CHAPTER 1 The Structure of Metals
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
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CHAPTER 1 The Structure of Metals
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 1-1
Chapter 1 Outline
Figure 1.1 An outline of the topics described in Chapter 1
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Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
Figure 1.2 The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.
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Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
Figure 1.3 The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.
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Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure Figure 1.4 The hexagonal closepacked (hcp) crystal structure: (a) unit cell; and (b) single crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.
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Slip and Twinning Figure 1.5 Permanent deformation (also called plastic deformation) of a single crystal subjected to a shear stress: (a) structure before deformation; and (b) permanent deformation by slip. The size of the b/a ratio influences the magnitude of the shear stress required to cause slip.
Figure 1.6 (a) Permanent deformation of a single crystal under a tensile load. Note that the slip planes tend to align themselves in the direction of the pulling force. This behavior can be simulated using a deck of cards with a rubber band around them. (b) Twinning in a single crystal in tension. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Slip Lines and Slip Bands Figure 1.7 Schematic illustration of slip lines and slip bands in a single crystal (grain) subjected to a shear stress. A slip band consists of a number of slip planes. The crystal at the center of the upper illustration is an individual grain surrounded by other grains.
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Edge and Screw Dislocations Figure 1.8 Types of dislocations in a single crystal: (a) edge dislocation; and (b) screw dislocation. Source: (a) After Guy and Hren, Elements of Physical Metallurgy, 1974. (b) L. Van Vlack, Materials for Engineering, 4th ed., 1980.
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Defects in a Single-Crystal Lattice
Figure 1.9 Schematic illustration of types of defects in a single-crystal lattice: selfinterstitial, vacancy, interstitial, and substitutional.
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Movement of an Edge Dislocation
Figure 1.10 Movement of an edge dislocation across the crystal lattice under a shear stress. Dislocations help explain why the actual strength of metals in much lower than that predicted by theory.
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Solidification Figure 1.11 Schematic illustration of the stages during solidification of molten metal; each small square represents a unit cell. (a) Nucleation of crystals at random sites in the molten metal; note that the crystallographic orientation of each site is different. (b) and (c) Growth of crystals as solidification continues. (d) Solidified metal, showing individual grains and grain boundaries; note the different angles at which neighboring grains meet each other. Source: W. Rosenhain.
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Grain Sizes TABLE 1.1 ASTM No. –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Grains/mm2 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1,024 2,048 4,096 8,200 16,400 32,800
Grains/mm3 0.7 2 5.6 16 45 128 360 1,020 2,900 8,200 23,000 65,000 185,000 520,000 1,500,000 4,200,000
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Preferred Orientation Figure 1.12 Plastic deformation of idealized (equiaxed) grains in a specimen subjected to compression (such as occurs in the rolling or forging of metals): (a) before deformation; and (b) after deformation. Note hte alignment of grain boundaries along a horizontal direction; this effect is known as preferred orientation.
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Anisotropy (b)
Figure 1.13 (a) Schematic illustration of a crack in sheet metal that has been subjected to bulging (caused by, for example, pushing a steel ball against the sheet). Note the orientation of the crack with respect to the rolling direction of the sheet; this sheet is anisotropic. (b) Aluminum sheet with a crack (vertical dark line at the center) developed in a bulge test; the rolling direction of the sheet was vertical. Source: J.S. Kallend, Illinois Institute of Technology. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Annealing Figure 1.14 Schematic illustration of the effects of recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth on mechanical properties and on the shape and size of grains. Note the formation of small new grains during recrystallization. Source: G. Sachs.
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Homologous Temperature Ranges for Various Processes
TABLE 1.2 Process Cold working Warm working Hot working
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T/Tm < 0.3 0.3 to 0.5 > 0.6
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CHAPTER 2 Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials
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Relative Mechanical Properties of Materials at Room Temperature TABLE 2.1 Strength Glass fibers Graphite fibers Kevlar fibers Carbides Molybdenum Steels Tantalum Titanium Copper Reinforced Reinforced Thermoplastics Lead
Hardness Diamond Cubic boron nitride Carbides Hardened steels Titanium Cast irons Copper Thermosets Magnesium thermosets thermoplastics Lead Rubbers
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Toughness Ductile metals Reinforced plastics Thermoplastics Wood Thermosets Ceramics Glass Ceramics Reinforced Thermoplastics Tin Thermoplastics
Stiffness Diamond Carbides Tungsten Steel Copper Titanium Aluminum Tantalum plastics Wood Thermosets
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Strength/Density Reinforced plastics Titanium Steel Aluminum Magnesium Beryllium Copper
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Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine (b)
Figure 2.1 (a) A standard tensile-test specimen before and after pulling, showing original and final gage lengths. (b) A typical tensile-testing machine.
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Stress-Strain Curve Figure 2.2 A typical stressstrain curve obtained from a tension test, showing various features.
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Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature TABLE 2.2 Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature Metals (Wrought)
E (GPa)
Y (MPa)
UTS (MPa)
Elongation in 50 mm (%)
Aluminum and its alloys Copper and its alloys Lead and its alloys Magnesium and its alloys Molybdenum and its alloys Nickel and its alloys Steels Titanium and its alloys Tungsten and its alloys
69–79 105–150 14 41–45 330–360 180–214 190–200 80–130 350–400
35–550 76–1100 14 130–305 80–2070 105–1200 205–1725 344–1380 550–690
90–600 140–1310 20–55 240–380 90–2340 345–1450 415–1750 415–1450 620–760
45–4 65–3 50–9 21–5 40–30 60–5 65–2 25–7 0
Nonmetallic materials 70–1000 — 140–2600 0 Ceramics — Diamond 820–1050 — — — 140 Glass and porcelain 70-80 — — — — Rubbers 0.01–0.1 — 7–80 1000–5 Thermoplastics 1.4–3.4 10–1 2–50 — 20–120 Thermoplastics, reinforced 35–170 0 Thermosets 3.5–17 — 3500 0 380 — Boron fibers 2000–3000 0 275–415 — Carbon fibers 0 Glass fibers 73–85 — 3500–4600 0 2800 Kevlar fibers 62–117 — Note: In the upper table the lowest values for E, Y, and UTS and the highest values for elongation are for pure metals. Multiply gigapascals (GPa) by 145,000 to obtain pounds per square in. (psi), megapascals (MPa) by 145 to obtain psi.
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Loading and Unloading of Tensile-Test Specimen Figure 2.3 Schematic illustration of the loading and the unloading of a tensile- test specimen. Note that, during unloading, the curve follows a path parallel to the original elastic slope.
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Elongation versus % Area Reduction Figure 2.4 Approximate relationship between elongation and tensile reduction of area for various groups of metals.
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Construction of True Stress-True Strain Curve Figure 2.5 (a) Load-elongation curve in tension testing of a stainless steel specimen. (b) Engineering stress-engineering strain curve, drawn from the data in Fig. 2.5a. (c) True stress-true strain curve, drawn from the data in Fig. 2.5b. Note that this curve has a positive slope, indicating that the material is becoming stronger as it is strained. (d) True stress-true strain curve plotted on log-log paper and based on the corrected curve in Fig. 2.5c. The correction is due to the triaxial state of stress that exists in the necked region of a specimen.
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Typical Values for K and n at Room Temperature TABLE 2.3 Aluminum 1100–O 2024–T4 6061–O 6061–T6 7075–O Brass 70–30, annealed 85–15, cold-rolled Cobalt-base alloy, heat-treated Copper, annealed Steel Low-C annealed 4135 annealed 4135 cold-rolled 4340 annealed 304 stainless, annealed 410 stainless, annealed
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K (MPa)
n
180 690 205 410 400
0.20 0.16 0.20 0.05 0.17
900 580 2070 315
0.49 0.34 0.50 0.54
530 1015 1100 640 1275 960
0.26 0.17 0.14 0.15 0.45 0.10
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True Stress-True Strain Curves Figure 2.6 True stress-true strain curves in tension at room temperature for various metals. The curves start at a finite level of stress: The elastic regions have too steep a slope to be shown in this figure, and so each curve starts at the yield stress, Y, of the material.
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Temperature Effects on Stress-Strain Curves Figure 2.7 Typical effects of temperature on stress-strain curves. Note that temperature affects the modulus of elasticity, the yield stress, the ultimate tensile strength, and the toughness (area under the curve) of materials.
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Typical Ranges of Strain and Deformation Rate in Manufacturing Processes TABLE 2.4 Process Cold working Forging, rolling Wire and tube drawing Explosive forming Hot working and warm working Forging, rolling Extrusion Machining Sheet-metal forming Superplastic forming
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True strain
Deformation rate (m/s)
0.1–0.5 0.05–0.5 0.05–0.2
0.1–100 0.1–100 10–100
0.1–0.5 2–5 1–10 0.1–0.5 0.2–3
0.1–30 0.1–1 0.1–100 0.05–2 -4 -2 10 -10
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Effect of Strain Rate on Ultimate Tensile Strength Figure 2.8 The effect of strain rate on the ultimate tensile strength for aluminum. Note that, as the temperature increases, the slopes of the curves increase; thus, strength becomes more and more sensitive to strain rate as temperature increases. Source: J. H. Hollomon.
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Disk and Torsion-Test Specimens Figure 2.9 Disk test on a brittle material, showing the direction of loading and the fracture path.
Figure 2.10 Typical torsion-test specimen; it is mounted between the two heads of a testing machine and twisted. Note the shear deformation of an element in the reduced section of the specimen. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Bending
Figure 2.11 Two bend-test methods for brittle materials: (a) three-point bending; (b) fourpoint bending. The areas on the beams represent the bendingmoment diagrams, described in texts on mechanics of solids. Note the region of constant maximum bending moment in (b); by contrast, the maximum bending moment occurs only at the center of the specimen in (a).
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Hardness Tests Figure 2.12 General characteristics of hardness-testing methods and formulas for calculating hardness. The quantity P is the load applied. Source: H. W. Hayden, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III (John Wiley & Sons, 1965).
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Brinell Testing
(c)
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Figure 2.13 Indentation geometry in Brinell testing; (a) annealed metal; (b) work-hardened metal; (c) deformation of mild steel under a spherical indenter. Note that the depth of the permanently deformed zone is about one order of magnitude larger than the depth of indentation. For a hardness test to be valid, this zone should be fully developed in the material. Source: M. C. Shaw and C. T. Yang.
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Hardness Conversion Chart Figure 2.14 Chart for converting various hardness scales. Note the limited range of most scales. Because of the many factors involved, these conversions are approximate. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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S-N Curves
Figure 2.15 Typical S-N curves for two metals. Note that, unlike steel, aluminum does not have an endurance limit.
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Endurance Limit/Tensile Strength versus Tensile Strength Figure 2.16 Ratio of endurance limit to tensile strength for various metals, as a function of tensile strength. Because aluminum does not have an endurance limit, the correlation for aluminum are based on a specific number of cycles, as is seen in Fig. 2.15.
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Creep Curve Figure 2.17 Schematic illustration of a typical creep curve. The linear segment of the curve (secondary) is used in designing components for a specific creep life.
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Impact Test Specimens Figure 2.18 Impact test specimens: (a) Charpy; (b) Izod.
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Failures of Materials and Fractures in Tension Figure 2.19 Schematic illustration of types of failures in materials: (a) necking and fracture of ductile materials; (b) Buckling of ductile materials under a compressive load; (c) fracture of brittle materials in compression; (d) cracking on the barreled surface of ductile materials in compression.
Figure 2.20 Schematic illustration of the types of fracture in tension: (a) brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals; (b) shear fracture in ductile single crystals--see also Fig. 1.6a; (c) ductile cup-and-cone fracture in polycrystalline metals; (d) complete ductile fracture in polycrystalline metals, with 100% reduction of area. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Ductile Fracture Figure 2.21 Surface of ductile fracture in low-carbon steel, showing dimples. Fracture is usually initiated at impurities, inclusions, or preexisting voids (microporosity) in the metal. Source: K.-H. Habig and D. Klaffke. Photo by BAM Berlin/Germany.
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Fracture of a Tensile-Test Specimen
Figure 2.22 Sequence of events in necking and fracture of a tensile-test specimen: (a) early stage of necking; (b) small voids begin to form within the necked region; (c) voids coalesce, producing an internal crack; (d) the rest of the cross-section begins to fail at the periphery, by shearing; (e) the final fracture surfaces, known as cup- (top fracture surface) and cone- (bottom surface) fracture.
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Deformation of Soft and Hard Inclusions
Figure 2.23 Schematic illustration of the deformation of soft and hard inclusions and of their effect on void formation in plastic deformation. Note that, because they do not comply with the overall deformation of the ductile matrix, hard inclusions can cause internal voids.
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Transition Temperature Figure 2.24 Schematic illustration of transition temperature in metals.
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Brittle Fracture Surface
Figure 2.25 Fracture surface of steel that has failed in a brittle manner. The fracture path is transgranular (through the grains). Magnification: 200X. Source: Courtesy of B. J. Schulze and S. L. Meiley and Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.
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Intergranular Fracture Figure 2.26 Intergranular fracture, at two different magnifications. Grains and grain boundaries are clearly visible in this micrograph. Te fracture path is along the grain boundaries. Magnification: left, 100X; right, 500X. Source: Courtesy of B. J. Schulze and S. L. Meiley and Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.
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Fatigue-Fracture Surface Figure 2.27 Typical fatigue-fracture surface on metals, showing beach marks. Magnification: left, 500X; right, 1000X. Source: Courtesy of B. J. Schulze and S. L. Meiley and Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.
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Reduction in Fatigue Strength Figure 2.28 Reductions in the fatigue strength of cast steels subjected to various surfacefinishing operations. Note that the reduction becomes greater as the surface roughness and the strength of the steel increase. Source: M. R. Mitchell.
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Residual Stresses Figure 2.29 Residual stresses developed in bending a beam having a rectangular cross-section. Note that the horizontal forces and moments caused by residual stresses in the beam must be balanced internally. Because of nonuniform deformation during metalworking operations, most parts develop residual stresses.
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Distortion of Parts with Residual Stresses
Figure 2.30 Distortion of parts, with residual stresses, after cutting or slitting: (a) flat sheet or plate; (b) solid round rod; (c) think-walled tubing or pipe.
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CHAPTER 3 Physical Properties of Materials
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Physical Properties of Selected Materials at Room Temperature TABLE 3.1 Physical Properties of Selected Materials at Room Temperature Metal Aluminum Aluminum alloys Beryllium Columbium (niobium) Copper Copper alloys Iron Steels Lead Lead alloys Magnesium Magnesium alloys Molybdenum alloys Nickel Nickel alloys Tantalum alloys Titanium Titanium alloys Tungsten Zinc Zinc alloys
Density 3 (kg/m ) 2700 2630–2820 1854 8580 8970 7470–8940 7860 6920–9130 11,350 8850–11,350 1745 1770–1780 10,210 8910 7750–8850 16,600 4510 4430–4700 19,290 7140 6640–7200
Melting Point (°C)
Specific heat (J/kg K)
Thermal conductivity (W/m K)
660 476–654 1278 2468 1082 885–1260 1537 1371–1532 327 182–326 650 610–621 2610 1453 1110–1454 2996 1668 1549–1649 3410 419 386–525
900 880–920 1884 272 385 377–435 460 448–502 130 126–188 1025 1046 276 440 381–544 142 519 502–544 138 385 402
222 121–239 146 52 393 29–234 74 15–52 35 24–46 154 75–138 142 92 12–63 54 17 8–12 166 113 105–113
2300–5500 2400–2700 1900–2200 900–2000 400–700
— 580–1540 — 110–330 —
750–950 500–850 840 1000–2000 2400–2800
10–17 0.6–1.7 5–10 0.1–0.4 0.1–0.4
Nonmetallic Ceramics Glasses Graphite Plastics Wood
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Physical Properties of Material TABLE 3.2 Physical Properties of Materials, in Descending Order Density
Melting point
Specific heat
Thermal conductivity
Thermal expansion
Electrical conductivity
Platinum Gold Tungsten Tantalum Lead Silver Molybdenum Copper Steel Titanium Aluminum Beryllium Glass Magnesium Plastics
Tungsten Tantalum Molybdenum Columbium Titanium Iron Beryllium Copper Gold Silver Aluminum Magnesium Lead Tin Plastics
Wood Beryllium Porcelain Aluminum Graphite Glass Titanium Iron Copper Molybdenum Tungsten Lead
Silver Copper Gold Aluminum Magnesium Graphite Tungsten Beryllium Zinc Steel Tantalum Ceramics Titanium Glass Plastics
Plastics Lead Tin Magnesium Aluminum Copper Steel Gold Ceramics Glass Tungsten
Silver Copper Gold Aluminum Magnesium Tungsten Beryllium Steel Tin Graphite Ceramics Glass Plastics Quartz
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Figure 3.1 Specific strength (tensile strength/density) and specific stiffness (elastic modulus/density) for various materials at room temperature. (See also Chapter 9.) Source: M.J. Salkind.
Specific Strength and Specific Stiffness
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Specific Strength versus Temperature
Figure 3.2 Specific strength (tensile strength/density) for a variety of materials as a function of temperature. Note the useful temperature range for these materials and the high values for composite materials. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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CHAPTER 4 Metal Alloys: Their Structure and Strengthening by Heat Treatment
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Induction-Hardened Surface Figure 4.1 Cross-section of gear teeth showing induction-hardened surfaces. Source: TOCCO Div., Park-Ohio Industries, Inc.
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Chapter 4 Outline Figure 4.2 Outline of topics described in Chapter 4.
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Two-Phase System
Figure 4.3 (a) Schematic illustration of grains, grain boundaries, and particles dispersed throughout the structure of a two-phase system, such as a lead-copper alloy. The grains represent lead in solid solution in copper, and the particles are lead as a second phase. (b) Schematic illustration of a twophase system consisting of two sets of grains: dark, and light. The dark and the light grains have separate compositions and properties.
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Cooling Curve Figure 4.4 Cooling curve for the solidification of pure metals. Note that freezing takes place at a constant temperature; during freezing the latent heat of solidification is given off.
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Nickel-Copper Alloy Phase Diagram Figure 4.5 Phase diagram for nickelcopper alloy system obtained at a slow rate of solidification. Note that pure nickel and pure copper each has one freezing or melting temperature. The top circle on the right depicts the nucleation of crystals. The second circle shows the formation of dendrites (see Section 10.2). The bottom circle shows the solidified alloy, with grain boundaries.
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Mechanical Properties of Copper-Nickel and Copper-Zinc Alloys Figure 4.6 Mechanical properties of copper-nickel and copper-zinc alloys as a function of their composition. The curves for zinc are short, because zinc has a maximum solid solubility of 40% in copper. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
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Lead-Tin Phase Diagram Figure 4.7 The lead-tin phase diagram. Note that the composition of the eutectic point for this alloy is 61.9% Sn-38.1% Pb. A composition either lower or higher than this ratio will have a higher liquidus temperature.
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Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram Figure 4.8 The iron-iron carbide phase diagram. Because of the importance of steel as an engineering material, this diagram is one of the most important of all phase diagrams.
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Austenite, Ferrite, and Martensite
Figure 4.9 The unit cells for (a) austenite, (b) ferrite, and (c) martensite. The effect of percentage of carbon (by weight) on the lattice dimensions for martensite is shown in (d). Note the interstitial position of the carbon atoms (see Fig. 1.9). Note, also, the increase in dimension c with increasing carbon content; this effect causes the unit cell of martensite to be in the shape of a rectangular prism.
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Iron-Carbon Alloy Above and Below Eutectoid Temperature
Figure 4.10 Schematic illustration of the microstructures for an ironcarbon alloy of eutectoid composition (0.77% carbon), above and below the eutectoid temperature of 727 °C (1341 °F). Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Pearlite Microstructure Figure 4.11 Microstructure of pearlite in 1080 steel, formed from austenite of eutectoid composition. In this lamellar structure, the lighter regions are ferrite, and the darker regions are carbide. Magnification: 2500X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.
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Extended Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Figure 4.12 Phase diagram for the iron-carbon system with graphite (instead of cementite) as the stable phase. Note that this figure is an extended version of Fig. 4.8. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Microstructures for Cast Irons (a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4.13 Microstructure for cast irons. Magnification: 100X. (a) Ferritic gray iron with graphite flakes. (b) Ferritic Ductile iron (nodular iron), with graphite in nodular form. (c) Ferritic malleable iron; this cast iron solidified as white cast iron, with the carbon present as cementite, and was heat treated to graphitize the carbon. Source: ASM International.
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Figure 4.14 (a) Austeniteto-pearlite transformation of iron-carbon alloy as a functionof time and temperature. (b) Isothermal transformation diagram obtained from (a) for a transformation temperature of 675 °C (1247 °F). (continued)
Austenite to Pearlite Transformation
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Austenite to Pearlite Transformation (cont.) Figure 4.14 (c) Microstructures obtained for a eutectoid iron-carbon alloy as a function of cooling rate. Source: ASM International.
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Hardness and Toughness of Annealed Steels Figure 4.15 (a) and (b) Hardness and (c) toughness for annealed plain-carbon steels, as a function of carbide shape. Carbides in the pearlite are lamellar. Fine pearlite is obtained by increasing the cooling rate. The spheroidite structure has spherelike carbide particles. Note htat the percentage of pearlite begins to decrease after 0.77% carbon. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
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Mechanical Properties of Annealed Steels
Figure 4.16 Mechanical properties of annealed steels, as a function of composition and microstructure. Note (in (a)) the increase in hardness and strength and (in (b)) the decrease in ductility and toughness, with increasing amounts of pearlite and iron carbide. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
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Page 4-18
Eutectoid Steel Microstructure
Figure 4.17 Microstructure of eutectoid steel. Spheroidite is formed by tempering the steel at 700 °C (1292 °F). Magnification: 1000X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.
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Page 4-19
Martensite (b)
Figure 4.18 (a) Hardness of martensite, as a function of carbon content. (b) Micrograph of martensite containing 0.8% carbon. The gray platelike regions are martensite; they have the same composition as the original austenite (white regions). Magnification: 1000X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.
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Page 4-20
Hardness of Tempered Martensite Figure 4.19 Hardness of tempered martensite, as a function of tempering time, for 1080 steel quenched to 65 HRC. Hardness decreases because the carbide particles coalesce and grow in size, thereby increasing the interparticle distance of the softer ferrite.
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Page 4-21
Figure 4.20 (a) End-quench test and cooling rate. (b) Hardenability curves for five different steels, as obtained from the end-quench test. Small variations in composition can change the shape of these curves. Each curve is actually a band, and its exact determination is important in the heat treatment of metals, for better control of properties. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
End-Quench Hardenability Test
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Page 4-22
Aluminum-Copper Phase Diagram Figure 4.21 (a) Phase diagram for the aluminum-copper alloy system. (b) Various microstructures obtained during the age-hardening process. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
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Page 4-23
Age Hardening
Figure 4.22 The effect of aging time and temperature on the yield stress of 2014-T4 aluminum alloy. Note that, for each temperature, there is an optimal aging time for maximum strength.
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Page 4-24
Outline of Heat Treatment Processes for Surface Hardening TABLE 4.1 Process
Metals hardened
Element added to surface C
Procedure Heat steel at 870–950 °C (1600–1750 °F) in an atmosphere of carbonaceous gases (gas carburizing) or carboncontaining solids (pack carburizing). Then quench.
Carburizing
Low-carbon steel (0.2% C), alloy steels (0.08–0.2% C)
Carbonitriding
Low-carbon steel
C and N
Heat steel at 700–800 °C (1300–1600 °F) in an atmosphere of carbonaceous gas and ammonia. Then quench in oil.
Cyaniding
Low-carbon steel (0.2% C), alloy steels (0.08–0.2% C) Steels (1% Al, 1.5% Cr, 0.3% Mo), alloy steels (Cr, Mo), stainless steels, high-speed tool steels Steels
C and N
Heat steel at 760–845 °C (1400–1550 °F) in a molten bath of solutions of cyanide (e.g., 30% sodium cyanide) and other salts. Heat steel at 500–600 °C (925–1100 °F) in an atmosphere of ammonia gas or mixtures of molten cyanide salts. No further treatment.
B
Part is heated using boron-containing gas or solid in contact with part.
Flame hardening
Medium-carbon steels, cast irons
None
Surface is heated with an oxyacetylene torch, then quenched with water spray or other quenching methods.
Induction hardening
Same as above
None
Metal part is placed in copper induction coils and is heated by high frequency current, then quenched.
Nitriding
Boronizing
N
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General Characteristics A hard, high-carbon surface is produced. Hardness 55 to 65 HRC. Case depth < 0.5–1.5 mm ( < 0.020 to 0.060 in.). Some distortion of part during heat treatment. Surface hardness 55 to 62 HRC. Case depth 0.07 to 0.5 mm (0.003 to 0.020 in.). Less distortion than in carburizing. Surface hardness up to 65 HRC. Case depth 0.025 to 0.25 mm (0.001 to 0.010 in.). Some distortion. Surface hardness up to 1100 HV. Case depth 0.1 to 0.6 mm (0.005 to 0.030 in.) and 0.02 to 0.07 mm (0.001 to 0.003 in.) for high speed steel. Extremely hard and wear resistant surface. Case depth 0.025– 0.075 mm (0.001– 0.003 in.). Surface hardness 50 to 60 HRC. Case depth 0.7 to 6 mm (0.030 to 0.25 in.). Little distortion. Same as above
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Typical applications Gears, cams, shafts, bearings, piston pins, sprockets, clutch plates
Bolts, nuts, gears
Bolts, nuts, screws, small gears
Gears, shafts, sprockets, valves, cutters, boring bars, fuel-injection pump parts
Tool and die steels
Gear and sprocket teeth, axles, crankshafts, piston rods, lathe beds and centers Same as above
Page 4-25
Heat Treatment Processes Figure 4.23 Heat-treating temperature ranges for plain-carbon steels, as indicated on the iron-iron carbide phase diagram. Source: ASM International.
Figure 4.24 Hardness of steels in the quenched and normalized conditions, as a function of carbon content. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 4-26
Properties of Oil-Quenched Steel Figure 4.25 Mechanical properties of oil-quenched 4340 steel, as a function of tempering temperature. Source: Courtesy of LTV Steel Company
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Page 4-27
Induction Heating
Figure 4.26 Types of coils used in induction heating of various surfaces of parts.
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Page 4-28
CHAPTER 5 Ferrous Metals and Alloys: Production, General Properties, and Applications
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Page 5-1
Blast Furnace Figure 5.1 Schematic illustration of a blast furnace. Source: Courtesy of American Iron and Steel Institute.
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Electric Furnaces
Figure 5.2 Schematic illustration of types of electric furnaces: (a) direct arc, (b) indirect arc, and (c) induction.
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Page 5-3
Basic-Oxygen Process Figure 5.3 Schematic illustrations showing (a) charging, (b) melting, and (c) pouring of molten iron in a basic-oxygen process. Source: Inland Steel Company
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Figure 5.4 The continuous-casting process for steel. Typically, the solidified metal descends at a speed of 25 mm/s (1 in./s). Note that the platform is about 20 m (65 ft) above ground level. Source: Metalcaster's Reference and Guide, American Foundrymen's Society.
Continuous Casting
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Page 5-5
Typical Selection of Carbon and Alloy Steels for Various Applications TABLE 5.1 Product Aircraft forgings, tubing, fittings Automobile bodies Axles Ball bearings and races Bolts Camshafts Chains (transmission) Coil springs Connecting rods Crankshafts (forged)
Steel
Product
Steel
4140, 8740
Differential gears Gears (car and truck) Landing gear Lock washers Nuts Railroad rails and wheels Springs (coil) Springs (leaf) Tubing Wire Wire (music)
4023 4027, 4140, 1060 3130 1080 1095, 1085, 1040 1045, 1085
1010 1040, 4140 52100 1035, 4042, 4815 1020, 1040 3135, 3140 4063 1040, 3141, 4340 1045, 1145, 3135, 3140
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4032 4340, 8740
4063, 6150 4063, 9260, 6150 1055
Page 5-6
Mechanical Properties of Selected Carbon and Alloy Steels in Various Conditions TABLE 5.2 Typical Mechanical Properties of Selected Carbon and Alloy Steels in the Hot-Rolled, Normalized, and Annealed Condition AISI
Condition
1020
As-rolled Normalized Annealed As-rolled Normalized Annealed Normalized Annealed Normalized Annealed Normalized Annealed
1080
3140 4340 8620
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 448 441 393 1010 965 615 891 689 1279 744 632 536
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Yield Strength (MPa)
Elongation in 50 mm (%)
Reduction of area (%)
Hardness (HB)
346 330 294 586 524 375 599 422 861 472 385 357
36 35 36 12 11 24 19 24 12 22 26 31
59 67 66 17 20 45 57 50 36 49 59 62
143 131 111 293 293 174 262 197 363 217 183 149
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Page 5-7
AISI Designation for High-Strength Sheet Steel TABLE 5.3 Yield Strength psi x 10 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 100 120 140
3
Chemical Composition
Deoxidation Practice
MPa 240 275 310 350 415 485 550 690 830 970
S = structural alloy
F = killed plus sulfide inclusion control
X = low alloy K = killed W = weathering O = nonkilled D = dual phase
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Page 5-8
Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties and Applications of Annealed Stainless Steels TABLE 5.4 Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Annealed Stainless Steels Ultimate tensile Yield Elongation AISI strength strength in 50 mm (UNS) (MPa) (MPa) (%) Characteristics and typical applications 303 550–620 240–260 53–50 Screw machine products, shafts, valves, bolts, (S30300) bushings, and nuts; aircraft fittings; bolts; nuts; rivets; screws; studs. 304 (S30400)
565–620
240–290
60–55
Chemical and food processing equipment, brewing equipment, cryogenic vessels, gutters, downspouts, and flashings.
316 (S31600)
550–590
210–290
60–55
High corrosion resistance and high creep strength. Chemical and pulp handling equipment, photographic equipment, brandy vats, fertilizer parts, ketchup cooking kettles, and yeast tubs.
410 (S41000)
480–520
240–310
35–25
416 (S41600)
480–520
275
30–20
Machine parts, pump shafts, bolts, bushings, coal chutes, cutlery, tackle, hardware, jet engine parts, mining machinery, rifle barrels, screws, and valves. Aircraft fittings, bolts, nuts, fire extinguisher inserts, rivets, and screws.
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Page 5-9
Basic Types of Tool and Die Steels TABLE 5.5 Type High speed Hot work
Cold work Shock resisting Mold steels Special purpose Water hardening
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AISI M (molybdenum base) T (tungsten base) H1 to H19 (chromium base) H20 to H39 (tungsten base) H40 to H59 (molybdenum base) D (high carbon, high chromium) A (medium alloy, air hardening) O (oil hardening) S P1 to P19 (low carbon) P20 to P39 (others) L (low alloy) F (carbon-tungsten) W
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Page 5-10
Processing and Service Characteristics of Common Tool and Die Steels TABLE 5.6 Processing and Service Characteristics of Common Tool and Die Steels Resistance to decarburization Medium High Low Medium Medium Medium
Resistance to cracking Medium High Medium Highest Highest Highest
Approximate hardness (HRC) 60–65 60–65 60–65 38–55 57–62 35–56
Machinability Medium Medium Medium Medium to high Medium Medium
Toughness Low Low Low Very high Medium High
Resistance to softening Very high Very high Highest High High High
D2
Medium
Highest
54–61
Low
Low
High
D3 H21
Medium Medium
High High
54–61 36–54
Low Medium
Low High
High High
H26 P20
Medium High
High High
43–58 28–37
Medium Medium to high
Medium High
Very high Low
P21 W1, W2
High Highest
Highest Medium
30–40 50–64
Medium Highest
Medium High
Medium Low
AISI designation M2 T1 T5 H11, 12, 13 A2 A9
Resistance to wear Very high Very high Very high Medium High Medium to high High to very high Very high Medium to high High Low to medium Medium Low to medium
Source: Adapted from Tool Steels, American Iron and Steel Institute, 1978.
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Page 5-11
CHAPTER 6 Nonferrous Metals and Alloys: Production, General Properties, and Applications
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Page 6-1
Approximate Cost per Unit Volume for Wrought Metals and Plastics Relative to Carbon Steel TABLE 6.1 Approximate Cost per Unit Volume for Wrought Metals and Plastics Relative to Cost of Carbon Steel Gold 60,000 Magnesium alloys 2–4 Silver 600 Aluminum alloys 2–3 Molybdenum alloys 200–250 High-strength low-alloy steels 1.4 Nickel 35 Gray cast iron 1.2 Titanium alloys 20–40 Carbon steel 1 * Copper alloys 5–6 1.1–2 Nylons, acetals, and silicon rubber * Zinc alloys 1.5–3.5 0.2–1 Other plastics and elastomers Stainless steels 2–9 *As molding compounds. Note: Costs vary significantly with quantity of purchase, supply and demand, size and shape, and various other factors.
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General Characteristics of Nonferrous Metals and Alloys TABLE 6.2 Material Nonferrous alloys Aluminum Magnesium Copper Superalloys Titanium Refractory metals Precious metals
Characteristics More expensive than steels and plastics; wide range of mechanical, physical, and electrical properties; good corrosion resistance; high-temperature applications. High strength-to-weight ratio; high thermal and electrical conductivity; good corrosion resistance; good manufacturing properties. Lightest metal; good strength-to-weight ratio. High electrical and thermal conductivity; good corrosion resistance; good manufacturing properties. Good strength and resistance to corrosion at elevated temperatures; can be iron-, cobalt-, and nickel-base. Highest strength-to-weight ratio of all metals; good strength and corrosion resistance at high temperatures. Molybdenum, niobium (columbium), tungsten, and tantalum; high strength at elevated temperatures. Gold, silver, and platinum; generally good corrosion resistance.
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Example of Alloy Usage Figure 6.1 Crosssection of a jet engine (PW2037) showing various components and the alloys used in manufacturing them. Source: Courtesy of United Aircraft Pratt & Whitney.
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Page 6-4
Properties of Selected Aluminum Alloys at Room Temperature TABLE 6.3 Alloy (UNS) 1100 (A91100) 1100 2024 (A92024) 2024 3003 (A93003) 3003 5052 (A95052) 5052 6061 (A96061) 6061 7075 (A97075) 7075
Temper O H14 O T4 O H14 O H34 O T6
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 90 125 190 470 110 150 190 260 125 310
Yield strength (MPa) 35 120 75 325 40 145 90 215 55 275
Elongation in 50 mm (%) 35–45 9–20 20–22 19–20 30–40 8–16 25–30 10–14 25–30 12–17
O T6
230 570
105 500
16–17 11
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Page 6-5
Manufacturing Properties and Applications of Selected Wrought Aluminum Alloys TABLE 6.4 Characteristics* Alloy 1100
Corrosion resistance A
Machinability C–D
Weldability A
2024
C
B–C
B–C
3003
A
C–D
A
5052
A
C–D
A
6061
B
C–D
A
7075
C
B–D
D
Typical applications Sheet metal work, spun hollow ware, tin stock Truck wheels, screw machine products, aircraft structures Cooking utensils, chemical equipment, pressure vessels, sheet metal work, builders’ hardware, storage tanks Sheet metal work, hydraulic tubes, and appliances; bus, truck and marine uses Heavy-duty structures where corrosion resistance is needed, truck and marine structures, railroad cars, furniture, pipelines, bridge rail-ings, hydraulic tubing Aircraft and other structures, keys, hydraulic fittings
* A, excellent; D, poor.
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Page 6-6
All-Aluminum Automobile
Figure 6.2 (a) The Audi A8 automobile which has an allaluminum body structure. (b) The aluminum body structure, showing various components made by extrusion, sheet forming, and casting processes. Source: Courtesy of ALCOA, Inc.
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Page 6-7
Properties and Typical Forms of Selected Wrought Magnesium Alloys TABLE 6.5
Condition F H24 T5
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 260 290 380
Yield strength (MPa) 200 220 275
Elongation in 50 mm (%) 15 15 7
H24 T5
255 365
200 300
8 11
Composition (%) Alloy AZ31 B
Al 3.0
Zn 1.0
Mn 0.2
AZ80A
8.5
0.5
0.2
HK31A ZK60A
3Th 5.7
Zr
0.7 0.55
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Typical forms Extrusions Sheet and plates Extrusions and forgings Sheet and plates Extrusions and forgings
Page 6-8
Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Wrought Copper and Brasses TABLE 6.6 Type and UNS number Electrolytic tough pitch copper (C11000)
Nominal composition (%) 99.90 Cu, 0.04 O
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 220–450
Red brass, 85% (C23000)
85.0 Cu, 15.0 Zn
270–725
70–435
55–3
Cartridge brass, 70% (C26000)
70.0 Cu, 30.0 Zn
300–900
75–450
66–3
61.5 Cu, 3.0 Pb, 35.5 Zn 60.0 Cu, 39.25 Zn, 0.75 Sn
340–470
125–310
53–18
380–610
170–455
50–17
Free-cutting brass (C36000) Naval brass (C46400 to C46700)
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Yield strength (MPa) 70–365
Elongation in 50 mm (%) 55–4
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Typical applications Downspouts, gutters, roofing, gaskets, auto radiators, busbars, nails, printing rolls, rivets Weather-stripping, conduits, sockets, fas-teners, fire extinguishers, condenser and heat exchanger tubing Radiator cores and tanks, flashlight shells, lamp fixtures, fasteners, locks, hinges, ammunition components, plumbing accessories Gears, pinions, automatic highspeed screw machine parts Aircraft turnbuckle barrels, balls, bolts, marine hardware, propeller shafts, rivets, valve stems, condenser plates
Page 6-9
Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Wrought Bronzes TABLE 6.7 Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 415 (As extruded)
Yield strength (MPa) 140
Elongation in 50 mm (%) 30
Type and UNS number Architectural bronze (C38500)
Nominal composition (%) 57.0 Cu, 3.0 Pb, 40.0 Zn
Phosphor bronze, 5% A (C51000)
95.0 Cu, 5.0 Sn, trace P
325–960
130–550
64–2
Free-cutting phosphor bronze (C54400) Low silicon bronze, B (C65100)
88.0 Cu, 4.0 Pb, 4.0 Zn, 4.0 Sn 98.5 Cu, 1.5 Si
300–520
130–435
50–15
275–655
100–475
55–11
Nickel silver, 65–10 (C74500)
65.0 Cu, 25.0 Zn, 10.0 Ni
340–900
125–525
50–1
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Typical applications Architectural extrusions, store fronts, thresholds, trim, butts, hinges Bellows, clutch disks, cotter pins, diaphragms, fasteners, wire brushes, chemical hardware, textile machinery Bearings, bushings, gears, pinions, shafts, thrust washers, valve parts Hydraulic pressure lines, bolts, marine hardware, electrical conduits, heat exchanger tubing Rivets, screws, slide fasteners, hollow ware, nameplates
Page 6-10
Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Nickel Alloys TABLE 6.8 Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Nickel Alloys (All are Trade Names)
Type and UNS number Nickel 200 (annealed)
Duranickel 301
Nominal composition (%) None
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 380–550
Yield strength (MPa) 100–275
Elongation in 50 mm (%) 60–40
4.4 Al, 0.6 Ti
1300
900
28
Monel R-405 (hot rolled) Monel K-500
30 Cu
525
230
35
29 Cu, 3 Al
1050
750
30
Inconel 600 (annealed)
15 Cr, 8 Fe
640
210
48
Hastelloy C-4 (solutiontreated and quenched)
16 Cr, 15 Mo
785
400
54
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Typical applications Chemical and food processing industry, aerospace equipment, electronic parts Springs, plastics extrusion equipment, (age hardened) molds for glass, diaphragms Screw-machine products, water meter parts Pump shafts, valve stems, springs (age hardened) Gas turbine parts, heat-treating equipment, electronic parts, nuclear reactors High temperature stability, resistance to stress-corrosion cracking
Page 6-11
Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Nickel-Base Superalloys at 870 °C TABLE 6.9 Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Nickel-Base Superalloys at 870 °C (1600 °F) (All are Trade Names)
Alloy Astroloy Hastelloy X IN-100 IN-102 Inconel 625
Condition Wrought Wrought Cast Wrought Wrought
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 770 255 885 215 285
lnconel 718 MAR-M 200 MAR-M 432 René 41 Udimet 700 Waspaloy
Wrought Cast Cast Wrought Wrought Wrought
340 840 730 620 690 525
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Yield strength (MPa) 690 180 695 200 275
Elongation in 50 mm (%) 25 50 6 110 125
330 760 605 550 635 515
88 4 8 19 27 35
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Typical applications Forgings for high temperature Jet engine sheet parts Jet engine blades and wheels Superheater and jet engine parts Aircraft engines and structures, chemical processing equipment Jet engine and rocket parts Jet engine blades Integrally cast turbine wheels Jet engine parts Jet engine parts Jet engine parts
Page 6-12
Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Wrought Titanium Alloys TABLE 6.10 Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Wrought Titanium Alloys at Various Temperatures Nominal composition (%)
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)
Yield strength (MPa)
UNS
99.5 Ti
R50250
Annealed
330
5 Al, 2.5 Sn
R54520
Annealed
6 Al, 4V
R56400
Annealed
Condition
Solution + age
13 V, 11 Cr, 3 Al
R58010
Solution + age
Temp. (°C)
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)
Yield strength (MPa)
Elongation in 50 mm (%)
Reduction of area
55
300
150
95
32
80
16
40
300
565
450
18
45
14
30
300
725
650
14
35
20
425 550 300
670 530 980
570 430 900
18 35 10
40 50 28
830
12 22 12
35 45 —
Elongation (%)
Reduction of area (%)
240
30
860
810
1000
925
1175
1275
1100
1210
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10
8
—
425
1100
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Typical Applications
Airframes; chemical, desalination, and marine parts; plate type heat exchangers Aircraft engine compressor blades and ducting; steam turbine blades Rocket motor cases; blades and disks for aircraft turbines and compressors; structural forgings and fasteners; orthopedic implants
High strength fasteners; aerospace components; honeycomb panels
Page 6-13
CHAPTER 7 Polymers: Structure, General Properties and Applications
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Page 7-1
Range of Mechanical Properties for Various Engineering Plastics TABLE 7.1 Material ABS ABS, reinforced Acetal Acetal, reinforced Acrylic Cellulosic Epoxy Epoxy, reinforced Fluorocarbon Nylon Nylon, reinforced Phenolic Polycarbonate Polycarbonate, reinforced Polyester Polyester, reinforced Polyethylene Polypropylene Polypropylene, reinforced Polystyrene Polyvinyl chloride Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
UTS (MPa) 28–55 100 55–70 135 40–75 10–48 35–140 70–1400 7–48 55–83 70–210 28–70 55–70 110 55 110–160 7–40 20–35 40–100 14–83 7–55
E (GPa) 1.4–2.8 7.5 1.4–3.5 10 1.4–3.5 0.4–1.4 3.5–17 21–52 0.7–2 1.4–2.8 2–10 2.8–21 2.5–3 6 2 8.3–12 0.1–1.4 0.7–1.2 3.5–6 1.4–4 0.014–4
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Elongation (%) 75–5 — 75–25 — 50–5 100–5 10–1 4–2 300–100 200–60 10–1 2–0 125–10 6–4 300–5 3–1 1000–15 500–10 4–2 60–1 450–40
Poisson’s ratio (ν) — 0.35 — 0.35–0.40 — — — — 0.46–0.48 0.32–0.40 — — 0.38 — 0.38 — 0.46 — — 0.35 —
Page 7-2
Chapter 7 Outline
Figure 7.1 Outline of the topics described in Chapter 7
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Page 7-3
Structure of Polymer Molecules
Figure 7.2 Basic structure of polymer molecules: (a) ethylene molecule; (b) polyethylene, a linear chain of many ethylene molecules; © molecular structure of various polymers. These are examples of the basic building blocks for plastics Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 7-4
Molecular Weight and Degree of Polymerization Figure 7.3 Effect of molecular weight and degree of polymerization on the strength and viscosity of polymers.
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Page 7-5
Polymer Chains Figure 7.4 Schematic illustration of polymer chains. (a) Linear structure-thermoplastics such as acrylics, nylons, polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride have linear structures. (b) Branched structure, such as in polyethylene. (c) Cross-linked structure--many rubbers or elastomers have this structure, and the vulcanization of rubber produces this structure. (d) Network structure, which is basically highly cross-linked-examples are thermosetting plastics, such as epoxies and phenolics.
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Page 7-6
Polymer Behavior Figure 7.5 Behavior of polymers as a function of temperature and (a) degree of crystallinity and (b) cross-linking. The combined elastic and viscous behavior of polymers is known as viscoelasticity.
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Page 7-7
Crystallinity Figure 7.6 Amorphous and crystalline regions in a polymer. The crystalline region (crystallite) has an orderly arrangement of molecules. The higher the crystallinity, the harder, stiffer, and less ductile the polymer.
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Page 7-8
Specific Volume as a Function of Temperature Figure 7.7 Specific volume of polymers as a function of temperature. Amorphous polymers, such as acrylic and polycarbonate, have a glass-transition temperature, Tg, but do not have a specific melting point, Tm. Partly crystalline polymers, such as polyethylene and nylons, contract sharply while passing through their melting temperatures during cooling.
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Page 7-9
Glass-Transition and Melting Temperatures of Some Polymers TABLE 7.2 Material Nylon 6,6 Polycarbonate Polyester Polyethylene High density Low density Polymethylmethacrylate Polypropylene Polystyrene Polytetrafluoroethylene Polyvinyl chloride Rubber
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Tg (°C) 57 150 73
Tm (°C) 265 265 265
–90 –110 105 –14 100 –90 87 –73
137 115 — 176 239 327 212 —
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Page 7-10
Behavior of Plastics
Figure 7.8 General terminology describing the behavior of three types of plastics. PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) has Teflon as its trade name. Source: R. L. E. Brown.
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Page 7-11
Temperature Effects
Figure 7.9 Effect of temperature on the stress-strain curve for cellulose acetate, a thermoplastic. Note the large drop in strength and the large increase in ductility with a relatively small increase in temperature. Source: After T. S. Carswell and H. K. Nason.
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Figure 7.10 Effect of temperature on the impact strength of various plastics. Small changes in temperature can have a significant effect on impact strength. Source: P. C. Powell. © 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-12
Elongation (a)
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(b)
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Figure 7.11 (a) Loadelongation curve for polycarbonate, a thermoplastic. Source: R. P. Kambour and R. E. Robertson. (b) High-density polyethylene tensile-test specimen, showing uniform elongation (the long, narrow region in the specimen).
Page 7-13
General Recommendations for Plastic Products TABLE 7.3 Design requirement Mechanical strength Functional and decorative
Applications Gears, cams, rollers, valves, fan blades, impellers, pistons Handles, knobs, camera and battery cases, trim moldings, pipe fittings
Housings and hollow shapes
Power tools, pumps, housings, sport helmets, telephone cases
Functional and transparent
Lenses, goggles, safety glazing, signs, food-processing equipment, laboratory hardware Gears, wear strips and liners, bearings, bushings, roller-skate wheels
Wear resistance
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Plastics Acetal, nylon, phenolic, polycarbonate ABS, acrylic, cellulosic, phenolic, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride ABS, cellulosic, phenolic, polycarbonate, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene Acrylic, polycarbonate, polystyrene, polysulfone Acetal, nylon, phenolic, polyimide, polyurethane, ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene
Page 7-14
Load-Elongation Curve for Rubber
Figure 7.12 Typical load-elongation curve for rubbers. The clockwise lop, indicating the loading and the unloading paths, displays the hysteresis loss. Hysteresis gives rubbers the capacity to dissipate energy, damp vibraion, and absorb shock loading, as is necessary in automobile tires and in vibration dampers placed under machinery.
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Page 7-15
CHAPTER 8 Ceramics, Graphite, and Diamond: Structure, General Properties, and Applications
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Page 8-1
Examples of Ceramics (a)
(b)
Figure 8.1 A variety of ceramic components. (a) High-strength alumina for high-temperature applications. (b) Gas-turbine rotors made of silicon nitride. Source: Wesgo Div., GTE.
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Page 8-2
TABLE 8.1 Type Oxide ceramics Alumina Zirconia Carbides Tungsten carbide
Types and General Characteristics of Ceramics
Titanium carbide Silicon carbide Nitrides Cubic boron nitride Titanium nitride Silicon nitride Sialon Cermets Silica
Glasses Glass ceramics Graphite Diamond
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General Characteristics High hardness, moderate strength; most widely used ceramic; cutting tools, abrasives, electrical and thermal insulation. High strength and toughness; thermal expansion close to cast iron ; suitable for heat engine components. Hardness, strength, and wear resistance depend on cobalt binder content; commonly used for dies and cutting tools. Not as tough as tungsten carbide; has nickel and molybdenum as the binder; used as cutting tools. High-temperature strength and wear resistance ; used for heat engines and as abrasives. Second-hardest substance known, after diamond; used as abrasives and cutting tools. Gold in color; used as coatings because of low frictional characteristics. High resistance to creep and thermal shock; used in heat engines. Consists of silicon nitrides and other oxides and carbides; used as cutting tools. Consist of oxides, carbides, and nitrides; used in high-temperature applications. High temperature resistance; quartz exhibits piezoelectric effect; silicates containing various oxides are used in high-temperature nonstructural applications. Contain at least 50 percent silica; amorphous structures; several types available with a range of mechanical and physical properties. Have a high crystalline component to their structure ; good thermalshock resistance and strong. Crystalline form of carbon; high electrical and thermal conductivity; good thermal shock resistance. Hardest substance known; available as single crystal or polycrystalline form; used as cutting tools and abrasives and as dies for fine wire drawing.
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 8-3
Properties of Various Ceramics at Room Temperature TABLE 8.2
Material Aluminum oxide Cubic boron nitride Diamond Silica, fused Silicon carbide Silicon nitride Titanium carbide Tungsten carbide Partially stabilized zirconia
Symbol Al2O3
Transverse rupture strength (MPa) 140–240
Compressive strength (MPa) 1000–2900
Elastic modulus (GPa) 310–410
Hardness (HK) 2000–3000
Poisson’s ratio (ν) 0.26
Density (kg/m3) 4000–4500
CBN
725
7000
850
4000–5000
—
3480
— SiO2 SiC
1400 — 100–750
7000 1300 700–3500
830–1000 70 240–480
7000–8000 550 2100–3000
— 0.25 0.14
3500 — 3100
Si3 N4
480–600
—
300–310
2000–2500
0.24
3300
TiC
1400–1900
3100–3850
310–410
1800–3200
—
5500–5800
WC
1030–2600
4100–5900
520–700
1800–2400
—
10,000–15,000
PSZ
620
—
200
1100
0.30
5800
Note: These properties vary widely depending on the condition of the material.
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Page 8-4
Properties of Various Glasses TABLE 8.3
Density Strength Resistance to thermal shock Electrical resistivity Hot workability Heat treatability Chemical resistance Impact-abrasion resistance Ultraviolet-light transmission Relative cost
Soda-lime glass High Low Low
Lead glass Highest Low Low
Borosilicate glass Medium Moderate Good
96 Percent silica Low High Better
Fused silica Lowest Highest Best
Moderate Good Good Poor Fair
Best Best Good Fair Poor
Good Fair Poor Good Good
Good Poor None Better Good
Good Poorest None Best Best
Poor
Poor
Fair
Good
Good
Lowest
Low
Medium
High
Highest
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Page 8-5
Graphite Components Figure 8.2 Various engineering components made of graphite. Source: Poco Graphite, Inc., a Unocal Co.
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Page 8-6
CHAPTER 9 Composite Materials: Structure, General Properties, and Applications
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Page 7-1
Application of Advanced Composite Materials Figure 9.1 Application of advanced composite materials in Boeing 757-200 commercial aircraft. Source: Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.
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Page 7-2
Methods of Reinforcing Plastics Figure 9.2 Schematic illustration of methods of reinforcing plastics (matrix) with (a) particles, and (b) short or long fibers or flakes. The four layers of continuous fibers in illustration (c) are assembled into a laminate structure.
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Types and General Characteristics of Composite Materials TABLE 9.1 Material Fibers Glass Graphite Boron Aramids (Kevlar) Other fibers Matrix materials Thermosets Thermoplastics Metals Ceramics
Characteristics High strength, low stiffness, high density; lowest cost; E (calcium aluminoborosilicate) and S (magnesia-aluminosilicate) types commonly used. Available as high-modulus or high-strength; low cost; less dense than glass. High strength and stiffness; highest density; highest cost; has tungsten filament at its center. Highest strength-to-weight ratio of all fibers; high cost. Nylon, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, boron carbide, boron nitride, tantalum carbide, steel, tungsten, molybdenum. Epoxy and polyester, with the former most commonly used; others are phenolics, fluorocarbons, polyethersulfone, silicon, and polyimides. Polyetheretherketone; tougher than thermosets but lower resistance to temperature. Aluminum, aluminum-lithium, magnesium, and titanium; fibers are graphite, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and boron. Silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, and mullite; fibers are various ceramics.
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Page 7-4
Strength and Stiffness of Reinforced Plastics Figure 9.3 Specific tensile strength (tensile strength-to-density ratio) and specific tensile modulus (modulus of elasticity-to-density ratio) for various fibers used in reinforced plastics. Note the wide range of specific strengths and stiffnesses available.
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Page 7-5
Typical Properties of Reinforcing Fibers TABLE 9.2 Tensile strength (MPa) 3500
Elastic modulus (GPa) 380
Density 3 ( kg/m ) 2600
Relative cost Type Boron Highest Carbon High strength 3000 275 1900 Low High modulus 2000 415 1900 Low Glass E type 3500 73 2480 Lowest S type 4600 85 2540 Lowest Kevlar 29 2800 62 1440 High 49 2800 117 1440 High Note: These properties vary significantly depending on the material and method of preparation.
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Page 7-6
Fiber Reinforcing
Figure 9.4 (a) Cross-section of a tennis racket, showing graphite and aramid (Kevlar) reinforcing fibers. Source: J. Dvorak, Mercury Marine Corporation, and F. Garrett, Wilson Sporting Goods Co. (b) Cross-section of boron fiber-reinforced composite material.
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Page 7-7
Effect of Fiber Type on Fiber-Reinforced Nylon Figure 9.5 The effect of type of fiber on various properties of fiber-reinforced nylon (6,6). Source: NASA.
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Page 7-8
Fracture Surfaces of Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy Composites (a)
(b)
Figure 9.6 (a) Fracture surface of glass-fiber reinforced epoxy composite. The fibers are 10 µm (400 µin.) in diameter and have random orientation. (b) Fracture surface of a graphite-fiber reinforced epoxy composite. The fibers, 9 µm-11 µm in diameter, are in bundles and are all aligned in the same direction. Source: L. J. Broutman. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 7-9
Tensile Strength of Glass-Reinforced Polyester
Figure 9.7 The tensile strength of glass-reinforced polyester as a function of fiber content and fiber direction in the matrix. Source: R. M. Ogorkiewicz, The Engineering Properties of Plastics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977.
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Example of Advanced Materials Construction Figure 9.8 Cross-section of a composite sailboard, an example of advanced materials construction. Source: K. Easterling, Tomorrow’s Materials (2d ed.), p. 133. Institute of Metals, 1990.
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Page 7-11
Metal-Matrix Composite Materials and Applications TABLE 9.3 Fiber Graphite
Boron
Alumina
Silicon carbide Molybdenum, tungsten
Matrix Aluminum Magnesium Lead Copper Aluminum Magnesium Titanium Aluminum Lead Magnesium Aluminum, titanium Superalloy (cobalt-base) Superalloy
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Applications Satellite, missile, and helicopter structures Space and satellite structures Storage-battery plates Electrical contacts and bearings Compressor blades and structural supports Antenna structures Jet-engine fan blades Superconductor restraints in fission power reactors Storage-battery plates Helicopter transmission structures High-temperature structures High-temperature engine components High-temperature engine components
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Page 7-12
CHAPTER 10 Fundamentals of Metal-Casting
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Page 10-1
Cast Structures of Metals Figure 10.1 Schematic illustration of three cast structures of metals solidified in a square mold: (a) pure metals; (b) solid-solution alloys; and (c) structure obtained by using nucleating agents. Source: G. W. Form, J. F. Wallace, J. L. Walker, and A. Cibula.
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Page 10-2
Preferred Texture Development
Figure 10.2 Development of a preferred texture at a cool mold wall. Note that only favorably oriented grains grow away from the surface of the mold.
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Page 10-3
Alloy Solidification Figure 10.3 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in the solidifying metal. Note the formation of dendrites in the mushy zone.
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Solidification Patterns Figure 10.4 (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm (7-in.) square casting. Note that after 11 min. of cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes about two hours for this casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in sand and chill (metal) molds. Note the difference in solidification patterns as the carbon content increases. Source: H. F. Bishop and W. S. Pellini.
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Cast Structures Figure 10.5 Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures: (a) columnar dendritic; (b) equiaxed dendritic; and (c) equiaxed nondendritic. Source: D. Apelian.
Figure 10.6 Schematic illustration of cast structures in (a) plane front, single phase, and (b) plane front, two phase. Source: D. Apelian. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 10-6
Riser-Gated Casting Figure 10.7 Schematic illustration of a typical riser-gated casting. Risers serve as reservoirs, supplying molten metal to the casting as it shrinks during solidification. See also Fig. 11.4 Source: American Foundrymen’s Society.
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Page 10-7
Fluidity Test Figure 10.8 A test method for fluidity using a spiral mold. The fluidity index is the length of the solidified metal in the spiral passage. The greater the length of the solidified metal, the greater is its fluidity.
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Page 10-8
Temperature Distribution Figure 10.9 Temperature distribution at the interface of the mold wall and the liquid metal during solidification of metals in casting.
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Page 10-9
Solidification Time Figure 10.10 Solidified skin on a steel casting. The remaining molten metal is poured out at the times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are made by a process called slush casting, which is based on this principle. Source: H. F. Taylor, J. Wulff, and M. C. Flemings.
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Solidification Contraction for Various Cast Metals TABLE 10.1
Metal or alloy Aluminum Al–4.5%Cu Al–12%Si Carbon steel 1% carbon steel Copper Source: After R. A. Flinn.
Volumetric solidification contraction (%) 6.6 6.3 3.8 2.5–3 4 4.9
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Metal or alloy 70%Cu–30%Zn 90%Cu–10%Al Gray iron Magnesium White iron Zinc
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Volumetric solidification contraction (%) 4.5 4 Expansion to 2.5 4.2 4–5.5 6.5
Page 10-11
Hot Tears
Figure 10.11 Examples of hot tears in castings. These defects occur because the casting cannot shrink freely during cooling, owing to constraints in various portions of the molds and cores. Exothermic (heat-producing) compounds may be used (as exothermic padding) to control cooling at critical sections to avoid hot tearing.
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Page 10-12
Casting Defects Figure 10.12 Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be minimized or eliminated by proper design and preparation of molds and control of pouring procedures. Source: J. Datsko.
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Page 10-13
Internal and External Chills Figure 10.13 Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills (dark areas at corners), used in castings to eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions where there is a larger volume of metals, as shown in (c).
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Page 10-14
Solubility of Hydrogen in Aluminum Figure 10.14 Solubility of hydrogen in aluminum. Note the sharp decrease in solubility as the molten metal begins to solidify.
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Page 10-15
CHAPTER 11 Metal-Casting Processes
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Page 11-1
TABLE 11.1 Process
Summary of Casting Processes
Advantages
Limitations
S and
Almos t any metal cas t; no l imit to s i ze, s hape or weight; low tooling cos t.
S ome finis hing r equi red; s omewhat coars e finis h; wide tole rances .
S hel l mold
Good dimens ional accuracy and s urface finis h; high production
Part s i ze l imited; expens ive patterns and equipment
rate .
requi red.
Expendable pattern
Mos t metals cas t with no limit to s i ze; compl ex s hapes
Patterns have low s trength and can be cos tly for low quantities
Plas ter mold
Intri cate s hapes ; good dimens ional accu- racy and finis h; low poros ity.
Limited to nonferrous metals ; l imited s ize and volume of production; mold mak ing time re latively long.
Ceramic mold
Intri cate s hapes ; c los e tol erance parts ; good s urfac e
Limited s i ze.
finis h. Inves tment
Intri cate s hapes ; excel lent s urface finis h and accuracy;
Part s i ze l imited; expens ive patterns , molds , and labor.
almos t any metal cas t . Permanent mold
Good s urface finis h and dimens ional accuracy; low
High mold cos t; l imited s hape and intri cacy; not s uitabl e for
poros ity; high production rate .
high-melting-point metals .
Die
Exce ll ent dimens ional ac curacy and s urface finis h; high production rate .
Di e cos t is high; part s i ze l imited; us ually limited to nonferrous metals ; long lead time.
Centrifugal
Large cylindr ical parts with
Equipment is expens ive; part
good qual ity; high production rate .
s hape l imited.
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Page 11-2
Die-Casting Examples
(a)
(b)
Figure 11.1 (a) The Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera with a AZ91D die-cast, high purity magnesium case. (b) Two-piece Polaroid camera case made by the hot-chamber die casting process. Source: Courtesy of Polaroid Corporation and Chicago White Metal Casting, Inc.
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Page 11-3
General Characteristics of Casting Processes TABLE 11.2
Process Sand Shell Expendable mold pa ttern Plas t er mold
Inves tment Permanent mold
Die Centrifuga l
Typical surface finish
Typical materials cast
Minimum
Maximum
A ll A ll
0.05 0.05
No limit 100+
5-25 1-3
4 4
1-2 2-3
A ll Nonferrous (A l, M g, Zn, Cu) A ll
0.05
No limit
5-20
4
0.05
50+
1-2
0.005
100+
A ll
0.5
Nonferrous (A l, M g, Zn, Cu) A ll
<0.05 --
(High melting pt.)
Weig ht (kg)
Section thic kness (mm) Dimensional accuracy*
Minimum
Maximum
3 2
3 2
No limit --
1
2
2
No limit
3
1-2
2
1
--
1-3
3
1
1
1
75
300
2-3
2-3
3-4
1
2
50
50 5000+
1-2 2-10
1-2 1-2
3-4 3-4
1 3
0.5 2
12 100
(µm, R a)
Porosity*
Shape complexity*
*Rela tive rat ing:1 bes t, 5 wors t . Note : Thes e ratings are only genera l; s ignificant varia tions can occur, depending on the methods us ed.
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Page 11-4
Casting Examples Figure 11.2 Typical grayiron castings used in automobiles, including transmission valve body (left) and hub rotor with disk-brake cylinder (front). Source: Courtesy of Central Foundry Division of General Motors Corporation.
Figure 11.3 A cast transmission housing.
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Page 11-5
Sand Mold Features
Figure 11.4 Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.
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Page 11-6
Steps in Sand Casting
Figure 11.5 Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.
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Page 11-7
Pattern Material Characteristics TABLE 11.3 Characteristic
Wood
Aluminum
Ratinga Steel
Plastic
Cast iron
Machinability E G F G G Wear resistance P G E F E Strength F G E G G Weightb E G P G P Repairability E P G F G Resistance to: Corrosionc E E P E P Swellingc P E E E E aE, Excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor. bAs a factor in operator fatigue. cBy water. Source : D.C. Ekey and W.R. Winter, Introduction to Foundry Technology. New York. McGraw-Hill, 1958. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 11-8
Patterns for Sand Casting Figure 11.6 A typical metal match-plate pattern used in sand casting.
Figure 11.7 Taper on patterns for ease of removal from the sand mold.
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Page 11-9
Examples of Sand Cores and Chaplets
Figure 11.8 Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores.
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Page 11-10
Squeeze Heads Figure 11.9 Various designs of squeeze heads for mold making: (a) conventional flat head; (b) profile head; (c) equalizing squeeze pistons; and (d) flexible diaphragm. Source: © Institute of British Foundrymen. Used with permission.
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Page 11-11
Vertical Flaskless Molding
Figure 11.10 Vertical flaskless molding. (a) Sand is squeezed between two halves of the pattern. (b) Assembled molds pass along an assembly line for pouring.
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Page 11-12
Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting
Figure 11.11 Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations for sand casting. Source: Steel Founders' Society of America. (a) A mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for the pattern. Considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the drawing. (b-c) Patterns have been mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the presence of core prints designed to hold the core in place. (d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The cores will be used to produce the hollow area of the part shown in (a). (f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins, and attaching inserts to form the sprue and risers. (continued) Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 11-13
Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting (cont.)
Figure 11.11 (g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed. (g) The drag half is produced in a similar manner, with the pattern inserted. A bottom board is placed below the drag and aligned with pins. (i) The pattern, flask, and bottom board are inverted, and the pattern is withdrawn, leaving the appropriate imprint. (j) The core is set in place within the drag cavity. (k) The mold is closed by placing the cope on top of the drag and buoyant forces in the liquid, which might lift the cope. (l) After the metal solidifies, the casting is removed from the mold. (m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled and the casting is cleaned, inspected, and heat treated (when necessary). Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Surface Roughness for Various Metalworking Processes
Figure 11.12 Surface roughness in casting and other metalworking processes. See also Figs. 22.14 and 26.4 for comparison with other manufacturing processes.
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Page 11-15
Dump-Box Technique Figure 11.13 A common method of making shell molds. Called dump-box technique, the limitations are the formation of voids in the shell and peelback (when sections of the shell fall off as the pattern is raised). Source: ASM International.
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Page 11-16
Composite Molds
Figure 11.14 (a) Schematic illustration of a semipermanent composite mold. Source: Steel Castings Handbook, 5th ed. Steel Founders' Society of America, 1980. (b) A composite mold used in casting an aluminum-alloy torque converter. This part was previously cast in an all-plaster mold. Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.
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Expendable Pattern Casting Figure 11.15 Schematic illustration of the expendable pattern casting process, also known as lost foam or evaporative casting.
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Ceramic Molds Figure 11.16 Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold. Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.
Figure 11.17 A typical ceramic mold (Shaw process) for casting steel dies used in hot forging. Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 11-19
Figure 11.18 Schematic illustration of investment casting, (lostwax process). Castings by this method can be made with very fine detail and from a variety of metals. Source: Steel Founders' Society of America.
Investment Casting
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Investment Casting of a Rotor
Figure 11.19 Investment casting of an integrally cast rotor for a gas turbine. (a) Wax pattern assembly. (b) Ceramic shell around wax pattern. (c) Wax is melted out and the mold is filled, under a vacuum, with molten superalloy. (d) The cast rotor, produced to net or near-net shape. Source: Howmet Corporation.
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Investment and Conventionally Cast Rotors Figure 11.20 Crosssection and microstructure of two rotors: (top) investment-cast; (bottom) conventionally cast. Source: Advanced Materials and Processes, October 1990, p. 25 ASM International
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Page 11-22
Vacuum-Casting Process
Figure 11.21 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the molten metal. Source: From R. Blackburn, "Vacuum Casting Goes Commercial," Advanced Materials and Processes, February 1990, p. 18. ASM International. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Pressure Casting
Figure 11.22 (a) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite molds for the production of steel railroad wheels. Source: The Griffin Wheel Division of Amsted Industries Incorporated. (b) Gravity-pouring method of casting a railroad wheel. Note that the pouring basin also serves as a riser. Railroad wheels can also be manufactured by forging.
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Hot- and Cold-Chamber Die-Casting (a)
(b)
Figure 11.23 (a) Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process. (b) Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and Technology.
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Page 11-25
Cold-Chamber Die-Casting Machine
(a)
Figure 11.24 (a) Schematic illustration of a cold-chamber die-casting machine. These machines are large compared to the size of the casting because large forces are required to keep the two halves of the dies closed.
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Hot-Chamber Die-Casting Machine (b)
Figure 11.24 (b) 800-ton hot-chamber die-casting machine, DAM 8005 (made in Germany in 1998). This is the largest hot-chamber machine in the world and costs about $1.25 million.
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Page 11-27
Die-Casting Die Cavities Figure 11.25 Various types of cavities in a die-casting die. Source: Courtesy of American Die Casting Institute.
Figure 11.26 Examples of cast-in- place inserts in die casting. (a) Knurled bushings. (b) Grooved threaded rod.
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Properties and Typical Applications of Common Die-Casting Alloys TABLE 11.4
Alloy Aluminum 380 (3.5 Cu-8.5 Si) 13 (12 Si)
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)
Yield strength (MPa)
Elongation in 50 mm (%)
320
160
2.5
300
150
2.5
Brass 858 (60 Cu)
380
200
15
Magnes ium AZ91 B (9 Al-0.7 Zn)
230
160
3
Zinc No. 3 (4 Al)
280
--
10
320
--
7
5 (4 Al-1 Cu)
Applications Appliances , automotive components , ele ctr ical motor frames and hous ings Compl ex shapes with thin walls, parts requir ing s tr ength at elevated tempe ratures Plumbing fiztures , lock hardware, bushings , ornamental cas tings Power tools , automotive parts , sporting goods Automotive parts, office equipment, hous ehold utens i ls , building hardware , toys Appliances , automotive parts , building hardware ,busines s equipment
Sourc e : Data from Amer ican Di e Cas ting Ins titute
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Centrifugal Casting Process
Figure 11.27 Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes, cylinder liners, and similarly shaped parts can be cast with this process. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Semicentrifugal Casting
Figure 11.28 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal force.
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Squeeze-Casting
Figure 11.29 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This process combines the advantages of casting and forging.
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Single Crystal Casting of Turbine Blades Figure 11.30 Methods of casting turbine blades: (a) directional solidification; (b) method to produce a single-crystal blade; and (c) a single-crystal blade with the constriction portion still attached. Source: (a) and (b) B. H. Kear, Scientific American, October 1986; (c) Advanced Materials and Processes, October 1990, p. 29, ASM International. (c)
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Single Crystal Casting Figure 11.31 Two methods of crystal growing: (a) crystal pulling (Czochralski process) and (b) the floating-zone method. Crystal growing is especially important in the semiconductor industry. Source: L. H. Van Vlack, Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
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Melt Spinning Figure 11.32 Schematic illustration of melt-spinning to produce thin strips of amorphous metal.
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Types of Melting Furnaces Figure 11.33 Two types of melting furnaces used in foundries: (a) crucible, and (b) cupola.
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CHAPTER 12 Metal Casting: Design, Materials, and Economics
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Casting Design Modifications
Figure 12.1 Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings. Note that sharp corners are avoided to reduce stress concentrations.
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Casting Cross-Sections
Figure 12.2 Examples of designs showing the importance of maintaining uniform cross- sections in castings to avoid hot spots and shrinkage cavities. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Avoiding Shrinkage Cavities Figure 12.3 Examples of design modifications to avoid shrinkage cavities in castings. Source: Steel Castings Handbook, 5th ed. Steel Founders' Society of America, 1980. Used with permission.
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Chills Figure 12.4 The use of metal padding (chills) to increase the rate of cooling in thick regions in a casting to avoid shrinkage cavities. Source: Steel Castings Handbook, 5th ed. Steel Founders' Society of America, 1980. Used with permission.
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Normal Shrinkage Allowance for Some Metals Cast in Sand Molds TABLE 12.1 Metal Gray cast iron White cast iron Malleable cast iron Aluminum alloys Magnesium alloys Yellow brass Phosphor bronze Aluminum bronze High-manganese steel
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Percent 0.83–1.3 2.1 0.78–1.0 1.3 1.3 1.3–1.6 1.0–1.6 2.1 2.6
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Parting Line Figure 12.5 Redesign of a casting by making the parting line straight to avoid defects. Source: Steel Casting Handbook, 5th ed. Steel Founders' Society of America, 1980. Used with permission.
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Figure 12.6 Examples of casting design modifications. Source: Steel Casting Handbook, 5th ed. Steel Founders' Society of America, 1980. Used with permission.
Casting Design Modifications
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Desirable and Undesirable Die-Casting Practices Figure 12.7 Examples of undesirable and desirable design practices for die-cast parts. Note that section-thickness uniformity is maintained throughout the part. Source: American Die Casting Institute.
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Mechanical Properties for Various Groups of Cast Alloys
Figure 12.8 Mechanical properties for various groups of cast alloys. Note that gray iron has very little ductility and toughness, compared with most other cast alloys, some of which undergo considerable elongation and reduction of area in tension. Note also that even within the same group, the properties of cast alloys vary over a wide range, particularly for cast steels. Source: Steel Founders' Society of America. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Mechanical Properties for Various Groups of Cast Alloys (cont.)
Figure 12.8 Mechanical properties for various groups of cast alloys. Note that gray iron has very little ductility and toughness, compared with most other cast alloys, some of which undergo considerable elongation and reduction of area in tension. Note also that even within the same group, the properties of cast alloys vary over a wide range, particularly for cast steels. Source: Steel Founders' Society of America. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Typical Applications for Casting and Casting Characteristics TABLE 12.2 Type of alloy Aluminum Copper Ductile iron Gray iron Magnesium Malleable iron
Nickel
Steel (carbon and low alloy) Steel (high alloy)
White iron
Zinc
Application Pistons, clutch housings, intake manifolds Pumps, valves, gear blanks, marine propellers Crankshafts, heavy-duty gears Engine blocks, gears, brake disks and drums, machine bases Crankcase, transmission housings Farm and construction machinery, heavy-duty bearings, railroad rolling stock Gas turbine blades, pump and valve components for chemical plants Die blocks, heavy-duty gear blanks, aircraft undercarriage members, rail-road wheels Gas turbine housings, pump and valve components, rock crusher jaws Mill liners, shot blasting nozzles, railroad brake shoes, crushers and pulverizers Door handles, radiator grills,
Castability* E
Weldability* F
Machinability* G–E
F–G
F
F–G
G E
D D
G G
G–E G
G D
E G
F
F
F
F
E
F
F
E
F
G
VP
VP
E
D
E
*E, excellent; G, good; F, fair; VP, very poor; D, difficult.
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Properties and Typical Applications of Cast Irons TABLE 12.3
Cast iron Gray
Malleable
Type Ferritic Pearlitic Martensitic Ferritic Pearlitic Tempered martensite Ferritic
White
Pearlitic Tempered martensite Pearlitic
Ductile (Nodular)
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 170 275 550 415 550 825
Yield strength (MPa) 140 240 550 275 380 620
Elongation in 50 mm (%) 0.4 0.4 0 18 6 2
365
240
18
450 700
310 550
10 2
Typical applications Pipe, sanitary ware Engine blocks, machine tools Wearing surfaces Pipe, general service Crankshafts, highly stressed parts High-strength machine parts,wear-resistant parts Hardware, pipe fittings, general engineering service Railroad equipment, couplings Railroad equipment, gears, connecting rods
275
275
0
Wear-resistant parts, mill rolls
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Mechanical Properties of Gray Cast Irons TABLE 12.4
ASTM class 20 25 30 35 40 50 60
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 152 179 214 252 293 362 431
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Compressive strength (MPa) 572 669 752 855 965 1130 1293
Elastic modulus (GPa) 66 to 97 79 to 102 90 to 113 100 to 119 110 to 138 130 to 157 141 to 162
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Hardness (HB) 156 174 210 212 235 262 302
Page 12-14
Properties and Typical Applications of Cast Nonferrous Alloys TABLE 12.5
Alloys (UNS) Aluminum alloys 195 (AO1950) 319 (AO3190) 356 (AO3560) Copper alloys Red brass (C83600) Yellow brass (C86400) Manganese bronze (C86100) Leaded tin bronze (C92500) Gun metal (C90500) Nickel silver (C97600) Magnesium alloys AZ91A AZ63A AZ91C EZ33A HK31A QE22A
Condition
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)
Heat treated Heat treated Heat treated
220–280 185–250 260
110–220 125–180 185
8.5–2 2–1.5 5
Annealed Annealed Annealed
235 275 480
115 95 195
25 25 30
Pipe fittings, gears Hardware, ornamental Propeller hubs, blades
Annealed
260
105
35
Gears, bearings, valves
Annealed Annealed
275 275
105 175
30 15
Pump parts, fittings Marine parts, valves
F T4
230 275
150 95
3 12
T6 T5 T6 T6
275 160 210 275
130 110 105 205
5 3 8 4
Die castings Sand and permanent mold castings High strength Elevated temperature Elevated temperature Highest strength
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Yield strength (MPa)
Elongation in 50 mm (%)
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Typical applications Sand castings Sand castings Permanent mold castings
Page 12-15
General Cost Characteristics of Casting Processes TABLE 12.6 Cost* Process Die Sand L Shell-mold L–M Plaster L–M Investment M–H Permanent mold M Die H Centrifugal M * L, low; M, medium; H, high.
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Equipment L M-H M L-M M H H
Labor L–M L–M M–H H L–M L–M L–M
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Production rate (Pc/hr) <20 <50 <10 <1000 <60 <200 <50
Page 12-16
CHAPTER 13 Rolling of Metals
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Flat- and Shape-Rolling Processes
Figure 13.1 Schematic outline of various flat- and shape-rolling processes. Source: American Iron and Steel Institute.
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Flat-Rolling
Figure 13.2 (a) Schematic illustration of the flat-rolling process. (b) Friction forces acting on strip surfaces. (c) The roll force, F, and the torque acting on the rolls. The width w of the strip usually increases during rolling, as is shown in Fig. 13.5.
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Four-High Rolling Mill Figure 13.3 Schematic illustration of a four-high rolling-mill stand, showing its various features. The stiffnesses of the housing, the rolls, and the roll bearings are all important in controlling and maintaining the thickness of the rolled strip.
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Roll Bending Figure 13.4 (a) Bending of straight cylindrical rolls, caused by the roll force. (b) Bending of rolls ground with camber, producing a strip with uniform thickness.
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Spreading of a Strip
Figure 13.5 Increase in the width (spreading) of a strip in flat rolling (see also Fig. 13.2a). Similarly, spreading can be observed when dough is rolled with a rolling pin.
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Grain Structure During Hot Rolling Figure 13.6 Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought metals during hot rolling. Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in metals, for improved strength and ductility. Cast structures of ingots or continuous casting are converted to a wrought structure by hot working.
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Roller Leveling and Defects in Flat Rolling Figure 13.7 A method of roller leveling to flatten rolled sheets. See also Fig 15.22.
Figure 13.8 Schematic illustration of typical defects in flat rolling: (a) wavy edges; (b) zipper cracks in the center of the strip; (c) edge cracks; and (d) alligatoring.
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Residual Stresses in Rolling
Figure 13.9 (a) Residual stresses developed in rolling with small rolls or at small reductions in thickness per pass. (b) Residual stresses developed in rolling with large rolls or at high reductions per pass. Note the reversal of the residual stress patterns. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Rolling Mill Figure 13.10 A general view of a rolling mill. Source: Inland Steel.
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Backing Roll Arrangements Figure 13.11 Schematic illustration of various roll arrangements: (a) two-high; (b) three- high; (c) fourhigh; (d) cluster (Sendzimir) mill.
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Tandem Rolling
Figure 13.12 A tandem rolling operation.
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Shape Rolling Figure 13.13 Stages in the shape rolling of an H-section part. Various other structural sections, such as channels and I-beams, are also rolled by this kind of process.
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Ring-Rolling
Figure 13.14 (a) Schematic illustration of a ring-rolling operation. Thickness reduction results in an increase in the part diameter. (b) Examples of cross-sections that can be formed by ring rolling.
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ThreadRolling
Figure 13.15 Thread-rolling processes: (a) and (c) reciprocating flat dies; (b) tworoller dies. Threaded fasteners, such as bolts, are made economically by these processes, at high rates of production.
Figure 13.16 (a) Features of a machined or rolled thread. (b) Grain flow in machined and rolled threads. Unlike machining, which cuts through the grains of the metal, the rolling of threads causes improved strength, because of cold working and favorable grain flow.
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Mannesmann Process Figure 13.17 Cavity formation in a solid round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube piercing process for making seamless pipe and tubing. (The Mannesmann mill was developed in the 1880s.)
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Tube-Rolling Figure 13.18 Schematic illustration of various tube-rolling processes: (a) with fixed mandrel; (b) with moving mandrel; (c) without mandrel; and (d) pilger rolling over a mandrel and a pair of shaped rolls. Tube diameters and thicknesses can also be changed by other processes, such as drawing, extrusion, and spinning.
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Spray Casting (Osprey Process) Figure 13.19 Spray casting (Osprey process), in which molten metal is sprayed over a rotating mandrel to produce seamless tubing and pipe. Source: J. Szekely, Scientific American, July 1987.
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CHAPTER 14 Forging of Metals
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Forging (a)
(b)
Figure 14.1 (a) Schematic illustration of the steps involved in forging a bevel gear with a shaft. Source: Forging Industry Association. (b) Landing-gear components for the C5A and C5B transport aircraft, made by forging. Source: Wyman-Gordon Company. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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(c)
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Figure 14.1 (c) general view of a 445 MN (50,000 ton) hydraulic press. Source: Wyman-Gordon Company.
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Outline of Forging and Related Operations
Figure 14.2 Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Grain Flow Comparison
Figure 14.3 A part made by three different processes, showing grain flow. (a) casting, (b) machining, (c) forging. Source: Forging Industry Association.
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Characteristics of Forging Processes TABLE 14.1 Process Open die
Closed die
Blocker type Conventional type
Precision type
Advantages Simple, inexpensive dies; useful for small quantities; wide range of sizes available; good strength characteristics Relatively good utilization of material; generally better properties than open-die forgings; good dimensional accuracy; high production rates; good reproducibility Low die costs; high production rates Requires much less machining than blocker type; high production rates; good utilization of material Close tolerances; machining often unnecessary; very good material utilization; very thin webs and flanges possible
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Limitations Limited to simple shapes; difficult to hold close tolerances; machining to final shape necessary; low production rate; relatively poor utilization of material; high degree of skill required High die cost for small quantities; machining often necessary
Machining to final shape necessary; thick webs and large fillets necessary Somewhat higher die cost than blocker type
Requires high forces, intricate dies, and provision for removing forging from dies
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Upsetting
Figure 14.4 (a) Solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies. (b) Uniform deformation of the billet without friction. (c) Deformation with friction. Note barreling of the billet caused by friction forces at the billet-die interfaces.
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Cogging Figure 14.5 Two views of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar. Blacksmiths use this process to reduce the thickness of bars by hammering the part on an anvil. Note the barreling of the workpiece.
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Impression-Die Forging
Figure 14.6 Stages in impression-die forging of a solid round billet. Note the formation of flash, which is excess metal that is subsequently trimmed off (see Fig. 14.8).
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Forging a Connecting Rod Figure 14.7 (a) Stages in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion engine. Note the amount of flash required to ensure proper filling of the die cavities. (b) Fullering, and (c) edging operations to distribute the material when preshaping the blank for forging.
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Trimming Flash from a Forged Part
Figure 14.8 Trimming flash from a forged part. Note that the thin material at the center is removed by punching.
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Comparison of Forging With and Without Flash Figure 14.9 Comparison of closed-die forging to precision or flashless forging of a cylindrical billet. Source: H. Takemasu, V. Vazquez, B. Painter, and T. Altan.
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Coining Figure 14.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the coining process. the earliest coins were made by open-die forging and lacked sharp details. (b) An example of a coining operation to produce an impression of the letter E on a block of metal.
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Range of k Values for Equation F=kYfA
TABLE 14.2 Simple shapes, without flash Simple shapes, with flash Complex shapes, with flash
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3–5 5–8 8–12
Page 14-14
Heading/Upset Forging
Figure 14.11 (a) Heading operation, to form heads on fasteners such as nails and rivets. (b) Sequence of operations to produce a bolt head by heading.
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Grain Flow Pattern of Pierced Round Billet Figure 14.12 A pierced round billet, showing grain flow pattern. Source: Courtesy of Ladish Co., Inc.
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Roll-Forging Figure 14.13 Two examples of the roll-forging operation, also known as cross-rolling. Tapered leaf springs and knives can be made by this process. Source: (a) J. Holub; (b) reprinted with permission of General Motors Corporation.
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Production of Bearing Blanks
Figure 14.14 (a) Production of steel balls by the skew-rolling process. (b) Production of steel balls by upsetting a cylindrical blank. Note the formation of flash. The balls made by these processes are subsequently ground and polished for use in ball bearings (see Sections 25.6 and 25.10).
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Orbital Forging
Figure 14.15 (a) Various movements of the upper die in orbital forging (also called rotary, swing, or rocking-die forging); the process is similar to the action of a mortar and pestle. (b) An example of orbital forging. Bevel gears, wheels, and rings for bearings can be made by this process.
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Swaging Figure 14.16 (a) Schematic illustration of the rotary-swaging process. (b) Forming internal profiles on a tubular workpiece by swaging. (c) A die-closing type swaging machine, showing forming of a stepped shaft. (d) Typical parts made by swaging.
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Swaging of Tubes With and Without a Mandrel
Figure 14.17 (a) Swaging of tubes without a mandrel; not the increase in wall thickness in the die gap. (b) Swaging with a mandrel; note that the final wall thickness of the tube depends on the mandrel diameter. (c) Examples of cross-sections of tubes produced by swaging on shaped mandrels. Rifling (spiral grooves) in small gun barrels can be made by this process. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Impression-Forging Die and Die Inserts Figure 14.18 Standard terminology for various features of a typical impression-forging die.
Figure 14.19 Die inserts used in dies for forging an automotive axle housing. (See Tables 5.5 to 5.7 for die materials.) Source: Metals Handbook, Desk Edition. ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1985. Used with permission. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Classification of Metals in Decreasing Order of Forgeablilty TABLE 14.3 Metal or alloy Aluminum alloys Magnesium alloys Copper alloys Carbon and low–alloy steels Martensitic stainless steels Austenitic stainless steels Titanium alloys Iron-base superalloys Cobalt-base superalloys Tantalum alloys Molybdenum alloys Nickel-base superalloys Tungsten alloys
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Approximate range of hot forging temperature (°C) 400–550 250–350 600–900 850–1150 1100–1250 1100–1250 700–950 1050–1180 1180–1250 1050–1350 1150–1350 1050–1200 1200–1300
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Defects in Forged Parts
Figure 14.20 Examples of defects in forged parts. (a) Labs formed by web buckling during forging; web thickness should be increased to avoid this problem. (b) Internal defects caused by oversized billet; die cavities are filled prematurely, and the material at the center flows past the filled regions as the dies close. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Speed Range of Forging Equipment
TABLE 14.4 Equipment Hydraulic press Mechanical press Screw press Gravity drop hammer Power drop hammer Counterblow hammer
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m/s 0.06–0.30 0.06–1.5 0.6–1.2 3.6–4.8 3.0–9.0 4.5–9.0
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Page 14-25
Principles of Various Forging Machines
Figure 14.21 Schematic illustration of the principles of various forging machines. (a) Hydraulic press. (b) Mechanical press with an eccentric drive; the eccentric shaft can be replaced by a crankshaft to give the up-and-down motion to the ram. (continued)
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Principles of Various Forging Machines (cont.)
Figure 14.21 (continued) Schematic illustration of the principles of various forging machines. (c) Knuckle-joint press. (d) Screw press. (e) Gravity drop hammer.
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Unit Cost in Forging
Figure 14.22 Typical unit cost (cost per piece) in forging; note how the setup and the tooling costs per piece decrease as the number of pieces forged increases, if all pieces use the same die.
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Relative Unit Costs of a Small Connecting Rod Figure 14.23 Relative unit costs of a small connecting rod made by various forging and casting processes. Note that, for large quantities, forging is more economical. Sand casting is the more economical process for fewer than about 20,000 pieces.
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CHAPTER 15 Extrusion and Drawing of Metals
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Direct Extrusion
Figure 15.1 Schematic illustration of the direct extrusion process.
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Extrusions Figure 15.2 Extrusions, and examples of products made by sectioning off extrusions. Source: Kaiser Aluminum.
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Types of Extrusion
Figure 15.3 Types of extrusion: (a) indirect; (b) hydrostatic; (c) lateral.
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Process Variables in Direct Extrusion
Figure 15.4 Process variables in direct extrusion. The die angle, reduction in cross-section, extrusion speed, billet temperature, and lubrication all affect the extrusion pressure.
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Circumscribing-Circle Diameter
Figure 15.5 Method of determining the circumscribing-circle diameter (CCD) of an extruded cross-section.
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Extrusion Constant k for Various Metals
Figure 15.6 Extrusion constant k for various metals at different temperatures. Source: P. Loewenstein. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Types of Metal Flow in Extruding With Square Dies
Figure 15.7 Types of metal flow in extruding with square dies. (a) Flow pattern obtained at low friction, or in indirect extrusion. (b) Pattern obtained with high friction at the billet-chamber interfaces. (c) Pattern obtained at high friction, or with cooling of the outer regions of the billet in the chamber. This type of pattern, observed in metals whose strength increases rapidly with decreasing temperature, leads to a defect known as pipe, or extrusion defect.
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Extrusion Temperature Ranges for Various Metals
Lead Aluminum and its alloys Copper and its alloys Steels Refractory alloys
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ϒC 200–250 375–475 650–975 875–1300 975–2200
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Extrusion-Die Configurations (a)
(c)
(b)
Figure 15.8 Typical extrusion-die configurations: (a) die for nonferrous metals; (b) die for ferrous metals; (c) die for T-shaped extrusion, made of hot-work die steel and used with molten glass as a lubricant. Source for (c): Courtesy of LTV Steel Company.
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Components for Extruding Hollow Shapes Figure 15.9 (a) An extruded 6063-T6 aluminum ladder lock for aluminum extension ladders. This part is 8 mm (5/16 in.) thick and is sawed from the extrusion (see Fig. 15.2). (b)-(d) Components of various dies for extruding intricate hollow shapes. Source: for (b)-(d): K. Laue and H. Stenger, Extrusion--Processes, Machinery, Tooling. American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1981. Used with permission.
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Cross-Sections to be Extruded Figure 15.10 Poor and good examples of cross-sections to be extruded. Note the importance of eliminating sharp corners and of keeping section thicknesses uniform. Source: J. G. Bralla (ed.); Handbook of Product Design for Manufacturing. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1986. Used with permission.
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Examples of Cold Extrusion
Figure 15.11 Two examples of cold extrusion. Thin arrows indicate the direction of metal flow during extrusion.
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Cold Extruded Spark Plug Figure 15.12 Production steps for a cold extruded spark plug. Source: National Machinery Company.
Figure 15.13 A cross-section of the metal part in Fig. 15.12, showing the grain flow pattern. Source: National Machinery Company. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Impact Extrusion Figure 15.14 Schematic illustration of the impactextrusion process. The extruded parts are stripped by the use of a stripper plate, because they tend to stick to the punch.
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Examples of Impact Extrusion
Figure 15.15 (a) Two examples of products made by impact extrusion. These parts may also be made by casting, by forging, or by machining; the choice of process depends on the dimensions and the materials involved and on the properties desired. Economic considerations are also important in final process selection. (b) and (c) Impact extrusion of a collapsible tube by the Hooker process.
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Chevron Cracking (a)
(b)
Figure 15.16 (a) Chevron cracking (central burst) in extruded round steel bars. Unless the products are inspected, such internal defects may remain undetected, and later cause failure of the part in service. This defect can also develop in the drawing of rod, of wire, and of tubes. (b) Schematic illustration of rigid and plastic zones in extrusion. The tendency toward chevron cracking increases if the two plastic zones do not meet. Note that hte plastic zone can be made larger either by decreasing the die angel or by increasing the reduction in cross-section (or both). Source: B. Avitzur. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Hydraulic-Extrusion Press
Figure 15.17 General view of a 9-MN (1000-ton) hydraulicextrusion press. Source: Courtesy of Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Process Variables in Wire Drawing
Figure 15.18 Process variables in wire drawing. The die angle, the reduction in crosssectional area per pass, the speed of drawing, the temperature, and the lubrication all affect the drawing force, F.
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Examples of Tube-Drawing Operations Figure 15.19 Examples of tubedrawing operations, with and without an internal mandrel. Note that a variety of diameters and wall thicknesses can be produced from the same initial tube stock (which has been made by other processes).
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Die for Round Drawing Figure 15.20 Terminology of a typical die used for drawing round rod or wire.
Figure 15.21 Tungsten- carbide die insert in a steel casing. Diamond dies, used in drawing thin wire, are encased in a similar manner.
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Roll Straightening
Figure 15.22 Schematic illustration of roll straightening of a drawn round rod (see also Fig. 13.7).
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Cold Drawing
Figure 15.23 Cold drawing of an extruded channel on a draw bench, to reduce its cross-section. Individual lengths of straight rod or of cross-sections are drawn by this method. Source: Courtesy of The Babcock and Wilcox Company, Tubular Products Division.
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Multistage Wire-Drawing Figure 15.24 Two views of a multistage wire-drawing machine that is typically used in the making of copper wire for electrical wiring. Source: H. Auerswald.
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CHAPTER 16 Sheet-Metal Forming Processes
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Outline of Sheet-Metal Forming Processes
Figure 16.1
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Characteristics of Sheet-Metal Forming Processes TABLE 16.1 Process Roll forming Stretch forming Drawing Stamping
Rubber forming Spinning Superplastic forming Peen forming Explosive forming Magnetic-pulse forming
Characteristics Long parts with constant complex cross-sections; good surface finish; high production rates ; high tooling costs. Large parts with shallow contours; suitable for low-quantity production; high labor costs; tooling and equipment costs depend on part size. Shallow or deep parts with relatively simple shapes; high production rates; high tooling and equipment costs. Includes a variety of operations, such as punching, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining; simple or complex shapes formed at high production rates; tooling and equipment costs can be high, but labor cost is low. Drawing and embossing of simple or complex shapes; sheet surface protected by rubber membranes; flexibility of operation; low tooling costs. Small or large axisymmetric parts; good surface finish; low tooling costs, but labor costs can be high unless operations are automated. Complex shapes, fine detail and close tolerances; forming times are long, hence production rates are low; parts not suitable for high-temperature use. Shallow contours on large sheets; flexibility of operation; equipment costs can be high; process is also used for straightening parts. Very large sheets with relatively complex shapes, although usuallyaxisymmetric; low tooling costs, but high labor cost; suitable for low-quantity production; long cycle times. Shallow forming, bulging, and embossing operations on relatively low-strength sheets; most suitable for tubular shapes; high production rates; requires special tooling.
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Figure 16.2 (a) Schematic illustration of shearing with a punch and die, indicating some of the process variables. Characteristic features of (b) a punched hole and (c) the slug. Note that the scales of the two figures are different.
Shearing
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Clearance
Figure 16.3 (a) Effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation zone in shearing. As the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die rather than be sheared. In practice, clearances usually range between 2% and 10% of the thickness of the sheet. (b) Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in) thick AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel in the sheared region. Source: H. P. Weaver and K. J. Weinmann.
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Shearing Operations Figure 16.4 (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking. (b) Examples of various shearing operations on sheet metal.
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Fine Blanking (a)
(b)
Figure 16.5 (a) Comparison of sheared edges produced by conventional (left) and by fine-blanking (right) techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of one setup for fine blanking. Source: Feintool U.S. Operations.
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Slitting
Figure 16.6 Slitting with rotary knives. This process is similar to opening cans.
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Laser Welding Figure 16.7 Production of an outer side panel of a car body, by laser butt-welding and stamping. Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.
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Examples of Laser Welded Parts
Figure 16.8 Examples of laser butt-welded and stamped automotive body components. Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Shaving and Shear Angles Figure 16.9 Schematic illustrations of the shaving of a sheared edge. (a) Shaving a sheared edge. (b) Shearing and shaving, combined in one stroke.
Figure 16.10 Examples of the use of shear angles on punches and dies.
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Compound and Progressive Die (a)
(b)
(d)
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
(c)
Figure 16.11 Schematic illustrations: (a) before and (b) after blanking a common washer in a compound die. Note the separate movements of the die (for blanking) and the punch (for punching the hole in the washer). (c) Schematic illustration of making a washer in a progressive die. (d) Forming of the top piece of an aerosol spray can in a progressive die. Note that the part is attached to the strip until the last operation is completed. © 2001 Prentice-Hall
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Characteristics of Metals Important in Sheet Forming TABLE 16.2 Characteristic Elongation Yield-point elongation
Anisotropy (planar)
Anisotropy (normal) Grain size Residual stresses Springback
Wrinkling Quality of sheared edges
Surface condition of sheet
Importance Determines the capability of the sheet metal to stretch without necking and failure; high strain-hardening exponent (n)and strain-rate sensitivity exponent (m)desirable. Observed with mild-steel sheets; also called Lueder’s bands and stretcher strains; causes flamelike depressions on the sheet surfaces; can be eliminated by temper rolling, but sheet must be formed within a certain time after rolling. Exhibits different behavior in different planar directions; present in cold-rolled sheets because of preferred orientation or mechanical fibering; causes earing in drawing; can be reduced or eliminated by annealing but at lowered strength. Determines thinning behavior of sheet metals during stretching; important in deepdrawing operations. Determines surface roughness on stretched sheet metal; the coarser the grain, the rougher the appearance (orange peel); also affects material strength. Caused by nonuniform deformation during forming; causes part distortion when sectioned and can lead to stress-corrosion cracking; reduced or eliminated by stress relieving. Caused by elastic recovery of the plastically deformed sheet after unloading; causes distortion of part and loss of dimensional accuracy; can be controlled by techniques such as overbending and bottoming of the punch. Caused by compressive stresses in the plane of the sheet; can be objectionable or can be useful in imparting stiffness to parts; can be controlled by proper tool and die design. Depends on process used; edges can be rough, not square, and contain cracks, residual stresses, and a work-hardened layer, which are all detrimental to the formability of the sheet; quality can be improved by control of clearance, tool and die design, fine blanking, shaving, and lubrication. Depends on rolling practice; important in sheet forming as it can cause tearing and poor surface quality; see also Section 13.3.
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Yield-Point Elongation (a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 16.12 (a) Yield-point elongation in a sheet-metal specimen. (b) Lueder's bands in a low-carbon steel sheet. Source: Courtesy of Caterpillar Inc. (c) Stretcher strains at the bottom of a steel can for household products.
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Erichsen and Bulge-Tests (a)
Figure 16.13 (a) A cupping test (the Erichsen test) to determine the formability of sheet metals. (b) Bulge-test results on steel sheets of various widths. The specimen farthest left is subjected to, basically, simple tension. The specimen farthest right is subjected to equal biaxial stretching. Source: Inland Steel Company.
(b)
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Major and Minor Strain
Figure 16.14 (a) Strains in deformed circular grid patterns. (b) Forming-limit diagrams (FLD) for various sheet metals. Although the major strain is always positive (stretching), the minor strain may be either positive or negative. In the lower left of the diagram, R is the normal anisotropy of the sheet, as described in Section 16.9.2. Source: S. S. Hecker and A. K. Ghosh.
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Tearing and Bending Figure 16.15 The deformation of the grid pattern and the tearing of sheet metal during forming. The major and minor axes of the circles are used to determine the coordinates on the forming-limit diagram in Fig. 16.14b. Source: S. P. Keeler.
Figure 16.16 Bending terminology. Note that the bend radius is measured to the inner surface of the bent part. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Bending (a)
(c)
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
(b)
Figure 16.17 (a) and (b) The effect of elongated inclusions (stringers) on cracking, as a function of the direction of bending with respect to the original rolling direction of the sheet. (c) Cracks on the outer surface of an aluminum strip bent to an angle of 90o. Note the narrowing of the tope surface due to the Poisson effect.
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Minimum Bend Radius for Various Materials at Room Temperature TABLE 16.3 Material Aluminum alloys Beryllium copper Brass, low-leaded Magnesium Steels Austenitic stainless Low-carbon, low-alloy, and HSLA Titanium Titanium alloys
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Condition Soft Hard 0 6T 0 4T 0 2T 5T 13T 0.5T 0.5T 0.7T 2.6T
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6T 4T 3T 4T
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R/T Ratio versus % Area Reduction Figure 16.18 Relationship between R/T ratio and tensile reduction of area for sheet metals. Note that sheet metal with a 50% tensile reduction of area can be bent over itself, in a process like the folding of a piece of paper, without cracking. Source: After J. Datsko and C. T. Yang.
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Springback Figure 16.19 Springback in bending. The part tends to recover elastically after ending, and its bend radius becomes larger. Under certain conditions, it is possible for the final bend angle to be smaller than the original angle (negative springback).
Figure 16.20 Methods of reducing or eliminating springback in bending operations. Source: V. Cupka, T. Nakagawa, and H. Tyamoto.
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Bending Operations Figure 16.21 Common die-bending operations, showing the die-opening dimension, W, used in calculating bending forces.
Figure 16.22 Examples of various bending operations.
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Bending in a Press Brake
Figure 16.23 (a) through (e) Schematic illustrations of various bending operations in a press brake. (f) Schematic illustration of a press brake. Source: Verson Allsteel Company. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Bead Forming
Figure 16.24 (a) Bead forming with a single die. (b) Bead forming with two dies, in a press brake.
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Flanging Figure 16.25 Various flanging operations. (a) Flanges on a flat sheet. (b) Dimpling. (c) The piercing of sheet metal to form a flange. In this operation, a hole does not have to be prepunched before the bunch descends. Note, however, the rough edges along the circumference of the flange. (d) The flanging of a tube; note the thinning of the edges of the flange.
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Roll Forming Figure 16.26 Schematic illustration of the roll-forming process.
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Tube Bending
Figure 16.27 Methods of bending tubes. Internal mandrels, or the filling of tubes with particulate materials such as sand, are often necessary to prevent collapse of the tubes during bending. Solid rods and structural shapes can also be bent by these techniques.
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Bulging Figure 16.28 (a) The bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug. Water pitchers can be made by this method. (b) Production of fittings for plumbing, by expanding tubular blanks under internal pressure. The bottomof the piece is then punched out to produce a "T." Source: J. A. Schey, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes (2d ed.) New York: McGrawHill Publishing Company, 1987.
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Manufacturing of Bellows
Figure 16.29 Steps in manufacturing a bellows.
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Stretch Forming Figure 16.30 Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process. Aluminum skins for aircraft can be made by this method. Source: Cyril Bath Co.
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Figure 16.31 The metalforming processes involved in manufacturing a two-piece aluminum beverage can
Steps in Manufacturing an Aluminum Can
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Deep Drawing
Figure 16.32 (a) Schematic illustration of the deep-drawing process on a circular sheet-metal blank. The stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the punch. (b) Process variables in deep drawing. Except for the punch force, F, all the parameters indicated in the figure are independent variables.
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Anisotropy Figure 16.33 Strains on a tensile-test specimen removed from a piece of sheet metal. These strains are used in determining the normal and planar anisotropy of the sheet metal.
Figure 16.34 The relationship between average normal anisotropy and the limiting drawing ratio for various sheet metals. Source: M. Atkinson. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Typical Range of Average Normal Anisotropy, R, for Various Sheet Metals TABLE 16.4 Zinc alloys Hot-rolled steel Cold-rolled rimmed steel Cold-rolled aluminum-killed steel Aluminum alloys Copper and brass Titanium alloys (a) Stainless steels High-strength low-alloy steels
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0.4–0.6 0.8–1.0 1.0–1.4 1.4–1.8 0.6–0.8 0.6–0.9 3.0–5.0 0.9–1.2 0.9–1.2
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Earing
Figure 16.45 Earing in a drawn steel cup, caused by the planar anisotropy of the sheet metal.
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Drawbeads
Figure 16.36 (a) Schematic illustration of a draw bead. (b) Metal flow during the drawing of a boxshaped part, while using beads to control the movement of the material. (c) Deformation of circular grids in the flange in deep drawing.
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Figure 16.37 An embossing operation with two dies. Letters, numbers, and designs on sheet-metal parts and thin ash trays can be produced by this process.
Embossing
Figure 16.38 Examples of the bending and the embossing of sheet metal with a metal punch and with a flexible pad serving as the female die. Source: Polyurethane Products Corporation. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Hydroform Process
Figure 16.39 The hydroform (or fluid forming) process. Note that, in contrast to the ordinary deep-drawing process, the pressure in the dome forces the cup walls against the punch. The cup travels with the punch; in this way, deep drawability is improved.
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Conventional Spinning Figure 16.40 (a) Schematic illustration of the conventional spinning process. (b) Types of parts conventionally spun. All parts are axisymmetric.
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Figure 16.41 (a) Schematic illustration of the shear spinning process for making conical parts. The mandrel can be shaped so that curvilinear parts can be spun. (b) Schematic illustration of the tube spinning process.
Shear and Tube Spinning
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Spinning of a Compressor Shaft Figure 16.42 Steps in tube and shear spinning of a compressor shaft for the Olympus jet engine of the supersonic Concorde aircraft.
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Diffusion Bonding and Superplastic Forming Figure 16.43 Types of structures made by diffusion bonding and superplastic forming of sheet metal. Such structures have a high stiffness-to-weight ratio. Source: Rockwell International Corp.
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Explosive Forming
Figure 16.44 (a) Schematic illustration of the explosive forming process. (b) Illustration of the confined method of explosive bulging of tubes.
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Magnetic-Pulse Forming (a)
(b)
Figure 16.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the magnetic-pulse forming process used to form a tube over a plug. (b) Aluminum tube collapsed over a hexagonal plug by the magnetic-pulse forming process. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Honeycomb Structures
Figure 16.46 Methods of manufacturing honeycomb structures: (a) Expansion process; (b) Corrugation process; (c) Assembling a honeycomb structure into a laminate.
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Figure 16.47 (a) and (b) Schematic illustration of types of press frames for sheetforming operations. Each type has its own characteristics of stiffness, capacity, and accessibility. Source: Engineer's Handbook, VEB Fachbuchverlag, 1965. (c) A large stamping press. Source: Verson Allsteel Company.
Stamping Press and Press Frames
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Cost Comparison for Spinning and Deep Drawing Figure 16.48 Cost comparison for manufacturing a round sheet-metal container either by conventional spinning or by deep drawing. Note that for small quantities, spinning is more economical.
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CHAPTER 17 Processing of Powder Metals, Ceramics, Glass, and Superconductors
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Typical Applications for Metal Powders TABLE 17.1 Application Metals Abrasives Fe, Sn, Zn Aerospace Al, Be, Nb Automotive Cu, Fe, W Electrical/electronic Ag, Au, Mo Heat treating Mo, Pt, W Joining Cu, Fe, Sn Lubrication Cu, Fe, Zn Magnetic Co, Fe, Ni Manufacturing Cu, Mn, W Medical/dental Ag, Au, W Metallurgical Al, Ce, Si Nuclear Be, Ni, W Office equipment Al, Fe, Ti Source: R. M. German.
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Uses Cleaning, abrasive wheels Jet engines, heat shields Valve inserts, bushings, gears Contacts, diode heat sinks Furnace elements, thermocouples Solders, electrodes Greases, abradable seals Relays, magnets Dies, tools, bearings Implants, amalgams Metal recovery, alloying Shielding, filters, reflectors Electrostatic copiers, cams
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Powder-Metallurgy (a)
(b)
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
(c)
Figure 17.1 (a) Examples of typical parts made by powder-metallurgy processes. (b) Upper trip lever for a commercial irrigation sprinkler, made by P/M. This part is made of unleaded brass alloy; it replaces a die-cast part, with a 60% savings. Source: Reproduced with permission from Success Stories on P/M Parts, 1998. Metal Powder Industries Federation, Princeton, New Jersey, 1998. (c) Main-bearing powder metal caps for 3.8 and 3.1 liter General Motors automotive engines. Source: Courtesy of Zenith Sintered Products, Inc., Milwaukee, Wisconsin. © 2001 Prentice-Hall
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Making Powder-Metallurgy Parts
Figure 17.2 Outline of processes and operations involved in making powder-metallurgy parts.
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Particle Shapes in Metal Powders Figure 17.3 Particle shapes in metal powders, and the processes by which they are produced. Iron powders are produced by many of these processes.
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Powder Particles (a)
(b)
Figure 17.4 (a) Scanning-electron-microscopy photograph of iron-powder particles made by atomization. (b) Nickel-based superalloy (Udimet 700) powder particles made by the rotating electrode process; see Fig. 17.5b. Source: Courtesy of P. G. Nash, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago.
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Atomization and Mechanical Comminution Figure 17.5 Methods of metalpowder production by atomization; (a) melt atomization; (b) atomization with a rotating consumable electrode.
Figure 17.6 Methods of mechanical comminution, to obtain fine particles: (a) roll crushing, (b) ball mill, and (c) hammer milling. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Geometries of Powders Figure 17.7 Some common equipment geometries for mixing or blending powders: (a) cylindrical, (b) rotating cube, (c) double cone, and (d) twin shell. Source: Reprinted with permission from R. M. German, Powder Metallurgy Science. Princeton, NJ; Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1984.
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Compaction Figure 17.8 (a) Compaction of metal powder to form a bushing. The pressed powder part is called green compact. (b) Typical tool and die set for compacting a spur gear. Source: Metal Powder Industries Federation.
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Density Effects Figure 17.9 (a) Density of copper- and iron-powder compacts as a function of compacting pressure. Density greatly influences the mechanical and physical properties of P/M parts. Source: F. V. Lenel, Powder Metallurgy: Principles and Applications. Princeton, NJ; Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1980. (b) Effects of density on tensile strength, elongation, and electrical conductivity of copper powder. IACS means International Annealed Copper Standard for electrical conductivity.
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Density Variations in Dies Figure 17.10 Density variation in compacting metal powders in various dies: (a) and (c) single-action press; (b) and (d) double-action press. Note in (d) the greater uniformity of density, from pressing with two punches with separate movements, compared with (c). (e) Pressure contours in compacted copper powder in a single-action press. Source: P. Duwez and L. Zwell.
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Compacting Pressures for Various Metal Powders TABLE 17.2 Metal Aluminum Brass Bronze Iron Tantalum Tungsten Other materials Aluminum oxide Carbon Cemented carbides Ferrites
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Pressure (MPa) 70–275 400–700 200–275 350–800 70–140 70–140 110–140 140–165 140–400 110–165
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Mechanical Press Figure 17.11 A 7.3 MN (825 ton) mechanical press for compacting metal powder. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Incorporated.
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Hot and Cold Isostatic Pressing Figure 17.12 Schematic diagram of cold isostatic pressing, as applied to forming a tube. The powder is enclosed in a flexible container around a solid core rod. Pressure is applied isostatically to the assembly inside a high-pressure chamber. Source: Reprinted with permission from R.M. German, Powder Metallurgy Science. Princeton, NJ; Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1984.
Figure 17.14 Schematic illustration of hot isostatic pressing. The pressure and temperature variation vs. time are shown in the diagram. Source: Preprinted with permission from R.M. German, Powder Metallurgy Science. Princeton, NJ; Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1984. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Capabilities Available from P/M Operations Figure 17.13 Capabilities, with respect to part size and shape complexity, available from various P/M operations. P/F means powder forging. Source: Metal Powder Industries Federation.
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Powder Rolling Figure 17.15 An example of powder rolling. Source: Metals Handbook (9th ed.), Vol. 7. American Society for Metals.
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Sintering Temperature and Time for Various Metals TABLE 17.3 Material Copper, brass, and bronze Iron and iron-graphite Nickel Stainless steels Alnico alloys (for permanent magnets) Ferrites Tungsten carbide Molybdenum Tungsten Tantalum
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Temperature (° C) 760–900 1000–1150 1000–1150 1100–1290 1200–1300
Time (Min) 10–45 8–45 30–45 30–60 120–150
1200–1500 1430–1500 2050 2350 2400
10–600 20–30 120 480 480
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Sintering Figure 17.16 Schematic illustration of two mechanisms for sintering metal powders: (a) solid-state material transport; (b) liquid-phase material transport. R = particle radius, r = neck radius, and ρ = neck profile radius.
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Mechanical Properties of Selected P/M Materials TABLE 17.4
Designation Ferrous FC-0208
MPIF type N R S
FN-0405
S T
Aluminum 601 AB, pressed bar Brass CZP-0220
T U W
Condition
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)
AS HT AS HT AS HT AS HT AS HT
225 295 415 550 550 690 425 1060 510 1240
205 — 330 — 395 655 240 880 295 1060
45 HRB 95 HRB 70 HRB 35 HRC 80 HRB 40 HRC 72 HRB 39 HRC 80 HRB 44 HRC
<0.5 <0.5 1 <0.5 1.5 <0.5 4.5 1 6 1.5
70 70 110 110 130 130 145 145 160 160
AS HT
110 252
48 241
60 HRH 75 HRH
6 2
— —
— — —
165 193 221
76 89 103
55 HRH 68 HRH 75 HRH
13 19 23
— — —
Yield Strength (MPa)
Hardness
Elongation in 25 mm (%)
Elastic modulus (GPa)
Titanium Ti-6AI-4V HIP 917 827 — 13 — Superalloys Stellite 19 — 1035 — 49 HRC <1 — MPIF: Metal Powder Industries Federation. AS: as sintered, HT: heat treated, HIP: hot isostatically pressed.
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Mechanical Property Comparison for Ti-6Al-4V
TABLE 17.5 Yield Ultimate Density strength strength Process(*) (%) (MPa) (MPa) Cast 100 840 930 Cast and forged 100 875 965 Blended elemental (P+S) 98 786 875 Blended elemental (HIP) > 99 805 875 Prealloyed (HIP) 100 880 975 (*) P+S = pressed and sintered, HIP = hot isostatically pressed. Source: R.M. German.
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Elongation (%) 7 14 40 8 9 14
Reduction of area (%) 15 14 17 26
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Figure 17.17 Examples of P/M parts, showing poor designs and good ones. Note that sharp radii and reentry corners should be avoided and that threads and transverse holes have to be produced separately by additional machining operations.
Examples of P/M Parts
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Forged and P/M Titanium Parts and Potential Cost Saving TABLE 17.6 Weight (kg) Part F-14 Fuselage brace F-18 Engine mount support F-18 Arrestor hook support fitting F-14 Nacelle frame
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Forged billet 2.8 7.7 79.4 143
P/M 1.1 2.5 25.0 82
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Final part 0.8 0.5 12.9 24.2
Potential cost saving (%) 50 20 25 50
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Characteristics of Ceramics Processing TABLE 17.7 Process Slip casting Extrusion Dry pressing
Advantages Large parts, complex shapes; low equipment cost. Hollow shapes and small diameters; high production rate. Close tolerances; high production rate with automation.
Wet pressing
Complex shapes; high production rate.
Hot pressing
Strong, high-density parts.
Isostatic pressing Jiggering
Uniform density distribution. High production rate with automation; low tooling cost. Complex shapes; high production rate.
Injection molding
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Limitations Low production rate; limited dimensional accuracy. Parts have constant cross section; limited thickness. Density variation in parts with high length-todiameter ratios; dies require high abrasive-wear resistance; equipment can be costly. Part size limited; limited dimensional accuracy; tooling costs can be high. Protective atmospheres required; die life can be short. Equipment can be costly. Limited to axisymmetric parts; limited dimensional accuracy. Tooling can be costly.
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Steps in Making Ceramic Parts
Figure 17.18 Processing steps involved in making ceramic parts.
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Slip-Casting
Figure 17.19 Sequence of operations in slip-casting a ceramic part. After the slip has been poured, the part is dried and fired in an oven to give it strength and hardness. Source: F. H. Norton, Elements of Ceramics. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. 1974.
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Extruding and Jiggering Figure 17.20 (a) Extruding and (b) jiggering operations. Source: R. F. Stoops.
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Shrinkage Figure 17.21 Shrinkage of wet clay caused by removal of water during drying. Shrinkage may be as much as 20% by volume. Source: F. H. Norton, Elements of Ceramics. AddisonWesley Publishing Company, Inc. 1974.
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Sheet Glass Formation Figure 17.22 (a) Continuous process for drawing sheet glass from a molten bath. Source: W. D. Kingery, Introduction to Ceramics. Wiley, 1976. (b) Rolling glass to produce flat sheet.
Figure 17.23 The float method of forming sheet glass. Source: Corning Glass Works. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Glass Tubing
Figure 17.24 Manufacturing process for glass tubing. Air is blown through the mandrel to keep the tube from collapsing. Source: Corning Glass Works.
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Figure 17.25 Stages in manufacturing an ordinary glass bottle. Source: F.H. Norton, Elements of Ceramics. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. 1974.
Steps in Manufacturing a Glass Bottle
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Glass Molding Figure 17.26 Manufacturing a glass item by pressing glass in a mold. Source: Corning Glass Works.
Figure 17.27 Pressing glass in a split mold. Source: E.B. Shand, Glass Engineering Handbook. McGrawHill, 1958. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Centrifugal Glass Casting Figure 17.28 Centrifugal casting of glass. Television-tube funnels are made by this process. Source: Corning Glass Works.
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Residual Stresses Figure 17.29 Residual stresses in tempered glass plate, and stages involved in inducing compressive surface residual stresses for improved strength.
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CHAPTER 18 Forming and Shaping Plastics and Composite Materials
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Characteristics of Forming and Shaping Processes for Plastics and Composite Materials TABLE 18.1 Process Extrusion Injection molding Structural foam molding Blow molding Rotational molding Thermoforming Compression molding Transfer molding Casting Processing of composite materials
Characteristics Long, uniform, solid or hollow complex cross-sections; high production rates; low tooling costs; wide tolerances. Complex shapes of various sizes, eliminating assembly; high production rates; costly tooling; good dimensional accuracy. Large parts with high stiffness-to-weight ratio; less expensive tooling than in injection molding; low production rates. Hollow thin-walled parts of various sizes; high production rates and low cost for making containers. Large hollow shapes of relatively simple shape; low tooling cost; low production rates. Shallow or relatively deep cavities; low tooling costs; medium production rates. Parts similar to impression-die forging; relatively inexpensive tooling; medium production rates. More complex parts than compression molding and higher production rates; some scrap loss; medium tooling cost. Simple or intricate shapes made with flexible molds; low production rates. Long cycle times; tolerances and tooling cost depend on process.
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Forming and Shaping Processes
Figure 18.1 Outline of forming and shaping processes for plastics, elastomers, and composite materials. (TP, Thermoplastic; TS, Thermoset; E, Elastomer.) Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Extruder Figure 18.2 Schematic illustration of a typical extruder. Source: Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering (2nd ed.). Copyright © 1985. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Sheet and Film Extrusion
Figure 18.3 Die geometry (coat-hanger die) for extruding sheet. Source: Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering (2d ed.). Copyright © 1985. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 18.4 Schematic illustration of the production of thin film and plastic bags from tube first produced by an extruder and then blown by air. Source: D.C. Miles and J.H. Briston, Polymer Technology, 1979. Reproduced by permission of Chemical Publishing Co., Inc.
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Injection Molding (c)
Figure 18.5 Injection molding with (a) plunger, (b) reciprocating rotating screw, (c) a typical part made from an injection molding machine cavity, showing a number of parts made from one shot; note also mold features such as sprues, runners, and gates. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Examples of Injection Molding Figure 18.6 Typical products made by injection molding, including examples of insert molding. Source: Plainfield Molding Inc.
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Injection-Molding Machine
Figure 18.7 A 2.2-MN (250-ton) injection-molding machine. The tonnage is the force applied to keep the dies closed during injection of molten plastic into the mold cavities. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Plastics Machinery Division. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Reaction-Injection Molding Figure 18.8 Schematic illustration of the reaction-injection molding process. Source: Modern Plastics Encyclopedia.
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Blow Molding
Figure 18.9 Schematic illustrations of (a) the blow-molding process for making plastic beverage bottles, and (b) a three-station injection blow-molding machine. Source: Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering (2d ed.). Copyright ©1985. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
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Rotational Molding
Figure 18.10 The rotational molding (rotomolding or rotocasting) process. Trash cans, buckets, and plastic footballs can be made by this process. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 18-11
Thermoforming Processes Figure 18.11 Various thermoforming processes for thermoplastic sheet. These processes are commonly used in making advertising signs, cookie and candy trays, panels for shower stalls, and packaging.
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Compression Molding Figure 18.12 Types of compression molding, a process similar to forging: (a) positive, (b) semipositive, and (c) flash. The flash in part (c) has to be trimmed off. (d) Die design for making a compressionmolded part with undercuts.
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Transfer Molding
Figure 18.13 Sequence of operations in transfer molding for thermosetting plastics. This process is particularly suitable for intricate parts with varying wall thickness.
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Casting, Potting and Encapsulation Figure 18.14 Schematic illustration of (a) casting, (b) potting, (c) encapsulation of plastics.
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Calendering and Examples of Reinforced Plastics Figure 18.15 Schematic illustration of calendering. Sheets produced by this process are subsequently used in thermoforming.
Figure 18.16 Reinforced- plastic components for a Honda motorcycle. The parts shown are front and rear forks, a rear swingarm, a wheel, and brake disks. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-16
Prepegs Figure 18.17 (a) Manufacturing process for polymer-matrix composite. Source: T.W. Chou, R.L. McCullough, and R.B. Pipes. (b) Boron-epoxy prepreg tape. Source: Avco Specialty Materials/Textron. (a)
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(b)
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Tape Laying (a)
Figure 18.18 (a) Single-ply layup of boron-epoxy tape for the horizontal stabilizer for F-14 fighter aircraft. Source: Grumman Aircraft Corporation. (b) A 10 axis computer-numerical-controlled tapelaying system. This machine is capable of laying up 75 mm and 150 mm (3 in. and 6 in.) wide tapes, on contours of up to ±30° and at speeds of up to 0.5 m/s (1.7 ft/s). Source: Courtesy of The Ingersoll Milling Machine Company.
(b)
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Sheet Molding Figure 18.19 The manufacturing process for producing reinforcedplastic sheets. The sheet is still viscous at this stage; it can later be shaped into various products. Source: T. W. Chou, R. L. McCullough, and R. B. Pipes.
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Examples of Molding Processes
Figure 18.20 (a) Vacuum-bag forming. (b) Pressure-bag forming. Source: T. H. Meister. Figure 18.21 Manual methods of processing reinforced plastics: (a) hand lay-up and (b) spray-up. These methods are also called open-mold processing.
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Filament Winding (a)
(b)
Figure 18.22 (a) Schematic illustration of the filament-winding process. (b) Fiberglass being wound over aluminum liners, for slide-raft inflation vessels for the Boeing 767 aircraft. Source: Brunswick Corporation, Defense Division.
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Pultrusion Figure 18.23 Schematic illustration of the pultrusion process.
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Design Modifications to Minimize Distortion Figure 18.24 Examples of design modifications to eliminate or minimize distortion of plastic parts. (a) Suggested design changes to minimize distortion. Source: F. Strasser. (b) Die design (exaggerated) for extrusion of square sections. Without this design, product cross-sections swell because of the recovery of the material; this effect is known as die swell. (c) Design change in a rib, to minimize pull-in caused by shrinkage during cooling. (d) Stiffening the bottoms of thin plastic containers by the bottoms of thin plastic containers by domingthis technique is similar to the process used to make the bottoms of aluminum beverage cans. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
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Comparative Costs and Production Volumes for Processing of Plastics TABLE 18.2 Typical production volume, number of parts Equipment Production Tooling 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 10 10 10 10 capital cost rate cost 10 10 Machining Medium Medium Low Compression molding High Medium High Transfer molding High Medium High Injection molding High High High Extrusion Medium High Low * Rotational molding Low Low Low Blow molding Medium Medium Medium Thermoforming Low Low Low Casting Low Very low Low Forging High Low Medium Foam molding High Medium Medium Source: After R.L.E. Brown, Design and Manufacture of Plastic Parts. Copyright (c) 1980 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. *Continuous process.
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Economic Production Quantities for Various Molding Methods TABLE 18.3 Relative investment required Molding method Hand lay-up Spray-up Casting Vacuum-bag molding Compression-molded BMC SIVIC and preform Pressure-bag molding Centrifugal casting Filament winding Pultrusion Rotational molding Injection molding
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Equipment VL L M M H H H H H H H VH
Tooling L L L L VH VH H H H H H VH
Relative production rate L L L VL H H L M L H L VH
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Economic production quantity VL L L VL H H L M L H M VH
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CHAPTER 19 Rapid-Prototyping Operations
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Rapid Prototyping Examples
Figure 19.1 (a) Examples of parts made by rapid prototyping processes. (b) Stereolithography model of cellular phone.
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Characteristics of Rapid Prototyping Technologies TABLE 19.1 Supply phase Liquid
Process Stereolithography
Solid-based curing Fused-deposition modeling
Powder
Ballistic-particle manufacturing Three-dimensional printing Selective laser sintering
Solid
Laminated-object manufactuning
Layer creation technique Liquid layer curing
Liquid layer curing and milling Extrusion of melted polymer
Droplet deposition Layer of powder and binder droplet deposition Layer of powder
Deposition of sheet material
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Phase change type Photopolymerization
Photopolymerization Solidification by cooling
Solidification by cooling No phase change
Laser driven sintering melting and solidification No phase change
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Materials Photopolymers (acrylates epoxies, colorable resins, filled resins) Photopolymers Polymers (ABS,polyacrylate, etc.) wax, metals and ceramics with binder. Polymers, wax Ceramic, polymer and me powders with binder. Polymers, metals with binder, metals, ceramics a sand with binder. Paper, polymers.
Page 19-3
Figure 19.2 The computational steps in producing a stereolithography file. (a) Threedimensional description of part. (b) The part is divided into slices (only one in 10 is shown). (c) Support material is planned. (d) A set of tool directions is determined to manufacture each slice. Shown is the extruder path at section A-A from (c), for a fused-depositionmodeling operation.
Stereolithography
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Fused-Deposition-Modeling (a)
(b)
Figure 19.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the fuseddeposition-modeling process. (b) The FDM 5000, a fused-deposition-modeling-machine. Source: Courtesy of Stratysis, Inc.
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Common Support Structures Figure 19.4 (a) A part with a protruding section which requires support material. (b) Common support structures used in rapid-prototyping machines. Source: P.F. Jacobs, Rapid Prototyping & Manufacturing: Fundamentals of Stereolithography. Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1992.
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Stereolithography Figure 19.5 Schematic illustration of the stereolithography process. Source: Ultra Violet Products, Inc.
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Example of Stereolithography Figure 19.6 A twobutton computer mouse.
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Selective Laser Sintering
Figure 19.7 Schematic illustration of the selective laser sintering process. Source: After C. Deckard and P.F. McClure. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Solid-Base Curing Figure 19.8 Schematic illustration of the solid-base-curing process. Source: After M. Burns, Automated Fabrication, Prentice Hall, 1993.
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Three-Dimensional Printing Figure 19.9 Schematic illustration of the threedimensionalprinting process. Source: After E. Sachs and M. Cima.
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Laminated-Object Manufacturing (a)
(b)
Figure 19.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the laminated-object-manufacturing process. Source: Helysis, Inc. (b) Crankshaft-part example made by LOM. Source: After L. Wood.
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Investment Casting
Figure 19.11 Manufacturing steps for investment casting that uses rapid-prototyped wax parts as blanks. This approach uses a flask for the investment, but a shell method can also be used. Source: 3D Systems, Inc. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Sand Casting Using Rapid-Prototyped Patterns
Figure 19.12 Manufacturing steps in sand casting that uses rapid-prototyped patterns. Source: 3D Systems, Inc. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
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Sand Casting (continued)
Figure 19.12 Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Rapid Tooling Figure 19.13 Rapid tooling for a rearwiper-motor cover
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CHAPTER 20 Fundamentals of Cutting
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Fundamentals of Cutting Figure 20.1 Examples of cutting processes.
Figure 20.3 Schematic illustration of a twodimensional cutting process, also called orthogonal cutting. Note that the tool shape and its angles, depth of cut, to, and the cutting speed, V, are all independent variables.
Figure 20.2 Basic principle of the turning operations. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
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Factors Influencing Cutting Processes TABLE 20.1 Parameter Cutting speed, depth of cut, feed, cutting fluids Tool angles Continuous chip Built-up edge chip Discontinuous chip Temperature rise Tool wear Machinability
Influence and interrelationship Forces, power, temperature rise, tool life, type of chip, surface finish. As above; influence on chip flow direction; resistance to tool chipping. Good surface finish; steady cutting forces; undesirable in automated machinery. Poor surface finish; thin stable edge can protect tool surfaces. Desirable for ease of chip disposal; fluctuating cutting forces; can affect surface finish and cause vibration and chatter. Influences tool life, particularly crater wear, and dimensional accuracy of workpiece; may cause thermal damage to workpiece surface. Influences surface finish, dimensional accuracy, temperature rise, forces and power. Related to tool life, surface finish, forces and power.
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Mechanics of Chip Formation
Figure 20.4 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in metal cutting. (b) Velocity diagram in the cutting zone. See also Section 20.5.3. Source: M. E. Merchant.
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Chips and Their Photomicrographs Figure 20.5 Basic types of chips and their photomicrographs produced in metal cutting: (a) continuous chip with narrow, straight primary shear zone; (b) secondary shear zone at the chiptool interface; (c) continuous chip with large primary shear zone; (d) continuous chip with built-up edge; (e) segmented or nonhomogeneous chip and (f) discontinuous chip. Source: After M. C. Shaw, P. K. Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.
(a)
(d)
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(b)
(e)
(c)
(f)
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Built-Up Edge Chips (a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 20.6 (a) Hardness distribution in the cutting zone for 3115 steel. Note that some regions in the built-up edge are as much as three times harder than the bulk metal. (b) Surface finish in turning 5130 steel with a built-up edge. (c) surface finish on 1018 steel in face milling. Magnifications: 15X. Source: Courtesy of Metcut Research Associates, Inc. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Chip Breakers Figure 20.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker. Note that the chip breaker decreases the radius of curvature of the chip. (b) Chip breaker clamped on the rake face of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in cutting tools acting as chip breakers; see also Fig. 21.2.
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Examples of Chips Produced in Turning Figure 20.8 Various chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and breaks; (c) continuous chip moving away from workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool shank and breaks off. Source: G. Boothroyd, Fundamentals of Metal Machining and Machine Tools. Copyright ©1975; McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Used with permission.
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Cutting With an Oblique Tool
Figure 20.9 (a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool. (b) Top view showing the inclination angle, i. (c) Types of chips produced with different inclination.
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Right-Hand Cutting Tool Figure 20.10 (a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools have traditionally been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been largely replaced by carbide or other inserts of various shapes and sizes, as shown in (b). The various angles on these tools and their effects on machining are described in Section 22.3.1.
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Forces in Two-Dimensional Cutting Figure 20.11 Forces acting on a cutting tool in two-dimensional cutting. Note that the resultant force, R, must be colinear to balance the forces.
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Approximate Energy Requirements in Cutting Operations TABLE 20.2 Approximate Energy Requirements in Cutting Operations (at drive motor, corrected for 80% efficiency; multiply by 1.25 for dull tools). Specific energy Material Aluminum alloys Cast irons Copper alloys High-temperature alloys Magnesium alloys Nickel alloys Refractory alloys Stainless steels Steels Titanium alloys
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3
W-s/mm 0.4–1.1 1.6–5.5 1.4–3.3 3.3–8.5 0.4–0.6 4.9–6.8 3.8–9.6 3.0–5.2 2.7–9.3 3.0–4.1
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hp-min/in. 0.15–0.4 0.6–2.0 0.5–1.2 1.2–3.1 0.15–0.2 1.8–2.5 1.1–3.5 1.1–1.9 1.0–3.4 1.1–1.5
3
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Temperature Distribution and Heat Generated Figure 20.12 Typical temperature distribution the cutting zone. Note the steep temperature gradients within the tool and the chip. Source: G. Vieregge.
Figure 20.14 Percentage of the heat generated in cutting going into the workpiece, tool, and chip, as a function of cutting speed. Note that the chip carries away most of the heat. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Temperature Distributions
Figure 20.13 Temperatures developed n turning 52100 steel: (a) flank temperature distribution; and (b) tool-chip interface temperature distribution. Source: B. T. Chao and K. J. Trigger.
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Flank and Crater Wear (a)
(b)
(d)
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(c) Figure 20.15 (a) Flank and crater wear in a cutting tool. Tool moves to the left. (b) View of the rake face of a turning tool, showing nose radius R and crater wear pattern on the rake face of the tool. (c) View of the flank face of a turning tool, showing the average flank wear land VB and the depth-of-cut line (wear notch). See also Fig. 20.18. (d) Crater and (e) flank wear on a carbide tool. Source: J.C. Keefe, Lehigh University.
(e)
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 20-15
Tool Life
Figure 20.16 Effect of workpiece microstructure and hardness on tool life in turning ductile cast iron. Note the rapid decrease in tool life as the cutting speed increases. Tool materials have been developed that resist high temperatures such as carbides, ceramics, and cubic boron nitride, as described in Chapter 21.
Figure 20.17 Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. The negative inverse of the slope of these curves is the exponent n in the Taylor tool-life equations and C is the cutting speed at T = 1 min. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 20-16
Tool Wear TABLE 20.3 Range of n Values for Eq. (20.20) for Various Tool Materials High-speed steels 0.08–0.2 Cast alloys 0.1–0.15 Carbides 0.2–0.5 Ceramics 0.5–0.7 TABLE 20.4 Allowable Average Wear Land (VB) for Cutting Tools in Various Operations Allowable wear land (mm) Operation High-speed Steels Carbides Turning 1.5 0.4 Face milling 1.5 0.4 End milling 0.3 0.3 Drilling 0.4 0.4 Reaming 0.15 0.15 Note: 1 mm = 0.040 in. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 20-17
Examples of Wear and Tool Failures Figure 20.18 (a) Schematic illustrations of types of wear observed on various types of cutting tools. (b) Schematic illustrations of catastrophic tool failures. A study of the types and mechanisms of tool wear and failure is essential to the development of better tool materials.
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Page 20-18
Crater Wear Figure 20.19 Relationship between craterwear rate and average tool-chip interface temperature: (a) High-speed steel; (b) C-1 carbide; and (c) C-5 carbide. Note how rapidly crater-wear rate increases as the temperature increases. Source: B. T. Chao and K. J. Trigger.
Figure 20.20 Cutting tool (right) and chip (left) interface in cutting plain-carbon steel. The discoloration of the tool indicates the presence of high temperatures. Compare this figure with Fig. 20.12. Source: P. K. Wright. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 20-19
Surfaces Produced by Cutting (b)
(a)
Figure 20.21 Surfaces produced on steel by cutting, as observed with a scanning electron microscope: (a) turned surface and (b) surface produced by shaping. Source: J. T. Black and S. Ramalingam.
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Page 20-20
Dull Tool in Orthogonal Cutting and Feed Marks Figure 20.22 Schematic illustration of a dull tool in orthogonal cutting (exaggerated). Note that at small depths of cut, the positive rake angle can effectively become negative, and the tool may simply ride over and burnish the workpiece surface.
Figure 20.23 Schematic illustration of feed marks in turning (highly exaggerated). See also Fig. 20.2. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 20-21
CHAPTER 21 Cutting-Tool Materials and Cutting Fluids
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Page 21-1
Cutting Tool Material Hardnesses Figure 21.1 The hardness of various cutting-tool materials as a function of temperature (hot hardness). The wide range in each group of materials is due to the variety of tool compositions and treatments available for that group. See also Table 21.1 for melting or decomposition temperatures of these materials.
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Page 21-2
Typical Properties of Tool Materials Table 21.1 Property Hardness
High-speed steels 83– 86 HRA
Carbides Cast alloys 82– 84 HRA 46– 62 HRC
WC 90– 95 HRA 1800– 2400 HK
TiC 91– 93 HRA 1800– 3200 HK
Compressive strength MPa 4100– 4500 1500– 2300 4100– 5850 3100– 3850 3 600– 650 220– 335 600– 850 450– 560 psi x10 Transverse rupture strength MPa 2400– 4800 1380– 2050 1050– 2600 1380– 1900 3 350– 700 200– 300 150– 375 200– 275 psi x10 Impact strength J 1.35– 8 0.34– 1.25 0.34– 1.35 0.79– 1.24 in.- lb 12– 70 3– 11 3– 12 7– 11 Modulus of elasticity GPa 200 – 520– 690 310– 450 6 30 – 75– 100 45– 65 psi x10 Density 3 kg/m 8600 8000– 8700 10,000– 15,000 5500– 5800 3 lb/in. 0.31 0.29– 0.31 0.36– 0.54 0.2– 0.22 Volume of hard phase, % 7– 15 10– 20 70– 90 – Melting or decomposition temperature °C 1300 – 1400 1400 °F 2370 – 2550 2550 Thermal conductivity, W/ 30– 50 – 42– 125 17 mK 12 – 4– 6.5 7.5– 9 Coefficient of thermal –6 expansion, x10 °C * The values for polycrystalline diamond are generally lower, except impact strength, which is higher.
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Cubic boron nitride 4000– 5000 HK
Single-crystal diamond* 7000– 8000 HK
2750– 4500 400– 650
6900 1000
6900 1000
345– 950 50– 135
700 105
1350 200
< 0.1 <1
< 0.5 <5
< 0.2 <2
310– 410 45– 60
850 125
820– 1050 120– 150
4000– 4500 0.14– 0.16 100
3500 0.13 95
3500 0.13 95
2000 3600 29
1300 2400 13
700 1300 500– 2000
6– 8.5
4.8
1.5– 4.8
Ceramics 91– 95 HRA 2000– 3000 HK
Page 21-3
General Characteristics of Cutting-Tool Materials TABLE 21.2 General Characteristics of Cutting- Tool Materials. These Tool Materials Have a Wide Range of Compositions and Properties; Thus Overlapping Characteristics Exist in Many Categories of Tool Materials. Carbon and low- to medium- alloy steels
Hot hardness Toughness Impact strength Wear resistance Chipping resistance Cutting speed Thermal-shock resistance Tool material cost Depth of cut
High speed steels
Cast- cobalt alloys
Uncoated carbides
Coated carbides
Ceramics
Polycrystalline cubic boron nitride
Diamond
Increasing Increasing Increasing Increasing Increasing Increasing Increasing Light to medium
Light to heavy
Increasing Light to heavy
Finish obtainable Method of processing
Rough Wrought
Rough Wrought, * cast, HIP sintering
Fabrication
Machining and grinding
Machining and grinding
Light to heavy
Light to heavy
Light to heavy
Light to heavy
Rough Cast and HIP sintering
Good Cold pressing and sintering
Good CVD or † PVD
Very good High-pressure, high-temperature sintering
Grinding
Grinding
Very good Cold pressing and sintering or HIP sintering Grinding
Very light for single crystal diamond Excellent High-pressure, high-temperature sintering
Grinding and polishing
Grinding and polishing
Source : R. Komanduri, Kirk- Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology , (3d ed.). New York: Wiley, 1978. * Hot- isostatic pressing. † Chemical- vapor deposition, physical- vapor deposition.
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Page 21-4
Operating Characteristics of Cutting-Tool Materials TABLE 21.3 Tool materials High-speed steels
Uncoated carbides
Coated carbides
Ceramics Polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (cBN) Polycrystalline diamond
General characteristics High toughness, resistance to fracture, wide range of roughing and finishing cuts, good for interrupted cuts High hardness over a wide range of temperatures, toughness, wear resistance, versatile and wide range of applications Improved wear resistance over uncoated carbides, better frictional and thermal properties High hardness at elevated temperatures, high abrasive wear resistance High hot hardness, toughness, cutting-edge strength Hardness and toughness, abrasive wear resistance
Modes of tool wear or failure Flank wear, crater wear
Limitations Low hot hardness, limited hardenability, and limited wear resistance
Flank wear, crater wear
Cannot use at low speed because of cold welding of chips and microchipping
Flank wear, crater wear
Cannot use at low speed because of cold welding of chips and microchipping
Depth-of-cut line notching, microchipping, gross fracture Depth-of-cut line notching, chipping, oxidation, graphitization Chipping, oxidation, graphitization
Low strength, low thermomechanical fatigue strength Low strength, low chemical stability at higher temperature Low strength, low chemical stability at higher temperature
Source: After R. Komanduri and other sources.
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Page 21-5
Carbide Inserts Figure 21.2 Typical carbide inserts with various shapes and chip-breaker features; round inserts are also available (Fig. 21.4). The holes in the inserts are standardized for interchangeability. Source: Courtesy of Kyocera Engineered Ceramics, Inc., and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
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Page 21-6
Insert Attachment (a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Figure 21.3 Methods of attaching inserts to toolholders: (a) Clamping, and (b) Wing lockpins. (c) Examples of inserts attached to toolholders with threadless lockpins, which are secured with side screws. Source: Courtesy of Valenite. (d) Insert brazed on a tool shank (see Section 30.2).
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Page 21-7
Edge Strength Figure 21.4 Relative edge strength and tendency for chipping and breaking of insets with various shapes. Strength refers to the cutting edge shown by the included angles. Source: Kennametal, Inc.
Figure 21.5 Edge preparation of inserts to improve edge strength. See also Section 23.2. Source: Kennametal, Inc.
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Page 21-8
Classification of Tungsten Carbides Table 21.4 Classification of Tungsten Carbide According to Machining Applications. See also Chapters 22 and 23 for Cutting Tool Recommendations ISO Standard
K30-K40 K20 K10 K01
ANSI Classification Number
C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4
Materials to be machined
Cast iron, nonferrous metals and nonmetallic materials requiring abrasion resistance
Machining Operation
Roughing General purpose Light finishing Precision machining
Type of carbide
Wear-resistant grades; generally straight WC-Co with varying grain sizes
Characteristics of Cut
Carbide
Increasing Cutting speed
Increasing hardness and wear resistance
Increasing Feed rate P30-P50 P20 P10 P01
C-5 C-6 C-7 C-8
Steels and steel alloys requiring crater and deformation resistance
Roughing General purpose Light purpose Precision finishing
Crater-resistant grades; various WC-Co compositions with TiC and/or TaC alloys
Increasing Cutting speed
Increasing Feed rate
Increasing strength and binder content Increasing hardness and wear resistance
Increasing strength and binder content
Note: The ISO and ANSI comparisons are approximate.
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Page 21-9
ISO Classification of Carbide Cutting Tools According to Use TABLE 21.5
Symbol P M K
Workpiece material Ferrous metals with long chips Ferrous metals with long or short chips; nonferrous metals Ferrous metals with short chips; nonferrous metals; nonmetallic materials
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Color code Blue Yellow Red
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Designation in increasing order of wear resistance and decreasing order of toughness in each category, in increments of 5 P01, P05 through P50 M10 through M40 K01, K10 through K40
Page 21-10
Effect of Coating Materials Figure 21.6 Relative time required to machine with various cutting-tool materials, indicating the year the tool materials were introduced. Source: Sandvik Coromant.
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Page 21-11
Multiphase Coatings Figure 21.7 Multiphase coatings on a tungsten-carbide substrate. Three alternating layers of aluminum oxide are separated by very thin layers ot titanium nitride. Inserts with as many as thirteen layers of coatings have been made. Coating thicknesses are typically in the range of 2 to 10 µm. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc., and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
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Page 21-12
Properties for Groups of Tool Materials Figure 21.8 Ranges of properties for various groups of tool materials. See also Tables 21.1 through 21.5.
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Page 21-13
Cubic Boron Nitride Figure 21.9 Construction of a polycrystalline cubic boron nitride or a diamond layer on a tungsten-carbide insert.
Figure 21.10 Inserts with polycrystalline cubic boron nitride tips (top row) and solid polycrystalline cBN inserts (bottom row). Source: Courtesy of Valenite. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 21-14
Approximate Cost of Selected Cutting Tools TABLE 21.6 Tool High-speed steel tool bits Carbide-tipped (brazed) tools for turning Carbide inserts, square 3/16"thick Plain Coated Ceramic inserts, square Cubic boron nitride inserts, square Diamond-coated inserts Diamond-tipped inserts (polycrystalline)
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Size (in.) 1/4 sq.x 2 1/2 long 1/2 sq. x 4 1/4 sq. 3/4 sq.
Cost ($) 1–2 3–7 2 4
1/2 inscribed circle
5–9 6–10 8–12 60–90 50–60 90–100 1
1/2 inscribed circle 1/2 inscribed circle 1/2 inscribed circle 1/2 inscribed circle
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Page 21-15
Application of Cutting Fluids Figure 21.11 Schematic illustration of proper methods of applying cutting fluids in various machining operations: (a) turning, (b) milling, (c) thread grinding, and (d) drilling.
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Page 21-16
CHAPTER 22 Machining Processes Used to Produce Round Shapes
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Page 22-1
Cutting Operations Figure 22.1 Various cutting operations that can be performed on a late. Not that all parts have circular symmetry.
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Page 22-2
Components of a Lathe Figure 22.2 Components of a lathe. Source: Courtesy of Heidenreich & Harbeck
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General Characteristics of Machining Processes TABLE 22.1 General Characteristics of Machining Processes Described in Chapters 22 and 23 Characteristics Process Turning Turning and facing operations on all types of materials; uses single-point or form tools; requires skilled labor; low production rate, but medium to high with turret lathes and automatic machines, requiring lessskilled labor. Boring Internal surfaces or profiles, with characteristics similar to turning ; stiffness of boring bar important to avoid chatter. Drilling Round holes of various sizes and depths; requires boring and reaming for improved accuracy; high production rate; labor skill required depends on hole location and accuracy specified. Milling Variety of shapes involving contours, flat surfaces, and slots; wide variety of tooling; versatile; low to medium production rate; requires skilled labor. Planing Flat surfaces and straight contour profiles on large surfaces; suitable for low-quantity production; labor skill required depends on part shape. Shaping Flat surfaces and straight contour profiles on relatively small workpieces; suitable for low-quantity production; labor skill required depends on part shape. Broaching External and internal flat surfaces, slots, and contours with good surface finish; costly tooling; high production rate; labor skill required depends on part shape. Sawing
Straight and contour cuts on flat or structural shapes; not suitable for hard materials unless saw has carbide teeth or is coated with diamond; low production rate; requires only low labor skill.
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Commercial tolerances(±mm) Fine: 0.05–0.13 Rough: 0.13 Skiving: 0.025–0.05 0.025 0.075 0.13–0.25 0.08–0.13 0.05–0.13 0.025–0.15 0.8
Page 22-4
Schematic Illustration of a Turning Operation
Figure 22.3 (a) Schematic illustration of a turning operation showing depth of cut, d, and feed, f. Cutting speed is the surface speed of the workpiece at the Fc, is the cutting force, Ft is the thrust or feed force (in the direction of feed, Fr is the radial force that tends to push the tool away from the workpiece being machined. Compare this figure with Fig. 20.11 for a two-dimensional cutting operation.
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Page 22-5
Right-Hand Cutting Tool
Figure 22.4 (a) Designations and symbols for a right-hand cutting tool; solid high-speed-steel tools have a similar designation. Right-hand means that the tool travels from right to left as shown in Fig. 22.1a. (continued) Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 22-6
Right-Hand Cutting Tool (cont.)
Figure 22.4 (continued) (b) Square insert in a right-hand toolholder for a turning operation. A wide variety of toolholders are available for holding inserts at various angles. Source: Kennametal Inc.
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Page 22-7
General Recommendations for Turning Tool Angles TABLE 22.2 High-speed steel
Material Aluminum and magnesium alloys Copper alloys Steels Stainless steels High-temperature alloys Refractory alloys Titanium alloys Cast irons Thermoplastics Thermosets
Carbide (inserts)
Back rake 20
Side rake 15
End relief 12
Side relief 10
Side and end cutting edge 5
5 10 5 0
10 12 8–10 10
8 5 5 5
8 5 5 5
5 15 15 15
0 –5 –5–0 5
5 –5 –5–5 0
5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5
15 15 15 45
0 0 5 0 0
20 5 10 0 0
5 5 5 20–30 20–30
5 5 5 15–20 15–20
5 15 15 10 10
0 –5 –5 0 0
0 –5 –5 0 15
5 55 5515 20–30 5
5 5
15
15–20 5
10 15
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Back rake 0
Side rake 5
End relief 5
Side relief 5
Side and end cutting edge 15
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 22-8
Summary of Turning Parameters and Formulas TABLE 22.3 N = Rotational speed of the workpiece, rpm f = Feed, mm/rev or in/rev v = Feed rate, or linear speed of the tool along workpiece length, mm/min or in/min =fN V = Surface speed of workpiece, m/min or ft/min = p Do N (for maximum speed) = p Davg N (for average speed) l = Length of cut, mm or in. Do = Original diameter of workpiece, mm or in. Df = Final diameter of workpiece, mm or in. Davg = Average diameter of workpiece, mm or in. = (Do +Df ) /2 d = Depth of cut, mm or in. = ( Do +Df ) /2 t = Cutting time, s or min =l/f N 3 3 MRR = mm /min or in /min = p Davg d fN Torque = Nm or lb ft = ( Fc )( Davg /2 ) Power = kW or hp = (Torque) (w , where w=2p radians/min Note: The units given are those that are commonly used; however, appropriate units must be used and checked in the formulas. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 22-9
Cutting Speeds for Various Tool Materials Figure 22.5 The range of applicable cutting speeds and feeds for a variety of tool materials. Source: Valenite.
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General Recommendations for Turning Operations TABLE 22.4
Workpiece material Low-C and freemachining steels
Cutting tool Uncoated carbide Ceramic-coated carbide Triple coated carbide TiN-coated carbide Al2O3 ceramic Cermet
Medium and high-C steels
Uncoated carbide Ceramic-coated carbide Triple coated carbide TiN-coated carbide Al2O3 ceramic Cermet
General-purpose starting conditions Feed Cutting speed Depth of cut mm/rev m/min mm (in.) (in./rev) (ft/min) 1.5-6.3 0.35 90 (0.06-0.25) (0.014) (300) " " 245-275 (800-900) " " 185-200 (600-650) " " 105-150 (350-500) " 0.25 395-440 (0.010) (1300-1450) " 0.30 215-290 (0.012) (700-950) 1.2-4.0 0.30 75 (0.05-0.20) (0.012) (250) " " 185-230 (600-750) " " 120-150 (400-500) " " 90-200 (300-650) " 0.25 335 (0.010) (1100) " 0.25 170-245 (0.010) (550-800)
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Range for roughing and finishing Depth of cut Feed Cutting speed mm mm/rev m/min (in.) (in./rev) (ft/min) 0.5-7.6 0.15-1.1 60-135 (0.02-0.30) (0.006-0.045) (200-450) " " 120-425 (400-1400) " " 90-245 (300-800) " " 60-230 (200-750) " " 365-550 (1200-1800) " " 105-455 (350-1800) 2.5-7.6 0.15-0.75 45-120 (0.10-0.30) (0.006-0.03) (150-400) " " 120-410 (400-1350) " " 75-215 (250-700) " " 45-215 (150-700) " " 245-455 (800-1500) " " 105-305 (350-1000)
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 22-11
General Recommendations for Turning Operations (cont.) TABLE 22.4 (continued) Workpiece material Cast iron, gray
Stainless steel, austenitic
High-temperature alloys, nickel base
Cutting tool Uncoated carbide Ceramic-coated carbide TiN-coated carbide Al2O3 ceramic
General-purpose starting conditions Feed Cutting speed Depth of cut mm/rev m/min mm (in.) (in./rev) (ft/min) 1.25-6.3 (0.05-0.25) "
0.32 (0.013) "
"
"
"
0.25 (0.010) 0.32 (0.013) 0.35 (0.014) "
SiN ceramic
"
Triple coated carbide TiN-coated carbide Cermet
1.5-4.4 (0.06-0.175) "
2.5 (0.10) "
0.30 (0.012) 0.15 (0.006) "
"
"
"
"
SiN ceramic
"
"
Polycrystalline CBN
"
"
Uncoated carbide Ceramic-coated carbide TiN-coated carbide Al2O3 ceramic
"
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
90 (300) 200 (650) 90-135 (300-450) 455-490 (1500-1600) 730 (2400) 150 (500) 85-160 (275-525) 185-215 (600-700) 25-45 (75-150) 45 (150) 30-55 (95-175) 260 (850) 215 (700) 150 (500)
Range for roughing and finishing Depth of cut Feed Cutting speed mm mm/rev m/min (in.) (in./rev) (ft/min) 0.4-12.7 (0.015-0.5) "
0.1-0.75 (0.004-0.03) "
"
"
"
"
"
"
0.5-12.7 (0.02-0.5) "
0.08-0.75 (0.003-0.03) "
"
"
0.25-6.3 (0.01-0.25) "
0.1-0.3 (0.004-0.012) "
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
75-185 (250-600) 120-365 (400-1200) 60-215 (200-700) 365-855 (1200-2800) 200-990 (650-3250) 75-230 (250-750) 55-200 (175-650) 105-290 (350-950) 15-30 (50-100) 20-60 (65-200) 20-85 (60-275) 185-395 (600-1300) 90-215 (300-700) 120-185 (400-600)
Page 22-12
General Recommendations for Turning Operations (cont.) TABLE 22.4 (continued) Workpiece material Titanium alloys
Aluminum alloys, free machining
High silicon Copper alloys
Cutting tool
General-purpose starting conditions Cutting speed Feed m/min mm/rev Depth of cut (ft/min) (in./rev) mm (in.)
Range for roughing and finishing Cutting speed Feed Depth of cut m/min mm/rev mm (ft/min) (in./rev) (in.)
Uncoated carbide TiN-coated carbide
1.0-3.8 (0.04-0.15) "
0.15 (0.006) "
35-60 (120-200) 30-60 (100-200)
0.25-6.3 (0.01-0.25) "
0.1-0.4 (0.004-0.015) "
10-75 (30-250) 10-100 (30-325)
Uncoated carbide TiN-coated carbide Cermet
1.5-5.0 (0.06-0.20) "
0.45 (0.018) "
0.25-8.8 (0.01-0.35) "
0.08-0.62 (0.003-0.025) "
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
1.5-5.0 (0.06-0.20) "
0.25 (0.010) "
0.4-7.51 (0.015-0.3) "
0.15-0.75 (0.006-0.03) "
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
490 (1600) 550 (1800) 490 (1600) 760 (2500) 530 (1700) 260 (850) 365 (1200) 215 (700) 90-275 (300-900) 245-425 (800-1400) 520 (1700)
"
"
200-670 (650-2000) 60-915 (200-3000) 215-795 (700-2600) 305-3050 (1000-10,000) 365-915 (1200-3000) 105-535 (350-1750) 215-670 (700-2200) 90-305 (300-1000) 45-455 (150-1500) 200-610 (650-2000) 275-915 (900-3000)
Polycrystalline diamond Polycrystalline diamond Uncoated carbide Ceramic-coated carbide Triple-coated carbide TiN-coated carbide Cermet Polycrystalline diamond
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Page 22-13
General Recommendations for Turning Operations (cont.)
Workpiece material Tungsten alloys
Thermoplastics and thermosets
Composites, graphite reinforced
Cutting tool Uncoated carbide TiN-coated carbide TiN-coated carbide Polycrystalline diamond TiN-coated carbide Polycrystalline diamond
General-purpose starting conditions Feed Cutting speed Depth of cut mm/rev m/min mm (in.) (in./rev) (ft/min) 2.5 (0.10) "
0.2 (0.008) "
1.2 (0.05) "
0.12 (0.005) "
1.9 (0.075) "
0.2 (0.008) "
75 (250) 85 (275) 170 (550) 395 (1300) 200 (650) 760 (2500)
Range for roughing and finishing Depth of cut Feed Cutting speed mm mm/rev m/min (in.) (in./rev) (ft/min) 0.25-5.0 (0.01-0.2) "
0.12-0.45 (0.005-0.018) "
0.12-5.0 (0.005-0.20) "
0.08-0.35 (0.003-0.015) "
0.12-6.3 (0.005-0.25) "
0.12-1.5 (0.005-0.06) "
55-120 (175-400) 60-150 (200-500) 90-230 (300-750) 150-730 (500-2400) 105-290 (350-950) 550-1310 (1800-4300)
Source: Based on data from Kennametal, Inc. Note: Cutting speeds for high-speed steel tools are about one-half those for uncoated carbides.
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 22-14
General Recommendations for Cutting Fluids for Machining TABLE 22.5 Material Aluminum Beryllium Copper Magnesium Nickel Refractory Steels (carbon and low alloy) Steels (stainless) Titanium Zinc Zirconium
Type of fluid D, MO, E, MO FO, CSN MC, E, CSN D, E, CSN, MO FO D, MO, MO FO MC, E, CSN MC, E, EP D, MO, E, CSN, EP D, MO, E, CSN CSN, EP, MO C, MC, E, CSN D, E, CSN
Note: CSN, chemicals and synthetics; D, dry; E, emulsion; EP, extreme pressure; FO, fatty oil; and MO, mineral oil.
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 22-15
Typical Capacities and Maximum Workpiece Dimensions for Machine Tools TABLE 22.6 Machine tool Maximum dimension (m) Lathes (swing/length) Bench 0.3/1 Engine 3/5 Turret 0.5/1.5 Automatic screw 0.1/0.3 Boring machines (work diameter/length) Vertical spindle 4/3 Horizontal spindle 1.5/2 70 Drilling machines Bench and column (drill diameter) 0.1 Radial (column to spindle distance) 3 Numerical control (table travel) 4 Note: Larger capacities are available for special applications.
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Power (kW)
Maximum rpm
<1 70 60 20
3000 4000 3000 10,000
200 1000
300
10 — —
12,000 — —
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Collets Figure 22.6 (a) and (b) Schematic illustrations of a draw-in type collet. The workpiece is placed in the collet hole, and the conical surfaces of the collet are forced inward by pulling it with a draw bar into the sleeve. (c) A push-out type collet. (d) Workholding of a part on a face plate.
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Mandrels
Figure 22.7 Various types of mandrels to hold workpieces for turning. These mandrels are usually mounted between centers on a lathe. Note that in (a), both the cylindrical and the end faces of the workpiece can be machined, whereas in (b) and (c), only the cylindrical surfaces can be machined.
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Swiss-Type Automatic Screw Machine
Figure 22.8 Schematic illustration of a Swiss-type automatic screw machine. Source: George Gorton Machine Company.
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Page 22-19
Turret Lathe
Figure 22.9 Schematic illustration of the components of a turret lathe. Note the two turrets: square and hexagonal (main). Source: American Machinist and Automated Manufacturing.
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Computer Numerical Control Lathe Figure 22.10 A computer numerical control lathe. Note the two turrets on this machine. Source: Jones & Lamson, Textron, Inc.
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Examples of Turrets (a)
(b)
Figure 22.11 (a) A turret with six different tools for inside-diameter and outside-diameter cutting and threading operations. (b) A turret with eight different cutting tools. Source: Monarch Machine Tool Company. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 22-22
Examples of Parts Made on CNC Turning Machine Tools
Figure 22.12
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Examples of Machining Complex Shapes
Figure 22.13
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Machining of Various Complex Shapes TABLE 22.7 Example: Machining of Various Complex Shapes Operation Cutting speed (a) OD 160 m/min roughing 1150 rpm (525 fpm)
Depth of cut
Feed
Tool
3 mm (0.12 in.)
0.3 mm/rev (0.012 ipr)
K10 (C3)
OD finishing
1750
250 (820)
0.2 (0.008)
0.15 (0.0059)
K10 (C3)
Lead roughing
300
45 (148)
3 (0.12)
0.15 (0.0059)
K10 (C3)
300
45 (148)
0.1 (0.004)
0.15 (0.0059)
Diamond compact
200 rpm
5-11 m/min (16-136 fpm)
1.5 mm (0.059 in)
0.2 mm/rev (0.008 ipr)
K10 (C3)
200
5-11 (16-36)
0.1 (0.004)
0.05 (0.0020)
K10 (C3)
800 rpm
70 m/min (230 fpm)
1.6 mm (0.063 in.)
0.15 mm/rev (0.0059 ipr)
Coated carbide
800
70 (230)
0.1 (0.004)
0.15 (0.0059)
Cermet
Lead finishing (b) Eccentric roughing Eccentric finishing (c) Thread roughing Thread finishing
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Typical Production Rates for Various Cutting Operations TABLE 22.8 Operation Rate Turning Engine lathe Very low to low Tracer lathe Low to medium Turret lathe Low to medium Computer-control lathe Low to medium Single-spindle chuckers Medium to high Multiple-spindle chuckers High to very high Boring Very low Drilling Low to medium Milling Low to medium Planing Very low Gear cutting Low to medium Broaching Medium to high Sawing Very low to low Note: Production rates indicated are relative: Very low is about one or more parts per hour; medium is approximately 100 parts per hour; very high is 1000 or more parts per hour. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 22-26
Surface Roughnesses Figure 22.14 The range of surface roughnesses obtained in various machining processes. Note the wide range within each group, especially in turning and boring. See also Fig. 26.4.
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Page 22-27
Dimensional Tolerances Figure 22.15 The range of dimensional tolerances obtained in various machining processes as a function of workpiece size. Note that there is an order of magnitude difference between small and large workpieces. Source: Adapted from Manufacturing Planning and Estimating Handbook, McGrawHill, 1963.
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General Troubleshooting Guide for Turning Operations TABLE 22.9 Problem Tool breakage Excessive tool wear Rough surface finish Dimensional variability Tool chatter
Probable causes Tool material lacks toughness; improper tool angles; machine tool lacks stiffness; worn bearings and machine components; cutting parameters too high. Cutting parameters too high; improper tool material; ineffective cutting fluid ; improper tool angles. Built-up edge on tool; feed too high; tool too sharp, chipped or worn; vibration and chatter. Lack of stiffness; excessive temperature rise; tool wear. Lack of stiffness; workpiece not supported rigidly; excessive tool overhang.
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Page 22-29
Examples of Threads
Figure 22.16 (a) Standard nomenclature for screw threads. (b) Unified National thread and identification of threads. (c) ISO metric thread and identification of threads. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Types of Screw Threads
Figure 22.17 Various types of screw threads. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Cutting Screw Threads
Figure 22.18 (a) Cutting screw threads on a lathe with a single-point cutting tool. (b) Cutting screw threads with a single-point tool in several passes, normally utilized for large threads. The small arrows in the figures show the direction of feed, and the broken lines show the position of the cutting tool as time progresses. Note that in radial cutting, the tool is fed directly into the workpiece. In flank cutting, the tool is fed into the piece along the right face of the thread. In incremental cutting, the tool is first fed directly into the piece at the center of the thread, then at its sides, and finally into the root. (c) A typical carbide insert and toolholder for cutting screw threads. (d) Cutting internal screw threads with a carbide insert. (See also Figs. 21.2 and 21.3.) Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Threading Die
Figure 22.19 (a) Straight chasers for cutting threads on a lathe. (b) Circular chasers. (c) A solid threading die.
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Boring Figure 22.20 (a) Schematic illustration of a steel boring bar with a carbide insert. Note the passageway in the bar for cutting fluid application. (b) Schematic illustration of a boring bar with tungsten-alloy “inertia disks” sealed in the bar to counteract vibration and chatter during boring. This system is effective for boring bar length-to-diameter ratios of up to 6. (c) Schematic illustration of the components of a vertical boring mill. Source: Kennametal Inc.
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Horizontal Boring Mill Figure 22.21 Horizontal boring mill. Source: Giddings and Lewis, Inc.
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Drills
Figure 22.2 Various types of drills Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Drill Point Geometries
Figure 22.23 (a) Standard chisel-point drill indicating various features. The function of the pair of margins is to provide a bearing surface for the drill against walls of the hole as it penetrates into the workpiece; drills with four margins (double-margin) are available for improved drill guidance and accuracy. Drills with chip-breaker features are also available. (b) Crankshaft-point drill. (c) Various drill points and their manufacturers: 1. Fourfacet split point, by Komet of America. 2. SE point, by Hertel. 3. New point, by Mitsubishi Materials. 4. Hosoi point, by OSG Tap and Die. 5. Helical point. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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General Recommendations for Drill Geometry TABLE 22.10 General Recommendations for Drill Geometry for High-Speed Twist Drills Workpiece Point Lip-relief Chisel-edge material angle angle angle Aluminum alloys 90–118 12–15 125–135 Magnesium alloys 70–118 12–15 120–135 Copper alloys 118 12–15 125–135 Steels 118 10–15 125–135 High-strength steels 118–135 7–10 125–135 Stainless steels, 118 10–12 125–135 low strength Stainless steels, 118–135 7–10 120–130 high strength High-temp. alloys 118–135 9–12 125–135 Refractory alloys 118 7–10 125–135 Titanium alloys 118–135 7–10 125–135 Cast irons 118 8–12 125–135 Plastics 60–90 7 120–135
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Helix angle 24–48 30–45 10–30 24–32 24–32 24–32
Point Standard Standard Standard Standard Crankshaft Standard
24–32
Crankshaft
15–30 24–32 15–32 24–32 29
Crankshaft Standard Crankshaft Standard Standard
Page 22-38
Drilling and Reaming Operations
Figure 22.24 Various types of drilling and reaming operations.
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Page 22-39
Gun Drilling Figure 22.25 (a) A gun drill showing various features. (b) Method of gun drilling. Source: Eldorado Tool and Manufacturing Corporation.
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Trepanning
Figure 22.26 (a) Trepanning tool. (b) Trepanning with a drill-mounted single cutter.
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Capabilities of Drilling and Boring Operations TABLE 22.11
Tool type Twist Spade Gun Trepanning Boring
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Diameter range (mm) 0.5–150 25–150 2–50 40–250 3–1200
Hole depth/diameter Typical 8 30 100 10 5
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Maximum 50 100 300 100 8
Page 22-42
General Recommendations for Speeds and Feeds in Drilling TABLE 22.12 Surface speed Workpiece material Aluminum alloys Magnesium alloys Copper alloys Steels Stainless steels Titanium alloys Cast irons Thermoplastics Thermosets
m/min 30–120 45–120 15–60 20–30 10–20 6–20 20–60 30–60 20–60
ft/min 100–400 150–400 50–200 60–100 40–60 20–60 60–200 100–200 60–200
Feed, mm/rev (in/rev) Drill Diameter 1.5 mm (0.060 in.) 0.025 (0.001) 0.025 (0.001) 0.025 (0.001) 0.025 (0.001) 0.025 (0.001) 0.010 (0.0004) 0.025 (0.001) 0.025 (0.001) 0.025 (0.001)
12.5 mm (0.5 in.) 0.30 (0.012) 0.30 (0.012) 0.25 (0.010) 0.30 (0.012) 0.18 (0.007) 0.15 (0.006) 0.30 (0.012) 0.13 (0.005) 0.10 (0.004)
RPM 1.5 mm 6400–25,000 9600–25,000 3200–12,000 4300–6400 2100–4300 1300–4300 4300–12,000 6400–12,000 4300–12,000
12.5 mm 800–3000 1100–3000 400–1500 500–800 250–500 150–500 500–1500 800–1500 500–1500
Note: As hole depth increases, speeds and feeds should be reduced. Selection of speeds and feeds also depends on the specific surface finish required.
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General Troubleshooting and Drill Life TABLE 22.12 General Troubleshooting Guide for Drilling Operations Problem Probable causes Drill breakage Dull drill; drill seizing in hole because of chips clogging flutes; feed too high; lip relief angle too small. Excessive drill wear Cutting speed too high; ineffective cutting fluid; rake angle too high; drill burned and strength lost when sharpened. Tapered hole Drill misaligned or bent; lips not equal; web not central. Oversize hole Same as above; machine spindle loose; chisel edge not central; side pressure on workpiece. Poor hole surface finish Dull drill; ineffective cutting fluid; welding of workpiece material on drill margin; improperly ground drill; improper alignment.
Figure 22.27 The determination of drill life by monitoring the rise in force or torque as a function of the number of holes drilled. This test is also used for determining tap life.
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Page 22-44
Drilling Machines (a)
(b)
Figure 22.28 Schematic illustration of components of (a) a vertical drill press and (b) a radial drilling machine.
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CNC Drilling Machine
Figure 22.29 A three-axis computer numerical control drilling machine. The turret holds as much as eight different tools, such as drills, taps, and reamers.
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Reamers Figure 22.30 (a) Terminology for a helical reamer. (b) Inserted-blade adjustable reamer.
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Tapping and Taps Figure 22.31 (a) Terminology for a tap. (b) Tapping of steel nuts in production.
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CHAPTER 23 Machining Processes Used to Produce Various Shapes
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Examples of Parts Produced Using the Machining Processes in the Chapter
Figure 23.1 Typical parts and shapes produced with the machining processes described in this chapter.
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Examples of Milling Cutters and Operations Figure 23.2 Some of the basic types of milling cutters and milling operations.
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Example of Part Produced on a CNC Milling Machine Figure 23.3 A typical part that can be produced on a milling machine equipped with computer controls. Such parts can be made efficiently and repetitively on computer numerical control (CNC) machines, without the need for refixturing or reclamping the part.
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Conventional and Climb Milling Figure 23.4 (a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and climb milling. (b) Slab milling operation, showing depth of cut, d, feed per tooth, f, chip depth of cut, tc, and workpiece speed, v. (c) Schematic illustration of cutter travel distance lc to reach full depth of cut.
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Summary of Milling Parameters and Formulas TABLE 23.1 N = f = D = n = v = V =
Rotational speed of the milling cutter, rpm Feed, mm/tooth or in./tooth Cutter diameter, mm or in. Number of teeth on cutter Linear speed of the workpiece or feed rate, mm/min or in./min Surface speed of cutter, m/min or ft/min =D N f = Feed per tooth, mm/tooth or in/tooth =v /N n l = Length of cut, mm or in. t = Cutting time, s or min =( l+lc ) v , where lc =extent of the cutter’s first contact with workpiece MRR = mm3/min or in.3/min =w d v , where w is the width of cut Torque = N-m or lb-ft ( Fc ) (D/2) Power = kW or hp = (Torque) (ω ), where ω = 2π N radians/min Note: The units given are those that are commonly used; however, appropriate units must be used in the formulas. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Face Milling Figure 23.5 Face-milling operation showing (a) action of an insert in face milling; (b) climb milling; (c) conventional milling; (d) dimensions in face milling. The width of cut, w, is not necessarily the same as the cutter radius. Source: Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company.
Figure 23.6 A face-milling cutter with indexable inserts. Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Effects of Insert Shapes
Figure 23.7 Schematic illustration of the effect of insert shape on feed marks on a face-milled surface: (a) small corner radius, (b) corner flat on insert, and (c) wiper, consisting of a small radius followed by a large radius which leaves smoother feed marks. Source: Kennametal Inc. (d) Feed marks due to various insert shapes. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 23-8
Face-Milling Cutter
Figure 23.8 Terminology for a face-milling cutter.
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Effect of Lead Angle Figure 23.9 The effect of lead angle on the undeformed chip thickness in face milling. Note that as the lead angle increase, the chip thickness decreases, but the length of contact (i.e., chip width) increases. The insert in (a) must be sufficiently large to accommodate the contact length increase.
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Cutter and Insert Position in Face Milling Figure 23.10 (a) Relative position of the cutter and insert as it first engages the workpiece in face milling, (b) insert positions towards the end of the cut, and (c) examples of exit angles of insert, showing desirable (positive or negative angle) and undesirable (zero angle) positions. In all figures, the cutter spindle is perpendicular to the page.
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Page 23-11
Cutters for Different Types of Milling Figure 23.11 Cutters for (a) straddle milling, (b) form milling, (c) slotting, and (d) slitting with a milling cutter.
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Other Milling Operations and Cutters Figure 23.12 (a) T-slot cutting with a milling cutter. (b) A shell mill.
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Arbors
Figure 23.13 Mounting a milling cutter on an arbor for use on a horizontal milling machine.
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Page 23-14
Capacities and Maximum Workpiece Dimensions for Machine Tools TABLE 23.2 Typical Capacities and Maximum Workpiece Dimensions for Some Machine Tools Machine tool Milling machines (table travel) Knee-and-column Bed Numerical control Planers (table travel) Broaching machines (length) Gear cutting (gear diameter)
Maximum dimension m (ft)
Power (kW)
Maximum speed
1.4 (4.6) 4.3 (14) 5 (16.5) 10 (33) 2 (6.5) 5 (16.5)
20
4000 rpm
100 0.9 MN
1.7
Note: Larger capacities are available for special applications.
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Page 23-15
TABLE 23.3 Approximate Cost of Selected Tools for Machining* Tools Drills, HSS, straight shank
Approximate Cost of Selected Tools for Machining
Size (in.) Cost ($) 1/4 1.00–2.00 1/2 3.00–6.00 Coated (TiN) 1/4 2.60–3.00 1/2 10–15 Tapered shank 1/4 2.50–7.00 1 15–45 2 80–85 3 250 4 950 Reamers, HSS, hand 1/4 10–15 1/2 10–15 Chucking 1/2 5–10 1 20–25 1 1/2 40–55 End mills, HSS 1/2 10–15 1 15–30 Carbide-tipped 1/2 30–35 1 45–60 Solid carbide 1/2 30–70 1 180 Burs, carbide 1/2 10–20 1 50–60 Milling cutters, HSS, staggered tooth, wide 4 35–75 8 130–260 Collets (5 core) 1 10–20 *Cost depends on the particular type of material and shape of tool, its quality, and the amount purchased.
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TABLE 23.4
Workpiece material Low-C and freemachining steels Alloy steels Soft
General Recommendations for Milling Operations
Hard Cast iron, gray Soft Hard Stainless steel, austenitic High-temperature alloys, nickel base Titanium alloys Aluminum alloys Free machining High silicon Copper alloys Thermoplastics and thermosets
Cutting tool
General-purpose starting conditions Speed Feed m/min mm/tooth (ft/min) (in./tooth)
Range of conditions Speed Feed m/min mm/tooth (ft/min) (in./tooth)
Uncoated carbide, coated carbide, cermets
0.13–0.20 (0.005–0.008)
120–180 (400–600)
0.085–0.38 (0.003–0.015)
90–425 (300–1400)
Uncoated, coated, cermets Cermets, PCBN
0.10–0.18 (0.004–0.007) 0.10–0.15 (0.004–0.006)
90–170 (300–550) 180–210 (600–700)
0.08–0.30 (0.003–0.012) 0.08–0.25 (0.003–0.010)
60–370 (200–1200) 75–460 (250–1500)
Uncoated, coated, cermets, SiN Cermets, SiN, PCBN Uncoated, coated, cermets Uncoated, coated, cermets, SiN, PCBN Uncoated, coated, cermets
0.10–10.20 (0.004–0.008) 0.10–0.20 (0.004–0.008) 0.13–0.18 (0.005–0.007) 0.10–0.18 (0.004–0.007)
120–760 (400–2500) 120–210 (400–700) 120–370 (400–1200) 30–370 (100–1200)
0.08–0.38 (0.003–0.015) 0.08–0.38 (0.003–0.015) 0.08–0.38 (0.003–0.015) 0.08–0.38 (0.003–0.015)
90–1370 (300–4500) 90–460 (300–1500) 90–500 (300–1800) 30–550 (90–1800)
0.13–0.15 (0.005–0.006)
50–60 (175–200)
0.08–0.38 (0.003–0.015)
40–140 (125–450)
0.13–0.23 (0.005–0.009) 0.13 (0.005) 0.13–0.23 (0.005–0.009) 0.13–0.23 (0.005–0.009)
610–900 (2000–3000) 610 (2000) 300–760 (1000–2500) 270–460 (900–1500)
0.08–0.46 (0.003–0.018) 0.08–0.38 (0.003–0–015) 0.08–0.46 (0.003–0.018) 0.08–0.46 (0.003–0.018)
300–3000 (1000–10,000) 370–910 (1200–3000) 90–1070 (300–3500) 90–1370 (300–4500)
Uncoated, coated, PCD PCD Uncoated, coated, PCD Uncoated, coated, PCD
Source: Based on data from Kennametal Inc. Note: Depths of cut, d , usually are in the range of 1–8 mm (0.04–0.3 in.). PCBN: polycrystalline cubic boron nitride; PCD: polycrystalline diamond. Note: See also Table 22.2 for range of cutting speeds within tool material groups.
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Page 23-17
General Troubleshooting Guide for Milling Operations TABLE 23.5 Problem Tool breakage Tool wear excessive Rough surface finish Tolerances too broad Workpiece surface burnished Back striking Chatter marks Burr formation Breakout
Probable causes Tool material lacks toughness; improper tool angles; cutting parameters too high. Cutting parameters too high; improper tool material; improper tool angles; improper cutting fluid. Feed too high; spindle speed too low; too few teeth on cutter; tool chipped or worn; built-up edge; vibration and chatter. Lack of spindle stiffness; excessive temperature rise; dull tool; chips clogging cutter. Dull tool; depth of cut too low; radial relief angle too small. Dull cutting tools; cutter spindle tilt; negative tool angles. Insufficient stiffness of system; external vibrations; feed, depth, and width of cut too large. Dull cutting edges or too much honing; incorrect angle of entry or exit; feed and depth of cut too high; incorrect insert geometry. Lead angle too low; incorrect cutting edge geometry; incorrect angle of entry or exit; feed and depth of cut too high.
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Surface Features and Corner Defects
Figure 23.14 Surface features and corner defects in face milling operations; see also Fig. 23.7. For troubleshooting, see Table 23.5. Source: Kennametal Inc. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 23-19
Horizontal- and Vertical-Spindle Column-andKnee Type Milling Machines Figure 23.15 Schematic illustration of a horizontalspindle column-and-knee type milling machine. Source: G. Boothroyd.
Figure 23.16 Schematic illustration of a vertical-spindle column-and-knee type milling machine (also called a knee miller). Source: G. Boothroyd. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Bed-Type Milling Machine Figure 23.17 Schematic illustration of a bed-type milling machine. Note the single vertical-spindle cutter and two horizontal spindle cutters. Source: ASM International.
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Additional Milling Machines Figure 23.18 A computer numerical control, vertical-spindle milling machine. This machine is one of the most versatile machine tools. Source: Courtesy of Bridgeport Machines Division, Textron Inc.
Figure 23.19 Schematic illustration of a five-axis profile milling machine. Note that there are three principal linear and two angular movements of machine components
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Examples of Parts Made on a Planer and by Broaching Figure 23.20 Typical parts that can be made on a planer.
Figure 23.21 (a) Typical parts made by internal broaching. (b) Parts made by surface broaching. Heavy lines indicate broached surfaces. Source: General Broach and Engineering Company. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Broaches
Figure 23.22 (a) Cutting action of a broach, showing various features. (b) Terminology for a broach.
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Chipbreakers and a Broaching Machine Figure 23.23 Chipbreaker features on (a) a flat broach and (b) a round broach. (c) Vertical broaching machine. Source: Ty Miles, Inc. (a)
(c)
(b)
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Internal Broach and Turn Broaching
Figure 23.24 Terminology for a pull-type internal broach used for enlarging long holes. Figure 23.25 Turn broaching of a crankshaft. The crankshaft rotates while the broaches pass tangentially across the crankshaft’s bearing surfaces. Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company.
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Broaching Internal Splines
Figure 23.26
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Sawing Operations Figure 23.27 Examples of various sawing operations. Source: DoALL Company.
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Types of Saw Teeth
Figure 23.28 (a) Terminology for saw teeth. (b) Types of tooth set on saw teeth, staggered to provide clearance for the saw blade to prevent binding during sawing.
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Saw Teeth and Burs Figure 23.29 (a) High-speed-steel teeth welded on steel blade. (b) Carbide inserts brazed to blade teeth.
Figure 23.30 Types of burs. Source: The Copper Group.
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Spur Gear Figure 23.31 Nomenclature for an involute spur gear.
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Page 23-31
Gear Generating Figure 23.32 (a) Producing gear teeth on a blank by from cutting. (b) Schematic illustration of gear generating with a pinionshaped gear cutter. (c) Schematic illustration of gear generating in a gear shaper using a pinionshaped cutter. Note that the cutter reciprocates vertically. (d) Gear generating with rackshaped cutter.
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Page 23-32
Gear Cutting With a Hob Figure 23.33 Schematic illustration of three views of gear cutting with a hob. Source: After E. P. DeGarmo and Society of Manufacturing Engineers
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Page 23-33
Cutting Bevel Gears
Figure 23.34 (a) Cutting a straight bevel-gear blank with two cutters. (b) Cutting a spiral bevel gear with a single cutter. Source: ASM International.
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Page 23-34
Gear Grinding Figure 23.25 Finishing gears by grinding: (a) form grinding with shaped grinding wheels; (b) grinding by generating with two wheels.
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Page 23-35
Economics of Gear Production Figure 23.36 Gear manufacturing cost as a function of gear quality. The numbers along the vertical lines indicate tolerances. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
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Page 23-36
CHAPTER 24 Machining and Turning Centers, Machine-Tool Structures, and Machining Economics
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Page 24-1
Examples of Parts Machined on Machining Centers Figure 24.1 Examples of parts that can be machined on machining centers, using various processes such as turning, facing, milling, drilling, boring, reaming, and threading. Such parts would ordinarily require a variety of machine tools. Source: Toyoda Machinery.
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Horizontal-Spindle Machining Center Figure 24.2 A horizontal-spindle machining center, equipped with an automatic tool changes. Tool magazines can store 200 cutting tools. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
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Five-Axis Machining Center Figure 24.3 Schematic illustration of a five-axis machining center. Note that in addition to the three linear movements, the pallet can be swiveled (rotated) along two axes, allowing the machining of complex shapes such as those shown in Fig. 24.1. Source: Toyoda Machinery.
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Page 24-4
Pallets
Figure 24.4 (a) Schematic illustration of the top view of a horizontal-spindle machining center showing the pallet pool, set-up station for a pallet, pallet carrier, and an active pallet in operation (shown directly below the spindle of the machine). (b) Schematic illustration of two machining centers with a common pallet pool. Various other arrangements are possible in such systems. Source: Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.
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Page 24-5
Swing-Around Tool Changer Figure 24.5 Swing-around tool changer on a horizontal-spindle machining center. Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
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Page 24-6
Touch Probes Figure 24.6 Touch probes used in machining centers for determining workpiece and tool positions and surfaces relative to the machine table or column. (a) Touch probe determining the X-Y (horizontal) position of a workpiece, (b) determining the height of a horizontal surface, (c) determining the planar position of the surface of a cutter (for instance, for cutter-diameter compensation), and (d) determining the length of a tool for tool-length offset. Source: Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.
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Vertical-Spindle Machining Center Figure 24.7 A vertical-spindle machining center. The tool magazine is on the left of the machine. The control panel on the right can be swiveled by the operator. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
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Page 24-8
CNC Turning Center
Figure 24.8 Schematic illustration of a three-turret, two-spindle computer numerical controlled turning center. Source: Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.
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Page 24-9
Chip-Collecting System
Figure 24.9 Schematic illustration of a chip-collecting system in a horizontalspindle machining center. The chips that fall by gravity are collected by the two horizontal conveyors at the bottom of the troughs. Source: Okuma Machinery Works Ltd.
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Page 24-10
Machining Outer Bearing Races on a Turning Center Figure 24.10
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Page 24-11
Machine-Tool Structure and Guideways Figure 24.11 An example of a machinetool structure. The boxtype, one-piece design with internal diagonal ribs significantly improves the stiffness of the machine. Source: Okuma Machinery Works Ltd.
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Figure 24.12 Steel guideways integrally-cast on top of the cast-iron bed of a machining center. Because of its higher elastic modulus, the steel provides higher stiffness than cast iron. Source: Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.
Page 24-12
Chatter
Figure 24.13 Chatter marks (right of center of photograph) on the surface of a turned part. Source: General Electric Company.
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Page 24-13
Internal Damping of Structural Materials
Figure 24.14 The relative damping capacity of (a) gray cast iron and (b) epoxygranite composite material. The vertical scale is the amplitude of vibration and the horizontal scale is time. Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
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Page 24-14
Joints in Machine-Tool Structures Figure 24.15 The damping of vibrations as a function of the number of components on a lathe. Joints dissipate energy; the greater the number of joints, the higher the damping capacity of the machine. Source: J. Peters.
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Machining Economics Figure 24.16 Graphs showing (a) cost per piece and (b) time per piece in machining. Note the optimum speeds for both cost and time. The range between the two is known as the highefficiency machining range. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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CHAPTER 25 Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations
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Examples of Bonded Abrasives
Figure 25.1 A variety of bonded abrasives used in abrasive machining processes. Source: Courtesy of Norton Company.
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General Characteristics of Abrasive Machining Processes and Machines TABLE 25.1 Process Surface
Cylindrical
Characteristics Flat surfaces on most materials; production rate depends on table size and automation; labor skill depends on part; production rate is high on vertical-spindle rotary-table type. Round workpieces with stepped diameters; low production rate unless automated; labor skill depends on part shape.
Centerless Round workpieces; high production rate; low to medium labor skill. Internal Bores in workpiece; low production rate; low to medium labor skill. Honing Bores and holes in workpiece; low production rate; low labor skill. Lapping Flat surfaces; high production rate; low labor skill. Ultrasonic Holes and cavities of various shapes, particularly in hard and brittle machining nonconducting materials. *Larger capacities are available for special applications. L=length; D=diameter.
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Maximum dimension (m)* Reciprocating table L : 6 Rotary table D : 3 Workpiece D : 0.8 Roll grinders D : 1.8 Universal grinders D : 2.5 Workpiece D : 0.8 Hole D : 2 Spindle D : 1.2 Table D : 3.7 —
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Workpiece Geometries
Figure 25.2 The types of workpieces and operations typical of grinding: (a) cylindrical surfaces, (b) conical surfaces, (c) fillets on a shaft, (d) helical profiles, (e) concave shape, (f) cutting off or slotting with thin wheels, and (g) internal grinding. See also the illustrations in Section 25.6.
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Knoop Hardness for Various Materials and Abrasives TABLE 25.2
Common glass Flint, quartz Zirconium oxide Hardened steels Tungsten carbide Aluminum oxide
350–500 800–1100 1000 700–1300 1800–2400 2000–3000
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Titanium nitride Titanium carbide Silicon carbide Boron carbide Cubic boron nitride Diamond
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2000 1800–3200 2100–3000 2800 4000–5000 7000–8000
Page 25-5
Grinding Wheel Figure 25.3 Schematic illustration of a physical model of a grinding wheel, showing its structure and wear and fracture patterns.
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Common Grinding Wheels Figure 25.4 Common types of grinding wheels made with conventional abrasives. Note that each wheel has a specific grinding face; grinding on other surfaces is improper and unsafe.
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Superabrasive Wheel Configurations Figure 25.5 Examples of superabrasive wheel configurations. The annular regions (rim) are superabrasive grinding surfaces, and the wheel itself (core) is generally made of metal or composites. The bonding materials for the superabrasives are (a), (d), and (e) resinoid, metal, or vitrified, (b) metal, (c) vitrified, and (f) resinoid.
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Marking System for Aluminum-Oxide and Silicon-Carbide Bonded Abrasives Figure 25.6 Standard marking system for aluminum-oxide and silicon-carbide bonded abrasives.
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Standard Marking System for Cubic Boron Nitride and Diamond Bonded Abrasives Figure 25.7 Standard marking system for cubic boron nitride and diamond bonded abrasives.
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Page 25-10
Grinding Chips (a)
(b)
Figure 25.8 (a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive grain. (A) chip, (B) workpiece, (C) abrasive grain. Note the large negative rake angle of the grain. The inscribed circle is 0.065 mm (0.0025 in.) in diameter. Source: M. E. Merchant. (b) Schematic illustration of chip formation by an abrasive grain with a wear flat. Note the negative rake angle of the grain and the small shear angle.
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Grinding Wheel Surface Figure 25.9 The surface of a grinding wheel (A46-J8V) showing abrasive grains, wheel porosity, wear flats on grains, and metal chips from the workpiece adhering to the grians. Note the random distribution and shape of abrasive grains. Magnification: 50X. Source: S. Kalpakjian.
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Page 25-12
Surface Grinding and Plowing Figure 25.10 Schematic illustration of the surface grinding process, showing various process variables. The figure depicts conventional (up) grinding.
Figure 25.11 Chip formation and plowing of the workpiece surface by an abrasive grain. This action is similar to abrasive wear. (See Fig. 32.6). Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Approximate Specific Energy Requirements for Surface Grinding TABLE 25.3 Specific energy Workpiece material Aluminum Cast iron (class 40) Low-carbon steel (1020) Titanium alloy Tool steel (T15)
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Hardness 150 HB 215 HB 110 HB 300 HB 67 HRC
3
W-s/mm 7–27 12–60 14–68 16–55 18–82
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
3
hp-min/in. 2.5–10 4.5–22 5–25 6–20 6.5–30
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Shaping Using Computer Control Figure 25.12 Shaping the grinding face of a wheel by dressing it with computer control. Note that the diamond dressing tool is normal to the surface at point of contact with the wheel. Source: Okuma Machinery Works Ltd.
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Page 25-15
Speed and Feed Ranges and Grinding Wheel Recommendations TABLE 25.4 Typical Range of Speeds and Feeds for Abrasive Processes Conventional Creep-feed Process variable grinding grinding Buffing Wheel speed (m/min) 1500–3000 1500–3000 1800–3600 Work speed (m/min) 10–60 0.1–1 — Feed (mm/pass) 0.01–0.05 1–6 —
Polishing 1500–2400 — —
TABLE 25.5 Typical Recommendations for Grinding Wheels for Use with Various Materials Material Type of grinding wheel Aluminum C46–K6V Brass C46–K6V Bronze A54–K6V Cast iron C60–L6V, A60–M6V Carbides C60–I9V, D150–R75B Ceramics D150–N50M Copper C60–J8V Nickel alloys B150H100V Nylon A36–L8V Steels A60–M6V Titanium A60–K8V Tool steels ( > 50 HRC) B120WB Note: These recommendations vary significantly, depending on material composition, the particular grinding operation, and grinding fluids used. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 25-16
Surface Grinding Operations Figure 25.13 Schematic illustrations of various surface grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder. (b) Plunge grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder, producing a groove in the workpiece. (c) A vertical-spindle rotary-table grinder (also known as the Blanchard type).
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Page 25-17
Surface Grinding Figure 25.14 Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle surface grinder.
Figure 25.15 (a) Rough grinding of steel balls on a vertical-spindle grinder; the balls are guided by a special rotary fixture. (b) Finish grinding of balls in a multiple-groove fixture. The balls are ground to within 0.013 mm (0.0005 in.) of their final size. Source: American Machinist. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 25-18
Cylindrical Grinding Operations
Figure 25.16 Examples of various cylindrical grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding, (b) plunge grinding, and (c) profile grinding. Source: Okuma Machinery Works Ltd.
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Page 25-19
Plunge and Noncylindrical Grinding Figure 25.17 Plunge grinding of a workpiece on a cylindrical grinder with the wheel dressed to a stepped shape. See also Fig. 25.12.
Figure 25.18 Schematic illustration of grinding a noncylindrical part on a cylindrical grinder with computer controls to produce the shape. The part rotation and the distance x between centers is varied and synchronized to grind the particular workpiece shape. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 25-20
Thread and Internal Grinding
Figure 25.19 Thread grinding by (a) traverse, and (b) plunge grinding.
Figure 25.21 Schematic illustrations of internal grinding operations.
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Cycle Patterns in Cylindrical Grinding Figure 25.20
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Centerless Grinding
(c)
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Figure 25.22 Schematic illustrations of centerless grinding operations: (a) through feed grinding. (b) Plunge grinding. (c) A computer numerical control cylindrical grinding machine. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
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Page 25-23
Creep-Feed Grinding (a)
(c)
(b)
Figure 25.23 (a) Schematic illustration of the creep-feed grinding process. Note the large wheel depth of cut, d. (b) A shaped groove produced on a flat surface by creep-feed grinding in one pass. Groove depth is typically on the order of a few mm. (c) An example of creep-feed grinding with a shaped wheel. This operation can also be performed by some of the processes described in Chapter 26. Source: Courtesy of Blohm, Inc., and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
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Page 25-24
General Recommendations for Grinding Fluids TABLE 25.6 Material Grinding fluid E, EP Aluminum CSN, E, MO FO Copper D, MO Magnesium CSN, EP Nickel EP Refractory metals CSN, E Steels CSN, E Titanium D: dry; E: emulsion; EP: Extreme pressure; CSN: chemicals and synthetics; MO: mineral oil; FO: fatty oil.
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Page 25-25
Ultrasonic Machining and Coated Abrasives Figure 25.24 (a) Schematic illustration of the ultrasonic machining process. (b) and (c) Types of parts made by this process. Note the small size of holes produced.
Figure 25.25 Schematic illustration of the structure of a coated abrasive. Sandpaper, developed in the 16th century, and emery cloth are common examples of coated abrasives.
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Page 25-26
Belt Grinding Figure 25.26 Example: Belt Grinding of Turbine Nozzle Vanes.
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Page 25-27
Honing and Superfinishing Figure 25.27 Schematic illustration of a honing tool used to improve the surface finish of bored or ground holes.
Figure 25.28 Schematic illustrations of the superfinishing process for a cylindrical part. (a) Cylindrical mircohoning, (b) Centerless microhoning.
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Page 25-28
Lapping Figure 25.29 (a) Schematic illustration of the lapping process. (b) Production lapping on flat surfaces. (c) Production lapping on cylindrical surfaces.
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Page 25-29
Polishing Using Magnetic Fields
Figure 25.30 Schematic illustration of polishing of balls and rollers using magnetic fields. (a) Magnetic float polishing of ceramic balls. (b) Magnetic-field-assisted polishing of rollers. Source: R. Komanduri, M. Doc, and M. Fox.
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Page 25-30
Abrasive-Flow Machining Figure 25.31 Schematic illustration of abrasive flow machining to deburr a turbine impeller. The arrows indicate movement of the abrasive media. Note the special fixture, which is usually different for each part design. Source: Extrude Hone Corp.
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Page 25-31
Robotic Deburring Figure 25.32 A deburring operation on a robot-held die-cast part for an outboard motor housing, using a grinding wheel. Abrasive belts (Fig. 25.26) or flexible abrasive radialwheel brushes can also be used for such operations. Source: Courtesy of Acme Manufacturing Company and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
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Page 25-32
Economics of Grinding and Finishing Operations
Figure 25.33 Increase in the cost of machining and finishing a part as a function of the surface finish required. This is the main reason that the surface finish specified on parts should not be any finer than necessary for the part to function properly.
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CHAPTER 26 Advanced Machining Processes and Nanofabrication
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Examples of Parts Made by Advanced Machining Processes
(a)
(b)
Figure 26.1 Examples of parts made by advanced machining processes. These parts are made by advanced machining processes and would be difficult or uneconomical to manufacture by conventional processes. (a) Cutting sheet metal with a laser beam. Courtesy of Rofin-Sinar, Inc., and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (b) Microscopic gear with a diameter on the order of 100 µm, made by a special etching process. Courtesy of Wisconsin Center for Applied Microelectronics, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 26-2
TABLE 26. 1
Process Chemical machining (CM)
Electrochemical machining (ECM)
General Characteristics of Advanced Machining Processes
Electrochemical grinding (ECG) Electrical-discharge machining (EDM)
Wire EDM Laser-beam machining (LBM) Electron-beam machining (EBM) Water-jet machining (WJM)
Abrasive water-jet machining (AWJM) Abrasive-jet machining (AJM)
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Characteristics Shallow removal (up to 12 mm) on large flat or curved surfaces; blanking of thin sheets; low tooling and cost; suitable for low production runs. Complex shapes with deep cavities; highest rate of material removal among nontraditional processes; expensive tooling and equipment; high power consumption; medium to high production quantity. Cutting off and sharpening hard materials, such as tungsten-carbide tools; also used as a honing process; higher removal rate than grinding. Shaping and cutting complex parts made of hard materials; some surface damage may result; also used as a grinding and cutting process; expensive tooling and equipment. Contour cutting of flat or curved surfaces; expensive equipment. Cutting and holemaking on thin materials; heataffected zone; does not require a vacuum; expensive equipment; consumes much energy. Cutting and holemaking on thin materials; very small holes and slots; heat-affected zone; requires a vacuum; expensive equipment. Cutting all types of nonmetallic materials to 25 mm and greater in thickness; suitable for contour cutting of flexible materials; no thermal damage; noisy. Single or multilayer cutting of metallic and nonmetallic materials. Cutting, slotting, deburring, deflashing, etching, and cleaning of metallic and nonmetallic materials; manually controlled; tends to round off sharp edges; hazardous.
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Process parameters and typical material removal rate or cutting speed 0.0025–0.1 mm/min.
2
V: 5–25 dc; A: 1.5–8 A/mm ; 2.5–12 mm/min, depending on current density. 2
A: 1–3 A/mm ; Typically 25 3 mm /s per 1000 A. V: 50–380; A: 0.1–500; 3 Typically 300 mm /min. Varies with material and thickness. 0.50–7.5 m/min.
3
1–2 mm /min. Varies considerably with material. Up to 7.5 m/min. Varies considerably with material.
Page 26-3
Chemical Milling
Figure 26.2 (a) Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the stiffnessto-weight ratio of the part. (b) Weight reduction of space launch vehicles by chemical milling aluminum-alloy plates. These panels are chemically milled after the plates have first been formed into shape by processes such as roll forming or stretch forming. The design of the chemically machined rib patterns can be modified readily at minimal cost. Source: Advanced Materials and Processes, December 1990. ASM International. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 26-4
Chemical Machining Figure 26.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical machining process. Note that no forces or machine tools are involved in this process. (b) Stages in producing a profiled cavity by chemical machining; note the undercut.
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Page 26-5
Range of Surface Roughnesses and Tolerances
Figure 26.4 Surface roughness and tolerances obtained in various machining processes. Note the wide range within each process (see also Fig. 22.13). Source: Machining Data Handbook, 3rd ed. Copyright ©1980. Used by permission of Metcut Research Associates, Inc. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 26-6
Chemical Blanking and Electrochemical Machining Figure 26.5 Various parts made by chemical blanking. Note the fine detail. Source: Courtesy of Buckbee-Mears St. Paul.
Figure 26.6 Schematic illustration of the electrochemicalmachining process. This process is the reverse of electroplating, described in Section 33.8. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 26-7
Examples of Parts Made by Electrochemical Machining Figure 26.7 Typical parts made by electrochemical machining. (a) Turbine blade made of a nickel alloy, 360 HB; note the shape of the electrode on the right. Source: ASM International. (b) Thin slots on a 4340-steel roller-bearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor disk.
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Page 26-8
Biomedical Implant (a)
(b)
Figure 26.8 (a) Two total knee replacement systems showing metal implants (top pieces) with an ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene insert (bottom pieces). (b) Cross-section of the ECM process as applied to the metal implant. Source: Biomet, Inc.
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Electrochemical Grinding
Figure 26.9 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical-grinding process. (b) Thin slot produced on a round nickel-alloy tube by this process.
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Page 26-10
Electrical-Discharge Machining (a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 26.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge machining process. This is one of the most widely used machining processes, particularly for die-sinking operations. (b) Examples of cavities produced by the electrical-discharge machining process, using shaped electrodes. Two round parts (rear) are the set of dies for extruding the aluminum piece shown in front (see also Fig. 15.9b). Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd. (c) A spiral cavity produced by EDM using a slowly rotating electrode, similar to a screw thread. Source: American Machinist. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Examples of EDM Figure 26.11 Stepped cavities produced with a square electrode by the EDM process. The workpiece moves in the two principal horizontal directions (x-y), and its motion is synchronized with the downward movement of the electrode to produce these cavities. Also shown is a round electrode capable of producing round or elliptical cavities. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.
Figure 26.12 Schematic illustration of producing an inner cavity by EDM, using a specially designed electrode with a hinged tip, which is slowly opened and rotated to produce the large cavity. Source: Luziesa France.
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Page 26-12
Wire EDM Figure 26.13 (a) Schematic illustration of the wire EDM process. As much as 50 hours of machining can be performed with one reel of wire, which is then discarded. (b) Cutting a thick plate with wire EDM. (c) A computer-controlled wire EDM machine. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.
(a)
(b)
(c)
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Page 26-13
Laser-Beam Machining Figure 26.14 (a) Schematic illustration of the laser-beam machining process. (b) and (c) Examples of holes produced in nonmetallic parts by LBM.
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General Applications of Lasers in Manufacturing TABLE 26.2 Application Laser type Cutting Metals PCO2 , CWCO2 , Nd : YAG, ruby Plastics CWCO2 Ceramics PCO2 Drilling Metals PCO2 , Nd : YAG, Nd : glass, ruby Plastics Excimer Marking Metals PCO2 , Nd : YAG Plastics Excimer Ceramics Excimer Surface treatment, metals CWCO2 Welding, metals PCO2 , CWCO2 , Nd : YAG, Nd : glass, ruby Note: P pulsed, CW continuous wave.
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Page 26-15
Electron-Beam Machining
Figure 26.15 Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining process. Unlike LBM, this process requires a vacuum, so workpiece size is limited to the size of the vacuum chamber.
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Page 26-16
Water-Jet Machining (a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 26.16 (a) Schematic illustration of water-jet machining. (b) A computer-controlled, water-jet cutting machine cutting a granite plate. (c) Examples of various nonmetallic parts produced by the water-jet cutting process. Source: Courtesy of Possis Corporation. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 26-17
Abrasive-Jet Machining
Figure 26.17 Schematic illustration of the abrasive-jet machining process.
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Page 26-18
Nanofabrication (a)
(b)
Figure 26.18 (a) A scanning electron microscope view of a diamond-tipped (triangular piece at the right) cantilever used with the atomic force microscope. The diamond tip is attached to the end of the cantilever with an adhesive. (b) Scratches produced on a surface by the diamond tip under different forces. Note the extremely small size of the scratches.
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CHAPTER 27 Fusion-Welding Processes
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Page 27-1
General Characteristics of Fusion Welding Processes TABLE 27.1 Joining process
Operation
Shielded metal-arc
Manual
Submerged arc
Automatic
Gas metal-arc
Semiautomatic or automatic Manual or automatic Semiautomatic or automatic Manual
Gas tungsten-arc Flux-cored arc Oxyfuel
Electron-beam, Semiautomatic Laser-beam or automatic * 1, highest; 5, lowest.
Advantage Portable and flexible High deposition Most metals Most metals High deposition Portable and flexible Most metals
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Skill level required
Welding position
Current type
Distortion
*
Cost of equipment
High
All
ac, dc
1 to 2
Low
Low to medium Low to high Low to high Low to high High
Flat and horizontal All
ac, dc
1 to 2
Medium
dc
2 to 3
All
ac, dc
2 to 3
Medium to high Medium
All
dc
1 to 3
Medium
All
—
2 to 4
Low
Medium to high
All
—
3 to 5
High
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 27-2
Oxyacetylene Flames Used in Welding
Figure 27.1 Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame. The gas mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene.
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 27-3
Torch Used in Oxyacetylene Welding Figure 27.2 (a) General view of and (b) cross-section of a torch used in oxyacetylene welding. The acetylene valve is opened first; the gas is lit with a spark lighter or a pilot light; then the oxygen valve is opened and the flame adjusted. (c) Basic equipment used in oxyfuel-gas welding. To ensure correct connections, all threads on acetylene fittings are left-handed, whereas those for oxygen are right-handed. Oxygen regulators are usually painted green, acetylene regulators red.
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 27-4
Pressure-Gas Welding Figure 27.3 Schematic illustration of the pressure-gas welding process.
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Page 27-5
Shielded Metal-Arc Welding Figure 27.4 Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc welding process. About 50% of all large-scale industrial welding operations use this process.
Figure 27.5 Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc welding operations (also known as stick welding, because the electrode is in the shape of a stick).
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 27-6
Multiple Pass Deep Weld Figure 27.6 A deep weld showing the buildup sequence of individual weld beads.
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Page 27-7
Submerged-Arc Welding
Figure 27.7 Schematic illustration of the submerged-arc welding process and equipment. The unfused flux is recovered and reused. Source: American Welding Society.
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 27-8
Gas Metal-Arc Welding
Figure 27.8 Schematic illustration of the gas metal-arc welding process, formerly known as MIG (for metal inert gas) welding.
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 27-9
Equipment Used in Gas Metal-Arc Welding Figure 27.9 Basic equipment used in gas metal-arc welding operations. Source: American Welding Society.
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Page 27-10
Flux-Cored Arc-Welding Figure 27.10 Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc-welding process. This operation is similar to gas metal-arc welding, showing in Fig. 27.8.
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 27-11
Electrogas Welding Figure 27.11 Schematic illustration of the electrogas welding process. Source: American Welding Society.
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Page 27-12
Equipment for Electroslag Welding Figure 27.12 Equipment used for electroslag welding operations. Source: American Welding Society.
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 27-13
Designations for Mild Steel Coated Electrodes TABLE 27.2 The prefix “E” designates arc welding electrode. The first two digits of four-digit numbers and the first three digits of five-digit numbers indicate minimum tensile strength: E60XX 60,000 psi minimum tensile strength E70XX 70,000 psi minimum tensile strength E110XX 110,000 psi minimum tensile strength The next-to-last digit indicates position: EXX1X All positions EXX2X Flat position and horizontal fillets The last two digits together indicate the type of covering and the current to be used. The suffix (Example: EXXXX-A1) indicates the approximate alloy in the weld deposit: —A1 0.5% Mo —B1 0.5% Cr, 0.5% Mo —B2 1.25% Cr, 0.5% Mo —B3 2.25% Cr, 1% Mo —B4 2% Cr, 0.5% Mo —B5 0.5% Cr, 1% Mo —C1 2.5% Ni —C2 3.25% Ni —C3 1% Ni, 0.35% Mo, 0.15% Cr —D1 and D2 0.25–0.45% Mo, 1.75% Mn —G 0.5% min. Ni, 0.3% min. Cr, 0.2% min. Mo, 0.1%min. V, 1% min. Mn (only one element required)
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Page 27-14
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding Figure 27.13 The gas tungsten-arc welding process, formerly known as TIG (for tungsten inert gas) welding.
Figure 27.14 Equipment for gas tungsten-arc welding operations. Source: American Welding Society. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 27-15
Plasma-Arc Welding
Figure 27.15 Two types of plasma-arc welding processes: (a) transferred, (b) nontransferred. Deep and narrow welds can be made by this process at high welding speeds.
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Page 27-16
Comparison of Laser-Beam and Tungsten-Arc Welding Figure 27.16 Comparison of the size of weld beads in (a) electron-beam or laser-beam welding to that in (b) conventional (tungsten-arc) welding. Source: American Welding Society, Welding Handbook (8th ed.), 1991.
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Page 27-17
Example of Laser Welding
Figure 27.17 Laser welding of razor blades.
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Page 27-18
Flame Cutting and Drag Lines Figure 27.18 (a) Flame cutting of steel plate with an oxyacetylene torch, and a crosssection of the torch nozzle. (b) Cross-section of a flame-cut plate showing drag lines.
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Page 27-19
CHAPTER 28 Solid-State Welding Processes
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Page 28-1
Roll Bonding
Figure 28.1 Schematic illustration of the roll bonding, or cladding, process
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Page 28-2
Ultrasonic Welding (a)
(b)
Figure 28.2 (a) Components of an ultrasonic welding machine for lap welds. The lateral vibrations of the tool tip cause plastic deformation and bonding at the interface of the workpieces. (b) Ultrasonic seam welding using a roller. (c) An ultrasonically welded part. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 28-3
Friction Welding (a)
(b)
Figure 28.3 (a) Sequence of operations in the friction welding process: (1) Left-hand component is rotated at high speed. (2) Right-hand component is brought into contact under an axial force. (3) Axial force is increased; flash begins to form. (4) Left-hand component stops rotating; weld is completed. The flash can subsequently be removed by machining or grinding. (b) Shape of fusion zone in friction welding, as a function of the force applied and the rotational speed. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 28-4
Friction Stir Welding
Figure 28.4 The principle of the friction stir welding process. Aluminum-alloy plates up to 75 mm (3 in.) thick have been welded by this process. Source: TWI, Cambridge, U.K.
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Page 28-5
Resistance Spot Welding Figure 28.5 (a) Sequence in resistance spot welding. (b) Cross-section of a spot weld, showing the weld nugget and the indentation of the electrode on the sheet surfaces. This is one of the most commonly used process in sheetmetal fabrication and in automotive-body assembly.
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Page 28-6
Figure 28.6 (a) Schematic illustration of an air-operated rocker-arm spotwelding machine. Source: American Welding Society. (b) and (c) Electrode designs for easy access into components to be welded.
Welding Machine Design
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Page 28-7
Examples of Spot Welding (a)
(b)
Figure 28.7 (a) and (b) Spotwelded cookware and muffler. (c) An automated spotwelding machine with a programmable robot; the welding tip can move in three principal directions. Sheets as large as 2.2 m X 0.55 m (88 in. X 22 in.) can be accommodated in this machine. Source: Courtesy of Taylor-Winfield Corporation.
(c)
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Page 28-8
Spot Welding Example Figure 28.8 Robots equipped with spot-welding guns and operated by computer controls, in a mass-production line for automotive bodies. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
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Page 28-9
Resistance Seam Welding Figure 28.9 (a) Seamwelding process in which rotating rolls act as electrodes. (b) Overlapping spots in a seam weld. (c) Roll spot welds. (d) Resistance-welded gasoline tank.
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Page 28-10
High-Frequency Butt Welding
Figure 28.10 Two methods of high-frequency butt welding of tubes.
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Page 28-11
Resistance Projection Welding Figure 28.11 (a) Schematic illustration of resistance projection welding. (b) A welded bracket. (c) and (d) Projection welding of nuts or threaded bosses and studs. Source: American Welding Society. (e) Resistance-projectionwelded grills.
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Page 28-12
Flash Welding Figure 28.12 (a) Flash-welding process for end-to-end welding of solid rods or tubular parts. (b) and (c) Typical parts made by flash welding. (d) Design Guidelines for flash welding.
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 28-13
Stud Welding
Figure 28.13 The sequence of operations in stud welding, which is used for welding bars, threaded rods, and various fasteners onto metal plates.
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Page 28-14
Comparison of Conventional and Laser-Beam Welding Figure 28.14 The relative sizes of the weld beads obtained by conventional (tungsten arc) and by electron-beam or laser-beam welding.
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Page 28-15
Explosion Welding (a)
(c)
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
(b)
Figure 28.15 Schematic illustration of the explosion welding process: (a) constant interface clearance gap and (b) angular interface clearance gap. (c) and (d) Crosssections of explosion-welded joints. (c) titanium (top piece) on low-carbon steel (bottom). (d) Incoloy 800 (an ironnickel-based alloy) on lowcarbon steel. Source: Courtesy of E. I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co.
(d)
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 28-16
Diffusion Bonding Applications Figure 28.16
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Page 28-17
Diffusion Bonding/Superplastic Forming
Figure 28.17 The sequence of operations in the fabrication of various structures by diffusion bonding and then superplastic forming of (originally) flat sheets. Sources: (a) After D. Stephen and S.J. Swadling. (b) and (c) Rockwell International Corp. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 28-18
CHAPTER 29 The Metallurgy of Welding; Welding Design and Process Selection
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Page 29-1
Fusion Weld Zone
Figure 29.1 Characteristics of a typical fusion weld zone in oxyfuel gas and arc welding. See also Figs. 27.16 and 28.14.
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Page 29-2
Grain Structure in Shallow and Deep Welds (a)
(b)
Figure 29.2 Grain structure in (a) a deep weld (b) a shallow weld. Note that the grains in the solidified weld metal are perpendicular to the surface of the base metal. In a good weld, the solidification line at the center in the deep weld shown in (a) has grain migration, which develops uniform strength in the weld bead.
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Page 29-3
Weld Beads (a)
(b)
Figure 29.3 (a) Weld bead (on a cold-rolled nickel strip) produced by a laser beam. (b) Microhardness profile across the weld bead. Note the lower hardness of the weld bead compared to the base metal. Source: IIT Research Institute.
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Page 29-4
Regions in a Fusion Weld Zone Figure 29.4 Schematic illustration of various regions in a fusion weld zone (and the corresponding phase diagram) for 0.30% carbon steel. Source: American Welding Society.
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Page 29-5
Corrosion Figure 29.5 Intergranular corrosion of a 310-stainless-steel welded tube after exposure to a caustic solution. The weld line is at the center of the photograph. Scanning electron micrograph at 20 X. Source: Courtesy of B. R. Jack, Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corp.
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 29-6
Incomplete Fusion
Figure 29.6 Low-quality weld beads, the result of incomplete fusion. Source: American Welding Society.
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Page 29-7
Discontinuities in Fusion Welds Figure 29.7 Schematic illustration of various discontinuities in fusion welds. Source: American Welding Society.
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 29-8
Cracks in Welded Joints Figure 29.8 Types of cracks (in welded joints) caused by thermal stresses that develop during solidification and contraction of the weld bead and the surrounding structure. (a) Crater cracks. (b) Various types of cracks in butt and T joints.
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 29-9
Crack in a Weld Bead Figure 29.9 Crack in a weld bead, due to the fact that the two components were not allowed to contract after the weld was completed. Source: S. L. Meiley, Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.
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Page 29-10
Distortion After Welding
Figure 29.10 Distortion of parts after welding: (a) butt joints; (b) fillet welds. Distortion is caused by differential thermal expansion and contraction of different parts of the welded assembly.
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Page 29-11
Residual Stresses Developed During Welding Figure 29.11 Residual stresses developed during welding of a butt joint. Source: American Welding Society.
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 29-12
Overview of Commercial Joining Processes TABLE 29.1 Overview of Commercial Joining Processes* Joining Process
Material Carbon steel
Low-alloy steel
Stainless steel
Cast iron
Nickel and alloys
Thickness S I M T S I M T S I M T I M T S I M T
S M A W x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
S A W x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
G M A W x x x x x x x x x x x x
F C A W
x x x x x x
x x
x x x x x x x x x
G T A W x x
Brazing P A W
E S W
x x x
R W x x x
x x x
x x x
E G W
x x x
x x x
x
x
x x
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
x x x
x x x
F W x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x
O F W x x x x x
x
D F W
F R W x x x
x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x
E B W x x x x x x x x x x x x
L B W x x x x x x x x x
T B x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
x x x x
x x x
x x x
I R B x
F B x x x x x x x
I B x x x
R B x x
D B x x
x x x
x
x
x
x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x x x
Page 29-13
D F B x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Overview of Commercial Joining Processes (cont.) TABLE 29.1 (continued) Joining Process S M A W x x x x
S A W
G M A W x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
F C A W
G T A W x x x
Brazing P A W x
E S W
E G W
O F W x
D F W x x
F R W x x x
ThickR F Material ness W W Aliminum S x x and alloys I x x M x T x x x Titanium S x x x x x and alloys I x x x x x x x M x x x T x x S Copper and x x x alloys I x x x M x x T x x x Magnesium S x x x x and alloys I x x M x T Refractory S x x x x alloys I x x M x x T *This table is presented as a general survey only. In selecting processes to be used with specific alloys, the reader should refer to other appropriate sources of information. Source: Courtesy of the American Welding Society.
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
E B W x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
L B W x x
T B x x x
x x x x x x x x x x
x x
x x
F B x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
I B x
x x
x
R B x
D B x x x
x
x
I R B x
x
x x
x x
x
x
Page 29-14
D F B x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
S x x
x x
Overview of Commercial Joining Processes (cont.) TABLE 29.1 (continued)
Legend Process code SMAW—Shielded Metal-Arc Welding SAW—Submerged Arc Welding GMAW—Gas Metal-Arc Welding FCAW—Flux-Cored Arc Welding GTAW—Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding PAW—Plasma Arc Welding ESW—Electroslag Welding EGW—Electrogas Welding RW—Resistance Welding FW—Flash Welding OFW—Oxyfuel Gas Welding DFW—Diffusion Welding
Thickness
FRW—Friction Welding EBW—Electron Beam Welding LBW—Laser Beam Welding TB—Torch Brazing FB—Furnace Brazing IB—Induction Brazing RB—Resistance Brazing DB—Dip Brazing IRB—Infrared Brazing DFB—Diffusion Brazing S—Soldering
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S—Sheet: up to 3 mm in.B I—Intermediate: 3 to 6 mm A in.B M—Medium: 6 to 19 mm A in.B T—Thick: 19 mm A in. B and up
Page 29-15
Destructive Techniques Figure 29.12 Two types of specimens for tension-shear testing of welded joints.
Figure 29.13 (a) Wrap-around bend test method. (b) Three-point bending of welded specimens--see also Fig. 2.11. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 29-16
Testing of Spot Welds Figure 29.14 (a) Tensionshear test for spot welds. (b) Cross-tension test. (c) Twist test. (d) Peel test; see also Fig. 30.8.
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 29-17
Welding Design Guidelines Figure 29.15 Design guidelines for welding. Source: J. G. Bralla (ed.), Handbook of Product Design for Manufacturing. Copyright ©1986, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Used with permission.
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 29-18
Standard Identification and Symbols for Welds Figure 29.16
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 29-19
Weld Design Selection
Figure 29.17
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 29-20
CHAPTER 30 Brazing, Soldering, Adhesive-Bonding, and Mechanical-Fastening Processes
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 30-1
Brazing Figure 30.1 (a) Brazing and (b) braze welding operations.
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Page 30-2
Typical Filler Metals for Brazing Various Metals and Alloys TABLE 30.1 Base metal Aluminum and its alloys Magnesium alloys Copper and its alloys Ferrous and nonferrous (except aluminum and magnesium) Iron-, nickel-, and cobalt-base alloys Stainless steels, nickel- and cobalt-base alloys
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Filler metal Aluminum-silicon Magnesium-aluminum Copper-phosphorus Silver and copper alloys, copper- phosphorus Gold Nickel-silver
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Brazing temperature, (°C) 570–620 580–625 700–925 620–1150 900–1100 925–1200
Page 30-3
Furnace Brazing
Figure 30.2 An example of furnace brazing: (a) before, (b) after. Note that the filler metal is a shaped wire.
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 30-4
Induction Brazing Figure 30.3 Schematic illustration of a continuous induction-brazing setup, for increased productivity. Source: ASM International.
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 30-5
Joint Designs Used in Brazing
Figure 30.4 Joint designs commonly used in brazing operations. The clearance between the two parts being brazed is an important factor in joint strength. If the clearance is too small, the molten braze metal will not fully penetrate the interface. If it is too large, there will be insufficient capillary action for the molten metal to fill the interface. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 30-6
Brazing Design Figure 30.5 Examples of good and poor design for brazing.
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Page 30-7
(a) Figure 30.6 (a) Screening or stenciling paste onto a printed circuit board: 1. Schematic illustration of the stenciling process; 2. A section of a typical stencil pattern. (continued)
Stenciling
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 30-8
(b)
Wave Soldering
(c) Figure 30.6 (continued) (b) Schematic illustration of the wave soldering process. (c) SEM image of wave-soldered joint on surface-mount device.
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 30-9
Types of Solders and their Applications
TABLE 30.2 Tin-lead Tin-zinc Lead-silver Cadmium-silver Zinc-aluminum Tin-silver Tin-bismuth
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
General purpose Aluminum Strength at higher than room temperature Strength at high temperatures Aluminum; corrosion resistance Electronics Electronics
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 30-10
Joint Designs Used in Soldering
Figure 30.7 Joint designs commonly used for soldering. Note that examples (e), (g), (i), and (j) are mechanically joined prior to being soldered, for improved strength. Source: American Welding Society. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 30-11
Typical Properties and Characteristics of Chemically Reactive Structural Adhesives TABLE 30.3
Impact resistance Tension-shear 3 strength, MPa (10 psi) Peel strength, N/m (lbf/in.) Substrates bonded
Epoxy
Polyurethane
Modified acrylic
Poor
Excellent
Good
Poor
Fair
15.4 (2.2)
15.4 (2.2)
25.9 (3.7)
18.9 (2.7)
17.5 (2.5)
< 525 (3) Most materials
14,000 (80) Most smooth, nonporous –160 to 80 (-250 to 175)
5250 (30) Most smooth, nonporous 70 to 120 (-100 to 250)
< 525 (3) Most nonporous metals or plastics
1750 (10) Metals, glass, thermosets
–55 to 80 (-70 to 175)
–55 to 150 (-70 to 300)
No Good Poor
No Excellent Good
0.25 (0.01) Moderate Low Low
0.60 (0.025) Mild Low Low
Service temperature –55 to 120 range, °C (°F) (-70 to 250) Heat cure or mixing required Yes Yes No Solvent resistance Excellent Good Good Moisture resistance Excellent Fair Good Gap limitation, mm (in.) None None 0.75 (0.03) Odor Mild Mild Strong Toxicity Moderate Moderate Moderate Flammability Low Low High Source: Advanced Materials & Processes, July 1990, ASM International. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Cyanoacrylate
Anaerobic
Page 30-12
General Properties of Adhesives TABLE 30.4
Type
Comments
Applications
Acrylic
Thermoplastic; quick setting; tough bond at room temperature; two component; good solvent chemical and impact resistance; short work life; odorous; ventilation required
Fiberglass and steel sandwich bonds, tennis racquets, metal parts, plastics.
Anaearobic
Thermoset; easy to use; slow curing; bonds at room temperature; curing occurs in absence of air, will not cure where air contacts adherents; one component; not good on permeable surfaces
Close fitting machine parts such as shafts and pulleys, nuts and bolts, bushings and pins.
Epoxy
Thermoset; one or two component; tough bond; strongest of engineering adhesives; high tensile and low peel strengths; resists moisture and high temperature; difficult to use
Metal, ceramic and rigid plastic parts.
Cyanoacrylate
Thermoplastic; quick setting; tough bond at room temperature; easy to use; colorless.
“Crazy glue.” ™
Hot melt
Thermoplastic; quick setting; rigid or flexible bonds; easy to apply; brittle at low temperatures; based on ethylene vinyl acetate, polyolefins, polyamides and polyesters
Bonds most materials. Packaging, book binding, metal can joints.
Pressure sensitive
Thermoplastic; variable strength bonds. Primer anchors adhesive to roll tape backing material, a release agent on the back of web permits unwinding. Made of polyacrylate esters and various natural and synthetic rubber
Tapes, labels, stickers.
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 30-13
General Properties of Adhesives (cont.) TABLE 30.4 (continued)
Type
Comments
Applications
Phenolic
Thermoset; oven cured, strong bond; High tensile and low impact strength; brittle, easy to use; cures by solvent evaporation.
Acoustical padding, brake lining and clutch pads, abrasive grain bonding, honeycomb structures.
Silicone
Thermoset; slow curing, flexible; bonds at room temperature; high impact and peel strength; rubber like
Gaskets, sealants.
Formaldehyde: -urea -melamine -phenol -resorcinol
Thermoset; strong with wood bonds; urea is inexpensive, available as powder or liquid and requires a catalyst; melamine is more expensive, cures with heat, bond is waterproof; resorcinol forms waterproof bond at room temperature. Types can be combined
Wood joints, plywood, bonding.
Urethane
Thermoset; bonds at room temperature or oven cure; good gap filling qualities
Fiberglass body parts, rubber, fabric.
Water-base -animal -vegetable -rubbers
Inexpensive, nontoxic, nonflammable.
Wood, paper, fabric, leather, dry seal envelopes.
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Page 30-14
Adhesive Peeling Test
Figure 30.8 Characteristic behavior of (a) brittle and (b) tough adhesives in a peeling test. This test is similar to the peeling of adhesive tape from a solid surface.
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Page 30-15
Joint Designs in Adhesive Bonding Figure 30.9 Various joint designs in adhesive bonding. Note that good designs require large contact areas between the members to be joined.
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Page 30-16
Configurations of Adhesively Bonded Joints Figure 30.10 Various configurations for adhesively bonded joints: (a) single lap, (b) double lap, (c) scarf, (d) strap.
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Rivets Figure 30.11 Examples of rivets: (a) solid, (b) tubular, (c) split (or bifurcated), (d) compression.
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Design Guidelines for Riveting
Figure 30.12 Design guidelines for riveting. (a) Exposed shank is too long; the result is buckling instead of upsetting. (b) Rivets should be placed sufficiently far from edges to avoid stress concentrations. (c) Joined sections should allow ample clearance for the riveting tools. (d) Section curvature should not interfere with the riveting process. Source: J. G. Bralla.
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Metal Stitching and a Double-Lock Seam
Figure 30.13 Various examples of metal stitching.
Figure 30.14 Stages in forming a double-lock seam.
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Crimping Figure 30.15 Two examples of mechanical joining by crimping.
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Spring and Snap-In Fasteners Figure 30.16 Examples of spring and snap-in fasteners used to facilitate assembly.
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CHAPTER 31 Surfaces: Their Nature, Roughness, and Measurement
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Surface Structure of Metals
Figure 31.1 Schematic illustration of a cross-section of the surface structure of metals. The thickness of the individual layers is dependent on processing conditions and processing environment.
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Fatigue Curve for Surface-Ground Steel Figure 31.2 Fatigue curve for surface-ground 4340 steel, quenched and tempered, 51 HRC. Note the severe reduction in fatigue strength under abusive grinding conditions. (See also Fig. 2.28.)
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Terminology in Describing Surface Finish Figure 31.3 Standard terminology and symbols to describe surface finish. The quantities are given in µ in.
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Coordinates for Surface-Roughness Measurements Figure 31.4 Coordinates used for surface-roughness measurement, using Eqs. (31.1) and (31.2).
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Standard Lay Symbols for Engineering Surfaces
Figure 31.5 Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Measuring Surface Roughness (b)
Figure 31.6 (a) Measuring surface roughness with a stylus. The rider supports the stylus and guards against damage. (b) Surface measuring instrument. Source: Sheffield Measurement Division of Warner & Swasey Co. (c) Path of stylus in surface roughness measurements (broken line) compared to actual roughness profile. Note that the profile of the stylus path is smoother than that of the actual surface. Source: D. H. Buckley Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Surface Profiles Figure 31.7 Typical surface profiles produced by various machining and surface-finishing processes. Note the difference between the vertical and horizontal scales. See also Fig. 32.4. Source: D. B Dallas (ed.), Tools and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, 3d ed. Copyright © 1976, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Used with permission.
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Three-Dimensional Surface Measurement
Figure 31.8 Surface of rolled aluminum.
Figure 31.9 A highly polished silicon surface measured in an atomic force microscope. The surface roughness is Rq = 0.134 nm. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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CHAPTER 32 Tribology: Friction, Wear, and Lubrication
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Contact Between Two Bodies Figure 32.1 Schematic illustration of the interface of two bodies in contact, showing real areas of contact at the asperities. In engineering surfaces, the ratio of the apparent to real areas of contact can be as high as 4-5 orders of magnitude.
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Range of Coefficients of Friction in Metalworking Processes TABLE 32.1
Process Rolling Forging Drawing Sheet-metal forming Machining
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Coefficient of friction (µ ) Cold Hot 0.05–0.1 0.05–0.1 0.03–0.1 0.05–0.1 0.5–2
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0.2–0.7 0.1–0.2 — 0.1–0.2 —
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Ring Compression Tests
(b)
Figure 32.2 Ring compression test between flat dies. (a) Effect of lubrication on type of ring specimen barreling. (b) Test results: (1) original specimen and (2)-(4) increasing friction. Source: A. T. Male and M. G. Cockcroft. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Figure 32.3 Chart to determine friction coefficient from ring compression test. Reduction in height and change in internal diameter of the ring are measured; then µ is read directly from this chart. Example: If the ring specimen is reduced in height by 40% and its internal diameter decreases by 10%, the coefficient of friction is 0.10
Friction Coefficient from Ring Test
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Effect of Wear on Surface Profiles Figure 32.4 Changes in originally (a) wire-brushed and (b) ground-surface profiles after wear. Source: E. Wild and K. J. Mack.
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Adhesive and Abrasive Wear
Figure 32.5 Schematic illustration of (a) two contacting asperities, (b) adhesion between two asperities, and (c) the formation of a wear particle.
Figure 32.6 Schematic illustration of abrasive wear in sliding. Longitudinal scratches on a surface usually indicate abrasive wear. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Types of Wear Observed in a Single Die
Figure 32.7 Types of wear observed in a single die used for hot forging. Source: T. A. Dean
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Types of Lubrication Figure 32.8 Types of lubrication generally occurring in metalworking operations. Source: After W.R.D. Wilson.
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Rough Surface Figure 32.9 Rough surface developed on an aluminum compression specimen by the presence of a highviscosity lubricant and high compression speed. The coarser the grain size, the rougher the surface. Source: A. Mulc and S. Kalpakjian.
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CHAPTER 33 Surface Treatment, Coating, and Cleaning
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Surface Treatments for Various Metals TABLE 33.1 Metal Aluminum Beryllium Cadmium
Treatment Chrome plate; anodic coating, phosphate; chromate conversion coating Anodic coating; chromate conversion coating Phosphate; chromate conversion coating
Die steels High-temperature steels Magnesium
Boronizing; ion nitriding; liquid nitriding Diffusion Anodic coating; chromate conversion coating
Mild steel
Boronizing; phosphate; carburizing; liquid nitriding; carbonitriding; cyaniding
Molybdenum
Chrome plate
Nickel- and cobalt-base alloys Refractory metals
Boronizing; diffusion Boronizing
Stainless steel
Titanium
Vapor deposition; ion nitriding; diffusion; liquid nitriding; nitriding Vapor deposition; chrome plate; phosphate; ion nitriding; induction hardening; flame hardening; liquid nitriding Chrome plate; anodic coating; ion nitriding
Tool steel
Boronizing; ion nitriding; diffusion; nitriding; liquid nitriding
Steel
Zinc
Vapor deposition; anodic coating; phosphate; chromate chemical conversion coating Source: After M. K. Gabel and D. M. Doorman in Wear Control Handbook, New York, ASME, 1980 p. 248.
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Roller Burnishing Figure 33.1 Roller burnishing of the fillet of a stepped shaft to induce compressive surface residual stresses for improved fatigue life.
Figure 33.2 Examples of roller burnishing of (a) a conical surface and (b) a flat surface and the burnishing tools used. Source: Sandvik, Inc. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Figure 33.3 Schematic illustrations of thermal spray operations. (a) Thermal wire spray. (b) Thermal metalpowder spray. (c) Plasma spray.
Thermal Spray Operations
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Physical Deposition Figure 33.4 Schematic illustration of the physical deposition process. Source: Cutting Tool Engineering.
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Sputtering
Figure 33.5 Schematic illustration of the sputtering process. Source: ASM International
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Ion-Plating Apparatus Figure 33.6 Schematic illustration of an ion-plating apparatus. Source: ASM International.
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Chemical Vapor Deposition
Figure 33.7 Schematic illustration of the chemical vapor deposition process.
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Electroplating
Figure 33.8 Schematic illustration of the electroplating process.
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Electroplating Guidelines Figure 33.9 (a) Schematic illustration of nonuniform coatings (exaggerated) in electroplated parts. (b) Design guidelines for electroplating. Note that sharp external and internal corners should be avoided for uniform plating thickness. Source: ASM International.
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Hot Dipping Figure 33.10 Flowline for continuous hot-dip galvanizing of sheet steel. The welder (upper left) is used to weld the ends of coils to maintain continuous material flow. Source: American Iron and Steel Institute.
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Types of Ceramics and Their Properties and Applications TABLE 33.2
Property
Type of ceramic
Wear resistance
Chromium oxide Aluminum oxide Aluminum titania Zirconium oxide (yttria stabilized) Zirconium oxide (calcia stabilized) Magnesium zirconate Magnesium aluminate Aluminum oxide
Thermal insulation
Electrical insulation
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Application Pumps, turbine shafts, seals, compressor rods for the petroleum industry; plastics extruder barrels; extrusion dies Fan blades, compressor blades, and seals for gas turbines; valves, pistons, and combustion heads for automotive engines
Induction coils, brazing fixtures, general electrical applications
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
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Painting
Figure 33.11 Methods of paint application: (a) dip coating, (b) flow coating, and (c) electrostatic spraying. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
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CHAPTER 34 Fabrication of Microelectronic Devices*
*By Kent M. Kalpakjian
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Printed Circuit Boards
Figure 34.1 A collection of printed circuit boards. Source: Phoenix Technologies, Inc.
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Fabrication Sequence of and Integrated Circuit
Figure 34.2 General fabrication sequence for integrated circuits. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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MOS Transistor Cross-Sections Figure 34.3 Crosssectional views of the fabrication of a MOS transistor. Source: R. C. Jaeger.
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Chemical Vapor Deposition Figure 34.4 Schematic diagrams of (a) continuous, atmospheric-pressure CVD reactor and (b) low-pressure CVD. Source: S. M. Sze.
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Silicon Dioxide Growth
Figure 34.5 Growth of silicon dioxide, showing consumption of silicon. Source: S. M. Sze.
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Pattern Transfer by Lithography
Figure 34.6 Pattern transfer by lithography. Note that the mask in step three can be a positive or negative image of the pattern. Source: After W. C. Till and J. T. Luxon.
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Etching and Ion Implantation Figure 34.7 Etching profiles resulting from (a) isotropic wet etching and (b) anisotropic dry etching. Source: R. C. Jaeger.
Figure 34.8 Apparatus for ion implantation
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pn Junction Diode
Figure 34.9 (continued) Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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pn Junction Diode (cont.)
Figure 34.9 Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Two-Level Metal Interconnect (a)
(b)
Figure 34.10 (a) Scanning electron microscope photograph of a two-level metal interconnect. Note the varying surface topography. Source: National Semiconductor Corporation. (b) Schematic drawing of a two-level metal interconnect structure. Source: R. C. Jaeger.
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Bonding and Packaging (a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 34.11 (a) SEM photograph of wire bonds connecting package leads (left-hand side) to die bonding pads. (b) and (c) Detailed views of (a). Source: Courtesy of Micron Technology, Inc.
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Integrated Circuit Packages Figure 34.12 Schematic illustrations of different IC packages: (a) dual-in-line (DIP), and (b) ceramic flat pack, and (c) common surface mount configuration. Sources: R. C. Jaeger and A. B. Glaser; G. E. Subak-Sharpe.
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CHAPTER 35 Engineering Metrology and Instrumentation
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Slideway Cross-Section Figure 35.1 Cross-section of a machine tool slideway. The width, depth, angles, and other dimensions must be produced and measured accurately for the machine tool to function as expected.
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Types of Measurement and Instruments Used TABLE 35.1 Measurement Linear
Angle Comparative length Straightness Flatness Roundness Profile
GO-NOT GO Microscopes
Instrument Steel rule Vernier caliper Micrometer, with vernier Diffraction grating Bevel protractor, with vernier Sine bar Dial indicator Electronic gage Gage blocks Autocollimator Transit Laser beam Interferometry Dial indicator Circular tracing Radius or fillet gage Dial indicator Optical comparator Coordinate measuring machines Plug gage Ring gage Snap gage Toolmaker’s Light section Scanning electron Laser scan
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Sensitivity µm µin. 0.5 mm 1/64 in. 25 1000 2.5 100 1 40 5 min 1 0.1 0.05 2.5 0.2 mm/m 2.5 0.03 0.03
40 4 2 100 0.002 in./ft 100 1 1
1 125 0.25
40 5000 10
2.5 1 0.001 0.1
100 40 0.04 5
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Caliper and Vernier
Figure 35.2 (a) A caliper gage with a vernier. (b) A vernier, reading 27.00 + 0.42 = 27.42 mm, or 1.000 + 0.050 + 0.029 = 1.079 in. We arrive at the last measurement as follows: First note that the two lowest scales pertain to the inch units. We next note that the 0 (zero) mark on the lower scale has passed the 1-in. mark on the upper scale. Thus, we first record a distance of 1.000 in. Next we note that the 0 mark has also passed the first (shorter) mark on the upper scale. Noting that the 1-in. distance on the upper scale is divided into 20 segments, we hve passed a distance of 0.050 in. Finally note that the marks on the two scales coincide at the number 29. Each of the 50 graduations on the lower scale indicates 0.001 in., so we also have 0.029 in. Thus the total dimension is 1.000 in. + 0.050 in. + 0.029 in. = 1.079 in. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Analog and Digital Micrometers (a)
(c)
Figure 35.3 (a) A micrometer being used to measure the diameter of round rods. Source: L. S. Starrett Co. (b) Vernier on the sleeve and thimble of a micrometer. Upper one reads 0.200 + 0.075 + 0.010 = 0.285 in.; lower one reads 0.200 + 0.050 + 0.020 + 0.0003 = 0.2703 in. These dimensions are read in a manner similar to that described in the caption for Fig. 35.2. (c) A digital micrometer with a range of 0-1 in. (0-25 mm) and a resolution of 0.00005 in. (0.001 mm). Note how much easier it is to read dimensions on this instrument than on the analog micrometer shown in (a). However, such instruments should be handled carefully. Source: Mitutoyo Corp.
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Angle-Measuring Instruments Figure 35.4 (a) Schematic illustration of a bevel protractor for measuring angles. (b) Vernier for angular measurement, indicating 14° 30´.
Figure 35.5 Setup showing the use of a sine bar for precision measurement of workpiece angles.
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Dial Indicators
Figure 35.5 Setup showing the use of a sine bar for precision measuremnet of workpiece angles.
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Electronic Gages Figure 35.8 An electronic vertical length mesauring instrument, with a sensitivity of 1 µm (40 µin.). Courtesy of TESA SA.
Figure 35.7 An electronic gage for measuring bore diameters. The measuring head is equipped with three carbide-tipped steel pins for wear resistance. The LED display reds 29.158 mm. Courtesy of TESA SA.
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Laser Scan Micrometer and Straightness Measurement Figure 35.9 Two types of measurement made with a laser scan micrometer. Source: Mitutoyo Corp.
Figure 35.10 Measuring straightness with (a) a knife-edge rule and (b) a dial indicator attached to a movable stand resting on a surface plate. Source: F. T. Farago.
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Interferometry Figure 35.11 (a) Interferometry method for measuring flatness using an optical flat. (b) Fringes on a flat inclined surface. An optical flat resting on a perfectly flat workpiece surface will not split the light beam, and no fringes will be present. (c) Fringes on a surface with two inclinations. Note: the greater the incline, the closer the fringes. (d) Curved fringe patterns indicate curvatures on the workpiece surface. (e) Fringe pattern indicating a scratch on the surface.
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Measuring Roundness Figure 35.12 (a) Schematic illustration of “out of roundness” (exaggerated). Measuring roundness using (b) V-block and dial indicator, (c) part supported on centers and rotated, and (d) circular tracing, with part being rotated on a vertical axis. Source: After F. T. Farago.
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Measuring Profiles Figure 35.13 Measuring profiles with (a) radius gages and (b) dial indicators.
Figure 35.13 Measuring profiles with (a) radius gages and (b) dial indicators. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Horizontal-Beam Contour Projector Figure 35.15 A bench model horizontal-beam contour projector with a 16 in.-diameter screen with 150-W tungsten halogen illumination. Courtesy of L. S. Starrett Company, Precision Optical Division.
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Coordinate Measuring Machine
Figure 35.16 (a) Schematic illustration of one type of coordinate measuring machine. (b) Components of another type of coordinate measuring machine. These machines are available in various sizes and levels of automation and with a variety of probes (attached to the probe adapter), and are capable of measuring several features of a part. Source: Mitutoyo Corp. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Coordinate Measuring Machine Figure 35.17 A coordinate measuring machine. Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing.
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Gages Figure 35.18 (a) Plug gage for holes, with GO-NOT GO on opposite ends. (b) Plug gage with GONOT GO on one end. (c) Plain ring gages for gagin round rods. Note the difference in knurled surfaces to identify the two gages. (d) Snap gage with adjustable anvils. Figure 35.19 Schematic illustration of one type of pneumatic gage.
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Figure 35.20 Basic size, deviation, and tolerance on a shaft, according to the ISO system.
Tolerance Control
Figure 35.21 Various methods of assigning tolerances on a shaft. Source: L. E. Doyle. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Tolerances as a Function of Size
Figure 35.22 Tolerances as a function of part size for various manufacturing processes. Note: Because many factors are involved, there is a broad range for tolerances. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Tolerances and Surface Roughnesses Figure 35.23 Tolerances and surface roughness obtained in various manufacturing processes. These tolerances apply to a 25-mm (1-in.) workpiece dimension. Source: J. A. Schey.
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Engineering Symbols Figure 35.24 Geometric characteristic symbols to be indicated on engineering drawings of parts to be manufactured. Source: The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
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CHAPTER 36 Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection
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Deming’s 14 Points TABLE 36.1 1. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service. 2. Adopt the new philosophy. 3. Cease dependence on mass inspection to achieve quality. 4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag. 5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to improve quality and productivity, and thus constantly decrease cost. 6. Institute training on the job. 7. Institute leadership (as opposed to supervision). 8. Drive out fear so that everyone can work effectively. 9. Break down barriers between departments. 10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations and targets for zero defects and new levels of productivity 11. Eliminate quotas and management by numbers, numerical goals. Substitute leadership. 12. Remove barriers that rob the hourly worker of pride of workmanship. 13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement. 14. Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation
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Robust Design
Figure 36.1 A simple example of robust design. (a) Location of two mounting holes on a sheet-metal bracket, where the deviation of the top surface of the bracket from being perfectly horizontal is ±α. (b) New location holes, whereby the deviation of the top surface of the bracket from being perfectly horizontal is reduced to± α/2.
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Taguchi Loss Function Figure 36.2 (a) Objective function value distribution of color density for television sets. (b) Taguchi loss function, showing the average replacement cost per unit to correct quality problems. Source: After G. Taguchi.
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Frequency and Normal Distribution Curves
Figure 36.3 (a) A histogram of the number of shafts measured and their respective diameters. This type of curve is called frequency distribution. (b) A Normal distribution curve indicating areas within each range of standard deviation. Note: the greater the range, the higher the percentage of parts that fall within it.
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Frequency Distribution Curve Figure 36.4 Frequency distribution curve, showing lower and upper specification limits.
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Statistical Quality Control
Figure 36.5 Control charts used in statistical quality control. The process shown is in statistical control because all points fall within the lower and upper control limits. In this illustration sample size is five and the number of samples is 15. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Constants for Control Charts TABLE 36.2 Sample size 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20
Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
A2 1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419 0.373 0.337 0.308 0.266 0.223 0.180
D4 3.267 2.575 2.282 2.115 2.004 1.924 1.864 1.816 1.777 1.716 1.652 1.586
D3 0 0 0 0 0 0.078 0.136 0.184 0.223 0.284 0.348 0.414
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
d2 1.128 1.693 2.059 2.326 2.534 2.704 2.847 2.970 3.078 3.258 3.472 3.735
Page 36-8
Figure 36.6 Control charts. (a) Process begins to become out of control because of such factors as tool wear (drift). The tool is changed and the process is then in statistical control. (b) Process parameters are not set properly; thus all parts are around the upper control limit (shift in mean). (c) Process becomes out of control because of factors such as a change in the properties of the incoming material (shift in mean).
Control Charts
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Digital Gages with Microprocessors Figure 36.7 Schematic illustration showing integration of digital gages with microprocessor for real-time data acquisition and SPC/SPQ capabilities. Note the examples on the CRT displays, such as frequency distribution (see Fig. 36.3) and control charts (see Fig. 36.4). Source: Mitutoyo Corp.
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Data for Standard Deviation Calculation TABLE 36.3
Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x1 4.46 4.45 4.38 4.42 4.42 4.44 4.39 4.45 4.44 4.42
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x2 4.40 4.43 4.48 4.44 4.45 4.45 4.41 4.41 4.46 4.43
x3 4.44 4.47 4.42 4.53 4.43 4.44 4.42 4.43 4.30 4.37
x4 4.46 4.39 4.42 4.49 4.44 4.39 4.46 4.41 4.38 4.47
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
x5 4.43 4.40 4.35 4.35 4.41 4.40 4.47 4.50 4.49 4.49
x 4.438 4.428 4.410 4.446 4.430 4.424 4.430 4.440 4.414 4.436
R 0.06 0.08 0.13 0.18 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.19 0.12
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Acceptance Sampling
Figure 36.8 A typical operatingcharacteristics curve used in acceptance sampling. The higher the percentage of defective parts, the lower the probability of acceptance by the consumer. There are several methods of obtaining these curves.
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Liquid-Penetrant and Magnetic-Particle Inspection Figure 36.9 Sequence of operations for liquid-penetrant inspection to detect the presence of cracks and other flaws in a workpiece. Source: Metals Handbook, Desk Edition. Copyright ©1985, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio. Used with permission.
Figure 36.10 Schematic illustration of magnetic-particle inspection of a part with a defect in it. Cracks that are in a direction parallel to the magnetic field, such as in A, would not be detected, whereas the others shown would. Cracks F, G, and H are the easiest to detect. Source: Metals Handbook, Desk Edition. Copyright ©1985, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio. Used with permission. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Radiographic Inspection Figure 36.11 Three methods of radiographic inspection: (a) conventional radiography, (b) digital radiography, and (c) computed tomography. Source: Courtesy of Advanced Materials and Processes, November 1990. ASM International
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Eddy-Current Inspection
Figure 36.12 Changes in eddy-current flow caused by a defect in a workpiece. Source: Metals Handbook, Desk Edition. Copyright ©1985, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio. Used with permission.
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Holography
Figure 36.13 Schematic illustration of the basic optical system used in holography elements in radiography, for detecting flaws in workpieces. Source: Metals Handbook, Desk Edition. Copyright ©1985, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio. Used with permission. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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CHAPTER 37 Human-Factors Engineering, Safety and Product Liability
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Barrier Guards Figure 37.1 Barrier guards: (a) spring-type interlock shuts off power to machine when guard door is opened; (b) guard can only be removed by removing the plug, which then shuts off power to machine. Source: Triodyne, Inc.
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Presence-Sensing Devices
Figure 37.2 (a) Presence-sensing device, with light beams forming a curtain across the zone of operation. (b) Breaking the curtain of light beams by operator’s hands sets brake on machine and disconnects clutch. Source: Triodyne, Inc. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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CHAPTER 38 Automation of Manufacturing Processes
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Chapter 38 Outline
Figure 38.1
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Development in the History of Automation of Manufacturing Processes TABLE 38.1 Date 1500–1600 1600–1700 1700–1800 1800–1900 1808 1863 1900–1920 1920 1920–1940 1940 1943 1945 1948 1952 1954 1957 1959 1960s 1965 1968 1970 1970s 1980s 1990s
Development Water power for metalworking; rolling mills for coinage strips. Hand lathe for wood; mechanical calculator. Boring, turning, and screw cutting lathe, drill press. Copying lathe, turret lathe, universal milling machine; advanced mechanical calculators. Sheet-metal cards with punched holes for automatic control of weaving patterns in looms. Automatic piano player (Pianola). Geared lathe; automatic screw machine; automatic bottlemaking machine. First use of the word robot. Transfer machines; mass production. First electronic computing machine. First digital electronic computer. First use of the word automation. Invention of the transistor. First prototype numerical-control machine tool. Development of the symbolic language APT (Automatically Programmed Tool); adaptive control. Commercially available NC machine tools. Integrated circuits; first use of the term group technology. Industrial robots. Large-scale integrated circuits. Programmable logic controllers. First integrated manufacturing system; spot welding of automobile bodies with robots. Microprocessors; minicomputer-controlled robot; flexible manufacturing systems; group technology. Artificial intelligence; intelligent robots; smart sensors; untended manufacturing cells, Integrated manufacturing systems; intelligent and sensor-based machines; telecommunications and global manufacturing networks; fuzzy logic devices; artificial neural networks; Internet tools.
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Approximate Annual Volume of Production TABLE 38.2 Type of production Experimental or prototype Piece or small batch
Number produced 1–10 10–5000
Batch or high volume
5000–100,000
Mass production
100,000 and over
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Typical products All Aircraft, special machinery, dies, jewelry, orthopedic implants, missiles. Trucks, agricultural machinery, jet engines, diesel engines; computer components, sporting goods. Automobiles, appliances, fasteners, food and beverage containers.
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Flexibility and Productivity of Manufacturing Systems Figure 38.2 Flexibility and productivity of various manufacturing systems. Note the overlap between the systems; it is due to the various levels of automation and computer control that are possible in each group. See, also, Chapter 39, for details. Source: U. Rembold, et al., Computer Integrated Manufacturing and Engineering. Addison-Wesley, 1993.
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Characteristics of Production Methods
Figure 38.3 General characteristics of three types of production methods: job shop, batch, and mass production.
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Transfer Mechanisms Figure 38.4 Two types of transfer mechanisms: (a) straight and (b) circular patterns.
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Transfer Line
Figure 38.5 A large transfer line for producing engine blocks and cylinder heads. Source: Ford Motor Company. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Dimensioning and Numerical Control
Figure 38.6 Positions of drilled holes in a workpiece. Three methods of measurements are shown: (a) absolute dimensioning, referenced from one point at the lower left of the part; (b) incremental dimensioning, made sequentially form one hole to another; and (c) mixed dimensioning, a combination of both methods.
Figure 38.7 Schematic illustration of the major components of a numerical-control machine tool. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Open- and Closed-Loop Control Systems Figure 38.8 Schematic illustration of the components of (a) an open-loop and (b) a closed-loop control system for a numberical-control machine. DAC means “digital-toanalog converter.”
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Direct and Indirect Measurements
Figure 38.9 (a) Direct measurement of the linear displacement of a machine-tool work table. (b) and (c) Indirect measurement methods.
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Tool Movement and Interpolation Figure 38.10 Movement of tools in numerical-control machining. (a) Point-to-point, in which the drill bit drills a hole at position 1, is retracted and moved to position 2, and so on. (b) Continuous path by a milling cutter. Note that the cutter path is compensated for by the cutter radius. This path can also be compensated for cutter wear. Figure 38.11 Types of interpolation in numerical control: (a) linear, (b) continuous path approximated by incremental straight lines, and (c) circular.
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Point-to-Point and Contour Maching (a)
(b)
Figure 38.12 (a) Schematic illustration of drilling, boring, and milling with various paths. (b) Machining a sculptured surface on a 5-axis numerical control machine. Source: The Ingersoll Milling Machine Co.
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Adaptive Control Figure 38.13 Schematic illustration of the application of adaptive control (AC) for a turning operation. The system monitors such parameters as cutting foce, torque, and vibrations; if they are excessive, it modifies process variables such as feed and depth of cut to bring them back to acceptable levels.
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Adaptive Control in Milling Figure 38.14 An example of adaptive control in milling. As the depth of cut or the width of cut increases the cutting forces and the torque increase. The system senses this increase and automatically reduces the feed to avoid excessive forces or tool breakage, in order to maintain cutting efficiency. Source: Y. Koren.
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Workpiece Inspection for Adaptive Control Figure 38.15 In-process inspection of workpiece diameter in a turning operation. The system automatically adjusts the radial position of the cutting tool in order to produce the correct diameter.
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Self-Guided Vehicle
Figure 38.16 A self-guided vehicle (Caterpillar Model SGC-M) carrying a machining pallet. The vehiclre is aligned next to a stand on the floor. Instad of following a wire or stripe path on the factory floor, this vehicle calculates its own path and automatically corrects for any deviations. Source: Courtesy of Caterpillar Industrial, Inc.
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Six-Axis S-10 GMF Robot Figure 38.17 (a) Schematic illustration of a six-axis S-10 GMF robot. The payload at the wrist is 10 kg and repeatability is ±0.2 mm (±0.008 in.). The robot has mechanical brakes on all itrs axes, which are coupled directly. (b) The work envelope of the robot, as viewed from the side. Source: GMFanuc Robotics Corporation.
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End Effectors
Figure 38.18 (a) Various devices and tools attached to end effectors to perform a variety of operations. (b) A system of compensating for misalignment during automated assembly. Source: ATI Industrial Automation.
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Industrial Robots Figure 38.19 Four types of industrial robots: (a) cartesian (rectilinear), (b) cylindrical, (c) spherical (polar), (d) articulated (revolute, jointed, or anthropomorphic).
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Work Envelopes Figure 38.20 Work envelopes for three types of robots. The choice depends on the particular application. See also Fig. 38.17.
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Figure 38.21 Spot welding automobile bodies with industrial robots. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
Examples of Industrial Robot Use
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Figure 38.22 Sealing joints of an automobile body with an industrial robot. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
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Automated Assembly Operations
Figure 38.23 Automated assembly operations using industrial robots and circular and linear transfer lines.
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Mechanical and Tactile Sensors Figure 38.25 A robot gripper with tactile sensors. In spite of their capabilities, tactile sensors are now being used less frequently, because of their high cost and their low durability in industrial applications. Source: Courtesy of Lord Corporation.
Figure 38.24 A toolholder equipped with thrustforce and torque sensors (smart toolholder), capable of continuously monitoring the cutting operation. Such toolholders are necessary for adaptive control of manufacturing operations. (See Section 38.5.) Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
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Machine-Vision Applications
Figure 38.26 Examples of machine-vision applications. (a) In-line inspection of parts. (b) Identification of parts with various shapes, and inspection and rejection of defective parts. (continued)
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Machine-Vision Applications (cont.)
Figure 38.26 (continued) (c) Use of cameras to provide positional input to a robot relative to the workpiece. (d) Painting parts having different shapes by means of input from a camera. The system’s memory allows the robot to identify the particular shape to be painted and to proceed with the correct movementso f a paint spray attached to the end effector.
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Flexible Fixturing Figure 38.27 Schematic illustration of a flexible fixturing setup. The clamping force is sensed by the strain gage, and the system automatically adjusts this force. Source: P. K. Wright.
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Design-for-Assembly Analysis Figure 38.28 Stages in the designfor-assembly analysis. Source: Product Design for Assembly, 1989 edition, by G. Boothroyd and P. Dewhurst. Reproduced with permission.
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Automated Assembly Transfer Systems Figure 38.29 Transfer systems for automated assembly: (a) rotary indexing machine, (b) in-line indexing machine. Source: G. Boothroyd.
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Robot Assembly Station Figure 38.30 A two-arm robot assembly station. Source: Product Design for Assembly, 1989 edition, by G. Boothroyd and P. Dewhurst. Reproduced with permission.
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Guides Figure 38.31 Various guides that ensure that parts are properly oriented for automated assembly. Source: G. Boothroyd.
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Automated Assembly Parts Figure 38.32 Redesign of parts to facilitate automated assembly. Source: G. Boothroyd.
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Design Comparison Figure 38.33
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CHAPTER 39 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing Systems
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ComputerIntegrated Manufacturing System
Figure 39.1 A schematic illustration of a computerintegrated manufacturing system. Source: U. Rembold, et al., Computer-Integrated Manufacturing and Engineering. Addison-Wesley, 1993. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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CAD/CAM Flow Chart
Figure 39.2 Information flow chart in CAD/CAM application. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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CAD Modeling Figure 39.3 Various types of modeling for CAD.
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CAD Representations Figure 39.4 (a) Boundary representation of solids, showing the enclosing surfaces of the solid model and the generated solid model. (b) A solid model represented as compositions of solid primitives. (c) Three representations of the same part by CAD. Source: P. Ranky.
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Octree Representation of a Solid Object
Figure 39.5 The octree representation of a solid object. Any volume can be broken down into octants, which are then identified as solid, void, or partially filled. Shown is two-dimensional version, or quadtree, for representation of shapes in a plane.
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Routing Sheet Figure 39.6 An example of a simple routing sheet. These operation sheets may include additional information on materials, tooling, estimated time for each operation, processing parameters (such as cutting speeds and feeds), and other information. The routing sheet travels with the part from operation to operation. The current trend is to store all relevant data in computers and to affix to the part a bar code that serves as a key into the database of parts information.
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Group Technology
Figure 39.7 Grouping parts according to geometric similarities. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Functional and GroupTechnology Layout
Figure 39.8 (a) Functional layout of machine tools in a traditional plant. Arrosw indicate the flow of materials and parts in various stages of completion. (b) Grouptechnology (cellular) layout. Legend: L = lathe, M = milling machine, D = drilling machine, G = grinding machine, A = assembly. Source: M. P. Groover. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Decision-Tree Coding Figure 39.9 Decision-tree classification for a sheet-metal bracket. Source: G. W. Millar.
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Opitz Classification and Coding System Figure 39.10 Classification and coding system according to Opitz, consisting fo 5 digits and a supplementary code of 4 digits.
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MultiClass Classification and Coding System
Figure 39.11 Typical MultiClass code for a machined part. Source: Organization for Industrial Research. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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KK-3 System for Rotational Components Figure 39.12 The structure of a KK-3 system for rotational components. Source: Japan Society for the Promotion of Machine Industry.
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Flexible Manufacturing Cell
Figure 39.13 Schematic view of a flexible manufacturing cell, showing two machine tools, an automated part inspection system, and a central robot serving these machines. Source: P. K. Wright.
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Flexible Manufacturing System Figure 39.14 A general view of a flexible manufacturing system, showing several machine tools and an automated guided vehicle. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnate Milacron, Inc.
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Comparison of the Characteristics of Transfer Lines and Flexible-Manufacturing Systems TABLE 39.1 Characteristic Types of parts made Lot size Part changing time Tool change Adaptive control Inventory Production during breakdown Efficiency Justification for capital expenditure
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Transfer line Generally few > 100 1/2 to 8 hr Manual Difficult High None 60–70% Simple
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FMS Infinite 1–50 1 min Automatic Available Low Partial 85% Difficult
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Local Area Network Topology
Figure 39.15 Three basic types of topology for a local area network (LAN) (a) The star topology is suitable for situations that are not subject to frequent configuration changes. All messages pass through a central station. Telephone systems in office buildings usually have this type of topology. (b) In the ring topology all individual user stations are connected in a continuous ring. The message is forwarded from one station to the next until it reaches its assigned destination. Although the wiring is relatively simple, the failure of one station shuts down the entire network. (c) In the bus topology all stations have independent access to the bus. This system is reliable and is easier than the other two to service. Because its arrangement is similar to the layout of the machines in the factory, its installation is relatively easy, and it can be reagrranged when the machines are rearranged.
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ISO/OSI Communication Model Figure 39.16 The ISO/OSI reference model for open communication. Source: U. Rembold, et al. Computer Integrated Manufacturing and Engineering. AddisonWesley, 1993.
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Expert System Figure 39.17 Basic structure of an expert system. The knowledge base consists of knowledge rules (general information about the problem) and the inference rules (the way conclusions are reached). The results may be communicated to the user through the natural-language interface. Source: K. W. Goff, Mechanical Engineering, October 1985.
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Expert System Applied to an Industrial Robot Figure 39.18 Expert system, as applied to an industrial robot guided by machine vision.
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CHAPTER 40 Competitive Aspects of Manufacturing
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Commercially Available Materials TABLE 40.1 Material Available as Aluminum P, F, B, T, W, S, I Copper and brass P, f, B, T, W, s, I Magnesium P, B, T, w, S, I Steels and stainless steels P, B, T, W, S, I Precious metals P, F, B, t, W, I Zinc P, F, D, W, I Plastics P, f, B, T, w Elastomers P, b, T Ceramics (alumina) p, B, T, s Glass P, B, T, W, s Graphite P, B, T, W, s Note: P, plate or sheet; F, foil; B, bar; T, tubing; W, wire; S, structural shapes; I, ingots for casting. Lowercase letter indicates limited availability. Most of these materials are also available in powder form. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Approximate Amount of Scrap Produced in Various Manufacturing Processes TABLE 40.2 Process Machining Hot closed-die forging Sheet-metal forming Rolling, ring rolling
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Scrap (%) 10–60 20–25 10–25 <1
Process Cold or hot extrusion, forging Permanent-mold casting Powder metallurgy
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Scrap (%) 15 10 5
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Advanced Materials Figure 40.1 Advanced materials used on the Lockheed C-5A transport aircraft. (FRP: fiber-reinforced plastic)
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Material Changes From C-5A to C-5B Military Cargo Aircraft TABLE 40.3 Item Wing panels Main frame Forgings Machined frames Frame straps Fuselage skin Fuselage underfloor end fittings Wing/pylon attach fitting Aft ramp lock hooks Hydraulic lines Fuselage failsafe straps
C-5A Material 7075–T6511
C-5B Material 7175–T73511
Reason for change Durability
7075–F 7075–T6 7075–T6 plate 7079–T6 7075–T6 forging
7049–01 7049–T73 7050–T7651 plate 7475–T61 7049–T73 forging
Stress corrosion resistance
4340 alloy steel D6–AC AM350 stainless steel 6AI–4V titanium
PH13–8Mo PH13–8Mo 21–6–9 stainless steel 7475–T61 aluminum
Corrosion prevention Corrosion prevention Improved field repair Titanium strap debond
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Material availability Stress corrosion resistance
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Methods of Making a Simple Part
Figure 40.2 Various methods of making a simple part: (a) casting or powder metallurgy, (b) forging or upsetting, (c) extrusion, (d) machining, (e) joining two pieces.
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Manufacturing Process Capabilities Figure 40.3 Manufacturing process capabilities for minimum part dimensions. Source: J. A. Schey, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes (2d ed.). McGraw-Hill, 1987.
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Dimensional Tolerance Figure 40.4 Dimensional tolerance capabilities of various manufacturing processes.
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Dimensional Tolerance and Surface Finish Figure 40.5 Relationship between relative manufacturing cost and dimensional tolerance.
Figure 40.6 Relative production time, as a function of surface finish produced by various manufacturing processes. Source: American Machinist. See also Fig. 25.33. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Manufacturing a Sheet Metal Part Figure 40.7 Two methods of making a dish-shaped sheet-metal part: (a) pressworking, using a male and female die, (b) explosive forming, using one die only.
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Approximate Ranges of Machinery Base Prices TABLE 40.5 Type of machinery
Price range ($000) 10–300 10–100 30–150 50–150 60–120 100–200
Type of machinery
Price range ($000) 50–1000 20–250 10–250 500
Broaching Machining center Drilling Mechanical press Electrical discharge Milling Electromagnetic and electrohydraulic Ring rolling Fused deposition modeling Gear shaping Grinding Robots 20–200 Cylindrical 40–150 Roll forming 5–100 Surface 20–100 Rubber forming 50–500 Headers 100–150 Stereolithography 80–200 Injection molding 30–150 Stretch forming 400–> 1000 Boring Transfer machines 100–> 1000 Jig 50–150 Welding Horizontal boring mill 100–400 Electron beam 200–1000 Flexible manufacturing system > 1000 Spot 10–50 Lathe 10–100 Ultrasonic 50–200 Single- and multi-spindle automatic 30–250 Vertical turret 100–400 Note: Prices vary considerably, depending on size, capacity, options, and level of automation and computer controls.
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