approximately constant tension curve across the cross-section, rotational speeds of 500 m/s can be reached. The highest practically feasible rotational speed is 280 m/s. Since the ratio of elastic modulus to density for steel and aluminium as a function of their compositions differs only minimally, strain levels are nearly identical at any given rotational speed. Bronze Bodies These bodies are manufactured in both cast and sintered form. Of the two, sintered bronze reaches the highest burst resistance value [FRAN88].

3.3 Tool Structure and Designation

51

Synthetic Resin Bodies with Metallic or Non-Metallic Fillers Bodies made of synthetic resin do not reach the strengths of those of steel or aluminium. However, their improved damping properties are advantageous. Synthetic resin bodies filled with metal have better heat conductivity than those with nonmetal fillers. Copper and aluminium are examples of metallic fillers used in this context. Synthetic Resin Bodies with Reinforcing Fibres This type of body makes use of the strength of non-metallic fibres (glass fibres, carbon fibres) in a plastic matrix. The small density of fibres in connection with their high strength makes it possible to use them at maximum rotational speeds. Ceramic Bodies These bodies correspond in their construction to conventional vitrified grinding wheels. The prerequisite for their use is a coordination of the bonds of the body and the grinding wheel layerwith respect to their strength and strain.

3.3.4 The Designation of Superabrasive Grinding Wheels There is still no binding norm for the designation of grinding wheels containing diamond or boron nitride. The parameters can however be compiled from the manufacturer specifications and from the FEPA standard [N.N.10]. In accordance with these, the identification of a diamond or cBN grinding wheel is composed of a designation of its shape and dimensions as well as the identification of its actual grinding wheel layer (Fig. 3-16). The latter identification specifies grit type and granulation, the bond, bond strength, body and grit concentration. Fig. 3-17 shows a further subdivision in the designation of superabrasive grinding wheels. According to this, diamond D and cBN B stand for both available grit types. The granulation number following the abrasive designation indicates the mesh width of the corresponding test sifts. In contrast to conventional abrasives, it specifies the average grit diameter in μm. We can see from the subsequent combination of letters and numbers which bond type is used in the grinding component that is to be identified. Extensive freedoms are still available to the manufacturer in designating particular bonds. Bond strength is differentiated for cBN and diamond grinding wheels by means of letters.

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

Concentration

Carrier body

Bond hardness

Bond

Abrasive type and size

W

A C 50

X

D

Bore hole

15 - 2 - 20 - D 126 K-plus 888 J

Layer height

Diameter

Form

GA 2 - 125 -

Layer width

52

Fig. 3-16. Structure of the designation of diamond grinding wheels [N.N.10]

After the body designation follow specifications concerning grit concentration. Leading diamond tool manufacturers have agreed on a concentration identification, the basis of which is defined as follows: The concentration number 100 corresponds to a weight concentration of 4.4 carat/cm3. This is equivalent to a volumetric diamond percentage of 25 % of the total coating volume, taking as a basis a diamond density of 3.52 g/cm3 (1 carat = 0.2 g). Usual concentrations are • • • • • • • •

25 = 1.1 ct/cm3, 38 = 1.65 ct/cm3, 50 = 2.2 ct/cm3, 75 = 3.3 ct/cm3, 100 = 4.4 ct/cm3, 125 = 5.5 ct/cm3, 135 = 6.0 ct/cm3, 150 = 6.6 ct/cm3.

For cBN grinding wheels, concentration specifications usually correspond to ten times the value of the volumetric grit percentage of the total coating volume [N.N.10].

Grain

Bonding

D

126

K

213 181 151 126 107 91 76 64 54 46

A

Concentration C50

Diamond

B

cBN

1181 1001 851 711 601 501 426 356 301 251

J

Carrier

D

Diamond

Diamond Cubic crystalline boron nitride

CBN

Example:

Bonding hardness

K Bz M G S KSS GSS MSS VSS

Resin bonding A B

Metal bonding Resin bonding Galv. Metal bonding Sint.-Metal bonding Vitrified bonding

J N R T

Soft Middle Hard Very hard

Kt/cm³ 1.1 1.65 2.2 3.3 4.4 5.5 6.0 6.6 Vol % 12 18 24

Aluminium - Resin Aluminium Phenolic resin

Name C 25 C 38 C 50 C 75 C 100 C 125 C 135 C 150 Name V 120 V 180 V 240

3.3 Tool Structure and Designation 53

Fig. 3-17. Composition of grinding wheels with diamond and cBN abrasives according to the notation of the Saint-Gobain Diamantwerkzeuge GmbH & Co. KG

Abrasive

54

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

3.4 Tool Manufacture

3.4.1 The Manufacture of Tools with Conventional Abrasives The production of abrasive tools bonded with vitrified and synthetic resins is the same from the standpoint of the manufacturing sequence. Yet manufacturing processes do differ because bond properties vary in some points. Fig. 3-18 provides an overview of the particular production steps.

3.4.1.1 The Manufacture of Resin Bonded Grinding Wheels The production of a grinding component with a synthetic resin bond is divided essentially into three operations: • production of the grinding wheel mixture, • pressing the mixture to blanks, • hardening of the blanks in the hardening furnace. In the mixing process, the grits wetted with liquefied phenol resin are mixed in with the resin powder as well as fillings and auxiliaries, such as furfurol and cresol, in accordance with the given quantitative ratio. The mixing process is continued until a homogeneous, pourable mass is formed, which should not be too moist or lumpy, yet should also contain no noticeably dusting parts. Due to the reaction of both resins already initiating directly after mixing, the grinding wheel mixture is not a stable system, by means of which clumping of the mixture can occur under natural pressure. In order to produce unvarying grinding wheel qualities, besides keeping mixing times constant, the mixture is made in air-conditioned spaces, so that the influences of temperature and humidity can be better controlled. For shaping, the press mixture, which has been sifted once again, is weighed precisely and poured into the mould. In order to avoid inhomogeneities that could later effect operation, e.g. in the form of imbalance or structural or hardness disparities, the mixture is spread evenly in the mould. Compression occurs by means of hydraulic presses at pressures in the area of 15 to 30 N/mm2.

3.4 Tool Manufacture

Abrasive corundum silicon carbide

Bond vitrified resin

55

Additive glue, pore additive, etc.

Weigh out like composition Cast process (vitrified)

Moulding technique (vitrified & resin)

Mix with water

Mixing Weigh, fill in mould and disperse

Casting

Pressing 50 - 350 bar

Dry

Dry

Premachining to baking dimension

Premachining ceramic: special shapes

In process inspection

Place in furnace

Place in mould

Baking (ceramic) at 1000 - 1350 °C

Harden (Resinoid) at 180 - 190 °C

Imbue with resin or sulfur

Finish cutting shape and dimension (machining with abrasives)

Cementing on metal plates, cementing of steel pistons

Final inspection (dimensions, shape, structure, hardness, eccentricity and lateral deviation, unbalance, test run)

Strength test (breaking strength, burst test)

Grinding test (material removal rate, wear)

Hot pressing (Resinoid, highcompressed) at 150 - 160 °C

Labelling, marking

Packing, consignment

Storage

Fig. 3-18. The manufacture of grinding tools composed of corundum and silicon carbide [FRAN68]

56

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

With the exception of hot-pressed grinding wheels, pressing takes place at room temperature. In the process, two different pressing variations are distinguished. In the case of volume pressing, there is a compression to a given final volume corresponding to shape and weigh-in quantity. In pressure dependent pressing, the grinding wheel mixture is supplied with an empirically determined pressure. The pressing time usually amounts to 5 to 30 seconds. After removing the blanks or “green discs” from the mould and a temporary storage the hardening process follows. Resin bonded grinding wheels harden predominately in periodic chamber furnaces. For consistent air circulation, the blanks are placed in large numbers on porous ceramic plates. During hardening, the following processes take place according to the actual temperature: • conversion of the resin bond to a molten state (70 to 80 °C), • initiation of the hardening of the molten resin powder by the decomposition of hexamethylentetramine (110 to 120 °C), • maximal cross-linking of the phenol resin (170 to 180 °C) and • improvement in the thermal stability of the resin bond with a simultaneous embrittlement by means of an separation of benzylamin structures with ammonia development (180 to 200 °C). It is common to all temperature regulations in chamber furnaces, which are adjusted in accordance with the respective grinding wheel dimensions and the desired final strength, that a hold time is inserted in the phases with a precipitation of the volatile components water, phenol and also ammonia. The total duration of the hardening process can take up to 60 hours for large-volume grinding components. For the hot pressing of grinding wheels bonded with synthetic resin, nearly water-free wetting agents are used as a rule. Compression takes place in multi-plate presses in temperatures of 150 to 170 °C. Pressing times average between 20 and 60 minutes, depending on the geometry. Subsequently, a final wetting takes place in a furnace heated at 180 to 190 °C temperatures. Epoxy, polyester or polyurethane bonds are processed with curing agents as dual component systems from the liquid phase to casting or shaking materials, which are poured into moulds for hardening. Hardening occurs in the mould at temperatures ranging from 20 to 80 °C [COLL88].

3.4.1.2 The Manufacture of Vitrified Bonded Grinding Wheels The production of vitrified bonds also begins with mixing the components. By covering the grits with a temporary binder (e.g. organic adhesive and water), sufficient form stability can be achieved in the blank. The pourable mixture is transferred to the mould and compressed via pressing and shaking methods. In the casting method, the vitrified bond and the abrasive grits are mixed with water in mixing machines. Before the mass becomes homogeneous and pourable,

3.4 Tool Manufacture

57

this mixture requires a stirring time of a half an hour to six hours. Then it is poured into moulds with porous bottoms and allowed to dry very slowly in drying chambers in order to prevent the formation of cracks. After drying, the rough grinding component has enough fracture resistance to be transported and premachined to furnace dimensions. The grinding wheels can only be cast with very clayey bonds as well as with finer granulations (from about F 80), since only these emulsify sufficiently and can be held in suspension. The casting process is very costly and is being increasingly replaced with the pressing method. However, it yields very homogeneous grinding components with consistent hardness and edge stability and is thus still used today in the manufacture of fine-grit grinding wheels. After drying the grinding component, profiled grinding wheels, e.g. cup grinding wheels, are prepared in accordance with the furnace dimensions. An intermediate inspection follows this, which essentially comprises an assessment of the geometry and structure, as well as an examination into crack formation during drying [FRAN68]. To harden the rough grinding wheels, they are burned at temperatures from 800 to 1350 °C. The lower temperatures used here apply to the fused bonds. Sintered bonds are burned at temperatures in excess of 1250 °C. The exact temperature is based upon the fluxing agents (frits) or leaning agents (e.g. clay) contained in the respective bond. Burning takes place in electric, gas or oil furnaces, either in continuously operating tunnel kilns or in periodically burning charge furnaces, e.g. hood kilns. Tunnel kilns function with constant and stationary heating and erratic engagement. They reach a length of up to 70 m. The rough grinding wheels are placed upon carts, which pass through, one after another, the preheating, burning and cooling zones of the furnace in about 8 days. The grinding wheels heated up slowly in the preheating zone lose any remaining mixture as well as organic auxiliaries like adhesives or burnout material. In the burning zone, the ceramic bond is sintered and finally fused into stoneware to glassy mass, which encloses and bonds the abrasive grits to each other. In the subsequent cooling zone, which takes up about half of the length of the furnace, occurs a slow cooling down to room temperature, so that residual stresses and cracks in the grinding wheels can be avoided. The burning/hardening of the abrasive tools is usually followed by finishing with special machines. This serves to produce the prescribed shape and dimensions as well as to remove the hard sintering crust. For particular grinding and honing processes, vitrified bonded grinding wheels are imbued with synthetic resin, small grinding components and honing stones with sulphur. The grinding wheels are also partially cemented on metal foundations. Steel shafts are cemented into mounted points. Finally, it should be mentioned that, among bonded grinding wheels, there are also the so-called “chips”, which are used for free abrasive grinding. We chiefly find paraboloids, stars, triangles, tetrahedra, and cylinders with edge lengths of 3

58

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

to 30 mm. The grits in free abrasive grinders consist of conventional abrasives like Al2O3 and SiC and are extremely fine. Free abrasive grinding components are, as a rule, have a vitrified bond. Due to their relatively high density, vitrified bonded free abrasive grinding components can generate a high grinding pressure. For this reason, for gentler working cycles, lighter chips with plastic bonds have also been developed.

3.4.1.3 The Manufacture of Rubber Bonded Grinding Wheels In order to produce rubber bonds, natural and synthetic rubbers are mixed. To this mixture, sulphur is added as a vulcanisation agent. The sheet is produced by means of a multistage rolling of the abrasive grits. The rolling process is repeated several times, in the course of which the very heavy sheets are tuned by the operator by hand. Subsequently, the internal and external diameters are punched out of the sheet. Several of these punched-out grinding wheel components are then put on placed of each other until the desired grinding wheel width is reached. Then these blanks are pressed and vulcanised in a furnace at 150°C [HADE66, N.N.9].

3.4.2 The Manufacture of Superabrasive Grinding Wheels Superabrasive grits, like conventional grits, are fixed to the grinding wheel by vitrified, metallic or synthetic resin bonds. Bond production is described in the following.

3.4.2.1 Synthetic Resin Bonds In binding superabrasives using synthetic resin bonds, phenol resins are used as a rule, whereby the bond characteristics can be adjusted by means of fillers. These serve to change wear resistance and heat conductivity or to act as dry lubricants. Besides phenol resins, polyamides and polyimides are also utilised. These are stronger and have more thermal consistency and elasticity. In synthetic resin bonds, the abrasive is generally furnished with a nickel or copper coating in order to improve temperature conductivity and adhesion to the bond matrix. Wear resistance against abrasion is much lower than with metal bonds. The manufacture of abrasive coatings bonded with ceramics or synthetic resins with the abrasives cBN and diamond is essentially analogous to that of corundum and silicon carbide. In the case of grinding wheels bonded in synthetic resin, the hot press method is the most often used.

3.4 Tool Manufacture

59

The grit is placed in a premixture consisting of synthetic resin powder (phenol resin) and additives (silicon carbide, boron carbide, aluminium oxide etc.). The components are distributed evenly by mixing [COLL88]. Then the premixture is poured into a mould and the coating is hot-pressed onto the body. In special cases, surface rings are also made that are either stuck to the body or rear pressing with body mixtures.

3.4.2.2 Vitrified Bonds While synthetic resin and metallic bonds are manufactured without pores due to their bond formulae and productions conditions in general, normally burned vitrified bonds have a definite amount of pores in the bond. Because of the mechanical and thermal properties of superabrasives, these bonds are however fundamentally different from those of vitrified bonds with conventional abrasives. Moreover, the firing temperatures and burning behaviour are different. Vitrified bonds can also be produced without pores by hot-pressing. Such grinding tools can also be manufactured in a segmented fashion depending on the diameter of the grinding wheel.

3.4.2.3 Metallic Bonds

Multilayered sintered bonds: Mostly, modified copper/tin and cobalt bronzes are used as metal bonds. Besides these, bonds produced from an iron-copper-tin alloy are also used for special applications. Carbide bonds, used primarily for dressing tools, consist primarily of tungsten and tungsten carbide, but variations made with cobalt are also possible. Bond composition and production parameters basically modify the abrasive wear resistance as well as the toughness and brittleness of the bond. A fundamental characteristic of metal bonds is that they bind the abrasive grits very strongly and exhibit a lot of abrasive resistance to small chips appearing with short chipping materials. Since the manufacture of grinding wheels by sintering takes place at higher temperatures, diamond are treated with increased heat consistency in metal bonds in order to avoid thermal damage of the diamond grit in the production process. In sintering grinding wheel bonds, one generally works with fluid phases. Temperature and time are the two most important variables determining the sintering process. Further influences are the pressure force applied to produce the green compacts, the distribution of density and the grit size of the metallic powder in use [BEIT81]. The production of a sintered diamond or cBN grinding wheel normally takes place in the following steps:

60

• • • •

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

the mixing metallic powder and diamond/cBN, cold pressing in steel or graphite moulds, sintering, hot pressing.

Infiltrated Tools Bonded with Metal: Metallic infiltration is a method in which a porous metallic body is infiltrated with a low-melting metal. The liquid infiltration metal is absorbed into the pores of the body by the capillary effect. Manufacture takes place firstly by mixing metal powder, fillers and diamond/cBN. Then the mixture is compressed by cold pressing or pre-sintered. In the final working step, infiltration of the tool occurs by means of heating to a temperature above the melting point of the infiltration material. This bond is primarily used for dressing rollers and for special grinding wheel applications. Single-Layered Metallic Bonds: In the case of single-layer metallic grinding wheels, the coating thickness corresponds to the average grit size. Single-layer grinding wheels cannot be dressed. The end of a tool’s service life is simultaneously the end of its lifespan. It should be considered that single-layered tools change their grinding behaviour during operation. The initial grinding phase of these abrasive tools is followed by a phase of quasi-stationary grinding behaviour. The grit protrusion over the bond determines the chip space available and the grit volumes utilizable for chip formation. A compromise has to be found here between sufficient adhesion of the grit in the bond, which increases with a larger coating thickness, and maximal chip space, which is created by reducing the coating thickness. For single-layered grinding wheels, the grit protrusion of the individual abrasive grits can be directed by the parameters in the electrolytic process and contribute 20 to 70 % to the average grit diameter. The grit protrusion is based on the strains appearing in the grinding process and is in the area of 70 % for very low strains and 20 % when grinding very abrasive materials [BALD89]. For the manufacture of single-layered grinding tools, there are presently three different methods: Electrolytic precipitation of nickel for bonding grits on the grinding wheel is very common. A body, which must be electrically conductive in the region to be coated, is enveloped by the diamond or cBN grits and placed in the electrolytic bath. After applying DC voltage between the anode and the cathodically polarised body, the nickel is precipitated and an initial bonding of the grits takes place. As soon as the grits adhere sufficiently, superfluous abrasive grits are removed, and the process is continued until the desired embedding depth is realised.

3.5 Tool Testing

61

Chemically precipitated nickel phosphorous alloys, after an additional heat treatment, exhibit significantly higher strength than electrolytically precipitated nickel. Moreover, it is methodologically possible, especially for large profile depths, to produce a more even coating thickness with the help of chemical precipitation. The disadvantages of this method include high costs in apparatus, much higher precipitation temperatures and higher crack sensitivity due to the high brittleness of the precipitated bonding layer. Another possibility for binding abrasive grits to metallic bodies is the use of strongly wetting active solders [LORT75, MASS52]. Using solders containing titanium, production must take place either in a vacuum <10-4 bar or in an argon atmosphere. Other complex solders based on Ni-Cr-Bo-Si also require protective gaseous atmospheres during manufacture. By using active solders and due to their high wetting capabilities, average coating thicknesses of about 20 to 30 % of the average grit diameter are possible, which make available equivalently large chip spaces [BARN90]. The apparatus required to produce grinding wheel bonded in this manner is, however, very costly and restricted to steel bodies because of the high production temperatures. Furthermore, the manufacture of profiles with this method is quite problematic, as firstly, a highly precise profile is impossible to produce due to thermal expansion. Secondly, especially with profiles, an even distribution of grits is hardly reproducible.

3.5 Tool Testing In order to appraise and examine grinding wheels, numerous requirements are placed on the testing method used. The most important are that the testing method is damage-free, is independent of the attendant and provides reproducible results. These requirements are oriented by the conditions of the call for proposals of the Vereins Deutscher Werkzeugmaschinenfabriken e.V. (VDW) in the year 1922. Testing procedures are already applied in the first steps of grinding wheel production. After an inspection of the point of half sphere of the bond, which should ensure sufficient fusing in the furnace, test blocks are checked for their fracture resistance in bending tests. The density of the test body is also examined. To assess grinding wheel porosity, there are still no satisfactory testing methods. For testing grinding wheel hardness, there are various testing methods that are recognised and used in industry.

62

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

3.5.1 Hardness Testing For example, the stylus test is a manual testing method which does not require any apparatus. Yet it has the disadvantage of being based on the subjective impression of the tester [PEKL60a]. A further hardness-testing method which should be mentioned is the Rockwell hardness test, which proceeds in the same way as in the hardness measurement of steels. With this method, mostly very fine-grited grinding tools, like honing and oil stones, are tested. The hardness testing methods most exploited in the grinding wheel industry are the grindo-sonic method and the Zeiss-Mackensen method. These will be explained in more detail in the following. Hardness Testing with the Grindo-Sonic Method In the grindo-sonic method, we have a testing method with which the elastic modulus of both grinding wheels and mounted points can be determined. The vibration-damping methods used for grinding tool hardness measurement are based on the connection between the elasticity values of the grinding tool (e.g. elastic modulus and characteristic frequency) and its hardness. The characteristic frequency f, calculated according to equation 3.8, serves as the measurand.

f = F ( a, μ ) ⋅ C I = F ( a, μ ) ⋅

E

ρ

(3.8)

Here F(a,μ) is a form coefficient, which is dependent on the geometric dimensions of the body, its form and on Poisson’s ratio μ. CI is the velocity of propagation of the longitudinal elasticity oscillation in the material, ρ is the density and E is the Young’s modulus of the body being tested. It has been shown that there is a direct correlation between the Young’s modulus and the hardness of the grinding wheel [PETE68]. In the case of Poisson’s ratio, it has been discovered that it can be viewed as a constant for a large range of formula changes for products with vitrified bonds within the required limits of accuracy. From this, we can conclude that the hardness of the grinding wheel is derivable from the characteristic frequency insofar as the relation between CI and hardness is known and the formal coefficient F can be calculated for the size of the unit. Fig. 3-19 shows the basic structure of the grindo-sonic testing method. The grinding wheel is laid on cones for oscillation incitation such that it is supported on four points, each at an angle of 90°, along the same diameter.

3.5 Tool Testing

Sketch

63

Mode of vibration Electromagnetic hammer

Grinding wheel Piezoelectric sensor

Testing cone

1 = Bearing 2 = Incitation of the oscilation 3 = Decay of the oscilation

Fig. 3-19. Basic structure of the grindo-sonic testing method [PETE68]

By striking a location lying at two bearing points at a 90° angle, the grinding wheel begins to oscillate, whereby the nodal points of vibration are then found in the bearing points. The oscillations are recorded with the help of a piezo-electrical sensor that is mounted opposite the excitation location at an angle of 90°. The oscillation maximum is located at this point. The monitoring apparatus attached to the sensor measures the duration of a certain number of sequential oscillation periods and shows the duration for two periods (2T) in a digital display. The indicated value of the apparatus is often referred to as the R-value. According to equation 3.9, the characteristic frequency f [HZ] can then be computed from the values determined. The hereby computed frequencies can be assigned to hardness values as in table 3-6.

f =

1 1 1 2 ⋅ = ⋅106 ⋅ T s 2 ⋅T μs

(3.9)

Table 3-6. Comparison of hardness and elasticity modulus Hardness by Norton

E-modulus [kN/mm2]

G

25

H

29.5

I

34

...

...

O

61

P

65.5

Q

70

64

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

Hardness Testing with the Sand Blasting Method as delineated by ZeissMackensen The sand blasting method, in its first form of embodiment, is based on bringing sand of a determined grit size into contact with the surface to be tested for two minutes with compressed air. The grinding wheel weight loss caused by the crater is a measure of hardness. For this kind of method, an exact determination of weight before and after the test was necessary. Due to the size of the blasted surface and the limited dimensions of the testing body, the execution of two experiments on the same body was not possible. Quantity of sand: Q = const Sand and compressed air Air pressure: p = const Test value: depth of hole as = hardness of the grinding wheel

a

Fig. 3-20. Hardness testing with the sand-blasting method

The Zeiss-Mackensen testing method is a further development of the sandblasting method. Here, a volume of sand of 20 cm3 is propelled onto the grinding wheel with compressed air. The depth of the crater blown out of the grinding wheel is measured by means of test needles. This represents the measure for the bond hardness of the grinding wheel. The problem with the Zeiss-Mackensen test method is that the dispersion of the measurements necessitates all-too frequent testing, so that the damage caused to the grinding wheel layercannot be ignored. This is especially disadvantageous in the case of superabrasive grinding wheels.

3.5.2 Investigations in Grit Break-out The determination of the amount of wear of the grits and the bond of grinding wheels is very difficult. Approaches to this are based on the ascertainment of the

3.5 Tool Testing

65

force required to detach a grit from the bond. With this method, bond strength becomes quantifiable. For the execution of the grit break-out experiment, a sharpened carbide tip is directed towards a single grit by means of a swivelling device, under the effective angle of cutting force arising during grinding, and moved constantly toward the grit with a multiphase motor (Fig. 3-21). By means of corresponding sensors, the force acting on the break-out tips and the corresponding path is recorded with a Piezo force sensors and an inductive path sensor. With the use of a force-path signal, an assessment of the fracture phenomena grit break-out, grit fracture or bond fracture caused by the break-out tip is undertaken (fig 3.22). The grit break-out approach may still be under development, but this characterisation method is the only one which makes it possible to test and to characterise both conventional and superabrasive grinding wheels. In contrast, hardness testing methods like the grindo-sonic or the Zeiss-Mackensen methods can only be utilised for solid body grinding wheels. Real grinding process:

Grit breakout test:

Fn

Fn

Ft

Ft

Carbide tip Fig. 3-21. Alignment of the carbide tip for the execution of the grit break-out experiment

Breakage phenomena: Grain breakage

Grain break-out

Fig. 3-22. Fracture phenomena in the grit break-out experiment

Bond breakage

66

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

3.6 Abrasive Belts (Coated Abrasives) For belt grinding, abrasive grits on a flexible backing material are used as tools. Chip formation takes place as the abrasive belt is engaged with a target material over a contact element, generally a roller or support element. Besides fine grinding and deburring for glass, ceramics, wood and metal, it is also possible to reach chip removal rates with belt grinding methods comparable with rough processes. Advantages compared to grinding with grinding wheels are: • rapid tool change, • grinding without cooling lubricants is possible (dry-grinding) and • the ability to conform to shaped tool shapes. In belt grinding, there are basically two approaches. On the one hand, we can grind on a free belt section, whereby concave, convex or similarly complexstructured tools can be processed. On the other, contact elements (shoes, rollers) can support the belt at the grinding contact zone, whereby large material removal rates are realizable in compliance with strict form and dimensional tolerances.

3.6.1 Composition of Abrasive Belts Abrasive belts, abrasive sheets, abrasive casings and lamellar abrasive tools are all considered abrasives upon a backing material, whereby belts and sheets take up the largest share in the total production of these abrasive tools. These abrasive tools consist of three main components: the backing material, the abrasive grit and the bond mass. For special tasks, the tools are furnished additionally with a coating, which can, for example, have a dust-repellent effect [N.N.3]. Abrasive belts are distinguished by the form, material and flexibility of the backing material, the type and grit size of the abrasive and the bond type. Normal belts are up to 500 mm and broad belts over 500 mm wide. The size of wide belts generally reaches up to 3750 mm in width and 6000 mm in length.

3.6.2 The Manufacture and Structure of Abrasive Belts The production process in the manufacture of abrasive tools starts with the backing material. This is furnished with a corresponding base binding, and, after applying the abrasive grits, the top bonding layer is laid on.

3.6 Abrasive Belts (Coated Abrasives)

67

Backing Material Depending on the expected thermal and mechanical strains, paper, fabric, vulcanized fibre or combinations of these materials are used as backing materials. Paper exhibits the lowest strength characteristic values, so it is used primarily in hand-operated finishing procedures and above all in wood finishing. Its insensitivity to resultant abrasive heat is also especially advantageous in this case [SCHM73]. Abrasive papers are subdivided according to their size per unit area into classes A (70 g/m2) to F (280 g/m2), whereby tensile strength goes up with increasing size [N.N.3]. Grinding processes with higher mechanical tool strain demand woven backing materials, whereby both natural and plastic fibres are used. Modifications in strength can be realised by varying web design as well as the fibre material. Polyester fabrics have proven to have the highest tensile strength values. Thus, they are utilised for high strains in metal machining. Similar to abrasive papers, the fabrics are also graded by letters (J to Y), which characterise the backing material’s strength. Should the grinding process require a particularly long-wearing tool, fibres are used as the carrier medium. The adjustment of material rigidity to the processing task at hand takes place by means of an appropriate choice of material thickness. The Bond The binding agent makes the connection between the abrasive carrier medium and the abrasive grit and simultaneously braces the particular grits against each other. In order to achieve satisfactory grit adhesion, the binder consists of two layers applied one after the other. Firstly, the prepared backing material is furnished with the basic bond (primary layer). After grit application, the covering bond (secondary layer) is applied (Fig. 3-23). Fundamentally, we differentiate between natural hide glue and synthetic resins and lacquers as binding agents. The advantage of hide glue is that it forms a gel during cooling. This gel becomes hard quickly and fixes the grit immediately after its application. Further properties of hide glue are its good adhesion to the carrier material, simple drying and good elasticity as a result of its hydrophilic character [BUES67]. Pure hide glue bonds have comparably the lowest strength values and are used wherever low process forces appear. The disadvantage of natural glue is its low heat consistency, which leads to bond softening at high grinding temperatures. Tools bonded with semi-artificial resin consist of a basic bond made of hide glue and of a covering bond made up of a synthetic resin coating. These abrasive papers or fabrics are universally applicable. Moreover, the elastic basic bond of hide glue provides flexibility in conjunction with the resistant synthetic resin covering bond so that these qualities are suited to surface treatment of shaped tools. Abrasive tools with completely synthetic resin bonds facilitate high chip removal rates. In this case, both the basic

68

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

and the covering bonds consist of synthetic resin. This comparatively hard bond creates a firm bond between the backing material and the grit and grants the latter the ability to sustain even large cutting forces without grit break-out. Lacquers as synthetic binding agents have been in use for a long time in the manufacture of waterproof paper as well as for waterproof fabrics utilised in the wet grinding of steel, glass ceramics, natural and artificial resins and plastics. Pure hide glue • fine surfaces • cheap

Semi-artificial resin (compared to hide glue) • better bond strength • higher material removal rate • higher thermal stability

pure hide glue pure hide glue

resin hide glue

(compared to resin bonds) • more flexible

Synthetic resin bonds • good thermal stability • water resistant • high bond strength

synthetic resin synthetic resin

Fig. 3-23. Comparison of various types of bonds

In order for coated abrasives to do justice to the highest demands with respect to performance, synthetic resin bonds have been developed that have the following properties: • good adhesion between the foundation and the grit, • high mechanical and thermal strength and • insensitivity to cooling lubricants [BUES67]. Fillings with finely pulverised organic materials serve in both bond groups to increase heat resistance, to adjust the flow behaviour and to increase strength. In constructing the bond layer, basically three combinations have been successful, natural glue as well as partially and fully synthetic resin bonds (Fig. 3-23).

3.6 Abrasive Belts (Coated Abrasives)

69

Longitudinal Flexing Small radius with dense cracking planes Longitudinal Flexing Small radius with extended cracking planes Cross Flexing 45°crossing of the cracking planes Longitudinal and Cross Flexing Tripled crossing of the cracking planes Fig. 3-24. Cracking planes of different belt materials [N.N.6]

Besides the backing material, the rigidity of the covering layer determines to a decisive extent the abrasive belt’s ability to conform to workpiece profiles. In order to able to use binders that are highly resilient, but less flexible, even in free form grinding, the belts are flexed. Flexing is understood as a targeted breaking of the abrasive grit bond in order to prevent an arbitrary grit break-out during grinding due to constantly changing pressure and bending stresses. Fig. 3-24 shows the cracking planes for various flexing methods. Abrasive Type and Application As abrasive grit types for abrasive belts, corundum and silicon carbide are used almost exclusively. For large material removal volumes, as is common in steel machining, zircon corundum, for instance, has proved useful [DENN89, N.N.6]. However, for the fine machining of bearings, crankshafts, camshafts, sealing surfaces, fibre-reinforced plastics, audio and video magnet heads and storage discs, abrasive belts with diamond or cBN are also made use of [N.N.3]. In addition to individual components, the coating technology is decisive in the effectiveness of abrasive belts. Considering methods of grit capture, we differentiate between mechanical and electrostatic scattering. Both methods have a different grit position relative to the backing material, resulting in alternative process behaviour as well. In mechanical or gravity scattering, the grit to be captured falls on the backing material, which has been coated with the basic bond, by means of a distribution device. In this way, the lion’s share of the grit becomes fixed in the binding agent

70

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels

layer. The loose, non-adhering abrasives fall into a collecting funnel with a change in the path of the backing material. The carriers coated in this method permit only a small amount of chip removal volume due to the small amount of chip space. Such disadvantages of classic gravity scattering can be avoided with electrostatic scattering. In this method, the backing material coated with basic binder is directed with the binding side pointing down at a precise distance over a transport belt covered with abrasive grit. The grit is oriented by the transport belt by an electric field and embedded into the basic binding layer of the abrasive grit carrier. With this technique, a much larger chip space is permissible than in gravity scattering. In addition, electrostatic scattering guarantees an even grit distribution and a reproducible scatter image. The Seal A large amount of tools with abrasives on a backing material are turned into endless loop belts so that a bond location, called a seal, becomes necessary. Great demands are placed on the tear strength of the seal area, especially at high chip removal rates. Synthetic resin adhesives and improved adhesive technologies permit large chip removal volumes without the risk of a premature belt tearing at the seal. The abrasive belt ends are bevelled so that the seal runs diagonally to the grinding direction. In this way, the engagement of the belt in the seal area becomes practically hitchless. The Abrasive Belt System Abrasive belts can be constructed single or multiple-layered (Fig. 3-25). Multilayer coating leads to a much higher service life. Examples of this are the hollow ball abrasive belt [WAGN84], in which the grits are bonded in the shell of hollow balls made of vitrified or synthetic resin binding agents, and the compacted grit abrasive belt [BUCH89], in which up to 200 abrasive grits are packed together in one compacted grit. The big advantage of the hollow ball abrasive belt is that the bearing percentage across most of the belt’s profile height remains constant. In this way, until the end of the belt’s service life, all of the abrasive grit material is engaged aside from a minimal residue remaining at the hollow ball base. At equal grit sizes and about three times the grit amount, the service life of hollow ball abrasive belts is up to 1000 % higher than conventional belts [STAR87]. Hollow ball abrasive belts are applicable first and foremost for belt grinding with support plates. In the case of peripheral belt grinding with contact rolls, strain is relatively high. For this, compacted grit abrasive belts are better suited. The latter also maintains nearly constant surface quality during the belt’s entire service life at up to a 200 % higher lifespan than conventional belts [BECK93].

3.6 Abrasive Belts (Coated Abrasives)

Single Layer Grit Upper Bond

Base Bond

Multi Layer (hollow corundum) Upper Bond Sphere Bond

Belt Base Bond Multi Layer (compact bond) Grit

Bond

Belt Fig. 3-25. The structure of single and multi-layered abrasive belts [N.N.3]

Belt

Grit

71

4 The Machinability of Various Materials

4.1 The Concept of “Machinability’’” in the Grinding Process Machinability is understood as a property of a material that allows for chip removal under given conditions. It thus describes the behaviour of a material during chip forming. The machinability of a material must always be considered in conjunction with the machining method, the tool and the machining parameters. In comparison to machining with geometrically defined cutting edges, grinding manifests clear procedural differences that effect the machinability of the materials. During grinding, machining is achieved by means of a number of individual grit engagements. Together with the strongly negative tool orthogonal rake angle of the grit, there is, in contrast with geometrically defined chip removal, an increased amount of friction and deformation work, from which results a higher conversion of energy in the process. This in turn can lead to heavier thermal stress on the surface layer. Small depths of cut result from the geometrical process characteristics of grinding and the high cutting speeds. Thus, the grain size of the workpiece material as well as the size of inclusions (e.g. carbide) play a role with respect to machinability. This problem should certainly be considered in process construction as a scaling effect. For evaluating the grindability of various materials, the system boundary of the contact zone must be considered (Fig. 4-1). A multitude of individual grit contacts are made in the grinding process. Thus, besides the particular abrasive grains, the space between the grain and therefore the entire abrasive coating bond must be taken into account. The machinability of a material is determined by all the elements of the grinding system. All components, i.e. the grinding wheel (specification and preparation), process parameters and cooling lubricants, have to be adjusted for the respective material and the machining goals (component requirements, productivity, quality). The workpiece surface layer created (thermal and mechanical influences) as well as chip formation can be called upon as criteria for the evaluation of machinability. Grinding forces, workpiece roughness, possible clogging of the grinding wheel and macroscopic and microscopic grinding wheel wear can all occur during chip formation. Chip formation and surface layer properties thus limit potential material removal rates and workpiece roughness. Concrete suggestions for

74

4 The Machinability of Various Materials

the abrasive machining of a particular material can only be made in the context of the grinding method used, the component requirements and other marginal conditions.

System boundary

grinding wheel

coolant Lubricant workpiece

Fig. 4-1. System boundary in evaluating machinability in grinding

4.2 Influencing the Material Properties of Steels Materially speaking, the machinability of steels is determined by its structure and mechanical properties (hardness, tensile strength). Of primary importance for the composition and thus for the mechanical properties as well are: • carbon content (C-content), • alloying elements and • heat treatment. The percentile amounts of carbon or other alloying elements given in this chapter signify their percentage by weight.

4.2.1 Material Properties as a Function of Carbon Content Using non-alloy grade steels (carbon steels) and minimally alloyed steels (sum of alloying elements < 5 %), the influence of the carbon content on machinability with be clarified in the following. Carbon content is responsible for the structural configuration of these steels and thus for their hardness and tensile strength as well. The basic structural components of non-heat-treated steels are:

4.2 Influencing the Material Properties of Steels

75

• ferrite (α-iron), • cementite (Fe3C) and • pearlite. The amounts of these structural components, the particular properties of which (table 4-1) determine the machinability of the steel material at hand, vary depending on the C-content. Table 4-1. Mechanical properties of the basic structural components of the iron-carbon system HV 10

Rm

Rp0,2

Z

N/mm2

N/mm2

%

Ferrite

80 – 90

200 – 300

90 – 170

70 – 80

Pearlite

210

700 – 850

300 – 500

30 – 50

Cementite

>1100

-

-

-

Austenite

180

550 – 750

300 – 400

50

Martensite

750 – 900

1380 – 3000

-

-

Ferrite The body-centred cubic α-mixed crystals are designated as ferrite. Ferrite is characterised by relatively low strength and hardness while at the same time exhibiting high deformability. Cementite Cementite is the metallographic name for iron carbide (Fe3C). The structural component cementite is hard and brittle and can only be machined with difficulty. Cementite can appear freely are dissolved in pearlite depending on the carbon content of the steel. Pearlite Pearlite is a eutectoid mixture of ferrite and cementite. For the most part, lamellar, linear cementite appears in pearlite. After to a corresponding heat treatment (annealing) however, globular (spheroid) cementite can also be formed. Austenite Face-centred cubic (fcc) γ-iron is called austenite. In low-alloyed carbon steels, austenite at room temperature is generally not stable and disintegrates beneath the Ac1-temperature into ferrite and cementite.

76

4 The Machinability of Various Materials

In higher-alloyed steels, elements of the VIII group of the periodic table and manganese stabilise austenite to lower temperatures. In extreme cases, a composition of pure austenite can be produced at room temperature by suspending austenite decay [N.N.98a]. Martensite Martensite is a structural form with a tetragonal tensed latticework that is formed by a rapid cooling of austenite. A more detailed description is found in chapter 4.2.3. Carbon steels with a carbon content of C < 0.8 % are called subeutectoid carbon steels. The essential structural components of non-alloyed subeutectoid carbon steels is shown in Fig. 4-2. Ferrite α-Iron Body-centred cubic lattice High forming ability Low hardness (80 - 90 HV10) Pearlite Eutectoid mix of ferrite (87 %) and cementite (13 %) Low forming ability Hardness: 210 HV10

200 μm

Austenite γ-Iron Face-centered cubic lattice Hardness: 180 HV10 50 μm

Martensite Tetragonal tensed lattice Very high hardness (700 - 900 HV10) High tensile strength Almost no fracture strain Fig. 4-2. Structural Components of Carbon Steels

50 μm

4.2 Influencing the Material Properties of Steels

77

The machinability of steels with a C-content < 0.25 % is essentially characterised by the properties of free ferrites. The amount of pearlite increases at higher carbon contents (0.25 % < C < 0.4 %). In this way, the special machining properties of pearlite become more influential on the machinability of the material. A further increase in carbon content (0.4 % < C < 0.8 %) causes a further reduction in ferrite content in favour of pearlite, until at 0.8 % C only pearlite remains. The consequences for machinability comply with the tendencies already identified for steels with low C-contents. For supereutectoid carbon steels (C > 0.8 %) pearlite and cementite are also formed when slowly cooled in air. As opposed to subeutectoid C-steels however, no free ferrite appears as a ferrite net. Pearlite formation initiates directly from the austenite grain boundaries. At C-contents clearly over 0.8 %, cementite is precipitated at the grain boundaries. The cementite, now also freely available, forms shells around the austenite/pearlite grains [SCHU78].

4.2.2 The Influence of Alloying Elements on Material Properties Alloying and trace elements can influence the machinability of steel by changing the composition or by forming lubricating or abrasive inclusions. In the following, the influence of the most often used elements on the machinability of steel materials will be described. Manganese Manganese improves hardenabillity and increases the strength of steels (ca. 100 N/mm2 per 1 % alloying elements). Because of its high affinity to sulphur, manganese forms sulphides with sulphur. The influence of these manganese sulphides is described by the alloying element sulphur. Manganese contents up to 1.5 % facilitate machinability in steels with low amounts of carbon due to good chip formation. On the other hand, in steels with higher carbon contents, the alloying of manganese influences machinability negatively because of higher tool wear. Chrome, Molybdenum, Tungsten Chrome, molybdenum and tungsten improve hardenability, thereby influencing the machinability of case-hardened and heat-treated steels in terms of structure and strength. In steels with higher carbon/alloying contents, these elements form hard special and mixed carbides, which can deteriorate machinability.

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4 The Machinability of Various Materials

Nickel By adding nickel, the strength of steel materials increases. This generally leads to unfavourable machinability, especially in the case of austenitic Ni-steels. Silicon Silicon improves the ferrite strength of steels. With oxygen, it forms, in absence of stronger deoxidation agents like aluminium, hard Si-oxide (silicate) inclusions. Increased tool wear can result from this during chip removal. Phosphorus Alloying phosphorus, which is carried out only in some free-cutting steels, leads to segregations in the steel. Even with subsequent heat treatments and heat deformations, the segregations cannot be removed and lead to an embrittlement of the α-mixed crystals (ferrite embrittlement). Titanium, Vanadium Titanium and vanadium, even in small amounts, can increase strength considerably due to the extremely dispersed carbide and carbon nitride precipitations. Furthermore, they lead to enhanced grain refinement. Sulphur Sulphur is only slightly soluble in iron, but it forms, depending on the alloying components of the steel, various stable sulphides. Iron sulphides (FeS) are undesirable, as they have a low melting point and form deposits primarily at the grain boundaries. This leads to the unwanted “red brittleness” of steel. What are desirable on the other hand are manganese sulphides (MnS), which have a much higher melting point. The positive effects of MnS on machinability are the short comma chips, improved workpiece surfaces and the decreased proneness to clogging the grinding wheel. With an increased inclusion length, MnS exerts a negative influence on mechanical properties like strength, strain, area reduction and the impact value, especially when it is included transversely to the strain direction. Non-metallic Inclusions The elements added to the steels for deoxidation, aluminium, silicon, manganese or calcium, bind the oxygen released by steel solidification. The hard, nondeformable inclusions then found in the steel, e.g. as aluminium oxide and silicon oxide, diminish machinability, especially when the oxides exist in the steel in larger amounts or in linear form [WINK83]. However, by choosing a suitable deoxi-

4.2 Influencing the Material Properties of Steels

79

datising agent, the steel’s machinability can also be positively influenced. For example, under certain machining conditions, wear-inhibiting oxidic and sulphidic protective layers can form after deoxidation with calcium-silicon or ferro-silicon [OPIT67].

4.2.3 Material Properties as a Function of Heat Treatment The amount, form and arrangement of the structural elements and thus the mechanical properties of steel can be adjusted to the requirements at hand by means of a defined heat treatment. Heat treatment is understood as a process in the course of which a workpiece or a workpiece section is exposed to defined temperature sequences and, if necessary, additional physical and/or chemical influences in order to reach the desired composition and properties. There are three basic types of heat treatment [DIN75]: • Establishing an even grain structure in the entire cross-section, which to a great extent is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium (e.g. annealing structures) or in thermodynamic disequilibrium (e.g. pearlite, bainite, martensite). • Establishing a hardened structure that is restricted to smaller areas of the crosssection at unaltered chemical composition (in particular: surface layer tempering). • Establishing surface structures as a result of changing the chemical composition (carburising, case-hardening).

The following heat treatments are available, with which, depending on the chemical composition of the steel material, not only the mechanical properties, but also machinability (e.g. with reference to chip formation) and tool wear can be influenced. However, selection of a particular heat treatment method normally takes place in accordance with the required tool component properties. Fig. 4-3 shows the temperature ranges of different heat treatments. Diffusion Annealing Diffusion annealing creates a balance of crystal segregations and concentration differences of crystals which are directly adjoining. Normalising By means of normalising (N), a nearly even and fine-grained structure, the machinability of which is determined, depending on carbon content, by the predominant structural component, either ferrite or pearlite [SCHU78].

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4 The Machinability of Various Materials

1300 Melt + Austenite

Austenite

°C Diffusion annealing

1100

Temperature T

1000 Coarse grain annealing

Ha rde nin g

900 800

Austenite + Ferrite

+N orm

D

t ne

m Ac

Austenite + Zementite

A3 Annealing

A1

723°C

700

alis ing

s po om ec

de rbi ca f no itio

Recrystallisation annealing Stress relief annealing

600

Recrystallisation annealing

500 Ferrite

400

0

0,4

0,8

1,2

1,6

2,0

Carbon content in weight percentage Fig. 4-3. Partial iron-carbon with heat treatment range data

Coarse-grain Annealing Coarse-grain annealing followed by isothermal conversion is employed for subeutectoid steels with a C-content of 0.3 to 0.4 % (ferritic-pearlitic steel) in order to produce a coarse-grained structure with a ferrite network which is as closed as possible in which either pearlite or an intermediate structure is enclosed [RUHF58, SCHU78]. The application of coarse-grain annealing to improve machinability is, however, limited by interference by strength properties and as well as financial considerations. Annealing Annealing (A) is used in order to rob finely lamellar pearlitic structures and lamellar pearlite with cementite of their hardness and low deformability. Pearlite consisting of as much ferrite as possible with globular cementite is aspired. Such a structure is soft and easily deformable. The machinability of such a structure be-

4.2 Influencing the Material Properties of Steels

81

comes more favourable with respect to the abrasive wear effects on the tool, while chip formation worsens to the extent that ferrite predominates in the structure. A further annealing of this type can be designated as annealing on globular cementite (AGC), whereby temperatures are held in the A1-line longer and a complete spherical shaping of the cementite is sought. Hardening, Austempering A further type of material heat treatment is hardening (H) and austempering. During steel hardening, first the carbon is dissolved in the austenitic zone. The carbon precipitation that takes place at normal cooling speeds is then stifled by a high cooling speed. Thus, at supercritical cooling speeds, after falling short of the Mstemperature (Ms = martensite starting), instead of ferrite, with its body-centred cubic α-latticework, a latticework is formed that is deformed and stiffened by carbon and is still tetragonal, i.e. tetragonal martensite. It can be recognised on the micrograph as a needle-shaped structure and is characterised by a high level of hardness and tensile strength. Nevertheless, it exhibits almost no fracture elongation [N.N.98a, SCHU78]. At cooling speeds lower than the critical cooling speed, the conversion processes proceed in the intermediate stage and in the pearlite stage [N.N.54]. Conversion in the intermediate stage is basically characterised by that fact that only the carbon can diffuse. Fig. 4-4 shows these processes during a constant cooling. These grain structures do not exhibit good machining behaviour, since the tools used are subject to increased abrasive wear. Chip formation, however, can be considered good. 800

Temperature T

°C 10

600

80

Pearlite

Austenite

500

50 Ferrite 50 Proportion of structure (%)

Bainite 2 5

400 300

Hardness (HV)

Martensite

200

210

100

548

274

0 0,1

1

10

102

s

Time t Fig. 4-4. Continuous time-temperature transformation representation for Ck45

104

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4 The Machinability of Various Materials

Hardening and Tempering The strength of steel can also be increased by hardening and subsequent tempering. In tempering a material, the martensite formed during hardening is specifically brought again to partial disintegration by re-heating, thereby relaxing the crystal lattice. At low annealing temperatures, carbon precipitates in a finely distributed fashion, while at higher temperatures coarser cementite grains develop [SCHU78].

Coarse grain annealing

Normalising

1050°C; 2,5h/Air Rm=730 N/mm 2

850°C; 0,5h/Air Rm=700 N/mm 2

100 μm

100 μm

50 μm

20 μm

Hardening + Tempering

Annealing

840°C / water+600°C / 2h Air Rm=730 N/mm 2

710°C; 72h/Ofen Rm=730 N/mm 2

Fig. 4-5. Microstructure of Steel Ck45 after various heat treatments

Several possibilities for a targeted influence on structure by various heat treatments are show in Fig. 4-5 using the heat-treated steel Ck45 as an example. The allocation of the partial images to the heat treatments is as follows: 1. Coarse-grain annealing Structural components: Coarse-grained pearlite with lamellar cementite, a ferrite network between the grains (white in the microsection). 2. Normalising Structural components: Pearlite with lamellar cementite, ferrite. These are the same components as in coarse-grain annealing, but the structure is finer-grained and more homogeneous.

4.3 The Structure of Various Steel Materials

83

3. Heat treatment Structure: Tempered martensite. 4. Annealing Structural components: Ferrite (white in the microsection) with globularly shaped cementite.

4.3 The Structure of Various Steel Materials Steel materials are categorised according to their alloying elements, their structural components and their mechanical properties. Such a classification of steel materials is helpful in the selection process with respect to functional properties and in the determination of machining conditions. Classification according to alloy content leads to the following categories: • unalloyed steels, • low-alloyed steels (alloy content < 5 %) and • high-alloyed steels (alloy content ≥ 5 %).

In the case of unalloyed steels, we must further differentiate between those steel materials that are not to be heat-treated (common construction steel) and those that are (grade and special steel). Besides categorisation according to their alloy content, steels are also classified with a view to their practical uses and applications. We distinguish them as • • • • • •

case-hardened steels, heat-treated steels, nitrided steels, roller bearing steels, tool steels and non-rusting, fireproof and high-temperature steels.

In the following, the compositions and structural formation of different steels will be introduced. The machinability of the particular structures in the grinding process is treated in chapter 4.4.

4.3.1 Case-Hardened Steels Case-hardened steels include unalloyed construction steels, grade and special steels as well as alloyed special steels. Common to all of these is a relatively low carbon content (C < 0.2 %). Typical carbon contents and alloying components of case-hardened steels are represented in table 4-2.

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4 The Machinability of Various Materials

Table 4-2. Composition of case-hardened steels Element

C

Si

Mn

P

S

Amount in %

0.07 – 0.2

< 0.4

0.3 – 1.4

< 0.045

0.02 – 0.045

Machining with geometrically undefined cutting edges takes place in a casehardened condition. In case-hardening, the surface layer of the workpiece is carburised to 0.6 – 0.9 % carbon. The hardening process leads to a martensitic structure in the external layer (Fig. 4-6). Beyond this, portions of residual austenite and/or cementite are possible at carbon contents over 0.7 %. In this case, there are hardness values of up to 60 HRC at high tensile strength and low toughness. Case-hardened steels are predominately utilised in the manufacture of highwear and non-uniformly stressed parts like gear-wheels, gear shafts, joints, connectors etc. Examples of case-hardened steels are Ck15, 16MnCr5, 20MoCr4 and 18CrNi8 [N.N.98].

50 μm Fig. 4-6. Microsection of case-hardened steel 16MnCr5

4.3.2 Heat-Treated Steels Heat-treated steels are machine-building steels, which are suited to hardening due to their chemical composition and exhibit excellent toughness at a given tensile strength after heat treatment. Heat-treated steels have carbon contents between 0.2 and 0.6 % and have therefore higher strength than case-hardened steels. The main alloying components are manganese, chrome, molybdenum, nickel (table 4-3) and sometimes vanadium and silicon.

4.3 The Structure of Various Steel Materials

85

Table 4-3. Composition of heat-treated steels [N.N.98] Element

C

Mn

Cr

Mo

Ni

Amount in %

0,2 – 0,6

0,5 – 1,6

< 2,0

< 0,5

< 4,1

The machinability of heat-treated steels depends primarily on their structural formation and thus varies to a great extent. The material structure resulting from the respective heat treatment has a larger influence on machinability than the alloying components. In many cases, heat treatment takes place between pre-treatment and finishing [DIN84]. Rough machining usually takes place by means of geometrically defined methods with materials in normalised states, the machinability of which is distinguished by relatively low wear as a result of the ferritic and pearlitic structure. Abrasive machining of heat-treated steels takes place, on the other hand, after the heat treatment of the material. After heat treatment, a tempered martensitic structure results – more even, finer and thus less brittle than after the hardening process. The point of tempering is to improve toughness properties, whereby strength is generally diminished by the same token. Frequently used heat-treated steels in grinding praxis are, among others, Ck45, 42CrMo4, 30CrMoV9 and 36CrNiMo4. These materials are utilised for components of medium and high strain, especially in the automobile and aircraft construction (connecting rods, axles, axle-pivots, rotor and crank shafts, springs, gears).

50 μm Fig. 4-7. Microsection of the heat-treated steel 42CrMo4(IEHK, RWTH Aachen)

86

4 The Machinability of Various Materials

4.3.3 Nitrided Steels The carbon content of nitrided steels lies between 0.2 and 0.45 %. They are heattreatable and are alloyed with Cr and Mo (for improved hardenability) as well as with aluminium or vanadium (nitride formers). Typical nitrided steels and their respective compositions are shown in table 4-4. Nitriding is carried out at temperatures between 500 and 600 °C, i.e. below the α-γ-conversion temperature of steel [VDI80]. Table 4-4. Composition of nitrided steels [N.N.98] Amount in % Short name

C

Mn

Cr

Mo

Ni

V

31CrMo 12

0.32

0.55

3.05

0.4

< 0.3

-

31CrMoV 9

0.30

0.55

2.50

0.20

-

-

15CrMo V 5 9

0.16

0.95

1.35

0.95

-

0.15

As opposed to case-hardened steel, for which high levels of hardness are reached by means of a γ-α-phase conversion and the production of martensite, nitrided steel has a very hard surface thanks to the brittle metal nitrides. The nitrogen diffusing into the surface layer during the nitriding process forms with the alloying elements Cr, Mo and Al special nitrides, which mostly precipitate in submicroscopic form and cause high latticework tension, i.e. high surface hardness. Fig. 4-8 shows a photo of the structure of nitrided steel 31CrMo12.

50 μm Fig. 4-8. Microsection of nitrided steel 31CrMo12 (IEHK, RWTH Aachen)

However, chip removal of this material takes place before nitriding, usually in a heat-treated state with a structure consisting of tempered martensite and fine,

4.3 The Structure of Various Steel Materials

87

evenly distributed carbides. Nitrided steels are used in a similar range of applications as case-hardened steels (gears, guide strips).

4.3.4 Roller Bearing Steels Due to strain, steels destined for roller bearings have a high level of hardness (52 – 65 HRC), a high degree of purity, an even structural configuration and high resistance to wear. Chemical composition, melting and heat treatment are decisive for the obtainable structure and thus for the necessary properties of roller bearing steels. In Germany, mostly hardenable steels are used, above all type 100Cr6 (table 45), while, in the US for example, case-hardened steels are used as roller bearing steels to a great extent. Table 4-5. Composition of roller bearing steel 100Cr6 Element

C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Amount in %

0.9 – 1.05

0.15– 0.35

0.25 – 0.45

< 0.30

< 0.025

1.35 – 1.65

By heat-treating it, the steel acquires a martensitic and carbidic structure (Fig. 4-9). In the case of supereutectoid steels, carbon content is so high that a full martensite hardness of 64 HRC can be reached, but 5 to 10 vol.-% non-dissolved secondary carbides still remain in the basic mass. Because of the increased hardness of these carbides as opposed to martensite, supereutectoid roller bearing steels can reach a hardness of 65 HRC. The hard carbides and the martensite structure have a strongly abrasive effect on the machining tools and thus lead to high resultant forces [N.N.98].

50 μm Fig. 4-9. Microsection of roller bearing steel 100Cr6, heat-treated

88

4 The Machinability of Various Materials

4.3.5 Tool Steels Tool steels are generally subdivided into • unalloyed tool steels and • alloyed tool steels.

These are utilised for varied purposes. Therefore tool steels are further differentiated into the particular application groupings of cold working steels, hot working steels and high speed steels. The assignment of any steel to a tool steel group results only from a consideration of its practical purpose. Differentiation from other steel groups based on their alloy compositions is impossible, since chemical composition varies broadly (table 4-6), and manufacture influences their properties. Essentially, the distinguishing characteristics of these three subgroups are the obtainable hardness and the path of hardness as a function of the annealing temperature. Table 4-6. Possible compositions of tool steels [N.N.98] Element

C

Si

Mn

Cr

Co

Mo

Ni

V

W

Amount in %

0–2

0–2

0 – 17

0 – 25

0 – 12

0–9

0 – 20

0–5

0 – 18

In a hardened state, the structure of tool steels consists of surface layers primarily made of martensite, which gradually changes into bainite and fine lamellar pearlite towards the inner workpiece. In the case of supereutectoid steels, cementite grains are embedded in the matrix as well, if the steel was in a spheroidised state prior to hardening. Should this pre-treatment be left out, then remnants of the brittle cementite network take the place of the cementite grains. Selecting alloying additives for tool steels is based first and foremost on their influence on surface hardness, hardness depth, tempering stability, toughness and wear resistance, whereby a suitable coordination with the carbon content is necessary, especially for higher-alloyed steels. The carbon content of the steel determines the amount of wear-resistant carbides in the structure and is thus an essential factor in wear resistance. Carbon also influences hardenability and contributes decisively to tempering stability and toughness via carbide reactions during hardening and tempering. Cold-working steels (Fig. 4-10, left) have a high initial hardness, which falls rapidly with increasing temperature above 200 °C. They are used primarily at room or slightly higher temperatures for shaping materials into cutting, cold forming and plastic forming tools. Hot-working steels (Fig. 4-10, right), on the other hand, have a significantly lower initial hardness, which, however, remains constant at annealing temperatures up to almost 600 °C. They are used for non-cutting metal forming at high

4.3 The Structure of Various Steel Materials

89

temperatures, e.g. to shape die casts as well as the dies and hammers of forging machines. High-speed steels have both a high initial hardness and hardness stability up to high temperatures and are applied mainly in cutting tools as well as in forming and finishing tools. With respect to their compositions, high-speed steels are highalloyed special steels on the basis of chrome, tungsten, molybdenum and vanadium with carbon contents over 0.7 %. They exhibit a large amount of carbides [N.N.98]

50 μm

100 μm

Cold work steel, X115CrVMo12-1, hardened and tempered

Hot work steel, X38CrMoV5-3

Fig. 4-10. Microsections of tool steels (IEHK, RWTH Aachen)

4.3.6 Non-Corrosion, Fireproof and High-Temperature Steels.

Non-rusting Chrome Steels Non-corrosion steels are distinguished by good resistance to chemically aggressive substances. In general, they have a chrome content of > 12 %. Non-rusting steels can be subdivided with respect to their structural components into ferritic and martensitic as well as into austenitic steels. Martensitic chrome steels contain about 0.4 – 1.2 % C and 12 – 18 % Cr. They are primarily utilised as knife steels in the cutlery industry as well as for machine components that simultaneously require high amounts of hardness, wear and corrosion strength. Steels with ≤ 0.1 % C and ≥ 16 % Cr belong to the non-rusting ferritic chrome steels. The chrome content can increase up to 30 %. In order to improve the corrosion resistance, these steels contain up to 2 % Mo. The basic type of this steel

90

4 The Machinability of Various Materials

group is steel X7Cr17, which is utilised in an annealed state. Its structure consists of ferrite and carbide. In non-rusting austenitic chrome-nickel steels, the range of the face-centred cubic austenite lattice is extended for room temperature and under by adding austenite-forming elements, basically nickel. Due to their properties, these steels are of the greatest importance within the non-rusting steel group. Steel X5CrNi18 10 should be considered the basic type. The austenites exhibit a strong inclination toward cold forming. Micrograms of chrome steels with various microstructures are shown in Fig. 4-11.

200 μm

200 μm

Ferritic chrome steel

Austenitic chrome steel

100 μm

Martensitic chrome steel Fig. 4-11. Microsections of various non-rusting chrome steels (IEHK, RWTH Aachen)

Fireproof Steels What fireproof steel materials mainly have to offer is sufficient resistance against hot gas corrosion at temperatures over 550 ºC. Besides ferritic steels, austenitic steels with chrome and nickel (to further increase heat resistance) are employed.

4.4 Grinding Various Structural Components in Steels

91

High-temperature Steels High-temperature steels exhibit favourable mechanical properties and high longtime rupture strengths under long-term strain at high temperatures (up to 800°C). The 12 % Cr steel group also belongs to these steels. Steels with 16 –18 % Cr and 10 – 13 % Ni, whose austenitic structure exhibits a higher resistance to formalteration at high temperatures, are more highly heat-resistant. Austenitic manganese steel, for example, consists of metastable austenite (soft and ductile) at room temperature. During machining, the austenite transforms into stable martensite. This transformation causes hardening in the area of the cutting zone.

4.4 Grinding Various Structural Components in Steels

Ferritic Structures Materials with predominately ferritic structures are but seldom subject to grinding, being usually machined instead with geometrically defined cutting edges. In the case of grinding, low strength and hardness as well as the high deformability of ferritic structures leads to frequent clogging of the grinding wheel. For this reason, the use of open-pored grinding wheels and dressing conditions that create a high initial effective peak-to-valley height in the grinding wheel topography are advantageous. Clogging tendencies can also be countered with an increase in cutting speed, by means of which smaller depths of cut are produced. However, it must be considered that the higher thermal strain results from increased cutting speeds, which increases the material’s tendency to clog. Thus, conflicting effects are to be expected here. Due to the low hardness of ferrite, no particular requirements are placed on the grain material with respect to hardness and wear resistance. Pearlitic Structures Due to the higher strength and hardness of pearlitic structures as opposed to ferrite, the abrasive tool is subject to a stronger abrasive wear effect during machining. Furthermore, the higher strength leads to higher grinding forces and thus to higher strains on the grain cutting edges, resulting in higher machining temperatures. Favoured by the lower deformability of pearlitic structures and the smaller clogging tendency related to this, grinding wheel topographies with a low effective peak-to-valley height can be employed. In this way, lower roughness values can be realised.

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4 The Machinability of Various Materials

Austenitic Structures Austenitic materials are characterised by ductile material behaviour. In grinding, the tool tends to clog, for which reason grinding wheels with higher effective peak-to-valley heights are to be recommended. In contrast to ferrite however, high grinding forces also cause more stress on the grinding wheel because of the higher strength of austenite. Martensitic Structures / Heat-treated Structures Martensitic and heat-treated structures exhibit high hardness and strength levels. This results in heavier stress on the grinding wheel and in high grinding forces. To achieve a low amount of grinding wheel wear, high workpiece hardness requires high grain hardness. For this reason, the use of cBN is well suited to high-speed grinding if high surface qualities, high chip removal rates and high formal and dimensional precision are required. By increasing the cutting speed, the depths of cut and thus the mechanical stress on the grain cutting edges can be reduced. Precious corundum and sol-gel corundum are also common grain materials in the machining of hardened steel materials. However, more wear is to be expected than with cBN. Especially in the case of martensitic or heat-treated structures, excessive thermal load on the material, leading to tempered zones and/or brittle hardening zones (known as “grinding burn”), must be avoided. This can be counteracted with customised tool specifications and machining parameters as well as with an effective cooling lubricant.

4.5 Grinding Iron-Casting Materials Iron-carbon alloys with a C-content of more than 1.7 % (usually 2 to 4 %) are considered iron-casting materials. They are usually shaped by casting and a final machining operation for sizing – not so often by forming. First and foremost in this group of materials are annealed cast iron, cast iron with lamellar and vermicular graphite, vermicular cast iron and chilled cast iron. Another relatively new cast iron material is ADI (austempered ductile iron). Fig. 4-12 shows the properties and structure of various iron-casting materials. The machining properties of iron-casting materials are heavily influenced by the amount and formation of the embedded graphite. Graphite inclusions, in the first place, reduce friction between the tool and the workpiece and, on the other, disrupt the metallic matrix. This leads to improved machinability in comparison with graphite-free iron-casting or steel materials. The results are short comma chips, small grinding forces and higher tool service lives.

4.5 Grinding Iron-Casting Materials

Breaking elongation

GJL (Ferrite)

GJL (Pearlite)

GJS (Ferrite)

GJS (Pearlite)

15%

Steel GJS Annealed cast iron

Stress

GJS

10%

93

Annealed cast iron

Chilled cast iron

ADI

Cast iron

5%

Cast iron 0

500

[MPa]

Tensile strength GJL GJS GJV ADI

-

GJV (Ferrite)

Strain

Cast iron with lamellar graphite Cast iron with spheroidal graphite Cast iron with vermicular graphite Austempered ductile iron

Fig. 4-12. Properties and Structures of various iron-casting materials

Aside from graphite inclusions, the metallic matrix of iron-casting materials has a large influence on machinability as well. The matrix consists primarily of ferrite in materials of low strength. With higher amounts of pearlite, the material strength goes up, thus augmenting above all the tool wear. Iron-casting materials of higher strength and hardness often possess a bainitic, ledeburitic or martensitic structure. In the case of malleable cast iron, we distinguish according to the heat treatment between white cast iron (GTW) and black cast iron (GTS). However, the tempered carbon (graphite) and the manganese sulphide included in the matrix bring about good chip breaking behaviour [N.N.83]. While in the case of black cast iron there is an even structure across the tool cross-section, the decarbonised external layer of white cast iron is purely ferritic. In the case of cast iron with lamellar graphite (grey cast, GGL), the steel-like matrix of graphite lamellae is disrupted [N.N.15]. Due to this, short comma chips are formed. Beyond this, falling machining forces are detectable. During the machining process, no burrs are produced for the most part at the workpiece edges, but breakaways do arise. The surface quality of the machined workpiece is contingent upon the fineness and evenness of the grey cast matrix in addition to grinding conditions [OPIT70]. The external layer of cast workpieces exhibits poorer machinability than the core. This can be derived, on the one hand, from non-metallic inclusions and, on

94

4 The Machinability of Various Materials

the other, from the altered graphite structure and microstructure directly beneath the cast rinde, as well as from scalings [N.N.15]. The result is more abrasive wear. In cast iron with vermicular graphite, the graphite is present in the form of globular inclusions. The microstructure of cast irons of low strength and good toughness properties (e.g. GGG40) consists for the most part of ferrite. With increasing amounts of pearlite in the microstructure, the strength of the cast materials rises. In abrasive machining, this leads to increased grinding wheel strain. The structure of vermicular cast iron (GGV) is characterised by handle-shaped graphite inclusions. Reducing internal peak stresses in the material, as found at the peaked ends of lamellar graphite inclusions in GGL, makes possible a combination of good mechanical component properties and good machinability. The structure of ADI is composed of globular graphite and a microstructure consisting of needle-shaped ferrite and stabilised, highly carbonic austenite. It is characterised by excellent mechanical properties, especially a very high tensile strength in conjunction with high fracture elongation, high wear resistance and improved damping compared with steel of equal hardness. Significantly increased strength and ductility as opposed to conventional cast irons as well as a higher abrasive wear effect make special demands on the grinding process. Compared with hardened steel materials, 100Cr6V for example, cast iron materials are more conducive to abrasive machining due to their graphite inclusions and their ferritic and pearlitic microstructure.

4.6 Grinding Nickel-Based Materials

4.6.1 Construction and Structure The specific properties of these materials, adapted to the respective field of application, are essentially contingent on chemical composition, possible cold forming and the heat treatment method. Corresponding to their most important alloying elements, nickel-based alloys can be subdivided into the following main groups [DIN42, DIN43, DIN44, DIN45, EVER71]: I. II. III. IV. V.

nickel-copper alloys, nickel-molybdenum alloys and nickel-chrome-molybdenum alloys, nickel-iron-chrome alloys, nickel-chrome-iron alloys and nickel-chrome-cobalt alloys.

The particular alloying elements help improve the strength of the material by forming mixed crystals (Cr, Co, Mo, W, Ta), intermetallic phases (Al, Ti, Nb) or

4.6 Grinding Nickel-Based Materials

95

carbides (Cr, Al, Ti, Mo, W, Ta, C) [VOLK70]. Nickel-based alloys of group II as a rule cannot be hardened due to their chemical composition. They get their strength from their chemical composition (mixed crystal and carbide formation) and the degree of cold forming. On the other hand, alloys from the remaining main groups are indeed hardenable with fitting aluminium and/or titanium additives. In this case, the desired strength properties are obtained by means of a corresponding heat treatment (solution heat treatment followed by precipitation hardening), whereby hard particles (intermetallic phases and carbides) are precipitated in the basic matrix [BETT74, KIRK76, VOLK70]. With respect to microstructures, a subdivision of nickel-based alloys into forging and cast alloys is also possible. Generally, forging alloys denote metallic materials that can be formed by a deformation method (rolling, forging, pressing etc.) [N.N.00]. Machining is often difficult with these materials, since forging alloys tend to “smear”. Their strength properties are determined to a decisive extent by precipitation hardening. It includes carbidic and boridic phases in particular. A typical representative of nickel-based alloys is the material INCONEL 718 (Fig. 413 a). a)

b)

200 μm

c)

200 μm

d)

200 μm

50 μm

Fig. 4-13. Typical microstructures of various nickel-based alloys. (a) a forging alloy, b) a conventionally solidified polycrystalline cast alloys, c) a directionally solidified cast alloy, d) a monocrystalline cast alloy)

In the case of cast alloys we can distinguish in turn between conventionally globular and directionally solidified as well as monocrystalline materials. The weaknesses of conventionally congealed globular cast alloys (Fig. 4-13 b) are the numerous grain boundaries, especially those oriented transversely to the direction of strain, which lowers the material’s resistance to slow strain rate deformation. In

96

4 The Machinability of Various Materials

the case of directionally solidified materials (Fig. 4-13 c), individual grain boundaries are reduced and material strength is increased by aligning the grain boundaries in the primary direction of strain. However, since these grain boundaries too represent weaknesses, contemporary developments in casting methods are aiming to produce materials devoid of grain boundaries, i.e. monocrystalline materials (Fig. 4-13 d). For example, many new large engines today have monocrystalline blades in the high-pressure stage, which are manufactured by precision casting [DONN88, GERS97]. As a rule, precision casting is followed by heat treatment. This consists of a solution heat treatment for homogenisation of the structure and a subsequent precipitation hardening phase, in which the intermetallic γ’-phase is precipitated.

4.6.2 Properties and Uses Nickel-based alloys are highly temperature-resistant, resistant to corrosion and also very tough. Thus, they are presently the more often exploited material for components that are exposed to non-uniform mechanical strains at working temperatures up to 1100 °C. Because of their high heat resistance, thermal fatigue resistance and oxidation resistance in the high-temperature range of aviation turbines, their preferred areas of application are in gas turbine construction as well as in the construction of chemical instruments [BRAN81, KOEN87]. In turbine construction, compressors and turbines of high power densities expose their components, especially turbine blades, to highly complex stress profiles. They are thermally strained with very high gas inflow temperatures and experience additional mechanical stress from centrifugal forces caused by rotation and have to withstand stress variations due to varying operational conditions [TREF96]. Depending on the request profile, nickel-based alloys of varying microstructures are used in this context.

4.6.3 Grinding Behaviour – Influences on the Grinding Process In general, nickel-based alloys are numbered among materials that are difficult to machine because of their mechanical, thermal and chemical properties [DIN84, KUNZ82]. Due to varying chemical composition and microstructure however, nickel-based alloys show fluctuations in machinability. On the whole, the high heat resistance and low heat conductivity of nickelbased alloys as well as the abrasive effect of carbides and intermetallic phases in abrasive machining lead to high thermal and mechanical stress on the tools [BRAN81, HABE79, LI97, MASY79, NIEW95]. Due to their high ductility, nickel-based alloys can be assigned to the long-chipping material group.

4.6 Grinding Nickel-Based Materials

97

Depending on the different microstructures of these materials, varying requirements are placed on the grinding process, and machining strategies adapted to the particular machining task are necessary from economical and technological perspectives. The Use of Conventional Grinding Tools When machining nickel-based materials, mainly conventional grinding tools made of corundum are utilised. The low heat conductivity of the materials demands a grinding wheel specification suited to the machining case at hand, an appropriate conditioning of the grinding wheel as well as an optimal removal of heat by the cooling lubricant in order to determine thermal damage of the workpiece’s external layer. Thus, open-pored grinding tools with a granulation of about F60 are used. Preparation for use usually takes place in the CD (continuous dressing) method, in which grinding wheels maintain a state of optimal conditioning by means of continuous in-process dressing. At the same time, it should be taken into consideration that grinding wheel wear is specified by the dressing feed fRd and the workpiece speed vw, and thus by the grinding time. A higher dressing feed frd leads to a high grinding wheel effective peak-to-valley height. In this way, an effective removal of heat from the machining zone is possible. Disadvantageous in this however are workpiece roughness, which rises with the effective peak-to-valley height, and increasing tool wear. Sol-gel corundums are of no advantage in this context. An increase in the cutting speed generally leads to improved surface quality and smaller cutting forces. Since the dressing feed is moved according to grinding wheel rotation, an increased cutting speed leads to more tool wear. Moreover, thermal workpiece stress rises with higher cutting speeds. The customary range is vc = 20 to 35 m/s. Conventional grinding wheels are indeed relatively cheap in comparison with superabrasives, however, not only tool costs are to be considered, but also set-up costs necessitated by grinding wheel changing [ADAM98]. In the case of surface grinding with conventional tools, as a rule the creep (feed) grinding process is used, in which the stock allowance is generally machined in one stroke. The advantages of this methodological variant are less surface roughness and less tool wear in comparison with pendulum grinding. When grinding engine blade roots, depths of cut can reach 10 mm or more. Problems develop because chip volumes increase along with the depth of cut and because cooling lubricant addition becomes more difficult, which can lead to thermal stresses, especially in the case of complex geometries. Increasing the specific material removal rate Q’w generally results in workpiece roughness deterioration, increased thermal stress and more tool wear. In CDgrinding, wear can be compensated with an increased dressing feed. A common range for the specific material removal rate for conventional CD-grinding proc-

98

4 The Machinability of Various Materials

esses is about Q´w = 20 mm³/mms. In HSCD (high speed continuous dressing) grinding processes, specific material removal rates of Q´w = 100 mm3/mms can be realised. The Use of Superabrasive Grinding Tools Besides conventional grinding tools, cBN grinding wheels with vitrified and galvanic bonds have also been tried and tested for machining nickel-based alloys. Depending on the bond-type, usually water-mixed cooling lubricants are used for vitrified bonds and grinding oils for galvanic bonds. Since nickel-based alloys are considered long-chipping materials, for cBN grinding wheels, in order to remove the chips and add the cooling lubricant, high grinding wheel effective peak-to-valley heights must be adjusted by means of the dressing process. In the case of dressing with a forming roller, dressing speed quotients of qd = 0.5 to 0.8 for low depths of dressing cut of aed = 2 to 4 μm have proven favourable. For crude or simple operations, varying degrees of dressing penetration are set. Similar dressing speed quotients have been proven for profile rollers as well. In this case, radial dressing feed speeds were in the range of frd = 0.5 to 0.7 μm. The grinding depth of cut has a decisive influence on the chip removal process when machining nickel-based materials, as the contact length goes up with increasing depth of cut). In this way, supplying the contact zone with cooling lubricant and with this the removal of heat is made more difficult. With cBN grinding wheels, pendulum grinding operations with grinding depths of cut of ae ≤ 250 μm tend to be more practical than deep grinding processes. The critical material removal rate (Grenzzeitspanungsvolumina) usually run up from only Q’w = 5 to 10 mm3/mms. By means of speed stroke grinding technology, with table feed rate vw of 200 m/min at small depths of cuts, specific material removal rates could be increased up to Q’w = 100 mm³/mms. Cutting speeds in cBN grinding processes are as a rule located at vc ≥ 100. Although these grinding conditions have been tried and tested for the machining of many different nickel-based alloys, machinability still depends on the structural state and alloy composition. In comparison to the forging alloy INCONEL 718, in the case of polycrystalline cast alloys like MAR-M247, generally higher grinding forces arise, resulting in increased grinding wheel wear. The larger amounts of fortifying intermetallic γ’-phase and complex M23C6 carbides can be made responsible for this. The highest tool service lives are generally found in monocrystalline nickel-based alloys lacking grain boundaries. For cast alloys in a directional manner, chip removal behaviour is contingent on the direction of solidification. Grinding transversely to the direction of solidification can lead to up 5 times higher tool wear than grinding lengthwise in the direction of solidification.

4.7 Grinding Titanium Materials

99

4.7 Grinding Titanium Materials Machining titanium materials is generally regarded as difficult. Its machinability is essentially determined by the material type (metallic or intermetallic titanium), as well as by the respective alloy composition and thermomechanical pretreatment.

4.7.1 Construction and Structure

Metallic Titanium Titanium and titanium alloys have a low density (ρ = 4.5 g/cm³) and high tensile strength (Rm = 900 – 1400 N/mm2). They exhibit good heat resistance up to temperatures of ca. 500 °C. In addition, they are resistant to many corrosive media. From these properties are derived the main applications of titanium material, these being in air and space travel and the chemical industry. More universal use is prevented by the price, which is several times higher than steels and aluminium alloys. Titanium materials are subdivided into four groups (table 4-7): I. II. III. IV.

Pure titanium, α-alloys, (α + β)-alloys and β-alloys

Pure titanium varieties, also called unalloyed titanium, contain small amounts of oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and iron. Their strength can be enhanced by adding up to 0.45 % oxygen. Their resistance to corrosion can be increased by adding palladium (max. 0.2 %). Titanium is found at room temperature in the hexagonal α-modification. This transforms at 882.5 °C into the space-centred cubic β-modification. By adding alloying elements, the β- α- transformation can be pushed to low temperatures so that the β-phase remain stable at room temperature and below. α-alloys contain aluminium, tin and zircon as their main alloying elements. Additional elements are vanadium, silicon, copper and molybdenum (max. 1 %). Cupriferous alloys are hardenable. β-alloys contain vanadium, molybdenum, manganese, chrome, copper and iron. Vanadium and molybdenum form with titanium a continuous series of mixed crystals, which remain stable even at low temperatures. Mixed crystals with the other

2

N/mm

Mate rial designation

Ti99.8, Ti99.5

110 – 170

280 – 420

180

Ti99.2, Ti99.0, TiPd0.2

140 – 200

350 – 550

280 – 520

TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo2

490 – 670

TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo4 TiAl5Sn2Zr2Mo4Cr4 TiAl6V6Sn2Cu1Fe1

200 – 275 560 α- and (α+β)- alloys (annealed )

TiMn8 TiAl2Sn11Zr5Mo1 TiAl5Sn2.5 TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo2

300 – 350

TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo6 TiAl6V4 TiAl6V6Sn2Cu1Fe1 TiAl7Mo4 TiAl8Mo1V1

320 – 380

Rm N/mm

Rp0,2 2

N/mm

α- and (α+β)- alloys (solution a nnealed and hardened)

Pure titanium (annealed)

Ti99.0, Ti98.9

HB

TiAl6V4 320 – 380

900 1010

850 910

TiAl7Mo4 TiAl8Mo1V1

880 930

840 840

1155 970 1090

910 890 1020

TiCr11Mo7.5Al3.5 TiV8Cr6Mo4Zr4A3 TiV8Fe5Al1

1080 1030

1000 950

TiV13Cr11Al3

375 – 440

1190

1080

930

865

1150 1120 1300

1035 1050 1230

1280 1470

1220 1400

β- alloys (annealed or solution annealed)

275 – 350

950 β- alloys (solution a nnealed and hardened)

TiCr11Mo7.5Al3.5 TiMo11.5Zr6Sn4.5 TiV8Fe5Al1 TiV13Cr11Al3

850 – 950 880 1250

350 – 440

800 840 1200 910

1300 – 1500

1250

1410 1470

1340 1400

1300

1230

2

4 The Machinability of Various Materials

Rp 0,2 2

100

Rm N/mm

alloying elements disintegrate eutectoidally at low temperatures. Besides the βphase, the α-phase is also found.

HB

Table 4-7. Titanium materials (Selection)

Material designation

4.7 Grinding Titanium Materials

101

(α + β)-alloys contain the alloying elements of both alloy groups mentioned above. These bimodal alloys exhibit higher strengths than the single-phased αalloys. They can be hardened more strongly and are suited for use in high temperatures [ZWIC74]. Intermetallic Titanium (γ-Titanium Aluminides) An intermetallic compound does not crystallise in the lattice type of one of its two components. It has its own lattice structure typical for the compound. The quantitative ratio of the atoms of both substances corresponds to their amounts in the alloy composition [BUER01]. The Ti-Al system also forms stable intermetallic compounds [ROMM97]. The phase diagram of the two-material system is shown in Fig. 4-14 [KUMP02, MASS90]. Materials based on these compounds are designated as titanium aluminides. The characteristics of so-called γ-titanium aluminides are derived from the properties of the intermetallic α2-(Ti3Al), packed with maximum hexagonal density, and the γ-(TiAl) phase, from both of which the material is composed. Both of these phases can be found in varying phase fractions and microstructures, such as duplex or fully lamellar structures. Weight-% aluminium 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70 80 90

1800

Temperature

°C

S+β

1670 °C

S+α β - Ti krz

1400

α

1200

α2 Ti 3Al DO19

882 °C

α - Ti hdp

600 0 Ti

10

20

30

S+ γ δ

γTiAl L10

α+γ

1000 800

Melt

η - Al 3Ti DO22 TiAl 2

α2+γ

665 °C

40

50

60

Atom-% Aluminium

Fig. 4-14. Phase diagram Ti-Al [KUMP02, MASS90]

70

80

90

100 Al

102

4 The Machinability of Various Materials

The duplex structure consists of globular γ-grains, α2-particles and lamellar γ/α2-grains with approximately equal volumetric portions, Fig. 4-15, right [WANG00]. It is the finest-grained microstructure of TiAl-based alloys and exhibits good space-temperature ductility [KUMP96, ROMM97, YAMA93]. The ductility is dependent on structural homogeneity, but it can also be influenced by further alloying elements or the amount of impurities [HUAN91, HUAN94, KIM89, KIM91, KIM94, ROMM97, YAMA93]. Fully lamellar (FL) structures (Fig. 4-15, left) consist of parallel-arranged lamellae of both the tetragonal TiAl phase and the Ti3Al phase, which is packed with maximum hexagonal density [WANG00]. The width of the lamellae varies according to the heat treatment used and further alloying additives between 0.15 und 3 μm, whereby the width of the α2-lamellae is, as a rule, significantly less than that of the γ-lamellae [BERG95, ROMM97]. The boundary surfaces of two grains can in this case form a “hooked” structure by means of a “meshing mechanism”, which has a positive effect on creep strength but a generally negative one on material machinability [WANG99]. These structural types have higher fracture toughness, improves high temperature strength properties and a higher endurance limit than duplex structures.

100 μm

50 μm

Fig. 4-15. Left: microstructure of a TiAl base alloy with an Fl structure (Ti-45Al2Mn-2Nb + 0.8 %TiB2); right: microstructure of a TiAl base alloy with a DP structure (Ti46.5Al-3Nb-2.1Cr-0.2W) [KUMP96]

4.7.2 Properties and Uses Titanium materials are distinguished primarily by their high specific strength and good resistance to corrosion. For this reason, these materials are favoured, on the one hand, in the chemical industry [KUMP02]. At the same time, they also have a lot of potential as structural materials in lightweight construction, in air and space travel technology and as valve materials in automobile engine construction [STEP01]. Besides common titanium alloys like Ti-6Al-4V, intermetallic compounds based on titanium and aluminium are also being used more and more. Titanium alloys are also utilised in medical technology as implant materials.

4.7 Grinding Titanium Materials

103

4.7.3 Grinding Behaviour – Influences on the Grinding Process

Metallic Titanium In order to machine titanium materials economically, the physical properties of this material group must be carefully considered. Its strength is high, while its facture elongation is, with A5 = 5 – 15 %, low (for alloys). The elasticity modulus is about 50 % lower than that of steel, while its heat conductivity is about 80 % lower. High temperatures arise in the contact zone. The heat generated can only be removed to a small degree with the chips. In titanium machining, a much larger amount of heat in comparison with steel machining drains off through the tool and the coolant. Grinding can lead to the formation of cracks, which influence the ultimate component in its function and service life [AUST99b, ECKS96, MANT97, ZHAN93]. Moreover, the mechanical processing of TiAl can lead to hardening zones in areas near the surface, which are characterised by a micro-hardness of up to 800 HV0.025 and a maximum thickness of 180 μm. These have a negative effect on the tool component’s service life. Titanium’s reactivity with oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon, together with the high temperature of the contact zone, increases grinding wheel wear. In this case, we distinguish between two different types of wear. The first is grain wear, which is also called fatigue-adhesive wear. If the thermal and mechanical resistance of the bond is insufficient at the high temperatures of the contact zone, a second wear-type comes into play, bond wear. This is characterised by abrasive grain breakaway under excessive strain of the bond or thermal or chemical wear of the binder. In an experiment involving grinding the titanium alloy TiAl6V4, bond wear was responsible for up to 80 % of the total grinding wheel wear. In this case, most of the wear was caused by grain breakaway and bond fracture. These effects, however, were decisive in the failure of the bond, since the grains were dulled by use and caused higher cutting forces [HOEN75]. Silicon carbide and diamond grinding wheels have proven advantageous in the grinding of titanium alloys. In grinding experiments with alloy TiAl6V4, two to three times higher grinding forces were measured using corundum grinding wheels as opposed to silicon carbide at a constant specific material removal rate of Q’w = 3mm³/mms. This leads to more than doubled wear in the case of the corundum grinding wheel. In toto, the use of corundum grinding wheels is not to be recommended due to their low heat conductivity. [KUMA90]. In comparison to CD grinding methods, better surface qualities were realised with metallically or vitrified bonded diamond grinding wheels without continuous dressing [AUST99a, AUST99b]. Pendulum grinding operations with small depths

104

4 The Machinability of Various Materials

of cut and high table velocities tend to be better suited to grinding Ti-6Al-4V than deep grinding processes due to improved thermal marginal conditions. The reaction of titanium chips with atmospheric oxygen and atomised grinding oil can lead to deflagration or to inflammation of oil spills in the machine. Intermetallic Titanium (γ-Titanium Aluminides) Compared with grinding the titanium alloy TiAl6V4, machining titanium aluminides tended to have lower machining forces, lower tool wear, less grinding wheel clogging and improved surface quality. Machining with formal and dimensional accuracy with conventional grinding wheel specifications is more realisable with titanium aluminides than with metallic titanium alloys. In this case, up to ten times higher grinding ratios can be achieved. In the grinding of titanium aluminides, grinding wheels with high effective peak-to-valley heights, obtainable by high positive dressing feed rate conditions and high depths of dressing cut, has proved effective. Machining titanium materials created chips with highly reactive surfaces, which lodge themselves in the chip spaces of the grinding wheel and cause clogging in the grinding wheel. Therefore, a large chip space is required. Due to this high tendency to clog the grinding wheel, cleaning nozzles should be used, which rinse the chips and impurities from the pore space of the grinding wheel during the process. Because of the low heat conductivity of the material and the high temperatures in the contact zone, an optimal cooling lubricant is of great importance. The cooling lubricant should be fed at the circumferential velocity of the grinding wheel. In this case as well, the use of grinding oils entails the risk of deflagration of the oil mist-air-mixture due to the high reactivity of the hot chips. For this reason, emulsions are often utilised for machining. When using vitrified bonded diamond grinding wheel to machine DP-titanium aluminides, grinding ratios of over 500 can be realised at a specific material removal rate of Q’w = 5 mm³/mms and a grinding depth of cut of ae = 25 μm. In the case of pendulum grinding operations, higher specific material removal rates lead to uneconomically high wear and low tool service lives. The low hardness and wear resistance compared with diamond led, when the abrasive silicon carbide was used in a vitrified bond, to a large increase in grinding wheel radial wear. As in the case of diamond grinding wheels, a crack-free processing of the materials could be realised. This is a compulsory condition, especially for security components in air and space travel. Vitriefied bonded aluminium oxide grinding wheels have proved unsuited to the machining of titanium aluminides. Among other things, cracks form frequently because of the low thermal conductivity of aluminium oxide. In addition, there is a lot of grinding wheel wear, which complicates dimensionally and formally accurate machining of these materials. The advantages of sol-gel corundums in contrast to conventional fused corundum, like higher wear resistance, were also insignificant when machining these materials [KLOC04].

4.8. Grinding Brittle Materials

105

By using speed stroke grinding technology, with which table speed of vw = 200 m/min can be realised, specific material removal rates of up to Q’w = 70 mm³/mms at grinding ratios of 200 could be reached in machining FL-γ-titanium aluminium with vitrified bonded diamond grinding wheels. Due to the high table feed speeds of this technology, low performance intensity leads to minimal thermal influence on the surface layer. Crack formation in surface layer of the workpiece can thus be prevented. Since high table velocity and high material removal rates create chips that are very thick, high cutting speeds should be selected. But because the cooling lubricant should be added at the rotational speed of the grinding wheel, a flexible choice of cutting speed is only possible within limits. Values of vc = 125 – 140 m/s have proven effective at a feed velocity of vKSS ≈ 130 m/s. A further increase in the grinding wheel’s circumferential speed leads to problems in cooling lubricant supply and an uneconomical increase in grinding wheel wear and crack formation in the material. Generally, the machinability of titanium aluminides has proven to depend very much on the structure of the material. When grinding DP-titanium aluminides, the grinding tool is usually subject to less wear than in the case of FL-titanium aluminides. This is explicable from the higher strength of FL-materials, since the “hooked” structure of the grain boundaries causes greater resistance [KLOC03, ZEPP04]. Therefore, when high profile accuracy is required, diamond grinding wheels should be used at low chip removal rates and small grinding depths [RAY04].

4.8. Grinding Brittle Materials The designation “brittle”, often used in manufacturing, characterises a certain material group according to their mechanical properties. High brittleness, i.e. low fracture-resistance, and hardness represent a combination of material properties that, on the one hand, influences the range of uses of these materials, but also determines their machinability and workability properties. Several factors influence the mechanical behaviour of a material. Firstly, there is the atom arrangement of the solid body. This can have an amorphous or a crystalline structure. In the case of amorphous structures, the atoms are arranged randomly. Glasses and many plastics and rubbers are amorphously structured. We speak of a crystalline structure if the atoms form a regular three-dimensional lattice. Ceramics can exhibit both structures. The dominant atomic bond type is decisive for the inclination toward ductile or brittle material behaviour. Covalent bonds lead to limited electron movement potential. For plastic forming processes, position changes are, however, extremely necessary. For this reason, large amounts of covalent bonds facilitate brittleness and hardness, while metallic bonds (ionic bonds) cause ductile material behaviour.

106

4 The Machinability of Various Materials

From the basic properties are derived those branches in which brittle materials have a significant function today (Fig. 4-16). Brittle Materials • High-performance ceramic • Glass • Glass ceramic • Quartz, Sapphire, CaF2 • Silicon, Germanium • CMC (ceramic matrix composites) Characteristics • Low fracture toughness • Low fracture strain • Temperature resistance • Chemical resistance • High Hardness

Source: Siltronic AG

Source: Fraunhofer IPT

Semiconductors

Optics

Source: SGL Brakes

Source: CeramTec

Automotive industry

Medical engineering

Fig. 4-16. Properties of brittle materials and typical areas of application

In this chapter, we will consider high-performance ceramics, glasses and silicon as examples of brittle materials.

4.8.1 The Machining Behaviour of Brittle Materials The machinability of brittle materials significantly variable in contrast to metallic materials due to the characteristics described above. When machining brittle materials, as opposed to machining ductile materials, we proceed from the assumption that, with increasing penetration depths, material separation becomes dominated by the characteristic behaviour of brittle materials, i.e. microcrack formation and resultant fragment breakaway. Fundamentally it can be stated that, in case of a local loading of brittle materials (observing the microscopically small chip formation zone) the same action mechanisms are always prevalent – crack initiation and propagation and plastic material deformation. As the grain cutting edge penetrates into the brittle material, radial and lateral cracks form in the tool material. This is illustrated in Fig. 4-17, left. Actual chip removal in this case takes place by means of lateral cracks, which cause spalling of the material. Axial cracks lead on the other hand to permanent damage to the tool’s external area. Such sub-surface damage, non-detectable with commonly used quality testing methods, can lead to premature failure of the components.

4.8. Grinding Brittle Materials

107

A ductile chip removal can, however, also be realised in the case of brittle materials (Fig. 4-17, right). To achieve this, reduced chip thicknesses are necessary, not exceeding a critical value hcu, crit according to the following formula

hcu ,krit

⎛ E ⎞ ⎛K ⎞ = 0.15 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ c ⎟ ⎝H⎠ ⎝ H ⎠

2

(4.1)

The critical chip thickness is determined accordingly by the material characteristic values of fracture toughness Kc, hardness H and elastic modulus E [BIFA88, BIFA91].

Brittle material behaviour Radial crack

F nG

vc FtG

Diamond cutting edge hcu

hcu

Axial crack

Ductile material behaviour

Lateral crack

FnG

vc FtG Chip groove

Plastic deformation

Fig. 4-17. Material separation and crack formation on brittle materials [MARS83]

4.8.2 Machining High-Performance Ceramics With respect to their material characterisation, ceramics are subdivided into oxide, non-oxide and silicate ceramics. In the case of oxide ceramics, aluminium oxide and zirconium oxide or zirconia (ZrO2) represent the industrially most important

108

4 The Machinability of Various Materials

materials. Oxide ceramics have mostly ionic bonds (> 60 %), exhibit favourable sintering properties and are disadvantageous compared to other ceramics with respect to their heat resistance. Carbides (boron carbide B4C, silicon carbide SiC), nitrides (silicon nitride Si3N4), borides and silicides are included first and foremost with the non-oxidic ceramics. They have a high percentage of covalent bonds (5 – 40 %), which, in combination with the small inter-atomic distance, leads to high chemical and thermal stability. This brings about high strength and hardness, but also limited ductility. Finally, silicate ceramics are first separated into coarse ceramics and fine ceramics. The coarse ceramics include magnesite, mullite, silica or zircon stones. The silicate ceramics which fall into the fine-ceramic category are glass ceramics, steatite and cordierite. As opposed to metal machining, when processing ceramics, the process forces are higher as a rule, especially in the normal direction [KOEN88, TIO90, WECK90a]. It is imperative that these forces be absorbed by correspondingly rigid machines and spindle systems. Otherwise, excessively soft, resilient systems lead to decreased dimensional and formal accuracy in the functional surface. Furthermore, ceramic-machining is more demanding on machine protection. Grinding sludges have a highly abrasive effect due to the hardness of the removed particles. There is a lot of research available pertaining to the use of diamond grinding wheels for grinding ceramics [CART93, JUCH90, NAGA86, SPU87, SUBR88, WARN92, WIMM95, WOBK91, among others]. Since diamond reacts sensitively to strong thermal loads, increased demands are placed on cooling lubricant supply. Concerning the type of bond, tools bonded with synthetic resin and metal are the most often used in ceramic grinding. Grinding wheels bonded with synthetic resin exhibit more wear during the process, but lower process forces, and therefore result as a rule in better surface quality and formal accuracy. The size of the diamond grains used varies between D7 and D252, whereby grain sizes between D91 and D181 are selected for most machining operations. Grain concentrations in ceramic machining are usually between C75 and C100 [VERL94]. With respect to the maximum obtainable specific material removal rates, values up to 50 mm3/mms are cited for machining high-performance ceramics with external grinding. Higher specific material removal rates are realisable with other grinding kinematics, such as surface grinding, but these cannot be considered representative methods. In ceramic chip removal, increasing machining performance is accompanied by concurrently increasing process forces.

4.8.3 Glass Machining In oxidic glasses, both covalent and ionic bonds predominate. They generally display strong polarisation, which also causes its characteristically brittle removal

4.8. Grinding Brittle Materials

109

behaviour. Should material shifting lead to the fracture of these bonds, the structure of glass is destroyed irreparably as opposed to metals, the free electrons of which can form new bonds. Figure 4-18 shows a schematic depiction of the material behaviour of glasses during when penetrated by an abrasive cutting edge with increasing chip thickness. Until exceeding the critical chip thickness, which initiates micro-cracks, a ductile machining process is also realisable for these materials – despite their amorphous structure. The creation of damage-free external component areas is also possible for glasses by means of the machining mechanism.

Micro grooving

Micro crack formation

Micro fatigue

Micro cutting

Fig. 4-18. Possible removal mechanisms in the engagement of a grit with glass

It is assumed that highly negative cutting angle needs to be employed for ductile material removal in order to obtain a condition of hydrostatic compressive stress. Beyond that, several further measures are helpful in reducing individual chip thickness, such as: • • • •

the use of smaller granulations, higher grain concentrations, low feed rates, low depths of cut,

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4 The Machinability of Various Materials

• high cutting speeds (as long as thermal damage is avoided), • high radial accuracy of the grinding wheel (the use of ultra-precision machines is required), • an even envelope (no exposed grains) [KOCH91].

4.8.4 Silicon Monocrystalline silicon enjoys a prominent role as the foundational material in the manufacture of microelectronic semiconductor components due to their favourable physical and chemical properties, comparatively cheap price and nearly limitless availability. Silicon crystallises in the diamond lattice, which can be described with two interpenetrating face-centered cubic elementary cells that are shifted in each direction by the distance of a quarter of edge length. The mechanical properties of silicon are informed by the anisotropic bonding forces prevalent in the monocrystalline corpus. For the elastic modulus for instance, values of E<100> = 130.2 GPa, E<110> = 168.9 GPa and E<111> = 187.5 GPa result for the crystal directions [100], [010] und [111]. The covalent bond of silicon in the diamond lattice is highly stable because of a strict localisation of the valence electrons. From this we obtain a material that is very strong and brittle. The deformation characteristic values reached in a tensile test at room temperature show that silicon behaves in an ideal/elastic manner to a large extent, i.e. there is only a small amount of total expansion. Considered macroscopically, fracture stress without previous mentionable plastic deformation leads without interruption to breakage of the atomic bonds and destruction of the latticework (brittle fracture) [HOLZ94, TOEN90]. Investigations with higher temperatures have shown that temperatures exist in which silicon exhibits plastic material behaviour. Data on the transition temperature between brittle and ductile behaviour waver between 400 and 1000 °C. The transition from brittle to ductile material behaviour shifts to lower temperatures in the case of higher dislocation densities [HADA90, HOLZ94]. However, under intensive stress, deformation can be observed in crystal areas near the surface at room temperature as well [HOLZ94]. Silicon is primarily used as wafer material. The wafers are separated from a silicon monocrystal (ingot) and undergo chip removal on planar surfaces. Established praxis when grinding the isolated wafers dictates a two-step process comprising a pre-processing and a post-processing stage. First there is a rough grinding process, which is required to remove the wafer surface, which is quite faulty after separation, as well as to smooth out the grooves. For this process, a relatively coarse grain is often selected (D46 in a synthetic resin or ceramic bond) in order to realise a high material removal rate (Qw = 100 bis 200 mm3/s). In this case, brittle

4.8. Grinding Brittle Materials

111

machining mechanisms are acceptable if the damage depth of the external zone is less than the depths of cut of the subsequent fine-grinding process. The state of the art for fine grinding are D6 grits bonded in synthetic resin. Synthetic resin bonds are preferred to vitrified bonds. In fine grinding, low material removal rates of Qw = 5 to 15 mm3/s tend to be chosen. Using a ductile machining mechanism in this way, a surface quality of Ra < 10 nm and external zone damages smaller than 3 μm [KLOC00] can be realised, lessening post-processing costs.

5 Cooling Lubricants

5.1 Principles of Cooling Lubricants in the Grinding Process

5.1.1 General Functions The shearing, cutting and rubbing processes involved in grinding generate large heat flow, which can only be removed to a small extent with the chips and thus can lead to considerable thermal stress on the workpiece and the tool [GROF77, LOWI80]. In grinding, the cooling lubricant must fulfil primary and secondary tasks. The two primary functions are 1. reduction of friction between the abrasive grain and the workpiece and between the bond and the workpiece by forming a stable lubrication film and 2. cooling the contact zone and the workpiece surface by absorbing and transporting heat. Specific secondary functions include: • purifying the grinding wheel and the workpiece, • chip transport from the machining location and • building up corrosion resistance for both the machine and the workpiece material

Since the physical, chemical and biological properties of the cooling lubricant influence the machining process to a decisive extent, not only tool selection, but also the selection of the right cooling lubricant is of the greatest importance. Which of the cooling lubricant’s tasks is in the foreground depends on the machining task at hand.

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5 Cooling Lubricants

5.1.2 The Tribological System of Grinding In the grinding process, all the components involved – the grain material (including the bond) as the body, the workpiece material as the counter-body, cooling lubricant as the intermediate substance and air as the environmental medium – form a tribological system (Fig. 5-1). Thus, in order to optimise the cooling/lubrication system, all components involved as well as the collective dominating tribological load (movement, pressure, temperature) must be taken into consideration. Tribological system Environmental medium

T, P Body material Fluid Counter-body Fig. 5-1. Tribological system of grinding

Aside from cooling the process, the cooling lubricant also has the task of influencing the friction conditions between the grain material and the workpiece material advantageously and thus of decreasing grinding wheel wear in general. The physical and chemical properties of cooling lubricants determine their effectiveness in tribological contact. By reacting with the cooling lubricant in the contact zone, intermediate layers can emerge that can assist in separating the surfaces and reducing friction. The cooling lubricant thus has an essential influence on the friction condition between the body and its counter body and thus also affects the chip formation process and grinding wheel wear.

5.1.3 Requirements of Cooling Lubricants in the Grinding Process The properties of cooling lubricants and the demands placed on them are manifold (Fig. 5-2). Not only technical performance, but also economical, ecological as well as safety and health concerns play a role. One of the most important physical properties of cooling lubricants is viscosity. This describes internal resistance of a fluid to deformation. Viscosity has a direct influence on the load capacity of the lubrication film that forms between the tool and the workpiece, but it also influences other important properties of the cooling lubricant. Low viscosity increases the cooling and rinsing effect and also brings about a decrease in drag-out losses, since low-viscosity cooling lubricants are eas-

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115

ier to separate from chips and workpieces. Low viscosity also facilitates filter behaviour and air separation characteristics. On the other hand, low viscosity generally also entails increased proneness to oil vapour and aerosol formation (oil mist), a low flashpoint as well as an increase in skin irritations due to degreasing [BAUM00, REHB01, SCHU03]. Human compatibility

Prevention of deterioration Bacteria resistance

Emulsifiability Foaming characteristics

Characteristics Swarf transport

Lubrication

Machine Smell Toxicity

Cooling lubricant Fu nc tio

Corrosion protection

Workpiece

Tool q Re

ns

Compatibility with materials

uir

Cooling

ts en m e

Good moistening Viscosity

Cleaning effect Washability Recycling ability

Fig. 5-2. Requirements of coolants [N.N.93]

Cooling lubricants

Waterbased

Not waterbased

Concentrate Emulsifiable

Water soluble

+

+ Water

= Oil

Emulsion

Additives Fig. 5-3. Classification of coolants

= Molecular solution

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5 Cooling Lubricants

5.2 Classification, Structure and Properties Fig. 5-3 illustrates a classification of cooling lubricants based on DIN 51 385. The key differentiator is whether or not the cooling lubricant contains water in its application state.

5.2.1 Oils In principle, cooling lubricants are always composed of a suitable base fluid, to which various active substance (additives) may be added according to the respective application and requirements. Base fluids should conform with both the particular conditions of the respective machining process and present-day toxicological requirements. Currently, mineral oils, hydrocrack oils, polyalphaolefines and ester-based oils are used are base fluids. Mineral oil raffinates extracted directly from crude oil are still the most dominant hydrocarbon base fluids, primarily for economic reasons. Hydrocrack oils are mineral oil raffinates refined with hydrogen. Compared with mineral oils, they have a smaller aromate content and, as a result of fewer unsaturated molecules, higher oxidation stability. Furthermore, they are characterised by a higher viscosity index and improved lubricity. Moreover, by means of a more homogeneous distribution of molecule size, they are clearly less prone to vaporisation than mineral oils [REHB00, REHB01]. Polyalphaolefines (PAO) are synthetic hydrocarbons having a definite and consistent molecular structure. The consistent composition leads to a significantly smaller inclination towards vaporisation than mineral or hydrocrack oils. The poor solubility of many additives in non-polar PAO can be disadvantageous [N.N.96, REHB00, REHB01]. Ester is formed from alcohols and fatty acids as a product of a dehydration reaction. Natural esters from renewable raw materials usually have the disadvantage of poor resistance to aging. Therefore, chemically modified plant-based esters, which are much more oxidation-stable and hydrolysis-stable, are favoured as cooling lubricants. By selecting appropriate fatty acids and alcohols, we can obtain specific properties, such as viscosity and vaporisation. Among the mentionable advantages of ester oils are less vaporisation loss, high flashpoints, a very good purifying effect, good air separation behaviour, little foaming tendency and its polarity and resultantly good boundary lubricity [FREI97, FREI98, LUTH02, SCHU98]. In contrast to water-based fluids, which have usually an amount of water clearly exceeding 90 %, oil has the advantage of better lubrication. Their kinematic viscosity is, depending on its specifications, up to nearly 100 times more than that of water at a temperature of 40 °C.

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117

Oils have good corrosion properties and are practically sterile from manufacture. Biocides for reducing fungal infestation and rust inhibitors to protect the machine and the workpiece are therefore generally unnecessary [JUST83]. On the other hand, an anti-froth agent must be applied under certain conditions in order to suppress surface foam. A disadvantage of oil is that the cooling effect is relatively poor because of its low specific heat capacity and heat conductivity (table 5-1). Oils used as cooling lubricants can lead to considerable oil mist formation, especially at high cutting speeds. This oil mist can contain respirable aerosols [HOER88], which increase workplace stress. Beyond this, oil mist is easily flammable, so the machines have to be sufficiently enclosed for reasons of safety. This also includes the installation of an effective exhaust system. Moreover, further safety guards are necessary, for example, in order to prevent an explosive increase in temperature at the machining location in case of a sudden decrease in the amount of cooling lubricant. On the other hand, non-water-based cooling lubricants have the advantage of longer lifespans. Because of their resistance to bacteriae, a significantly longer service life can be obtained by means of sufficient filtering of sediments than is the case for water-miscible products. Table 5-1. Viscosity and thermal physical values of mineral oil compared with water Mineral oil

Water

Specific heat capacity

cp [J/(g⋅K)]

1.9

4.2

Heat conductivity

λ [W/(m⋅K)]

0.13

0.6

Heat of evaporation

r [J/g]

210

2260

Viscosity at 40°C

ν [mm²/s]

5 – 20

0.66

5.2.2 Emulsions Oil-in-water emulsions are used when what matters is a good cooling effect and not as much the lubrication effect. For oil-in-water emulsions, an even distribution of extremely fine oil droplets in water is obtained by means of so-called emulsifiers. Since the physical properties of emulsions is largely the same as that of water – the amount of oil is usually considerably less than 10 % - their specific heat capacity is about twice as high and the heat conductivity four times higher than that of oil (table 5-1). In accordance with the size of the oil drops, we differentiate between • • • •

coarsely-dispersed emulsions (average oil drop size between 1 und 10 μm), finely-dispersed emulsions (oil drop size between 0.01 und 1 μm), colloidally-dispersed emulsions (oil drop size between 0.01 und 0.001 μm) and molecularly-dispersed systems (drop size under 0.001 μm) [ZWIN60].

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5 Cooling Lubricants

This size of the oil drop formed from emulsification is dependent above all on the type and amount of emulsifier. Increasing the amount of emulsifier lowers the droplet size (Fig. 5-4).

oil

phaseseparation

emulsifying agent

water

Stockes:

Non-iogen emulsifying agent

v ~ r² (ȡW - ȡoil ) / ȘW ȡW , ȘW

r

v

ȡoil

Emulsifying agent micelle Physical stability:

~ 1/v

1 - 10 μm

0,01 - 1 μm

++

Oildrops -

+

-+ - -+ +

Iogen emulsifying agent

Coarse dispers dispers Fine dispers

Fig. 5-4. Homogeneous distribution of oil in water caused by emulsifying agents

The oil drop size is of particular importance, as it has decisive influence on the physical stability of the emulsion. According to Stockes’ law, the climbing speed of the oil droplet, which is inversely proportional to stability, increases with the square of the radius and the difference in density. The viscosity of the surrounding phase (water), on the other hand, works in the opposite way. Since particle size comes into play to the greatest extent in emulsion stability, most stabilising measures applied to metal machining emulsions strive to increase the degree of dispersion by adding emulsifier concentrates. Also with respect to resistance to microorganisms, which affect all water-based products, finely-dispersed emulsions show better performance than coarselydispersed ones. Coarsely-dispersed emulsions are milky and opaque. With decreasing drop sizes, the fluid’s transparency increases. When using an emulsion, the concentrate should be added to the water by means of a dosing apparatus or alternatively in a

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119

thin jet under constant stirring and not the other way round, as otherwise soap agglomerations and non-emulsified concentrate inclusions could result. The properties of the water have a large influence on the quality and operational behaviour of emulsions. The water used must be very pure. Well or river water often introduces considerable amounts of bacteria into the unused emulsion. But the excessive chloride content of tap water also compromises stability and corrosion protection properties. Above all, the mixing water’s nitrate content should be considered, as nitrate (NO-3) can be decomposed chemically or bacterially to nitrite (NO-2) [LING93]. As a nitrosation agent reacting with amines, nitrite leads to the development of N-nitrosodiethanolamine (NDELA), which is considered carcinogenic. Water hardness should be about 5 to 10° measured in accordance with the German water hardness system. Water that is too soft amplifies foam-formation, while excessively hard water leads to foam separation due to reactions with hardening agents. The water used should have a pH-value of 6 to 7 (neutral) and the emulsion between 8 and 9.5 (slightly alkaline). If the value is lower, the risk of corrosion increases.

5.2.3 Aqueous Solutions Aqueous solutions used for grinding purposes consist, like oil-in-water emulsions, of over 90 % water. The concentrate is devoid of mineral oil, consisting, for example, of polymers or salts [MANG76]. No emulsifiers are required to obtain a fine and even distribution of the concentrate, as the latter is dissolved molecularly, as is the case in solutions of water and common salt. Because no emulsifiers are needed, no foam problems arise, and the resistance to microorganisms is better than that of emulsions. Solutions have, however, less favourable lubrication properties than emulsions. Moreover, they tend to rinse off cutting oils from the guide bars and to form sticky residues [ZWIN79].

5.2.4 Use of Additives Since pure base fluids are usually not capable of meeting the requirements made on cooling lubricants for grinding applications, additives are used. These influence various cooling lubricant properties and should be activated by the high temperatures and pressures associated with grinding processes [BRIN00, IRRE96, SCHU02]. Additives can be subdivided into the following groups [HIPL00]: • additives that change the physical properties of the cooling lubricant (e.g. viscosity index improvers)

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5 Cooling Lubricants

• additives that change the chemical properties of the cooling lubricant (oxidation inhibitors) • tribologically active additives, i.e. additives that change the friction conditions (polar additives, friction modifiers (FM), anti-wear (AW) and extreme pressure (EP) additives.

In the group of polar additives are included above all fatty substances derived from plants and animals as well as synthetic esters [N.N.92]. We speak also refer to greased oils in this context. Polar fat molecules deposit comparatively firmly on the metal surface due to electrostatic adsorption. Due to the dipolar character of the molecules, several shear sensitive layers with good pressure resistance are formed. With metals that act as catalysts, there is an additional chemical reaction with the metal surface under the influence of the heat and pressure increased caused by the process, especially in the case of fatty acids. The resulting metallic soaps act as highly viscous, semisolid lubrication films. The temperature range in which the polar additives are active already ends at about 130 °C. At higher loads, for instance when working with materials that are hard to machine, EP additives in the form of phosphorus (up to ca. 700 °C) or sulphur compounds (until above 1000 °C) are used. Chorine, previously often used (up to ca. 500 °C), is no longer used for environmental reasons. In its place, polymer additives and, to some extent, esters can be used [LING88].

5.3 The Influence of Cooling Lubrication on the Grinding Process

5.3.1 Cooling Lubricant Type The various cooling lubricants exhibit characteristic properties and also influence the process parameters and its output. Varying friction conditions affect the cutting edge application. In the following, the influence of the cooling lubricant on the cutting forces, heat, surface quality and grinding wheel wear will be demonstrated. For smaller chip thicknesses, as in finishing, the dependencies shown in Fig. 55 result assuming unchanged grain geometry. With improved lubrication, the grain normal cutting force increases due to larger cutting depths/deformation. The effective chip thickness/material removal decreases at the same time. As a result, in order to machine a certain volume of material in a predetermined time, the momentary cutting edge number has to go up.

5.3 The Influence of Cooling Lubrication on the Grinding Process

121

Thus, for small material removal rates, the grain normal force as the sum of all individual grain forces is higher with some oils than in the case with water-miscible cooling lubricants. On the other hand, the grain tangential force sinks because of lower rake and flank face friction, so that, despite the higher cutting edge number and good lubrication, a smaller tangential component of the total cutting force results, and thus a smaller cutting force ratio. Material Grinding wheel Specific material removal Cutting speed Speed ratio Spark-out time

100Cr6, 62 HRC EKw 70 Jot 7 Ke V‘w = 250 mm3/mm vc = 45 m/s q = 90 ta = 0 s

Specific normal and tangential force F‘n, F‘t

16

specific normal force oils waterbased cooling lubricants

12 N/mm

8

waterbased cooling lubricants oils

4

specific tangential force 0 0

3

6

mm³/mms 9

12

Specific material removal rate Q‘w Fig. 5-5. Grinding force regions during grinding with oils and water-composite coolants

As the chip thickness becomes larger (coarse grinding), the cutting edge number changes only slightly percentage-wise with increasing lubrication, so that this influence becomes increasingly insignificant. However, more lubrication leads to a reduction in friction. From decreased friction results a smaller tangential force and thus a smaller total cutting force [VITS85]. The ranges of variation delineated in Fig. 5-5 make it clear that the composition of the cutting oil or water-based cooling lubricant exerts an influence on the cutting forces. Generally, the results respectively the differences between various

122

5 Cooling Lubricants

cooling lubricants, depend to a large extent on the respective application at hand, for example, on the material to be machined. Material Grinding wheel Specific material removal Cuting speed Speed ratio Spark-out time

Specific radial wear rate Q‘sr

0,4

solution 3% water + corrosion inhibitor

mm³/mms 0,3

100 Cr 6, 62 HRC EKw 70 Jot 7 Ke V‘w = 250 mm³/ mm vc = 45 m/ s q = 90 ta = 0 s

emulsion with mineral oil concentration 3 - 8 %

0,2

0,1 mineral oils viscosity 18 - 30 mm²/ s additive content 0 -15 % 0 0

4

8

mm³/12mms

16

Specific material removal rate Q‘W Fig. 5-6. Grinding wheel wear during grinding with various cooling lubricants

Also of great practical importance is the question of which type of cooling lubricant causes more thermal stress on the workpiece, the undesirable results of which are, among other things, structural changes and tensile residual stress (danger of cracking) in the workpiece external zone. It is however not possible to make conclusive statements about this, since the effect of different cooling lubricants on external zone damage is contingent on the respective application. With higher material removal rates, oils are more advantageous than emulsions with respect to grinding wheel wear as well as the resultant surface quality (Figs. 5-6 and 5-7). On the other hand, water-based cooling lubricants are to be recommended for precision grinding, because they provide better dimensional and formal accuracy as well as less danger of thermal workpiece damage due to their lower normal forces and their ability to remove heat more quickly. Moreover, using oil in precision grinding and the chip thicknesses associated with it can lead to insufficient chip formation.

5.3 The Influence of Cooling Lubrication on the Grinding Process

Material Grinding wheel Specific material removal Cutting speed Speed ratio Spark-out time

123

100 Cr 6, 62 HRC Ekw 70 Jot 7 Ke V‘w = 250 mm³/ mm vc = 45 m/ s q = 90 ta = 0 s

Average roughness height Ra

1,5 solution 3% water + corrosion inhibitor

[μm]

μm

mineral oils range of viscosity 18 - 30 mm²/ s additive content 0 - 15 %

0,5

emulsions with mineral oil concentration 3 - 8 % 0 0

4

8

mm³/ mms

16

Specific material removal rate Q‘W

Fig. 5-7. Surface quality against type of coolant

5.3.2 Cooling Lubricant Supply The efficiency of the cooling lubrication is not only determined by the cooling lubricant’s physical and chemical properties, but also by the method of supplying the fluid into the cutting gap. For a sufficient supply of the contact area with the cooling lubricant, the cooling lubricant volume rate, the cooling lubricant discharge speed and the construction and position of the cooling lubricant nozzle are important.

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5 Cooling Lubricants

Cooling lubricant

Air cushion Deflector

nw Workpiece

Conventional overflow nozzle

Separating plate

ns

Grinding wheel

Overflow nozzle with deflector Fixation

Cooling lubricant

Grinding wheel

Shoe nozzle

Capillary tube

Profile

Needle nozzle

Fig. 5-8. Coolant feeding concepts

Fig. 5-8, I, shows a conventional overflow nozzle or free jet nozzle. In the case of this nozzle design, it is important that the cooling lubricant is not, as shown, extruded by the air cushion rotating with the grinding wheel. To obtain a sufficient supply at the grinding location, the discharge speed and with it the volume rate of

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125

the cooling lubricant jet must be increased. This is all the more relevant the higher the grinding wheels circumferential speed is. Above right (Fig. 5-8, II), an additional deflector is leading the cooling lubricant jet towards the grinding wheel so that lubrication is improved. In the case of the shoe nozzle (Fig. 5-8, III), the nozzle geometry provides for a longer contact between the cooling lubricant and the grinding wheel surface than is the case for conventional overflow nozzles. Furthermore, the cooling lubricant’s drainage along the grinding wheel face is also reduced by the nozzle’s geometry. The essential purpose of shoe nozzles is to divert/remove the air cushion rotating with the wheel as well as to accelerate cooling lubricant supply to the rotational speed of the grinding wheel. The result is an improved wetting of the surface of the grinding wheel and avoidance of leakage volume flow. By considering these points, the cooling lubricant can be supplied in a more targeted fashion to the machining location, which makes possible a reduction of the applied volume flow. The longer contact length between the cooling lubricant and the grinding wheel, on the one hand, facilitates the acceleration of the volume flow to the circumferential speed of the grinding wheel, but the cooling lubricant can also penetrate into the abrasive grits in the case of porous grinding wheels. Because of the advantages of the shoe nozzle, it is unnecessary to use high pressures and high volume flows in supplying the cooling lubricant. The disadvantage of shoe nozzles is their geometrical inflexibility. For this reason, they are less suited to use in conventional grinding wheel operations, in which grinding wheel dimensions can change relatively quickly due to high wear. Shoe nozzles are to be recommended for use in external cylindrical grinding processes with superabrasive grinding wheels and high cutting speeds. Another concept in cutting speed supply is the needle nozzle (Fig. 5-8, IV). In this case, the cooling lubricant is supplied by means of several small tubes. The tubes can be adjusted to fit the geometry of the grinding wheel or the workpiece to be processed. By means of an adjusted length of the capillary tubes, a laminar flow can be realised, so that the cooling lubricant flows from the nozzle in a directed way and with higher speed, and the profile is preserved across a certain length. Needle nozzles have proved useful especially in flat profile grinding operations on difficult-to-machine materials such as nickel-based or titanium materials causing less wear. The necessity of high-performance supply pumps is a disadvantage of needle nozzles. In addition to the nozzle that guides the cooling lubricant to the cutting gap, further nozzles can be distributed around the grinding wheel in order to supply cooling lubricant radially onto the grinding wheel surface (Fig. 5-9). This is especially interesting for grinding tasks in which the grinding wheel is prone to clogging. These cleaning nozzles have the function of rinsing clogging particles from the surface of the grinding wheel. Purifying success can be inferred from the improvement in surface quality and from the reduction of grinding forces with increased amounts of nozzles. The effectiveness of these nozzles is contingent first

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5 Cooling Lubricants

and foremost on the high exit speed of the cooling lubricant, and thus on the impetus upon the grinding wheel, as well as on the jet angle. Material Grinding wheel Cooling lubricant Cooling lubricant pressure Workpiece speed Cutting speed Depth of cut Spec. material removal rate

Ck 45 N EK 100 Jot Ba grinding oil ps = 12 bar vw = 500 mm/ s vc = 80 m/ s ae = 0.08 mm Q‘w = 40 mm³/ mms

2 Average roughness height Ra

Cleaning nozzles 3

2

μm 1,5 4

1

1 vW 0,5

0 0

1

1-2

1-3

1-4

Number of cleaning nozzles Fig. 5-9. Influence of the alignment and number of cleaning nozzles on the surface roughness at face grinding

The normal force in grinding is composed not only of forces resulting from the chip formation process but also of components originating from the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic pressure build-up of the cooling lubricant. To clarify this effect, Fig. 5-10 illustrates the components of normal force resulting for various cutting speeds and cooling lubricant volume flows. Doubling the cutting speed from vc = 90 to 180 m/s leads to the desired reduction of that portion of the normal force caused by chip removal. In contrast to this, the fluid pressure force Fn, KSS behaves differently. At a specific cooling lubricant volume flow of 1.3 l/min per millimetre of grinding wheel width, the normal force components caused by the cooling lubricant remains constant, while these force components increase considerably already at 2 l/(min·mm).

5.3 The Influence of Cooling Lubrication on the Grinding Process

Material Grinding wheel Speed ratio Spec. material removal rate Cooling lubricant Spec. volume flow Total force Fuid pressure force Grinding force

127

100 Cr 6 (62 HRC) B126 GYB 200 q = 60 Q´w = 40 mm³/ mms oil 1.3 l/ min mm 2 l/ min mm 1,3 l/ min mm 2 l/ min mm

30

Spec. normal force F‘n

N/mm 24

18

12

6

0

60

90

120

150

m/s 180

210

Cutting speed vc Fig. 5-10. Influence of coolant on the normal force during increasing the normal force

The fluid pressure force increases with the cutting speed as a function of the cooling lubricant volume flow and can exceed the grinding normal force according to the amount. The outcome is a total normal force that increases with the cutting speed. This fact becomes especially important in high-speed grinding. The exhibited effects of the pressure build-up caused by the cooling lubricant in the grinding gap during an increase in the cutting speed make it clear how necessary it is to have a cooling lubrication system which is adapted to the requirements of the grinding process. The amounts of cooling lubricant necessary for high-speed grinding have been estimated variably, ranging from 10 to 30 l/(min·mm). Fig. 5-11 shows the results from tests with minimum quantity lubrication, which were ascertained with a cooling lubricant volume flow which was significantly reduced in comparison with the values above. The cooling lubricant was supplied with a shoe nozzle optimised for high-speed grinding [TREF94].

Average surface roughness Rz

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5 Cooling Lubricants

12

Material Grinding wheel Cutting speed Speed ratio Workpiece diameter Cooling lubricant Specific volume flow

μm 10

8 6 4

100 Cr 6 V B 126 GYB 200 vc = 180 m/s q = 50 dw = 120 mm oil 1 l/ min mm 10 l/ min mm

2 0 4

40 [mm³/ mms]

6

40 Grinding power Pc

Specific normal force F‘n

Specific material removal rate Q‘w

N/mm 30

20 10

kW5

4 3 2 1 0

0 4

40 [mm³/ mms]

Specific material removal rate Q‘w

4

40 [mm³/ mms]

Specific material removal rate Q‘W

Fig. 5-11. Influence of the amount of coolant on process and output values

An influence of the amount of cooling lubricant on workpiece roughness was not detected within the control variable ranges investigated in the grinding experiments. Roughness values are on the same level for coolant amounts typical in praxis as well as for drastically reduced amounts. Comparing the normal force components shows the influence of the cooling lubricant volume flow discussed earlier. The difference in force between various cooling lubricant amounts is all the more obvious the smaller the specific volume is. With small chip thicknesses, the amount of force caused by the cooling lubricant can far exceed that pure cutting force, so that reducing the cooling lubricant volume flow becomes advantageous. Comparing the grinding efforts necessary for the process shows that a reduction in cooling lubricant volume flow diminishes grinding performance. The cause for this is to be found in the power loss caused by the braking effect of the cooling lubricant, which essentially depends on the amount of cooling lubricant.

5.4 Supervision, Maintenance and Disposal

129

5.4 Supervision, Maintenance and Disposal The successfulness of the cooling lubricant chosen for a machining task depends upon its proper treatment. For this, constant inspection of the chemical, physical and biological properties of the cooling lubricant is required. Based on the results gained from monitoring the lubricant, necessary maintenance arrangements can be induced. The type and extent of supervision depends on the cooling lubricant used. Hue is already a partial indication of the state of oils. This is determined by a comparison with coloured glasses and allows us to infer the degree of contamination and the state of use. Solid foreign materials are insoluble foreign impurities that are identified by filtering. At high concentrations or sizes, they can interfere with the machining processes and diminish the workpiece’s surface quality. Density and viscosity are easy to determine with the right measuring instruments. An alteration of these quantities can be attributed to either a grogging of the oil or to an undesired admixture of a foreign fluid. After a long service life, oils have to be checked for their pollutant concentrations, whereby an increased amount of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in particular brings the oil’s use to an end [WIES92]. Supervision measures are much more extensive in the case of emulsions. They have to be monitored regularly, depending on the atmospheric conditions sometimes even daily. Appearance and smell allow for only a general, subjective evaluation. Instead, there is a whole series of quantitative supervision criteria to be taken into consideration of the emulsion’s essential attributes during operation (Fig. 5-12). Oil concentration is primarily responsible for lubrication and preventing corrosion. Depending on the marginal conditions, there can be an increase the oil or water phase. A lowering of oil concentration facilitates microbial attack and diminishes the emulsion’s lubrication properties. If the concentration is to high on the other hand, this endangers its stability, and the cooling capacity is lowered. Moreover, more cases of skin irritation are to be expected among the operating personnel. For this reason, the oil concentration should be constantly regulated by separating the emulsion in a test flask (DIN 51 368) or with the help of a refractometer. With the refractometer, the refraction angle, which is contingent on the oil content, is used to ascertain the amount of oil in the emulsion. pH is an important criterion in the evaluation of the emulsion. Eventual evaporation of water and corresponding increase in concentration can cause an increase in the pH value. However, lowering of the pH value is much more common, for which there are various possible causes, like lowered concentration. Acidifiers introduced during operation, such as iron chips and salts, lead to a lowering of the pH. A third possibility which should be mentioned is of a large microbial infestation. The pH value is determined by means of an electronic pH meter or indicator paper [N.N.92a].

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Acidity check Limit value: depends on conditioning

Monitoring interval: dayly

inserted emulsion

refractometer scale

8 4

6 Vol % oil refractometer scale

pH-value check Limit value: 7 < pH < 9

Monitoring interval: weekly

Checked by pH meter or indicator paper

Detection of nitrite content Limit value: 20 ppm

Monitoring interval: weekly

Checked by nitrite testing rod

Detection of bacterial count Limit value: 108-1010 /ml

Monitoring interval: monthly 106/ml

108/ml

Dip-Slide method

104/ml

Testing rod

Visual comparison

Fig. 5-12. Monitoring methods with emulsions

The problematic nature of nitrite has already been discussed in the context of the used water. Thus, the nitrite content must also be determined regularly, which can be performed with nitrite testing rods. If the limit of 20 ppm is exceeding in the measurement, a NDELA determination is necessary. In the case of more than 5 ppm N-nitrosodiethanolamine, the coolant emulsion must be disposed of. Since an excessive increase in the biological count (the number of various microorganisms per ml) is a significant cause for emulsion failure, supervision of the biological count is an essential method in monitoring the cooling lubricant. For supervising biological count, the Dip-Slide-Test has found widespread use. In the Dip-Slide-Test, a slide coated with nutrient media is dipped into the cooling lubri-

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131

cant and then incubated for 48 hours at 27 to 30 °C. The microbial population is then compared with test images (Fig. 5-12). The Herbert test, standardised in DIN 51 360, has proved effective for examining corrosion properties. About 2 g milling swarfs is placed in one layer on a casting plate and wetted with about 2 cm³ of the emulsion to be tested. After a reaction time of 24 h in a neutral atmosphere (ideally in a desiccator), swarf and emulsion are wiped from the casting plate. If traces of rust are found, they can be attributed to corrosion properties. Monitoring and correcting the emulsions alone is not a sufficient means for maintaining the cooling lubricant. For a smooth order of events in the entire machining process, purifying the cooling fluid is imperative. The necessary preciseness depends on the type of machining task at hand. As it is shown in Fig. 5-13, belt filters, magnetic separators, separators and hydrocyclones are used in coolant purifying plants. carrier belt with filterfleece

Separator Supply

Belt filter

supply

foul water

pure oil to collecting basin

coolant tank drive Magnetic separator magnetic rotor

to collecting basin

supply

grinding swarf

Hydrocyclone supply primary turbulence

grinding swarf

secondary turbulence pure oil

reversal point grinding swarf

Fig. 5-13. Coolant purifying plant

By filtering the cooling lubricant, a predetermined degree of purity is obtainable according to the type and fineness of the filter material. The filter particle pile which builds up captures increasingly fine particles as time goes on. In order to avoid premature clogging, the filter material chosen should thus not be finer than necessary. In the case of the belt filter shown in Fig. 5-13, the fluid gets backed up as soon as the filter belt clogs. This activates the float of a feed shifter, and the filter and the conveyor belt continue to a determined extent. Types of filters range from simple strainer baskets to belt filters to vacuum, pressure and pre-coated fil-

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ters equipped with various elements [KNOB70, TRIE74]. Because of their defined properties, filters are generally widespread. Magnetic separators are advantageous with respect to bacterial attack in the cooling lubricant, since an immediate and continual separation of the chips from the cooling lubricant is guaranteed. But since generally only ferromagnetic particles are captured – and only those which actually reach the force fields of the magnets – continuously or discontinuously working magnetic separators are only used successfully with relatively coarse grinding. In the case of centrifugation, centrifugal force is used to purify the cooling fluid. Centrifuges can be built much more compactly than settling tanks. For this method of purification, we distinguish between two basic principles: hydrocyclones and separators. Hydrocyclones are advantageous because of their efficient construction size and minimal maintenance costs. The contaminated fluid arrives with excess pressure tangentially at the cyclone. Foreign particles are propelled against the cyclone wall in the primary vortex and exit together with a small amount of the cooling lubricant from the underflow. Because of the funnel-shaped construction of the hydrocyclone, the emulsion rises with an excess pressure of about 0.5 bar without an intermediary pump directly into the collecting basin [KNOB70, N.N.80]. With increasing viscosity, the separating effect decreases considerably, so that the use of hydrocyclones is essentially limited to purifying emulsions. Moreover, hydrocyclones promote the formation of foam in water-miscible coolants appreciably in comparison to other cleaning instruments. The danger of clogging in the hydrocyclone underflow is especially present when purifying cooling lubricants for flat grinding processes, since so-called “grinding wool” forms easily in these processes. Hydrocyclones separate especially light solids from contaminated cooling lubricants (e.g. graphite in grey cast iron machining) insufficiently. Residues flow over to the secondary vortex because of their light weight and thus reach the collecting basin. Fig. 5-13 shows in cross-section the operating principle of a discontinuously working separator. The product to be centrifuged, in this case an oil or an emulsion, flows through the inlet into the rotating drum. In the disc stack, there is a physical separation into light and heavy fluid phases by means of centrifugal force. With a suitable selection of disc stack and rotational frequency, the emulsion is preserved as a chemically stable mixture [DUSE89]. Both fluid phases flow out separately. The purified emulsion leaves the separator at the outer capturing cover, foreign oil and fat at the inner cover. The separated solid collects in the solid chamber and is extracted manually by a removable lifting sheet. Since separation in emulsion treatment produces the three components • purified emulsion, • foreign oils, fats and • solid matter,

solids and foreign oils can be isolated with separators in one operational step.

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133

Even optimally maintained cooling lubricants reach the end of their service life after a certain amount of time and must be disposed of. For environmentally tolerated disposal, legal constraints must be observed. These have often been made stricter in the past years. This has raised disposal costs to a level which is now hardly insignificant. Despite the relatively large amount of water in emulsions or solutions (over 90 %), oils and other active agents must be filtered out before the aqueous phase can be, for example, diverted to public water channels. If there is a sufficient amount of emulsions or solutions that must be constantly disposed of, it can be more economical to form proprietary water treatment plants. For this, chemical, thermal and mechanical methods are available for cooling lubricant disposal. In the chemical method, the emulsion is first separated of the acids and salts by adding electrolytes. The oil phase is thus isolated, and the residual oil still remaining in the water are bonded adsorptively to metal hydroxides or silicic acid preparations. However, chemical methods entail further stress because of the required chemicals and the accruing sludge [VDI94]. The principle of all thermal methods is identical. The water is vaporised by heat and captured in a second container as a condensate. The oils – together with emulsifiers and other components containing mineral oil, like rust inhibitors and salts – remain as residue in the first container. Vacuum distillation produces good quality water, which has to do with the fact that neither chemicals nor other additives are necessary for vaporisation. A further advantage of vaporisation is the heat treatment carried out in the process. By heating up the distillate, it is sterilised and can be used again, for example, as the basis for new emulsions. Among mechanically operating techniques, especially ultrafiltration is noteworthy. This disposal method separates the oil extraordinarily cleanly and is considered highly economical [NEES87, VDI94]. In this method, the cooling lubricant is directed past a semi-permeable filter surface under pressure with high flow speed. The filter membranes consist of organic (cellulose acetate) or inorganic substances and can be applied as components in capillary, tube or plate form. Depending on execution and purpose, the pore radii of the filter layer are in the range of 5 to 10 μm. Water, dissolved salts and smaller organic molecules penetrate the filter membrane, while higher-molecular weight substances like emulsified mineral oil, fats and solids are held back. The residue, consisting primarily of oil, can be separated after further treatment into an oil-lacking and an oil-rich layer, whereby the latter is destined for incineration, though a second refining is preferable [BROE78, VDI94, VOLP79]. There are basically two possible ways to dispose of used grinding oils: they are either burned or undergo recycling by means of refining. Which of the two ways is chosen depends on the composition of the oil. A further product which must be disposed of is the grinding sludge produced during machining, which must be treated correspondingly for disposal. When using oil as a coolant, the first step in grinding sludge treatment or disposal has to be removing the oil, since the oil in the sludge can make up more than 50 %. Direct

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disposal in an incinerator or landfill is to be avoided, since in both cases no value is added and both the oil and the metal contained in the sludge are lost. Two methods for reclaiming both phases are oil-removal with solvents and vacuum distillation. When solvents are used, the cleaning agent releases the oil from the grinding sludge and binds it to itself. The mixture of cleaning agent and oil enters the distillation chamber and the two are there again separated. The evaporated cleaning agent is condensed in the attached condenser and then led back to the collecting basin. The essential advantage of vacuum distillation is that both phases can be separated without the use of solvents. The grinding sludge is supplied to the dry container in batch quantities with the help of a screw-conveyor. In the dry container, the system is evacuated with a vacuum pump. In the distillation process, first the water is vaporised. Then, at about 250 °C, the oil and solid phases are separated. The oil phase is supplied to a collecting tank by means of a condenser.

6 Grinding

6.1 Preparation Grinding tools are not in a usable condition as delivered or after a longer period of use. Grinding wheels exhibit macrogeometrical faults (e.g. roundness deviation, waviness, macro-wear, loss of profile), which lead to problems in the grinding process or to deficient dimensional accuracy of the components worked upon. Micro-wear, i.e. dulling of the grits, is associated with an increase in the grinding forces as well as the required grinding power. Moreover, the danger of heatrelated damage on the surface layers of the workpiece also increases (Fig. 6-1).

Fig. 6-1. Motivations for grinding wheel preparation

The goal of preparation for use is to create a grinding wheel condition which corresponds to the requirements of the grinding process. This is, on the one hand,

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necessary for the first use of a grinding tool. On the other hand, consistent workpiece quality can only be maintained by repeated tool preparation during the process as well. The grinding tool preparation that satisfies the requirements has a decisive influence on the performance of the grinding operation. One essential objective can be the best possible adaptation of the grinding wheel to the machining process in large-batch production. Beyond this, the cutting properties of the tools can also be changed in a targeted manner with respect to varying machining conditions in single and small-batch production. The concept of conditioning encompasses the various processes used to prepare grinding tools. Fundamentally, we distinguish between the dressing and cleaning of grinding wheels. Dressing is further subdivided into profiling and sharpening. The profiling process gets rid of geometrical errors and gives the workpiece the desired form. Sharpening gives it the required cutting ability. Cleaning the grinding wheel removes the chip, grit and bond residues clogging the pore spaces.

6.1.1 Dressing Kinematics Dressing comprises the establishment of both the grinding wheel’s shape (profiling) and the grinding wheel’s cutting ability (sharpening). Depending on the grinding wheel bond, the profiling process can not only produce the desired tool geometry, but also sharp edges and sufficient chip space. In practice, this is most commonly the case, which is why the terms of profiling and dressing are used synonymously. In rare cases, separate processes have to be carried out for profiling and sharpening. The dressing strategy used depends on qualitative and economic requirements and on the machine concept at hand. The abrasive material, the bond type and the grinding wheel shape determine the possible dressing tools and methods. Generally, an automated dressing process is preferable. However, reproducible dressing results are a prerequisite for this; dressing tool wear has to be predictable, so that the dressing amounts and results remain definable. Moreover, the grinding wheel should stay on the spindle in order to limit non-productive times and clamping errors. Dressing methods can be categorised according to various aspects and criteria. One criterion is the method’s kinematics. We distinguish between rotating and non-rotating dressing tools. The dressing tool materials can also be used as an ordering criterion. In order to obtain a defined machining of the grinding material during the dressing process, the dressing tools should be harder than the abrasive material. Thus, tools with diamonds are primarily used for dressing. Other equally or less hard materials are seldom used, as this leads for the most part to high dressing tool wear. This precludes defined dressing of profiled grinding wheels. One can thus differentiate between diamond and diamond-free media.

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137

The operating principle is another potential aspect which can be considered in classifying dressing methods. In this context, the mechanisms of chip removal, separating the bond and material removal are significant. Chip removal is used by diamond dressing tools that sever the grits and the grinding wheel bond. The mechanism of separation, on the other hand, describes an isolated influence on the grinding wheel bond. Electrochemical or spark-erosive operating principles can be summarised under the category of material removal (see Manufacturing Processes Volume 3). A dressing effect can however not only be achieved by machining the grinding wheel surface, but also by overloading the grinding wheel structure. For example, grinding very hard materials under extreme cutting conditions creates large cutting forces at the grits, which causes splintering or breakaway of the grits from the bond structure.

6.1.1.1 Methods with Stationary Tools

Non-rotating or stationary dressing tools do not exhibit any movement in the peripheral direction of the grinding wheel. The grinding wheel profile originates by means of axial movement along the wheel contour, comparably to a turning process (Fig. 6-2). Between the dressing tool and the rotating grinding wheel, there is a radial dressing feed rate of vfad. The dressing tool is set between two dressing strokes radially by the depth of dressing cut aed. For profile dressing, dressing tools with making contact in the form of a point or a line in the peripheral direction are usually the most suitable. The path of the dressing tool is controlled by NC programs or with older machine systems by means of profile guides.

stationary dressing tool single-grit dressing diamond

dressing plate

multi-grit diamond

vsd

vfad

vfad

vfad

vsd

vsd

Fig. 6-2 Method kinematics – stationary dressing

For the mechanical dressing of common grinding wheels, diamond tools are used almost exclusively in the present day. Some examples of stationary diamond tools are: • single-grit dressing diamonds,

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• dressing plates and • multi-grain dressers (Fig. 6-3).

stationary dressing tool single-grit dressing diamond

dressing plate

multi-grit diamond

Fig. 6-3. Stationary diamond dressing tools

In single-grit dressers, an octahedral raw diamond is soldered into a steel holder. The diamond gets worn after a long period of use. In this case however, we can re-solder it, bringing another tip of the octahedron into action. The engagement width or effective width, which increases due to wear, sensitivity to impact, high temperatures, and high cost are disadvantages of larger raw diamonds. In order to create more complicated grinding wheel contours, the diamond can also be sharpened (profiled diamond). However, re-soldering is not possible as it is in the case of octahedral single-grit diamonds. Instead of monocrystalline diamonds, small rods composed of polycrystalline diamond (PCD) or chemical vapoured diamond (CVD) are being increasingly used. Their advantage is that the hardness anisotropy of their smaller monocrystals is balanced out in them. They are thus quasi-isotropic and do not have a preferred direction [KOEN80, LIER02, SEN02, TOEN00]. Under the designation MCD, monocrystalline diamonds are applied in dressing technology that have been synthesised in the form of small rods. The advantage of MCD is that its geometry does not change with wear [COEL01, LIER02, TOEN00]. Depending on the orientation, the properties of only one crystal plain are dominant [KUCH03]. The dressing plate, like the single-grit dresser, is suited to producing simple shapes. Diamond material is arranged in a single plane in these tools. The plate is brought into contact with the grinding wheel tangentially in the peripheral direction, such that several diamonds are available to produce the desired wheel topography. Since the grinding wheel grinds into the at first straight-edged dressing plate and only produces a circular profile after several cycles, the dressing result changes in this phase. The dressing parameters have to be altered accordingly until a quasi-fixed state has been reached. The multi-grain dresser, on the other hand, possesses a spatial arrangement of diamond chips and allows higher dressing feeds due to the larger effective width. However, only flat surfaces can be dressed, and the dressing results are not exactly predictable.

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139

If no automatic dressing possibilities exist, manual dressing tools are utilized for the tool preparation of conventional grinding wheels. Operator safety can be endangered by manual interference with the rotating grinding wheel. Especially when preparing superabrasive grinding wheels, stationary dressing tools have the considerable disadvantage that only few diamonds engage with the grinding wheel. In this way, these tools are subjected to a large amount of wear, leading to shape defects in the grinding wheel surface. Therefore, stationary dressing tools are seldom used for dressing superabrasive grinding wheels.

6.1.1.2 Methods with Rotating Tools

Rotating dressing tools execute an additional rotational movement (Fig. 6-4). If the dressing tool has the negative profile of the grinding wheel, only a radial feed motion is necessary. Dressing rollers that do not engage across the entire wheel width require however a lateral feed.

rotating dressing tool profile roller

form roller

cup wheel vR vsd

vsd

vfad

vR

vR

vsd

vfad vfrd Fig. 6-4. Method kinematics – rotating dressing

rotating dressing tool profile roller

form roller

cup wheel

Fig. 6-5. Rotating diamond tools

Common rotating diamond tools for dressing grinding wheels are: • diamond profile rollers, • diamond form rollers and

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6 Grinding

• diamond cup wheels (Fig. 6-5).

Diamond cup wheels are preferred for dressing grinding wheels in batch production. Their area of application is however limited to straight profiles. For dressing grinding wheels with non-linear shapes, diamond profile rollers and diamond form rollers are more advantageous. Diamond profile rollers bear the negative profile of the grinding wheel. By a radial infeed frd the profile of the diamond roller is formed on the grinding wheel. Diamond profile rollers make possible a high level of reproduction precision in short amounts of dressing time. Due to their minimal flexibility, they are predominantly used in mass production. Diamond form rollers are, on the other hand, more flexible. The desired contour is produced on the grinding wheel under NC control. In this way, varying grinding wheel profiles can be created. The disadvantages are the larger mechanical effort and the longer dressing times of these dressing tools. For gear grinding, special dressing tools are employed, such as diamond dressing gears or diamond dressing discs (Fig. 6-6). For dressing grinding wheels for continuous gear grinding, sets of dressing discs and diamond profile rollers are the most often used tools [LIER03].

form roller

dressing discs

profile roller

pitch

gear wheel grinding wheel

angle dressing velocity flexibility Fig. 6-6. Dressing tools for grinding worms [LIER03]

Diamond dressing rollers can be produced in the positive method (the direct method) or the negative method (the reverse method) [MINK99, YEGE89]. In the case of the positive method, the diamonds are directly applied onto a profiled body. The grain density is average, the grain distribution is statistical and the geometrical surface shape is determined by the variation in diamond grit size. The negative method works with lost moulds which have the reverse profile of the dressing roller (Fig. 6-7). Hand-placed or randomset diamonds on the profile surface are bonded with each other galvanically or by means of infiltration methods and united with a base body. Since the diamonds are lined up with the specified profile of the negative mould, the amount of accuracy obtainable is preset by the negative mould.

6.1 Preparation

positive-processing

141

negative-processing

galvanic set in pattern

galvanic randomset

sintered set in pattern lost negative-form

Ni diamond wheel body

back-fill material

diamond wheel body

matrix

Fig. 6-7. Method for manufacturing diamond rollers [LIER03]

The selection of diamond specification, grit size and diamond pattern, considerably influences the result of the dressing [BRIN95, ELEM03, KLOC87, LIER02, ODON76]. For example, a profile roller can be supplied in the shoulder region with a cruder diamond grit size in lower concentration than the face, so that the dressing process produces a higher effective grinding wheel surface roughness in the shoulder region [TYRO03]. The danger of thermal stress can thus be avoided for shoulder grinding [KLOC87]. Of the greatest practical importance in the reverse (negative) method are diamond rollers with the highest possible packing density. The diamond grit sizes applicable are essentially determined by the concave profile areas of the negative mould. Methods with Non-Diamond Rotating Tools One method which is frequently employed because of its flexibility is profiling with silicon carbide grinding wheels. This method can be used for all dressable bond types and is especially popular for profiling diamond grinding wheels. The basic forming mechanism is based on the abrasive effect of silicon carbide on the grinding wheel bond. Here, the abrasive grains are not machined. Rather, it is primarily the grinding wheel bond which is removed so that the grains fall out and new sharp cutting edges are opened up. While dressing with a SiC-wheel, this is either slowed down or sped up. To produce the required profile the SiC-wheel is moved along a corresponding track. Beyond this, there is also the possibility of working with profiled SiC grinding wheels, in which case they are continuously dressed with a diamond roller. For profiling with silicon carbide grinding wheels, the low dressing tool costs are countered with long operating hours, which is why this dressing process can only be executed effectively for machining systems with low machine-hour rates [LIEB96, SPUR95, UHLM99]. Qualitative problems, such as loss of contour ac-

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curacy, appear because of the high wear of the SiC dressing tool [ARDE02, SPUR95a, WIMM95]. Further profiling methods, which also work without diamond grains, are the roll-2-dress method and profiling with long-chipping steel. In this case, we take advantage of the abrasive effect of steel on the wheel’s bond.

6.1.2 Sharpening Setting back the bond is designated as sharpening. After profiling with diamond dressing tools, the wheel surface can be significantly flattened, leaving insufficient chip space for swarf and cooling lubricant transport in the grinding process (Fig. 6-8. above). The sharpening process sets the bond back and thus creates the desired chip space (Fig. 6-8 below).

profiling

wheel topography after profiling

generation of grinding wheel profile

sharpening

wheel topography after sharpening

generation of micro-topography 100 μm Fig. 6-8. Topography alteration by means of sharpening

The sharpening process can take place directly after or during profiling or parallel to grinding. Conventional abrasives can be utilized in the process, either bonded in blocks or wheels or freely as a high-pressure jet aimed on the grinding wheel. A loose abrasive medium between the grinding wheel and a steel roller can also be used for sharpening. For sharpening metal-bonded diamond and cBN grinding wheels, chemical, electrochemical and spark-erosive methods are also employed. A simultaneous sharpening during profiling reduces dressing tool wear caused by the pressure and temperature stress resulting from simultaneous separation of grain and bond. By choosing various sharpening conditions, different grinding wheel topographies can be produced.

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143

Block Sharpening Block sharpening, in which a sharpening block is fed radially to the grinding wheel, is the most common sharpening method (Fig. 6-9, left). While in smallbatch production the grinding wheel is machined with a manually applied sharpening stone, firm clamping and a mechanical sharpening block feeding device is particularly necessary for peripheral grinding wheels in large-batch production.

methods of sharpening block sharpening

jet sharpening

vfSb αtd

hSb aSb vs

vs

Fig. 6-9. Sharpening methods

The specific sharpening material removal volume V’Sb and the specific material removal rate Q’Sb in relation to the grinding wheel width, as the prevalent variables of the block sharpening process, should be devised such that there is an optimal grain protrusion for the subsequent grinding procedure [KOEN84, SCHL82, STUF96]. The specific sharpening material removal rate V’Sb results from the height of the sharpening block hSb as well as the sharpening block infeed aSb as

V' Sb = hSb ⋅ a Sb .

(6.1)

The specific sharpening material removal rate Q’sb proportional to the sharpening block feed results accordingly amounts to

Q' Sb =

V' Sb = hSb ⋅ v fSb . t Sb

(6.2)

In the case of sharpening material removal rates that are too small, only small chip spaces open up in the grinding wheel layer and the grain protrusion is insufficient (Fig. 6-10, above) [SCHL82]. Cutting edge numbers on the grinding wheel circumference are correspondingly high, since only a few grains are loosened or liberated from the bond. Such a condition is expressed by the inflated grinding forces, especially at the beginning of the grinding operation (Fig. 6-10, below).

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6 Grinding

grain protrusion z*

Only during the grinding process, the bond material of the grinding wheel is set back far enough by the chips that the chip space necessary to accommodate the accumulating swarf is created. Sharpening material removal rates that are too high can lead to an uneconomically high amount of grinding wheel wear.

Q'Sb krit

grinding normal force Fn

Q'Sb krit

specific material removal rate in sharpening Q'Sb Fig. 6-10. The influence of the sharpening material removal rate on the grain protrusion and the grinding normal forces

grain protrusion z*

The required sharpening block material removal is reached when a quasistationary sharpening process sets in. At the beginning of the sharpening process, larger proportions of bond are machined. The thus initially high sharpening forces drop in the course of sharpening in a sequence of continual exposure of new grits. If the sharpening process has reached a stationary state, no further increase of the grain protrusion will take place (Fig. 6-11). Feeding the sharpening stone beyond this optimal infeed amount is not necessary [STUF96].

stationary process

specific material removal in sharpening V'Sb Fig. 6-11. Optimal sharpening material removal

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145

Fig. 6-12 left shows a cBN grinding wheel that, after the shape-giving profiling process, is not capable of grinding. The middle row illustrates a grinding wheel surface that is attained after a block sharpening process with comparatively mild sharpening conditions. The grits project with their cutting edges beyond the bond and are supported from behind by a bond backing that provides them a foothold during grinding. The right row illustrates the surface section of a grinding wheel which, for comparison, was sharpened with about double the feed rate vfSb and three times the corundum block volume V’sb. The bond in the direct vicinity of the grain is set back more, since the corundum particles dam up in front of the cBN grain and flow around its sides. This leads to an excessive weakening of the hold of the cBN grains in the bond, so that they fall out increasingly under the cutting force load. The loss of grain is expressed by an initially excessive wear of the grinding wheel. This high initial wear can be almost completely avoided by suitable sharpening conditions. view 1

2

grinding wheel

grinding wheel : dressing tool : sharpening block height : cutting speed :

B 252 KSS 10JA V240 diamond roller hSb = 25 mm vc = 90 m/s

view 1 100 μm

view 2 200 μm

view 2 200 μm

view 1 33 μm

view 1 100 μm

view 2 56 μm

profiled q d = -0.375 aed = 50 μm

sharpened Q'Sb = 400 mm³/mms aSb = 70 mm

sharpened Q'Sb = 710 mm³/mms aSb = 240 mm

Fig. 6-12. Sharpening a cBN grinding wheel

Jet Sharpening The principle of jet sharpening is illustrated in Fig. 6-9, right. A mixture of abrasive material, air and a medium (usually cooling lubricant) strikes against the

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grinding wheel layer under high pressure. A suitable jet angle of the hard steel nozzle is determined from the direction of rotation and cutting speed of the grinding wheel and from the exit speed of the sharpening jet. At unequal jet intensity across the width of the grinding wheel, the use of several fixed nozzles beside one another or one nozzle with lateral feed is required. Important parameters for jet sharpening are the volume and mass flow of the abrasive medium and the sharpening time that defines the supplied sharpening material volume. Free Grinding Especially for vitrified bonded grinding wheels, the chip space can often also be enlarged by so-called free grinding. The basic prerequisite for this is the selfsharpenability of the grinding wheel. In the free grinding process, the grinding wheel topography is adjusted to the demands of the subsequent grinding process by means of a gradual increase of the material removal rate. By means of this kind of multistage free grinding, the maximum achievable material removal rate Qw can be significantly increased without the danger of grinding wheel clogging. Removal Sharpening For metallically bonded grinding wheels, sharpening process that follow the principle of spark-erosion (EDM) and electrolysis (ECM) can be applied. Sparkerosion is based on discharge processes between the two electrodes grinding wheel and sharpening tool while using a non-conductive dielectric. Electrochemical removal includes the decomposition of the anodally polarised grinding wheel bond in a suitable electrolyte. The methodological principles are described in detail in “Manufacturing Processes Volume 3”. Even with large grit diameters, it is possible to create a sufficient grain protrusion beyond the bond level via chemical sharpening principles.

6.1.3 Further Dressing Methods – Special Methods

Dressing with Small Depths of Dressing Cut – Touch Dressing Grinding wheel topography influences the quality of the ground workpiece surface to a major extent. For example, individual grits projecting from the envelope of the grinding wheel bond lead to high workpiece roughness in the ground component. Such conditions can be observed especially in the case of single-layered, galvanically bonded cBN grinding wheels. The reason for this is to be found in a distribution of the selected grain size for the grinding wheel layer that is accept-

6.1 Preparation

147

able in certain areas. For example, according to the standard of the European Association of Abrasive Manufacturers (the FEPA standard), about ten percent cBN crystals with an average grain diameter of up to 227 μm may be contained in the standard granulation B 151. Such a grain size distribution leads to protrusion of individual cBN grains from the grain bond in the manufacture of single-layered, galvanically bonded cBN grinding wheels. These cBN grains form kinematic cutting edges during the grinding process and impress themselves correspondingly on the workpiece surface, causing a large amount of workpiece roughness which often does not correspond to the desired surface roughness. Dressing with very small depths of dressing cut, so-called touch dressing, makes it possible to level in particular grits lying exposed on the grinding wheel layer periphery. In this way we can obtain a workpiece roughness which is reduced according to the amount of dressing [HEUE92, STUC88, TREF94]. In order to exert the strongest possible normal force on the grain, so that it splinters, one often works with velocity relationships of qd ~ 1. Here, the individual depth of dressing cut is customarily in the range of 1 to 3 μm. projection of all static cutting edges of a galvanic bonded grinding wheel to a steel plate small steel plate Rtb

standard grain size B151 according to FEPA 227 μm 10 % 165 μm 90 %

Rtb aed grinding wheel body

Fig. 6-13. Touch dressing of cBN grinding wheels with galvanic bonds

Fig. 6-13 illustrates the principle of dressing with small depths of dressing cut with the help of a representation of the grinding wheel topography in a small steel plate. This method presumes an exact knowledge of the position of the dressing

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6 Grinding

tool with respect to the grinding wheel surface. For this purpose, so-called first contact control systems have been tried and tested, which can detect with high precision the first contact between a dressing tool and grinding wheel with the help of Acoustic Emission. After dressing the exposed grits of galvanically bonded grinding wheels, we obtain workpiece roughness values that are essentially stable, even with increasing specific material removal. The reason for this is in the high grain holding forces of the galvanic bond, by means of which only a minimal amount of grain breakaway from the grinding wheel layer takes place. With optimally designed grinding processes, single-layered grinding wheels wear out primarily from the formation of wear surfaces. As long as the grain protrusion is sufficient and the frictional heat produced does not lead to impermissible influence of the workpiece, the grinding wheels can be used; the surface quality improves and asymptotically approaches a boundary value at a constant specific material removal rate Q’w. For multi-layered superabrasive grinding wheels, a combination of normal dressing in the common sense with a collectively higher dressing amount and dressing with small cutting depths can be sensible (Fig. 6-14). Profiling with larger depths of dressing cut can become necessary, for example in the initial profiling of a grinding wheel, or if, within a machining cycle, a larger grinding wheel profile loss is allowed while high demands are placed on workpiece roughness. This kind of dressing can cause chip space reduction. In this way, an additional sharpening process becomes necessary. The second strategy of dressing with small cutting depths has the advantage that the chip space of superabrasive grinding wheels are not appreciably altered, so that, after the dressing process, additional sharpening of the grinding wheel layer is superfluous. Dressing with small depths leads to an improvement in workpiece roughness, which can be held within tolerant levels under frequent use. This is represented in Fig. 6-14, bottom. The duration between two successive dressing cycles depends on the tolerance width of the required workpiece roughness as well as the wear behaviour of the grinding wheel. In general, each dressing cycle take place in quicker succession in comparison with dressing with larger dressing amounts. Grinding with Continuous Dressing (CD) Working with materials that are hard to machine generally causes problems with respect to the lifetimes of the grinding wheels used and thus with respect to the performance of the grinding process. Large amounts of grinding wheel stress lead to increased grain breakaway, especially in the case of conventional grinding wheels. Grinding wheel wear, which appears in a short amount of time, leads to impermissible shape deviations in the grinding wheel and thus in the workpiece to be machined.

6.1 Preparation

149

workpiece surface Rtw

8 grinding wheel ds= 400 mm workpiece material S 6-3-2 (64 HRC)

μm 4 2 aed= 8 μm 0 1000

2000

mm³/mm

4000

grinding parameters ext. cylindrical plunge grinding Q'w = 23 mm³/mms vs = 90 m/s

specific material removal V´w 1. dressing cBN-grain

2. sharpening / run-in grinding process

grinding conventional dressing

defined state of wear

Touch dressing

aed Fig. 6-14. Dressing strategies for multiple-layered cBN grinding wheels

One method which is especially suitable for grinding materials that are hard to machine with high material removal rates in creep feed grinding is grinding with continuous dressing (CD) [ARCI91, HOFF96]. The conventional grinding wheels here utilised are constantly dressed during the grinding process with a diamond profile roller which is at least as broad as the grinding wheel. In this way, the shape of the grinding wheel is constantly regenerated, i.e. a high level of accuracy can be realised in the profile. Furthermore, new sharp grits are constantly exposed as the dressing progresses, promoting high material removal rates [PEAR79, SALJ84]. The dressing process constantly lowers the grinding wheel diameter due to the continuous feed movement of the dressing roller. In order to obtain a planeparallel workpiece surface in flat grinding as shown in Fig. 6-15, the reduction of

150

6 Grinding

the diameter of the grinding wheel can be compensated accordingly. The prerequisite for this is a precise control of the spindle and the dressing roller feed [UHLM82].

profile roller

radial feed rate of wheel 2 vfrd to compensate the depth of dressing cut

down 2 vfrd up

vR vfrd

vsd

grinding wheel

workpiece

ae

Fig. 6-15. The depth of dressing cut in continuous dressing

In the case of conventional creep feed grinding, the obtainable specific material removal rate depends heavily on the machined material volume, since, with increasing material removal rates, grinding wheel sharpness decreases from wear. Because of this, the maximum material removal rate becomes much lower. In the case of CD grinding on the other hand, due to the constant dressing of the grinding wheel during the machining process, the material removal rate is only depending on the dressable grinding wheel volume. A variation of CD grinding is discontinuous CD grinding. In this case, the grinding tool is dressed during grinding, but not continuously, but rather after certain time intervals. CD grinding competes in certain application cases with creep feed grinding with cBN grinding wheels. Which method and which abrasive is the most economical has to be determined with the help of profitability calculations for each particular case. Due to the high costs of the diamond dressing roller, which can only produce a certain grinding wheel shape respectively, grinding with continuous dressing is used almost exclusively in large-batch and mass production.

6.1 Preparation

151

Crushing A special case of dressing is crushing. The operating principle of crushing is based on the crushing of bond bridge when a certain force level on the grinding wheel coating is exceeded [DENN02]. This is achieved by pressing rollers on the grinding wheel layer without relative velocity (dressing speed ratio qd = 1). The crushing, effected by steel or carbide rollers, has been long known in thread grinding with conventional wheels [KLOC82]. Fundamentally, ceramic bonds and specially developed brittle metal bonds are suited to crushing. The method can also be employed for cBN and diamond grinding wheels if they exhibit the brittle bonds necessary for the process. In full crushing, the profile roller and the grinding wheel are aimed towards each other at equal peripheral speeds. The brittle bond bridges break under the pressure that builds up in the contact zone [MEYE81]. The high forces on the grinding wheel cause the shape of the crushing roller to replicate on the grinding wheel as a result of grain splintering and grain and bond breakaway. This method is only used in praxis to a limited extent [KAIS97]. One reason for this is that an unavoidable relative speed between the grinding wheel and the profile roller leads to high wear on the dressing tool and thus to profile loss. In point crushing, a carbide roller cuts the grinding wheel contour by numerical control. With a regulated dressing roller drive, the relative speed can be set to zero at every point of the grinding wheel profile [DENN02]. Kinematically Coupled Dressing In the case of so-called “milling dressing” or kinematically coupled dressing, a fixed rpm ratio is set between the grinding wheel and a diamond segment or PCD dressing roller [EICH97, MERZ94, SPIE92, WARN88]. For integral rpm ratios, the same areas of dressing roller and grinding wheel are always engaged. When segmented diamond dressing tools are used, geometrically precisely defined surface sections are formed on the grinding wheel. In the case of non-integral ratios, the surface section deviations are phase-delayed. Coupled dressing can also be carried out with statistically distributed diamond coatings. The depth of dressing cut is measured only once for the entire dressing amount, so that all dressing engagements take place in the same cutting edge depth. By stringing together several cycloidal engagement paths, a wave-like profile emerges on the grinding wheel circumference [EICH97, GRUE88, SPIE92]. High demands are placed upon rpm control. Methods involving Material Removal For metal-bonded grinding wheels, spark-erosive or electrochemical conditioning methods can be used. These methodological principles are described extensively in “Manufacturing Processes Volume 3”. Depending on the intensity of the spark-

152

6 Grinding

erosive or electrochemical material removal effect, these methods can serve either profiling or sharpening purposes [HARB96]. Dressing with spark-erosion is based on discharge processes between the two electrodes – the grinding wheel and the dressing tool – in a nonconductive dielectric. The grinding wheel is polarised as an anode, a numerically controlled wire or a profile block electrode as a cathode. During spark discharge, the bond is removed by means of thermal erosion. The superabrasive grits can be damaged by excessive impulse energies [TOEN75]. Spark-erosive dressing necessitates a high cost in apparatus for the isolation and power transmission on the grinding wheel and has yet to make a mark in industrial praxis [FALK98]. It must also be determined whether the dielectric can be used as a cooling lubricant for grinding or whether two separate fluid cycles are necessary [HARB96]. In the case of electrochemical material removal, the grinding wheel bond is polarized as an anode, confronted with the gap of an electrode and thus dissolved in an electrolyte solution. The gap width must be constantly supervised, since it determines the amount of dressing. The electrolyte solution which is produced presents difficulties in disposal, which is a disadvantage of the method [HARB96]. Hybrid methods such as electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM) can combine the advantages of electro-erosive and electrolytic material removal [SCHO01]. Laser conditioning used a tangentially arranged laser beam for profiling superabrasive grinding wheels [HOFF02, TIMM00]. The energy of the laser beam must be selected such that the cutting tool material is not damaged. All multilayered abrasive coatings can be dressed with this method. However, in the case of vitrified and metallic bonds, unevaporated material can remain on the grinding wheel, which has to be removed [HARB96, TIMM00]. Laser-conditioned grinding wheels exhibit the same process behaviour as those dressed by conventional means [HOFF02].

6.1.4 Cleaning The swarf produced by the grinding process can get fixed in the grinding wheel. This so-called clogging or loading of the grinding wheel leads to a reduction of chip space, so that less cooling lubricant can get access to the machining location. On the other hand, swarf removal from the contact zone is also hampered. Process temperatures and machining forces rise because of increased friction, from which both workpiece and grinding wheel are more heavily stressed mechanically and thermally. Increasing grinding wheel stress from clogged pore spaces can lead to more wear due to breakaway of entire grains or grain groups. We differentiate between three different clogging types: snarl chips, grit adhesions and layer chips.

6.1 Preparation

153

While snarl chips only get clogged in front of chip-forming cutting edges in the chip space in an isolated fashion, grit adhesions coat individual grains or groups of grains. The extensive expansion of grit adhesions amount to only a few grain diameters. Layer chips are larger particles that can cover large areas of the grinding wheel surface [LAUE79]. Clogging characteristics are influenced by the material being machined, the design of the grinding wheel, cooling lubricant supply and the grinding parameters. For example, clogging has been seen to be especially frequent in the machining of ductile steel materials, aluminium or titanium alloys. Several cleaning possibilities exist. Sharpening blocks can be used to remove clogging. A new dressing process also has a cleaning effect. A third possibility is the use of cleaning nozzles (see chapter 5).

6.1.5 Dressing Variables and Effective Mechanisms – The Influence of Tool Preparation on the Grinding Process The topography of the grinding wheel after tool preparation largely influences its cutting properties and thus its behaviour during the process as well as the output. By means of a precise guidance of tool preparation, the grinding wheel surface can be adjusted to the given requirements. For example, producing a rough topography is always recommendable when high cutting forces or an influence of temperature on the workpiece surface layer are to be expected, the cutting edge surface must exhibit a large chip space volume and there are no high demands placed on the surface quality of the workpiece. The decisive parameters are the dressing overlap ratio Ud, the depth of dressing cut aed or the dressing feed frd and the dressing speed ratio qd, which however is only a factor for rotating dressing tools.

6.1.5.1 The Dressing Overlap Ratio Ud

The dressing overlap ratio Ud is calculated for an axial movement of the dressing tool and indicates how closely the grooves created by the dressing tool on the grinding wheel surface adjoin each other (Fig. 6-16). In the case of larger overlap ratios, a smaller effective surface roughness is formed on the grinding wheel.

154

6 Grinding

fad < bd = Ud > 1

fad

aed

grinding wheel

Rts

bd

fad = bd = Ud = 1

fad > bd = Ud < 1

fad

aed

Rts

bd fad

aed bd

Rts

Fig. 6-16. The influence on the dressing overlap ratio on the grinding wheel surface roughness Rts

Simplified, the dressing overlap ratio Ud is determined as the quotient of the active width of the dressing tool bd and the axial feed fad:

Ud =

bd . f ad

(6.3)

The product of the dressing feed fad per grinding wheel revolution and the grinding wheel speed ns results in the axial dressing feed rate vfad.

v fad = f ad ⋅ ns

(6.4)

Since however it is not the entire effective width but only the engagement width apd that creates the profile, the dressing overlap ratio Ud has to be calculated as follows:

Ud =

with

a pd

(6.5)

f ad

a pd =

f ad + bd . 2

(6.6)

6.1 Preparation

155

The effective width bd of every dressing tool is contingent on the depth of dressing cut aed and can be determined metrologically. For diamond form rollers with a circular cross-section (Fig. 6-17), the effective width can be calculated from the profile rounding radius rp.

bd = 8rp ⋅ aed

(6.7)

The overlap ratio Ud can thus be described for form rollers by the following equation:

Ud =

2 ⋅ rp ⋅ aed f ad

+ 0,5 .

(6.8)

nR form roller vfad + rp aed apd bd

Rts

fad

grinding wheel

ns

Fig. 6-17. Kinematics of dressing with diamond form roller

Influence on the Grinding Process The influence of the overlap ratio on grinding forces, radial wear of the grinding wheel and surface roughness of the workpiece is represented in Fig. 6-18. After a dressing process with high overlap ratios, the grinding wheel exhibits a low effective surface roughness with a large number of grits and little grain protrusion. In the grinding process, an equal amount of material is removed by a larger number of momentary cutting edges in smaller chips. In the case of higher dressing overlap ratios, grinding forces are determined by two opposing effects. Lower individual chip thicknesses lead to lower cutting forces at each cutting edge. Because of increased friction and the larger number of cutting edges, the particular forces add up to a larger total grinding force.

6 Grinding

radial wear Δ rs

average surface roughness Rz

specific tangential force F't specific normal force F'n

156

grinding wheel A 60 K - 8 V

4

F'n

N 2

workpiece material Ck 45 N

F't

1

dressing parameters

0

dressing plate

12

aed = 30 μm

μm

effective profile:

6 3

bd

0

25 μm

aed 105 μm

grinding parameters Q'w = 1 mm³/mms

8 μm 4

V'w= 400 mm3/mm

2

vc= 45 m/s

0

q= 60 2

4 6 overlap ratio Ud

8

10

ta= 10 s

Fig. 6-18. The influence of the overlap ratio on process parameters and the dressing output

It is not the amount of total cutting forces which is decisive for grinding wheel wear, but the stress and stability of each cutting edge. For this reason, the radial wear of a crudely dressed wheel is larger in spite of a lower total cutting force value. This is due to the higher engagement forces at the individual grain. The large cutting edge numbers created by a high overlap ratio and the low effective surface roughness of the grinding wheel have a positive effect on the average surface roughness of the workpiece. The reason for this is that material removal is distributed across a larger amount of active cutting edges at otherwise constant conditions. The typical progression of the relations represented in Fig. 6-18 leads to the conclusion that there is a maximum overlap ratio which is sensible. An increase beyond this value does not change the surface quality of the workpiece, but it does increase the dressing time unnecessarily. This maximum practical overlap ratio depends on the respective grinding wheel specifications. All dressing tools wear as a function of the respective settings, the dressed grinding wheel volume, the grinding wheel specifications and the wear resistance

6.1 Preparation

157

effective profile of dressing tool bd

of the dressing tool itself. The effective width alteration of a dressing tool as a function of the dressing volume is shown in Fig. 6-19.

2.0 dressing param. mm

vsd = 60 m/s single-grain diamond

1.0

active profile for Vsd = 0 cm³

0.5

aed bd

0

800

1600

cm³

3200

dressing volume Vsd

105 μm 25 μm

Fig. 6-19. Effective width alteration with a monocrystalline diamond

After a heavy increase in wear of the monocrystalline diamond, which is very sharp when new, its effective width grows constantly with increasing engagement time. This leads by necessity to a change in the overlap ratio and thus to altered grinding wheel process behaviour. For a constant dressing output, the dressing overlap ratio must remain unchanged. In the case of multi-edged dressing plates and multi-grain dressers, more or less heavily fluctuating effective width behaviour can manifest itself. The cause for such erratic change in effective dressing width is the breakaway of individual diamond grains or needles from the dresser. However, by an appropriate design of the diamond specification and pattern, this effect can be successfully countered.

6.1.5.2 The Dressing Speed Ratio qd

One important variable in dressing with rotating dressing tools is the dressing speed ratio qd, defined as the ratio between the peripheral speed of the dressing roller and the peripheral speed of the grinding wheel, as shown in equation 6-9. For down dressing, this value is positive, for up dressing it is positive.

qd =

vR vsd

(6.9)

From the superimposition of dressing roller and grinding wheel rotation, the dressing diamonds roughly describe cycloidal paths. In both down and up dress-

158

6 Grinding

path in radial direction of grinding wheel

ing, the length of the engagement path of the dressing diamond grain into the grinding wheel increases with a diminishing dressing speed ratio (Fig. 6-20). The effective angles are flatter at smaller speed ratios qd. The effective paths in down dressing have steeper flanks in principle [STUF96]. down dressing

10 μm 6 qd = +0.8 4 2 qd = +0.6 0 10 μm 6 4 2 0 -6

dS = 400 mm

qd = +0.4

dR = 150 mm

qd = +0.2

diamond grain path of engagement

up dressing qd = -0.6 qd = -0.8

qd = -0.4

grinding wheel

qd = -0.2 -4

-2

0

2

4

mm

8

path in grinding wheel circumferential direction

Fig. 6-20. Effective paths of a diamond grain during dressing [STUF96]

The speed ratio qd thus exerts considerable influence on the effective surface roughness of the grinding wheel. Up dressing produces less grinding wheel roughness, while down dressing with an increasing speed ratio (towards qd = +1) leads to an increasingly coarse grinding wheel topography. This relation is represented in Fig. 6-21. The initial effective surface roughness Rtso of the grinding wheel shows a characteristic behaviour as a function of the variables speed ratio qd and dressing feed frd [SALJ81, SCHE73, SCHM68]. For a speed ratio qd = 1, crushing, the initial effective surface roughness reaches a maximum. The grinding wheel structure is smashed in the external layers by the high pressure. For a stationary roller (qd = 0) the diamond grains create surface markings that do not overlap in the axial direction. An increase in initial effective surface roughness is the result. These conditions are practically insignificant. If a rough grinding wheel topography is required, one should always use down dressing at ca. qd = 0.8. Down dressing generally offers the most extensive possibilities for kinematic influence on grinding wheel behaviour (Fig. 6-21). However, it necessitates rigid dressing systems, as the dressing forces are high.

effective surface roughness Rtso

6.1 Preparation

159

grinding wheel A 60 K - 8V

15

dressing parameters diamond roller (D = 700/ 7.5) μm

vsd = 30 m/s frd = 0.7 μm

5 frd = 0.5 μm down dressing

0 1.0

0.5 0 dressing speed ratio qd

up dressing -0.5

-1.0

Fig. 6-21. Influence of dressing speed ratio and dressing feed on grinding wheel surface roughness [SCHM68]

6.1.5.3 The Depth of Dressing Cut aed

The depth of dressing cut aed is used for stationary dressing tools and diamond form rollers. It acts directly upon the dressing chip thickness. At higher depths of cut, the initial effective surface roughness of the grinding wheel increases along with the dressing forces. For dressing cBN and diamond grinding wheels, which are highly resistant to wear, in comparison to conventional grain types, markedly smaller depths of dressing cut aed are utilised. The most important reason for this, besides high grinding wheel cost, is the high amount of stress on the dressing tool when dressing such grinding wheels. Thus, when dressing superabrasive grinding wheels with diamond form rollers, depths of dressing cut of aed = 5 μm are recommended. Dressing with a small depth of dressing cut aed leads to a grinding wheel topography with a low effective surface roughness [SCHU96]. The larger amount of bond on the grinding wheel surface results in a higher grinding normal force directly after dressing. A larger depth of dressing cut aed generally leads to a shorter run-in grinding process with smaller grinding forces. For profiling with a diamond form roller, we distinguish between a pressing and a pulling cut as a function of the cutting direction and the resultant stress on the dressing tool, Fig. 6-22. The dressing cut is designated as pulling if the angle between the dressing roller radius and the dressing feed direction is smaller than or equal to 90°. A pressing dressing cut results when the angle is larger than 90° [SCHU96].

160

6 Grinding

dressing roller feed direction

grinding wheel contact length, pushing cut

grinding wheel contact length, pulling cut

Fig. 6-22. Engagement kinematics in both pressing and pulling dressing cuts [SCHU96].

Chip removal functions differently in both of these engagement conditions. At equal path speeds, there are higher local cutting depths in the pulling cut with a correspondingly high load on the dressing roller. From this there results a higher amount of dressing roller wear in the pulling cut. The dressing form roller wears irregularly along its profile, since, on the one hand, the stresses between pulling and pressing cuts are different and, on the other hand, the working point migrates on the form roller profile.

6.1.5.4 Radial Dressing Feed frd

Increasing the dressing feed frd during roller dressing leads, analogously to external cylindrical plunge grinding, to a higher dressing material removal rate. Because of this, the resultant grinding wheel effective surface roughness and dressing forces increase. In Fig. 6-23, the influence of dressing feed on the grinding forces as well as on workpiece roughness is shown for a process with continuous dressing. By varying the dressing speed ratio qd in down and up dressing, we also show its varying influence on the dressing output and thus on the grinding process. Up dressing the grinding wheel leads to high grinding forces, but also to improved surface qualities on the workpiece. Workpiece roughness improves with increasing ratios of dressing speeds in up dressing. The reason for this is that the grinding wheel layer is dressed with a lower effective surface roughness with increasing relative speed between the dressing roller and the grinding wheel. Due to enlarged grinding wheel effective surface roughness, increasing the dressing feed leads to lower cutting forces, from which results a reduction of the required grinding effort. Therefore, a grinding wheel dressed with a higher dressing feed at otherwise constant grinding conditions leads to lower grinding process temperatures, which reduces the risk of thermal damage to the workpiece surface. Workpiece roughness gets worse however with increasing dressing feed, so that an

6.2 Parameters

161

average surface roughness Rz

additional smoothing process has to follow the roughing process when the requirements on surface quality are high. 8

workpiece material S 6-5-2

μm

grinding param. ae = 0.1 mm

4

vw= 2000 mm/min

specific tangential force F't specific normal force F'n

24

16

dressing param. qd = -0.8 qd = -0.4 qd = +0.4

12

qd = +0.8

N/mm

specific normal force F'n

8 4

specific tangential force F't

0 0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

μm

1.2

dressing feed frd Fig. 6-23. The influence on the dressing feed and the dressing speed ratio on the grinding forces and workpiece roughness in grinding with continuous dressing

In the case of continuous dressing, an increase in dressing feed with otherwise constant variables has a negative effect on the cost efficiency of the machining process, since grinding wheel consumption increases at equal machining times. However, with a grinding wheel with a larger effective surface roughness, due to the thus realisable lower cutting forces and temperatures, the machining performance can be enhanced without damaging the workpiece surface to an unallowable extent.

6.2 Parameters With the help of parameters or characteristics, grinding processes can be generally described independently of the grinding method used. For a methodologically comprehensive comparison of various grinding strategies, various process parameters were generated, which will be described in the following. Process parameters offer the grinding technician the possibility of comparing various methods and interpreting the output in order to make changes in the variables for the sake of process optimisation. The introduction of numerically con-

162

6 Grinding

trolled (NC) machine tools has also inspired increasing interest in parameters. Process control systems require sensors that pick up measurable parameters during the grinding process, e.g. cutting forces or power. The most important parameters for grinding can be subdivided into input, process and resulting parameters as in Fig. 6-24 [KASS69, MESS83]. Input parameters describe the geometry and kinematics of the grinding process. Among these are those of tool and workpiece form and movement as well as quantities that describe the system, such as cooling lubricant type and supply. Grinding process

Input parameters system machine

type property

geometry material

grinding wheel geometry specification

dressing tool

type supply

depth of cut

cutting mechanisms

workpiece feed rate cutting speed

dressing

type specification

cooling lubricant

parameters

speed

workpiece

variables

thermal mechanical

wear mechanisms mechanical thermal chemical

coolant

pressure flow rate

technology workpiece accuracy of shape/ dimension surface quality damage of the surface layer

grinding wheel

wear clogging

Efficiency

conditions

Result

disturbances

vibrations temperatures

quantities manufacturing costs

Fig. 6-24. The relation between input variables and the result

Material Removal and Material Removal Rate In the following, parameters will be introduced which characterise the grinding process. Material removal Vw describes the amount of workpiece material removed in the grinding operation. When grinding cylindrical components, the material removal Vw is calculated as a function of the diameter of the unfinished part dwA, the final diameter dwE and the grinding length lw.

Vw =

π 4

⋅ (d wA ² − d wE ² ) ⋅ lw

(6.10)

During grinding, often only a small stock allowance z (relative to the diameter) is removed, so that for small values of z the relation

6.2 Parameters

Vw = π ⋅ d w ⋅

z ⋅ lw 2

163

(6.11)

can be used as a simplification. Accordingly, the material removal for flat grinding is calculated as a function of the grinding length lw, the grinding width bs eff and the total depth of cut ae tot, resulting in

Vw = bs eff ⋅ lw ⋅ (hwA − hwE ) = bs eff ⋅ lw ⋅ ae ges .

(6.12)

In praxis, material removal is often related to the width of the active grinding wheel profile in order to obtain a parameter independent of the initial width and to improve comparability of experimental results. The specific material removal V’w is defined as:

V ´w =

Vw . bs eff

(6.13)

The material removal rate is defined as the volume of material removed per time unit, thus corresponding to the differential quotient of material removal and time. Assuming a constant material removal rate Qw over time, by integration follow

Qw =

dVw V → tc = w . Qw dt

(6.14)

For instance, for external cylindrical plunge grinding we obtain

Qw = π ⋅ d w ⋅

z ⋅ a p = π ⋅ d w ⋅ v fr ⋅ a p 2 ⋅ tc

(6.15)

and for external cylindrical longitudinal grinding

Qw = π ⋅ d w ⋅

z z ⋅ lw = π ⋅ d w ⋅ ⋅ v fa . 2 ⋅ tc 2

(6.16)

In order to compare different processes, we relate the material removal rate Qw to the effective width of cut bs eff, thus obtaining the specific material removal rate Q´w.

164

6 Grinding

Q' w =

Qw bs eff

(6.17)

In the case of external cylindrical plunge grinding, the following is valid under consideration of the radial feed rate vfr, which corresponds to the quotient of stock allowance and grinding time:

Q 'w = π ⋅ d w ⋅ v fr = ae ⋅ vw with

v fr = ae ⋅ nw and vw = π ⋅ d w ⋅ nw .

(6.18)

Analogously for surface grinding:

Q' w = a e ⋅ v w .

(6.19)

Wear and the G-ratio The grinding wheel wears from various stresses during the grinding process. The grinding wheel wear volume

Vs = Vsr + V sk

(6.20)

is calculated as the sum of the radial wear volume Vsr and the edge wear volume Vsk, for which is approximately valid:

Vsr = π ⋅ d s Asr

(6.21)

and

Vsk = π ⋅ d s Ask .

(6.22)

If the radial wear is not compensated during grinding, it will bring about a dimensional fault. Edge wear effects the accuracy of the workpiece’s shape. Both types of wear can determine the lifespan of the grinding wheel and thus necessitate dressing of the grinding wheel. The amount of dressing then generally corresponds to the radial edge wear Δrsk. Analogously to the material removal rate, it follows for the wear volume flow

6.2 Parameters

Qs =

dVs . dt

165

(6.23)

For Vsr, the following applies:

dVsr = π ⋅ d s ⋅ dAsr = π ⋅ d s ⋅ bs eff ⋅ drs

Qs = π ⋅ d s ⋅ bs eff ⋅ Δr&s with

drs = Δr&s . dt

(6.24)

(6.25)

In this, Δr&s is the radial wear speed of the grinding wheel and bs eff is the active grinding wheel width. Just like the material removal and material removal rate, we relate the grinding wheel wear volume and the wear volume flow to the width of the grinding wheel profile:

Vs′ =

Vs and bs eff

(6.26)

Qs′ =

Qs . bs eff

(6.27)

The grinding ratio G is a popular parameter for describing the tool lifespan:

G=

Vw . Vs

(6.28)

It is the ratio of machined workpiece and worn grinding wheel volume. Contact Length The geometrical contact length lg describes with high approximation the engagement arc between the tool and the workpiece. In equation 6.29, besides the equivalent grinding wheel diameter, the tool’s depth of cut is also a factor.

l g = a e ⋅ d eq

(6.29)

166

6 Grinding

The equivalent grinding wheel diameter deq is a parameter used to compare the engagement conditions of various grinding techniques (Fig. 6-25). It takes into consideration that in the external cylindrical grinding, surface grinding and internal cylindrical grinding varying contact conditions develop despite equal depths of cut [STEF83].

real contact conditions

external cylindrical grinding ds

ds ae

dw

dw ae

lg

dw= oo

d d deq= w s dw + ds transformed contact conditions

internal cylindrical grinding

surface grinding

lg

deq= ds

ds

ae

ds

lg

deq=

dwds dw - ds

ds ds ae

dw=oo l g

lg, external cylindrical

ae

ae dw=oo

<

dw=oo

lg

lg, surface

<

lg

lg, internal cylindrical

Fig. 6-25. Contact conditions for various grinding methods

The parameter deq corresponds to the grinding wheel diameter in surface grinding, in which the contact conditions would be the same as in the method selected. The equivalent grinding wheel diameter

d eq =

dw ⋅ ds dw ± ds

(6.30)

is influenced both by workpiece and tool curvature. In the denominator of the equation, the positive sign is valid for external, the negative for internal cylindrical grinding. According to the definition, the equivalent and actual grinding wheel diameters coincide during surface grinding (deq = ds). The kinematics of the grinding process changes as a function of the speed ratio q, which relates the grinding wheel peripheral speed and the workpiece speed [GROF77]. The kinematic contact length lk takes into consideration that every abrasive grit moves on a cycloidal path relative to the workpiece. In up cylindrical grinding, this is negligibly longer than the geometrical contact length and can be approximated with:

6.2 Parameters

⎛ 1⎞ lk = ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ ⋅ l g q⎠ ⎝

with

q=

vs . vw

167

(6.31)

The calculation of the geometric contact length proceeds from ideally even bodies. If we consider the average surface roughness Rz of the workpiece, which must be compensated with a correspondingly increased depth of cut (Rz + ae), we obtain the effective geometrical contact length

l eg =

(Rz + ae ) ⋅ d eq

(6.32)

and, accordingly, the effective kinematic contact length

⎛ 1⎞ lek = ⎜1 + ⎟ ⋅ leg . ⎜ q ⎟⎠ ⎝

(6.33)

For speeds usual in praxis, the difference between the geometric and kinematic contact lengths is slight, and therefore it is not absolutely necessary to distinguish between them. Cutting Edge Number, Chip Thickness and Chip Cross-Sectional Area In the contact area between the tool and the workpiece, there is always a multitude of cutting edges engaging simultaneously, so that material removal emerges as sum of many individual cuts. Fig. 6-26, above, is a simplified representation of a cut perpendicular to the rotation axis of a grinding wheel whose circumference is engaged. All grits protruding from the bond are static cutting edges, the area between the cutting edges is the cutting space or chip space. Since one grain can certainly have several cutting edges, the distance between the static cutting edges does not coincide with the distance of the individual grains. To characterise the cutting space structure (grinding wheel topography), we do not as a rule use the cutting edge distance shown in Fig. 6-26, but rather its reciprocal value, i.e. the number of cutting edges per unit of length (Sstat). Further parameters are the number of static cutting edges per grinding wheel surface unit (Nstat) and the static cutting edge density (Cstat) per volume element of the cutting space. By superimposing the movements of the grinding wheel and the workpiece, we obtain the cutting edge paths in the material. Only part of the cutting edges protruding from the bond, the kinematic cutting edges, take active part in material removal. The amount of kinematic cutting edges Skin is as a rule less than that of static cutting edges [STEF83].

168

6 Grinding

bond

4 5 cutting edge

S8

pore

grain

S7

1

2

3

S6

S4 S3

S5

S2

S1

workpiece

Lstat 78

Lstat 67

Lkin4

Lstat 56

Lkin 3

Lstat 45

Lstat 34

Lkin 2

Lstat 23

Lstat 12

Lkin 1

static cutting edges: S1 to S8 kinematic cutting edges: S2, S3, S5, S7, S8

Lstat: static cutting edge distance Lkin: kinematic cutting egde distance

Fig. 6-26. Static and kinematic cutting edge numbers

The number of kinematic cutting edges Nkin per mm2 of the grinding wheel circumference can be calculated from the relation

N kin

β ⎛v ⎞ = AN ⋅ C1 ⋅ ⎜⎜ w ⎟⎟ ⎝ vs ⎠

α

α

⎛ a ⎞2 ⋅⎜ e ⎟ ⎜ d eq ⎟ ⎠ ⎝

(6.34)

Equation 6.34 shows that the number of kinematic cutting edges increases with higher feed velocities. At a constant specific material removal rate Q´w, we now obtain from equation 6.35 the average number of cutting edges momentarily engaging

N mom [KOEN71, KOEN80a, PEKL57, ZEPP05].

N mom =

1 ⋅ N kin ⋅ l g ⋅ a p 1+ α

(6.35)

If we consider the case of surface grinding, at a constant specific material removal rate Q´w, constant grinding wheel diameter ds and constant cutting width, we obtain from the geometric contact length lg the relation in equation 6.36. The exponent α is set at α = 1/3 for the following calculations according to the literature [KASS69, PEKL57, WERN71]. For increasing table feed velocities vw, we now obtain a decreasing average number of cutting edges momentarily engaging

N mom .

6.2 Parameters

1

N mom

1

169

1

3 ⎛ Q' ⎞ 6 ⎛ d s ⋅ Q'w ⎞ 2 1 β ⎛v ⎞ w ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ a p = ⋅ AN ⋅ C1 ⋅ ⎜⎜ w ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ 1+ α ⋅ v v d v w ⎝ s⎠ ⎝ w s⎠ ⎝ ⎠

(6.36)

1

⎛ 1 ⎞3 N mom ~ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎝ vw ⎠

(6.37)

The maximum undeformed chip thickness is a measure for stress on the cutting edge. For single-grain cutting, i.e. if we consider a grinding with only one grain, the chip thickness can be approximated as follows [WERN71].

hcu, max ≈ 2 ⋅ π ⋅ d s

vw vs

ae ds

(6.38)

In the case of peripheral milling, i.e. material removal with geometrically defined cutting edges, due to the equal cutting edge distance L and the equal distance of the cutting edges of the tool rotation axis, the engagement conditions are always the same assuming a homogeneous material structure. In the grinding process however, they vary because of random cutting edge distribution and form. Statistical methods are therefore necessary for a consideration of material removal behaviour. The geometry of the cutting edge engagement in grinding is described by the statistically averaged maximum undeformed chip thickness hcu max and the average chip length lcu. If we extend equation 6.34 from single-grain to multiple-grain cutting and additionally consider the statistical cutting edge density Cstat, we obtain according to Kassen and Werner [KASS69, WERN71] α

hcu, max

β

γ

⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ vw ⎤ ⎡ ae ⎤ ≈ k⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ . ⎣ Cstat ⎦ ⎣ vs ⎦ ⎣ d s ⎦

(6.39)

However, the meaningfulness of both parameters lcu and hcu is limited by the fact that they were derived under ideal kinematic conditions. Since the cutting edges not only remove material, but also deform it, neglecting the mechanisms of chip formation and material behaviour is very noticeable for small depths of cut. The total chip cross-sectional area Acu, tot in a multiple-grain cut is the result of the sum of the chip cross-sectional area Acu of the individual grains or the quotient of the material removal rate Qw and the cutting velocity vc.

170

6 Grinding

Acu,ges =

N mom

∑A

cu,i

=

i =1

Qw vc

(6.40)

Calculation of the chip cross-sectional area Acu presumes a knowledge of the chip thickness hcu, max, which is generally obtained by means of equation 6.39. In the following calculations, we assume an isosceles triangle with the characteristic angle χ as the basic grit form perpendicular to the cutting direction, from which we obtain the general dependence by inserting equation 6.39 in equation 6.41 [WERN71, ZEPP05]. 2 Acu = hcu ⋅ ⎛⎜ hcu ⋅ tan χ ⎞⎟ = hcu ⋅ tan χ ~vw 3 2⎠ 2 ⎝ 1

(6.41)

12

1.2

10

1.0

8

0.8

6

0.6

4

0.4

2

0.2

cutting edge number ratio Nmom(vw ) / Nmom(vw,0)

spec. chip cross-sectional area Acu (vw) / Acu (v w,0)

From this results the progression shown in Fig. 6-27 of the relative chip crosssectional area at the single grain Acu. The latter increases degressively with rising feed velocities. In contrast to this the number of cutting edges momentarily engaging Nnom diminishes exponentially with increasing feed velocities.

0 0

50

100 m/min table speed vw

grinding parameters Q‘w = 30 mm³/mms vc = 125 m/s grinding wheel ds = 400 mm α = 1/3 reference value vw,0 = 600 mm/min

200

Fig. 6-27. The dependence of the relative chip cross-sectional area and cutting edge number ratio on the feed rate

Grinding Force, Grinding Power and Grinding Energy During grinding, a spatially directed force engages at every cutting edge. If we add up the vector sum of all simultaneous cutting forces Fci, we obtain the cutting force Fc:

6.2 Parameters

n r r Fc = ∑ Fci .

171

(6.42)

i =1

It is composed of three components:

r r r r Fc = Ft + Fn + Fa .

(6.43)

The behaviour of the normal force can be explained with the kinematic parameters [WERN71]: lg

F'n = ∫ k ⋅ Acu (l ) ⋅ N kin (l ) ⋅ dl .

(6.44)

0

According to the equation (6.44), the normal force based on the width of the active grinding wheel profile bs,eff is the product of the local chip cross-sectional area Acu and the kinematic cutting edge number Nkin integrated along the contact length lg. The axial force Fa is directed parallel to the grinding wheel rotation axis. The tangential force Ft engages in the peripheral direction of the grinding wheel. From the normal force Fn acting radially upon the grinding wheel we can infer machine and workpiece deformation. The quotient of the tangential force and the normal force is defined as the cutting force ratio [STEF83, VITS85]

μ=

Ft . Fn

(6.45)

It is used to characterise the friction conditions in the contact zone between the cutting edges and the workpiece and is a measure for the cutting ability of the grinding wheel and the effectiveness of material removal. But it should not be confused with Coulomb’s friction number μ. Sharp grains lead to lower normal forces and thus to a higher cutting force ratio μ. Grinding experiments have shown that as a rule grinding forces at constant material removal rates decrease with increasing feed velocities. This is ascribed to the fact that with increasing feed velocities, chip cross-sectional areas also increase (equation 6.41) and the grain cutting depth is reached faster. With this, chip formation starts earlier and the amount of elastically and plastically deformed material is reduced [KOEN79a, ZEPP05].

172

6 Grinding

The cutting power Pc is directly proportional to the tangential force Ft [LOWI80]:

Pc = Ft ⋅ v c .

(6.46)

It is a component of the total power

r r P = F ⋅ v + Pl ,

(6.47)

in which is included the feed and idle load power as well. For better comparability of various grinding widths, the forces and powers described are also related to the width of the active grinding wheel profile bs eff. A further power parameter often used to describe grinding processes is the grinding power P´´c based on the contact area. Since the geometrical contact lengths reduce at constant specific material removal rates Q´w and with increasing feed velocities, i.e. decreasing depths of cut, for pendulum and speed stroke grinding processes we obtain smaller contact areas (A = ap · lg) between the grinding wheel and the workpiece than in creep feed grinding operations. The result is an increase in contact area-based grinding power P´´c with diminishing depths of cut.

P'' c =

F' t ⋅ vc F' t ⋅ v c = lg d s ⋅ ae

(6.48)

As opposed to contact area-specific grinding power, area-specific grinding energy reduces with increasing table feed velocities at constant material removal rates. Area-specific grinding energy describes the flow of energy into the component based on one area element. The paths of the curves above the table feed velocities are represented in Fig. 6-29.

E'' c =

F' t ⋅ vc vw

(6.49)

A further parameter of the description of grinding energies is the specific grinding energy ec, which is required for the material removal of a volume element of a component.

ec =

Ft ⋅ vc F' t ⋅ vc = Qw Q' w

(6.50)

6.2 Parameters

173

How the various paths of grinding powers and energies affect temperatures in the component surface layer during grinding will be described – independently of material – in the following. Grinding Temperatures The by far largest amount of mechanical energy introduced to the process is converted to heat during grinding. This heat is then conducted away by chips, cooling lubricant, the grinding wheel and the workpiece. Depending on the process conditions, the amount of heat flow into the workpiece amount to up to 85 % [MARI77, LOWI80, MALK89, TOEN92, BRIN95a, et al.]. The percentile heat flows into the particular components involved in the grinding process are characterised as • • • •

Rw (partial heat flow into the workpiece), Rs (partial heat flow into the grinding wheel), Rsp (partial heat flow into the chips) and Rkss (partial heat flow into the cooling lubricant).

According to Rowe, the following applies overall [ROWE91, ROWE95, ROWE96, ROWE97]:

Rw + Rs + Rsp + Rkss = 1 .

(6.51)

From the standpoint of a reliable grinding operation with minimal tool wear and high component quality, an effective heat diversion via cooling lubricant and chips is advisable. Thermal relations have already been described in numerous experimental and theoretical models. It has been demonstrated that high feed velocities have an advantageous influence on component surface temperatures [KASS69, BRAN78, KOEN79, et al.]. This will be explained further in the following by means of the calculation of heat and temperature balances. The basis for calculating surface temperatures during grinding was contributed by the approach of CARSLAW and JAEGER [CARS21, JAEG42, CARS59]. 2l vw

qw

x z

semi infinite body

Fig. 6-28. Model of a heat source in motion adapted from JAEGER [JAEG42]

174

6 Grinding

The two-dimensional temperature distribution is obtained from equation 6.52. X +L

2 ⋅ qw ⋅ α ⋅ ∫ e − u ⋅ K 0 ⋅ (Z 2 + u 2 )0.5 ⋅ du T(X,Z) = π ⋅ k ⋅ vw X − L

(6.52)

whereby qw : heat flow into the workpiece α: temperature conductivity, whereby α = k/(ρc) k : heat conductivity K0 : modified Bessel function of the second kind, zeroeth order as well as

X=

vw ⋅ x , 2⋅α

(6.53)

Z=

vw ⋅ z , 2⋅α

(6.54)

u=

v w ⋅ (x-x 0 ) . 2⋅α

(6.55)

Since, due to the high complexity of the integral, a large amount of calculation is required to solve this relation [KATO00], an approach of TAKAZAWA is selected here. It established the relation in formula 6.51 by developing an approximation formula of the integral term [TAKA66, TAKA72].

Tz, max =

with

L=

−0 . 37 2 ⋅ qw ⋅ α ⋅ 3.1 ⋅ L0.53 ⋅ e − 0.69⋅ L ⋅ Z π ⋅ k ⋅ vw

vw ⋅ l g 4⋅α

.

(6.56)

(6.57)

By means of equation 6.56, both the maximum temperatures at the component surface as well as in defined depths z beneath the workpiece surface can be calculated. A precise statement of whether, or to what extent, temperatures drop with increasing table feeds can however not yet be made, since the heat flow into the workpiece qw is contingent on the table feed. It results from [ROWE88]:

6.2 Parameters

qw = R w ⋅ qt

with

175

(6.58)

qt = P''c =

F't ⋅ vc . lg

(6.59)

The heat flow into the workpiece qw can accordingly be reduced by lessening the total heat flow qt and/or the heat distribution factor Rw. The factor Rw can be determined with the help of the approach in equation 6.60 [HAHN62, SHAW90, ROWE 97, ROWE01, STEP03]. If we further transform the relation formulated here, we will obtain the ratio of tool and workpiece heat distribution factors Rs/Rw (equation 6.61), which, inserted into equation 6.51, makes possible the determination of Rw and Rs.

⎡ 0.97 ⋅ k g Rw = ⎢1 + Rws = Rw + Rs ⎢⎣ k w ⋅ ρw ⋅ cw ⋅ r0 ⋅ vs

Rs = Rw

0.97 ⋅ k g k w ⋅ ρw ⋅ c w ⋅ r0 ⋅ vs

−1

⎤ ⎥ = ( 1 − Rkss − Rsp ) ⎥⎦

(6.60)

(6.61)

with kg : kw : ρw : cw : r0 : Rkss :

heat conductivity of abrasives heat conductivity of material material density specific heat capacity of material contact radius grit/workpiece heat distribution factor (percentaged heat flow in cooling lubricant) heat distribution factor (percentaged heat flow in chips). Rsp : The factor Rkss depends via equation 6.62 especially on the contact length lg and the specific grinding energy ec [STEP03]. In the case at hand, a dry grinding process with Rkss = 0 is assumed.

R kss =

(Tkss − T0 ) ⋅ hkss ⋅ l g

with Tkss:

e c ⋅ Q' w

(6.62)

cooling lubricant temperature in the contact zone (corresponds to the evaporation temperature of the cooling lubricant)

176

6 Grinding

T 0: room temperature (20°C) heat transfer factor hkss : The heat transfer factor Rsp (partial heat flow into the chips) is generally calculated with equation 6.63 [STEP03].

R sp =

ρ w ⋅ c w ⋅ Tsp

(6.63)

ec

The dry grinding processes, that is, without considering cooling lubricant, we obtain with equations 6.51 to 6.63 at constant specific material removal rates Q´w and constant cutting speeds vc the relation in equation 6.64.

3.1 ⋅ R w ⋅ F' t ⋅ v c Tmax (z = 0 ) = 2⋅π ⋅k

⎛ 4⋅α ⋅⎜ ⎜ Q' ⋅ d w s ⎝

⎞ ⎟ ⎟ ⎠

0 .47

⋅

1 vw

0 .235

(6.64)

1.0

20

0.8

16

0.6

12

0.4

8

0.2

4 0

0.0 0

50

100 m/min table speed vw

200

rel. contact area based grinding power P''c(vw) / P''c(vw,0)

rel. area based grinding energy E''c(vw) / E''c(vw,0)

rel. surface temperature T(vw) / T(vw,0)

Equation 6.64 shows the favourable influence of increased table feed velocities on component surface temperatures. Neglecting material behaviour, an increase in feed leads directly to a drop in temperature on the component surface (z = 0). Fig. 6-29 shows in addition that the path of surface temperatures largely correlates with the path of area-based grinding energies. Area-based grinding energies can thus be called upon for an initial estimation of the temperature stresses of ground components at varying feed velocities. Energy-related considerations show the positive influence of high table feed velocities with respect to reduced thermal component stresses during grinding. grinding parameters Q‘w = 30 mm³/mms vc = 125 m/s Qkss = 0 l/min grinding wheel ds = 400 mm α =⅓ reference value vw,0 = 600 mm/min

Fig. 6-29. Dependence of the relative surface temperature, the relative area-based grinding energy and the contact area-based grinding power on the table speed [ZEPP05]

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

177

Further Parameters The equivalent chip thickness

hcu eq =

Q' w vs

(6.65)

is an important link between the input, process and resulting parameters. It corresponds to the thickness of a theoretical chip, which is machined from the entrance of a certain cutting edge into the workpiece until its exit. The cutting edge is, for a period of time

t k eq =

lg

(6.66)

vs

engaging with the workpiece. If we add all the engagement times of a cutting edge, we then obtain the equivalent total contact time n

t k eq ges = ∑ t k eq i ,

(6.67)

i =1

which can be used to describe the wear processes of the grinding wheel.

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

6.3.1 Introduction Machining processes of workpieces with grinding wheels is fundamentally distinguished according to DIN 8589, or ISO/ DP 3002/ V. Subdivision is carried out with serial numbers (ON), which are currently in seven figures and describe each method according to its systematics. Proceeding from the upper division ”separation” in manufacturing processes, we have the further subdivision “machining with geometrically undefined cutting edges” (ON 3.3) right up to “grinding with rotating tools” (ON 3.3.1). Further subdivision within each particular method takes place in accordance with Fig. 6-30. Here, we distinguish each method according to its type, the surface to be machined, the working face used and the type of feed motion [DIN78a].

6 Grinding

3.3.1.3 screw grinding 3.3.1.4 gear grinding 3.3.1.5 profile grinding 3.3.1.6 form grinding

7. ...1 longitudinal grinding

...2 side grinding

3.3.1.2 cylindrical grinding

6.

...1 peripheral grinding

3.3.1 (DIN 8589-11) grinding with rotating tools

3.3.1.1 surface grinding

5.

...2 internal grinding

position of serial number 3. 4.

...1 external grinding

178

...2 plunge grinding ...3 angle grinding ...4 free form grinding ...5 form grinding ...6 kinematic form grinding ...7 NC form grinding ...8 continuous gear shape grinding ...9 discontinuous gear shape grinding

Fig. 6-30. Classification of methods for machining with grinding wheels in accordance with DIN 8589 [DIN78a]

„external cylindrical peripheral 3.3.1. 2. 1. 1. 1. longitudinal grinding“

bs

longitudinal grinding peripheral grinding external grinding

vs vfa

cylindrical grinding

vw ae ap Fig. 6-31. An example for the allocation of serial numbers (SN)

For example, in the case of external cylindrical peripheral longitudinal grinding with ON 3.3.1.2.1.1.1, the grinding wheel’s peripheral surface engages with the outside of the round workpiece and the feed direction of the grinding wheel goes alongside the workpiece rotation axis (Fig. 6-31).

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

179

Particular processes can be further classified in addition to the seven-digit serial number. This includes distinctions in down and up grinding, pendulum and creep feed grinding as well as the case of rotation-symmetrical workpieces, whether the latter are machined between centres or are mounted without centres. The grinding operation is characterised by a continuous material removal which results from the coaction of cutting and feed movements. The feed movement can itself be composed of several, kinematically coupled movements. In the case of some methods, there is also a motion for depth setting, which determines the thickness of the layer to be removed ahead of time. The depth setting motion can be conceived as incrementally executed components of a feed motion. In Fig. 6-32, cutting motions are characterised by the cutting speed vc, the workpiece speed vw and the main feed velocities in the axial, radial and tangential directions vfa, vfr and vft. The feeds in these three directions are labelled in accordance with the indexes fa, fr and ft. The grinding wheel engagement is characterised by the depth of cut ae and the feed/cut width ap. From these parameters, the material removal rate Qw, which is a parameter for the material volume removed per time unit, can be calculated. Fig. 6-33 gives an overview of the calculation formulae for the various grinding methods. For peripheral plunge-grinding methods, after calculating the material removal rate Qw and subsequent division by the width of the active grinding wheel profile bs eff, we obtain the specific material removal rate Q´w. The parameter specific material removal rate Q´w allows for a comparison, disregarding particular methods, of the temporal material removal independent of the width of the grinding wheel profile used. Fundamentally, a specific material removal rate Q´w is calculable for other methods as well, whereby this parameter is contingent on the respective local, active width of the grinding wheel profile being used and the appertaining depth of cut ae. The grinding wheel width bs in external cylindrical peripheral longitudinal grinding, for example, does not correspond with the local active grinding width bs eff of the grinding wheel roughing zone. The determination of the specific material removal rate Q´w requires exact knowledge of the geometry of the grinding wheel profile and the feed movements active in the contact zone.

180

surface

external cylindrical internal between centres

centreless bs

peripheral plunge grinding

vs

ap vw vr

vfr

bs peripheral traverse grinding

vs vfa

side plunge grinding

ap vw

vr

rotation

6 Grinding

Fig. 6-32. Methodological overview of typical grinding methods

cylindrical

Q‘w=

Qw bs eff

between centres

vfr=ae•nw

centreless Qw=1/2 π•dw•vfr•bs d nw =nr • d r w

Qw=π•dw •vfr•ap

Qw=vw•ap•ae

Qw=vw•ap•ae vw= π•dw•nw

vfr=ae•nw

vfr=ae•nw

vfr=2•ae•nw

dwa-dwi =bs eff 2

ap=bs=bs eff

ap=bs=bs eff

ap=bs=bs eff

ap=bs=bs eff

ap=

Qw = π•dw•vfa•ae

Qw=π•dw•vfa•ae

Qw = π•dw•vfa•ae

Qw=vw•ap•ae

Qw=ae•ap•vw

vfa=nr•π•dr•sinαr

vfa = ap•nw

ap=bs eff

ap = bs eff

peripheral longitudinal vfa = ap•nw grinding ap = bs eff Qw=π•dw•vft•ap side plunge grinding

rotation

internal

Qw=π•dw•vfr •ap peripheral plunge grinding

surface

external

vw= π•dw•nw

ap=bs eff

vfa ap= n =bs eff w

Qw=ae•bw•vfa

Qw=vw•ap•ae vw= π•dw•nw

vft=ae•nw

ae=bs eff

bs eff not defined

181

dwa-dwi 2 vfr ap= n =bs eff w ae=

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

Fig. 6-33. Calculation formulae for the material removal rate

cylindrical

Qw=ae•ap•vw

182

6 Grinding

6.3.2 External Cylindrical Grinding

ext. cyl. periph. longitudinal grinding between centres

centreless plunge grinding

centreless throughfeed grinding

main feed direction normal to the machined surface

main feed direction parallel to the machined surface

guidance of machined surface

ext. cyl. periph. plunge grinding between centres

guidance of workpiece axis

External cylindrical grinding is primarily used for machining rotation-symmetrical workpiece contours and is subdivided by the type of workpiece positioning and main feed directions (Fig. 6-34).

Fig. 6-34. External cylindrical peripheral grinding

In the case of external cylindrical grinding between centres, the workpiece is clamped in frontal centring components and impelled by means of a workpiece driver. If only small tangential forces appear during grinding, as it is the case for external cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding, then the drive can also occur in a frictionally engaging manner by means of a frontal driver. In centreless grinding on the other hand, the workpiece is positioned on its circumference and driven by the grinding or control wheel. Whether the primary feed directions are orthogonal or tangential to the surface produced is the distinguishing characteristic between external cylindrical peripheral plunge and longitudinal grinding.

6.3.2.1 Between Centres

Here, we must differentiate between two methods. In external cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding (infeed grinding), the grinding wheel is arranged normally to the workpiece rotation axis, while in external cylindrical peripheral longitudinal grinding the grinding tool is moved equidistantly to this axis. Both grinding methods generally work with up grinding. In up grinding, the vectors of grinding wheel

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

183

peripheral speed vs and workpiece peripheral speed vw are directed in opposition of each other in the grinding contact zone. Up grinding is advantageous here because, due to the flatter grain engagement trajectories (see Chapter 2.2), improved surface finish can be achieved. Furthermore, in up grinding, the area of the contact zone is better supplied with cooling lubricant, in which the surface is generated. Yet this effect is in this case not as pronounced as in flat grinding and diminishes with decreasing depths of cut ae. External Cylindrical Peripheral Plunge Grinding External cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding, also called external cylindrical infeed grinding, is utilised for machining bearing carriers, shaft cranks and grooves. Fig. 6-35 shows the schematic arrangement of the grinding wheel, workpiece spindle and the dressing spindle as well as the axes and the direction for the feed setting. The infeed can be subdivided into several process phases, which are distinguished by the fact that, with each further phase, there is a smaller specific material removal rate. During spark-out, no radial infeed setting takes place. In this way, shape errors attributable to deformations caused by machining forces, can again be partially balanced out. Furthermore, by lessening the machining rate towards the end of the process, we can improve the surface quality. x-axis grinding spindle grinding wheel

dressing spindle

z-axis

dressing roller feed motion

workpiece

roughing finishing fine-finishing sparking out workpiece spindle

Fig. 6-35. Machine design in external cylindrical peripheral grinding

In order to guarantee consistent quality in batch production, a measuring device is often employed, which measures the workpiece in the x- and y- direction before grinding in order, for example, to determine exactly the position of the cylinder to by ground as well as the adjacent shoulder. By doing this, the radial safety measure can be reduced, which saves time and lessens the danger of collision with the

184

6 Grinding

abutting shoulder. Fig. 6-36 shows a photograph of an external cylindrical grinding machine for peripheral plunge grinding.

grinding wheel

calliper

centers for clamping

dressing system

Fig. 6-36. External cylindrical grinding machine from the Junker company

One variant of cut-in grinding is angle cut-in grinding. High plane shoulders and peripheral areas can be produced in one infeed by means of an angled grinding wheel rotation axis, Fig. 6-37 [GOER86]. With this manufacturing method, there are clear time advantages in comparison with straight infeed grinding. In particular, the angled position of the grinding wheel in contrast infeed grinding reduces the grinding contact length on the plane shoulder, reducing the danger of thermal structural damage. The advantages are most evident in processing shaft crank with considerably varying diameters, which are machined with a wide grinding wheel or a set of grinding wheels. Cutting speed differences, which appear in straight infeed grinding when machining these components, can be balanced out to the greatest extent by setting the grinding wheel at an angle. Infeed with a wide set of grinding wheel, where all functional areas are machined simultaneously, is a highly productive, yet also very inflexible method. With such a disc set, often only a single geometry can be produced. This method is therefore only practical with a certain batch size. Because of the wide grinding wheel making contact, strong forces take effect, so that, besides the workpiece de-

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

185

flection, one must also be mindful of workpiece drive with high torque. Especially when machining thin, slender components, the use of a steady rest is necessary in order to avoid impermissibly high deformation of the workpiece due to machining forces. grinding wheel grinding wheel

external cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding

external cylindrical peripheral angle grinding

Fig. 6-37. External cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding with straight and angled infeed [GOER86]

For external cylindrical infeed grinding with a straight infeed, material removal volume is calculated as follows:

Vw =

π

(d 2

2

w0

)

− d w ⋅ bs eff 2

(6.68)

For a small grinding measure z, which as a rule is in the realm of a few tenths of a millimetre and is very small with relation to the workpiece diameter, the calculation formula (6.46) can be simplified to:

Vw = π ⋅ d w

⋅

z ⋅ bs eff 2

(6.69)

Here it is irrelevant whether the unfinished or finished component diameter is used for dw. If we divide the material removal volume Vw by the width of the active grinding wheel profile and relate the result to the cutting time tc, we obtain as a parameter the specific material removal rate Q´w with

vfr =

z to: 2 tc

186

Q' w =

6 Grinding

π ⋅d

w

⋅

z

2 ⋅ tc

= π ⋅ d w ⋅ v fr = π ⋅ d w ⋅ a e ⋅ n w = a e ⋅ v w

(6.70)

For angle infeed grinding, the specific material removal rate can be determined in the same manner, whereby large differences in workpiece contour diameter must be taken into consideration in the calculation. External Cylindrical Peripheral Longitudinal Grinding External cylindrical peripheral longitudinal grinding between centres is used to manufacture cylindrical and conical workpieces, if the workpiece length to be machined is much larger than the grinding wheel width. The main field of application of this grinding technique is in machining print cylinders, cylinders for paper manufacture and for steel mills. In this technique, the grinding wheel moves along the workpiece, which is clamped between centres. At the reversal points, the feed motion occurs normal to the workpiece surface. After the transition into the feed motion with the set speed, one side of the grinding wheel comes into contact with the workpiece (Fig. 6-38). grinding spindle

z-axis

grinding wheel

dressing spindle

dressing roller x-axis path

workpiece

workpiece spindle

Fig. 6-38. A machine design for external cylindrical peripheral longitudinal grinding

Generally, it is possible to remove the total allowance in only one grinding stroke, designated as peel grinding, or in several strokes. These variants are distinguished in a manner similar to deep and pendulum grinding in the case of flat grinding. Especially appropriate for this are grinding wheels with particularly

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

187

wear-resistant grain materials like cBN, since in this case the stress on the grinding wheel edge is much higher than in pendulum grinding with only small radial depths of cut. Fig. 6-39 shows an external cylindrical grinding machine for peripheral longitudinal grinding.

grinding spindle

workpiece spindle

grinding wheel

workpiece (roll)

Fig. 6-39. An external cylindrical grinding machine from Buderus Schleiftechnik

As a result of grinding wheel wear, a step-shaped wear profile is formed that is characteristic for external cylindrical peripheral longitudinal grinding [WUEN92]. This causes the width of the roughing zone to get constantly larger. The width of the spark-out zone bsa diminishes correspondingly. In some applications, the grinding wheel is already shaped with a roughing zone geometry during the preparatory stage. In this way, a roughing zone which changes in an unregulated way at the start of the process is avoided. The transition between the roughing and spark-out zones can sometimes be executed with an additional finishing zone. Fig. 6-40 illustrates the various zones of a grinding wheel for the external cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding of cylindrical workpieces. In zone A, the roughing zone, the largest amount of material is removed. The workpiece surface created in this area is grinded again in the subsequent workpiece rotation. The influence of this zone on the workpiece surface finish is thus minimal. A sufficiently large chip space and a high grinding wheel effective surface roughness and the main requirements on the grinding wheel roughing zone. The finishing zone (B)

188

6 Grinding

has only a small width, which usually corresponds to the feed af. Here, residual material is removed and the workpiece surface is created to a large extent. A high cutting edge number with minimal chip spaces is advantageous for this purpose. Theoretically, in the spark-out zone (C), no more material removal takes place. By means of the smoothing of the roughness peaks which occurs here, the surface quality is improved. A large amount of active grain cutting edges as well as flattened abrasive grains are advantageous for this [HEGE98].

A

B

C

Fig. 6-40. Generating the workpiece surface for roughing zone (A), finishing zone (B) and sparkout zone (C) [HEGE98]

The conditions of engagement in external cylindrical peripheral longitudinal grinding are influenced to a great extent by the geometry of the grinding wheel roughing zone, Fig. 6.41. With a cylindrical grinding wheel profile with a straight roughing zone, for each workpiece rotation a ring-formed element with the height of the cutting depth ae and the width of the cutting width ap is removed. The unworn grinding wheel has a roughing zone width of bss, which corresponds to the cutting width ap. The specific material removal rate Q´w is calculated generally from the quotient of the material removal rate Qw and the effective grinding wheel width bs eff (Fig. 6.41), resulting in

Q' w =

Q w π ⋅ d w ⋅ n w ⋅ a e ⋅ a p π ⋅ d w ⋅ a e ⋅ v fa = = . bseff bseff bseff

(6.71)

Since the effective grinding width bs eff is equal to the cutting width ap, we obtain for the specific material removal rate

Q' w = π ⋅ d w ⋅ n w ⋅ a e .

(6.72)

In the case of straight roughing zone geometries, the specific material removal rate is independent on the axial feed rate vfa. The latter results from the cutting width ap and the workpiece rotational speed nw, resulting in

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

v fa = a p ⋅ n w .

(6.73)

bs

grinding wheel

bs

z/2

ae

ae,eff

bs,z

specific material removal rate: Q‘w = π·dw·nw·z/2

grinding wheel

α

nw

I Q‘w

af

dw

af

dw

z/2

workpiece

189

Q‘w,eff

II

III

IV

nw

workpiece

specific material removal rate: area II for tan α < z/(2·a) : Q‘w,eff = π·dw·nw·af·tan α

Fig. 6-41. Engagement relations in the machining of cylindrical geometric elements with straight and conical roughing zone geometries [HEGE98]

For a conical roughing zone, this is many times larger than the cutting width ap. The roughing zone width bss is computed with the allowance z and the profile angle α, yielding

z . b = ss 2 tan α

(6.74)

In the case of identical machine parameters, stress on the conical roughing zone is less than that on a straight roughing zone, since material removal is distributed across a larger grinding wheel width. The conical roughing zone is subdivided into three areas (Fig. 6-41). In area I, the specific material removal rate Q´w increases linearly. Then there is an approximately constant specific material removal rate (area II). In area III, the specific material removal rate drops in the direction of the finishing zone back to zero. In area II, the depth of cut ae is linked with the cutting width ap by the profile angle a, resulting in

190

6 Grinding

a e = a p ⋅ tan α .

(6.75)

The effective grinding wheel width bs eff is equal to the cutting width ap in the case of a conical roughing zone as well. The specific material removal rate Q´w in area II thus results as

Q 'w = π ⋅ d w ⋅ nw ⋅ ae = π ⋅ d w ⋅ nw ⋅ a p ⋅ tan α .

(6.76)

The specific material removal rate of the conical roughing zone is thereby contingent on the cutting width ap and thus also on the axial feed rate vfa. Lessening the grinding time by increasing the axial feed rate thus leads directly to more grinding wheel stress. The advancement of wear progresses through the constant grinding wheel wear in area II equidistant to the initial contour. At constant workpiece allowance z, the roughing zone width increases with a falling profile angle a. With this, the specific material removal rate Q´w is reduced. However, since the roughing zone geometry changes its form due to wear and, according to the particular application, other roughing zone geometries can become involved, the specific material removal rate is not effective for comparing and evaluating longitudinal grinding processes. Instead, the material removal rate is used:

Qw = π ⋅ d w ⋅ ae ⋅ v fa .

(6.77)

The machining time is directly proportional to the feed rate. One can only increase the feed however within certain limits, since, on the one hand, the overlap ratio decreases with increasing feed, while on the other hand, the grinding process becomes unstable at high feeds and tends to clatter. With a linear contact between the grinding wheel and the workpiece, for the overlap ratio of the spark-out zone Ua with the spark-out zone width bsa and cutting width ap comes we obtain

Ua =

bsa bsa = . ap fa

(6.78)

Technique-specific difficulties in external cylindrical grinding with a fixed workpiece often result from workpiece mounting. If one works between fixed centres, a faultless workpiece concentricity is only possible when both the centres as well as the workpiece centrings are designed properly. An unsymmetrical material distribution can lead to undesired displacements, especially at higher workpiece rotational speeds. Problems are common when grinding long, slender workpieces,

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

191

which, because of high cutting forces during roughing, deflect so much that there are still formal defects even after smoothing and spark-out [WUEN92]. Especially in the case of slender components with high dynamic flexibility, regenerative chattering can occur on the workpiece side [ALLD94]. When grinding between centres, the selection of workpiece drive also has a decisive influence on possible form errors and process stability. If the drive torque is not transferred to the workpiece by the driver free of shear forces, the workpiece can shift. This can lead to altered engagement conditions in the grinding contact zone and to deviations from the circular form. External Cylindrical Form Grinding External cylindrical form grinding is a technique variant of external cylindrical peripheral longitudinal grinding. By overlaying the main axial feed movement with an additional radial feed movement, under NC operation, various rotationsymmetrical workpiece geometries can be produced. The goal of this technique is to finish grinding the workpiece in one clamping. For this purpose, the entire grinding allowance is removed in one overrun (peel grinding). Due to high grinding wheel stress, highly wear-resistant grinding wheels with diamond or cBN grains are used primarily [BILD93]. External cylindrical form grinding with grinding wheels of superabrasive grain materials is a high-performance grinding technique. By using slim grinding wheels with a width in the range of 5 mm, a high flexibility is obtained with respect to the producible workpiece contour [KOEN93a]. Moreover, the advantages of high-speed technologies can be exploited. In this way, a good quality surface finish is attainable, even at high material removal rates.

vfr ns vfa grinding wheel workpiece

nw

Fig. 6-42. Methodological characteristics of external cylindrical form grinding [HEGE98]

192

6 Grinding

In comparison with external cylindrical profile grinding, in which the grinding wheel profile is formed from the workpiece, different workpiece contours can be manufactured with one grinding wheel profile in external cylindrical form grinding. Non-productive times, which occur in profile grinding because of protracted dressing cycles, disappear to a great extent in external cylindrical form grinding. The longer grinding times, caused by removal of the workpiece contour, are disadvantageous in the case of external cylindrical form grinding. Due to its flexibility, this method is especially suited to small batches. The kinematics of external cylindrical form grinding is shown in Fig. 6-42. The feed motion comprises the axial feed rate vfa and the radial feed rate vfr. Proceeding from the methodological principle of peel grinding, the methodological variants of external cylindrical form grinding shown in Fig. 6-43 were developed in the mid-1980s. In the case of the technique variants with skewed axis-arrangement, the socalled “quick-point” technique, the grinding wheel axis is pivoted by small angles around the x-axis. This adjustment results in a reduced contact surface between the grinding wheel and the workpiece. Because of the low grinding forces, a workpiece driver is generally not required [KOEN93a]. external cylindrical form grinding

high performance external cylindrical form grinding - parallel axes

peel grinding with angular axis - swivelled around x-axis

face peripheral grinding -Swivelled around y-axis (B-axis)

Fig. 6-43. Variations of external cylindrical form grinding [HEGE98]

Fig. 6-44 shows different component contours producible with external cylindrical form grinding. When machining cylindrical contours with a grinding wheel profile that is also cylindrical, with a corresponding choice of parameters, one element of the workpiece surface can be ground several times. With multiple

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

193

grindings, no more material removal takes place in the rear area of the grinding wheel, and the described effect of spark-out with smoothing of the roughness peaks begins. High over-grinding numbers lead to improved surface quality [WUEN92]. By means of NC-controlled feed movement, plane shoulders, bevels or concave/convex shapes can be manufactured with one grinding wheel profile. When machining concave or convex profiles, there is usually a very small contact surface between the grinding wheel and the workpiece. Since, as a consequence, high over-grinding numbers cannot be reached by a spark-out zone in these areas, the feed must be reduced correspondingly (Fig. 6-45). By reducing the feed in these areas, the flexibility of the method is “bought” by reducing the material removal rate.

cylinder

cone

plane shoulder

concave profile

chamfer

convex profile

Fig. 6-44. Manufacturable contours for external cylindrical form grinding

a fr

a fa

Fig. 6-45. Engagement relations in the machining of conical workpiece elements with a cylindrical grinding wheel geometry and rounded roughing zone [HEGE98]

194

6 Grinding

6.3.2.2 Centreless Grinding

Among cylindrical grinding techniques, centreless methods have an exceptional position with respect to their process structure and area of application. Centreless grinding’s main area of use is in large batch and mass production. While the workpiece is led during grinding between centres in its rotation axis, its position in centreless grinding is determined by a three-point positioning between the grinding wheel, control wheel and workrest plate. The component is simultaneously conveyed to its peripheral area and machined. Since the material removal process corresponds to that of other cylindrical grinding methods, we concentrate in the following on only method-specific features. Like grinding between centres, centreless grinding is also subdivided according to the orientation of the main feed direction. In centreless plunge grinding (external cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding), the grinding wheel is moved radially towards the workpiece. With these technique kinematics, rotation-symmetrical parts can be produced, for example, bearing carriers of camshafts, valve tappets, jet needles, rotor axes and ball studs. In centreless throughfeed grinding (external cylindrical peripheral longitudinal grinding), the workpiece is moved in the direction of the grinding wheel rotation axis. This technique is a typical mass production process of components with cylindrical, conical or spherical working surfaces. Working examples are bars, bolts, axles and roller bearing elements. The grinding and control wheels as well as the workrest plate can be arranged horizontally, vertically or angularly, whereby the horizontal design is the most common (Fig. 6-46) [SLON56]. When grinding heavy workpieces, the horizontal construction leads to a high friction momentum on the workrest plate and low pressure force on the control wheel. The rotation speed of the workpiece cannot be controlled as well as a result. In order to avoid this, the grinding and control wheels can be arranged at an angle. In this way, part of the workpiece weight force is deflected to the control wheel, so that the normal force on the workrest plate is diminished. The friction momentum is reduced and the workpiece is brought to rotation faster. In the vertical design, besides the high pressure force between the workpiece and the control wheel already mentioned, a favourable supply and removal of heavy workpieces is ensured [HOFM78, WENN75]. Besides the primary methods of plunge and throughfeed grinding, there are also many other component-specific technique variants and machine constructions, for example, combined transverse and plunge grinding, face grinding, centreless internal cylindrical grinding, which we wish merely to point out. The advantages of the above-mentioned methodological principles of centreless grinding in comparison with cylindrical grinding are evident: • the linear support of the workpiece makes it possible to machine flexible and brittle workpieces with high material removal rates, i.e. with large grinding forces and minimal deformations.

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

195

• the workpiece does not need to be clamped, eliminating potential fault sources caused by clamping and reclamping. • workpiece loading is easy to automate. In throughfeed grinding, a continuous feed is customary, eliminating workpiece loading times. • in throughfeed grinding, parts can be machined that well exceed the grinding gap length. • when the machine is carefully adjusted parallel to its axis and the dressing processes are adapted correctly, centreless grinding processes can achieve circular and cylindricity errors of <1 μm. Depth of cut errors due, for example, to grinding wheel wear or thermal warpage directly influence the workpiece diameter. When grinding between centres, diameter-related component errors due to radius alteration are twice as large.

GW

GW

g

CW

horizontal

x1 g

WP

x1

vertical GW CW WP g x

CW

x2

= grinding wheel = control wheel = workrest plate = gravity = feed

WP

GW

g

x2 CW

diagonal

x1 x2 WP

Fig. 6-46. Tool arrangements in centreless grinding machines

The grinding gap is defined by the configuration of the workpiece, grinding wheel, control wheel and workrest plate. Fig. 6-47 shows the motion relations that are valid in principle for both plunge and throughfeed grinding. The position of the workpiece is statically determined by contact with the grinding wheel, workrest plate and the control wheel. Linking the grinding wheel and control wheel centres defines the reference line to which the workpiece centre is offset upwards (above-centre grinding) or downwards (below-centre grinding) (Fig. 6-48). The distance between the connection lines of the grinding and control wheel centres and the workpiece centre is designated as the altitude h or centre height h. Since in established machine concepts the control wheel unit is often adjustable in height, the altitude can by all means deviate from the vertically meas-

196

6 Grinding

ured workpiece height. Depending on the manufacturing task at hand, a sub-centre setting can be advantageous with respect to process stability. Tangent angles are defined as the angles that encompass the contact tangents of the workpiece at the grinding/control wheel with the perpendicular.

γ workpiece vw Fns γs vs

Fts

h Fnr

. β

Ftr

grinding wheel

Fta

Fna

vr

γr

workrest plate

control wheel

Fig. 6-47. Nomenclature for the description of the grinding gap

grinding wheel rs

control wheel

γ

γr

. γs h<0

rw

rr

γ rs rw

workrest plate

grinding gap arrangement „below centres“

γs grinding wheel

h>0 . γr

workrest plate

control wheel

rr

grinding gap arrangement „above centres“ Fig. 6-48. The grinding gap arrangements “above centre” and “below centre”

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

197

For plunge grinding, the grinding wheel tangent angle γs and the control wheel tangent angle γr are calculated as

γ s = arcsin(

2h ) ds + dw

(6.79)

γ r = arcsin(

2h ) dr + dw

(6.80)

The sum of both of these angles corresponds to the tangent angle γ

γ = γs +γr

(6.81)

The control wheel must slow down the workpiece during the grinding process. Except for a small amount of slipping, the peripheral speed of the control wheel vr thus corresponds to the workpiece peripheral speed vw, which has similar values to those in cylindrical grinding between centres. Centreless techniques typically involve down grinding. In order to create the necessary force transmission by friction between the workpiece and the control wheel, a control wheel specification of fine-grained corundum in a rubber bond with a closed structure is often selected. The workrest plate (also called support or work rest blade) is engaged frictionally with the workpiece. It must be wear-resistant, since wear leads to component shape and misalignment errors. For this reason, carbide supports or coated running surfaces (e.g. with PCD coatings) are used. For small batches, workrest plates made of tool steel or grey cast can also be used. The inclination angle β is defined as the helix angle at the workpiece support surface to the horizontal. Since in machining flexible workpieces only a little space remains in the grinding gap between the wheels, the workrest plate must often be very narrow. It is thus the weakest link of the grinding gap in the flux of the machine. Designing the workrest plate in a way which meets stress requirements is thus extremely important, because workrest plate vibrations spread directly to the grinding process, leading to dynamic instabilities and component faults. Furthermore, the support surface should, in accordance with the friction angle, be so inclined in contact with the workpiece that the force on the workrest plate is directed in the normal direction as much as possible and in the tangential as little as possible, so that no bending load occurs. The process forces effective at the three contact locations of the workpiece in the grinding gap are analysed into their normal and tangential components. In consequence, these are designated with tangential force (Ft...) and normal force (Fn...) at the grinding wheel (...s), control wheel (...r) or workrest plate (...a). In through-

198

6 Grinding

feed grinding, axial forces answer the purpose of workpiece transport, and in plunge grinding, they serve to fix the workpiece in the grinding gap. Roundness Errors in Centreless Grinding The simultaneous bearing and machining of the workpiece lateral surface can lead to roundness errors typical of the process that develop as polygons on the workpiece circumference. The model of the workpiece clamped in the grinding gap (Fig. 6-49) shows that the contact zone properties at the grinding wheel, control wheel and workrest support are crucial for a stable process. control wheel

grinding wheel Fys cs

cr

Fxs

Fxr ks

kr

ns ca Fya

ka β

nr

Fyr workpiece Fxa

system boundary workrest plate Fig. 6-49. Model of the workpiece clamped in the grinding gap [FRIE04, SCHR71]

Several causes of roundness errors in centreless grinding can be differentiated [FRIE04, FURU70, KLOC04]: • Geometric instability From the machining of the component alone and independently of process parameters, roundness errors form on the component surface as a result of its engagement with the grinding wheel and its positioning at the control wheel and workrest support. • Machine-dynamic instability The grinding machine has different resonance ranges that can lead to regenerative chattering by means of process-contingent stimuli (for example, a choppy workpiece, imbalance, etc.). With the help of modal analyses common today, these frequency ranges can be detected and avoided in the actual process. • Instability induced by the material removal process Especially material removal rates that are too high can lead to undesirable vi-

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

199

bration of the grinding system because of excessive force actions, on the workrest plate for example. As a result, the workpiece depth of cut changes periodically, leading to components that are not round. For integral rpm ratios of grinding wheel and workpiece rotation, cylindrity deviations arise because it is always the same grinding wheel and component areas that make contact. Further influences are discontinuous depth setting motions caused by the infeed device, inhomogeneities in the workpiece material, variances in spindle rotation speeds, wear formations, system flexibility, friction, differences in hardness in the grinding tools and dressing conditions. • Separately excited vibrations, external disturbances External disturbance variables include surrounding temperature or separately excited vibrations transmitted by the equipment foundation. They too have an essential influence on the formation of component shape errors, as in any machining process. The workpiece circumference is never formed exclusively as the result of one instability. It is always an interaction of several types of vibration types and causes that interact with each other and merge into each other [FRIE04, KLOC04, KOEN72, KOEN82, KOEN84, SLON56]. In the following, we will go into detail into the geometrically caused circular form errors characteristic of the centreless grinding process. Roundness Deviation as a Result of Geometrical Instability Under consideration is the grinding gap arrangement shown in Fig. 6-50. When dealing with geometrical process stability in centreless grinding, we proceed from the assumption that the workpiece constantly abuts the three contact locations S, A and R during the process [GURN64, ROWE65, SCHR71]. The machine components encompassing these system boundaries are considered ideally rigid. A deviation from the circular form once present (here simplified as a single elevation) causes a displacement of the workpiece at the workrest plate or the control wheel, thereby temporally altering the cutting depth of the grinding wheel. In this way, the circular form deviation regenerates itself at another location of the circumference. In this case, already an incorrect grinding of the component in the first contact between the grinding wheel and the workpiece is sufficient as a starting roundness error to initiate geometrical instability. This regenerative effect of the rounding process is a central problem of centerless grinding and can only be controlled by an appropriate choice of grinding gap geometry. At given wheels and workpiece diameters as well as a support angle value determined from the perspective of the introduction of force, there only remains the parameter of altitude h. We distinguish between geometrically stable and unstable grinding gap settings. If the process runs with geometrically stability, eventual deviations from the circular shape are removed in the course of the process. In an unstable process,

200

6 Grinding

one or more cylindrity deviations develop. The stability cards adapted from Reeka known to industry evaluate the geometrical stability of various grinding gap geometries (Fig. 6-51). In the cards, the polygon to be expected on the workpiece circumference is listed as a function of the grinding gap geometry so that a selection of a suitable grinding gap scenario is made possible according to these criterea. grinding wheel workpiece

control wheel

vw vr

vs

ae2 workpiece

ae1

workrest plate

grinding wheel

control wheel vw

vs

vr

workrest plate Fig. 6-50. Depth of cut alterations due to rotating cylindrity deviations [FRIE04]

Even if geometrically stable conditions exist, wave numbers below a polygon order of size ten should generally be avoided, as these results in relatively large deviations from the circular shape. On the other hand, a marked polygonal shape approximates a circle well if it has a sufficiently high order and thus a large wave number. This is ground in the decreasing maximum penetration depth e of the grinding wheel into the workpiece with increasing wave number orders (Fig. 6-52) [FRIE04, REEK67]. For the process output, it is of importance how many rotations are available for the removal of the roundness errors and which stock allowance is ground off in each workpiece rotation. The parameter necessary for this is the overlap ratio U which indicates the number of rotations that the workpiece undergoes during the process. For centreless plunge grinding, the overlap ratio is calculated as follows:

U=

nr ⋅ d r ⋅ z d w ⋅ v fr

(6.82)

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

201

50 5 27 16

40

workrest plate angle β

10

9

°

7 28

35

14

20 30

3 30 24

25

12

18

22

20

28 16

5

15 10 5

-4

30

3 -2

23

18 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

°

20

tangent angle γ Fig. 6-51. Card of stability (dr/ds = 0.6) [REEK67]

For throughfeed grinding, the overlap ratio U is determined purely geometrically by

U=

bs ausfunk

π ⋅ d w ⋅ tan α r

.

(6.83)

Fig. 6.53 makes it clear that the cylindrity deviation based on the input value at first improves very quickly with the overlap ratio, but then does not fall below a certain end value. A larger stock allowance z leads in the transition area with a small overlap ratio to an improvement in shape, since the higher chip thickness resulting from this leads to the removal of larger amplitudes of cylindrity deviation in the grinding process. This reverses however in the stationary region of the curve into a disadvantage. There, fluctuations in the grinding process and external disturbances make themselves known, especially with larger depths of penetration. Besides a geometrically stable grinding gap design, a minimum overlap ratio value must be

202

6 Grinding

guaranteed in order to reach minimal roundness errors. Here, a large stock allowance initially provides for quick work progress [MEIS80]. depht of penetration e grinding wheel ds

dr workpiece

control wheel

25

e3

20 15 10 5 0 -30

depth of penetration e

4

-20

-10

-5

0

rw 10

20

30

rw

20

30

-10 -15

mm

-20 -25 25

e35 < e3

2

20 15 10

1

5 0 -30

-20

0

-10

-5

0

10

-10

0

5

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 lobing order

-15 -20 -25

Fig. 6-52. Theoretical max. penetration depth e of the grinding wheel into the workpiece [FRIE04, REEK67]

related cylindrity deviation fk / fk0

100 transition

stationary range

%

50

improvement because of big allowance z improvement because of small allowance z

25

0 overlap ratio U Fig. 6-53. The relation between the overlap ratio, allowance and cylindrity deviation in plunge grinding

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

203

As explained above, a total guarantee of small circular form deviations cannot be gained from geometrical stability alone. For an optimal process design, a number of other action mechanisms must be considered and calibrated with each other [KOEN72, KOEN82, KOEN84, SLON56]. Centreless Plunge Grinding (Centreless External Cylindrical Peripheral Plunge Grinding) Fig. 6-54 shows the elementary geometrical and kinematic quantities of centreless plunge grinding. A comparison of the parameters with those of plunge grinding between centres shows considerable conformance. Only the workpiece rotational speed nw develops but indirectly as a function of the rotational speed and the control wheel diameter. If there is no slippage between the control wheel and the workpiece, the following is valid

n w = nr

dr . dw

(6.84)

If the component lies on form elements (cranks etc.) that are not ground, the situation is the same as grinding between centres and there is no displacement during the process. In the case that it lies only on the machined mantle surface and for fixed control/grinding wheels, the depth setting motion vfr does not have an effect on the radius of the workpiece, but rather the diameter. Furthermore the workpiece shifts in the course of the grinding process due to the reduction of its diameter on the workrest plate (Fig. 6-55). We thereby obtain at equal feed velocities approximately half the values for the material removal rate in comparison with grinding between centres.

Qw =

1 ⋅ v fr ⋅ π ⋅ d w ⋅ bs eff 2

(6.85)

Correspondingly, for the specific material removal rate, the following is valid

Q' w =

1 ⋅ v fr ⋅ π ⋅ d w . 2

(6.86)

204

6 Grinding

Fig. 6-54. Geometrical and kinematic variables in centerless plunge grinding

Fig. 6-55. Component displacement in centerless plunge grinding

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

205

Infeed occurs mostly by means of a horizontal feed of the grinding tool. As a result, the workpiece centre and the support point on the workrest plate are displaced. With an inclined workpiece support, besides the horizontal motion, there is also a vertical component which automatically produces a difference in the real workpiece amount and that corresponding to the depth of cut. Infeed errors increase with the altitude, the workpiece diameter and the workrest plate angle. Without compensating the infeed error, a workpiece ground above-centre has a larger final diameter (dw ground > dw target) than that demanded. The grinding process below-centre on the other hand produces a smaller final diameter (dw ground < dw target) [FRIE04]. The axial position of the workpiece is generally set in plunge grinding by means of a gentle inclination of the control wheel vertically to the workpiece axis. The axial components of the control wheel peripheral speed that appear thereby guides the workpiece against an arrester on the workrest support. Centreless Throughfeed Grinding (Centreless External Cylindrical Peripheral Longitudinal Grinding) In centreless external cylindrical peripheral longitudinal grinding, there is a larger number of parameters, as can be seen in Fig. 6-56. The workpiece can sometimes have cranks of smaller diameters that are not to be ground and is characterised by the main dimensions and stock allowance z. To reduce the workpiece stock allowance, the grinding gap must run conically in the feed direction. This can be achieved by shaping the grinding wheel with a conical roughing zone and cylindrical spark-out zone. One setting common in practice is also pivoting the control wheel by the angle δr with a cylindrical grinding wheel. In this case, the empirical experience of the machine adjuster is especially important, as it is hardly calculable by inexact tool alignments. Further practices, like angling the grinding wheel or workrest plate, have a similar effect on achieving grinding cap conicity. The workpiece feed is created by inclining the control wheel in relation to the axis-parallel arrangement of grinding wheel and workpiece by the control wheel inclination angle αr (Fig. 6-57). The control wheel peripheral velocity vr is transferred to the component as feed or throughfeed rate vfa and workpiece speed vw. If there is no slipping between the workpiece and the control wheel, the feed rate is calculated as follows

v fa = v r sin α r .

(6.87)

206

6 Grinding

Fig. 6-37. Geometrical and kinematic variables in centerless longitudinal grinding

Fig. 6-57. Transference of the control wheel speed to the workpiece

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

207

When slipping between the workpiece and control wheel is ignored, the workpiece peripheral speed is calculated as follows

v w = v r cos α r .

(6.88)

The inclination of the control wheel necessitates a hyperbolic shaping. If the control wheel were cylindrical, it would only make contact with the workpiece at one point. The hyperbolic shape of the control wheel guarantees on the other hand a linear contact with the lineally moved workpiece. This profile is created by means of a single-grain dresser, which is manually pivoted or can cut the hyperboloid form by NC control. The control wheel can have a conical or symmetrical shape (Fig. 6-58).

conic hyperboloid

symmetric hyperboloid δr

αr

δr

αr αr

infeed h > 0 ("above center")

infeed h=0

h < 0 ("below center")

infeed

Fig. 6-58. A hyperboloid control wheel [MEIS80]

αr

208

6 Grinding

For grinding machines with manual dressing settings or dressing templates, the parameters of dressing inclination angle α dr in relation to the horizontal and dressing altitude hdr in relation to the control wheel centre are adjusted. The angles are calculated as follows:

⎛ 1 α dr =α r ⎜⎜1− ⎜ 1 + ddwr ⎝

⎞ ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⎠

(6.89)

h

hdr = (1 +

dw d ) 1+ w dr dr

(6.90)

The symmetrical hyperboloid is only dressed below the dressing angle αdr with a dressing altitude hdr = 0. After shaping, the control wheel is pivoted under the angles α’r and δ r [MEIS80]:

⎫ ⎧ 2h α' r = arctan ⎨ 1 − ( ) 2 tan α r ⎬ d r min + d w ⎭ ⎩ ⎧

⎫ 2h tan α r ⎬ ⎩ d r min + d w ⎭

δ r = arctan⎨

(6.91)

(6.92)

This method has the advantage above all of minimal dressing amounts on the control wheel. Workpiece diameter reduction results in centreless throughfeed grinding from the feed rate vfa in conjunction with the grinding gap setting. The actual material removal rate be calculated by means of equation 6.93, whereby one should take into consideration that the total workpiece length lw can be different from the ground workpiece length lw eff .

Qw =

z ⋅ v fa ⋅ π ⋅ d w ⋅ lw eff 2 ⋅ lw

(6.93)

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

209

The specific material removal rate Q´w can only be calculated for centreless grinding knowing the exact grinding wheel width bs eff .

Q' w =

z ⋅ v fa ⋅ π ⋅ d w ⋅ l w eff 2 ⋅ bs eff ⋅ l w

(6.94)

In most applications however, the effective grinding wheel width is unknown and changes with wear, which is why the specific material removal rate parameter Q´w is hardly prevalent in centreless throughfeed grinding technology. Towards the runout, the grinding gap should be set parallel so that grinding can proceed without or with minimal depth of cut. By means of this measure, comparable to spark-out, the surface quality improves and, with suitable grinding gap settings, no feed marks show up on the workpiece from the grinding wheel edges on the runout side. During throughfeed grinding, workpiece supply and removal is very important. For this purpose, grinding machines have adjustable guide bars, whose optimal setting requires craft and ability on the part of the machine operator. The component entry must be shaped linear to the control wheel, since otherwise errors will be ground into the component that destabilise the process or can no longer be removed during the rest of the process. On the exit side, the workpieces must be guided with an even higher parallelism, since the grinding wheel edge will otherwise grind shape errors and feed marks into the finished workpiece surface. The removal of the workpiece stock allowance has to be distributed across the grinding wheel width in a way which does justice to the process at hand. Nonetheless, wear, characteristic of centreless grinding processes, will form along the grinding wheel axis, also known as the “centreless-hole”. This wear develops whether or not the grinding wheel conicity is produced by a corresponding shaping of the grinding wheel or by pivoting the control wheel [KOEN84]. In accordance with the axial feed per workpiece revolution fa, the grinding wheel can be subdivided into sections parallel to the axis. In the grinding zone, every region of width fa must remove one part of the workpiece stock allowance. If one grinding zone section wears off, part of the stock allowance z of the workpiece material that went unprocessed becomes the responsibility of the following section. Grinding wheel wear in the grinding zone increases in the feed direction, since every grinding zone section has to compensate for the wear of the previous section. In the spark-out zone, the wear drops again, which is why the centrelesshole forms characteristically between the grinding zone and the spark-out zone. Stable process design is influenced by the same mechanisms as in plunge grinding, however it takes on more complexity because of the third dimension of the grinding gap in the feed direction. Geometrical stability, for example, must be calculated iteratively along the component feed direction. The overlap ratio U should be considered as it is decisive for the formation\reduction of roundness errors in the spark-out zone. However, roundness errors with a high amplitude enter-

210

6 Grinding

ing in the roughing zone can be so dominant that they can no longer be removed in the spark-out zone.

infeed by profiling the grinding wheel

infeed by pivoting the control wheel run-in zone

run-in zone grinding zone

sparking out zone

grinding zone

sparking out zone

grinding wheel profile after dressing due to wear of grinding wheel profile Fig. 6-59. Centreless-hole [KOEN84]

6.3.3 Internal Cylindrical Grinding As in the case of external cylindrical grinding, internal cylindrical grinding is also classified as • internal cylindrical peripheral crosswise grinding (plunge grinding) or • internal cylindrical peripheral longitudinal grinding (longitudinal grinding).

The kinematics of internal cylindrical grinding is identical to that of the external cylindrical grinding methods between centres already described. The equations derived there for the specific material removal rate are thus valid here as well. Some application examples are shown in Fig. 6-60. While the grinding of various notches (b.) involves pure plunge grinding and inside tapers (c.) involve longitudinal grinding, in example (a.) a combination of both methods is used. After a radial infeed, there is a movement lengthwise, since the surface to be machined is in this case wider than the grinding wheel. The workpieces have to be clamped on the outer edge, as accessibility to the inner hole must be guaranteed. This can be achieved by means of a three-jawchuck as well as, for example, by means of gears with the help of a special construction. In this case, the gear is tightened by means of the teeth system. The disadvantages of tightening the components in a jaw chuck in comparison to clamped

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

211

between centres is reduced radial precision as well as deformation of the components caused by the jaws. The last point is especially relevant in the case of thinwalled components (e.g. roller bearing rings). After relaxing the elastic deformation, the roundness of the machined surface is thereby no longer given.

.3 . 2 .

4

1

5

6

vf a vw vs

a. grinding of a roll path

b. simultanious grinding of several different bores with a wheel set

c. grinding of a taper bore

Fig. 6-60. Internal cylindrical plunge and longitudinal grinding for different applications

In internal cylindrical grinding, the contact arc between the grinding wheel and the workpiece is considerably longer, compared to external grinding operations. In this way, evacuating the chips and maintaining sufficient supply of cooling lubricant at the contact zone is more difficult. For this reason, grinding wheels must be utilised that allow for a so-called free cut at low pressure force and low contact zone temperatures. Such grinding wheels are characterised by a relatively large grit size, low hardness and an open structure. Fig. 6-61 shows an arrangement for internal and external machining of a liner by grinding. When grinding longer holes with a small diameter, there is a danger that the far-overhanging spindle will be considerably deformed. As a result of such deformations, undesirable deviations in shape and dimension results such as conicity (infeed grinding) and widening of the hole ends (longitudinal grinding). The employable cutting speeds for small tools are often low, since the high spindle speeds necessary cannot be realised or only at considerable cost. The advantages of high cutting speeds (reduction of forces, surface quality improvement, wear reduction) can therefore not be brought into play for the most part. Moreover, the grinding wheels – because of their small dimensions (less grains are engaged more often) and low hardness – are subjected to a high radial wheel wear. For the reasons mentioned, usually only small material removal rates are realisable in internal cylindrical grinding.

212

6 Grinding

workpiece

external cylindrical grinding

internal cylindrical grinding

Fig. 6-61. Internal cylindrical grinding (Buderus Schleiftechnik)

6.3.4 Surface Grinding Surface or flat grinding serves to create surfaces that are either completely level or extend in the main feed direction of the grinding wheel in a straight line. Surface grinding comprises the methods of peripheral plunge, peripheral longitudinal, side plunge and side longitudinal grinding. In industrial practice, the most often utilised methods are • peripheral plunge grinding (groove grinding or profile grinding) and • peripheral longitudinal grinding (surface grinding or levelling large surfaces).

The principles of these methods are illustrated in Fig. 6-62. In surface peripheral plunge grinding, the grinding tool is moved orthogonally to the machine table with the depth of cut ae and as a rule the table is moved at feed rate vw. For the specific material removal rate Q´w , the following is valid:

Q' w = a e ⋅ v w

(6.95)

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

surface-peripheralcrosswise-grinding

213

surface-peripheraltraverse-grinding

ae ap

vs, ns vs

vs, ns bs, ap

ae

vs

Fig. 6-62. Engagement conditions in surface peripheral plunge and longitudinal grinding

Surface peripheral longitudinal grinding is used to create level surfaces with large lateral dimensions. The grinding wheel is moved orthogonally to the workpiece surface by the amount ae (Fig. 6-62). The grinding wheel is as a rule moved axially outside the workpiece by the amount ap which due to the process corresponds to the effective grinding wheel width bs eff. By changing the directions of the workpiece feed rate, the grinding mode is altered. In the case of up grinding, the speed vectors of cutting speed and workpiece feed rate are oppositely directed. The cutting edges of the grinding wheel’s peripheral surface penetrate nearly tangentially to the finished surface into the contract zone and leave the latter at the workpiece blank surface. In down grinding, the engagement conditions described are reversed. The determination of the specific material removal rate according to equation 6.95 for surface peripheral longitudinal grinding is only acceptable under the assumption of a rectangular grinding wheel edge. As a result of grinding wheel wear during the process, the effective depth of cut ae for the feed element of the width ap illustrated in Fig. 6-62 is reduced by the amount of radial grinding wheel wear. The dimensional fault in the element of width ap, proportional to the size of the radial grinding wheel wear Δrs, is compensated by the fact that in a newly executed cross feed, a region of the spark-out zone with the width of feed ap grinds off the remaining allowance from the previous stroke. With increasing material removals, a stepped wear profile thus results. With this grinding method, components with large widths are machined in several cross paths, such that in general after each cross feed the cutting direction is switched. Now the other side of the grinding wheel is engaged, and on this side a corresponding stepped wear profile is also formed. In order therefore to determine exactly the specific material removal rate of a grinding wheel being engaged, the exact knowledge of the wear profile is necessary.

214

6 Grinding

The area of the grinding wheel width bs (depth of cut ae = 0) not taking part in machining generates the workpiece surface and determines to a large extent the roughness of the workpiece. The parameter overlap ratio U in this context indicates how often an area of the surface is ground by a grinding wheel of width bs:

U=

bs b = s ap fa

(6.96)

Higher number of grinding paths generally lead to low levels of workpiece roughness. An exact calculation of the number of grinding paths is, as described above, only possible with an exact knowledge of the wear profile of the grinding wheel. Fundamentally, one can use creep feed grinding or pendulum grinding in both variations mentioned (Fig. 6-63) [BRAN78]. In the case of creep feed grinding, the workpiece form is ground with large depths of cut, often even in one overrun from the solid. Since the specific material removal rate to chose is dependent on the existing grinding wheel-workpiece combination, the workpiece feed rate vw is adjusted inversely proportional to the depth of cut ae in accordance with equation 6-95. With increasing depths of cut, the contact length between the workpiece and the grinding wheel increases, making the transport of cooling lubricant into the contact zone and the removal of chips more difficult. For this reason, creep feed grinding uses on the one hand open-structured grinding wheels of low hardness and on the other an effective cooling lubricant supply (large volume flows at high pressures). The advantages of creep feed grinding as opposed to pendulum grinding are improved workpiece surface quality and lower grinding wheel wear. Creep feed grinding is used industrially especially in the final processing of exact shapes, e.g. guide tracks and clamp profiles of turbine blades. Moreover, as is shown in Fig. 6-63, grinding times are shorter than in pendulum grinding, as there is no time spent on free travel and table rerouting times. creep feed grinding

pendulum grinding

ae ae, ges

ae vw Fig. 6-63. The principle of creep feed and pendulum grinding

vw

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

215

The workpiece surfaces produced by creep feed and pendulum grinding have different reflection behaviours. pendulum-ground workpieces are characterised by a matt surface, while creep feed grinding produces a shiny one.

6.3.5 Coated Abrasives

6.3.5.1 Kinematic Fundamentals

According to DIN 8589 [DIN78a], there are many different variations of belt grinding, of which only the most important are indicated in Fig. 6-64. The main factors in classifying them are on the one hand the position of the feed motion characterising the method, and on the other the contact element (roller = peripheral grinding; shoe = side grinding). longitudinal- peripheral-...- grinding

longitudinal- side -...- grinding

abrasive belt

contact shoe

abrasive belt internal

contact roller surface

external internal

abrasive belt contact roller

external

surface

surface

surface

surface

plunge- peripheral-...- grinding

external

feed motion internal

abrasive belt contact shoe

external

surface

Plunge- side-...- grinding

Fig. 6-64. Belt grinding methods according to DIN 8589 [DIN78a]

If a contact wheel is used, the particular methodological variations then correspond to those in grinding with a grinding wheel (see chapter 6.3.1). The kinemat-

216

6 Grinding

ics of peripheral belt grinding processes also correspond to those of grinding with grinding wheels. For machining operations with contact shoes, the same kinematic data are pertinent, except that in this case the influence of the respective grain paths is to be considered as a function of the supporting element geometry. The belt methods most frequently employed use a contact wheel or shoe. We will therefore explore these methods in more detail. Both methods are based on different procedures which vary decisively with respect to their process parameters (Fig. 6-65). grinding with constant contact force

grinding with constant depth of cut

guide roll abrasive belt

contact roll Fn = const.

ae = const.

workpiece

workpiece

• Real depth of cut depends on contact force, process parameters and tool topography.

• Real depth of cut is the set depth of cut

• Tool follows workpiece surface.

• Form grinding must be done

• Low dimension and shape accuracy.

• by machine control.

• True to dimension grinding.

Fig. 6-65. Varying procedures in belt grinding

One belt grinding variant is the oft-used grinding with constant contact force, which is employed in order to refine the surface or to machine large material volumes per time unit. With this procedure, uneven components can also be machined, whereby the constant grinding pressure assures that comparable allowances are removed on the entire workpiece surface. The disadvantage of grinding with constant contact force is that one cannot grind to size. This is the case when grinding with constant depth of cut, where high formal and dimensional precision have to be realised at constant material removal rates. In order to understand the relations between the variables and the parameters and the output, basic considerations concerning the wear mechanisms involved in

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

217

abrasive belts is required. As opposed to grinding wheels, the individual grains of the abrasives on backing material are completely imbedded in the bond material and thus have a high break-out resistance [DENN89]. For this reason, grain breakout is rare in belt grinding, whereas splintering and grain blunting are more common. The latter results in an increase in friction, bringing about the danger of a thermal influence on the workpiece due to the increase in grinding temperature. In belt grinding, an oscillation speed is often also superimposed to the circumferential speed. Its vector runs parallel to the produced workpiece surface and perpendicular to the cutting speed vector. By means of this cross motion, the paths of the individual grain cutting edges overlap. This produces a much improved component surface quality [DENN89]. Furthermore, the oscillation helps prevent the belt from coming off the driving roller as well as a more even wear of the belt. Increasing the cutting speed with constant grinding force raises the material removal rate with diminishing surface roughness. At the same time, the grinding temperature and grain wear go up [VDI03]. An overview of cutting speeds for different materials is provided in table 6-1. Table 6-1. Standard values for cutting speed as a function of the material [VDI03] material

common cutting speeds in m/s

grey cast iron

30, ..., 40

carbon steel

28, ..., 36

stainless steel

25, ..., 35

aluminium

30, ..., 45

brass/ bronze

35, ..., 45

nickel based alloys

35, ..., 40

titanium

6, ..., 14, (25)*

* for structured grinding belts

Grinding with Constant Pressure Force The primary variable of this variant is normal force with which the workpiece is pressed against the grinding belt. The depth of cut is a result of the amount of pressure force, the abrasive belt’s topography, the component material and other process variables like the cutting and workpiece speeds. The pressure force is related to the grinding width on the analogy of the cutting forces in grinding with discs in order to make possible comparative observations between various experimental results. In the case of manual grinding, the user adjusts by feeling the normal force to the condition of wear of the belt. Automated grinding machines work either with constant normal force or with one which varies during grinding in accordance with a given profile. For sharp abrasive belts, the material removal rate increases along with the normal force [FROM92]. The reason for this is that the grain penetrates

218

6 Grinding

depth of cut ae

material removal Vw

more deeply into the material with increasing normal force, and the chip thickness goes up. The chip thickness, increasing with the normal force, also causes a high surface roughness. The cutting properties of an abrasive belt change during its service life. Corresponding to Fig. 6-66 at constant normal force the depth of cut and material removal rate decrease degressively over time [FROM92].

grinding time tc

Fn

F t

grinding time tc

roughness Ra

cutting forces Fn, Ft

grinding time tc

grinding time tc

Fig. 6.66. Changing the process parameters though the service life of the abrasive belt

This is caused by the smaller depth of cut with increasing grain wear. The grits are initially very pointed and angular, have many sharp cutting edges and penetrate deeply into the workpiece material even at a small normal force. Large chip thicknesses arise in this way. With increasing engagement time, the cutting edges are quickly blunted. Those cutting edges that have a somewhat larger rounding radius are however more stable, so that the flattening of the grain over the duration of grinding converges similar to an exponential function. The grains as they get blunt no longer penetrate as far into the workpiece material and create smaller chips; the material removal rate is decreased. Conflicting reports have been made in the literature about the course of surface roughness. In general, we can expect an improvement of the surface quality with increasing grinding time. It is very disadvantageous that the material removal rate sinks across the duration of belt engagement, increasing the grinding time. Meas-

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

219

ures are thus sought with which the material removal rate can be held constant. One such measure is, as mentioned, changing – usually defined increasing – the normal force. One must here take care that other process parameters, e.g. surface roughness, remain within predetermined boundaries. Economical grinding results can be obtained with constant normal force as well if the optimal pressure force is chosen at the start of the belt engagement. This requires knowledge of the service life behaviour of abrasive belts as a function of the normal force. This is elucidated by the example shown in Fig. 6-67.

Tool life time Tc tool-life

0.01 0.05 0.10

0.15 0.27 0.35 0.42

Grinding param. vc = 25 m/s vw = 15mm/s Abrasive belt A - HK 80 Jot - b1 Contact wheel 350 x 50; 64 Shore A not profiled Material Ck 15

1.2

1.6 N 2.4 Specific normal force F‘n

Coolant

Fig. 6-67. Abrasive belt service life as a function of the specific pressure force in belt grinding

In belt grinding with constant pressure force, the valid service life criterion is the minimal material removal rate which can still be considered cost effective [PAHL74]. With low material removal rates, the service life diminishes with increasing normal forces, while they go up with high material removal rates. The reason for this is the abrasive wear that, at lower pressure forces, is concentrated on the grains protruding the farthest. The periphery of the belts becomes levelled. More dull cutting edges with smaller chip thicknesses are engaged, and the material removal rate sinks. With higher normal forces, grain splintering becomes a more significant factor than dulling. New sharp cutting edges crop up constantly that cut the material more easily than dull grains. Which wear mechanism should be preferred by choosing a service life criterion and pressure force with respect to an optimally economical machining process depends essentially on the operating conditions. Especially important is the relation of tool changing costs and machine costs as well as the question of whether dull abrasive belts can still be utilised for other tasks requiring, for example, lower material removal rates, but low surface roughness. The effect of the cutting speed in belt grinding with constant pressure force is also comparable to grinding with grinding wheels. If the reliable amount of load

220

6 Grinding

on grain and bond is not exceeded, an increase in the cutting speed results in higher material removal rates, higher workpiece temperatures and lower surface roughness. Grinding with Constant Depth of Cut This is a little used procedure in belt processes in comparison to grinding with constant pressure force. Growing quality demands on components however are leading to wider use of methods with constant depth of cut. For example, it is used for a perfectly measured and fitting manufacture of functional and sealing surfaces. Further areas of application of this procedure are being opened up by the development of high-performance belts. For example, high material removal rates are possible while still keeping within narrow formal and dimensional tolerances without using geometrically defined cutting edges. In the case of grinding with constant depth of cut, the preferred methodological variant is longitudinal peripheral surface grinding (Fig. 6-68). The primary variable is not only the depth of cut, but also the workpiece/table speed. The relations between the variables and parameters as well as the output correspond to those of grinding with grinding wheels. The effective material removal rate is approximately constant during the process. This is however only the case when the support pad coating of the contact wheel is sufficiently hard. If it is too soft, it would become deformed under higher forces, the grinding gap would open, lowering the depth of cut and thereby reducing the material removal rate. abrasive belt cutting speed vc oscillation speed workpiece speed vw

depth of cut ae

vos

contact wheel workpiece

bw workpiece width Fig. 6-68. Machine variables in longitudinal peripheral surface grinding

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

221

50 40 30 20 10 0

35

28 3

mm mm

μm

20

25

Rt

16

20

V'total

15

12

10

8

F'n

4

F't

0

tool life end Tc = 150 min 0

20

40

60

80

Roughness Rt

80 N mm 60

Spec. material removal V‘total

Spec. normal force F‘n, spec. tangential force F‘t

As can be seen in Fig. 6-69, the cutting forces increase with the grinding time. This can be derived from abrasive grain dulling and the resulting friction. With the dulling of the grains however, the effective surface roughness of the abrasive belt also goes down, lowering the workpiece surface roughness.

grinding burn

5

100

120

140

0 min 200

Grinding time tc Abrasive belt D-HK 80 X-f8 (underlaid) Contact wheel Steel, unprofiled

Workpiece material C 45, Rto = 2-5 μm Cooling lubricant none

Grinding parameters vc = 27 m/s a e = 0.006 mm v w = 334 mm/s

Fig. 6-69. The path of various process parameters in belt grinding with constant depth of cut [AHRE74]

The end of the tool life-time is reached when the cutting forces increase to a disproportional extent due to grain wear or the increased friction creates such high machining temperatures that surface layer damage is caused. Depending on the workpiece material, the belt specifications and the working conditions however, other criteria are also responsible of the end of tool life time. For example, clogging of the abrasive belt with material particles or a complete flattening of the abrasive coating caused by wear can be responsible for excessive friction and thus for extreme workpiece and belt temperatures. Furthermore, individual or groups of grains can break out completely from the bond due to higher forces or the carrier belt be destroyed by excessive mechanical or thermal stress. In the case of some of these effects, which lead to the end of an abrasive belt’s usefulness, the damage is relatively small, such that a conditioning of the tools becomes worthwhile.

222

6 Grinding

High-Performance Belt Grinding The intensive further development of abrasive belts in the last few years have made possible similarly high removal rates in belt grinding as is the case in turning or milling operations. An additional advantage of belt grinding is the small amount of burr formation [BECK93]. This opens up new areas of applications besides that of finishing, especially in metal grinding, e.g. the machining of level, discontinuous and non-round components. Typical applications for this method are for example sealing surfaces for case and engine parts, camshaft and crankshaft manufacture as well as rollers with a high degree of radial accuracy. High-performance belt grinding demands for each respective application adjusted grinding machines and tools whilst taking the grinding heat especially into account. Previous investigations into high-performance belt grinding were almost exclusively carried out dry. Due to the temperatures involved, surface damage of up to 1 mm depth can be produced that can not longer be eliminated in the finishing phase. This can be avoided by the use of cooling lubricants. Investigations have shown that besides reducing surface layer damage, surface roughness can be considerably improved [DENN89]. Comparisons between dry and wet highperformance belt grinding resulted however in shorter abrasive belt life time when cooling lubricants were used under otherwise identical conditions. These investigations make it clear that both an optimisation of the process parameters as well as improvements in the tool sector are necessary in order to guarantee the cost effectiveness of belt grinding for machining with cooling lubricants [BUCH90]. Both the outcome and tool wear in high-performance belt grinding are essentially influenced by the depth of cut, workpiece speed and cutting speed. The cutting speed has no influence on the machining rates and the process duration. It influences the grinding forces and process temperatures. The relations between the variables and the parameters as well as the outcome correspond to those of grinding with grinding wheels. An increased cutting speed leads to smaller undeformed chip thicknesses and to a reduction of the number of active cutting edges. Smaller chip thicknesses demand lower forces, and the surface roughness goes down. Fig. 6-70 shows how the grinding normal force changes with various cutting speeds. Slipping between the abrasive belt and the contact roller as well as abrasive belt expansion are two further parameters which exert an important influence on the process outcome and tool wear. One cause for premature failure of an abrasive belt is the contact roller slipping under the abrasive belt. This slip makes it impossible to reach the real circumferential speed. This causes a reduction of the actual cutting speed, which engenders an excessive load on the individual grains. This effect causes in turn high wear and a shortening of the tool’s service life. This effect is magnified when a cooling lubricant is used, since the lubrication also has a negative effect on friction conditions between the contact roller and the abrasive belt [DENN89]. Further influencing variables will be treated in the following section.

Spec. normal force F'n

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

100

Abrasive belt

N mm

Abrasive material zirconium aluminium oxide Grain size 36 Carrier material polyester carrier

50 25 0

Radial wear Δrs

1600

Mean roughness depth Rz

223

Material 100 Cr 6

μm 800

Workpiece speed vft = 300 mm/s

400

Spec. material removal rate Q‘w= 90 mm3/mms

0 100 μm

vc = 20 m/s vc = 40 m/s vc = 60 m/s

60 40 20 0 0

mm3 25000 mm Spec. material removal V'W 5000 10000 15000

Fig. 6-70. The influence of cutting speed on abrasive belt wear and the output

The Influence of Other Process Input Parameters and Boundary Conditions Besides the machine variables, additional parameters exist in belt grinding that influence process behaviour and the output. This includes the force with which the belt is tightened and the form of embodiment of the contact element as well as the engagement of grinding fluids such as greases or cooling lubricants. The boundary condition of belt stiffness influences the operating behaviour of the belts as a toolspecific parameter. The amount of belt tension has a large influence on the process and the output when smooth contact wheels are employed. In the case of helical toothed contact wheels, an increase in belt tension may result in somewhat higher material re-

224

6 Grinding

moval rates, but it also brings about a higher surface roughness. A further disadvantage of high belt tension is increased stress on the contact wheel and the machine (bearings, clamps), which must therefore be designed for stability. This leads to increased acquisition costs. Increased belt expansion, which is also used as an argument against excessive clamping forces, is not as noticeable in newer carriers as before and is thus less significant. However, for the reasons mentioned, one should choose a belt tension that is only so high that the belt is guided smoothly by the contact wheel and does not proceed in an uncontrolled fashion. In most belt grinding methods, the abrasive belt is supported in the engagement zone by a contact element. In peripheral grinding, this is the contact wheel, in side grinding it is the contact shoe. Contact wheels consist mostly of plastic or light metal bodies on which a rubber, plastic or textile support pad is placed. The variety of forms of these pads stretches from smooth coatings to toothed (straight, helical and arrowhead) implementations to individual plastic discs attached to the body. The most common support pad hardness levels are [N.N.14]: • • • •

soft: medium: hard: extra hard:

40 Shore A, 60 Shore A, 80 Shore A and 95 Shore A.

The right choice of a suitable contact wheel contributes significantly to the optimisation of belt grinding, since the contact wheel formation has a decisive influence on the machining cycle and the grinding output. In Fig. 6-71, the effects of contact wheel hardness on the material removal rate and surface roughness is illustrated. With increasing support pad hardness, deformability and thus the contact surface is reduced. The normal force per unit area (cutting pressure) is thus large with a hard contact wheel and small with a soft wheel. Accordingly, the individual cutting edges are pressed more deeply into the workpiece material and remove larger chips. In this way, the material removal rate and surface roughness go up. The surface pressure between the abrasive belt and the workpiece can be considerably further influenced by the form of the contact wheel pad. Toothed support pads lead to a much more aggressive belt engagement [N.N.14]. Of decisive importance for this is the ratio of the cleat width to the void width, the influence of which on the material removal rate and surface roughness is shown in Fig. 6-71. The kinematic circumstances furnish the reason why the support pad profile is transferred to the workpiece in a defined imaging ratio. This may lead to an increase in surface roughness or to an increased waviness, but in this way surface effects or special micrographs can be specifically produced [BUCH90].

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589

225

Grinding with constant contact force

grinding time narrow cleats, wide voids wide cleats, narrow voids Smooth support pad ∞:0 1:3 3:1 ratio of cleat width to void width

medium roll cover soft grinding time

material removal rate

∞ :0

hard

Influence of the contact wheel diameter smaller contact wheel diameter bigger grinding time

surface roughness

3:1

material removal rate

1:3

Influence of the contact wheel width

surface roughness

surface roughness

material removal rate

Influence of the contact wheel coating

support pad hardness

contact wheel diameter

Fig. 6-71. The influence of the contact wheel on belt grinding [N.N.14].

Contact wheels are toothed not only straight, but also helical. This assists in noise-reduction on the one hand, on the other it also leads to a more even force transmission into the contact zone. Higher material removal rates can also be achieved if a smaller contact wheel diameter is selected. Abrasive belts are manufactured for various machining tasks in various degrees of flexibility. The desired adaptability of the belt to the respective workpiece form is crucial. Belt stiffness has an essential influence on the material removal rate. With increasing flexibility, or dropping stiffness, the abrasive grains spring farther back upon making contact with the workpiece and thus remove smaller chips. In this way, the material removal rate and surface quality increase correspondingly [BUCH89]. Due to the higher tumbling work which flexible belts are exposed to, stress on them is greater, and their tool life time is shorter than the one of stiffer belts. For this reason, abrasive belts are used that are as hard and stable as possible. In belt grinding as in other grinding methods, grinding fluids basically have the following functions: • lowering grinding temperatures by reducing friction between the grits and the workpiece material, • cooling the workpiece and the tool by removing heat, • avoid clogging and • binding harmful grinding dust.

226

6 Grinding

dry grinding oil sprayed oil flooded

emulsion

grease

grinding time

surface roughness

material removal rate

If these tasks are fulfilled sufficiently by a cooling lubricant, longer tool life time, lower surface roughness and more humane working conditions are the result. The use of cooling lubricants only brings about optimal results however when the type of cooling lubricant supply (spraying, flooding), its chemical composition and its viscosity is adjusted to the respective machining task [TOEN70]. For this purpose, various cooling lubricants are available for belt grinding, the effects of which on the material removal rate and surface roughness is elucidated in Fig. 672.

dry grinding oil sprayed oil flooded

emulsion grease

grinding time

Fig. 6-72. The influence of the cooling lubricant type on the material removal rate and surface roughness in belt grinding [N.N.14]

In dry grinding, there is initially a higher material removal rate than when cooling lubricants are used. But the high frictional and thermal stress blunt the grains more quickly and the tool life time becomes shorter. In the case of usual material removal rates in the domain of precision machining, the use of oil may result in a smaller material removal rate, but the surface quality is also improved. Moreover, abrasive wear progresses much more slowly due to diminished friction and lower temperatures, so that longer tool life times and tool life volumes are possible. This trend continues with the use of emulsions or greases. However, grinding results vary with the use of different cooling lubricants as well as in dry or wet grinding. When deciding upon a cooling lubricant, one has to examine, for example, whether the high cost of furnishing the large amounts of oil required for oil flooding is justified by the technological advantage of this type of cooling lubricant supply, or whether a cooling lubricant spraying device is more economical.

6.4 Other Variants

227

6.4 Other Variants

6.4.1 Gear Grinding A special area of application in grinding is the finishing of tooth flanks. Cutting an involute profile requires the use of methods specifically designed for tooth flank machining, these being subdivided according to method kinematics into generating and profile methods. In order to fulfil performance, noise emission and wear requirements there are high demands on dimensional and formal accuracy and on the external zone properties of the components. gear grinding

profile grinding

discontinous flank grinding

generating gear grinding

continous form grinding

with disc grinding wheel

discontinous generating gear grinding

with double tapered wheels

continous generating gear grinding

with single taperde wheels

Fig. 6-73. Subdivision of gear grinding methods

Methods of Gear Grinding In profile grinding, tooth spaces are cut with a grinding wheel dressed with the target profile. In generating gear grinding, the tooth shape is produced by means of rolling kinematics between the tool, the reference profile of which corresponds to a gear rack, and the gear with superimposed cutting motions. Both generating

228

6 Grinding

gear grinding and profile grinding are classified into discontinuously and continuously operating methods. In industry, the following gear grinding variants are utilised: • • • • • •

discontinuous generating gear grinding with two disc grinding wheels, discontinuous generating gear grinding with a double-tapered wheel, discontinuous generating gear grinding with a single-tapered wheel, continuous generating gear grinding, discontinuous flank grinding with profiled grinding wheels and continuous form grinding with a globoid grinding wheel.

Since the use of discontinuous generating gear grinding with a single-tapered wheel is limited to the very particular branch of grinding with shaving tools for gear shaving, we will dispense with a further presentation of it. The other methods will be more closely examined following a discussion of the performance limits of gear grinding. Performance Limits of Gear Grinding While deviations in macrogeometry and microgeometry, which considerably influence the performance and noise emission of the gear, can be more or less marked depending on the demands placed on component quality, the external zone of the machined tooth flank must be devoid of influence on structure. Damage in the tooth flank’s external zone via textural influence causes a reduction in the wear resistance of the teeth. It can even lead to a complete failure of the gears (tooth fracture). An influence on the structure (grinding burn) caused by thermal overload of the tooth flank during the machining process must therefore be avoided. Due to the complex geometry of the tooth space and the resulting large contact surfaces between the grinding wheel and the workpiece, thermal stress during gear grinding is however relatively high, generally limiting the performance of the method. Alteration of the workpiece’s external zone due to textural change is varyingly pronounced depending on the degree of thermal damage. Typical forms of damage are: • • • •

grinding burn, cracks, a drop in hardness in the external layers of the workpiece and re-hardening or increased hardening.

Besides the reduction of the workpiece’s hardness, textural change also leads to a shift from the compressive residual stresses existing in the external zone of the workpiece to tensile residual stresses. This has unfavourable effects on the load capacity and wear behaviour of the tooth flank [Baus94, Bouc94, Klum94, KOEN79, KOEN93, Kosc76, SCHL03]. Fig. 6-74 shows a microgram of a cross-section of a tooth after considerable grinding burn. Under the traced boundary to the flank surface there appears a

6.4 Other Variants

229

wide, lens-shaped new or re-hardening zone consisting of non-etched, structureless martensite. Beneath this re-hardening zone lies a zone with an annealing structure. The annealing structure is characterised by an near-sudden decline and then continuous climb in hardness back to the original value (basic hardness). Already a drop in hardness between HV 20 and 40 is an indication of external zone damage of the tooth flank. These deviations can be captured more securely metrologically, yet this necessitates a destructive examination of the workpiece. Material 16MnCr5

tooth flank surface

hardness 600 HV 900 0

new hardening annealing texture unaffected texture

20 μm etched 1 % HNO3

Grinding worm EK 60 K6 Ke Coolant lubricant grinding oil Heat treatment hardened 860°C/oil EHT550HV = 0.8 ... 1.0 mm

depth s

Gear data mn = 5 mm z = 31 α = 20° b = 14 mm β = 0° x =0

0,05 mm 0,15

displayed detail Grinding parameters vs = 30 m/s iDH = 360 1/min ae = 0.12 mm vwälz = 1000 mm/min

lateral cut

Fig. 6-74. Cross-section of a tooth with grinding burn

In industrial praxis, workpieces are tested for possible influence on their structure by means of nital etching tests. In the case of this non-destructive testing method, the surface changes colour in the vicinity of thermally damaged external zones, whereby annealed structures appear black. A further possibility for nondestructive detection of thermal textural damage is micromagnetic testing with the help of Barkhausen noise. The signal reacts both to changes in external zone hardness and to changes in the residual stress condition. Since this is a case of relative measurement, calibration of the measurement with test workpieces of varying degrees of damage is required [DAPP99].

230

6 Grinding

6.4.1.1 Discontinuous Generating Gear Grinding

Discontinuous Generating Gear Grinding with two Disc Grinding Wheels The hobbing engagement for producing an involute profile is transferred by means of a construction of rolling motion blocks and conveyor belts (Fig. 6-75). This method is used to produce higher gear qualities (up to quality 2 according to DIN 3961 [DIN78]) and complex gear modifications. The maximum material removal rates that can be reached are low because of the rolling kinematics and the associated theoretical point-contact between the workpiece and the tool in transverse section. From the low permissible material removal rates result low cutting forces, so that machining is possible without cooling lubricant.

trundle-head conveyor pedestal

gear sliding bed

feed sliding bed

Fig. 6-75. Discontinuous generating gear grinding with two disc grinding wheels (Maag)

Discontinuous Generating Gear Grinding with a Double-Tapered Wheel In discontinuous generating gear grinding with a double-tapered wheel, the production of the tooth shape is based on the rolling principle between the gear and the gear rack. The grinding wheel has a trapezoid-shaped cross-section and thus corresponds to a singe gear rack tooth. By means of the hobbing engagement of the workpiece on the straight flank of the grinding wheel, an exact involute is created (Fig. 6-76).

6.4 Other Variants

231

grinding wheel

gear vs

iDH ae vroll

Fig. 6-76. Process input parameters in tooth flank profile grinding with a double-tapered wheel using the discontinuous generating gear method

In the case of angle-serrated spur gears, the grinding wheel is swivelled in accordance with the tooth inclination angle at hand. The grinding wheel produces the involutes by grinding the tooth flanks along the straight production lines. These lines correspond to the contact lines in the coupling of two gears. Fig. 6-77 shows the process. The attainable material removal rate in partial generating gear grinding is limited by the appearance of thermal external zone damage. This can be avoided by the right choice of process input parameters. Since discontinuous generating gear grinding with double-tapered wheels is comparable to flat grinding, we will first explicate the relation between the variables and the temperature in the workpiece in flat grinding. The upper diagram in Fig. 6-78 shows the influence of workpiece speed on the temperature of the workpiece. The region of feed rates, as they are utilised in discontinuous generating gear grinding with a double-tapered wheel, are shaded in grey. The diagram shows the small influence of feed rate on the temperature of the workpiece in discontinuous generating gear grinding. The depth of cut on the other hand, particularly in the region of values common in discontinuous generating gear grinding, influences the workpiece temperature very strongly (Fig. 6-78, below). However, transferring the results of flat grinding to discontinuous generat-

232

6 Grinding

ing gear grinding, we must pay heed to the differing process kinematics of both methods. While the material removal rate in flat grinding is constant due to consistent values for the depth of cut ae, grinding wheel engagement width bs eff and workpiece speed vw, in discontinuous generating gear grinding this varies according to the tooth flank height and width. The result is that, besides the depth of cut , the current rolling position is of considerable influence upon the local material removal rate.

revert hobbing engagement, compensation of clearance

grinding of left flank

grinding of right flank

running in of grinding wheel

running out of grinding wheel

indexing

revert hobbing engagement, compensation of clearance

grinding of next gap running in of grinding wheel

Fig. 6-77. Process run in discontinuous generating gear grinding with a double-tapered wheel during single flank grinding (Höfler)

Fig. 6-79 shows the derivation of the specific material removal rate for discontinuous generating gear grinding in a rolling position of the grinding wheel. The material removal rate results from the product of the chip cross-sectional area Acu, which is nearly triangular due to the method’s kinematics, and the tangential feed rate vft erpendicular to it. Since the feed motion in discontinuous gear grinding machines is frequently created by a crank mechanism, the non-constant progress of the feed rate shown in Fig. 6-79 appears across the tooth flank width.

Grinding worm EK 100 P Ba Material C 15 Grinding param. vc = 60 m/s

Max. temperature ϑmax

Cooling lubricant none

Max. temperature ϑmax

6.4 Other Variants

Measuring point position s = 0,1

1000 °C

a = 0.5 mm

600

0.25 0.1 0.05 0.03

400 200 0

range of part gear grinding with double tapered wheel

200 400 mm/s workpiece speed vw

1000 °C 250

800

Vw = 20 mm/s

100

600 400

233

500

200 0.2 mm depth of cut ae

0

0.8

Fig. 6-78. Relation between machine input data and workpiece temperature in flat grinding (Dederichs)

Material removal rate Q w = A CU ⋅ v ft (x )

hcu max depth of cut ae

⎡ mm3 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ s ⎦

bD Acu

Specific material removal rate Q′w max =

Qw bD

⎡ mm3 ⎤ ⎢ mm ⋅ s ⎥ ⎣ ⎦

Maximum specific removal rate ⎡ mm3 ⎤ Q′wmax = hCUmax ⋅ v ft (x ) ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ mm ⋅ s ⎦

vft

ff: profil deviation caused by process

IH

rb vft(x) x vft : speed in tooth dircetion

Fig. 6-79. Definition of the material removal rate in discontinuous generating gear grinding

The chip cross-sectional area varies due to the kinematics of rolling and the involute profile along the tooth height. At the head of the tooth flank, the larger workpiece diameter leads, at the existing constant angle speed of the machining wheel, to a higher rolling speed than at the foot of the tooth. This distance of the

234

6 Grinding

30

30

stroke

Number of return strokes iDH = 180 min-1 Rolling speed vroll = 300 mm.min-1

20

34

26 Grinding data depth of cut ae = 0,1 mm

10

150 μm 0 38

50μm

22

1mm

18 14

chip crosssectional area

10

ac of g tive zo n rind ing e wor m

Tooth gear data m = 5 mm b = 70 mm z = 21 α = 20° x =0 β = 0°

chip thickness

individual engagement lines of the grinding wheels and thus the chip crosssectional area are thereby increased. In addition, the engagement angle of the involute profile varies along the tooth height. This also causes a change in the chip cross-sectional area as a function of the tooth flank height. Fig. 6-80 portrays the effect of both of these partially compensating influences on the existing chip cross-sectional area along the tooth height from the head to the foot. The largest chip cross-sectional area is at the tooth height at the thirtysecond stroke. If the individual chip cross-sectional areas are added, we obtain the total chip cross-sectional area across the active grinding wheel area (Fig. 6-80, above). In order to reach higher material removal rates in discontinuous generating gear grinding, besides varying the machine input parameters, a suitable choice of grinding wheel composition and conditioning as well as of cooling lubricant is also possible.

Addendum

Dedendum

6 2 root

head active grinding zone

Fig. 6-80. Chip cross-sectional areas in discontinuous generating gear grinding

Fig. 6-81 shows the maximum permissible depth of cut at which no damage ensues plotted across the rolling speed and the number of return strokes. The permissible parameters lie beneath the given boundary surface. In the case of parameters above this boundary surface, damages to the gear are to be expected [KOEN76, KOEN77, KOEN79, KOSC76, MEIJ79]. In the case of discontinuous generating gear grinding with a double-tapered wheel, problems arise with respect to gear quality mainly due to profile-form deviation and the pitch error. The pitch error is essentially dependant on the pitch

6.4 Other Variants

235

accuracy of the grinding machine. Fig. 6-82 explicates the deviation arising from the process. burn

Material 16MnCr5

= 15 = 20°

Heat treatment quench hardening 860 °C/Öl EHT550 = 0,7 ... 1,0 mm

0,20

infeed ae

Gear data mn = 6 mm; z b = 15 mm; α β = 10°right x = 0,5

mm

0,10

ro k

min-1

et

fr

ro

be

0 200 300 500 mm/min 900 rolling speed vroll

130 90

ur n

st

0,05

nu m

Coolant lubricant grinding oil

es

210

Grinding worm EK 60 G8 Ke vs = 30 m/s

Fig. 6-81. Process parameters of discontinuous generating gear grinding with a double-tapered wheel

While the rolling motion progresses continuously, the grinding wheel performs a working stroke along the tooth flank. In this way, the profile of the tooth flank is not formed precisely as an involute but by means of a finite number of profile cuts as a polygon, and only the points of the profile cut lying on the contact path of the generatrix are in the theoretical involute profile. The distance between the penetration of two profile cuts and the theoretical involute is the profile-form deviation caused by the process. Fig. 6-83 shows the resulting involute surface. Deviations of the actual flank surface from the ideal involute surface are represented exaggeratedly, such that the straight lines of the polygon are distorted as parabolas. The largest deviations are at the tooth head. The lower part of Fig. 6-82 shows the path of process-induced profile-form deviation in the direction of the generatrix. At the end of the stroke, the fault is almost four times that of the middle of the stroke. A sensible choice of overrun path makes it possible to limit this error. In discontinuous generating gear grinding, the machine input parameters return-stroke number iRS, rolling speed vroll and depth of cut ae are selected from two points of view. The first is gear quality, and the second is the avoidance of grinding damage.

236

6 Grinding

contact path of the generatrix

ff

middle

ff middle

tooth width stroke

Grinding Wheel EK 60 G8 Ke vs = 30 m/s Coolant lubricant grinding oil

μm 5 0 number of return strokes iDH = 170 min-1 0,3

mm

burning

0,1 0

0

300 mm/min 900 roll speed vroll

time per circuit

15

process time

Gear mn = 6mm x = +0,5 z = 15 α = 20° b = 60 mm β = 10°right da = 109,1 mm

infeed ae

Material 16MnCr5

profile-formdeviation ff

Fig. 6-82. Qualitative representation of the flank topography in discontinuous generating gear grinding

15 min 5 0 30 min 10 0

0

300 mm/min 900 roll speed vroll

Heat treatment simple curing 860 °C/Öl Eht550 = 0,7 ... 1,0 mm

Fig. 6-83. The determination of optimal machine input data with respect to quality and machining duration in discontinuous gear grinding with a double-tapered wheel

6.4 Other Variants

237

Fig. 6-83 illustrates the relation between gear quality, material removal rate, machining duration and roll speed for one gear example. At low roll speeds, the profile-form deviation is smallest and the maximum allowable depth of cut the largest. Although the time per circuit is relatively high at low roll speeds, by means of a large depth of cut, the number of circuits can be reduced such that by conserving part-times the machining duration decreases with diminishing roll speed.

6.4.1.2 Continuous Generating Gear Grinding

In the case of continuous generating gear grinding, the tool used is a grinding worm with an exact gear rack profile (Fig. 6-84). The grinding worm and the gear are each driven by a separate synchronous reaction motor. The involute form arises by continuous rolling of the grinding worm and the gear. The process is not interrupted by subprocesses. The rolling motion is superimposed by an axial feed of the workpiece carriage. This feed causes the formation of the gear in the direction of the tooth flank and can be regulated smoothly within definite limits. The depth of cut takes place gradually at the upper and lower reversal points of the axial motion. Furthermore, there is the possibility that the workpiece can be shifted tangentially in order to exploit the grinding worm more effectively. This corresponds to the shift motion in hobbing. pivoting angle η

0° 45°

45°

axial feed fa

workpiece

depth of removal ae

shiftway sh

Fig. 6-84. Process input parameters in continuous generating gear grinding

238

6 Grinding

In continuous generating gear grinding, the material removal rate is restricted primarily by the realizable gear quality and not by the appearance of grinding damage. Since no subprocess takes place, individual pitch variation is very small. In this method, profile-form deviation is the main factor in gear quality. Fig. 6-85 delineates the flank topography of a tooth space ground with continuous generating gear grinding. The considerable increase in profile-form deviation ff with increasing axial feed is partially contingent on the infeed markings (Fig. 685, left diagram). 12,5

Evolvent ff diagram mm/Ü LF 10 μm μm

ff

fa

Measurement distance

Error

Gear data μm m = 6 mm n b = 60 mm 10 z = 15 α = 20° β = 10°right 7,5 x = +0,5

0,6

5

1,0

5,2

axial traverse 1,4 speed

8

1,8

9

2,2

10,5

2,6

13

5 fβf 2,5

fβf practical theoretical

0

0

1,0 mm per overrun 3,0 Axial traverse speed fa

Infeed ae = 0,03 mm / Hub

Fig. 6-85. Increase in profile-form deviation with increasing axial feed in continuous generating gear grinding

The right part of Fig. 6-85 shows the involute diagrams of gears ground with different feeds. The cause for the characteristic profile-form deviations (a groove in the middle of the involute) lies in the contact conditions between the grinding worm and the gear. In the transverse section of the gear, the grinding worm can be represented as a tooth rack, as can be seen in Fig. 6-86. With an even number of contact points (Fig. 6-86, above), an equal amount of contact points lie on the left and right flanks, so that there is a largely uniform distribution of force. If the amount of contact points is odd (Fig. 6-68, below), the distribution of force is imbalanced, which can lead to a characteristic profile-form deviation. The type of flank contact is determined by the tooth geometry, i.e. by the module, tooth number, engagement angle and helix angle, as well as by the number of threads the grinding worm has.

6.4 Other Variants

239

The material removal rate is determined by the grinding worm thread number, the grinding worm speed and the remaining machine input parameters. The relation between the variables and grinding burn is depicted in Fig. 6-87.

Grinding worm = Gear rack

Gear Even-numbered flank contact

Gear Uneven-numbered flank contact Fig. 6-86. Contact conditions in continuous generating gear grinding

Above right in Fig. 6-87, the percentile amount of grinding burn area on the tooth flank as a function of the axial feed and depth of cut is plotted. According to expectations, most grinding damage is seen with higher feed and depth of cut amounts, whereby grinding cracks do not generally appear. To what extent other changes besides visible grinding damage exist, such as hardness reduction in the workpiece external layers, is shown in Fig. 6-87, below. Upon it is plotted the Vickers hardness HV 0.3 over the distance s of the workpiece boundary for one gear respectively with light grinding burn (about 20 % area proportion) and with considerable grinding burn (about 50 %). For a tooth flank with extensive grinding burn, hardness clearly declines. This influences the load capacity of the gear. In the case of a tooth flank with light grinding burn, the measured hardness is scattered considerably, due to the very low test force, so that a reduction in hardness on the workpiece surface could not be clearly determined.

6 Grinding

left flank right flank mm/stroke

Material 16MnCr5

Grinding wheel EK100G8Ke (simplex) Coolant lubricant grinding oil

d

a

e

0,07 0,05 0,03 0,01 1,4

900

Hardness

Heat treatment Direkthärtung 920 °C/oil EHT550 = 0,7...1 mm

75 % 25 0

mm per overrun Axial feed fa

1,8

In fe e

Gear data mn = 6 mm z = 15 α = 20° β = 10° b = 60 mm x = +0,5

Burn

240

2,6

fa =1,8; ae = 0,03 s

HV 0,3 fa = 2,6 mm/overrun ae = 0,05 mm/stroke 0 0,25 0,5 mm 1,0 Distance s of the workpiece boundary

500

Fig. 6-87. Grinding damage in continuous generating gear grinding

6.4.1.3 Discontinuous Profile Grinding

Fig. 6-88 is a schematic representation of profile grinding of an external gear tooth spur gear. The grinding wheel exhibits the profile of the tooth space in transverse section. The grinding wheel profile is transferred to the tooth flank by the depth of cut ae in the radial direction corresponding to the decreasing stock allowance and a subsequent axial treatment with speed vf in the direction of tooth thickness. Since the grinding wheel form depends on the workpiece, any change in gear geometry, such as a profile modification of the tooth flank or machining the gear with other geometry data, requires a correspondingly profiled grinding wheel. In industry, dressable and galvanically bonded cBN grinding wheels are used. These grinding wheels, due to their large grain projections and the high wear resistance of the cBN grains, permit high material removal rates and service lives. The facts that they cannot be shaped and the resulting lack of flexibility however limit the use of galvanically bonded grinding wheels primarily to the manufacture of large batches. By using dressable grinding wheels there is the possibility of altering the profile of the grinding wheel by means of a dressing process [BAUS94, BOUC94]. In order therefore to make the manufacture of smaller batch sizes by means of discontinuous profile grinding economical as well, tooth flank profile grinding machines with an integrated dressing unit have been available for some time. The

6.4 Other Variants

241

profile of thereby engaged ceramically bonded grinding wheels are created by generating the involute profile with a diamond form roller. grinding wheel

ae vc

Δs stock allowance

vf

workpiece

Fig. 6-88. Discontinuous tooth flank profile grinding in dual-flank section

In tooth flank profile grinding, two different stock distributions are used depending on the process strategy selected. The most frequently applied process in industrial praxis is radial stock distribution (Fig. 6-89, right). In this method, the grinding wheel possesses the profile required to achieve the final geometry and machining occurs in several radial cuts. Here, a two-flank treatment is possible, which is advantageous with respect to machining durations. The disadvantage of this strategy is that the grinding wheel makes contact only with the root flank in the initial grinding strokes. The stock allowance in the area of the tip flank and the tooth root fillet is only ground in the last few strokes, so the risk of grinding burn is especially high here. Moreover, modifications of the flank line across the width of the gear are realised by moving the grinding wheel radially. In this way, deviations of the profile geometry from the target geometry occur on the faces of the gears. If these deviations are to be avoided, the grinding process must be executed with a single flank. For this, the grinding profile must be dressed thinner, i.e. a larger addendum modification (profile displacement?). The cutting motion is executed by means of a rotation of the workpiece. In this process strategy, an equidistant stock allowance is ground across the profile height of the gear (Fig. 6-89,

242

6 Grinding

left). This process strategy however has a negative effect on machining durations, since both flanks must be ground separately.

Equidistant stock distribution

Radial Stock distribution

(Δs = const.)

(ae = const.) infeed dir. of grinding wheel ae

A 1st cut 1. Schnitt / Umlauf cycle

Δs Δs

A

e

2. Schnitt / Umlauf

tip flank

Δs

Δs

2nd cut cycle B

B Δs Δs ΔΔss

ae

st cut ae 1.1Schnitt / Umlauf cycle a ae 2.2Schnitt nd / cut Umlauf a cycle ae3. Schnitt / Umlauf A 3nd cut cycle

A

A

root flank 1. Schnitt / Umlauf 1st cut cycle 2. Schnitt / Umlauf 2nd cut cycle

B

B

tip flank root flank

e

ae

B

Zahnrad

1st cut ae1. Schnitt / Umlauf cycle ae2. Schnitt 2nd /cut Umlauf a cycle ae3. Schnitt / Umlauf 3rd cut cycle ae

Flankenaufmaß

stock allowance

Gear

B

e

Fig. 6-89. Stock distribution for varying process strategies in tooth flank profile grinding

Fig. 6-90 shows a profile grinding machine with an integrated dressing unit for tooth flank profile grinding. Cutting of the workpiece occurs along the Y-axis with the workpiece carriage, upon which is mounted the semi-automatic unit with the mandrel and the gear (A-axis). The axial feed motion is realised by moving the grinding support in the X-direction. The Z-axis serves to position the grinding wheel and component axis on one level. In the case of angle-serrated spur gears, the B-axis is pivoted around the helix angle of the gear before machining. Additionally, during the machining process, the gear (A-axis) is rotated in conjunction with the X-axis in accordance with the helix angle. During dressing, the contour of the grinding wheel is created by implementation of the X- and Y-axes, whereby the dressing roller and grinding wheel axes are level with each other (Fig. 6-90, right). In profile grinding, there are complex contact areas between the grinding wheel and the workpiece in transverse section, as Fig. 6-91 illustrates for the treatment of an angle-serrated spur gear. In the upper part of the picture, the contact between the grinding wheel and the tooth space is shown for a particular depth of cut. The dimensions of the engagement surface is relatively large, whereby the boundary of the contact zone has a complex formation due to the transition from the involute profile to the root of the tooth space. The machining rates vary along the tooth height and width. To clarify this, the tooth space has been unwound into one plane

6.4 Other Variants

243

in the lower half of the illustration. In the rear areas of the tooth space and at the tooth tip, no cutting is momentarily taking place. The individual machining values can be read from the flank outline and the tooth width as a function of the path. In general, removal decreases across the flank outline for both tooth flanks from tooth tip to the transition from tooth flank to root, while at the tooth root the maximum material removal rate is reached after a clear increase. In the direction of tooth thickness, removal is largely constant. In the exit area of the grinding wheel, the material removal rate is drastically reduced. B-BaAxci

hsse

Schleifsupport grining support

Z--Aachse xis

s

Z

-ax i

A-A c A hse

freeFreistrahldüsen jet nozzle

X-Ac h

X-a xis

Schleifen Grinding se

gear e chs Y-A

Abricht-

Meausring sensor

Measure Messen

dressing unit

xis Y-a

interiorInnenraum room

Abrichten Dressing

Fig. 6-90. Tooth flank profile grinding machine with an integrated dressing unit from the Kapp company

Profile grinding is particularly effective in comparison to generating methods. However, the large contact zones at high material removal rates and the high heat levels in the workpiece associated with this demand sufficient cooling lubricant supply in the grinding gap. The material removal rate of tooth flank profile grinding is limited primarily by the grinding power and heat increase and the grinding burn damage resulting from it. As opposed to generating methods, the removal rate (feed rate, depth of cut) has only a minor influence on gear quality. The service life end of the grinding wheel is reached, on the one hand, due to insufficient cutting power of the abrasive coating caused by wear, which in turn leads to influences on the material’s structure. On the other hand, profile-form wear of the grinding wheel signals the end of service life if permissible deviations from the target profile of the tooth space are exceeded and gear quality can thus no longer be maintained [BAUS94, BOUC94].

244

6 Grinding

tooth space

profile grinding

front cutting plane grinded area stock removal

0 5

15 10

boundary of the contact zone line contact

depth of cut boundary of the contact zone

0

10 tooth 0 width [mm] -10

-200

removed material [μm]

stock removal

0 5 10 15 path on the flank outline [mm]

Fig. 6-91. Contact zone and material removal in tooth flank profile grinding

6.4.1.4 Continuous Profile Grinding

In continuous profile grinding, a globoid-shaped grinding worm serves as the grinding tool. As opposed to continuous generating gear grinding, the globoidshaped grinding worm does not have a tooth rack profile as its reference profile, but rather the contour of a tooth flank. Since we are dealing with a profile grinding process, contact between the grinding wheel and the tooth space approximates linear contact. These altered engagement conditions lead to fundamentally different kinematics than in generating grinding. Depth of cut and infeed correspond to each other, whereby a gyratory feed motion between the tooth flank and the globoid grinding worm occurs. A stroke motion in the direction of tooth thickness is generally not required since the contact areas between the gear and the globoid grinding worm are present across the entire width of the gear. Therefore, cutting across the width of the grinding wheel is guaranteed. The shifting used in continuous generating grinding to increase the tool’s service life cannot by carried out in continuous profile grinding (Fig. 6-92).

6.4 Other Variants

245

rotation infeed rotary motion with overlayed infeed no axial feed no shifting

Fig. 6-92. Continuous tooth flank profile grinding

Due to the nearly linear contact between the globoid grinding worm and the gear, a corresponding grinding strategy and tool geometry is necessary in order to avoid penetration of the tool and the workpiece (Fig. 6-93). grinding worm

centering

1. rapid motion forward 1,2 2. dipping 3. roughing left 4. smoothing left 5. sparking-out left 6. reset Zahnrad 3 7. roughing right 4 8. smoothing right 9. sparking-out right 5 6 10. reset 11. emerge 12. rapid motion rewind 3,4,5

end

1

12

2

main centeringprecenteringfinger finger 11 automatic centering 10

Δϕ Fig. 6-93. The kinematics of continuous profile grinding

gear

9

7

8

7,8,9 Δϕ

246

6 Grinding

The gear is exactly aligned in its rotational position with the help of a precentring and main centring finger (above right). The tool is connected with the tool spindle by means of a carrying device. Then the operating speed of the gear is synchronised with that of the grinding worm by means of an electronic measuring system. After adjusting in rapid operation to the full profile depth of the gear, the grinding gear is centred exactly in the central position of the tooth space (1, 2). In order to avoid penetration of grinding worm and gear, the tooth space profile has a slight undersize in comparison with the grinding worm profile. The machining cut occurs in accordance with the so-called rotational feed method by means of a precisely defined rotary motion with overlaid infeed. During roughing, the rotational/cutting speed is raised accordingly in comparison to subsequent smoothing and sparking out (3, 4, 5). In this way, first the tooth flanks of one side are machined before the flanks of the other side are processed by turning back the gear by twice the angle number (6, 7, 8, 9). The machining process end with turning the gear into the centre of the space and its subsequent emergence from the tooth space into the exit position (10, 11, 12). Since in continuous profile grinding the profile of the target tooth flank and the profile of the globoid grinding worm are approximately identical, the grinding worm is tool-bound. This necessitates, as in discontinuous profile grinding with galvanically single-coated tools, that each type of gear has its own tool. As opposed to discontinuous profile grinding, only conventional grinding wheels are used, dressed with a profiled dressing tool. The contour of diamond-coated dressing tools exhibits a similar contour as the gear that is later to be ground. Thus the flexibility of this method is clearly limited due to the high costs of the dressing wheel, which is why it is almost exclusively utilised in large batch production. Fig. 6-94 shows the workspace of a machine used for continuous profile grinding. The centring fingers are arranged below the driveshaft clamped by a internal spring chuck and the opposing tip. The grinding support is adjusted radially with the grinding worm. The dressing tool is driven into the tool position for the profiling process by means of an additional axis and is clamped accordingly. The applicable machining parameters for continuous profile grinding are, in roughing, limited by structure influences as a result of the high grinding power and resulting increase in heat in the tool. In finishing, the given permissible surface roughness of the flanks limits the material removal rate. The end of the tool’s service life (the duration between two dressing cycles) is determined either by an unallowable reduction in gear quality as a result of profile-form wear or insufficient grinding worm cutting power, leading to textural influence on the tool or to increased deviation of the flank line.

6.4 Other Variants

247

vc x Dressing tool

Globoid-grinding wheel workpiece (driveshaft )

c

centering finger

Fig. 6-94. The workspace of a machine with tool clamping, centering and charging device (Reishauer)

6.4.1.5 Application of Various Gear-Grinding Methods

The areas of application of the particular methods can be briefly summarized as follows. Discontinuous Generating Gear Grinding with two Disc Grinding Wheels: • • • • •

gear quality up to quality 2 according to DIN 3961 [DIN78], long machining durations, suitable for gears up to module 36 mm and about 5 m external diameter, single production, especially dressing tools, machining occurs with conventional grinding wheels.

Discontinuous Generating Gear Grinding with a Double-Tapered Wheel: • average to high gear quality (quality 3 to 6), • average to short machining durations, • also applicable for large gears up to module 40 mm and about 4.5 m external diameter,

248

6 Grinding

• very flexible handling, • machining occurs with conventional grinding wheels.

Continuous Generating Gear Grinding with a Grinding Worm: • • • •

average gear quality (quality 4 to 7), suitable for gears up to module 8 mm and about 0.8 m external diameter, batch and small batch production, less suited to single production, machining occurs with conventional grinding wheels or with galvanically bonded cBN grinding wheels.

Discontinuous Profile Grinding: • • • •

average to high gear quality (quality 3 to 6), the only possible method to produce gear rings, high flexibility in NC dressing control, machining occurs with conventional grinding wheels or with ceramically or galvanically bonded cBN grinding wheels.

Continuous Profile Grinding: • • • • •

average gear quality (quality 4 to 5), very short machining durations (1 to 3 s/tooth), suitable for gears up to module 3 mm and about 0.14 m external diameter, large match production, machining occurs with conventional grinding wheels.

6.4.2 Gear Honing Gear honing is a finishing method for gears which was originally employed after grinding in order to produce surface structures on the tooth flanks favourable to noise emission. Small stock allowances of about 15 μm would be removed from the flanks. As the process developed further, it was able to be utilized directly after hardening, eliminating grinding from the process chain. As opposed to grinding, gear honing works with low cutting speeds (0.5 to 10 m/s), so thermal damage to the machined gears can be eliminated. On the contrary, internal pressure stresses are induced in the tooth flanks, which has a positive effect on the component’s load capacity [KOEL00].

6.4 Other Variants

249

In principle, the gear-shaped tool can have external or internal teeth. Due to the superior overlay and the resultantly lower tool wear, gear honing with internal gear tooth tools are used industrially (Fig. 6-95).

d Ad

m du en

Position of generating diameter

VL Vrel

VH

um nd de e D

A : Tool axis of rotation C1: Tool spindle axis C2: Workpiece spindle axis

Grit path

Workpiece

Honing tool

Fig. 6-95. Gear honing machine from the Fässler company.

During the process, the tool (honing tool) and the workpiece (gear) rotate synchronously. In addition, the rotation axes of both of these intermating partners are offset from each other by the so-called axis cross angle. By means of the generating motion and the axis intersection angle, there is a relative speed between the grains and the flanks of the workpiece. The tool is brought into proximity with the workpiece by the depth setting motion of the machine at high speeds. by means of which a high pressure is exerted on the grains in the tool teeth. In this way, material is removed from the workpiece flanks. The maximum cutting speed vx possible in gear honing is limited by the capacity of the tool and by machine rigidity. However, there are also further dependences on the tooth number ratio between the tool and the workpiece and the resultant gear ratio. In order to quantify the performance of the tool at varying tool tooth numbers, the specific depth of cut per tool rotation ae,hon has proven to be the most useful technological parameter for describing the honing process (Fig. 6-96).

250

6 Grinding

The machining duration of one workpiece is proportional to the stock allowance to be honed and inversely proportional to the relative depth of cut ae,hon. Machining situation

Technological parameter vX

Honing tool

Δs

Work piece Infeed per workpiece revolution vX Δs ae,hon = sin α thon ~ ae,hon nwst Fig. 6-96. Technological parameters in gear honing

In the case of dressable tools, the honing tool consists of a synthetic resin or ceramic bond, into which the grits (made, for example, of precious corundum, sintered corundum or cBN) are embedded. The honing tool can also be designed as a steel body on which the cBN or diamond grains are galvanically bonded. To clean the honing tool, a fluid honing oil is sprayed on the teeth of the honing stone by means of adjustably arranged nozzles. The honing oil rinses chips and broken-off abrasive grains away from the machining zone. Shortly before the final size is obtained, the NC-axes are controlled synchronously. In this way, surface quality can be improved on the one hand, and on the other defined crownings can be produced. The honing tool is profiled both before machining the first workpiece of a new series as well as in the case of wear. First, the tip diameter of the honing ring is shortened with the help of a diamond dressing roller. After dressing the tip, the tooth flanks of the honing ring are dressed with a diamond dressing gear wheel. Its motions correspond to those of the honing cycle. However, dressing speeds are much lower than honing speeds. The amount of honing stone material removed is compensated automatically by the machine [BAUS94]. The diamond dressing gear wheel consists of a hardened steel body covered with diamond grains bonded in nickel. This diamond dressing gear wheel contains all required corrections, e.g. tip reductions, base reductions, conicity, crownings and topological corrections. By re-grinding after coating, irregularities of the diamond wheel coating are reduced, and changes to the modifications can be ground in to a small extent.

6.5 Process Design

251

6.5 Process Design In order to make a sufficient analysis of the grinding process, a number of influences must be taken into account, and their relevance of their respective effects on the process must be evaluated. Some essential input parameters are the grinding tool, the workpiece to be machined, the variables as well as influences derivable from cooling lubricants, the grinding machine or the machine environment. In the case of the grinding tool, besides its geometry, its specification is also of particular importance. The material used as well as its heat treatment condition is influential on the grinding process. The geometry of the component to be ground influences the process kinematics and its static and dynamic rigidity during machining. The machining goal can only be achieved by means of a targeted selection of variables as well as an engagement preparation of the grinding wheel that is adapted to the respective machining task. The type of process execution, i.e. the design of the process steps roughing, finishing and sparking-out, is also decisive with respect to workpiece quality. Moreover, cooling lubrication also claims significant importance for the process and its result. Cooling lubricants with their various cooling and lubricating properties as well as the supply system used influence the chip formation process, grinding tool wear, and last but not least, the cutting forces. Further influences can be derived from the grinding machine with its static and dynamic rigidity behaviour. These dynamic characteristics are often the reason for undesirable process disturbances, e.g. rattling oscillations, which can also be caused by the environment of the grinding machine. Grinding process design is a highly complex task due to the large number of influential factors and their interaction. In the following, we will take a closer inspection of the most essential of hitherto mentioned process input parameters and their effects on process result and parameters.

6.5.1 The Influence of Variables and Parameters on the Result The input variables of the grinding process determine the process parameters and the grinding results to a decisive degree. A continuous chip removal is guaranteed according to DIN 6580 by the coordination of the cutting motions and the infeed motion. The infeed motion can be composed of several components. Moreover, in some methods, a depth setting motions is also involved, which can also be conceived as incrementally executed components of one infeed motion. The infeed radial, tangential and axial to the grinding wheel is represented by the variables fr, ft and fa. The depth of cut ae designates the depth setting motion in the working plane, while the contact width ap is perpendicular to this. The contact

252

6 Grinding

infeed af points in the direction of the infeed motion of the grinding tool. Technological regularities are described with the help of systematics forming the basis for external and surface peripheral plunge grinding but which simultaneously can be used to describe other methods. The Influence of the Depth of Cut ae In Fig. 6-97, the influence of the depth of cut on process parameters and the result has been qualitatively represented. Input parameters Spec. material removal

Process parameters FnFn FtFt

Ft

ae Depth of cut

Result

cutting forces Cutting forces FnFn Ft vfr

a (aee)

Q'w

form error Form error gage error ffk (dimension fault) k

Cutting rate PcPc cutting power v

(ae) vw Workpiece speed

ΔrΔr s s' AskAsk

Wear wear v

a(ae fre)

vc Cutting speed

fr a(a e e)

v a(aefre)

Surface surfaceroughness quality Ra Ra Rt Rt Rz vvfrfr a(aee)

Temperature ϑ ϑ temperature vfr

a(aee)

V'w tc

Cutting time

Influence on surface layer z

zϑϑ v (ae)

ae fr

Spec. material removal ae

Fig. 6-97. The influence on feed rate and depth of cut on process parameters and output

With an increase in the feed rate/depth of cut, an increase in the cutting forces results from the higher chip thicknesses and increasing kinematic cutting edge number. The experimental results for surface and external cylindrical peripheral grinding shown in Figs. 6-98 and 6-99 illustrate the degressive increase of normal and tangential force [GUEH67]. The momentary cutting number increases with the depth of cut due to the rising contact length. The chip cross-sectional area and thus the load on each grain also goes up with the depth of cut. Since the total forces are calculated from the sum of the forces on the particular cutting edges, and both the number of cutting edges being engaged and the load on the grains are increasing, the total forces must also increase.

6.5 Process Design

253

Spec. tangential force F‘t

30

Grinding wheel A 100 Q B Workpiece Ck 45 N Grinding parameters vw = 12.5 mm/s Cooling lubricant Oil

vc = 45 m/s vc = 60 m/s vc = 80 m/s N/mm

10 Grinding burn F't ~ ae0.795 0

400

800

μm

1600

mm³/mms

20

Depth of cut ae 0

5

10

Spec. material removal rate Q‘w Fig. 6-98. Increase in tangential force with rising material removal rates and falling cutting speeds 50

Spec. normal force F‘n

N/mm

30

20

vc = 20 m/s

10 = Q'w 0 0

15

30

45

60

grenz

75

vc vc vc vc

= 40 m/s = 60 m/s = 80 m/s = 90 m/s

Grinding wheel A 80 L 7 V Workpiece Ck 45 N Grinding parameters q = 60 V'w = 500 mm³/mm Cooling lubricant Oil

90 mm³/mms 120

Spec. material removal rate Q‘w Fig. 6-99. The influence of the material removal rate and cutting speed on the specific normal force

Wear on the grinding wheel is also dependent on the material removal rate. We have already seen in chapter 2 how essentially two wear mechanisms are responsible for this. • The dulling of individual grits by mechanical abrasion, adhesion, corrosion, diffusion as well as by microcracks and fractures caused by thermal stress. • Break-out of entire abrasive grains or grain groups from excessive strain on the bond or from thermal or chemical wear on the binder.

254

6 Grinding

Only the interaction of both of these types of wear characterises the wear behaviour of a grinding wheel. We speak of a “self-sharpening effect” if dull grains fall out of the bond at the right time due to the higher effective force, liberating new grains. The radial wear speed Δr&s is variable for comparing the wear behaviour of a grinding wheel. As opposed to radial wear, which is assigned to an amount of material removal, the duration of stress on the grinding wheel, which varies with the specific material removal rate Q'w, is also involved in Δr&s . Fig. 6-100 shows the influence of the specific removal rate on the radial wear speed and the forms of wear thus appearing [BIER75]. At relatively low material removal rates, manifestations of micro-wear form due to the high specific thermal and mechanical stresses, leading to a pressure softening of grain tip. This can lead in turn to flat grit surfaces and thus to a reduction of cutting power [PEKL96]. At higher Q'w, wear behaviour is primarily determined by increasing mechanical stress. Depending on the material removal rate, splitting-off of crystal groups, break-out of grit parts or, in case the bond strength is exceeded, break-our of entire grains can occur [PEKL58a]. Macro wear Micro wear

.

Radial wear rate ?r s

Grain breakout Grain breakage Micro breakout Abrasion

Spec. material removal rate Q’w Fig. 6-100. The influence of the material removal rate on wear

In the case of external cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding, the profile of the grinding wheel is reproduced on the workpiece. Thus, edge wear is generally often the criterion for service life in this method. In investigations of the determination of the service volume (volume removed up to the point a given service life end has

6.5 Process Design

255

been reached), the relation shown in Fig. 6-101 between the edge wear area Ase and the material removal rate was found. 0,25

Edge wear area Ask

mm²

0,15

0,10

vc vc vc vc vc

0,05 0 0

15

30

45

60

75

= 20 m/s = 40 m/s = 60 m/s = 80 m/s = 90 m/s

Grinding wheel A 80 L 7 V Workpiece Ck 45 N Grinding parameters q = 60 V' w = 500 mm³/mm Cooling lubricant Oil

90 mm³/mms 120

Spec. material removal rate Q‘w Fig. 6-101. Increase in edge wear with rising material removal rates and falling cutting speeds

Varying results can be found in the literature regarding the height of the temperatures appearing during the process and their effect on the output [LOWI79]. This can be partially derived from the fact that both the absolute temperature height in the contact zone as well as heat development processes in layers near the surface are difficult to obtain. For this reason, the temperature in the workpiece is given primary significance. The fact that the duration the heat action time is also important for the thermal stress on the external zone is ignored. Temperature in the workpiece is dependent first and foremost on the cutting power, since up to 80 % of the cutting power flows into the workpiece as heat. The temperature increase in the workpiece associated with rising depths of cut can thus be attributed to the increase in cutting power/tangential force (Fig. 6-102). Errors in form and dimension occur in grinding primarily from high cutting forces and grinding wheel wear and thus vary with respect to their mechanisms of origin. The profile accuracy of a workpiece depends for example on wear, errors in roundness on the other hand on the deformation of the total system and thus on the cutting force. One must therefore check which process parameter is responsible for each form and dimensional fault [BOET79]. With increasing depths of cut/feed rates, the surface quality of the workpiece worsens [GUEH67, HOEN75, KOEN75, SALJ55, SPER70]. Fig. 6-103 shows the degressive increase in the average surface roughness Ra with the specific material removal rate. The increasing roughness is attributable, like the cutting force, to the chip thickness, which increases with the material removal rate. We can thus ascer-

256

6 Grinding

tain basic agreements between the developing of the cutting force and of surface roughness.

Dry

Max. temperature ϑ max

1000

0C

600 Emulsion 400 Oil vw = 20 mm/s vw = 100 mm/s vw = 250 mm/s vw = 500 mm/s

200 Distance from surface z = 0.1 mm 0

0.2

mm

Grinding wheel A 100 B Workpiece C 15 N Grinding parameters vc = 60 m/s ds = 500 mm Cooling lubricant Oil

0.6

Depth of cut ae Fig. 6-102. Temperatures in the external zone of the workpiece as a function of the depth of cut, the cooling lubricant and workpiece speed

Average surface roughness Ra

2,5

μm

1,5 v c = 20 m/s v c = 40 m/s v c = 60 m/s v c = 80 m/s v c = 90 m/s

1,0

0,5

0

15

30

45

60

75

Grinding wheel A 80 L 7 V Workpiece Ck 45 N Grinding parameters V' w = 500 mm3/mm q = 60 Cooling lubricant Oil

90 mm3/mms 120

Spec. material removal rate Q‘w Fig. 6-103. The influence of the material removal rate and cutting speed on surface quality

Finally, Fig. 6-104 illustrates the effects of the material removal rate on surface layer. Corresponding to the heat development increasing along with the material removal rate and the climb in temperature associated with it, the depth of the in-

6.5 Process Design

257

fluenced surface layer also increases. As a result of this structural influence, the hardness of the surface layer also changes. In the case at hand, a reduction in hardness with increasing material removal rates was found. Apparently the thermal stress brought forth by increasing material removal rates exerted an annealing effect on the hardened base material. 75 vw = 30 m/min

Grinding w heel: A 60 I 6 V

Depth of annealed Surface layer zj

μm 25

vw = 60 m/min

0 75

Workpiece 100 Cr 6 V Grinding parameters vc = 30 m/s Cooling lubricant Emulsion (3%)

vw = 30 m/min

Grinding w heel: A 60 N 8 V

μm 25 0

0

vw = 60 m/min

2.5

5

7.5

mm3/mms

12.5

Spec. material removal rate Q‘w Fig. 6-104. The depth of the annealed surface layer for various grinding conditions

The Influence of Cutting Speed Fig. 6-105 provides an overview of the relation of the process parameters and output to the cutting speed. Raising the cutting speed has a positive effect on the cutting forces, mechanical wear and surface quality [ERNS65, KASS69, LOWI79, WERN71]. However, problems also occur when high cutting speeds are used, e.g. higher thermal stress on the workpiece and the necessity of increased safety measures. High-speed grinding is utilised either as a high-performance grinding method in order to shorten the machining duration at consistent quality or as a quality grinding method in order to improve the workpiece quality at constant material removal rate. If the cutting speed is increased at a constant material removal rate, the advantages are reduced cutting forces, fewer shape errors as well as a larger cutting ratio and improved workpiece roughness. Increasing the cutting speed leads however to an increase in cutting power, which can lead to an increase in heat energy in the workpiece and thus to thermal damage to the component. If the goal of high-speed grinding is an increase in productivity, this can be achieved by simultaneously increasing the material removal rate with constant workpiece quality.

258

6 Grinding

Input parameters Spec. material removal

Process parameters f orces FnF n cutting Cutting force Fn FtF t Fn

ae

Ft

Depth of cut

Result

Q'w

Ft

v

fr v(a c ) e

ffkk

f orm error Form error gage errorfault) (dimension

PcPc Grinding pow er cutting power vfr

vw

vw

v(ace)

vcvfr

(ae)

Workpiece speed

ΔrΔsrs' AA sk s k

Wear wear

vcvfr

Surface roughness surf ace quality Ra Ra Rt Rt Rz v fr (a v ce)

(ae)

vc Cutting speed

Temperature ϑ ϑ temperature v

fr v(a c e)

V'w tc

z

Inf luence on Influence on the rim layer zone surface

zϑϑ

Cutting time

Spec. material removal

vfr vc ) (a e

vc

Fig. 6-105. The influence of cutting speed on process parameters and output

Fig. 6-106 shows the decline of cutting force with higher cutting speeds for various material removal rates. This decline can be attributed to falling chip crosssectional areas as well as to the smaller kinematic cutting edge numbers. The graphs can be flatter or steeper depending on the workpiece material. Cutting power is the product of tangential force and cutting speed. Since both tangential and normal force become smaller with higher cutting speeds, the course of cutting power depends on whether the cutting speed increase can compensate for the loss of cutting force. In praxis, cutting power basically goes up with an increase in cutting speed. The theoretical borderline case Pc=Pc(vc)=konst. does not occur in praxis. Higher cutting speed lead to fewer radial and edge wear (Fig. 6-107). Because of the reduced chip cross-sectional area, mechanical stress on the grinding wheel is also lessened. Growing frictional speeds as well as the engagement frequency are often overcompensated by the lower contact pressure and the shorter engagement durations [KASS69, SPER70, WERN71]. In exceptional cases, grinding wheel wear can increase again due to high thermal stress when a certain speed is exceeded. This is especially true for grinding wheels bonded with synthetic resin [KOEN71].

6.5 Process Design 36 q = 60 q = 75 q = 100 q = 150

Spec. normal force F‘n

N/mm 28

Q'w = 8 mm3/mms

Q'w = 6 mm3/mms

24 20

Q'w = 3 mm3/mms

16 12

259

Grinding wheel A 60 L 6 V Workpiece Ck 45 N Grinding parameters V' w = 300 mm³/mm Cooling lubricant Emulsion (17%)

Q'w = 2 mm3/mms 8 Q'w = 1 mm3/mms

4 0

30

0

40

m/s

60

Cutting speed vc Fig. 6-106. Falling normal force with rising cutting speed and a falling material removal rate 0.25

Grinding wheel A 80 L 7 V Workpiece Ck 45 N Grinding parameters q = 60 Q'w = 8 mm³/mms V' w = 500 mm³/mm Cooling lubricant Oil

Edge wear area Ask

mm²

0.15

0.10

0.05

0

20

40

60

m/s

100

Cutting speed vc Fig. 6-107. Lower wear by means of higher cutting speeds

The increase in cutting power together with the cutting speed leads to higher temperatures (Fig. 6-108). At the same time, various cooling lubricants have an effect both on the maximum temperature and on the increase in temperature [DEDE72, MALK76]. The reduction of errors in form and dimension is to be attributed to cutting forces, which become smaller with higher speeds, as well as to reduce grinding wheel wear. When a service life criterion is specified, profile accuracy for example, the tool life can be increased by raising the cutting speed.

260

6 Grinding

1200

Max. temperature ϑmax

Distance from surface z = 0.1 mm

Grinding wheel A 100 P B Workpiece C 15 N Grinding parameter Q'w = 10 mm³/mms vw = 100 mm/s ae = 0.1 mm ds = 500 mm

Dry

°C

Emulsion

400 Oil

0

0

m/s

30

90

Cutting speed vc Fig. 6-108. Lower cutting speeds and good lubrication reduce the workpiece temperature

As Fig. 6-109 illustrates, the roughness of the workpiece surface drops with higher cutting speeds [ERNS57, ERNS65, KASS69, SPER70, WERN71]. The causes here as well are the smaller chip cross-sectional areas, which appear despite sinking kinematic cutting edge numbers.

Average surface roughness Ra

2.5

Grinding wheel A 80 L7 V Workpiece Ck 45 N Grinding parameters q = 60 Q'w = 8 mm³/mms V' w = 500 mm³/mm Cooling lubricant Oil

μm

1.5

1.0

0.5

0

0

20

40

60

m/s

100

Cutting speed vc Fig. 6-109. High cutting speeds improve surface quality

Corresponding to the higher temperature in the contact zone, the depth of the influenced surface layer also increases with the cutting speed. Here too, materialspecific properties, e.g. heat conductivity, must also be taken into consideration.

6.5 Process Design

261

The Influence of the Depth of Cut and Workpiece Speed in Surface Grinding In the case of surface peripheral plunge grinding, there is a possibility of changing the material removal rate by means of both workpiece speed and the depth of cut. However, one can also alter both variables in an inverse fashion such that Q'w remains constant. Fig. 6-110 shows how the methodological variants of deep feed grinding (large depth of cut ae, low workpiece speed vw) and pendulum grinding (small depth of cut ae, high workpiece speed vw) affect process parameters and the output. The low workpiece speeds involved in deep feed grinding, also known as creep feed grinding, in conjunction with the large depth of cut lead to long, thin chips and a large contact arc. The chip volume accrued per cutting edge is larger that in pendulum grinding and cooling lubricant supply to the machining location is more difficult. The deep feed grinding wheel must therefore exhibit a sufficiently large chip space. For the methodological variants of deep feed and pendulum grinding, specific grinding wheels have been developed that take into account the varying kinematic conditions. Input parameters Stellgrößen bez. Zerspanungsvolumen Spec. material removal v fr aee) (a Q' Vorschubgeschw Depth of cut . w (Zustellung) vw vwe) (a

Process parameters FnF n FtF t

cutting f orces Cutting forces Fn Fn Ft Ft

ae vfr vw(ae) avfre (ae) vw

Werkstückgeschw Workpiece speed.

ffkk

Grinding pow er PcPc cutting power

ΔrΔs rs ' AsAk s k

Wear wear ae v fr vw(ae)

Surface roughness surf ace quality Ra Ra RtRt Rz avefr (ae) v w

Temperature ϑ ϑ temperature aevfr vw(ae)

V'w tc

Cutting time

bez.material Zerspanungsvolumen Spec. removal

f orm error Form error gage errorfault) (dimension

ae v efr va w (a vwe)

aev fr vw(ae)

vc Schnittgeschw Cutting speed .

Result

z

Inf luence on Influence on the rimlayer zone surface

z ϑϑ

avefr v(aw e)

ae vw

Fig. 6-110. The influence of the depth of cut and workpiece speed on the process parameters and output in surface peripheral plunge grinding

A comparison of methods when using a single grinding wheel should therefore not cover the entire range from deep feed to pendulum grinding, but rather be attuned to the area of application dictated by the respective grinding wheel.

262

6 Grinding

If grinding wheels suitable for pendulum grinding are also used for creep feed grinding and vice versa, varying curve shapes result depending on the variables. For example, wear increases if a grinding wheel made for pendulum grinding is used in creep feed grinding conditions, while it decreases when a grinding wheel made for creep feed grinding is used. Furthermore, one must take it into consideration that the material removal rate at which the ae-vw combination results also influences the curve shapes. If the depths of cut and workpiece speed are varied at a low specific material removal rate, the differences between deep feed and pendulum grinding are generally smaller than when there is a ae-vw combination with a high material removal rate. The increase in cutting forces along with the depth of cut at a constant material removal rate can be explained by the following mechanisms. With a larger depth of cut and lower workpiece speed, the chip cross-sectional area is diminished. At the same time, the actual cutting edge number increases because of the larger contact length, although the kinematic cutting edge number is reduced as a result of the lower workpiece speed and the resultantly lower chip thickness [KASS69, WERN71]. The reduction of the chip cross-sectional area is overcompensated by the increase in actual cutting edges such that the cutting force as a whole rises. In accordance with the increase in cutting force, the cutting power Pc also increases with the depth of cut (Fig. 6-111). 50

Grinding wheel A 100 M 7 B Grinding parameters vc = 60 m/s Q'w = 10 mm³/mms Cooling lubricant Oil

Grinding Power Pc

kW X210Cr12 20

S6-5-2 X10CrNiMoTi1810

10

0 0

100 200 300 400 500

600 700 800

μm 1000

Depth of cut a e 250 100

50 33,3

25

20

16,7 14,3 12,5 mm/s 10

Workpiece vw Fig. 6-111. Power requirements as a function of the depth of cut and workpiece speed when grinding various materials

When a grinding wheel for pendulum grinding is used (Fig. 6-112), the edge wear area Ase increases with the depth of cut [KOEN71]. Other investigations in creep feed grinding utilising a grinding wheel suited to this process have shown that edge wear decreases again after a maximum value is exceeded, resulting in more favourable vales than in pendulum grinding [SALJ77].

6.5 Process Design 0.06

Grinding wheel A 100 P B Grinding parameters vc = 60 m/s Q'w = 10 mm³/mms V' w = 1000 mm³/mm Cooling lubricant Oil

Edge wear area Ask

mm2 0.04

X210Cr12

0.03

S6-5-2

0.02

X10CrNiMoTi1810

0.01 0 0

100 200

300 400 500

263

600 700 800 μm 1000

Depth of cut a e 500

100

50 33.3 25

20

16.7 14.3 12.5 mm/s10

Workpiece speed vw Fig. 6-112. Area of edge wear as a function of the depth of cut and workpiece speed for various materials

Average surface roughness Ra

1.6

Workpiece Ck 45 N Grinding parameters Q'w = 10 mm³/mms Cooling lubricant Oil

A 100 P B

μm

0.8 A 100 M 7 V 0.4

0

100 200 300

400 500 600

700 800 μm

1000

Depth of cut a e 500 100

50

33.3

25

20 16.7 14.3 12.5 mm/s

10

Workpiece speed vw Fig. 6-113. Surface quality as a function of the depth of cut and workpiece speed for various grinding wheel specifications

Disparities in wear can be explained with the help of two mechanisms that influence pendulum and creep feed grinding differently. On the one hand, in pendulum grinding the number of cuts is larger so that an increase in wear is especially apparent when soft creep feed discs are used. On the other hand, temperature and stress duration both increase during creep feed grinding, becoming dominant cases of wear. The longer action time of the heat source during creep feed grinding also contributes to this. Form and dimensional faults exhibit parallel behaviour to the

264

6 Grinding

parameters that cause them, so there is a relation to both the cutting forces as well as to wear. Fig. 6-113 shows the relation of the average surface roughness Ra to the depth of cut and workpiece speed. Since chip thickness decreases degressively at constant specific material removal rates with increasing depths of cut, deep feed grinding can produce a better surface quality than pendulum grinding [KASS69, KOEN71, SALJ77, SPER70]. The Influence of Workpiece Speed in External Plunge Grinding In the case of external cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding, the material removal rate generally set by the radial feed rate. Workpiece speed is connected with the radial feed rate by the radial feed velocity. In this way, changes in process and output parameters can also be discussed in relation to vw. Fig. 6-114 provides an overview of the effects of such parameter change. Input parameters

Process parameters

spec. material removal

FnF n FtF t

v fr

cutting f orces Cutting forces Fn Fn Ft Ft

Feed rate

v

fr v(a w ) e

v fr (a vwe)

v fr v(a w )

vw

e

ΔrΔsrs ' AsAk s k

Wear wear

v wv fr

Depth of cut

Surface roughness surf ace quality Ra Ra Rt Rt Rz vfr (a vwe)

(ae)

Temperature ϑ ϑ temperature

vc

v

Cutting speed

v(aw fre) V'w

Spec. material removal

f orm error Form error gage errorfault) (dimension

Grinding PcPc cutting powerpow er

vw

ae

ffk

k

Q'w

Workpiece speed .

Result

tc

Cutting time

zϑ

Influence Inf luence on on the rimlayer zone surface

zϑ v fr vwe) (a

vw

Fig. 6-114. The influence of workpiece speed on process parameters and the output during external cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding

High workpiece speeds lead in conjunction with the – at constant material removal rates – falling depth of cut to shorter chips with larger chip cross-sectional areas and a smaller contact length. By reducing the contact length, the momentary cutting edge number is diminished, although the kinematic cutting edge number

6.5 Process Design

265

Temperature of contact zone ϑ

k

increases, whereby the influence of the momentary cutting edges is predominant. Since the cutting forces are the result of the sum of all individual grain forces, a lowering of both tangential and normal forces as well as cutting power with increasing workpiece speed and decreasing depths of cut is the result [KASS69, WERN72]. The contact area between the workpiece and the grinding wheel, which decreases with the depth of cut, leads to improved cooling lubrication conditions in the contact zone. Moreover, the local heat action time is reduced by the higher speed. Both of these effects are responsible for reducing the thermal energy added to the workpiece, thus leading to lower contact zone temperatures (Fig. 6-115). 1750

Grinding wheel A 60 L 7 V Workpiece 100 Cr 6 V Grinding parameters vc = 60 m/s Cooling lubricant Emulsion (3%)

°C Q'w = 6.3 mm³/mms 1250 1000 750

Q'w = 1.2 mm³/mms

500 250 0

0

15

30

45

60

m/min

90

Workpiece speed vw Fig. 6-115. Surface temperature as a function of workpiece speed

Because the forces are lower, form and dimensional errors can be somewhat reduced. The smaller dimensional deviation is founded on the lesser amount of radial and edge wear, likewise attributable to the smaller forces. Smaller forces have in addition a positive effect on the roundness of the workpieces. The surface quality of the workpiece changes but little in the speed range that is customary for external grinding. A minor decline in roughness values results from increasing workpiece speeds. Some investigations have shown that the surface roughness is significantly reduced in the case of a considerable increase in workpiece speed, i.e. a smaller speed quotient q. A similar reduction in workpiece roughness is also noticeable at very high speed quotients (Fig. 6-116). Besides the cooling lubrication conditions, workpiece speed is the most important variable to consider in order to avoid a thermal influence on the surface layer. The described reduction of thermal energy added to the workpiece results in a smaller structural influence on the workpiece’s surface layer. (Fig. 6-117).

266

6 Grinding

Average surface roughness Rz

10 μm 6 4 2 0 -0.2

-2

-20

-200

-2000

-20000

Speed ratio q

Grinding wheel A 60 K 8 V Workpiece Ck 45 N Dressing parameters Dressing plate f ad = 0.4 mm a ed = 30 μm Grinding parameters vc = 60 m/s Q'w = 3 mm³/mms V' w = 1000 mm³/mm

Fig. 6-116. Surface roughness as a function of the speed quotient [SALJ55]

Depth of thermally influenced surface layer z

160

Grinding wheel A 60 I6 Ke Workpiece 100 Cr 6 V Grinding parameters vc = 45 m/s V' w = 500 mm³/mm Cooling lubricant Emulsion (3%)

Q'w = 2 mm³/mms Q'w = 4 mm³/mms Q'w = 8 mm³/mms

μm

80

40

0 0

15

30

45

m/min

75

Workpiece speed vw Fig. 6-117. Higher workpiece speeds and sinking material removal rates decrease structural influence

The Influence of Material Removal Fig. 6-118 provides an outline of the effects of changing grinding wheel topography on process parameters and its result. Material removal is specified as the variable parameter, which is proportional to the cutting duration at constant material removal rates.

6.5 Process Design

Input parameters Spec . material removal

Process parameters FnFn FtFt

267

Result

cutting f orces Cutting forces Fn FnF t

ae

Ft v fr

V' (awe)

Q'w

ffk

f orm error Form error gage errorfault) (dimension

k

Depth of cut

Grinding PcPc cutting powerpow er vw

vw Workpiece speed.

ΔrΔs rs' AsAk s k

Wear wear

v

fr V' (awe)

vc Cutting speed.

v fr (a V'e)

vfr V' (awe)

w

Surface roughness surf ace quality Ra Ra RtRt Rz vfr

(aew) V'

Temperature ϑ ϑ temperature v fr

V' (awe)

V'w tc

zϑ

InfInfluence luence on onsurface the rim zone layer

zϑ

Cutting time

Spec. material removal

v fr

V' (awe)

V'w

Fig. 6-118. The influence of material removal on the process parameters and output

Fig. 6-119 shows how the normal force and the average surface roughness can change as a function of material removal. Here, the opposed behaviour of both of these parameters is conspicuous. This behaviour can always be observed when the effective surface roughness of a grinding wheel is larger at the start of the grinding process than would appear as a result of the machining conditions in a quasistationary state. In the initial phase, grain wear primarily occurs. The number of kinematic cutting edges goes up and the effective surface roughness of the grinding wheel decreases. As a result, the workpiece roughness is also reduced and asymptotically approaches a boundary value. This optimal transitional behaviour is less favourable in practical use than the opposite case, in which the effective surface roughness is insufficient at the beginning of the grinding process. In this case, the separated chips would have to sharpen the grinding wheel (free grinding), the forces would be high initially and the danger of grinding burn especially high. Wear initially increases considerably at the beginning of the grinding process (Fig. 6-120), since individual abrasive grains are partially loosened by the mechanical stress during dressing and thus break out faster. The further progression of wear is then almost linear. Here, the grinding conditions are the determining factors.

268

6 Grinding

2.0

N/mm

μm

Ra

1.0

4 F'n

0.5

2

0

0

400

800

Average surface roughness Ra

Spec. normal force F‘n

8

0 1600

mm³/mm

Spec. material removal V‘w

Grinding wheel A 60 K 8 V Workpiece Ck 45 N Dressing parameters Single grit daimond fad = 0.25 mm aed = 0.02 mm Grinding parameters vc = 45 m/s vw = 0.75 m/s Q'w = 3 mm³/mms Cooling lubricant Emulsion (3%)

Fig. 6-119. Improvement in workpiece roughness and rising forces with increased material removal

Radial wheel wear Δ rs

80

μm

ae = 0.4 mm ae = 0.2 mm

40

Grinding wheel A 100 P B Workpiece S 6-5-2 Grinding parameters vw = 100 mm/s

vc = 80 m/s

20

vc = 45 m/s 0 0

200

400

600

800 1000 mm³/mm

1400

Spec. material removal V‘w Fig. 6-120. The influence of material removal on wear

The influence of material removal on surface quality has already been described in relation to cutting force. The relation of the average surface roughness to material removal for various cutting speeds (Fig. 6-121) clearly shows that the initial amount and increase of roughness are significantly influenced by the cutting speed. This can change the service volume considerably. As opposed to the results given in Fig. 6-121, here there is a higher number of kinematic cutting edges at the beginning of the grinding process than at the end because the grinding wheel has

6.5 Process Design

269

been more finely dressed. The wear-caused reduction of kinematic cutting edges leads with time to an increase in the average surface roughness Ra. Average surface roughness Ra

3.0 μm

v c = 30 m/s v c = 40 m/s v c = 50 m/s v c = 60 m/s Chatter

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 0

600

1200

1800

mm³/mm

3000

Grinding wheel A 60 Jot 6 V Workpiece Ck 45 N Dressing parameters a ed = 0,03 mm fad = 0.1 mm Grinding parameters Q' w = 3 mm³/mms q = 60 Cooling lubricant Emulsion (1.8%)

Spec. material removal V‘w Fig. 6-121. Grinding with increased cutting speeds

6.5.2 The Influence of the Grinding Tool on the Output

Grinding Wheel Selection The primary considerations in choosing grinding wheel specifications for a particular machining task are the grindability of the material and the output requirements. From grinding wheel specifications, information regarding their appropriateness for a specific machining task can be derived. Grain type is selected especially with a view to hardness, toughness and proneness to react with the workpiece material. The common abrasives corundum and silicon carbide exhibit considerably lower hardness values than boron nitride and diamond. Their thermal resistance is however significantly higher than that of diamond. From the chemical affinity of various grain types to certain workpiece materials, we can designate different areas of application as represented in table 6-2. Due to the high price of such novel abrasives, the decision in favour of boron nitride instead of corundum or diamond instead of silicon carbide should only be made after a calculation of profitability.

270

6 Grinding

Table 6-2. Chemical affinity between abrasives and workpiece materials Abrasive

Chemical affinity to

Suitable for

Corundum, boron nitride

Oxides, glass, ceramics, stone

Steels of all qualities

Silicon carbide, diamond

Workpiece materials containing carbon (e.g. steels)

Carbon-saturated steels, cast iron, oxides, glass, ceramics

General predictions concerning the effects of grain types on the process and output are impossible, since the influence of further boundary conditions like the workpiece material must also be considered. Comparisons between silicon carbide and pure corundum grinding wheels with various workpiece materials have shown that, depending on the predominant wear mechanism, the cutting forces, roughness and thermal influence also behave differently. The key rule is that silicon carbide form more cutting edges per grain, so smaller chip thicknesses appear at each individual cutting edge as well as larger total cutting forces in general. Grain size selection follows the criteria of • target surface quality and • desired material removal rate. Table 6-3. Guidelines for selecting grain sizes

Maximum allowance Obtainable surface roughness

Grain size

Machining stage

mesh

μm

μm

μm

46

320

5.0 to 2.4

Practically unlimited

Pre-grinding

80

200

2.5 to 1.5

1 % of the dw, not ≤ 300

Finish-grinding

120

120

2.0 to 1.0

150 to 200

Fine grinding

200

80

1.6 to 0.7

50 to 100

Finest grinding

320

46

1.2 to 0.4

20

Finest grinding

6.5 Process Design

271

Table 6-3 provides guidelines for choosing a suitable grain size. With increasing grain size, the number of cutting edges decreases. This leads in turn to larger chip thicknesses. The attainable surface quality becomes worse, but the possible material removal rate higher. Coarse granulations are therefore used for pregrinding, fine granulations for finish-grinding. This allocation shows that a comparison of grain sizes is always made with respect to the material removal rate. Every grain size is thus assigned to a certain task. The assignment of a bond to the respective grinding task is performed in a very general way in the literature. Ceramic bonds are brittle and fracture-sensitive, synthetic resin bonds on the other hand are tough, elastic and insensitive to impact. The type and amount of bond, together with the grain size, has an effect on the structure and hardness of the grinding wheel [HAGE69, LEIC75]. Hard grinding wheels generally result in improved grinding conditions and accurate form and dimension. However, the cutting force and thermal stress on the workpiece also increase with grinding wheel hardness. The Influence of Grinding Wheel Wear The wear processes on the abrasive grain and the bond described in chapter 2.4 lead to changes to the tool topography during the grinding process. At the beginning of the process, a rough grinding wheel surface with a multitude of sharp grain cutting edges at varying cutting edge depths can be observed. In the course of the process, i.e. with increasing material removal, a levelling on the grinding wheel topography occurs, which is attributable to a wear-related flattening of the grits. The larger number of cutting edges being engaged as well as the flatter cutting edge form is responsible for a reduction in workpiece roughness associated to an increase in cutting forces. If however the grinding wheel surface is too smooth and dull for the grinding operation before it starts, an overload of the tool can bring about grain break-out and thus an increase in the workpiece’s effective surface roughness. With increasing material removal rates, this leads to decreasing process forces and rising roughness values. Fig. 6-122 shows schematically the influence of material removal on the effective surface roughness of the grinding wheel and workpiece roughness. In the top part of the illustration, the initial effective surface roughness of the grinding wheel is varied by an altered tool preparation or tool specification. The effective surface roughness (and the workpiece roughness contingent on it) converges however with increasing material removal rates towards a value that is nearly independent from the initial state. This quasi-stationary grinding wheel topography occurs because the mutual influence of the grinding wheel and the workpiece levels out with time at the state of equilibrium corresponding to the grinding conditions [MESS83, PAHL53, PAHL68, SCHM68, THOR73, WEIN76,]. These relations are shown in Fig. 6-123. Despite clearly different initial grinding wheel states, a constant level of roughness establishes itself on the ground workpiece with time.

272

6 Grinding

Initial workpiece roughness Rt Rt

Actual surface roughness Rt

Workpiece roughness Ra, Rt

Rt

Rt Ra

Q‘w V'w

V'w

Rt Rt

Rt Ra

Q‘w V'w

V'w

Fig. 6-122. The influence of tool preparation and grinding conditions on grinding wheel topography and workpiece roughness

Average surface roughness Ra

10 fad= 0.25 mm fad= 0.50 mm fad= 1.00 mm fad =1.5 μm

μm

6

4

2

0

0

40

80

s

Cutting time tc 0

400

800

mm³/mm

Grinding wheel A 60 N 8 V dS = 500 mm Workpiece Ck 45 N dW = 138 mm Dressing parameters aed = 3x 0.02 mm Grinding parameters vw = 1 m/s vc = 60 m/s 160 Q' w = 100 mm³/mms Cooling lubricant Oil 1600

Spec. material removal V‘w Fig. 6-123. With increasing cutting durations, the influence of engagement preparation on workpiece roughness increases

Fig. 6-120 below clarifies the influence of grinding conditions. With a lower specific material removal rate Q'w there is a refinement of the tool topography, while at a higher Q'w the effective surface roughness increases degressively. High

6.5 Process Design

273

specific material removal rates are associated with high cutting forces and wear, so that in the course of the grinding operation a tool topography with a high effective surface roughness results.

6.5.3 Multistage Processes High material removal rates and the highest surface quality are mutually exclusive. For this reason, shortening the machining time by increasing the material removal rate is faced with severe limitations when the material removal rate is constant during the process. In this case one speaks of a single-staged process. In roughing (Fig. 6-124), the volume removed from the workpiece per time unit is large. This leads to shorter production times and low machine and labour costs per workpiece. For the subsequent finishing phase, a workpiece material volume sufficient to achieve the required surface quality must be available. In this case, the material removal rate is very low, so the cutting duration in finishing can be longer than the roughing duration despite the minimal material removal.

vs

vs

V'w roughing

V'w finis hing

ae

ae vw Roughing

vw Finishing

Spark out

Spec. material removal V‘w Grinding time tc Fig. 6-124. Material removal and grinding duration in multistage processes

The grinding wheel topography changes during roughing because of the high amount of grinding wheel wear to such an extant that it is no longer suitable for a subsequent finishing phase, as very long finishing durations are required to produce the target surface quality. It is thus necessary to optimise the multistage process. Method-related differences must be considered when doing so [BOET79]. The temporal progression of a two-step process for external cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding is represented schematically in Fig. 6-125. The abrupt reduction of the feed velocity when switching from roughing to finishing influences delayed the process parameters and the output. This is attributable to the fact that the

274

6 Grinding

feed velocity actually present at the active site does not correspond to the one that was set, since the deformed total system relaxes from the abatement of the cutting forces. Input parameters

Process parameters

Result

Spec. material removal f orces FnF n cutting Cutting forces Fn FtF t F

ae

n

tc

Depth of cut

Ft

Q'w

Ft

v

tc(afre)

ffk

f orm error Form error gage errorfault) (dimension

k

tc

v fr tc e) (a

Grinding PcPc cutting powerpow er vw

tc tc(avfr )

Workpiece speed. vc

e

ΔrΔs rs' AsAk sk

tc

surf aceroughness quality Surface Ra Ra Rt Rt Rz vfr

Wear wear

t(ac e) v

Cutting speed

tc(afre) zϑ

zϑ

V'w tc Spec. material removal

InfInfluence luence on onsurface the rim zone layer

Temperature ϑ ϑ temperature

v (ae)

tc fr

v

tc(afre)

Fig. 6-125. Process parameters and output for two-stage grinding processes

Only after the relaxation period (unsteady phase) are there process conditions, the effects of which can be derived from a nominal value of the parameters, as in single-stage processes. In order to evaluate a multi-stage process, one must know what kind of effect a parameter change has on the process and output in the roughing and finishing phases. These are, in particular, the material removal rate, material removal and the cutting and workpiece speeds. Fig. 6-126 shows the basic progression of a two-stage external grinding operation. Due to system deformation, the effective specific material removal rate Q'w eff as well as the reduction in radius of the workpiece Δrw is delayed. The delay complies to a large extent with an exponential function, the time constant T1 of which is a function of system rigidity and the cutting force. Beyond this, the course of the process also has an influence on the time constant T 1. It could thus be ascertained that the time constant grows larger with increasingly blunt grinding wheels. The transition from roughing to finishing is also associated with a time delay. The time constant with which this occurs is, due to differing technological requirements, not identical to T1. It can however be approximated as equal to T1. The temporal behaviour shown for the material removal rate has dif-

6.5 Process Design

275

T1

Q' w eff

vfr2 u2

T2

Roughing

Decrease of workpiece radius Δ r w

Point of redirection u1

v fr1

Infeed lfr

Feed rate vfr eff. spec. m aterial removal rate Q’weff

ferent effects on the cutting forces, wear, surface quality and shape errors. Fig. 6127 shows the course of cutting force and surface quality as a function of the spark-out time ta [BOET79].

Finishing

lfr

Δ rw

Roughing

Cutting time tc

Finishing

Cutting time tc

Fig. 6-126. Progression of a two-stage external grinding process Avergage surface roughness Ra

Force during roughing

spec. normal force F‘n

20 Q'w = 8 mm³/mms N/mm 4 mm³/mms 15 2 mm³/mms 5

0 0

sec

Spark out time ta

4

2.5 Roughness f or roughing μm Q'w = 8 mm³/mms 1.5

4 mm³/mms

1.0 2 mm³/mms 0.5 0

4

s

12

Spark out time ta

Fig. 6-127. The course of force and roughness during spark-out for varying roughing conditions

The spark-out process is a special finishing process in which the feed rate is vfr2 = 0. Here, system deformation is reduced completely, while at vfr2 ≠ 0 a certain amount of deformation resulting from force during finishing remains. During the spark-out phase therefore, the descent of the material removal rate is at its most rapid. In the upper portion of the illustration, we see the path of the normal force as a function of the spark-out time for various starting conditions, i.e. for different roughing processes. With initially smaller cutting forces, the time constant is larger, so the graph is flatter. In the lower part of the figure are plotted the relations of the average surface roughness Ra, corresponding to the courses of

276

6 Grinding

force, to the spark-out time courses. It is conspicuous that the time constant for roughness improvement is larger that that of cutting force reduction and that the final state has different values. The reason for this is that the entire circumference of the workpiece must be ground before the roughness corresponding to the grinding conditions is realised. The final roughness is influenced by the condition of the grinding wheel’s topography, which depends in turn on the roughing process. After roughing, the effective surface roughness of the grinding wheel and thus the workpiece’s roughness as well is larger than that resulting from a small material removal rate [SALJ75, VERK78]. The larger effective surface roughness of the grinding wheel affects the process duration by decreasing the kinematic cutting edge number such that with smaller cutting edge numbers, the improvement of roughness also progresses more slowly. Fig. 6-128 illustrates the influence of the feed velocity and the specific material removal on the transition behaviour using the example of surface roughness. A rise in the material removal rate as well as the increase in material removal during roughing leads to a displacement of the falling curve to higher values with a small alteration of the time constant preset by the system. Input parameters Roughing Finishing vfr1

vfr2

V'w1

V'w2

vfr1

vfr2

V'w1

V'w2

vfr1

vfr2

V'w1

V'w2

v fr1

vfr2

V' w1

V'w2

Transient behaviour Ra

T

tc

T

tc

T

tc

T

tc

Ra

Ra

Ra

Fig. 6-128. Falling roughness during finishing as a function of the feed rate and material removal

6.5 Process Design

277

With constant roughing conditions, the falling curve always begins at the same starting point. If the finishing material removal rate is increased with constant material removal, the duration of the finishing stage may indeed be shortened, but surface roughness cannot be improved significantly. Raising material removal during finishing can no longer improve the surface quality after reaching the stationary phase. If other criteria, e.g. external zone influence after roughing, do not require the removal of a certain material volume, the grinding process can be ended when the stationary phase is reached. In cases of measurement-controlled grinding processes, the shifting point from roughing to finishing must therefore be set such that the final size is only obtained when the transitional phase is completed. Material removal and the rate thereof in finishing should be adjusted such that the finishing time tc lies in the range:

3T < t c < 4T .

(6.98)

If surface layer influence is very large after roughing, a further finishing phase – and thus a three-stage process – can be advantageous [BIER76, BOET79]. In an initial finishing phase, the thermally influenced external zone is ground. The rest is then removed in the last stage with the lower feed velocity required to produce the surface quality. In praxis, the feed rate is generally two to three times higher in the first finishing stage than in the final phase. Besides these customary two or thee-stage processes, new, optimised process conduction and control variants are being increasingly used that are more effective against the disadvantages of unsteady process phases [VARL87]. Fig. 6-129 reproduces the temporal courses of the feed path lfr and radius reduction Δrw for well-known control strategies. The first process variant with the intermediate spark-out phase has the task of accelerating the easing system tension by turning of a radial feed rate after roughing. If the normal force or the elastic system deformation in the spark-out phase has reached the finishing level, the process switches to a final finishing feed rate. This finishing stage primarily has the function of reaching the preset nominal size of the workpiece. A significant improvement of workpiece quality, i.e. roughness and circular form precision, does not occur here, since these values have already been reduced to a minimal level by the intermediate spark-out. The second variant is characterised by a rapid retraction of the head stock after the roughing phase. This reverse motion of the grinding wheel has the effect of removing the system deflexion built up during roughing in a very brief period of time. Especially in the case of flexible shafts, grinding time can be reduced considerably with this method, since the reduction of system stress, lasting very long with conventional processes, is cut down to a minimum . The best results with respect to workpiece roundness improvement are obtained by means of head stock removal when the system relaxation is completed within exactly one workpiece rotation. Finishing introduced after tension reduction has the task of improving workpiece roughness and lowering it to the required level.

6 Grinding

Infeed lfr Decrease of radius Δ r w

278

Head stock removal

Intermediate spark out

Head stock removal

Spark out l fr

lfr

Finishing Δr w Roughing

Δr w displacement y Roughing

Grinding time t c

Grinding time tc

Head stock removal lfr Δr w

Demanded end radius r w soll

Controlled infeed

Controlled head stock removal

Infeed lfr Decrease of radius Δ r w

Finishing

decreasing infeed

Finishing

Roughing Grinding time t c

lfr Δr w

Demanded end radius r w soll

Roughing Grinding time tc

Fig. 6-129. Process variants for external plunge grinding

If in head stock removal a mathematically determined, variable retraction speed is employed instead of a constant one, it is then possible simultaneously to eliminate roughing infeed spirals during relaxation. Thus, in the case of this type of process control, roundness deviation is already minimised at the beginning of finishing. The progressively increasing removal speeds necessary for this is to be taken from the third process control variant. If we consider the first three, the following effects on the course of the process are clear: • By minimizing the duration of relaxation, the grinding time is shortened. • By means of controlled system relaxation to a residual value of grinding force or system deformation, a reproducible grinding process independent of disturbances is obtainable. This leads in improved uniformity in the quality of the finished part.

The goal of the fourth process variant is also more uniform process output, but also, as opposed to the previous processes, an artificially lengthened finishing phase. The slow, continual reduction of the radial feed rate brings about a large amount of material removal in the long finishing phase. For this reason, this process is utilised for grinding tasks for which a thermally influenced surface layer, unavoidable in roughing, must be securely and quickly removed. The mathematical determination of the altered speed profile during finishing is based on the following condition: At every moment in the finishing phase, the momentarily produced depth of the thermally influenced zone should correspond to the material allowance still present on the workpiece.

6.5 Process Design

279

If we observe this condition, the process results, with a correspondingly reduced radial feed rate, in the time-optimal possibility of eliminating thermal structural damage from the roughing phase. It has been shown which relations there are between the parameters and the output for single-stage processes. In these processes, a certain surface quality is to be allocated to each material removal rate at otherwise constant conditions. We can expect the best surface quality from the spark-out process. We thus obtain, as illustrated in Fig. 6-130, a range of obtainable surface qualities with the roughing process and the upper and the roughing process with spark-out as the lower boundary. The roughnesses lying within this range can be reached if a spark-out process is substituted for the finishing phase after roughing.

Average surface roughness Ra

2,5

Grinding wheel A 54 L 5 V Workpiece Ck 45 N Grinding parameters q = 60 V' w= 250 mm³/mm

μm Only roughing Spark out 20 s 1,5 vc = 32 m/s 1,0 vc = 60 m/s

Cooling lubricant Emulsion (3%)

0,5

0 0

2

4

mm³/mms

8

Spec. roughing material removal rate Q‘w Fig. 6-130. Improving surface quality with smaller rates of material removal, increasing cutting speed and spark-out

With the help of this characteristic diagram, we can estimate which roughing material removal rates are possible in order to obtain a desired workpiece quality taking into consideration the roughness improvement possible in the finishing phase. The relations in Fig. 6-97 refer to a constant material removal. Various cutting times may result as a function of the material removal rate; however, the influence of the machining time at constant material removal rate is not taken into account. Therefore, the obtainable surface roughness is plotted in Fig. 6-131 as a function of material removal during roughing. The upper and lower limits result in turn from the pure roughing treatment/from the spark-out process. In between are values for various finishing conditions. For all conditions, roughness increases with material removal. The smallest increase the largest during roughing and the smallest during spark-out.

280

6 Grinding 3.0

Average surface roughness Ra

V'w2 [mm³/mm] =

1.5

3

Grinding wheel A 54 L 5 V

6

Q'w2 [mm³/mms] = 0.125 0.25 0.5

μm

Workpiece Ck 45 N

2.0

Grinding parameters q = 60 vc= 32 m/s Q'w1 = 4 mm³/mms

roughing 1.5

1.0

Cooling lubricant Emulsion (3%)

+20 s spark-out 0.5 0 0

250

500

mm³/mm

1000

spec. roughing material removal V'w Fig. 6-131. Increase in workpiece roughness with rising material removal for various machining conditions.

After the described limit criteria have specified an area of operation, the working point that is most optimal with respect to cost and time must be found, as in single-stage processes. With respect to the described course of multi-staged processes in external cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding however, there is still a series of further factors to be considered.

6.5.4 Disturbances The high surface qualities obtainable in principle from grinding can be negatively influenced by oscillations in the machine. Relative displacements in the grinding contact zone, caused by externally or internally induced vibrations, arise on the workpiece surface as a function of the grinding process’s kinematics and lead to more ripples and roughnesses in the ground surface. Especially in precision machining, for creating higher surface qualities, even the smallest relative displacements in the grinding contact zone lead to clearly visible surface markings that are barely quantifiable with tactile surface measurement systems. Relative displacements during grinding must therefore be avoided or minimised as much as possible. Basically, we differentiate between externally and self induced vibrations with respect to their origin or cause (Fig. 6-132) [WECK92, WECK95].

6.5 Process Design

Externally induced Unbalances Positional error, defective machine components External forces (induced via machine bed)

281

Self induced

Regenerative effects - Workpiece induced chatter - Grinding w heel induced chatter Background noise of cutting forces Machine interfaces

Discontinuous cut

Fig. 6-132. Distinguishing characteristics of externally and self induced vibrations in grinding operations

In the case of externally induced vibrations, a disturbance with the frequency and amplitude of the inducer is introduced into the process. This type of vibration is formed periodically as a disturbance on the component surface as a function of the cutting and feed motions. For example, grinding wheel concentricity errors and imbalances in the rotational speed ratio between the grinding wheel and the workpiece arise in external cylindrical peripheral grinding, determining roundness errors to a large extent. Especially in precision machining therefore, machine components like main spindle drives and workpiece drives are precision-balanced. Disturbing forces which can be introduced via the machine’s foundation should be avoided with a suitable vibration-isolating machine assembly [WECK92]. For example, a precision grinding machine should not be set up near press equipment or other machines that send vibrations through the floor. Self induced vibrations appear without the external influence of disturbances, whereby often only one grinding machine component vibrates with its characteristic frequency. If we reduce the vibration problem to the case of the damped single mass oscillator, the amplitude of the oscillation will increase disproportionally, reaching its resonance frequency when the phase angle between the oscillation and the agitation arrive at about 90°. In the case of regenerative chattering coming from the workpiece for example, the workpiece can be agitated by the dynamic fraction of the cutting forces in its characteristic frequency. As a rule, when there is regenerative chattering with high amplitudes, as is the case with externally induced vibrations, the oscillation is acoustically perceptible, and oftentimes visible markings are formed on the workpiece surface. Especially in case of high oscillation amplitudes, these disturbances clearly influence the component’s quality, e.g. roughness and roundness errors. Grinding processes that take place in dynamically unstable conditions not only produce significantly worse quality workpieces, but also subject the grinding wheel to much more wear. Measures aimed at avoiding regenerative chattering of the workpiece are often only possible after a dynamic investigation of the grinding machine [WECK92]. Initial indications of whether the oscillation problem in the grinding process is

282

6 Grinding

of an external or internal nature can be obtained when the grinding width and thus the grinding process forces are reduced. If it is a case of an externally induced vibration, the characteristic oscillation frequency does not change, and so neither does the component quality. In the case of regenerative chattering of the workpiece on the other hand, the reduced grinding forces lead to a lower oscillation amplitude in the noise created by the cutting forces. So, beyond a maximum dynamic grinding force typical for the component, the grinding process will proceed stably. Markings on the workpiece and roundness errors are reduced. The consequence for the grinding process is that the specific material removal rate has to be considerably reduced, which often can lead to undesirably long machining durations. It is in this case much more advantageous to stabilise the grinding process by means of constructive measures relating to the machine, for example, by using backrests or by means of active or passive dampening measures [GOSE90, JANO87, STAP79, TELL86, TOEN88, WECK91]. Besides such constructive measures aimed at the grinding machine for reducing its proneness to chattering, the selection of process parameters has a decisive influence on the stability of the grinding process. For example, the same specific material removal rate Q'w can be realised with different combinations of depth of cut ae and workpiece speed vw . In investigations on dynamic grinding process behaviour, the influence of process parameters on regenerative workpiece and grinding wheel chattering has been explored and limiting phase curve derived as stability criteria [ALLD94]. If one of the limiting phase curve intersects the phase angle of machine flexibility, a necessary condition for regenerative chattering has been fulfilled. It basically shows that an increase in the depth of cut ae is conducive to stability. Therefore, especially with grinding processes that tend toward dynamic instabilities, the workpiece speed should be reduced as much as possible. It must be taken into consideration in this case that, with a falling workpiece speed vw the danger of thermal damage to the external zone increases. The prerequisite for carrying out a reproducible grinding process with constant workpiece quality is the reduction of externally induced vibrations to the greatest extent possible. Here, attention should be focused above all on grinding wheel concentricity errors and grinding tool imbalance. With the rotational speed ratio between the grinding wheel and the workpiece, these show on the ground surface as ripples. As a rule, the number of markings formed on the workpiece surface corresponds to the rotational speed ratio and is an indication for the causes mentioned above. Grinding wheel concentricity errors are to be eliminated during the use of dressable grinding wheels by means of a conditioning process. Nondressable grinding wheel types, such as galvanic CBN grinding wheels, require a concentricity alignment of the grinding wheel with respect to the spindle rotation axis that is as exact as possible. The roundness error of the mounted grinding wheel should lie within the fabrication tolerances of the grinding wheel as much as possible. High-precision, galvanically bonded cBN and diamond grinding wheels generally possess an alignment cylinder running exactly along the hole and

6.5 Process Design

283

the coating, with which the grinding wheel is aligned to 0.001 mm. High-precision grinding wheel clamping devices or exchanging completely mounted spindle systems are also known. As a rule, aligning grinding wheels demands increased assembly time, which can be reduced to a minimum by using modern clamping systems in accordance with DIN 69063. The grinding wheel and clamping system are firmly connected with each other, and the abrasive coating possesses a minimal roundness error with reference to the contact surfaces of the clamping device. Besides minimising faults in grinding wheel roundness, a precise balancing of the grinding tool is required. In the case of grinding wheel imbalance, we distinguish between form-induced and structure-induced imbalance (Fig. 6-133). Forminduced imbalance arises from dimensional and form errors in the manufacture of the grinding wheel. Despite adherence to exact shape and dimension tolerances, it can be avoided to a large extent, but never fully. Structure-induced imbalance is caused by local differenced in grinding wheel density.

)RUPLQGXFHGXQEDODQFH

6WUXFWXUHLQGXFHG XQEDODQFH

H H[FHQWULFLW\ RI FHQWHURIPDVV

6WDWLF XQEDODQFH

'\QDPLF XQEDODQFH

Fig. 6-133. Causes of grinding wheel imbalance

After clamping, the grinding wheel is dressed on an exact concentricity. By means of lateral dressing of the wheel, imbalances resulting from non-parallel lateral surfaces can be eliminated. Dressing only removes form-induced imbalances. Structure-induced imbalances and residual form-induced imbalances on the other hand can only be compensated by means of a subsequent balancing of the grinding wheel. This is why this process is necessary before every grinding wheel implementation. As a rule, only static imbalance is removed in the case of grinding wheels. Only very wide grinding wheels, as are used for example in centreless grinding, require a dynamic balancing. Balancing is carried out in two levels [DURS77]. The concepts of balancing technology are defined in DIN ISO 1925.

284

6 Grinding

Imbalance is defined as the product of the unsymmetrical mass mR and the distance r of this mass from the rotation axis. The distance of the centre of mass from the rotation axis is designated as the distance of the centre of mass or residual imbalance e. We thus obtain from the ratio of imbalance and the rotating mass M:

e=

U m

(6.99)

The balancing quality Q can be determined as a function of the residual imbalance e and the angle speed ω of the grinding wheel as follows:

Q = e ⋅ω

(6.100)

Common balancing qualities for dressing rollers are Q = 1 and for grinding wheels Q = 2.5. During the grinding process, the grinding wheel wears out and can be clogged with chips. New imbalances are thus constantly cropping up during grinding, making a further balancing indispensable – especially in precision grinding operations. Balancing stationary grinding wheels is of only minor importance in industrial praxis, since in order to accomplish this, the grinding wheel, including the grinding wheel flange, must be removed from the machine and mounted on a rolling stand. As a result of unequal mass distribution in the grinding wheel, it wobbles on the balancing scale until the centre of mass is below the rotation axis. Then two to three sliding blocks are shifted in a notch on the circumference of the flange until the grinding wheel comes to rest at any arbitrary position on the rolling stand. The method is now employed only for pre-balancing very large grinding wheels and when main drives are used that are not speed-controlled, making a pre-balancing of the discs impossible at low rotational speeds. When balancing methods are utilised with rotating grinding wheels, the tool mounted on the grinding wheel flange is balanced on the main spindle of the machine. If balancing only occurs on one level, the systems balancing with the rotating wheel are also designated as static balancing systems. Short balancing times are obtainable by using automatic balancing systems. Modern electronics and control engineering have made it possible to develop inexpensive devices for balancing grinding wheel during the machining cycles. These are, for example, hydro compensators and mechanical balancing systems that electromechanically shift balancing weights during operation of the main spindle. Hydro compensators function without mechanical components. They use the cooling lubricant present in the grinding machine, spraying it in a targeted fashion into the balancing chambers. Its workings can be described as follows (Fig. 6134).

6.5 Process Design

285

The temporal progression of a head stock oscillation caused by grinding wheel unbalance U is captured by the oscillation sensor. The position of the centre of mass of the unbalance can be determined with the help of an inductive sensor. The unbalance, known from its position and amount, must be compensated with a compensatory mass. To achieve this, the required position of the compensational weight K is determined electronically according to the relative position of the unbalance and is analysed into the components k1 and k2. This point in the direction of the surface centres of gravity of the fluid chambers.

Compensational force Fk1 Compensation chamber Resulting compensational force Fk

Compensation medium (cooling lubricant)

Unbalance U

Compensational force Fk2

Fig. 6-134. The basic principle of hydro compensators (Hofmann Bros.)

By means of the magnetic valves driven by measurement and control electronics, the compensation medium, usually a cooling lubricant used in grinding, arrives at the nozzle block mounted at the protective hood. By means of fine nozzles, and a port system in the fluid container, the compensation medium is sprayed into the compensation chambers until the unbalance is below a preset lower threshold. If the state of balance changes as a result of grinding wheel wear, balancing can take place automatically in a very short amount of time, e.g. during the workpiece loading. If frequent balancing is required, at least one of the compensation chambers will be filled with the maximum amount of fluid volume, making further balancing impossible. If this state is reached, the main spindle must be switched off so that the balancing chambers can empty themselves. A further disadvantage of this system, especially in the case of retrofitted main spindles with a balancing container mounted on the front face, is that a dismantlement of the balancing container is required during grinding wheel change and, if the grinding wheel width has changed, the spraying nozzle unit must be reset.

286

6 Grinding

Further developments in the field of mechanical balancing systems are circumventing this problem. In these systems, the position of the balancing weights set electronically after the first balancing remains, making possible a deceleration and acceleration of the main spindle without intermediate balancing. Fig. 6-135 shows a mechanical spindle-integrated balancing system. This balancing system is installed into a cylindrical hole in the main spindle and consists of two balancing weights that can be rotated relative to each other electromotively. The adjusting motors and transmission gearing are arranged centrically on the rotation axis of the spindle in order to keep centrifugal stress as low as possible. The adjusting motors are directed by an electric controller built into the balancing head that is supplied with energy and control signals via a non-contact transmission line. The contact-free transmission line, depending on the operator, can be placed on the spindle nose or on the actuator side of the main spindle. Furthermore, the existing transmission line can simultaneously be used to transmit measurement signals, e.g. mechanical vibrations. This opens up the possibility of capturing and transmitting the process-relevant measurements of a rotating grinding wheel with a small amount of dampening joints during the grinding operation. Free accessibility to the grinding tool is advantageous to the operator, potentially leading to a considerable reduction in machine set-up time. Future developments of these systems will make available rotational speeds of n > 10000 R/min and are indispensable for grinding with high cutting speeds [WECK92a]. Main spindle Measurement and control electronic

ω

U = -Fk

Fk1 Unbalance

Fk2 Compensation actuator and electronics masses

Fk Contact distance transmission line

Resulting compensational force

Fig. 6-135. Construction and workings of an electromechanical spindle-integrated balancing system

The workings of an electromechanical balancing system are comparable to those of a hydro compensator. Here too, there is a detection of oscillation amplitude by means of an oscillation sensor and the spindle rotation frequency. These signals are processed in an electronic controller. Thus during a measurement interval of ca. 2 seconds duration, the maximum of the unbalance oscillation is determined and corresponding control signals are transmitted to the electronics in the rotating balance head in order to position the compensation weights. If the unbal-

6.6 Application Examples

287

ance oscillation is reduced during one measurement interval, the compensation weights are shifted continually in the same direction until the oscillation speed increases slightly after running through a minimum. If the oscillation amplitude is above a presettable boundary value, a new adjustment cycle of the balancing weights occurs, whereby the adjustment direction of one or both weights is altered. The minimising process is ended when it fall below the preset threshold value and the unbalance U is compensated by the centrifugal forces Cf1 und Cf2. This is shown in Fig. 6-135. The balanced state once created remains stable so that after the main spindle is turned off and in the subsequent run-up to the operational speed a new balancing is no longer required. It is only necessary to re-balance if there is an altered distribution of weight in the grinding wheel as a result of grinding wheel wear or from dressing. Fluctuating temperatures and various increases in heat in the grinding wheel lead to thermal deformations and machine component displacements and are as a rule detectable as dimensional faults on ground parts. We differentiate between interior heat sources and environmental thermal influences. Examples of interior heat sources are drive motors, bearings, hydraulic systems and process heat arising from machining. In the case of modern grinding machine we assume as a rule that the machine manufacturer has considered the influence of machine-specific heat sources on the displacement of components. Especially very fine grinding operations require a high level of thermal stability, which is often only obtainable by means of a suitable thermostatting of the equipment, e.g. hydraulic oils and cooling lubricants. Environmental thermal influences on the other hand can be influenced to a large extent by the operator. The position of the grinding machine is of decisive influence on the precision obtainable. For example, either direct heat irradiation from the sun, radiators and systems with thermal operating principles or heat reduction from indoor gates, windows and foundations can be responsible for dimensional faults. Precision grinding machines are thus often set up in climatecontrolled spaces.

6.6 Application Examples

6.6.1 External Cylindrical Peripheral Plunge Grinding In the end machining of camshafts for engines, not only the control cam, which activates the valve tappets, but also the bearing carrier must be machined (Fig. 6136). In order to guarantee smooth operation, the bearing carriers are tolerated

288

6 Grinding

with respect to surface roughness, roundness and concentricity. The material used is 100Cr6V, hardened to 58 HRC and tempered. The hard machining process takes place with the external cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding method. A grinding wheel with conventional grains is used as the grinding tool. This is a solid body disc of white corundum in a ceramic bond of specification A 120 L 5. The grinding wheel has a diameter of 400 mm and a width of 25 mm and is marginally wider than the bearing carrier to be machined. Machining occurs on an external grinding machine that clamps the workpiece between centres and facilitates support by means of a steady rest in order to avoid deflexion. A diamond form roller is used as the dressing tool. The cooling lubricant used is an emulsion (3 % concentration). The component/form element requirements can be derived the sketch in Fig. 6137.

Bearing carrier

Cam Fig. 6-136. Schematic representation of a camshaft

0.004 0.010

35 h7

23

A

B Rz = 4 μm

Fig. 6-137. Requirements on the bearing carrier of the camshaft

AB

6.6 Application Examples

289

The width of the grinding wheel is selected such that machining can take place in one feed. The goal is a machining of the bearing carrier that is as productive as possible. For this reason, the plunge grinding process is subdivided into roughing, finishing, fine finishing and sparking-out. Most of the stock allowance is removed with a high specific material removal rate in as short a time as possible. In the subsequent finishing, fine finishing and sparking-out phases, the form errors introduced by workpiece deformations during the roughing process are evened out again and the required surface quality obtained. During the tool preparation process, the grinding wheel must be dressed such that a topography is obtained that is both conducive to a high material removal rate during roughing and can also achieve the required qualities with the selected process stages. The dressing parameters as chosen in accordance with table 6-4. Table 6-4. Dressing parameters for the peripheral surface of the applied corundum grinding wheel: vsd

50 m/s

qd

+ 0.6

Ud

4

aed

10 μm

For the subsequent grinding process, the following process parameters were selected shown in table 6-5: Table 6-5. Process stages during the grinding of a bearing carrier of a camshaft vs [m/s]

q

Q’w [mm³/mms]

z/2 (radial) [mm]

50

-60

7.92

0.6

2 Stage:

50

-60

3.52

0.1

3rd Stage:

50

-60

1.77

0.05

1st Stage: nd

3 seconds spark-out

By means of support with a steady rest, a specific material removal rate can be reached in the roughing phase that allows for a short machining duration. A fraction of the process forces thereby created is channelled off into the machine bed by the steady rest. A deflexion of the workpiece and thus the development of form and positional tolerance deviations and can however not be completely eliminated. By means of multi-stage processes however, process forces are reduced to such an

290

6 Grinding

extent towards the end of the process that the component can be returned to its original position and the accrued errors eliminated.

6.2.2 External Form Grinding When manufacturing a CVT shaft (continuous variable transmission), an conical area is machined. This component is used in automobile transmission. There is a belt on the cone that transfers force in a frictionally engaging manner. The transmission can be altered continuously by the position of the belt on the cone. Accordingly, the cone is a functional surface on which a final machining should occur by means of high-performance external form grinding. The material used is 51CrV4, which attains a hardness of 58 – 64 HRC by means of induction hardening. For this, the radius transition of the cone to the bordering cylinder is first provided via insertion with the grinding wheel. Then the processing of the cone surface takes place. Directly following the insertion process, the grinding wheel is guided upwards along the cone contour under NC control (Fig. 6-138).

2

1

Fig. 6-138. Machining sequence in the grinding of the cone of a CVT shaft

The grinding tool used is a segmented grinding wheel with a steel body and with cBN as the grain material in a ceramic bond of specification B126 VSS 3441 J1SN V360 E. The grinding wheel has a diameter of 500 mm and was already pre-

6.6 Application Examples

291

profiled during manufacture in accordance with the angled position of the grinding spindle. Machining occurs on an external grinding machine designed for high-speed cutting and attaining grinding wheel peripheral speeds of vs = 210 m/s. A diamond form roller is used as a dressing tool, which forms the peripheral contour of the grinding wheel via NC control. A grinding oil based on a polyalphaolefin is used as a cooling lubricant and applied with a free jet nozzle. The components requirements are defined in Fig. 6-139 using various parameters. Ra = 0.4 μm

A

B

A

R 2.6 ±0.2

Ra= 0.7 μm

R 4.5 ±0.2

52 55.6

A

0.010 0.020 AB Fig. 6-139. Requirements on the component to be manufactured

The challenges in the machining task presented here lie in grinding the conical surface while adhering the prescribed tolerances, especially surface roughness Ra. In conical grinding, machining occurs only with the radial edge by means of the profiled grinding wheel with the radius contour and the cylindrical peripheral surface (Fig. 6-140). A spark-out zone, such as one finds in grinding cylindrical workpiece contours, and a correspondingly high overlap ratio are not found here. In this case, theoretically a spiral-formed groove similar to a thread is ground into the workpiece. In principle, it is possible to select such a small infeed that the form errors remain within the range of acceptable surface roughness [Kamm91].

292

6 Grinding

afr

af a

Fig. 6-140. Engagement condition of the grinding wheel when grinding a cone [HEGE98]

For machining, the grinding wheel was profiled with a diamond form roller in accordance with table 6-6. Table 6-6. Dressing parameters for the shoulder and peripheral areas of the applied cBN grinding wheel Peripheral area

Shoulder area

vsd

120 m/s

120 m/s

qd

+ 0.4

+ 0.6

Ud

8

2

aed

2 μm

2 μm

The grinding process of the recess and of the cone took place in accordance with the process parameters in table 6-7. Table 6-7. Process parameters for recess and cone Recess

Cone

vs

120 m/s

120 m/s

q

- 50

- 50

vf

4 mm/min

15 mm/min

ta

1s

-

The speed ratio of q = -50 was determined here for the beginning of the cone area and set with a workpiece speed that is constant for the process. Accordingly, the speed ratio deviates from this value at the end of the cone contour.

6.6 Application Examples

293

6.6.3 Internal Cylindrical Peripheral Plunge Grinding The manufacture of a gear component should entail grinding of the interior surface (Fig. 6-141). This hole is a functional are guaranteeing the correct sitting of the gear on the shaft. The hole is specified in diameter, surface roughness, roundness and concentricity by the associated parameters (Fig. 6-142). The component consists of the material 16MnCr5 and was case-hardened prior to final machining. This produced a surface hardness of 760 (+/- 40) HV with a hardening depth of 0.8 mm.

Fig. 6-141. Gear component with a ground interior hole

294

6 Grinding

A

0.015 0.04 A

85 F7

100 r6

60

Rz. = 1.6 μm

Fig. 6-142. Requirements on the component to be manufactured

The challenge in this machining task is in obtaining the target surface quality. This requires a fine-grained and finely dressed grinding wheel, which on the other hand has only a small amount of pores. This is disadvantageous in interior grinding processes due to the contact length and the poor swarf removal. Because of this conflict, an open-pored, coarse-grained disc was selected here. Moreover, the process stages were subdivided up to the finest grinding process with a very low material removal rate and a long spark-out in order to obtain the target surface quality. The hard machining process takes place with the internal cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding method. For this it is necessary that the grinding wheel is wider than the area to be ground, since the process occurs in one infeed (Fig. 6-143). After pivoting the grinding wheel into the hole opening (1.), cutting takes place radially and outwardly (2.). The workpiece is clamped externally in a three-jaw chuck.

6.6 Application Examples

295

Internal cylindrical grinding wheel

2. 1.

Workpiece (clamped on ist outer diameter) Fig. 6-143. Cutting direction in internal cylindrical peripheral plunge grinding

Processing occurs with an internal cylindrical grinding wheel (diameter 50 mm, width 70 mm) of specification A 60 K 10 (corundum in a ceramic bond). An emulsion (3 %) is used as the cooling lubricant. A dressing plate, a stationary dressing tool, is used for tool preparation in accordance with table 6-8. Grinding is subdivided in total into five process stages. In each process stage, the radial feed and thus the material removal rate is reduced until the final dimensions are obtained. This has the objective on the one hand of reaching the target surface quality and on the other of minimising errors in form caused by grinding forces during the process. The parameters are found in table 6-9.

Table 6-8. Dressing parameters for the peripheral surface of the applied corundum internal cylindrical grinding wheel vsd

17 m/s

Ud

2

aed

20 μm

296

6 Grinding

Table 6-9. Parameters for the particular process stages: vs [m/s]

q

Q’w [mm³/mms]

z/2 (radial) [mm]

1st Stage:

48

-26

7.92

0.4

2nd Stage:

48

-26

3.52

0.35

3rd Stage:

27

-15

1.77

0.13

4th Stage :

27

-15

0.44

0.015

5th Stage:

27

-15

0.36

0.005

5 seconds spark-out

For this machining task, internal cylindrical peripheral longitudinal grinding can be used here as an alternative method. For reasons of productivity, plunge grinding was used in this case. Despite the subdivision into five process stages, the process can be executed relatively quickly. In the case of longitudinal grinding, it would be necessary to carry out several axial overruns in order to preserve the required surface quality and formal and positional tolerances. These are slower in total than infeed with a grinding wheel that is wider than the workpiece. A mentionable disadvantage of insertion in this case is that the grinding forces are higher because of the larger effective grinding wheel width bs eff.

6.6.4 Centreless Plunge Grinding As precision components in internal combustion engines, valves control the necessary gas flow by blocking cross-sections of flow. While inlet valves are subject mainly to mechanical stresses, outlet valves are also exposed to thermal stress and chemical corrosion. Valves are therefore manufactured from various materials depending on their function. In the case of many high-stress outlet valves, the mechanical and physical properties of two or three different materials are combined. These so-called bimetallic valves fulfil the demands on heat and corrosion resistance of the valve head with sufficient shaft toughness (Fig. 6-144).

6.6 Application Examples

297

7.01 mm ± 0.01 Grooves Length to be ground 68 mm

O 0.008

Valve stem Rz10 Frictionwelding seam Chamfer Seat

Valve head

Disk Fig. 6-144. Valve designations and valve shaft requirements after pre-grinding

In the example under discussion, austenitic steel X 50 CrMnNiNbN 21 9 (1.4882) in a precipitation hardened condition (> 30 HRC) serves as the valve head material. The shaft consists of heat-treated steel X 45 CrSi 9 3 (1.4718, hardness 57 +/- 2 HRC) that is connected to the valve head with a friction weld. In order to reduce wear, the thermally and corrosively stressed seat can be armoured with special alloys, e.g. stellite, a cobalt-chrome-nickel alloy. In addition, the valve shaft is coated with chrome and the valve shaft end is hardened. Form, dimension and surface quality of the valve are produced by means of different metal cutting processes. As a manufacturing method, grinding lends itself to machining high-alloyed and thus hard-to-cut materials. The valve shaft is processed before and after chroming with centreless infeed grinding (Fig. 6-145). This method is a process in large batch production and allows a high level of accuracy in concentricity even for slender components like the valve shaft. The valve shaft guides and centres the valve and serves to get rid of the heat caused by combustion from the valve head through the shaft to the cylinder head. Interaction between the guide hole and the valve shaft should be minimal in order to guarantee a low amount of valve guide wear. The centreless pre-grinding process under consideration must realise a roundness error fk = 8 μ m and an average surface roughness of Rz < 10 μm. The grinding wheel used is a sol-gel-corundum grinding wheel of granulation 100 in a ceramic bond. Its external diameter is 500 mm and its width is 100 mm. The control wheel is made of rubber-bonded corundum and has an external diameter of 300 mm. The workrest blade has a width of 3.5 mm. Grinding oil is used as the cooling lubricant.

298

6 Grinding

vfr Grinding wheel

Control wheel Fig. 6-145. Centreless infeed grinding of the valve shaft

The grinding wheel is dressed with a dressing plate, the control wheel with a single-grain dresser in accordance with the dressing parameters given in table 610. Table 6-10. Dressing parameters Grinding wheel

Control wheel

vsd / vrd

50 m/s

4.8 m/s

Ud

4

3

aed

25 μm

25 μm

The grinding process is undertaken with the parameters given in table 6-11. Table 6-11. Process parameters z

0.315 mm

vs

50 m/s

q

+ 122

Q‘w

4.6 mm³/mms

ta

0.2 s

In the grinding process, two different materials are simultaneously engaged, which puts different stresses on the grinding wheel. The long-chipping austenitic head material, which is prone to clogging, leads to higher grinding wheel wear than does the heat-treated and partially hardened shaft material. Furthermore, the different cutting properties of the ground materials lead to torsion of the valve head against the shaft. The materials can also exhibit different reactions to the heat introduced during grinding. When the heat-treated/hardened shaft material warms up, re-hardening or annealing effects can result. The austen-

6.6 Application Examples

299

itic hard material on the other hand undergoes no structural changes during the relatively short action time of the grinding heat.

6.6.5 Surface Peripheral Plunge Grinding Turbine blades in jet engines are exposed to high levels of mechanical and thermal stress. The materials used must be highly heat-resistant and possess a high level of creep and rupture strength. Nickel-based forging alloys, those high-temperature properties are based on the mechanisms of mixed crystal, separation and carbide hardening, are especially suited to this. The profiles of turbine blade roots are manufactured with surface peripheral plunge grinding. The complex geometries and difficult machinability of nickelbased alloys result in high demands on the grinding tools and process design. Galvanically bonded cBN grinding wheels and ceramically bonded corundum tools are used for grinding. The special requirements on tool selection and the choice of parameters is described in the following. The components are manufactured in a creep grinding process with an overall depth of cut of up to 10 mm. Due to the poor heat conductivity and ductile nature of the material, high demands are placed on chip removal and process heat. These requirements take on particular importance in tool design and the selection of cooling lubricant conditions. For this reason, grinding wheels with large chip spaces are utilised that can be set by means of the specification and dressing conditions. The geometries of the turbine blade roots partially exhibit convex radii that are subject to increased temperature influences. When selecting the marginal conditions, avoiding thermally induced external zone damage is thus a decisive criterion. In the case of conventional grinding tools, coarse-grained discs with high porosities are used to meet the requirements. The grain size is around 60 US mesh with open structures of 13 to 15. The high initial effective surface roughness of the grinding wheel associated with the technology limits the obtainable surface quality. I practical applications however, qualities of Rz = 1.5 to 2.0 μm are usually sufficient. The dressing parameters and grinding parameters can be adjusted in relation to the target surface roughness. By working almost exclusively in the CDgrinding method, an optimally conditioned grinding wheel is constantly available during the process. This makes it possible to reach high material removal rates, which can be set via workpiece speed due to the defined depth of cut. With increasing material removal rates, the grinding power goes up. This results to a large extent in thermal energy in the workpiece, thereby increasing the danger of thermal damage. The heat action time, which decreases with rising workpiece speeds, is advantageous, as it counteracts this. Material removal rates of around Q´w = 15 mm³/mms with cutting speeds up to 45 m/s are customary.

300

6 Grinding

Galvanically bonded cBN grinding wheels are distinguished by their high grain projection and thus comparatively large chip space in comparison to ceramically bonded tools. A further advantage is the favourable heat conductivity of cBN grains and of the metallic bond. In comparison to ceramically bonded corundum grinding wheels, the diameter is quasi-constant throughout the service life; the contact area is thus constant. A disadvantage of this single-layered coating, besides the relatively expensive tools, the sensitivity to clogging and wear, whereby the selection of process parameters receives enlarged significance. Moreover, a high amount of accuracy in concentricity must be guaranteed by means of an exact clamping, which is of lesser importance in the case of dressable tools. Certain geometries require an angular arrangement of the grinding wheel and can only be realised by means of a 5-axis process. This makes CD grinding impossible.

7 Honing

Honing is a cutting process with bonded grain and is used to improve the form, dimensional precision and surface quality of a workpiece under constant surface contact with the tool. In general, honing is applied after precision machining (e.g. grinding). Tables 7-1 and 7-2 illustrate the different honing techniques and their main fields of application, as well as their respective advantages and disadvantages. Honing procedures are divided into three main groups: • longitudinal stroke honing, frequently referred to as honing, • shortstroke honing, frequently designated as fine honing or superfinishing, • gear honing. Table 7-1. Honing techniques Method

Area of application

Longitudinal stroke Connecting rod holes, honing cylinder liners, brake drums, guide holes for roller bearings, brake workpiece cylinders, gear bores, honing stone etc.

grinding path

longitudinal feed

honing stone

Non production times, high material reMisalignment correcmoval, correction of tion not possible, limroundness, form and ited area of application dimension possible

Crankshafts, rotor shafts for electric motors, long shafts, complex rotating parts, etc.

Centring necessary; not suitable for mass production because of very long nonproductive times

Short shafts, rotor shafts, camshafts, etc.

Short non-production operation times, centring not necessary, automation possible, consistent quality of the machined surface

Axial impacts necessary, marks on the support rollers can be transferred to the workpiece surface; only one honing tool can be used to machine a single surface

Centreless plunge honing honing stone

workpiece

bearer drum

Disadvantages

Plunge grinding and longitudinal machining possible, the necessary rotary and feed motion is executed by a lathe with the swing head being received by the tool holder, machining very large parts possible

Shortstroke honing workpiece

Advantages

7.1 Kinematic Principles

303

Table 7-2. Method variations of honing Method

Area of application

Advantages

Through feed honing

Piston pins, piston rods and piston valves for pneumatic and hydraulic drives, axles, pins, roller bearing rollers, tapered rollers, spherical rollers, bearing rings, bearing axles, rocker arm shafts, etc.

Non-productive times very minimal, simultaneous use of multiple honing stones pos- Not suitable for sinsible, automation gle-unit production possible, consistent quality of the machined surface

Tracks of outer and inner ball bearing rings

Automation possible, production in large numbers

Existent profile shape errors cannot be corrected

Roller guideways, guide rails, rulers, front faces of the wheels of gear pumps, rotor contact surfaces electric motors, sealing surfaces, valve seats, etc.

Greater material removal rate than with lapping, thus great time savings

Only applicable in special cases

Finishing of gears

Short machine run times, automation possible, existent profile shape errors are correctable

Not suitable for single-unit production

honing stone longitudinal bearer- and feed feedingdrums

Disadvantages

Profile honing honing stone

workpiece

Surface honing

honing stone workpiece

Gear honing

workpiece

honing stone

7.1 Kinematic Principles The principles of the honing process will be explained using the example of shortstroke honing. The movement between tool and workpiece can be divided into three orthogonal speed components (Fig. 7-1): • two components parallel to the workpiece surface (axial feed rate vfa, tangential feed rate vft) • one component perpendicular to the workpiece surface (feed rate vfn)

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7 Honing

tool

vft

workpiece vfn vfa

Fig. 7-1. Speed components in shortstroke honing

The speed components superpose to form the cutting speed:

vc = v 2fa + v 2ft + v 2fn

(7.1)

Since vfn is very small in comparison to vfa and vft, because of the lower material removal, we can calculate vc to:

vc = v 2fa + v 2ft .

(7.2)

Speed and direction depend on the kinematics of the tool drive. The tangential feed rate vft is generally constant. The axial feed rate vfa is an oscillating movement describing a sine-wave. Proceeding from the path function (Fig. 7-2), we obtain the formula

y=

l0 sin (ω t ) 2

(7.3)

with y being the path of oscillation and l0 being the oscillation amplitude. Following this, we obtain

v fa = y& =

l0 ω cos (ω t ) . 2

Alternately, introducing the stroke frequency f =

(7.4)

ω 2π

yields

7.1 Kinematic Principles

v fa = l 0 π f cos(ω t ) .

305

(7.5)

l0/2 lh

vwa

bh

vfa ε ρ vft dw

Fig. 7-2. Movements in centreless shortstroke plunge and through feed honing

According to equations 7.2 and 7.5 and taking account of the superposed axial workpiece speed vwa, the speed vc is calculated as

vc = v 2ft + (l 0 π f cos (ω t ) + v wa )

2

(7.6)

with the maximum value

vc = v 2ft + (l 0 max π f + v wa ) . 2

(7.7)

The minimum value is

vc = v ft . The cross hatch angle α is calculated as

(7.8)

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7 Honing

tan α =

v fa + v wa v ft

.

(7.9)

In the case of longitudinal stroke honing, the relative motion between workpiece and tool generally corresponds to those in shortstroke honing. Whereas in shortstroke honing of cylindrical workpieces the workpiece usually effects the rotational movement, in longitudinal stroke honing, the tool generates both the axial movement and the rotation. Fig. 7-3 shows the kinematics involved and the resultant surface pattern. downward stroke

honing marks vc vfa workpiece

vc

vfa tool

upward stroke Fig. 7-3. Kinematics and surface structure in longitudinal stroke honing

In contrary to shortstroke honing, the axial movement does not describe a sinewave oscillation. The axial speed remains constant over the entire stroke length except at the turning points. r r r The speed vc = v fa + v ft is thus calculated as

vc = v 2fa + v 2ft .

(7.10)

7.1 Kinematic Principles

307

Stroke circle

Stroke length

Axial feed rate vfa

In accordance with equation 7.9, a constant cross hatch angle α is obtained in case of constant axial and tangential speed, which only yields smaller values at the ends of the workpiece, i.e. in the turning position of the tool. In addition to the oscillatory movement shown in Fig. 7-4 without stroke delay, a stroke delay can also be included for reasons of shape accuracy in one or both turning positions (Fig. 75).

Time t Fig. 7-4. Longitudinal stroke honing: path and speed

The resultant reduction of the cross hatch angle α in the vicinity of the turning points is corrected as a result of their being a number of strokes without stroke delays at the end of the machine run. The tool is feed controlled in direction of vfa and vft. In force or feed direction of vfn, i.e. perpendicular to the workpiece surface, movement is force or feed controlled. The depth of cut is generated by hydraulic or mechanical positioning mechanisms (Fig. 7-6). The contact pressure of the honing stone on the workpiece surface is calculated in line with Fig. 7-6 as

pn =

Fn F = n . Ah bh ⋅ lh

(7.11)

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7 Honing

Axial feed rate vfa

Delay of stroke (vfa = 0)

k tro

Up s

tr o ke

s wn Do

Stroke lenth

vft = const

e

Time t Fig. 7-5. Path and speed profile with stroke delay

honing pressure between honing stone and workpiece

pl Ak Fn

Fn=

Ah

pl Ak pn

thread p n=

ϕ

Fn

r

Ah

Fn

r~ϕ

Ah lh bh

force-bound (force- fit)

lh bh

track-bound (form- fit)

Fig. 7-6. The principle of force-bound and track-bound depth of cut

pn

7.2 Honing Tools and their Preparation

309

7.2 Honing Tools and their Preparation Honing tools must be prepared prior to their first use. This operational step is a key determinant of the machining process and of a tool’s technological and economic performance.

7.2.1 Honing Stones with Corundum or Silicon Carbide Honing tools with conventional abrasive grains receive their desired form through mechanical material removal. Since narrow honing stones adjust themselves to the workpiece to be processed very quickly during their first use, a separate profiling process is rarely necessary. Only when machining holes with very small diameters the honing tools must be rounded with levelling sleeves made of hardened steel. Honing stones which are either new or blunted through use must be resharpened. This sharpening process can be done in two ways during machining. First, it is possible to increase the contact pressure of the honing stone, which causes the grains to splinter or break away. In addition, a sharpening effect can be achieved by increasing the oscillation speed.

7.2.2 Honing Stones with Boron Nitride and Diamond In contrary to conventional honing tools, cBN or diamond honing stones must be adapted to the form of the workpiece prior to use. For the honing of holes, for example, the tools are ground to the dimensions of the hole in a pre-tensioned state on an external grinding machine with silicon carbide or precious corundum grinding wheels. After this profiling process, the honing tools have no cutting efficiency, so that a downstream sharpening process is required. For this purpose, moist, loose silicon grains are dispersed between the workpiece and the tool during the honing process. The resulting lapping process sets back the bond to the grains, which facilitates the tool's cutting ability. Another possibility is to use moist, soft corundum stones [KLIN77]. Both procedures have in common that the selected grain size of both the loose silicon grains and the corundum stone is smaller than the grains of the cBN or diamond honing stone to be sharpened, so that only the bond is removed.

310

7 Honing

7.3 Influences on the Process and the Work Result

7.3.1 Input Variables The input variables of the honing process can be divided into system quantities and variables (Fig. 7-7). Input quantities System Machine - Type - Property

Variables Axial speed (Oscillation)

Honing process Parameter Cutting force Power

Circumferential speed Workpiece - Geometry - Premachining - Property Honing tools - Type - Configuration

Cooling lubricant - Type - Supply

Wear Stroke frequency Temperature

Result Technology Workpiece - Cylindricity - Roundness - Surface quality - Influence of the surface layer damage

Stroke length Process length Contact pressure Contact length

Coolant pressure Flow rate

Disturbances

- Circulating moment of tilt - Vibrations

Tool - Wear Cooling lubricant - Contamination - Change of state Efficiency Quantities Manufacturing costs

Fig. 7-7. Process variables and result of the honing process

The following system quantities represent most frequently fixed process variables: • the machine, with its performance data, material rigidity and dynamic behaviour, • the workpiece, with its properties, geometry and state as determined by design requirements, conditions imposed by the workpiece material, and the type and quality of pre-machining, • the honing tool, with its geometry, precision and honing stone design and • the cooling lubricant system, with its type, viscosity and concentration of the cooling lubricant and arrangement of supply nozzles.

The variables determine the possible systems mechanics and kinematics for the process. The kinematics results from the superposition of two movements:

7.3 Influences on the Process and the Work Result

311

• axial movement, comprising the axial movement of both the tool and the workpiece and • rotation of the workpiece/tool in the machining of cylindrical surfaces or transverse movement in the machining of level surfaces.

If the kinematics is given, the mechanics of the process is determined by the following variables: • the contact pressure between the tool and the workpiece and • the pressure and quantity of the cooling lubricant.

The process variables determine in their totality the process parameters and the work result. In the following, the influence of the most important variables on the work result will be discussed in more detail.

7.3.1.1 Contact Pressure

A variation of the contact pressure pn does not always have an obvious influence on the process parameters and the work result. The tool’s specifications and associated wear characteristics often constitute parameters for influencing pn. In practice, however, effects arising from the contact pressure can be cited for the majority of honing processes. Whereas in grinding the pressure/force between the tool and the workpiece depends as a process parameter on the process variables, it itself qualifies as a process variable in honing with frictional feed mechanics. In spite of the different causalities involved, the influences of force/contact pressure pn are comparable to a great extent. With an increasing contact pressure pn, the cutting edges penetrate more deeply into the workpiece surface until an equilibrium is reached between contact pressure and reaction pressure through the deepening and the broadening of the impressions and an increase in the active cutting edge number. The larger number and penetration depth of the active cutting edges increase the number and the cross-section of the chips. An increase in contact pressure under otherwise constant process variables thus results in an increased material removal per overrun (Fig. 7-8). The same is true for the wear of honing stones. An increasing strain on the tool caused by increased cutting force leads to the breakaway of the grains from the bond and thus to greater wear of the honing stone. Under increased contact pressure pn, the surface quality of the workpiece is worsened. Fig. 7-8 shows the expected surface roughness for given stock removal volume. Corresponding to the greater chip cross-sections, the cutting force shows an increase with the contact pressure pn (Fig. 7-9). The influence of the contact pressure pn on the development of cylindricity and roundness errors is seen in Fig. 7-10.

312

7 Honing

Whereas roundness errors are only minimally influenced by the contact pressure, cylindricity worsens considerably under high contact pressure. Such cylindrical form errors primarily consist in a widening at the upper edge of the hole. The widening is generated by the tool’s tilt angle, which is increased under high contact pressure and resultant high axial force.

1000

μm

2.5

500

1.25

0

0

2400

Material removal Vw

mm3

5

Surface roughness Rt

Honing stone wear Vh

2000

mm3

Material removal Surface roughness Honing stone wear Material: St35 Hardness: 177 HB

1200

600

0

5

10 daN/cm2 Contact pressure pn

20

Fig. 7-8. Material removal, surface roughness and honing stone wear with increasing contact pressure [TOEN70]

2500 Honing stone 180/2/80 s

Cutting force Fc

N Material: 100 Cr6 Hardness: 58-64 HRC Th = 60 s

1500

180/2/55 s

1000 500

0

2

4 6 Contact pressure pn

Fig. 7-9. Increase in cutting force with increasing contact pressure

bar

10

7.3 Influences on the Process and the Work Result

313

50 Raw material: St 35 Hardness: 177 HB

Cylindricity deviation fz Roundness deviation fk

μm

30 fz

20

10 fk

0

3

6

9

12

daN/cm2

18

Contact pressure pn Fig. 7-10. Shape errors with increasing contact pressure [TOEN70]

The edge force FO is constantly larger than the edge force FU (downward stroke of the tool). Higher local contact pressures and material removal rates arise towards the upper edge of the hole as a result. These considerations only apply to longitudinal stroke honing with the typical tool/workpiece arrangement as illustrated in Fig. 7-11. They do not apply to other honing processes, especially shortstroke honing.

7.3.1.2 Cutting Speed

In honing, cutting speed has a direct influence on the material removal rate. If the contact pressure is given, which determines the number and cross-section of the chips, the cutting speed indicates the average chip length achieved per time unit and thus the material removal rate (Fig. 7-12).

314

7 Honing

Honing spindle Upper spherical joint Faϕ 2b+s+x ⋅ s-x ⋅(1+ b + s ) lk lk 2 Faϕ 2b+s+x ⋅ s-x ⋅(1+ b + x ) Fu = lk lk 2

lk

Fo =

a FA FQ

Fo

x

b

Lower spherical joint

s

Honing awl Fu Workpiece Tilt angle (exaggerated)

FR

FR

ϕ

Fig. 7-11. Angled position of the honing tool in the workpiece [TOEN70]

21

Material removal rate Qw

mm³/s

Honing stone KS - Ke 180/2/45 s pn = 3.6 · 105 N/m2 Material: St 35 Hardness: 177 HB

15 12 α = 60° 9

α = 30°

6 α = 45°

3

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Cutting speed vc Fig. 7-12. Material removal rate vs. cutting speed.

0.8

m/s

1.2

7.3 Influences on the Process and the Work Result

315

The generation of cutting speed vc from its components vfa and vft is decisive for the plot of the curves. According to the cross hatch angle α, the workpiece surface is subject to varying grain engagement. The corresponding changes to the material removal rate result from processes on the tool. The strain and wear of the tool increase with the cross hatch angle α. The reason for the increasing wear can be reasoned by the varying mechanical stresses on the individual grain. The applied forces change according to position, extent and direction according to the cross hatch angle α. The greater the differences are in force application direction, the more probable it becomes that the anisotropic holding forces between grain and bond will be exceeded. Given a large cross hatch angle α, the grains tend to break away, releasing the sharp grains underneath.

Radial honing stone wear Δ rh

210 μm 150

Honing time th = 36s

120

Honing part-time thi = 4s

90 0

60

Tangential speed vft

30

500

0 mm/s 1500

700

400 mm/s 500

100 300 200 Peak value of axial speed vfa max

Honing stone: SC 9/500/5/30 VU (29/33.8HR) Honing pressure: pn = 25 N/cm2 Workpiece : Ck 45 coarse grain annealed 16.7∅ 30 mm lg. Workpiece preparation : fine turned Rto = 6.2 ± 0.5 μm Rao = 2.2 μm Fig. 7-13. Honing stone wear as a function of the speed ratio

316

7 Honing

Figure 7-13 shows the dependence of wear on the speed components and the cross hatch angle α in shortstroke honing. The good cutting quality of the tool arising from wear causes a corresponding increase in the material removal rate with an increasing cross hatch angle α. This increase becomes significantly important with increasing cutting speed. This is because, with a smaller vc, the overall forces are at a lower level, which in turn reduces the effect of the differences in the alternating mechanical stresses. In practice, values between 40° and 70° have proven to be optimal with respect to the material removal rate and this independently of grain size, hardness and contact pressure.

Radial honing stone wear Δ rh

Rto = 6.2 ± 0.5μm 2.1

R ao =

m 2. 2 μ

1 μm

μm 1.5 1 μm

1.2

250 μm

0.9

0 0.3 0

Tangential speed vft 500 1 μm mm/s

Honingtime th = 36s Honing part-time thi = 4s

1 μm

1500

700

400 mm/s 500

Honing stone: SC 9/500/5/30 VU (29/33.8HR) Honing pressure: pn = 25 N/cm2 Workpiece: Ck 45 coarse grain annealed 16.7∅ 30 mm lg. Workpiece preparation: fine turned Rto = 6.2 ± 0.5 μm Rao = 2.2 μm

100 300 200 Peak value of axial speed vfa max

Fig. 7-14. The influence of speed components on the average roughness value

Fig. 7-14 shows surface roughness as a function of cutting speed. According to this graph, cutting speed has a positive influence on surface quality. Proceeding

7.3 Influences on the Process and the Work Result

317

from a considerably higher degree of roughness created in pre-machining, a large amount of initial roughness is removed at higher material removal rates. In order to compare the best possible roughness values, conditions must be selected in which the initial condition of the tool has no influence, i.e. after a sufficiently long machining time, with a low material removal rate. As shown in Fig. 7-14, the influence of cutting speed on roughness is considerably reduced given a high material removal. The correction of cylindricity and roundness errors also depends on the composition of the cutting speed. The superposition of the optimal speed components (circumferential and axial speed) resulted in a cross hatch angle α = 45°. The connection between the cross hatch angle α and shape errors can be explained primarily by the fact that the material removal rate reaches its maximum value at α = 45° in many other processes, as well. Although these values are only optimal in individual cases and thus do not allow for generalisation, it is nevertheless clear that a high material removal rate is required for the correction of shape errors.

7.3.1.3 Stroke Length

Stroke length lH has a considerable influence on shape accuracy in longitudinal stroke honing. More than in roundness errors, lH plays a decisive role in cylindricity errors. The larger the stroke length, the more the hole is widened at the ends. Fig. 7-15 provides a schematic illustration of the contour of a hole honed with a varying stroke length lH/overshoot length lÜ. The cause for the varied formation of the hole shape lies in the following overshoot-length-dependent values: • the efficient honing stone length and • the honing pressure at the hole ends (Fig. 7-16).

If, for example, the overshoot length lÜ = 0, i.e. the axial movement reverses as soon as the end of the honing stone reaches the edge of the hole, the following conditions exist: Given that the honing stone abuts completely, the local honing pressure remains constant in the entire hole and consequently at the edge of the hole. The efficient honing stone length leff, i.e. the part of lH per stroke in which a point on the hole wall is in contact with the honing stone, is 0 at the edge of the hole and increases linearly in the axial direction up to 100 % at the honing stone end facing inwards to the inside of the hole. As a necessary consequence of the engagement of fewer and fewer grains as one proceeds towards the end of the hole given constant honing pressure, less material is removed at the ends. The hole thus tapers at entry and exit.

318

7 Honing

workpiece

honing stone lh

lü2

lü1

lü2

lü3

lü3

lü1 > lü2 > lü3 Fig. 7-15. The influence of overshoot length on cylindricity errors.

The second extreme case occurs when the honing stone almost entirely leaves the hole before the reversal of the axial movement begins. If the surface of the honing stone is only in partial contact with the hole wall, the honing pressure increases as a result of the radial force being supported on a smaller surface. However, an increase of the honing pressure causes a higher local material removal rate at the hole ends. In addition, the efficient honing stone length then increases with increasing overshoot length. These influences lead in sum to a widening at the hole ends. The overshoot lengths must be calibrated carefully for high cylinder shape accuracy at the hole ends. The optimal design of the overshoot length, e.g. in the honing of blind holes, is limited by design considerations. At the lower hole end of the machining situation illustrated in Fig. 7-17, the existing undercut is not long enough to enable a sufficiently large overshoot length. In order to prevent a tapering of the hole at its base, an additional widening has to be produced by increasing the residence time of the honing stone (stroke delay), increasing the contact pressure and calibrating the honing stone length on the undercut, or by design measures on the honing tool. The stroke delay is activated

7.3 Influences on the Process and the Work Result

319

shortly before achieving the final dimensions in order to obtain the desired cross hatch angle α in the last overshoots at the base of the hole, as well. lü

lü

lw

x

Maximum Efficient honing pressure pn max honing stone length lwirk

Werkstück Overshoot length Reversal position

Honing stone

40 mm 20 10 0 80

Workpiece length lw = 120 mm Honing stone length lh = 40 mm Overshoot length lü = 0.5 lh

N/cm2 40 20 0

30 60 mm Coordinate x of workpiece length

120

Fig. 7-16. Efficient honing stone length and contact pressure vs. workpiece length

7.3.1.4 Machining Time

The work result, especially workpiece roughness, is dependent in particular on the machining time. The roughness, resulting from pre-machining has to be improved by the honing process and leads to a typical temporal course (Fig. 7-18). Initially the peaks of roughness are removed quickly. After a relatively short machining time, the surface roughness asymptotically approaches a final value determined primarily by the tool and the process kinematics (Fig. 7-19). At the beginning, the tool does not bear flat on the surface, but only on individual peaks of surface roughness. The local contact pressure is thus extremely high at the contact points. The material removal rate is also correspondingly high. This leads to a fast

320

7 Honing

reduction of roughness. Given an increasing material removal, the contact surface rises, upon which the local contact pressure of the individual grits decrease continuously. honing stone

workpiece

lü1 > lü2 lü1

lü2

undercut

μm

20 10

0

80 μm

40 20

Surface roughness Rt

40

Decrease of workpiece radius Δ rw

Radial honing stone wear Δ rh

Fig. 7-17. Overshoot length in blind hole honing

16 Δr w

μm

Δr h 8 4 Rt

0

0

0

60

120 Time t

s

240

Fig. 7-18. Honing stone wear, decrease of radius and surface roughness as a function of machining time

The honing stone wear exhibits a curve similar to that of the material removal rate. At the beginning, the pre-machined surface has a large abrasive influence. High local honing pressures at the peaks of roughness lead to an increased grain breakaway in the honing stone. Given a continual smoothing of the surface and an

7.3 Influences on the Process and the Work Result

321

even distribution of pressure, the wear is decreased, and almost linearly correlates to the progressing machining time (Fig. 7-18). Surface profile

Initial surface roughness

After 1 workpiece rotation 50 μm 2.5 μm

50 μm

After 31 workpiece rotations

After 70 workpiece rotations

Fig. 7-19. Surface roughness formations as a function of workpiece rotations

7.3.2 Tool Shape and Specifications Corresponding to a multifaceted spectrum of parts, a broad range of different tools is used in honing, particularly in longitudinal stroke honing of holes. The differences are a result on the one hand of a range of diameter of approximately 2 to 1500 mm. The amount of space available in a given hole and different requirements on rigidity and accuracy limit the respectively calibrated tool forms. On the other hand, the tool must be calibrated in terms of both its feed kinematics and the shape of the honing stones and their arrangement to the geometry of the workpiece (blind hole honing, interrupted cut) and to properties of the unmachined part (shape errors, workpiece material, type of pre-machining). Fig. 720 shows some honing tool types often used.

322

7 Honing

Honing tool with wedge

Honing tool with single honing stone

Δy

Honing tool with parallel feed of honing stones Δy

Δy

4

1 2 α

Δx

Δx

4 Δx

Δϕ

1 1 2

(Several honingstones distributed in periphery)

Δx

5

α Δx 4

α

3

2 3

3 Δϕ

α Δx

(Several honingstones distributed in periphery)

Δx= Δy · tan α

1 Feeding cone

3 Honing stone

5 Guide rail

2 Honing stone carrier 4 Return spring (revolving) Fig. 7-20. Feed principles of frequently used honing tool types

7.3.2.1 Tool Geometry

Honing stone length plays an important role in the correction of shape errors. With respect to achieving the most accurate desired cylindricity, tools with long honing stones offer the best possibility for transferring their own cylindrical shape onto the workpiece. The arrangement in Fig. 7-21a shows that when the honing stone is too short the tool follows the contour of the shape error and therefore cannot correct it. Given a sufficient honing stone length (Fig. 7-21b), the cylindricity improves. The tool’s diameter is adjusted to the largest envelope curve of the cylinder, thus abutting only at the peaks of the irregularity. Furthermore short honing stones have the effect of enlarging the tilt moment in the upper reversal position (Fig. 7-11). This results in a larger widening at the upper end of the hole.

7.3 Influences on the Process and the Work Result

Δ r1

323

Δ r1a

lh1

lh1

a)

Tool follows shape irregularity

lh1 < lh2 Centre track of tool => Δ r1 > Δ r2

Δ r2

Δ r2a

Δ r1a > Δ r2a

Tool eliminates shape irregularity

b) lh2

lh2

Fig. 7-21. Correction of cylindricity errors through longer honing stones

The width of the honing stone is important in the correction of existing roundness errors. Wide honing stones at first only remove material in places where the diameter is small. The workpiece is shaped according to the accurate circular form of the tool (Fig. 7-22). A disadvantage of such tools covering large surfaces is their usually small material removal rate in comparison to narrow honing tools. Although the number of cutting edges not involved in the material removal process is larger, the influence of the contact pressure, which is reduced with an increasing honing stone surface, is still more important. Narrow honing stones, excited by the removal process, tend to vibrate with their resonance frequency in their guides. The resulting noises can reach a sound level of up to 100 dB. A large-surface tool’s abutment on several indeterminate

324

7 Honing

points prevents the generation of vibrations [HAAS75]. The shell tool combines the advantages of the narrow honing tool and the wide honing tool. These tools are designed to carry several stones on half-shells. The stones of one half-shell are thus fixed in their positions and are fed together radially with the carrying body. Tool follows shape irregularity

Workpiece contour

Honing stone

Tool eliminates shape irregularity Fig. 7-22. Wider honing stones eliminate the roundness error

Avoiding undesired vibrations also leads to a considerable decrease in tool wear. Not only does the shape of the honing stone affect the process, but also the number and distribution of stones along the tool. An optimal design depends on the type of roundness error to be rectified. Studies have shown that honing stone number has a significant influence in the improvement of roundness for roundness deviations of various orders [TOENS70]. In addition to an optimal number of stones, an asymmetrical arrangement of stones can lead to improved shape accuracy under certain conditions. In the case of honing tools with one honing stone, almost exclusively asymmetric separation are used (Fig. 7-20). The carbide stones used for support are arranged in such a way that one honing stone almost directly faces the other. This minimises tool deflection. Such tools are characterised by quality roundness improvements and a high degree of workpiece cylindricity. Because of their small mechanical complexity allows for a compact design, these tools can be used for holes beginning at 2.5 mm.

7.3.2.2 Tool Specifications

In addition to the variables involved in the honing process, the most important influence on the work result are the specifications of the honing stones, i.e. grain type, grain size, type of bond, hardness and treatment. With respect to grain type, two groups of materials are distinguished according to their properties. As in grinding, one distinguishes between conventional and superabrasive grain materials. In the following, the conventional grain materials like corundum and silicon

7.3 Influences on the Process and the Work Result

325

carbide will be described. Usually, the dependencies of the work result on the tool’s structure observed in grinding can also be applied to honing. An increasing grain size leads to a higher material removal rate, inferior surfaces and decreased wear (Figs. 7-23 and 7-24). This can be reasoned by greater holding forces in the bond and larger chip thicknesses. Large grains have a negative effect on the cylindricity of the workpiece. Therefore, it is important to make sure in rough honing that any cylindricity deviations remain below a value that is still correctable in a final finishing process. 8

Honing stone: Aluminium oxide Bakelite bond Hardness: 60 HRC Structure: 0 Material: St 35 Hardness: 177 HB

Material removal rate Qw Wear rate Vh

mm³/s

Qw . Vh

4

.

2

0

50

100 150 μm Grain size dk

250

Fig. 7-23. Removal rate and wear rate as functions of grain size

The influence of honing stone hardness can be seen in Fig. 7-25 and Fig. 7-26. Hardness grade is given as a variable. It corresponds to the penetration depth of a test body. The greater the hardness grade, the less is the hardness of the honing stone. Wear increases with decreasing bond strength. Increasing wear leads to a selfsharpening of the tool. With decreasing hardness, therefore, the material removal rate rises at first, since sharp grains are in continual engagement. If a certain level of hardness is exceeded however, the material removal rate is reduced again. The bond strength then becomes so minimal, that the tool no longer has the ability to accept the forces necessary to remove material. More hardness leads to the blunting of the grains, which leads in turn to the smoothing of the grooves. As a result, surface roughness decreases with increasing hardness.

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7 Honing

Cylindricity deviation fz Roundness deviation fr Surface roughness Rt

40 Honing stone: Aluminium oxide Bakelite bond Hardness: 60 HRB Structure: 0 Material: St 35 Hardness: 177 HB fz

μm

fk

20

Rt

10

0

50

100 150 Grain size dk

μm

250

Fig. 7-24. Reduction of workpiece roughness and shape irregularities with decreasing grain size

30

Honingstone: Aluminium oxide – special Vitrified bonding Structure: 2 Material: St 35 Hardness: 177 HB Qw . Vh

Material removal rate Qw . Wear rate Vh

mm³/s

20

10

0 30

40 50 μm Hardness grade HZ

70

Fig. 7-25. Removal rate and wear rate as functions of honing stone hardness

7.3 Influences on the Process and the Work Result

150

Honingstone: Aluminium oxide Bakelite bond Structure: 2 Material: St 35 Hardness: 177 HB

μm Cylindricity deviation fz Roundness deviation fk

327

100

fz fk

50

0

40

50

μm

70

Hardness grade HZ Fig. 7-26. Increase of shape irregularities with increasing honing stone hardness

Material removal rate Qw

Superabrasives

Conventional abrasives

0.5 0.8

3 10 μm 20 Surface roughness Rt

Fig. 7-27. Influence of the abrasive on the material removal rate and the surface roughness for cast materials [KLIN77]

The cutting behaviour and the corresponding area of application of honing stones made with diamond and crystalline cubic boron nitride (cBN) are different from those of conventional grain materials. Given surfaces with surface roughness Rt < 3 μm, the material removal rate with conventional abrasives is higher [KLIN77]. Superabrasives are superior, when honing rougher surfaces using larger grain sizes.

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7 Honing

The lower material removal rate in the case of superabrasive honing tools is a result of their wear behaviour. By means of effective grain integration, the grains are locked in the bond and become highly blunt. If the grains do not protrude far enough from the bond, the bond comes in contact with the workpiece material and is set back. The grain is no longer embedded and thus breaks off. The selfsharpening effect of conventional honing stones therefore does not apply. Particularly in the case of small holes, the disadvantage of lower material removal rates is compensated for by the improved form stability of the tool. Cylindricity errors and dimensional precision achieve essentially better values by the very high wear resistance than in the use of conventional grain materials. However, because of the high cost of such tools, machining of large lot sizes is the precondition for the economically viable use of diamond and cBN. The use of these grain materials thus becomes questionable when large holes are in demand, since the cost for the abrasives rises disproportionally and the necessary number of pieces and the resultantly shorter tool-change times are often not reached. Given small diameters, the smaller tool volume requires a frequent tool change. Thus the reduction of non-productive times by superabrasives is very high. A further area of application is the processing of blind holes. Given unfavourable design requirements (insufficiently large undercut), the wear resistance of superabrasives guarantees better cylindricity at the base of the hole. The machining times can be reduced by the avoidance of stroke delays or by a multistage process. Whereas honing with conventional grain materials can be used to process almost all workpiece materials encountered in practice, the use of diamond and boron nitride is limited primarily to cast iron, hardened steels, ceramics and glass.

Grain size in mesh

Table 7-3. Attainable surface roughnesses of different workpiece materials as a function of the grain size of corundum honing stones [HAAS71]

Surface roughness Rt [μm] Cast iron 180 HB Vitrified

Surface roughness Rt [μm] Steel

250 HB

50 HRC

Bakelite Vitrified Bakelite

62 HRC

Vitrified

Bakelite

Vitrified

Bakelite

80

10

-

6–8

-

8 – 12

8 – 10

5–7

4–5

120

7–9

-

4–6

-

7–9

6–8

4–6

3–4

150

5–7

-

3–5

2–3

5–7

4–6

3–5

2–3

220

4–6

2–4

2–4

1–2

3–5

2–4

2–4

1.5 – 2.5

400

3–4

1–3

1–3

0.5 - 1.5

2–4

1–2

2–3

1–2

700

-

0.5 – 1

-

0.5 – 1

1–3

0.5 – 1

1–2

0.2 – 1

1000

-

0.5

-

0.3 - 0.8

0.5 – 1

0.2 – 0.5

0.2 – 1

-

7.3 Influences on the Process and the Work Result

329

Difficulties arise in the machining of light and non-ferrous metals with finegrained tools. Ductile workpiece materials clog the tool surface. Corrosion is the result, which contributes to an impermissible degradation of the surface quality. The wear resistance properties of conventional tools prevent this to a great extent. Tables 7-3 and 7-4 give an overview of the surface qualities which can be achieved for superabrasive and conventional grain materials. Table 7-4. Attainable surface roughnesses of different workpiece materials as a function of the grain size of diamond honing stones [HAAS71] Grain size

Surface roughness Rt [μm] Cast iron

Surface roughness Rt [μm] Steel

180 HB

250 HB

50 HRC

62 HRC

D7

0.8

0.6

0.8

0.3

D15

1.8

1.2

1.8

0.6

D20

2.0

1.8

2.0

0.8

D30

2.5

2.0

2.5

1.2

D40

3.5

2.5

3.0

1.5

D50

4.0

3.5

3.5

2.0

D60

4.5

4.0

4.0

2.5

D70

5.5

4.5

4.5

3.0

D80

6.0

5.5

5.5

3.5

D100

6.5

6.0

6.0

4.0

D120

7.0

6.5

6.5

4.5

D150

8.0

7.0

7.0

5.0

D180

9.0

8.0

8.0

5.5

D200

10.0

9.0

9.0

6.0

7.3.3 Workpiece Structure In honing, the work result must also be seen as a function of the initial state of the workpiece. Not only do the properties of the workpiece material play a role in this, but also the initial conditions resulting from pre-machining. As in grinding, the workpiece surface has an influence on the resulting surface roughness in honing. A comparison of types of cast iron and steel at different grades of hardness (table 7-3) shows that the surface quality increases with increasing hardness. The reason for this is that with hard workpiece materials no bulging occurs at the machining grooves by plastic deformation of the material. Ductile metals, such as light and non-ferrous metals, often tend to degrade roughness by clogging the honing stone.

330

7 Honing

Cylindricity deviation fz

20 Material: St 35 Hardness: 177 HB μm

10

5 0

5

10 15 20 Initial cylindricity Deviation fzo

μm

30

Roundness enhancement fko-fo

Another roughness-decreasing influence of hard materials is that, depending on the type of honing stone, the grains are considerably blunt as a result of the abrasive effect of the workpiece material. Blunt grains lead to lower surface roughnesses. This only applies, however, to honing stones whose grains are held in the bond for a sufficient amount of time owing to a high bond strength. Studies of the effect of shape errors on the unfinished part attested to a clear influence on the work result. Fig. 7-28 shows that, after a machining time of 180 s, the statistical average of the remaining shape error lies above the shape error of the unfinished part [TOEN70]. The extent of the error correction depends in particular on the tool type. 10 μm 6 4 2 0 -2

0

μm 4 6 8 Initial roundness deviation fko

12

Fig. 7-28. The influence of pre-form errors on the final shape [TOEN70]

As observed in chapter 7.3.2, long honing stones lead to a reduction of cylindricity deviations and wide honing stones (large-area tools) to the removal of existent roundness deviations. The surface roughness Rto of the surface of the unfinished part has a more positive than negative influence on the work result. The surface roughness curves shown in Fig. 7-29 are based on the connections described in chapter 7.3.1 between the material removal rate and workpiece roughness. The material removal rate is higher given a high initial roughness. This is a result on the one hand of the high local contact pressure during the time in which the tool is only abutting the roughness peaks and, on the other hand, of a sharpening of the honing stone by the rough workpiece surface. If the initial roughness is too low, this necessary sharpening effect may under certain conditions be completely inhibited. An existent cylindricity error (Fig. 7-29 below) is improved given a high initial roughness, which is not the case with low initial roughness. In order to remove a shape error, machining must occur on the scale of the error. If the surface rough-

7.3 Influences on the Process and the Work Result

331

ness is larger than the shape error, the removal will be achieved over the course of the elimination of the initial surface roughness during the process.

g 1.5 1 0.5

Surface roughness Rt

Material removal Wh

2.5

40

20

Rto=1.16μm Rto=21.1μm Rto=41.2μm

10 0

0

-Surface roughness Rt -Material removal W h

μm

0

20

0

20

40

s

Cylindricity deviation fz

30

Material: 80 St35 Hardness: 177 HB

μm

10

0

40 s Honing time th

80

Abb. 7.29. Surface roughness, material removal and cylindricity deviations as functions of honing time [TOEN70]

7.3.4 Additives Because of the high requirements on machining methods in metal-cutting production, not only are optimal tools indispensable, but also the optimal accessories needed in production, e.g. cutting oil or lubricants. The relatively large contact areas between tool and workpiece are decisive for the selection of cooling lubricants. Because of these large contact areas, the pressures between tool and workpiece are correspondingly low. As a result, local heating is significantly lower in honing than in grinding. In honing, therefore, the flushing action is more important than the cooling effect. For this reason, honing oils are used which have to meet various requirements.

332

7 Honing

The Flushing Effect of Honing Oil To achieve a good flushing effect, a large quantity of honing oil must be supplied during the honing process. In order to flush the machining zone on all sides, annular nozzles are installed with multiple outlet points. The honing oil must have low viscosity and be very easy to rinse off in order to ensure that the honing stones retain their cutting ability and remain clean. The Lubricating Effect Especially for long-chipping workpiece materials, it is important that the cutting removal from the contact zone is ensured by honing oil. The lubricating effect is improved by increasing the viscosity of the honing oil. Fig. 7-30 and Fig. 7-31 show that lower viscous honing oils facilitate a greater material removal than higher viscous honing oils.

Decrease of workpiece radius Δ rw

50

μm

30

20 Oil 1 = honing oil about 2 mm²/s (20°C) 10

Oil 2 = honing oil about 4 mm²/s (20°C) Oil 3 = honing oil about 9 mm²/s (20°C)

0

0

8

10

12

14

16

18

bar

22

Honing pressure pn Fig. 7-30. The influence of honing oil viscosity on the removal rate for cast iron as a function of honing pressure [HAAS71]

When using higher viscous oils, an oil film builds up more quickly between the workpiece and the honing stone. It has been shown that lower viscous oils require higher material removal speeds than higher viscous oils. Fig. 7-32 assigns honing oils to different workpiece materials. On the basis of cast iron as workpiece material, two lines of development emerge. The longchipping and tough workpiece materials are listed downwards, ending with aus-

7.4 Examples of Application

333

tentic steels. The short-chipping workpiece materials are listed upwards, ending with hardened steels with 62 HRC [HAAS71]. 50

Decrease of workpiece radius Δ rw

Material: cast iron μm

30

20 Oil 1 = honing oil about 2 mm²/s (20°C) Oil 2 = honing oil about 4 mm²/s (20°C) Oil 3 = honing oil about 9 mm²/s (20°C)

10

0

20

40

60

80

100

m/min

140

Feed rate vft Fig. 7-31. The influence of honing oil viscosity on radial material removal [HAAS71]

7.4 Examples of Application

7.4.1 Plateau Honing The goal of plateau honing is to achieve a defined surface topography characterised by periodically appearing deep honing traces with interjacent, fine bearing surfaces called plateaus (Fig. 7-33). This surface topography is achieved in two phases. In addition, the workpiece is pre-honed with coarse-grained diamond honing stones, e.g. D 150, or with SiC honing stones with grain size 60 until the final dimensions of the cylinder liner is achieved. In order to increase the percent contact area, the roughness peaks of the pre-honed surfaces are then honed in only a few working strokes with rubber-bound Al2O3-honing stones with grain size 280. This surface topography has several advantages. For example, because of the increased percent contact area, a favourable wear behaviour can be observed, e.g.

334

7 Honing

for piston tracks. Also, the surface topography entails an improved adhesion of the oil film on the surface and facilitates lubrication.

Honing oils

Hardened material 62 HRC

Kerosine 2 mm2/s (20°C)

Cast iron

70 % Kerosine 30 % Hydraulic oil

Lower viscous

Short chips, hardened

Material

Higher viscous

Long chips, ductile

Construction steel Heat-treated steel Aluminium Bronze Copper Austenitic steels

Hydraulic oil 33 mm²/s (50 °C)

Fig. 7-32. Assignment of honing oil viscosity to different materials [HAAS71]

7.4.2 Gear Honing of Externally Toothed Spur Gears with an Internally Toothed Tool Gear honing is a fine machining process for gears which was originally implemented after grinding in order to create low-noise surface patterns on the tooth flanks. In the process, small allowances of approximately 15 μm were removed from the flanks. In further developments, this procedure came to be used directly after hardening, eliminating grinding from the process chain. Contrary to grinding, gear honing functions with low cutting speeds (0.5 to 10 m/s). This excludes the possibility of thermal damages to the gears being machined. Instead, internal pressure stresses

7.4 Examples of Application

335

are induced in the machined tooth flanks which have a positive effect on the component load capacity [KOEL00].

Depth of cut [μm] 0.25 0.37 0.50 0.62 0.75 1.00 1.25

Percentage material volume tp[%] normally honed plateau-honed 10 13 16 18 20 26 31

40 52 64 68 75 78 81

Fig. 7-33. Surface topography and percent contact area of plateau-honed surfaces [HAAS71]

In general, a gear-shaped tool can be either externally or internally toothed. Due to superior overlapping and resultantly lower tool wear, gear honing is now in broad industrial use (Fig. 7-34). During machining, tool (honing stone) and workpiece (gear) rotate synchronously. In addition, the rotation axes of both meshed partner parts are moved together by the so-called crossed axis angle. A relative speed is generated between the abrasive grains and the flanks of the workpiece by the rolling contact rotation and the crossed axis angle. At high rotational speeds, the tool is shifted towards the workpiece by the feed movement of the machine. This leads to high pressure

336

7 Honing

on the abrasive grains in the teeth of the tool. As a result, material is removed at the workpiece flanks.

X – transverse axis of compound slide Z – oscillation axis of compound slide A – crossed axis angle C1 – spindle axis C2 – workpiece spindle axis

workpiece

honing tool Fig. 7-34. Fässler gear tooth flank honing

In the case of dressable tools, the honing stone is composed of a synthetic resin or ceramic bond in which the abrasive grains, made of corundum, sintered corundum or cBN, are embedded. The honing tool can also be implemented as a steel body, upon which the cBN or diamond grains are galvanically bonded. In order to clean the honing stone, a honing oil with low viscosity is sprayed via adjustably arranged nozzles on the teeth of the honing stone. The honing oil rinses off chips and broken-off abrasive grains from the machining zone. Shortly before the final dimensions are achieved, the NC axes are controlled synchronously. This allows for both an improved surface quality and the creation of defined crownings. The honing stone is profiled both prior to machining the first workpiece of a new series and after wear. First, the tip diameter of the honing ring is shortened by means of a diamond dressing roller. After dressing the tip, the tooth flanks of the honing ring are dressed with a diamond dressing gear. The movements correspond to those of the honing cycle. However, the rotational speed is considerably lower

7.4 Examples of Application

337

in dressing than in honing. The amount of dressed honing stone material is compensated automatically on the machine side [BAUS94]. The diamond dressing gear consists of a hardened steel body coated with diamond grains bonded in nickel. This diamond dressing gear contains all the desired corrections, including tip reliefs, root reliefs, conicities, crowns and topological corrections. By re-grinding after coating, irregularities in the diamond gear coating are reduced and changes to the modifications can be ground to a small extent.

7.4.3 Laser Honing Laser honing was developed as a response to requirements placed on the piston paths of internal combustion engines. The piston stroke causes friction between the piston ring and the cylinder hole. This friction is reduced by means of a lubricant. At the same time, it is important that enough lubricant provisioning is secured during operation. In this respect, the surface receives a two-fold function: On the one hand, a minimal roughness must be achieved in order to guarantee a high percent contact area; on the other hand, an open structure must be created to assure the adhesion of the lubricant to the contact zone. The goal of laser honing is thus the production of a structure in which a fine roughness profile overlaps with a rough surface relief. To achieve this, the surface is first pre-honed in the conventional way in order to produce the macroform (cylindricity according to DIN ISO 1101) in close approximation to the final accuracy. Then, the laser is used to bring a defined structure to the honed surface. A final honing is implemented to remove the fusion- and oxide bulging generated during laser processing and to create an extremely fine sliding surface of 1 to 2 μm Rz [KLIN00].

8 Lapping and Polishing

8.1 Lapping Lapping is a mainly room-bound process with geometrically undefined cutting edges. It is a production and finishing process, respectively, defined as chipping with loose grains distributed in a fluid or paste (lapping slurry) which are guided with a usually shape-transferring counterpart (lapping tool) featuring ideally undirected cutting paths of the individual grains [DIN78a]. The ultra-precision machining method of lapping is followed, according to the desired surface quality, by the polishing process. In polishing, the components are pre-lapped in order to achieve high material removal while maintaining a good surface quality and dimension and form tolerance [KOEN90]. Polishing is then performed in order to create highest surface qualities, including a mirror finish. Lapped surfaces exhibit, almost exclusively, undirected processing traces, a semi-gloss appearance and, when under strain, are distinguished by little wear. Surfaces to be lapped are usually flat. If the workpieces have different geometric shapes, correspondingly modified method variations must be applied, in part manually and with auxiliary tools. From an economic perspective, these are not always reasonable choices of application. Given high demands on the quality of the workpiece, however, flat or cylindrical lapping has proved competitive in comparison to ultra-precision turning, precision grinding or honing. Often, it is the only option to achieve the quality requirements needed. The following materials can be processed by lapping: metals, ceramics, glasses, natural materials like marble, granite, basalt, any kind of gem, plastics, materials used in semiconductor technology, as well as carbon, graphite and even diamond. Geometrically complex components with little form stability can be embedded in a supporting mass (e.g. plastic), thus expanding the area of application of lapping methods. Lapping distinguishes itself from other machining methods through the following characteristics: • Most workpieces can be processed without being clamped or fixed. • Allowances of 0.2 to 0.5 mm (analogue to grinding) are economically machinable today. • Precision and ultra-precision machining can be executed in one operational step.

8.1 Lapping

339

• • • •

Changeover times are very short. Components of less than 0.1 mm thickness can be machined. The highest surface and roughness requirements can be met. The minimal heating effect prevents undesired thermal distortions and structural changes in the workpiece. • A consistent machining quality is guaranteed for composite materials. • Lapped surfaces rarely exhibit tensile distortion or burr formation. • It is possible to machine multiple workpieces in one operational step.

-Material removal by chipping -Micro-grooving

-Induced microcracks -Disruption of particles

Workpiece

Temporarily fixed grain

Rolling grain

Lapping plate

Fig. 8-1. Possible material removal mechanisms in lapping

8.1.1 Fundamentals In lapping, the work surface rubs against the workpiece surface to be processed. Machining is achieved by means of the insertion of a lapping slurry (lapping grains and fluid) into the working gap between the machining disc (the tool) and

340

8 Lapping and Polishing

the workpiece. In the process, loose grains (cutting edges) are added either continually or intermittently. The existent dependencies and interdependencies, respectively, are complex [WAGE94]. Fig. 8-1 shows the machining process for lapping.

Workpiece

a

a

a

a

Lapping fluid film Lapping plate a

b

a a

a

b

a

b

c

Time

b

a

a

c a

c

a

b

b

e a

d

e

c

d

c

a

c

c

d a

c c

b

b

c

a

e

d a e b

c

a

Fig. 8-2. Movement and effect of the lapping grains in the lapping film [MART72]

Material removal occurs as a result of the effect of the grain rolling in the contact zone between workpiece and machining disc surface or grains temporarily fixed in the disc surface. The edges of the lapping grains insert themselves into the

8.1 Lapping

341

workpiece material (Fig. 8-2). The depth of insertion depends on the surface strain and the material, usually between 5 to 10 % of the average grain diameter. Through the vortex developing in the fluid film (pressure and suction forces), the lapping grains straighten themselves out and become engaged. Their edges, which are moving along cycloidal paths, engage the surface. Through the repeated penetration of the grains into the workpiece surface, ductile materials are reshaped until fatigue, and then successively removed. In the case of hard and brittle materials, however, microcracks are induced on the surface of the workpiece, the interconnection of which leads to the breakaway of particles [SIMP88]. The surface receives its appearance through the overlapping of the crater-like traces of the total indentations from the engaged grain edges. Groove-shaped processing traces suggestive of material removal caused by a cutting process are not visibly recognisable (Fig. 8-3). Material-dependent hardening is associated with an embrittlement of the material and is indicated by an increased surface hardness.

5 μm Fig. 8-3. Lapped workpiece surface

It is possible to subdivide lapping methods according to the active surface of the lapping tool. The term peripheral lapping applies when the tool axis and the workpiece surface are parallel to each other, and side lapping when the tool axis and the workpiece surface are perpendicular to each other. Fig. 8-4 shows some examples of different lapping methods. In the following, some lapping methods will be introduced.

342

8 Lapping and Polishing

a) Coplanar lapping

b) Planar lapping of inner surfaces

c) Peripheral external cylindrical lapping 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

d) Profile lapping

e) Ultrasonic lapping

Lapping carrier fluid Workpiece Lapping slurry Lapping plate drive Lapping carrier, eccentrically seated 6. Carrier drive 7. Oscillation trunk

Fig. 8-4. Lapping techniques

Planar Lapping Planar lapping is used to create flat surfaces with high surface qualities. Two method variations are distinguished. In the first case, the workpieces are freely movable and are guided over the lapping disc; in the second case they are placed in so-called carriers with restricted guidance in order to avoid reciprocal damages. The workpieces are generally placed in dressing rings on a lapping disc – also called a lapping plate or a machining disc. The workpiece shape accuracy which is achievable though lapping is determined to a great extent by the flatness of the lapping disc [KLIN86]. The lapping grains are found in a carrier fluid between the workpieces and the lapping disc. Together, both components form the lapping slurry. The workpieces receive the contact pressure necessary for material removal through their own weight or through additionally implemented load plates as well as pressure cylinders (Fig. 8-5). In coplanar lapping, at least three workpieces must be in one dressing ring and carrier at the same time. These are first placed on the lapping disc with the first planar surface, while on the opposing side an elastic covering (rubber, plastic, felt, or the like) is fitted and loaded with a pressure plate. After facing the first workpiece surface, the workpieces are fitted with the second surface to be processed. At this point, the loading is now carried out without an elastic covering directly over the plane pressure plate. Machining is continued until all the workpieces are coplanar.

8.1 Lapping

343

Dressing ring

Load plate Active field of material removal

Workpieces

Lapping plate

Lapping slurry (lapping grains + lapping fluid) Fig. 8-5. Schematic depiction of planar lapping [STAE95]

Double-Disc Coplanar Lapping Different from lapping with one disc is the double-sided, simultaneous machining of two opposing planar surfaces (Fig. 8-6). In this method, the workpieces are inserted in geared carriers (rotating discs). These are held by pin rings or gear rings. Then they are driven, they rotate about both their own axis and the central axis. The workpieces describe an epicycloid or hypocycloid orbit between the machining discs (Fig. 8-7). The lapping slurry is added through the upper machining disc. Through the change in direction of all driven axes, movement in the same direction or opposing directions is generated either inside or outside on the machining disc. Usually, the workpieces are only inserted in the outer part of the carriers in order to alleviate pressure on the centre ring of the machining discs resulting from excessive surface area and a short run distance. The working pressure is raised by the pressure system of the upper disc and can be varied as necessary. Another advantage of the double-disc system is the dimensional control through a central scanner or external scanning, which affords dimensional accuracies of ± 2 μm. In the method known as clean lapping, diamond or cBN machining discs are mainly used. Constantly filtered oil or water is used as rinsing and cooling fluid, respectively. Both soft and very hard workpiece materials, e.g. plastic or sapphire, can be machined using this method. Depending on the machine size, level workpieces of 0.1 to 100 mm thickness or round workpieces of 5 to 500 mm diameter can be lapped.

344

8 Lapping and Polishing

Upper lapping plate

Normal force FN Lapping plate

Slurry feed

Slurry Workpiece

Lower lapping plate

outer pin rim (fixed)

Workpieces inner pin rim (driven)

Carrier

Fig. 8-6. Methodological principle of coplanar lapping with restricted guidance

Hypocycloids

interlaced normal stretched

Epicycloids

stretched normal interlaced

Fig. 8-7. Machining paths of workpieces in double-disc lapping

A particular feature of the double-disc principle is peripheral cylindrical lapping. In this method, the workpieces are held radially in a large carrier at a slight angle to the disc axis (Fig. 8-8). This method removes material due to the angled

8.1 Lapping

345

position of the workpieces (lateral slipping during rotation). Accuracies of up to 0.2 μm of roundness and straightness, respectively, can be achieved. The removal rate is 10 to 20 μm in 10 minutes.

Lapping carrier Lapping plate Workpiece Workpiece Eccentric shaft for lapping carrier motion

Lapping carrier

Fig. 8-8. Workpiece and lapping carrier configuration in cylindrical lapping [STAE95]

346

8 Lapping and Polishing

Other Lapping Methods The principle of peripheral external cylindrical lapping is illustrated in Fig. 8-4c. A slit in the tool enables the widening and narrowing of this sleeve-shaped tool design. This allows the intended working pressure and the desired dimensions to be adjusted. In order to improve the shape in terms of cylindricity and roundness, a rotational and an axial movement are superposed as in corresponding honing processes. Workpiece and lapping shaft should have the same length. The lapping slurry comes to the contact surface sporadically. Disc-shaped workpieces are compacted into bundles. Appropriately shaped lapping arbors make it also possible to lap internal cylinders and holes. The arbors can be widened and are thus adaptable to changes in diameter. Lapping ball surfaces or spherical surfaces is still possible through appropriate tool design. The tool to be implemented has the corresponding negative form of the component to be produced (Fig. 8-4d). The desired shape is achieved under constant change in the direction of movement. The goal of machining is achieving very high accuracy in the final dimensions, which is made possible by the oscillating movements of the tool. Ultrasonic lapping is cutting with loose grains which, evenly distributed in a fluid or paste, receive impulses through a shaped piece vibrating in the ultrasonic range. These impulses give the grains their cutting ability (Fig. 8-4e). We must differentiate between ultrasonic lapping (also referred to as ultrasonic polishing), which is used merely to make surface improvements, and the ultrasonic machining of hard and brittle materials, with which method threedimensional shapes can be inserted, for example, into engineering ceramics or glass. Whereas in the first case material is removed as in conventional lapping, i.e. through the rolling of the grains in the lapping slurry, in the latter case the abrasive grains are propelled onto the workpiece surface, thus effecting material removal. Because of its functional similarity to other methods involving material removal, this process, which has become more and more important in recent times because of the increased use of ceramic components, will be discussed in detail in volume three of this series. So-called press lapping is used primarily for polishing, deburring and rounding. In this process, grinding paste is pressed in closed chambers through breaches and holes in the workpiece or on the entire surface of the parts. Repeated through-flow of the lapping paste improves the abrasive effect and allows the machining of blind holes and other inner surfaces using correspondingly adjusted cores and auxiliary tools [GOSG75]. The grains material used in the process are silicon carbide or diamond. Precision polishing fulfils special demands for workpiece quality. Contrary to planar lapping, the special cast iron lapping discs are replaced either with polishing discs composed primarily of copper, tin or plastic or with polishing cloth. The

8.1 Lapping

347

latter can also be impregnated with synthetic diamond powder. For a polishing slurry, a mixture is made of diamond powder and a carrier fluid soluble in water, oil or alcohol together with other additives, e.g. antirust agents. In diamond slurries prepared for lapping and polishing, even coarser diamond grains remain evenly distributed in the fluid over a long period and refrain from precipitating, even if the carrier fluid has a lower viscosity [STAE76, SABO91]. Spray devices guarantee an optimal supply of lapping slurry. The grains used range from superfine (0.25 to 1 μm) to very coarse (20 to 40 μm). The polishing times achievable using diamond powder are well below those using conventional lapping methods. For that reason, in spite of the higher price for the lapping grain, the use of diamond allows for economical, high-quality processing of both soft and hard materials. In polishing-lapping, dressing rings and workpiece-receiving rings are generally composed of ceramic or plastic in order to avoid adhesion of the polishing disc through undesired material sedimentation. They simultaneously redistribute the diamond grains which penetrate the disc, remaining stuck in place. The rules and action mechanisms that apply to the normal lapping process also apply to precision lapping. Logically, the components to be polished should be pre-lapped beforehand. The relatively low cutting speeds allow the machining of very thin components, such as those used in the electronics industry or in precision engineering. The planar polishing of glass can be seen as a special lapping process. The polishing discs are made in this case of a pitch mass or a special plastic, the polishing slurry is a mixture of metal oxides and distilled water. With this method, workpieces of up to 500 mm in diameter can be planar-polished on machines with disc diameters of over 1.5 m.

8.1.2 Composition of Tools and Operational Materials The properties of the lapping disc are determined by both geometrical factors and the working material. When machining workpieces with large surfaces, disc grooving is necessary in order to ensure that there is an even supply of grains at all points on the lapping disc [SMIT83]. The abrasive materials mainly used in lapping processing are silicon carbide (SiC), corundum (Al2O3), boron carbide (B4C) and, increasingly, diamond. The lapping disc produces a rotary movement and serves as a carrier for the lapping slurry, workpieces and dressing rings. The rotational speed must be measured so that impermissibly high centrifugal forces are avoided. The lapping disc is generally made of special, fine-grained, perlitic cast iron materials or of a hardened steel alloy. Among the various physical and chemical properties of the lapping disc material, the penetration depth of the lapping grains is very often used as the decisive

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value. Three ranges of hardness are distinguished: soft (< 140 HB), medium hard (140 to 220 HB) and hard (> 220 HB) [STAE76]. A low disc hardness favours the sticking of abrasive grains into the disc surface and leads to a chip formation on the workpiece [DAVI73]. Harder discs, however, tend to cause a rolling of the grains in the active gap [KASA90]. In addition to grain engagement behaviour, the disc hardness also determines disc wear and the attainable amount of removal. In general, using harder discs leads to less disc wear and a greater amount of removal, although the dressing rings have an inferior corrective effect [FELD90]. In order to remove the process heat, the lapping disc may be fitted with a liquid cooling system underneath the surface. In the case of rough lapping, cooling is indispensable because otherwise, after long machining times, the temperature of the lapping disc can rise to up to 50 °C above room temperature. This would result, in turn, to an undesired heating of the workpieces, changes to viscosity and the increasing evaporation of the carrier fluid. The avoidance of heat and its removal also play a decisive role, for example, in the finishing of workpieces with exacting tolerances, since the extreme accuracy requirements involved demand the inspection of the geometry and flatness, as well as the parallelism of the workpieces at the usual reference temperature of 20 °C. In order to achieve level workpiece surfaces, it must be ensured that the lapping disc, subject as it is to wear over the course of processing, retains its level shape. This is one of the main tasks of the dressing rings. For certain processing cases, it may be required that the lapping disc have a slightly convex or concave shape. In addition to the lapping disc as active partner, the carrier fluid also determines the engagement of the grains in the process. Through the formation of a fluid film on the lapping disc surface, the carrier fluid both prevents direct contact between workpiece surface and tool surface and facilitates the distribution of the grains on the lapping disc as well as the grains’ mobility in the active gap between the workpiece surface and the disc surface [DEGN79]. The viscosity of the carrier fluid is the most essential influence on the process. It is even generally assumed that high load capacity and viscosity can have the result that the lapping film thickness exceeds the grain size, thus preventing an effective material removal. Therefore, low-viscosity carrier fluids must be used in the case of small grain size [DEGN79]. Given a large quantity of lapping grains, the specific granular stress can be so greatly reduced that their cutting effect is lessened as a result of increased sliding and rolling movements. That surface quality improves with small concentrations can be explained by the fact that high granular stress increases grain breakage, which reduces the effective grain size [DAVI73]. In rough lapping, the use of coarse lapping powder is expedient for attaining high removal rates. Impermissibly high roughness values must then be reduced in a second operational step with finer grains. The nature of the machining task dictates not only the kind of lapping powder to be used, but also the necessary mixture ratio between grains and carrier fluid.

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349

Typical reference values for rough lapping are 80 to 100 g lapping powder to 1 l carrier fluid and, for ultra-precision lapping, 65 to 80 g lapping powder to 1 l carrier fluid when oil-based; when water-based, the values increase three to four times.

100

1 Material: Lapping plate material:

Material removal

Surface roughness Rt

[μm] [μm]

40

0.4

20

0.2

Mean workpiece speed: Lapping plate rotational speed: Workpiece surface: Origin surface roughness Rt: Lapping pressure: Lapping duration:

carbide G6 cast iron with coarse grain 30 m/min 44 min-1 12.7 x x12.7 mm2 2.2 μm 12 N/cm2 30 min

Grain material: diamond powder Grain size: 8 – 15 μm Carrier medium: 21 ASE-oil

0

0.062

0.125 0.25 0.5 1 Diamond concentration [%]

2

4

Fig. 8-9. Material removal and roughness as functions of diamond concentration [DAVI73]

The determinant characteristics for the quality of lapping powder are even grain size distribution, hardness, and the type and quantity of the grain cutting edges. Typically used average grain sizes range approximately from 5 to 40 μm. The majority of these are 12 to 18 μm. Fluctuations in the average grain diameter within a grain size class should never amount to more than + 20 % [STAE76]. If individual

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grains are too large, impermissible scratches result, whereas small grains no longer participate in material removal. The choice of lapping powder and carrier fluid is not arbitrary. Criteria for the quality of the lapping slurry are, among others, sufficient miscibility (no agglomeration, no premature settling). Highly viscous oils or composite media made of oil, paraffin, petroleum and other additives are typically used as carrier fluid. These must not lubricate, must ensure a secure transport of the chips from out of the active zone and have good cooling properties. The gradually forming fluid film may not become too thick during machining, since this would prevent an effective material removal. Breaking the film can lead to damages resulting from cold welding of workpiece and lapping disc. The type of lapping powder used is determined, among other things, by the workpiece material to be processed. The combinations of lapping powder and workpiece material given in table 8-1 have proved to be effective. Table 8-1. Favourable combinations of lapping powder and workpiece material Lapping powder

Area of application

Corundum

Soft steels, light and non-ferrous metals, carbon, semiconductor materials

Silicon carbide

Quenched and tempered steels, steel alloys, grey cast iron, glass, porcelain

Boron carbide

Carbides, ceramics

Diamond

Hard materials

8.1.3 Accessories Accessories used in lapping are dressing rings and workpiece receivers, as well as devices used to weigh down or remove weight from the workpieces and supply equipment for providing lapping slurry. The dressing rings located on the machining disc are supported by lateral guide arms with rollers and receive rotary motion through friction locking when the table rotates. The dressing rings have several functions to perform in lapping: • receiving the workpieces, • continuously dressing the lapping disc during machining to ensure the maintenance of its geometric accuracy, • the even distribution and formation of the lapping slurry, • the removal of chips directed towards the edge of the lapping disc or into the radially running grooves in the lapping disc designed for this purpose, • the drive for an additional movement component of the workpieces and • removing heat [STAE76].

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351

Geometrical changes to the lapping disc surface can be compensated to a great extent by shifting the dressing rings towards or away from the centre. Workpieces with round outer forms are frequently placed in the dressing rings without any additional devices. They attach themselves during machining to the inner ring surface and are thus set into rotary motion (internal-toothing principle). However, angular workpieces are placed in templates or holders made of plastic, metal or wood. Their contours are adjusted to the dressing rings and the workpieces. This prevents a collision of the parts in the ring. For purposes of mass production, non-production times can be greatly shortened through the use of additional feeding devices. Individual parts whose reception in dressing rings is not possible are fixed on the lapping disc by special mounts and set in rotary motion. Lapping can only be implemented economically given a certain amount of bearing pressure upon the surface to be processed. Otherwise, the material removed is reduced owing to the floating of the workpiece on the lapping slurry. This is a risk when machining parts with low weight and bodies whose surfaces are large in proportion to their mass. In such cases, an additional load must be added. For this purpose, either load plates are used or, for example, pneumatic loading devices that take over the raising and lowering of the load plates. The workpiece may not, however, become deformed or distorted. Also, excessive pressure would lead to the breakage of the fluid film and to pressure welding. In the case of very uneven and rough workpieces, elastic intermediate layers are placed between the loading device and the workpiece in order to achieve the most even distribution of pressure possible on the surface to be machined. If, on the other hand, too much pressure is applied to workpieces with a high weight and a small support surface, pressure on the workpieces must be reduced through lifting tools or pneumatic devices. Production machines are equipped to continuously supply the lapping slurry. The lapping slurry is homogeneously mixed in one or more storage containers with stir-mixing or turbo-mixing devices in order to ensure a steady consistency. The contact pressure has an influence, since a constant fluid film has to be ensured at all times. The average amount of lapping slurry consumed for planar lapping, for example, is 1 to 10 l/h for machining disc diameters from 400 to 1500 mm. Used lapping powder is not reusable because the grains are blunted or broken due to wear. Nevertheless, the lapping mixture is partially reused, since the carrier fluid can be prepared again after the grains and chipped material settles.

8.1.4 Parameters As discussed above, the lapping process is influenced by numerous technologically-based marginal conditions. An overview of these is given in Fig. 8-10.

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Kinematics

Lapping plate

Slurry

Machine

Workpieces

• Rotational speeds • Dimensions • Carrier configuration

• Material • Slot configuration and geometry • Evenness

• Grain material • Grain s ize distribution • Carrier fluid • Concentration • Volume flow

• Normal force • Mac hine power • Os cillation behaviour • Thermal s tability

• Material • Geometry • Thickness distribution

Tool

Workpiece

Economy

Plate evenness Plate wear

Shape and dimension ac curacy

Removal rate Costs

Lapping result Fig. 8-10. Influence and output variables in lapping

Kinematics partially determine the disc shape and evenness and the disc material. It also determines how lapping slurry is distributed and how the grain is used and dictates the required machine design. Kinematics is also closely interdependent with workpiece geometry. Similarly far-reaching interconnections can be demonstrated for the other marginal conditions, as well. Lapping pressure and lapping speed can be seen as the main variables in the lapping process. Since lapping is a force-bound process, the workpiece feed rate and the removal rate cannot be adjusted directly. These depend on the marginal conditions, i.e. the process variables. Lapping pressure plays a large role in the material removal rate. With increasing lapping grain diameter, the material removal rate also increases [MATS66, MART73]. It is clear from Fig. 8-11 that the material removal rate rises constantly given identical lapping durations up to a load of approximately 16 N/cm2, a further increase in lapping pressure, however, causes the material removal rate to sink. This course of events can be ascribed to the breaking of the lapping grains added at the

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353

beginning of operation. This kind of process thus involves an optimal lapping pressure which one in consideration of economical factors should not fall short of. The material removal rate also decreases with an increasing lapping disc rotational speed, but there is a limit to how much this variable can be increased. Above all, excessive centrifugal forces would convey the lapping slurry too quickly from the active zone to the edge of the disc. In addition, the levelness and planar parallelism of tall workpieces which tend to wobble can be unfavourably influenced by this.

100

Material: Lapping plate material:

Material removal

Mean workpiece speed: Lapping plate rotational [μm] speed: Workpiece surface: Origin surface roughness Rt0 : Grain material: Grain size: Carrier fluid:

carbide G6 cast iron with coarse grain 30 m/min 44 min -1 12,7 x 12,7 mm2 2,2 μm Diamond 8 – 15 μm 21 ASE-oil

24 min 20

16

12

40

8

20

4

Lapping slurry support: 1x at lapping begin

0

5

10 15 Lapping pressure

[N/cm²]

Fig. 8-11. The influence of lapping pressure and lapping duration on workpiece removal [DAVI73]

25

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8 Lapping and Polishing

8.1.5 Applications The aim of coplanar lapping is to achieve high flatness in combination with a consistent surface quality for all workpieces. Also, the percent contact area is increased by levelling the roughness peaks. On account of these properties, lapping is often used in the finishing of ceramic sealing rings. In the following, we will introduce the coplanar processing of silicon-infiltrated silicon carbide (SiSiC). Fig. 8-12 shows the path of surface roughness over lapping duration. The initial state was a pre-lapped SiSiC sample with a surface structure typical for lapping. It is clear that the roughness converges towards a value of Ra = 0.05 μm. Influences on the lapping disc can be ignored in the process.

Roughness Ra

0.5 Volume flow: Concentration: Grain material: Grain size: Plate material: Lapping pressure: Carrier fluid:

[μm] 0.3 0.2

13 ml/min 0.15 %Gew diamond 2 – 4 μm E-Cu 12 N/cm² H2O + Glycerin (30/70)

0.1 0 1

2

3 4 5 6 Lapping duration T

7

8 [min]

10

Fig. 8-12. Successive levelling of the component surface of a SiSiC sample given constant lapping disc roughness

A further important influencing variable is the concentration of abrasive particles in the active gap. This directly affects the active normal force per grain, which in turn influences the material removal rate achievable per grain. Higher concentrations result in the reduction of the individual grain forces and thus also of the material removal rate per grain. However, since more grains are engaged, the overall result is an increase in the removal rate. From a certain concentration onwards, saturation sets in (0.15 percent by weight), from which point no further increase of the material removal rate is possible. Smaller concentrations and the lower removal rates associated with them have the further result that the asymptotic path of the roughness curves is clearly bottomed out. The minimum is reached at a much later point in time (Fig. 8-13). The saturation limit existing for the material removal speed, i.e. 0.15 percent by weight, is also reflected in the roughness curve. An increase in concentration does not change the roughness curve.

8.1 Lapping

13 ml/min diamond 2 – 4 μm

Plate material: Lapping pressure: Carrier fluid:

E-Cu 12 N/cm² H2 O + Glycerin

0.5

0.5 [μm/ min] 0.3

[μm] Roughness Ra

Removal rate

Volume flow: Grain material: Grain size:

355

0.2 0.1 0

cD = 0.10 %Gew

0.3

cD = 0.15 % Gew

0.2

cD = 0.20 %Gew

0.1 0

0.10 0.15 0.20 Concentration [%weight]

2 4 6 [min] Lapping duration T

10

Fig. 8-13. Progression of material removal rates and roughness curves given different concentrations

0.15 %Gew diamond 2 – 4 μm

Removal rate

0.6 [μm/ min] 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.10 0.15 0.20 Concentration [%weight]

Plate material: Lapping pressure: Carrier fluid:

E-Cu 12 N/cm² H2 O + Glycerin

0.5 Roughness Ra

Concentration: Grain material: Grain size:

[μm] 8.7 ml/min

0.3

13.0 ml/min

0.2

17.3 ml/min

0.1 0 2

4 6 [min] Lapping duration T

10

Fig. 8-14. The influence of the volume flow Vs on removal rates and surface qualities

The lapping slurry is held on the webs of the discs through surface tensions and in the grooves through capillary forces. This slurry volume present on the lapping disc remains constant. An increase in the volume flow is thus beneficial for the exchange of a used slurry, which can increase the removal rate (Fig. 8-14). The course of roughness values, however, remains nearly constant. Although the de-

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cline of the asymptotes is steeper given higher volume flows, the difference is not as significant as when the concentration is increased. In addition to these influencing factors, the reproducibility of the results and the long-term stability of the lapping system, for example, also play essential roles.

8.2 Polishing In polishing, abrasive particles finely dispersed in a usually liquid medium are guided over a surface. Material removal is achieved through an interaction of chemical and mechanical mechanisms. In chemo-mechanical polishing, material removal is the result of a chemical reaction between the workpiece surface and the polishing grains. The product of the reaction is then removed from the active zone by the polishing grain. Mechanochemical polishing refers to a mechanical process followed by a chemical reaction. In chemical-mechanical polishing, fluids especially suited to the working material to be processed are used which react with the workpiece surface. The polishing grains then remove the reaction layer that is formed in the process. In chemomechanical polishing, a reaction takes place between the polishing grains and the workpiece surface which must be initiated by exceeding an energy barrier from the outside. In chemical-mechanical polishing, however, the reaction is between the fluid and the workpiece material [KOMA97]. This is made apparent in the distinction suggested by Kasai et al. between different finishing methods based on the carrier material used and the grain size of the abrasive material (Fig. 8-15) [KASA90].

Optical polishing of glass Fine grain

Soft coating

Mechanicalchemical polishing of sapphire

Finishing of forming materials Hard coating

Coarse grain

Lapping of various materials Fig. 8-15. Classification of different polishing processes [KASA90]

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357

A simple division into hard and soft carrier materials (polishing tool) and into fine-grained and coarse-grained abrasives leads to four different finishing processes used for different applications. In the polishing of glass materials, for example, a soft abrasive carrier and a fine-grained abrasive are used as a rule [KASA90].

8.2.1 Principles In polishing, as in lapping, the surface of the workpiece to be processed and the tool surface slide on each other. A polishing slurry is inserted between them which is composed of an abrasive and a generally water-based fluid. The active system is illustrated in Fig. 8-16. As opposed to lapping, however, much smaller abrasive particles are generally used in polishing. This clearly limits the abrasive effect. For this reason, the physical and chemical interactions taking place between the active partners in polishing are imparted an increasing importance.

Polishing system

r p

r v

Tool body material Visco-elastic abrasive carrier Abrasive Polishing fluid Workpiece

possible chemical reactions between - polishing fluid and workpiece surface - polishing grain and workpiece surface -… Fig. 8-16. The active system in polishing and the interactions occurring between the system components

Removal Mechanisms Originally, polishing was developed for the processing of optical elements. Because of the importance of polishing technology for the progress of other sciences, a growing number of scientists have become interested over the course of time in the removal mechanisms of polishing. Basically, the following polishing hypotheses are discussed (Fig. 8-17):

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• the abrasive removal hypothesis, • the yield hypothesis, • the chemical hypothesis.

Abrasive removal hypothesis Crack

-Generation of finest crack systems or micro chips

Yield hypothesis

-Levelling by plastic deformation

Chemical hypothesis

-Removal of a chemically modified surface layer

Friction wear hypothesis

Micro reaction zone

- Adhesive friction between grain and surface

Fig. 8-17. Hypotheses regarding the mechanism of polishing

Also, another hypothesis under discussion in reference to glass polishing is the friction wear hypothesis, largely indebted to research by Kaller. This hypothesis states that material removal in glass polishing is the result of a combination of the dissolution of the glass surface in water and the subsequent adsorption of the glass elements on the polishing grains. According to this theory, the adsorption behaviour of the polishing grains is decisive in determining the material removal. Since the dissolved elements primarily adhere to the energetically active faults in the crystal lattice of the polishing grains, abrasives with many faults in the crystal lattice demonstrate a higher material removal than those with few faults. The Abrasive Removal Hypothesis The abrasive removal hypothesis states that the material removal occurring during the polishing process is realised because of an abrasive process in which the generally harder abrasive penetrates into the softer workpiece surface and removes material in a similar way as chipping. Abrasive removal is also possible when hard abrasive particles are inserted between two bodies moving relative to each other, with the particles subsequently

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359

removing material on the softer surfaces. The smaller these abrasive particles are, the finer the surface structures that can be achieved [RABI95, BUCK81]. The abrasive removal hypothesis is particularly important in the metallographic preparation of metallic workpieces. The Yield Hypothesis The fact that abrasives that which are softer than the material to be polished can also be used in the polishing process shows the limited validity of the abrasive removal hypothesis. The yield hypothesis was developed as a response to this. The yield hypothesis states that the pressure introduced via the polish foil at the contact locations between the polishing grains and the roughness peaks of the material being polished causes pressure peaks and thus, because of the relative movement, temperature peaks. These temperature peaks (“hot spots”) can reach temperatures of several hundred degrees Celsius and lead to a local plasticization and finally to the melting of the roughness peaks. The molten material then flows into roughness valleys, where it solidifies. The Chemical Hypothesis The realisation that surface layers form during polishing led to the development of the chemical hypothesis. The chemical hypothesis is thus based on corrosion processes taking place between the usually water-based polishing fluid and the workpiece surface. The “driving force” here is the chemical reaction, with the mechanical contribution being limited to the evacuation of the reaction products. This mechanism is used particularly in chemical-mechanical planarisation (CMP) for levelling microelectronics materials [STEI97]. Quantifiable Removal Models Above, we considered the basic mechanisms which may be at work in polishing. Equation 8.1 can be used to quantify removal behaviour [PRES27].

dz = K ⋅ p ⋅ vr dt

(8.1)

According to this equation, the removal per time unit (dz/dt) is directly proportional to the surface pressure p and the relative speed vr. The proportionality constant K comprises all the chemical and mechanical properties of the action system constituted by the polishing slurry, the polishing foil and the workpiece surface.

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8 Lapping and Polishing

Polishing Methods Polishing methods are divided into area polishing and zonal polishing (Fig. 8-18). When polishing with flat tools, the desired shape is transferred into the tool basin and transferred to the workpiece during subsequent processing. The tool is larger than the component being polished. This technology is used especially for finishing spheres and planar surfaces. For polishing aspherical geometries and freeform surfaces – and also for a targeted correction of spheres – zonal methods are necessary. According to this principle, the tool is significantly smaller than the workpiece. The advantage of polishing with flat tools is that removal over a large area is possible, which facilitates higher removal rates. Also, contrary to zonal polishing, the risk of the formation of structures on the surface is avoided. When producing planar surfaces, polishing machines with lapping kinematics are also used. The production of planar surfaces is particularly important for finishing substrates like blank mask, wafers, etc.

Area polishing

Zonal polishing

Fig. 8-18. Method for polishing optical surfaces

Area Polishing Methods Area polishing methods are of great economic importance. In industry, not only swivelling and horizontal lever machines, but also CNC-controlled machines are used for area polishing purposes. Fig. 8-19 illustrates the kinematics of a horizontal lever machine. The oscillating swivelling motion of the lever, at whose anterior end a spherical joint pin is fastened, is initialised by the rotary motion of an eccentric wheel. A sliding-crank transfers the eccentric motion to the lever. The lever amplitude is manipulated by changing the distance of the sliding crank contact point from the rotation axis of the lever. The arrangement of the tool relative to the workpiece depends on the

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361

size proportions of both elements. Usually, given a diameter ratio of the glass/supporting body with the glass parts to be polished to the abrasive carrier ranging from 1:1 to 1:1.5, the workpiece is placed above the tool. Given ratios between 1:1 and 1:0.9, the placement is reversed [KALL80]. In the process, the tool/workpiece that is below is driven constantly while the upper process partner remains freely movable, mounted on the spherical joint pin. Through the superposition of the lever amplitude and the forced rotary motion of the lower partner, however, the upper glass body and the above-placed abrasive carrier, respectively, is also set into an unforced rotary motion [KALL80].

high lever amplitude operating priciple F1

Weight

F1

h max lever amplitude

Slidingcrank

min Lever Excentric wheel

Torque: M = F1 * h

Spherical joint pin

Field of maximum friction

low lever amplitude

Workpiece F2 F2 h

Tool lever amplitude

Torque: M = F2 * h

Field of maximum friction

Fig. 8-19. Kinematic conditions of a horizontal lever machine

The friction force between the workpiece and the abrasive carrier is generated by the weight of the supported process partner. An influence on the active forces thus presupposes an appropriate dimensioning of the workpiece body/the abrasive support basin. Also, a slidable weight is positioned at the rear end of the swivelling lever. In accordance with the law of the lever, by selecting different distances of this weight from the support point of the lever, the normal force at the polishing level can be varied. Changing the lever amplitude has a decisive influence on the polishing result. Thus, when using polishing pitch, there is a demonstrable influence of the flow speed of the surface layer of the material on the achievable shape accuracy. The

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flow speed, which in turn determines the friction forces and thus the removal, is a function of the position on the polishing basin. The flow speed can also be altered by changing the lever amplitude or modifying the surface shape of the polishing pitch. In the synchrospeed method, tool and workpiece are engaged at a certain angle in a defined manner. They rotate with almost the same angular velocity in the same direction. The workpiece and tool axes intersect in the radius mid-point of the workpiece (Fig. 8-20). In accordance with the Preston hypothesis (equation 8.1), the same removal values appear at every point of the workpiece given the same specific contact pressure p and a constant process magnitude K [KLOC98]. For the mechanical and technical implementation of this idea, two spindles driven separately from each other are needed to position tool and workpiece relative to each other. A further adjusting axis (B-axis) is necessary to set the angle d0 between the tool and the workpiece and to execute the oscillatory motion. An oscillatory movement is necessary when the proportions of speed become unfavourable because of an excessively large lens aperture angle x and a consistent relative speed can no longer be assumed about the circumference.

ωL

geometrical proportions

δ0

ωW

design of polishing foil

−ξ +ξ

ωW

Ü R

Tool body

Polishing foil

Abb. 8.20. Geometric proportions and the design of polishing foil in the synchrospeed method

Another essential aspect of the synchrospeed principle is the design of the polishing foil. In addition to the removal at the workpiece, wear can also be observed on the polishing foil. In order to achieve an exact, durable workpiece shape, the tool must retain the original form it received through the initial dressing process. For this, a wear of the polishing foil must occur in the direction of the tool axis. During machining, however, not all areas of the foil are engaged for the same amount of time. For this reason, a small amount of wear occurs in these zones of the polishing foil. In order to achieve a consistent level of abrasion, the zones which are engaged for shorter periods are reduced so that the sum of all radial

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363

contact lengths in a ring segment yields to the overall design of the polishing foil. Through this arrangement of lamellar geometries (Fig. 8-20) and the resultant pressure conditions varying according to zone, an equal material removal and tool wear can be approximated [KLOC98, HAMB01]. The setting parameters for this machine type are pressure, rotational speed, machining time, the rotational speed ratio and excess length (Fig. 8-20). Furthermore, an oscillation can be set for the machining of lenses with large aperture angles, making oscillation duration and oscillation stroke two further parameters one can control [HAMB01]. Zonal Polishing Methods Three components are necessary for zonal polishing (Fig. 8-21): • The use of a suitable measurement technique is necessary to measure the respective surface topography. The data are compared to the target geometry so the respective fault profile can be acquired. Interferometric methods find particularly broad use for the measurement of geometries. • The measured fault profile is integrated into a removal model on the basis of which the path data and the residence time of the subsequent polishing step are calculated. The more accurate the removal model, the fewer iterative steps needed. • The third component in this control system is the polishing machine. The machine must be able to execute the calculated track data as precisely as possible. In this process, the tool design is of decisive importance. In particular in the case of aspherical geometries or freeform surfaces, the tool must be adjustable to the different radii of contour [HAMB01].

The necessary flexibility of the tools can be realised via membranes which can adapt to the local surface topography. Another way to create a flexible tool can be found in using structurally viscous fluids that change their rheological properties under the influence of a magnetic field, an electric field or under mechanical strain. This gives the tool the possibility of adjusting to the local geometry of the component. The residence duration of the component in a strong magnetic field, for example, determines the amount of material removal. A disadvantage of this method, however, is that the polishing of magnetic materials is not possible. Furthermore, so-called corrugation errors remain on the surfaces due to the conforming of structurally viscous fluids to the local geometry.

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Calculation of duration and machining path Data transformation

Iteration loop

Shape measurement

NC-datageneration

Corrective polishing

Fig. 8-21. Concept for the realisation of computer-supported zonal polishing

8.2.2 Tool Construction and Composition As illustrated in Fig. 8-16, a soft abrasive carrier or polishing foil is applied on a rigid tool body material. The polishing tool thus represents an essential component in the active system. The Tool Body The tool body’s function is to receive the abrasive carrier. Its geometry is the result of the shape and dimensions of the surface to be polished and the thickness of the

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365

abrasive carrier. For a concave polishing tool (convex lens), the radius of the body results from the addition of the lens radius and the thickness of the abrasive carrier. This is, correspondingly, the reverse case of a convex polishing tool. In order to ensure a sufficient form stability and to achieve a uniform distribution of pressure over the tool surface, the base body should be sufficiently dimensioned. Another precondition is that there is a high surface quality on the adhesive surface in order to enable a consistent polishing (uniform distribution of pressure). The Abrasive Carrier Abrasive carriers have the task of receiving the abrasive in the form of slurrys or pastes in even distribution on their surfaces and binding them loosely. The removal and smoothing process must be supported by the abrasive carrier without the latter being involved in the process directly. This is the condition, chiefly, for a profiled or structured surface, mechanical abrasion resistance, elasticity and resistance against the slurries and reactive fluids used. Additional requirements are form and dimension stability, impermeability against penetration of the abrasive and a high reception capacity for abrasion [WASC93]. A possible division of the different abrasive carriers can be made on the basis of their respective hardness. Thus three groups can be defined [KHAL79]: • plastically deformable abrasive carriers like pitch or cast polyurethane, • soft abrasives like cloths or synthetic felts with a loose structure with a thickness ranging from a few millimetres to several centimetres and • hard abrasives which are difficult to deform, such as hard felts, filled or unfilled polyurethane foams, impregnated fibrous webs or fine laminates which allow for the use of high contact pressures.

Included in the last group are abrasives used for the synchrospeed method. The reason for this is that many polishing foils which are excellently suited to metallographic studies do not hold up against the pressures and rotational speeds used in such kinematics and are thus subject to a large amount of wear [KLOC04a]. For the synchrospeed method, plastic-based abrasive carriers are generally used, such as polyurethane films. Depending on the application, they may also be impregnated with abrasive particles. The advantage of these films is not only that their entire thickness can be used in dressing, but they also have a long tool life, which makes them suitable for polishing. Abrasives The mechanisms which ultimately effect material removal take place on the boundary surfaces between the polishing grains and the workpiece surface. The abrasives in table 8-2 have proved effective for the polishing of metallic and hardbrittle materials.

366

8 Lapping and Polishing

Table 8-2. Abrasives used for the processing of metals, hard and brittle materials and glass [WASC93] Metallic materials

Clay (g- and a-Al2O3) Magnesium (MgO) Chrome oxide (Cr2O3) Diamond (C) Colloidal silicon dioxide (SiO2)

Hard and brittle materials

Diamond (C) Colloidal silicon dioxide (SiO2)

Glass

Ferrous oxide (α- und γ-Fe2O3) Cerium dioxide (CeO2) Thorium oxide (ThO2 – radioactive)

Applicability for smoothing and removal depends in the case of polishing clay not only on grain shape and grain size distribution, but also on the amount of the two crystal modifications γ- and α-Al2O3 and on the tendency to agglomeration. The quality is strongly influenced by the starting materials and the finishing technology. The use of natural diamond as abrasive material has experienced broader application since the development of finer grain sizes. Properties such as its blocky shape with sharp cutting edges and its high hardness are of particular interest, for which reason natural diamond is used for processing both metals and extremely hard substrate materials like sapphire or silicon. The advantages of diamond also include high removal rates with small grain sizes in conjunction with good surface qualities [WASC93]. Because of its chipping effect, diamond is used preeminently for pre-polishing and intermediate polishing and less often for final polishing. Both natural and synthetic diamonds can be used. Whereas monocrystalline natural diamond is blocky and has relatively few cutting edges, synthetic diamond is polycrystalline and has many cutting edges. Its grain size values range from 0.1 to approximately 50 μm. As a result of recent developments in the semiconductor industry, colloidal silicon dioxide has come to be regarded as an effective abrasive for final polishing [OPIL83, GUES91]. Colloidal slurries are dispersions with small particles with sizes of 1 – 1000 nm. The dissolved material is not present as ions or individual particles, but rather in the form of agglomerations of atoms or molecules. Colloidal SiO2 slurrys usually have a particle size of < 100 nm , the solid content lying in the region 40 – 50 %. Most important is the high pH value of 9 to 11, which causes a chemical-mechanical removal. This is usually increased by adding surface-active materials. A typical parameter used to describe an abrasive is its “grip”. The faster the glass is removed by the abrasive, the thinner the to be removed layer and the shorter the required process time, the higher the grip.

8.2 Polishing

367

Polishing Fluid The spectrum of tasks the polishing fluid must fulfil comprises supporting possible chemical reactions, regulating heat, reducing the adhesion of the active partners involved in the process, and finally the distribution and transport of the abrasive. Chemical-mechanical polishing processes are strongly dependent of the pH value of the polishing fluid. When polishing copper, for example, the removal rate can be varied considerably with changes to the pH value. The highest rate is achieved in highly acidic solutions [STEI97]. According to the desired process, by using appropriate additives to the water, which forms the basis of many polishing fluids, the fluid can be made more acidic (pH < 7) or more basic (pH > 7). A further responsibility of polishing is to be seen in adhesion reduction. Given dry friction between two bodies, large welded areas form on the contact surfaces. When these connections are broken, large patches of roughness are left behind on the polished surface. Finally, the polishing fluid guarantees the transport and distribution of the abrasive [KLEM50]. In this context, it should be noted that the fluid and the abrasive must be closely coordinated in order to avoid undesirable appearances of settling, which alters the removal behaviour of the slurry.

1.00

Hardness

RA/RB

Grip

0.50

Annealing temperature

0.25 0 ThO2

CeO2

SiO2

Fig. 8-22. The influence of annealing temperature and atomic structure on the ease of polishing of abrasives for glass polishing [KALL83]

8.2.3 Accessories One of the accessories used in polishing is the dressing tool. The dressing process is necessary, first of all, to eliminate removed material anchored in the abrasive material. This roughens the foil surface again, whereby the original foil properties return [HAMB01]. Second, in area polishing methods, dressing fulfils the task of giving the abrasive carrier the desired radius. Especially when using the synchrospeed method, this operation step is repeated several times before starting a

368

8 Lapping and Polishing

polishing series in order to transfer iteratively and in conjunction with respective measurement steps the exact contour to the abrasive carriers. Usually, a pot-shaped tool is used for dressing, the ring of which is coated with a galvanically applied diamond (Fig. 8-23). A typical diamond size is 126 μm, for example. In this way, there is enough chip space available so that the tool doesn’t clog with removed material from the relatively soft abrasive carrier.

Dressing tool (sketch)

Polishing tool body

Dressing tool

Diamond layer

Source of image: LOH Optikmaschinen Fig. 8-23. Sketch of a dressing tool used in the synchrospeed method

8.2.4 Parameters According to the Preston’s hypothesis, pressure and relative speed are the most important influencing variables in the polishing process. Many polishing processes behave according to this hypothesis in certain parameter areas, i.e. given a rising pressure and relative speed, respectively, the removal rate increases accordingly. A possible cause for this could be the changing friction conditions in the process gap, through which the pressure distribution changes [HAMB01, KLOC04b]. A further important influencing variable is the pH value. In particular in chemical mechanical polishing processes, the pH value must be set according to requirements and adapted to the workpiece material to be polished. Accordingly, the abrasive concentration must also be considered. Since the decisive mechanisms for generating a material removal are in action at the boundary surfaces between the polishing grains and the workpiece surface, the concentration influences the number of active surfaces. This number, however, also depends – as mentioned above – on the friction conditions in the active gap. The polishing result also depends in part on the workpiece to be polished. Since the polishing process is characterised by boundary surface reactions, the physical and chemical properties of the workpiece surface influence not only removal behaviour and surface quality, but also foil wear, which in turn represents an important influence on process stability [HAMB01].

8.2 Polishing

Process parameters • • • •

Pressure Pressure distribution Relative s peed Oscillation

Workpiece • Structure • Chemic al and physic al properties • Radius , diameter

Polishing slurry • • • •

Concentration Temperature Chemical properties Viscosity

Polishing grains

Machine • Machine type • Kinematic principle • Stiffness

• Chemical and phys ical properties • Grain size • Grain shape

Disturbances • Vibrations • Inhomogenities • Environmental influences

369

Tool • Shape • Dimensions • Stiffness

Fig. 8-24. Influencing variables in polishing

Polishing (carrier) fluid • Material • Shape

• Flexibility • Thick ness

9 Special Methods

9.1 Abrasive Blast Cutting According to DIN8589 [DIN78a] abrasive blast cutting is to be classified with the group machining with geometrically undefined cutting edges. In contrast to other methods in that category such as grinding, honing and lapping, it is used for a targeted influence of the surface layer. From this angle, it has gained considerable significance and prevalence in many areas of application. It has indeed become invaluable in various production areas.

9.1.1 Operating Principle, Initial Process Parameters and Blast Parameters According to DIN 8589, abrasive blast cutting entails a chip formation with the help of abrasives that are blasted on the surface to be treated by the energy source with a pressure or centrifugal method. This method is therefore based upon an energy-bound operating principle. Abrasive blast cutting serves to deburr, to improve the surface or to prepare for a subsequent surface treatment method. In abrasive blast cutting, we differentiate according to the energy source, the purpose of blasting and the blasting abrasive. The mode of action of abrasive blast cutting is based on the fact that bodies strike the surface of the workpiece to be machined with high speed and are there slowed down substantially. In this way, chip removal and/or deformation of small subsections of the treated surface can occur. Simultaneously, part of the kinetic energy is converted to heat. The finished surface is then the result of the superimposition of the multitudinous impact locations of the individual grains. If the grits strike a ductile material, a surface covered with small craters results. Crater formation is associated with plastic flow processes that entail a solidification of the surface. A residual compressive stress condition which thereby develops can also remain after processing in the workpiece layers close to the surface. If the workpiece surface is brittle however, entire areas of the surface flake from contact with the cutting edges. On the whole, the condition of the workpiece is determined by the following initial parameters:

9.1 Abrasive Blast Cutting

371

• abrasive blast material composition (the description of the abrasive blast material composition is determined by its type and chemical composition, state, grain size and morphology as well as by the grain hardness. Typical blasting abrasives are corundum, silicon carbide or quartz.), • abrasive blast speed, • abrasive blast flow rate, • abrasive blast grain mass (this indicates the amount of blasting abrasive – for solid blasting abrasives in conjunction with an indication of the grain number –, which comes into contact with the surface to be treated per time and area unit.) • blast angle (the angle between the blast direction and the tangent plane of the blasted surface), • blast working time and • blast target hardness (the surface hardness of the blasted workpiece).

DIN 8200 [DIN66] names the following blast parameters: • the specific blast time (blast working time required in order to machine a determined surface section in a particular location such that the desired effect is achieved), • blast time (duration of time in which the workpiece remains in the working zone), • blast removal rate (removed workpiece material per area and time unit) and • the blast intensity (a measure for the hammering effect of the blasting abrasive on the surface of the workpiece).

9.1.2 Method Variations and Applications Common to all blasting methods is that kinetic energy is responsible for the operational performance. The blasting abrasive used is also furthered and accelerated in the case of pressure blasting by fluid or gaseous carrier means. In centrifugal blasting, a centrifugal wheel accelerates the blasting abrasive. The amount of removal depends thereby on the mass of the blasting abrasive being used and its speed. According to the blasting purpose, abrasive blast cutting methods can be subdivided into • • • •

abrasive jet roughing, abrasive jet finishing, lapping blasting and polishing blasting.

In DIN 8200 [DIN66] these methods make up a group of methods for surface finishing, which also contains cleaning blasting, surface hardening blasting (abra-

372

9 Special Methods

sive ball blasting), deformation blasting and test blasting. Selection of a method and the treatment conditions is based on the respective machining task and the purpose which the abrasive blast cutting must adhere to. They determine which effect should be in the foreground, e.g. deburring, roughening, grinding, lapping, polishing, cleaning or hardening. Depending on the type of energy supply used to accelerate the blasting abrasive and the energy source, the following method types are used. Air abrasive jet cutting In this method, the abrasive blasting material is carried along by a high-speed air jet as the energy bearer and accelerated onto the target surface. Wet abrasive jet cutting This method is characterised by the use of a fluid with the addition of a solid blasting abrasive that is accelerated with high speed onto the target surface by means of a compressed air jet. Abrasive water jet cutting Pressurised liquid blasting is blasting with pressurised liquid as the energy source Abrasive steam jet cutting Steam pressure blasting is blasting while using compressed steam as the energy source. Centrifugal abrasive jet cutting In this method, the abrasive blast material is accelerated with a centrifugal wheel that is equipped with paddle wheel or similar devices. As a representative of abrasive blast cutting techniques, a few methodological characteristics will be demonstrated using the example of lapping blasting. Lapping jet cutting The basic principle underlying lapping blasting, which is comparable to sandblasting, can be seen in Fig. 9-1. All aforementioned media can be utilised as energy sources, of which compressed air and water are the most important. When using water, the abrasive blast material is suspended in it. In the nozzle head, the blasting abrasive-water mixture is accelerated such that every grain of abrasive blast material is surrounded with a layer of water upon leaving the nozzle. This layer of water causes a damped impact upon the surface. Because of the

9.1 Abrasive Blast Cutting

373

existing roughness of the workpiece, a water film is formed on the workpiece surface which causes an additional damping. In this way, roughness peaks are reduced in particular. Usually, antirust agents or other additives are mixed into the water.

1 abrasive blast material 2 workpiece 3 source of energy 4 nozzle α blast angle Fig. 9-1. The principle of lapping blasting

The energy of the abrasive blast material can be calculated in accordance with the relation of kinetic energy Ekin = mv²/2. The blasting abrasive is exposed to high stresses. Already after one use, i.e. after a single impact on the target surface, there is extensive wear of the abrasive material, manifesting itself in fragmentation of the grains. This fragmentation is contingent on the abrasive blast material used, the speed of the air current and the workpiece material. If the grains so fragmented that the grain size is below of the critical grain size, then we speak of a total wear of the material. The lapping-blasted surfaces exhibit a dull appearance. The pressures used are typically between 4 and 10 bar, the blast speeds range between 300 to 800 m/s [DICK54, GESE61, HABE92, HORO76, KUPP90, N.N.1, SCHU93, WIRT62]. Yet blasting methods are not only used to influence the roughness of the surface. Abrasive ball blasting serves rather to induce residual compressive stresses in the surface, leading to favourable dynamic component properties. This is shown in Figs. 9-2 and 9-3. With identical abrasive blast materials, the depth of the surface layer is a function of blast intensity and the hardness of the workpiece material. Furthermore, strain hardening and thus an increase in the hardness of the surface is an aim of this method (Fig. 9-4) [HANA89].

9 Special Methods

Residual stresses

374

blasted T = 20 °C blasted T = 400 °C, t = 15 min ground T = 20 °C ground T = 400 °C, t = 15 min

0

0.1

0.2 0.3 Distance from surface

mm

0.5

Stress amplitude

Fig. 9-2. Comparison of the residual stresses in the surface layer of blasted and ground tempered steel 42CrMo4

blasted T = 20 °C blasted T = 400 °C, t = 15 min ground T = 20 °C ground T = 400 °C, t = 15 min

Number of stress cycles Fig. 9-3. Comparison of the fatigue strength of blasted and ground tempered steel 42CrMo4

375

Residual stresses

9.2 Free Abrasive Grinding

Distance from surface Fig. 9-4. Comparison of the hardness in the surface layer of blasted and ground steel.

Especially in the case of highly stressed components, like turbine blades, abrasive blast processes are used to improve external zone properties after turning, milling or grinding operations. The desired effect is a strain-hardened surface with high residual compressive stresses. One undesirable side effect is residual roughness due to the surface being covered with overlapping material mounds caused by ball impacts. Blasting can have three effects here. On the one hand, residual tensile stresses in the outer surface layer can be eliminated. On the other, the difference in the surface characteristics is reduced to a nearly uniform value. Moreover, LCF and HCF properties can be improved [ADAM98].

9.2 Free Abrasive Grinding

9.2.1 Operating Principle Defined generally, free abrasive grinding is a cutting process in which free abrasive parts - so called chips - remove material from the workpiece surface. It is not an improvement in form and dimension which is in the foreground in this case, but rather the elimination of surface faults and the establishment of certain surface properties. Areas of application in which free abrasive grinding is found include

376

9 Special Methods

deburring, edge-rounding, cleaning, brightening, smoothing, shining, polishing, descaling or derusting of single, mass and serial parts. The workpieces to be processed are located together with the abrasive material and a fluid, chemical agent (compound) in a working container. The desired removal takes place by means of an undefined relative motion between the abrasive material and the workpieces. This motion is induced by rotation or vibration, but also by moving the workpieces in a stationary pouring of abrasive material [THIL92]. The further development of this method has today made possible surface treatments from casting cleansing to the high-gloss polishing of contact lenses.

9.2.2 Method Variations and Applications The norm distinguishes between six variations of free abrasive grinding: • • • • • •

abrasive drum tumbling, centrifugal tumbling, inertia tumbling, oscillatory tumbling, rotary oscillatory tumbling and immersed tumbling.

As a representative of the various methods for creating a relative motion, three methods will be explained in the following (Fig. 9-5). In free abrasive grinding with the abrasive drum tumbling method, the workpieces and abrasive material are rotated together in a drum so that the drum walls raise and tumble the workpieces until they slide downwards as a result of gravity. This gliding only captures the workpieces lying in the upper layer of the container paste. Under the simultaneous influence of pressure, the grinding process takes place here by means of the gliding of the abrasive material across the workpiece. Inside the mass on the other hand, practically no machining takes place, since the paste is nearly at rest and there is insufficient relative movement. In the oscillatory process, movement of the abrasive material relative to the workpieces as well as a slow spiral motion of the entire mass in the container is achieved by means of a vibration stimulator without rotating. In this way, both the abrasive material and the workpieces migrate past every point of the container several times. As a result of the continuous jogging motion, the components in the container are subjected to partial weightlessness. The constant relative movement effective at all locations of the container creates an intensive grinding effect. This method is preferred for large components, such as turbine discs [ADAM98].

9.2 Free Abrasive Grinding

377

1 2 3

4

4 8 7

7

5

5

a) Abrasive drum tumbling 6

5

4 2 c) Immersed tumbling

1,3

b) Oscillatory tumbling 1 abrasive material 2 workpieces 3 compound 4 container 5 container motion 6 workpiece mount 7 workpiece path 8 region of abrasive effect

Fig. 9-5. Free abrasive grinding: processes in accordance with DIN 8589

Free abrasive grinding using the immersed tumbling variation is thereby characterised that the abrasive material is pressed outwards by centrifugal force in a revolving drum. The workpieces are fixed in mounts and rotate more slowly than the container in the opposite direction. The selection of a suitable process depends on the machining task [THIL92]. Because of its particularly gentle operation, the drum method is used above all for sensitive workpieces. In addition, very exacting mirror finishes are possible. The oscillatory method can achieve greater amounts of output than the drum method. Moreover, it offers the possibility of automatisation and integration into production lines if the operation progresses in a continuous process and an automatic separation of the machined workpieces from the abrasive material is provided for. The use of centrifugal free abrasive grinding is limited by the dimensions and sensitivity of the components. Centrifugal tumbling methods, due to the grinding output realisable by them, are especially suitable for machining smaller workpieces whose edges must be significantly rounded or that have burrs. In addition, the operation time is significantly shorter because of its up to 20 times higher specific grinding efficiency compared to the oscillatory method.

378

9 Special Methods

The specific removal efficiency of each method is illustrated in Fig. 9-6. Each process exhibits an array of curves, the individual curves of which refer to a different type of abrasive material. For both centrifugal and oscillatory tumbling, a degressive increase in the specific removal efficiency with the abrasive material weight results for almost all abrasive material types. In the case of abrasive drum tumbling however, a decline in efficiency is possible [HINZ76].

Specific removal efficiency

10.0 % h 1.0 0.5

centrifugal tumbling

0.1 0.05

oscillatory tumbling

0.01 0.005

abrasive drum tumbling

0.001 0.0005 0.0001 0

10

20

g

40

Abrasive material weight Fig. 9-6. Increase of the removal efficiency of different free grinding techniques with increasing abrasive material weight

The boundaries between free abrasive grinding and other deburring processes such as blasting and brushing are open and not exactly defined [THIL92]. In comparison with other deburring methods however, free abrasive grinding is preferable because of its cost effectiveness in the majority of all application cases. There still are limitations at present with respect to the economical use of free abrasive grinding processes, e.g. in the case of large workpieces like metal sheets of over 1 m width and several meters length, components with a weight of over 30 kg, workpieces with considerable internal burr formation or parts with burrs of more than 1 mm thickness [THIL92]. On the other hand, even finely ground workpieces can be further refined by free abrasive grinding without being damaged. Along with a corresponding polishing process, surface improvement can be taken to the level of a mirror finish in such free abrasive grinding plants.

9.2 Free Abrasive Grinding

379

9.2.3 The Influence of Input Process Parameters on the Result In free abrasive grinding, the choice of abrasive material, the compound used as well as process times and parameters should be taken into consideration as process input parameters. The selection of a suitable abrasive material depends above all on the desired result. For a large material removal and short production times, an abrasive chip-type should be used. For workpieces with holes that are true to gauge or tight tolerance limits requiring a fine treatment, or to obtain surfaces for electroplating, plastic-bonded abrasives are to be recommended. The dimensions of the abrasive material should be determined in relation to the workpiece and the facility. Selecting excessively large rhombi or stars in small plants does not guarantee the kinematic sequence of motions necessary for material removal and leads to faulty results. With respect to the shape of the abrasive material, the rule applies that with larger, bulkier chips with sharper cutting edges, grinding efficiency increases and the micrograph is cruder. Moreover, the geometry of the chips is determined by the accessibility of all workpiece contours that are to be processed. The abrasive material may not become wedged neither individually nor in pairs. In order to guarantee the necessary sequence of motions, the minimal filling quantities of the plants must be taken into consideration. Oscillatory free abrasive grinding facilities are usually filled to 80 %, centrifugal machines and drums from 50 to 70 % [N.N.2]. One essential component of free abrasive grinding is, besides the selection of the right abrasive material, the chemical composition in a water-based solution (compound). This has the task above all of keeping the abrasive material during the process capable of grinding and of guaranteeing removal. In addition, dirt, dust on the workpiece and abrasive material as well as oil and fat residue clinging to the workpiece should be absorbed and a sufficient protection from corrosion provided. Their chemical composition is usually not provided by the manufacturer. The operator must however pay heed to how sanitary it is and clean the compound before disposing. Compound selection offers many opportunities of navigating the grinding behaviour of the abrasives and of obtaining workpiece surface effects, for example a dull finish and activation or passivation as a prerequisite for further treatment. Compounds are usable in batch quantities in a closed system, in circulating operations or regulated in flow operations. Besides workpiece and abrasive matter dust, emulsified oil and dissolved metals are often to be found in the free abrasive grinding fluid. Wastewater purification in accordance with legal regulations can only be achieved by means of settling, filtering or centrifuging. The dirty wastewater must therefore be collected and provided with precipitating or flocculating agents in order to separate not only suspended matter but also heavy metals and mineral oil in the form of flakes [N.N.2]. These settle, forming a clear aqueous phase and a layer of sludge. Fi-

380

9 Special Methods

nally, the sludge is separated from the clear water via filtration, and the water can be used again, e.g. as process water. The removal efficiency of all method variations of free abrasive grinding is maximal at the start, when the burrs and edges are engaged. Only a small amount of material removal takes place on surfaces and edges that have already been rounded, so that an increase in removal efficiency by means of lengthening the process is almost always uneconomical. The frequency and amplitude of the oscillatory motion can be exploited as parameters for oscillatory free abrasive grinding units. While the vibration frequency can only be altered in a few machine designs, influencing the amplitude of oscillation by shifting balancing weights is possible. In this way, the grinding effect can be adjusted to the machining task [HINZ76]. The only parameter in the case of abrasive drum tumbling units is the rotational speed. The material removal rate increases with rpm. However, the workpieces are then subjected to larger stresses.

9.3 Cutting with Geometrically Undefined Cutting Edges

9.3.1 Abrasive Cutting Abrasive cutting assumes the function of cutting lengths of bar steel and profiles especially in rolling mills, but not rarely in forges and continuous casting plants as well. In these contexts it competes with guillotine shears and sledge saws. In the face of improved cutting quality as well as the possibility of cutting off a large number of materials irrespective of temperature, weighing various processes increasingly results in abrasive cutting being favoured. The spindle drive power of stationary abrasive cutting machines reaches a 200 kW nominal power; with 1800 mm maximum-sized cutting discs, cutting speeds of up to 100 m/s can be realised [KOEN85]. As a rule, synthetic resin cutting discs are used which are additionally sheathed in synthetic-resin-soaked fibreglass. Normal corundum of granulations 12 to 20 is customary as the abrasive. The width of the cutting disc amounts as a rule to one percent of the diameter. The specific material removal rates obtainable in the case of cold abrasive cutting are around Q’w = 1500 mm³/mms, while in hot abrasive cutting they reach values up to Q’w = 4000 mm³/mms. The temperature range of the workpieces stretches from room temperature to up to 1000 °C; conventional workpiece diameters are dw = 20 to 200 mm.

9.3 Cutting with Geometrically Undefined Cutting Edges

381

Variations of Abrasive Cutting Abrasive cutting operations are executed with hand-operated machines or in stationary cutting machines. In the case of manual abrasive cutting, the cutting disc diameter is limited to 230 mm for reasons of safety and manageability. One anomaly is the manual cutting of high-alloyed rust and acid-resistant materials in the food industry. In order to prevent iron diffusion during the cutting operation, in this case special abrasive cutting discs without iron components are employed [BURK93]. Stationary abrasive cutting is executed both wet and dry. An example of a wet operation is the cutting-off of samples for material testing. While cooling lubricant is added, the samples are cut off burr-free and without thermal damage to the workpiece. Most abrasive cutting processes however are dry. For abrasive cutting, for method variants are common, which differ by their arrangement and the relative motion of tool and workpiece (Fig. 9-7).

Chop cut

Plunge cut vfr

grinding wheel vS

number of parts n = 3 excess length e vs distance of part x

vf

workpiece e

Rotary cut vfr

Oscillating cut n=3

vft

vs

vs vw

x Fig. 9-7. Methodological variants of abrasive cutting

The kinematically simplest case is the chop cut. The depth setting motion takes place with the abrasive disc in a vertical direction downwards. Frequently, the

382

9 Special Methods

Specific and average material removal rate Q‘w, Q‘w

spindle is arranged on a rocker arm, and the grinding tool centre follows a circular arc. In a rotary cut, the motion of the grinding wheel is also superimposed by a rotation of the workpiece. This arrangement requires that the workpieces be cut off with large diameters. The process is used especially to cut large pipes. The off-centre approach of plunge cutting makes it possible to cut off several parts in the same clamping. The grinding wheel is set by excess length e lower than the diameter of the workpieces require.If we equate the plunge cut with a creep grinding process, then we are dealing in the case of the oscillating cut with a pendulum grinding process. However, in oscillating cuts, the feed direction alternates, whereby one quantity is fed after every double stroke. Which variant is used depends on the respective machining conditions. The advantage of the plunge cut over the chop cut is that non-productive operation times for workpiece supply and clamping, as well as for free travel and infeed etc., can be distributed across several parts. This is especially significant when the abrasive cutting operation is part of a quasi-continuous production sequence, e.g. in rolling mills. The oscillating cut is of less importance than the other methods. 1360 Q'W

mm3 mm s

Q'W 680

340

0

Grinding wheel diameter Workpiece diameter Excess length Number of plies Distance of plies Feed rate 130

260

390

dS = 1250 mm dW = 190 mm e = 10 mm n = 3 x = 0 mm vf = 8 mm/s 520

mm

780

Infeed lf

Fig. 9-8. The specific material removal rate during the plunge cutting of round solid crosssections

Aside from a few exceptions, the contact length and the material removal rate [KOEN85a] exhibit an unsteady course, no matter which method is used. We thus see in Fig. 9-8 and example of the trajectory of the specific material removal rate

9.3 Cutting with Geometrically Undefined Cutting Edges

383

Q'w over the feed path lf while cutting three workpieces arranged consecutively. While the grinding wheel is still engaging with the first workpiece, it already makes contact with the second workpiece so that an abrupt increase in the specific material removal rate results. Shortly thereafter, the third piece is cut.

9.3.2 Multi-Wire Slicing (MWS) The production of silicon discs, so-called wafers, with the highest quality standards is an essential part in the manufacturing chain of semiconductor devices. Proceeding from up to two metre long ingots, the semi-finished monocrystalline silicon product, individual wafers with a thickness of less than a millimetre are separated in a cutting operation. For example, the 200 mm wafers primarily utilised in IC (integrated circuit) applications have a thickness of ca. 880 μm after separating. For these cutting operations, multi-wire slicing (MWS) technology is the currently the most productive, state-of-the-art method. Already during this segmentation into single wafers, fundamental wafer properties, elementary for subsequent manufacture, are determined. A precise and reliable cutting operation is exceedingly important, since every error committed here must – as much as is still possible – subsequently be eliminated by means of lapping, or alternatively with more modern grinding techniques, etching and finally polishing to improve the surface quality and wafer geometry. Only in this way can the extremely high requirements of chip manufacture be met. And only then can IC structures be applied by lithographic methods. In the semiconductor industry, besides monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon is of the greatest importance, especially in the solar industry in the area of photovoltaic applications, and the second dominant area of application of MWS technology. In addition to these mass markets, MWS processes are also used, for example, in the manufacture of light-emitting diodes of the most varied materials such as silicon carbide (SiC), sapphire (Al2O3) and germanium (Ge). It is also employed in the manufacture of substrates made of innovative materials like gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other compound semiconductors. Conventional manufacturing technologies have limitations when cutting such materials, since there materials generally are characterised by high strength and brittleness. Process Description In multi-wire slicing technology (MWS), a cutting wire, proceeding from a coil, is guided over several deflection pulleys such that a field with parallel wire rows running in the same cutting direction is obtained (Fig. 9-9). Subsequently, the wire is wound up around a further coil. The wire is guided in a reversing fashion, whereby the amount of coiled wire of the respective cutting direction varies. For this reason, a partition of the wire field is constantly substituted with new and un-

384

9 Special Methods

worn wire. The ingot to be cut is guided from above into the wire field. In this way several hundred wafers can be cut simultaneously in one cut.

coil 1

coil 2

Fig. 9-9. Schematic of an MWS machine construction

The quality of MWS technology and that of alternative cutting processes is generally characterised by different factors. Besides the number of separable wafers per time unit, cut losses (due to the high material costs), surface roughness, wafer geometry and also the crystal damage depth of the wafers, designated as sub-surface damage (SSD), are especially relevant. With respect to wafer geometry, the parameters of wafer thickness, wafer thickness fluctuation within a wafer (total thickness variation TTV) and bending of the wafer caused by procedural inaccuracies and internal stresses, so-called bows or warps, are very important and hence narrowly tolerated. Thus, for many applications, wafers are frequently needed that have a TTV of less than 20 μm after sawing. The MWS method offers a number of advantages. Because of the simultaneous cutting of several hundred wafers, despite the low feed velocities of ca. 0.5 to 1 mm/min, productivity is increased by more than 400 % in comparison to inner diameter slicing (ID slicing) depending on the width of the wire field utilised. By using thin cutting wires with diameters smaller than 175 μm, cutting losses can be significantly reduced in comparison to other cutting technologies. The slight subsurface damage predestines these process kinematics especially to cutting very thin wafers. For applications in the area of photovoltaics, wafers of ca. 300 μm thickness have been state of the art for quite some time. The trend towards larger wafer dimensions is also fulfilled by this method. The currently largest wafer diameter used in the semiconductor industry is about 300 mm, the edge length of the largest polycrystalline blocks used in the solar in-

9.3 Cutting with Geometrically Undefined Cutting Edges

385

dustry amount to 150 mm. Cuts with these dimensions can be executed with modern MWS units [KAO99]. The process is subdivided with respect to the machining principle into two variants, the conventional and widely used cutting wire lapping and the newer cutting wire grinding. In the case of cutting wire grinding, the abrasive material is fixed on the tool with a bond system. As opposed to this, in lapping operations uncoated tools are used. Machining is made possible by supplying a lapping suspension, so-called slurry. The latter consists of a medium and an abrasive material.

9.3.2.1 Cutting with Bonded Grain

In the case of cutting wire grinding, wires with bonded abrasive material, usually diamond, are used (Fig. 9-10). Galvanic or synthetic resin-bonds have so far generally been used for the bond system. By using bonded grains, we can do away with an additional lapping suspension. In this process, material removal is very similar to that of conventional grinding. By means of a restricted guidance of diamond grains, rolling off of the cutting particles on the material is prevented and the reduction of a discontinuous chip is initiated. The bonded grain however is not guided path-bound, but force-bound into the working gap. The goal of this method variant is, among other things, an increase in productivity or reduction of process times in comparison with cutting technologies with unbonded grains [ENOM99].

150 μm Fig. 9.10. SEM picture of a diamond-coated wire (Saint-Gobain Diamond Tools GmbH)

By avoiding the stripping of the abrasive material from the cutting wire within the wire engagement arc, as a result of the bond system, the grain can constantly remain engaged in the case of cutting wire grinding. Increasingly important ecological issues are also accounted for by rendering superfluous the use of lapping suspensions requiring disposal. Moreover, wafer cleansing following the cutting process is considerably simplified, since for this

386

9 Special Methods

process deionised water is generally sufficient as a coolant. The disadvantage of this method is the high cost of the cutting wires in comparison with cutting wire lapping. Currently, cutting wire grinding is used primarily for smaller ingot dimensions up to 150 mm, e.g. for cutting sapphire or silicon carbide with smaller cutting machines. For larger ingot diameters however, and for classic silicon semiconductor or photovoltaics mass markets, this process is generally not exploited.

9.3.2.2 Cutting with Unbonded Grain

Cutting wire lapping (Fig. 9-11) is these days the dominant and most widespread technique. It is used especially in mass markets. Although this method has been utilised industrially for some time, knowledge of the process is still mostly of an empirical nature. Theoretical findings and process models exist only to a limited extent and are hardly accessible publicly.

Fig. 9-11. A view of the workspace of a cutting wire lapping machine of the firm Meyer + Burger AG

The tool used in cutting wire lapping is an uncoated wire, on which a lapping suspension is supplied by means of nozzles. This suspension consists mostly of SiC particles that are found in a medium in solution. As a rule, oil or glycol is used as a medium. The lapping suspension is an essential component of the machining process, since without it no material removal would be possible. Nevertheless, the effects of slurry variations on the machining process are to a great extent unknown [SUWA99]. The machining process takes place as follows. The abrasive medium sticks to the wire as a result of adhesion and is transported by it into the cutting gap. Material removal occurs by means of the rolling of the carbides on the workpiece. In

9.3 Cutting with Geometrically Undefined Cutting Edges

387

this way, microcracks are induced in the material, causing the silicon particles to break off [KAO98]. This method is disadvantageous with respect to its high cost as well as the ecological burden due to the used slurry and slurry disposal in particular [KAO98a]. Innovative approaches thus aim to remedy these negative aspects by developing slurry refreshment strategies as well as recycling measures. In addition, constant further development of wires and of process design is aimed at reducing the wire diameter at comparable or even higher feed velocities. The resulting reduction of material loss caused by cutting diminishes, on the one hand, the manufacturing costs per wafer, on the other hand the number of producible wafers per ingot increases. These measures will contribute to a considerable increase in cost effectiveness

9.3.3. Inner Diameter Slicing One cutting method that is still widespread today is inner diameter (ID) slicing. In this method, a rotating steel cutting blade serves as the tool. These are fastened at their outer diameters, similarly to the clamping mechanism used for drums. The actual cutting operation takes place in the centre of the saw blade, the inner diameter (Fig. 9-12). The inner diameter of the saw blade is galvanically coated with diamond particles. The cutting process is initiated by guiding the ingot to be cut through the inner diameter. Then, either the saw blade or the ingot is moved radially. The method’s kinematics thus corresponds to that of infeed grinding [BRIN87]. VC

Steel blade Coating

Fig. 9-12. left: principle sketch of the ID-technique; right: picture of an ID- separating machine, company Meyer + Burger AG

In the case of inner diameter slicing, wafers can only be cut one by one. The high cutting and feed velocities (vc = 25 m/s, vf = 50 mm/min) compensate for this

388

9 Special Methods

disadvantage to some extent. However, the productivity of a modern MWS machine cannot be realised. Due to the machine’s kinematics, the maximum ingot diameter is limited to 200 mm. In addition, the process is characterized by large cutting losses of ca. 330 μm per operation, which detracts from the cost effectiveness of the process. Furthermore, the method is limited to a minimal wafer thickness due to pronounced sub-surface damage of the crystals. The advantage of this method compared with the MWS process lies in its flexibility. This predestines inner diameter slicing especially to those areas of substrate manufacture in which the number of pieces is smaller and the geometric shape of the wafer changes more frequently. The demand for larger wafer geometries, thinner wafers and higher cost effectiveness often push this cutting technology to its limits, which is why it is often substituted with MWS technology.

10 Process Monitoring

10.1 The Necessity of Process Monitoring Increasing demands on quality and higher time and cost pressures require more process security. This however has been made increasingly difficult by expanding process and component complexity [KLOC01]. An economical utilisation of automatic grinding processes presupposes their behaviour to be reproducible. Despite the increased expenditure on quality control and on technologically optimised process design, faulty parts can nevertheless still not be fully avoided in batch production. Periodical and stochastic disturbances influence the grinding process, but the effects can not always be completely compensated. Accordingly, service life behaviour of the often very expensive grinding tools is also subject to unpredictable variations, which leads in automatic manufacturing processes to a conservative process design in order to assure the target quality level. Nonetheless, flawed machining sequences and workpieces can still be found again and again [TOEN88, WECK90]. Besides stock allowance fluctuations and hardness variation in the workpieces, other important disturbances in this context are varying grinding wheel properties as well as operator-related parameter modifications. One should not assume a consistent and predictable grinding wheel behaviour, necessitating a reliable and easily realisable monitoring of the service life end (Fig. 10-1). Even today, there exist only insufficient measuring methods that would make possible a reliable online monitoring of the process and workpieces. The industrial operator is thus forced to control the output by means of random sampling. Such a procedure is however time-consuming and only reliable to a limited extent. There is for this reason a constant need for new sensors and monitoring systems that can be used for preventative quality assurance. The goal is that workpiece faults are avoided by means of online monitoring of the process. Various physical effects can be utilised for tool and process monitoring in grinding and dressing. Increasing grinding wheel wear for example can lead to higher machining forces. This offers the possibility of making use of those forces for the sake of process monitoring. This can be accomplished either directly, e.g. with the help of piezo-electric force sensors, or indirectly from the resulting extension of the machine components or the amount of motor current (Fig. 10-2).

10.1 The Necessity of Process Monitoring

391

variation of grinding wheel specification dressing tool wear

operating error by personnel

variation of depth of dressing cut and feed

variation of workpiece initial condition other influences by NC, handling, etc. no predictable grinding wheel tool-life

early dressing scrap parts during assembly high reject costs Fig. 10-1 The necessity of process monitoring

An increase in tool wear leads however to a stronger dynamic stimulus of the workpiece/tool/machine-tool system as well.Vibrations can consequently also be exploited for process monitoring. In the low-frequency range, these vibrations can be extracted from the force or extension signal. As a high-frequency oscillatory signal on the other hand, the acoustic emission (AE) generated during grinding and dressing is especially suitable. As opposed to force measurement, acoustic emission measurement is not subject to temperature drift and is also extremely sensitive in machining processes with very small chip cross-sectional areas. Although the AE signal is an indirect measure, it has the advantage over others, such as the motor current, of very small rise times [N.N.11, N.N.12].

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10 Process Monitoring

piezo-electric force sensor

spindle-integrated torque sensor

motor current and motor power sensor R

UA

U~I

force detection socket

extension sensors

strain gauge

ES2

ES1

force detection bearing

conventional AE-sensor

AE signal transmission by cooling lubricant jet

strain gauge AE-sensor

Fig. 10-2. Sensors for in-process monitoring

10.2 Sensors for Process Monitoring

10.2.1 Force Sensors In research, grinding force components are primarily measured by means of piezoelectric sensors [BAUS03, KARP01]. However, an exact force measurement with piezo-electric force sensors is expensive and is thus used industrially only as an exception. For this reason, force sensor plates or rings are being used increasingly in industrial praxis which are equipped with several single-component quartzes situated in the force side flow. Here the calculation of the machining force components is very difficult, so that mostly only the sum of all force components is

10.2 Sensors for Process Monitoring

393

measured. Thus a reliable recognition of wear is usually not possible, or only for very high wear values. A widespread use of force sensors in grinding machines is also hampered by the temperature drift of the sensors, which still cannot be compensated. A further factor in evaluating force sensors is the usually very high construction effort in the subsequent installation into an already existent machine-tool [LECH89, N.N.11, WECK95].

Fig. 10-3. Force sensing equipment for process detection of the Kistler company.

A further possibility of recording machining forces indirectly is offered by force measurement dowels and extension detectors, available in the most varied designs. For example, extension can be transferred to a shear force piezo element or converted to a change in resistance with the help of a wire strain gauge (WSG). A general disadvantage of extension sensors however is that their use requires a time-consuming analysis of the respective machine in order to determine a favourable measurement location. Moreover, they have a low level of sensitivity, which mostly hinders their use in grinding machines, since here a first contact control and collision monitoring is necessary as well as an analysis of the service life end.

10.2.2 Current Sensors One method that has been increasingly used in recent years for indirect force measurement is recording the effective power of the main spindle. It is defined as:

P = 3 ⋅U ⋅ I ⋅ cos ϕ

(10.1)

The effective power of the main spindle is in direct relation with the torque delivered at the shaft of the motor. Every event at the shaft is thus mirrored by the power input of the drive. Since the electrical voltage is preset at the motor, the required power can be captured by the current input. The current is measured by

394

10 Process Monitoring

Hall sensors. The mounting of these sensors is achieved simply in the switchboard of the grinding machine, such that an unproblematic retrofitting of the machines is possible. The disadvantage for service life monitoring is that only the tangential force can be computed with the help of the effective power. Yet since grinding wheel wear is, as is generally known, best correlated with the cutting force factor μ, defined as the quotient of tangential to normal force (Ft/Fn), judging the end of the machine’s service life with the effective power is only possible in some cases. An essential advantage of effective power sensors as opposed to force sensors is that they function free of drift.

10.2.3 AE-Sensors Sensors for acoustic emissions to monitor process noise emitted during grinding are vibratory systems, the resonance points of which are determined by their construction. As a result, these sensors, working proportionally to acceleration, represent filter systems that have a dampening or amplifying effect according to the frequency range. The AE sensor thus determines by its frequency behaviour the evaluable frequency spectrum to a great extent. This should be taken into consideration in selecting AE sensors to monitor grinding processes [MEYE91]. 1

seismic mass clamping sleeve piezo elements plate

2

seismic mass piezo ceramics body

Sensor 1 Installation

preamplifier

3

Humidity resistance Overload resistance

piezo ceramics 4

sensor

spindle end

piezo element receiving inductor

Relative sensitivity Cost high / good average low / bad

receiver sensor spindle Fig. 10-4. The evaluation of AE sensors for process monitoring [MEYE91]

2

3

4

10.2 Sensors for Process Monitoring

395

The AE sensors employed in machines in the context of process monitoring must do justice to the highest demands with respect to their resilience. Some typical AE sensors are juxtaposed in Fig. 10-4 [MEYE91]. Especially significant in this context are the aggressive environmental conditions that frequently limit the use of other sensors as well considerably. High temperatures, large quantities of cooling lubricant, abrasive wear from chips or grain abrasion – all demand an extremely robust design of the sensor encasement. Such requirements are fulfilled by the ceramic sensor depicted in Fig. 10-4 (sensor 1), which is also used as a knocking sensor in motor vehicles. Another alternative is offered by AE sensors [N.N.11, N.N.12, N.N.13] that directly record AE signals on the rotating grinding wheel or the workpiece. Sensor 4 is mounted for this purpose directly on the rotating spindle. The measured AE signals are transferred at a maximal rotational speed of 60,000 min-1 without contact to a fixed receiver, which then conveys these signals to an evaluation unit [N.N.11].

10.2.3.1 Environmental and Machine Noises as Sources of Disturbance

It is indispensable for the reliability of the attributes derived from the acoustic emission that the noise emissions stemming to the operation of the machine, which are not directly related to the machining process, are stationary and separable from the process noise. Fig. 10-5 shows an assortment of relevant emission sources in grinding machines. Measurement results are applied to the frequency ranges shown at the measurement locations of grinding and workpiece spindles, grinding and workpiece spindle headstocks and the tailstock since there appear the strongest process emissions. Hydraulic noise and electrical disturbances generally exhibit amplitudes that do not significantly influence the grinding spectrum [MEYE91]. One dominant source of disturbance on the other hand is characterised by main spindles with ball bearings. By means of cage noise, rollover frequencies etc., disturbance spectra emerge that permit a reliable measurement at the spindle housings in exceptional cases only. In this case, flawless signals can often only be captured directly on the rotating spindle with contactlessly transmitting AE sensors or fluid sensors. Disturbances can also appear because of the flow of cooling lubricant. However, their intensity reduces significantly above 15 to 20 kHz, such that here a high-pass filtering leads to a sufficient isolation of the process signal.

396

10 Process Monitoring

Hydraulics

Environment, machine vibrations

f < 30 kHz

f < 15 kHz

Electronics

V,p

i

u(t) f=0-∞

AE-measurement in the process

Cooling lubricant

f < 20 kHz

Rolling bearing

Fast motion

f = 0- 300 kHz

f < 1-2 MHz

Proportion of interfering signal 1. Grinding wheel spindle 2. Workpiece spindle 1 2 3 4 5 3. Grinding spindle stock 4. Workpiece spindle stock 5. Tailstock Fig. 10-5. Dominant sources of sound emissions in grinding machines.

10.2.3.2 Methods for Extracting Characteristics from the AE-Signal

After converting the acoustic emission conveyed by the machine components by means of the AE-sensor, further analysis is possible using an electrical AC signal. Bandwidth and frequency composition as well as the dynamics of the AE are modified by the path of transmittance and the sensor properties. Now we have a high-frequency, broadband, stochastic signal with determined quantities on hand, which must be conditioned for the determination of process-specific properties [MEYE91]. The signal is composed of parts which can be directly derived from the process as well as irrelevant, disturbing components that interfere with the useful signal during transmittal until exiting the sensor. The primary goal of signal evaluation is

10.3 First Contact Control

397

thus clearly to increase the distance between the interference and useful signals by means of a suitable consolidation and selection of information. This is immediately linked to the extraction of characteristics, which must react to changing process conditions in a reproducible manner and with sufficient sensitivity. In order to extract essential information from the AE signal, a modulation of amplitude is executed. For this purpose, the effective value of the signal is found for a determined frequency range. This can be achieved by means of a signal processing chain, consisting of a band-pass filter with which the frequency band of interest is selected, a detector and a low-pass filter located downstream thereof (Fig. 10-6). In this way, all essential information can be extracted from the highfrequency AE-signal. In the subsequent digital processing of the signals, relatively small sampling rates (<100 Hz) could be used. Signal processing

Signal type

sensor highpass filter

preamplifier bandpass filter

rectifier

lowpass filter Fig. 10-6. Methods for extracting characteristics from the AE-signal.

10.3 First Contact Control Besides the cutting ability of the grinding wheel, altered by the dressing and grinding processes, various properties of the blanks, above all varying workpiece allowances, cause changes in the cutting forces. Fig. 10-7 shows the geometrical conditions that exist when workpieces with fluctuating stock allowances are to be machined. In this case, by means of correspondingly large safety allowances, we should reach a condition in which the grinding wheel does not make contact with the workpiece during a rapid velocity even with the largest possible allowance. For small allowances however, the grinding wheel only gets in contact with the workpiece very late. On the one hand, a lot of time is therefore lost for so-called air grinding, on the other hand larger allowances lead to larger cutting forces and

398

10 Process Monitoring

system stresses than smaller allowances. In the latter case, the grinding cycles can be so short that even during the roughing period, a stationary material removal rate is not possible. Fluctuations in material composition and structural formation in the workpiece’s surface layer also have an altering effect on the cutting forces. Due to the clamping device common in turning operations, the blank’s surface is mostly excentrical. This excentricity causes periodical changes in the cutting force during the grinding process. These changes result in roundness errors for small allowances in the finished part [KOEN89]. safety allowance

current dimension

minimum blank diameter fast motion

maximum blank diameter

end dimension

roughing feed finishing feed

Fig. 10-7. The effect of different workpiece stock allowances on grinding machine arrangement

Since the selected safety allowance cannot be chosen arbitrarily small, we seek to pass through the air grinding path with increased feed velocity (air grinding feed velocity) and, shortly before or after the grinding wheel and the workpiece get in contact, to switch to roughing feed velocity. The position of this shift must be adjusted to the dimensions of the respective clamped workpiece. We can determine it with two fundamentally different sensor types, that is, with contact sensor systems or with approach sensor systems.

10.3 First Contact Control

399

Contact sensor systems report the contact of the grinding wheel and workpiece in accordance with various operating principles (table 10-1). Also, they can respond with varying delay times according to the respective operating principle and the measuring devices used [ENGE77, FLAI80]. Since the switching times of the machine controls and drive system inertia must still be accounted for, grinding wheel and workpiece stress can increase significantly due to a high air grinding feed velocity. Table 10-1. Measurement variables and reaction times of contact sensor systems. Parameter to detect contact between grinding wheel and workpiece

Reaction time in ms

Decrease of workpiece diameter

depending on workpiece revolutions

Cutting force

20 – 60

Torsional moment

not specified

Difference of phase (drive motor)

10

Slip (cos φ) (drive motor)

200

Drive power (drive motor)

50 – 200

Machine vibrations and acoustic emission

10 – 50

Infrared light (sparking)

10 – 30

Short circuit (Conductor in grinding wheel)

not specified

The grinding wheel’s service life can be negatively influenced especially during a rapid approach of excentrical workpieces. If at the moment of contact that part of the workpiece circumference is turned to the grinding wheel which has the smallest distance from the centre line of the grain peaks, the momentary depth of cut increases and with it the specific material removal rate under further turning of the workpiece in excess of the maximum reliable value. This leads to an overloading of the workpiece and the grinding wheel surface. As opposed to contact sensor systems, approach sensor systems relay information to the machine control about the relative position of the grinding wheel periphery and the diameter of the respective clamped blank, which is detected by the diameter measuring device, already before contact is made between the grinding wheel and the workpiece. These sensors thereby make it possible to pre-calculate the air grinding path, which can then be passed through at maximum speed [THYS75]. However, problems related to grinding excentrically clamped workpieces exist in this case too, since the contact arm of a diameter measuring device, which operates mostly series connected, determines the misalignment of the workpiece. Here too, unintentional collisions between the workpiece and the grinding wheel can thus occur. Customarily, first contact sensor systems are utilised in contemporary grinding machines, which detect contact between the grinding wheel and the workpiece by means of acoustic emission (round/flat grinding) or by means of the effective power (internal cylindrical grinding). These systems approach with a positioning

400

10 Process Monitoring

speed of usually three to four times of the feed velocity in roughing and switched to the roughing speed after getting in contact. Contact is recognised with the help of a static threshold that must exceed a programmed minimum time. The amount of this threshold depends primarily on the idle signal and the roughing signal measured in the process. For the acceleration sensors used in the majority of applications, a first contact threshold of 5 to 15 % of the roughing signal is chosen. Typical delay times range between 10 and 100 ms. Typical time constants τ for the signal increase exhibit a range of τ = 0.1 to 1 s for flat and external cylindrical grinding operations, while the unstable tools used in internal cylindrical grinding can lead to time constants of τ = 10 to 20 s.

10.4 Collision Monitoring In the case of collision between the grinding wheel and the workpiece or other machine components, the motor current and acoustic emission increase to levels that are usually more than three times the amplitude of rough grinding processes. What must be evaluated is the acoustic emission or the effective current of the grinding wheel drive. Ideally, collision monitoring should be constantly active as an elementary safety function. Yet this implies that both setup operation and fast traverse motions of the grinding spindle support must be monitored. Several ball screws in rapid traverse however create an acoustic disturbance signal which can amount to ten times the roughing signal. In such cases, collision recognition is not possible with acoustic emission. Here, we must fall back upon monitoring motor currents. Potential collision should be checked with a static threshold, which is set at 2.5 to 3.5 times the roughing signal. In order to avoid false alarms, delay times of t = 5 to 50 ms should be included for this threshold. The damage to the machine resulting from the collision is the smaller the faster the correspondingly moved axis is stopped. As previously used systems show, the sensor-bound reaction time of the monitoring system is negligible compared with the delay time caused by the PLC of CNC control. The latter only checks the pertinent alarm input in cyclical intervals. According to the range and performance of the PLC, the cyclical input check causes delays of t = 100 to 800 ms as opposed to an average reaction time of monitoring systems of t < 20 ms till the point the alarm output is set. It is thus advisable for a rapid reaction that the pertinent alarm output of the monitoring system is directly connected to the control release of the position control of the relevant axis. In this way, the CNC-axis can be stopped with practically no delay. A rapid pullback of the axis should be avoided if possible, since situations are certainly imaginable (internal cylindrical grinding) in which the rapid pullback would lead to further damage.

10.5 Dressing Monitoring

401

10.5 Dressing Monitoring The dressing process creates the grinding wheel shape and topography required for the respective machining task. Fluctuations of the actual depth of dressing cut, temperature drift of the machine axes relative to each other and further sources of disturbance cause dressing errors and thus fluctuations in workpiece quality as well. In order to guarantee a consistent grinding tool quality therefore, the actual achieved depth of dressing cut must be monitored during the process. By means of monitoring systems, the dressing process can be automated and visualised [AVER82, BAUS03, INAS77, KOEN82a, KOEN86]. Present-day strategies for monitoring the dressing process primarily include static thresholds, the lower deviation of which by the URMS-value, which is proportional to the actual depth of dressing cut, signals a faulty depth of cut during the dressing stroke. The prerequisite of this however is a constant AE-signal throughout the dressing stroke (Fig. 10-9). When dressing profiled grinding wheels however, the continuous AE-signal splits into a group of individual signal sections, the number of which corresponds to the geometric elements of the wheel. The level of each signal section is not constant depending on the motion of the dresser. Furthermore, different dressing errors, like dressing tool overheating or dressing tool wear, can occur but nonetheless not manifest themselves in a static limit [MEYE91]. cylindrical grinding wheel

profiled grinding wheel

grinding wheel

grinding wheel

dressing path

dressing path

AE signal

static threshold

alarm

dressing time

td

AE signal URMS

AE signal URMS

AE signal

static threshold

alarm

dressing time

Fig. 10-9. Dressing signals for straight and profiled disc shapes

td

402

10 Process Monitoring

Dressing process

Preset parameters range of dynamic thresholds number of geometry elements

grinding wheel

contact threshold maximum deviation of characteristics allowed

dressing path

Detection and processing of the AE signal AE RMS value

measurement RMS

DC

synchronisation

1 0

a

b

c d

dressing tool in engagement?

AE RMS value

generation of dynamic thresholds + calculation of parameters μa,b,c,d σa,b,c,d a

b

c d

Fig. 10-10. Dressing diagnosis for arbitrary grinding wheel shapes

For monitoring complex grinding wheel shapes, the procedure illustrated in Fig. 10-10 is capable. During the dressing cycle, every geometric element is first identified, the gliding average calculated and the static and dynamic thresholds accompanying the process are formed. In this way, we can monitor whether the signal of every geometric element remains within a tolerance range throughout the reference progression. Any deviations that occur can be diagnosed and indicated online. In addition, the mean signal increase, the average value as well as the standard deviation are calculated from the AE-signals for every recognized geometric ele-

10.6 Service Life Monitoring while Grinding Using AE

403

ment. Since these parameters are linked significantly with typical dressing errors, a parameter comparison in sections suffices to identify potential process errors. Because of the vectorisation and reduction of classification to a few parameters, this strategy is realisable with minimal need for evaluating computer storage space, and the dressing errors can be diagnosed online.

10.6 Service Life Monitoring while Grinding Using AE

10.6.1 Monitoring Grinding Wheel Wear with the AE Effective Value The AE effective value depends to a great extent on the specific material removal rate Q’w, the dressing conditions and the grinding wheel specifications as well. Likewise, the level of the URMS-value in the individual process phases correlates with the effective peak-to-valley height of the grinding wheel and thus with average peak-to-valley height of the workpiece [BAUS03, DORN84, INAS77, KOEN89, MALK84, MEYE91, SAXL97]. This is shown in Fig. 10-11 on the basis of the influence of the dressing overlap ratio Ud on the behaviour of the average peak-to-valley height Rz throughout the service life. For the dressing overlap ratio of Ud = 10 selected for the experiment, the disc wears from micro-breakage of the cutting edges such that workpiece roughness increases on average. The level of the effective value of the AE changes in the same manner, as the lower part of the illustration shows. It is here a case of the static average value of the signal in the respective process area. The image includes the level trajectories of the URMS-value for the roughing and finishing areas. Slightly varying URMS-paths result. The degressive path of the averaged peak-tovalley height between V’w = 60 – 450 mm3/mm is reproduced better in the AEsignal of the finishing phase, since this phase determines the target workpiece roughness for the most part. Tendentially however, both URMS-curves reliably indicate the changing effective peak-to-valley height of the tool throughout the service life [KOEN91, MEYE91].

404

10 Process Monitoring

10

2.000

μm

1.625

7.5 6.25 5.0 0.0

relative AE RMS value URMS / URMS0

Average peak-to-valley height RZ

Process control Grinding wheel Material Grinding wheel circumferential speed Workpiece speed Spec. material removal rate Dressing overlap ratio Cooling lubricant

: 3-stage : AA 60 J4 V15 : 100 Cr 6; 63 HRC : vs = 45 m/s : vw = 0.7 m/s : Q‘w = 3.0 mm³ /mms : Ud = 10 : emulsion (3 %)

1.250 0.875 0.500 0.000

URMS roughing URMS0 = 2.607 V URMS finishing URMS0 = 0.326 V Average peak-to-valley height RZ mm3/mm 150 300 Specific material removal V‘W

600

Fig. 10-11. Average peak-to-valley height and URMS-value throughout the service life for different dressing overlap ratios Ud

10.6.2 Detecting Chattering Chattering represents one of the main causes of quality problems in grinding, because the dimension and shape accuracy as well as the surface quality are influenced negatively [BAUS03, KARP01]. Chattering can be traced back to selfexcitation. In the grinding process, the main causes of forced vibrations are primarily imbalance and grinding wheel eccentricity. Further possible causes are disturbances induced through the foundation or generated in the hydraulic system of the machine. Among self-excited vibrations, chattering represent the largest problem in the grinding process. The excitation mechanism of chatter vibrations can be derived primarily from the ambient noise of the cutting forces. In the context of process monitoring, it is possible to recognise chattering by the amplitude or power spectrum of several process parameters, whereby the effective power signal is not capable for clatter recognition because of its inertia. On

10.6 Service Life Monitoring while Grinding Using AE

405

the other hand, both in the spectrum of the normal force signal and in the spectra of the acceleration and AE signals, a clear peak forms as chatter vibrations emerges in the system frequency characteristic for chattering [BAUS03, INAS01, KOEN91]. Chattering can also be monitored by means of the dynamic portions of the AEURMS signal [MEYE91]. In this case, the dynamics characteristic DAE serves for chattering detection.

10.6.3 Process Step Recognition as an Element of Reliable Monitoring Besides determining the dynamics characteristic, it is possible to analyse the signal form of the AE-signal. Fig. 10-12 shows an example of this. The unstable conditions of the grinding wheel topography in this process led to clearly greater form deviation fk in comparison with the trend of the previous processes. As the representation of the associated process signal of the AE shows, the topography of the grinding wheel breaks down here after the first third of the roughing phase. New sharp cutting edges are engaged so that the URMS-value reduces abruptly. The determination of the stationary phases of the process detects this, in that the phase analysis indicates four process phases instead of the three phases expected. For purposes of comparison, the AE signal belonging to the following workpiece is also represented in the illustration. By identifying quasi-stable process times, step recognition thus provides a service life parameter that reacts sensitively to alterations in unsteady process components. The latter have an immediate effect on form deviations in the workpiece [KOEN91, MEYE91].

10 Process Monitoring

: AA 60 J4 V15 : 100Cr6; 63 HRC : vs = 45 m/s : vw = 0.7 m/s : Q'w= 3 mm3/mms : Ud= 5 : emulsion (3 %)

n/n0 = 150 URMS

[μm]

4

V‘W = 350 mm³ /mm 2.0 2 [V] 1 1.0 3 0.0

n/n0 = 15 2

0

V‘W = 300 mm³ /mm 2.0 [V] 1 2 3 1.0 4 0.0

150

[mm³/mm]

Specific material removal V‘W

450

URMS

Roundness deviation fK

Grinding wheel Material Grinding wheel circumferential speed Workpiece speed Spec. roughing material removal rate Dressing overlap ratio Cooling lubricant 8

URMS

406

V‘W = 400 mm³ /mm 2.0 2 [V] 3 1 1.0 4 0.0 [s] 10.6 0.0 Grinding time ts

Fig. 10-12. Step recognition for identifying quasi-stable process phases.

10.7 Control of Workpiece Properties The mechanical energy added during the grinding process is converted to a large extent into heat during cutting edge engagement. Most of this heat relates to surface friction and plastic material deformation, whereby the main source of heat is to be found beneath the abrasive grain. Because of this, there is a local increase in temperature at the contact location between the grain and the workpiece, which can lead to thermal damages of the workpiece structure depending on time and the effect duration. These damages can result, for example, in changes to the residual stress conditions near the surface but can also lead to structural changes that extend across large surface layer areas. Such influences on the grinding process usually have negative effects on the output. For example, local peaks in tension, rehardened zones or a decrease in component strength can bring about a premature failure of the component during operation [BRIN91, CHOI86, SCHL04].

10.7 Control of Workpiece Properties

407

In order to recognise these negative influences and to carry out an alteration of the process parameters for the sake of minimising workpiece damage, components and workpieces are analysed near the process after the grinding treatment and their surface layers evaluated. In contrast to the previously mentioned in-process methods, near-process methods are undertaken in immediate proximity to the process. They neither require costly preparation nor necessarily the environmental conditions of a laboratory [REGE99]. Etching and crack detection of damages in the workpiece’s surface layer (grinding burns, grinding cracks) represent on the other hand the state of the art in industrial manufacture. Nital etching is the most frequently utilised method for detecting surface layer damages, whereby the components can also still be used after the test [REGE99, SAXL97]. Thermal damages are rendered visible by this detection method by means of oxidation processes. The component is cleaned and degreased. Finally, it is etched in alcoholic or aqueous nitric acid. At the locations where thermal damage has occurred, the component turns to a dark brown or black colour. The intensity of the colouration is a measure for the damage [BAUS03, REGE99, SAXL97]. In nital etching, only the uppermost atomic layer of the material is affected so that after etching, presuming that no thermal damage could be detected, the workpiece can be integrated or delivered to customers [REGE99]. In industrial praxis, dye penetrant testing is often used for crack detection. In this case, the workpiece surface is covered with a fluorescent fluid by means of spreading, spraying or plunging. After a certain penetration time required for the penetration agent to settle into the cracks under capillary forces, excess penetration agent is removed from the surface. Finally, with the use of a developer, the penetration agent found in the cracks can be drawn out and the cracks present made visible [REGE99]. Micro-magnetic analytic methods gather parameters that are based on the extended physical interpretation of Bohr’s atomic model. These parameters correlate with the resulting residual stresses in the component after grinding and with the material structure at hand [KARP01, REGE99]. A further method for determining the residual stress condition in the component’s external zone is radiographic residual stress determination. The principle of the measurement is based on the diffraction of monochromatic X-rays at the atomic planes of polycrystalline materials (Fig. 10-13). While a stress-free material exhibits identical atomic plane distances independently of the irradiation angle of the X-rays, these distances change in a workpiece with residual stresses. These distances increase perpendicular to the stress direction, while parallel to it they decrease. In order to identify the maximum lattice strain, lattice strain determinations are undertaken at different irradiation angles [BRIN91, KARP01, ROHR89].

408

10 Process Monitoring

L = probe normal N = atomic plane normal

Θ

I

X-ray tube

position detector

L

N

N

L

L

Ψ1

Ψ= 0

N Ψ2

Θ

F

D Ψ0 D Ψ1

F D Ψ2

Fig. 10-13. Schematic representation of the X-ray method [KARP95, ROHR89].

10.8 Reliability of Process Monitoring As industrial praxis shows, in the case of complex monitoring systems there are frequent false alarms due to the dynamic and stochastic behaviour of the manufacturing process. Thus, such systems are not always accepted in operation; they are then shut off by the machine operator. Many research centres around the world [BARS91, INAS93, MORI93, WECK95] have thus strove to make progress in the field of artificial intelligence useful for computer-integrated manufacturing in order to improve the availability, capacity, reliability and cost effectiveness of complex process monitoring systems with reproducible manufacturing quality. By using neural networks, monitoring and diagnosis systems are to be constructed that perform a multi-dimensional parameter analysis with the help of measurements captured by multiple sensors. Because of the properties of neural networks, such as high processing speeds and fault tolerance, as well as the ability to determine a relation between input and output variables independently by means of an iterative learning process, they are better adapted to the dynamic character of unstable manufacturing processes than conventional systems incapable of describing accidental process events. Fig. 10-14 shows an example of a system structure of a neural network used for process monitoring in grinding. The parameters described above, such as the AE

10.8 Reliability of Process Monitoring

409

effective value URMS, the dynamic value DAE and the number of detected process phases, are available as input variables for the network. Moreover, it is conceivable that parameters of other sensors, like effective power, can be used as input parameters for the neural network. All these measured parameters are added to the diagnosis system as input variables.

AE RMS value

tool wear chatter mark

effective power Pw normal force Fn

tool breakage

... ...

grinding burn ...

input layer

output layer hidden layer

Fig. 10-14. The structure of a possible neural network for grinding process monitoring.

Possible neural network output variables could then be such information as “service life end reached”, “chattering detected”, “grinding burn detected” or “roughness too high”. A number of faults in the process can thereby be detected. This example should only provide a small glimpse into the possibilities of neural networks in process monitoring and should thus not be seen as exhaustive. Other systems, e.g. fuzzy logic or the combination of neural networks and fuzzy logic, can also provide alternatives in the development of intelligent monitoring systems.

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Index

A abrasive carrier 367 abrasive casings 66 abrasive steam jet cutting 378 abrasive water jet cutting 378 acoustic emission 397, 400, 402, 405, 406 additives 119 AE-Sensors 400 air abrasive jet cutting 378 approach sensor 405 axial force 172

B balancing system 291 base binding 67 base fluid 116 basic bond 67 belt grinding 217 belt tension 225 blast intensity 379 block sharpening 143 bond backing 146 bonds 37 broad belt 66

C carbon steels 74 CD grinding 151 centrifugal abrasive jet cutting 378 centrifuges 132 chattering 286, 410 chip formation 9 chip length 170 chip space 136, 168 chip space volume 154 chip thickness 9, 170 cleaning 136 compacted grit abrasive belt 71 composition of conventional grinding wheels 43 composition of superabrasive grinding wheels 50 conditioning 136 contact element 66 contact length 166 contact roller 224 contact shoe 218

contact time 179 contact wheel 217 continuous dressing 149, 150 cooling lubricant nozzle 123 cooling lubricants 113 cooling lubricants - primary functions 113 cooling lubricants - secondary functions 113 corundum 20 covering bond 68 creep feed grinding 151, 216 crushing 152 cubic boron nitride 35 cutting edge 168 cutting edge engagement 7 cutting edge form 4 cutting force 172 cutting force ratio 12, 172 cutting power 173 cutting space 168 cutting speed 260 cylindricity 327 cylindricity errors 316

D degrees of flexibility 227 depth of cut 255, 264 depths of dressing 148 diamond cup wheels 140 diamond profile roller 150 distribution of energy 11 disturbances 285 double-tapered wheel 236 down dressing 161 dressing errors 407 dressing overlap ratio 154 dressing speed ratio 158, 161

E edge wear 165 effective dressing width 158 effective geometrical contact length 168 effective kinematic contact length 168 effective surface roughness 275 emission sources 401 equivalent chip thickness 179 equivalent grinding wheel diameter 167

432

Index

externally induced oscillation 286

F fibre 67 filtering 131 final polishing 372 finishing 277 first contact control systems 148 flat grinding 214 Flexing 69 force measurement 398

G gear honing 340 geometric instability 200 geometrical contact length 166 grain cutting depth 9 grinding burn 413 grinding cracks 413 grinding gap geometry 202 grinding ratio 166 grinding ratio G 166 grinding wheel balancing 288 grinding wheel selection 273 grinding wheel topography 168, 277 grinding wheel wear 165, 275 grinding worm 241 grip 372 grit material 17 guide bars 211

H heat flow 113 heat flow rate 14 hollow ball abrasive belt 70 honing processes 308 honing stone wear 316, 325 hydrocyclone 132 hyperboloid form 209

I immersed tumbling 383 influence of temperature 154 initial effective surface roughness 275 input parameters 254 instability induced by the material removal process 200 intermediate spark-out 282 involute 237 involute profile 237

J jet sharpening 146

K kinematic contact length 167 kinematic cutting edge 4, 169 kinematic cutting edge distance 169

L lacquers 68 lamellar abrasive tools 66 lapping jet cutting 378 lapping slurry 345 lapping techniques 348

M machinability 73, 77 machine-dynamic instability 200 machining high-performance ceramics 107 macro-wear 135 magnetic separators 131 manual dressing tools 139 manufacture of resin bonded grinding wheels 54 manufacture of superabrasive grinding wheels 58 Martensite 76 material removal 163, 270 material removal rate 163 metallic bonds 40 micro-cracks 109 micro-wear 135 module 241 monitoring grinding wheel shapes 408 multilayered sintered bonds 59 multistage processes 277

N natural grit materials 17 natural hide glue 67 needle nozzle 125 neural networks 414 nickel-based alloys 97 nital etching 413 normal force 172

O oil mist 115 oscillation 286 oscillatory signal 397 oscillatory tumbling 382 overlap ratio 216

P parameters 162 pendulum grinding 216 polyester fabric 67 process design 254 process parameters 254 profiling 136

Q quality control 396

Index

R radial wear 165 radial wear speed 166 residual stress determination 413 resin bonds 38 result 255 roll speed 236 rolling kinematics 235 rotating dressing tools 139 roughing 277 roundness errors 200

S sensors 398 shape errors 327 sharpening 136, 142 sharpening material removal 144, 145 sharpening material removal rate 144 sharpness parameter 5 shoe nozzle 125 silicon carbide 32 single-layered metallic bonds 60 sol-gel corundum 22 spark-out 279 specific material removal 164 specific material removal rate 164 speed ratio 167 speed stroke grinding technology 105 stability cards 202 static cutting edge 4, 168 static cutting edge distance 169 stationary dressing tools 137 support pad hardness 226

surface grinding 214 synthetic binding agents 68 synthetic diamond 37 synthetic grit materials 19

T tangential force 172 throughfeed grinding 197 titanium alloys 99 titanium aluminides 101 tool testing 61 touch dressing 147

U up dressing 161

V variables 254 viscosity 114 vitrified bonds 39

W wafer 110 wear 14 wear volume 165 wet abrasive jet cutting 378 wet grinding 68 wheel imbalance 288 wood finishing 67 workpiece speed 264, 268 workpiece support surface 199 workpiece surface layer 73 workrest plate 199

Y yield hypothesis 365

433

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