Making Progress in Writing

Making Progress in Writing

Making Progress in Writing is a practical and accessible guide to developing writing skills at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3. The book goes beyond the National Literacy Strategy to outline ways of providing an integrated writing curriculum which takes account of changes in contexts for writing, new types of text and new modes of communication. The author balances practicality and classroom suggestions with a critical analysis of theories influencing writing in schools. The book addresses key areas of concern, including: • • • • • •

developing sustained writing teaching narrative, non-fiction, poetry and spelling target setting and assessing progress in writing writing beyond the Literacy Hour gender and writing the bridge between Key Stage 2 and Key Stage 3 writing

In each chapter, case studies from Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 provide practical examples of teaching strategies which address National Literacy Strategy targets and objectives, yet extend beyond a purely structural approach. The book also combines NLS targets and objectives with National Curriculum Levels to help teachers develop a coherent approach to planning, target setting and assessment. This book complements Making Progress in English, also written by Eve Bearne. It is essential reading for teachers, student teachers and literacy co-ordinators who are keen to ensure that progress is made in pupil’s writing at all levels of ability. Eve Bearne is Assistant Director of Research at Homerton College, Cambridge. She has written numerous books on language and literacy, including Where Texts and Children Meet and Making Progress in English, both published by Routledge.

Making Progress in Writing Eve Bearne

London and New York

First published 2002 by RoutledgeFalmer 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by RoutledgeFalmer 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004. RoutledgeFalmer is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group © 2002 Eve Bearne All rights reserved. The purchase of this copyright material confers the right on the purchasing institution to photocopy page 188 only. No other part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-16724-4 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-26207-7 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0–415–25932–0 (Print Edition)

Contents

List of figures Acknowledgements

ix xiii

Making progress in writing: Introduction

1

1

5

2

3

Writing now: current trends Writing – noun or verb? From texts to teaching Writing in schools and classrooms Making meaning: the early years Young children’s writing Writing at home and school Voice in writing Creativity and culture Ideas and interactions: Halliday’s model

6 6 7 8 8 9 10 10 13

The writers

15

Hearing voices Choosing to write Interpersonal aspects of writing Talking before writing Case study Key Stage 2: developing writing through talk Gender and writing Case study Key Stage 3: getting the picture – boys and writing Different approaches to learning Case study Key Stage 2: teaching approaches and learning styles Writing and bilingualism Case study Key Stage 1: observing bilingual learners

16 16 17 17 18 19 20 21 23 24 24

Provision and practice

27

Reviewing practice The school as an environment for writing The classroom as an environment for writing Managing the writing environment: activities and groupings Planning for teaching the process of writing Teaching writing: developing imaginative and independent writers Resources for writing: places, things and people Setting up a writing area ICT and writing People as resources Case study: teaching assistants and writing

28 28 30 30 31 32 33 33 38 39 40 v

Contents

4

5

6

Using writing throughout the curriculum Case study Foundation Stage: a topic based approach to writing Case study Key Stage 2: cross curricular writing Joined up writing: links with homes and communities

41 41 42 45

Assessment: the planning – teaching – writing – assessment cycle

47

Effective learning and assessment Planning – teaching – writing – reviewing – planning From targets to teaching and assessing Targets and Progress Descriptors for Writing: Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 Assessing the writing of children who have English as an Additional Language Monitoring individual progress: Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 Progress in writing Involving pupils in response Case study Key Stage 3: using response partners Writers evaluating their own writing Reflecting on progress in writing Writing miscue analysis Diagnosing specific difficulties

50 51 51 78 78 78 80 82 84 87

Writing narrative and plays

89

Teaching narrative Author studies Case study Key Stage 2: what writers offer that teachers can’t Progress in narrative Structuring narrative Case study Key Stage 1: storymaps Developing narrative Case study Key Stage 2: improving narrative writing Personal narratives Case study Key Stage 3: writing autobiography From telling to writing Traditional narratives Visual narratives Writing plays Case study Key Stage 2: learning to be playwrights

90 90 90 91 92 92 94 94 96 96 98 100 101 104 104

Writing poetry What is poetry? Case study Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 or 3: ‘Anything you want it to be’: reading and writing poetry Progress in writing poetry Writing poetry: structure, language and meaning Case study Key Stage 1: Poetry for all: pupils who speak English as an Additional Language working in the literacy hour Looking closely at language Case study Key Stage 2: poetry from word work Writing about poetry Case study Key Stage 3: a Year 7 Poetry Unit The environment for poetry Teaching poetry: suggestions for writing Narrative poetry Responding to pupils’ poetry writing Usfeul resources

vi

48 48 48

107 108 108 109 109 109 112 113 114 114 115 116 117 117 118

Contents

7

Writing non-fiction Writing and learning Revisiting genre: the structure of fiction and non-fiction texts Progression in non-fiction writing Scaffolds and writing frames Hypothesising, predicting, gathering, organising and categorising information Preparation, getting ideas going, framing questions, exploring ideas Case study Key Stage 1: what I know and what I want to find out Giving information to others, communicating ideas, reflecting on learning Case study Key Stage 2: writing and Design Technology Describing, persuading, arguing Case study Key Stage 2: making frames for information and persuasive writing Evaluating and reviewing progress Case study Key Stage 3: learning to write like a geographer

8

Spelling and language study Approaches to spelling Spelling development Creating a supportive environment for spelling/language Progression in spelling Teaching spelling systematically Diagnosing difficulties with spelling Working on spellings at home Teaching punctuation

9

121 122 122 124 124 125 125 126 127 127 132 132 134 134

139 140 140 141 142 144 145 146 147

Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing

151

Policy in action The role of the Literacy/English coordinator Establishing principles and priorities Teaching writing: the process Teaching writing: across the curriculum Planning for teaching sustained writing Ensuring continuity and progression The writing environment Using ICT Diversity and inclusion Different approaches to learning Special educational needs Pupils described as Gifted and Talented Boys and writing Pupils who have English as an Additional Language Responding to and assessing writing Spelling and handwriting Making links over writing with homes with other schools with the community outside the school Putting the policy together

152 152 153 154 155 156 157 157 157 157 158 158 158 161 162 163 163 163 163 163 164 164

References Index

165 169

vii

Figures

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Pascalle’s launderette writing Zoah’s story: the Princess in the Spooky Castle Dan’s history essay: Did towns make people free? Halliday’s language functions

9 11 12 13

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

Page 3 of Sam’s special writing book Julius’ writing: St Lucia: the house on the hill Attitudinal survey about writing and reading used with Year 8 pupils Essex Gender and Writing project – summary of findings

16 19 20 22

3.1

3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13

‘What we’re pleased with’ and ‘What we’d like to develop’ in teaching writing Expanded Process for Teaching Writing Expanded Process combining the NLS writing sequence with the National Curriculum planning ➞ writing process The process of writing: a progression – Foundation The process of writing: a progression – Years 1 and 2 The process of writing: a progression – Years 3 and 4 The process of writing: a progression – Years 5 and 6 The process of writing: a progression – Year 7 The process of writing: a progression – Year 8 The process of writing: a progression – Year 9 Daniel’s letter to Greenpeace Shazia’s weather forecast Nazbarna’s rainforest postcard

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 43 44 45

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15

Key Assessment Opportunities Expected progression in NC levels from Foundation to Year 9 Layout of the Targets and Progress Descriptors for Writing Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Foundation Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 1 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 2 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 3 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 4 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 5 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 6 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 7 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 8 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 9 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Foundation Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 1

49 50 50 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63

3.2 3.3

29 32

ix

Figures 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31

Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 2 64 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 3 65 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 4 66 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 5 67 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 6 68 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 7 69 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 8 70 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 9 71 Individual Records of Progress 72–7 Megan’s response partner notes with replies from her partner 79 Comments on working with response partners 81 Cherish evaluates the picture book project and the use of response partners 82 Andrew’s journal comments on his information writing 82 Iona’s comments on her Cinderella story 83 The process of carrying out a writing miscue analysis 85 Initial jottings for a writing miscue analysis 86

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16

Map of Rosie’s Walk Storymap for The Bad Tempered Ladybird Storymap for ‘Preston’s Walk’ Emma’s storymap and story: The Shoppig trolie Lee’s storymap a) and b) Matthew’s assessed piece and his ‘Sleepy Hollow’ story a) and b) Amy’s story endings Storyhand as prompt for storytelling Story lottery game: options for settings, characters, problems, helpers and solutions Flowchart recording stages of the Cinderella story Flowchart with speech and thought bubbles Notes on colour, music and perspective from video text Analytic writing based on film analysis Grid for analysing character in film or written version Paired notemaking; episode sheet for suspense sequence of video Fact into description activity

100 101 101 102 102 102 103 104

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8

Hillal’s ‘Call Tabby Cat’ poem Rosheen’s ‘Call Tabby Cat’ poem Richmond’s ‘Spider’ poem Abstract noun poem Abstract noun poem Andrew’s haiku from a television programme Circle of consequence: writing about possible outcomes Poetry checklist from Creating Writers by James Carter

111 112 113 114 114 115 117 118

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15

Text types, language features and everyday forms Getting ideas going: a Year 6 science journal entry Disposable jotter Note-making wheel Two sides of an argument Joshua’s ‘Know and Would Like to Know’ sheet Joshua’s Post-It® pads of what he has found out about dogs Pages 1 and 4 of Joshua’s book on dogs a) and b) Instructions for use as an enlarged text model Range of contexts to cater for different learning styles Page from Serhan’s notebook: Types of mechanism Page from Cem’s notebook: Types of mechanism Sally’s evaluation sheet Class compilation of two column note making format: fact and hype Frame for factual recount

123 124 125 125 125 126 126 127 128 129 130 130 131 133 133

x

92 92 92 94 95 95 96 99

Figures 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19

Frame including phrases which can be used to convert factual writing into persuasive text Observation and recording: Marie’s response to the Urban Trail Posing research questions and linking ideas Initial thoughts through to final version

133 135 136 136

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7

Mustafa’s emerging writing Mustafa’s letter of complaint A supportive environment for spelling/language development Analysing Spelling Difficulties – Craig’s chart Word web Self review cards for differentiated punctuation work The effects of punctuation – Year 8 activity

142 142 144 146 147 148 149

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11

School development plan and targets Needing to write – starting points for discussion of writing policy Planning for writing: activity Review of writing for learning Joint planning using the Expanded Process for Teaching Writing Observation sheet for diversity and inclusion Different approaches to learning Teaching approaches to cover a range of preferred modes of learning Statement ranking activity to begin discussing boys and writing Pupil questionnaire about writing and gender Mohammed’s literacy world

152 153 154 155 156 158 159 160 161 162 162

xi

Acknowledgements

There are many teachers and pupils whose work is represented in this book; to them, many thanks for allowing your work to be widely enjoyed. There are many others, however, who have helped me to think through just what ‘Making Progress in Writing’ involves; to them, although their names don’t appear here, equal thanks. There are always particular people who help us to think, in a whole range of ways. Margaret Bickmore, Helen Bromley, Jane Brooks, Sally Elding, Gayle Gorman, Teresa Grainger, Marilyn Miners, Marilyn Mottram, Sally Wilkinson are amongst those who have been my inspiration and support. I can’t thank them enough. Everyone needs a rock; Peter is mine. Acknowledgements and thanks also to Charmian Kenner and Trentham Books for allowing me to use Mohammed’s Literacy World diagram.

xiii

Making Progress in Writing: Introduction Curricular choices . . . float in and out of favour, depending largely on fashion, passion and politics. (Brice Heath 2000: 130)

As far as writing is concerned at the moment, many teachers would agree. There are several metaphors which might be used: the swinging pendulum – swinging from a view of writing as creativity towards a view of writing as assembling a set of skills. Or the tug of war – between those who see flexibility in the teacher’s role as essential in promoting writing and those who think teachers need to be given clear, programmatic instruction [guidance?] in how to teach writing. Or the seesaw – with one set of theories flying free whilst the opposing ones hit the floor only to be reversed with dizzying speed. And there are many more, all of which suggest oppositions, conflicting views which, in Shirley Brice Heath’s words ‘float in and out of favour’. It is no wonder that teachers often say they feel aggrieved; that they don’t know what ‘advice’ to take when it comes to teaching writing. This seems particularly true now with the introduction of the National Literacy Strategy which has had a profound impact on teachers and their practices. The speed of developments has left many teachers reeling and rocking. What matters about this is that the people whose rights and abilities teachers most want to promote – the children – can easily get missed out of the debate. Of course, they are counted, their results are tabulated, but there is a sense at the moment that they are in danger of being seen as less important than their results in the school league tables. I am not a member of the rosy glow of nostalgia support group. Whilst I enjoy, revere and draw on past experience, I would not want to return to exactly the same kind of teaching and learning set-up as I used to work in – unless to revise and improve the way I used to teach. Whilst one kind of response to current ‘fashions’ in teaching writing can be to say ‘We’ve heard it all before’ – often followed by ‘and it never worked then,’ – I can’t agree, although I might sympathise with the unhappiness of the speaker. It isn’t a matter, either, of giving a tart response ‘Well, you can’t have been listening carefully in the first place, can you?’ We may have heard some of it before – the sound principles about building on children’s existing knowledge, creating an environment where learning can

be risky and exploratory but with full attention to the health and safety rules . . . But we haven’t heard all of it – for the very clear reason that there’s more of ‘it’ around now! Over the past 10–15 years there have been significant changes in the way classroom teaching is directed, monitored and assigned value. As far as writing is concerned, there have also been important changes in the types of texts young people are expected to read, understand and challenge. There has also been a great deal of publicity given to literacy, and much written – and said – about it. At first, ‘literacy’, as represented by the National Literacy Strategy, was seen as mainly to do with reading. Polemical debates about the ‘best’ [‘most effective’] way to raise standards of reading have now given way to concerns about how to bring standards of writing in line with the rising levels of reading test performance. So, in terms of school management, the range of texts and teaching literacy, there is a great deal that we haven’t heard before. Another image/idiom springs to mind here – the one about babies and bathwater. Whilst tackling the new, there is distinct value in deciding which aspects of past experience of teaching writing ought to be held on to. In a way it would be attractive to return to the splendid and wide-ranging work published by teachers on the National Writing Project (1995–1998) and say, ‘Just read that – there’s good practice in action,’ and, indeed, there will be reference to that formatively significant work in this book. However, there is a sense in which teachers also need to shape their own views about writing from lived – as well as book-experience. The most useful, realistic and convincing arguments about learning tell us that learners have to work on knowledge, be actively involved with it, in order to transform that knowledge into understanding. This holds good for teachers grappling with the demands of the twenty-first century writing classroom. Whilst building on tested, tried and found to be solid foundations, establishing an equally firm structure of understanding and belief comes from experience – experience which is both practical and principled. 1

Introduction

Theory and practice There is often a tricky relationship between educational theory and practice. Governments, as well as harassed teachers, sometimes dismiss theory as irrelevant to the everyday concerns of the classroom. There are many reasons for this which there isn’t space to go into here, but I want to pick up just one or two points about this apparent opposition. It is only ‘apparent’. Every action which we take as teachers is driven by a belief of some kind, in other words, a theory. Dewey reminded us that ‘theory’ simply means ‘thinking’ and since thought and action are necessarily linked, it is reasonable to suppose that the ways we behave with other people are, in some way, driven by what we think about social relationships. These thoughts may be culturally developed within families and communities, but nevertheless, we do not act like automata. Our actions and our thoughts inform each other. In this very simple way, then, we are thinking – theorising – beings; in the classroom this is equally true. The reaction to ‘theory’ is often a reaction to the idea of abstract concepts which ‘do not work’ in practice. It is also often associated with a sense of the superiority of the abstract over the practical – a very Western notion. Rejecting theory sometimes means a kind of protection against being made to feel inferior. In recent years this is linked to the sense held by many teachers that their professional expertise has been under attack. Education has been made a political priority; it attracts acres of news coverage. Headlines such as TEACHERS NOW HAVE TO TEACH SPELLING symbolise the uninformed approach by some news media. Such ignorance is so massive that it is baffling where to start in response. That ignorance – or cynicism – is not only restricted to circulation-obsessed newspapers but is often echoed by election seeking politicians. The voices of informed moderation and considered analysis are muted. However, these latter are the quiet and astute voices of ‘theory’ since any development in practice comes about by analysis of the current situation and adjustment to new demands or changing circumstances. Thinking about it helps us to make changes. Rather than opposing ‘theory’ and ‘practice’ then, it may be better to see the relationship as symbiotic – neither part being able to survive and flourish without the other. It may also be helpful to add a third element – experience – so that instead of a seesaw, which is an unstable resting place, we have a three-legged stool, much more likely to hold us up in times of weariness. This book presents theory, practice and experience working together, not because staying still is necessarily a good thing, but because polarities don’t seem to get us anywhere. Opposing views only progress when they reach a synthesis and that happens as a result of one idea meeting another and combining. If theories of writing can be crudely characterised as polarised over the past 15 years or so, it’s about time for synthesis. Underlying the different chapters in this book are issues arising from some of the major shifts in teaching writing over the past 10–15 years: 2

•

•

•

•

•

Greater emphasis on testing and assessment of writing: as a result of this there is now concern about the gap in test levels between reading and writing, bringing greater emphasis on teaching writing. Similarly, concern over boys and writing standards has brought about an increasing interest in gender and writing. This has been accompanied by a gradual move towards more explicit direction about teaching methods, included in documentation and directives to teachers, notably in the National Literacy (and now Numeracy) Strategy (NLS) initiatives. Attention to genre: a growing interest in types of texts and how to teach them, has introduced more explicit attention to deliberate teaching of fiction and non-fiction. However, ‘genre’ is not a stable concept and there are not necessarily easy divisions between genres or between ‘narrative’ and ‘non-fiction’ types of writing. Also, texts are now being recognised as multimodal, involving not only combinations of image, word and design, but relating to developments in information and communications systems. Competing models of what writing in classrooms should be about: creativity or structure? New approaches which stress the structures of texts have made the links between reading and writing more explicit but paradoxically there has been a separation of the two in teaching. In fact, they are necessary complements; creativity depends on the combination of thought, feeling, experience and action and the means to give expression to innovation through making connections, building new structures. This has implications for the approaches and opportunities offered in classrooms for developing writing. More evidence of how writing develops in the early years: a body of research evidence over the past 25 years has brought much more attention to emergent writing. There is also now more knowledge about the relationships between home and community literacy and school literacy and the conditions which best support children’s literacy. Awareness of diversity: There is a growing interest in diverse approaches to learning and teaching. Different approaches to learning are now informing curricular documents and, belatedly, perhaps, NLS documentation is taking more account of diversity, spurred by the perceived need to cater for boys’ writing development and support for those pupils described as Gifted and Talented. There remain, however, significant gaps in providing appropriate support for pupils with special educational needs and bi- or multilingual pupils. Extra sessions (Additional Literacy Skills, for example) cannot adequately take into account the variety of particular needs. Equally, whilst the NLS has now prepared useful video and other materials for teachers who work with bi- or multilingual pupils, there is still a way to go in acknowledging the value of bilingualism and multilingualism to children’s literacy development – and so to their writing.

Introduction •

•

Greater awareness of talk as a means of learning: the National Oracy Project (1987–1991) contributed a mass of significant work which has influenced teaching but, ironically, although there is much more awareness of the contribution that talk makes to learning, there was no inclusion of it in the National Literacy Framework for Key Stages 1 and 2. This has been remedied in Key Stage 3 and perhaps provides a platform for stressing the essential links between speech and writing. This doesn’t just imply that talk is essential in rehearsing writing and capturing ideas – although of course it is – but that writing is essentially social, tied up in notions of ‘voice’ in subtle and complex ways, pushing the concept of ‘audience’ further. Growing emphasis on teachers as writers: this was an issue stressed by many teachers who worked on the National Writing Project. For a while it has drifted into the background, but the move towards shared and guided writing now means that teachers must write in the presence of their classes. This is rather different from the earlier sense of a teacher being a writer whose experience might act as a reflective guide as well as a demonstrator of techniques.

Above all, the introduction of the National Literacy Strategy, now also at Key Stage 3, has raised concerns

about how best to help pupils sustain and develop their writing. This book covers progress in writing throughout Key Stages 1, 2 and 3. The central section of the book offers a consolidated approach to target setting, teaching, assessing and reporting pupils’ progress in writing. Leading up to this are general chapters about the current context for teaching writing, issues of diversity in pupils and the implications of new developments for provision in schools. In the second part of the book, separate chapters cover different elements of the National Strategy at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 (including attention to the Foundation Stage). In Chapters 5–7 the case studies give a flavour of what progression looks like in practice. The concluding chapter suggests a programme for reviewing policy. Each chapter begins with a list of specific contents and ends with a summary of key points and recommended reading. Throughout the book, case study accounts contribute to a picture of how young writers make progress in writing, guided and supported by the adults and friends who surround them. Finally, it should perhaps be said that while this book specifically sets out to address issues raised by the demands of the National Literacy Strategy in England, I hope that the ideas offered will be useful to colleagues in other parts of the UK.

3

Chapter 1

Writing now: current trends A writer is not only a creative thinker and problem solver but also a designer. (Sharples 1999: 10)

The ‘traditional’ approach sees classroom writing as complete, one-off writing, existing as ‘evidence’ either of the content of learning or as a proof of technical competence. It would be done to satisfy external demands, be produced in a set time, on a given topic, and seen as a finished product, marked and assessed to prove that something has been done or simply to check up on children’s abilities. Another view, more in evidence in the late 1980s and the 1990s sees writing as a verb – an activity – something in the process of construction which should be read for the meaning it conveys, and be seen as an indicator of

the writer’s ideas and personal intention to convince, entertain, explain. According to this view, the process of putting a text together is seen as central to creating meaning and so the word ‘writing’ is seen much more as a series of activities than a single piece of evidence. Of course, the verb leads towards a noun – writing results in writing – and this very phrase ‘writing results in writing’ captures some of the problems in sorting out different views. When we engage in professional discussion about ‘writing’ we can’t always be sure that we are all talking about the same thing.

This chapter outlines some current issues about writing, including: ●

Writing – noun or verb?

●

From texts to teaching

●

Writing in schools and classrooms

●

Making meaning: the early years

●

Young children’s writing

●

Writing at home and school

●

Voice in writing

●

Creativity and culture

●

Ideas and interactions: Halliday’s model

5

Writing now: current trends

Writing – noun or verb?

From texts to teaching

The different approaches to writing used to be referred to as a ‘product’ view and a ‘process’ model. More recently, George Hillocks has used the term ‘presentational’ to characterise the product approach. This seems a useful way of describing it, since much writing outside schools results in a product; the notion of presentation suggests greater emphasis on the performative aspects of writing than on the formative. The work of Donald Graves, particularly, who promoted the process approach, had a profound impact on ‘formative’ classroom writing in the U.K. Largely as a result of his work and the way it was explored and adapted by teachers, The National Curriculum for English requires that young writers must be experienced in the process of planning, drafting, revising, proofreading and presenting their work. The notion of ‘product’ was reinvigorated during the late 1980s first of all by attention to the work of Australian genre theorists. Their views of writing were based on dissatisfaction with the way writing was being taught in Australia at that time; there was too much ‘recount’ writing [do-it-then-write-about-it] and not enough attention to the different forms and functions that writing takes both in and out of the classroom. The genre theorists signal a return to looking at written texts as products whilst also considering the processes through which the writer has to go. This led to renewed attention to deliberate teaching of writing, ‘developing skill at a genre’ (Martin and Rothery in Couture 1986: 116). Critics of genre theory argue that children’s learning consists not of putting together different ‘skills’ but of a gradual consolidation of experiences which are visited and revisited throughout their schooling. (see, for example, Barrs 1991 and Wyse and Jones 2001: 126–129). Indeed, as far as writing is concerned, it is questionable, and open to argument, whether any adult writer can ever claim to have got to grips with all the ‘skills’ necessary for writing in a wide range of genres. Since writing changes with time, even mature writers continue to learn and develop their expertise. Also, according to this view, writing is seen not so much as expressing ideas and exploring meaning but as constructing texts. In terms of seeing writing as noun or verb, a product or a process, the emphasis has shifted towards a view of ‘a process of production’ which highlights the functions and structures of texts. Another problem associated with the notion of teaching generic forms is to do with just what can be defined as a genre. To suggest that there is a catalogue of genres which can be introduced, practised and perfected, leads to the worst kind of checklist approach to teaching writing. As Bruner pointed out, it is probably more helpful to understand genre ‘as a way of both organizing the structure of events and organizing the telling of them’ (Bruner 1986: 6). This allows for a more flexible view of genre, bearing in mind his reminder that ‘genre naming or grouping is both necessary and loose’.

The National Literacy Strategy has been the greatest single influence on teaching writing over the past few years. However, the underlying view of writing in the Strategy is structural, seeing the development of writing as a staged and purposeful move towards competence in a range of forms. This is all very well, but there is more to becoming a writer than getting to grips with the technical and organisational features of texts. Another significant shift developed in the introduction of the Literacy Strategy Framework, the primary headteachers’ materials about targets for writing and the Strategy training sessions and materials, is an explicit view of the teaching methods which should be adopted. Taking the idea of teacher intervention as central, the Literacy Strategy sets out clear procedures for Shared and Guided teaching approaches (see Grammar for Writing DfEE 2000 pp. 13–18 and Shared Writing on School Placement DfEE 2001 pp. 115–118). However, there are different interpretations of ‘intervention’ and the assumptions inherent in any materials presented for widespread training deserve scrutiny. There are also problems about implementation of the approach at school and classroom level which need to be considered, particularly, perhaps, at Key Stage 3. At the same time as introducing Grammar for Writing, the NLS organised national briefings for primary headteachers. In response to the gap between Key Stage 2 Reading and Writing SAT scores, a new set of targets for writing were introduced (National Literacy Strategy Autumn 2000). Headteachers are urged to take structured and deliberate steps to raise standards of writing. These are organised in sections describing progressive targets at word, sentence and text level, but sub-divided into:

6

• • • • • • •

Spelling Handwriting Style: language effects Style: sentence construction Punctuation Purpose and organisation Process.

Headteachers should ‘demonstrate strong leadership in the implementation of the school literacy strategy’ and to set ‘achievable, measurable literacy targets’ which can be translated into curricular targets and be ‘monitored’. This begins to look rather like ‘fast capitalism’ in the desire to raise scores rather than improve the ways in which young people learn to become writers. In Writing the Future, Gunther Kress describes fast capitalism as: Shallow notions of accountability, effectiveness, efficiencies; the unchecked effects of the market; and the spread of its baleful practices into cultural and intellectual life. (Kress 1995: 4)

Writing now: current trends It is linked to government statements that low literacy levels will affect the nation’s economic performance. The concerns expressed are not to do with developing people, but of educating a workforce. In the classroom, this commercial model of teaching and learning puts pressure on teachers, particularly when it is presented on top of a prescribed programme of objectives in the NLS. Alongside these categories and teaching objectives run the equally demanding, but differently described, QCA requirements for writing SATs – not just at the ends of Key Stages 1 and 2 but now also represented by tests at the end of Years 3, 4, and 5 in the primary sector and also in Key Stage 3. The level descriptors used for assessing these writing tests are not explicitly related to the NLS targets for writing nor to the writing objectives in the Framework. It is a fragmented picture. Not only is writing separated from reading and, importantly, speaking and listening, but also the different agencies which direct teachers and teaching provide different sets of categories to describe what is to be taught and how it should be assessed.

Writing in schools and classrooms In a recent study on the National Literacy Strategy, Graham Frater describes some of the difficulties associated with implementing the Strategy. His work is based on surveys of 32 primary schools. Some of the schools had confidently taken on the NLS and were promoting positive practices about writing. Others had more problems in implementing the Strategy. These schools were not ‘failing’ in Ofsted’s terms. Frater emphasises that: Literacy hour lessons were orderly affairs, good relationships were widespread and lesson planning in the long, medium and short term was thorough and conscientious. (Frater 2000: 109) Rather, the problems arose from ‘anxiety and literalism’. Headteachers reported ‘losses of professional self-confidence, even among seasoned staff, and of the spread of low morale’ (ibid.: 109). The very conscientiousness mentioned above seemed to be problematic. Frater explains that anxiety about covering the termly content of the Framework led to a literal interpretation of what should be emphasised in teaching writing. This, in turn, led to ‘a fragmented approach to the planning and teaching of English’. Frater is at pains to point out that he is not blaming the teachers involved: It was as if teachers felt drained of the professional selfconfidence that was so clearly merited by the skilled classroom management which many had achieved so consistently. (ibid.: 109) This is troubling, particularly since it reflects the kind of disquiet which is voiced in staffrooms throughout England. The evaluation of the Strategy echoes some of these concerns:

Teachers and headteachers . . . tend to receive a constant stream of messages and directives . . . It is not surprising that they see fragmentation where people close to the centre (of the Strategy) see coherence (Earl et al. 2001:75) This concern about overload is expressed here by a Literary Consultant: From the early days of NLS, primary teachers have been, and continue to be, saturated with new resources and pedagogical methodologies. The ‘cascade’ approach to training carries all the images of an unstoppable, torrential flood. Our teachers have been digesting and implementing this educational initiative whilst teaching and working within a political timescale to raise standards of literacy and numeracy. However, for effective professional development, teachers need ‘time and space to reflect in a structured way upon their own approaches to literacy teaching’ (Medwell with Wray et al. 1998). Research tells us that the most effective training is not that which concentrates on subject knowledge but that which deals with subject knowledge in terms of how it is taught to children. The most effective training is that which gives teachers a reasonable amount of time to use new ideas and practical activities and to see how they fit in with their existing armoury of teaching strategies. We must give credit to some of the exciting ideas which have emerged from the strategy. Maureen Lewis and David Wray’s EXEL project has been an invaluable resource for teachers, introducing many of us to new ways of thinking about English and empowering techniques to support children and scaffold their learning. The genre theorists have opened new pathways for future development. Attention has re-focused on exciting and thought-provoking issues – not least Vygotsky’s work on the relationship between thought and language. We increasingly return to the value of talk when we discuss writing. The concept of shared reading and shared writing has undoubtedly allowed us to maximise teacher expertise. We would not be debating these issues on such a scale without the experiences of the NLS. Yet, as Margaret Meek tells us ‘difference is at the heart of what it is to be literate’. We learn in different ways; we write in different ways; as teachers we look for different ways of teaching and we adapt our teaching to suit the children and the task. The pedagogical model presented in Grammar for Writing does not allow for difference. It is intrusive, both to children and teachers and it is, once again, too prescriptive. One of the difficulties with this model is the assumption that development of writing manifests itself in a simple linear fashion. This view is just not tenable; patterns of development are shaped by individual differences and experiences which are constantly revisited and revised in the light of new experience. We should at least debate the issues I am raising here, and I know my colleagues in schools have many more: •

•

The ‘cascade’ approach to training should be replaced by proper professional development programmes which give teachers time to develop their beliefs. We should re-establish the links between literacy and the arts curriculum.

7

Writing now: current trends •

We must re-establish the place of the child in the Framework of ‘teaching objectives’ and give emphasis to ‘learning’. (Mary Hyde Gibbons)

As this Literacy Consultant, the teachers in Graham Frater’s study and other teachers indicate, the introduction of the NLS has not always resulted in greater understanding of how to make sense of texts. Recent advice from the Strategy indicates a wider view stressing that the NLS document is a framework not a plan and that schools are encouraged to be flexible in their interpretation of the Literacy Hour. Important priorities now are: setting targets, raising expectations and clarifying objectives. Teachers need to keep ownership of their planning and not let it be totally dominated by slavish adherence to NLS framework (Askew 2001). Guidance for narrative writing encourages planning for developing writing over a period of a few weeks (Improving Writing – Writing Flier 1, DfES 2001). Whilst these might be encouraging signs, transforming teachers’ anxious literalness to assured flexibility is likely to take some time.

Making meaning: the early years Debates about methods of teaching writing tend to take attention away from the developing writer. One of the key areas of understanding writing development over recent years is the value given to children’s home knowledge of language and literacy. Very rarely these days does a teacher suggest that ‘these children have no language’ when they come to school. Research into the language of home and school carried out in the 1980s seems to have had its properly deserved impact. It is now also recognised that spoken language, gesture, construction of all kinds – clothes, food, furniture – influence the ways in which children develop literacy. It is not just that homes and communities contain print or pictorial objects which offer models of possible future text-making, nor is it solely to do with the important links between early experience of the shapes of spoken texts like conversation, song, story, explanation and the later ability to write such texts. It is because making meaning is central to writing and, as Gunther Kress argues, ‘Children make meaning in an absolute plethora of ways, with an absolute plethora of means, in two, three and four dimensions.’ He explains: Different ways of making meaning involve different kinds of bodily engagement with the world – that is, not just sight as with writing, or hearing as with speech, but touch, smell, taste, feel. (Kress 1997: xvii) Kress goes on to suggest that our ability to translate from one medium to another is the basis of all metaphor, and of much of our most significant innovation. This wider view of meaning making and its relevance to the development 8

of writing can be seen in the different kinds of images we use to explain things: the analogies which help us make sense of new ideas, the different ways we use writing [or drawing/diagrams] to help us get ideas going, capture thoughts, plan for longer writing. Anyone who has been in everyday contact with children can bear witness to their urge to make meaning through a variety of means, described by Kress as ‘what is to hand’. This will, of course, include mark-making, the beginnings of writing. Children learn very quickly that writing can do things for them – that it has a function; notes and greetings cards carry messages, for example. They are also fascinated by patterns of language as they learn to write, noticing phonic links or the shapes and length of words. When children see a relationship between the symbols they write down and the words which people say they are on the brink of literacy.

Young children’s writing Some years ago Yetta Goodman characterised children’s early writing as following three principles: •

•

•

the functional principle: the idea that writing can serve a purpose, has a function for the writer, for example, putting up a notice saying Keep out of Jo’s room!; the linguistic principle: the idea that writing is a system which is organised into letters and words; even before writing recognisable words children can be seen to separate their letter strings into chunks corresponding to what a word looks like on the page; the relational principle: this is when children begin to make the connection between what they write on the page (or published print) and spoken words, realising that the written system carries meaning. (Goodman 1986: 15)

This is clinched when children associate their earlier meaning making, using whatever is to hand, with the ability to shape a symbolic script in the same way – that is, when they see that they can use writing as they have used what is to hand in the physical world. The power of writing comes from being able to use ‘what is to hand’ in our minds, imaginations and experience to express meaning. The pre-history of this understanding about meaning is represented in the writing, drawing, modelling and making which children participate in before they come to school. Children play with writing before they have any knowledge of the orthodox transcription elements of their own language – be it Punjabi, Turkish or English – and the meanings which they assume their writing will carry. The continuing possibility of play, particularly role play, combines ‘what is to hand’ in the world of play with what is to hand in the inner world of thought. Pascalle is a Year 1 English/Punjabi speaker-writer. She has written a list of washing for the launderette role play area and a notice

Writing now: current trends signed by the manager (Figure 1.1). Her knowledge of the functions of writing are very clear as she writes a list, a notice and a signature – all of which are differently set out – with the flourish of the signature indicating very clearly the kinds of text knowledge which Yetta Goodman outlines. The advice for early years practitioners, set out in Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage, reflects the view that developing literacy is complex and multisensory. This document represents the current view of how best to build on children’s home and community experience: Young children’s learning is not compartmentalised. They learn when they make connections between experiences and ideas that are related to any aspect of their life in the setting, at home and in the community. (DfEE/QCA 2000: 45)

Writing at home and school Charmian Kenner (2000) echoes this view in her book Home Pages: Literacy Links for Bilingual Children. This book represents the shifts that have been made in acknowledging the value of home experience for the later development of literacy. In the Introduction Kenner describes an encounter with 4-year-old Simran in her father’s hardware shop. Simran moves easily between speaking Gujarati and English and her mother will soon teach her to write Gujarati, a fact which gives her father joy since he cannot write in Gujarati. Kenner tells us that ‘Both parents are confident that Simran can become bilingual and biliterate and that this will be an advantage to her.’ She continues: Simran reminds me of young bilingual children I have known and worked with in primary school. Like their monolingual classmates, they are fascinated by everyday

Figure 1.1 Pascalle’s launderette writing 9

Writing now: current trends literacy materials in English, from take-away pizza menus to birthday cards and travel brochures. They also have many literacy experiences at home in other languages, ranging from watching world events on satellite TV in Turkish to reading the Bible with a parent in Spanish. If teachers find out about these experiences and make connections with them in the classroom, they can tap into huge potential for literacy learning in English and other languages. (Kenner 2000: ix–x) Whilst there is now greater understanding about the valued roles of both parents and teachers in education, it would be foolish to say that the relationship between school and home or between teachers and parents is now equivalent. Everyday experience says it is not, with some parents feeling marginalised and some teachers feeling either threatened or infuriated by some parents. However, community education programmes, teachers’ efforts and explanations have made some headway in breaking down barriers. Recent work like the SureStart projects are making the links between home and school explicit and establishing a climate where information about children’s early experiences of literacy is likely to flow both ways, not just from school to home. It is also important to make sure that links with parents continue beyond the early years. Homes and families are more significant to developing writers than might have been thought, particularly in providing experience in a range of spoken forms of language which are the bedrock for writing.

Voice in writing In the 1990s the National Oracy Project identified particular aspects of talk as important to the social and cultural shaping of experience as well as to the personal and intellectual aspects of learning. The teachers involved in the Oracy Project described the interlinking of the social, cultural, communicative and cognitive aspects of talk. Most importantly, they opened up enquiries about group work and collaborative talk, particularly in its role of shaping learning. In his recent book Literacy and Learning Through Talk, Roy Corden outlines the recent history of talk in relation to literacy emphasising ‘interactive discourse’ and the important role of exploratory talk in learning (Corden 2000). Whilst formative talk is an important aspect of the relationship between speech and writing, links between oracy and literacy are often characterised through the idea of ‘voice’ – the quality which marks a piece of writing as individual and convinced. The metaphoric use of voice implies the essential link. However, it can also signal a kind of essentialist view – of a precious core of inner creativity which is beautifully formed and waiting to be heard. If theories of the social and cultural importance of language are to be acknowledged, then this view of voice needs to be extended to include the different ‘voices’ which anyone might have access to through experience as well as imagination. With that expanded view, voice can 10

be seen as the ring of conviction as a writer. The story in Figure 1.2 provides several examples of ‘voice’. First of all, it rings with the authentic and convinced voice of a storyteller, clearly influenced by other people’s storytelling – ‘long, long ago, far, far away,’; ‘she had a mind to be wed’; ‘she was intelligent, beautiful’. That kind of poise and pace comes from having sound bedded in the ear. This is one kind of inherited voice which we can hear in the story. It echoes with the voices of other texts – the ghost skeleton from horror stories, the mice as helpers, from Disney, for example. The strength of narrative voice in mature, published writing manifests itself as the voice of the author and other voices: of narrator and of characters (Genette 1980). This story, written by Zoah for a Key Stage 1 SAT, has just such a strong narrative voice. It has been developed through a complexity of experiences of talk and writing – at home and in school. She knows how to structure this piece of writing because she has heard and practised storytelling. It isn’t just that the ear links with the eye over phonics and graphology; nor that she knows how to create a suspenseful sentence with ‘powerful adjectives’; nor even that she has a sense of the structure of a written story because she has the well developed experience of hearing and telling stories. The pleasure of reading this text lies in the gusto born of a writer who has a story to tell and knows that it will entertain and amuse us – in other words, it is driven by an urge to meaning. Because of the aim towards meaning, her ideas, alongside her sense of how to relate to the hearer/reader, feed her knowledge of how to shape a text. In a similar way, Dan, who is in Year 7, (Figure 1.3) adds to the idea of voice, using not only the voice of direct address to the reader but echoes of television or radio news or information type texts. The opening sentence could have been used to introduce any history or archaeology programme. Added to this, where Zoah used conventional punctuation to express her intonation, Dan has accessed newly available typographical features to express intonation, emphasis and pace.

Creativity and culture Looking at these examples suggests that voice is not just a matter of ‘inner creativity’, although this is important. They show that whilst ‘voice’ is individual, it is also a social and cultural phenomenon. The psychologist Vygotsky puts it like this: Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level: first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological). (Vygotsky 1978: 50) The combination of social/cultural and individual sources of meaning is important for developing writers. The inner voice – ‘inner speech’ in Vygotsky’s terms, develops from social speech and this is critical for writing development:

Writing now: current trends

Figure 1.2 Zoah’s story: the Princess in the Spooky Castle Writing is also speech without an interlocutor, addressed to an absent or an imaginary person or to no one in particular – a situation new and strange to the child. . . . In conversation, every sentence is prompted by a motive. Desire or need lead to request, question to answer, bewilderment to explanation. The changing motives of the interlocutors determine at every moment the turn oral speech will take. It does not have to be consciously directed – the dynamic situation takes care of that. The motives for writing are more abstract, more intellectualized, further removed from immediate needs. In written speech, we are obliged to create the situation, to represent it to ourselves. . . . Writing also requires deliberate analytical action on the part of the child. In speaking, he is hardly conscious of the sounds he pronounces and quite

unconscious of the mental operations he performs. In writing, he must take cognizance of the sound structure of each word, dissect it, and reproduce it in alphabetical symbols, which he must have studied and memorized before. In the same deliberate way, he must put words in a certain sequence to form a sentence. (Vygotsky 1962: 99) This sharply emphasises the complexity of putting together a piece of writing; it is certainly not simply a matter of mastering skills and learning how to structure a range of genres. It is hard work, to shape and wring meaning from words. Pascalle, Zoah and Dan have all come to understand that they can deliberately express their meanings because they can be at one and the same time the ‘speaker’ and the ‘hearer’ of their own writing. They are taking part in an inner dialogue which moves faster than 11

Writing now: current trends

s n w o t Did

e l p o e p make

A n essay by D a n

? e e r f

The story of medieval towns is the story of people becoming free. Or is it? In this essay I will explain – why some people wanted to become free but I will also explain why it is not so simple. We might think that being ‘free’ was a good thing. We might think that. But medeval people ment special things by being free – and it did not always mean that you were REALLY free. Besides, there were lots of other things to worry about. A town could help you become a ‘freeman’ but no one could do exactly what they liked. Towns were full of strange rules, too and they kept some people freer than others. In this essay I will explore how much freedom the townspeople had. A villein was not like a freeman. Sometimes a villein might run away to a town because he wanted to be free or he was fed up working for the Lord with no pay. The people were tired of working on the lords land. In the Middle Ages being free meant being free from the lord’s control. Most people were not free, but townspeople were special and lots of different laws and rules were passed by diffrent towns helping villeins become free. Here is one in the Royal Charter to Gloucester in 12 27 ‘If any villein shall stay in the town and support himself and pay his taxes for a year and a day, after that time he cannot be caught again by ‘his lord’. So some villeins might have had

big hopes

for the Towns.

A town was a whole place that could get free. Many towns gradualy became free in the 12th and 13th centuries. This happened because the town was growing richer. The cheif townsmen would buy a charter from the lord for a lot of money, and then they were out of the lord’s control. They also became freemen. A charter ment you could elect a town council and buy and sell land. This was quite something then! A villein and all the unfree people could never do that. No wonder Jack Proctor wanted to run away to town (even though it was risky)!!

Figure 1.3 Dan’s history essay: Did towns make people free?

12

Writing now: current trends speaking, because they have had the experience of what spoken dialogue, story and explanation sound like and have transformed the cadences and rhythms of speech into writing.

Ideas and interactions: Halliday’s model The linguist Michael Halliday, many years ago, offered a model which combines individual language and cognitive development with the social nature of language. His work was highly influential amongst the Australian genre linguists whose work has informed the National Literacy Strategy. He describes three kinds of function necessary for any communicational system: the ideational function which represents processes both in the external world and the internal world of the speaker/writer; the interpersonal function which reflects social interactions and relationships in the processes of communication and the textual function which puts the ideational and the interpersonal into the shape of a recognisable text and which relates to other texts. These three elements (like the three legs of the stool described earlier) function simultaneously, ‘reflecting the variety of functions that language is required to serve’. (Halliday 1978: 360). The ideational component involves choices related to decisions about the interpersonal [audience/readership] component and will be realised in a text form which communicates the writer’s ideas and intentions coherently.

Figure 1.4 expresses the three components diagrammatically as: IDEATIONAL

INTERPERSONAL

TEXTUAL text form/organisation sentences/vocabulary

Figure 1.4 Halliday’s language functions The National Literacy Strategy model with its ‘word, sentence and text’ categories reveals some significant gaps when the list of components is set beside Halliday’s model. The NLS components are: • • •

at word level – spelling; style: language effects at sentence level – style: sentence construction; punctuation at text level – purpose and organisation; process of text construction

When related to the Halliday model, it is clear that the NLS does not include the ideational and interpersonal except, perhaps, in an implicit assumption that there must be ‘something’ to feed into the process of constructing the text. If writing is to be fully developed in classrooms, then text, sentence and word level work must be informed by the world of ideas and the social world, by a writer’s ideas and urge to meaning. The most helpful approach to writing must be to see writing as a process through which developing writers find their own voices and have the chance to try out ideas, thoughts, emotions, oppositions.

Key issues in this chapter ●

The National Literacy Strategy has been the single most influential factor in recent approaches to writing. It is now time to reintegrate teachers’ previous valuable knowledge about teaching writing with the innovations of the NLS.

●

Developing writing is not just about learning how to structure a text; it is also shaped by social and cultural factors. Writing may appear in two dimensions, but represents the added dimensions of time, space and sound – the histories of writers and their communities, the layout on the page and the different voices which inhabit the writing.

Key texts Roy Corden, Literacy and Learning Through Talk Gunther Kress, Before Writing: Rethinking the Paths to Literacy

13

Chapter 2

The writers I write if I’m bored or sometimes to express my feelings. I also write stories when I’m sad because it makes me feel a lot calmer. Peter I find writing stories at school boring because I can’t get carried away. Rejana

If ‘voice’ is the important aspect of writing which shows how inner and outer worlds of experience are expressed, and through which writers gradually signal control over their writing, then it seems sensible to listen to children’s voices. Peter, who is eleven, and whose comments head this chapter, recognises the value of writing for his inner

life – to make him feel ‘calmer’ and Rejana, who finds school cramps her imaginative writing, give us valuable glimpses into what writing can mean for young writers. However, writers’ voices are not only represented in the conviction of their writing, but also, and importantly, in their reflections about writing and their discussions about it.

This chapter looks at the range of writers, their potentialities and promise: ●

Hearing voices

●

Choosing to write

●

Interpersonal aspects of writing

●

Talking before writing

●

Case study Key Stage 2: developing writing through talk

●

Gender and writing

●

Case study Key Stage 3: getting the picture – boys and writing

●

Different approaches to learning

●

Case study Key Stage 2: teaching approaches and learning styles

●

Writing and bilingualism

●

Case study Key Stage 1: observing bilingual learners

15

The writers

Hearing voices When children are invited to reflect on writing, their comments show that they have very clear views about the ideational and interpersonal components of writing. (see page 13) In the classroom, the ‘interpersonal’ is often catered for by response partners, conversations with the teacher, classroom support staff or the group and teachers arrange for writing to be read by identified readers – ‘real audiences’. However, to many young writers, the interpersonal is deeply bound up with the ideational; the social nature of writing takes on the stronger dimension of friendship and family who provide impetus, content and ideas. In interviews about the writing they do at home, children’s comments range from the very moving: my Grandad died last year and I wrote him a ‘I love you Grandpa’ (Sam) to the practical:

the chapter. It is clear, then, that the interpersonal is inextricable from the ideational. Where else do I get my ideas from but from my social and personal experience? This is not to suggest that writers will simply record and recount what happens in the external world. Far from it. As any member of a family knows, siblings who have the same home experience can be very different people, with varying tastes, preferences, characteristics. The outer experience of life is transformed through our separate inner experiences. This is where individual voice comes in.

Choosing to write I like school a lot. I would rather be at school than at home. At school you do writing my favourite thing. I’m getting better and better at writing and joining up my writing. (Sam’s school journal) At 7, Sam is convinced he is a writer. He writes at home in a special A4 notepad. Between Saturday 24th February and Saturday 25th March he had written:

If I get any words wrong my dad looks at it (Matthew) Gemma and Philippa play together and make up poems and then sing and play them in the playground with other friends. They also like to make plans for stories. In response to the question Where do you get your ideas from? Gemma replied: When I go round Philippa’s I ask her brother and he’s got a lot of ideas [How old is he? – Six]. Siblings and family play a very important part in writing – as the subject matter, the inspiration, the responders and, very importantly, as the genuinely interested readers of the writing. The interpersonal, then, comes before and goes beyond ‘communication’; it is bound up with the fact that writers are social beings, constantly responding to their social surroundings. Writing can offer the chance to cope with emotions:

•

•

•

Page 1 A redrafted story about a boy who had lost his teddy. At the bottom of the page he listed ‘rong words’ which he wanted help with. Page 2 A list of weapons; some spellings; an account of what he had done today; labelled drawings of some of the weapons. Page 3 A diary account about planting some seeds; some multiplication sums; on the same page is a list of words written by his mother as correct spellings (Figure 2.1).

Everytime when I feel sad I start writing (Matthew) Friends have to be included; when Gemma and Philippa made up a plan for a story based on school they said: We writ all our friends at the bottom of it . . . The interpersonal operates as part of the sense of what it is to be a writer, not just as part of the process of actually putting a text together. Whilst response is vital to developing writing, notions of ‘audience’ or ‘readership’ are not adequate to encompass the interpersonal elements of writing. This is because the interpersonal is to do with ‘being a writer’ – whose experience is flavoured by living with others as part of a family or community – rather than merely carrying out the actions of writing or producing a written text. Feelings about yourself as a writer will be affected by what you and others think of your writing as shown by the comments at the beginning of 16

Figure 2.1 Page 3 of Sam’s special writing book

The writers The following pages include more multiplication sums and a brief diary account of his day at school; a story, with illustrations – ‘The death of an octopus’; a very neatly copied extract from the cover of the Lion King video; a diary account of Saturday; a list of spellings where his mother has supplied the correct versions where necessary and a draft and redraft of a poem based on one he’d heard in school. He always draws his ideas when he writes – sometimes before, but also as part of his drafting process and he has a distinct drawing style. Sam would not strike anyone as particularly unusual. He is funny, reflective, lively and friendly – just like many other Year 3 children. He is also not unusual in his keenness to write at home; many children, whatever their home background, enjoy writing for their own pleasure.

Interpersonal aspects of writing Whilst it would be unrealistic to suggest that the classroom can replicate what home offers as an environment for writing, children’s home writing – and their comments about it – offer important pointers about how we might help young writers to develop. Of course, the conditions are different and young writers can choose when, how and what to write, in which medium; no classroom could replicate this. Also, since these choices to write at home represent personal meanings, unless the writers wish to share them with others at school, there is an ethical point about gaining permission to trespass on home cultural territory. Nevertheless, listening to the voices of young writers can tell us a lot about their perceptions of what writing is. Sometimes uncomfortable for teachers to hear or read, comments like the following can nevertheless inform classroom teaching. Katie and Emma, two very eloquent 8year-olds and very accomplished writers, explain where their ideas come from: I get ideas from other stories. I’ve just read Alice in Wonderland so I wrote ‘Katie in Wonderland’. I read the book, picture an idea then think about the setting, events – where whatever is happening – I have a picture . . . then I just continue ’til I think I’ve got enough events . . . If I can’t think of anything to happen I’d go and read another story . . . I write then I go back to it . . . the Wonderland story took about 2 weeks on and off. (Katie) I’ve just done a project on birds . . . I get bored and it’s exciting to do it. If you start it you’ve got something to do each week . . . I think it’s better writing at home . . . I can think more when it’s a quiet atmosphere . . . (Emma) They give advice to teachers:

Teachers should let them do the story their own way and help with spellings but let them punctuate it themselves. . . . let children have their own flow. . . . They’ve got to let them have their own sense of writing. . . . like a child might want it in the past tense and the teacher wants it in the present tense. . . . In conversation, these young writers showed that they understand the teachers’ dilemma – that they have to follow a curriculum – but they still felt that a little more choice and independence would be welcome: Let them go on and don’t help them too much. They have to help them a bit but then they’ve got to get their own way of writing . . . they might have a certain way of thinking . . . Katie’s distinction between help with spellings and with punctuation is remarkable; she has understood that very often spelling doesn’t affect a writer’s meaning, but that altered punctuation might significantly change what you want to say. Both in their explicit understandings about writing and in their implicit sense of what a writer needs, they suggest that programmatic adherence to the process described in the Grammar for Writing material about shared and guided writing may be a dubious vehicle for genuinely helping children to get their voices heard. Listening to children’s voices can tell us about their enjoyment of rhyme, rhythm and dance associated with poetry; of a love of repetition and the familiar; the ways they extend ideas from school, blend them with other ideas, use their known and lived experience and write surrounded by and inspired by friends and family as well as what they read. They welcome opportunities to choose but acknowledge the constraints of school. These are aspects of being a writer which go beyond and before just producing texts. The opportunity to talk about writing is an equally important aspect of becoming a writer. Developing a metalanguage goes beyond being able to name different kinds of nouns and talk about ‘powerful verbs’; there also have to be opportunities for reflection on writing – and on being a writer.

Talking before writing Listening to children’s opinions and hearing what they say about their own writing at home are important pointers for developing writing. Equally important is the role which talk can play as a basis for more assured writing. The children’s voices in this chapter so far have been convinced and clear. And what about writers whose voice is less confident? The following case study details how revisiting the speaking and listening curriculum and deliberately including elements in teaching helped a class, and one young writer in particular, to write with assurance. Laura Snook is the Literacy Co-ordinator in an inner city school where she teaches a Year 4 class, many of whom have English as 17

The writers an Additional Language. When she asked their perceptions about writing Laura found that they had some negative views about writing – and about themselves as writers: What first struck me about a small group of boys in my class was the difference between their (usually) freely, and even eagerly, offered verbal contributions, using appropriate and technical vocabulary, and the two sentences of writing I had to wring out of them in any independent or guided activity. With her colleagues, she planned to raise the profile of speaking and listening and link it explicitly to writing, visual and audio texts. She monitored the effect on one boy in particular.

Case study Key Stage 2: developing writing through talk As a control, I asked Julius to produce some descriptive work based on photographs he had been studying as part of our Geography topic, St Lucia: The house on the hill. (Figure 2.2) He was proud of the piece he wrote about a journey to St Lucia. Given free choice of format, and away from class distractions, he had enjoyed writing and had produced more than ever before – his criterion for success – but the content was a series of undeveloped events only tenuously linked to the subject. I asked why he hadn’t used any description and was told that that would be too difficult; the commentary had been much easier because he could draw on his experience in life and from television. I set about planning a week of work on descriptive settings using only timetabled time, and with no additional adult support, which would give Julius the time and support he needed to produce writing which met the NLS objectives as well as his and mine. I gave myself a format for a staged process of supported writing: listen and look

video, audio, oral or written text object/stimulus reaction

talk

time out discussion talk frame

plan

graphic organizers story boards/comic strips planning vocabulary frames

experiences

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play role play/physical frames hot seating freeze frame ‘finding voices’

] ] talk ] partner ]

group/ whole class plan

prompts brainstorming bullet points concept maps

write

draft (whiteboards) tell/talk through revise proofread present

I used video as shared text and in guided writing and compared it to book settings. Groups of children concentrated on different aspects such as sounds and colours, and shared their findings. Drawing on initial teacher input, they were developing a metalanguage to describe how mood and expectations were being created. In extended writing time, the children used their talk partners to clarify their ideas about their own setting. They drew their settings and labelled them with key ideas and phrases. This proved to be a crucial stage for the children in forming ideas and selecting language, and is a particularly productive time for targeted teacher input. In what had been ERIC time, they sat in a circle and, using freeze-frame format, shared their settings with the class, using their drawings as visual prompts [You are in your setting now. What can you see? What can you hear?]. The drawings provided a context for their work and helped to keep them on track and in control of the process. We shared written texts selected for the effectiveness of their settings and identified a useful bank of words which helped to arouse expectations and create atmosphere. After a final run through with talk partners, I modelled writing a setting, and the children helped me to evaluate its effectiveness. They then put pen to paper for the first time that week, still using their drawings and their talk partners to help them to remember or clarify ideas. Throughout the process, talk partners had provided a sounding board and an audience. It is important that partners are shown how to develop a supportive relationship where they can be constructively honest with each other, overcoming the instinct to make bland and unproductive comments. The result in a normal 20 minute literacy hour slot proved that the children can put the right stuff out, if I put the right stuff in. Julius produced a long paragraph full of the descriptive language he had previously actively avoided. But the real pay-off came in Geography, when, unprompted, the children used their talk partners to clarify their ideas about ‘The Hillside View of Castries’, and Julius painlessly produced a full page of descriptive writing: When I look out of my window I see people who look like little sticks, my neighbours’ houses with slanted roofs and some with straight roofs. The whole city of Castries looks like a toy city. Cars look like toy cars. The different shades of green of trees. Shops look like building blocks. The electricity wires look like thin string. The sun reflects on to my window. The different shades of blue that separates the sea from the sky.

The writers

Figure 2.2 Julius’ writing: St Lucia: the house on the hill

I can also see the twin mounts, the Petons, with the different shades of green and white. A lot of little buildings. Little 4 legged objects. Lampposts look like little thin toothpicks. In terms of fulfilling the objectives about writing, Julius – and the others in the class – have certainly succeeded. (Laura Snook, Summerfield primary school, Birmingham)

For Julius, and the rest of the class, talk was valuable as a foundation for writing and Laura Snook shows just how effectively it can augment and support Literacy Hour work. Julius’ energetic approach, shown in the first piece of his writing, drew on his strong sense of heard dialogue and visual text. The planned series of activities allowed his imaginative energy to find a more channelled outlet – and to write a strongly individual piece, drawing on the visual,

a preference which is often identified as a feature of boys’ writing.

Gender and writing National research has questioned boys’ motivation and commitment to literacy. National testing data consistently point out that boys lag behind girls in literacy attainment and, in secondary school, in English. While any underachievement is a proper concern for parents, teachers and others involved in education, as the following accounts show, it would be wise not to accept generalised observations about boys, girls and writing without asking a few questions or gathering some useful first-hand information. 19

The writers This is important because in the first place, it just isn’t enough to describe differences. These need to be scrutinised and analysed to find what they can tell us about possibilities for shifts in school and classroom practice. Also, what might appear as differences in performance, interest or approach by boys and girls may be only related to surface features. There is strong evidence of boys subverting stereotypical text types to reveal a far greater interest in personal relationships and emotions than is often acknowledge or noticed. This extract from a story by a Year 5 boy is not unusual: Zoe got me a present. She got me a Manchester United football kit. The new one that is. . . . Mike got p****d off really bad because I’m going out with Zoe and he really really loves her but she don’t love him not one little bit. At the same time, girls often subvert the stereotypes which they draw on as models for their writing, presenting images of female characters who are assertive and secure in their feminine strengths. Samantha (Year 5) wrote a book where the mother and the girl are the strong protagonists:

always a straightforward matter of boys = action/violence; girls = emotions and relationships. And what is more, both are aware of the social and emotional realities of relationships between the sexes. Elaine Millard’s book Differently Literate drew attention to boys’ underachievement in the literacy curriculum (Millard 1997). Her more recent research with Jackie Marsh looks at the ways in which boys (and girls) use images from popular cultural texts to make meaning – and for them, ‘writing’ involves pictures, diagrams and other visual illustration (Marsh and Millard 2000). With awareness of boys’ documented preferences for visual texts, the Essex Writing Project set out to monitor and analyse writing and gender.

Case study Key Stage 3: getting the picture – boys and writing The Essex Writing Project involved teachers in Years 1, 5 and 8 investigating writing and gender in three different schools. In the following case study account, two teachers who work with Year 8 mixed ability classes describe what they found.

This is a story called A Healthy Farm. I’ll start with Lucy. She goes to a school in Manchester called Romsey. Lucy and her mum live on a farm (so Lucy and her mum look after all the animals). Lucy’s dad divorced her mum, well, we won’t go into that. I hope you will enjoy the story.

A dip in the level of performance of year 8 pupils, particularly boys, has been identified both nationally, and within our own school. We began by conducting an attitudinal test to determine pupils’ attitudes to writing. (Figure 2.3)

Many examples like this show that whilst there are differences in the ways young writers tackle writing, it isn’t

The results of the survey were somewhat mixed. As expected many boys revealed a preference for practical lessons and

Survey on pupils' attitudes to writing • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Apart from doing homework when do you do any writing outside school? Do other people in the family do any writing other than homework? Is writing always work or can it be an enjoyable experience? Which lessons do you like best? Is your preference influenced by the amount of writing you have to do? What do you expect to do in your English lessons – speak, listen, read, write? Why do you have lessons in English? Thinking back to the work you have done in English in year 7 and year 8. Which pieces did you enjoy doing and why? Concentrating specifically on written work which piece did you enjoy doing most? Why? When you are asked to do a piece of written work what do you find difficult? What kind of written work are you most comfortable with? Do you prefer writing very specific short answers or do you like to write longer, more developed pieces? Do you get ideas for writing from the reading that you do? Do you read for pleasure or because you are told to? What was the last book you read completely? Did you read it all because you wanted to or for another reason? If you were given a book-token what sort of book would you buy for yourself? If you were given a lined sheet of A4 paper and told to write anything you liked, except something repetitive like lines, what would you write?

Figure 2.3 Attitudinal survey about writing and reading used with Year 8 pupils 20

The writers admitted that this was because these lessons involved little or no writing. When asked what, in particular, they found difficult about writing boys made comments such as: I find it difficult writing a story out of my head I find it difficult coming up with ideas I find story writing difficult because I can’t find the ideas and I can’t express myself properly I prefer writing shorter pieces However several boys said that they preferred writing fiction but admitted that they still found coming up with ideas and planning difficult. Experience has shown that the stories produced tended to be full of action with little scene setting, and no development of character or conveyance of feeling. Our conclusions at the end of the first part of the work were that boys respond better to shorter pieces of work especially when the work is modelled and clear targets are set. They pick up visual clues and respond well orally but this is not reflected in their writing. The work moved into a second term and extended the ideas into writing narrative and studying a range of different texts. We then analysed the overall findings. In conclusion, although it is impossible to make definitive statements about the gender issue, and there is no one solution to the problems of boys’ reluctance to write, the following points can inform practice to improve boys’ (and girls’) writing: • • • • •

• • • • • • •

Boys respond well when provided with specific details as a starting point. Their work is better when they are provided with a tight framework. They respond to examples and the modelling of successful writing. They enjoy, and are good at, deconstructing text. Boys responded positively to detailed talk before writing, the use of film and the opportunity to use graphics and writing. Boys enjoy using whiteboards to draft work. Accuracy should not always be a major criterion for successful writing. Pupils respond positively when asked to create their own success criteria. The use of the visual (e.g. flow diagrams) to structure writing proved successful. Boys write well when asked to craft language in short pieces of writing. Longer writing needs to be broken down into sections. It is a myth that boys are motivated by the use of ICT.

In general, given our findings, we are hopeful that the New Literacy Strategy and the new framework for the teaching of English will do much to promote the quality of boys’ writing. However, teachers must ensure that this is not done at the expense of inhibiting those girls and boys who enjoy the freedom of creative expression and divergent writing by removing their freedom of choice and stifling their imagination. Roma Dukelow and Ruth Dunk from Sir William de Ferrers school, South Woodham Ferrers, Essex

(Figure 2.4) shows the key features of success in developing boys’ writing as identified from classroom observations, questionnaires and interviews by the Essex Writing Project teachers in Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 (Bearne 4: 2002). In two research projects – one from primary schools and the other from secondary, Graham Frater identified a similar range of factors which help support boys’ literacy (Frater 1997, 2000). With a broader perspective, Colin Noble and Wendy Bradford describe and analyse secondary school practice which ensures greater success for both boys and girls (Noble and Bradford 2000). These studies take a good look at school and classroom practice, emphasising the importance of interactive methods – as the Essex Project findings suggest. However, often, initiatives to tackle perceived problems about boys and writing focus on underachievement. Project Jude, from Exeter University, set out to investigate views about underachieving boys. (Myhill 2000; Wood and Holden 2001). At both primary and secondary levels, classroom practices were found to be critical. In the primary part of the research: Half of the teachers considered that some aspects of the NLS teaching were problematic for underachievers, especially boys. They felt that the variety of teaching styles and activities used prior to the introduction of the NLS had been lost. . . . Classroom observations showed that teaching styles in the NLS tended to be transmissive rather than interactive. (Wood and Holden 2001: 24) Similarly, the secondary survey questioned the emphasis on ‘interactive’ whole class teaching, pointing out that apparent interactivity can act as a mask to the fact that some pupils are not being drawn into the teaching. As Myhill comments: ‘Whole class teaching is not synonymous with whole class learning’ (Myhill 2000: 25). All of the most recent research into gender and writing strongly suggests that there are still many complex threads to disentangle if boys are generally to be seen to succeed as well as girls in their writing.

Different approaches to learning Research into gender leads to a more complex view of diversity. It becomes clear that categories like ‘underachieving boys’ – a phrase that has been tripping easily off the tongue for at least 30 years – aren’t subtle enough to reflect the real picture. All the evidence in this section suggests that it is worth identifying the range of learners in classrooms and then considering classroom practice in the light of this information. Provision for a wide range of learners means looking at the contexts of learning, since different individuals learn best in certain settings or environments. For sustained reading, writing or thinking, for example, some people need background noise whilst others need absolute silence. This raises some questions about classroom organisation to 21

The writers

Key Features of Success Having clear objectives; developing success criteria with the pupils Progress is influenced by knowing what to improve. Successful practice included having teaching objectives on display for reference and developing ‘Hot Tips for Writers’ – gathered by pupils and displayed. Risk taking and face saving Risk taking is often associated with boys’ behaviour. However, high achieving boys were seen as possibly at risk of adverse peer pressure and so less likely to take intellectual risks. Some girls showed lack of confidence to try something new tending to want to stay with the familiar, for example, they wrote fewer complex sentences and were concerned about neatness. Multisensory approaches Hearing, seeing and making all supported learning for both boys and girls at all three Key Stages. This included: • • •

drama, role play, enactment through puppets, writing in role visual stimuli: video, TV, computers, drawing, painting, magazine collage, picture books radio plays, tapes, music

Talk At all Key Stages, the teachers found that talk before, during and after writing improves standards. Storytelling gave pupils experience of story grammars and so helped writing; hearing adults’ voices reading, telling, enacting, provided pupils with the tunes in their heads to get the tunes off the page. Talk partners were found to be very important in shaping writing. The teachers agreed that it is important to plan systematically for structured and purposeful talk related to the stories, books, poetry, plays and other activities being used. Teacher intervention In the classroom this sometimes meant stepping back to allow greater experimentation, e.g. developmental writing in Year 1. The most noticeable interventions were in scaffolding and planning for activities. The ability to do this depended on teachers having the assurance to be flexible in planning if they found better routes to their teaching objectives emerged from classroom work with the pupils. They also found it was important to teach children skills in a way that is not threatening. Some surprises •

It is a mistaken assumption that less fluent writers, or boys, will prefer working with computers.

•

Changes came about in the achievement of particular writers who are on SEN Stages because the work sparked imagination, assurance and confidence.

•

Boys’ poetry writing showed remarkable layers of understanding and sensitivity.

•

At Key Stage 1 even very young writers were able to express their ideas after talk, role play and guided storytelling.

•

Whilst there are some noticeable differences in approach between boys and girls as writers, other differences have become apparent. There are different learning approaches which need to be taken into account which do not seem to be strongly gender marked, for example, risk-taking/caution and visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, constructional, social, verbal/symbolic, practical.

In general, the study demonstrated that providing a range of writing opportunities not only allowed individuals to show their strengths in different forms/genres but raised standards because once they had succeeded in some forms they felt more assured about trying other forms of writing. There were also some noticeable common features of success: • • • • • • •

greater willingness to write greater attention to detail more fluent and regular handwriting greater fluency leading to greater confidence greater confidence leading to greater fluency choosing to write at home/in the writing area learning what it means to ‘be a writer’ which is different from ‘learning to write’.

These characteristics were evident in both boys’ and girls’ writing.

Figure 2.4 Essex Gender and Writing project – summary of findings

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The writers provide for a range of learning preferences. On the other hand, provision for diversity might be to do with the types of texts themselves; some people find diagrams, maps and webs useful in shaping up and in representing ideas; some read pictures more accurately than written text; some think best in sequences, using lists to help organise ideas and actions, others have a more random or spontaneous way of dealing with things. Certainly, these differences strongly suggest that successful teaching and learning depend on finding a variety of ‘ways in’ to learning. Learning styles have been analysed and categorised by cognitive psychologists for some time now, but they are receiving even more attention, probably led by industrial and work-place studies. Various accelerated learning projects all focus on the ways in which people learn. Whilst all of these are interesting, it is important not to be too swift to categorise children as having specific ‘styles’ of learning. There is a danger in being eager to pigeon-hole the learner; this can take attention away from teaching approaches and the importance of contexts for learning. Moreover, such hard and fast categorisations can ignore the fact that many learners use a variety of approaches to learning according to circumstance. The next case study describes how one teacher used information about learning styles to support writing. Geraldine Ciantar’s interest in different learning approaches prompted an investigation with her Year 3 class. She wanted to see how the children’s writing might improve if they could use their preferred learning style as a way in. She used questionnaires to help identify children’s learning preferences in the three modes of verbal, visual and kinaesthetic, and interviewed the children to find out about their likes and dislikes in literacy in and out of school. The questionnaire revealed a mixed picture: There did not seem to be any gender bias, but I was not surprised to find that the children with poor literacy skills were all kinaesthetic learners. These are often the children who find it difficult to sit still and seem to fidget all the time. She decided to plan a variety of activities with an aural focus, a visual focus, a kinaesthetic (drama) focus, a retelling focus, a modelling focus and a drawing focus, using narrative as a starting point and to focus on two boys particularly.

Case study Key Stage 2: teaching approaches and learning styles I focused on Ron and Alan because they both have language disorders and their literacy skills are poor. Ron is very agile and able in P.E. and playing football; he is also able to work accurately with tools and is good at craftwork. Alan is good at understanding the moods and feelings of others and can empathise with people in difficult situations. I started by reading the children the story of Theseus and the Minotaur. The

language in it was quite sophisticated and the style was in keeping with a factual account. I told the children that I wanted them to write their own account, after which we would have a week of daily drama sessions based on the story. Following this they would then write about a part of the story that they found particularly interesting or important. I wanted to see what impact this might have on their writing. During the initial writing session most children coped quite well and wrote fairly detailed and accurate accounts of the story in the correct sequence. However, Ron and Alan both found it very difficult. Ron wrote just one line and could not continue and Alan wrote three lines, all saying basically the same thing. I suggested to the two boys that they retold the story in comic strip form using just pictures if they preferred. Ron drew eight pictures sequencing the story perfectly and including all the important details. He showed Theseus in the labyrinth unravelling the ball of string and then finding his way back to the main door following the string, winding it up as he went. In his penultimate picture he shows Aegeus at the top of a cliff with a tiny black-sailed boat in the distance just coming into view, then Aegeus throwing himself off the cliff in his final picture. In just eight pictures he was able to encapsulate the whole essence of the story without using a single word. If I had used Ron’s first piece of work to assess his understanding of the story I would have had to assume that he was unable to retell or sequence the story or that he had not been listening or concentrating when I read it. He would have failed to complete the task and probably taken one step closer to becoming demotivated and alienated from learning. I was delighted to have found, quite by accident, a way for him to show his ability and understanding and an inroad for me into how to support his learning. Because of his speech disorder and poor decoding and encoding skills, Ron would be considered to be deficient in linguistic ability but he has shown himself to be spatially intelligent and in other situations kinaesthetically intelligent. Alan drew a sequence of four pictures that concentrated on some of the feelings and emotions portrayed in the story. This surprised me for although he is an affectionate child, he has language difficulties that make it difficult for him to express his ideas and feelings. Yet through the medium of pictures he was able to capture and express some of the complex emotions felt by characters in the story. He was able to sequence four episodes in the story using pictures and words, writing four sentences – more than he was originally able to write. His drawings show the sad faces of the people of Athens as the boat sets sail for Crete and the happy faces of Theseus and Ariadne when they fall in love. I had been told only weeks before, by a speech and language therapist, that Alan was unable to sequence even the most simple of narratives, yet here he was, able to sequence, without support, episodes from a complex story. And he showed understanding of the emotions felt by the characters. It was interesting that when the other children saw that Ron and Alan were drawing picture plans they also decided to draw a comic strip version after completing their writing. I think that this helped many of them to clarify in their own minds what were the significant points in the story, the visual and the verbal reinforcing one another. (Geraldine Ciantar St Mary’s CE primary school, Mildenhall, Suffolk)

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The writers

Writing and bilingualism Geraldine Ciantar’s work stresses the importance of identifying preferred approaches to learning to support diverse children’s literacy and providing a range of possible access points for learning. This is particularly critical for pupils whose English is not yet fluent and secure. Eventually, of course, bi- or multilingualism will become a major strength in their understanding of language, but while bilingual children are getting to grips with two (at least) languages, teachers need to develop carefully structured ways to help the move towards confident literacy. As Constant Leung points out in English as an Additional Language: Language and Literacy Development, whilst every teacher is expected to pay attention to the language needs of bilingual pupils, EAL is still not a specialist subject in initial teacher training (Leung 2000). There have been generally two broad approaches to developing the language of bi- or multilingual pupils: a sense that English will develop ‘naturally’, emerging from exposure to being in an English speaking community. Or, at the other extreme, instruction in the technical aspects of language rules and grammar. However, since literacy teaching – for all learners – cannot be separated from a sense of self, particularly self-worth, and from out-of-school practices surrounding literacy, then teaching ‘pupils who have English as an Additional Language’ has wider implications than mere instruction or benevolent acceptance. It is all too easy to forget that bilingual writers are bicultural writers and that making their own meanings clear is fundamental to their teachers being able to act responsibly in developing their English. Very often, this means encouraging writing based on home, community and cultural experience. Using narrative based on personal experience, for example, can become a way of supporting the development of all children’s writing – not only those who are bilingual and possibly biliterate. However, the usual ‘warnings’ apply: home culture is for pupils to share with teachers when the pupils choose. Whilst ordinarily it might be appropriate and expected to talk about homes in particular ways, there are children whose homes are not ‘like ours’ – whatever that means. Refugee children, for example, may be housed in temporary accommodation which doesn’t do a lot to settle their minds to school work. Charmian Kenner points out that finding out about home literacy takes time for parents to feel secure that teachers’ interest in bilingualism is more than a token (Kenner 2000: 12). Also, since ‘bilingual pupils’ are not a homogeneous group, it is important to make careful observations to be able to make decisions about how best to help individuals take on successful writing. As part of a project aimed at observing and developing bilingual writers’ achievements, Maria Kemal was observing Halil and Vural, both 5-year-old Turkish speakers, as they emerged as writers (The London Borough of Enfield, Turkish Cypriot Achievement Project LCaS 2000 – 2001). Along with the other teachers in the project, Maria was starting with talk, storytelling and poetry as a way of capturing ideas and motivation before writing. However, she 24

found it difficult to encourage 5-year-old Halil to engage in writing activities of any kind, even in play. Quite new to the school and not yet very experienced in English, Halil would talk to himself in the role play corner but seemed not to want to do more.

Case study Key Stage 1: observing bilingual learners After initiating role play activities based on the idea of a toy box and its contents, the first session was reading a familiar text to them Kipper’s Toy Box. I used a large box and real toys to take out and enjoy talking about as we read the story. Halil enjoyed the practical side of taking toys out of the box but still didn’t seem moved to do any more. After many attempts to encourage Halil to engage in writing, I decided to use Vural, as his role model and translator in the next activity. This was to use the Michael Rosen poem ‘Keith’s Cupboard’ as the new text; the children were going to make their own ‘toy cupboard’ (an A4 sheet of paper folded as if with doors). Halil related to the text by using his previous knowledge and experiences of Kipper’s Toy Box. Once writing was established he worked with Vural on making their own toy cupboard. Halil immediately spoke to Vural (in Turkish) telling him a list of toys he wanted in his cupboard; he wrote (for the first time!) in a list format, and after each piece of writing he told Vural (in Turkish) what the writing was and illustrated it. He used a systematic approach. The help from his peer was an asset and Halil felt confident to attempt writing. As an observer I could assess that Halil understood that print conveyed meaning; his illustrations were associated with his written words, and he checked with Vural each step of the way, pointing to the word and the illustration. Vural, a bilingual speaker, took the role as the teacher, encouraging Halil and reinforcing the English word associated with the word Halil had told him in Turkish. After the written task, Halil independently took the props from ‘Kipper’s Toy Box’, and went to the book corner – a place he likes to be. He was alone and began to role-play the story; he spoke in Turkish, but used some English words for some of the toys. Vural wandered over with two monolingual children and joined in the retelling. They let Halil take the lead and although he felt discouraged when he saw the other two children he felt confident once Vural spoke to him in Turkish. Again Vural took the role as ‘teacher’, translating for the other children as he did with me. Great squeals of laughter were heard when they all said the English words – which Halil was beginning to initiate. It was almost as though they knew he had learnt the words and were giving him support and encouragement to continue. If I had not specifically taken the time to be an observer and not let Vural take the role as the educator, my assessments on Halil as a writer and as a participant in the spoken language of English would have been missed. (Maria Kemal, Highfield primary school, Winchmore Hill)

Maria Kemal’s astute observations mean that Vural and Halil have a good start in their writing development. As

The writers Constant Leung points out, however, a key factor in developing writing with bi- and multilingual learners is ‘different areas of knowledge and skills are being called upon at the same time’ (Leung 2000: 14). Much of the medium of teaching is through spoken English, but this is different from written English, especially in sentence structure. If a pupil is newly arrived and is getting to grips with spoken and written English at the same time, the mental processes of transformation, at word, sentence and text level are highly demanding. [A brief recollection of trying out other languages on holiday may serve as a piquant reminder of the mental complexities of such an undertaking.] And for pupils, this is unremitting. They are being asked to do this throughout the school day, with, perhaps, some let-up at playtimes. They may also be following aspects of a curriculum of which they have little personal experience.

Developing the writing of bilingual pupils requires some sensitivity: • • • • • • •

observation of what the child can do; acknowledgement of previous [home] literacy experience; establishing an environment where the developing writer can feel safe to take a few risks; seeing talk as integral to literacy development; encouraging the individual’s ‘voice’; offering scaffolds accompanied by choices; varying classroom practice to accommodate diversity.

It will be quite quickly obvious that these principles hold good for all developing writers.

Key issues in this chapter ●

Interpersonal aspects of writing are not just to do with ‘audiences’. Writing often derives its impetus from other people, at home, in books, in the imagination.

●

Talk is essential to writing and that includes the development of conversations with ourselves – the outer experience of discussion, justification, role play and drama feeding into the inner voices of a critically reflective writer.

●

Classrooms are inhabited by writers with diverse experiences – social, cultural and linguistic – and who have differing approaches to learning. Providing for diversity offers the best chance of helping pupils become fluent, assured and increasingly accurate writers.

Key texts Graham Frater, Improving Boys’ Literacy and Graham Frater, Securing Boys’ Literacy: A Survey of Effective Practice in Primary Schools Charmian Kenner, Home Pages: Literacy Links for Bilingual Children Jackie Marsh and Elaine Millard, Literacy and Popular Culture

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Chapter 3

Provision and practice THIS IS JUST TO SAY I have eaten the plums that were in the icebox (William Carlos Williams) For many people there is a surprising amount of writing involved in everyday life: jottings, scribbled notes, emails, cheques, lists, plans, cards, letters – to friends and more formal ones – classroom writing, and, perhaps writing to serve a personal need. Shaping each type of writing means making very fast and often unconscious decisions about the type of paper, level of neatness and correctness needed, whether to redraft or not, the layout, the tone, the text type, the amount of information needed for a particular

readership. All of these add up to the available range of a developed writer and the repertoire of strategies which are at hand in order to carry out any writing task. However, range and repertoire alone don’t give the full picture. Apart from the types of texts and strategies available to writers there are issues of provision and practice. Developing writing means also considering classroom, school and community issues.

This chapter offers a framework for looking closely at provision and practice: ●

Reviewing practice

●

The school as an environment for writing

●

The classroom as an environment for writing

●

Managing the writing environment: activities and groupings

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Planning for teaching the process of writing

●

Teaching writing: developing imaginative and independent writers

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Resources for writing: places, things and people Setting up a writing area ICT and writing People as resources

●

Case study: teaching assistants and writing

●

Using writing throughout the curriculum

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Case study Foundation Stage: a topic based approach to writing

●

Case study Key Stage 2: cross curricular writing

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Joined up writing: links with homes and communities

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Provision and practice The first part of the chapter poses quite a few questions.

• •

Reviewing practice • Groups of Key Stage 1, 2 and 3 teachers reviewed their classroom practice for developing writing, identifying aspects of provision they were pleased with and a list of ‘things we’d like to develop’ as a basis for action plans. The first area – positive aspects of teaching writing – fell into two main areas: school and classroom provision and children’s attitudes. ‘What we’d like to develop’ was a rather more extensive list, covering provision and organisation, models and examples, assessment and children’s attitudes. (Figure 3.1). After reviewing classroom provision for writing, some key questions arose: 1 2 3 4

What is shared/guided writing? Are we doing it right? How can we develop cross-curricular shared/guided writing . . . ? . . . and keep the links between reading, writing, speaking and listening? How can we identify writing priorities as part of our Key Stage 3 themed approach to developing literacy?

Whilst individual teachers can – and should – make changes in their own classrooms as a result of reviewing provision, some decisions about teaching have to be made at whole school level, led by senior management’s knowledge of the vision for the school and by the school development plan. There will also need to be some provision for ensuring continuity and progression. Shared writing should mean shared practices and that entails developing long-term views through professional discussion. A whole school review of writing may be a good way to start to answer the needs of the school community of writers and the school’s targets.

The school as an environment for writing Raising levels of achievement in writing often means first of all raising the profile of writing in the school. The school view of how to become a versatile writer and the value attached to writing will be signalled by the school environment itself. A key question here when reviewing provision would be: What messages about writing would a visitor get as they walk around the school? For example: What types of writing are displayed? •

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representing all areas of the curriculum or mainly descriptive writing, narrative or poetry?

• •

all of it to be final, carefully presented work or does some show the stages of drafting? by children at all levels of fluency and assurance about writing or only by ‘the best writers’? in different languages, different types of format, handwritten and computer text? any teachers’ [or other adults’] writing to be on display? showing how IT is used to support writing in the school?

Answers to these questions might help in formulating school policy and practice about the value given to all types of writing – and writers – in the school. This will also guide a school’s own targets for writing. The next question might be: How might the profile of writing be raised throughout the school? The amount of time allocated to writing during any week is one of the key factors in promoting successful writing development. This is largely influenced by school policy or expected practice, since if writing is genuinely to be given a chance to flourish, it needs to have time. Probably all teachers would like to be able to stretch time. It isn’t possible. But careful time management isn’t just a matter of the classroom teacher operating a ‘pacy’ lesson or two. It should be part of medium-term planning for writing and reviewing; this is part of the literacy coordinator’s role (see Chapter 9). However, it’s worth asking a few questions about time spent in each classroom in the course of a week: How much time was spent last week on writing in the classroom? What lengths of time? What was the longest time? The shortest time? Could you, as a developed writer, have completed what the class were expected to complete in the time given? Answers to these questions will vary but, discussed as a whole staff, may provide a guide to reorganising time allocated to writing. Of course, jottings, notes, mind-maps and plans may not need a great deal of time spent on them, although for younger writers, even a map-like plan can take a little time to complete. Any writing which needs sustained thought cannot be accomplished in any satisfactory way in a short burst, although writers may need a few prompts during a more lengthy session. Other writers, for example those pupils who might fall within the Gifted and Talented range, and children who have other special educational needs, may well need specific extension provision for writing. Some schools have allocated a single session of English time each week for extended writing; others decide to block a couple of weeks’ literacy time for a focus on writing; others plan links between literacy and another curriculum subject and spend time during a week working on aspects of writing in literacy which can genuinely fulfil a writing purpose in humanities, PSHE, science, maths.

What we’re pleased with Provision

What we’d like to develop Provision and organisation – school and classroom

Bookmaking during shared/ guided writing.

Developing purp oses for writing – a wider range of writing

Successful, informative displays giving pupils simple formats as prompts

Folders for colleagu es to about : making books, share pos ters, ins tructions, recipe s, letters, stories. In each one are promp t sheets and materials to he lp in riting – teaching each type ility to w of writing Accessib ork available to ; pupils’ w y; letter boxes sil read ea ard for written o notice b tributions con Prompt sheets for narrative writing to help pupils check their own targets and identify targets for next writing

Space for worthwhile display: writing areas, work in progress … More links with role play in the writing area

Responses to writing – partners, groups, other classes …

Developing new strategies for writing as a result of noticing pupils’ overdependence on teacher modelling

Use of extended writing time in each class across the school More materials and range of resources on writing table

Chance/area to write from choice

Finding time fo r cons tructive wri ting conferences with pupils

Increased use of partnerships for writing

Models and examples

r

Creating time fo shared/guided writing

The amount of resources available in the school – physical and human

Use of storyboxes/ storysacks

Using own writing as model

Narrative maps

Modelling ways of talking about writing – more than focusing on spelling and punctuation

Pupils’ attitudes

g in speakin Confidence g [ and tape in and listen to generate ] recording stories

Pupils’ willingness to write and a general interest in writing activities

Positive responses to partnered response comments Thoughful er h during teac on ti ra demonst Lots of ideas about wh g at n of w riti they want to write

Assessment

Look carefully at marking writing

Making explicit to pupils what we’re looking for

Review continuity of shared writing within and between groups Sorting out what staff [and children] view as ‘a good piece of writing’ – quality, not quantity!

Pupils’ attitudes idence – Developing conf to s pil pu ing ag ur enco take risks

Getting pupils interested and motivated to write – for pleasure

Figure 3.1 ‘What we’re pleased with’ and ‘What we’d like to develop’ in teaching writing: list compiled by KS 1, 2 and 3 teachers 29

Provision and practice What discussions have there been in the school as a whole to agree on how to make sustained time for writing? What provision is made for extension and enrichment programmes for highly able writers?

The classroom as an environment for writing When it comes to writing, there are many ways in which the daily requirements of classroom routines show the teacher writing – in the register, on the board, on slips of paper in letters home, in comments on children’s work. In shared writing time the teacher will also model how to write notes, re-draft poetry, plan, draft, revise and proofread stories or parts of stories. All of these activities serve as very useful reminders to children that the classroom is a place where everyone can be a writer. If the processes of writing are explained and made clear to the younger members of the writing community, then these demonstrations are even more useful. The teacher’s role extends beyond acting as a model or example, however, by the teacher providing important support for developing writers. It isn’t just the physical setting of the classroom or school which contributes to an effective environment; there needs also to be an environment of possibility – that intangible area of teachers’ expertise which informs planning for activities which will both challenge and support writing. In reviewing the intangible aspects of classroom provision, a starter question might be: What messages does my classroom give about the value I place on writing? The teacher can provide a sense of purpose for writing and discussions about readership; models of writing itself in all stages of editing; an atmosphere where risks can be taken with writing; a readership which treats pupils’ writing seriously; a sense of working on writing together as learner-writers; opportunities to discuss writing with other people whilst the writing is being composed; experience and the language to appraise writing. It may not be easy to review some of these intangible aspects of writing development but it is worth looking back over a week’s literacy sessions and considering: What explanations were given to the class about what they were going to learn? What were the reasons for the writing done during the week? What amounts of time were allocated to writing? What opportunities were there for pupils to talk with each other about their writing – during composition? – after it was finished?

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What happened to the writing? Was it responded to? Marked? Published in some way? Letting pupils in on the knowledge of why they are writing, for whom, in what form as well as signalling that the teacher is a genuine reader of children’s writing all contribute to establishing the unseen environment of possibility. Listening to what pupils have to say is also informative. Questions like the following can elicit some interesting – and sometimes surprising – replies: • • • • • • • • • •

Why do you need to be able to write? Are you a good writer? Why/why not? Think about all the writing you have done. Which kinds of writing do you enjoy the most? What do you find the hardest thing about writing? Think about the best pieces of writing you have done. What made them good? Can you find me the piece of writing you are most proud of? Are there times when you find writing boring? When are they? Do you sometimes like other children to read your writing? Why/why not? What can teachers do to help children get better at writing? What do you like to happen to your writing when it is finished?

It’s worth noting, however, that many pupils respond by mentioning spelling, handwriting and length because they do not know other ways to comment. A good way of countering this is to increase the amount of explicit talk about all features of writing, particularly the content and readership. This, too, is part of the intangible environment of a supportive writing classroom where expectation and opportunity are critical in developing fluent, confident and accurate writers.

Managing the writing environment: activities and groupings The ability to initiate writing, to re-read, revise, edit, and proofread – the capacity to become an attentive and critical reader of one’s own writing – can only come about if developing writers begin to take responsibility and charge of the process of writing. Whilst there will be times when shared writing involves the whole class, this is not the only experience of writing that pupils will have during a week. They may be writing during English time and will certainly be writing for most other areas of the curriculum. However, because of the pressure of time, management of the environment is critical. Managing time and classroom writing may involve: •

structuring ways in which writers can collaborate – groups and pairs, talking and writing;

Provision and practice • • • • •

•

•

•

creating specific places and specific times for peaceful individual writing; having a range of writing materials easily available; extending the range of reading material in the classroom; using journals or learning logs for dialogue between pupil and teacher; asking pupils regularly to choose a piece of their own writing (in draft or final form) as a basis for a timetabled discussion with the teacher; displaying reference charts made by the teacher or pupils giving guidelines about editing techniques, brainstorming and planning strategies; explaining and publicly displaying a timetable of points at which activities or outcomes should be completed (the time scale could be within the day or several weeks) including the learning and teaching objectives and targets; explaining to parents (by letter from children or teacher or by personal contact) the purpose and use of, for example, drafting or journals.

Organising teaching and learning has always been the central ‘problem-solving’ function of teaching: how to juggle the competing demands of time, curriculum, space, the individual pupils. This can often be helped (or hindered) by decisions about grouping pupils. Focused group teaching of writing needs to be planned for and managed: Over the past week or so, what kinds of groupings have you used for writing? What kinds of writing lend themselves to group work, and which do not? Whilst guided group writing can be very effective in developing specific strategies or parts of a process, there are some kinds of writing which are better developed as a combination between individual and paired work. As with other aspects of managing writing, teachers are best placed to make their own decisions about grouping according to their own circumstances. Much recent research shows that discussions with pupils about how they collaborate with others can be a good first step in creating more harmonious group work. At the same time, knowledge of pupils’ strengths and weaknesses is an essential guide.

Planning for teaching the process of writing When looking at provision and practice, the environment and management of writing is only part of the picture. The processes of writing need to be systematically developed throughout the Key Stages. However, processes of writing are associated with pupils having experience of writing for a range of readers and writing different types of text. These elements of provision – range and repertoire – are now codified in the NL Strategy, but it goes further

than detailing the types of texts to be covered and the elements of writing to be dealt with each year. It now suggests how these should be taught. The way we organise teaching and learning for literacy now has a ‘strongly recommended’ element. The introduction to the Key Stage 3 National Strategy materials points out that: ‘there is no single structure for lessons using the Framework’. However, the advice is quite specific; lessons should be ‘fast paced’ and to achieve this the NLS offers advice about developing a range of effective teaching styles (DfEE 2001: 15). The document also offers a teaching sequence, with the qualification that it is not intended to be a straitjacket. There are always dangers, however, in offering a model of teaching and learning. Conscientious teachers are always seeking more effective ways of teaching and whilst the National Strategy has offered a great deal which has enhanced teaching, no single system can possibly provide for the varying needs of, for example, a class with highly diverse language mix; a class with a three year age range; a class of predominantly boys. . . . As teachers using the Primary NLS Framework are finding, arrangements for developing writing need to be considered in a more flexible way if writing standards are to be maintained and raised. The NLS offers a range of ways to support teaching writing. The sequences recommended in Grammar for Writing for teaching writing within the Literacy Hour move from Shared Reading to Sentence Level Teaching then to Shared Writing to Guided/Independent Writing. However, teachers’ current concerns about sustained or extended writing suggest that it might be useful to look at planning for longer-term sequences of lessons – over 3 or 4 weeks to support writing. This brings secondary and primary practice much nearer together, since pupils at Key Stage 3 may well return to a piece of writing over some days or weeks. Figure 3. 2 shows the Expanded Process for Teaching Writing. This is described as a process, since the idea of a sequence suggests a programmatic approach. The important additional step in this process, apart from revisiting the need for sustained writing, is the addition of a stage where reading [all kinds of text including video] is an essential starting point and talk, role play, exploration and identification of issues help writers capture ideas throughout the process of writing. This has some elements in common with the NLS Developing Early Writing although the NLS document tends to emphasise sentence grammars. In the Expanded process several of the categories might be happening side by side as the teaching progresses. In order to secure text structures [grammars] the Process spans several literacy sessions. Talk will be going on throughout, by explicit inclusion of storytelling, focused group discussion, role play, drama, simulations, information gathering and sorting – the range of talk texts, in fact – as necessary accompaniments to sustained writing. A three-week plan (or two, four or five) allows for the exploration of whole texts, book-based, computer-generated or audio-visual, to establish familiarity with the type of writing which is to be modelled and attempted. This might include a week of reading, or viewing, more than 31

Provision and practice one text, analysing its features, deconstructing it, making notes, talking, planning, generally getting familiar with the key elements of the genre or texts chosen. Such an approach allows ample time for word and sentence work whilst enjoying and getting the most out of the meaning of the text(s). Ideas, issues, themes can then be captured, rehearsed and chewed over through a variety of talk activities, establishing a firm basis for the final stage of supported composition leading to a finished ‘product’ of some kind. The idea is that: • • •

reading and writing objectives should be clustered; text, sentence and word level work should support each other; speaking and listening should be planned into the ‘capturing ideas’ part of teaching sequence.

A coherent programme like this allows for integration with other subject areas. It also provides a Key Assessment Opportunity which is firmly linked to the chosen targets and objectives rather than a separate ‘assessment activity’ which doesn’t genuinely test what has been taught and it is equally appropriate at all Key Stages. At the same time as heeding the recommendations of the National Literacy Strategy, however, teachers have to follow the requirements of the National Curriculum. This

can sometimes seem like trying to ride two wayward horses at the same time but when set beside the NC requirement: Plan, Draft, Revise, Proofread, Present it soon becomes clear that the two sequences can interrelate. Figure 3.3 shows how the Expanded Process brings the NLS and NC requirements together. This means that the sequence can be followed in any area of the curriculum where sustained writing for a final product is being undertaken.

Teaching writing: developing imaginative and independent writers The National Literacy Strategy provides a sequence of targets to guide schools in planning for writing (NLS 2000). Development plans should include attention to continuity and progression – critical factors in helping pupils develop as assured, fluent and independent writers. These characteristics of becoming a writer need to be systematically introduced and teachers assured that they are genuinely helping pupils to make progress and not just repeating earlier learning. The charts in Figures 3.4 to 3.10 show how the process of writing, including shared writing, can be built progressively throughout the school. The targets for Key Stages 1 and 2 are taken from the NLS document Target statements

Targets & objectives

Familiarisation with the genre/texts

Capturing ideas

Teacher demonstration

Teacher scribing

Supported writing

Independent writing Key assessment opportunity

Figure 3.2 Expanded Process for Teaching Writing 32

Provision and practice Expanded Process (inc. NLS)

NC Writing Process

Familiarisation with the genre/texts Capturing ideas ➞ Teacher demonstration

Plan

➞

Draft

➞

Review Proofread Present

Teacher scribing Supported writing Independent writing (inc. guided writing)

Figure 3.3 Expanded Process combining the NLS writing sequence with the National Curriculum planning ➞ writing process

for writing; at Key Stage 3 the targets are adapted from the objectives in the National Strategy. The progression follows the Expanded Process for Teaching Writing, integrating the NC and NLS sequences (Figure 3.3). These charts give practical examples of how planned and systematic interventions can help develop writing over the longer term.

Resources for writing: places, things and people Part of the classroom context of possibility will be the teacher’s consideration of what resources to use. It is easy to think that resources are those familiar ones which are regularly brought in to the classroom in the physical form of books, artefacts, videos, and all the other carefully selected (and important) materials for engaging children in learning. However, managing space and working with other people all contribute to developing a prosperous environment for writing. The teachers who reviewed their writing provision at the beginning of this chapter identified a writing area as a priority to help support writing at any time in the week, for any part of the curriculum. A writing area can be used as part of the teaching sequence of the process of writing and as a place where individual and guided writing might be done. Teachers in Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 have successfully set up writing areas or boxes. At Key Stages 2 and 3 writing areas have often been developed as writing clubs, used during lunchtimes and as after school activities. Setting up areas for independent writing can support those pupils described as Gifted and Talented and those who would like quiet places to complete work.

Setting up a writing area A writing area that is seen as an important part of the classroom environment, and is well-equipped and integrated into everyday classroom work, gives very powerful messages about the value you place on writing – both independent work and general class activities. It is intended as an area where the pupils have some independence and responsibility. It gives them the space to choose their own

writing activities. A good starting point for getting the pupils to see it as ‘their’ area is to ask them to decide on their own ‘rules for the writing area’ or ‘tips for good writing’. Depending on age and taste, activities might include jotting down ideas and illustrating them, writing letters, cards and other messages, making posters or leaflets, copying out a favourite poem . . . It is one way in which classroom experience of writing can most closely replicate home uses of writing and an ideal place for providing models and examples of text showing different languages, scripts and formats. Supplies in the area will need to be monitored and it is often a good idea to get the pupils involved so that they see it as an important one for them. They are often the ones who have the best ideas for stimulating ideas for writing – and you might even ask them to devise a ‘writing challenge’ for the week (or fortnight . . .). There might also be: Post-It® pads for a notice board; a range of different types of paper and writing implements; dictionaries and thesauruses; lists, captions; A4 paper folded in concertina shape and an invitation to ‘make a concertina book about . . .’; a request to contribute to a class anthology of poetry, either a personal poem or a favourite from a book; and the classroom computers sited in or near the writing area. It is also a good idea to include some suggestions for writing – folders of ideas (or pockets on the wall) might include starter ideas with sentence stems like: Folder 1 Starter cards:

Things I have done I went with . . . Today I . . . Yesterday I . . . When I went to . . .

Folder 2 Starter cards:

Story starters I opened the door and saw . . . In the middle of the night I woke up and . . . Some new people have come to live in our street . . . I’ll tell you something that happened to me . . .

It may be a good idea to ‘timetable’ use of the area (without losing some sense of spontaneity and children’s choice!) or, particularly at Key Stages 2 and 3, to organise tasks which need some work in the area – perhaps the big thesaurus or dictionary is in there or a pupil has written a poem which deserves putting in the anthology. It is also a very good idea for the teacher to use the area occasionally as a writing place as this offers a good model. Some classrooms aren’t big enough for writing areas, however, so you may want to arrange writing boxes which could include: • • •

plastic folders of paper of different sizes and colours cards, Post-It® pads, envelopes message pads, small notebooks or blocks of small memo paper 33

Provision and practice Targets

Foundation Write their own names and other things such as labels, captions and begin to form simple sentences, sometimes using punctuation. Dictate and invent own compositions. Think about what to write ahead of writing.

Capture and plan

Before any class writing activity, the teacher should make clear what the finished product will be; start with oral work: talk and discussion as a whole class/group, using thought shower/spider diagram as prompt; read stories, poems, information, discussing structure. Emergent writers might work individually or in pairs or groups with teacher as scribe, modelling the process. The teacher might use: • storyboards • a particular focus e.g. starting or ending the story • story tapes as starting points or puppets to create a story • objects or pictures to create non-fiction

Draft

Continued modelling so that the children gain experience and fluency. Individual story writing may also be part of a range of different literacy activities. The teacher might: • encourage children to have a go at writing • remind children to refer to spider diagram (or other) prompt • provide concertina books, small books, other formats (in the writing area or writing box for group work) • record oral stories on tape – individuals, pairs or small groups • give reminders about structure/focus e.g. beginning, end • have recently learned words in different places in the classroom as resources for writing

Revise

Teacher demonstrates revising the group/class story on flipchart/easel, making changes after discussion. Scribing is probably the most appropriate way to deal with revision at this stage. The teacher might: • remind the children what they want the writing to say • replay tapes asking the children to use prompt questions: Is there anything missed out? What happened in the end? • select one sentence to go on display accompanied by a (scribed) speech bubble: ‘I like this sentence because . . .’

Proofread

Using the class scribed text, the teacher demonstrates by emphasising punctuation, reading aloud asking children Is this right? Proof-reading individual writing may not be appropriate for emergent writers. The teacher might: • refer children to classroom displays of sentences, punctuation and words • remind the children of punctuation noticed during group/class Big Book reading sessions • use the occasion as a chance to consolidate sounds/blends learned or particular points about layout and punctuation

Present

Teacher scribed work can appear as Big Books, typed or word-processed and illustrated by the children. Individual books or concertina books might become part of the class library. Poems or information can become interactive display, read as part of group/individual reading activities. Drama/puppet plays can be performed for audiences outside the class. Any of the stories can be read to the class by the teacher or the writer or at school or class assembly.

Figure 3.4 The process of writing: a progression – Foundation

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Provision and practice Targets

Year 1 Use language and structures from reading when writing Assemble information and ideas from own experience as a basis for writing, as well as generating questions prior to reading/ writing Begin to rehearse sentences before writing and re-read during and after writing.

Capture and Plan

Before any class writing activity, the teacher should make it clear what the finished product will be and discuss final presentation and method of work. From initial stimulus e.g.familiar story or text type, storytelling, information videos and books, the teacher might use: • role play and drama to explore ideas e.g. freeze framing or hot seating • talk partners to get ideas going • whole class/group discussion of story structure (beginning, middle, end) discussing, exploring and expanding on the children’s ideas • key words/key points written on board/flipchart for consultation

Draft

Teacher demonstrates class example of story, focusing on e.g. setting or character, using individual ideas from volunteers and adding detail through discussion. At this stage it is important to emphasise that ideas should be captured before worrying about spelling, but remind about punctuation. Approaches might include: • individual work supported by storyboards or other pictures, planning sheets or class prompt • paired work with writing partner/talk partner • occasional focus on one aspect e.g. character; subject • groups working with teacher support as part of routine literacy activities

Revise

Teacher models by using class story or own scribed text to show how to improve draft, teaching about using arrows, numbering points, highlighting and/or changing words. Supported composition offers a good opportunity for modelling revising. The teacher might: • show/remind children about final layout • focus individual or paired work to add more detail in one particular area e.g. at beginning or to describe character • use response partners to help talk about how to revise • guide group writing to check for sense or include with more adventurous vocabulary

Proofread

With class draft, teacher guides children to supply suggestions about any words which need checking for spelling or any punctuation which could be used for effect. Prompts on board/flipchart might provide the week’s word/letter string focus and for punctuation. The teacher might: • read the piece back to individuals in group, asking about punctuation and focusing on selected spellings • ask more fluent and assured writers to underline their own doubtful spellings and check for spacing • encourage talk/writing partners to read work aloud to check for punctuation and missing words • refer children to class dictionaries, personal word books, computer lists or wall displays for independent spell-checking • encourage individual writers to re-read before coming to show the teacher

Present

All stages of group work can be displayed to show drafting process. Individual work (small books or contributions to Big Books) can be printed on computer and put in reading area. Volunteers might read their work aloud to the class and choose two people to say what they like about it. End products or process writing can be displayed in general school areas – library/corridor/entrance hall or taken home to show parents.

Year 2 Write initial jottings, notes and ideas before writing. Rehearse sentences, and adapt and re-read during writing to identify where improvements might be made and to spot errors

Figure 3.5 The process of writing: a progression – Years 1 and 2

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Provision and practice Targets

Year 3 Generate and collect suitable words and phrases before writing Use different planning formats, e.g. charting, mapping, flow charts, simple storyboards Make and use notes/Identify and consider audience and how this affects writing Mentally rehearse writing, and cumulatively reread, making adaptations and corrections

Capture and Plan

Before any class writing activity, the teacher should make it clear what the finished product will be and who will be reading it; provide reminders about group and individual targets; demonstrate ways of writing based on familiar genre or on specific extracts from other books, plays . . . Different approaches might include: • using video to capture ideas for narrative or non-narrative • personal anecdote and storytelling to get a sense of structure – story plans and flow charts • class discussion and reminders about structure, ways of working, stages of drafting • after modelling, individuals, pairs or groups generating and mapping/ recording ideas • using planning sheets, formats e.g. beginning, setting, main characters, plot line . . . information structure

Draft

Teacher scribes, talking through thought processes as a model for pupil drafting; selecting sections to plan in detail in rough, using ideas sheet/planning sheet; prompting about structure, paragraphing, punctuation, use of vocabulary. In supported writing, children will be working individually or with drafting partners (sometimes on personally chosen topics) with the teacher giving guidance to those needing it. As part of any literacy activities the teacher can use: • guided group writing to support writing through any stages of the drafting process • reminders about using familiar texts as models • occasional composition of group texts, continuing stories where someone left off or tackling separate parts of information/explanation • drafting partners who consult each other as necessary

Revise

The teacher continues the process of guided writing to reinforce proof-reading practices, emphasising that pupils should read for content, structure and the effect on the reader. Pupils continue to work individually or with partners whilst teacher systematically sees work at specific times in order to guide revision. This might mean: • individuals reading own work or to each other to discuss flow of ideas and consistency using prompt questions e.g. What are the most interesting parts? Is there anything missed out? Is the ending satisfying? • pupils evaluating and working on one section only • individuals referring to personal target sheets to help individual revision • reminding pupils to use known strategies – numbering, arrows, highlighters to help revision

Proofread

The teacher looks for patterns in spelling errors and selects particular pattern for correction and further attention; discusses words/phrases with individuals and suggest use of thesaurus. This might include: • reminding whole class about using dictionaries, word books, computer lists, wall displays and reference to published books to check for punctuation and layout conventions • pairs reading work aloud to each other to check for punctuation, repetition and omissions • individuals noting words they think may need correcting and insert punctuation • providing wall displays with suggestions for alternative words for (for example) said, then . . .

Present

Redrafting a whole, lengthy text might be too arduous for an individual. Taking a piece through to final product may mean asking the children to select a part to make perfect, using ICT for final leaflets, books, posters or, for those who find writing difficult, using adult typing help. It might be necessary to remind pupils that not all spellings need to be correct unless the work is going on public display. Handwritten final copy should be on plain, clean and carefully kept paper. Work can be read in groups/pairs or selectively (through children’s voluntary decisions) to class or at assembly. Finished books can be put in class reading areas or taken to younger classes to be shared/lent to them.

Figure 3.6 The process of writing: a progression – Years 3 and 4

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Year 4 Mentally rehearse writing and re-read as a matter of habit Edit in relation to audience and purpose, enhancing or deleting, justifying choices

Provision and practice Targets

Year 5 Log ideas for writing in a journal Map text structures and lines of development Review and edit writing to produce final form, matched to the needs of an identified reader. Refine own writing and evaluate work

Year 6 Plan quickly and effectively, including the conclusion Discuss and select appropriate style and form to suit specific purpose and audience, drawing on knowledge of different texts Use IT to plan, revise and edit writing for publication

Capture and Plan

The teacher will need to familiarise pupils with published text for focus different genre features; make clear what the final product will be; review formats and structures of non-fiction texts; remind about text structures, setting, characters, narrative devices like flashback technique, use of sub-plots . . . This might involve: • using varied stimuli – events, objects, pictures, drama – as starting points • demonstrating mapping for more complex narratives/arguments/explanations • individual use of storyboards or planning sheets • teacher and/or pupils compile lists of key words, useful vocabulary on board, computer or wall display

Draft

Pupils will often be writing individually and independently by now, using drafting partners by choice or by teacher suggestion. The teacher will scribe new techniques, talking through the process, to model the process. As part of shared writing, pupils may be asked just to draft part of a story as a focus for (e.g.) endings or to focus on a part of a factual text (e.g. definition; concluding paragraph). Teacher intervention will be on a group/individual basis as part of planned literacy activities which might include: • verbal/display reminders about paragraph structure, punctuation, use of language to create effect • referring pupils to personal targets • occasionally stopping during supported composition to hear individual extracts read by writers

Revise

The teacher’s writing can be used to demonstrate constructive criticism for revision, deliberately developing the vocabulary of analysis and criticism. This might mean: • reminding pupils about strategies for marking up text for revision – numbers, highlighters etc • pairs/groups reading work aloud to each other and follow model of constructive comment, using prompts specifically geared towards setting, character, complication, resolution, where appropriate, or for text structures of non-fiction texts • individuals revising work seeking help where necessary and referring to personal targets • planning layout and illustrations (if necessary) for final publication, using ICT wherever appropriate

Proofread

Teacher’s text continues to be a focus. There may need to be some ‘deliberate mistakes’ to model proofreading. Suggested strategies to pupils might include: • self-correcting for punctuation, paragraphs, speech marks, spelling, vocabulary, using word books, dictionaries, thesauruses, reference books, published fiction (as models for paragraphing or speech punctuation layout, for example) • using proof-reading partners to help • spell-checking if written on computer • making arrangements for teacher finally to read and offer editing comments

Present

Presentation may be in a range of forms, spoken, for display or for identified readers, for example, shared with families. Individuals may choose how to present their work and how to illustrate. Finished texts might be: • class books of extracts or anthologies of short stories • individual books for specified readers • plays performed for class or assembly • stories used as a basis for class telling or reading aloud • information texts for younger readers • class newspapers produced on computers

Figure 3.7 The process of writing: a progression – Years 5 and 6

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Provision and practice

Targets

Year 7 Plan, draft, edit, revise, proofread and present a text with readers and purpose in mind. Collect, select and assemble ideas in a suitable planning format, e.g. flow chart, list, star chart. Use writing to explore and develop ideas, e.g. journals . . . mental mapping activities. Review the legibility and neatness of own handwriting and set personal targets to improve presentation, using a range of presentational devices, on paper and on screen.

Capture and Plan

Before any Unit of Work, writing objectives should be clear and visible, reminding pupils of the purpose of the piece and the readership. The teacher should familiarise pupils with structure and audience features of genre/texts and identify individual targets, including presentational. Decisions about using ICT or handwriting will depend on audience. Approaches might include: • exploring concepts and issues before writing, using flow charts, lists, concept maps, drawing . . . • role play and drama to establish issues in e.g. geography, science

Draft

Teacher demonstrates planning formats (a range over time) and offers editing code and procedures for paired collaboration, guiding establishment of criteria for a successful piece of writing in the chosen genre/form and displayed these as prompts on classroom wall. At this stage the teacher may also wish to: • remind pupils to draw on reflective writing used to capture ideas • encourage pupils to define their views of what a helpful response partner should provide • use paired talk to help structure • ask individuals to decide on the mode for writing, e.g. word processed, handwritten, graphic + words according to purpose and audience

Revise

The teacher will need to identify specific areas for response related to objectives, e.g. audience appeal, creation of atmosphere and demonstrate revising with audience in mind, focusing on specific form chosen. Reminders to pupils might be about: • referring to success criteria to help guide revision • ‘contracts’ about helpful response • reviewing work in the light of chosen form/format

Proofread

At this point the teacher may wish to: • establish classroom availability of word banks (on computer, wall displays and in reference books, dictionaries and thesauruses) • revise spelling strategies and encourage individual identification of areas for attention • remind pairs about supporting each other in proof-reading • discuss the extent of final polishing in line with final form/format

Present

Format of presentation will depend on defined readership. Pupils will evaluate according to objectives and personal targets and review use of ICT, noting ‘useful future tips’. They should also note personal targets for presentation. After presentation to readership, playscripts, leaflets, information posters, short stories, books should be reviewed in the light of reader response and ideas for future writing noted.

Figure 3.8 The process of writing: a progression – Year 7

• •

line guides, stencils felt pens, biros, pencils, highlighter pens, rubbers, a stapler, rubber stamps, glue, labels, sticky tape, paper clips, scissors . . .

Alternatively, the writing area might be a role play area – as a newspaper or book publishers’ office with different roles assigned to particular individuals or groups – editor in chief, sub-editors, features writers, word processing typists, proofreaders, designers – and bring in to the area relevant models and examples of text. Or, for a while, the whole classroom could become such a writing area.

developments in classroom resourcing has come about through the greater availability of digital technology and computers. The most obvious kind of writing with computers is word processing. From their earliest years, children can get to grips with keyboarding to make their own texts. Desktop publishing packages mean that books, pamphlets and newspapers can be produced to a professional standard. Databases can be used to store and retrieve information about texts. Digital cameras, portable technology and the potential to import text from a range of sources all contribute to the versatility of computer applications for writing.

ICT and writing

How often (approximately) did your class use ICT for writing over the last half term?

Whilst the pupils, teacher and other adults in the classroom are important resources, one of the most significant

Which aspects of ICT do you use to develop writing?

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Provision and practice

Targets

Year 8 Experiment with different approaches to planning, drafting, proofreading and presenting writing. Re-read work to anticipate the effect on the reader and revise style and structure, as well as accuracy, with this in mind. Use writing to aid reflection and problem solving by recording ideas as they develop. Develop a fluent, legible handwriting style which can be maintained under time pressure.

Capture and Plan

Pupils should be encouraged to identify the purpose and readership and the implications for composing and constructing the text. Individuals /pairs should choose a planning format to suit the task. With teacher support they might also generate criteria for ‘good’ writing of this type, including lists of ‘what a reader needs’. This part of the process might include: • film, photographs, pictures, audio tapes to help in discussing the issues/concepts before beginning to write • using writing journals, notepads, jottings of ideas to note ideas from discussion • establishing ICT possibilities

Draft

The teacher might demonstrate storyboards or concept boards (as might be used in art or design technology), rehearsal of dialogue, digital camera montages for shaping the structure of texts. Teacher scribing will model using jottings and reflective writing. Approaches might include: • mapping and reviewing ideas in groups or pairs or reviewing the effectiveness of chosen planning formats • pupils selecting an appropriate form for presenting ideas • group planning for multimedia outcomes, allocating roles and responsibilities, supported by teacher

Revise

The teacher demonstrates a range of revising strategies for multimedia outcomes, establishing ‘action plans’ which are displayed for pupil reference. Pupils might: • use action plans to revise own chosen form of presentation (in pairs or individually) • meet in groups to agree on next stages of work • decide on one task to be handwritten to specific time limit

Proofread

Independent or peer-supported proof-reading will include: • individuals following procedures for independent checking • those experiencing difficulty seeking ‘appointments’ with teacher as necessary

Present

The teacher might demonstrate presentation of the whole process, including ideas which were rejected/accepted, explaining why and showing how final piece was shaped with genre features and readership in mind. Pupils can present the process to each other in groups, evaluating own final pieces and noting ideas for future writing in personal writing journals and review handwriting style and fluency in relation to time pressure.

Figure 3.9 The process of writing: a progression – Year 8

How would you like to make more use of ICT to support writing? Are there any problems which mean that you can’t make full use of ICT to develop writing? What are they? Very often, the problems are technical or to do with school provision. If the school has a technology suite there might be constraints which would be different from those experienced by a teacher who has access to a bank of classroom computers or computers on trolleys. Another problem may be the familiar feeling of insecurity about using the machinery ourselves. One significant matter is deciding when to use ICT and when it is not productive. It is clear that ICT can substantially contribute to the processes of writing as described earlier in the chapter. However, there are few specific references in Literacy Strategy documents to use of computers. For example, the Target statements for writing document includes:

Use IT to polish and present (Year 3) Use IT to plan, revise and edit writing for publication. (Year 6) And at Year 9 the Key Stage 3 objective 20 requires pupils to: . . . use a range of presentational devices, on paper and on screen, to convey meaning with maximum accuracy and effect. This scanty inclusion of ICT means that teachers have to find ways for themselves of using information and communications technology.

People as resources Whilst the physical environment is critical in supporting writing, the resources which best support writing include 39

Provision and practice

Targets

Year 9 Review ability to write for a range of purposes and audiences, recognising strengths and identifying skills for further development. Record, develop and evaluate ideas and meanings through writing, e.g. essays, journals. Produce formal essays in standard English within a specified time, writing fluently and legibly and maintaining technical accuracy when writing at speed. Choose, use and evaluate a range of presentational devices, on paper and on screen.

Capture and Plan

The teacher demonstrates reflective jotting, plotting for stories or bullet point structure of ideas for non-fiction, exploring the advantages of different types of planning strategies for specific purposes as a guide for pupils’ personal choice of approach. pupils should be reminded about deciding on purpose and readership to guide presentation of content and selecting the form and format for specific writing task. They might also discuss ICT options, available and appropriate software and access to technology. Ideas might be generated through: • drama techniques e.g. conscience alley, to explore ideas • more formal debate, interviews – either real or role play, to find information

Draft

The teacher might model reflective journal writing through analysing examples from published texts and scribing their own reflective writing, talking through the process. Using a map or plan of final text, the teacher demonstrates writing part of the text which is then used to demonstrate how to use reflective thinking and writing to help review and revise the draft. Pupils choose how to set about own planning and drafting, then write reflectively about the process. After the first draft, discussion might include: • in groups, pairs or whole class – how reflective writing has helped pupils shape their own texts • individuals identifying personal support mechanisms for writing and use for future drafts, including formal essays

Revise

This part of the process should be independent, where: • individuals use notes in personal writing journals to support revision • partners respond after individual revising • there is occasional timed revision to help practise writing for tight deadlines • pupils review success/ establish personal action plans for improvement

Proofread

By now, pupils should have experience of using all means of proof-reading: • spellchecking, personal notes and prompts, peer support, dictionaries . . . • with teacher support, identifying specific areas for further support in proof-reading • proof-read to a time limit

Present

Before presentation, pupils may be asked to write reflective reviews of the process of constructing the text – what they found worked well, what they have discovered about their own strengths as writers and what they would like to improve. They may also: • compile ‘tips for writers using ICT’ or ‘ways of working on your own writing’ for younger writers • evaluate final work in relation to audience and purpose • review their own ability to write coherently at speed

Figure 3.10 The process of writing: a progression – Year 9 the adults who work in the school and classroom. Ian Eyres, who runs training for teaching assistants, outlines just how important their role has become.

Case study: teaching assistants and writing How do teaching assistants support writing in primary classrooms? Two examples of teaching assistants (TAs) at work will illustrate some of the varied supporting strategies they adopt. Part of Jackie’s work is to support James – an underachieving 6 year old. Jackie and James’s teacher agree that ‘fear of failure’ may be the cause of James’s lack of progress, since his developing ability to recognise letters and simple sight vocabulary does not fit with his apparent inability to write

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independently. Working during registration and quiet reading time, Jackie began her work with James by playing games, some involving recall of phonic knowledge, others simple memory games featuring ‘James’s magic box’ [which Jackie herself had designed and constructed]. The next stage of the work developed from James’s knowledge of a favourite picture book. Through sharing the text with Jackie, James became familiar with the story and characters, as well as some of its commonest vocabulary. She was able to exploit opportunities to teach phonic knowledge in the context of the book and later to get James to dictate sentences relating to the story for her to write, word by word, onto individual PostIt® notes. These notes became part of later games and activities and James was soon writing his own post-its and greatly enjoying ‘helping’ Jackie rearrange them when she ‘got into a bit of a muddle’.

Provision and practice Having raised James’s confidence in and enthusiasm for writing, Jackie felt he was ready for a real challenge and invited him to contact a teacher in a ‘huge city, many miles away’ (Leeds) to tell her class about his seaside life in Cornwall. James, who only a few weeks previously had been unwilling to put pencil to paper, wrote Dear Ms Hawkins I am James I liov at Minver ner Pock and Pizeath. At Pothy I climb tees and go body bord ig at polzeth. it is a god pies tow surf wer do yow I iv? do youw have a boy I ike mey? fom James This was just the beginning of James’s correspondence with the school in Leeds, and for Jackie it marked a significant point in his development as a writer; not only had he agreed without hesitation to write the letter, he had done so with enthusiasm. James could now develop his writing skills through his own, highly motivated, writing. It must be really nice to have a genie to do all the work for you Mrs Finlayson In contrast to Jackie’s account, Kim describes how her work supports the whole class. Kim transformed her classroom book corner into a fairytale Arabian palace. She told the children about the genie who lives in the blue glass bottle in the corner. The genie renews the books and other materials within the book corner. By writing letters (which children find), asking them for jokes and stories, the genie provides an audience for young writers. The genie is also able to respond (by letter again) to what children have left for it to read and to leave writing activities (often related to particular, prominently displayed books) on special work stations within the corner. During a ‘Bear book’ fortnight, children were able to play with a ‘teddy bears’ picnic’ scenario (real teddy bears!) thus rehearsing a story before writing it. Kim has a chance to discuss all the genie’s doings twice a week when she leads the 30 minute story time. Both these teaching assistants have linked their work explicitly to the NC, NLS and the work the whole class is doing and both show an ability to ‘get close to’ the children they are supporting. Jackie and Kim emphasise the role they play in motivating pupils. This may be through presenting stimulating tasks and resources, but it is also through responding to writing in progress and giving feedback which can be supportive as well as challenging. One of the skills which becomes highly developed in many TAs is the ability to scaffold children’s learning and one of the qualities of TAs particularly prized by teachers is their flexibility. In England the National Literacy Strategy makes demands on TAs which bring some of their responsibilities close to those of teachers. In some schools TAs are given responsibility for planning elements of the literacy curriculum for groups of children, as well as delivering them. There may have been a time when this blurring of roles (which is probably at its most

extreme in early-years settings) would have worried teachers, but the pragmatic view that well-managed TAs can make a difference to children’s learning across the class (which remains the teacher’s responsibility) is now more likely to prevail. (lan Eyres, Open University)

Using writing throughout the curriculum Whilst the environment for writing involves organising for the range of pupils and managing the working day, the processes of writing are taught, consolidated and practised throughout the curriculum. Current emphasis on writing as part of the Literacy Hour may have distracted attention from the amount of writing which happens throughout any day’s classroom work. At Key Stage 3 teachers are being encouraged to identify cross curricular priorities. However, at secondary level the issue of cross curricular writing is complex, since timetabling arrangements mean that pupils are taught by different teachers. Nevertheless, there is still a lot of writing going on in Key Stage 3 so it is important to have a systematic overview of how writing is being taught. A review of the cross-curricular aspects of teaching writing might simply start with the questions: What kinds of writing are involved in geography/ history/music, etc. . . . ? How do I teach pupils to write in each of these forms? Of course, much depends on the school organisation for managing the development of the writing curriculum.1 The two case studies which follow show how teachers at Key Stages 1 and 2 have made links between NLS writing objectives and work in other areas of the curriculum. (see pp. 134-136 Chapter 7 for Key Stage 3 examples). Emily Harris works with a Reception class in a school in an area of high unemployment in Birmingham. A large percentage of the children receive free school meals and there is high mobility within the area. The SAT scores at the end of Key Stage 1 showed that the children’s reading was well beyond their writing achievements. In common with other successful writing development projects, Emily decided to start with a focus on speaking and listening. The work she describes emphasises the importance of scaffolding for the process of writing – planning a series of systematic interventions to help support children’s language. It also shows how Foundation Stage work can be successfully integrated with the Literacy Strategy.

Case study Foundation Stage: a topic based approach to writing The Foundation curriculum has introduced a more topic based approach within the Early Years setting. Throughout the year I plan and teach half termly mini topics, which provide the pupils with cross curricular learning links. Time is set aside daily for specific language and literacy lessons, which are built up throughout the year, eventually becoming a full Literacy Hour.

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Provision and practice The project provided opportunities for the children to develop language and vocabulary through structured play linked to the mini topic on Fairy Tales. I hoped the children would gain a better understanding of the language patterns and key elements of traditional stories through story telling. Although at the start of the project the children were very familiar with some of the traditional tales used, many found it difficult to retell the stories. In class I began to retell stories using puppets, with the help of my classroom assistant. As we retold these stories we encouraged the children to join in with the repetitive parts of the text, e.g. Run, run as fast as you can, from the Gingerbread Man; not by the hair on my chinny, chin, chin – the Three Little Pigs. As the children gained confidence, individuals were chosen to use the puppets to retell the story, whilst the others continued to join in with any repetitive language. The story puppets were left in the classroom for the children to play with as an independent learning activity. During some of this time I took the opportunity to observe the children and I was delighted to find how confident they had become at using the story book language. There were many opportunities for speaking and listening in other areas of the Foundation curriculum. We made gingerbread houses which involved a great deal of mathematical language: square, triangle, straight, edges, sides, corners, pattern, mathematical language using comparative adjectives: bigger, smaller and prepositions: next to, on top of. Instructional language included: add, sieve, rub, mix, knead, roll, cut, brush, press, bake. Other vocabulary development added to the children’s store of words to use for writing. Nouns: breadcrumbs, treacle, yolk, ginger, flour; adjectives: sticky, yummy, tasty, colourful, scrumptious. We also made miniature gardens for Thumbelina which were displayed in the classroom. Both these activities had many cross curricular links and included aspects of Mathematical Development, Creative Development and Knowledge and Understanding of the World in the Foundation curriculum. As a direct result of the speaking and listening work which they had done previously, the children were more confident at writing phrases independently. Whilst using the writing table during independent time, two of the group members chose to sit together and write a known fairy story, they clearly drew upon aspects of story book language which they had learned in class. (Emily Harris, Highters Heath infant school, Birmingham)

The Foundation Stage curriculum makes it easier, perhaps, to integrate writing into other aspects of the curriculum. However, Margaret Hornsby, found ways to do this with an older group of pupils. She works in an inner city school where over half the school population have free school dinners. All but four children in her class have English as an Additional Language and there are fifteen children on the special needs register.

Case study Key Stage 2: cross curricular writing Although valuable writing skills are taught during the Literacy Hour, there is really no time to complete extended pieces of

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writing. I felt that the children in my Year 4 class needed to have more experience of being writers during other parts of the day, and at the start of last term, I set about trying to provide them with more opportunities to write. After discussion with my Head Teacher, I decided to begin a pilot scheme for extra writing in Year 4. I began by introducing another writing lesson into the week, which would be linked to the geography topic we were studying that term, but which would also wherever possible refer to the relevant Literacy Framework Objectives. In fact, I was able to link the writing to other subject areas, including art and music, so the cross-curricular links grew as the lessons became more established. From the start of the pilot scheme I felt that it was important that each unit of work had a very definite purpose and that the children felt that the writing was important and valued. Each unit of work lasted for two lessons so that there was time for careful proofreading and redrafting, and the children were able to produce a completed piece of work. Some of the children in my class have very limited fluency in English as they are bilingual learners, so it was important that some framework was put in place for them to be writers too. The first idea was a letter to an environmental agency requesting information about the rainforest. We discussed the key questions that the children had made up in one of their geography lessons, and these formed the basis of our letters. Most children already knew how to set out a letter, but they didn’t really understand the concept of a formal letter contacting someone they didn’t know. They used a writing frame to give themselves a starting point for their ideas and a model to help them to write in the language and style of a formal letter. Daniel, whose letter is shown in Figure 3.11 had been assessed as below Level 2 at the end of Year 3. The children were very enthusiastic about writing the letters and they waited impatiently for the replies. This reinforced the concept of writing as a means of communication and has encouraged them to write letters since, saying thank you for a trip and entering various competitions. Next I was inspired by a music INSET session to introduce more music into the classroom. I wanted the related piece of writing to be more creative and to reinforce our Literacy Objectives, which were to use more adjectives and powerful verbs in writing. We listened to a piece of music written by some musicians from Brazil, and imagined that we were in the Rainforest. Then the children described to a partner what they could see and they noted their ideas on whiteboards. We discussed their ideas as a group and I modelled a description of the Rainforest, making sure that I used the key geographical words, which I aimed to keep reinforcing throughout the topic. When the children had written their individual descriptions, they shared them with the rest of the class and attempted to critically evaluate their writing. This helped the children to see that they could improve each other’s writing whilst also supporting each other as writers. The next big event for our class was a trip to Birmingham Botanical Gardens (more letters of thanks to write!) and then a corridor display showing sketches and paintings of the flowers which we had seen there. The drawing and painting took up several art lessons and the children became absorbed in the various colours, shapes and textures of the flowers and plants

Provision and practice

Figure 3.11 Daniel’s letter to Greenpeace

they were creating. The writing lesson was a continuation of the flower theme, and involved using sketches, photographs and pictures to create an imaginary ‘super-flower’. We talked about the various parts of a flower (as preparation for Term 3 when we study growth in science!) and the children produced a small illustration of their imaginary flower. As a class we then made a list of metaphors and similes to describe an imaginary flower and the children used these, along with their small drawings, to help them with their own creations. In following Geography lessons we studied the weather of the rainforest, looking at temperature and rainfall. In our writing lesson we watched a video clip of a weather bulletin, and the children made up their own weather reports. The less fluent writers worked from a writing frame developed by one of my colleagues and the class imagined that they were

weather presenters. They used their geographical knowledge of the climate in the rainforest to produce some accurate and interesting writing, and without realising it, learned how to write a factual report. Figure 3.12 shows Shazia’s weather forecast. Sometimes we concentrated on exploring different genres of writing. One week we imagined that we were on holiday in the rainforest and wrote postcards to send home. After being shown a model of the type of writing you would expect to read on a postcard, and listing some phrases that people might use, the children began to write their own. They wrote a rough draft and then used a large postcard format to write their final copies. They became so enthusiastic that they designed the pictures for the postcards and even the stamps to go on them! (Figure 3.13).

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Provision and practice The work continued into the following term, allowing an even wider range of genres to be covered. One of my favourite activities in the new term was the diary of a jungle explorer. We began the lesson by talking about the concept of a diary and the sort of things that a person might write in their diary. They understood that a diary was an account of a person’s life, but they also knew that a diary held secrets and a person’s inner feelings. I wrote a diary opening for them and we made a journey plan using key phrases pinned to the board. The children were able to use this rough plan to give them a structure for their own diaries. In the second lesson we looked at some examples of their work, which I photocopied and enlarged and we thought about ways in which we could improve the writing. Their diaries were exciting adventures but they also showed how much knowledge and understanding they now had about the rainforest and what they would see if they explored its depths.

Figure 3.12 Shazia’s weather forecast 44

The writing has reinforced the children’s knowledge about the rainforest and has increased their interest in the topic. It has encouraged them to have their own ideas and opinions and enabled them to write about their own feelings. They have enjoyed exploring all the different genres of writing, and there have been lots of opportunities for role-play and ‘hot seating’. The most important outcome for me though, has been the fact that they now value their writing and they can see that writing is not just important in the Literacy Hour, but that good writing is important in every subject. (Margaret Hornsby, with many thanks to my colleagues in Year 4, Penny Chase and Alison Wood, who helped me to trial this work and Emma McGovern, who supported and encouraged my ideas.)

Provision and practice

Figure 3.13 Nazbarna’s rainforest postcard

Joined up writing: links with homes and communities Not cursive handwriting, but connected writing – connected to other areas of the curriculum, to writing outside school, to home and community uses of writing. These connections can offer introductions to the personal and social aspects of education, exploring citizenship and values. There is now much more emphasis on acknowledging home literacies (see Chapters 1 and 2). As Charmian Kenner points out this can be acutely important for bilingual writers. She acknowledges the difficulties, however: Finding out about home literacy can take time – time for parents to trust you and believe that your interest in bilingualism is more than a token, time for them to realise that you are not only checking whether they read the right kinds of books to their children. If the dialogue builds up, it will open out new worlds of understanding between school and home, and be a rich and rewarding part of your relationship with parents and children. (Kenner 2000: 12) This holds true for many relationships with parents, bilingual or not. It is often during the early years of school experience that teachers and parents have a chance to establish good relationships, but opportunities for links with homes seem to diminish as children grow older. Writing offers some opportunities for long-distance links, however; pupils might ask parents about their perceptions and experiences of writing at school when they were young and use this as

a basis for biographical writing. The memories of grandparents’ and parents’ generations can also form the basis for writing biography or as material for fictional accounts – as with many published writers. Links with homes over literacy often become even more distant when pupils reach the secondary school. A school project designed to raise standards of literacy in the London Borough of Haringey identified greater liaison with homes and families as critical in supporting their pupils’ progress. The senior teacher involved in the project commented: We’ve got to work much more closely with the parents particularly of pupils who are experiencing difficulties or who have low literacy levels. We’ve had a number of parents’ evenings recently which have had an educational focus and I think we’ve got to the point now where the parents are responding very positively to some of those evenings; it’s a relatively small number of parents but the numbers are increasing. We have workshop sessions . . . and try to tell them the sorts of things we’ve been doing and get their ideas and perceptions of things that we need to do – find out what are the priorities for them. (Bearne 1999: 76–77) There are difficulties, however, for any school in promoting closer links with homes over writing, since not all parents are able to attend meetings and some might be daunted by the idea of getting involved with writing. There need to be ways of reaching out to homes where it is not easy for parents to visit school. Some schools are now asking parents to bring examples of their children’s early mark-making to discussions when children first enter school. Schools 45

Provision and practice produce booklets about approaches to developmental writing similar to those given to parents explaining early reading practices. Other involvement by parents in writing at school can be as scribes or typists, or even in some cases as writers themselves who come in to school and talk about the process of putting texts together. Parents who work on newspapers or who help with local magazines are knowledgeable about how texts are constructed.

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•

• • • • •

Parents and families can contribute when children write books or stories by scribing or illustrating them. After a school visit parents can jot down for the child their memories of the best parts of the experience. Photographs from family holidays can be annotated as part of geography work. Parents and families who speak languages other than English might be asked to write stories or information accompanied by photographs or pictures in their home languages.

A commercially produced scrap book can be used for a collection of reflective pieces of writing by any members of the family – brothers, sisters, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins – of my favourite book/film or my most enduring memory. Parents can be asked to contribute family documents, letters, postcards and other memorabilia for class topics on celebrations or the history of the 1960s . . . Children can write to local pensioners’ clubs when researching historical material or to local companies to find out about the way businesses work so that they receive replies from adult writers.

Note 1 See Eve Bearne (ed.) Use of Language Across the Primary Curriculum and Eve Bearne ed. Use of Language Across the Secondary Curriculum for more detailed descriptions and review formats for cross-curricular writing.

Key issues in this chapter ●

The environment for developing writing, both in the school and the classroom consists of two elements: the physical/ material environment and, just as importantly, the environment of possibility established by the teacher. Learners make progress where they can build self-esteem; as developing writers this means being encouraged and supported in experiments and taking risks and coming to understand that failing to get it right first time is a healthy part of progress.

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Progress in writing is most likely to happen when the process of writing is linked to knowledge and experience of substantial reading (of whole texts) and supported by opportunities to capture ideas through substantial talk: drama, role play, storytelling, debate, argument, classification and clarification of ideas.

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Progress is not just indicated by an increasing ability to construct texts accurately, but is marked by the writer’s ability to choose the form, content, style and tone to suit the job. Independence in editing includes making decisions about the extent of redrafting necessary and whether this is best done individually or collaboratively. This process of learning to be a writer is helped by opportunities to make writing public [if a writer chooses to] and, at times, to bring writing to a finished form.

Key texts National Literacy Strategy, Developing Early Writing National Literacy Strategy, Grammar for Writing Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, Language at Work in Lessons: Literacy Across the Curriculum at Key Stage 3

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Chapter 4

Assessment: the planning – teaching – writing – assessment cycle When you do your tests . . . the first ones are easy but then when you get down to the bottom they get so hard. Like yesterday we had a spelling test and when we got to the bottom there was words I didn’t know. (Year 4 girl) I used to be really scared in English exams . . . I still am a bit but after we did all that stuff on writing criterias (sic) it made it a lot better . . . (Year 8 boy) There seem to be targets for everything, these days. Sometimes it’s like being at the end of a shooting range. There’s nothing wrong with targets in themselves, of course; the profession has used them for years to guide teaching. At the moment, however, there is a plethora. There are national targets for SAT achievements; targets set by the NLS; a school’s own targets for writing; termly targets agreed

by year teams or through the mediation of literacy coordinators; individual pupil targets identified by teachers . . . and all of these are related to the twin ideas of assessment and accountability. This is not the place for an examination of the politics of accountability, but it is clear that accountability means ‘countability’ in the current climate of ‘fast capital’. And this is where assessment comes in.

This chapter examines the role of assessment in improving standards of writing, including: ●

Effective learning and assessment

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Planning – teaching – writing – reviewing – planning

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From targets to teaching and assessing

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Targets and Progress Descriptors for Writing: Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

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Assessing the writing of children who have English as an Additional Language

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Monitoring individual progress: Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

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Progress in writing

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Involving pupils in response

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Case study Key Stage 3: using response partners

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Writers evaluating their own writing

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Reflecting on progress in writing

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Writing miscue analysis

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Diagnosing specific difficulties

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Assessment

Effective learning and assessment Self-esteem and self-assessment are often identified as key factors in promoting learning. This means planning for opportunities for pupils to use reflective writing and talk to clarify their ideas and assess their own progress. This doesn’t always seem possible in the hothouse atmosphere of League Tables and Ofsted inspections. In a climate of testing, teachers, parents and carers can become quite anxious about national arrangements for testing and assessment. Teachers know that some pupils can achieve better than their SAT score shows – or even occasionally that the SAT score seems to show ability which is not consistently achieved – which raises issues about teacher assessments in relation to test scores. There are also criticisms of the tests themselves: what they measure and what they claim to measure and annual claims that public examinations are getting easier Assessment is an issue at national, school, classroom and individual levels. Assessment data are used by governments to justify testing and accountability measures and mechanisms. They are used throughout an LEA to judge school effectiveness and across schools to compare provision. Within schools, assessment can feed into initiatives to address matters of specific need for the school. In the classroom it is associated with daily observation, weekly, half termly and termly record keeping; individual records and assessment of the curriculum. As far as the classroom and school are concerned, ‘assessment’ can be succinctly put – it means providing for progression and differentiation. It will involve both formative and performative elements – often referred to as ‘summative’ – as well as diagnostic assessment to help support children whose learning needs go beyond the usual. When it comes to writing, however, the matter of assessment becomes a little more complicated because writing is used both as an object of assessment and as a means of assessment. Writing is assessed in English SATs; it is also the means of showing what pupils know in every other subject so that science, history, art, music . . . all depend on writing to show what pupils have learned. This makes it all the more important to establish clear principles and practice in assessing writing – and in using writing to assess.

Planning – teaching – writing – reviewing – planning Assessment of writing should not only be concerned with the structural and secretarial features of writing, but perhaps more importantly with judgements about how far writers have managed to fulfil their intentions in writing: does the text meet the purpose it is intended for? Does it take account of what the reader needs to know? If teachers are to provide clear and specific feedback, then these features need to be included in written and spoken comments. And to be able to discuss whether the writing has fulfilled the objectives for teaching and learning, then 48

these need to be clear from the outset. Assessment starts with planning for teaching writing. Teaching sequences begin with knowing what pupils will be learning, leading clearly to the need to assess how far the teaching – and learning – have been successful. However, much assessment of writing is done when it is finished. This raises questions about reasons for writing in the classroom. Is it done just to satisfy the teacher’s need for a product – evidence of what a pupil has done? At times this may be appropriate, but it can become a routine of: • • • • •

teacher tells pupils what to write; they write it; the teacher marks it; the pupils look at the grade and ignore the marking; the writing is put away and not looked at again.

If assessment is genuinely to inform future planning, then targets need to be firmly linked to the process of teaching and assessing progress.

From targets to teaching and assessing The National Literacy Framework for Key Stages 1 and 2 and now the National Strategy for Key Stage 3 lay out teaching objectives for writing composition; Developing Early Writing and Grammar for Writing present the teaching sequence for shared writing; the training modules for Key Stage 3 give outlines of the teaching process. Also, the primary headteachers’ conferences in the Autumn of 2000 were briefed about targets for writing. In none of these, however, are there specific guidelines for assessment. An additional booklet, produced by QCA Target Setting and Assessment in the National Literacy Strategy is the nearest to achieving links between objectives, target setting and assessment. This booklet identifies a variety of targets which schools might use for different reasons: quantitative performance targets which the school identifies as a standard to aim for, such as the percentage of pupils in a particular cohort to achieve level 4 in English at the end of the Key Stage 2 tests; curriculum targets which will cover areas of the curriculum or aspects of teaching and learning in which the school recognises it needs to improve its provision; learning targets which can be used with classes, groups or individual pupils and which focus on what children know and can do, their progress and areas for future improvement. (QCA 1999: 5) The use of the phrase ‘learning targets’ pinpoints a problem for teachers using the NLS and wanting to assess individual pupils’ progress – or even whole class progress. The objectives contained in the National Strategy are teaching objectives; they do not take into account

Assessment variations in pupils’ learning. Also, they emphasise the structures of texts; they cannot offer descriptions of achievement in a whole range of aspects of writing, including writing behaviours. A summative test can assess product or presentational writing but cannot assess the process qualities. However, since teachers see their pupils very often and can observe them at work in putting pieces of writing together, they can certainly make assessments of the pupils’ progress as writers. This is where target setting can be most effective – if it is based on teachers’ observations of their pupils and their learning. The process of identifying and reaching targets means: •

•

At whole school level: analysis of data – results from writing SATs and other tests used to identify specific targets and priorities for literacy for the school, e.g. improving independent proofreading and revising; raising achievements in boys’ writing; building up research skills. This means looking at writing separately from composite grades for English and including targets for writing specifically in the School Development Plan. At year group level: agreed activities and mediumterm targets to make improvements in identified areas. At Key Stage 3 themed approaches suited to the school’s priorities for literacy would be tackled at this level. Medium-term plans often include

•

termly/half termly targets and a Key Assessment Opportunity which should be related to the target(s) for the plan. There is little point in carrying out an assessment exercise which is unrelated to the targets and objectives for the teaching sequence. It is important that targets should be directly related to assessment and that linked reading and writing teaching objectives from the Strategy are selected to fit the targets. At individual level: targets will be derived from the continuing monitoring of progress and will relate both to short-term and medium-term objectives.

In between targets, objectives and descriptions of progress there has to be some teaching. Figure 4. 1 shows how each term’s teaching objectives in Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 or 3 can be used to create Key Assessment Opportunities. The activities suggested would be part of a broader medium-term plan or Unit of Work. The idea is that once a term, specific objectives can be identified to provide for a focused assessment which measures progress in relation to targets. A Key Assessment Opportunity is also a chance to assess both curriculum coverage and individual achievement. It provides evidence for reviewing teaching and learning in order to plan future teaching.

In each year there are Key Assessment Opportunities: Using talk, role play, drama and storytelling to help plan longer writing. Deliberate use of video texts as prompts, to support inclusion. Activities carefully scaffolded with a range of planning formats.

Key Assessment Opportunity

Making information leaflets for parents/other classes in the school using the computer (and linked with another curriculum area). This builds on experience of planning and involves explicit teaching of the drafting and editing process. Links with ICT and cross-curricular priorities for literacy.

Key Assessment Opportunity

Writing books for named readers (members of the family/friends); this consolidates work in planning and presentation, includes the visual and choices of presentation, including ICT.

Key Assessment Opportunity

A planned and finished story, clearly sequenced.

Information material (e.g. leaflet, brochure, information booklet) showing clear sense of writing non-narrative for an identified readership.

Books which might be either non-narrative or narrative give the chance to assess self-editing and personal management of work.

Figure 4.1 Key Assessment Opportunities 49

Assessment

Targets and Progress Descriptors for Writing: Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 The Targets and Progress Descriptors for Writing (Figures 4. 5 to 4. 24) cover Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 and 3. They are designed to bring together the various documents and guidance currently provided for teaching writing. They make explicit the links between targets, teaching objectives and National Curriculum level descriptions by drawing on the Foundation Curriculum, the NLS Writing Targets, the Text Level Teaching Objectives for Writing in the Strategy, the National Curriculum Programmes of Study for Writing. At Key Stage 3, there are no target descriptors in the materials so the expectations for pupils’ writing achievements in each year are taken from Language for Learning (QCA/DfEE 2000) and Language at Work in Lessons (QCA 2001) and combined with the National Strategy Writing Text Level objectives. They describe the full range of pupils’ writing strategies and processes as they move through the Key Stages, offering a way of recording the achievements of individuals, groups and classes. They help teachers provide for individual pupils’ writing needs by offering a focus for guided writing. They provide graded progress descriptors for the different elements of the writing curriculum (e.g. narrative structure, development of an impersonal voice in nonfiction) which can be used not only to assess how far targets have been reached but to help teachers see where to take their young writers next. They describe a realistic process of development, indicating the kinds of overlap between levels which might be expected from year to year (Figure 4.2).

Year

• • •

have grasped the processes, concepts and strategies securely; need a little more experience and practice; need significantly more support and guidance.

Figure 4.3 shows the structure of each page. The right hand column of each year’s page gives graded descriptions of achievement related to the objectives and targets. They also include National Curriculum level descriptions where appropriate. Since becoming a writer involves more than just covering the objectives – for instance, the objectives can’t cover the development of independence and choice as a writer – there are features listed at the bottom of the right hand column which are not graded since all pupils might be expected to achieve these during the year. The Targets and Progress Descriptors for Writing can be used in a variety of ways: •

• •

in shared and guided writing: to identify group and individual targets and provide a focus for group teaching, helping to plan for progress; to assess and record pupil progress each term, using the graded descriptors to help target-setting; to guide decisions about how to use writing alongside other subjects during the year. If one term specifically focuses on information texts this might readily be

Level progression

Foundation

W – level 1

Year 1

level 1 – mid level 2

Year 2

mid and secure level 2 and the beginnings of level 3

Year 3

secure level 2 to mid level 3

Year 4

increasingly secure level 3 to the beginnings of level 4

Year 5

secure level 3 to mid and secure level 4

Year 6

level 4 and the beginnings of level 5

Year 7

consolidating level 4 and increasingly secure level 5

Year 8

consolidating level 5 and increasingly secure level 6

Year 9

consolidating and moving beyond level 6

Figure 4.2 Expected progression in NC levels from Foundation to Year 9 50

They are separated into Narrative and Non-fiction sections to aid medium-term planning with a separate page for each year within the sections. They identify three levels of achievement for each element of the writing curriculum to describe those pupils who:

Yearly Targets Taken from: Foundation Curriculum DfEE Targets for Writing NLS (from primary headteachers’ conference training materials)

Language at work in lessons QCA

Term Term Term 1 2 3

Graded progress descriptors

Using: Stepping Stones

based on: National Literacy Strategy objectives

Text Level Teaching Objectives for Writing in the National Literacy Strategy Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

National Curriculum for English Programmes of of study for writing. Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

Language for learning QCA

Figure 4.3 Layout of the Targets and Progress Descriptors for Writing

Assessment

• •

combined with science, geography, design technology, for example (as in KS3 Literacy Passport); to pass on records about writing at the end of a year to the next class teacher; to have focused and specific conversations with pupils and their parents/carers about achievements and future possibilities.

They also help colleagues to develop greater shared professional understanding by providing a language for observing and describing achievement in writing.

Assessing the writing of children who have English as an Additional Language Pupils who are at the early stages of learning English will need more finely calibrated descriptions of progress. QCA has developed a system to standardise the reporting of summative assessments for pupils who are still learning English. As the document points out, ‘W’ no longer applies to pupils acquiring English as an Additional Language but is represented by ‘steps’ towards the Threshold of Level 1. The scale then moves to a secure Level 1. The extended scale for writing has these gradations: Step 1 Pupils use English letters and letter-like forms to convey meaning. They copy or write their names and familiar words, and write from left to right. Step 2 Pupils attempt to express meanings in writing, supported by oral work or pictures. Generally their writing is intelligible to themselves and a familiar reader, and shows some knowledge of sound and letter patterns in English spelling. Building on their knowledge of literacy in another language, pupils show knowledge of the function of sentence division. Level 1 (Threshold) Pupils produce recognisable letters and words in texts, which convey meaning and show some knowledge of English sentence division and word order. Most commonly used letters are correctly shaped, but may be inconsistent in their size and orientation. Level 1 (Secure) Pupils use phrases and longer statements which convey ideas to the reader, making some use of full stops and capital letters. Some grammatical patterns are irregular and pupils’ grasp of English sounds and how they are written is not secure. Letters are usually clearly shaped and correctly orientated.

This extended scale maps readily on to the levels on the Targets and Progress Descriptors for Writing.

Monitoring individual progress: Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 Teachers are used to looking carefully at children’s writing in order to assess it and respond to it, but very often the emphasis is on the technical features, rather than on elements of choice and audience. The important aspects of writers’ intentions and reader-awareness can be bypassed in many assessment formats. One of the concerns which teachers voice is that they don’t know how to describe such features. This is serious, because if teachers do not provide feedback which highlights content and choices in writing, then there is little hope for pupils to learn how to develop – and talk about – these aspects of their writing. The Targets and Progress Descriptors look at each year’s teaching and the expected range of achievement within the year group. However, particular pupils may make less or more progress within a year so that a more individualised set of statements may be needed to record and monitor individual progress. In order to pass on useful – and specific – information to colleagues, pupils and parents it is also necessary to be able to link individual progress to National Curriculum Levels. The Records of Progress (Figure 4.24) are drawn from the statements on the Targets and Progress Descriptors but ordered to show a continuum of individual progress throughout Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 and 3. Schools using these statements find they help to: • • • •

monitor individual progress within a year; monitor individual progress from year to year; pass on records from one Key Stage to another; provide a descriptive vocabulary to aid conversations over writing with colleagues (within school and at transfer), pupils and parents.

Used as individual records within a year, the teacher highlights those statements which fit a pupil’s achievements during October (after a period of observation) then uses a different colour highlighter in May or June to revisit the Record of Progress and indicate the pupil’s further achievements. This provides an immediate view of progress – and gaps in progress. These Records of Progress can accompany a pupil throughout a Key Stage (or Key Stages) and as transfer records.

(QCA 2000a:15)

51

52

R 13 to think about and discuss what they intend to write ahead of writing it R 14 to use experience of stories, poems and simple recounts as a basis for independent writing, e.g. retelling, substitution, extension, and through shared composition with adults R 15 to use writing to communicate in a variety of ways, incorporating it into play and everyday classroom life, e.g. recounting their own experiences

• uses invented symbols to express ideas in print • knows about direction and orientation of writing and attempts recognisable letters • shapes letters clearly

SS p 64 Use phonic knowledge to write simple regular words and make phonetically plausible attempts at more complex words Attempt writing for different purposes, using features of different forms, e.g. lists, stories and instructions Write own names and other things . . . begin to form simple sentences, sometimes using punctuation SS p 66 Begin to form recognisable letters R 12 through guided and independent writing . . . • to write their own names • to write sentences to match pictures or sequences of pictures; • to experiment with writing and recognise how their own version matches and differs from conventional version, e.g. through teacher response and transcription

Other features: Talks about own writing, indicating significant parts Is keen to write and will experiment Knows about writing for an audience

• retells a heard/read story • writes (emergent) own story based on experience but needs teacher or other adult as scribe • writes own stories (emergent) independently

• uses single letters/groups of letters to represent meaningful words/phrases • communicates meaning through simple words and phrases • constructs a simple sentence and attempts some punctuation

• anticipates known patterns of familiar stories • joins in with stories, knowing how they end • uses words and pictures to compose (emergent) stories with recognisable ending

• links events together when telling or retelling stories • plays in role for sustained periods • uses writing in play and role play

A writer in the early stages of learning:

Progress descriptors W – Level 1

SS p 62 Listen to and join in with stories . . . Begin to be aware of the way stories are structured Suggest how a story might end. R14 to use experience of stories . . . as a basis for independent writing

SS p 58 Begin to use talk instead of action to rehearse, reorder and reflect on past experience, linking significant events from own experience and from stories, paying attention to sequence and how events lead into one another Begin to make patterns in their experience through linking cause and effect, sequencing. . . Begin to use talk to pretend imaginary situations R 12 through guided and independent writing . . . to experiment with writing in a variety of play, exploratory and role play situations

Narrative Communicate to others; create imaginary worlds; explore experience: sequence/structure, setting, character, theme; plan, draft, present

Figure 4.4 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Foundation

Purpose & organisation Retell a narrative or recount Begin to writer simple narratives and recounts

Process Dictate and invent own compositions Think about what to write ahead of writing it

Reception Targets

Use a pencil and hold it effectively to form recognisable letters, most of which are correctly formed (SS)

Show an understanding of the elements of stories, such as main character, sequence of events (SS)

Retell narratives in the correct sequence, drawing on language patterns of stories (SS)

Use language to imagine and recreate roles and experiences (SS)

Early Years

Foundation

Year & Targets

53

Y1:2/T12 through shared and guided writing to apply phonological, graphic knowledge and sight vocabulary to spell words accurately Y1:2/T13 to substitute and extend patterns from reading through language play, e.g. by using same lines and introducing new words, extending rhyming or alliterative patterns, adding further rhyming words, lines

Y1:2/T14 to represent outlines of story plots using, e.g. captions, pictures, arrows to record main incidents in order, e.g. to make a class book, wall story, own version; Y1:2/T15 to build simple profiles of characters from stories read, describing characteristics, appearances, behaviour with pictures, single words, captions, words and sentences from text Y1:2/T16 to use some of the elements of known stories to structure own writing

Y1:1/T8 through shared and guided writing to apply phonological, graphic knowledge and sight vocabulary to spell words accurately

Y1:1/T10 to use rhymes and patterns in stories as models for own writing

Y1:1/T9 to write about events in personal experience linked to a variety of familiar incidents from stories; Y1:1/T11 to make simple picture storybooks with sentences, modelling them on basic text conventions, e.g. cover, author’s name, title, layout

Process

Figure 4.5 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 1

Build on year – write to communicate meaning – simple recounts, stories that can be re-read, with basic beginning, middle and end

Begin to break up the series of events with connectives other than and

Write a recount or narrative

Purpose & organisation

Begin to rehearse sentences before writing and re-read during and after writing

Assemble information and ideas from own experience as a basis for writing as well as generating questions prior to reading/writing

Use language and structures from reading when writing

Term 2

Term 1

Y1:3/T15 to use poems or parts of poems as models for own writing, e.g. by substituting words or elaborating on the text Y1:3/T13 to write about significant incidents from known stories Y1:3/T14 to write stories using simple settings, e.g. based on previous reading

Y1:3/T16 to compose own poetic sentences, using repetitive patterns, carefully selected sentences and imagery

Y1:3/T12 through shared and guided writing to apply phonological, graphic knowledge and sight vocabulary to spell words accurately

Term 3

Narrative Communicate to others; create imaginary worlds; explore experience: sequence/structure, setting, character, theme; plan, draft, present

Year 1

Year & Targets

Other features: Enjoys playing with language Rehearses ideas before writing Writing communicates meaning beyond a simple statement Comments on own work orally and in writing Begins to vary writing according to readership/audience

• makes simple books showing knowledge of text conventions • uses ideas/characters from reading to make own stories • is beginning to write stories with a character/event, beginning, middle and end

• writes stories with sequences of events based on known stories • recognises how sequences are put together to make a story • re-tells episodes from known stories using different connectives

• uses known poems to shape own writing • builds on familiar patterns from reading in guided/shared writing • chooses some elements of known language and story patterns in independent writing

• recognises language play and the use of punctuation • varies chosen vocabulary and punctuation • experiments with new vocabulary and different punctuation

• spells familiar simple words with help • often spells simple monosyllabic words correctly without help • spells simple words correctly and attempts phonetically plausible spelling

A writer who is gaining experience and fluency:

Progress descriptors Level 1 to mid Level 2

54 Y2:2/T12 through shared and guided writing to apply phonological, graphic knowledge and sight vocabulary to spell words accurately Y2:2/T15 to use structures from poems as a basis for writing, by extending or substituting elements, inventing own lines, verses; to make class collections, illustrate with captions; to write own poems from initial jottings and words

Y2:2/T13 to use story settings from reading, e.g. re-describe, use in own writing, write a different story in the same setting; Y2:2/T14 to write character profiles, e.g. simple descriptions, posters, passports, using key words and phrases that describe or are spoken by characters in the text

Y2:1/T12 to use simple poetry structures and to substitute own ideas, write new lines

Y2/1/T10 to use story structure to write about own experience in same/similar form Y2/1/T11 to use language of time (see sentence level work) to structure a sequence of events, e.g. ‘when I had finished . . .’ ‘suddenly . . .’, ‘after that . . .’

Term 2

Y2:1/T9 through shared and guided writing to apply phonological, graphic knowledge and sight vocabulary to spell words accurately

Term 1

Y2:3/T10 to write sustained stories, using their knowledge of story elements: narrative, settings, characterisation, dialogue and the language of story

Y2:3/T11 to use humorous verse as a structure for children to write their own by adaptation, mimicry or substitution; to invent own riddles, language puzzles, jokes, nonsense sentences etc. derived from reading; write tongue-twisters or alliterative sentences; select words with care, re-reading and listening to their effect

Y2:3/T9 through shared and guided writing to apply phonological, graphic knowledge and sight vocabulary to spell words accurately

Term 3

Narrative Communicate to others; create imaginary worlds; explore experience: sequence/structure, setting, character, theme; plan, draft, present

Figure 4.6 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 2

Apply knowledge of story elements such as settings, dialogue, characterisation, story language and structures, so that own writing begins to ‘sound like a story’ with some consistency of genre and tense. Give sufficient detail to engage a reader’s interest

Begin to show some consistency in use of 1st and 3rd person and tense

Write a recount or narrative in sentences using connectives that signal time . . .

Purpose & organisation

Rehearse sentences, and adapt and re-read during writing to identify where improvements might be made and to spot errors

Write initial jottings, notes and ideas before writing

Process

Year 2

Year & Targets

Other features: Gives detail to engage the reader Is beginning to comment independently on own and peers’ writing Drafts and redrafts with help Reflects own reading in writing

• writes stories with a character/event, beginning, middle and end • writes consistently in 3rd person when narrating events • sustains a 1st person written narrative

• increasingly varies connectives in own writing and is more adventurous with sentence structure • uses time connectives to help structure story sequence • shows awareness of a reader’s needs in sequencing a story

• draws on known language and story patterns in independent writing • uses language and story knowledge to create settings and character • sustains stories, incorporating setting, character and some dialogue

• enjoys using newly discovered language for poetry • from jottings, deliberately chooses words for own poems for variety and interest • uses known poetic structures to write own poems independently, noticing the effects of the language

• spells familiar and key words correctly using phonics and word recognition • with support, applies a range of strategies in attempting spelling • independently applies a range of strategies in attempting spelling

An increasingly assured writer, growing in experience:

Progress descriptors mid and secure Level 2 to the beginnings of Level 3

55

Y3:1/T11 to develop the use of settings in own stories by: writing short descriptions of known places; writing a description in the style of a familiar story to investigate and collect sentences/ phrases for story openings and endings – use some of these formal elements in re-telling and story writing Y3:1/T15 to begin to organise stories into paragraphs; to begin to use paragraphing in presentation of dialogue in stories

Y3:1/T10 using reading as a model, write own passages of dialogue Y3:1/T14 to write simple playscripts based on own reading and oral work

Figure 4.7 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 3

Use 1st or 3rd person and tense consistently

Vary story openings to create effects, such as building tension and suspense, creating moods, establishing character and scene setting

Use a range of connectives that signal time

Write narrative with build-up and complication that leads towards a defined ending, using a paragraph for each

Purpose & organisation

Use IT to polish and present

Be able to improve own writing and correct errors

Mentally rehearse writing, and cumulatively re-read, making adaptations and corrections

Identify and consider audience and how this affects writing

Make and use notes

Use different planning formats e.g. charting, mapping, flow charts, simple storyboards

Y3:1/T9 to generate ideas relevant to a topic by brainstorming, word association etc.

Y3:2/T9 to write a story plan for own myth, fable or traditional tale, using story theme from reading but substituting different characters or changing the setting Y3:2/T10 to write alternative sequels to traditional stories using same characters and settings, identifying typical phrases and expressions from story and using these to help structure the writing

Y3:2/T8 to write portraits of characters, using story text to describe behaviour and characteristics, and presenting portraits in a variety of ways

Y3:2/T6 to plan main points as a structure for story writing, considering how to capture points in a few words that can be elaborated later; discuss different methods of planning Y3:2/T7 to describe and sequence key incidents in a variety of ways, e.g. by listing, charting, mapping, making simple storyboards

Y3:2/T11 to write new or extended verses for performance based on models of 'performance' and oral poetry read, e.g. rhythms, repetition

Y3:1/T12 to collect suitable words and phrases, in order to write poems and short descriptions; design simple patterns with words, use repetitive phrases; write imaginative comparisons; Y3:1/T13 to invent calligrams and a range of shape poems, selecting appropriate words and careful presentation. Build up class collections

Process: as for Year 2 and

Generate and collect suitable words and phrases before writing

Term 2

Term 1

Narrative Imagine and explore feelings and ideas: sequence/structure, setting, character, theme; plan, draft, present

Year 3

Year & Targets

Y3:3/T11 to write openings to stories or chapters linked to or arising from reading; to focus on language to create effects Y3:3/T13 to write more extended stories based on a plan of incidents and set out in simple chapters with titles and author details; to use paragraphs to organise the narrative

Y3:3/T10 to plot a sequence of episodes modelled on a known story, as a plan for writing Y3:3/T12 to write a first person account, e.g. write a character’s own account of incident in story read

Other features: Independently applies a range of strategies in attempting spelling and spells more key words correctly Adapts writing for different readers Wants to write to express personal meaning Can improve own writing and identify errors Writing is lively and holds the reader’s interest

• uses time connectives to help structure story sequence • shows awareness of a reader’s needs in sequencing a story • uses paragraphs to organise narrative

• uses language and story knowledge to create settings and character • sustains stories, incorporating setting and characterisation • uses story text as evidence to write character portraits

• writes consistently in 3rd person when narrating events • can write a 1st person sustained narrative, including dialogue • uses known layout to write dialogue and playscripts

• generates ideas/jots before writing • in shared/guided writing, can use sequenced plans • independently uses sequenced plans to help shape writing

• from jottings, deliberately chooses words for own poems for variety and interest • uses known poetic structures to write own poems independently, noticing the effects of the language • comments on and experiments with sound and visual effects

Y3:3/T15 to write poetry that uses sound to create effects, e.g. onomatopoeia, alliteration, distinctive rhythms

Y3:3/T14 to write book reviews for a specified audience, based on evaluations of plot, characters and language

A more experienced and assured writer:

Term 3

Progress descriptors secure Level 2 to mid Level 3

56

Figure 4.8 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 4

Use main features of story structure to organise events, varying openings, build-ups, conflict and endings

Show imagination through use of detail . . . creating interest, humour or suspense.

Maintain consistent person and tense

Use settings and characterisation to engage reader’s interest

Use paragraphs to structure narrative for instance isolating an initiating event or introduction

Edit in relation to audience and purpose, enhancing or deleting, justifying choices

Purpose & organisation

Y4:2/T10 to develop use of settings in own writing making use of work on adjectives and figurative language to describe settings effectively Y4:2/T12 to collaborate with others to write stories in chapters, using plans with particular audiences in mind

Y4:2/T14 notemaking: to edit down a sentence or passage by deleting the less important elements. . .

Y4:1/T9 to use different ways of planning stories e.g. using brainstorming, notes, diagrams Y4:1/T 10 to plan a story identifying the stages of its telling Y4:1/T15 to use paragraphs in story writing to organise and sequence the narrative

Mentally rehearse writing and re-read as a matter of habit

Y4:1/T11 write character sketches, focusing on small details to evoke sympathy or dislike Y4:1/T13 to write playscripts, e.g. using known stories as basis Y4:1/T12 to write independently, linking own experience to situations in historical stories

Y4:2/T11 to write poetry based on the structure and/ or style of poems read, e.g. taking account of vocabulary, archaic expressions, patterns of rhyme, choruses, similes Y4:2/T13 to write own examples of descriptive, expressive language based on those read. Link to work on adjectives and similes

Y4:1/T14 to write poems based on personal or imagined experience, linked to poems read. List brief phrases and words, experiment by trimming or extending sentences; experiment with powerful and expressive verbs

Process: as for Year 3 and

Use different ways to plan writing, e.g. notes, diagrams etc.

Term 2

Term 1

Narrative Imagine and explore feelings and ideas: sequence/structure, setting, character, theme; plan, draft, present

Year 4

Year & Targets

Y4:3/T11 to explore the main issues of a story by writing a story about a dilemma and the issues it raises for the character Y4:3/T12 to write an alternative ending for a known story and discuss how this would change the reader’s view of the characters and events of the original story

Y4:3/T13 to write own longer stories in chapters from story plans

Y4:3/T14 to write poems, experimenting with different styles and structures, discuss if and why different forms are more suitable than others Y4:3/T15 to produce polished poetry through revision, e.g. deleting words, adding words, changing words, reorganising words and lines, experimenting with figurative language

Term 3

Other features: Gains satisfaction from shaping writing for others to read Collaborates with others over writing Uses detail to write character sketches Is becoming more selective about publishing and increasingly able to comment critically on own and others’ writing Chooses to write to convey personal meaning and writing shows evidence of organisation, imagination and clarity

• uses paragraphs to organise narrative • begins to use chapters to organise narrative • in shared/guided writing, uses structure, language and event to entertain or amuse the reader

• independently uses sequenced plans or notes to help shape events in stories • in shared/guided writing, uses notes to plan separate chapters for stories • in shared/guided writing, maps development of known story

• comments on and experiments with sound, shape and vocabulary • works on own poetry to refine form and expression • redrafts and practises poetry for performance

A more experienced and almost independent writer:

Progress descriptors increasingly secure Level 3 to the beginnings of Level 4

57

Y5:1/T18 write own playscript, applying conventions learned from reading; include production notes Y5:1/T19 to annotate a section of playscript as a preparation for performance, taking into account pace, movement, gesture and delivery of lines and the needs of the audience Y5:1/T20 to evaluate the script and the performance for their dramatic interest and impact

Y5:1/T16 to convey feelings, reflections or moods in a poem through the careful choice of words and phrases Y5:1/T17 to write metaphors from original ideas or from similes

Figure 4.9 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 5

Use paragraphs to structure plot, by shifting paragraphs for change of time, scene, action, mood or person

Use setting to create and reflect changes in mood

Suggest insights into character development through describing how characters look, react, talk or behave, rather than telling the reader

Draw writing . . . towards a defined conclusion

Secure grammatical agreement and coherence to avoid ambiguities and contradiction

Use a repertoire of causal and logical connectives as well as those that signal time

Purpose & organisation

Refine own writing and evaluate work

Review and edit writing to produce final form, matched to the needs of an identified reader

Map text structures and lines of development

Y5:1/T14 to map out texts showing development and structure, e.g. its high and low points, the links between sections, paragraphs, chapters Y5:1/T15 to write new scenes or characters into a story, in the manner of the writer, maintaining consistency of character and style, using paragraphs to organise and develop detail

Y5:1/T13 to record ideas, reflections and predictions about a book, e.g. through a reading log or journal

Process: as for Year 4 and

Log ideas for writing in a journal

Term 1

Y5:2/T12 to use the structures of poems read to write extensions based on these, e.g. additional verses, or substituting own words and ideas

Y5:2/T13 to review and edit writing to produce a final form, matched to the needs of an identified reader Y5:2/T11 to write own versions of legends, myths and fables, using structures and themes identified in reading

Term 2

Narrative Imagine and explore feelings and ideas: sequence/structure, setting, character, theme; plan, draft, present

Year 5

Year & Targets

Y5:3/T10 to write discursively about a novel or story, e.g. to describe, explain, or comment on it

Y5:3/T11 to use performance poems as models to write and to produce poetry in polished forms through revising, redrafting and presentation

Y5:3/T7 to write from another character’s point of view Y5:3/T9 to write in the style of the author, e.g. writing on to complete a section, resolve a conflict; writing additional dialogue, new chapter

Y5:3/T8 to record predictions, questions, reflections while reading, e.g. through the use of a reading journal

Term 3

Other features: Uses grammatical written sentences Increasingly uses writing as a means of reflection on novels, stories, plays and poems Usually chooses an appropriate style for writing purpose and readership Begins to use implication to suggest character, mood, theme in writing Comments thoughtfully on own and others’ writing, suggesting improvements Continues to want to write to express personal meaning

• uses known layout to write dialogue and playscripts • with guidance, notes features of playscripts which indicate performance features • begins to comment on the possibilities of scripts for dramatic impact

• redrafts and practises poetry for performance • writes own poetry showing awareness of language effects, and prepares it for performance • writes in varied poetic forms/styles

• in shared/guided writing, maps development of known story • with help, begins to use knowledge of story structure and theme to write own versions of known stories • with guidance, emulates the style of a known writer

• begins to note responses to texts in reading journal • notes predictions of events based on reading experience • begins to use reading journal to generate questions about reading

An experienced and often independent writer:

Progress descriptors secure Level 3 to mid and secure Level 4

58

Y6:1/T10 to write own poems experimenting with active verbs and personification; produce revised poems for reading aloud individually

Y6:1/T7 to plan quickly and effectively the plot, characters and structure of their own narrative writing Y6:1/T6 to manipulate narrative perspective by: • writing in the voice and style of a text; producing a modern retelling; • writing a story with two different narrators Y6:1/T9 to prepare a short section of a story as a script, e.g. using stage directions, location/setting

Y6:1/T8 to summarise a passage, chapter or text in a specified number of words

Term 1

Y6:2/T10 to use different genres as models to write, e.g. short extracts, sequels, additional episodes, alternative endings, using appropriate conventions, language Y6:2/T11 to write own story using, e.g. flashbacks or a story within a story to convey the passing of time Y6:2/T12 to study in depth one genre and produce an extended piece of similar writing, e.g. for inclusion in a class anthology; to plan, revise, re-draft this and bring to presentational standard, e.g. layout, paragraphing, accuracy of punctuation and spelling, handwriting/printing Y6:2/T13 parody a literary text, describing stock characters and plot structure, language etc.

Term 2 Y6:2/T14 to write commentaries or summaries crediting views expressed by using expressions such as ‘The writer says that. . .’

Narrative Imagine and explore feelings and ideas: sequence/structure, setting, character, theme; plan, draft, present

Figure 4.10 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 6

Create characters with some significant interaction between them, through direct or reported speech, building characterisation through action, description and characters’ responses

Write with appropriate pace

Use a range of connecting words and phrases appropriately in different text types

Use pronouns and tenses accurately to establish textual cohesion and to avoid ambiguity

Purpose & organisation

Discuss and select appropriate style and form to suit specific purpose and audience, drawing on knowledge of different texts

Use IT to plan, revise and edit writing for publication

Polish own poetry for performance

Plan quickly and effectively, including the conclusion

Process as for Year 5 and

Year 6

Year & Targets

Y6:3/T13 to write a sequence of poems linked by theme or form, e.g. a haiku calendar Y6:3/T14 to write an extended story, worked on over time on a theme identified in reading

Y6:3/T9 to write summaries of books, deciding on priorities relevant to purpose Y6:3/T10 to write a brief synopsis of a text, e.g. for back cover blurb Y6:3/T11 to write a brief, helpful review tailored for real audiences Y6:3/T12 to compare texts in writing drawing out: their different styles and preoccupations; their strengths and weaknesses; their different values and appeal to a reader

Term 3 Y6:3/T7 to annotate passages in detail in response to specific questions Y6:3/T8 to use a reading journal effectively to raise and refine personal responses to a text and prepare for discussion

Other features: Consistently comments on style and language features in own and other writing Writes in a variety of forms, showing thought and imagination Experiments with grammatical forms for own purposes Creates credible characters in narrative and playscripts Chooses when to collaborate and when to work independently on writing Independently drafts, edits and proofreads Consistently writes with audience in mind

• writes own poetry showing awareness of language effects, and prepares it for performance • writes in varied poetic forms/styles • experiments with language, sound, shape, rhythm and rhyme

• uses knowledge of story structure and theme to write own versions of known stories • emulates the style and genre features of a known writer, • attempts a parody of a known text, using elements of character, structure and language

• writes useful personal notes based on reading • with guidance, summarises a passage in a specified number of words • independently summarises a passage or story including all essential elements in a given length

An assured, experienced and independent writer: • notes predictions of events based on reading experience • begins to use reading journal to generate questions about reading • compares different texts read, noting personal responses

Progress descriptors Level 4 and the beginnings of Level 5

59

• uses structure, language and events to engage the reader • develops plot with clear events and resolution • finds different ways to resolve the complication created in plot

5 structure a story with an arresting opening, a developing plot, a complication, a crisis and a satisfying resolution

• writes in varied poetic forms/styles • experiments with language: sound, shape and figurative language • represents ideas in different poetic forms and styles

8 experiment with the visual and sound effects of language, including the use of imagery, alliteration, rhythm and rhyme

Other features: Wants to write to express personal meaning Makes language and genre choices in own writing, using a more formal style where appropriate Uses collaboration and response to further own writing Sets achievable targets for presentation, adapting handwriting to a range of tasks Writes in grammatically correct sentences Has established strategies for correcting spelling and punctuation

• varies sequencing to unfold a narrative • begins to use implication and allusion to draw a reader into the narrative • uses different narrative devices to gain and hold the reader’s attention

6 portray character directly and indirectly, through description, dialogue and action 7 use a range of narrative devices to involve the reader, e.g. withholding information

• shows awareness of different aspects of character, using language to evoke sympathy or dislike • begins to use implication to suggest character, mood, theme in narrative. • with guidance uses action, direct description or dialogue and indirect suggestion to show character and motivation

• comments thoughtfully on own and others’ writing • uses reflective writing to note personal ideas • explores ideas through reflection and mapping

Figure 4.11 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 7

Use a range of punctuation correctly to signal beginnings and ends of sentences and developing punctuation within more complex sentences

Spell key words correctly.

Write grammatically correct sentences, using more complex sentences to extend meaning

Use writing to help learning and memory

4 review the legibility and neatness of own handwriting and set personal targets to improve presentation, using a range of presentational devices, on paper and on screen

• uses notes, charts, other planning devices to gather ideas • with guidance decides on suitable planning device for purpose • independently selects method of gathering and organising ideas

2 collect, select and assemble ideas in a suitable planning format, e.g. flow chart, list, star chart 3 use writing to explore and develop ideas, e.g. journals . . . mental mapping activities

Sustain, link and develop ideas in writing

• comments on style and language features in own and other writing. • independently drafts, edits and proofreads • revises structure of text with purpose and readership in mind

1 plan, draft, edit, revise, proofread and present a text with readers and purpose in mind

Independently, write in a variety of organised, continuous texts appropriate to purpose

Progress descriptors Consolidating Level 4 and increasingly secure Level 5

An assured, experienced and independent writer:

Narrative Plan, draft & present; imagine, explore, entertain: sequence/structure, setting, character, theme

Year 7

Year & Targets

60 • experiments with language to imply meaning or convey character • uses language to establish sense of setting, character, or mood • selects figurative language where appropriate to establish tone of piece • engages/entertains the reader by attempting different treatment of familiar material • represents familiar material in inventive form • develops imaginative or unusual treatment of familiar material or convention • experiments with language in a variety of poetic and narrative forms • uses model of poetic form to represent own ideas • presents similar material in different forms or styles

6 experiment with figurative language in conveying a sense of character and setting 7 experiment with different language choices to imply meaning and to establish the tone of a piece, e.g. ironic, indignant

8 develop an imaginative or unusual treatment of familiar material or established conventions, e.g. updating traditional tales

9 experiment with presenting similar material in different forms and styles of poetry

Other features: Comments on own style, beginning to recognise own strengths and characteristics as a writer Draws on a range of strategies to reach accuracy Conveys own meanings with effect Shows continuing engagement with writing, and some satisfaction from tackling demanding tasks Is developing a fluent, legible handwriting style which can be maintained over time Uses a range of punctuation correctly in complex sentences

• attempts writing from different narrative perspectives • begins to show distinctions between commentary and description in narrative • differentiates between description and author’s commentary in narrative

5 develop the use of commentary and description in narrative, e.g. by addressing the reader directly

Figure 4.12 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 8

Use a range of punctuation correctly, to help the reader understand longer, more complex sentences

• explores ideas through reflection and mapping • records developing ideas to help reflection and problem solving • uses extended writing to record and develop ideas

• revises structure of text with readership in mind • revises style, structure and accuracy anticipating the effect on the reader • comments on own style, beginning to recognise own strengths and characteristics as a writer.

2 re-read work to anticipate the effect on the reader and revise style and structure, as well as accuracy, with this in mind 3 use writing to aid reflection and problem solving by recording ideas as they develop 4 develop a fluent, legible handwriting style which can be maintained under time pressure

Link ideas within sentences in more complex ways to show relationships between them, and also to qualify ideas and suggest shades of meaning

• uses varied methods of gathering and organising ideas • usually selects appropriate approach to planning and drafting according to task • consistently chooses suitable method of planning for purpose

1 experiment with different approaches to planning, drafting, proofreading and presenting writing

Independently, write coherent, well-organised texts in continuous prose for different purposes

Progress descriptors Consolidating Level 5, and increasingly secure Level 6

An assured, experienced, independent and increasingly versatile writer:

Narrative Plan, draft & present; imagine, explore, entertain: sequence/structure, setting, character, theme

Year 8

Year & Targets

61

• writes non-literary texts to convey information in an entertaining or amusing way • experiments with figurative language and varied sentence structure to inform and entertain • develops inventive and imaginative use of language in composing non-literary texts • presents similar material in different forms or styles • attempts writing in different poetic forms noticing how form contributes to meaning • chooses to write poetry in a range of forms to express own meanings

6 exploit the creative and aesthetic features of language in nonliterary texts, e.g. the use of figurative language or the cadence of sentences 7 explore how non-fiction texts can convey information or ideas in amusing or entertaining ways

8 write within the discipline of different poetic forms, exploring how form contributes to meaning, e.g. different types of sonnet

Other features: Writes playscripts developing character through dialogue and action Has a clear view of writing for a recognised readership and how to adapt writing accordingly Uses audience response to shape writing Uses the full range of punctuation for effect Can write fluently and legibly at speed Carries out writing in standard English to finished form within set time limits

• evaluates the impact on the reader of different openings, events and resolutions • explores different structures and perspectives in writing narratives • successfully experiments with different narrative perspectives

5 explore different ways of opening, structuring and ending narratives and experiment with narrative perspective, e.g. multiple narration

Figure 4.13 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Narrative – Year 9

Use the full range of punctuation for clarity and emphasis

Understand and use different aspects of formality (abstract nouns, passive voice) and how to convey objectivity

• chooses from a range of presentational techniques, on paper and on screen • evaluates own use of presentational devices, on paper and on screen • experiments with innovative presentational devices on paper and on screen

• uses extended writing to record and develop ideas • records, develops and evaluates ideas and meanings in extended writing • writes essays which develop, analyse and evaluate ideas

2 record, develop and evaluate ideas and meanings through writing, e.g. essays, journals 3 produce formal essays in standard English within a specified time, writing fluently and legibly and maintaining technical accuracy when writing at speed 4 choose, use and evaluate a range of presentational devices, on paper and on screen

Use variety and subtlety in constructing sentences and structure writing in paragraphs

• comments on own style, beginning to recognise own strengths and characteristics as a writer • reviews own writing to improve style and identify skills which need improvement • analyses own ability to write for a range of purposes and audiences, noting strengths and areas for future attention

1 review their ability to write for a range of purposes and audiences, recognising strengths and identifying skills for further development

Write extended texts for different purposes in a variety of forms

Progress descriptors Consolidating and moving beyond Level 6

An assured, experienced, versatile and independent writer:

Narrative Plan, draft & present; imagine, explore, entertain: sequence/structure, setting, character, theme

Year 9

Year & Targets

62

SS p 64 attempt writing for different purposes using features of different forms such as lists . . . and instructions R/T15 to use writing to communicate in a variety of ways, incorporating it into play and everyday classroom life, e.g. recounting their own experiences

Figure 4.14 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Foundation

Invest writing with meaning

Begin to write simple narratives and recounts

Retell a narrative or a recount

Write simple labels, captions and sentences

Reception Targets

Write their own names and other things such as labels and captions (SS)

Other features Chooses to write in non-fiction forms in writing area Knows that non-fiction texts have different purposes from fiction Represents information pictorially in sequence Uses a variety of means, methods and media in communicating information

• knows the difference between different kinds of text – e.g. captions, letters and cards to people, • uses emerging writing/drawing for different kinds of texts – e.g. captions for photographs, lists, messages • spontaneously uses different forms of (emerging) writing in role play e.g. menus, memos, phone messages

• draws and makes deliberate marks, sometimes giving meaning to markmaking • gives meaning to own emerging marks/writing • uses (emerging) writing to record and communicate

SS p 64 begin to form simple sentences, sometimes using punctuation R/T12 through guided and independent writing: to write their own names; to write labels or captions for pictures and drawings

Use writing as a means of recording and communicating (SS)

Progress descriptors W – the beginnings of level 1 A writer in the early stages of learning:

Non-fiction to organise and explain information

Foundation

Year & Targets

63

Y1:3/T22 to write own questions prior to reading for information and to record answers

Y1:2/T23 to produce extended captions, e.g. to explain paintings in wall displays

Y1:2/T24 to write simple questions

Y1:1/T14 to write captions for their own work, e.g. for display, in class books

Figure 4.15 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 1

Write simple instructions in correct order

Y1:3/T21 to use the language and features of non-fiction texts

Y1:2/T25 to assemble information from own experience . . . to write simple non-chronological reports; and to organise in lists, separate pages, charts

Y1:3/T20 to write simple recounts linked to topics of interest/ study or to personal experience, using the language of texts read as models for own writing . . .

Term 3

Y1:1/T15 to make simple lists for planning, reminding, etc.

Y1:2/T22 to write labels for drawings and diagrams, e.g. growing beans, parts of the body

Y1:1/T16 to write and draw simple instructions and labels for everyday classroom use, e.g. in role play area, for equipment

Label information appropriately

Write a recount or a narrative. Begin to break up the series of events with connectives other than and

Term 2

Term 1

Non-fiction to organise and explain information

Year 1

Year & Targets

Other features Initiates discussion about topics of own interest Chooses to write and draw information text for own satisfaction Knows the difference between communicating meaning through diagrams/pictures and words

• with support, writes simple, ordered instructions • writes simple instructions independently • with guidance, writes sequenced instructions using diagrams

• with support, makes up questions when talking about topics • after spoken practice, writes simple questions • with guidance, writes simple questions before starting on a topic

• writes captions for single pictures/photographs • with support, writes extended captions, e.g. explanations for displays • using known text as a model, writes brief explanations in own texts

• with direction, gathers information from own experience or topics studied in lists • writes simple recounts (emergent) of own experience, using more connectives than ‘and’ • writes simple recounts of topics studied and personal experience using varying connectives

• with direction, writes labels for objects in the classroom • with guidance, writes labels for specific parts of a drawing/diagram • labels information in own texts

A writer who is gaining experience and fluency

Progress descriptors level 1 to mid level 2

64

Y2:1/T15 to write simple instructions, e.g. getting to school, playing a game Y2:1/T16 to use models from reading to organise instructions sequentially Y2:1/T18 to use appropriate register in writing instructions, i.e. direct, impersonal Y2:1/T17 to use diagrams in instructions

Begin to show some characteristics of chosen form e.g. write non-chronological reports based on structure of known texts

Figure 4.16 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 2

Term 1

Non-fiction to organise and explain information

Year 2

Year & Targets

Y2:2/T20 to make class dictionaries and glossaries of special interest words, giving explanations and definitions

2:2/T21 to produce simple flow charts or diagrams that explain a process.

Term 2

• with guidance, writes simple report of group experience based on model of known text • writes longer report of experience, showing features of known nonchronological reports • after modelling, independently produces organised report divided into sections/paragraphs Y2:3/T21 to write nonchronological reports based on structure of known texts

Other features Chooses particular form of non-fiction text for own purposes. Communicates meaning in non-narrative form, showing some awareness of the reader. Can express own ideas in sequence. Uses a range of connectives for different kinds of non-chronological writing. Is increasing the range of specific vocabulary for non-fiction topics.

• after modelling, changes sentences into notes • with guidance, notes information from texts read • finds and notes information from familiar text

• with guidance, gives explanations of words used in e.g. science/topic work • writes own explanations of words used in non-fiction writing • writes glossary of special interest words in own text

An increasingly assured writer, growing in experience: • with guidance, writes sequenced instructions using diagrams • uses models from reading to write instructions independently, including diagrams/charts • writes accurate well-sequenced instructions with appropriate diagrams/flowcharts

Y2:3/T19 to make simple notes from non-fiction texts Y2:3/T20 to write non-fiction texts, using texts read as models for own writing

Term 3

Progress descriptors mid-and secure level 2 and the beginnings of level 3

65

Figure 4.17 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 3

Use language and structures from different text types for own writing Y3:2/T16 to write instructions, e.g. rules for playing games, recipes, using a range of organisational devices e.g. lists, dashes, commas for lists in sentences, recognising the importance of correct sequence.

Y3:2/T17 to make clear notes, through discussing the purpose of note-making and looking at simple examples

Y3:1/T 21 to make a simple record of information from texts Y3:1/T22 to write simple nonchronological reports from known information

Sequence sentences to extend ideas logically

Begin using basic structure, e.g. introductory and concluding statements in nonchronological reports

Term 2

Term 1

• with guidance, writes letters to identified readers • after modelling, writes letter set out in appropriate form and with appropriate vocabulary and style • independently writes letters selecting style for different readers

Other features: Uses layout possibilities of IT to work on and publish non-fiction texts Can make alphabetically ordered texts Uses language and structures from different text types for own writing Varies form and style of writing to recount the same event in different ways Y3:3/T21 use IT to bring to a published form – discuss relevance of layout, font, etc. to audience Y3:3/T22 experiment with recounting the same event in a variety of ways Y3:3/T24 to make alphabetically ordered texts

• uses models from reading to write instructions independently, including diagrams/charts • writes accurate well-sequenced instructions with appropriate diagrams/flowcharts • uses a range of organisational devices and diagrammatic text for presenting sequenced information

• with guidance, notes information from texts read • finds and notes information from familiar text • summarises longer passages of familiar text

An increasingly experienced and assured writer: • writes longer report of experience, showing features of known nonchronological reports • after modelling, produces organised report divided into sections/paragraphs • independently writes non-chronological report (at own level of experience) using information from texts read

Progress descriptors secure level 2 to mid level 3

Y3:3/T20 to write letters, notes and messages linked to work in other subjects, to communicate within school; letters to authors about books, selecting style and vocabulary appropriate to the intended reader Y3:3/T23 to organise letters into simple paragraphs

Y3:3/T25 to revise and extend work on note-making from previous term Y3:3/T26 to summarise in writing the content and main point of a passage or text

Term 3

Non-fiction to inform and explain, to persuade, to review and comment, to use writing to help thinking, investigating, organising and learning

Year 3

Year & Targets

66

Y4:1/T27 to write a non chronological report, including the use of organisational devices, e.g. numbered lists, headings for conciseness by: generalising some of the details; deleting the least important details Y4:1/T25 to write clear instructions using conventions learned from reading Y4:1/T26 to improve the cohesion of written instructions and directions through the use of link phrases and organisational devices such as sub-headings and numbering

Y4:1/T24 to write newspaper style reports . . . including: composing headlines; using IT to draft and lay out reports; editing stories to fit a particular space; organising writing into paragraphs;

Term 1

Y4:2/T24 to improve the cohesion of written explanations Y4:2/T25 to write explanations of a process, using conventions identified through reading.

Y4:2/T14 notemaking: to edit down a sentence or passage by deleting the less important elements Y4:2/T21 to make short notes, e.g. by abbreviating ideas, selecting key words, listing or in diagrammatic form Y4:2/T22 to fill out brief notes into connected prose Y4:2/T 23 to collect information from a variety of sources and present it in one simple format

Term 2

Y4:3/T25 to design an advertisement making use of linguistic and other features learnt from reading examples

Y4:3/T24 to summarise in writing the key ideas from, e.g. a paragraph or chapter

Y4:3/T21 to assemble and sequence points in order to plan the presentation of a point of view, e.g. on hunting, school rules Y4:3/T22 to use writing frames if necessary to back up points of view with illustrations and examples 4:3/T23 to present a point of view in writing, e.g. in the form of a letter, a report or a script, linking points persuasively and selecting style and vocabulary appropriate to the reader

Term 3

Non-fiction to inform and explain, to persuade, to review and comment, to use writing to help thinking, investigating, organising and learning

Figure 4.18 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 4

Use different ways to plan writing: e.g. notes diagrams

Use basic features of text types, such as introductory statements followed by clear points leading to a conclusion

Year 4

Year & Targets

Other features Draws on models of reading for own writing uses IT to draft and lay out text to fit space Can select specific style for different readers sequences sentences to extend ideas logically Describes how writing is organised Enjoys playing with language for persuasive effect

• uses a range of organisational devices and diagrammatic text for presenting sequenced information, instructions or explanations • with guidance, improves cohesion of written instructions/explanations using known range of organisational devices • independently improves the cohesion of written instructions/explanations using familiar organisational devices

• summarises longer passages of familiar text • after modelling, makes short notes, selecting key points from unfamiliar passage • with support, summarises key ideas from unfamiliar text

• independently writes non-chronological reports using information from texts read • selects and orders information into paragraphs in reports • presents personal point of view in an ordered way

an increasingly experienced and almost independent writer:

Progress descriptors secure level 3 to the beginnings of level 4

67

Y5:2/T21 to convert personal notes into notes for others to read, paying attention to appropriateness of style, vocabulary and presentation

Y5:1/T26 to make notes for different purposes, e.g. noting key points as a record of what has been read, listing cues for a talk, and to build on these notes in their own writing or speaking Y5:1/T27 to use simple abbreviations in note-taking. Y5:2/T23 to record and acknowledge sources in their own writing Y5:2/T24 to evaluate work

Y5:2/T22 to plan, compose, edit and refine short nonchronological reports and explanatory texts, using reading as a source, focusing on clarity, conciseness, and impersonal style

Term 2

Y5:1/T25 to write instructional texts, and test them out

Y5:1/T24 to write recounts based on subject, topic or personal experiences for (a) a close friend and (b) an unknown reader

Term 1

Y5:3/T19 to construct an argument in note form or full text to persuade others of a point of view and: present the case to the class or a group; evaluate its effectiveness

Y5:3/T17 to draft and write individual, group or class letters for real purposes . . . to edit and present to finished state Y5:3/T18 to write a commentary on an issue on paper or screen . . . setting out and justifying a personal view; to use structures from reading to set out and link points

Term 3

Non-fiction to inform and explain, to persuade, to review and comment, to use writing to help thinking, investigating, organising and learning

Figure 4.19 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 5

Draw writing towards a defined conclusion

Adapt writing to be concise and clear, and use an impersonal style

Apply features of non-fiction text-types for use in other curriculum subjects

Elaborate the basic structures of text types in order to make writing more effective in relation to audience and purpose

Year 5

Year & Targets

Other features Uses and acknowledges sources in own writing Draws on some features of non-fiction texts in writing in other areas of the curriculum Selects impersonal/personal tone according to purpose and readership Can evaluate own writing for its effects on readers

• with support, summarises key ideas from unfamiliar text • uses personal notes to compose text for others to read • with guidance, composes text from notes, paying attention to style

• improves the cohesion of written instructions/explanations using familiar organisational devices • with support, can plan, compose and edit reports/explanations modelled on known text • after modelling, writes clear and concise non-chronological texts

• presents a personal point of view in an ordered way • presents personal point of view for known and unknown readers • justifies own views in writing

an experienced and often independent writer:

Progress descriptors beginning, mid and increasingly secure level 4

68

Y6:1/T18 to use IT to plan, revise, edit writing to improve accuracy and conciseness and to bring it to publication standard, e.g. through compiling a class newspaper, paying attention to accuracy, layout and presentation

Y6:1/T17 to write nonchronological reports linked to other subjects

Figure 4.20 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 6

Keep writing lively, to interest, inform or persuade the reader through, for example, providing persuasive reasons with examples

Use the range of different types of connectives to write coherently

Relate events logically so that writing is coherent and provides good coverage of the main topic Y6:2/T19 to write a balanced report of a controversial issue: summarising fairly the competing views; analysing strengths and weaknesses of different positions

Y6:2/T18 to construct effective arguments: • developing a point logically and effectively; • supporting and illustrating points persuasively; • anticipating possible objections; • harnessing the known views, interests and feelings of the audience; • tailoring the writing to formal presentation where appropriate

Y6:1/T14 to develop the skills of biographical and autobiographical writing in role, adopting distinctive voices Y6:1/T15 to develop a journalistic style through considering: balanced and ethical reporting; what is of public interest in events; the interest of the reader; selection and presentation of information Y6:1/T16 to use the styles and conventions of journalism to report on e.g. real or imagined events

Write appropriately, including relevant introduction and clear presentation of information or points which lead to a welldrawn conclusion, often relating the subject to the reader

Use paragraphs to distinguish the structure of different texts

Term 2

Term 1

Y6:3/T20 to secure control of impersonal writing, particularly the sustained use of the present tense and the passive voice Y6:3/T21 to divide whole texts into paragraphs, paying attention to the sequence of paragraphs and to the links between one paragraph and the next, e.g. through the choice of appropriate connectives Y6:3/T22 to select the appropriate style and form to suit a specific purpose and audience, drawing on knowledge of different non-fiction text types

Term 3

Non-fiction Inform, explain, describe, persuade, argue, advise, analyse, review comment, research and study skills

Year 6

Year & Targets

Other features Uses paragraphs and layout features to distinguish the structure of different texts Can use ICT for all stages of the writing process Can select different non-fiction styles of writing to suit specific purposes and readers Writes in a range of forms and formats Can work well with established partner or group Drafts and redrafts independently. Comments on own writing, noting areas of strength and weakness

• uses personal notes to compose text for others to read • with guidance, composes text from notes, paying attention to style • constructs a coherent non-fiction text clearly using diagram/ illustration

• with support, can plan, compose and edit reports/explanations modelled on known text • after modelling, writes clear and concise non-chronological texts • writes reports which take account of different views

• justifies own views in writing • after demonstration, can write argument supporting points made • writes in a lively way, to persuade the reader by providing examples/reasons

An experienced and independent writer:

Progress descriptors Level 4 and the beginnings of Level 5

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• after demonstration, uses persuasive emphasis in presenting personal view • writes to persuade the reader by providing examples/reasons • writes views persuasively, using supporting evidence and anticipating the views of the intended reader • writes reports balancing two opposing sets of ideas • after demonstration, writes account evaluating different views • writes balanced analytical review, taking account of the needs of a reader

15 express a personal view, adding persuasive emphasis to key points, e.g. by reiteration, exaggeration, repetition, use of rhetorical questions 16 find and use different ways to validate an argument e.g. statistical evidence, exemplification, testimony

17 write informal advice, anticipating the needs, interests and views of the intended reader, e.g. how to make the most of an opportunity 18 identify criteria for evaluating a particular situation, object or event, present findings fairly and give a personal view 19 write reflectively about a text, taking account of the needs of others who might read it

Other features Can use a variety of applications of ICT to present non-fiction texts, e.g. databases and graphics Chooses form and format to suit presentational needs of task Independently organises writing Works collaboratively with partner

• writes sequenced instructions or directions including detail to help the reader • includes relevant descriptive detail in writing instructions or directions • uses specific, clear and relevant descriptive detail in writing instructions or directions

13 give instructions and direction which are specific, easy to follow and clearly sequenced 14 describe an object, person or setting in a way that includes relevant details and is accurate and evocative

Figure 4.21 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 7

Work independently and collaboratively.

• writes clear and concise non-chronological texts, including relevant detail • constructs coherent non-fiction text, using diagram/illustration • takes account of reader when informing, explaining and presenting ideas/information

10 organise texts in ways appropriate to their content e.g. by chronology, priority, comparison, and signpost this clearly to the reader 11 select and present information using detail, example, diagram and illustration as appropriate 12 develop ideas and lines of thinking in continuous text and explain a process logically, highlighting the links between cause and effect

Write appropriately for subject and purpose, such as information, explanation, description etc.

Progress descriptors Consolidating Level 4 and increasingly secure Level 5 An assured, experienced and independent writer:

Non-fiction Inform, explain, describe, persuade, argue advise, analyse, review comment

Year 7

Year & Targets

70 • writes a balanced analytical review, taking account of the needs of a reader • uses varied supportive evidence in presenting an analytical review • writes analytical review of a text, setting it in the context in which it was written

16 weigh different viewpoints and present a balanced analysis of an event or issue, e.g.an environmental issue or historical investigation 17 integrate evidence into writing to support analysis or conclusions, e.g. data, quotation 18 write a critical review of a substantial text, taking account of the context in which it was written and the likely impact on its intended readers

Figure 4.22 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 8

• writes views persuasively, using supporting evidence and anticipating the views of the intended reader • defends a personal view, taking account of consequences • presents advice offering alternatives and anticipating reader’s point of view

13 present a case persuasively, making selective use of evidence, using appropriate rhetorical devices and anticipating responses and objections 14 develop and signpost arguments in ways that make the logic clear to the reader; defend a personal view, using appropriate rhetorical devices 15 give written advice which offers alternatives and takes account of the possible consequences, e.g. money management for young people

Use key subject terms accurately and represent concepts in writing.

Other features Chooses appropriate form for writing non-fiction texts Uses given criteria to evaluate own writing Works harmoniously with different partners/groups over writing Varies tone of writing according to readership and purpose of text Expresses concepts clearly in writing

• takes account of reader when informing, explaining, describing and presenting ideas/information • after demonstration, synthesises different material, giving clear explanation • gives clear explanation of complex ideas, using appropriate level of formality

10 organise and present information selecting and sythesising appropriate material and guiding the reader clearly through the text, e.g. a technological process, an information leaflet 11 explain complex ideas and information clearly, e.g. defining principles, explaining a scientific process 12 describe an event, process or situation, using language with an appropriate degree of formality, e.g. a school prospectus;

Write coherent, well-organised texts such as explanation, report and persuasion

Progress descriptors Consolidating Level 5 and increasingly secure Level 6 An assured, experienced, independent and increasingly versatile writer:

Non-fiction Inform, explain, describe, persuade, argue advise, analyse, review comment

Year 8

Year & Targets

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• uses detailed textual evidence to justify opinions • writes analytical review taking account of different evidence • presents a balanced analysis, supported by specific and relevant textual evidence

16 present a balanced analysis of a situation, text, issue or set of ideas, taking into account a range of evidence and opinions 17 cite specific and relevant textual evidence to justify critical judgements about texts

Figure 4.23 Targets and Progress Descriptors for Non-fiction – Year 9

• presents different points of view when writing reports or giving advice • identifies weaknesses in arguments, presenting alternative view • adopts impersonal style appropriately in writing opinion, argument or guidance

13 present a case persuasively enough to gain the attention, and influence the responses of a specified group of readers 14 make a counter-argument to a view that has been expressed, addressing weaknesses in the argument and offering alternatives 15 offer general advice, or guidelines for action, adopting an impersonal style to suggest impartiality and authority

Write closely argued text, making precise links and connections

Other features Consistently takes account of audience when presenting ideas, information or opinion Adapts text structure for different forms Exploits the potential of presentational devices when presenting information on paper or on screen Chooses appropriate and varied style in a range of non-fiction forms Critically analyses own non-fiction text.

• gives clear explanations of complex ideas using appropriate level of formality • integrates a range of information into explanations or accounts • uses formal and descriptive language appropriately in writing coherent accounts

9 integrate diverse information into a coherent account 10 explain the precise connections between ideas with clarity and an appropriate degree of formality 11 make telling use of descriptive detail, e.g. eye-witness accounts, sports reports, travel writing 12 exploit the potential of presentational devices when presenting information on paper or on screen

Adapt writing, using language appropriately for analysis, review and argument

Progress descriptors Consolidating and moving beyond Level 6 An assured, experienced, versatile and independent writer:

Non-fiction Inform, explain, describe, persuade, argue advise, analyse, review comment

Year 9

Year & Targets

Assessment Record of Progress in Writing In narrative writing and poetry • links events together when telling or re-telling stories • anticipates known patterns of familiar stories • uses invented symbols to express ideas in print • uses single letters/groups of letters to represent meaningful words/phrases • retells a heard/read story • talks about own writing, indicating significant parts In non-fiction writing: • draws and makes deliberate marks, sometimes giving meaning to mark-making • knows the difference between different kinds of text – e.g. captions, letters and cards to people, • chooses to write in non-fiction forms in writing area • knows that non-fiction texts have different purposes from fiction • represents information pictorially in sequence • uses a variety of means, methods and media in communicating information In narrative writing and poetry • spells familiar simple words with help • recognises language play and the use of punctuation • uses known poems to shape own writing • writes stories with sequences of events based on known stories • makes simple books showing knowledge of text conventions • enjoys playing with language • plays in role for sustained periods • joins in with stories, knowing how they end • knows about direction and orientation of writing and attempts recognisable letters • communicates meaning through simple words and phrases • writes [emergent] own story based on experience but needs teacher or other adult as scribe • is keen to write and will experiment • knows about writing for an audience

Approximate level

W – beginnings of Level 1

Mid Level 1

In non-fiction writing: • gives meaning to own emerging marks/writing • uses emerging writing/drawing for different kinds of texts – e.g. captions for photographs, lists, messages • with direction, writes labels for objects in the classroom • with direction, gathers information from own experience or topics studied in lists • writes captions for single pictures/photographs • with support, writes simple ordered instructions • with support, makes up questions when talking about topics • initiates discussion about topics of own interest In narrative writing and poetry • often spells simple monosyllabic words correctly without help • varies chosen vocabulary and punctuation • uses writing in play and role play • uses words and pictures to compose [emergent] stories with recognisable ending • shapes letters clearly • constructs a simple sentence and attempts some punctuation • writes own stories [emergent] independently • builds on familiar patterns from reading in shared/guided writing • recognises how sequences are put together to make a story • uses ideas/characters from reading to make own stories • rehearses ideas before writing In non-fiction writing: • spontaneously uses different forms of [emerging] writing in role play e.g. menus, memos, phone messages • with guidance, writes labels for specific parts of a drawing/diagram • writes simple recounts[emergent] of own experience using more connectives than ‘and’ • writes simple, ordered instructions independently • with support, writes extended captions, e.g. explanations for displays • after spoken practice, writes simple questions • chooses to write information text for own satisfaction

Figure 4.24 Individual Records of Progress

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Secure Level 1

Assessment Record of Progress in Writing In narrative writing and poetry • spells simple words correctly and attempts phonetically plausible spelling • experiments with new vocabulary and different punctuation • chooses some elements of known language and story patterns in independent writing • re-tells episodes from known stories using different connectives • is beginning to write stories with a character/event, beginning, middle and end • writing communicates meaning beyond a simple statement • comments on own work orally and in writing • begins to vary writing according to readership/audience

Approximate level

Beginning Level 2

In non-fiction writing: • labels information in own texts • writes simple recounts of topics studied and of personal experiences varying connectives • using known text as a model, writes brief explanations in own texts • with guidance, writes simple questions before starting on a topic • with guidance, writes sequenced instructions using diagrams • knows the difference between communicating meaning through diagrams/pictures and words In narrative writing and poetry • spells familiar and key words correctly using phonics and word recognition • enjoys using newly discovered language for poetry • draws on known language and story patterns in independent writing • increasingly varies connectives in own writing and is more adventurous with sentence structure • writes stories with a character/event, beginning, middle and end • is beginning to comment independently on own and peers’ writing • gives detail to engage the reader

Mid Level 2

In non-fiction writing: • with guidance, writes sequenced instructions using diagrams • with guidance, gives explanations of words used in e.g. science/topic work • after modelling, changes sentences into notes • with guidance, writes simple report of group experience based on model of known text • chooses particular form of non-fiction text for own purposes • can express own ideas in sequence • communicates meaning in non-narrative form, showing some awareness of the reader In narrative writing and poetry • with support, applies a range of strategies in attempting spelling • from jottings, deliberately chooses words for own poems for variety and interest • generates ideas/jots before writing • uses language and story knowledge to create settings and character • uses time connectives to help structure story sequence • writes consistently in 3rd person when narrating events • drafts and redrafts with help • writing is lively and holds the reader’s interest Secure Level 2 In non-fiction writing: • uses models from reading to write instructions independently, including diagrams/charts • writes own explanations of words used in non-fiction writing • with guidance, notes information from texts read • with guidance, writes letters to identified readers • writes longer report of experience, showing features of known non-chronological reports • uses a range of connectives for different kinds of non-chronological writing • is increasing the range of specific vocabulary for non-fiction topics • uses layout possibilities of IT to work on and publish non-fiction texts

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Assessment Record of Progress in Writing In narrative writing and poetry • independently applies a range of strategies in attempting spelling • in shared/guided writing, can use sequenced plans • uses known poetic structures to write own poems independently, noticing the effects of the language • sustains 1st person written narrative, including dialogue • sustains stories, incorporating setting, character and dialogue • shows awareness of a reader’s needs in sequencing a story • reflects own reading in writing • can improve own writing and identify errors • writes to entertain a reader

Approximate level

Beginning Level 3

In non-fiction writing: • writes accurate well-sequenced instructions with appropriate diagrams/flowcharts • writes glossary of special interest words in own text • finds and notes information from familiar text • after modelling, independently produces organised report divided into sections/paragraphs • after modelling, writes letter set out in appropriate form and with appropriate vocabulary and style • can make alphabetically ordered texts • uses language and structures from different text types for own writing In narrative writing and poetry • independently applies a range of strategies in attempting spelling and spells more key words correctly • comments on and experiments with sound and visual effects in poetry • can use sequenced plans or notes to help shape writing • uses story text as evidence to write character portraits • uses paragraphs to organise narrative • sustains stories, incorporating setting and characterisation, using language choices to enhance the telling • adapts writing for different readers • wants to write to express personal meaning

Mid Level 3

In non-fiction writing: • independently writes non-chronological report using information from texts read • summarises longer passages of familiar text • uses a range of organisational devices and diagrammatic text for presenting sequenced information instructions or explanations • independently writes letters selecting style for different readers • varies form and style of writing to recount the same event in different ways • uses IT to draft and lay out text to fit space • draws on models of reading for own writing In narrative writing and poetry • works on poetry to refine form and expression • independently uses sequenced plans or notes to help map development of stories • begins to use chapters to organise narrative • in story writing, shows awareness of different aspects of character • uses known layout to write dialogue and playscripts • begins to note responses to texts in reading journal • uses grammatical written sentences • chooses to write to convey personal meaning • writing shows evidence of organisation, imagination and clarity In non-fiction writing: • selects and orders information into paragraphs in reports • after modelling, makes short notes, selecting key points from unfamiliar passage • with guidance, improves cohesion of written instructions/explanations using known range of organisational devices • sequences sentences to extend ideas logically • describes how writing is organised • uses and acknowledges sources in own writing • can select specific style for different readers

Figure 4.24 Individual Records of Progress (Cont.)

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Secure Level 3

Assessment Record of Progress in Writing In narrative writing and poetry • redrafts and practises poetry for performance • notes predictions of events based on reading experience • with guidance, notes features of playscripts which indicate performance features • in shared/guided writing, begins to plan separate chapters for stories • uses detail to write character sketches • with help, begins to use knowledge of story structure and theme to write own versions of known stories • in shared/guided writing, uses structure, language and event to entertain or amuse the reader • gains satisfaction from shaping writing for others to read • is becoming more selective about publishing and increasingly able to comment critically on own and others’ writing • increasingly uses writing as a means of reflection on novels, stories, plays and poems • collaborates with others over writing

Approximate level

Beginning Level 4

In non-fiction writing: • presents personal point of view in an ordered way • with support, summarises key ideas from unfamiliar text • uses and acknowledges sources in own writing • independently improves the cohesion of written instructions/explanations using familiar organisational devices • draws on some features of non-fiction texts in writing in other areas of the curriculum • can evaluate own persuasive writing for its effect on readers In narrative writing and poetry • writes own poetry showing awareness of language effects and prepares it for performance • writes useful personal notes based on reading • begins to use reading journal to generate questions about reading • with guidance, emulates the style of a known writer • with guidance, writes commentaries on texts read • with guidance, summarises a passage in a specified number of words • begins to comment on the possibilities of scripts for dramatic impact • sustains stories, incorporating setting and characterisation, choosing language to enhance the telling • uses knowledge of story structure and theme to write own versions of known stories • usually chooses an appropriate style for writing purpose and readership • begins to use implication to suggest character, mood, theme in writing

Mid Level 4

In non-fiction writing: • presents personal point of view for known and unknown readers • with support, can plan, compose and edit reports/ explanations modelled on known text • uses personal notes to compose text for others to read • draws on features of non-fiction texts in writing in other areas of the curriculum • selects impersonal/personal tone according to purpose and readership • works well with established partner/group In narrative writing and poetry • writes in varied poetic forms/styles • uses notes, charts, other planning devices to gather ideas • emulates the style and genre features of a known writer • writes commentaries on texts read • summarises a passage in a specified number of words • independently uses sequenced plans or notes to help shape events in stories • begins to use implication to suggest character, mood, theme in writing • comments on style and language features in own and other writing • varies sequencing to unfold a narrative • uses structure, language and event to engage the reader • writes in a variety of forms, showing thought and imagination • creates credible characters in narrative and playscripts • uses reflective writing to note personal responses to reading • chooses when to collaborate and when to work independently on writing • independently drafts, edits and proofreads

Secure Level 4

In non-fiction writing: • after demonstration, can write argument supporting points made • writes clear and concise non-chronological texts • can structure and relate events logically • uses paragraphs and layout features to distinguish the structure of different texts • can select different non-fiction styles of writing to suit specific purposes and readers • can use ICT for all stages of the writing process • comments on own writing, noting areas of strength and weakness

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Assessment Record of Progress in Writing In narrative writing and poetry • in poetry, experiments with language: shape and sound and figurative language • explores ideas through reflection and mapping • compares different texts read, noting personal responses • independently summarises a passage or story including all essential elements in a given length • attempts a parody of a known text, using elements of character, structure and language • develops plot with clear events and resolves the complication created in plot • begins to use implication to suggest character, mood, theme in writing • comments thoughtfully on own and others’ writing • makes language and genre choices in own writing, using a more formal style where appropriate • uses collaboration and response to further own writing • with guidance, chooses suitable planning device for purpose • independently revises and improves own writing • sets achievable targets for presentation

Approximate level

Beginning Level 5

In non-fiction writing: • writes in a lively way, to persuade the reader by providing examples/reasons • includes relevant descriptive detail in writing instructions or directions • writes reports which take account of different views • constructs a coherent non-fiction text, concluding ideas clearly using diagram/illustration • writes to persuade the reader by providing examples/ reasons • after demonstration, can write a balanced critical review • chooses form and format to suit presentational needs of task In narrative writing and poetry • represents ideas in different poetic forms and styles • uses varied methods of gathering and organising ideas • explores ideas though reflection and mapping • finds different ways to resolve the complication created in plot • attempts writing from different narrative perspectives • with guidance uses action, direct description or dialogue and indirect suggestion to show character and motivation • draws on models from texts to represent familiar material in a different form or style • experiments with language in a variety of forms • compares different forms and genres in own writing • revises structure of text with purpose and readership in mind • comments on own writing, noting development in style and structure • is developing a fluent, legible style when writing under pressure of time

Mid Level 5

In non-fiction writing: • takes account of reader when informing, explaining, describing and presenting ideas/information • uses specific, clear and relevant descriptive detail in writing instructions or directions • writes views persuasively, using supporting evidence and anticipating the views of the intended reader • writes a balanced analytical review, taking account of the needs of a reader • can use a variety of ICT to present non-fiction texts, e.g. databases and graphics • uses reader response to help guide revision of own text In narrative writing and poetry • uses model of poetic form to represent own ideas • usually selects appropriate approach to planning and drafting according to task • revises style, structure and accuracy anticipating the effect on the reader • records developing ideas to help reflection and problem solving • differentiates between description and author’s commentary in narrative • uses language to establish sense of setting, character or mood • engages/entertains the reader by attempting different treatment of familiar material • comments on own style, beginning to recognise own strengths and characteristics as a writer • shows continuing engagement with writing, and some satisfaction from tackling demanding tasks • chooses from a range of presentational techniques, on paper and on screen • is developing a fluent, legible handwriting style which can be maintained over time • writes in grammatically correct sentences • has established strategies for correcting spelling and punctuation In non-fiction writing: • uses reader response to help guide revision of own text • after demonstration, synthesises different material, giving clear explanation • defends a personal view, taking account of consequences • uses varied supportive evidence in presenting an analytical review • chooses appropriate form for non-fiction texts • works harmoniously with different partners/ groups over writing

Figure 4.24 Individual Records of Progress (Cont.) 76

Secure Level 5

Assessment Record of Progress in Writing In narrative writing and poetry • presents similar material in different poetic forms or styles • comments on own style, beginning to recognise own strengths and characteristics as a writer • uses extended writing to record and develop ideas • chooses from a range of presentational techniques, on paper and on screen • evaluates the impact on the reader of different openings, events and resolutions • writes non-literary texts to convey information in an entertaining or amusing way • draws on a range of strategies to reach accuracy • conveys own meanings with effect • has a clear view of writing for a recognised readership and how to adapt writing accordingly • writes fluently within set time limits • uses a range of punctuation correctly in complex sentences

Approximate level

Beginning Level 6

In non-fiction writing: • gives clear explanations of complex ideas, using appropriate levels of formality • presents advice, offering alternatives and anticipating the reader’s point of view • writes analytical review of a text, setting it in the context in which it was written • uses detailed textual evidence to justify opinions • uses given criteria to evaluate the process of own writing • varies tone of writing according to readership and purpose of text • expresses concepts clearly in writing In narrative writing and poetry • attempts writing in different poetic forms noticing how form contributes to meaning • reviews own writing to improve style and identify skills which need improvement • records, develops and evaluates ideas and meanings in extended writing • evaluates own use of presentational devices, on paper and on screen • explores different structures and perspectives in writing narratives • experiments with figurative language and varied sentence structure to inform and entertain • writes playscripts developing character through dialogue and action • uses audience response to shape writing • can write fluently and legibly at speed

Mid Level 6

In non-fiction writing: • integrates a range of information into explanations or accounts • identifies weaknesses in arguments, presenting alternative view • writes analytical review taking account of different evidence • consistently takes account of audience when presenting ideas, information and opinion • exploits the potential of presentational devices when writing on paper or on screen In narrative writing and poetry • chooses to write poetry in a range of forms to express own meanings • analyses own ability to write for a range of purposes and audiences, noting strengths and areas for future attention • writes essays which develop, analyse and evaluate ideas • experiments with innovative presentational devices on paper and on screen • successfully experiments with different narrative perspectives • develops inventive and imaginative use of language in composing non-literary texts • consistently writes with awareness of readership • carries out writing in standard English to finished form within set time limits • uses the full range of punctuation for effect

Secure Level 6 and beyond

In non-fiction writing: • uses formal and descriptive language appropriately in writing coherent accounts • adopts impersonal style appropriate when writing opinion or guidance • presents a balanced analysis, supported by specific and relevant textual evidence • chooses appropriate and varied style in a range of non-fiction forms • critically analyses own non-fiction text

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Assessment

Progress in writing Between targets and progress descriptors comes the essential process of teaching writing. Developing writing in the classroom usually means not only direct instruction or demonstration but a good deal of time spent reading and responding to writing. But just how does response promote progress in writing? This young writer, although clearly successful, did not find the feedback from her teachers particularly helpful: The marking at my primary school was not very helpful. The teachers wrote comments at the end like ‘Good’ or ‘see me’ or something like that. I used to get really annoyed when they wrote something like ‘good’ and left you wondering what ‘good’ really meant. . . . (Catherine, Year 7) The aim of any kind of response to classroom writing should be to help developing writers improve, even if they are achieving very well already. Every day, as teachers move around the classroom responding to writing they are activating a set of assumptions about what progress in writing means. Praise for a writer who has made a significant change in form, content or accuracy, is based on implicit ideas about what progress looks like. In other words, teachers have complex and established inner knowledge of writing development. Making that knowledge explicit often rests on what might count as evidence. When a previously reluctant writer rushes to the writing table and urgently writes, there is no doubt that this signals progress. Similarly, when an unadventurous writer begins to show signs of writing enthusiastically, that’s progress. But these are intangible and uncountable. Describing progress means providing the hard evidence of an end product as well as noting more assured writing behaviour. Evidence of progress is shown by increasing confidence in: • • • • • • • •

having something to write about; showing understanding of the needs of a reader; knowing how to organise texts; dealing with technical aspects and conventions; reading writing critically; the ability to tackle a variety of writing activities; using information drawn from other sources; making decisions about how, when and what to write.

This teacher reviewed his Year 7 marking and was surprised at what he found: During the first part of the term, I had a look at the work of one Year 7 group for the Unit of Work on Narrative and was struck by the fact that I’d marked spellings and punctuation – not always in any systematic way – and made ‘encouraging’ comments but didn’t say much about the meaning or the impact on the audience. For the next Unit of Work I made a conscious effort to link my marking and comments to the objectives and I made a point of identifying individual targets for improvement 78

linked to the objectives. It made more sense to me, and there did seem to be improvements in the writing, particularly of some individuals. (Peter Fifield)

Involving pupils in response It is possible, even with the most explicit sharing of criteria, for pupils still to depend on the teacher as the judge of good writing or, with younger children, the provider of correct spellings. Writers have to be given strategies to help them become more independent; they also need practice. Using response partners can be an effective way to involve pupils in their own learning as well as developing some independence. In the following case study, Jane Owen explains how she was initially looking at how talk supported her Year 7 class in their production of picture books. She felt that the pupils were not, in general, as independent in their working habits as she would like and in a six-week project deliberately set out to develop greater assurance in evaluating their work. She was aiming that they should write ‘fairly complex stories, which they will set with pictures and produce into books’. Her objectives included: • •

structure a story with an arresting opening, a developing plot, a complication, a crisis and a satisfying resolution; portray character, directly and indirectly, through description, dialogue and action. (Year 7 Text level objectives for writing, DfEE 2001)

Extracts from her work log track the teaching sequence of the Unit.

Case study Key Stage 3: using response partners Week 1: Plan: Introduce unit of work. Read, enjoy, analyse and investigate different picture books to get ideas of style and layout. The pupils have read them together, and aloud to the class and I drew their attention to different styles and techniques. They have chosen their response partners and we have talked about what a response partner is. Week 2: Plan: Ask the class to write down their ideas on the question ‘What do I want my response partner to do for me?’ I will give them some starting points and prompts. Then they will discuss their ideas with their own response partner so each person is clear of their role. The purpose is to provide ways into thinking about their story and then to tell each other orally and develop ideas. Towards the end of the week they will finalise their ideas and write a plan and a picture plan. I’ve given them possible ways into stories, e.g. change the setting, the historical period, or the location, modernise a fairy tale or a fable, continue with

Assessment

Figure 4.25 Megan’s response partner notes with replies from her partner

a character you like, write the next episode in a story we have read . . . they also have to design the book layout and use some of the ideas we have found in the picture books. They are going to: • • •

brainstorm with their response partners; tell them the stories; and then get into 4s and tell each other their stories.

I’ve tried to emphasise that the great thing about talking is that you can change it instantaneously if you don’t like it or want to develop it. I’ve also told them to write down anything anyone says that is helpful or encouraging, or not. By the end of the week they will produce a written plan and a picture plan. Evaluation: The class have taken to the idea of response partners and have chosen whom they will work with. We discussed the role of the response partner so they have an idea about where that is going. They really got into the analysing of the picture books and came up with some good observations of techniques, which were being used. They grasped the activity of ‘What would I like my response partner to do?’ really well and wrote down their thoughts – they went far beyond what I had hoped they would come up with so if they stick to it we will have progress. The pupils had very strong ideas of what they wanted

their response partners to provide (Figure 4.25). I didn’t quite dare ask them if this is what they would like their teacher to provide for them, but it did strike me that they weren’t unreasonable requests. Week 3: The class will draft their story and a more detailed picture plan. At this point the response partners will really be helping out with the development and production of ideas, using guidelines [adapted from inservice materials] about being a successful writing response partner: • • • • • • • •

Listen as your partner reads her/his work. Tell your partner what you liked about their writing. Make a note of it. How could they improve their writing? Note it down. Is there anything that is not clear or accurate? Could anything be added to improve it? Could anything be cut out? Could any of it be re-ordered? What about spelling and punctuation?

Week 4: This week the response partners are going to check each other’s work. The authors will then edit their work with help

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Assessment and support from their response partners. When both are happy with their drafts they will start to present the books. Week 5: Main week for presentation. Week 6: Pupils evaluate the whole project, what they liked/disliked, changes and improvements they would make and how useful having a response partner was, for example, did it live up to their expectations? Evaluating response partners: The pupils evaluated the experience of responding to each other: did it help, if so how? If it didn’t help, how would you improve it next time? Two girls had a disagreement during the response time; everyone else was very positive, almost too positive, but in amongst the my response partner is great comments, were some perceptive and illuminating points (Figure 4.26). Generally, the class felt response partners had provided: • • • • • • • • • •

A chance to see mistakes in your own work because your response partner can identify them for you. An opportunity to share work. A chance to improve work. Help to highlight changes needed. Help to show you how other people see your work. Ideas for language techniques. Support for weak spots and difficulties. Ways of developing imagination and plot. Opportunities to work out the good and bad bits yourself. Focus discussion through the prompt questions.

However, one girl wrote: I really don’t think my response partner helped very much. She criticised my work and argued the meaning of the story. She asked other people to vote on whose work was best and this upset me. I don’t think I helped her much either because she had copied a book and changed a few words which I found quite boring. There are several lessons to be learned from using response partners. Most of the class were positive about the experience and thought it had been helpful. A reasonable number would be happy to have response partners for other English work. From this experience they realised that some response partners were more helpful than others. I was struck by the number of comments about politeness, sensitivity, telling the truth kindly, and the need for a fun but serious approach. Cherish’s comments (Figure 4.27) represent many of the evaluations. The pupils’ writing always had an audience and will continue to do so when their books go on display for other pupils to

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read. By having this open attitude to sharing work in progress as well as the finished product, the writing was given status and significance that then shaped its purpose and meaning and so led to greater success. (Jane Owen, Study undertaken as part of the Advanced Diploma in Language, Literacy and Literature, Cambridge, Homerton College, March 2001)

Writers evaluating their own writing As Jane Owen found, evaluation can be a positive process and provide a basis for developing confidence in the writer. Pupils need to discover that it’s not just the role of the teacher to read and comment on writing. As they learn to take over responsibility for their own writing, young writers come to see that discussion and planning are part of the process of getting their writing to do the job they want it to do. Even very young children can do this. Talking to the class about writing, whether the teacher’s, their own or a published text, provides them with a model for evaluation and gives them experience of the kind of vocabulary they might use to identify strengths and weaknesses in a text. The teacher’s verbalisation of thoughts during shared writing procedures is intended to give pupils a window into the thought processes of an adult writer. This stage of the writing sequence can be designed to include vocabulary focused on specific teaching and learning objectives. However, there is a danger that the thinking talk might be restricted to structure and choices of vocabulary. Talking about the ‘what’ as well as the ‘how’ is important, too: where did the ideas come from? what sparked off that chain of thought? what do I want to get across to readers? When a teacher demonstrates like this, it helps developing writers to evaluate their own work, trying ideas out and discussing what they want to say. Helping learners to evaluate their own work means providing: • • • • •

models, examples and teacher demonstrations of planning, drafting, editing, proofreading, ways of responding; frameworks to help ask each other questions about a particular piece of writing as part of evolving regular practice in revising texts; statements of the teacher’s criteria for assessment and invitations for pupils to write their own; progress sheets, profiles, writing journals or learning logs to help writers keep note of their progress alongside their writing; chances to discuss writing with teachers and to agree targets for improvement.

All of these contribute to a growing record of progress in writing.

Assessment

Figure 4.26 Comments on working with response partners

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Assessment

Evaluation 1.

I learnt that even though a picture book may sound like it’s just a bit of writing a pictures it can turn out to be be blood sweat and tears.

2.

I liked that we got to do our own story and not have to carry on from another story and I also liked the fact that we got to speak to our response partners about all our work and progress.

3.

If I could change my work I would make the book a lot smaller so I could do smaller pictures and spend more detail on them.

4.

If I could improve my work I would make my writing a lot more descriptive and I would also make the whole story more fun and enjoyable for young kids as I feel it wasn’t fun.

5.

Having a response partner made things a lot easier as I could ask them for their opinions in my whole book as well you could ask them for help for example if your ending that you thought of wouldn’t work you could ask them for ideas.

ó.

Yes it helped me a lot, because the fact that there was someone there to help you all the time. Half of my ideas and thoughts came from my response partner.

7.

Yes I would like to have a response partner in other work because when I get stuck or I need help there will then be someone who will be able to help you. By Cherish Burdfield

Iona has, young writers will soon be able to make more robust evaluations of their own writing. Folders of work with their accompanying comments can be a most productive basis for discussion with parents or other teachers. Learning the ‘metalanguage’, developing a way of talking about language, however, isn’t just a matter of knowing the definitions of a kenning or a haiku; it is to do with the teacher using sentence constructions which allow rumination. For example, what did you think . . . ? how might you. . . . ? Open invitations to comment in reflective journals or work logs can be most revealing as Andrew’s disarming entry shows (Figure 4.28).

Figure 4.28 Andrew’s journal comments on his information writing

Figure 4.27 Cherish evaluates the picture book project and the use of response partners

Reflecting on progress in writing One effective, and quite simple, way of keeping records of progress is to ask each member of the class to select a piece of writing, of any kind, every now and again (once every two, three or four weeks) and to comment on it; it need not be a finished piece or a story, but could be notes, a chart or a poem. Iona’s comment on her Cinderella story are reproduced on the opposite page. After telling their stories the children drafted and then redrafted them to make individual books. After they had finished, their teacher, Elizabeth Overton, asked them to comment on their stories as part of their termly assessment. It is quite clear that Iona is using her teacher’s evaluative vocabulary to make her own valuation of her work as she uses ‘perticuly’ and ‘ilstrashons’. Both the comments and the increasingly analytic spelling shows that Iona is very much involved in becoming a writer. Pupils need demonstrations and models to help them learn how to comment, but once they get the hang of it, as

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All learning is enhanced when pupils are encouraged to describe their learning reflectively. In a project aimed at raising standards of writing in Croydon, one teacher found that despite good relationships and a supportive environment in the classroom, a number of boys in her Year 6 class remained reluctant to write. SATs were approaching but she took a risk and gave them writing journals which were incorporated into regular literacy teaching. For two or three 40 minute sessions a week, the pupils wrote what mattered to them. The audience for the writing was not only the teacher but could be the whole class because at the end of each session children were given the opportunity to read aloud what they had written. As one boy commented: It gives you confidence, hearing other people’s ideas (Graham ibid: 24). At the end of the year there was noticeable success, particularly with previously reluctant writers. Having a chance to listen to the inner voice cannot easily be disentangled from the interpersonal and social aspects of writing and the combination of these makes for progress in writing.

Assessment

Figure 4.29 Iona’s comments on her Cinderella story

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Assessment

Writing miscue analysis Monitoring individual progress can help to draw attention to those pupils who are not making the kinds of progress that might be expected. These may not be those who are falling behind, of course, but can also be those who seem unwilling to take risks and opt for conformity rather than imagination; those who might be described as ‘Gifted and Talented’ but who are unmotivated about writing; those who just seem not to be fulfilling their potential. Such pupils prompt individual diagnosis. The Writing Miscue Analysis is intended for just those kinds of pupils. It gives a teacher the chance to talk with them about their writing in an unthreatening – non-testing – environment and the opportunity to look closely at one piece of writing. The analysis covers matters of writing behaviour, the process of writing, purpose and audience as well as looking at the more technical elements of form or format, text construction, vocabulary choice, spelling and punctuation. In a way similar to a reading miscue this involves looking at the piece of writing for meaning (semantic features) at the level of the text as a whole as well as at sentence level. For syntax – sentence construction – and for phonetic, visual and analogic features at individual word level. A first analysis might be followed up six months later to note progress in the areas identified for development. It is not intended that any teacher should carry out a writing miscue on every pupil. The flow chart in Figure 4.30 summarises the process of carrying out a miscue analysis of writing. Karen Wallace, a teacher in Essex, carried out a writing miscue analysis with Laura, who is quite bright and responsive, but whose writing did not seem to match up to her potential. Part of the writing miscue requires a conversation with the writer. In the following extract from the transcript, Karen’s contributions are marked T: T: L: T: L:

Did you enjoy your story? Yes. How did you decide what to write? I remember all the things you said and write them really quickly, before I forgot. T: Is that why you write so quickly . . .? L: Yes . . . ... T: Don’t you like to write your own ideas? L: Sometimes I can’t think of any. Then I can’t write lots. T: Do you like to write lots down? L: Yes so I can get a smiley face. T: Who would like to read your story? L: My mummy. T: Anyone else? L: My sister.

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T: Why would she like to read it? L: She likes bears. ... T: Now we have read the story together is there anything you would like to change? L: No. T: OK. Which bit of the story did you like best? L: When I ran away. T: Why did you like that bit? L: It made my heart go fast. T: I liked the very first sentence. ‘I went in’. It made me want to know what was going to happen next. ... T: Well done, Laura. You’ve worked hard today. Can you remember what your target is? L: To use a word bank for my spellings. T: Did you use a word bank today? L: No, I was too busy. T: OK Laura, see if you can remember for next time. Figure 4.31 shows Karen’s initial jottings analysing Laura’s writing. From the analysis and this conversation, Karen was able to decide on future action – both for her and for Laura – to help her make progress in writing. Karen decides that she must include more demonstration and modelling to help prompt imaginative writing, including storytelling and talk about ideas. She also wants to encourage Laura to play with sentence structure and language and to help her develop more secure proofreading strategies. Diagnosis can be made on the basis of a writing interview and writing miscue analysis, but should be supported by observations from colleagues or parents/carers. When diagnosing any difficulties with writing, it’s worth checking health factors first. Problems with writing can be affected by intermittent hearing loss or difficulties with vision. Up to 30 per cent of pupils experience intermittent hearing loss during Key Stage 1. About 8 per cent of children have sight problems at the age of entry to school; by the time they reach secondary school the number can be as high as 18 per cent. Visual problems are usually picked up by the health visitor or school nurse, but the frequency of testing may not be as regular in some areas as in others. If health records suggest that this has not been done recently, then a discussion with the parents might help to deal with some of the difficulties. The interview and miscue analysis should lead to an agreed programme of action with specific and structured targets being offered. Decisions about involving outside agencies will be a matter of discussion with the headteacher, SENCO and parents; there can be no general rules. (See also Fox ‘Assessing writing at KS1: some problems and suggested solutions’, 2000).

Assessment

Stage 1

Writer

Teacher

Writes

Notes the writer’s strategies e.g. eye movements, time taken to settle to the task, level of involvement in the text. Teacher explains to the writer that they are not going to give any help unless it is absolutely necessary

Re-reads and revises after discussion

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Reads the writing to the teacher

Asks if there is anything the writer wants to change now; asks which parts of the writing they like best and why

Discusses the writing in more detail with the teacher – this is taped

Invites the writer to tape record. Asks: who they think will read the writing; what other writing they have enjoyed; gives the writer some positive feedback

Teacher analyses the writing and tape of discussion, along with any notes made of the strategies used. The teacher is looking for: • choices/interventions; • awareness of reader; • form/organisation of piece; • technical features (sentence and word level). This is used to decide how to help the writer progress

Figure 4.30 The process of carrying out a writing miscue analysis

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• What features show competence in handling syntax, punctuation, spelling? • How effectively does the writer vary technical features in relation to intention and readers?

Figure 4.31 Initial jottings for a writing miscue analysis

Baers went up steys thay sor me. I ram.

too hard. one lttie Boers Bed it was gost rite the Baers came home the

dog beers ded. It was too hard. I taye one Misie shis boer ded. It was

I want to sit dowe. I like Lttie Boers chaer. I went up steys. I lade one

I went in. There was porridge. I like tltio Boers porrdge. I eat it all up.

TECHNICAL CONVENTIONS

• • • •

What does this piece show about the writer’s ability to present ideas clearly and coherently? What cohesive devices are used? How does this fit with the demands of the task?

FORM/ORGANISATION

• How does the writing show understanding of the needs of a reader? • What strategies does the writer use to help/interest the reader?

• What choices has the writer made? • What was the purpose/intention of the task? • How successfully has the writer fulfilled his/her intentions?

Today I was walking in the woods when I came across this sweet little cottage.

AWARENESS OF READER

INTENTIONS/CHOICES

Assessment

Diagnosing specific difficulties Miscue analysis allows for some scrutiny of writing where the pupils seem to be treading water or having problems. If writing is problematic for a child, another area to check might be for Specific Learning Difficulties, often described as dyslexia. The following characteristics are only a guide, but action should be considered if a pupil can explain ideas in talk and shows some spatial awareness, but: • •

confuses letters and words in writing, or reverses letters/numbers; finds it hard to write at a level which reflects perceived ability;

• • • • • • •

cannot easily remember the alphabet; finds it difficult to remember and reproduce familiar words; uses ‘bizarre’ spelling; finds it hard to copy accurately; presents work of varying standard from day to day; ‘forgets’ to use known punctuation including capital letters; makes effort, but presentation remains poor.

It is worth monitoring these over a period of time if the pupil does not have a statement of special educational need and consulting with home and other professionals.

Key issues in this chapter ●

Progress in writing needs to be seen as wider than simply gathering numerical data. Teachers, pupils, parents and others need figures to be enhanced by descriptions of progress which go beyond single-shot testing.

●

Assessment has to be part of a whole process of teaching, informing, planning and helping to track individual progress. The Expanded Process for Teaching Writing (Chapter 3) offers an integrated means of linking objectives and targets with Key Assessment Opportunities.

●

Teaching writing depends on having a clear sense of where individual writers are, and where they are going, with their writing. The Targets and Progress Descriptors and the Individual Records of Achievement offer opportunities for effective shared and guided writing.

●

Involving pupils in their own assessment means that they have a clearer sense of their own responsibilities in the process of becoming writers.

Key text QCA, Target Setting and Assessment in the National Literacy Strategy

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Chapter 5

Writing narrative and plays Narrative is not just a sequencing . . . it is a sequencing of something for somebody. (Scholes 1980: 205)

Every day we use narrative to explain, persuade, argue, entertain. These daily narratives are often stories which warn, encourage and pass on ideas of ‘what we do in our family’ or in our community of any kind. But narrative doesn’t just play a part in our social and cultural development, it plays an essential role in our emotional development; we organise our feelings through narrative. Hopes, aspirations, disappointments, fears, pleasure, are rehearsed and replayed in the stories we tell ourselves and

the stories we tell others. Young children use story to wonder about the world, to make hypotheses as they explore the possible worlds of ‘what if’ . . . Their play reveals this constantly. Imaginative play is, after all, hypothesis – trying out ideas to see how far they can take us. When children play with narrative they are making experimental guesses: predicting and exploring imagination to see how it matches the world they inhabit. They make a ‘narrative connection’ between ‘what is’ and ‘what if’.

This chapter examines such connections – between narratives read and narratives told, between inner and outer experience of stories: ●

Teaching narrative

●

Author studies

●

Case study Key Stage 2: what writers offer that teachers can’t

●

Progress in narrative

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Structuring narrative

●

Case study Key Stage 1: storymaps

●

Developing narrative

●

Case study Key Stage 2: improving narrative writing

●

Personal narratives

●

Case study Key Stage 3: writing autobiography

●

From telling to writing

●

Traditional narratives

●

Visual narratives

●

Writing plays

●

Case study Key Stage 2: learning to be playwrights

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Writing narrative and plays

Teaching narrative Selecting, shaping and ordering of events into a coherent narrative springs from an urge to make meaning and to tell somebody what we feel, think, believe; the structure and the impulse go together. This means that narrative is not only to do with imagination; it can also be transparently autobiographical. Every day we have ordinary, unremarkable stories to tell: what happened on the way to school or to work; what we did last night; what we’re going to do tonight/at the weekend/on our holidays. And they are likely to be a nice mixture of the real and the imagined. In current terms, we put ‘spin’ on even the most innocent of stories to fit with our intentions as tellers and our decisions about what we think our audience might find interesting or amusing. And to add to this, we have other people’s stories which we read, hear and see in all sorts of forms. Exposure to story-telling from infancy establishes a body of knowledge and a set of expectations about the way a story is structured. Before children can read they become familiar with types of story openings like the western European traditional ‘once upon a time’. Experience of story helps children to recognise the different ways that language can be used to create atmosphere, for example, to describe settings and depict character; it also helps us to see the meanings embedded within the texts. Another key component of story is the focus on an individual’s predicament and response to it, sometimes described as a complication or problem. There will be different episodes where characters may experience problems and triumphs which lead to a resolution and conclusion. There may then be some comment from the narrator, perhaps a moral, which relates to the theme(s) underlying the narrative. In terms of textual coherence, then, fiction often has a recognisable pattern, using a chronological structure. Even if this is constructed by flashback to previous events, narrative coherence usually follows a chronological order of events, except, perhaps in the most postmodern of written texts. All of this suggests that teaching young people how to write narrative is rather more than getting them to plan stories which have a ‘clear beginning, middle and end’. There are different narrative genres and different narrative shapes and structures which deserve attention. There are also problems about assuming a linear progression from beginning to end of a narrative. Amos Oz points out that for the writer ‘In each and every beginning there are intention and attitude’ (Oz 1999: 9). The meaning or force of what the writer wants to say drives the structure of a narrative. It also drives choices about: • • • •

the setting of the story – the time and place; characterisation; creation of atmosphere – suspense, mystery, humour; the themes which underlie the narrative.

For developing writers, being able to explore and express narrative meaning comes from experience of hearing and watching stories, playing in role, becoming 90

familiar with particular story or kinds of story. These might be shared with family members, watched on video, listened to as story tapes, enjoyed as puppet plays, danced or acted out in drama. As Margaret Meek puts it, rather than formal lessons, readers learn from texts: how the beginning of a story is related to the end; when words do not mean what they say; how to ‘do the voices’ of characters so that their personalities and moods become clear, and how to distinguish the author from the narrator. (Meek in Barrs and Cork 2001: 13) One of the main lessons we can learn from texts is that there is no straightforward formula to telling a story – and no fixed pattern. ‘Beginning-Middle-End’ doesn’t offer very much when trying to support young writers grappling with the demands of putting their own stories into shape for other readers. There are ‘linear’ stories, problemresolution stories, circular stories, chain-of-events stories . . . all of which are evident in other people’s writing and telling. However, as Margaret Meek explains, much of the writing which young people meet is anonymous: Someone composes the words on notices, train tickets, newspaper headlines, acts of Parliament. Behind every TV programme there are bundles of papers the viewers never see, all hand-written by successful literates. (Meek 2001: 9) She goes on to point out that ‘Authors are named writers; readers feel they know them’ (Meek 2001: 10). Keenness for the work of a particular writer can be a great motivator for our own writing and studying the work of a writer in some depth – as avid series readers know – can be very satisfying.

Author studies Reading a favourite author can give us insights into the process of writing, but there’s nothing like meeting a writer face-to-face as the following case study shows:

Case study Key Stage 2: what writers offer that teachers can’t One important thing to realise as a teacher is that as learners none of us is the same. We work in different ways and whilst there may be patterns that we share with others, we are unique. As teachers we try to be all things for everyone and this continues to be true when we teach writing in school. The National Literacy Strategy and their supporting publications offer useful guidance on strategies we can employ to support developing writers: shared and guided writing; supported composition; and a focus at word, sentence and text level work. There can be no doubt that these enhance our teaching and pupils’ learning in the class. But sometimes it is

Writing narrative and plays important to stand back and reflect a little. Recently I’ve been contemplating how I write and the different ways I approach this for different contexts. Talking to children from first hand experience about being a writer is beneficial, as when there is an empathy there can also be greater honesty and dialogue about what writing is, and what the process feels like. How many of us actually write for pleasure and are experienced in writing across the full range of genres we are expected to teach? I would predict that there are only a few of us who might feel able to claim such insight and authority. Does it matter? Well that depends on what may be being missed. My experience of working with writers in schools is that they offer something unique that children like to hold on to. A recent example was when the author Kevin Crossley-Holland came to work with my class of Year 6 pupils just after his book Short! had been published.1 Before his visit the class all had the opportunity to read his book, and discuss it in shared and guided reading. They were able to select their favourite stories and talk about the ones that they felt didn’t work so well. We also talked about the types of question we might want to ask him. When he came to work with the class we had only two hours and decided to spend most of this talking. The children asked a range of pertinent questions including:

Progress in narrative

• • • • • • •

In reaching the thing that is not on loan, writers learn to manage narrative structure, character, atmosphere, tone, theme, eventually giving back the props. This is not a straightforward linear movement, but an intensification of attention, accompanied by a loosening of constraints. Making progress in narrative is about writers developing:

How did you become a writer? Where do you get your inspiration? How do you organise your ideas? How do you know when something is finished? How do you know if something is good? Do you ever struggle? What do you do? What’s the hardest bit about writing?

One of the themes of this book is about how young writers can find and maintain their own voice – or, indeed, voices, since we have many. In an address to a conference on narrative in 1985, Wayne Booth described becoming a member of a vast narrative community: Who I am now is best shown by the stories I can now tell and who I am to become is best determined by the stories I can learn to tell. (Booth 1985) In learning to tell stories, in making progress in narrative, tellers and writers often use the frames and models of known stories as starting points. In her book on teaching writing, Anne Lamott describes how she used to dread reading ‘derivative style’ writing until she realised: that it is natural to take on someone else’s style, that it’s a prop you use for a while until you have to give it back. And it might just take you to the thing that is not on loan, the thing that is real and true: your own voice. (Lamott 1994: 195)

• What was interesting was how the discussion turned out to be just that. The class opened up and expressed their own feelings about writing. They looked at his notebooks and found out that sometimes he wrote ‘rubbish’ and struggled. Sometimes he didn’t finish pieces of work he started. They talked to him about his work and asked him which stories he thought worked best and he asked them their opinions. He justified his shortest story when some pupils asked him if it was in fact a story at all. Before he finished he read some of the class’ favourites and a few things he had written recently. It was when he left us that we got down to the writing. We wrote our own anthology of short stories Short 2, which we sent him. Listening and discussing writing with him gave the class greater confidence about what they did and they realised that difficulties they face are ones we all struggle with – even published authors. Writers in schools have much to offer us and they add an extra dimension in the classroom even if it is only talking about what they do. Sometimes it’s true that they can offer pupils something that as teachers we can’t. Note 1 Crossley Holland, Kevin Short! A Book of Very Short Stories Oxford, OUP 1998 (Tatiana Wilson, Lecturer in Primary Education, University of Exeter)

• • • • •

greater conscious attention about how to shape texts to suit their writerly intentions; more awareness of how to engage and hold a reader’s attention; greater adeptness at handling the technical aspects and conventions of different kinds of narrative; increasing facility in choosing language to create effects; the ability to read their own writing with a reader’s eye; a repertoire of narrative forms to draw on.

All of this depends on them having opportunities to make decisions about how, when and what to write and, crucially, having something to write about. The case studies in this chapter describe development in narrative writing through Key Stages 1, 2 and 3. As part of the move towards such deliberate conscious attention to shaping meaning, Maureen Lewis offers a ‘five-step approach’ to writing narrative which acknowledges the necessary prop of other people’s stories: • • • •

Immersion in the text type Explicit discussion of structure and concrete recording of the structure Independent recording of the structure Using the structure to plan their own story 91

Writing narrative and plays •

Drafting the story and sharing the drafts in a plenary (Lewis 1999: 81–83)

In the research which she describes, the books which were used as a basis for developing structures and maps were chosen because they had distinct and recognisable structures, for example, cumulative stories, journey stories, turning point stories or problem and resolution stories.

Some children taped their telling and during the next week and a half, we had more circular stories. Children were able to use the Rosie’s Walk structure to draw a story map of The Bad Tempered Ladybird (Figure 5.2)

Structuring narrative The first case study shows how one teacher used these ideas with very young writers, helping them to shape their own narratives. Donna Hughes began with concerns about her Year 1 children’s ability to retell stories. She had already introduced the children to storymaps and storyboards as aids to oral recounting:

Case study Key Stage 1: Storymaps My next priority was to develop the children’s story writing. I had read Maureen Lewis’ article ‘Developing Children’s Narrative Writing Using Story Structures’ where she used groups of books which share a common structure to enhance children’s writing. I hoped that drawing attention to the similar structures of groups of stories would help my class to compose their own stories. I decided to begin with the ‘journey’ stories and started to assemble titles together. In her article, Maureen Lewis classifies ‘journey’ stories into circular [A to A], A to B and ABA stories. We started with Rosie’s Walk by Pat Hutchins in our story time at the end of the day. There was lots of explicit talking about the story. The next day during the literacy session we discussed how we could draw a storyboard. I drew a circle but didn’t write or draw anything else. We just talked. I was hoping that, combined with the earlier experience of storyboards and the knowledge of the story being circular, they would attempt their own. As Figure 5.1 shows, they did.

Figure 5.2 Storymap for The Bad Tempered Ladybird We then went on to the A to B stories. The children were able to say straight away why they were not circular stories. It so happened that our big book for the week was Colin McNaughton’s Suddenly. The children were very keen to draw storymaps and they insisted that it was an A to B story. Our plenary for that session was a child retelling the story, using his storymap (Figure 5. 3).

Figure 5.3 Storymap for ‘Preston’s Walk’

Figure 5.1 Map of Rosie’s Walk 92

Once upon a time there was a pig and a wolf. The pig was called Preston but the wolf didn’t have a name. One day the wolf was trying to eat Preston up for lunch. Preston was coming home from school when SUDDENLY [with great expression] he remembered his Mum had asked him to go to the shops. Preston said, ‘Silly me’. He was doing the shopping when SUDDENLY he dashed out of the shop. He remembered he had left the money in his school desk. ‘Silly me.’ He collected the money from his school desk. When he was coming out of the school SUDDENLY he decided to

Writing narrative and plays use the back door. He said, ‘Much quicker.’ On the way back to the shops he stopped at the park for a little play so he decided to have a little go on the slide when SUDDENLY Billy the Bully shoved past and went down the slide. Preston said, ‘OY!’ and Billy the Bully said, ‘Ha Ha,’ and when he got to the bottom he said, ‘OY!’ to the wolf and then Preston climbed down from the slide and he went to the shops. When he was coming out of the shops SUDDENLY the shopkeeper called him back to say that he had forgotten his change. ‘Silly me.’ The wolf was going to squash him but the wolf got squashed himself. Preston arrived home safely. He said, ‘Mum I’ve had the strangest feeling that someone has been following me,’ when SUDDENLY Preston’s Mum turned round and gave Preston a big hug. The end. The printed page just can’t do justice to the wonderful expression and dramatic telling and the emphatic and drawn out ‘suddenlys’. The language is sophisticated, clearly drawing on the book and many other heard stories. We followed this by discussion about what makes a good storyteller. The following week we read ABA stories, starting with We’re Going on a Bear Hunt. By this time the children were searching everywhere for journey books and by week four, I decided to let them plan their own story based on any journey structure they chose. We had used the following stories: Circular stories A to A Rosie’s Walk by Pat Hutchins The Bad Tempered Ladybird by Eric Carle Are You My Mother? P.D. Eastman Linear stories A to B On the Way Home Jill Murphy Suddenly Colin McNaughton The Miller, His Son and Their Donkey Aesop Handa’s Surprise Eileen Browne Return journeys ABA The Shopping Basket John Burningham We’re Going on A Bear Hunt Michael Rosen and Helen Oxenbury After hearing some of the taped stories, we talked about how they might be improved. The children offered different ways of joining sentences rather than ‘and’, offering meanwhile, a few minutes later, suddenly [of course!]. All their contributions showed a good knowledge of story language and their use of the story patterns drawn from their reading. Melissa writes So off she went and on her way she did not know a peacock was following her. Jack follows – and varies – Eric Carle’s patterned story language: Once upon a time there lived a lonely ladybird. The ladybird asked the other ladybird ‘Do you want to play with me?’ ‘No, I’m busy, go and find somebody else.’ So he set off. After a while he met a bee. ‘Do you want to play with me?’ ‘Ah, no thank you. Go and find somebody else now.’ So he set off then he met a beetle.

‘Do you want to play with me?’ ‘Ah, no thank you, I’m busy now.’ In this extended story, the lonely ladybird meets more and more exotic, larger and dangerous animals and he ends with: He set off. Next he met a rhinocerous. ‘Do you like to play?’ ‘No.’ He set off. He met a shark. ‘Do you like to play ?’ ‘Yes, please!’ Snap! That was the end of the ladybird! Emma’s story in Figure 5.4 is a delightful combination of several story patterns and varied language use: The Shoppig trolie Once upon a time there was a girl called Gemma. Gemma said ‘Shall I go shopping?’ Mom said, ‘Of course you can.’ So off she went with her shopping trolley. Her Mom said, ‘Get me Bananas Spaghetti Beans Sausages Some oranges’ ‘O.K.’ said Gemma. So Gemma got the stuff. But SUDDENLY! A lion took the beans. ‘Oy!’ shouted Gemma. Then a girl took the spaghetti. But just then a dog took the sausages but Gemma was unaware and a gorilla took her oranges. ‘Mom, I’m back! I’ve got everything!’ ‘Now, you’d better look again.’ ‘That’s strange.’ ‘You’ve eaten them.’ ‘No, that’s wrong. The animals ate them.’ ‘O.K.’ said Mom, ‘don’t let it happen again.’ The End The children’s enthusiasm for finding journey stories, reading and retelling them was wonderful as the quality of the story maps and the stories shows. Certainly these children had reached the targets I’d aimed for: Use language and structures from reading when writing. Write a recount or narrative. Begin to break up the series of events with connectives other than and. (Donna Hughes of Lyndon Green infant school, Birmingham, with thanks to Emma Fitzgerald, Melissa Gill, Jack Griffiths, Matthew Hoskin, Rebecca Innes, Kenny Jones, Joshua Sutheran, and Sophie Wills)

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Writing narrative and plays

Developing narrative With older writers, developing narrative means looking at stories in much more detail, developing attention to structure, plot, settings, character, atmosphere and themes. This can be very demanding. In the following case study account, Alison Lauder describes how her Year 6 pupils made progress in their writing after a two-week focus on writing.

Case Study Key Stage 2:improving narrative writing

Figure 5.4 Emma’s storymap and story: The Shoppig trolie 94

I block my planning so that each term there is a half term of narrative texts, which includes poetry, and another half term of non-narrative texts. In Year 6, apart from the usual daily Literacy Hour, since October there has also been an additional afternoon devoted to writing in preparation for SATs. This project was planned to last for two weeks, or six Literacy Hours and one writing afternoon. The majority of the work was completed with talk partners although some activities required whole group discussions. I chose the area of narrative writing as over the past three years I’ve tried several different things to improve narrative form, including modelling and adapting a known text, separating the elements needed to create a story, working on those, then applying them to a story situation and group stories. These approaches have had varied success but overall they were not consistently translated into the children’s work. My main aims were to improve the narrative form of the children’s writing using speaking and listening activities. As we were currently reading The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe, and fantasy was on our programme of study for the term, I wanted the pupils to write a story using the fantasy genre. As a school we had completed some unaided writing assessments and I used this to govern my groupings; they were different from the usual writing or reading groups and strengths and weaknesses were matched. It was clear from this assessed writing that there was a group of children whose grasp of narrative form was far weaker than their classmates’. I chose to focus on this group and spoke to all of them about their ideas about themselves as writers. They all said that they weren’t very good at writing; they didn’t enjoy it. We agreed that it might be worth trying to help them improve their story writing and that we’d make a book of their final stories for the rest of the year group to read. So I started with storytelling. I showed the children a key and told them it was not an ordinary key, but a key with a story. I then told them the story of the key. As a class we dissected the story, making a list of the different elements that went to make the story. The children were then put into groups of six and assigned a group leader. Each group was given a bag with seven items in it, one for each of them and a spare for children to swap if they wanted to. They were told their item had magical powers enabling their character to travel to another land. They chose a talk partner within their group, and they then made up a story about their item to include the elements we’d previously listed from my story. In turn, they told their partner

Writing narrative and plays the story and the partner suggested ways to improve the story. When they’d each told their story they created a storymap of it so they could remember it when it came to writing. There was a great feeling of excitement within the classroom as this was going on. The children said the activities were helpful. Laura especially liked the idea of being able to hold an object that would then be in her story. They enjoyed being able to see it, describe it and feel it. They said the partner work helped them to order their stories, concentrate on the kinds of words they wanted to use and make their ideas and words ‘bigger’. They thought the storymap was a good way to plan as it helped them order their ideas. In their stories it was clearly evident that children had used these maps, as you could put your finger on the start point on the map and follow the story on the map to its conclusion (Figure 5.5). It also meant that the characters didn’t jump from place to place with no explanation of how they had got there, which had been a problem.

They then redrafted their story with their partner. The partners all had to find positive things to say about each other’s stories then suggest ways to make it even better. The children then acted upon the advice before producing a final published piece. These ranged from 2 sides to 13 sides of writing with chapters which included poetry written for inclusion in the story. The group found the partner support helpful as they could give each other ideas; mistakes were found and rectified and they felt it enabled them to add more details. Matthew’s first piece is clearly derived from his film viewing and, although lively, is written like a sound track or cartoon story, with no concession to the reader who might not understand the cultural references. By the time he had worked on his ‘Sleepy Hollow’ story, he has a much greater sense of how to intrigue a reader. (Figures 5.6 a) and b)). His sentence structure is more controlled and he includes details they need to make sense of the story.

Figure 5.5 Lee’s storymap

We had just read the part in The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe where Edmund was moody after admitting he’d been in Narnia beforehand and Peter had told him off. So we discussed how feelings could be written about in a hidden way; their stories would start using their central character’s anger as the start of the story. Throughout the writing they had their maps and talk partners for support. At the start of each lesson, before writing, they told their partner the next part of their story. If during the writing time they became unsure of where they were in their story, they would talk to their partner about where their characters were and where they needed to get them to. Their partner would then work with them to problem-solve how to move the story along. At the start of each session they had to review with their partner where their story was going. This took part of the planning lesson and two more lessons to complete.

Figure 5.6 a) and b) Matthew’s assessed piece and his ‘Sleepy Hollow’ story

Seema’s first story shows that she has a good ear for dialogue and ‘sees’ her narratives clearly, but events are rather muddled: me and my friend was terriefied as we had got lost in a dumpster, then suddenly the alien had stared at me and paige also staring at the rest of the crowd who had saw the alien. As usual, she includes her friend in the story, but she hasn’t really thought about her audience, although the class is used to publishing their work. In the second piece, she is also seeing

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Writing narrative and plays the events but because of the experience with a partner, she remembers to keep the audience in mind and explain the events she sees. Although she shows the areas of her, as yet, insecure English, she has kept a much tighter shape as she describes the pictures in her mind’s eye: 5 minutes later Sam had calmed down. It had stopped raining and the sun had come out. Sam was coming across the park so he went in and sat on the swings thinking if only he hadn’t of argued with his mum then do as he was told then he would not of been in trouble. As he was swinging on the swing he had found a ring on the other side of the playground. He could not miss it as the diamonds were glistening in the sun. So then he jumped off the swing, picked it up and tossed it from hand to hand as it was very attractive. The end of Amy’s first piece shows just how she struggles with holding her ideas together (Figures 5.7 a) and b)). The second is remarkably more assured.

The second, a story which features a magic shell, is divided into short chapters entitled Weird, The Surprise, The Adventure, Winners, has ‘End’ as its very brief final chapter: End When he woke he had the shell in his hand. He put the shell in his draw and down the stairs he went. Oral telling has noticeably enhanced Laura’s writing and her use of chapters adds to the force of the narrative. The children’s pride in their work was clear. Many said that they were the best they’d ever written. They said that talking their stories through had given them confidence. Matthew said that he thinks, ‘That’s what I’ve got to write,’ then puts it into words. Laura said, ‘It can help you put your mind to things.’ I was impressed by the motivation; in the past these pupils in particular have found writing difficult and so are not usually as enthusiastic about these lessons as they are about their reading lessons. But in these two weeks the opposite was true. If I wasn’t convinced before, I now am sure of the value of using talk to help develop more complex narratives. (Alison Lauder, Highters Heath primary school, with thanks to Matthew Barron, Seema Chauhan, Amy Johnson, Laura Knott, Mohammed Miah and Lee Parker)

Personal narratives Whilst storymaps and structures can support young writers, Charlotte Barry expresses concerns about recent moves in literacy teaching about narrative structure: In parallel with the genre movement, writing frame enthusiasts seem to concentrate on reproduction of conventions rather than looking at pupils’ instinctive productions and understandings. I feel we need to urgently review our approaches to the creative process in the classroom, and keep thinking about what children do intuitively, as well as what they can do when the teacher ‘teaches’. We seem to have abandoned the search for what they already know in a panicky rush to bombard them with ‘skills’. (Barry 2000: 3) In the following case study account, she describes the narrative complexities involved in developing autobiographical writing with Key Stage 3 writers.

Figure 5.7 a) and b) Amy’s story endings Similarly, Laura’s two pieces show a much more assured sense of the effect she wants to create and the contrast between the two pieces is striking. In the first she ends: I tried to talk to Allien but not a sound replied . . . I even tried making the same noise as he did, in the end I succeeded. He was saying I’m sorry, my name is figfumagnuw

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Case study Key Stage 3: writing autobiography Autobiography: a scheme of work with Year 8 Autobiography is an unruly guest in the classroom. It won’t befriend genre or nestle comfortably into writing frames. It distracts the dreaming pupil. It rustles in notes passed under tables and it whispers its breath behind hands. As an English

Writing narrative and plays teacher dealing with this maverick, I feel frustration and affection. I have struggled with its demands. I cannot assess it adequately using standard marking criteria. I lose my footing as expert in the classroom. Its ‘non-fiction’ status in the National Curriculum confuses me. It can disrupt neatly structured lessons and schemes.Yet as often happens with mavericks in the classroom, I am sneakily drawn in by its seditious charisma. Autobiography can give insights into how students feel and how they learn. I have been moved and delighted to hear or read their life stories. It engenders fierce, humorous, vivid writing. It is invaluable at the start of a year with a new class. It celebrates the individual pupil and brings their wider experience into the classroom. In telling the stories of their lives, children are participating in creating a shared social world whilst also learning what it is to be individual, what makes them unique. I wanted to create a new scheme of work to put some of these beliefs into practice. I also wanted to get away from my own increasingly linear, Literacy-style lessons [I highlight some aspect of text; you work in groups; we do plenary together]. So after listening to what students had to say, looking at what existing texts circulating in the current syllabi seemed to say, and exploring how students were already writing autobiography without much ‘teaching’ from me I developed an outline of what the components of an autobiographical unit might be: •

•

•

• •

It would be based on what the students knew, allowing them to reach an end product unique to themselves but also to develop a sense of themselves as collaborative meaning makers in the community. It would explore the way memory is actively selective but would also look at what other forces might influence our memories. It would recognise the importance of context as part of the internal remembering process, and as something that they as writers had to consider explicitly. It would allow creativity and value non-linear, rough edged narrative structures. It would encourage language play.

All my work and reflections so far had led me to the realisation that versions of the past are reverberating all around us. In his study of aboriginal Australians’ songlines, Bruce Chatwin brings together sense of place and sense of personal being. With these resonant ideas in mind, I decided to dip under the non-fiction barrier and head off into the world of myth and legend for my autobiographical scheme. It seems to me that myth can function on (at least) four levels: personal and family myths, myths connected to specific places, urban myths and myths of race and nation. I felt that if we started with the telling of personal ‘myths’ or family anecdotes and then moved our focus outwards to encompass wider collective stories, I might help students to ‘decentre’, to listen for ‘the past contained in each place’, to see that the way they told their own life stories was both drawing on and adding to the life-blood of communal stories. We would try to perceive the crossings of the personal and communal in our own retellings of myths, the points of intersection. I began by creating my own set of rudimentary songlines on

a map of Britain. This consisted of 4 or 5 coloured stickers stuck over places that had special significance for me, each with a trigger word written on them – that is, a word which triggered a specific memory for me. There was ‘honey-bees’ stuck over Leicester for example to trigger an anecdote about my beekeeping grandfather who lived there and ‘purple shirt’ over Edinburgh to remind me of an incident with an extrovert younger sister who was at University there. The stickers were all linked together with coloured thread – the visual equivalent of a songline. I explained that each of these places had a resonance for me that no one else could hear but that was linked with other people’s pasts and thus part of a wider ongoing story. It its perhaps worth noting at this point that I was heavily aware of my own self-editing. All teachers will recognise that internal imperative to mete out personal details to classes with a great deal of caution: I told joky stories at my own expense here, but they were constructed to bypass any incriminating details which might have been inconsistent with how I wanted to be perceived by my students. I then asked the students to tell two stories of their own – something that had happened to them in the place where they now lived, and something that had happened somewhere else – on holiday for example, or at a former home. This was a little geographical ‘decentering’. The school is situated in a large village with six other feeder villages, and even though these villages are not far from each other, they are very distinct communities, so it was interesting when geographical overlap occurred between them: John and Philip both told stories about Farmoor Reservoir, for example, each assuming it to be a place uniquely connected with their own village. The stories from further afield often contained similar types of events (the lost child, the family argument, the naughty act), but allowed for unique locations. There was a strong sense of the child working out their relation to a new or unfamiliar context. Hannah wrote: It was a wonderful holiday in Yorkshire, new born lambs, horses and peace and quiet until we went for a walk . . . I felt so full of myself that I said I knew a short cut (which I did not really!) so I walked by myself into the lonely woods . . . The ground was getting muddier . . . then it was like the TITANIC [sic] as one of my wellingtons sunk into the extremely muddy BOG . . . I screamed and shouted for help. My family who were actually close by heard me and they came fast as a lightning bolt to the rescue. My mum told me to take my foot out of the wellington, which was hardly visible by then. My mum was not pleased. I did a funny hop as I went home, I wished it were a dream. The next day my mum came into my room and said that one day I would laugh about what had happened, and guess what – I have. But it was not very nice all the same. (Hannah Sutton) Here she gently mocks herself for thinking she was independent before time [‘I felt so full of myself’], and the story follows a familiar cause-and-effect pattern. It is admonitory, but the evaluative tag on the end takes off the pressure. We can also see how layers of time have converged in Hannah’s mind: the day, the day after, years later; her tale is sequential, moving from one emotional state to another.

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Writing narrative and plays In individual discussion with Hannah about this, and in order to explore non-linear possibilities, I asked her if she thought anyone else in her family remembered the incident. She said that her mother told the story to her grandparents recently, but Hannah noted that ‘she made me sound more . . . than I really was: she didn’t really mention the boots or anything – just how worried she was about me being lost.’ I also asked if it seemed to follow the pattern of any other stories she knew: ‘It’s a bit like that one about the children in the wood and the witch and the bits of bread and the stones (Hansel and Gretel) . . . they go into the woods and they get lost. . . .’ As well as being excited that Hannah could reach across genre boundaries and identify universal patterns, I was also interested in her focus – the detail about the stones and bread, the path-markers seemed the most striking thing about the story, rather than the seductive gingerbread house. We may all hear the same story, but we pick up different threads in the process. The second stage of the project was to extend their thinking about myths or legends about places they had in common, and to set a few more local legends in motion. I split the class into smaller groups and gave each group the details of older legends connected with the local area. Members of each group had then to go off round the class re-telling their legend. Listeners noted down which details the teller had remembered, and colour coded gaps and omissions onto copies of the original. It became clear very quickly that no one told the same story as anyone else, and tellers even chose to start in different places – ‘Well there was this mad lord who . . .’, ‘When builders dug up the foundations, they found . . .’, and ‘Don’t trust your servants!’ were three opening gambits to the same story! I felt that in this activity, the established grammar of the story was not dissolved but rather augmented as new personalities made their mark upon it. A homework was to find a new audience for their legend to encourage yet more dissemination and thinking about audience. We did not produce written accounts at this stage: rather, I encouraged verbal play and experimentation. They were the generators of ‘right’ answers rather than me. Then we moved onto urban myths. I defined these as stories that were common to many places, but were often made specific to that place – a more nationalised version of the spread of local myths. As well as sharing urban myths that we knew, we went to the computer room to access an Internet site called ‘Make your Own Urban Legends’1: Why not hop on the misinformation superhighway with our Urban Legend Generator*? Simply make your selections from the menus below and our incredibly complicated and technologically advanced PUMA* (plausible urban myth articulater) will do the rest. When you’ve finished, e-mail it to everyone you know, and see how long it takes to come back to you. *patent not pending

This site was useful in that it listed in its menus common ingredients of urban myths (under headings ‘Subject’, ‘Scenario’, ‘Action’ and ‘Consequences’) which made the class wriggle with recognition [ . . . heard the one about the spider that gets under your skin?]. Within the limited confines of the school email network, they were able to set new legends in motion

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using old ingredients, and then monitor the interplay between stories unfolding over a three-week period. Penny was heard to remark ‘Those songlines have turned in to phone lines now, haven’t they, miss?’ In conclusion, I can only take the stance of the evangelist, and urge teachers to reassess how and when they use autobiography in the classroom. Every teacher of creative writing knows the excitement of encouraging students to take on new narrative voices, but in the rush, sometimes the child’s own experience seems to vanish, to be ruled out as irrelevant. Rather than horizons moving out, I wonder how often the classroom walls close in. We must try to shape more schemes that start with audience rather than the teacher. Such schemes must of necessity be inclusive, rather than distancing those students who may increasingly feel texts are a closed and inaccessible world. We need to maintain and encourage an awareness of the patterns they already hold on a small and large scale, as well as the social and political patterns that work on them. Once identified, these patterns can become a site of legitimate play. Students can import the grammar of their own experience into the existing grammars of the classroom and syllabus. We need to keep the border posts of genre open, and encourage the traffic of ideas. Note 1

http: //toybox.asap.net/legend/ (Charlotte Barry, teacher at Bartholomew school, Oxfordshire)

From telling to writing In terms of narrative progress, telling from remembered fragments of personal experience can build to more developed autobiographical writing. However, although published stories often have autobiographical elements, using personal experiences as the subject matter for writing in school can be more problematic, for several reasons. The writers of published autobiography have made decisions to use their own experience as a starting point; they were not asked to do it as part of a classroom activity. Whilst teachers know the value of drawing on lived and real experience, they may also, quite rightly, be wary of encroaching too much on the personal lives of their pupils. There can be problems when pupils are asked to talk about their own experience; they might be unwilling to expose personal or family matters. Then there are the structural problems associated with ‘where to start’ in taking an aspect of life as the basis of a narrative, especially if it involves family members as part of the cast of characters. Putting these into a narrative frame can be as tricky as explaining who a character in a soap opera is to someone who hasn’t watched it before. However, since personal experience is a very good source of storymaking, there need to be some safe starting points which draw on memories but which don’t require the teller having to expose anything they don’t want to. A brief memory can be a good springboard, encouraging pupils to realise they have a story to tell. Paired telling

Writing narrative and plays

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One day I was playing in the street with a friend when I suddenly got the urge to steal some flowers from a neighbour’s garden. It was broad daylight and I just don’t know what got into me. I can’t remember who the friend was but I can remember the lovely red tulips, tempting me . . . Well, I was just picking them, hearing the crisp ‘snap’ as the stems broke, when I heard a voice – the neighbour, of course. I scuttled off up the road and took refuge behind a tall privet hedge in the garden of an empty house. All I can remember after that was that as the neighbour’s feet pounded up the road, my heart was beating so loudly that I felt sure that she would hear it and find me. . . . I have no idea what happened after that, what happened to the friend, the flowers – or to me. I just remember the loud beating of my heart and the fear of being caught.

Episode 1: Playing in the street Episode 2: Steal flowers Episode 3: Run and hide Episode 4: Frightened of being caught. Episode: ?

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I always tell my ‘naughty story’ as a way of demonstrating episodes in a story. I deliberately tell it in the ‘wrong’ order, so that the class will have to help me out. I have a big storyhand on the board so that we can note the different parts of the story, discussing the word ‘episode’ – familiar to them because of their soap watching. I ask them to help me end the story. In the right order, it goes (briefly) like this:

During the telling I will embellish some details, and reorder some of the events, and I then ask the children to help me make up an ending. But before I can do that I need to get the rest of the story in order. Using the storyhand (Figure 5. 8) the class helps me to note:

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about a toy or game they had when they were young, for example, is relatively non-intrusive, allowing the teller to include or exclude what they choose. This need only be a very brief description. After each has had a turn, a group list of the kinds of things mentioned would probably note physical details, colour, shape, what the toy is made of, but may also include mention of family members and what happened to the toys. Stories grow from such small beginnings, with the seeds of setting, characters, events, atmosphere and theme caught in the briefest of anecdotes. In this way, snatches of experience can form a basis for more developed stories. Storytelling pairs might work on a particular aspect of the anecdote, the setting, how the teller felt, or the ending. Partners can be very helpful in listening out for particularly evocative phrases, when orally redrafting anecdotes and reflecting on the kinds of changes they have made. Some tellers will have abbreviated their stories, others will have added detail or more about the characters involved. Endings are particularly worth noticing: told stories often end with a ‘tag’ which finishes even the shortest anecdote: . . . I never forgave my sister for that; . . . it ended up in the attic;. . . . I’ll always remember my Ted. With older pupils, these final, summative statements can be used as a way of looking at disrupted narrative story structures – the use of flashback, for example. Stories about toys can act as openers for longer autobiographical writing, or link with history projects, ending with a ‘toy museum’ of pictures and information about the toys. They might be the basis for picture books for younger readers, or a class Big Book. If memories have been about playing games, these can be used for writing a book of instructions for ‘games we used to play’. Families can be asked to contribute their memories of toys and games. Personal anecdotes modelled by the teacher can lead to more developed stories, as Sarah Watson explains:

Figure 5.8 Storyhand as prompt for storytelling

The children then tell each other their own ‘naughty’ stories and jot down prompts on their own storyhands. This makes for a very good plenary activity about structuring stories from personal experience. Building on this, I ask them to concentrate on the first finger – the opening episode and set the scene dramatically, or the middle finger – always a problem to get the middles of stories sorted out. (Sarah Watson, teacher in Slough)

Telling stories is an ideal way to start thinking about how atmosphere is created – suspense, humour, mystery . . . and to consider how choice of language makes the difference in holding a listener/reader’s attention. Oral telling is a useful rehearsal of the shapes of stories; as a way of looking at what we do to engage an audience when we’re telling them a story and how this can help us to hold the readers’ attention when we write; as a way of getting our stories told when our hands are too unpractised to keep up with our minds. Lessons learned through face to face engagement, through the use of spoken voice can then be explicitly directed towards developing a secure written voice. 99

Writing narrative and plays

Traditional narratives

• •

Because their structure is so clear, traditional tales are very good vehicles for storytelling, modelled first by the teacher. However, whilst traditional stories can be very good sources of classroom work, it is worth remembering that the structures of traditional tales may vary according to the cultures which first told them. Not all children will have a familiarity with the text grammar of stories like those of western European fairy tales; equally, not all western Europeans are likely to be familiar with epics like the Ramayana. Bearing that in mind, though, most traditional tales do have patterns which can be grasped and traced, for a very good reason: most of them began as oral tales. The storyteller creates a pattern to help listeners hold on to the narrative as it unfolds in all its complexity. Telling is a valuable way to learn to know how to end a story satisfactorily. However, it is not a good idea to have a routine ‘tell it then write about it’ way of dealing with stories in the classroom; that would be no better than the purposeless writing exercises of not so long ago. Many storytellers – whether young or older – feel that after they have told a story, the very last thing they want to do is write it. The story has been told; why go over it again? If the storytelling experience is to help young writers get to grips with structuring stories, however, they need experience of building on the telling. When they do come to write a story, they need a reminder that they have tried this kind of ending or that kind of resolution already, so that they can use similar strategies to write a new story. As their telling and writing experience builds, they can select from a range of different story shapes, resolutions, settings, genres. Traditional tales appear as part of the range of texts throughout Key Stages 1, 2 and 3. Their familiarity allows for retellings which echo, develop and subvert the familiar. They are also genuinely intercultural, for example, there are more than 360 different Cinderella stories throughout the world. Wherever they come from, traditional tales, often share common story elements and sequence: • • • •

setting – time and place; characters; problems and complications; a ‘helper’;

a solution; conclusion with a moral.

Pupils’ experience of these elements means that they can be creative with putting stories together. Figure 5.9 shows a ‘story lottery’ game with options for settings, characters, problems, helpers and solutions. Pairs or groups can select cards from these sets of options and work together on shaping them into a story, having to create their own conclusions and morals. As well as glorious picture books – serious and humorous – of traditional tales from all over the world, there are many film versions of traditional tales. Besides these, videos like Toy Story 1 and Toy Story 2 use a myth-like structure for their narratives, whilst Shrek subverts and uses all kinds of traditional stories. Disney cartoon versions of traditional tales can be used effectively as shared texts, for example, Snow White, Aladdin, Mulan [the story of Fa Mu Lan the Chinese woman warrior], Hercules. Since the aim is to help build narrative, the use of video material means that all pupils have access to the learning, irrespective of their levels of fluency in reading and writing. Video versions of traditional tales allow for all the elements which might be explored in written texts, for example: • • • •

different narrative structures; analysing character; looking at how atmosphere is created; identifying themes.

Traditional stories often have common themes: the central character is unfortunate – dispossessed, a stepchild, a third child, perhaps regarded as stupid or unfit in some other way. The characters often have to undergo trials and sometimes it looks like they have forfeited their desired reward. There is strong emphasis on opposites: good over evil, weak over strong, wise over foolish. The pattern of the story is often of a wish, dream or desire and the fulfilment of the desire by magic or by a trick. Using video as a shared text offers good opportunities for capturing typical story language as well as teaching note-making. Talking about the stages of the story can help to establish a sense of structure which can be recorded on a flowchart (Figure 5.10).

Setting time:

Setting place:

Characters [choose two]:

Problem

Helper

Solution

the past

wood castle seaside farm city desert mountains

a kind but lazy young man a bright and energetic girl a stupid but cunning boy a good looking and shy gardener a quiet, thoughtful servant a greedy and lazy prince a hard working animal a tree that can speak an intelligent machine

Caught stealing Told a lie Under a spell Finds magic object Been captured Breaks something Forgets something Goes to forbidden place

A mouse An old woman An old man An eagle A poor person A magician A speaking book

Is rescued Is transformed Discovers a skill Uses cleverness Uses a trick Carries out a journey Successfully solves a riddle

the present the future

Figure 5.9 Story lottery game: options for settings, characters, problems, helpers and solutions 100

Writing narrative and plays Pupils can make their own flowcharts as prompts for their paired retelling. Examples of typical story language on the wall or board, gathered as a whole class activity and recorded on large speech bubbles or coloured paper can help in retelling.

scrub the floor! clean the rooms! sweep up!

I wish … I wish … dreams

dreams Cinderella is put-upon – a servant to 2 sisters and stepmother

wishes for better life 2 sisters get invitation to ball; they go; Cinderella hopes she can, but can’t

But remember, you must come home before the clock strikes 12

wishes for a better life

This may be my big chance magic BUT deadline

magic BUT deadline wish granted by Fairy Godmother BUT midnight deadline forfeit forfeit Cinderella goes to ball; Prince falls in love with her but she forfeits her slipper at midnight wishes granted wishes granted Prince seeks owner of slipper. Cinderella is found. Slipper fits.

Figure 5.10 Flowchart recording stages of the Cinderella story Figure 5.11 shows how speech and thought bubbles can be introduced as preparation for developing dialogue or first/third person narration.

Visual narratives To strengthen their own narratives young writers draw on a range of texts, told and heard, on screens of different kinds, in books and magazines. Pupils’ writing often shows the debt owed to pictorial narratives of different kinds: books, comics, television, video and computer. Show Us a Story!, a new book produced by the British Film Institute, outlines the importance of visual narratives: Moving images – films, television and video games – play an enormous role in children’s lives. Watching films is fun and can enliven and enrich their fantasy worlds, helping them to think about and deal with personal and social issues that affect them. Films offer children access to a visual universe that can carry them beyond their immediate experience. However, while children get a lot out of watching moving image texts they cannot necessarily articulate this experience so it is easy to underestimate how skilled and subtle their readings of films are. By showing children films in school, encouraging them to talk about

Figure 5.11 Flowchart with speech and thought bubbles what they watch and helping to provide the appropriate language, we can enhance their power to express and discuss their experiences more clearly and coherently. (Staples and Davies 2001: 3)* The debt to visual texts is evident from the work of many young writers and can be usefully built on. For example, a strongly atmospheric sequence in a film can be scrutinised to lead to analytic writing. The role of colour, music and perspective can be compared with the use of adjectives, adverbs, verbs and prepositions and the author’s point of view. Figs 5.12 and 5.13 show how the opening sequence from the video of James and the Giant Peach led to descriptive writing. Using video as shared text also allows for analysis of how character is depicted. Pupils’ ideas can be recorded in a format as in Figure 5.14 The class can either be asked to look at one character for comparison or different groups asked to concentrate on different characters. Video texts can also give a basis for building 1st and 3rd person narrative retelling and for developing the use of connectives and varied conjunctions. A sequence which switches between two places – for example the early part of Toy Story 1 where the children in the house are having a party and toys are anxious about Andy’s new present – can be used to build on note-making experience as a basis for later paired retelling. ‘Meanwhile’ sequences like these are intended to build tension so form a very good basis for suspense writing. Figure 5.15 shows a format for noting *This excellent resource introduces work with sixteen films, including The Iron Giant and Goodnight, Mister Tom.

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Writing narrative and plays Film sequence Opening of James and Giant Peach Colour

Description and analysis of effects

dreamy, fantasy world

soft colours & pastels – parents/James soft focus

frightening, shocking

darker for rhino

harsh, cruel

black & white for S and S

Music

gentle, slow, mournful, plaintive rhyming, sharp, sneering

James theme S and S song

to show James & family as happy

Perspective from above looking up to clouds S and S go round and round James as camera follows

Figure 5.13 Analytic writing based on film analysis

fantasy – will be repeated throughout story as a theme for hope for James dizzy and threatening

Figure 5.12 Notes on colour, music and perspective from video text

Character

What the character says

What the character does

Figure 5.14 Grid for analysing character in film or written version

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What this tells us about them

Writing narrative and plays

EPISODE 1

Woody shows toys the intercom EPISODE 2

Mum steps on toy soldier. Injured. Intercom in plants and one open present

EPISODE 3

Toys wait & listen to intercom

EPISODE 4

Announcement of presents The soldiers pack up

EPISODE 5

Woody says everything is OK

EPISODE 6

‘Extra present’ announced EPISODE 7

Intercom breaks Toys get cross

EPISODE 8

Children go into hallway EPISODE 9

Panic – toys back to places

EPISODE 10

Children go upstairs and into Andy’s room Figure 5.15 Paired notemaking; episode sheet for suspense sequence of video

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Writing narrative and plays events where tension is built by shifting location. Pairs share an episode sheet and make notes in turn as the location switches. (This can be great fun where the sequences last only a few seconds!) After the notes are made, it is clear that the left hand story has narrative gaps which can only be filled by the right hand story. These notes can be used for paired retelling, perhaps making use of identified connectives and conjunctions. It is also a good basis for changing from 1st to 3rd person narrative, or the reverse. All of these props for storymaking are necessary as young writers are learning to shape and reshape narratives. There comes a point, however, when it becomes clear that for some pupils at least, the props can be abandoned. Roma Dukelow, devised a series of lessons with her Year 8 pupils designed to cash in on boys’ awareness of the visual. In order to use this in their writing, she encouraged the class to include less action in their writing and more visual detail. The objective was for pupils to show rather than state, making the reader pick up on clues by active reading The pupils were given a statement of fact and a description already written by the teacher (Figure 5.16). In discussing the opening, it was the boys who were able to comment on the effective use of language by reference to specific detail. Using white boards, in pairs the class drafted their openings aiming to create the atmosphere of a dark and stormy night by showing it, not stating it. In the following lesson another statement was added and the whole class, led by the teacher, wrote the continuation on the board using success criteria already discussed. Another objective was added which was to vary the openings of their sentences by using adverbs, conjunctions and hanging participles. After a third fact was added the pupils worked individually and then they developed the final statement at home. The results of this were pleasing. Boys were obliged to use more visual detail and less action in their writing and also to convey feeling. Comments made in the students’ writing journals showed that this was one of the boys’ favourite pieces of writing. They enjoyed the teacher intervention necessary for modelling and guided writing and were pleased with their outcomes. However, some of the girls’ comments showed that they felt restricted and inhibited by rigid frameworks and preferred to be given more freedom. (Roma Dukelow, William de Ferrers school, Essex)

Writing plays Very young children use play to work out imaginative possibilities; older people watch television, films and theatrical performances for similar reasons. When it comes to writing playscripts, how might progress be characterised? Often it is marked by an increasing sense of the variety of character and voices which might be involved, the ability to show through dialogue and not tell; the use of plays to express messages about life. Most importantly, however, writing playscripts should be linked to the physical and visual – to performance. Many writing activities are enhanced and enlivened by using drama techniques 104

but constructing plays puts the process in reverse. An imaginative choreography, similar to writing poetry, has to be developed; voice, silence, space and action brought together to shape a dramatic narrative. This offers some challenges for teachers, since it means encouraging young writers to be less explicit, to give the reader fewer clues to the action, to embed the action within the dialogue. This can seem to run counter to much of what other narrative writing requires. However, writing plays can be an ideal opportunity to identify the differences between different types of texts, to see that the narratives of continuous prose and playscripts are differently patterned, requiring different kinds of language choice, syntax and reference if they are to be convincing. As Denise Margetts points out, there are issues particular to dramatic writing which are different from a model of English teaching: which aims to encourage students to develop their own abilities as writers by recognizing, deconstructing and analyzing the craft of a wide range of authors. (Margetts 2000: 37) Working as playwrights means drawing on ‘a very different set of narrative codes and practices from those of continuous written narratives’ (Margetts 2000: 38). Moreover: An understanding of the function of conventions such as stage directions and dialogue involves a sense of the text as something incomplete in itself, an outline of prospective action. It is the tip of the iceberg, a synopsis merely, a sketch of the real thing. (Margetts 2000: 38) Gilly McInnes tackled the problem of seeing playscripts as complete in themselves with her Year 5 class. The following case study account describes work which was part of a project using the video of Mulan as a source for a range of writing. The final session was to write a playscript:

Case study Key Stage 2: learning to be playwrights The pupils had some previous experiences of playscripts in that they had read and performed commercially produced plays. However, their previous writing experiences of this genre had been largely part of lessons on punctuation, which included differentiating between direct and reported speech in prose and then comparing these with the convention of playscripts. At this point they had limited experience of writing dialogue or stage directions to signal action. Preliminary sentence level work had focused on forming adjectives into adverbs, moving description into action. The class were to focus particularly on how the dialogue was spoken and what the characters were doing as they spoke. Taking one scene, I stopped the video after each character’s lines. We collected adverbs to describe how the characters were behaving and delivering their lines, and then set about

Writing narrative and plays

Fact into Description Fact

It was a dark night. A storm began.

Description

Darkness dropped like a curtain. It blacked out the countryside, wrapping itself thickly around hills and trees until they seemed suffocated for lack of light. No stars shone. Across the valley, the growing rumble of thunder began to beat a threatening drum roll. Lightning flickered and flashed. Then the rain fell, a sudden drenching downpour that crashed through the heavy air and churned the earth into a sea of mud.

Fact

Soon I was soaked to the skin. I ran through the woods towards the shelter of a derelict castle.

Description

Fact

Once inside the castle I realised it was not what it seemed. It was obviously haunted. I tried desperately to escape, but I could not.

Description

Fact

The castle had captured me. It seemed that I was doomed to remain there for ever.

Description

Figure 5.16 Fact into description activity

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Writing narrative and plays shared writing. I used different coloured pens and styles of writing to separate the instructions to the actor. The children then decided on the success criteria by which they would measure their work: • • •

use adverbs in brackets to show actors how to speak; use capitals or coloured pen to give stage directions; remember no speech marks

The first drafts were O.K. but directions weren’t always adverbs and were often repetitive [in a loud voice, in a bossy voice], so we needed to do more work with a thesaurus to make the directions interesting and varied. Some pupils wrote directions like ‘ancestors argue’ rather than write out the dialogue. It took a practice performance of the play, strictly adhering to the script, for the actors to realise that ad-libbing an argument didn’t really work because characters tended to shout over one another and no one knew when it was their turn. Thus, they learnt that in order to achieve a coherent argument they would need to prepare the script carefully. The redrafts of the scripts were carried out in the IT suite which

made it easier for the pupils to adhere to the conventions of font. The final versions took three sessions to complete, as each time their work was printed they used their scripts in their drama lessons. No-one was allowed to act their own script and the writers watched the performance of their writing. Writers were constantly interrupting performances: You didn’t sound angry enough; You should have sounded fed up when you said that. But my instructions to the actors were that they should forget what they had seen on the film and do nothing that wasn’t on their script, so in every rehearsal the authors discovered omissions in their writing and the actors noted shortcomings in their own scripts. (Gilly McInnes, Elmwood primary school, Essex)

The word playwright is a reminder of the strenuous efforts made in putting together satisfying narratives. They are, indeed, wrought from the raw material of ideas, voices, experiences, emotions, sensations. The knowledge that plays are going to be enjoyed by someone else helps to transform the imaginative ‘what if’ into the reality of ‘what is’ and to look forward to ‘what might be’.

Key issues in this chapter ●

Narratives are structured in a wide range of ways; there are no fixed patterns so a simplistic ‘beginning, middle, end’ formula will not challenge young storymakers to shape intriguing, entertaining and well formed stories.

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Writers draw on their experience of story in all its forms to help them make their own. Emulation is a good starting point, but progress in narrative is about letting go of those safe structures. At the same time, progress in storymaking requires increasingly careful attention to the elements of plot, character, atmosphere, themes and style.

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Telling is a necessary complement to writing stories. When the imagination races ahead of the hand it is important to let the stories flow. Experience of getting to the end, and of entrancing an audience are invaluable to the development of story writing.

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Writing plays means more than structuring dialogue without speech marks. Scripting involves the careful choreography of recalled speech, recreated movement and the creation of dramatic incident

Key texts Myra Barrs and Valerie Cork, The Reader in the Writer James Carter, Creating Writers: A Creative Writing Manual for Schools. This book has a wealth of suggestions for writing activities and a substantial and practical section on author studies and arranging author visits. Teresa Grainger, Traditional Storytelling. The book is an invaluable resource which uses eight tales and offers ways of using them for storytelling in the classroom. It is full of suggestions for scaffolds, prompts, suggested activities for drama and role play, suggestions for lessons and other reading. Useful websites: the Cinderella Project http: //www-dept.usm.edu/engdept/cinderella; http: //avatar.lib.usm.edu/-degrum; http: //vtc.ngfl.gov.uk/literacy/activities/site/html

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Chapter 6

Writing poetry The Little Box If I had a little box I would put a bead in it because it will make it pretty. I would put a crumb in because it won’t take up much room, and a ring because it looks lovely inside and one of the prickles on my toothbrush and a speckle of sugar. Cecily, aged 6 Cecily wrote this after hearing The Magic Box by Kit Wright. Mushu’s Rap My name is Mushu I’m really groovy They thought I was stupid Now I’m in a movie My name is Mushu My dad was a chicken And my mum was cooking Barbecued finger lickin’

Poetry needs to be rolled around the mind and tongue, given air and space, if it is to satisfy the writer. Both Cecily and David relish the language they use – either because of the alliterative ‘prickles’ and ‘speckle’ or because of the jaunty rhythms of rap. Both draw on their personal and language experience and use the models of known forms for their own purposes. But these two young writers open up an area of problem and paradox which is often experienced when teachers want to support progress in poetic writing. Cecily could certainly be encouraged to develop her poetry writing by listening more for the pace and looking more at the placing of words on the page. David can be drawn into a wide range of poetic forms building on his strong sense of rhythm. But the implications of making progress in poetry can be tricky. On the one hand, teachers want to encourage individuality of voice, choice of subject and preferred form; on the other hand, poetry in the classroom can all too easily be reduced to exercises in using ‘powerful adjectives’. The dilemma is one of balancing voice and form, of considering how the technical aspects of structure and language relate to individual meaning.

David, aged 10 David composed this as part of a unit of work based on the film Mulan.

This chapter explores the dilemmas and delights of writing poetry and writing about poetry: ●

What is poetry?

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Case study Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 and 3: ‘Anything you want it to be’: reading and writing poetry

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Progress in writing poetry

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Writing poetry: structure, language and meaning

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Case study Key Stage 1: Poetry for all: pupils who speak English as an Additional Language

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Looking closely at language

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Case study Key Stage 2: poetry from word work

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Writing about poetry

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Case study Key Stage 3: a Year 7 Poetry Unit

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The environment for poetry

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Teaching poetry: suggestions for writing

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Narrative poetry

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Responding to pupils’ poetry writing

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Writing poetry

What is poetry? We live in an age dominated by definition. This is nowhere more evident than in the NLS list of poems and poetry terminology. Questions often asked: What is the difference between a concrete poem and a shape poem? What on earth is a ‘thin’ poem? I’m alright on haiku, but what’s a cinquain? These can be answered with slick definitions, but these tell us nothing about the meanings expressed in any of these forms or why a poet – of any age and experience – might choose to write in a particular form. Trying to forge a definition of just what ‘poetry’ is, however, is a matter of more debate. It might start with ‘a lump in the throat’ as Robert Frost describes it or spring from fear as Seamus Heaney once said [both from a radio interview with Heaney in 1997]. Equally it might come from sheer joy in playing with language or from an urge to have fun. There certainly isn’t any consensus from poets, writers, teachers about just how to define poetry – thanks be. Perhaps it might be more fruitful to think about where poetry might come from – or where, as teachers, we might be able to conjure its shape-shifting presence. In the following reflective case study, Anthony Wilson points out that ‘as soon as we call poetry one thing, along comes a poem to blow our tidy theories out of the water’. Recognising this, he offers some starting points for thinking, beginning with his own enthusiasm for teaching poetry.

Case study Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 or 3: ‘Anything you want it to be’: reading and writing poetry I have always enjoyed poetry teaching more than any other part of the primary English curriculum. By ‘poetry teaching’ I mean a mixture of reading, listening to and discussing poems and writing them. I often wonder if I am alone in this, and whether this is due to the chance reaction of background, education and personal preference; or of the dominance of one over the others. When I look back to my own schooling I recall the gifted teaching of several teachers, who at different times put me in touch with poems I found interesting, and with a range of ways of talking about things which were important to me, both in poetry and prose. Looking back further I recall my grandfather’s terrible jokes and puns at Sunday lunch; the sense of satisfaction and completion at the end of certain rousing hymns; and what Seamus Heaney has called the ‘sprung rhythms’, not, as for him, of the shipping forecast, but of the football results, with their seemingly endless possibility for delight and disappointment. To use another of his phrases, the ‘locale’ my ear was ‘bedded in’ was a real mixture of popular verse, serious wordplay and the often meaningless (but nevertheless marvellous) soundscape of playground chants and rhymes like ‘Georgie Best/Superstar/He looks like a woman and he wears a bra’ (by the genius Anon, to the tune of ‘Jesus Christ Superstar’). I don’t really remember reading any ‘proper’ poetry until I was thirteen. (I do remember

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reading, once, Robert Louis Stevenson’s ‘The Swing’, which I loved because it spoke the world as I saw it. But I don‘t remember who showed it to me or why or how long we looked at it or talked about it, if indeed we did.) Aged thirteen, then, I was shown something about a fox by someone called Ted Hughes. Reading him was a revelation. Partly this was because it said ‘Ted Hughes’ at the bottom of the page and not Charles Wesley or Isaac Watts: it meant someone who wasn’t a hymnwriter had meant those words to come out in that way for some reason. There was a person behind the words, they hadn’t just fallen out of the sky, fully formed, in four-line stanzas. And the words were about something: a fox, yes, that was straightforward enough, and snow; but there was also something going on which was faintly smelly, a bit strange and a bit spooky, which we didn’t really get and to which there wasn’t an absolute right answer. I was enthralled and puzzled and a little nonplussed all at the same time. Then we were asked to write a poem, not in the lesson, but for homework. The subject was ‘Black’. I didn’t know where to start or what to say. I think I talked about night and darkness and fears. But I certainly remember how I finished my poem, with a great big rhetorical flourish along the lines of ‘Black has many wondrous meanings.’ I was really proud of it. So when I got my book back with 6/10 and ‘You have spoiled quite a nice poem with a rather obvious ending’ written next to it I was disappointed. It was a very long time before I worked out what I had done wrong. I wonder if this is the model of poetry we have in our minds as we set out to plan and teach young people this most rich, demanding and rewarding of language forms. Do we think of poetry as something which can encompass the jokes, rhymes and punchlines our classes are already familiar with as they enter school? Is it something we encourage them to experiment with in their own writing, as real writers do? Or do we think of poetry only in terms of difficulty, what William Carlos Williams called ‘machine(s) made of words’, built to endure all the deconstructive criticism we can throw at it? Do we unconsciously promote the idea that, when it comes to writing it, children must get it right first time; and are we honest with them about the things we are looking for when we assess it? In fairness, perhaps, these are false extremes: poetry will always inhabit all ends of the spectrum, from ‘My Old Man’s a Dustman’, through cummings’ ‘in Just’, to ‘To Autumn’. As soon as we call poetry one thing, along comes a poem to blow our tidy theories of what it is out of the water. (And sometimes our clichés along with them.) My proposal is that we should not worry as teachers what the ‘correct’ thing to say about poetry is, so much as give our classes plenty of opportunities to discover for themselves which poetry they like and don’t like and for them to have time to work out why. Coupled to that I think children need a mixture of models to work from, and to be given a sense of being allowed to say what they want to say in the forms they choose. Which is a much more risky project, and costly, in terms of time and resources, than we might imagine. I came to thinking about all of this on the back of an answer a Year 6 girl gave to me in an interview recently at the end of a research project I have undertaken on poetry at KS2. Having worked with one class nearly over a two year period I was

Writing poetry asking questions about how their perceptions of poetry had changed from when I started my work with them. I was told: ‘I thought a poem was just one thing and that’s it, but now I think it can be all different things, it can be anything you like.’ ‘Anything you like’: what an extraordinarily mature appraisal! When I asked what had made this change of opinion happen the answer came back that it was to do with two things: looking at ‘loads of different stuff’; and ‘[getting] better at listening to other people reading poems’. Later on in the interview she opened up about writing and discussing poems with her grandmother, mother and sister at home, something I had never heard her say before. The poetry writing she did at school was an extension of a discussion she was already having at home. This is radical and profound because it means if pupils are given time to engage with a big range of poetry and to write, for each it will have an impact on the way poetry can be appreciated. By that I don’t mean pulled apart like a butterfly under a glass case, I mean discussed, thought of, considered, reflected upon and used. I believe the NLS promotes this kind of activity; but that sometimes we read into it, in our search for certainty, a knowledge first, risk second approach. It is not difficult to do, but it does take courage to sustain.You get out your poetry collection (start building) and you let the children read and talk and debate and ask you difficult questions. Ask yourself: do you want children thinking of the language arts as wide and full of possibilities, or as a row of ticks to get right? If children aged 12 can see poetry as ‘anything you want it to be’ isn’t it about time our teaching tried to live up to that promise? (Anthony Wilson, lecturer and poet, Exeter)

Progress in writing poetry Anthony Wilson identifies a range of early poetry experiences: home and cultural influences – radio, TV [now, of course, memories would include video and computer games] and significant adults: family members and teachers. Experience and enjoyment of poetry often starts with hearing it, perhaps as the lyrics of songs or rhymes, feeling it in the bones as you skip, joining in with others in subversive, rude or cheeky rhymes. Poetry is appreciated by all the body – the eye, tongue, ear, limbs, heart, bones and blood – but also by the mind. In its written and performance forms it depends on the arrangement of sound in space; it has its own choreography on the page and its rhythms, emphases and cadences in the airwaves. The heard and felt experience of poetry is the starting point for the risky business of writing. It is often through writing poetry that writers find their voice – or voices – to say what they want to say. However, in this chapter, a sense of progress is not confined to writing poems; it includes writing about poetry and drawing on poetry for other kinds of writing. Poetry offers young writers scope in developing their ability to manage a increasingly wide range of forms. It also allows them to develop analytical, critical and evaluative ways of writing. It offers the experience of writing in a range of forms in order to make decisions about how, when and what to write. The kinds of poetry – in the form of lullabies, nursery

rhymes, nonsense songs or television advertisements – which surround children at home is often highly repetitive and rhythmic. They will be used to rhymes, jingles and songs drawn from their communities, their families, television and audio tapes. The job of the teacher is to extend that experience and to help children pay conscious attention to poetic forms of all kinds. It is perhaps a greater challenge with the new emphasis on teachers-as-writers promoted by shared writing, although this is the ideal opportunity to talk with pupils about the relationship between structure, language and meaning and the struggle to get that meaning into shape.

Writing poetry: structure, language and meaning Scaffolding is now well-acknowledged as a valuable way of supporting writing. However, sometimes problems can crop up if the ‘scaffolds’ used become more like prisons, cramping the young writer into a shape determined by the teacher. A genuinely helpful scaffold should be seen as just that: a framework which can help build a structure of any shape and, importantly, which can be taken away leaving the structure standing firmly. Very often, poems themselves offer such scaffolding. The first case study describes work from a one-term project to ensure the full participation of EAL pupils in the National Literacy Strategy. The aim was to explore the role of partnership in the literacy hour in Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2 classrooms. This account of work with a Year 1 class is written by Janet Campbell Adviser for Ethnic Minority Achievement, LcaS Developments, in the London Borough of Enfield, who acted as the language support teacher in the classroom.

Case study Key Stage 1: Poetry for all: pupils who speak English as an Additional Language working in the literacy hour Spider Spider Spider spider: bath walker Spider spider people scarer Spider spider drainpipe climber Spider spider fast runner But not as fast as me! Nasrin, the author of this poem is a Bengali speaker who, at the time of writing, was in Year I in a multilingual primary school in north London. Nasrin and about 40 per cent of her classmates had come into school at the age of three with little experience of English but lots of experience of her first language. The poetry unit was planned by the class teacher in partnership with a language support teacher who would be in the class for two literacy hours a week. A classroom assistant who

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Writing poetry supported the literacy hour every day was also part of the planning team and took an active role in the whole class sessions as well as supporting in group and individual work. The NLS text level reading and writing objectives (Year 1 Term 3) for the unit of work were: • • • • •

to read a variety of poems on similar themes; to collect class and individual favourite poems for class anthologies; to participate in reading aloud; to use poems as models for own writing; to compose own poetic sentences, using repetitive patterns, carefully selected sentences and imagery.

As the children had limited experience of poetry beyond nursery rhymes it was decided that they would need time to listen to, read and discuss a variety of poems before attempting to write. Over a three week unit of work, two weeks were devoted to reading and talking about poems with a focus on meaning and feelings as well as structural features such as rhyming, alliteration and word order. The third week was spent carefully scaffolding the children’s writing so that they all achieved success as poets. The theme of ‘animals’ was chosen to complement the class topic for the term. To collect favourite poems the adults started by reading their own favourite animal poems and explaining why they liked them. As this was during the shared text session of the literacy hour the adult would also highlight any features present in the poem, Did it rhyme? Was it funny? What words were used to describe the animal? The word and sentence level objectives for this term do not support poetry writing so lessons were adapted within the structure of the literacy hour. Each day the class teacher, the support teacher and the classroom assistant took it in turns to read from an enlarged text using visual props in the form of magnet board figures or toys. Meanwhile the children were asked to bring in any poems which they enjoyed at home and these were word processed (for uniformity), copied out and illustrated for the class anthology. After two weeks’ reading and discussion, supported by group and individual work based on rhyming and descriptive vocabulary, attention was turned to supporting the children to write their own poems. Using the John Agard poem, ‘Call Alligator Long Mouth’ which had been read and enjoyed at the beginning of the unit as a model, the children were to compose a descriptive poem about another animal. A fluffy toy cat was passed around the class and the children’s descriptive words were scribed on a chart to be used as a word bank, e.g., claws, scratchy, sharp, pointy. Then together, using a framework ‘Call Tabby Cat’, a class poem was composed using the children’s word bank making it explicit that not all the collected words were being used. The children were then asked to write their own ‘Call Tabby Cat’ poems. At this stage a fairly tight frame was provided for the unconfident writers to encourage them to compose their poems using the class poem but asking them to finish with the final line, ‘and tell her she is . . .’ All the children completed their poems. The adults in the classroom focused on the less confident children, pointing out the word bank, helping to read the frame, listening to and

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encouraging ideas, and helping to spell any words which were not available. Hillal, a Turkish speaker, was good at following explicit instructions but tended not to join in whole class sessions. She was supported by the classroom assistant for her poem in Figure 6.1. Rosheen is a confident English speaker who loved her poetry work and brought in lots of favourites from home, including one she had written herself. Her poem in Figure 6.2 shows a very sure sense of pace and rhythm. Still thinking about poems which describe an animal, a spider was chosen for the next piece of writing (an earlier favourite had been about a spider in the bath and the children had loved the fact that the teacher was afraid of spiders). This time instead of describing what spiders look like, the word bank was made up of things spiders can do, e.g., lay eggs, frighten people, spin webs. Once the list was complete the teacher suggested turning the words round, making the verbs become nouns: Iays eggs – egg layer walks in the bath – bath walker The children gradually joined in the game and started to make suggestions of their own until the word bank was ready to compose the class poem. Remembering John Agard’s final line, ‘but better wait till you cross river’ the children were asked to finish their poems in a humorous way which referred back to the subject. They accomplished this brilliantly. Richmond is a Yoruba speaker from a bilingual family. He joined school in Reception and was quiet in class sessions but very clearly took a lot in. His Spider poem in Figure 6.3 shows a very acute visual and aural sense as he remembered to put the colon into each line. Nasrin’s poem, reproduced at the beginning of this account, was written independently except for the word ‘drainpipe’ which was not on the word bank and which she wanted to include. She became more and more involved as the poetry unit went on. The class contained pupils speaking a variety of languages at various stages of English language acquisition but there was no differentiation in the planning of this unit. Rather, the whole sequence of work was planned with the needs of the EAL pupils in mind and in this way the writing of the monolingual English speaking pupils was supported as well. To summarise the scaffolding that was put in place: A lot of time was spent reading and talking about poems before the children were asked to write. All the children needed this immersion in poetry to widen their experience. Visual support in the form of magnet board figures and toys were used to bring the poems to life. All children benefit from having visual and tactile support for texts and for EAL pupils this is essential. Every poem which was read as a shared text was clearly word processed and enlarged to ensure that the children could see and read it. Texts came from a variety of sources and none were in commercially produced ‘big books’. Simply enlarging texts on the photocopier from the book doesn’t often make them readable.

Writing poetry

Figure 6.1 Hillal’s ‘Call Tabby Cat’ poem

For each writing session a word bank was built up using the children’s suggestions. The children were already thinking about the words to be used and seeing them written before coming to the task. Paired talk was encouraged during the building of the word banks. All children need the opportunity to shape their thoughts and share their ideas before making them public; this is particularly important for EAL pupils who were paired with confident users of English. Teachers modelled writing the poems using the word banks explicitly to encourage the children to do the same (the scribed poems were left available for reference but no child copied word for word).

Standard practice within the literacy hour which has always been particularly beneficial to EAL pupils. Writing frames were used initially to encourage composition but for subsequent poems a simple title proforma was all that was needed. The frames provided support for unconfident writers at first and were used by many EAL pupils but once the children gained in confidence frames were no longer necessary. The adults worked as a team, and by clearly enjoying the process of sharing and writing poetry they inspired the children to participate with enthusiasm. The teamwork extended to families who took the children to the library and/or read poetry at home to contribute to the class anthology.

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Writing poetry

Figure 6.2 Rosheen’s ‘Call Tabby Cat’ poem Enthusiasm is a universal human experience which crosses linguistic and cultural boundaries. Sharing experience is a key element of inclusion. The children so enjoyed their poetry that, having met the NLS objectives, they opted to continue beyond the allotted three weeks and were very keen to share their work with the rest of the school in a special class assembly. The pupils who speak English as an Additional Language were fully included and poetry proved to be an excellent vehicle for extending language use and demonstrating understanding. (The examples used are from Green class, Brettenham primary school, Enfield. Class teacher: Helen Soteriou. Classroom assistant: Sally Rowledge. Language support teacher: Janet Campbell.)

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Looking closely at language Gilly McInnes used a different kind of scaffolding to help her Year 5 class write poetry. In Year 5, amongst the range of genres to study in the spring term are myths. The class studied a range of creation stories, one of which was ‘Pandora’s Box’. Gilly felt that Pandora’s story was particularly useful as it lends itself well to the coverage of the sentence level objective which addresses abstract nouns. It also gives a chance to focus on whole class and individual targets, for example, the Process target to review and edit writing to produce final form, matched to the needs of an identified reader. The pupils’ own targets were mostly related to revising and proofreading and choice of language.

Writing poetry

Figure 6.3 Richmond’s ‘Spider’ poem

Case study Key Stage 2: poetry from word work The Pandora story is good for speaking and listening activities and children thoroughly enjoy personifying abstract nouns which describe the human condition: for example: disease, cruelty, pain, old age, disappointment, jealously, death, hope. The children are very quick to understand this concept and will give you a host of other examples such as fear, loneliness, happiness, anger, rage, joy, friendship, love, hate. This also gives a chance for extended coverage of the term ‘antonym’. After imagining they were about to emerge from Pandora’s box in a style most befitting a given abstract noun, the pupils then set about describing themselves in more detail. We discussed the difference between abstract and

concrete, and the children became familiar with the features of concrete objects: they had an appearance, often a colour, a solidity which could be felt, often a smell and usually a place to be found. I wanted to use this stimulus to write poetry and began by telling the children that poems must paint a picture with words. This was especially challenging because of course by their very nature abstract nouns cannot be seen, so the pupils had no external vision to describe. I then asked them to decide on an abstract noun and invest it with concrete features. We began by giving the concepts a colour, basic at first and then listed variations. First we used colour charts from paint manufacturers. Next we discussed how the abstract nouns might feel to touch. Initial ideas such as ‘hard’, ‘lumpy’, etc. were extended using similes: As hard as rock/stone/nails, and thesauruses: lumpy, bumpy, jagged,

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Writing poetry sharp. When it came to taste and smell the children generally used references to foods that they personally didn’t like (sprouts and stilton were very popular!) and favourite foods that they found comforting or associated with good times. To extend the work I tried to evoke imagery by asking the class to imagine where they might be when they smelt or tasted their chosen metaphors. Generally their chosen settings for the ‘nasties’ in the realm of abstract nouns was a haunted house and in order to develop these evocative descriptions, I asked them, ‘If I went to a haunted house, what would I experience there?’ One child told me ‘I would hear confusing echoes that made me unsure of where I was.’ Using a thesaurus he developed this idea and came up with ‘bewildering’ for his final draft. Another suggestion for the habitat was ‘inside a person’s head or heart’ which was extended by my question of what sort of person it was: ‘Who would experience loneliness?’ The pupil responded, ‘Someone who hasn’t got any friends.’ When I later asked her to think about incorporating our work on suffixes, she redrafted the idea as ‘It lives in the hearts of the friendless.’ Figs 6.4 and 6.5 give examples of some of the impressive work the class produced.

Pain Pain is a rusty grey, It stinks of smoke and steam arising. It tastes of filthy, gritty salt. Pain screeches and yells like a steam train through a tunnel. It feels like a needle jabbing your heart. Pain lives in a hall of bewildering echoes.

Death Death is jade green with burning red eyes It smells like bruised and rotten eggs It tastes like muddy coal Death sounds like an ice-breaking screech It feels like jagged rock at the bottom of a cliff And it lives in the flames of HELL But dreads the clouds of HEAVEN Figures 6.4 and 6.5 Abstract noun poem

All achieved writing which was spare, clear and often haunting, sometimes funny, but in all cases they developed poetry which was a surprise to the writers themselves and which was much appreciated and enjoyed by parents and other teachers where it was displayed as part of a local project. (Gilly McInnes, Elmwood primary school, South Woodham Ferrers, Essex)

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Writing about poetry Pat Anderson also describes looking closely at language, but moves from pupils writing poetry themselves to their development of analytical and evaluative forms of writing. This brief case study describes work undertaken as part of one of the introductory units of work in the autumn term of Year 7: ‘Language and how we use it’. She describes a way of helping pupils appreciate how structure, language and meaning work together as well as showing how links can be made across the curriculum using poetry at Key Stage 3.

Case study Key Stage 3: a Year 7 Poetry Unit For this Unit, I work with the art teacher to make links with English so I pay particular attention to the visual aspects of poetry. The idea is that after we have modelled ‘visual response’ to a poem, the students choose and illustrate a poem writing a brief explanation of why they chose to illustrate it as they did. It makes a fast interactive display. Tennyson is ideal for visual response, and The Lady of Shalott gives plenty of material to work on – the long vowel sounds of the opening stanza evoking the flat, level, seemingly calm landscape, then the light, short ‘i’, ‘w’ and ‘wh’ sounds at the start of the second stanza breaks the calm as if with a light breeze. I don’t start like that, though; it’s important that the students get an idea of the tragedy being played out in this environment before going on to look at the language in detail. Also, although I later introduce Keeping’s wonderful illustrations to them, as well as the ‘classic’ Pre-Raphaelites, I begin with the verbal text alone because I want them to make their own mindscapes. We read, talk and think about it first. The students usually relish the pathos of this tragic love story, the idea of a curse, a handsome, but unaware, hero . . . and after modelling some ways of looking at how Tennyson has used language and punctuation to evoke mood, I get them digging into the text themselves. During discussions of the opening of the poem, we generate a list of prompt questions which I enlarge and put on the wall so that pairs and groups can refer to them when working independently: Look at the words chosen: • long/short vowel sounds? • what kind of consonant sounds? What effects do these have? Look at the imagery: • what patterns can you find? • does the imagery create a picture in your mind? Look at the ways the poet has used: • adjectives • adverbs • verbs What can you say about their effects?

Writing poetry Look at the punctuation: • what kinds? • why? Look at the length of the: • lines • stanzas/sections How does the arrangement of lines contribute to the poem? As a starter to their independent discussions, I just give them two stanzas of the poem to look at in detail. The first is the description of Sir Lancelot: ‘His broad clear brow in sunlight glow’d’ and the second, the Lady’s decision to look at him in the flesh: ‘She left the web’. I ask them, in pairs, to use the prompt questions to discuss how the language creates effect. After that, they join together as fours to see how far their ideas match up and then they note their individual responses on Post-It® notes to make an ‘instant’ display. I am always impressed by the response to this activity. For example, in one group, Leon, who doesn’t have a great history of successful literacy, wrote: All the stanza about Lancelot shines; Tennyson even makes him sing a ‘shiny’ song. (Leon) And a few other Post-It® comments show equally engaged response: Tennyson repeats ‘b’ and ‘d’ to show how strong Lancelot is. (Arron) The repeating ‘She’ and the short statements make it sound like footsteps. (Lauren) There’s no adjectives in The Lady’s stanza. It’s all hard and deliberate. (Jess)

read poems aloud, share opinions, swap favourites. This may not always be possible in Literacy Hour sessions so that creating a poetry environment might be more of a whole class, cross curricular matter or in the secondary school, a matter of claiming a part of the school display area as a ‘poetry zone’. It also means much more talk about poetry, if not in lesson time, perhaps in poetry clubs and read-ins. Cath Farrow describes how she offers her Year 3–4 class some choice in deciding which poems would be read aloud in the classroom and in developing ways of talking about poetry: At the beginning of the school year, I invited the children to choose poems suitable for reading aloud to the class. If, in their reading, they came across a poem which they enjoyed and they thought the rest of the class would enjoy, they were to put a slip of paper in the book marking the place and leaving it in a designated spot on my desk. I would make a time each day when I would pick up one of the books on the pile, having had a quick look at it first, and read the chosen poem. I would invite the child who had chosen it to comment on their choice if they wished, read the poem aloud myself, then invite comments from the class. In the discussion that followed, the children would explore ways of describing the effectiveness of the poems they heard. Gradually, with my help, they began to develop an appropriate vocabulary. I would take any opportunities presented to me to make relevant teaching points about aspects of poetry such as rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, imagery. The children’s understanding of poetry began to develop, they were able to compare the poem of the day with the ones they had previously met and sometimes further work, initiated by me or by the children themselves, would follow – ‘We could write one like that,’ or ‘That would make a good painting,’ were suggestions made by the children at different times. This led to some interesting choices, for example, in the spring term after a science lesson where the children were watching a television programme about animal predators. Figure 6.6 shows how Andrew decided to re-present his notes as a haiku. (Cath Farrow, Tadley, Hampshire)

When they’ve had a chance to read and discuss a range of responses, we look at some illustrations of the poem and discuss whether the artists’ interpretations fit with the students’ ideas. After that, they’re ready to select their own favourites, illustrate and comment on them for our first end-of-Unit display. I can then assess their ability to write reflectively. (Pat Anderson works in a comprehensive school in north London)

The environment for poetry Creating an environment where writing poetry, as well as writing about and from poetry, can flourish, often means providing anthologies, wall displays of shape poems, picture books of narrative poems, video and audio tapes, poetry cards. . . . But it also involves creating a classroom atmosphere where risks can be taken. This means that discussion of poetry – our own and other people’s – needs to take place in an open and thoughtful way. It means planning for performance of different kinds of poetry and opportunities to

Figure 6.6 Andrew’s haiku from a television programme Andrew’s choice of poetic form is one very clear indicator of progress in writing poetry – the ability to select a way of expressing ideas which will satisfy the writer. 115

Writing poetry

Teaching poetry: suggestions for writing These might be used with any year group in Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 or 3

Writing poetry Parodies: starting with strongly rhythmic poems – limericks, nonsense verse . . . Listing phrases people say: excuses if something’s been broken or ‘what teachers say to make you work harder’

Writing for competitions/publication: school, local or national, often promoted by magazines like Young Writer

Poems about writing poetry: ‘A poem begins as . . .’ or a recipe for writing

Across the curriculum: the weather – a list of descriptive phrases to make a haiku or renga; a ‘recipe’ for a historical event – Take 1 arrow, 1,000 soldiers, a teaspoon of mist . . .

Sense stimuli as starting points: touch, taste, smell, mindscapes, memory . . .

What do I see? Images from pictures, films, comics, books, video games, dreams . . .

Working with a poet: DfES and the Poetry Society have launched Poetryclass, an initiative which will train up to 50 poets this year around the country to work with teachers and provide an on-line teacher resource and website

Orally composed and performed poetry: raps, rhyming jokes, jingles for advertisements, questions and answers, repeated refrains, lyrics . . .

Writing about poetry Poem of the Week: poems selected and commented on by pupils (on a noticeboard/database/ in the poetry zone) Reading for inference: narrative poems for other activities which show comprehension: •

•

mapping The Lady of Shalott by Tennyson or Hiawatha by Longfellow: What are the features of the landscape mentioned in the poem? discussing moral questions like the piper luring the children away in Browning’s Pied Piper of Hamelin or Beowulf killing Grendel

About issues: for PSHE or debates about dilemmas, or specific issues (see p. 117, Narrative poetry) Comparisons: the same subject matter written about by different poets – poems about families, animals . . . in themed anthologies for other classes Looking at language used for particular effects: commenting on alliteration, onomatopoeia, syllables, metaphor, metre, refrain, simile . . . or comparing older language use with modern expression

Writing from poetry Creating new stories: explaining the mystery of Flannan Isle by Wilfred Gibson or what happened when the family got home after The Car Trip by Michael Rosen

Transforming poems: making a storyboard for a ‘trailer’ for a narrative poem; rewriting from the point of view of one of the characters, for example ‘the accident with the bucket’ according to Jack or Jill

Replying to poems: a letter from or about Lulu in reply to Causley’s Whatever Happened to Lulu? or a postcard from the Owl and the Pussycat on honeymoon

Taking a key line as the opening for a narrative: ‘I sit and look out’ Walt Whitman or ‘Don’t put . . .’, or questions from Rosen’s anthology Don’t Put Mustard in the Custard

Adding to poems: new sections to Bringing the Rain to Kapiti Plain by Verna Aardema starting ‘This is . . .’ or additional stanzas for Kit Wright’s Magic Box Focusing on character: describe or write a character sketch of a nursery rhyme character or Tim the ostler in The Highwayman by Alfred Noyes

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(James Carter’s manual Creating Writers offers a wealth of workshop activities for encouraging poetry writing in the classroom.)

Writing poetry

Narrative poetry Narrative poems have the advantage of providing opportunities for looking at structure and language within the space of a week or so without doing the poem to death – a concern about looking at the technicalities of poetry. The language is usually not modern, so provides much meat for rolling it around the tongue, performance and analysis. Importantly, also, narrative poems offer the chance to consider theme in some depth. There are plenty of opportunities for discussing and capturing ideas through drama and role play as a prelude to writing: •

•

•

•

•

The Highwayman allows discussion of loyalty, self sacrifice, brutality, the effects of war. Using ‘freeze frame’ groups depict part of the story and write a statement about it, commenting on the actions of the key characters. When the statements are put together they make a summary of the narrative and a basis for discussing the soldiers’ actions towards Bess. Hiawatha can be a chance to explore family, faith and culture. Students might be asked, as part of a crosscurricular project with religious education, for example, to gather stories about how the world was made, and re-tell them as Nokomis might have told them. Beowulf tells of courage, leadership and cruelty. Individuals might tell in role how Grendel’s mother feels after her only son has been killed. Groups of Geat warriors might whisper their fears in the dark as they wait for the attack or make up songs of victory for the final celebration. Flannan Isle, apart from being a wonderful mystery story, allows scope for considering isolation. Television interviews with ex-lighthouse keepers might shed some light on the mystery or the wives of the lost men tell of the last letters they received, hinting at danger. Island stories abound, and pupils might make an audio diary of a few weeks of a shipwrecked mariner. The Pied Piper of Hamelin offers an ideal opportunity to explore moral issues about justice/injustice and retribution. The Circle of consequence is a recording/ planning format which can be used for whole class or group discussion. As Figure 6.7 shows, the teacher writes Getting rid of the rats in the central circle. The class suggest ways to get rid of rats and these are recorded on the next circle, for example, ‘trapping them’. The suggestions should be recorded without comment at this stage. Each of the solutions is then considered in turn to discuss what the consequences might be: problem of finding enough traps; how to get rid of the dead bodies. . . These are recorded on the outer circle. Groups in role as townspeople then decide which solution seems to have the least harmful consequences. Each group chooses a chairperson to organise the discussion and make sure everyone has a say; a note-taker to record the decisions and a spokesperson to report the decision. The plenary is a

good time to hear each report back and each possible solution can then be evaluated in terms of its consequences. This is a useful format for discussion of any issue which might have several solutions.

How do we get rid of the bodies?

Where will the traps come from?

TRAPS Where do we get so many cats?

GETTING RID OF THE RATS CATS

POISON

What about danger to children? … other animals

Costly to feed How to dispose of the bodies?

Figure 6.7 Circle of consequence: writing about possible outcomes

Another advantage to narrative poetry lies in the different versions which can be compared. These can often give a more shaded slant on the themes which underlie the tale. Picture books are particularly valuable for comparison with originals. There are fine versions of Beowulf, The Lady of Shalott and The Highwayman illustrated by Charles Keeping and in the picture book of The Pied Piper of Hamelin by Drahos Zak and Robert Holden, the central theme is about how the adults in Hamelin value money more than their honour – or their children. The structure of narrative poetry offers a compact model for examining episodes in a story. Comparing The Pied Piper with the prose version of by K.M. Peyton is a good model for the class to write their own stories as the retelling is short and clearly divided into sections. It also offers an alternative interpretation as it focuses on one child’s loneliness. And in Year 8 there are opportunities to study Browning’s narrative poetry, for example, as part of work to ‘recognise the conventions of some common literary forms’ (Year 8 Reading for Meaning objective 5). By reading The Pied Piper alongside Browning’s My Last Duchess, students can ‘trace the development of themes, values or ideas in texts.’

Responding to pupils’ poetry writing It can sometimes seem tricky to respond to pupils’ own poetry writing in a way which respects the writer’s intentions but helps to identify strengths and growing points. Response can be made to elements of structure, language 117

Writing poetry and meaning. However, since writers themselves should be steadily developing independent strategies, responding to their own poetry gives pupils the chance for personal reflection. When reading poetry together, the teacher’s modelling gives examples of the type of response which might be made. Becoming more assured in poetry writing means having the experience to make choices about what and how to write. Encouraging pupils to respond as thoughtful and attentive readers of their own writing is part of that process. In Figure 6.8 James Carter offers a very useful ‘Poetry Checklist’ for young writers to look carefully at their own writing.

Useful resources Sandy Brownjohn, To Rhyme or not to Rhyme?, Hodder and Stoughton James Carter, Rap it Up: Reading, Writing and Performing Raps in the Classroom, poetry anthology, teacher’s guide and CD of rap poetry and music, Questions Publishing. Paul Cookson The Works: Every Kind of Poem You Will Ever Need for the Literacy Hour, Macmillan Children’s Books Anthony Wilson with Sian Hughes The Poetry Book for Primary Schools, The Poetry Society Cliff Yates Jumpstart: Poetry in the Secondary School, The Poetry Society. Listen and Write www.bbc.co.uk/education/listenandwrite

POETRY CHECKLIST When you are reading through a draft there are many things to think about. The questions below may help you to develop your poem. Language Do you repeat some words too often? Is any of the phrasing awkward? Are there too many adjectives or adverbs? Are there too many overused adjectives (nice, beautiful, lovely etc.)? Are you using clichés (unoriginal phrases) that could be changed? Are you using metaphors or similes? Are there too many? Do your rhymes work well? Are you using words just for the sake of a rhyme? Image Are you painting a full picture for your reader? Are your descriptions too vague or unclear? Structure Do you have a good beginning, middle and end? Does the opening grab your attention and make you want to go on? Have you got the best possible opening line or stanza? Rhythm Do the words, phrases and lines flow? How well does it read out loud? Is the rhythm working well overall? Do you keep to the same rhythm throughout? General Are your lines the right length? Should the poem be in a different form? Is the poem too complicated? Is the title right? Is the poem original in any way? Is there anything in the poem that you don’t need? Does the poem do what you want it to do? Will the poem make sense to a reader How will a reader respond to this? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the poem? The next step How can it be improved? What needs to be done next? If you have gone through the checklist and you are not sure what needs to be done next, leave your poem for a while and come back to it later.

PHOTOCOPIABLE PAGE © RoutledgeFalmer

Figure 6.8 Poetry checklist from Creating Writers by James Carter

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Writing poetry

Key issues in this chapter ●

Developing sensitive response to poetry means writing poetry, writing about poetry and writing using poetry as a springboard for ideas. Poetry offers ideal scaffolds for the beginnings of writing.

●

Making progress in writing poetry includes grappling with the demands of form and structure whilst chasing and capturing language to give reality to ideas and imagination. It requires a careful choreography of sound, space, pace and silences.

●

Teachers might take a few risks themselves, writing alongside pupils, sharing the pleasures and problems of careful, as well as ebullient, construction.

Key texts James Carter, Creating Writers: a creative writing manual for schools Paul Cookson, The Works: Every Kind of Poem You Will Ever Need for the Literacy Hour

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Chapter 7

Writing non-fiction There is no doubt that, as they encounter writing in the world of school, children will be expected to learn and follow certain conventions. It is equally certain that these conventions are no more than temporary; writing changes. (Meek 1996: 27)

It’s odd to describe something by what it’s not – in this case, non-fiction. It seems as though it isn’t genuinely a category at all if it can’t be named – and perhaps, in the case of ‘non-fiction’ this is so. Some people prefer the terms ‘nonnarrative’ or ‘non-chronological’ but these can include poetry and other forms of reflective writing, and non-fiction can be narrative, of course. Perhaps the lack of a genuinely useful general description reveals the substance of the problem – that such forms of writing occupy more of a continuum than separate categories and that often there are overlaps. What is more, as technology offers greater access to different kinds of text making, new forms of writing develop. How might we categorise chat-room writing or

interactive involvement in hypertext writing? How are multimodal texts categorised since they depend on display features for their coherence and cohesions? Changes in ‘textnology’ demand new ways of describing texts. Despite all of this, every day teachers have to help developing writers experience and explore the different types of writing they might want to use to express their own meanings. So, for the purpose of ease, this chapter remains titled ‘non-fiction writing’ in the hope that readers will agree for the moment that trying to reach hard and fast definitions is not only distracting but can also very quickly become out of date. Better, perhaps to concentrate on how ideas and meanings can be shaped to communicate with specific readers.

This chapter begins by looking at what progress in non-fiction writing might look like, examining the notion of genre to try to unpick some of the complexities of boundaries and definitions. Case study examples from Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 depict the range of writing generally assumed to come under the heading ‘nonfiction’ and the ways in which writing can be used to help generate thoughts, gather, categorise and re-present them then reflect on learning. ● Writing and learning ● Revisiting genre: the structure of fiction and non-fiction texts ● Progression in non-fiction writing ● Scaffolds and writing frames ● Hypothesising, predicting, gathering, organising and categorising information ● Preparation, getting ideas going, framing questions, exploring ideas ● Case study Key Stage 1: what I know and what I want to find out ● Giving information to others, communicating ideas, reflecting on learning ● Case study Key Stage 2: writing and Design Technology ● Describing, persuading, arguing ● Case study Key Stage 2: making frames for information and persuasive writing ● Evaluating and reviewing progress ● Case study Key Stage 3: learning to write like a geographer

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Writing non-fiction

Writing and learning Writing and thinking are very closely linked. It follows, then, that writing has a key role to play in learning. Whilst the role of writing in learning might previously have been seen solely as a way of demonstrating what learners have ‘covered’, it is now much more widely recognised that writing helps to construct learning. Whilst of course these links between writing and cognitive development can be recognised in narrative writing, dialogue and poetry, the main emphasis on writing for learning has become linked with non-fiction texts. Writing fulfils a role in demonstrating that something has been learned, but it is not just evidence that ground has been covered; it enters all stages of the process to help in: • • • • •

hypothesising, predicting, gathering, organising and categorising information; preparation, getting ideas going, framing questions, exploring ideas; giving information to others, communicating ideas, reflecting on learning; explaining, describing, persuading, arguing; evaluating and reviewing progress.

Revisiting genre: the structure of fiction and non-fiction texts Genre theory is controversial because it is argued that texts cannot always be fitted into neat categories. This is certainly evident when considering non-fiction texts. It may be more fruitful, then, to look at the features which help distinguish between different kinds of text. If writers want to shape content and meaning for a chosen readership, then they need experience of the ways texts are structured and organised. Shaping meaning gives coherence to a text: the writer’s ideas follow a logic intended to communicate something to someone – often described as ‘purpose’ and ‘audience’. This, in turn, means choosing structural, organisational and language features which are linked to the purpose and audience for the text. There has to be some kind of rule of thumb for distinguishing between – and within – the broad categories ‘fiction’ and non-fiction’. Such distinctions can be found in their textual and grammatical structures as identified by a combination of, for example: • •

• • • •

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the content chosen; the implied relationship between the writer and the reader: for example, whether the text is written in the first or third person and whether it directly addresses the reader or takes a more impersonal tone; whether there is dialogue or reportage; chronological or non-chronological organisation of material; the use of verbs: active/passive; past/present/future; action/stative; modal; the text cohesive devices used; connectives, conjunctions, pronoun patterns, repetition . . .;

•

features of layout, organisation of material, use of pictorial or diagrammatic detail.

Where events lend shape to fictional structures, the text coherence of non-fiction text often depends on logical and systematic sequencing of the content. There is, of course, a wide variety of texts in non-fiction, some of them highly visual: environmental print of all kinds, including advertising and presented in a range of media; reference books and material; specialist information books, films, videos and CDROMs; photographs; reports in newspapers, magazines and business material; biography and autobiography; persuasive texts – often experienced as orally presented on television; instructions and explanations in leaflets, manuals, guide books, cookery books; maps and their keys; diagrams, tables of figures and charts; analysis, commentary and reviews. And no doubt more. Whilst these are often used as the basis for informationgathering in learning, there is not as much emphasis put on the way they are constructed as texts. Pupils might be asked to write in a variety of these forms, but until recently there has not been a great deal of explicit discussion of how an information leaflet or a guide for the local church is put together. At the same time, when young writers are asked to use information texts as sources for information gathering there is often a concern about them copying chunks of undigested material into their own work. This perennial concern of teachers – how to turn information into understanding – can be helpfully dealt with by discussing non-fiction texts as carefully and thoroughly as teachers discuss fiction, plays and poetry. Drawing on the work of genre theorists, in the Extending Literacy (EXEL) project, David Wray and Maureen Lewis identified some generally used types of non-fiction writing and their text structures (Wray and Lewis 1997: 119). The two left hand columns in Figure 7.1 show how Wray and Lewis categorise the functions of texts and their structures. The two right hand columns give examples of representative language features and everyday forms of such texts. In seeking to redress a previous silence in many classrooms about just how we might write non-fiction texts, the NLS uses the typology of texts in Figure 7.1. However, since writing non-fiction in classrooms often means taking information from other sources and re-presenting it, theories of text structures are criss-crossed by theories about information retrieval. The non-fiction aspects of writing in the NLS reflect these different emphases, including, for example, at Key Stage 1, aspects of note-making and information gathering, learning about typographical and layout features – labelling and captions – as well as genre-functional categories like instructions and recounts. Many classroom discussions about non-fiction texts begin with looking at presentational [layout and typographical] features: headings, indexes, contents pages, glossaries, captions, bullet points, different fonts. However, less emphasis is laid on the conceptual organisation of texts; this can be a significant problem for children who are asked to gather information and write from it in the classroom. As Helen Arnold explains:

Writing non-fiction Text type

Text structure •

recount

• •

• • report

•

procedural

• • •

• • explanation •

•

• argument •

•

• discussion

• •

Language features

scene-setting opening [orientation] recount of events as they occurred closing statement [reorientation]

• •

opening, general classification description of phenomenon, including some or all of its: qualities, parts and their function, habits, behaviour, uses

Everyday forms

past tense chronological order using temporal connectives usually 1st person [I, we]

story-like, ‘telling’ of a sequence of events in order to inform or entertain the reader, e.g. journals and diaries intended for publication

• • •

present tense non-chronological often 3rd person [they, these creatures]

clearly factual material, classifying or describing how things are, e.g. reference books, dictionaries, maps and diagrams

statement of what is to be achieved list of materials/equipment series of sequenced steps to achieve the goal often includes diagrams or illustration

•

present tense or imperative chronological order often 2nd or 3rd person [you, users]

instructions, directions, rules of ‘how to do’ activities; recipes; manuals

general statement to introduce the topic series of logical steps explaining how or why something occurs these steps continue until the final state is produced or the explanation is complete

• •

present tense uses temporal connectives [then, next] and/or causal connectives [because, so]

information books [ like those used in schools]; why or how something works or how a natural or social process operates

opening statement [thesis] often in the form of a position/preview; arguments often in the form of point + elaboration summary or restatement of the opening position [reiteration]

• •

present tense focus mainly on generic participants mainly logical rather than temporal connectives [however, on the other hand]

a set of persuasive points, as in advertisements, brochures, political pamphlets; in academic circles it can be seen as one kind of ‘usual’ essay form

statement of the issue + preview of the main arguments arguments for + supporting evidence arguments against + supporting evidence a recommendation given as a summary and conclusion

• •

present tense usually 3rd person [people or things] logical connectives [this means that, nevertheless]

presentation of different views, often in reports which make a final recommendation – as in the writing of official review body reports; the ‘other’ kind of essay for academic purposes

•

• •

•

•

Figure 7.1 Text types, language features and everyday forms The major difference between the storage of narrative and story and the way we hold on to information is that we tend to store the events of stories horizontally (sequentially and chronologically) whereas words about things are categorised into hierarchies – vertically – with the umbrella word at the top of the tree becoming an abstract term.

Let us take Animals as one of the class of things within our experience: this is a generalised term which embraces mammals, insects, fish, etc. – these also are generalised terms. We can take one example of a mammal, say dog, and break that down into breeds of dog – retriever, spaniel, poodle and so on. At what point in this hierarchy of terms can we picture an actual dog 123

Writing non-fiction in our minds? Only at the lowest level where dog owners would probably picture their own dog. But the higher generalised categories cannot be imaged. Nobody can present a satisfactory conglomerate image of animal. (Arnold 1998: 000) Differences between the sequential organisation of narrative and the hierarchical organisation of information have implications for teaching children to retrieve and, importantly, to re-present information. Then there are further implications for teaching the forms through which information may be organised. If children are genuinely to transform information gathering into understanding, explicit attention has to be paid to the ways in which nonfiction texts operate in a conceptually – not just typographically – different way from narratives.

Progression in non-fiction writing Non-fiction writing combines the threads of: • •

styles and structures of different non-fiction texts; typographical and layout features of different non-fiction texts; the process of putting such texts together; the process of taking information from other non-fiction texts and re-presenting it; the process of assembling and expressing a personal and analytical view.

• • •

tackle and the different ways in which material can be assembled and organised to help construct those texts. Importantly, however, progression also lies in the cognitive complexity of the material used and written and the ability of the writer to construct a mental frame for explanation, analysis and argument. This is where scaffolding becomes critical. If developing writers are progressively to be able to construct arguments, synthesise different information, analyse opposing evidence, then the kinds of practice they have in shaping and framing ideas will have a significant effect on their later ability to do this.

Scaffolds and writing frames Frames and other graphic forms of organisation have become familiar as scaffolds for helping pupils to get their ideas together. The use of diagrams can mean that pupils whose preferences tend towards the graphic, diagrammatic and spatial have the chance to use their own text experience as well as laying down the kinds of cognitive patterning which helps them organise and understand information. For others, narrative reflection offers a chance to work out problems. Figure 7.2 shows how one Year 6 girl used her learning journal to note the progress of her ideas for a science problem-solving activity (NWP 1989: 43). After this journal page she went on to write out her plans in detail.

In terms of progression, the combination of these different aspects can be problematic. Gemma Moss outlines some of the difficulties for teachers in explicitly teaching children the ‘skills and competencies’ of reading and writing nonfiction through the National Literacy Framework: Such competencies are no longer presented as necessary adjuncts to the conceptual understandings fostered in other subject areas of the curriculum, such as history or science, but rather are treated as a set of skills which can be taught apart from these specialised domains, making a portable tool kit which will stand their user in good stead in a variety of contexts. (Moss 2001: 106) She raises the questions: What sense of progression or development underpins the whole? What are the pedagogical implications of trying to present these features, one after another, or side by side? Can/should they be taught in the same way? (ibid.: 106) Certainly, the National Literacy Strategy expects pupils progressively to develop more complex techniques for writing non-fiction, as does the National Curriculum for English. The progression is clear: it is related to the number of types of text which a young writer should be able to 124

Figure 7.2 Getting ideas going: a Year 6 science journal entry This journal entry serves as a warning against too-hasty ‘delivery’ of the curriculum. It also suggests the usefulness of providing experience of both narrative and diagrammatic ways of framing ideas. If discrimination and choice are markers of independence, then pupils need the chance to try things out, to fail and to succeed.

Writing non-fiction

Hypothesising, predicting, gathering, organising and categorising information

Who? What happened?

The different threads of non-fiction writing involve developing text knowledge, the process of taking information from other non-fiction texts and re-presenting it and the process of assembling and expressing a personal and analytical view. Jottings, fragments of ideas, noting stray thoughts, doodles . . . all these help writers to spark off ideas. Even with something as mundane as a shopping list, ideas tend to come when we start writing them down. In longer writing, opening sections often prepare the ground, giving a chance to circle round and work into thoughts. Diagrams or tables of items can give shape to more contrastive or comparative ideas. But there are differences in the process according to whether the information is coming from existing knowledge or is to be sought from other information texts. Very often, information-gathering activities in the classroom combine the two: pupils may be asked to make mind maps, lists of ideas or random jottings then to use these to identify areas for more research. Discussion and consultation help to work out ideas and a focus can be offered through a range of ‘talking frames’. As with other frames, these should be used as formats which can be adapted to different situations and which could be used for planning for non-written outcomes, such as talks or other presentations. The formats in Figs. 7.3, 7.4 and 7.5 signal that they are meant only for rough jottings rather than lengthy notes. Both can be used by pairs researching any subject.

JOTTER: TO BE THROWN AWAY

?

When?

How?

Why?

Figure 7.4 Note-making wheel

In pairs, make notes about different points of view: For

Against

then think about how you might deal with some of the points made: On the one hand …

On the other hand …

NAMES: TITLE: SECTIONS

NOTES ON WHAT IS IN EACH SECTION

WHERE THE INFORMATION COMES FROM

• SECTION 1

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

useful words and phrases: but however even if although

Some people think … It might be better if … Another point of view … To sum up …

Figure 7.5 Two sides of an argument

QUESTIONS WE NEED TO ASK:

Figure 7.3 Disposable jotter

Preparation, getting ideas going, framing questions, exploring ideas Of course, any frames or formats like these need to be used as part of a planned process of teaching. Sally Wilkinson, an advisory teacher in Suffolk, used a ‘Know and Need to Know’ format with a Year 2 class. This sheet helps pupils 125

Writing non-fiction clarify what they already know and identify questions they want to research. She was working with a Year 2 teacher who wanted to include some factual writing as part of the class topic on animals.

Case study Key Stage 1: what I know and what I want to find out The authors of non-fiction material sometimes go unmentioned, unlike their counterparts who write fiction, so first I showed and read extracts from information books to the children highlighting the fact that the author in each case was an expert in their field. We then looked at how a non-fiction book was constructed with sections on different aspects of a topic, as well as the use of contents pages and indexes.

With the purpose of their future writing established, the project began with the children talking to a partner about an animal they were interested in and that they thought they knew something about. As a class we then listened whilst some of the children volunteered interesting information that was possibly new to them that they had been told by their partner. The children were then asked to think of information that they would like to know about their partner’s chosen animal, for example, where it lived or what it ate, and in their pairs they then asked each other questions. I stressed that the person being questioned didn’t have to answer if they were unsure. Towards the end of the lesson I introduced writing as a way for the children to remember what they had told their partner. I asked them to write what they remembered on the left-hand side of a sheet of paper, under the heading I know. On the right-hand side they made a list of their partner’s questions which they had been

Figure 7.6 Joshua’s ‘Know and Would Like to Know’ sheet

Figure 7.7 Joshua’s Post-It® pads of what he has found out about dogs 126

Writing non-fiction

Figure 7.8 Pages 1 and 4 of Joshua’s book on dogs

unable to answer under I would like to know. It was stressed that this writing was solely for them to make a note of what they wanted to remember and that they could write single words or sentences, whichever helped them. Joshua’s response (Figure 7.6) was typical of many in the class as he confidently said that he knew everything there was to know about his chosen animal, the dog. Over the next week the children were involved in reading and looking at pictures in books and asking family members about their animal. They were then given three sheets from a Post-It® pad. On one they recorded something they had known about their animal from the outset of the project, on the next something which they had found out during the project and on the last something they still wanted to know. It is interesting that the information which Joshua had found out had not come from books, but from watching his granddad’s dog, Lucy (Figure 7.7). He also now had a question that he genuinely wanted to find out the answer to: Do dogs in different countries live with humans all the time? Joshua had been able to take control of his learning because he had been given the time to talk about his chosen animal, the sources to find out more – both human and in books – and an approach which included writing as a way of aiding and reflecting on learning. He was now able to research the answer to his question and include the information that he found in his own non-fiction book. Figure 7.8 gives an example of two pages from his final book. (Sally Wilkinson, now Literacy Consultant for Suffolk. This is an extract from a fuller article which appeared in Use of Language Across the Primary Curriculum (Wilkinson 1999: 21))

Giving information to others, communicating ideas, reflecting on learning Successful re-presentation of information from books in pupils’ own writing begins with a combination of browsing around the sources of information – existing knowledge,

books, CDROMs, other people – and talk. This can be particularly important for pupils who are in the process of learning English as an Additional Language. The following work is part of the London Borough of Enfield (LcaS) Turkish Cypriot Achievement Project. The project investigated the factors which support or prevent achievement in writing, particularly focusing on Turkish Cypriot pupils. Kathy Coulthard, one of the Project Directors, describes work which she and Bill Jenkins, a Year 4 class teacher, carried out using talk as a rehearsal for non-fiction writing.

Case study Key Stage 2: writing and Design Technology As part of our project, Bill Jenkins and I decided to use talk as a rehearsal for non-fiction writing. We also wanted to cover a range of types of texts – spoken and written – and to link these, where possible, with Literacy activities. There were 30 pupils in the class, none of them absolute beginners in speaking or writing English, but over two-thirds of them from black and ethnic minority backgrounds. The QCA Design Technology scheme of work Unit 4B Storybooks was ideal for this project. We worked for one afternoon a week for 7 weeks. The class [who might be described by the euphemism ‘lively’!] were going to make storybooks with control mechanisms: hinged flaps, sliders, rotating discs and levers. The project would explicitly use practical, spoken and written models and examples and the writing activities would cover instructions, explanation, reflection and narration. We also wanted to build in opportunities for pupils to have conversations with each other about the work as they were making their books. Circle time became an essential part of the project. Pupils had to learn how to make each control mechanism before they could go on to choose appropriate models to use in their own books. We allocated three weeks at the beginning of the project to focus on each mechanism with two (slider and flap) being covered in the first week. I mention this because it was a week that turned out to be extremely significant in terms of our own learning and affected our teaching in the weeks that

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Writing non-fiction followed. We began this session by showing pupils examples of the mechanisms in Rod Campbell’s Dear Zoo and Jan Pienkowski’s Haunted House. We then modelled how to make a flap to hide an animal and a slider which would move the eyes on a cat shape from side to side. We did this Blue Peter style believing the combination of the oral and kinaesthetic to be the most effective way of transmitting instructions, certainly for those who struggled with literacy. The pupils’ practice task was to make one of the mechanisms. Some set to and were busily engaged but there was a significant number of children who were confused, who didn’t know where to start or paid little attention to accuracy. We went back to the drawing board and rethought our approach. The oral instructions had worked for those who learned through listening and doing but not for those whose learning style depended on the support of a written/visual text. I understand this well as my learning style relies heavily on the comfort of words. We decided, therefore, to write instructions to

use as an enlarged text model. Preparing these took a long time as we were keen to observe the most supportive practice with EAL learners and produce instructions with information carried pictorially or diagrammatically to complement the written text. Once we had refined the instructions, however, they proved a good support for modelling how to read this text type (see Figures 7.9 a) and b)). Having the enlarged text allowed us to talk about the purpose of procedural texts and the fact that you read them for the first time before doing anything and then use them as a prompt for practical activity. It makes the link for pupils between seeing, hearing and doing and so addresses different ways of learning – an important entitlement for all learners. We also decided to provide an A4 version of the instruction sheet as a further support for the practice task. We gave this to pairs of children rather than individuals. This was a deliberate strategy to encourage them to work collaboratively and support each other as they revisited the written text. The pairs were

Making a rotating disc

Making a sliding mechanism

1. Mark the centre of the disc. Make a small hole.

10 cm

1. Measure 10 cm from the longer side. Draw a line and cut strip to make slider.

2. Fold A4 card in half.

3. Draw a line 9 cm from fold. 11 cm

22 cm

2. Take the other piece of card. Measure 11 cm and 22 cm.

3. Score on the line. Fold to make a sleeve.

4. Draw a picture on the middle part of the sleeve.

4. Mark centre of line with an x. Make a small hole.

5. Place the centre of the disc on the x. 6. Draw round the disc. 7. Draw your picture in the circle on the card.

5. Cut out holes for eyes.

6. Place slider inside sleeve. Draw pupils in the eyes.

8. Cut out big holes for the candle flames.

pupil

9. Fold card. Check that the eyes move when you pull the slider. 7. Stick the flaps of the sleeve with adhesive. 10. Fix disc to card with a split pin.

Figure 7.9 a) and b) Instructions for use as an enlarged text model 128

9 cm

Writing non-fiction carefully chosen to maximise the pupils’ respective strengths with design and literacy tasks. We were also keen to ensure that those with more limited experience of English benefited from working with a pupil who would be a good model of the language. Our second and third weeks were much more successful and pupils loved making the other two models, using a rotating disc mechanism to light and obscure the candle flames on a birthday cake and a lever to make a sheep jump over a fence! The number of pupils seeking help (and the noise level!) were reduced, both positive signs that our amendments were working. The QCA scheme identifies words and phrases relating to designing, making and knowledge and understanding. It is important that pupils learn to use the technical vocabulary both in talking and writing about their models but we know this is not simply a case of committing a list of words to memory and learning how to spell them. Word banks are an important reference point on the classroom wall (we certainly developed one during the project) but they can all too easily become wallpaper and their purpose ignored. In order to use these words and phrases effectively, they must hear them embedded in appropriate language and in a range of contexts as well as having the opportunity to use the language in authentic situations. This is important for all pupils but absolutely crucial for those who are learning English as a second language. This doesn’t just happen however, it has to be planned for. Figure 7. 10 aims to capture this planning by identifying the range of contexts we hoped would cater for pupils’ different learning styles. Throughout the project the class kept log books and we planned a range of different kinds of reflective/analytic tasks for them to complete as their work developed. Each time they had made a mechanism, they came back together to talk over the particular focus in relation to their own experience of model

TECHNICAL VOCABULARY

Contexts for embedding technical vocabulary AUDITORY

making that day. The invitations to reflect varied; the first asked pupils to note ‘What was important to remember’, the second asked about design problems and the third asked them to continue some instructions. The guided reporting sessions gave pupils the opportunity to hear the thinking and language of the subject modelled while also providing time for pupils to create and refine their spoken texts through teacher/pupil dialogue. In the last 30 minutes they settled down to write in their notebooks at which point we removed the enlarged and A4 instructions so that we could gauge to what extent the relevant language had been absorbed. Figures 7.11 and 7.12 show examples of these pages written by Serhan and Cem. Before they were to write their books, I led a storytelling session based on the theme of frightening scenarios and posing the question ‘Would you be scared if . . .?’ I brought in a bag of (plastic) creepy crawlies, cartoon and media figurines and a miscellany of weird objects such as the set of wind up walking teeth! The children then worked in pairs to draft and redraft an oral story scenario inspired by an object from my bag to be presented to the class. Their storybooks would have three scenarios, each written on one side of a double page spread with an accompanying picture on the other. They would then incorporate an appropriate control mechanism into one of the illustrations. We chose an origami book made from one folded sheet of A3 paper to use as a basic book format as they look good and are intriguing to make. As we wanted the pupils to feel that their books would be special, we spent time ensuring that each of them cut and folded accurately to have a good finished product. An important stage in Design Technology is to review and evaluate work. We had devised a customised frame as pupils had limited experience of this kind of evaluative writing and decided to try using the sentence starters as oral rehearsal during circle time. All pupils had a chance to comment on

Mechanism 1 HINGED FLAP

Mechanism 2 SLIDER

Mechanism 3 ROTATING DISC

Mechanism 4 LEVER

flap hinge card adhesive cut fold score fix pull measure mark

strip card sleeve slider adhesive measure cut score fold fix pull stick mark measure

disc centre card split-pin circle cut fold score draw mark measure

lever card slit centre strip split-pin adhesive cut mark fold fix

Teacher models technical vocabulary embedded in appropriate language while demonstrating how to make mechanism.

VISUAL

Pupils connect what they are seeing to what they are learning. Enlarged written instructions support demonstration. A4 versions available for paired work.

KINAESTHETIC

In pairs, pupils make own model supported by prior experience, written instructions and peer support. Opportunities to see, hear and use appropriate language.

Guided reporting sessions

Pupils seated in a circle. Individuals invited to communicate process of making model, design problems and solutions. Teacher guiding talk (‘leading from behind’).

Figure 7.10 Range of contexts to cater for different learning styles 129

Writing non-fiction

Figure 7.11 Page from Serhan’s notebook: Types of mechanism

Figure 7.12 Page from Cem’s notebook: Types of mechanism

‘I drew a picture of. . .’ and ‘I decided to use. . . ’ (control mechanism) to build up their confidence but we then varied the other starters so as not to have a dreary circle of similar responses. If an individual couldn’t think of something to say, we left them for a while so they could hear other children articulate their thinking but deliberately came back to them to offer the chance to rehearse the ideas and language they needed. This session

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lasted almost 40 minutes; the class were absorbed, listening carefully to each other and most of them enjoying voicing their own comments. They then went back to their own places to write individually. Ten minutes of absolute silence followed (I timed it) when the pupils just wrote although we certainly would not insist on writing being a solitary activity. We took this as a sure sign of confidence and were assured of the benefits of oral rehearsal

Writing non-fiction

Figure 7.13 Sally’s evaluation sheet prior to writing. For some the writing frame provided necessary support in organising and presenting their ideas and we were delighted with their responses (Figure 7.13). However, Cem’s final comment ‘I would improve it by making it neeter’ represented quite a few of the children’s responses. We were a little disappointed by flabby comments like these – until

we thought about it. In fact, the final evaluation question gave the children nothing to bite on, so they reverted to teacherly comments about presentation.This only goes to emphasise the points we wanted to make all along about offering useful models of language and asking questions which would elicit thought and reflection. In the case of that last question it didn’t!

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Writing non-fiction That brings me to another point of learning. We had not originally intended to make the frame available to everyone, but for several reasons, it was distributed to the whole class.There were some pupils who completed the sentence starters adequately but their responses left me feeling that the task had not been challenging enough.I was certain that the scaffolded talk in the guided reporting sessions and the oral rehearsal in circle time had helped them internalise the structure and linguistic features of the genre and they now needed the opportunity to go it alone. In their case, the writing frame had proved constraining. Despite these latter points, the project was a great success. Our primary focus had been on exploring oral experience prior to writing and a mantra had evolved which came to dominate our classroom lives. It sounded like this: ‘What will pupils need to talk about?’, ‘How will we model this talk?’ and ‘What opportunities can we build in for guided talk?’ Not only did this mantra ensure the centrality of talk in the curriculum but brought about a change in our mindset which will influence our future planning and teaching. (Kathy Coulthard, LcaS, with many thanks to Bill Jenkins and class 4 at Galliard primary school, London Borough of Enfield)

Describing, persuading, arguing Whilst using existing frames can support tentative writers, for others, as Kathy Coulthard noticed, they can become straitjackets. Rather than offering a frame which has been pre-prepared, constructing frames together can help to ensure that they serve the needs of more of the learners in the class. Making frames as a class activity is also a useful way of constructing learning since it involves a good deal of discussion, argument, and justification of views. This method is equally valid for Key Stages 1, 2 or 3. With younger pupils, the teacher may build the frame as a demonstration. At Key Stages 2 and 3, there is more scope for paired or group work. A case study example shows how frames can be made as class activities. Ben Reave describes a method of analysing the features of advertising material to construct different kinds of descriptive and persuasive texts.

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Case study Key Stage 2: making frames for information and persuasive writing In the spring term, the NLS focuses on persuasive texts; the geography curriculum asks for a comparison of the locality of the school and an overseas locality. This gives a good opportunity to combine Literacy and geography sessions. Building on experience from the autumn term, I ask the class, in pairs, to take a page from a travel brochure and simply note phrases which they think are fact and phrases which are advertising hype. This doesn’t take too long. I then collect the phrases which have been identified as hype, listing them in groups according to the type of language or phrase they represent. I do this to emphasise classes of language without having to define them first. Figure 7.14 shows how, for example, adverbial phrases and noun phrases have been grouped in the right hand ‘hype’ column. When it comes to gathering the factual information in the travel brochures, I shift the gear from description into generalisation by asking for feedback on the kinds of information the pairs identified as factual (left hand column). We use these categories to make a factual frame which we can use for gathering and communicating information about our locality.This is then displayed on the classroom wall (Figure 7. 15). The next stage of the task involves group collaborative work; usually three pairs combine. For homework, each group member takes an aspect of the frame, for example, ‘things to do’, and compiles ideas over a few days, drawing on family experience, local newspapers, the library and other information sources. In class time, using the computer, the groups then put this together as a factual information leaflet about ‘Where We Live’. I deliberately keep the class to factual information, which they find is not very exciting, so we look at how we might ‘sell’ our locality in the same way as a travel brochure does. As models for the kinds of language they might like to use in persuading people to come to our town as a tourist resort, I attach examples of the phrases which the class picked out from the original ‘fact and hype’ activity (Figure 7.16). Again, an enlarged model on the classroom wall means that pupils can use it as a prompt as they write. The space in the centre of the frame means that the groups can put their own work in the middle and check that they have covered all the necessary aspects. Finally, the information books are displayed in the school foyer as a celebration of the locality. (Ben Reave teaches in Essex)

Writing non-fiction

Hype

Fact Location

Superbly located Wonderfully relaxed Weather / climate

Sumptuously furnished

shopping

Things to do

dramatic backdrop

eating

unspoilt location stunning views

Size / population

nestling into a pine-covered hill

travel / transport

tucked into a quiet corner sheltering in a tranquil bay

Local work / industry

Figure 7.14 Class compilation of two column note making format: fact and hype Local study / distant location

Location

Climate

Size / population

Travel / transport

Things to do

Work

Figure 7.15 Frame for factual recount

Uns po

ilt lo

catio

n

Location

Local study / distant location

in a ering Shelt u i l b a y q tran

rop ackd

Climate

atic b dram

rb Supe

Size / population

ly loc

ated

Travel / transport

tuck

ed in to corn a quiet er

Things to do

derfu Won

lly re

laxed

Work

Figure 7.16 Frame including phrases which can be used to convert factual writing into persuasive text

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Writing non-fiction

Evaluating and reviewing progress This final section of the chapter emphasises the value of asking pupils to reflect on the process of writing non-fiction. Finding out about what pupils do when gathering and re-presenting information can give a good window on the process. As part of their science work, a class of sevenand eight-year-olds were writing information books. When asked how they had gone about putting their books together, Charlotte explained: I planned it on my planning sheet and if it had any mistakes on it I could correct it . . . I made some notes about things . . . When asked about how she did that, she referred to a guided reading group from earlier in the term where the teacher had shown them how to find and note points from the text: I shorten pieces. I take all the pieces and shorten them . . . I find . . .what’s it? . . . quotations . . . Elizabeth said: I found out about the swans from different sorts of books and there were all sorts of bits in the books that were nearly similar and I kept reading them again, thinking well, what’s the same . . . and so I had to keep reading different parts . . . When asked, ‘What happened in your head as you were doing this?’ she replied: Well, I thought it was funny because you’re, like, thinking of different things and it feels, like, funny putting them together to make a sentence . . . (Bearne 2000: 25) As outlined at the beginning of the chapter, non-fiction writing certainly means ‘thinking of different things’. Experience of reviewing their own processes will help pupils as they cope with the increasingly diverse demands of the writing curriculum. Tackling these demands becomes more complex as pupils make the intellectual transition from primary to secondary school. Penny Manford is Manager of the Birmingham Key Stage 3 Literacy Strategy. In the following case study account she describes how one teacher used writing frames and explicit teaching of the process of writing to support a Year 7 class as they tackle the complexities of subject specific language and texts. The activity allows both teacher and pupils to review their own progress.

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Case study Key Stage 3: learning to write like a geographer ‘We’ve been studying settlement in the local area. Today you’re going to write a report of your findings.’ How do Year 7 students interpret this statement? What assumptions does it make about their knowledge and competence as writers? The activity of ‘writing a report’ appears to offer continuity with primary literacy practices, but do the geography teacher and her Year 7 students share common knowledge of the ‘report’ genre? To ‘write a report’ for geography, pupils need to become geographically literate, to master the specialised register of geography and to interpret the verbal and visual information in maps, charts and diagrams in order to learn the subject. A study of the changing characteristics of settlement in the local area serves to initiate the Y7 students in this multiethnic inner city school into the type of geographical knowledge, skills and understanding expected by NC Geography at KS3. The writing task described here is designed as the initial end-of-unit assessment task, written as a record of what has been learned about the reasons for the location, growth and nature of individual settlements, and about how and why changes in this settlement have occurred. In addition, linguistically, it offers students the opportunity to demonstrate their ability to ask geographical questions; collect, record, present, analyse and evaluate evidence; and draw and justify conclusions, using subject-specific geographical vocabulary and communicating in different ways. (see National Curriculum Geography Programme of Study pp. 22–24, QCA, 1999). In contrast to much secondary subject writing practice, where students are assumed to be either familiar with appropriate text structure and knowledge of the writing process, or incompetent writers who need to copy the ‘authoritative’ text, Linda Timoney carefully scaffolds the process of composition and provides explicit tuition into ‘writing like a geographer’. First, preparatory to writing the ‘report’ the students engage in fieldwork. Two note-making formats, the Environmental Quality Indicator Survey (EQIS) (adapted from Barratt, Burgess and Cass 1997: 77) and an Urban Trail, are provided to enable pupils to record relevant data in a systematic and structured manner. The EQIS chart links with previous lessons and introduces them to the use of numerical continua to create a quantitative comparison of the ‘quality’ of the different streets. The Urban Trail allows for more specific observations of the area (Figure 7.17). Using these note-making formats conveys messages to pupils that writing is a valuable tool for recording information for later use. On return to the classroom, time is allocated for reflection and consolidation of the impressions gained in the field. After teacher-led discussion, exploration of ideas and teacher modelling of possible sentence structures, pupils are encouraged to write independently.

Writing non-fiction

Figure 7.17 Observation and recording: Marie’s response to the Urban Trail

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Writing non-fiction Finally, with notes recorded, resources organised, text structure and content discussed, students write their first draft using a writing frame devised by the teacher. Pupils write independently while she circulates, comments encouragingly and responds to queries. Despite teacher emphasis on the importance of formulating ideas rather than producing a ‘perfect’ piece at this stage, the writing varies. Most pupils appear familiar with the concept of drafting and comfortable with the notion of altering their first attempt, without demanding to ‘start again’. The varied rate of response means that the teacher can have individual writing conferences as pupils complete the first draft. Prime attention in these conferences is placed on geographical content and concepts rather than on the secretarial aspects of writing. However, there is some evidence that pupils self-correct spelling and punctuation as they produce their drafts. Perhaps their confidence to do this is engendered by knowing that the content has been approved so that they feel they can be more self-critical over proofreading and correction. In the following lesson pupils are further inducted into the process of ‘writing like a geographer’ when they are shown how to redraft their work to make it more geographical in character. The teacher emphasises that each subject has its own specialist vocabulary which pupils need to understand and use in order to demonstrate subject knowledge. She explains that the first draft needs development since it represents only an initial attempt at formulating ideas; certain words should be included and students have the opportunity to add these before or while they produce their final draft. She encourages students to engage in the writerly behaviour of checking whether they have used the appropriate vocabulary and then amending their texts so that they both meet her approval and become more ‘geographic’. The degree

Initial thoughts

Final version

Figure 7.19 Initial thoughts through to final version

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to which pupils follow her advice and develop their first draft varies considerably – some pupils redraft independently while others follow the teacher model. Extracts from Katie’s script illustrate how a confident, competent writer stamps her personal voice through the initial posing of research questions and integration of factual reporting and suggestions for improvement (Figure 7.18). Her firm version is the product of active redrafting – at word level e.g. ‘look on the computer’ becomes ‘surf the computer’ and also at the level of paragraphs and ideas; initial priorities on the draft were reversed and extended in the final report (Figure 7.19).

Figure 7.18 Posing research questions and linking ideas

Linda Timoney consciously includes the processes of drafting into her schemes of work. She explains ‘The point of the writing frame is to get over the phobia of the blank page and to

Writing non-fiction get the students into the way of thinking in your subject – locating geographical information, advantages and disadvantages . . .’ but she also warns that pupils could become too dependent on them. Overall, however, she is pleased with the process she uses: ‘7H was like a dream; they were all quiet and on task, even the SEN pupils were able to achieve independently.’ The work of this teacher and her pupils demonstrates the usefulness of scaffolds which students can use as they see fit accompanied by opportunities for reflection through discussion with the teacher. Above all, it proves the value of explicitly teaching the ground rules of the writing curriculum before expecting Y7 pupils to tackle the styles and structures required to write in specific forms.

(Penny Manford, Manager of the Birmingham Key Stage 3 Literacy Strategy. Acknowledgement: Thanks are due to the geography teacher, Linda Timoney, and her students from Holy Trinity Catholic School for allowing me to share their lessons and use their work to illustrate how writing can be developed within the KS3 curriculum)

Throughout this chapter there have been examples of teachers’ careful interventions to help pupils cope with the different threads of non-fiction writing. In the end, however, as Linda Timoney points out, the aim is for young writers to be able to select independently the process of working and the form of writing which is best for the job.

Key issues in this chapter ●

The description ‘non-fiction’ is imprecise, possibly because the forms of writing included in the area have only recently been given the amount of attention formerly given to fiction. The area of non-fiction comprises a range of genres which are themselves not always easy to assign to hard-and-fast categories. There are, however, certain text features which help in teaching about non-fiction genres.

●

The process of writing a non-fiction text requires not only handling the layout and stylistic features of texts, but also dealing with the conceptual organisation of the content and some kind of analysis. It requires different mental processes from those needed for fiction writing.

●

If pupils are genuinely to use writing to help gather, classify, analyse and re-present information, they need not only scaffolds and frames but space to reflect. Transforming information into understanding requires more than a grasp of the structural features of a genre.

Key texts Eve Bearne, (ed.) Use of Language Across the Primary Curriculum Margaret Mallett, Young Researcher: Informational Reading and Writing in the Early and Primary Years David Wray, and Maureen Lewis, Extending Literacy

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Chapter 8

Spelling and language study Children have many routes into spelling, and all children always use more than just one. Meaning, however, is an absolutely essential element in all of these routes, and unless we realize this we cannot understand children’s spellings. (Kress 2000: 5)

Matters of language, and particularly spelling, are a perennial topic for discussion. Governments, employers, the person next door, all have opinions on spelling and very often, even if they are not conventionally accurate spellers themselves, they usually feel that ‘this generation’ doesn’t spell as well as their own. This isn’t the place to try to analyse this remarkable phenomenon, except to say that the secretarial features of writing offer an obvious target. Even experienced teachers of writing find that their eyes almost automatically home in to errors in spelling and punctuation. The extent to which a writer lures the reader into a piece, the careful unfolding of character or a clever use of persuasive technique are far less easy to talk about than spelling or punctuation. Whether because of its surface obviousness as a part

of writing, or the idiosyncracy of the English spelling system, for many years spelling has mainly been taught as a separate element in the curriculum. And despite all the drilling, tests, repetition, ‘write out 100 times’, there are still problems in getting accurate spelling to stick – with some people, at least. The complex history of the English language means that its spelling system is tricky to learn. Even as this is written and read, spelling is slowly shifting and changing. In our techno-age, innovations like text-messaging are likely to have their impact on the spelling system which is seen as ‘standard’. More research and more observation of teachers teaching spelling now suggest that the key to helping young writers get to grips with spelling conventions is to see it as part of language study as a whole.

This chapter surveys some of the relevant research and suggests ways of supporting spelling – and punctuation – development through language study. It concentrates on: ●

Approaches to spelling

●

Spelling development

●

Creating a supportive environment for spelling/language

●

Progression in spelling

●

Teaching spelling systematically

●

Diagnosing difficulties with spelling

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Working on spellings at home

●

Teaching punctuation

139

Spelling and language study

Approaches to spelling The ‘traditional’ view of teaching spelling was that all you need to do is to give children lists of words to learn and then to test them. But it isn’t as easy as that. If it were, every adult in the land would be able to spell conventionally. They can’t – and this is part of the basis for debate and opinion about teaching and learning spelling. However, many adults know that if they are unsure of how to spell something they can ask someone else, use the computer spell checker, look up a word in a dictionary. They know that if you are writing a shopping list or a note left on the table for a member of the family, conventional spelling matters less than if you are writing a formal letter. Further than that, they also know that spelling is not the same as intelligence or ability; many directors of companies – and politicians – depend on someone else to make sure that their spelling is accurate. Yet negative judgements are often made about people who find conventional spelling difficult. There is a sense that a person is somehow diminished, less worthy as a human being, if they can’t spell. This makes it all the more important for teachers to have a clear view of what they think is important about helping children to learn how to use conventional spelling in their written work. Tests and examinations measure spelling ability; work which is threaded with spelling errors can be difficult to understand or the content may be disregarded because of a focus on spelling; children who are not confident spellers may avoid using adventurous vocabulary, even though they may use it in speech, because they fear getting it wrong. Spelling matters for a variety of reasons and if children are to gain confidence and competence, their teachers need to see that spelling (and handwriting which is associated with it) is an integral part of writing, not separate from nor dominant over the writing process. One of the saddest sights in a classroom is to see a child furiously rubbing out words over and over again, or gripping the pen or pencil in a desperate fear that they will get something wrong. Such fears stand in the way of fluency and fluency in writing is one of the keys to successful spelling. Until recently, spelling has been a relatively unquestioned part of the curriculum. It was enough to know that everyone should be able to do it. But in a recent book on creativity, control and spelling, Gunther Kress begins by asking: What is spelling? An easy answer might be ‘to match the sound of a word in spoken language to the look of a word in written language’. However, Kress provocatively suggests: If spelling is simply a matter of reproducing, correctly, the remembered sequence of letters that make a written word, then all this stuff about the relation to the sound of language is quite beside the point. (Kress 2000: 1) He continues:

140

In English we seem to be stuck with the typical compromise: yes, spelling is a matter of the look of words; yes, there is visual spelling; and yes, spelling is a matter of the relation of speech to writing, a question of getting the right letter sequences to capture the sound of the language. The rules of spelling promise to provide a reliable means of getting from the sound of language to the look of language in terms of sequence of letter shapes. This ignores an uncomfortable fact, however; the rules of spelling do not start from sound and guide you to writing; rather, they start from writing and guide you [should you wish to be guided in that direction] to the pronunciation of letter sequences in sound. (Kress 2000: 1) Learning to spell through learning to write raises issues about early instruction in writing, reading and spelling – particularly since the introduction of the National Literacy Strategy – teaching spelling has been associated mostly with teaching reading. Concerns about opportunities for sustained writing become even more significant if spelling is best developed through writing experiments and experience.

Spelling development Much of the more recent longitudinal research into spelling development reinforces the importance of teaching spelling as part of writing rather than largely associated with reading (O’ Sullivan and Thomas, CLPE 2000; Department of Education, Western Australia 1997). The CLPE research was influenced by the work of Uta Frith who describes both reading and spelling as following a move from the logographic [whole word], stage to the analytic [alphabetic] and finally the orthographic [conventional] (Frith 1980). •

•

•

The logographic stage involves recognition of a whole word – related to the ‘logo’ children might recognise as McDonald's, Barbie, Cadbury’s. The analytic stage relates to children using their knowledge of the alphabet (both visual and aural) to decode and encode words and draw on such knowledge in early ‘sounding out’ experiments and use of letters or clusters of letters to represent sounds they hear. The orthographic stage denotes the orthodox or conventional use of letters in words to follow the patterns and regularities of, in this case, English.

Although the development of reading and spelling are related, in children’s language development they proceed out of step with each other – so that at each stage learning in one area informs learning in the other. The teachers involved in the CLPE research found that once the case study children had moved beyond the early ‘analytic’ stage they could read more words than they could spell; accord-

Spelling and language study ing to Frith’s model, the children’s reading had moved towards the orthographic stage where their writing remained in the alphabetic/analytic phase. This finding emphasises the integral nature of language study; if teaching spelling is largely dealt with in the context of reading, crucial opportunities for further development – by the association of what is read with what is written – may be missed. The CLPE research also set out to examine the role of analogy in children’s spelling development. The findings indicated that children who were successful spellers spontaneously used analogy in a range of different ways: rhyming patterns and visual letter patterns as well as actively seeking to identify grammatical regularities such as ‘ed’ endings. Children who were fluent readers but had spelling difficulties did not make links between their reading and spelling. One significant finding of the research illuminates the teaching of reading as well as the teaching of spelling: We found that the earliest strategies used by many children were often phonemic ones. It seems likely that children’s phonemic understanding occurs first in spelling – in terms of their ability to analyse the predominant sounds in words – before it does in reading. (Goswami and Bryant 1991; Bradley and Huxford 1994) Phonemic understanding in reading seems to proceed from whole to part while in spelling it proceeds from part to whole. (O’Sullivan ibid.: 12) Understanding this distinction has important implications for building children’s phonic knowledge. Children who are beginning to understand sound-symbol relationships, even if they do not spell well at the moment, are on the way to being confident spellers. Encouraging developing writers to look at some of the patterns in their own spelling helps them to find ways of standardising some of their errors. At the very least, close attention to some of their own writing can establish an interest in the way words are put together. The more interested children are in what they write, the more attention they are prepared to give to its appearance, including spelling. Once children have developed fluency in writing, then they can begin to learn when and how to proofread for spelling errors and to develop strategies to get their spellings right. In the CLPE study, children’s spelling noticeably developed as they wrote more widely and at increasing length. Conversely, if children’s writing experiences were limited, their spelling development was adversely affected. These findings have implications for teaching writing generally. A critical factor in developing conventional orthography is to do with the reasons children are being asked to write. When they recognise that their writing is going to be read for its interest, in the same way as a printed book is read, then they can see the point of being

careful about spelling. Similarly, if children are occasionally asked to write for a readership outside the classroom, then they can see the importance of learning how to proofread for spelling and to get it right. The Western Australian research identified critical factors in supporting spelling: • • • • •

an interest in words; a positive view of themselves as spellers; a sense of responsibility towards the reader of their writing; seeing spelling as problem-solving; being prepared to take some risks with spelling. (EDWA: 1997)

Successful spelling, then, depends not only on strategies, eye-hand co-ordination, making relationships between symbols and sound, seeing patterns, but, importantly, it begins with the attitudes held by adults and children about spelling.

Creating a supportive environment for spelling/language Anyone who has experienced anxiety about spelling will know that emphasis on correctness at the expense of meaning can do a great deal of long-term harm. Such an approach can not only undermine a child’s confidence in taking risks with spelling, but is also likely to suppress creative potential of other kinds. Gunther Kress draws a distinction between accurate spelling and correct spelling. He argues that children have (barring illness) very acute hearing and represent accurately – for them – the sounds they hear. The teacher’s job is to bring the two together rather than imposing the correct form: The focus on correct spelling alone reduces most of the intelligent work of children to mere error, incomprehensible and often rubbish. This cannot be motivating for any child; worse, it overlooks the very intelligence and creativity that we need to foster. (Kress 2000: 8) This means that teachers themselves must feel confident about promoting and monitoring children’s spelling development and raises some key questions for teachers: • • •

How do you create an atmosphere of confidence and readiness to have a go at spellings? How do you promote an interest in words? How do you increasingly encourage independence in first attempts and in proofreading?

Finding answers to these questions starts at the very early stages of formal schooling. This is a critical time; the extent to which a child will feel able to experiment will in large part depend on the attitudes of adults. In school, this means establishing an atmosphere of creative enquiry surrounding writing. 141

Spelling and language study Here is Mustafa’s emerging writing in January of his Reception year (Figure 8.1): Later, in June, he writes an impassioned letter in reply to one from the headteacher saying that the role-play area shop must be shut. [The headteacher had been called in as

a tyrant shop-closer because the teacher wanted to move to another role play experience!] With properly set out address: Red Class, H- school shop, Mustafa declares (Figure 8.2): I am sad. Leave our shop open. You are nasty. Yours sincerely, Mustafa. Because Mustafa’s teachers had organised activities which built on and expanded what he had shown he already knew – the ability to play with letters and his urge to make his mark on paper – Mustafa begins to move with some assurance into the analytic phase of spelling. The teacher’s role supported the process of making meaning through different means: role play, enactment, talk, a good deal of thinking about the importance of the shops in his own home district, and created the conditions where more explicit instruction [examples of how a letter might be set out] supports the child’s developing spelling as part of the whole written system rather than blocking it or causing anxieties.

Progression in spelling Learning to spell includes: • • • Figure 8.1 Mustafa’s emerging writing

• •

knowledge of the relationship between sound and symbol; knowledge of the sentence grammar of the language (syntax); knowledge of word and sentence meaning (semantic knowledge); knowledge of a vast number of words which can be recalled via visual memory to help in making analogies; knowledge of the rules and regularities of orthographic conventions.

It also includes adopting strategies to help use this knowledge to meet everyday writing needs. These add a further layer of complexity because of the variation in individual strategies. Learning to be a successful speller takes time and, on the way, children need opportunities to make mistakes and learn from them. They have to develop strategies for spelling which work for them. Recent research into Year 5 children’s approaches to learning revealed some fascinating differences about spelling; when asked: ‘What happens in your head when I ask you to spell ‘beautiful’?’ responses referred to auditory, visual, metaphoric, verbal/symbolic and analogic approaches – and more:

Figure 8.2 Mustafa’s letter of complaint 142

I hear a song ‘b – e – a – u – tifl’ I see it – printed The e, a, u, all run about then sort themselves out. I say ‘Mrs B, Mrs E, Mrs A, U, T, Mrs I, Mrs F, Mrs UL’ I see a lovely scene – a bit like Tellytubby land . . . It’s handwritten

Spelling and language study I can’t do it if I don’t write it down. I’ve got a kind of board in my head with all the letters on and I pull down the ones I want. When asked the same question about ‘disappearance’ there was similar diversity of response and reference to colour: That’s too big to go on my screen . . . Just the two p’s; they’re orange It starts big then tails off, just like it’s disappearing . . . I only see the ‘dis’ I see a magic trick and someone disappearing. (Bearne 2000: 9) Ask any group of adults and the same kind of variety of approaches – auditory, visual, metaphoric, kinaesthetic, verbal/symbolic – will emerge. This strongly suggests that no single approach to teaching spelling will cater for all learners. The research also signals the importance of helping pupils develop individual strategies for tackling spelling very early in their schooling. Since the CLPE research also emphasised that children tend towards the visual or the auditory at first, then all children need the chance to experience a range of ways that might help them to make spelling stick. Visual spellers need to be helped to use auditory cues and auditory spellers need to learn to recognise shape. All spellers need to be able to draw on analogy, knowledge of the roots of words, and to be encouraged to seek patterns. As Kress argues, this is often just what children are trying to do when they experiment with writing. Many of the errors made by children are the result of over-generalisations of some kind, where children seek rules and patterns. More often than not, these ‘errors’ show careful attention to the sounds of language. ‘I runned’, for example, is shorthand for ‘I’ve noticed that the past participle in English regular verbs is formed by adding ‘ed’ so I’m using it for all verbs at the moment.’ Since children’s creative experiments with individual words are related to their growing understanding of the language system as a whole, teaching spelling cannot be divorced from regular experience of writing. Claire Saunders realised the importance of a writing-based approach when she and her colleagues began to look closely at spelling: Our existing learning process was characterised by the copying of lists of given words, based on a particular pattern or rule, or even on a topic. Learning the list by repetition or reinforcement was done largely at home, with assessment taking the form of regular testing, often with the reward of a ‘merit’ for full marks. Many of us were already not entirely happy with this approach, but had not specifically analysed the reasons for our reservations. What now emerged was our frustration that the children’s subsequent written work did not reflect their spelling test results. The learning that had taken place in relation to lists was not evident in extended writing tasks. Two key factors of our existing approach were identified

as contributing to its limitations. • The children were in the position of passive learners, simply receiving delivered knowledge. They were not actively involved in the learning process. • The teaching of spelling was removed from the context of writing as a whole. Spelling was taught as a discrete skill. (Saunders 2000: 12) The teachers saw changes in teaching spelling as changes in values – their own and the pupils’. They found a tension between the body of knowledge in the termly details of the word level sections of the NL Framework and their desire to integrate spelling into the teaching of writing as a whole. Instead of immediately changing teaching methods, however, they decided to begin by changing the way the children thought about spelling: And so we began not with what the children didn’t know, but with what they did. Freed from the pressure of having to remember specific words at a given time, they amazed both themselves and us with the range of strategies they already possessed for working out and remembering spellings. They had quite simply not had the opportunity to share these before, as they had learned their spellings at home, and there was delight as the tricks and shortcuts they had developed for themselves were made legitimate within the classroom. By sharing and recording them we opened up a whole range of strategies to draw on in the future. (Saunders 2000: 13) The combination of putting spelling into the wider context of writing and drawing on the range of children’s existing strategies makes for a more coherent approach. Claire Saunders and her colleagues found that it was essential to establish a supportive atmosphere, where writers can take some risks. The environment is not only made up of the kinds of resources listed in Fig. 8.3, however; one of the most important resources for spelling in the classroom is the teacher. Not in the sense of being a walking dictionary – teachers can offer much more than that. A key to the successful use of any of spelling strategies is an enthusiasm for language. An interest in words, their meaning, shapes, history and sound, generates improved spelling. An enquiring approach to spelling is a good model for learner-spellers – and you don’t have to be a good speller yourself to want to find out. Also, the environment of the classroom will be influenced by your own attitude to spelling and your expectations of the children. While the classroom environment is important, systematic teaching of spelling and agreed procedures for dealing with spelling throughout the school are also essential if children are to develop as confident spellers. Figure 8.3 outlines some elements of a supportive spelling/language environment. A supportive environment for spelling/language will include: 143

Spelling and language study

A supportive environment for spelling/language will include: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Word banks Key words on display; this week’s phonics/spellings from NLS Dictionaries, thesauruses [in book and CDROM form] - and the knowledge of how to use them Alphabet books/ posters Class compiled alphabet/spelling/word books or dictionaries Spelling baskets with different cards and support material, e.g. 100 high-frequency words; time phrases and joining words; different words for said; adding ing to words Laminated sheets of ‘what to do if you don’t know how to spell a word’ Spelling games Computer programs for spelling Reminders about strategies (Look, Say, Cover, Write, Check.) Alphabet friezes (for all ages) Posters of commonly mis-spelt words, (compiled by the pupils) Handwriting activities related to the week’s spelling patterns Books/posters about words Word webs showing relationships between words Challenges – related to subject specific vocabulary or different language roots (e.g. ‘words we’ve borrowed from Greek’) Crosswords and word searches; word matching activities Words related to particular topics or subjects - displayed or in folders Word of the week - inviting the children to add words with identical letter clusters, similar prefix/suffix to the list

Figure 8.3 A supportive environment for spelling/language development

Teaching spelling systematically The National Literacy Strategy has developed several publications giving the content of a spelling curriculum. Progress in Phonics and the Spelling Bank publications are linked to the Framework’s term-by-term and year-by-year word-level progression. The Key Stage 3 Framework extends the word-level category of Key Stages 1 and 2 to include spelling strategies as well as spelling content. Further to this, there is the Key Stage 3 Literacy Progress Unit Spelling (DfEE 2001). These documents provide both the curriculum and methods by which spelling should be taught and in the Key Stage 3 Framework, the expected strategies that students at Years 7, 8 and 9 should be able to use. The Key Stages 1 and 2 Targets for Writing also outline the progressive development expected in spelling. Helping children to get better at spelling means developing procedures for whole class, group and individual interest and attention to words. This might be as a starter to the lesson or as part of other longer-term work. At Key Stage 3, Lyn Raymond and her colleagues at Marple Hall school, Stockport, use spelling investigations to get students involved in being curious about language: In planning lessons we tend to start with the rule we want to explore, e.g. ‘Why do we add the suffix -able to some words and -ible to others? We then think of as many relevant words as possible to help us explore this rule. (Raymond 2001: 10) 144

She also uses ‘Spelling Starters’ to lessons: As well as spending whole lessons on spelling investigations we revisit and consolidate spellings in starters. These are usually unconnected to the main lesson and form a separate strand in our scheme of work. Spelling Starters are typically 10 minutes long. I find they get the lesson off to a flying start, as they are fast, oral, and highly interactive. They are a particularly good way to begin a double lesson as they add variety and pace. This ‘little and often’ teaching can be more effective than fortnightly lessons completely dedicated to spelling. (Raymond 2001: 11) Such quick-fire activities can be very attractive to boys, and highly achieving pupils who like challenges. In her study of six ‘able boys’ in Years 5 and 6, Jackie Lucas explains: Several of the boys are very good spellers indeed and some have highly developed ability to reproduce regular and irregular patterns on the page. These boys enjoy spelling rules and they can be quite competitive when trying to find as many similar patterns as possible. They enjoy word searches and quizzes very much, but they also like studying the derivation of particular word families, e.g. photograph photosynthesis etc . . . photo = light They become very involved in tracing the origins and roots of scientific words and are quite adept at dictionary work.

Spelling and language study For some boys, like Sam and Geoffrey, spelling remains a difficult task, but they persevere, using their own personal prompts and techniques. They enjoy a weekly spelling test, when their chosen words have to be used in the context of a ‘silly sentence’. This creates a sense of fun in learning and we have the added advantage of studying deliberate puns, use of alliteration, tense etc. The weekly spelling homework entails research into a given set of words from which these able boys must ‘make’ more, using prefixes and suffixes, changing tense endings . . . They must also find the definitions of a few unusual words or sayings to extend their vocabulary and language repertoire. This sense of investigation and challenge has been a most successful part of our Literacy learning. (Lucas 2001: 27) Teaching spelling, as part of language study, may involve: Teaching during literacy sessions Talking about words and spelling in shared reading and writing times. Modelling different ways of getting spellings right.

Developing regularly used and explicitly taught proofreading practices, for example, underlining or circling words which they are unsure of and then checking them with the help of their spelling partners. Having regular spelling practice – of new words, of the children’s own selected words or of words which just have to be learned individually, for example, ‘library’. Offering challenges about spelling which can be taken home, discussed with the family and added to. Attentive monitoring of individual achievements in spelling Having regular surveys of the children’s writing to identify their spelling of common words and to offer extra help and practice where necessary. Marking /response which relates specifically to the week’s (or series of weeks’) spelling, as well as writing, objectives. Letting parents or carers know what you do to help children get better at spelling. Finding patterns in error and helping children to identify patterns in their own spelling errors then guiding them in listing and remembering their own spelling needs.

Using specific terminology when talking about language features. General attention to language Playing games with language through poetry, mnemonics, games and drama. Showing pupils patterns in words in printed material and asking them to find similar patterns. Teaching memorisation techniques like over-pronouncing [Wed-nes-day]; words within words [That is land for island]; mnemonics [big elephants can always use some energy]; Developing lexical knowledge by talking with the whole class about the derivation of words, their histories and countries of origin, prefixes, suffixes . . . Building class and individual banks of known words, onsets and rimes, common letter strings. Regular practices and development of strategies Making spelling a shared activity using spelling partners; encouraging looking at, collecting and studying words as paired or group activities; testing each other on individually selected spellings; joint attempts at finding unfamiliar words in the dictionary. Helping children to be aware of the range of strategies they might use to attempt unknown spellings: using known spelling patterns or phonics; thinking of similar meanings e.g. sign and signal; building longer words by syllables.

Diagnosing difficulties with spelling Some developing spellers experience difficulties despite all the careful and systematic teaching and support. If these are linked with Specific Learning Difficulties then the SENCO and Educational Psychologist will be able to suggest ways forward. Helping children who experience difficulties with spelling requires the careful preservation of self-esteem in writing more generally. Developing a positive attitude is not a panacea, however. The teacher’s main task is to identify just what seems to be happening and to select precise areas for attention. [Two useful resources are: the CLPE Spelling Assessment Framework, designed to help teachers identify the different features of children’s spelling development; it is equally useful for diagnosing individual difficulties; other useful assessment frameworks can be found in Peters and Smith (1993) Spelling in Context]. If children seem to be experiencing difficulty with spelling, individual diagnosis of errors is an important first step in helping them improve their spelling. Looking at a few pieces of writing can be enough for a diagnosis. Figure 8.4 shows a format for analysing spelling problems. This is best used with pupils who are causing concern but the headings can be useful for reviewing children’s spelling approaches more generally. In analysing the errors or miscues it is worth noting both accurate and inaccurate spellings. This is perhaps best used by taking extracts from two or three pieces of work and looking for evidence of patterns of spelling. In particular, an analysis like this would look for evidence of phonetic and visual 145

Spelling and language study

Analysing Spelling Difficulties

Name:

Craig S

Take one section from 2 or 3 different pieces of work and record:

Date:

2nd March

How many words aren’t spelled conventionally?

How many words are spelled conventionally? Example 1

42

Example 2

List successful spellings: Phonetic

Visual

because favourite when

34

Example 3

99

(selection) Rules & Regularities

called small sleep keep

toy boy head

What patterns are there?

Can remember visual shapes Can use regular groups of letters

Example 1

11

List errors:

(selection)

Example 2

11

Example 3

Phonetic

Visual

fluf rely (really) cept spechl spechel cuson

teady rite rite (right) quet (quilt) site (sight)

23

Rules & Regularities

chocked (chucked) bead for ’bed’ ‘ment’ for ‘meant’ What pattern is there in the errors? mid-word sounds are difficult mixes up ‘ea’ for e

Compare patterns in each category and select an area [or two] for future action:

1 Go through all different ways of making ‘e’ 2 Start a series of challenges to collect visual pattern words eg sight/right/light Check hearing for medial sounds. Other comments Figure 8.4 Analysing Spelling Difficulties – Craig’s chart

strategies, use of rules and regularities and analogy. In summary, all of the research, case studies and observations so far in this chapter identify some key areas for teaching spelling: • • • • • •

a classroom environment which supports creative approaches to spelling; teacher awareness and observation of the routes children take to develop their spelling; group and whole class teaching of spelling regularities; developing a range of strategies for increasingly independent routes to correct spelling; diagnosing and supporting individual difficulties with spelling; working with homes and families over spelling.

have to get it right so they do just that for their children. And, of course, in certain circumstances there’s nothing wrong with that. As usual, it’s not what you do . . . but when and how you do it. Many misunderstandings about spelling can at least be eroded by links with homes. Whenever possible, parents should be told just what is done to help the children spell conventionally. Parents and families can be involved in helping children to consolidate spelling. Teachers might set spelling challenges or suggest activities for developing spelling which can be easily carried out at home. Families can be asked to: • •

Working on spellings at home Spelling is a common concern when parents talk about their children’s writing. An urge for ‘getting it right’ is understandable; parents may themselves have suffered from being humiliated or confused about their own spelling when they were at school. If they have, then their logical reaction is to try to avoid that hurt for their own children. What do they know about spelling? – that you 146

• • • •

•

find words from the week’s word work in newspapers or magazines, cereal and other food packets at home; use the computer to play with words, highlighting, making patterns, writing shape poems; with parents/siblings to search for information on language; play spelling snap; make cards with words with particular prefixes or common letter patterns; draw round words to see their shapes; see how many syllables there are in everyone’s name in the family; make alphabetic lists of friends’ names, animals, toys . . .; find words from other languages in recipes – either

Spelling and language study

• • • •

printed or known from memory; play word games on journeys; make word webs or word association webs (see Figure 8.5); do word searches together; make up word searches; ask parents how they remember how to spell tricky words and bring their solutions back to the classroom to make an anthology of techniques.

partition particle parting partner

compartment apartment department departure apart impartial

part

parted parting departing

part-exchange part-time

targets for the particular year group. Figure 8.6 shows cards which might be used in Year 5 for differentiated punctuation work. As countless teachers will testify, exercises out of context do little to help children get to grips with punctuation. Encouraging them to be careful and attentive readers of their own and other people’s writing is far more effective. For example, using tapes that they have made of spoken stories can be a good way for the teacher to model how to punctuate. An example lesson in transcribing just a brief fragment of tape can show the importance of all kinds of punctuation, including pauses for effect and underlining for emphasis. Older pupils can do this for themselves. Similarly, as in Figure 8.7 older pupils can be asked to explain other writers’ language choices. These notes are the result of two simple questions: What is the range of punctuation used? and What effect does the punctuation have? The following guidelines might help when developing agreed and systematic ways of introducing and consolidating punctuation: •

depart impart

partly

Figure 8.5 Word web

• •

Teaching punctuation The Literacy Strategy document Writing Targets outlines the expected progression in punctuation for Key Stages 1 and 2. The Framework document gives details for Key Stage 3. According to these documents, progress in punctuation is a matter of refining writing knowledge for more sophisticated effects. However, by the time pupils reach Years 5 and 6 there is likely to be wide variation in the use of punctuation. Some pupils may still be struggling to use speech punctuation correctly whilst others have a whole range of punctuation at their command. This suggests that whole class teaching of punctuation might not be the most fruitful use of teaching time. Whilst it is important to draw attention to different and more complex uses of punctuation, it is equally important to help individuals pay close attention to punctuation, both in their own writing and in the books and other texts they read. Self-review is always a good starting point which can be linked with punctuation

•

•

•

Punctuation shows us how to read. It is one of the technical aspects of writing and should be treated as part of effective communication. Books and other printed materials are the best references for finding out how punctuation is used. The teacher is the other major resource for demonstrating the difference punctuation makes when you read something aloud and for showing how to use punctuation in the context of writing which says what you want it to say. Children’s grasp of different kinds of punctuation varies. Introducing aspects of punctuation to everyone at the same time will mean that some get the idea quickly while others need to be given time to understand and use a new form of punctuation. Blanket teaching can lead to confusion for some learners and produce adults who fear and mis-use punctuation. Exercises out of a context of meaning are likely to be counter-effective; skills learned in this way rarely transfer to everyday work. Whilst it may be useful occasionally to encourage practice of certain kinds of punctuation, this should follow contextualised introduction of how the specific point is used to communicate meaning. The pupils themselves may be the most effective way of helping each other get to grips with new ways of using punctuation.

147

Spelling and language study Dates and teacher initial Y5

1st

2nd

3rd

punctuate at least three out of four sentences correctly

I have used the following punctuation successfully three times Y5

Dates and teacher initial

1st

2nd

3rd

punctuation to create effect

I have used the following punctuation successfully three times Y5

Dates and teacher initial

1st

2nd

3rd

commas to separate items on a list, clauses and phrases

I have used the following punctuation successfully three times Y5

Dates and teacher initial

1st

2nd

3rd

speech marks, with new line for speaker and correct punctuation

I have used the following punctuation successfully three times Y5

Dates and teacher initial

1st

2nd

3rd

apostrophes for omission

I have used the following punctuation successfully three times Y5

Dates and teacher initial

1st

2nd

apostrophes for possession

Figure 8.6 Self review cards for differentiated punctuation work

148

3rd

Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844–1889)

PIED BEAUTY

Whole poem very broken up by – ; , ‘ ? : . to give the poem a steady pace piling up ideas but making it ‘dappled’ or ‘pied’ as in the title

The dazzle and glitter of everything he describes is meant to show how God is mysterious (theme)

lots of diff. punctuation also fits with asking the question ‘who knows how?’

All things counter, original, spare, strange; Whatever is fickle, freckled (who knows how?) With swift, slow; sweet, sour; adazzle, dim; He fathers-forth whose beauty is past change: Praise Him.

Glory be to God for dappled things – For skies of couple-colour as a brindled cow; For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout that swim; Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches’ wings; Landscape plotted and pieced – fold, fallow, and plough; And all trades, their gear and tackle and trim.

Figure 8.7 The effects of punctuation – Year 8 activity

Last line of 2 words is like a simple prayer & a contrast with brokenness of earlier lines

hyphens to create image of warm colour / mixed colour

broken effect of punctuation fits with words chosen – lots of crisp sounds ‘ckle’

What are the different kinds of punctuation used? What effects do they have?

Spelling and language study

Key issues in this chapter ●

The development of spelling and punctuation are bound up with development in fluent writing. Whilst deliberate and systematic teaching is essential, it is also important to encourage a wide range of writing and some assurance in getting ideas down on paper. Inappropriate intervention over spelling can seriously affect writing and spelling development since inaccurate spellers often lack self-esteem in writing.

●

Spelling and punctuation are most successfully taught as part of language study. This allows teachers to put technical features of language into a context of meaning and show how they fit in the systematic patterning of sentences and longer texts.

●

Every pupil needs to develop individual procedures for getting spelling right. This is best supported by teachers’ knowledge of pupils’ individual approaches to spelling and attention to the patterns in their errors.

Key resources First Steps Spelling Continuum GHPD (in UK) contact Louise Shepherd 01865 314055 Olivia O’Sullivan and Anne Thomas, Understanding Spelling Spellmate (CDROM) Sherston Software

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Chapter 9

Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing Having targets is not the same as having vision. Targets help to identify specific areas for attention, but parents, others in the community and pupils themselves need to know why these targets seem important. A policy statement should inform all members of the school community about why the school approaches writing – or anything else for that matter – in the way it does. It should make clear the teaching approaches chosen, the classroom

practices about response to work or spelling, for example; it is a key document which makes it possible for homes and school to work together. Policy, about any area of the curriculum, grows from the school development plan, and this is the document in the school which should be founded on vision. Figure 9.1 shows the relationship between planning and target setting and vision seen as three phases.

This chapter offers formats and frameworks for putting the vision into practical operation. Some of these are specifically for particular key stages, but many of them can be used throughout Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 and 3. ● Policy in action ● The role of the Literacy/English coordinator ● Establishing principles and priorities ● Teaching writing: the process ● Teaching writing: across the curriculum ● Planning for teaching sustained writing ● Ensuring continuity and progression ● The writing environment Using ICT ●

● ● ●

●

Diversity and inclusion Different approaches to learning Special educational needs Pupils described as Gifted and Talented Boys and writing Pupils who have English as an Additional Language Responding to and assessing writing Spelling and handwriting Making links over writing with homes with other schools with the community outside the school Putting the policy together

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Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing School development plan for next 10 years

ten years vision of what the school should be providing five years setting and reaching targets [SMART*]

two years practical planning [short term targets]

*Specific, Manageable, Achievable, Realistic, Timed

Figure 9.1 School development plan and targets The question is: How does writing feature in the vision for the school and its pupils? This is where reviewing policy becomes crucial. Policy needs to reflect the vision of the school about how best to help pupils make progress in writing. It also needs to explain, in as clear a way as possible, just how this is being done. Any policy worth writing will reflect both principles and practicalities.

Policy in action This phrase may be in danger of becoming a cliché, but is nevertheless important. Many policy documents are prepared because they have to be there. Ofsted expect them; governors and heads are responsible for making sure they are produced. However, it’s no good having a neatly bound, well-produced desk-top-published document if nobody uses it. Policy has two dimensions: • •

• • • • • • • • •

Principles Teaching writing: the process Ensuring continuity and progression Teaching writing: across the curriculum The writing environment: school and classroom Diversity and inclusion Responding to and assessing writing Spelling and handwriting Making links over writing

The role of the Literacy/English coordinator This is not the place to review the coordinator’s overall responsibilities, but to identify some key issues related to writing which, in many cases, will be equally relevant to reading and speaking and listening. Some aspects of policy development, like ensuring that it relates to government requirements, are the responsibility of the head or Senior Management Team (SMT). Also, since writing is part of the whole learning experience throughout the school, it is not necessarily always the case that the Literacy Coordinator should lead policy review for writing. Whoever has the job, however, there are some key responsibilities: •

the physical document; the daily, weekly, yearly practice which is evidence of the principles which teachers hold.

The second is the one which genuinely tells visitors what the school policy is. However, this is not to suggest that the document shouldn’t be written. Far from it. The physical document is the handbook for everyone involved in the development of writing in the school. Policy needs to have a finished form which reflects the process that formed it, but the talk, preparation, drafting, more talk, redrafting, revising, editing and publishing are the aspects which give it life and voice. Any policy document should echo with the voices of the school community which developed it, not the isolated, and sometimes insecure, voice of the one colleague who has been sent away to ‘write the policy’. Policies can come in any shape. Some people say that they should only occupy two sides of A4 paper; others advocate more of a text-with-illustration view, which would include pupils’ work as illustrative of what the 152

teachers are trying to do. Whatever its final form, the important part is the programme of staff development sessions which support the policy development. A writing policy is necessarily a whole school policy so that working on it has to be part of staff development linked to the school development plan. It needs to reflect agreed practice(s) for teaching and support staff. A policy for writing should cover the following areas:

•

ensuring time for review: time is always a problem in schools, but, recognising this, there is no doubt that if writing is to improve in a school, time needs to be set aside for colleagues to talk with each other about agreed procedures. Whilst there will always be some disagreements, unless colleagues reach a common approach to, for example, responding to writing, standards will not rise no matter how many calculations are done about targets. The coordinator responsible for developing writing policy needs to ensure that the headteacher (or SMT) allocates time in staff development sessions. developing an action plan: details of this may arise after the first few meetings, but it is important so that all colleagues can see what they are investing their efforts in. It may be that the school has already decided to focus on just one aspect of writing – across the curriculum; talk and writing; boys and writing; – and this will influence decisions about time scales. Encouraging colleagues to review and extend their practice needs tact and clarity. The action plan may need to be jointly developed with the head/SMT and is likely to follow a process of: finding out; revising ideas; short, initial implementation; monitoring,

Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing evaluation, review and revision; planned implementation over a longer period; and monitoring, evaluation, review and agreement of policy. • A well-planned programme for review of policy is an important opportunity for curriculum development. Most curriculum development projects which have had longterm effects need at last 18 months for developments to take root, so a two-year period is probably best. Of course, during the longer implementation phase, colleagues can be concentrating on other aspects of teaching and learning. The most intense phase will be during Year 1. •

•

•

•

identifying priorities: successful curriculum development will only happen if participants feel they have a stake in them. This is not to deny that there will be some colleagues who will find it almost impossible to get involved in ‘yet another’ policy review/development. Generally, however, just like learners of any age, things stick if people have been actively involved in forming and shaping them, so involvement is critical. linking with other developments in the school: this may, in fact, be a shared responsibility with the head/SMT, but it makes sense to ensure that any initiative to promote, for example, active learning approaches in science, are linked with the use of ‘writing to help thinking’. School developments over ICT are ideal opportunities for overlap and collaboration. At Key Stage 3, literacy development – and so writing development – helps to create ‘themed’ opportunities for action across curriculum areas. organising support: can take the form of finding out about useful inservice opportunities, looking for materials, software, etc., working alongside colleagues or organising for them to work together. It will be an ongoing aspect of policy review and depend on identified areas of development. organising meetings, collating information and feedback: communications like this are essential. But, it’s a good idea to ask others to be involved, remembering

Letter: to Yasmin’s teacher reflecting her inappropriate reading target ‘To read more at home’. I wrote in Yasmin’s reading record book: ‘Yasmin had read or shared reading with either her dad or me at least once a day if not two or three’. I offered her an alternative target.

Letter of complaint to Marks & Spencer.

•

that colleagues are always hard-pushed. Perhaps the Literacy Governor might be asked to attend some meetings and help collate ideas. monitoring and review: again, essential. There may be established practices for literacy monitoring in the school, but monitoring policy development is rather different because [it is to be hoped] colleagues will have identified their own areas for attention, to serve their own professional ideas and ideals. In the case of policy development [and probably for other monitoring] it’s useful to ask colleagues to jot down two areas that they would like the monitoring to focus on: one which has been successful and one where more support is needed. collating the policy document: whilst there will be a final product, a good way to work towards that is to keep all relevant documentation in a file, with the action plan as a guiding front sheet, and to build the policy from that. These days, the availability of word processing means much easier cutting and pasting of policy. A ‘working file’ like this will reassure everyone [including inspectors] that progress in policy development is happening.

Establishing principles and priorities This is sometimes the most tricky bit of policy development, since most teachers feel that they need to be practically focused. However, all teachers display their principles in the ways they approach teaching and pupils. The principles are there in the implicit motives that guide explicit teaching practices. They are always worth digging out and looking at. It can be a good idea to start with quotes from other people’s policy documents, but just as easy, and perhaps more involving, is to ask colleagues to write one statement each on a Post-It® pad sticker and collate these as a first draft. The statements might be as simple as responses to: What I think is important about teaching writing. Or, as in Figure 9.2 The last time I needed to write something for my own satisfaction [it’s a good idea to stress that this shouldn’t be work-related!].

Evaluating long-term plans for house and garden. Making new list of things to accomplish, create, buy …

Letter to local councillor about parking on public highway in our road.

Instructions to husband – what to cook for tea etc. … at what temperature, which washing to put in the tumble dryer.

Wrote to the Records Office in Scotland to try to find a birth certificate for my grandmother to build on my family history.

Wrote to my friend who has moved to America.

Working out pension forecast and personal finances long-term.

Figure 9.2 Needing to write – starting points for discussion of writing policy 153

Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing Statements like this can then be used to talk about: • • • • • • •

why writing matters or what is writing for?; different uses for writing; different readers for writing; forms and formats for writing; when redrafting is needed and when it isn’t; who – and what – helps us get our writing ‘right’; how writing in school offers these opportunities.

From a relatively simple opening activity, the whole writing curriculum can be opened up. As a summary to

discussions like this, colleagues might then list some principles that they think support writing and begin to identify areas as priorities for future action in developing the policy.

Teaching writing: the process Some of the best discussions come from relatively quick staff development sessions which raise issues (or open cans of worms!). Figure 9.3 shows a simple format which can do just that. The headings are taken from the National Curriculum for English but can be used with colleagues in

INTERVENTION FOR SUCCESS – STRATEGIES How do you help children to: Plan note and develop initial ideas

Brainstorm, character webs, talk partners time frame. Give them a choice of characters dilemmas, plot. Get chû to log down any favourite sentences from personal reading books. Drama – role play, visual aids eg displays Draft develop ideas from the plan into structured written text

From the brainstorm add extra text eg. shopping list. Introduction etc. events, suspense, plot. Teacher input – response partners – reading to class how can they improve? Everyone helps (groups) to improve it. Using a spelling margin. Self-Assessment. Verbal response. Revise alter and improve the draft

Reread work. Carefully use symbols and colour code to edit their own work. Teacher adding NP. – indicates new para comments to push ? does it make sense pupils in the enuf right direction. punctuation Add indicators eg: about characterisation Proofread check for errors, omissions or repetitions

explain symbols worksheet. – colour code ^ a worksheet to look for clues. Give chn ^ a list of level descriptors – to Cive chn pick out what is needed for a level 4 / 5 Present prepare a neat, correct and final copy

computer refer to drafts and teacher comments response partners Purpose + Audience = Form. books, display. posters leaflets Figure 9.3 Planning for writing: activity 154

Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing other subject areas at Key Stage 3 as effectively as for whole staff development at Key Stage 1 or 2. The question, quite simply, is: How do we teach pupils to plan, draft, revise, proofread and present writing? Teams of year teachers, or subject teachers might fill these in collaboratively [good opportunities for exchanging ideas] quite quickly, and invited to add any comments they wish, as in Figure 9.3. Once these have been completed for one year or subject group, colleagues can share their ideas across a Key Stage or across Key Stages, to get an idea of continuity and progression. The crunch question, of course, is: Were there any areas where we disagreed about practice? For example, if there were differences about approaches to spelling, an activity like this can begin to raise issues about how best to teach spelling as part of teaching writing. Even a brief meeting can give a great deal of material for reviewing and developing policy. Chapter 3 shows a complete progression in the process of writing which can be used alongside this activity.

Chapter 8 gives a range of ideas for teaching spelling as part of writing development as a whole.

Teaching writing: across the curriculum Again, a short activity can identify areas for further attention. Figure 9.4 gives a format for an activity which is applicable to all Key Stages to review current practice. It is a good way for colleagues to start sharing ideas for using writing in all its forms for work across the curriculum. Colleagues might like to form partnerships to work on developing visual organisers, for example, or making opportunities for reflective uses of writing. Chapter 3 provides case study examples of cross curricular planning and writing and Chapter 7 looks in some detail at writing in different curriculum areas.

Use of writing

When and how used

hypothesising, predicting, gathering, organising and categorising information

preparation, getting ideas going, framing questions, exploring ideas

giving information to others, communicating ideas, explaining, reflecting on learning

describing, persuading, arguing

evaluating and reviewing progress

Comments and ideas for trying out different approaches:

Figure 9.4 Review of writing for learning

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Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing

Planning for teaching sustained writing One of the most pressing questions about writing recently has been the concern over sustained or extended writing. The Expanded Process for Teaching Writing (see pp.

31–32) is a good starting point for colleagues to discuss ways of planning to teach writing. Colleagues who work with the same year group or within a Key Stage might take the sequence as a basis for discussing a three-week plan, as shown in Figure 9.5 where a group of teachers used it to generate initial ideas about author studies.

Targets & objectives

Use diff. planning formats; collect suitable words before writing. Objectives: Reading: recognise use of figurative language. recognise diff. b/ween author, narrator, character writing; plot a sequence of episodes

Familiarisation with the genre/texts Make clear end product + who will read it Shared reading & re-reading of ‘Don’t Do That’ Demonstrate charting / mapping / editing symbols Capturing ideas Pre-prepared map to help discussion of story structure

Children tell each other ideas and stories from own childhood Teacher demonstration Put together own mock up of book showing stages of drafting

Links with art + design in making the book

Teacher scribing

Discuss repeated patterns + gather class Guided examples – writing Supported writing ch’n practise … groups for then start drafting redrafting own books Independent writing Remind re readership

Key assessment opportunity

Making own books parodying Tony Ross’ ‘Don’t Do That’.

Figure 9.5 Joint planning using the Expanded Process for Teaching Writing

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Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing

Ensuring continuity and progression The activities above can raise issues of how to ensure that pupils’ experience builds cumulatively rather than unnecessarily revisiting areas already covered, although some need to be revisited and consolidated, of course. Similarly, taking one type of writing – instructions, perhaps – and getting examples together, can be an immediate focus for looking at continuity and progression. If colleagues bring just one example from a pupil who is ‘getting on all right’ and look at them within or across Key Stages, discussion can be very fruitful. Looking at a Year 5 pupil’s instructions (or letter, or recipe) alongside one from, for example, Year 2, or comparing Year 9 argument writing with Year 7, can be a focus for considering just what teaching needs to be done to ensure progression. Chapter 3 gives examples of progression in the process of writing throughout Foundation and Key Stages 1, 2 and 3

After these two quick audits, individually or collectively colleagues can look at: How could this experience be used for writing (shortburst or sustained) in the classroom? Similarly, an audit of teachers’ – and teaching assistants’ – experience can help in planning for using ICT in developing writing: • • •

And organisation can be reviewed: How do you share programmes/resources/formats (and other ICT-related resources e.g. digital camera) with colleagues?

The writing environment When reviewing the school and classroom environment for writing, it’s best to start with what people know most about – their own classrooms: • • • • • • •

Are there special places in the classroom for writing? What amount of time is dedicated to writing during the day/week? What kinds of materials/equipment are available? How are pupils grouped for writing? How do you provide for diversity and choice? Are any other people involved in writing in your classroom? Are there any gaps? Any concerns?

Any of these questions might be a starting point, but of course, the final question will be the means of getting a list of ideas for policy development.

Using ICT Alternatively, if a particular area like ICT is identified, it might be worth auditing colleagues’ own experience with writing and using the computer as well as the children’s. Answering the question: What experience do I have of writing with the computer? can lead to valuable whole staff discussion to share knowledge and experience. A survey of pupils’ experience can be equally useful: • •

Do you have a computer that you can use out of school? What writing have you done on it? What programmes have you used/do you use for work in school?

Useful websites The National Grid for Learning (NGFL): ngfl.gov.uk/ngfl/index.html The Virtual Teacher Centre (VTC): vtc.ngfl.gov.uk The literacy site: vtc.ngfl.gov.uk/resource/literacy/index.html

Diversity and inclusion Catering for all kinds of writers in the classroom is often a key issue in developing policy for writing. There may be questions about: • • • • •

different approaches to learning; special educational needs; pupils described as Gifted and Talented boys and writing; pupils who have English as an Additional Language.

A first step in developing policy in any of these areas is to observe pupils and then begin looking at specific ways in which their work might be supported. The observation sheet in Figure 9.6 can be used to note strengths and areas for action in each of the areas listed above. Whatever the reason for focusing on an individual – a pupil who has several languages to draw on, or one who is underachieving – three brief observations can give useful information for future action.

Do you have a computer that you can use out of school? What writing have you done on it?

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Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing

Observation sheet Name

Reason for observation:

Date observed

Date observed

Date observed

Comments and action:

Figure 9.6 Observation sheet for diversity and inclusion

Different approaches to learning It is most important not to pigeonhole pupils. Figure 9.7 lists some characteristics of different approaches to learning. However, it’s worth remembering that any one person may have several preferred modes. It is equally important to bear in mind that a learner with visual preferences also needs experience of auditory approaches to learning. Perhaps the most important point about this, however, is for colleagues to consider whether the writing component of a series of lessons, Medium Term Plan or Unit of Work caters for the whole range. One way of reviewing this would be to use the observation sheet in Figure 9.6 to identify preferred modes of learning. A few pupils might be selected for focused observations over a week or so. The list of possible teaching approaches in Figure 9.8 may then guide discussion about whether lessons are catering for specific individuals, or for the range of preferences within the class.

Special educational needs Observing pupils’ preferred learning modes may also help in teaching writing to pupils who have special needs. Since the range of needs is wide, liaison with the SENCO is essential. However, a policy for inclusion needs to ensure that support is provided. One of the keys here lies in planning, and particularly in planning alongside support staff in the school. They should be involved in any inservice activities for developing policy.

158

The writing miscue analysis in Chapter 4 is designed to help diagnose difficulties to support children whose writing is giving cause for concern. Making Progress in English (Eve Bearne, Routledge 1998) gives a fuller outline of writing miscue analysis.

Two particularly useful resources The magazine Special Children published by Questions Publishers, 27 Frederick Street, Birmingham B1 3HH email: [email protected] Website: www.education-quest.com and Teresa Grainger and Janet Tod, Inclusive Educational Practice: Literacy, London, David Fulton Publishers 2000

Pupils described as Gifted and Talented Teachers may be sure that they can identify certain pupils who fall within this category, but observation [as for looking at preferred approaches to learning] is also useful. Whilst some pupils may seem to excel in anything they undertake, the potential for high achievement may not always be obvious. Some pupils could be described as ‘covertly able’ and tests don’t always reveal gifts and talents. For observation, it may be more manageable to concentrate on a specific group of pupils – perhaps boys; pupils who seem unmotivated about writing but whom teachers feel have potential; girls who don’t take risks in writing; very able pupils who may

Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing

Different approaches to learning Visual learners may: • prefer to learn by seeing • enjoy communicating through pictures, graphs, visual artefacts • show at an early age the ability to visualise remembered scenes • use pictures as memory, spelling or calculation strategies

Visual metaphor learners may: • relate ideas to imagined pictures • remember by constructing scenes/mindscapes • communicate through analogy/associations of ideas

Kinaesthetic learners may: • prefer to engage with learning in a physical way • communicate by using hands and bodies to explain ideas • learn through movement, using space and modelled experience

Auditory learners may: • use and enjoy communicating by sound including speaking and listening • prefer to learn by discussion, audio tape, radio programmes, lectures • remember names rather than faces and spell/calculate by recalling patterns of sounds

Practical/constructional learners may: • enjoy learning by experimenting and model making • learn by seeing ideas in three dimensions • remember through shapes and patterns

Active/enquiring learners may: • enjoy learning by investigation and problem solving • ask many and frequent ‘why’ questions • remember through relationships between ideas

Social learners may: • enjoy working with others under any circumstances • show sensitivity to others’ ideas in group work • learn through talking things over with teachers/friends

Verbal/symbolic learners may: • prefer to learn by reading • use jottings to help work out ideas • remember by writing things down

Figure 9.7 Different approaches to learning

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Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing

Teaching approaches to cover a range of preferred modes of learning Visual learners and visual metaphor learners Create mental images See the scene – [mental] storyboard – storyboard Use graphic organisers Draw ideas Start with film/video/pictures/maps Envisage the shapes of words/see images to prompt words [for spelling/technical terms]

Kinaesthetic learners, practical/constructional learners, active/enquiring learners Use objects/artefacts Drama: freeze frame, role play Cards to move ideas around Making models Using CDROMs, palmtops… Use movement/place to capture and remember words [spelling and technical terms]

Auditory learners Tapes Drama/dialogue Oral redrafting Interviewing Summarising group work Hearing ‘the voice in your head’ Mnemonics/rhythm/rhyme, spelling letter by letter to remember words [spelling and technical terms]

Verbal/symbolic learners Texts to read independently with prompt questions Opportunities to redraft Written prompts on classroom wall Note taking in group work Studying the structures of other people’s writing Trying it out by writing to decide on spelling and technical terms

Social learners Collaboration – pairs and groups Role play Talk partners Jigsaw and envoy-type activities Chairing group work Checking spellings/technical terms with others

Figure 9.8 Teaching approaches to cover a range of preferred modes of learning

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Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing have communication difficulties or physical handicap. And, of course, pupils described as Gifted and Talented have social needs and their achievements need to be seen within a context of the supportive community of the classroom. After observation, attention needs to be given to: Planning for writing: • to include objectives from the year above; • linked with other curriculum areas; • deliberately including speaking and listening opportunities; • with deliberate attention to progression. Individuals as writers: • offering challenges arising from whole class work; • special writing projects linked to other curriculum areas; • setting (or agreeing with the pupil) specific homebased research projects. Links with home/community: • what can families offer in the way of writing experience/mentoring? • research projects linked with community activities – e.g. composing and writing newsletters for special interests; • finding out about writing at home, including writing on the computer. Careful records of progress, linked to targets, are essential if gifted and talented writers are to succeed. The Targets and Progress Descriptors for Writing (pp. 52–71) are a tool for ensuring that planning can cover objectives across years.

Young Writer magazine is ideal for giving ideas for challenges and projects. (Glebe House, Church Road, Weobley, Hereford HR4 8SD)

Boys and writing Teachers’ perceptions can be a significant factor in raising boys’ expectations – and performance in writing. Discussions might start with a statement activity as in Figure 9.9. Teachers are given a range of statements and asked in pairs or groups of three or four [no more] to place them in the categories: agree, undecided and disagree. The statements are not, of course, always true! This sparks off a lot of discussion and the ‘undecided’ category can give ideas for starting points for developing practice whilst other areas can establish the school’s good practice in developing boys’ writing. Identifying good practice for boys’ writing is often a useful starting point for policy. Completing the following statements can give a good basis for discussion and development: Boys write well when: Their work is better when they are provided with: They enjoy, and are good at: To help with writing, boys enjoy using: Equally, using a questionnaire can provide a useful starting point for considering issues of gender and writing, particularly since it allows for girls’ responses, too (Figure 9.10). This can be adapted for younger pupils, also. Chapter 2 includes other ideas for questionnaires and reviews for considering gender and writing.

Agree

Undecided Disagree

Boys identify writing as ‘more of a girls’ thing’ Boys don’t like writing poetry Boys have a more visual approach to learning Boys spend more time in trying not to write, than in writing The Literacy Hour has improved boys’ standards of writing Boys prefer short-burst activities Boys always write about action Boys are better at non-fiction writing Home attitudes account for boys’ lower standards in writing Boys tend to rush work Boys don’t like re-drafting their work Boys are better at work on the computer Teachers are more likely to penalise boys’ writing because of poor presentation Boys work best when working with their friends Boys are more prepared to take risks than girls

Figure 9.9 Statement ranking activity to begin discussing boys and writing 161

Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing

Pupil Questionnaire – Writing Name: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Put a tick next to your answers I like writing: 䡺 stories 䡺 poems 䡺 plays 䡺 non-fiction 䡺 letters to friends 䡺 letters to people I don’t know very well 䡺 other things [say what they are] I don’t like writing

䡺 stories 䡺 poems

䡺 plays 䡺 non-fiction 䡺 letters to friends 䡺 letters to people I don’t know very well

䡺 other things [say what they are] Redrafting 䡺 I like redrafting my work 䡺 I don’t mind redrafting my work 䡺 I really don’t like redrafting my work Checking 䡺 I like checking my work 䡺 I don’t mind checking my work 䡺 I really don’t like checking my work

When my work is finished I like it to be: 䡺 Kept in a special place, like a folder 䡺 Put on the wall or in a display 䡺 Taken home The thing I like best about writing is:

The thing I dislike most about writing is:

Figure 9.10 Pupil questionnaire about writing and gender

Pupils who have English as an Additional Language Once more, teacher observation is important in discussing policy to support EAL pupils, in first and second (or third) languages. Observation should be made of pupils as they work and interact, as well as looking at their writing. Any piece of a bilingual pupil’s writing can be looked at to consider: What does this pupil already know about writing? It

might be emergent writing (as Pascalle’s in Chapter 2) or more developed as Mustafa’s in Chapter 8. Once it is established what the pupil already knows, future possible action becomes clearer. Part of a writing policy to support EAL learners should include ways of noting pupils’ home experiences of writing. Figure 9.11 gives a format used in Charmian Kenner’s book Home Pages.

MALAWI Gujarati (grandparents) LOCAL COMMUNITY Arabic (Qur’anic classes)

Arabic (mother)

Figure 9.11 Mohammed’s literacy world Source: Kenner 2000.

162

SCHOOL

Arabic (whole family) alphabet chart

HOME Mohammed Gujarati (whole family) letters

English (whole family)

English (teacher, peers)

English (everyday activities)

Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing Importantly, the writing policy should explain the school’s position in answer to these key questions: •

• • • •

What have we found to be the most courteous and sensitive ways of eliciting information about home uses of writing? How do we acknowledge home writing experience(s) in the classroom? How do language support teachers and classroom teachers plan for developing the writing of EAL learners? What are the most successful classroom practices for supporting EAL writers? How do we involve parents and other family members in writing (particularly with EAL pupils)?

Responding to and assessing writing For the whole staff or department, the following questions can guide policy for response to writing: • • • • • •

What are we trying to do when we respond to pupils’ writing? What kinds of responses do we make to pupils’ writing? Are some kinds of response more effective than others? What do we mean by ‘correcting’ or ‘marking’ work? Does our marking result in improved standards? What works best? How are pupils involved in responding to writing?

The policy should have a clear statement about school practice in response to writing which will inform parents and pupils themselves about the purposes of different kinds of response. As far as assessment, reporting and recording are concerned, the crunch issues are: • •

What would be our ideal recording and assessment system for writing? How far does our present practice match up to this?

and then: •

How do we pass on records: from class to class? from Key Stage to Key Stage? from school to school?

and: •

Spelling and handwriting Again, continuity and consistency are essential in developing policy, but so is acknowledgement of diversity. A very good starting point is for everyone to consider their own approaches to spelling. The question ‘What happens in your mind when you are asked to spell “beautiful”?’ (or other spellings which might be a challenge) sparks immediate debate about different ways of getting to grips with spelling. Asking pupils about their approaches can be a very useful starting point for policy (see pp. 142–3). Colleagues might also discuss: How do we teach spelling? during literacy sessions? as part of general attention to language? as regular practice? as useful strategies? How do we monitor individual achievements in spelling? And in considering handwriting, note: How do we develop handwriting throughout the school? How can parents and families help? Again, consistent practice needs to be made explicit and available to parents and pupils. Colleagues might also use Figure 8.3 (p. 144) to review the spelling environment in the classroom.

Making links over writing with homes When children enter school it is essential to know about their literacy experience. A writing policy needs to include a statement about how those at home can supply useful information and help support writing. For example, asking parents to bring in the most recent spontaneous (not copied) writing (emergent) from their children can be a good way to start talking about the differences between creative and ‘correct’ writing in the early years. Parent governors can be great allies in helping draft this section of the policy, acting as responding readers to make sure that the language is accessible to parents.

with other schools How do we inform parents of pupils’ progress in writing?

Chapter 4 provides more examples of useful ways of reviewing response and assessment.

The key question is: What information is useful to receive on transfer? SATs aren’t enough, and they often arrive too late to the receiving school. Teachers often say that they don’t read any individual records which are sent. Nevertheless, the reason for making links is to ensure pupil progress. How is 163

Conclusion: reviewing policy for writing this best done? There may be a member of staff whose specific job it is to make contacts, but many teachers are now finding that a crucial aspect of liaison is not just in passing on information or visiting other classrooms and schools. Genuine partnerships can be built by: • •

•

•

quite brief joint meetings looking at samples of pupils’ writing; using the Targets and Progress Descriptors for Writing to come to greater understanding about, for example ‘just what a Level 3 means at Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2’ or ‘just what a Level 4 means’ at Key Stage 2 and Key Stage 3; using the Targets and Progress Descriptors for Writing to identify one target that the class teacher thinks the pupil should reach in the first term in a new class/school – and then meeting to discuss the pupils’ progress (or a sample of pupils); establishing ‘bridging’ writing projects across transfer stages.

A brief statement is enough to give information to colleagues and parents about the ways the school has made to

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build fruitful partnerships to ensure that pupils don’t tread water or even regress on transfer across Key Stages/schools.

with the community outside the school This may be where the writing policy links with Education for Citizenship. Also, it’s where governors and families are very useful. Every workplace involves writing. There are many local organisations which produce newsletters and other materials. Local newspapers are excellent at working alongside schools. A brief section of the writing policy might describe: Joined up writing: links beyond the school.

Putting the policy together Once these (or some of these) categories have been covered, priorities identified and activities carried out to hammer out policy over an agreed period of time, that’s not the end of it. The final act, when breathing a massive sigh of relief, is to set a date for yearly review. Once the policy is in place, minor adjustments can be made and sections added until it is time – in five years or so – to review the policy completely.

References

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Subject index

assessment 2, 24, 29, 32, 47–87, 151, 161; diagnostic 48; formative 48; key assessment opportunities 49; summative 48–9; teacher 48 audiences for writing 16, 41 author studies 90–1

Gifted and Talented pupils 2, 28, 151, 159 Grammar for Writing 6, 17, 31, 46 group work 31, 155 guided writing 28, 31, 33, 51 home language 10, 45–6, 146, 151, 161–3

bilingualism (see also English as an Additional Language) 8, 9, 24, 25, 45, 110–1, 161–2 biliteracy 9, 142 boys and writing 18, 20, 21, 151, 160–1 capturing ideas 31–2, 34–7 citizenship 45, 163 classroom management 22, 30–1 creativity 2, 96, 114–15, 141 collaboration (see also talk partners and shared writing) 30–1 continuity 28, 151 cross curricular writing 18, 41–2, 114–15, 127–37, 152, 154 Developing Early Writing 6, 31, 46 developmental writing (see also emergent writing) 46 differentiation 48 diversity 151, 156–7 drafting 17, 30–1, 34–40, 79, 134–6, 155 drama 22, 23, 25, 31, 104–5 drawing 17, 23 early years (see also Foundation Stage) 2, 8 emergent writing 2, 8, 46, 142 English as an Additional Language (EAL) (see also bilingualism) 24, 42, 51, 109–13, 127–32, 151, 161 environment for writing 28, 30–1, 33, 46, 115–16, 141–4, 155–6 evaluation (see self evaluation) EXEL project 7, 122–3 Expanded Process for Teaching Writing 31–2, 154, 156 factual writing 43, 121–37 Foundation Key Stage 9–10, 22, 31–2, 34, 41–2, 48–51, 52, 62, 108–9, 151 gender (see also boys and writing) 2, 19, 20–1, 22–3, 102–3, 160–1 genre 2, 5, 43–4, 90, 91, 98, 121–4

ICT 21, 38, 98, 105, 127, 151, 157 inclusion (see also English as an Additional Language, learning: different approaches to, special educational needs) 152, 157–8 inner speech 10–11 interactive teaching 21 Key Stage 1 22, 24, 31–3, 35, 48–51, 53–4, 63–4, 92–4, 108–9, 109–12, 126–7, 151 Key Stage 2 18–19, 22, 23, 31–3, 36–7, 42–4, 48–51, 55–8, 65–8, 90–1, 94–6, 104–5, 108–9, 113–14, 127–34, 148, 151 Key Stage 3 11–12, 20–2, 28–9, 31–3, 38–40, 48–51, 59–61, 69–71, 79–80, 96–8, 104–6, 108–9, 114–15, 134–6, 144, 149, 151, 153 kinaesthetic learning 23, 129, 143, 158–9 language: ideational component 13, 16; experience 107, 108–9, 114–15; interpersonal component 13, 16, 17; social nature of 13; study 139–50; textual component 13 learning: different approaches to 21, 22–3, 127–32, 158–9 literacy: difficulties with 23, 40, 145, 158–9; hour 18–19, 115 literacy coordinator: role of 28, 151–63 metalanguage 18, 82, 114–15 models for writing 30, 127–32 myth 97, 98, 113–14 narrative 50–77, 89–104 narrative structure 90, 91–2, 96–7, 99, 105 National Curriculum 32, 50, 153; National Curriculum Levels 51–77 National Literacy Strategy 1, 5, 7, 31–2, 41, 50, 93, 110, 124, 144, 147: objectives 18, 31–2, 52–77, 140, 143 National Oracy Project 10 National Writing Project 1 non-fiction 50–77, 121–37

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Subject index parents 10, 46, 146–7, 162–3 phonics 140–2, 144–5 planning 23, 28, 31, 34–8, 48, 121–37 plays 104–5 poetry 72–7, 107–19; narrative poetry 117 policy 28, 151–63 process of writing 5–6, 17, 18, 21, 30, 32–3, 34–8, 72–83, 155 progress descriptors 50–71 progression 28, 32, 34–8, 50–77, 151, 154: in narrative 91–2; in non-fiction 124; in spelling 142 punctuation 17, 139, 147–50 purpose and organisation 30, 50–77, 122–5 Qualifications and Curriculum Authority 46, 48, 50, 87, 127, 134 questions 125–7 reading 31–2, 134, 140–1 record keeping 50–77, 154 Records of Progress 72–7 relational principles 7–86 response to writing 30, 51, 78–82, 107, 151, 163: response partners 78–80 risk taking 22, 25 role play 9, 22, 24, 25, 31, 42, 44 scaffolding 41, 109–13, 119, 121, 124–37 School Development Plan 152

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self evaluation 80–2, 129–34, 148 shared writing 28, 30, 42, 51, 82 speaking and listening (see also talk) 17, 41–2, 113 special educational needs 22–3, 42, 145, 151, 158–9 Specific Learning Difficulties 87, 145 spelling 17, 139–47, 150, 151, 162; logographic, analytic and orthographic stages 140–1; visual and auditory approaches 141–3 storytelling 42, 90, 92–101; storymaps 92–6, 105, 129 talk 3, 19, 22, 24, 31–2, 127–32 talk partners 18, 24, 94–6, 99, 102 32–71, 112–13, 144, 147, 151–2 teaching assistants 39, 40, 156 teaching methods 8, 23, 111–12 testing 2, 7, 47 text: structure (see also narrative structure) 122–37; types 122–3 traditional tales 42, 100–1 visual texts 18, 20–1, 22, 23, 100–3, 104–5, 122 voice in writing 10, 13, 16 writing: areas 33; attitudes to 20; frames 43, 111, 122–37; journals 31, 82; in homes and communities 16–17, 45; and learning 122–6, 154–5; miscue analysis 84–7; policy 151–63; product 6; range 31; repertoire 27, 31

Author index

Aaardema, Verna 116 Agard, John 110 Arnold, Helen 122 Askew, Gordon 8 Barrs, Myra 6, 90, 105 Bearne, Eve 134, 137, 143, 159 Booth, Wayne 91 Bradford, Colin 21 Bradley, L. 141 Brice Heath, Shirley 1 Browning, Robert 116, 117 Brownjohn, Sandy 118 Bruner, Jerome 6 Carter, James 105, 116, 118 Chatwin, Bruce 97 Cookson, Paul 118 Corden, Roy 10, 13 Cork, Valerie 90, 105 Crossley Holland, Kevin 91 cummings ee 108

Jones, Mike 6 Keeping, Charles 116, 117 Kenner, Charmian 9–10,24, 25, 45, 162 Kress, Gunther 6, 8, 13, 139, 140, 141, 143 Lamott, Anne 91 Leung, Constant 24, 25 Lewis, Maureen 91, 122–3, 137 Lucas, Jackie 144–5 Mallett, Margaret 137 Margetts, Denise 104 Marsh, Jackie 20, 25 Martin, James 6 Meek, Margaret 90, 121 Millard, Elaine 20, 25 Moss, Gemma 124 Myhill, Deborah 21 Noble, Wendy 21 O’Sullivan, Olivia 140, 141, 150

Davies, John 101 Frater, Graham 7, 21, 25 Frith, Uta 140 Frost, Robert 108 Genette, G., 10 Goodman, Yetta 8 Goswami, U. 141 Grainger, Teresa 105, 159 Graves, Donald 6 Halliday, Michael 13 Heaney, Seamus 108 Hillocks, George 6 Holden, Robert 117 Hopkins, Gerard Manley 149 Hughes, Sian 118 Hughes, Ted 108 Huxford, Lorna 141

Peters, Margaret 145 Peyton, K.M. 117 Raymond, Lyn 144 Rosen, Michael 116 Rothery, Joan. 6 Saunders, Claire 143 Scholes, Robert 89 Sharples, Mike 5 Smith, Brigid 145 Staples, Terry 101 Stevenson, Robert Louis 108 Tennyson, Alfred, Lord 114–15, 116 Thomas, Anne 104, 105 Tod, Janet 159 Vygotsky, L., 10–11

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Author index Williams, William Carlos, 27, 108 Wilson, Anthony 108–9, 118 Wray, David 122–3, 137 Wright, Kit 107, 116 Wyse, Dominic 6

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Yates, Cliff 118 Zak, Drahos 117